,transcriber's ,note3 ,this e-text includes characters that require ,,utf-#h 7,unicode7 file encoding3 2 7vowels with macron or 8long0 mark7 7e and o with ogonek7 ,if any of these characters do not display properly--in particular1 if the diacritic does not appear directly above the letter--or if the apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage1 make sure your text reader's 8character set0 or 8file encoding0 is set to ,unicode 7,,utf-#h74 ,you may also need to change the default font4 ,depending on available fonts1 some tables may not line up vertically4 ,as a last resort1 use the ,latin-#a version of the file instead4 ,see the ,poetry section 7between ,v and ,,vi in ,part ,,iii1 ,readings7 for potential problems specific to that section4 ,italics are shown with lines4 ,boldface is shown with hash marks4 ,in the printed book1 boldface was used for all ,anglo-,saxon other than exercises and reading passages2 it has been omitted from the e-text except when necessary for clarity4 ,in references to numbered ,sections1 8,note0 may mean either an inset ,note or a footnote4 ,in the prose reading selections 7pages #ii-aba71 page numbers and line breaks have been retained for use with the linenotes and ,glossary4 ,page numbers are shown in double brackets4 ,in the verse selections1 line numbers in the notes have been replaced with line numbers from the original texts1 printed in brackets as shown4 ,the distinction between linenotes and numbered footnotes is in the original4 ,single brackets and asterisks 99 are in the original1 as are the symbols 4 ,text in double brackets was added by the transcriber4 ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,grammar ,,and ,,exercise ,,book ,with ,inflections1 ,syntax1 ,selections for ,reading1 and ,glossary ,by ,c4 ,,alphonso ,,smith1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,late ,professor of ,english in the ,united ,states ,naval ,academy ,,allyn and ,,bacon ,boston ,new ,york ,chicago ,atlanta ,san ,francisco ,copyright1 #ahif1 by ,c4 ,,alphonso ,,smith4 ,,iai ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,norwood ,mass4 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface4 ,the scope of this book is indicated in #e4 ,it is intended for beginners1 and in writing it1 these words of ,sir ,thomas ,elyot have not been forgotten3 8,grammer1 beinge but an introduction to the understandinge of autors1 if it be made to longe or exquisite to the lerner1 it in a maner mortifieth his corage3 ,and by that time he cometh to the most swete and pleasant redinge of olde autors1 the sparkes of fervent desire of lernynge are extincte with the burdone of grammer1 lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great heape of small stickes40 --,the ,governour1 ,cap4 ,x4 ,only the essentials1 therefore1 are treated in this work1 which is planned more as a foundation for the study of ,modern ,english grammar1 of historical ,english grammar1 and of the principles of ,english etymology1 than as a general introduction to ,germanic philology4 ,the ,exercises in translation will1 it is believed1 furnish all the drill necessary to enable the student to retain the forms and constructions given in the various chapters4 ,the ,selections for ,reading relate to the history and literature of ,king ,alfred's day1 and are sufficient to give the student a first-hand1 though brief1 acquaintance with the native style and idiom of ,early ,west ,saxon prose in its golden age4 ,most of the words and constructions contained in them will be already familiar to the student through their intentional employment in the ,exercises4 ,for the inflectional portion of this grammar1 recourse has been had chiefly to ,sievers' ,abriss der angelschsischen ,grammatik 7#ahie74 ,constant reference has been made also to the same author's earlier and larger ,angelschsishe ,grammatik1 translated by ,cook4 ,a more sparing use has been made of ,cosijn's ,altwestschsische ,grammatik4 ,for syntax and illustrative sentences1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,wlfing's ,syntax in den ,werken ,alfreds des ,grossen1 ,part ,i4 7,bonn1 #ahid7 has proved indispensable4 ,advance sheets of the second part of this great work lead one to believe that when completed the three parts will constitute the most important contribution to the study of ,english syntax that has yet been made4 ,old ,english sentences have also been cited from ,sweet's ,anglo-,saxon ,reader1 ,bright's ,anglo-,saxon ,reader1 and ,cook's ,first ,book in ,old ,english4 ,the short chapter on the ,order of ,words has been condensed from my ,order of ,words in ,anglo-,saxon ,prose 7,publications of the ,modern ,language ,association of ,america1 ,new ,series1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #b74 ,though assuming sole responsibility for everything contained in this book1 ,i take pleasure in acknowledging the kind and efficient assistance that has been so generously given me in its preparation4 ,to none do ,i owe more than to ,dr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,wlfing1 of the ,university of ,bonn2 ,prof4 ,james ,a4 ,harrison1 of the ,university of ,virginia2 ,prof4 ,w4 ,s4 ,currell1 of ,washington and ,lee ,university2 ,prof4 ,j4 ,douglas ,bruce1 of ,bryn ,mawr ,college2 and ,prof4 ,l4 ,m4 ,harris1 of the ,university of ,indiana4 ,they have each rendered material aid1 not only in the tedious task of detecting typographical errors in the proof-sheets1 but by the valuable criticisms and suggestions which they have made as this work was passing through the press4 ,c4 ,,alphonso ,,smith4 ,louisiana ,state ,university1 ,baton ,rouge1 ,september1 #ahif4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,in preparing this enlarged edition1 a few minor errors in the first edition have been corrected and a few sentences added4 ,the chief difference between the two editions1 however1 consists in the introduction of more reading matter and the consequent exposition of ,old ,english meter4 ,both changes have been made at the persistent request of teachers and students of ,old ,english4 ,uniformity of treatment has been studiously preserved in the new material and the old1 the emphasis in both being placed on syntax and upon the affinities that ,old ,english shares with ,modern ,english4 ,many obligations have been incurred in preparing this augmented edition4 ,i have again to thank ,dr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,wlfing1 ,prof4 ,james ,a4 ,harrison1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,s4 ,currell1 and ,prof4 ,j4 ,douglas ,bruce4 ,to the scholarly criticisms also of ,prof4 ,j4 ,m4 ,hart1 of ,cornell2 ,prof4 ,frank ,jewett ,mather1 ,jr41 of ,williams ,college2 and ,prof4 ,frederick ,tupper1 ,jr41 of the ,university of ,vermont1 ,i am indebted for aid as generously given as it is genuinely appreciated4 ,c4 ,,alphonso ,,smith4 ,august1 #ahih4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,fourth ,,edition4 ,among those who have kindly aided in making this edition free from error1 ,i wish to thank especially my friend ,dr4 ,john ,m4 ,mc,bryde1 ,jr41 of ,hollins ,institute1 ,virginia4 ,c4 ,,alphonso ,,smith4 ,university of ,north ,carolina1 ,chapel ,hill1 ,february1 #aijc4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,part ,i4--,,introduction4 ,chapters ,pages ,i4 ,history 7 #a-e7 #a ,,ii4 ,sounds 7 #f-aa7 #d ,,iii4 ,inflections 7 #ab-ai7 #aj ,,iv4 ,order of ,words 7 #bj-ba7 #ah ,v4 ,practical ,suggestions 7 #bb-bd7 #ba ,,part ,,ii4--,,etymology ,,and ,,syntax4 ,,vi4 ,the a-,declension3 ,masculine a-,stems 7 #be-cj7 #bg ,,vii4 ,neuter a-,stems 7 #ca-cf7 #cj ,,viii4 ,the -,declension 7 #cg-db7 #cc ,,ix4 ,the i-,declension and the u-,declension 7 #dc-ee7 #ce ,x4 ,present ,indicative ,endings of ,strong ,verbs 7 #ef-fb7 #ci ,,xi4 ,the ,weak or n-,declension 7 #fc-ff7 #dd ,,xii4 ,remnants of ,other ,consonant ,declensions 7 #fg-ga7 #dg ,,xiii4 ,pronouns 7 #gb-gg7 #ej ,,xiv4 ,adjectives1 ,strong and ,weak 7 #gh-hg7 #ec ,,xv4 ,numerals 7 #hh-ib7 #eg ,,xvi4 ,adverbs1 ,prepositions1 and ,conjunctions 7 #ic-ie7 #fj ,,xvii4 ,comparison of ,adjectives and ,adverbs 7 #if-ajj7 #fd ,,xviii4 ,strong ,verbs3 ,class ,i1 ,syntax of ,moods 7 #aja-ajh7 #fh ,,xix4 ,classes ,,ii and ,,iii 7 #aji-aac7 #gd ,,xx4 ,classes ,,iv1 ,v1 ,,vi1 and ,,vii2 ,contract ,verbs 7 #aad-aba7 #gh ,,xxi4 ,weak ,verbs 7 #abb-acc7 #hb ,,xxii4 ,remaining ,verbs2 ,verb ,phrases with habban1 bon1 and weoran 7 #acd-adc7 #ij ,,part ,,iii4--,,selections ,,for ,,reading4 ,,prose4 ,introductory #ih ,i4 ,the ,battle of ,ashdown #ii ,,ii4 ,a ,prayer of ,king ,alfred #aja ,,iii4 ,the ,voyages of ,ohthere and ,wulfstan #ajb ,ohthere's ,first ,voyage #ajc ,ohthere's ,second ,voyage #ajf ,wulfstan's ,voyage #ajg ,,iv4 ,the ,story of ,cdmon #aaa ,v4 ,alfred's ,preface to the ,pastoral ,care #aaf ,,poetry4 ,introductory #abb ,,vi4 ,extracts from ,beowulf #acf ,,vii4 ,the ,wanderer #adh ,,glossaries4 ,i4 ,old ,english--,modern ,english #aee ,,ii4 ,modern ,english--,old ,english #aij 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,old ,,english ,,grammar ,,and ,,exercises 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,old ,,english ,,grammar ,,and ,,exercise ,,book4 ,,part ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,history4 #a4 ,the history of the ,english language falls naturally into three periods2 but these periods blend into one another so gradually that too much significance must not be attached to the exact dates which scholars1 chiefly for convenience of treatment1 have assigned as their limits4 ,our language1 it is true1 has undergone many and great changes2 but its continuity has never been broken1 and its individuality has never been lost4 #b4 ,the first of these periods is that of ,,old ,,english1 or ,,anglo-,,saxon1#a commonly known as the period of full inflections4 ,e4g4 stn-as1 stones2 car-u1 care2 will-a1 will2 bind-an1 to bind2 help-a 7 ath71 they help4 ,it extends from the arrival of the ,english in ,great ,britain to about one hundred years after the ,norman ,conquest1--from ,a4,d4 #ddi to #aaej2 but there are no literary remains of the earlier centuries of this period4 ,there were four#b distinct dialects spoken at this time4 ,these were the ,northumbrian1 spoken north of the river ,humber2 the ,mercian1 spoken in the midland region between the ,humber and the ,thames2 the ,west ,saxon1 spoken south and west of the ,thames2 and the ,kentish1 spoken in the neighborhood of ,canterbury4 ,of these dialects1 ,modern ,english is most nearly akin to the ,mercian2 but the best known of them is the ,west ,saxon4 ,it was in the ,west ,saxon dialect that ,king ,alfred 7#hdi-ija7 wrote and spoke4 ,his writings belong to the period of ,early ,west ,saxon as distinguished from the period of ,late ,west ,saxon1 the latter being best represented in the writings of ,abbot lfric 7#iee8-ajbe874 ,footnote #a3 ,this unfortunate nomenclature is due to the term ,angli ,saxones1 which ,latin writers used as a designation for the ,english ,saxons as distinguished from the continental or ,old ,saxons4 ,but ,alfred and lfric both use the term ,englisc1 not ,anglo-,saxon4 ,the ,angles spread over ,northumbria and ,mercia1 far outnumbering the other tribes4 ,thus ,englisc 7 ,angel isc7 became the general name for the language spoken4 ,footnote #b3 ,as small as ,england is1 there are six distinct dialects spoken in her borders to-day4 ,of these the ,yorkshire dialect is1 perhaps1 the most peculiar4 ,it preserves many ,northumbrian survivals4 ,see ,tennyson's ,northern ,farmer4 #c4 ,the second period is that of ,,middle ,,english1 or the period of leveled inflections1 the dominant vowel of the inflections being e4 ,e4g4 ston-es1 car-e1 will-e1 bind-en 7or bind-e71 help-eth1 each being1 as in the earlier period1 a dissyllable4 ,the ,middle ,english period extends from ,a4,d4 #aaej to #aejj4 ,its greatest representatives are ,chaucer 7#acdj-adjj7 in poetry and ,wiclif 7#acbd-achd7 in prose4 ,there were three prominent dialects during this period3 the ,northern1 corresponding to the older ,northumbrian2 the ,midland 7divided into ,east ,midland and ,west ,midland71 corresponding to the ,mercian2 and the ,southern1 corresponding to the ,west ,saxon and ,kentish4 ,london1 situated in ,east ,midland territory1 had become the dominant speech center2 and it was this ,east ,midland dialect that both ,chaucer and ,wiclif employed4 ,,note4--,it is a great mistake to think that ,chaucer shaped our language from crude materials4 ,his influence was conservative1 not plastic4 ,the popularity of his works tended to crystalize and thus to perpetuate the forms of the ,east ,midland dialect1 but that dialect was ready to his hand before he began to write4 ,the speech of ,london was1 in ,chaucer's time1 a mixture of ,southern and ,midland forms1 but the ,southern forms 7survivals of the ,west ,saxon dialect7 had already begun to fall away2 and this they continued to do1 so that 8,chaucer's language10 as ,dr4 ,murray says1 8is more ,southern than standard ,english eventually became40 ,see also ,morsbach1 ,ueber den ,ursprung der neuenglischen ,schriftsprache 7#ahhh74 #d4 ,the last period is that of ,,modern ,,english1 or the period of lost inflections4 ,e4g4 stones1 care1 will1 bind1 help1 each being a monosyllable4 ,modern ,english extends from ,a4,d4 #aejj to the present time4 ,it has witnessed comparatively few grammatical changes1 but the vocabulary of our language has been vastly increased by additions from the classical languages4 ,vowels1 too1 have shifted their values4 #e4 ,it is the object of this book to give an elementary knowledge of ,early ,west ,saxon1 that is1 the language of ,king ,alfred4 ,with this knowledge1 it will not be difficult for the student to read ,late ,west ,saxon1 or any other dialect of the ,old ,english period4 ,such knowledge will also serve as the best introduction to the structure both of ,middle ,english and of ,modern ,english1 besides laying a secure foundation for the scientific study of any other ,germanic tongue4 ,,note4--,the ,germanic1 or ,teutonic1 languages constitute a branch of the great ,aryan1 or ,indo-,germanic 7known also as the ,indo-,european7 group4 ,they are subdivided as follows3 ,north ,germanic3 ,scandinavian1 or ,norse4 ,old ,high ,german1 ,germanic ,east ,germanic3 ,gothic4 7to ,a4,d4 #aajj17 ,high ,german ,middle ,high ,german1 7,a4,d4 #aajj-aejj17 ,west ,germanic ,new ,high ,german4 7,a4,d4 #aejj-47 ,low ,german ,dutch1 ,old ,saxon1 ,frisian1 ,english4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,sounds4 ,vowels and ,diphthongs4 #f4 ,the long vowels and diphthongs will in this book be designated by the macron 7-74 ,vowel length should in every case be associated by the student with each word learned3 quantity alone sometimes distinguishes words meaning wholly different things3 fr1 he went1 for1 for2 gd1 good1 ,god1 ,god2 mn1 crime1 man1 man4 ,long vowels and diphthongs3 as in father3 stn1 a stone4 as in man 7prolonged73 slpan1 to sleep4 as in they3 hr1 here4 as in machine3 mn1 mine4 as in note 7pure1 not diphthongal73 bc1 book4 as in rule3 tn1 town4 as in ,german grn1 or ,english green 7with lips rounded73#a brd1 bride4 ,the diphthongs1 long and short1 have the stress upon the first vowel4 ,the second vowel is obscured1 and represents approximately the sound of er in sooner1 faster 7 soon-uh1 fast-uh74 ,the long diphthongs 7 is not a diphthong proper7 are o1 e1 and a4 ,the sound of o is approximately reproduced in mayor 7 m-uh72 that of e in the dissyllabic pronunciation of fear 7 f-uh74 ,but a -uh4 ,this diphthong is hardly to be distinguished from ea in pear1 bear1 etc41 as pronounced in the southern section of the ,united ,states 7 b-uh1 p-uh74 #g4 ,the short sounds are nothing more than the long vowels and diphthongs shortened2 but the student must at once rid himself of the idea that ,modern ,english red1 for example1 is the shortened form of reed1 or that mat is the shortened form of mate4 ,pronounce these long sounds with increasing rapidity1 and reed will approach rid1 while mate will approach met4 ,the ,old ,english short vowel sounds are3 a as in artistic3 habban1 to have4 as in mankind3 dg1 day4 e1 as in let3 stelan1 to steal1 sttan1 to set4 i as in sit3 hit1 it4 o as in broad 7but shorter73 ,god1 ,god4 as in not3 lmb1 lamb4 u as in full3 sunu1 son4 y as in miller 7with lips rounded7#a3 gylden1 golden4 ,,note4--,the symbol is known as umlaut-e 7 #eh74 ,it stands for ,germanic a1 while e 7without the cedilla7 represents ,germanic e4 ,the symbol is employed only before m and n4 ,it1 too1 represents ,germanic a4 ,but ,alfred writes manig or monig1 many2 lamb or lomb1 lamb2 hand or hond1 hand1 etc4 ,the cedilla is an etymological sign added by modern grammarians4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the letters and were printed as shown in this e-text4 ,the diacritic is not a cedilla 7open to the left7 but an ogonek 7open to the right74 ,footnote #a3 ,vowels are said to be round1 or rounded1 when the lip-opening is rounded2 that is1 when the lips are thrust out and puckered as if preparing to pronounce w4 ,thus o and u are round vowels3 add -ing to each1 and phonetically you have added -wing4 ,e4g4 gowing1 suwing4 ,consonants4 #h4 ,there is little difference between the values of ,old ,english consonants and those of ,modern ,english4 ,the following distinctions1 however1 require notice3 ,the digraph th is represented in ,old ,english texts by and 1 no consistent distinction being made between them4 ,in the works of ,alfred1 7capital1 7 is the more common3 s1 those2 t1 that2 binde1 he binds4 ,the consonant c had the hard sound of k1 the latter symbol being rare in ,west ,saxon3 cyning1 king2 cwn1 queen2 c1 known4 ,when followed by a palatal vowel sound1--e1 i1 1 ea1 eo1 long or short1--a vanishing y sound was doubtless interposed 7cf4 dialectic kyind for kind74 ,in ,modern ,english the combination has passed into ch3 cealc1 chalk2 cdan1 to chide2 lce1 leech2 cild1 child2 cowan1 to chew4 ,this change 7c ch7 is known as ,palatalization4 ,the letter g1 pronounced as in ,modern ,english gun1 has also a palatal value before the palatal vowels 7cf4 dialectic gyirl for girl74 ,the combination cg1 which frequently stands for gg1 had probably the sound of dge in ,modern ,english edge3 cg1 edge2 scgan1 to say2 brycg1 bridge4 ,initial h is sounded as in ,modern ,english3 habban1 to have2 hlga1 saint4 ,when closing a syllable it has the sound of ,german ch3 slh1 he slew2 hah1 high2 urh1 through4 #i4 ,an important distinction is that between voiced 7or sonant7 and voiceless 7or surd7 consonants4#b ,in ,old ,english they are as follows3 ,,voiced4 ,,voiceless4 g h1 c d t 1 7as in though7 1 7as in thin7 b p f 7 v7 f s 7 z7 s ,it is evident1 therefore1 that 771 f1 and s have double values in ,old ,english4 ,if voiced1 they are equivalent to th 7in though71 v1 and z4 ,otherwise1 they are pronounced as th 7in thin71 f 7in fin71 and s 7in sin74 ,the syllabic environment will usually compel the student to give these letters their proper values4 ,when occurring between vowels1 they are always voiced3 er1 other2 ofer1 over2 rsan1 to rise4 ,,note4--,the general rule in ,old ,english1 as in ,modern ,english1 is1 that voiced consonants have a special affinity for other voiced consonants1 and voiceless for voiceless4 ,this is the law of ,assimilation4 ,thus when de is added to form the preterit of a verb whose stem ends in a voiceless consonant1 the d is unvoiced1 or assimilated1 to t3 sttan1 to set1 stte 7but trddan1 to tread1 has trdde72 slpan1 to sleep1 slpte2 drncan1 to drench1 drncte2 cyssan1 to kiss1 cyste4 ,see #abf1 ,note #a4 ,footnote #b3 ,a little practice will enable the student to see the appropriateness of calling these consonants voiced and voiceless4 ,try to pronounce a voiced consonant1--d in den1 for example1 but without the assistance of en1--and there will be heard a gurgle1 or vocal murmur4 ,but in t1 of ten1 there is no sound at all1 but only a feeling of tension in the organs4 ,syllables4 #aj4 ,a syllable is usually a vowel1 either alone or in combination with consonants1 uttered with a single impulse of stress2 but certain consonants may form syllables3 oven 7 ov-n71 battle 7 bt-l72 7cf4 also the vulgar pronunciation of elm74 ,a syllable may be 7#a7 weak or strong1 7#b7 open or closed1 7#c7 long or short4 7#a7 ,a weak syllable receives a light stress4 ,its vowel sound is often different from that of the corresponding strong1 or stressed1 syllable4 ,cf4 weak and strong my in 8,i want my lrge hat0 and 8,i want m hat40 7#b7 ,an open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong3 d-man1 to deem2 1 thou2 sca-can1 to shake2 d-ges1 by day4 ,a closed syllable ends in one or more consonants3 ing1 thing2 gd1 good2 gld1 glad4 7#c7 ,a syllable is long 7a7 if it contains a long vowel or a long diphthong3 dr-fan1 to drive2 l-can1 to lock2 sl-pan1 to sleep2 co-san1 to choose2 7b7 if its vowel or diphthong is followed by more than one consonant3#c crft1 strength2 heard1 hard2 lib-ban1 to live2 feal-lan1 to fall4 ,otherwise1 the syllable is short3 e1 which2 be-ran1 to bear2 t1 that2 gie-fan1 to give4 ,,note #a4--;,a single consonant belongs to the following syllable3 h-lig1 holy 7not hl-ig72 wr-tan1 to write2 f-der1 father4 ,,note #b4--,the student will notice that the syllable may be long and the vowel short2 but the vowel cannot be long and the syllable short4 ,,note #c4--,old ,english short vowels1 occurring in open syllables1 have regularly become long in ,modern ,english3 we-fan1 to weave2 e-tan1 to eat2 ma-cian1 to make2 na-cod1 naked2 a-can1 to ache2 o-fer1 over4 ,and ,old ,english long vowels1 preceding two or more consonants1 have generally been shortened3 brost1 breast2 hl1 health2 slpte1 slept2 ldde1 led4 ,footnote #c3 ,taken separately1 every syllable ending in a single consonant is long4 ,it may be said1 therefore1 that all closed syllables are long2 but in the natural flow of language1 the single final consonant of a syllable so often blends with a following initial vowel1 the syllable thus becoming open and short1 that such syllables are not recognized as prevailingly long4 ,cf4 ,modern ,english at all 7 a-tall74 ,accentuation4 #aa4 ,the accent in ,old ,english falls usually on the radical syllable1 never on the inflectional ending3 brngan1 to bring2 stnas1 stones2 brende1 bearing2 delnes1 idleness2 frondscipe1 friendship4 ,but in the case of compound nouns1 adjectives1 and adverbs the first member of the compound 7unless it be ge- or be-7 receives the stronger stress3 hofon-rce1 heaven-kingdom2 nd-giet1 intelligence2 s-fst1 truthful2 gd-cund1 divine2 all-unga1 entirely2 ble-lce1 blithely4 ,but be-ht1 promise2 ge-bd1 prayer2 ge-falc1 joyous2 be-sne1 immediately4 ,compound verbs1 however1 have the stress on the radical syllable3 for-gefan1 to forgive2 of-lnnan1 to cease2 -cnwan1 to know2 wi-stndan1 to withstand2 on-scan1 to resist4 ,,note4--,the tendency of nouns to take the stress on the prefix1 while verbs retain it on the root1 is exemplified in many ,modern ,english words3 prference1 prefr2 cntract 7noun71 contrct 7verb72 bstinence1 abstan2 prfume 7noun71 perfme 7verb74 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,inflections4 ,cases4 #ab4 ,there are five cases in ,old ,english3 the nominative1 the genitive1 the dative1 the accusative1 and the instrumental4#a ,each of them1 except the nominative1 may be governed by prepositions4 ,when used without prepositions1 they have1 in general1 the following functions3 7a7 ,the nominative1 as in ,modern ,english1 is the case of the subject of a finite verb4 7b7 ,the genitive 7the possessive case of ,modern ,english7 is the case of the possessor or source4 ,it may be called the of case4 7c7 ,the dative is the case of the indirect object4 ,it may be called the to or for case4 7d7 ,the accusative 7the objective case of ,modern ,english7 is the case of the direct object4 7e7 ,the instrumental1 which rarely differs from the dative in form1 is the case of the means or the method4 ,it may be called the with or by case4 ,the following paradigm of m1 the mouth1 illustrates the several cases 7the article being1 for the present1 gratuitously added in the ,modern ,english equivalents73 ,singular4 ,plural4 ,n4 m the mouth4 m-as the mouths4 ,g4 m-es#b of the mouth m-a of the mouths 7 the mouth's74 7 the mouths'74 ,d4 m-e to or for the m-um to or for the mouths4 mouth4 ,a4 m the mouth4 m-as the mouths4 ,i4 me with or by means m-um with or by means of the mouth4 of the mouths4 ,footnote #a3 ,most grammars add a sixth case1 the vocative4 ,but it seems best to consider the vocative as only a function of the nominative form4 ,footnote #b3 ,of course our 8apostrophe and s0 7 's7 comes from the ,old ,english genitive ending -es4 ,the e is preserved in ,wednesday 7 ,old ,english ,wdnes dg74 ,but at a very early period it was thought that ,john's book1 for example1 was a shortened form of ,john his book4 ,thus ,addison 7,spectator1 ,no4 #ace7 declares 's a survival of his4 ,how1 then1 would he explain the s of his8 ,and how would he dispose of ,mary's book8 ,gender4 #ac4 ,the gender of ,old ,english nouns1 unlike that of ,modern ,english1 depends partly on meaning and partly on form1 or ending4 ,thus m1 mouth1 is masculine2 tunge1 tongue1 feminine2 age1 eye1 neuter4 ,no very comprehensive rules1 therefore1 can be given2 but the gender of every noun should be learned with its meaning4 ,gender will be indicated in the vocabularies by the different gender forms of the definite article1 s for the masculine1 so for the feminine1 and t for the neuter3 s m1 so tunge1 t age the mouth1 the tongue1 the eye4 ,all nouns ending in -dm1 -hd1 -scipe1 or -ere are masculine 7cf4 ,modern ,english wisdom1 childhood1 friendship1 worker74 ,masculine1 also1 are nouns ending in -a4 ,those ending in -nes or -ung are feminine 7cf4 ,modern ,english goodness1 and gerundial forms in -ing3 seeing is believing74 ,thus s wsdm1 wisdom2 s cildhd1 childhood2 s frondscipe1 friendship2 s fiscere1 fisher7man72 s hunta1 hunter2 so gelcnes1 likeness2 so leornung1 learning4 ,declensions4 #ad4 ,there are two great systems of declension in ,old ,english1 the ,vowel ,declension and the ,consonant ,declension4 ,a noun is said to belong to the ,vowel ,declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel1 this vowel being then known as the stem-characteristic2 but if the stem-characteristic is a consonant1 the noun belongs to the ,consonant ,declension4 ,there might have been1 therefore1 as many subdivisions of the ,vowel ,declension in ,old ,english as there were vowels1 and as many subdivisions of the ,consonant ,declension as there were consonants4 ,all ,old ,english nouns1 however1 belonging to the ,vowel ,declension1 ended their stems originally in a1 1 i1 or u4 ,hence there are but four subdivisions of the ,vowel ,declension3 a-stems1 -stems1 i-stems1 and u-stems4 ,the ,vowel ,declension is commonly called the ,strong ,declension1 and its nouns ,strong ,nouns4 ,,note4--,the terms ,strong and ,weak were first used by ,jacob ,grimm 7#aghe-ahfc7 in the terminology of verbs1 and thence transferred to nouns and adjectives4 ,by a ,strong ,verb1 ,grimm meant one that could form its preterit out of its own resources2 that is1 without calling in the aid of an additional syllable3 ,modern ,english run1 ran2 find1 found2 but verbs of the ,weak ,conjugation had to borrow1 as it were1 an inflectional syllable3 gain1 gained2 help1 helped4 #ae4 ,the stems of nouns belonging to the ,consonant ,declension ended1 with but few exceptions1 in the letter n 7cf4 ,latin homin-em1 ration-em1 ,greek -74 ,they are called1 therefore1 n-stems1 the ,declension itself being known as the n-,declension1 or the ,weak ,declension4 ,the nouns1 also1 are called ,weak ,nouns4 #af4 ,if every ,old ,english noun had preserved the original ,germanic stem-characteristic 7or final letter of the stem71 there would be no difficulty in deciding at once whether any given noun is an a-stem1 -stem1 i-stem1 u-stem1 or n-stem2 but these final letters had1 for the most part1 either been dropped1 or fused with the case-endings1 long before the period of historic ,old ,english4 ,it is only1 therefore1 by a rigid comparison of the ,germanic languages with one another1 and with the other ,aryan languages1 that scholars are able to reconstruct a single ,germanic language1 in which the original stem-characteristics may be seen far better than in any one historic branch of the ,germanic group 7 #e1 ,note74 ,this hypothetical language1 which bears the same ancestral relation to the historic ,germanic dialects that ,latin bears to the ,romance tongues1 is known simply as ,germanic 7,gmc471 or as ,primitive ,germanic4 ,ability to reconstruct ,germanic forms is not expected of the students of this book1 but the following table should be examined as illustrating the basis of distinction among the several ,old ,english declensions 7,o4,e4 ,old ,english1 ,mn4,e4 ,modern ,english73 ,gmc4 staina-z1 7#a7 a-stems ,o4,e4 stn1 ,mn4,e4 stone4 ,gmc4 hall1 7#b7 -stems ,o4,e4 heall1 ,i4 ,strong or ,vowel ,mn4,e4 hall4 ,declensions ,gmc4 bni-z1 7#c7 i-stems ,o4,e4 bn1 ,mn4,e4 boon4 ,gmc4 sunu-z1 7#d7 u-stems ,o4,e4 sunu1 ,mn4,e4 son4 7#a7 n-stems ,gmc4 tungn-iz1 7,weak ,o4,e4 tung-an1 ,declension7 ,mn4,e4 tongue-s4 ,gmc4 ft-iz1 7a7 ,o4,e4 ft1 ,,ii4 ,consonant 7#b7 ,remnants ,mn4,e4 feet4 ,declensions of other ,consonant ,gmc4 frijnd-iz1 ,declensions 7b7 ,o4,e4 frend1 ,mn4,e4 friend-s4 ,gmc4 brr-iz1 7c7 ,o4,e4 bror1 ,mn4,e4 brother-s4 ,,note4--8,it will be seen that if ,old ,english age1 eye1 is said to be an n-stem1 what is meant is this1 that at some former period the kernel of the word ended in -n1 while1 as far as the ,old ,english language proper is concerned1 all that is implied is that the word is inflected in a certain manner40 7,jespersen1 ,progress in ,language1 #aji74 ,this is true of all ,old ,english stems1 whether ,vowel or ,consonant4 ,the division1 therefore1 into a-stems1 -stems1 etc41 is made in the interests of grammar as well as of philology4 ,conjugations4 #ag4 ,there are1 likewise1 two systems of conjugation in ,old ,english3 the ,strong or ,old ,conjugation1 and the ,weak or ,new ,conjugation4 ,the verbs of the ,strong ,conjugation 7the so-called ,irregular ,verbs of ,modern ,english7 number about three hundred1 of which not one hundred remain in ,modern ,english 7 #aja1 ,note74 ,they form their preterit and frequently their past participle by changing the radical vowel of the present stem4 ,this vowel change or modification is called ablaut 7pronounced hp-lowt73 ,modern ,english sing1 sang1 sung2 rise1 rose1 risen4 ,as the radical vowel of the preterit plural is often different from that of the preterit singular1 there are four principal parts or tense stems in an ,old ,english strong verb1 instead of the three of ,modern ,english4 ,the four principal parts in the conjugation of a strong verb are 7#a7 the present indicative1 7#b7 the preterit indicative singular1 7#c7 the preterit indicative plural1 and 7#d7 the past participle4 ,strong verbs fall into seven groups1 illustrated in the following table3 ,,present4 ,,pret4 ,,sing4 ,,pret4 ,,plur4 ,,past ,,participle4 ,i4 ,btan1 to bite3 ,ic bt-e1 ,i bite or shall bite4#c ,ic bt1 ,i bit4 ,w bit-on1 we bit4 ,ic hbbe ge#d-;biten1 ,i have bitten4 ,,ii4 ,bodan1 to bid3 ,ic bod-e1 ,i bid or shall bid4 ,ic bad1 ,i bade4 ,w bud-on1 we bade4 ,ic hbbe ge-boden1 ,i have bidden4 ,,iii4 ,bindan1 to bind3 ,ic bind-e1 ,i bind or shall bind4 ,ic bnd1 ,i bound4 ,w bund-on1 we bound4 ,ic hbbe ge-bund-en1 ,i have bound4 ,,iv4 ,beran1 to bear3 ,ic ber-e1 ,i bear or shall bear4 ,ic br1 ,i bore4 ,w br-on1 we bore4 ,ic hbbe ge-bor-en1 ,i have borne4 ,v4 ,metan1 to measure3 ,ic met-e1 ,i measure or shall measure4 ,ic mt1 ,i measured4 ,w mt-on1 we measured4 ,ic hbbe ge-met-en1 ,i have measured4 ,,vi4 ,faran1 to go3 ,ic far-e1 ,i go or shall go4 ,ic fr1 ,i went4 ,w fr-on1 we went4 ,ic eom#e ge-far-en1 ,i have 7am7 gone4 ,,vii4 ,feallan1 to fall3 ,ic feall-e1 ,i fall or shall fall4 ,ic foll1 ,i fell4 ,w foll-on1 we fell4 ,ic eom#e ge-feall-en1 ,i have 7am7 fallen4 ,footnote #c3 ,early ,west ,saxon had no distinctive form for the future4 ,the present was used both as present proper and as future4 ,cf4 ,modern ,english 8,i go home tomorrow10 or 8,i am going home tomorrow0 for 8,i shall go home tomorrow40 ,footnote #d3 ,the prefix ge- 7,middle ,english y-71 cognate with ,latin co 7con7 and implying completeness of action1 was not always used4 ,it never occurs in the past participles of compound verbs3 o-feallan1 to fall off1 past participle o-feallen 7not o-gefeallen74 ,milton errs in prefixing it to a present participle3 8,what needs my ,shakespeare1 for his honour'd bones1 ,the labour of an age in piled stones8 ,or that his hallow'd reliques should be hid ,under a star-ypointing pyramid40 --,epitaph on ,william ,shakespeare4 ,and ,shakespeare misuses it in 8,y-ravished10 a preterit 7,pericles ,,iii1 ,prologue l4 #ce74 ,it survives in the archaic y-clept 7,old ,english ge-clypod1 called74 ,it appears as a in aware 7,old ,english ge-wr71 as e in enough 7,old ,english ge-nh71 and as i in handiwork 7,old ,english hand-ge-weorc74 ,footnote #e3 ,with intransitive verbs denoting change of condition1 the ,old ,english auxiliary is usually some form of to be rather than to have4 ,see #aci4 #ah4 ,the verbs of the ,weak ,conjugation 7the so-called ,regular ,verbs of ,modern ,english7 form their preterit and past participle by adding to the present stem a suffix#f with d or t3 ,modern ,english love1 loved2 sleep1 slept4 ,the stem of the preterit plural is never different from the stem of the preterit singular2 hence these verbs have only three distinctive tense-stems1 or principal parts3 viz41 7#a7 the present indicative1 7#b7 the preterit indicative1 and 7#c7 the past participle4 ,weak verbs fall into three groups1 illustrated in the following table3 ,,present4 ,,preterit4 ,,past ,,participle4 ,i4 ,frmman1 to perform3 ,ic frmm-e1 ,i perform or shall perform4 ,ic frm-ede1 ,i performed4 ,ic hbbe ge-frm-ed1 ,i have performed4 ,,ii4 ,bodian1 to proclaim3 ,ic bodi-e1 ,i proclaim or shall proclaim4 ,ic bod-ode1 ,i proclaimed4 ,ic hbbe ge-bod-od1 ,i have proclaimed4 ,,iii4 ,habban1 to have3 ,ic hbbe1 ,i have or shall have4 ,ic hf-de1 ,i had4 ,ic hbbe ge-hf-d1 ,i have had4 ,footnote #f3 ,the theory that loved1 for example1 is a fused form of love-did has been generally given up4 ,the dental ending was doubtless an ,indo-,germanic suffix1 which became completely specialized only in the ,teutonic languages4 #ai4 ,there remain a few verbs 7chiefly the ,auxiliary ,verbs of ,modern ,english7 that do not belong entirely to either of the two conjugations mentioned4 ,the most important of them are1 ,ic mg ,i may1 ,ic mihte ,i might2 ,ic cn ,i can1 ,ic ce ,i could2 ,ic mt ,i must1 ,ic mste ,i must2 ,ic sceal ,i shall1 ,ic sceolde ,i should2 ,ic eom ,i am1 ,ic ws ,i was2 ,ic wille ,i will1 ,ic wolde ,i would2 ,ic d ,i do1 ,ic dyde ,i did2 ,ic g ,i go1 ,ic ode ,i went4 ,all but the last four of these are known as ,preterit-,present ,verbs4 ,the present tense of each of them is in origin a preterit1 in function a present4 ,cf4 ,modern ,english ought 7 owed74 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,order ,,of ,,words4 #bj4 ,the order of words in ,old ,english is more like that of ,modern ,german than of ,modern ,english4 ,yet it is only the ,transposed order that the student will feel to be at all un-,english2 and the ,transposed order1 even before the period of the ,norman ,conquest1 was fast yielding place to the ,normal order4 ,the three divisions of order are 7#a7 ,normal1 7#b7 ,inverted1 and 7#c7 ,transposed4 7#a7 ,normal order subject predicate4 ,in ,old ,english1 the ,normal order is found chiefly in independent clauses4 ,the predicate is followed by its modifiers3 ,s hwl bi micle lssa onne re hwalas1 ,that whale is much smaller than other whales2 nd h geseah tw scipu1 ,and he saw two ships4 7#b7 ,inverted order predicate subject4 ,this order occurs also in independent clauses1 and is employed 7a7 when some modifier of the predicate precedes the predicate1 the subject being thrown behind4 ,the words most frequently causing ,inversion in ,old ,english prose are then1 onne then1 and r there3 fr h1 ,then went he2 onne rna h ealle tweard m fo1 ,then gallop they all toward the property2 ac r bi medo genh1 but there is mead enough4 ,inversion is employed 7b7 in interrogative sentences3 ,lufast m8 ,lovest thou me8 and 7c7 in imperative sentences3 ,cume n rce1 ,thy kingdom come4 7#c7 ,transposed order subject 444 predicate4 ,that is1 the predicate comes last in the sentence1 being preceded by its modifiers4 ,this is the order observed in dependent clauses3#a onne cyme s man s t swiftoste hors hafa1 ,then comes the man that has the swiftest horse 7literally1 that the swiftest horse has72 ,ne mtte h r nn gebn land1 sian h frm his gnum hm fr1 ,nor did he before find any cultivated land1 after he went from his own home 7literally1 after he from his own home went74 ,footnote #a3 ,but in the ,voyages of ,ohthere and ,wulfstan1 in which the style is apparently more that of oral than of written discourse1 the ,normal is more frequent than the ,transposed order in dependent clauses4 ,in his other writings ,alfred manifests a partiality for the ,transposed order in dependent clauses1 except in the case of substantival clauses introduced by t4 ,such clauses show a marked tendency to revert to their ,normal oratio recta order4 ,the norm thus set by the indirect affirmative clause seems to have proved an important factor in the ultimate disappearance of ,transposition from dependent clauses4 ,the influence of ,norman ,french helped only to consummate forces that were already busily at work4 #ba4 ,two other peculiarities in the order of words require a brief notice4 7#a7 ,pronominal datives and accusatives usually precede the predicate3 ,h hine oferwann1 ,he overcame him 7literally1 ,he him overcame72 ,dryhten him andwyrde1 ,the ,lord answered him4 ,but substantival datives and accusatives1 as in ,modern ,english1 follow the predicate4 ,the following sentence illustrates both orders3 ,h genmon ,ioseph1 nd hine gesealdon cpemnnum1 nd h hine gesealdon in gypta lnd1 ,they took ,joseph1 and sold him to merchants1 and they sold him into ,egypt 7literally1 ,they took ,joseph1 and him sold to merchants1 and they him sold into ,egyptians' land74 ,,note4--,the same order prevails in the case of pronominal nominatives used as predicate nouns3 ,ic hit eom1 ,it is ,i 7literally1 ,i it am72 hit eart1 ,it is thou 7literally1 ,thou it art74 7#b7 ,the attributive genitive1 whatever relationship it expresses1 usually precedes the noun which it qualifies3 ,breoton is grsecges gland1 ,britain is an island of the ocean 7literally1 ocean's island72 ,swilce hit is ac berende on wcga rum1 ,likewise it is also rich in ores of metals 7literally1 metals' ores72 ,cyninga cyning1 ,king of kings 7literally1 ,kings' king72 ,g witon ,godes rces gerne1 ,ye know the mystery of the kingdom of ,god 7literally1 ,ye know ,god's kingdom's mystery74 ,a preposition governing the word modified by the genitive1 precedes the genitive3#b ,on ealdra manna sgenum1 ,in old men's sayings2 t ra strta ndum1 ,at the ends of the streets 7literally1 ,at the streets' ends72 ,for ealra nra hlgena lufan1 ,for all thy saints' love4 ,see1 also1 #id1 7#e74 ,footnote #b3 ,the positions of the genitive are various4 ,it frequently follows its noun3 bearn ra ,aeniensa1 ,the children of the ,athenians4 ,it may separate an adjective and a noun3 n ltel ss earm1 ,a little arm of 7the7 sea4 ,the genitive may here be construed as an adjective1 or part of a compound ,a little sea-arm2 ,mid mnegum ,godes gifum1 ,with many ,god-gifts many divine gifts4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,practical ,,suggestions4 #bb4 ,in the study of ,old ,english1 the student must remember that he is dealing not with a foreign or isolated language but with the earlier forms of his own mother tongue4 ,the study will prove profitable and stimulating in proportion as close and constant comparison is made of the old with the new4 ,the guiding principles in such a comparison are reducible chiefly to two4 ,these are 7#a7 the regular operation of phonetic laws1 resulting especially in certain ,vowel ,shiftings1 and 7#b7 the alterations in form and syntax that are produced by ,analogy4 7#a7 8,the former of these is of physiological or natural origin1 and is perfectly and inflexibly regular throughout the same period of the same language2 and even though different languages show different phonetic habits and predilections1 there is a strong general resemblance between the changes induced in one language and in another2 many of the particular laws are true for many languages4 7#b7 8,the other principle is psychical1 or mental1 or artificial1 introducing various more or less capricious changes that are supposed to be emendations2 and its operation is1 to some extent1 uncertain and fitful40#a ,footnote #a3 ,skeat1 ,principles of ,english ,etymology1 ,second ,series1 #cdb4 ,but ,jespersen1 with ,collitz and others1 stoutly contests 8the theory of sound laws and analogy sufficing between them to explain everything in linguistic development40 7#a7 ,vowel-,shiftings4 #bc4 ,it will prove an aid to the student in acquiring the inflections and vocabulary of ,old ,english to note carefully the following shiftings that have taken place in the gradual growth of the ,old ,english vowel system into that of ,modern ,english4 7#a7 ,as stated in #c1 the ,old ,english inflectional vowels1 which were all short and unaccented1 weakened in early ,middle ,english to e4 ,this e in ,modern ,english is frequently dropped3 ,,old ,,english4 ,,middle ,,english4 ,,modern ,,english4 stn-as ston-es stones sun-u sun-e son sun-a sun-e sons ox-an ox-en oxen swift-ra swift-er swifter swift-ost swift-est swiftest lc-ode lok-ede looked 7#b7 ,the ,old ,english long vowels have shifted their phonetic values with such uniform regularity that it is possible in almost every case to infer the ,modern ,english sound2 but our spelling is so chaotic that while the student may infer the modern sound1 he cannot always infer the modern symbol representing the sound4 ,,old ,,modern ,,english4 ,,english4 o#b n no2 stn stone2 bn bone2 7as in no7 rd road2 c oak2 hl whole2 hm home2 swan to sow2 gst ghost4 e h he2 w we2 thee2 m 7as in he7 me2 g ye2 hl heel2 wrig weary2 gelfan to believe2 gs geese4 77 i 7y7 mn mine2 n thine2 wr wire2 7as in mine7 ms mice2 rm rime 7wrongly spelt rhyme72 ls lice2 b by2 scnan to shine2 stig-rp sty-rope 7shortened to stirrup1 stgan meaning to mount74 o d ,i do2 t too1 to2 gs goose2 7as in do7 t tooth2 mna moon2 m doom2 md mood2 wgian to woo2 slh ,i slew4 ou 7ow7 thou2 fl foul2 hs house2 7as in thou7 n now2 h how2 tn town2 re our2 t out2 hld loud2 send thousand4 1 ea 3 s sea2 ml meal2 dlan a1 7as in sea7 to deal2 clne clean2 grdig o greedy4 a3 are ear2 ast east2 dram dream2 gar year2 batan to beat4 o3 ro three2 drorig dreary2 so she1 hrod reed2 dop deep4 ,footnote #b3 ,but ,old ,english preceded by w sometimes gives ,modern ,english o as in two3 tw two2 hw who2 hwm whom4 7#b7 ,analogy4 #bd4 ,but more important than vowel shifting is the great law of ,analogy1 for ,analogy shapes not only words but constructions4 ,it belongs1 therefore1 to ,etymology and to ,syntax1 since it influences both form and function4 ,by this law1 minorities tend to pass over to the side of the majorities4 8,the greater mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence upon the smaller40#c ,the effect of ,analogy is to simplify and to regularize4 8,the main factor in getting rid of irregularities is group-influence1 or ,analogy--the influence exercised by the members of an association-group on one another4444 ,irregularity consists in partial isolation from an association-group through some formal difference40#d ,under the influence of ,analogy1 entire declensions and conjugations have been swept away1 leaving in ,modern ,english not a trace of their former existence4 ,there are in ,old ,english1 for example1 five plural endings for nouns1 -as1 -a1 -e1 -u1 and -an4 ,no one could well have predicted#e that -as 7,middle ,english -es7 would soon take the lead1 and become the norm to which the other endings would eventually conform1 for there were more an-plurals than as-plurals2 but the as-plurals were doubtless more often employed in everyday speech4 ,oxen 7,old ,english oxan7 is the sole pure survival of the hundreds of ,old ,english an-plurals4 ,no group of feminine nouns in ,old ,english had -es as the genitive singular ending2 but by the close of the ,middle ,english period all feminines formed their genitive singular in -es 7or -s1 ,modern ,english 's7 after the analogy of the ,old ,english masculine and neuter nouns with es-genitives4 ,the weak preterits in -ode have all been leveled under the ed-forms1 and of the three hundred strong verbs in ,old ,english more than two hundred have become weak4 ,these are not cases of derivation 7as are the shifted vowels73 ,modern ,english -s in sons1 for example1 could not possibly be derived from ,old ,english -a in suna1 or ,middle ,english -e in sune 7 #bc1 7#a774 ,they are cases of replacement by ,analogy4 ,a few minor examples will quicken the student's appreciation of the nature of the influence exercised by ,analogy3 7a7 ,the intrusive l in could 7,chaucer always wrote coud or coude7 is due to association with would and should1 in each of which l belongs by etymological right4 7b7 ,he need not 7for ,he needs not7 is due to the assimilative influence of the auxiliaries may1 can1 etc41 which have never added -s for their third person singular 7 #acg74 7c7 ,i am friends with him1 in which friends is a crystalized form for on good terms1 may be traced to the influence of such expressions as ,he and ,i are friends1 ,they are friends1 etc4 7d7 ,such errors as are seen in runned1 seed1 gooses1 badder1 hisself1 says ,i 7usually coupled with says he7 are all analogical formations4 ,though not sanctioned by good usage1 it is hardly right to call these forms the products of 8false analogy40 ,the grammar involved is false1 because unsupported by literary usages and traditions2 but the analogy on which these forms are built is no more false than the law of gravitation is false when it makes a dress sit unconventionally4 ,footnote #c3 ,whitney1 ,life and ,growth of ,language1 ,chap4 ,,iv4 ,footnote #d3 ,sweet1 ,a ,new ,english ,grammar1 ,part ,i41 #ece4 ,footnote #e3 ,as ,skeat says 7 #bb1 7#b771 ,analogy is 8fitful40 ,it enables us to explain many linguistic phenomena1 but not to anticipate them4 ,the multiplication of books tends to check its influence by perpetuating the forms already in use4 ,thus ,chaucer employed nine en-plurals1 and his influence served for a time to check the further encroachment of the es-plurals4 ,as soon as there is an acknowledged standard in any language1 the operation of ,analogy is fettered4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,etymology ,,and ,,syntax4 ,,the ,,strong ,,or ,,vowel ,,declensions ,,of ,,nouns4 ,,the a-,,declension4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 7a7 ,masculine a-,stems4 ,o4,e41 ,m4,e41 and ,mn4,e4 will henceforth be used for ,old ,english1 ,middle ,english1 and ,modern ,english4 ,other abbreviations employed are self-explaining4 #be4 ,the a-,declension1 corresponding to the ,second or o-,declension of ,latin and ,greek1 contains only 7a7 masculine and 7b7 neuter nouns4 ,to this declension belong most of the ,o4,e4 masculine and neuter nouns of the ,strong ,declension4 ,at a very early period1 many of the nouns belonging properly to the i- and u-,declensions began to pass over to the a-,declension4 ,this declension may therefore be considered the normal declension for all masculine and neuter nouns belonging to the ,strong ,declension4 #bf4 ,paradigms of s m1 mouth2 s fiscere1 fisherman2 s hwl1 whale2 s mearh1 horse2 s finger1 finger3 ,sing4 ,n4,a4 m fiscer-e hwl mearh finger ,g4 m-es fiscer-es hwl-es mar-es fingr-es ,d4,i4 m-e fiscer-e hwl-e mar-e fingr-e ,plur4 ,n4,a4 m-as fiscer-as hwal-as mar-as fingr-as ,g4 m-a fiscer-a hwal-a mar-a fingr-a ,d4,i4 m-um fiscer-um hwal-um mar-um fingr-um ,,note4--,for meanings of the cases1 see #ab4 ,the dative and instrumental are alike in all nouns4 #bg4 ,the student will observe 7#a7 that nouns whose nominative ends in -e 7fiscere7 drop this letter before adding the case endings2 7#b7 that before a consonant 7hwl7 changes to a in the plural2#a 7#c7 that h1 preceded by r 7mearh7 or l 7seolh1 seal71 is dropped before an inflectional vowel1 the stem diphthong being then lengthened by way of compensation2 7#d7 that dissyllables 7finger7 having the first syllable long1 usually syncopate the vowel of the second syllable before adding the case endings4#b ,footnote #a3 ,adjectives usually retain in closed syllables1 changing it to a in open syllables3 hwt 7active71 gld 7glad71 wr 7wary7 have ,g4 hwates1 glades1 wares2 ,d4 hwatum1 gladum1 warum2 but ,a4 hwtne1 gldne1 wrne4 ,nouns1 however1 change to a only in open syllables followed by a guttural vowel1 a or u4 ,the in the open syllables of the singular is doubtless due to the analogy of the ,n4,a4 singular1 both being closed syllables4 ,footnote #b3 ,cf4 ,mn4,e4 drizz'ling1 rememb'ring1 abysmal 7abysm abizum71 sick'ning1 in which the principle of syncopation is precisely the same4 #bh4 ,paradigm of the ,definite ,article#c s1 so1 t the3 ,masculine4 ,feminine4 ,neuter4 ,sing4 ,n4 s 7se7 so t ,g4 s re s ,d4 m 7m7 re m 7m7 ,a4 one t ,i4 1 on ---- 1 on ,all ,genders4 ,plur4 ,n4,a4 ,g4 ra ,d4 m 7m7 ,footnote #c3 ,this may mean four things3 7#a7 ,the1 7#b7 ,that 7demonstrative71 7#c7 ,he1 she1 it1 7#d7 ,who1 which1 that 7relative pronoun74 ,mn4,e4 demonstrative that is1 of course1 the survival of ,o4,e4 neuter t in its demonstrative sense4 ,professor ,victor ,henry 7,comparative ,grammar of ,english and ,german1 #afj1 #c7 sees a survival of dative plural demonstrative m in such an expression as in them days4 ,it seems more probable1 however1 that them so used has followed the lead of this and these1 that and those1 in their double function of pronoun and adjective4 ,there was doubtless some such evolution as1 ,i saw them4 ,them what8 ,them boys4 ,an unquestioned survival of the dative singular feminine of the article is seen in the -ter of ,atterbury 7 t re byrig1 at the town72 and m survives in the -ten of ,attenborough1 the word borough having become an uninflected neuter4 ,skeat1 ,principles1 ,first ,series1 #ahe4 #bi4 ,,vocabulary4#d s bcere1 scribe bc4 s cyning1 king4 s dg1 day4 s nde1 end4 s ngel1 angel angelus4 s frodm1 freedom4 s fugol 7,g4 sometimes fugles71 bird fowl4 s gr1 spear gore1 gar-fish4 s heofon1 heaven4 s hierde1 herdsman shep-herd4 nd 7and71 and4 s scg1 man1 warrior4 s seolh1 seal4 s stn1 stone4 s wealh1 foreigner1 ,welshman wal-nut4 s weall1 wall4 s wsdm1 wisdom4 s wulf1 wolf4 ,footnote #d3 ,the brackets contain etymological hints that may help the student to discern relationships otherwise overlooked4 ,the genitive is given only when not perfectly regular4 #cj4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 ra wulfa mas4 #b4 s fisceres fingras4 #c4 ra ,wala cyninge4 #d4 m nglum nd m hierdum4 #e4 ra daga nde4 #f4 m bcerum nd m scgum s cyninges4 #g4 m sole nd m fuglum4 #h4 stnas nd gras4 #i4 ,hwala nd mara4 #aj4 ra ngla wsdm4 #aa4 s cyninges bceres frodm4 #ab4 ra hierda fuglum4 #ac4 stne4 #ad4 m wealle4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,for the horses and the seals4 #b4 ,for the ,welshmen's freedom4 #c4 ,of the king's birds4 #d4 ,by the wisdom of men and angels4 #e4 ,with the spear and the stone4 #f4 ,the herdsman's seal and the warriors' spears4 #g4 ,to the king of heaven4 #h4 ,by means of the scribe's wisdom4 #i4 ,the whale's mouth and the foreigner's spear4 #aj4 ,for the bird belonging to 7 of7 the king's scribe4 #aa4 ,of that finger4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 7b7 ,neuter a-,stems4 #ca4 ,the neuter nouns of the a-,declension differ from the masculines only in the ,n4,a4 plural4 #cb4 ,paradigms of t hof1 court1 dwelling2 aet bearn1 child2 t bn1 bone2 t rce1 kingdom2 t spere1 spear2 t werod1 band of men2 t tungol1 star3 ,sing4 ,n4,a4 hof bearn bn rc-e ,g4 hof-es bearn-es bn-es rc-es ,d4,i4 hof-e bearn-e bn-e rc-e ,plur4 ,n4,a4 hof-u bearn bn rc-u ,g4 hof-a bearn-a bn-a rc-a ,d4,i4 hof-um bearn-um bn-um rc-um ,sing4 ,n4,a4 sper-e werod tungol ,g4 sper-es werod-es tungl-es ,d4,i4 sper-e werod-e tungl-e ,plur4 ,n4,a4 sper-u werod tungl-u ,g4 sper-a werod-a tungl-a ,d4,i4 sper-um werod-um tungl-um #cc4 ,the paradigms show 7#a7 that monosyllables with short stems 7hof7 take -u in the ,n4,a4 plural2 7#b7 that monosyllables with long stems 7bearn1 bn7 do not distinguish the ,n4,a4 plural from the ,n4,a4 singular2#a 7#c7 that dissyllables in -e1 whether the stem be long or short 7rce1 spere71 have -u in the ,n4,a4 plural2 7#d7 that dissyllables ending in a consonant and having the first syllable short#b 7werod7 do not usually distinguish the ,n4,a4 plural from the ,n4,a4 singular2 7#e7 that dissyllables ending in a consonant and having the first syllable long 7tungol7 more frequently take -u in the ,n4,a4 plural4 ,,note4--,syncopation occurs as in the masculine a-stems4 ,see #bg1 7#d74 ,footnote #a3 ,note the many nouns in ,mn4,e4 that are unchanged in the plural4 ,these are either survivals of ,o4,e4 long stems1 swine1 sheep1 deer1 folk1 or analogical forms1 fish1 trout1 mackerel1 salmon1 etc4 ,footnote #b3 ,dissyllables whose first syllable is a prefix are1 of course1 excluded4 ,they follow the declension of their last member3 gebed1 prayer1 gebedu1 prayers2 gefeoht1 battle1 gefeoht1 battles4 #cd4 ,present and ,preterit ,indicative of habban1 to have3 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic hbbe1 ,i have1 or shall have4#c #b4 hfst 7hafast71 thou hast1 or wilt have4 #c4 h1 ho1 hit hf 7hafa71 he1 she1 it has1 or will have4 ,plur4 #a4 w habba1 we have1 or shall have4 #b4 g habba1 ye have1 or will have4 #c4 he habba1 they have1 or will have4 ,,preterit4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic hfde ,i had4 #b4 hfdest1 thou hadst4 #c4 h1 ho1 hit hfde1 he1 she1 it had4 ,plur4 #a4 w hfdon1 we had4 #b4 g hfdon1 ye had4 #c4 he hfdon1 they had4 ,,note4--,the negative ne1 not1 which always precedes its verb1 contracts with all the forms of habban4 ,the negative loses its e1 habban its h4 ,ne habban nabban2 ,ic ne hbbe ,ic nbbe2 ,ic ne hfde ,ic nfde1 etc4 ,the negative forms may be got1 therefore1 by simply substituting in each case n for h4 ,footnote #c3 ,see #ag1 ,note #a4 ,note that 7as in hwl1 #bg1 7#b77 changes to a when the following syllable contains a3 hbbe1 but hafast4 #ce4 ,,vocabulary4 t dl1 dale4 t dor1 animal deer#d4 t dor1 door4 t ft1 vessel vat4 t fr1 fire4 t gar1 year4 t geoc1 yoke4 t geset1 habitation settlement4 t hafod1 head4 t hs1 house4 t lc1 body lich-gate4 t lim1 limb4 on 7with dat47 in4 t spor1 track4 t wpen1 weapon4 t wf1 wife1 woman4 t wte1 punishment4 t word1 word4 ,footnote #d3 ,the old meaning survives in ,shakespeare's 8,rats and mice and such small deer10 ,king ,lear1 ,,iii1 iv1 #add4 #cf4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 ,h hafa s cyninges bearn4 #b4 ,walas habba speru4 #c4 wf habba ra scga wpnu4 #d4 hfst one fugol nd t hs s hierdes4 #e4 ,hf#e ho fatu#f8 #f4 ,hfde h s wfes lc on m hofe8 #g4 ,h nfde s wfes lc2 h hfde s dores hafod4 #h4 ,hf s cyning gesetu on m dle8 #i4 ,s bcere hf solas on m hse4 #aj4 ,g habba frodm4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,they have yokes and spears4 #b4 ,we have not the vessels in the house4 #c4 ,he had fire in the vessel4 #d4 ,did the woman have 7 ,had the woman7 the children8 #e4 ,the animal has the body of the woman's child4 #f4 ,i shall have the heads of the wolves4 #g4 ,he and she have the king's houses4 #h4 ,have not 7 ,nabba7 the children the warrior's weapons8 ,footnote #e3 ,see #bj1 7#b71 7b74 ,footnote #f3 ,see #bg1 7#b74 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the -,,declension4 #cg4 ,the -,declension1 corresponding to the ,first or -,declension of ,latin and ,greek1 contains only feminine nouns4 ,many feminine i-stems and u-stems soon passed over to this ,declension4 ,the -,declension may1 therefore1 be considered the normal declension for all strong feminine nouns4 #ch4 ,paradigms of so giefu1 gift2 so wund1 wound2 so rd1 cross2 so leornung1 learning2 so swol1 soul3 ,sing4 ,n4 gief-u wund rd leornung swol ,g4 gief-e wund-e rd-e leornung-a 7e7 swl-e ,d4,i4 gief-e wund-e rd-e leornung-a 7e7 swl-e ,a4 gief-e wund-e rd-e leornung-a 7e7 swl-e ,plur4 ,n4,a4 gief-a wund-a rd-a leornung-a swl-a ,g4 gief-a wund-a rd-a leornung-a swl-a ,d4,i4 gief-um wund-um rd-um leornung-um swl-um #ci4 ,note 7#a7 that monosyllables with short stems 7giefu7 take u in the nominative singular2 7#b7 that monosyllables with long stems 7wund1 rd7 present the unchanged stem in the nominative singular2 7#c7 that dissyllables are declined as monosyllables1 except that abstract nouns in -ung prefer a to e in the singular4 ,,note4--,syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems4 ,see #bg1 7#d74 #dj4 ,present and ,preterit ,indicative of bon 7wesan7 to be3 ,,present 7first form74 ,,present ,,preterit4 7second form74 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic eom #a4 ,ic bom #a4 ,ic ws #b4 eart #b4 bist #b4 wre #c4 h is #c4 h bi #c4 h ws ,plur4 #a4 w #a4 w #a4 w #b4 g sind7on71 sint #b4 g bo #b4 g wron #c4 he #c4 he #c4 he ,,note #a4--,the forms bom1 bist1 etc4 are used chiefly as future tenses in ,o4,e4 ,they survive to-day only in dialects and in poetry4 ,farmer ,dobson1 for example1 in ,tennyson's ,promise of ,may1 uses be for all persons of the present indicative1 both singular and plural2 and there be is frequent in ,shakespeare for there are4 ,the ,northern dialect employed aron as well as sindon and sind for the present plural2 hence ,mn4,e4 are4 ,,note #b4--;,fusion with ne gives neom1 neart1 nis for the present2 ns1 nre1 nron for the preterit4 ,,note #c4--,the verb to be is followed by the nominative case1 as in ,mn4,e42 but when the predicate noun is plural1 and the subject a neuter pronoun in the singular1 the verb agrees in number with the predicate noun4 ,the neuter singular t is frequently employed in this construction3 aet wron eall ,finnas1 ,they were all ,fins2 t sind nglas1 ,they are angels2 t wron ngla gstas1 ,they were angels' spirits4 ,notice1 too1 that ,o4,e4 writers do not say ,it is ,i1 ,it is thou1 but ,i it am1 ,thou it art3 ,ic hit eom1 hit eart4 ,see #ba1 7#a71 ,note #a4 #da4 ,,vocabulary4 so brycg1 bridge4 so costnung1 temptation4 so cwalu1 death quail1 quell4 so fr1 journey faran4 so frfor1 consolation1 comfort4 so geogu1 youth4 so glf1 glove4 so hlignes#a1 holiness4 so heall1 hall4 hr1 here4 hw1 who8 hwr1 where8 so lufu1 love4 so mearc1 boundary mark1 marches#b4 so md1 meed1 reward4 so mildheortnes1 mild-heartedness1 mercy4 so stw1 place stow away4 r1 there4 so earf1 need4 so wylf1 she wolf4 ,footnote #a3 ,all words ending in -nes double the -s before adding the case endings4 ,footnote #b3 ,as in warden of the marches4 #db4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 ,hwr is re brycge nde8 #b4 ,hr sind ra rca mearca4 #c4 ,hw hf glfa8 #d4 r bi m cyninge frfre earf4 #e4 ,so wund is on re wylfe hafde4 #f4 ,w habba costnunga4 #g4 ,he nron on re healle4 #h4 ,ic hit neom4 #i4 t wron ,walas4 #aj4 t sind s wfes bearn4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,we shall have the women's gloves4 #b4 ,where is the place8 #c4 ,he will be in the hall4 #d4 ,those 7t7 were not the boundaries of the kingdom4 #e4 ,it was not ,i4 #f4 ,ye are not the king's scribes4 #g4 ,the shepherd's words are full 7full gen47 of wisdom and comfort4 #h4 ,where are the bodies of the children8 #i4 ,the gifts are not here4 #aj4 ,who has the seals and the birds8 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the i-,,declension ,,and ,,the u-,,declension4 ,the i-,declension4 7,see #eh47 #dc4 ,the i-,declension1 corresponding to the group of i-stems in the classical ,third ,declension1 contains chiefly 7a7 masculine and 7b7 feminine nouns4 ,the ,n4,a4 plural of these nouns ended originally in -e 7from older i74 7a7 ,masculine i-,stems4 #dd4 ,these stems have almost completely gone over to the a-,declension1 so that -as is more common than -e as the ,n4,a4 plural ending1 whether the stem is long or short4 ,the short stems all have -e in the ,n4,a4 singular4 #de4 ,paradigms of s wyrm1 worm2 s wine1 friend4 ,sing4 ,n4,a4 wyrm win-e ,g4 wyrm-es win-es ,d4,i4 wyrm-e win-e ,plur4 ,n4,a4 wyrm-as win-as 7e7 ,g4 wyrm-a win-a ,d4,i4 wyrm-um win-um ,names of ,peoples4 #df4 ,the only i-stems that regularly retain -e of the ,n4,a4 plural are certain names of tribes or peoples used only in the plural4 #dg4 ,paradigms of ngle1 ,angles2 ,norymbre1 ,northumbrians2 lode1 people3 ,plur4 ,n4,a4 ngle ,norymbre lode ,g4 ngla ,norymbra loda ,d4,i4 nglum ,norymbrum lodum 7b7 ,feminine i-,stems4 #dh4 ,the short stems 7frm-u7 conform entirely to the declension of short -stems2 long stems 7cwn1 wyrt7 differ from long -stems in having no ending for the ,a4 singular4 ,they show1 also1 a preference for -e rather than -a in the ,n4,a4 plural4 #di4 ,paradigms of so frm-u1 benefit2 so cwn1 woman1 queen quean2 so wyrt1 root wort3 ,sing4 ,n4 frm-u cwn wyrt ,g4 frm-e cwn-e wyrt-e ,d4,i4 frm-e cwn-e wyrt-e ,a4 frm-e cwn wyrt ,plur4 ,n4,a4 frm-a cwn-e 7a7 wyrt-e 7a7 ,g4 frm-a cwn-a wyrt-a ,d4,i4 frm-um cwn-um wyrt-um ,the u-,declension4 #ej4 ,the u-,declension1 corresponding to the group of u-stems in the classical ,third ,declension1 contains no neuters1 and but few 7a7 masculines and 7b7 feminines4 ,the short-stemmed nouns of both genders 7sun-u1 dur-u7 retain the final u of the ,n4,a4 singular1 while the long stems 7feld1 hnd7 drop it4 ,the influence of the masculine a-stems is most clearly seen in the long-stemmed masculines of the u-,declension 7feld1 feld-es1 etc474 ,,note4--,note the general aversion of all ,o4,e4 long stems to final -u3 cf4 ,n4,a4 plural hof-u1 but bearn1 bn2 ,n4 singular gief-u1 but wund1 rd2 ,n4 singular frm-u1 but cwn1 wyrt2 ,n4,a4 singular sun-u1 dur-u1 but feld1 hnd4 7a7 ,masculine u-,stems4 #ea4 ,paradigms of s sun-u1 son2 s feld1 field3 ,sing4 ,n4,a4 sun-u feld ,g4 sun-a feld-a 7es7 ,d4,i4 sun-a feld-a 7e7 ,plur4 ,n4,a4 sun-a feld-a 7as7 ,g4 sun-a feld-a ,d4,i4 sun-um feld-um 7b7 ,feminine u-,stems4 #eb4 ,paradigms of so dur-u1 door2 so hnd1 hand3 ,sing4 ,n4,a4 dur-u hnd ,g4 dur-a hnd-a ,d4,i4 dur-a hnd-a ,plur4 ,n4,a4 dur-a hnd-a ,g4 dur-a hnd-a ,d4,i4 dur-um hnd-um #ec4 ,paradigm of the ,third ,personal ,pronoun1 h1 ho1 hit he1 she1 it3 ,masculine4 ,feminine4 ,neuter4 ,sing4 ,n4 h ho hit ,g4 his hiere his ,d4 him hiere him ,a4 hine1 hiene he hit ,all ,genders4 ,plur4 ,n4,a4 he ,g4 hiera ,d4 him #ed4 ,,vocabulary4 7i-,,stems47 s cierr1 turn1 time char1 chare1 chore4 so dd1 deed4 s dl1 part a great deal4 ,dne1 ,danes4 s frondscipe1 friendship4 so hd1 skin1 hide4 lndlode1 natives4 ,mierce1 ,mercians4 ,rmware1 ,romans4 ,seaxe1 ,saxons4 s stde1 place in-stead of4 7u-,,stems47 so flr1 floor4 so nosu1 nose4 s sumor 7,g4 sumeres1 ,d4 sumera71 summer4 s winter 7,g4 wintres1 ,d4 wintra71 winter4 s wudu1 wood1 forest4 ,,note4--,the numerous masculine nouns ending in -hd1--cildhd 7childhood71 wfhd 7womanhood71--belong to the u-stems historically2 but they have all passed over to the a-,declension4 #ee4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 ,seaxe habba s dores hd on m wuda4 #b4 ,hw hf giefa8 #c4 ,mierce he#a habba4 #d4 ,hwr is s ,wales fugol8 #e4 ,dne hiene habba4 #f4 ,hwr sindon hiera winas8 #g4 ,he sindon on s cyninges wuda4 #h4 ,rmware nd ,seaxe hfdon gras nd geocu4 #i4 ,ho is on m hse on wintra1 nd on m feldum on sumera4 #aj4 ,hwr is s hofes duru8 #aa4 ,ho#b 7 so duru7 nis hr4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,his friends have the bones of the seals and the bodies of the ,danes4 #b4 ,art thou the king's son8 #c4 ,has she her#c gifts in her#c hands8 #d4 ,here are the fields of the natives4 #e4 ,who had the bird8 #f4 ,i had it4#b #g4 ,the child had the worm in his#c fingers4 #h4 ,the ,mercians were here during 7the7 summer 7on dat474 ,footnote #a3 ,see #ba1 7#a74 ,footnote #b3 ,pronouns agree in gender with the nouns for which they stand4 ,hit1 however1 sometimes stands for inanimate things of both masculine and feminine genders4 ,see ,wlfing 7l4c47 ,i1 #bch4 ,footnote #c3 ,see #gf 7last sentence74 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,present ,,indicative ,,endings ,,of ,,strong ,,verbs4 #ef4 ,the unchanged stem of the present indicative may always be found by dropping -an of the infinitive3 feall-an1 to fall2 cos-an1 to choose2 bd-an1 to abide4 #eg4 ,the personal endings are3 ,sing4 #a4 -e ,plur4 #a4 #b4 -est #b4 -a #c4 -e #c4 i-,umlaut4 #eh4 ,the #b;d and #c;d singular endings were originally not -est and -e1 but -is and -i2 and the i of these older endings has left its traces upon almost every page of ,early ,west ,saxon literature4 ,this i1 though unaccented and soon displaced1 exerted a powerful back influence upon the vowel of the preceding accented syllable4 ,this influence1 a form of regressive assimilation1 is known as i-umlaut 7pronounced om-lowt74 ,the vowel i or j 7 y71 being itself a palatal1 succeeded in palatalizing every guttural vowel that preceded it1 and in imposing still more of the i-quality upon diphthongs that were already palatal4#a ,the changes produced were these3 a became 773 mnn 7 99mann-iz71 men4 8 nig 7 99n-ig71 any4 u 8 y wyllen 7 99wull-in71 woollen4 8 ms 7 99ms-iz71 mice4 o 8 dhter 7 99dohtr-i71 to or for the daughter4 8 ft 7 99ft-iz71 feet4 ea 8 ie wiex 7 99weax-i71 he grows 7weaxan to grow74 a 8 e hew 7 99haw-i71 he hews 7hawan to hew74 eo 8 ie wiercan 7 99weorc-jan71 to work4 o 8 e lehtan 7 99loht-jan71 to light4 ,footnote #a3 ,the palatal vowels and diphthongs were long or short 1 e1 i1 7ie71 y1 ea1 eo2 the guttural vowels were long or short a1 o1 u4 ,the ,unchanged ,present ,indicative4 #ei4 ,in the ,northumbrian and ,mercian dialects1 as well as in the dialect of ,late ,west ,saxon1 the #b;d and #c;d singular endings were usually joined to the present stem without modification either of the stem itself or of the personal endings4 ,the complete absence of umlauted forms in the present indicative of ,mn4,e4 is thus accounted for4 ,in ,early ,west ,saxon1 however1 such forms as the following are comparatively rare in the #b;d and #c;d singular3 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic feall-e cos-e bd-e 7,i fall7 7,i choose7 7,i abide7 #b4 feall-est cos-est bd-est #c4 h feall-e cos-e bd-e ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g feall-a cos-a bd-a #c4 he ,the ,present ,indicative with i-,umlaut and ,contraction4 #fj4 ,the #b;d and #c;d persons singular are distinguished from the other forms of the present indicative in ,early ,west ,saxon by 7#a7 i-umlaut of the vowel of the stem1 7#b7 syncope of the vowel of the ending1 giving -st and - for -est and -e1 and 7#c7 contraction of -st and - with the final consonant or consonants of the stem4 ,contraction4 #fa4 ,the changes produced by i-umlaut have been already discussed4 ,by these changes1 therefore1 the stems of the #b;d and #c;d singular indicative of such verbs as 7#a7 stndan 7 standan71 to stand1 7#b7 cuman1 to come1 7#c7 grwan1 to grow1 7#d7 brcan1 to enjoy1 7#e7 blwan1 to blow1 7#f7 feallan1 to fall1 7#g7 hawan1 to hew1 7#h7 weorpan1 to throw1 and 7#i7 cosan1 to choose1 become respectively 7#a7 stnd-1#b 7#b7 cym-1 7#c7 grw-1 7#d7 brc-1 7#e7 blw-1 7#f7 fiell-1 7#g7 hew-1 7#h7 wierp-1 and 7#i7 ces-4 ,if the unchanged stem contains the vowel e1 this is changed in the #b;d and #c;d singular to i 7ie73 cwean to say1 stem cwi-2 beran to bear1 stem bier-4 ,but this mutation#c had taken place long before the period of ,o4,e41 and belongs to the ,germanic languages in general4 ,it is best1 however1 to class the change of e to i or ie with the changes due to umlaut1 since it occurs consistently in the #b;d and #c;d singular stems of ,early ,west ,saxon1 and outlasted almost all of the umlaut forms proper4 ,if1 now1 the syncopated endings -st and - are added directly to the umlauted stem1 there will frequently result such a massing of consonants as almost to defy pronunciation3 cwi-st1 thou sayest2 stnd-st1 thou standest1 etc4 ,some sort of contraction1 therefore1 is demanded for the sake of euphony4 ,the ear and eye will1 by a little practice1 become a sure guide in these contractions4 ,the following rules1 however1 must be observed4 ,they apply only to the #b;d and #c;d singular of the present indicative3 7#a7 ,if the stem ends in a double consonant1 one of the consonants is dropped3 #a4 feall-e 7,i fall7 #a4 winn-e 7,i fight7 #a4 swimm-e 7,i swim7 #b4 fiel-st #b4 win-st #b4 swim-st #c4 fiel- #c4 win- #c4 swim- 7#b7 ,if the stem ends in -1 this is dropped3 #a4 cwe-e 7,i say7 #a4 weor-e 7,i become7 #b4 cwi-st #b4 wier-st #c4 cwi- #c4 wier- 7#c7 ,if the stem ends in -d1 this is changed to -t4 ,the - of the ending is then also changed to -t1 and usually absorbed4 ,thus the stem of the #b;d singular serves as stem and ending for the #c;d singular3 #a4 stnd-e 7 stand-e7 7,i stand7 #a4 bind-e 7,i bind7 #b4 stnt-st #b4 bint-st #c4 stnt #c4 bint #a4 bd-e 7,i abide7 #a4 rd-e 7,i ride7 #b4 bt-st #b4 rt-st #c4 bt 7-t7 #c4 rt 7-t7 7#d7 ,if the stem ends already in -t1 the endings are added as in 7#c71 - being again changed to -t and absorbed3 #a4 brot-e 7,i break7 #a4 feoht-e 7,i fight7 #a4 bt-e 7,i bite7 #b4 bret-st #b4 fieht-st #b4 bt-st #c4 bret 7-t7 #c4 fieht #c4 bt 7-t7 7#e7 ,if the stem ends in -s1 this is dropped before -st 7to avoid -sst71 but is retained before -1 the latter being changed to -t4 ,thus the #b;d and #c;d singulars are identical3#d #a4 cos-e 7,i choose7 #a4 rs-e 7,i rise7 #b4 ce-st #b4 r-st #c4 ces-t #c4 rs-t ,footnote #b3 ,the more common form for stems with a is rather than 3 faran1 to go1 #b;d and #c;d singular stem fr-2 sacan1 to contend1 stem sc-4 ,indeed1 a changes to via 7,cosijn1 ,altwestschsische ,grammatik1 ,i1 #cb74 ,footnote #c3 ,umlaut is frequently called ,mutation4 ,metaphony is still another name for the same phenomenon4 ,the term ,metaphony has the advantage of easy adjectival formation 7metaphonic74 ,it was proposed by ,professor ,victor ,henry 7,comparative ,grammar of ,english and ,german1 ,paris1 #ahid71 but has not been naturalized4 ,footnote #d3 ,this happens also when the infinitive stem ends in st3 #a4 berst-e 7,i burst7 #b4 bier-st #c4 bierst4 #fb4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 ,s cyning fiel4 #b4 wf cosa giefa4 #c4 stntst on m hse4 #d4 ,h wierp t wpen4 #e4 ,s scg hew lc4 #f4 t sd grw nd wiex 7,mark iv4 #bg74 #g4 ,ic stnde hr1 nd stntst r4 #h4 8,ic hit eom10 cwi h4 #i4 ,he bera s wulfes bn4 #aj4 ,h he bint1 nd ic hine binde4 #aa4 ,ne rtst 8 ,,ii4 #a4 ,we shall bind him4 #b4 ,who chooses the child's gifts8 #c4 8,he was not here10 says she4 #d4 ,wilt thou remain in the hall8 #e4 ,the wolves are biting 7 bite7 the fishermen4 #f4 ,he enjoys#e the love of his children4 #g4 ,do you enjoy 7 ,enjoyest thou7 the consolation and friendship of the scribe8 #h4 ,will he come8 #i4 ,i shall throw the spear1 and thou wilt bear the weapons4 #aj4 ,the king's son will become king4 #aa4 ,the army 7werod7 is breaking the doors and walls of the house4 ,footnote #e3 ,brcan1 to enjoy1 usually takes the genitive case1 not the accusative4 ,it means 8to have joy of any thing40 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,consonant ,,declensions ,,of ,,nouns4 ,the ,weak or n-,declension4 #fc4 ,the n-,declension contains almost all of the ,o4,e4 nouns belonging to the ,consonant ,declensions4 ,the stem characteristic n has been preserved in the oblique cases1 so that there is no difficulty in distinguishing n-stems from the preceding vowel stems4 ,the n-,declension includes 7a7 masculines1 7b7 feminines1 and 7c7 neuters4 ,the masculines far outnumber the feminines1 and the neuters contain only age1 eye and are1 ear4 ,the masculines end in -a1 the feminines and neuters in -e4 #fd4 ,paradigms of 7a7 s hunta1 hunter2 7b7 so tunge1 tongue2 7c7 t age1 eye3 ,sing4 ,n4 hunt-a tung-e ag-e ,g4,d4,i4 hunt-an tung-an ag-an ,a4 hunt-an tung-an ag-e ,plur4 ,n4,a4 hunt-an tung-an ag-an ,g4 hunt-ena tung-ena ag-ena ,d4,i4 hunt-um tung-um ag-um #fe4 ,,vocabulary4 s adesa1 hatchet1 adze4 s metta1 leisure empt-iness4 s bna 7bana71 murderer bane4 so cirice1 church ,scotch kirk4 s cnapa 7later1 cnafa71 boy knave4 s cuma1 stranger comer4 t are1 ear4 so eore1 earth4 s gefra1 companion co-farer4 s guma1 man bride-groom#a4 so heorte1 heart4 s mna1 moon4 so ndre1 adder a nadder an adder#b4 s oxa1 ox4 s scowyrhta1 shoe-maker shoe-wright4 so sunne1 sun4 s tona1 injury teen4 biddan 7with dat4 of person and gen4 of thing#c71 to request1 ask for4 cwelan1 to die quail4 gescieppan1 to create shape1 land-scape1 friend-ship4 giefan 7with dat4 of indirect object71 to give4 healdan1 to hold4 helpan 7with dat471 to help4 scan#d 7with dat471 to injure scathe4 wistndan 7-standan7 7with dat471 to withstand4 wrtan1 to write4 ,footnote #a3 ,the r is intrusive in -groom1 as it is in cart-r-idge1 part-r-idge1 vag-r-ant1 and hoa-r-se4 ,footnote #b3 ,the n has been appropriated by the article4 ,cf4 an apron 7 a napron71 an auger 7 a nauger71 an orange 7 a norange71 an umpire 7 a numpire74 ,footnote #c3 ,in ,mn4,e4 we say 8,i request a favor of you02 but in ,o4,e4 it was 8,i request you 7dative7 of a favor0 7genitive74 ,cf4 ,cymbeline1 ,,iii1 vi1 #ib3 8,we'll mannerly demand thee of thy story40 ,see ,franz's ,shakespeare-,grammatik1 #cfa 7#aijj74 ,footnote #d3 ,scan is conjugated through the present indicative like frmman4 ,see #abi4 #ff4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 ,s scowyrhta brc his mettan4 #b4 guman bidda m cnapan s adesan4 #c4 ,hw is s cuma8 #d4 ,hielpst m bnan8 #e4 ,ic him ne helpe4 #f4 bearn sca s bnan agum nd arum4 #g4 ,s cuma cwiel on re cirican4 #h4 ,s hunta wistnt m wulfum4 #i4 oxan bera s cnapan gefran4 #aj4 ,s mna nd tunglu sind on m heofonum4 #aa4 huntan healda re ndran tungan4 #ab4 ,h hiere gief giefa4 #ac4 werod sca s cyninges feldum4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,who will bind the mouths of the oxen8 #b4 ,who gives him the gifts8 #c4 ,thou art helping him1 and ,i am injuring him4 #d4 ,the boy's companion is dying4 #e4 ,his nephew does not enjoy his leisure4 #f4 ,the adder's tongue injures the king's companion4 #g4 ,the sun is the day's eye4 #h4 ,she asks the strangers for the spears4 #i4 ,the men's bodies are not here4 #aj4 ,is he not 7,nis h7 the child's murderer8 #aa4 ,who creates the bodies and the souls of men8 #ab4 ,thou withstandest her4 #ac4 ,he is not writing4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,remnants of ,other ,consonant ,declensions4 #fg4 ,the nouns belonging here are chiefly masculines and feminines4 ,their stem ended in a consonant other than n4 ,the most important of them may be divided as follows3 7#a7 ,the foot ,declension1 7#b7 r-,stems1 and 7#c7 nd-,stems4 ,these declensions are all characterized by the prevalence1 wherever possible1 of i-umlaut in certain cases1 the case ending being then dropped4 #fh4 7#a7 ,the nouns belonging to the foot ,declension exhibit umlaut most consistently in the ,n4,a4 plural4 ,sing4 ,n4,a4 s ft s mn s t so c ,sing4 ,n4,a4 7foot7 7man7 7tooth7 7cow7 ,plur4 ,n4,a4 ft mn t c ,,note4--,the dative singular usually has the same form as the ,n4,a4 plural4 ,here belong also so bc 7book71 so burg 7borough71 so gs 7goose71 so ls 7louse71 and so ms 7mouse71 all with umlauted plurals4 ,mn4,e4 preserves only six of the foot ,declension plurals3 feet1 men1 teeth1 geese1 lice1 and mice4 ,the c in the last two is an artificial spelling1 intended to preserve the sound of voiceless s4 ,mn4,e4 kine 7 cy-en7 is a double plural formed after the analogy of weak stems2 ,burns in ,the ,twa ,dogs uses kye4 ,no umlaut is possible in so niht 7night7 and s mna 7month71 plural niht and mna 7preserved in ,mn4,e4 twelvemonth and fortnight74 7#b7 ,the r-,stems contain nouns expressing kinship1 and exhibit umlaut of the dative singular4 ,sing4 ,n4,a4 s fder s bror so mdor 7father7 7brother7 7mother7 ,d4 fder brer mder ,sing4 ,n4,a4 so dohtor 7daughter7 so swuster 7sister7 ,d4 dhter swyster ,,note4--,the ,n4,a4 plural is usually the same as the ,n4,a4 singular4 ,these umlaut datives are all due to the presence of a former i4 ,cf4 ,lat4 dative singular patri1 frtri1 mtri1 sorori 7 99sosori71 and ,greek 4 7#c7 ,the nd-,stems show umlaut both in the ,n4,a4 plural and in the dative singular3 ,sing4 ,n4,a4 s frond 7friend7 s fond 7enemy7 ,d4 frend fend ,plur4 ,n4,a4 frend fend ,,note4--,mn4,e4 friend and fiend are interesting analogical spellings4 ,when s had been added by analogy to the ,o4,e4 plurals frend and fend1 thus giving the double plurals friends and fiends1 a second singular was formed by dropping the s4 ,thus friend and fiend displaced the old singulars frend and fend1 both of which occur in the ,m4,e4 ,ormulum1 written about the year #abjj4 ,summary of ,o4,e4 ,declensions4 #fi4 ,a brief1 working summary of the ,o4,e4 system of declensions may now be made on the basis of gender4 ,all ,o4,e4 nouns are 7#a7 masculine1 7#b7 feminine1 or 7#c7 neuter4 7#a7 ,the masculines follow the declension of m 7 #bf71 except those ending in -a1 which are declined like hunta 7 #fd73 ,sing4 ,n4,a4 m ,n4 hunta ,g4 mes ,g4,d4,a4 huntan ,d4,i4 me ,i4 huntan ,plur4 ,n4,a4 mas huntan ,g4 ma huntena ,d4,i4 mum huntum 7#b7 ,the short-stemmed neuters follow the declension of hof 7 #cb72 the long-stemmed1 that of bearn 7 #cb73 ,sing4 ,n4,a4 hof bearn ,g4 hofes bearnes ,d4,i4 hofe bearne ,plur4 ,n4,a4 hofu bearn ,g4 hofa bearna ,d4,i4 hofum bearnum 7#c7 ,the feminines follow the declensions of giefu and wund 7 #ch7 7the only difference being in the ,n4 singular71 except those ending in -e1 which follow the declension of tunge 7 #fd73 ,sing4 ,n4 giefu wund tunge ,g4 giefe wunde tungan ,d4,i4 giefe wunde tungan ,a4 giefe wunde tungan ,plur4 ,n4,a4 giefa wunda tungan ,g4 giefa wunda tungena ,d4,i4 giefum wundum tungum #gj4 ,,vocabulary4 ac1 but4 btan 7with dat471 except1 but1 without4 s ,crst1 ,christ4 s eorl1 earl1 alderman1 warrior4 t nglalnd1 ,england ,angles' land4 faran1 to go fare4 findan1 to find4 s ,god1 ,god4 htan1 to call1 name4 s hlford1 lord hlf-weard4 mid 7with dat471 with4 on 7with acc471 on1 against1 into4 t 7with dat471 to4 uton 7with infin471 let us4 ,,note4--,o4,e4 mn 7man7 is frequently used in an indefinite sense for one1 people1 they4 ,it thus takes the place of a passive construction proper3 ,and man nam gebrotu e r belifon1 twlf cpan fulle1 ,and there were taken up of fragments that remained there twelve baskets full2 but more literally1 ,and one 7or they7 took the fragments1 etc42 nd ,hstenes wf nd hs suna twgen mn brhte t m cyninge1 ,and ,hsten's wife and his two sons were brought to the king4 #ga4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 ,mn hine ht lfred4 #b4 ,uton faran on t scip4 #c4 ,god is cyninga cyning nd hlforda hlford4 #d4 ,s eorl ne gief giefa his fend4 #e4 ,ic ns mid his frend4 #f4 ,so mdor fr mid hiere dhter on burg4 #g4 ,fintst s bceres bc8 #h4 ,h bint ealle 7all7 dor btan m wulfum4 #i4 eart ,crst1 ,godes sunu4 #aj4 8,uton bindan s bnan ft10 cwi h4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,christ is the son of ,god4 #b4 ,let us call him ,cdmon4 #c4 ,he throws his spear against the door4 #d4 ,thou art not the earl's brother4 #e4 ,he will go with his father to ,england1 but ,i shall remain 7abide7 here4 #f4 ,gifts are not given to murderers4 #g4 ,who will find the tracks of the animals8 #h4 ,they ask their lord for his weapons 7 #fe1 ,note #c74 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,pronouns4 7#a7 ,personal ,pronouns4 #gb4 ,paradigms of ic1 ,i2 1 thou4 ,for h1 ho1 hit1 see #ec4 ,sing4 ,n4 ic ,g4 mn n ,d4 m ,a4 m 7mec7 7ec7 ,dual ,n4 wit 7we two7 git 7ye two7 ,g4 uncer 7of us two7 incer 7of you two7 ,d4 unc 7to or for us two7 inc 7to or for you two7 ,a4 unc 7us two7 inc 7you two7 ,plur4 ,n4 w g ,g4 ser 7re7 ower ,d4 s ow ,a4 s 7sic7 ow 7owic7 ,,note #a4--,the dual number was soon absorbed by the plural4 ,no relic of it now remains4 ,but when two and only two are referred to1 the dual is consistently used in ,o4,e4 ,an example occurs in the case of the two blind men 7,matthew ix4 #bg-ca73 ,gemiltsa unc1 ,davdes sunu6 ,pity us1 7thou7 ,son of ,david6 ,se inc fter incrum gelafan1 ,be it unto you according to your faith4 ,,note #b4--,mn4,e4 ye 7 g71 the nominative proper1 is fast being displaced by you 7 ow71 the old objective4 ,the distinction is preserved in the ,king ,james's version of the ,bible3 ,ye in me1 and ,i in you 7,john xiv4 #bj72 but not in ,shakespeare and later writers4 7#b7 ,demonstrative ,pronouns4 #gc4 ,paradigm of s1 os1 is1 this4 ,for the ,definite ,article as a demonstrative1 meaning that1 see #bh1 ,note #c4 ,masculine4 ,feminine4 ,neuter4 ,sing4 ,n4 s os is ,g4 isses isse isses ,d4 issum isse issum ,a4 isne s is ,i4 s ---- s ,all ,genders4 ,plur4 ,n4,a4 s ,g4 issa ,d4 issum 7#c7 ,the ,interrogative ,pronoun4 #gd4 ,paradigm of hw1 hwt1 who1 what8 ,masculine4 ,neuter4 ,sing4 ,n4 hw hwt ,g4 hws hws ,d4 hwm hwm ,a4 hwone hwt ,i4 ---- hw ,,note #a4--,the derivative interrogatives1 hwer 7 99hw-er71 which of two8 and hwilc 7 99hw-lc71 which8 are declined as strong adjectives 7 #gi-hb74 ,,note #b4--,the instrumental case of hw survives in ,mn4,e4 why on what account2 the instrumental of the definite article is seen in the adverbial the3 ,the sooner1 the better by how much sooner1 by so much better4 ,,note #c4--;,how were the ,mn4,e4 relative pronouns1 who and which1 evolved from the ,o4,e4 interrogatives8 ,the change began in early ,west ,saxon with hwt used in indirect questions 7,wlfing1 l4c4 #caj1 73 ,n ic wt eall hwt woldest1 ,now ,i know all that thou desiredst4 ,the direct question was1 ,hwt woldest 8 ,but the presence of eall shows that in ,alfred's mind hwt was1 in the indirect form1 more relative than interrogative4 7#d7 ,relative ,pronouns4 #ge4 ,o4,e4 had no relative pronoun proper4 ,it used instead 7#a7 the ,indeclinable ,particle e1 who1 whom1 which1 that1 7#b7 the ,definite ,article 7 #bh71 7#c7 the ,definite ,article with the ,indeclinable ,particle1 7#d7 the ,indeclinable ,particle with a ,personal ,pronoun4 ,the ,definite ,article agrees in gender and number with the antecedent4 ,the case depends upon the construction4 ,the bird which ,i have may1 therefore1 be3-- 7#a7 ,s fugol e ic hbbe2 7#b7 ,s fugol one ic hbbe2 7#c7 ,s fugol one e 7 the which7 ic hbbe2 7#d7 ,s fugol e hine ic hbbe4 ,,note4--,o4,e4 e agrees closely in construction with ,mn4,e4 relative that3 7#a7 ,both are indeclinable4 7#b7 ,both refer to animate or inanimate objects4 7#c7 ,both may be used with phrasal value3 ylcan dge e h hine t m de beran wylla1 ,on the same day that 7 on which7 they intend to bear him to the funeral pile4 7#d7 ,neither can be preceded by a preposition4 7#e7 ,possessive ,pronouns4 #gf4 ,the ,possessive ,pronouns are mn1 mine2 n1 thine2 re1 our2 ower1 your2 sn1 his1 her1 its2 uncer1 belonging to us two2 incer1 belonging to you two4 ,they are declined as strong adjectives4 ,the genitives of the ,third ,personal ,pronoun1 his1 his1 hiere1 her1 hiera1 their1 are indeclinable4 7#f7 ,indefinite ,pronouns4 #gg4 ,these are lc1 each1 every2 n1 a1 an1 one2 nig 7 n-ig71 any2 nnig 7 ne-nig71 none2 er1 other2 sum1 one1 a certain one2 swilc1 such4 ,they are declined as strong adjectives4 ,,note4--,o4,e4 had three established methods of converting an interrogative pronoun into an indefinite3 7#a7 ,by prefixing ge1 7#b7 by prefixing g1 7#c7 by interposing the interrogative between sw 444 sw3 7#a7 gehw1 each2 gehwer1 either2 gehwilc1 each2 7#b7 ghw1 each2 ghwer1 each2 ghwilc1 each2 7#c7 sw hw sw1 whosoever2 sw hwer sw1 whichsoever of two2 sw hwilc sw1 whosoever4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,adjectives1 ,,strong ,,and ,,weak4 #gh4 ,the declension of adjectives conforms in general to the declension of nouns1 though a few pronominal inflections have influenced certain cases4 ,adjectives belong either to 7#a7 the ,strong ,declension or to 7#b7 the ,weak ,declension4 ,the ,weak ,declension is employed when the adjective is preceded by s or s1 the1 that1 or this2 otherwise1 the ,strong ,declension is employed3 gdan cyningas1 the good kings2 s gda cyning1 this good king2 but gde cyningas1 good kings4 ,,note4--,the ,weak ,declension is also frequently used when the adjective is employed in direct address1 or preceded by a possessive pronoun3 ,dryhten1 lmihtiga ,god 444 ic bidde for nre miclan mildheortnesse1 ,lord1 almighty ,god1 ,i pray thee1 for thy great mercy4 7#a7 ,strong ,declension of ,adjectives4 7a7 ,monosyllables4 #gi4 ,the strong adjectives are chiefly monosyllabic with long stems3 gd1 good2 eald1 old2 lng1 long2 swift1 swift4 ,they are declined as follows4 #hj4 ,paradigm of gd1 good3 ,masculine4 ,feminine4 ,neuter4 ,sing4 ,n4 gd gd gd ,g4 gdes gdre gdes ,d4 gdum gdre gdum ,a4 gdne gde gd ,i4 gde ---- gde ,plur4 ,n4,a4 gde gda gd ,g4 gdra gdra gdra ,d4,i4 gdum gdum gdum #ha4 ,if the stem is short1 -u is retained as in giefu 7 #ci1 7#a77 and hofu 7 #cc1 7#a774 ,thus gld 7 #bg1 ,note #a71 glad1 and til1 useful1 are inflected3 ,masculine4 ,feminine4 ,neuter4 ,sing4 ,n4 gld gladu gld til tilu til ,plur4 ,n4,a4 glade glada gladu tile tila tilu 7b7 ,polysyllables4 #hb4 ,polysyllables follow the declension of short monosyllables4 ,the most common terminations are -en1 -en2 -fst1 -fast2 -full1 -ful2 -las1 -less2 -lc1 -ly2 -ig1 -y3 h-en 7h heath71 heathen2 stde-fst 7stde place71 steadfast2 sorg-full 7sorg sorrow71 sorrowful2 cyst-las 7cyst worth71 worthless2 eor-lc 7eore earth71 earthly2 bld-ig 7bld blood71 bloody4 ,the present and past participles1 when inflected and not as weak adjectives1 may be classed with the polysyllabic adjectives1 their inflection being the same4 ,syncopation occurs as in a-stems 7 #bg1 7#d774 ,thus hlig1 holy1 ble1 blithe1 berende1 bearing1 geboren1 born1 are thus inflected3 ,masculine4 ,feminine4 ,neuter4 ,sing4 ,n4 hlig hlgu hlig ble blu ble berende berendu berende geboren geborenu geboren ,plur4 ,n4,a4 hlge hlga hlgu ble bla blu berende berenda berendu geborene geborena geborenu 7#b7 ,weak ,declension of ,adjectives4 #hc4 ,the ,weak ,declension of adjectives1 whether monosyllabic or polysyllabic1 does not differ from the ,weak ,declension of nouns1 except that -ena of the genitive plural is usually replaced by -ra of the strong adjectives4 ,masculine4 ,feminine4 ,neuter4 #hd4 ,sing4 ,n4 gda gde gde ,g4 gdan gdan gdan ,d4,i4 gdan gdan gdan ,a4 gdan gdan gde ,all ,genders4 ,plur4 ,n4,a4 gdan ,g4 gdra 7gdena7 ,d4,i4 gdum #he4 ,,rule ,,of ,,syntax4 ,adjectives agree with their nouns in gender1 number1 and case2 but participles1 when used predicatively1 may remain uninflected 7 #aci1 #adj74 #hf4 ,,vocabulary4 dad1 dead4 eall1 all4 hl1#a whole1 hale4 heard1 hard4 t hors1 horse4 lof1 dear as lief4 ltel1 little4 micel1 great1 large4 mnig1 many4 niman1 to take nimble1 numb4 nwe1 new4 rce1 rich1 powerful4 s1 true sooth-sayer4 stlwiere1#b serviceable stalwart4 swe1 very4 s tn1 town1 village4 s egn1 servant1 thane1 warrior4 t ing1 thing4 s weg1 way4 ws1 wise4 wi 7with acc471 against1 in a hostile sense with-stand4 s ilca1 the same of that ilk4 ,footnote #a3 ,hlig1 holy1 contains1 of course1 the same root4 8,i find10 says ,carlyle1 8that you could not get any better definition of what #8holy' really is than #8healthy--completely healthy4'0 ,footnote #b3 ,this word has been much discussed4 ,the older etymologists explained it as meaning worth stealing4 ,a more improbable conjecture is that it means worth a stall or place4 ,it is used of ships in the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle4 ,as applied to men1 ,skeat thinks it meant good or worthy at stealing2 but the etymology is still unsettled4 #hg4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 s scipu ne sind swe swift1 ac he sind swe stlwieru4 #b4 ,so gde cwn gief lcum egne mniga giefa4 #c4 s wsa cyning hf mnige micele tnas on his rce4 #d4 ,nnig mn is ws on eallum ingum4 #e4 ilcan dge 7 #ih1 7#b77 mn fnd 7found7 one egn e mnes wines bc hfde4 #f4 ,ealle scgas e swift hors habba rda wi one bnan4 #g4 ne fend sind mne frend4 #h4 ,s micela stn one e ic on mnum hndum hbbe is swe heard4 #i4 ,he sca m ealdum horsum4 #aj4 ,uton niman s tilan giefa nd he beran t rum lofum bearnum4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,these holy men are wise and good4 #b4 ,are the little children very dear to the servants 7dat4 without t78 #c4 ,gifts are not given 7 #gj1 ,note #a7 to rich men4 #d4 ,all the horses that are in the king's fields are swift4 #e4 ,these stones are very large and hard4 #f4 ,he takes the dead man's spear and fights against the large army4 #g4 ,this new house has many doors4 #h4 ,my ways are not your ways4 #i4 ,whosoever chooses me1 him ,i also 7ac7 choose4 #aj4 ,every man has many friends that are not wise4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,numerals4 #hh4 ,numerals are either 7a7 ,cardinal1 expressing pure number1 one1 two1 three2 or 7b7 ,ordinal1 expressing rank or succession1 first1 second1 third4 7a7 ,cardinals4 #hi4 ,the ,cardinals fall into the three following syntactic groups3 ,,group ,i4 #a4 n #b4 twgen twain #c4 re ,these numerals are inflected adjectives4 n1 one1 an1 a1 being a long stemmed monosyllable1 is declined like gd 7 #hj74 ,the weak form1 na1 means alone4 ,twgen and re1 which have no singular1 are thus declined3 ,masc4 ,fem4 ,neut4 ,masc4 ,fem4 ,neut4 ,plur4 ,n4,a4 twgen tw tw 7t7 re ro ro ,g4 twgra twgra twgra rora rora rora ,d4 twm twm twm rm rm rm 7twm7 7twm7 7twm7 #ij4 ,,group ,,ii4 #d4 fower #e4 ff #f4 siex #g4 seofon #h4 eahta #i4 nigon #aj4 ten #aa4 ndlefan #ab4 twlf #ac4 rotene #ad4 fowertene #ae4 fftene #af4 siextene #ag4 seofontene #ah4 eahtatene #ai4 nigontene ,these words are used chiefly as uninflected adjectives3 on gewitscipe rora oe fower bisceopa1 on testimony of three or four bishops2 on siex dagum1 in six days2 n ndre e hfde nigon hafdu1 a serpent which had nine heads2 eling eahtatene wintra1 a prince of eighteen winters4 #ia4 ,,group ,,iii4 #bj4 twntig #ba4 n nd twntig #cj4 rtig #dj4 fowertig #ej4 fftig #fj4 siextig #gj4 hundseofontig #hj4 hundeahtatig #ij4 hundnigontig #ajj4 hund #bjj4 tw hund #ajjj4 send #bjjj4 tw send ,all these numbers are employed as neuter singular nouns1 and are followed by the genitive plural3 ,nfde h ah m onne twntig hrera1 and twntig scapa1 and twntig swna1 ,he did not have1 however1 more than twenty 7of7 cattle1 and twenty 7of7 sheep1 and twenty 7of7 swine2 ,he hfdon hundeahtatig scipa1 ,they had eighty ships2 tw hund mla brd1 two hundred miles broad2 r wron seofon hund gfanena genumen1 there were seven hundred standards captured2 n send mnna1 a thousand men2 ,hannibales folces ws tw send ofslagen1 ,of ,hannibal's men there were two thousand slain2 ,he curon ndlefan send mnna1 ,they chose eleven thousand men4 ,,note #a4--;,group ,,iii is rarely inflected4 ,almost the only inflectional endings that are added are 7#a7 -es1 a genitive singular termination for the numerals in -tig1 and 7#b7 -e1 a dative singular for hund4 7#a7 ,the first is confined to adjectives expressing extent of space or time1 as1 eald1 old2 brd1 broad2 hah1 high2 and lng1 long3 t is rtiges mla lng1 that is thirty miles long2 ,h ws rtiges gara eald1 ,he was thirty years old4 7#b7 ,the second is employed after mid3 mid twm hunde scipa1 with two hundred ships2 mid rm hunde mnna1 with three hundred men2 r wear 444 ,regulus gefangen mid ,v hunde mnna1 ,there was ,regulus captured with five hundred men4 ,the statement made in nearly all the grammars that hunde occurs as a nominative and accusative plural is without foundation4 ,,note #b4--,many numerals1 otherwise indeclinable1 are used in the genitive plural with the indefinite pronoun sum1 which then means one of a certain number4 ,in this peculiar construction1 the numeral always precedes sum3 fowera sum1 one of four 7 with three others72 ,h sde t h syxa sum ofslge syxtig1 ,he said that he1 with five others1 slew sixty 7whales72 ,h ws fowertigra sum1 ,he was one of forty4 ,,note #c4--,these are the most common constructions with the ,cardinals4 ,the forms in -tig have only recently been investigated4 ,a study of ,wlfing's citations shows that ,alfred occasionally uses the forms in -tig 7#a7 as adjectives with plural inflections3 mid ,x,x,xgum cyningum1 with thirty kings2 and 7#b7 as nouns with plural inflections3 fter siextigum daga1 after sixty days4 ,but both constructions are rare4 7b7 ,ordinals4 #ib4 ,the ,ordinals1 except the first two1 are formed from the ,cardinals4 ,they are3 #a4 forma1 resta1 fyrsta #b4 er1 fterra #c4 ridda #d4 fora #e4 ffta #f4 siexta #g4 seofoa #h4 eahtoa #i4 nigoa #aj4 toa #aa4 ndlefta #ab4 twlfta #ac4 rotoa #ad4 fowertoa #ae4 fftoa etc4 #bj4 twntigoa #ba4 n nd twntigoa #cj4 rtigoa etc4 ,,note4--,there are no ,ordinals corresponding to hund and send4 ,with the exception of er 7 #gg71 all the ,ordinals are declined as ,weak ,adjectives2 the article1 however1 as in ,mn4,e41 is frequently omitted3 ,brtus ws s forma consul1 ,brutus was the first consul2 ,hr nda so reste bc1 nd onginne so er1 ,here the first book ends1 and the second begins2 fftan dge1 on the fifth day2 on m toan gare hiera gewinnes1 in the tenth year of their strife2 ,ho ws twlfte1 ,she was twelfth2 ,s ws fora frm ,agusto1 ,he was fourth from ,augustus4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,adverbs1 ,,prepositions1 ,,and ,,conjunctions4 ,adverbs4 #ic4 7#a7 ,adverbs are formed by adding -e or -lce to the corresponding adjectives3 s1 true2 se or slce1 truly2 earmlc1 wretched2 earmlce1 wretchedly2 wd1 wide2 wde1 widely2 micel1 great2 micle 7micele71 greatly1 much4 7#b7 ,the terminations -e and -lce are replaced in some adverbs by -7l7unga or -7l7inga3 eallunga1 entirely2 fringa1 suddenly2 grundlunga1 from the ground1 completely4 ,,note #a4--;,in ,mn4,e4 headlong1 darkling1 and groveling1 originally adverbs1 we have survivals of these endings4 7#c7 ,the genitive case is frequently used adverbially3 seweardes1 southwards2 ealles1 altogether1 entirely2 dges1 by day2 nihtes1 by night2 s1 from that time1 afterwards4 ,cf4 hys 7 his7 weges in onne rde lc hys weges1 ,then rides each his way4 ,,note #b4--,the adverbial genitive is abundantly preserved in ,mn4,e4 ,always1 crossways1 sideways1 needs 7 necessarily71 sometimes1 etc41 are not plurals1 but old genitive singulars4 ,the same construction is seen in of course1 of a truth1 of an evening1 of old1 of late1 and similar phrases4 7#d7 ,dative and instrumental plurals may be used as adverbs3 hwlum1 at times1 sometimes whilom2 stundum 7stund period71 from time to time2 miclum1 greatly4 ,especially common is the suffix -mlum 7ml time1 measure meal71 preserved adverbially in ,mn4,e4 piecemeal3 dropmlum1 drop by drop2 styccemlum 7stycce piece71 piecemeal1 here and there4 7#e7 ,the suffix -an usually denotes motion from3 hr1 here4 hider1 hither4 heonan1 hence4 r1 there4 ider1 thither4 nan1 thence4 hwr1 where8 hwider1 whither8 hwnan1 whence8 noran1 from the north4 astan1 from the east4 hindan1 from behind4 feorran1 from far4 tan1 from without4 7#f7 ,the adverb rihte 7riht right1 straight7 denotes motion toward in norrihte1 northward1 due north2 astrihte1 due east2 srihte1 due south2 westrihte1 due west4 ,prepositions4 #id4 ,the nominative is the only case in ,o4,e4 that is never governed by a preposition4 ,of the other cases1 the dative and accusative occur most frequently with prepositions4 7#a7 ,the prepositions that are most frequently found with the dative are3 fter1 after4 t1 at4 be 7b71 by1 near1 about4 betwonan 7betuh71 between4 btan 7bton71 except4 for1 for4 frm 7fram71 from1 by4 mid1 with4 of1 of1 from4 t1 to4 tforan1 before4 tweard1 toward4 7#b7 ,the following prepositions require the accusative3 geond1 throughout be-yond4 ofer1 over1 upon4 o1 until1 up to4 urh1 through4 ymbe1 about1 around um-while1 ember-days4 7#c7 ,the preposition on 7rarely in71 meaning into1 is usually followed by the accusative2 but meaning in1 on1 or during1 it takes the dative or instrumental4 ,the preposition wi1 meaning toward1 may be followed by the genitive1 dative1 or accusative2 but meaning against1 and implying motion or hostility1 the accusative is more common4 7#d7 ,the following phrases are used prepositionally with the dative3 be noran1 north of4 be astan1 east of4 be san1 south of4 be westan1 west of4 t acan1 in addition to4 on emnlange 7efn-lang evenly long71 along4 t emnes1 along4 7#e7 ,prepositions regularly precede the noun or pronoun that they introduce2 but by their adverbial nature they are sometimes drawn in front of the verb3 ,and him ws mycel mnegu t gegaderod1 ,and there was gathered unto him a great multitude4 ,in relative clauses introduced by e1 the preceding position is very common3 so scr 444 e h on bde1 the district1 444 which he dwelt in 7 which he in-habited72 ,h ws swe spdig man on m htum e hiera spda on bo1 ,he was a very rich man in those possessions which their riches consist in2 nhst m tne e s dada man on l1 nearest the town that the dead man lies in4 ,conjunctions4 #ie4 7#a7 ,the most frequently occurring conjunctions are3 ac1 but4 r1 before1 ere4 btan 7bton71 except that1 unless4 ac1 also eke4 for m1 for m e1 because4 for on1 for on e1 for 1 therefore4 gif1 if4 hwer1 whether4 nd 7and71 and4 oe1 or4 t1 that1 so that4 ah1 though1 however4 7#b7 ,the correlative conjunctions are3 ger ge 444 ge1 both 444444 and4 ger 444444 er either 4444 or4 oe 4444444 oe n 444444444 n1 neither 444 nor4 sam 44444444 sam1 whether 444 or4 sw 44444444 sw the 4444444 the4 as 44444444 as4 444444444 when 444444 then4 onne 444444 onne ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,adjectives ,,and ,,adverbs4 ,adjectives4 #if4 7#a7 ,adjectives are regularly compared by adding -ra for the comparative1 and -ost 7rarely -est7 for the superlative3 ,positive4 ,comparative4 ,superlative4 earm1 poor earmra earmost rce1 rich rcra rcost sml1 narrow smlra smalost brd1 broad brdra 7brdra7 brdost swift1 swift swiftra swiftost 7#b7 ,forms with i-umlaut usually have superlative in -est3 ,positive4 ,comparative4 ,superlative4 eald1 old ieldra ieldest lng1 long lngra lngest strng1 strong strngra strngest geong1 young giengra giengest hah1 high herra hehst 7#c7 ,the following adjectives are compared irregularly3 ,positive4 ,comparative4 ,superlative4 gd1 good btra btst ltel1 little1 small lssa lst micel1 great1 much mra mst yfel1 bad wiersa wierst 7#d7 ,the positive is sometimes supplied by an adverb3 ,positive4 ,comparative4 ,superlative4 feor1 far fierra fierrest nah1 near narra nehst r1 before rra1 former rest1 first 7#e7 ,the comparatives all follow the ,weak ,declension4 ,the superlatives1 when preceded by the definite article1 are weak2 but when used predicatively they are frequently strong3 s lsta dl1 the least part2 onne cyme s man s t swiftoste hors hafa t m restan dle and t m mstan1 ,then comes the man that has the swiftest horse to the first part and to the largest4 ,but1 t bne land is asteweard brdost 7not brdoste71 the cultivated land is broadest eastward2 and 7hit7 bi ealra wyrta mst1 and it is largest of all herbs2 ,ac hyra 7 hiera7 r is mst on m gafole e ,finnas him gylda1 ,but their income is greatest in the tribute that the ,fins pay them4 7#f7 ,the comparative is usually followed by onne and the nominative case3 ,s hwl bi micle lssa onne re hwalas1 ,that whale is much smaller than other whales2 wunda s mdes bo dgelran onne wunda s lchaman4 ,the wounds of the mind are more secret than the wounds of the body4 ,but when onne is omitted1 the comparative is followed by the dative3 re lesend1 e mra is nd mrra eallum gesceaftum1 ,our ,redeemer1 who is greater and more glorious than all created things2 n ongeat h n hiene selfne btran rum gdum mnnum1 nor did he consider himself better than other good men4 ,adverbs4 #ig4 7#a7 ,adverbs are regularly compared by adding -or for the comparative and -ost 7rarely -est7 for the superlative3 ,positive4 ,comparative4 ,superlative4 georne1 willingly geornor geornost swe1 very1 swor1 more swost1 most1 chiefly severely r1 before ror1 formerly rest1 first nor1 northwards noror normest#a 7#b7 ,the comparatives of a few adverbs may be found by dropping -ra of the corresponding adjective form3 ,positive4 ,comparative4 ,superlative4 lnge1 long lng lngest micle1 much m mst wel1 well bt btst ,footnote #a3 ,this is really a double superlative1 m being itself an old superlative suffix4 ,cf4 ,latin opti-m-us4 ,in ,mn4,e4 northmost and hindmost1 -m-est has been confused with -most1 with which etymologically it has nothing to do4 ,expressions of ,time4 #ih4 7#a7 ,duration of time and extent of space are usually expressed by the accusative case3 ,ealle hwle e t lc bi inne1 ,all the time that the body is within2 twgen dagas1 for two days2 ealne weg1 all the way1 always4 7#b7 ,time when is more often expressed by the instrumental case when no preposition is used3 ilcan dge1 the same day2 lce gare1 each year2 gare1 that year2 lce dge1 each day4 7#c7 ,time or space within which is expressed by on and the dative3 on sumera1 in summer2 on wintra1 in winter2 on ff dagum1 in five days2 on ff mlum1 in five miles2 on issum gare1 in this year2 on m tman1 in those times4 ,sometimes by the genitive without a preceding preposition3 s gares1 in that year4 #ii4 ,,vocabulary4 t gefylce folc1 troop1 division4 t lnd 7land71 land4 so ml1 mile4 er 444 er1 the one 444 the other2 the former 444 the latter4 s sige1 victory4 sige#b habban1 to win 7the7 victory4 sprecan1 to speak4 t swn 7swn71 swine1 hog4 wste1 waste4 ,footnote #b3 ,sige usually1 but not invariably1 precedes habban4 #ajj4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 ,h hf ro swe swift hors4 #b4 ,ic hbbe nigontene scap nd m onne twntig swna4 #c4 ,so gde cwn cest tw hund mnna4 #d4 ,uton feohtan wi ,dne mid rm hunde scipa4 #e4 nd he wron on twm gefylcum3 on rum ws#c ,bchscg nd ,halfdne hnan cyningas1 nd on rum wron eorlas4 #f4 spricst slce4 #g4 onne rt lc mn his weges4 #h4 fter mnigum dagum1 hfde lfred cyning#d sige4 #i4 is lnd is wste styccemlum4 #aj4 s feld is fftiges mla brd4 #aa4 lfred cyning hfde mnige frend1 for m e h ws ger ge ws ge gd4 #ab4 hwalas1 e ymbe spricst1 sind micle lssan rum hwalum4 #ac4 ,ho is ieldre onne hiere swuster1 ac mn bror is ieldra onne ho4 #ad4 ,w cuma t m tne lce gare4 #ae4 mn e swiftostan hors hfdon wron mid m ,dnum fower dagas4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,our army 7werod7 was in two divisions3 one was large1 the other was small4 #b4 ,the richest men in the kingdom have more 7m7 than thirty ships4 #c4 ,he was much wiser than his brother4 #d4 ,he fights against the ,northumbrians with two ships4 #e4 ,after three years ,king ,alfred gained the victory4 #f4 ,whosoever chooses these gifts1 chooses well4 #g4 ,this man's son is both wiser and better than his father4 #h4 ,when the king rides1 then ride his thanes also4 #i4 ,the richest men are not always 77 the wisest men4 ,footnote #c3 ,see p4 #ajj1 note on gefeaht4 ,linenote #ajj4h ,footnote #d3 ,the proper noun comes first in appositive expressions3 lfred cyning1 ,sidroc eorl1 ,hahmund bisceop4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,strong ,,verbs3 ,,class ,i4 7,see #ag47 ,syntax of ,moods4 #aja4 ,of the three hundred simple verbs belonging to the ,o4,e4 ,strong ,conjugation1 it is estimated#a that seventy-eight have preserved their strong inflections in ,mn4,e41 that eighty-eight have become weak1 and that the remaining one hundred and thirty-four have entirely disappeared1 their places being taken in most cases by verbs of ,latin origin introduced through the ,norman-,french4 ,,note4--,only the simple or primitive verbs1 not the compound forms1 are here taken into consideration4 ,the proportionate loss1 therefore1 is really much greater4 ,o4,e4 abounded in formative prefixes4 8,thus from the ,anglo-,saxon flwan1 to flow1 ten new compounds were formed by the addition of various prefixes1 of which ten1 only one1 oferflwan1 to overflow1 survives with us4 ,in a similar manner1 from the verb sittan1 to sit1 thirteen new verbs were formed1 of which not a single one is to be found to-day40 ,lounsbury1 ib4 ,part ,i1 p4 #ajg4 ,footnote #a3 ,lounsbury1 ,english ,language1 ,part ,,ii1 #bda4 #ajb4 ,class ,i3 ,the 8,drive0 ,conjugation4 ,vowel ,succession3 1 1 i1 i4 ,,infinitive4 ,,preterit ,,sing4 ,,preterit ,,plur4 ,,past ,,part4 ,drf-an drf drif-on gedrif-en1 to drive4 ,indicative4 ,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic drf-e ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 drf-st 7drf-est7 #b4 drf-e #c4 h drf- 7drf-e7 #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g 7drf-a7 #b4 g drf-en #c4 he #c4 he ,,preterit4 ,,preterit4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic drf ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 drif-e #b4 drif-e #c4 h drf #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g drif-on #b4 g drif-en #c4 he #c4 he ,imperative4 ,infinitive4 ,present ,participle4 ,sing4 #b4 drf drf-an drf-ende ,plur4 #a4 drf-an #b4 drf-a ,gerund4 ,past ,participle4 t drf-anne 7-enne7 gedrif-en ,tense ,formation of ,strong ,verbs4 #ajc4 7#a7 ,it will be seen from the conjugation of drfan that the present stem in all strong verbs is used throughout the present indicative1 the present subjunctive1 the imperative1 the infinitive1 the gerund1 and the present participle4 ,more than half of the endings1 therefore1 of the ,strong ,conjugation are added directly to the present stem4 7#b7 ,that the preterit singular stem is used in only two forms of the verb1 the #ast and #c;d persons singular of the preterit indicative3 ,ic drf1 h drf4 7#c7 ,that the preterit plural stem is used in the preterit plural indicative1 in the second person of the preterit singular indicative1 and in the singular and plural of the preterit subjunctive4 7#d7 ,that the stem of the past participle 7gedrif-7 is used for no other form4 ,syntax of the ,verb4 #ajd4 ,the ,indicative ,mood#b represents the predicate as a reality4 ,it is used both in independent and in dependent clauses1 its function in ,o4,e4 corresponding with its function in ,mn4,e4 ,footnote #b3 ,usage sanctions mood1 but the better spelling would be mode4 ,it is from the ,lat4 modus1 whereas mood 7 temper7 is ,o4,e4 md4 #aje4 ,the ,subjunctive ,mood represents the predicate as an idea4#c ,it is of far more frequent occurrence in ,o4,e4 than in ,mn4,e4 #a4 ,when used in independent clauses it denotes desire1 command1 or entreaty1 and usually precedes its subject3 ,se n nama gehlgod1 ,hallowed be ,thy name2 ,ne swrigen g1 ,do not swear4 #b4 ,in dependent clauses it denotes uncertainty1 possibility1 or mere futurity4#d 7a7 ,concessive clauses 7introduced by ah1 though7 and 7b7 temporal clauses 7introduced by r1 r m e1 before7 are rarely found with any other mood than the subjunctive4 ,the subjunctive is also regularly used in ,alfredian prose 7c7 after verbs of saying1 even when no suggestion of doubt or discredit attaches to the narration4#e 8,whether the statement refer to a fact or not1 whether the subject-matter be vouched for by the reporter1 as regards its objective reality and truth1 the subjunctive does not tell4 ,it simply represents a statement as reported0#f3 ah man stte twgen ftels full eala oe wteres1 though one set two vessels full of ale or water2 r m e hit eall forhrgod wre1 before it was all ravaged2 ,h sde t ,normanna land wre swe lang and swe sml1 ,he said that the ,norwegians' land was very long and very narrow4 ,footnote #c3 ,gildersleeve's ,latin ,grammar1 #bee4 ,footnote #d3 ,thus when ,alfred writes that an event took place before the founding of ,rome1 he uses the subjunctive3 r m e ,rmeburh getimbrod wre before ,rome were founded2 but1 fter m e ,rmeburh getimbrod ws after ,rome was founded4 ,footnote #e3 8,by the time of lfric1 however1 the levelling influence of the indicative after verbs of saying has made considerable progress40--,gorrell1 ,indirect ,discourse in ,anglo-,saxon 7,dissertation1 #ahie71 p4 #aja4 ,footnote #f3 ,hotz1 ,on the ,use of the ,subjunctive ,mood in ,anglo-,saxon 7,zrich1 #ahhb74 #ajf4 ,the ,imperative is the mood of command or intercession3 ,ihannes1 cum t m1 ,john1 come to me2 ,and forgyf s re gyltas1 ,and forgive us our trespasses2 ,ne drf s fram 1 ,do not drive us from thee4 #ajg4 7#a7 ,the ,infinitive and ,participles are used chiefly in verb-phrases 7 #ach-ada72 but apart from this function1 the ,infinitive1 being a neuter noun1 may serve as the subject or direct object of a verb4 ,htan 7to command1 bid71 ltan 7to let1 permit71 and onginnan 7to begin7 are regularly followed by the ,infinitive3 ,hine rdan lyste1 ,to ride pleased him2 ,ht bre sttan1 ,he bade set down the bier2#g ,lta ltlingas t m cuman1 ,let the little ones come to me2 ongann h sprecan1 then began he to speak4 7#b7 ,the ,participles may be used independently in the dative absolute construction 7an imitation of the ,latin ablative absolute71 usually for the expression of time3#h ,him gt sprecendum1 ,while he was yet speaking2 gefylledum dagum1 the days having been fulfilled4 ,footnote #g3 ,not1 ,he commanded the bier to be set down4 ,the ,mn4,e4 passive in such sentences is a loss both in force and directness4 ,footnote #h3 ,callaway1 ,the ,absolute ,participle in ,anglo-,saxon 7,dissertation1 #ahhi71 p4 #ai4 #ajh4 ,the ,gerund1 or ,gerundial ,infinitive1 is used3 7#a7 ,to express purpose3 t ode s swere his sd t swenne1 ,out went the sower his seed to sow4 7#b7 ,to expand or determine the meaning of a noun or adjective3 ,smn1 ic hbbe t scgenne sum ing1 ,simon1 ,i have something to say to thee2 ,hit is scndlc ymb swelc t sprecanne1 ,it is shameful to speak about such things4 7#c7 ,after bon 7wesan7 to denote duty or necessity3 ,hwt is n m ymbe is t sprecanne1 ,what more is there now to say about this8 onne is t gencenne hwaet ,crst self cw1 then it behooves to bethink what ,christ himself said4 ,,note4--,the ,gerund is simply the dative case of the ,infinitive after t4 ,it began very early to supplant the simple ,infinitive2 hence the use of to with the ,infinitive in ,mn4,e4 ,as late as the ,elizabethan age the ,gerund sometimes replaced the ,infinitive even after the auxiliary verbs3 8,some pagan shore1 ,where these two ,christian armies might combine ,the blood of malice in a vein of league1 ,and not to spend it so unneighbourly40 --,king ,john1 ,v1 ii1 #ci4 ,when to lost the meaning of purpose and came to be considered as a merely formal prefix1 for was used to supplement the purpose element3 ,what went ye out for to see8#i ,footnote #i3 ,this is not the place to discuss the ,gerund in ,mn4,e41 the so-called 8infinitive in -ing40 ,the whole subject has been befogged for the lack of an accepted nomenclature1 one that shall do violence neither to grammar nor to history4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,strong ,,verbs3 ,,classes ,,ii ,,and ,,iii4 #aji4 ,class ,,ii3 ,the 8,choose0 ,conjugation4 ,vowel ,succession3 o1 a1 u1 o4 ,,infinitive4#a ,,pret4 ,,sing4 ,,pret4 ,,plur4#b ,,past ,,part4#b cos-an1 cas1 cur-on gecor-en1 to choose4 ,indicative4 ,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic cos-e ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 cest 7cos-est7 #b4 cos-e #c4 h cest 7cos-e7 #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g cos-a #b4 g cos-en #c4 he #c4 he ,,preterit4 ,,preterit4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic cas ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 cur-e #b4 cur-e #c4 h cas #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g cur-on #b4 g cur-en #c4 he #c4 he ,imperative4 ,infinitive4 ,present ,participle4 ,sing4 #b4 cos cos-an cos-ende ,plur4 #a4 cos-an #b4 cos-a ,gerund4 ,past ,participle4 t cos-anne 7-enne7 gecor-en ,footnote #a3 ,a few verbs of ,class ,,ii have instead of o in the infinitive3 brcan1 brac1 brucon1 gebrocen1 to enjoy brook4 bgan1 bag1 bugon1 gebogen1 to bend1 bow4 ,footnote #b3 ,by a law known as ,grammatical ,change1 final 1 s1 and h of strong verbs generally become d1 r1 and g1 respectively1 in the preterit plural and past participle4 #aaj4 ,class ,,iii3 ,the 8,bind0 ,conjugation4 ,vowel ,succession3 i1e1 a1 u1 u1o4 ,the present stem ends in m1 n1 l1 r1 or h1 one or more consonants3 m3 belimp-an1 belmp 1 belump-on1 belump-en1 to belong4 belamp n3 bind-an1 bnd 1 bund-on1 gebund-en1 to bind4 band l3 help-an1 healp1 hulp-on1 geholp-en1 to help4 r3 weor-an1 wear1 wurd-on1 geword-en1 to become4 h3 gefeoht-an1 gefeaht1 gefuht-on1 gefoht-en1 to fight4 ,,note #a4--;,if the present stem ends in a nasal 7m1 n7 a consonant1 the past participle retains the u of the pret4 plur42 but if the present stem ends in a liquid 7l1 r7 or h1 a consonant1 the past participle has o instead of u4 ,,note #b4--,why do we not find 99halp1 99war1 and 99faht in the pret4 sing48 ,because a before l1 r1 or h1 a consonant1 underwent 8breaking0 to ea4 ,breaking also changes every e followed by r or h1 a consonant1 to eo3 weoran 7 99weran71 feohtan 7 99fehtan74 #aaa4 ,indicative4 ,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic bind-e ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 bintst 7bind-est7 #b4 bind-e #c4 h bint 7bind-e7 #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g bind-a #b4 g bind-en #c4 he #c4 he ,,preterit4 ,,preterit4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic bnd ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 bund-e #b4 bund-e #c4 h bnd #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g bund-on #b4 g bund-en #c4 he #c4 he ,imperative4 ,infinitive4 ,present ,participle4 ,sing4 #b4 bind bind-an bind-ende ,plur4 #a4 bind-an #b4 bind-a ,gerund4 ,past ,participle4 t bind-anne 7-enne7 gebund-en #aab4 ,,vocabulary4 t gefeoht1 fight1 battle4 so gercednes1 narration rccan4 t gesceap1 creation scieppan4 so hrgung 7 #ci1 7#c771 harrying1 plundering hrgian4 s medu 7medo7 7 #ea71 mead4 so meolc1 milk4 s middangeard1 world middle-yard4 s munuc1 monk monachus4 so mre1 mare mearh4 h sde1 he said4 he sdon1 they said4 so spd1 riches speed4 spdig1 rich1 prosperous speedy4 so td1 time tide4 unspdig1 poor4 s westanwind1 west-wind4 t wn1 wine4 rsan1 rs1 rison1 risen1 to arise4 bdan1 bd1 bidon1 gebiden1 to remain1 expect 7with gen47 drogan1#c drag1 drugon1 gedrogen1 to endure1 suffer4 drincan1 drnc1 druncon1 gedruncen1 to drink4 findan1 fnd1 fundon1 gefunden1 to find4 geswcan geswc1 geswicon1 geswicen1 to cease1 cease from 7with gen47 iernan 7yrnan71 rn1 urnon1 geurnen1 to run4 onginnan1 ongnn1 ongunnon1 ongunnen1 to begin4 rdan1 rd1 ridon1 geriden1 to ride4 singan1 sng1 sungon1 gesungen1 to sing4 wrtan1 wrt1 writon1 gewriten1 to write4 ,footnote #c3 ,cf4 the ,scotch 8to dree one's weird0 to endure one's fate4 #aac4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 fter issum wordum1 s munuc wrt ealle gercednesse on nre bc4 #b4 eorlas ridon p r m e ,dne s gefeohtes geswicen4 #c4 ,cdmon sng rest be middangeardes gesceape4 #d4 ,s cyning nd rcostan mn drinca mran meolc1 nd unspdigan drinca medu4 #e4 nd h rs nd s wind geswc4 #f4 ,he sdon t he r westwindes biden4 #g4 ,hwt is n m ymbe s ing t sprecanne8 #h4 scgas ongunnon geswcan re hrgunga4 #i4 bag t lnd r astryhte1 oe so s in on t lnd4 #aj4 s lnd belimpa t1 m nglum4 #aa4 ah ,dne ealne dg gefuhten1 get hfde lfred cyning sige4 #ab4 nd s 7afterwards7 ymbe nne mna gefeaht lfred cyning wi ealne one hre t ,wiltne4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,the most prosperous men drank mare's milk and wine1 but the poor men drank mead4 #b4 ,i suffered many things before you began to help me 7dat474 #c4 ,about two days afterwards 7s ymbe twgen dagas71 the plundering ceased4 #d4 ,the king said that he fought against all the army 7hre74 #e4 ,although the ,danes remained one month 7 #ih1 7#a771 they did not begin to fight4 #f4 ,these gifts belonged to my brother4 #g4 ,the earls were glad because their lord was 7indicative7 with them4 #h4 ,what did you find8 #i4 ,then wrote he about 7be7 the wise man's deeds4 #aj4 ,what more is there to endure8 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,strong ,,verbs3 ,,classes ,,iv1 ,v1 ,,vi1 ,,and ,,vii4 ,,contract ,,verbs4 ,the student can now complete the conjugation for himself 7 #ajc74 ,only the principal parts will be given4 #aad4 ,class ,,iv3 ,the 8,bear0 ,conjugation4 ,vowel ,succession3 e1 1 1 o4 ,the present stem ends in l1 r1 or m1 no consonant following3 l3 hel-an1 hl1 hl-on1 gehol-en1 to conceal4 r3 ber-an1 br1 br-on1 gebor-en1 to bear4 ,the two following verbs are slightly irregular3 m3 nim-an1 nm 7nam71 nm-on 7nm-on71 genum-en1 to take4 cum-an1 c7w7m1 c7w7m-on1 gecum-en1 to come4 #aae4 ,class ,v3 ,the 8,give0 ,conjugation4 ,succession of ,vowels3 e 7ie71 1 1 e4 ,the present stem ends in a single consonant1 never a liquid or nasal3 met-an1 mt1 mton1 gemet-en1 to measure1 mete4 gief-an1 geaf1 gaf-on1 gegief-en1 to give4 ,,note #a4--,the palatal consonants1 g1 c1 and sc1 convert a following e into ie1 into ea1 and into a4 ,hence giefan 7 99gefan71 geaf 7 99gf71 gafon 7 99gfon71 gegiefen 7 99gegefen74 ,this change is known as ,palatalization4 ,see #h4 ,,note #b4--,the infinitives of the following important verbs are only apparently exceptional3 biddan1 bd1 bd-on1 gebed-en1 to ask for bid4 licgan1 lg1 lg-on1 geleg-en1 to lie1 extend4 sittan1 st1 st-on1 geset-en1 to sit4 ,the original e reappears in the participial stems4 ,it was changed to i in the present stems on account of a former -jan in the infinitive 7bid-jan1 etc474 ,see #fa4 ,to the same cause is due the doubling of consonants in the infinitive4 ,all simple consonants in ,o4,e41 with the exception of r1 were doubled after a short vowel1 when an original j followed4 #aaf4 ,class ,,vi3 ,the 8,shake0 ,conjugation4 ,succession of ,vowels3 a1 1 1 a4 scac-an1 scc1 scc-on1 gescac-en1 to shake4 far-an1 fr1 fr-on1 gefar-en1 to go fare4 #aag4 ,class ,,vii3 ,the 8,fall0 ,conjugation4 ,vowel ,succession3 11 1 1 12 or ea1a11 o1 o1 ea1a14 7#a7 ht-an1 ht1 ht-on1 geht-en1 to call1 name1 command4 lt-an1 lt1 lt-on1 gelt-en1 to let4 7#b7 feall-an1 foll1 foll-on1 gefeall-en1 to fall4 heald-an1 hold1 hold-on1 geheald-en1 to hold4 haw-an1 how1 how-on1 gehaw-en1 to hew4 grw-an1 grow1 grow-on1 gegrw-en1 to grow4 ,,note #a4--,this class consists of the ,reduplicating ,verbs2 that is1 those verbs that originally formed their preterits not by internal vowel change 7ablaut71 but by prefixing to the present stem the initial consonant e 7cf4 ,gk4 - and ,lat4 d-di74 ,contraction then took place between the syllabic prefix and the root1 the fusion resulting in or o3 99he-hat heht ht4 ,,note #b4--;,a peculiar interest attaches to htan3 the forms htte and htton are the sole remains in ,o4,e4 of the original ,germanic passive4 ,they are used both as presents and as preterits3 htte ,i am or was called1 he is or was called4 ,no other verb in ,o4,e4 could have a passive sense without calling in the aid of the verb to be 7 #ada74 ,contract ,verbs4 #aah4 ,the few ,contract ,verbs found in ,o4,e4 do not constitute a new class2 they fall under ,classes ,i1 ,,ii1 ,v1 ,,vi1 and ,,vii1 already treated4 ,the present stem ended originally in h4 ,this was lost before -an of the infinitive1 contraction and compensatory lengthening being the result4 ,the following are the most important of these verbs3 ,classes4 ,i4 on 7 99han71 h1 ig-on1 geig-en 1 to thrive4 geung-en ,,ii4 ton 7 99tohan71 tah1 tug-on1 getog-en1 to draw1 go tug4 ,v4 son 7 99sehwan71 seah1 sw-on1 gesew-en1 to see4 ,,vi4 slan 7 99slahan71 slh1 slg-on1 geslg-en1 to slay4 ,,vii4 fn 7 99fhan71 fng1 fng-on1 gefng-en1 to seize fang4 #aai4 ,the ,present ,indicative of these verbs runs as follows 7see rules of i-umlaut1 #eh73 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic o to so sla f #b4 hst tehst siehst sliehst fhst #c4 h h teh sieh slieh fh ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g o to so sla f #c4 he ,the other tenses and moods are regularly formed from the given stems4 #abj4 ,,vocabulary4 so ht1 property1 possession gan4 aweg1 away on weg4 so fierd1 ,english army faran4 s hre1 ,danish army hrgian4 on gehwre hnd1 on both sides4 sige niman 7 sige habban71 to win 7the7 victory4 so sprc1 speech1 language4 t rce fn1 to come to the throne4#a t wl ,val-halla slaughter1 carnage4 s wlsliht1 s weall1 wall1 rampart4 t wildor1 wild beast1 reindeer4 s wngeard1 vineyard4 brecan1#b brc1 brcon1 brocen1 to break down4 cwean1 cw1 cwdon1 gecweden1 to say quoth4 geson1 geseah1 geswon1 gesewen1 to see4 grwan1 grow1 growon1 gegrwen1 to grow4 ofslan1 ofslh1 ofslgon1 ofslgen1 to slay4 sprecan1 sprc1 sprcon1 gesprecen1 to speak4 stelan1 stl1 stlon1 gestolen1 to steal4 stndan1 std1 stdon1 gestnden1 to stand4 weaxan1 wox1 woxon1 geweaxen1 to grow1 increase wax4 ,footnote #a3 ,literally1 to take to 7the7 kingdom4 ,cf4 8,have you anything to take to80 7,two ,gentlemen of ,verona1 ,,iv1 i1 #db74 ,footnote #b3 ,brecan belongs properly in ,class ,v1 but it has been drawn into ,class ,,iv possibly through the influence of the r in the root4 #aba4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 fter m slce 7indeed7 ealle mn sprcon ne 7one7 sprce4 #b4 nd h cw3 8is is n folc1 nd ealle he spreca ne sprce40 #c4 ,on sumum stwum wngeardas grwa4 #d4 ,h ht ndran ofslan4 #e4 ngle brcon one lngan weall1 nd sige nmon4 #f4 nd t sd grow nd wox4 #g4 ,ic ne geseah one mn s e s cnapan adesan stl4 #h4 ,h ws swe spdig man on m htum e hiera spda on#c bo1 t is1 on wildrum4 #i4 nd r wear 7was7 micel wlsliht on gehwre hnd4 #aj4 nd fter issum gefeohte cm lfred cyning mid his fierde1 nd gefeaht wi ealne one hre1 nd sige nm4 #aa4 os burg htte#d scesdn 7,ashdown74 #ab4 re cwne lc lg on m hse4 #ac4 nd s dl e r aweg cm ws swe ltel4 #ad4 nd s rotene dagas ered t rce fng4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,the men stood in the ships and fought against the ,danes4 #b4 ,before the thanes came1 the king rode away4 #c4 ,they said 7sdon7 that all the men spoke one language4 #d4 ,they bore the queen's body to ,wilton4 #e4 ,alfred gave many gifts to his army 7dat4 without t7 before he went away4 #f4 ,these men are called earls4 #g4 ,god sees all things4 #h4 ,the boy held the reindeer with 7mid7 his hands4 #i4 ,about six months afterwards1 ,alfred gained the victory1 and came to the throne4 #aj4 ,he said that there was very great slaughter on both sides4 ,footnote #c3 ,see #id1 7#e74 ,footnote #d3 ,see #aag1 ,note #b4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,weak ,,verbs 7 #ah74 #abb4 ,the verbs belonging to the ,weak ,conjugation are generally of more recent origin than the strong verbs1 being frequently formed from the roots of strong verbs4 ,the ,weak ,conjugation was the growing conjugation in ,o4,e4 as it is in ,mn4,e4 ,we instinctively put our newly coined or borrowed words into this conjugation 7telegraphed1 boycotted72 and children1 by the analogy of weak verbs1 say runned for ran1 seed for saw1 teared for tore1 drawed for drew1 and growed for grew4 ,so1 for example1 when ,latin dictre and brevire came into ,o4,e41 they came as weak verbs1 dihtian and brfian4 ,the ,three ,classes of ,weak ,verbs4 #abc4 ,there is no difficulty in telling1 from the infinitive alone1 to which of the three classes a weak verb belongs4 ,class ,,iii has been so invaded by ,class ,,ii that but three important verbs remain to it3 habban1 to have2 libban1 to live2 and scgan1 to say4 ,distinction is to be made1 therefore1 only between ,classes ,,ii and ,i4 ,class ,,ii contains the verbs with infinitive in -ian not preceded by r4 ,class ,i contains the remaining weak verbs2 that is1 those with infinitive in -r-ian and those with infinitive in -an 7not -ian74 ,class ,i4 #abd4 ,the preterit singular and past participle of ,class ,i end in -ede and -ed1 or -de and -ed respectively4 ,,note4--,the infinitives of this class ended originally in -jan 7 -ian74 ,this accounts for the prevalence of i-umlaut in these verbs1 and also for the large number of short-voweled stems ending in a double consonant 7 #aae1 ,note #b74 ,the weak verb is frequently the causative of the corresponding strong verb4 ,in such cases1 the root of the weak verb corresponds in form to the preterit singular of the strong verb3 ,mn4,e4 drench 7 to make drink71 lay 7 to make lie71 rear 7 to make rise71 and set 7 to make sit71 are the umlauted forms of drnc 7preterit singular of drincan71 lg 7preterit singular of licgan71 rs 7preterit singular of rsan71 and st 7preterit singular of sittan74 ,preterit and ,past ,participle in -ede and -ed4 #abe4 ,verbs with infinitive in -an preceded by ri- or the double consonants mm1 nn1 ss1 bb1 cg 7 gg71 add -ede for the preterit1 and -ed for the past participle1 the double consonant being always made single3 ri3 nri-an1 nr-ede1 genr-ed1 to save4 mm3 frmm-an1 frm-ede1 gefrm-ed1 to perform frame4 nn3 nn-an1 n-ede1 gen-ed1 to extend4 ss3 cnyss-an1 cnys-ede1 gecnys-ed1 to beat4 bb3 swbb-an1 swf-ede1 geswf-ed1 to put to sleep4 cg3 wcg-an1 wg-ede1 gewg-ed1 to agitate4 ,,note4--,lcgan1 to lay1 is the only one of these verbs that syncopates the e3 lcgan1 lgde 7lde71 gelgd 7geld71 instead of lgede1 gelged4 ,preterit and ,past ,participle in -de and -ed4 #abf4 ,all the other verbs belonging to ,class ,i4 add -de for the preterit and -ed for the past participle4 ,this division includes1 therefore1 all stems long by nature 7 #aj1 7#c71 7a773 dl-an1 dl-de1 gedl-ed1 to deal out1 divide dl4 dm-an1 dm-de1 gedm-ed1 to judge dm4 grt-an1 grt-te1 gegrt-ed1 to greet4 her-an1 her-de1 geher-ed1 to hear4 ld-an1 ld-de1 geld-ed1 to lead4 ,,note #a4--;,a preceding voiceless consonant 7 #i1 ,note7 changes -de into -te3 99grt-de grt-te2 99mt-de mt-te2 99ec-de ec-te4 ,syncope and contraction are also frequent in the participles3 gegrt-ed 99gegrt-d gegrt7t72 geld-ed geld7d74 ,,note #b4--;,ban1 to dwell1 cultivate1 has an admixture of strong forms in the past participle3 ban1 bde1 gebd 7bn1 gebn74 ,the present participle survives in ,mn4,e4 husband house-dweller4 #abg4 ,it includes1 also1 all stems long by position 7 #aj1 7#c71 7b77 except those in mm1 nn1 ss1 bb1 and cg 7 #abe73 snd-an1 snd-e1 gesnd-ed1 to send4 stt-an1 st-te1 gest-ed1 to set sittan4 sigl-an1 sigl-de1 gesigl-ed1 to sail4 spnd-an1 spnd-e1 gespnd-ed1 to spend4 trdd-an1 trd-de1 getrd-ed1 to tread4 ,,note4--,the participles frequently undergo syncope and contraction3 gesnded gesnd2 gested gest7t72 gespnded gespnd2 getrded getrd7d74 ,irregular ,verbs of ,class ,i4 #abh4 ,there are about twenty verbs belonging to ,class ,i that are irregular in having no umlaut in the preterit and past participle4 ,the preterit ends in -de1 the past participle in -d2 but1 through the influence of a preceding voiceless consonant 7 #i1 ,note71 -ed is generally unvoiced to -te1 and -d to -t4 ,the most important of these verbs are as follows3 bring-an1 brh-te1 gebrh-t1 to bring4 byc-gan1 boh-te1 geboh-t1 to buy4 sc-an1 sh-te1 gesh-t1 to seek4 sll-an1 seal-de1 geseal-d1 to give1 sell hand-sel4 tc-an1 th-te1 geth-t1 to teach4 tll-an1 teal-de1 geteal-d1 to count tell4 nc-an1 h-te1 geh-t1 to think4 ync-an1 h-te1 geh-t1 to seem methinks4 wyrc-an1 worh-te1 geworh-t1 to work4 ,,note4--,such of these verbs as have stems in c or g are frequently written with an inserted e3 bycgean1 scean1 tcean1 etc4 ,this e indicates that c and g have palatal value2 that is1 are to be followed with a vanishing y-sound4 ,in such cases1 ,o4,e4 c usually passes into ,mn4,e4 ch3 tc7e7an to teach2 rc7e7an to reach2 strcc7e7an to stretch4 ,sc7e7an gives beseech as well as seek4 ,see #h4 ,conjugation of ,class ,i4 #abi4 ,paradigms of nrian1 to save2 frmman1 to perform2 dlan1 to divide3 ,indicative4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic nrie frmme dle #b4 nrest frmest dlst #c4 h nre frme dl ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g nria frmma dla #c4 he ,,preterit4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic nrede frmede dlde #b4 nredest frmedest dldest #c4 h nrede frmede dlde ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g nredon frmedon dldon #c4 he ,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 nrie frmme dle #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g nrien frmmen dlen #c4 he ,,preterit4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 nrede frmede dlde #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g nreden frmeden dlden #c4 he ,imperative4 ,sing4 #b4 nre frme dl ,plur4 #a4 nrian frmman dlan #b4 nria frmma dla ,infinitive4 nrian frmman dlan ,gerund4 t nrianne 7-enne7 t frmmanne 7-enne7 t dlanne 7-enne7 ,present ,participle4 nriende frmmende dlende ,past ,participle4 genred gefrmed gedled ,,note4--,the endings of the preterit present no difficulties2 in the #b;d and #c;d singular present1 however1 the student will observe 7a7 that double consonants in the stem are made single3 frmest1 frme 7not 99fremmest1 99fremme72 nest1 ne2 stest 7stst71 sete 7stt72 fylst1 fyl1 from fyllan1 to fill2 7b7 that syncope is the rule in stems long by nature3 dlst 7 dlest71 dl 7 dle72 dmst 7 dmest71 dm 7 dme72 herst 7 herest71 her 7 here74 ,double consonants are also made single in the imperative #b;d singular and in the past participle4 ,stems long by nature take no final -e in the imperative3 dl1 her1 dm4 ,class ,,ii4 #acj4 ,the infinitive of verbs belonging to this class ends in -ian 7not -r-ian71 the preterit singular in -ode1 the past participle in -od4 ,the preterit plural usually has -edon1 however1 instead of -odon3 eard-ian1 eard-ode1 geeard-od1 to dwell eore4 luf-ian1 luf-ode1 geluf-od1 to love lufu4 rcs-ian1 rcs-ode1 gercs-od1 to rule rce4 sealf-ian1 sealf-ode1 gesealf-od1 to anoint salve4 segl-ian1 segl-ode1 gesegl-od1 to sail segel4 ,,note4--,these verbs have no trace of original umlaut1 since their -ian was once -jan4 ,hence1 the vowel of the stem was shielded from the influence of the j 7 i7 by the interposition of 4 ,conjugation of ,class ,,ii4 #aca4 ,paradigm of lufian1 to love3 ,indicative4 ,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic lufie ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 u lufast #b4 lufie #c4 h lufa #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g lufia #b4 g lufien #c4 he #c4 he ,,preterit4 ,,preterit4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic lufode ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 lufodest #b4 lufode #c4 h lufode #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g lufedon 7-odon7 #b4 g lufeden 7-oden7 #c4 he #c4 he ,imperative4 ,infinitive4 ,present ,participle4 ,sing4 #b4 lufa lufian lufiende ,plur4 #a4 lufian #b4 lufia ,gerund4 ,past ,participle4 t lufianne 7-enne7 gelufod ,,note #a4--,the -ie 7-ien7 occurring in the present must be pronounced as a dissyllable4 ,the y-sound thus interposed between the i and e is frequently indicated by the letter g3 lufie1 or lufige2 lufien1 or lufigen4 ,so also for ia3 lufia1 or lufiga2 lufian1 or lufig7e7an4 ,,note #b4--;,in the preterit singular1 -ade1 -ude1 and -ede are not infrequent for -ode4 ,class ,,iii4 #acb4 ,the few verbs belonging here show a blending of ,classes ,i and ,,ii4 ,like certain verbs of ,class ,i 7 #abh71 the preterit and past participle are formed by adding -de and -d2 like ,class ,,ii1 the #b;d and #c;d present indicative singular end in -ast and -a1 the imperative #b;d singular in -a3 habb-an1 hf-de1 gehf-d1 to have4 libb-an1 lif-de1 gelif-d1 to live4 scg-an1 sd-e 7sg-de71 gesd 7gesg-d71 to say4 ,conjugation of ,class ,,iii4 #acc4 ,paradigms of habban1 to have2 libban1 to live2 scgan1 to say4 ,indicative4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic hbbe libbe scge #b4 hfst 7hafast7 lifast sgst 7sagast7 #c4 h hf 7hafa7 lifa sg 7saga7 ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g habba libba scga #c4 he ,,preterit4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic hfde lifde sde #b4 hfdest lifdest sdest #c4 h hfde lifde sde ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g hfdon lifdon sdon #c4 he ,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 hbbe libbe scge #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g hbben libben scgen #c4 he ,,preterit4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 hfde lifde sde #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g hfden lifden sden #c4 he ,imperative4 ,sing4 #b4 hafa lifa saga ,plur4 #a4 habban libban scgan #b4 habba libba scga ,infinitive4 habban libban scgan ,gerund4 t habbanne 7-enne7 t libbanne 7-enne7 t scganne 7-enne7 ,present ,participle4 hbbende libbende scgende ,past ,participle4 gehfd gelifd gesd ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,remaining ,,verbs2 ,,verb-,,phrases ,,with habban1 bon1 ,,and weoran4 ,anomalous ,verbs4 7,see #ai47 #acd4 ,these are3 bon 7wesan71 ws1 wron1 ----1 to be4 willan1 wolde1 woldon1 ----1 to will1 intend4 dn1 dyde1 dydon1 gedn1 to do1 cause4 gn1 ode1 odon1 gegn1 to go4 ,,note4--,in the original ,indo-,germanic language1 the first person of the present indicative singular ended in 7#a7 or 7#b7 mi4 ,cf4 ,gk4 -1 -1 ,lat4 am-1 su-m4 ,the ,strong and ,weak ,conjugations of ,o4,e4 are survivals of the -class4 ,the four ,anomalous ,verbs mentioned above are the sole remains in ,o4,e4 of the mi-class4 ,note the surviving m in eom ,i am1 and dm ,i do 7,northumbrian form74 ,these mi-verbs are sometimes called non-,thematic to distinguish them from the ,thematic or -verbs4 ,conjugation of ,anomalous ,verbs4 #ace4 ,only the present indicative and subjunctive are at all irregular3 ,indicative4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic eom 7bom7 wille d g #b4 eart 7bist7 wilt dst gst #c4 h is 7bi7 wille d g ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g sind7on7 willa d g #c4 he ,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 se wille d g #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g sen willen dn gn #c4 he ,,note4--,the preterit subjunctive of bon is formed1 of course1 not from ws1 but from wron4 ,see #ajc1 7#c74 ,preterit-,present ,verbs4 7,see #ai47 #acf4 ,these verbs are called ,preterit-,present because the present tense 7indicative and subjunctive7 of each of them is1 in form1 a strong preterit1 the old present having been displaced by the new4 ,they all have weak preterits4 ,most of the ,mn4,e4 ,auxiliary ,verbs belong to this class4 witan1 wiste1 wiston1 gewiten1 to know wisse1 to wit1 wot4 gan1 hte1 hton1 gen 7adj471 to possess owe4 cunnan1 ce1 con1 gecunnen1 to know1 can c 7adj471 uncouth1 cunning4 durran1 dorste1 dorston1 ---- to dare4 sculan1 sceolde1 sceoldon1 ---- shall4 magan1 meahte1 meahton1 ---- to be able1 may4 mihte1 mihton1 mtan1 mste1 mston1 ---- may1 must4 ,,note4--,the change in meaning from preterit to present1 with retention of the preterit form1 is not uncommon in other languages4 ,several examples are found in ,latin and ,greek 7cf4 nvi and 1 ,i know74 ,mn4,e4 has gone further still3 hte and mste1 which had already suffered the loss of their old preterits 7h1 mt71 have been forced back again into the present 7ought1 must74 ,having exhausted1 therefore1 the only means of preterit formation known to ,germanic1 the strong and the weak1 it is not likely that either ought or must will ever develop distinct preterit forms4 ,conjugation of ,preterit-,present ,verbs4 #acg4 ,the irregularities occur in the present indicative and subjunctive3 ,indicative4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic wt h cn 7can7 #b4 wst hst cnst 7canst7 #c4 h wt h cn 7can7 ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g witon gon cunnon #c4 he ,sing4 #a4 ,ic dear sceal mg mt #b4 dearst scealt meaht mst #c4 h dear sceal mg mt ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g durron sculon magon mton #c4 he ,subjunctive4 ,,present4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 wite ge cunne #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g witen gen cunnen #c4 he ,sing4 #a4 ,ic #b4 durre scule 7scyle7 mge mte #c4 h ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g durren sculen 7scylen7 mgen mten #c4 he ,,note #a4--,willan and sculan do not often connote simple futurity in ,early ,west ,saxon1 yet they were fast drifting that way4 ,the ,mn4,e4 use of shall only with the #ast person and will only with the #b;d and #c;d1 to express simple futurity1 was wholly unknown even in ,shakespeare's day4 ,the elaborate distinctions drawn between these words by modern grammarians are not only cumbersome and foreign to the genius of ,english1 but equally lacking in psychological basis4 ,,note #b4--,sculan originally implied the idea of 7#a7 duty1 or compulsion 7 ought to1 or must71 and this conception lurks with more or less prominence in almost every function of sculan in ,o4,e43 ,dryhten bebad ,moyse h h sceolde beran earce1 ,the ,lord instructed ,moses how he ought to bear the ark2 lc mann sceal be his andgietes me 444 sprecan t he spric1 and dn t t h d1 ,every man must1 according to the measure of his intelligence1 speak what he speaks1 and do what he does4 ,its next most frequent use is to express 7#b7 custom1 the transition from the obligatory to the customary being an easy one3 ,s byrdesta sceall gyldan fftne meares fell1 ,the man of highest rank pays fifteen marten skins4 ,,note #c4--,willan expressed originally 7#a7 pure volition1 and this is its most frequent use in ,o4,e4 ,it may occur without the infinitive3 ,nylle ic s synfullan da1 ac ic wille t h gecyrre and lybbe1 ,i do not desire the sinner's death1 but ,i desire that he return and live4 ,the wish being father to the intention1 willan soon came to express 7#b7 purpose3 ,h sde t h at sumum cirre wolde fandian h longe t land norryhte lge1 ,he said that he intended1 at some time1 to investigate how far that land extended northward4 ,verb-,phrases with habban1 bon 7wesan71 and weoran4 ,verb-,phrases in the ,active ,voice4 #ach4 ,the present and preterit of habban1 combined with a past participle1 are used in ,o4,e41 as in ,mn4,e41 to form the present perfect and past perfect tenses3 ,,present ,,perfect4 ,,past ,,perfect4 ,sing4 #a4 ,ic hbbe gedrifen ,sing4 #a4 ,ic hfde gedrifen #b4 hfst gedrifen #b4 hfdest gedrifen #c4 h hf gedrifen #c4 h hfde gedrifen ,,present ,,perfect4 ,,past ,,perfect4 ,plur4 #a4 w ,plur4 #a4 w #b4 g habba gedrifen #b4 g hfdon gedrifen #c4 he #c4 he ,the past participle is not usually inflected to agree with the direct object3 ,norymbre nd astngle hfdon lfrede cyninge as geseald 7not gesealde1 #hb71 ,the ,northumbrians and ,east ,anglians had given king ,alfred oaths2 nd hfdon miclne dl ra horsa freten 7not fretenne71 and 7they7 had devoured a large part of the horses4 ,,note4--,many sentences might be quoted in which the participle does agree with the direct object1 but there seems to be no clear line of demarcation between them and the sentences just cited4 ,originally1 the participle expressed a resultant state1 and belonged in sense more to the object than to habban2 but in ,early ,west ,saxon habban had already1 in the majority of cases1 become a pure auxiliary when used with the past participle4 ,this is conclusively proved by the use of habban with intransitive verbs4 ,in such a clause1 therefore1 as o t he hine ofslgenne hfdon1 there is no occasion to translate until they had him slain 7 resultant state72 the agreement here is more probably due to the proximity of ofslgenne to hine4 ,so also ac h hfdon hiera stemn gestenne1 but they had already served out 7sat out7 their military term4 #aci4 ,if the verb is intransitive1 and denotes a change of condition1 a departure or arrival1 bon 7wesan7 usually replaces habban4 ,the past participle1 in such cases1 partakes of the nature of an adjective1 and generally agrees with the subject3 ,mne welan e ic o hfde syndon ealle gewitene nd gedrorene1 ,my possessions which ,i once had are all departed and fallen away2 wron mn uppe on lnde of gne1 the men had gone up ashore2 nd re wron hungre cwolen1 and the others had perished of hunger2 nd ac s micla hre ws r t cumen1 and also the large army had then arrived there4 #adj4 ,a progressive present and preterit 7not always1 however1 with distinctively progressive meanings7 are formed by combining a present participle with the present and preterit of bon 7wesan74 ,the participle remains uninflected3 nd he alle on one cyning wrun feohtende1 and they all were fighting against the king2 ,symle h bi lciende1 n slp h nfre1 ,he is always looking1 nor does ,he ever sleep4 ,,note4--,in most sentences of this sort1 the subject is masculine 7singular or plural72 hence no inference can be made as to agreement1 since -e is the participial ending for both numbers of the nominative masculine 7 #hb74 ,by analogy1 therefore1 the other genders usually conform in inflection to the masculine3 wron ealle doflu clypigende nre stefne1 then were all the devils crying with one voice4 ,verb-,phrases in the ,passive ,voice4 #ada4 ,passive constructions are formed by combining bon 7wesan7 or weoran with a past participle4 ,the participle agrees regularly with the subject3 he wron benumene ger ge s capes ge s cornes1 they were deprived both of the cattle and the corn2 h bo blnde mid m ostrum heora scylda1 they are blinded with the darkness of their sins2 and s wlhrowa ,domicinus on m ylcan gare wear cweald1 and the murderous ,domitian was killed in the same year2 nd elwulf aldormn wear ofslgen1 and thelwulf1 alderman1 was slain4 ,,note #a4--,to express agency1 ,mn4,e4 employs by1 rarely of2 ,m4,e4 of1 rarely by2 ,o4,e4 frm 7fram71 rarely of3 ,s e ,godes bebodu ne gecnw1 ne bi h oncnwen frm ,gode1 ,he who does not recognise ,god's commands1 will not be recognized by ,god2 ,betwux m wear ofslagen adwine 444 fram ,brytta cyninge1 ,meanwhile1 ,edwin was slain by the king of the ,britons4 ,,note #b4--,o4,e4 had no progressive forms for the passive1 and could not1 therefore1 distinguish between ,he is being wounded and ,he is wounded4 ,it was not until more than a hundred years after ,shakespeare's death that being assumed this function4 ,weoran1 which originally denoted a passage from one state to another1 was ultimately driven out by bon 7wesan71 and survives now only in ,woe worth 7 be to74 #adb4 ,,vocabulary4 ,beormas1 ,permians4 ,deniscan1 the ,danish 7men71 ,danes4 ,finnas1 ,fins4 t gewald1 control wealdan4 so s1 sea4 so scr1 shire1 district4 so wlstw1 battle-field4 gan wlstwe gewald1 to maintain possession of the battle-field4 s wealdend1 ruler1 wielder4 gefleman1 geflemde1 geflemed1 to put to flight4 gestaelian1 gestaelode1 gestaelod1 to establish1 restore4 gewissian1 gewissode1 gewissod1 to guide1 direct4 wcian1 wcode1 gewcod1 to dwell wc village4 #adc4 ,,exercises4 ,i4 #a4 nd r ws micel wl geslgen on gehwre hnd1 nd elwulf ealdormn wear ofslgen2 nd ,dniscan hton wlstwe gewald4 #b4 nd s ymb nne mna gefeaht lfred cyning wi ealne one hre ond hine geflemde4 #c4 ,h sde ah t t land se swe lang nor nan4 #d4 ,beormas hfdon swe wel gebd 7 #abf1 ,note #b7 hiera land4 #e4 ,ohthre sde t so scr htte 7 #aag1 ,note #b7 ,hlgoland1 e h on 7 #id1 7#e77 bde4 #f4 ,finnas wcedon be re s4 #g4 ,dryhten1 lmihtiga 7 #gh1 ,note7 ,god1 ,wyrhta and ,wealdend ealra gesceafta1 ic bidde for nre miclan mildheortnesse t m gewissie t num willan2 and gestaela mn md t num willan and t mnre swle earfe4 #h4 sceolde h r bdan ryhtnoranwindes1 for m t land bag r sryhte1 oe so s in on t land1 h nysse hwer4 #i4 ,for 1 m ync btre1 gif ow sw ync1 t w ac s bc on t geode wnden e w ealle gecnwan mgen4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,when the king heard that1 he went 7 then went he7 westward with his army to ,ashdown4 #b4 ,lovest thou me more than these8 #c4 ,the men said that the shire which they lived in was called ,halgoland4 #d4 ,all things were made 7wyrcan7 by ,god4 #e4 ,they were fighting for two days with 7 against7 the ,danes4 #f4 ,king ,alfred fought with the ,danes1 and gained the victory2 but the ,danes retained possession of the battle-field4 #g4 ,these men dwelt in ,england before they came hither4 #h4 ,i have not seen the book of 7ymbe7 which you speak 7sprecan74 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,selections ,,for ,,reading4 ,,prose4 ,,introductory4 ,i4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle4 ,this famous work1 a series of progressive annals by unknown hands1 embraces a period extending from ,csar's invasion of ,england to #aaed4 ,it is not known when or where these annals began to be recorded in ,english4 8,the annals from the year #hff--that of ,ethelred's ascent of the throne--to the year #hhg seem to be the work of one mind4 ,not a single year is passed over1 and to several is granted considerable space1 especially to the years #hga1 #hgh1 and #hhe4 ,the whole has gained a certain roundness and fulness1 because the events--nearly all of them episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the ,danes--are taken in their connection1 and the thread dropped in one year is resumed in the next4 ,not only is the style in itself concise2 it has a sort of nervous severity and pithy rigor4 ,the construction is often antiquated1 and suggests at times the freedom of poetry2 though this purely historical prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of language40 7,ten ,brink1 ,early ,eng4 ,lit41 ,i47 ,,ii4 ,the ,translations of ,alfred4 ,alfred's reign 7#hga-ija7 may be divided into four periods4 ,the first1 the period of ,danish invasion1 extends from #hga to #hha2 the second1 the period of comparative quiet1 from #hha to #hic2 the third1 the period of renewed strife 7beginning with the incursions of ,hasting71 from #hic to #hig2 the fourth1 the period of peace1 from #hig to #ija4 ,his literary work probably falls in the second period4,a ,the works translated by ,alfred from ,latin into the vernacular were 7#a7 ,consolation of ,philosophy 7,de ,consolatione ,philosophiae7 by ,bothius 7#dge-ebe71 7#b7 ,compendious ,history of the ,world 7,historiarum ,libri ,,vii7 by ,orosius 7c4 #dah71 7#c7 ,ecclesiastical ,history of the ,english 7,historia ,ecclesiastica ,gentis ,anglorum7 by ,bede 7#fgb-gce71 and 7#d7 ,pastoral ,care 7,de ,cura ,pastorali7 by ,pope ,gregory the ,great 7#edj-fjd74 ,the chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown4 ,that given is supported by ,turner1 ,arend1 ,morley1 ,grein1 and ,pauli4 ,wlker argues for an exact reversal of this order4 ,according to ,ten ,brink1 the order was more probably 7#a7 ,orosius1 7#b7 ,bede1 7#c7 ,bothius1 and 7#d7 ,pastoral ,care4 ,the most recent contribution to the subject is from ,wlfing1 who contends for 7#a7 ,bede1 7#b7 ,orosius1 7#c7 ,pastoral ,care1 and 7#d7 ,bothius4 ,footnote ,a3 ,there is something inexpressibly touching in this clause from the great king's pen3 gif w stilnesse habba4 ,he is speaking of how much he hopes to do1 by his translations1 for the enlightenment of his people4 ,i4 ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,ashdown4 ,from the ,chronicle1 ,parker ,,ms4 ,the event and date are significant4 ,the ,danes had for the first time invaded ,wessex4 ,alfred's older brother1 ,ethelred1 was king2 but to ,alfred belongs the glory of the victory at ,ashdown 7,berkshire74 ,asser 7,life of ,alfred7 tells us that for a long time ,ethelred remained praying in his tent1 while ,alfred and his followers went forth 8like a wild boar against the hounds40 page #ii #a #hga4 ,hr cum#a s hre t ,radingum on ,westseaxe1 #b nd s ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas p4 a gemtte he page #ajj #a elwulf aldorman#b on nglafelda1 nd him r wi gefeaht1 #b nd sige nam4 s ymb iiii niht ered cyning #c nd lfred his brur#c r micle fierd t ,radingum #d gelddon1 nd wi one hre gefuhton2 nd r ws #e micel wl geslgen on gehwre hnd1 nd elwulf #f aldormn wear ofslgen2 nd a ,dniscan hton wlstwe #g gewald4 #h nd s ymb iiii niht gefeaht ered cyning nd #i lfred his brur wi alne#d one hre on scesdne4 #aj nd he wrun#e on twm gefylcum3 on rum ws #aa ,bchscg nd ,halfdne hnan cyningas1 nd on #ab rum wron eorlas4 nd gefeaht s cyning #ac ered wi ra cyninga getruman1 nd r wear s #ad cyning ,bgscg ofslgen2 nd lfred his brur wi #ae ra eorla getruman1 nd r wear ,sidroc eorl ofslgen #af s alda1#f nd ,sidroc eorl s gioncga1#g nd sbearn eorl1 #ag nd ,frna eorl1 nd ,hareld eorl2 nd hrgas#h bgen #ah geflemde1 nd fela senda ofslgenra1 nd onfeohtende #ai wron o niht4 #bj nd s ymb xiiii niht gefeaht ered cyning nd #ba lfred his brur wi one hre t ,basengum1 nd r #bb a ,dniscan sige nmon4 #bc nd s ymb ii mna gefeaht ered cyning nd #bd lfred his brur wi one hre t ,mretne1 nd he #be wrun on tum#i gefylcium1 nd he bt geflemdon1 nd #bf lnge on dg sige hton2 nd r wear micel wlsliht #bg on gehwere hnd2 nd ,dniscan hton wlstwe page #aja #a gewald2 nd r wear ,hahmund bisceop ofslgen1 #b nd fela gdra mnna4 nd fter issum gefeohte cum#a #c micel sumorlida4 #d nd s ofer astron gefr ered cyning2 nd h #e rcsode v gar2 nd his lc l t ,wnburnan4 #f fng lfred elwulfing his brur t ,wesseaxna #g rce4 nd s ymb nne mna gefeaht lfred cyning #h wi alne#d one hre ltle werede#aj t ,wiltne1 nd hine #i lnge on dg geflemde1 nd ,dniscan hton wlstwe #aj gewald4 #aa nd s gares wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wi #ab one hre on cynerce be san ,tmese1 btan m e #ac him lfred s cyninges brur nd nlpig aldormn#b nd #ad cyninges egnas oft rde onridon e mn n ne rmde2 #ae nd s gares wrun#e ofslgene viiii eorlas nd n cyning4 #af nd gare nmon ,westseaxe fri wi one hre4 ,,consult ,,glossary ,,and ,,paradigms ,,under ,,forms ,,given ,,below4 ,no note is made of such variants as y 77 or i 77 for ie 7e74 ,see ,glossary under ie 7e72 occurrences1 also1 of and for nd1 land for lnd1 are found on almost every page of ,early ,west ,saxon4 ,such words should be sought for under the more common forms1 nd1 lnd4 #a cwm4 #b ealdormn4 #c bror4 #d ealne4 #e wron4 #f ealda4 #g geonga4 #h hras4 #i twm4 #aj werode4 ,linenotes3 #ajj4h4 gefeaht4 ,notice that the singular is used4 ,this is the more common construction in ,o4,e4 when a compound subject1 composed of singular members1 follows its predicate4 ,cf4 ,for thine is the kingdom1 and the power1 and the glory4 ,see also p4 #ajg1 note on ws4 ,linenote #ajg4ad-ae #ajj4ah4 nd fela senda ofslgenra1 and there were many thousands of slain 7 #ia74 #aja4ab3 btan m e1 etc41 besides which1 ,alfred 444 made raids against them 7him71 which were not counted4 ,see #gj1 ,note4 ,,ii4 ,a ,,prayer ,,of ,,king ,,alfred4 ,with this characteristic prayer1 ,alfred concludes his translation of ,bothius's ,consolation of ,philosophy4 ,unfortunately1 the only extant ,,ms4 7,bodleian #ahj7 is ,late ,west ,saxon4 ,i follow1 therefore1 ,prof4 ,a4 ,s4 ,cook's normalization on an ,early ,west ,saxon basis4 ,see ,cook's ,first ,book in ,old ,english1 p4 #afc4 page #ajb #a ,dryhten1 lmihtiga ,god1 ,wyrhta and ,wealdend ealra #b gesceafta1 ic bidde for nre miclan mildheortnesse1 #c and for re hlgan rde tcne1 and for ,sanct ,marian #d mghde1 and for ,sancti ,michaeles gehersumnesse1 and #e for ealra nra hlgena lufan and hera earnungum1 t #f m gewissie bt onne ic worhte t 2 and gewissa #g m t num willan1 and t mnre swle earfe1 bt onne #h ic self cunne2 and gestaela mn md t inum willan and #i t mnre swle earfe2 and gestranga m wi s dofles #aj costnungum2 and fierr fram m flan glnesse and #aa lce unrihtwsnesse2 and gescield m wi mnum wierwinnum1 #ab gesewenlcum and ungesewenlcum2 and tc m #ac nne willan t wyrceanne2 t ic mge inweardlce #ad lufian tforan eallum ingum1 mid clnum geance and #ae mid clnum lchaman4 ,for on e eart mn ,scieppend1 #af and mn ,alesend1 mn ,fultum1 mn ,frfor1 mn ,trownes1 #ag and mn ,thopa4 ,se lof and wuldor n and #ah 1 t worulde btan ghwilcum nde4 ,amen4 ,linenotes3 #c-d3 ,marian 444 ,michaeles4 ,o4,e4 is inconsistent in the treatment of foreign names4 ,they are sometimes naturalized1 and sometimes retain in part their original inflections4 ,marian1 an original accusative1 is here used as a genitive2 while ,michaeles has the ,o4,e4 genitive ending4 #ag3 ,se lof4 ,see #aje1 #a4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,voyages ,,of ,,ohthere ,,and ,,wulfstan4 ,lauderdale and ,cottonian ,,mss4 ,these voyages are an original insertion by ,alfred into his translation of ,orosius's ,compendious ,history of the ,world4 8,they consist10 says ,ten ,brink1 8of a complete description of all the countries in which the ,teutonic tongue prevailed at ,alfred's time1 and a full narrative of the travels of two voyagers1 which the king wrote down from their own lips4 ,one of these1 a ,norwegian named ,ohthere1 had quite circumnavigated the coast of ,scandinavia in his travels1 and had even penetrated to the ,white ,sea2 the other1 named ,wulfstan1 had sailed from ,schleswig to ,frische ,haff4 ,the geographical and ethnographical details of both accounts are exceedingly interesting1 and their style is attractive1 clear1 and concrete40 ,ohthere made two voyages4 ,sailing first northward along the western coast of ,norway1 he rounded the ,north ,cape1 passed into the ,white ,sea1 and entered the ,dwina ,river 7n micel a74 ,on his second voyage he sailed southward along the western coast of ,norway1 entered the ,skager ,rack 7wds71 passed through the ,cattegat1 and anchored at the ,danish port of ,haddeby 7t ,hum71 modern ,schleswig4 ,wulfstan sailed only in the ,baltic ,sea4 ,his voyage of seven days from ,schleswig brought him to ,drausen 7,trs7 on the shore of the ,drausensea4 page #ajc ,ohthere's ,first ,voyage4 #a thre sde his hlforde1 lfrede cyninge1 t h #b ealra ,normnna normest bde4 ,h cw t h bde #c on m lande norweardum wi ,wests4 ,h sde #d ah t t land se swe lang nor onan2 ac hit is #e eal wste1 bton on fawum stwum styccemlum wcia #f ,finnas1 on huntoe on wintra1 nd on sumera on fiscae #g be re s4 ,h sde t h t sumum cirre wolde #h fandian h lnge t land norryhte lge1 oe hwer #i nig mn be noran m wstenne bde4 fr h #aj norryhte be m lande3 lt him ealne weg t wste #aa land on t storbord1 nd wds on t bcbord re #ab dagas4 ws h sw feor nor sw hwlhuntan #ac firrest fara4 fr h get norryhte sw feor sw #ad h meahte on m rum rm dagum gesiglan4 bag #ae t land r astryhte1 oe so s in on t lnd1 h #af nysse hwer1 bton h wisse t h r bd westanwindes #ag nd hwn noran1 nd siglde ast be lande #ah sw sw h meahte on fower dagum gesiglan4 #ai sceolde h r bdan ryhtnoranwindes1 for m t #bj land bag r sryhte1 oe so s in on t land1 h #ba nysse hwer4 siglde h nan sryhte be lande page #ajd #a sw sw h mhte#a on ff dagum gesiglan4 lg r #b n micel a p in on t land4 cirdon he p in on #c a1 for m he ne dorston for b re a siglan for #d unfrie2 for m t land ws eall gebn on re healfe #e re as4 ,ne mtte h r nn gebn land1 sian h #f frm his gnum hm fr2 ac him ws ealne weg wste #g land on t storbord1 btan fiscerum nd fugelerum nd #h huntum1 nd t wron eall ,finnas2 nd him ws #i wds on t bcbord4 ,beormas hfdon swe wel #aj gebd hira land3 ac he ne dorston r on cuman4 ,ac #aa ra ,terfinna land ws eal wste1 bton r huntan #ab gewcodon1 oe fisceras1 oe fugeleras4 #a meahte1 mihte4 ,linenotes3 #ajd4f3 frm his gnum hm4 ,an adverbial dative singular without an inflectional ending is found with hm1 dg1 morgen1 and fen4 #ajd4h3 nd t wron4 ,see #dj1 ,note #c4 #ac ,fela spella him sdon ,beormas ger ge of hiera #ad gnum lande ge of m landum e ymb he tan wron2 #ae ac h nyste hwt s ses ws1 for m h hit self ne #af geseah4 ,finnas1 him hte1 nd ,beormas sprcon #ag nah n geode4 ,swost h fr ider1 t acan s #ah landes scawunge1 for m horshwlum1 for m he #ai habba swe ele bn on hiora#b tum-- t he brhton #bj sume m cyninge--nd hiora hd bi swe gd t #ba sciprpum4 ,s hwl bi micle lssa onne re hwalas3 #bb ne bi h lngra onne syfan#c lna lang2 ac on his gnum #bc lande is s btsta hwlhunta3 bo eahta and fowertiges #bd lna lange1 and mstan fftiges lna lange2 #be ra h sde t h syxa sum ofslge syxtig on twm #bf dagum4 #b hiera4 #c seofon4 ,linenotes3 #ajd4ae3 hwt s ses ws4 ,sweet errs in explaining ses as attracted into the genitive by s4 ,it is not a predicate adjective1 but a partitive genitive after hwt4 #ajd4be3 syxa sum4 ,see #ia1 ,note #b4 page #aje #a ,h ws swe spdig man on m htum e heora#b #b spda on bo1 t is1 on wildrum4 ,h hfde gt1 #c h one cyningc#e shte1 tamra dora unbebohtra syx hund4 #d dor h hta #8hrnas'2 ra wron syx stlhrnas2 #e bo swe dre mid ,finnum1 for m h f #f wildan hrnas mid4 ,h ws mid m fyrstum mannum #g on m lande3 nfde h ah m onne twntig hrera1 #h and twntig scapa1 and twntig swna2 and t ltle #i t h rede1 h rede mid horsan4#d ,ac hyra r is mst #aj on m gafole e ,finnas him gylda4 t gafol bi #aa on dora fellum1 and on fugela feerum1 and hwales bne1 #ab and on m sciprpum e bo of hwles hde geworht #ac and of soles4 ghwilc gylt be hys gebyrdum4 ,s byrdesta #ad sceall gyldan fftne meares fell1 and ff hrnes1 #ae and n beren fel1 and tn ambra fera1 and berenne kyrtel #af oe yterenne1 and twgen sciprpas2 ger s syxtig #ag lna lang1 er s of hwles hde geworht1 er of soles4#f #b hiera4 #d horsum4 #e cyning4 #f soles4 ,linenote3 #aje4b3 on bo4 ,see #id1 7#e74 #ah ,h sde t ,normanna land wre swe lang and #ai swe sml4 ,eal t his man er oe ttan oe rian #bj mg1 t l wi s2 and t is ah on sumum #ba stwum swe cldig2 and licga wilde mras wi astan #bb and wi pp on emnlange m bnum lande4 ,on m #bc mrum eardia ,finnas4 ,and t bne land is asteweard #bd brdost1 and symle sw noror sw smlre4 astewrd#g #be hit mg bon#h syxtig mla brd1 oe hwne brdre2 #bf and middeweard rtig oe brdre2 and noreweard h #bg cw1 r hit smalost wre1 t hit mihte bon rora #bh mla brd t m mre2 and s mr syan1#i on sumum page #ajf #a stwum1 sw brd sw man mg on twm wucum oferfran2 #b and on sumum stwum sw brd sw man mg #c on syx dagum oferfran4 #g -weard4 #h bon4 #i sian4 ,linenote3 #aje4ai3 ,eal t his man4 ,pronominal genitives are not always possessive in ,o4,e42 his is here the partitive genitive of hit1 the succeeding relative pronoun being omitted3 ,all that 7portion7 of it that may1 either-of-the-two1 either be grazed or plowed1 etc4 7 #gj1 ,note74 #d onne is temnes m lande seweardum1 on re #e healfe s mres1 ,swoland1 o t land noreweard2 #f and temnes m lande noreweardum1 ,cwna land4 #g ,cwnas hrgia hwlum on ,normn ofer one mr1 #h hwlum ,normn on h4 ,and r sint swe micle #i mras fersce geond mras2 and bera ,cwnas hyra #aj scypu ofer land on mras1 and anon hrgia on #aa ,normn2 h habba swe ltle scypa and swe #ab leohte4 ,linenote3 #ajf4aa-ab3 scypa 444 leohte4 ,these words exhibit inflections more frequent in ,late than in ,early ,west ,saxon4 ,the normal forms would be scypu1 leoht2 but in ,late ,west ,saxon the -u of short-stemmed neuters is generally replaced by -a2 and the nominative accusative plural neuter of adjectives takes1 by analogy1 the masculine endings2 hwate1 gde1 hlge1 instead of hwatu1 gd1 hlgu4 ,ohthere's ,second ,voyage4 #ac hthre sde t so#a scr htte ,hlgoland1 e h on #ad bde4 ,h cw t nn man ne bde be noran him4 #ae onne is n port on seweardum m lande1 one man #af ht ,sciringeshal4 yder h cw t man ne mihte #ag geseglian on num mne1 gyf man on niht wcode1 and #ah lce dge hfde ambyrne wind2 and ealle hwle h #ai sceal seglian be lande4 ,and on t storbord him bi #bj rest raland1 and onne gland e synd betux ralande #ba and issum lande4 onne is is land1 o h cym #bb t ,scirincgeshale1 and ealne weg on t bcbord ,norweg4 page #ajg #a ,wi san one ,sciringeshal fyl swe mycel #b s p in on t land2 so is brdre onne nig man ofer #c son mge4 ,and is ,gotland on re healfe ongan1 and #d sian ,sillnde4 ,so s l mnig#b hund mla p in on #e t land4 #a so4 #b mnig4 #f ,and of ,sciringeshale h cw t h seglode on ff #g dagan#c t m porte e mn ht t ,hum2 s stnt #h betuh ,winedum1 and ,seaxum1 and ,angle1 and hr in #i on ,dne4 h iderweard seglode fram ,sciringeshale1 #aj ws him on t bcbord ,dnamearc and on #aa t storbord wds r dagas2 and 1 twgen dagas r #ab h t ,hum cme1 him ws on t storbord ,gotland1 #ac and ,sillnde1 and glanda fela4 ,on m landum eardodon #ad ngle1 r h hider on land cman4#d ,and hym ws #ae twgen dagas on t bcbord gland e in on #af ,dnemearce hra4 #c dagum4 #d cmen4 ,linenotes3 #ajg4g3 t ,hum4 8,this pleonastic use of t with names of places occurs elsewhere in the older writings1 as in the ,chronicle 7#eeb71 #8in re stwe e is genmned t ,searobyrg1' where the t has been erased by some later hand1 showing that the idiom had become obsolete4 ,cp4 the ,german #8,gasthaus zur ,krone1' ,stamboul es tn plin40 7,sweet47 ,see1 also1 ,atterbury1 #bh1 ,note #c4 #ajg4ad-ae3 ws 444 gland4 ,the singular predicate is due again to inversion 7p4 #ajj1 note on gefeaht linenote #ajj4h74 ,the construction is comparatively rare in ,o4,e41 but frequent in ,shakespeare and in the popular speech of to-day4 ,cf4 ,there is1 ,here is1 ,there has been1 etc41 with a 7single7 plural subject following4 ,wulfstan's ,voyage4 #ag ,wulfstn sde t h gefre of ,hum1 t h wre #ah on ,trs on syfan dagum and nihtum1 t t scip ws #ai ealne weg yrnende under segle4 ,weonoland him ws page #ajh #a on storbord1 and on bcbord him ws ,langaland1 and #b ,lland1 and ,falster1 and ,scng2 and s land eall #c hra t ,dnemearcan4 ,and onne ,burgenda land ws #d s on bcbord1 and habba him sylfe#a cyning4 onne #e fter ,burgenda lande wron s s land1 synd htene #f rest ,blcinga-g1 and ,more1 and owland1 and ,gotland #g on bcbord2 and s land hra t ,swom4 ,and ,weonodland #h ws s ealne weg on storbord o ,wsleman4 #i ,so ,wsle is swe mycel a1 and ho#b tl ,wtland and #aj ,weonodland2 and t ,wtland belimpe t ,estum2 and #aa so ,wsle l t of ,weonodlande1 and l in ,estmre2 #ab and s ,estmre is hru fftne#c mla brd4 onne cyme #ac ,ilfing astan in ,estmre of m mre1 e ,trs stande #ad in ste2 and cuma t samod in ,estmre1 ,ilfing astan #ae of ,estlande1 and ,wsle san of ,winodlande4 ,and #af onne benim ,wsle ,ilfing hire naman1 and lige of m #ag mre west and nor on s2 for hit man ht #ah ,wslema4 #a selfe4 #b ho4 #c fftene4 ,linenote3 #ajh4a-d3 him 444 s4 ,note the characteristic change of person1 the transition from indirect to direct discourse4 #ai t ,estland is swe mycel1 and r bi swe manig #bj burh1 and on lcere byrig bi cyning4 ,and r bi #ba swe mycel hunig1 and fiscna2 and s cyning and #bb rcostan mn drinca mran meolc1 and unspdigan #bc and owan drinca medo4#d r bi swe mycel #bd gewinn betwonan him4 ,and ne bi r nnig ealo#e #be gebrowen mid ,estum1 ac r bi medo genh4 ,and r #bf is mid ,estum aw1 onne r bi man dad1 t h l #bg inne unforbrned mid his mgum and frondum mna1 #bh ge hwlum twgen2 and cyningas1 and re hahungene #bi mn1 sw micle lncg#f sw h mran spda #cj habba1 hwlum healf gar t h bo unforbrned1 and page #aji #a licga bufan eoran on hyra hsum4 ,and ealle hwle #b e t lc bi inne1 r sceal bon gedrync and plega1 #c o one dg e h hine forbrna4 onne ylcan dge #d e h hine t m de beran wylla1 onne tdla h #e his feoh1 t r t lfe bi fter m gedrynce and m #f plegan1 on ff oe syx1 hwlum on m1 sw sw s fos #g andfn bi4 lcga hit onne forhwga on nre mle #h one mstan dl fram m tne1 onne erne1 onne #i one riddan1 o e hyt eall ld bi on re nre mle2 #aj and sceall bon s lsta dl nhst m tne e s dada #aa man on li4 onne sceolon#g bon gesamnode ealle #ab mnn e swyftoste hors habba on m lande1 forhwga #ac on ff mlum oe on syx mlum fram m fo4 onne #ad rna h ealle tweard m fo3 onne cyme s man #ae s t swiftoste hors hafa t m restan dle and t #af m mstan1 and sw lc fter rum1 o hit bi eall #ag genumen2 and s nim one lstan dl s nhst m #ah tne t feoh gerne4 ,and onne rde lc hys weges #ai mid m fo1 and hyt mtan#h habban eall2 and for #bj r bo swiftan hors ungefge dre4 ,and onne his #ba gestron bo us eall spnded1 onne byr man hine t1 #bb and forbrne mid his wpnum and hrgle2 and swost page #aaj #a ealle hys spda h forspnda mid m langan legere #b s dadan mannes inne1 and s e h be m wegum #c lcga1 e frmdan t rna1 and nima4 ,and t #d is mid ,estum aw t r sceal lces geodes man #e bon forbrned2 and gyf r#i man n bn finde unforbrned1 #f h hit sceolan#g miclum gebtan4 ,and r is mid #g ,estum n mg t h magon cyle gewyrcan2 and #h r licga dadan mn sw lange1 and ne flia1 t #i h wyrca one cyle him on4 ,and ah man stte #aj twgen ftels full eala oe wteres1 h ged t #aa ger bi oferfroren1 sam hit s sumor sam winter4 #d medu4 #e ealu4 #f lng4 #g sculon4 #h mton4 #i r4 ,linenotes3 #aji4b3 sceal4 ,see #acg1 ,note #b 7#b74 #aji4g3 lcga hit4 ,bosworth illustrates thus3 vi v iv iii ii i #a #b #c #d #e #f ,x ,,xx ,x ,x ,,xxx ,,xx ,,xx ,x ,x ------------------------------- ,,xxxx ,,xxx ,,xxx ,,xx ,,xx ,x e d c b a ,where the horsemen ,the six parts of the property assemble4 placed within one mile4 8,the horsemen assemble five or six miles from the property1 at d or e1 and run towards c2 the man who has the swiftest horse1 coming first to #a or c1 takes the first and largest part4 ,the man who has the horse coming second takes part #b or b1 and so1 in succession1 till the least part1 #f or a1 is taken40 #aaj4e-f3 man 444 h4 ,here the plural h refers to the singular man4 ,cf4 p4 #aji1 ll4 #ah-ai1 lc 444 mtan4 ,in ,exodus xxxii1 #bd1 we find 8,whosoever hath any gold1 let them break it off02 and ,addison writes1 8,i do not mean that ,i think anyone to blame for taking due care of their health40 ,the construction1 though outlawed now1 has been common in all periods of our language4 ,paul remarks 7,prinzipien der ,sprachgeschichte1 #c;d ed41 #ahf7 that 8,when a word is used as an indefinite one1 man1 somebody1 etc4 it is1 strictly speaking1 incapable of any distinction of number4 ,since1 however1 in respect of the external form1 a particular number has to be chosen1 it is a matter of indifference which this is4444 ,hence a change of numbers is common in the different languages40 ,paul fails to observe that the change is always from singular to plural1 not from plural to singular4 ,see ,note on the ,concord of ,collectives and ,indefinites 7,anglia ,,xi1 #aija74 ,see p4 #aai1 note on ll4 #ai-ba4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,c,,dmon4 ,from the so-called ,alfredian version of ,bede's ,ecclesiastical ,history4 ,the text generally followed is that of ,,ms4 ,bodley1 ,tanner #aj4 ,miller 7,early ,english ,text ,society1 ,no4 #ie1 ,introd47 argues1 chiefly from the use of the prepositions1 that the original ,o4,e4 ,,ms4 was ,mercian1 composed possibly in ,lichfield 7,staffordshire74 ,at any rate1 ,o4,e4 idiom is frequently sacrificed to the ,latin original4 8,cdmon1 as he is called1 is the first ,englishman whose name we know who wrote poetry in our island of ,england2 and the first to embody in verse the new passions and ideas which ,christianity had brought into ,england4444 ,undisturbed by any previous making of lighter poetry1 he came fresh to the work of ,christianising ,english song4 ,it was a great step to make4 ,he built the chariot in which all the new religious emotions of ,england could now drive along40 7,brooke1 ,the ,history of ,early ,english ,literature1 cap4 ,,xv47 ,there is no reason to doubt the historical existence of ,cdmon2 for ,bede1 who relates the story1 lived near ,whitby1 and was seven years old when ,cdmon died 7,a4,d4 #fhj74 page #aaa #a ,in ysse abbudissan mynstre ws sum bror syndriglce #b mid godcundre gife gemred nd geweorad1 for on #c he gewunade gerisenlce lo wyrcan1 e t fstnisse#a #d nd t rfstnisse belumpon2 sw tte sw hwt sw #e h of godcundum stafum urh bceras geleornode1 t h #f fter medmiclum fce in scopgereorde mid mstan #g swtnisse nd inbryrdnisse geglngde1 nd in ngliscgereorde #h wel geworht for brhte4 nd for his losngum page #aab #a mnigra mnna md oft to worulde forhogdnisse nd t #b geodnisse s heofonlcan lfes onbrnde wron4 nd #c ac swelce#b mnige re fter him in ngelode ongunnon #d fste lo wyrcan1 ac nnig hwre him t gelce #e dn ne meahte2 for on h nls frm mnnum n urh #f mn gelred ws t h one locrft leornade1 ac h #g ws godcundlce gefultumod1 nd urh ,godes gife one #h sngcrft onfng2 nd h for on nfre nht lasunge1 #i n dles loes wyrcan ne meahte1 ac efne n t #aj fstnisse#a belumpon nd his fstan tungan gedafenode #aa singan4 #a fstnesse4 #b swilce4 ,linenotes3 #aaa4a3 ysse abbudissan4 ,the abbess referred to is the famous ,hild1 or ,hilda1 then living in the monastery at ,streones-halh1 which1 according to ,bede1 means 8,bay of the ,beacon40 ,the ,danes afterward gave it the name ,whitby1 or 8,white ,town40 ,the surroundings were eminently fitted to nurture ,england's first poet4 8,the natural scenery which surrounded him1 the valley of the ,esk1 on whose sides he probably lived1 the great cliffs1 the billowy sea1 the vast sky seen from the heights over the ocean1 played incessantly upon him40 7,brooke47 ,note1 also1 in this connection1 the numerous ,latin words that the introduction of ,christianity 7,a4,d4 #eig7 brought into the vocabulary of ,o4,e43 abbudisse1 mynster1 bisceop1 ,lden1 prost1 stel1 mancus4 #aab4d-e3 ,the more usual order of words would be ac nnig1 hwre1 ne meahte t dn gelce him4 #aab4aj-aa3 nd his 444 singan1 and which it became his 7the7 pious tongue to sing4 #ab ,ws h1 s mn1 in weoruldhde#c gested o tde e #ac h ws gelfdre ylde1 nd nfre nnig lo geleornade4 #ad nd h for on oft in geborscipe1 onne r ws blisse #ae intinga gedmed1 t ho#d ealle sceolden urh ndebyrdnesse #af be hearpan singan1 onne h geseah hearpan him #ag nalcan1 onne rs h for scme frm m symble1 #ah nd hm ode t his hse4 h t sumre tde #ai dyde1 t h forlt t hs s geborscipes1 nd t ws page #aac #a gngende t nata scipene1 ra heord him ws re #b nihte beboden2 h r on gelimplcre tde his #c leomu#e on rste gestte nd onslpte1 a std him sum #d mn t urh swefn1 nd hine hlette nd grtte1 nd hine #e be his nman nmnde3 8,cdmn1 sing m hwthwugu40 #f ndswarede h1 nd cw3 8,ne cn ic nht singan2 #g nd ic for on of yssum geborscipe t ode nd hider #h gewt1 for on ic nht singan ne ce40 ,eft h cw s e #i wi hine sprecende ws3 8,hwre meaht m singan40 #aj cw h3 8,hwt sceal ic singan80 ,cw h3 8,sing #aa m frumsceaft40 h s andsware onfng1 #ab ongn h sna singan1 in hrenesse ,godes ,scyppendes1 #ac fers nd word e h nfre ne gehrde1 ra ndebyrdnes #ad is is3 #c woruldhde4 #d he4 #e limu4 ,linenotes3 #aab4ad-ae3 blisse intinga1 for the sake of joy2 but the translator has confused laetitiae caus 7ablative7 and laetitiae causa 7nominative74 ,the proper form would be for blisse with omission of intingan1 just as for my sake is usually for m2 for his 7or their7 sake1 for him4 ,cf4 ,mark vi1 #bf3 8,yet for his oath's sake1 and for their sakes which sat with him1 he would not reject her10 for m e1 nd for m e him mid ston4 ,for his sake is frequently for his ingon 7ingum71 rarely for his intingan4 ingon is regularly used when the preceding genitive is a noun denoting a person3 for my wife's sake1 for mnes wfes ingon 7,genesis xx1 #aa71 etc4 #aab4ah-ai3 t 444 t h forlt4 ,the substantival clause introduced by the second t amplifies by apposition the first t3 ,when he then1 at a certain time 7instrumental case1 #ih1 7#b771 did that1 namely1 when he left the house4 ,the better ,mn4,e4 would be this 444 that3 8,added yet this above all1 that he shut up ,john in prison0 7,luke iv1 #bj74 #aac4a-b3 ra 444 beboden4 ,this does not mean that ,cdmon was a herdsman1 but that he served in turn as did the other secular attendants at the monastery4 #aac4ac-ad3 ra ndebyrdnes is is4 ,bede writes ,hic est sensus1 non autem ordo ipse verborum1 and gives in ,latin prose a translation of the hymn from the ,northumbrian dialect1 in which ,cdmon wrote4 ,the ,o4,e4 version given above is1 of course1 not the ,northumbrian original 7which1 however1 with some variations is preserved in several of the ,latin ,,mss4 of ,bede's ,history71 but a ,west ,saxon version made also from the ,northumbrian1 not from the ,latin4 #ae ,n sculon hrigean#f heofonrces ,weard1 #af ,metodes meahte nd his mdgeanc1 #ag weorc ,wuldorfder1 sw h wundra gehws1 #ah ce ,drihten r onstealde4 page #aad #a ,h rest scop eoran bearnum #b heofon t hrfe1 hlig ,scyppend2 #c middangeard mnncynnes ,weard1 #d ce ,drihten1 fter tode #e frum foldan1 ,fra lmihtig4 #f hrian4 ,linenotes3 #aac4ae3 ,n sculon hrigean1 ,now ought we to praise4 ,the subject w is omitted in the best ,,mss4 ,note the characteristic use of synonyms1 or epithets1 in this bit of ,o4,e4 poetry4 ,observe that it is not the thought that is repeated1 but rather the idea1 the concept1 ,god4 ,see p4 #abd4 ,poetry3 ,structure #aac4ag3 wundra gehws4 ,see p4 #adj1 note on cnra gehwylcum ,beowulf #gfi4 #f rs h frm m slpe1 nd eal e h slpende #g sng fste in gemynde hfde2 nd m wordum sna #h mnig word in t ilce gemet ,gode wyres snges #i tgeodde4 cm h on morgenne t m tngerfan1 #aj s e his ealdormn ws3 sgde him hwylce gife h #aa onfng2 nd h hine sna t re abbudissan geldde1 #ab nd hire t cde nd sgde4 heht ho gesmnian #ac ealle gelredestan mn nd leorneras1 nd him #ad ndweardum ht scgan t swefn1 nd t lo singan1 #ae t ealra heora#g dme gecoren wre1 hwt oe hwnan #af t cumen wre4 ws him eallum gesewen1 sw sw #ag hit ws1 t him wre frm ,drihtne sylfum heofonlc page #aae #a gifu forgifen4 rhton ho#d him nd sgdon sum hlig #b spell nd godcundre lre word3 bebudon him 1 gif h #c meahte1 t h in swnsunge losnges t gehwyrfde4 #d h hfde wsan onfngne1 ode h hm t #e his hse1 nd cwm eft on morgenne1 nd btstan #f loe geglnged him sng nd geaf t him beboden #g ws4 #d he4 #g hiera4 ,linenotes3 #aad4g-i3 nd m wordum 444 tgeodde1 and to those words he soon joined1 in the same meter1 many 7other7 words of song worthy of ,god4 ,but the translator has not only blundered over ,bede's ,latin 7eis mox plura in eundem modum verba ,deo digna carminis adjunxit71 but sacrificed still more the idiom of ,o4,e4 ,the predicate should not come at the end2 in should be followed by the dative2 and for ,gode wyres snges the better ,o4,e4 would be snges ,godes wyres4 ,when used with the dative wyr 7weor7 usually means dear 7 of worth7 to4 #aad4af3 444 gesewen4 ,we should expect frm him eallum2 but the translator has again closely followed the ,latin 7visumque est omnibus71 as later 7in the ,conversion of ,edwin7 he renders ,talis mihi videtur by yslc m is gesewen4 ,talis 7yslc7 agreeing with a following vita 7lf74 lfric1 however1 with no ,latin before him1 writes that ,john wear him frm ,drihtene inweardlce gelufod4 ,it would seem that in proportion as a past participle has the force of an adjective1 the to relation may supplant the by relation2 just as we say unknown to instead of unknown by1 unknown being more adjectival than participial4 ,gesewen1 therefore1 may here be translated visible1 evident1 patent 7 gesynelc1 sweotol72 and gelufod1 dear 7 weor1 lof74 ,a survival of adjectival gesewen is found in ,wycliffe's ,new ,testament 7#a ,cor4 xv1 #e-h73 8,he was seyn to ,cephas1 and aftir these thingis to enleuene2 aftirward he was seyn to mo than fyue hundrid britheren togidere 444 aftirward he was seyn to ,james1 and aftirward to alle the apostlis4 ,and last of alle he was seyn to me1 as to a deed borun child40 ,the construction is frequent in ,chaucer4 #h ongan so abbudisse clyppan nd lufigean#h ,godes #i gife in m mn1 nd ho hine mnade nd lrde #aj t h woruldhd forlte nd munuchd onfnge3 nd #aa h t wel afode4 nd ho hine in t mynster onfng #ab mid his gdum1 nd hine geodde t gesmnunge ra #ac ,godes owa1 nd heht hine lran t getl s hlgan #ad stres nd spelles4 nd h eal h in gehrnesse #ae geleornian meahte1 mid hine gemyndgade1 nd sw sw #af clne nten#i eodorcende in t swteste lo gehwyrfde4 #ag nd his sng nd his lo wron sw wynsumu t gehranne1 #ah tte seolfan#aj his lrowas t his me writon #ai nd leornodon4 ,sng h rest be middangeardes gesceape1 #bj nd b fruman mncynnes1 nd eal t str ,genesis 7t #ba is so reste ,moyses bc72 nd eft b tgnge ,israhla #bb folces of gypta lnde1 nd b ingnge s gehtlandes2 #bc nd b rum mnegum spellum s hlgan gewrites page #aaf #a cannes bca2 nd b ,crstes mnniscnesse1 nd b his #b rwunge1 nd b his pstgnesse in heofonas2 nd b #c s ,hlgan ,gstes cyme1 nd ra apostola lre2 nd eft #d b m dge s tweardan dmes1 nd b fyrhtu s #e tintreglcan wtes1 nd b swtnesse s heofonlcan rces1 #f h monig lo geworhte2 nd swelce#b ac er mnig be #g m godcundan frmsumnessum nd dmum h geworhte4 #h ,in eallum m h geornlce gmde#aa t h mn tuge #i frm synna lufan nd mndda1 nd t lufan nd t #aj geornfulnesse whte gdra dda1 for on h ws1 s #aa mn1 swe fst nd regollcum odscipum amdlce #ab underoded2 nd wi m e in re wsan dn woldon1 #ac h ws mid welme#ab micelre llenwdnisse onbrned4 #ad nd h for on fgre nde his lf betnde nd gendade4 #b swilce4 #h lufian4 #i neten4 #aj selfan4 #aa gemde4 #ab wielme4 ,linenotes3 #aae4i-aj3 nd ho hine mnade 444 munuchd onfnge4 ,hild's advice has in it the suggestion of a personal experience1 for she herself had lived half of her life 7thirty-three years7 8before10 says ,bede1 8she dedicated the remaining half to our ,lord in a monastic life40 #aaf4f3 h mnig lo geworhte4 ,the opinion is now gaining ground that of these 8many poems0 only the short hymn1 already given1 has come down to us4 ,of other poems claimed for ,cdmon1 the strongest arguments are advanced in favor of a part of the fragmentary poetical paraphrase of ,genesis4 ,v4 ,,alfred',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,pastoral ,,care4 ,based on the ,hatton ,,ms4 ,of the year #eig1 the ,chronicle says3 8,in this year1 ,gregory the ,pope sent into ,britain ,augustine with very many monks1 who gospelled preached ,god's word to the ,english folk40 ,gregory ,i1 surnamed 8,the ,great10 has ever since been considered the apostle of ,english ,christianity1 and his ,pastoral ,care1 which contains instruction in conduct and doctrine for all bishops1 was a work that ,alfred could not afford to leave untranslated4 ,for this translation ,alfred wrote a ,preface1 the historical value of which it would be hard to overrate4 ,in it he describes vividly the intellectual ruin that the ,danes had wrought1 and develops at the same time his plan for repairing that ruin4 ,this ,preface and the ,battle of ,ashdown 7p4 #ii7 show the great king in his twofold character of warrior and statesman1 and justify the inscription on the base of the statue erected to him in #ahgg1 at ,wantage 7,berkshire71 his birth-place3 8lfred found ,learning dead1 and he restored it2 ,education neglected1 and he revived it2 the laws powerless1 and he gave them force2 the ,church debased1 and he raised it2 the ,land ravaged by a fearful ,enemy1 from which he delivered it4 lfred's name will live as long as mankind shall respect the ,past40 page #aag #a lfred kyning hte grtan ,wrfer biscep#a his wordum #b luflce nd frondlce2 nd can hte t m cm #c swe oft on gemynd1 hwelce#b witan u#c wron giond#d #d ,angelcynn1 ger ge godcundra hda ge woruldcundra2 #e nd h gesliglca tda wron giond ,angelcynn2 nd #f h kyningas e one onwald hfdon s folces on #g m dagum ,gode nd his rendwrecum hrsumedon#e2 #h nd h he ger ge hiora sibbe ge hiora siodo#f ge hiora #i onweald innanbordes geholdon1#d nd ac t hiora el #aj germdon2 nd h him spow ger ge mid wge ge #aa mid wsdme2 nd ac a godcundan hdas h giorne #ab he wron ger ge ymb lre ge ymb liornunga1 ge ymb #ac ealle owotdmas e he ,gode dn scoldon2 nd h #ad man tanbordes wsdm nd lre hieder on lnd shte1 #ae nd h w he n sceoldon te begietan1 gif w he habban #af sceoldon4 ,sw#g clne ho ws ofeallenu on ,angelcynne #ag t swe fawa wron behionan ,humbre e hiora ninga #ah cen understndan on nglisc oe furum n rendgewrit #ai of ,ldene on nglisc rccean2 nd ic wne tte #bj nht mnige begiondan ,humbre nren4 ,sw#g fawa #ba hiora wron t ic furum nne nlpne#h ne mg geencean page #aah #a be san ,tmese1 ic t rce fng4 ,gode lmihtegum #b se nc tte w n nigne onstl habba #c lrowa4 nd for on ic bebode t d sw#g ic #d gelefe t wille1 t issa woruldinga t m #e gemetige1 sw oftost mge1 t one wsdm e #f ,god sealde r r hiene befstan mge1 befste4 #g ,genc hwelc#i wtu s becmon for isse worulde1 #h w hit nhwer n selfe ne lufodon1 n ac rum #i mnnum ne lfdon#aj3 one naman nne w lufodon tte #aj w ,crstne wren1 nd swe fawe awas4 #a bisceop4 #b hwilce4 #c gu4 #d ,for all words with io 7o71 consult ,glossary under eo 7o74 #e hersumedon4 #f sidu 7siodu74 #g sw4 #h nlpigne4 #i hwilc4 #aj lefdon4 ,linenotes3 #aag4a-b3 lfred kyning hte 444 hte4 ,note the change from the formal and official third person 7hte7 to the more familiar first person 7hte74 ,so lfric1 in his ,preface to ,genesis1 writes lfric munuc grt elwrd ealdormann admdlce4 bde m1 lof1 t ic1 etc43 lfric1 monk1 greets thelweard1 alderman1 humbly4 ,thou1 beloved1 didst bid me that ,i1 etc4 #aah4e3 ,notice that mge 7l4 #e7 and mge 7l4 #f7 are not in the subjunctive because the sense requires it1 but because they have been attracted by gmetige and befste4 ,sen 7p4 #aai1 l4 #ae7 and hbben 7p4 #aai1 l4 #bj7 illustrate the same construction4 #aah4i-aj3 ,we liked only the reputation of being ,christians1 very few 7of us7 the ,christian virtues4 #aa ic is eall gemunde1 gemunde ic ac h ic #ab geseah1 r m e hit eall forhrgod wre nd forbrned1 #ac h ciricean giond eall ,angelcynn stdon #ad mma nd bca gefylda1 nd ac micel mnigeo#aa ,godes #ae owa2 nd swe ltle fiorme ra bca wiston1 for #af m e he hiora nnwuht#ab ongietan ne meahton1 for #ag m e he nron on hiora gen geode awritene4 #ah ,swelce#ac he cwden3 8,ure ieldran1 e s stwa r #ai holdon1 he lufodon wsdm1 nd urh one he begaton #bj welan1 nd s lfdon4 ,hr mn mg get geson hiora #ba sw1 ac w him ne cunnon fter spyrigean1#ad nd for #bb m w habba n ger forlten ge one welan ge one #bc wsdm1 for m e w noldon t m spore mid re #bd mde onltan40 #aa mnigu4 #ab nnwiht4 #ac swilce4 #ad spyrian4 #be ic is eall gemunde1 wundrade ic swe swe #bf ra gdena wiotona#ae e gu wron giond ,angelcynn1 nd #bg bc ealla be fullan geliornod hfdon1 t he hiora page #aai #a nnne dl noldon on hiora gen geode wndan4 ,ac #b ic sna eft m selfum andwyrde1 nd cw3 8,he ne #c wndon tte fre mnn sceolden sw#g reccelase weoran1 #d nd so lr sw ofeallan2 for re wilnunga he #e hit forlton1 nd woldon t hr mra wsdm on #f lnde wre w m geoda con40 #g sw4 #ae witena4 #g gemunde ic h so ws rest on ,ebrisc geode #h funden1 nd eft1 he ,cracas geliornodon1 wndon #i he he on hiora gen geode ealle1 nd ac ealle re #aj bc4 nd eft ,ldenware sw same1 sian he he geliornodon1 #aa he he wndon ealla urh wse wealhstdas #ab on hiora gen geode4 nd ac ealla ra ,crstena #ac oda sumne dl hiora on hiora gen geode wndon4 #ad ,for m ync btre1 gif ow sw ync1 t w ac #ae suma bc1 e nedbeearfosta sen eallum mnnum #af t wiotonne1#af t w on t geode wnden e w #ag ealle gecnwan mgen1 nd gedn sw w swe ae #ah magon mid ,godes fultume1 gif w stilnesse habba1 #ai tte eall so giogu e n is on ,angelcynne friora #bj mnna1 ra e spda hbben t he m befolan #ba mgen1 sen t liornunga ofste1 hwle e he t page #abj #a nnre erre note ne mgen1 o one first e he wel #b cunnen nglisc gewrit rdan3 lre mn sian furur #c on ,ldengeode e mn furor lran wille1 nd t #d herran hde dn wille4 ic gemunde h so lr #e ,ldengeodes r issum feallen ws giond ,angelcynn1 #f nd eah mnige con nglisc gewrit rdan1 #g ongan ic ongemang orum mislcum nd manigfealdum #h bisgum isses kynerces bc wndan on nglisc e is #i genmned on ,lden 8,pastoralis10 nd on nglisc 8,hierdebc10 #aj hwlum word be worde1 hwlum andgit of andgiete1 #aa sw sw ic he geliornode t ,plegmunde mnum #ab rcebiscepe1 nd t ,assere mnum biscepe1 nd t ,grimbolde #ac mnum msseproste1 nd t ,ihanne mnum msseproste4 #ad ,sian ic he geliornod hfde1 sw sw #ae ic he forstd1 nd sw ic he andgitfullcost rccean #af meahte1 ic he on nglisc wnde2 nd t lcum biscepstle #ag on mnum rce wille ne onsndan2 nd on lcre #ah bi n stel1 s bi on fftegum mancessa4 nd ic bebode #ai on ,godes naman t nn mn one stel frm #bj re bc ne d1 n bc frm m mynstre2 unc h #ba lnge r sw gelrede biscepas sen1 sw sw n1 ,gode #bb onc1 wel hwr siendon4 ,for ic wolde tte he ealneg page #aba #a t re stwe wren1 bton s biscep he mid him #b habban wille1 oe ho hwr t lne se1 oe hw re #c b wrte4 #af witanne4 ,linenotes3 #aai4ad3 ,alfred is here addressing the bishops collectively1 and hence uses the plural ow 7 ow71 not 4 #aai4af3 t w 4 ,these three words are not necessary to the sense4 ,they constitute the figure known as epanalepsis1 in which 8the same word or phrase is repeated after one or more intervening words40 is the pronominal substitute for suma bc4 #aai4ag3 ,gedn is the first person plural subjunctive 7from infinitive gedn74 ,it and wnden are in the same construction4 ,two things seem 8better0 to ,alfred3 7#a7 that we translate1 etc41 7#b7 that we cause1 etc4 #aai4ai-ba3 so giogu 444 is 444 he 444 sen4 ,notice how the collective noun1 giogu1 singular at first both in form and function1 gradually loses its oneness before the close of the sentence is reached1 and becomes plural4 ,the construction is entirely legitimate in ,mn4,e4 ,spanish is the only modern language known to me that condemns such an idiom3 8,spanish ideas of congruity do not permit a collective noun1 though denoting a plurality1 to be accompanied by a plural verb or adjective in the same clause0 7,ramsey1 ,text-,book of ,modern ,spanish1 #adeb74 #abj4b3 lre mn4 ,see #aje1 #a4 #abj4aa-ac3 ,that none of these advisers of the king1 except ,plegmond1 a ,mercian1 were natives1 bears out what ,alfred says about the scarcity of learned men in ,england when he began to reign4 ,asser1 to whose ,latin ,life of ,alfred1 in spite of its mutilations1 we owe almost all of our knowledge of the king1 came from ,st4 ,david's 7in ,wales71 and was made ,bishop of ,sherborne4 #aba4a3 ,translate t re stwe by each in its place4 ,the change from plural he 7in he 444 wren7 to singular he 7in the clauses that follow7 will thus be prepared for4 #aba4b-c3 oe hw re b wrte1 or unless some one wish to copy a new one 7write thereby another74 ,,poetry4 ,,introductory4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,in ,section ,,ii41 ,structure1 the stress markers and are intended to display above the macron - or breve 3 - - ,some computers will instead show them after 7to the right of7 the macron4 8,resolved stress0 7two short syllables acting as one long7 is shown with a double breve below the syllables3 ,if your computer does not have this character1 it will probably display a box or question mark between the two syllables4 ,i4 ,,history4 7a7 ,old ,english ,poetry as a ,whole4 ,northumbria was the home of ,old ,english poetry4 ,beginning with ,cdmon and his school ,a4,d4 #fgj1 ,northumbria maintained her poetical supremacy till ,a4,d4 #hjj1 seven years before which date the ravages of the ,danes had begun4 ,when ,alfred ascended the throne of ,wessex 7#hga71 the ,danes had destroyed the seats of learning throughout the whole of ,northumbria4 ,as ,whitby had been 8the cradle of ,english poetry10 ,winchester 7,alfred's capital7 became now the cradle of ,english prose2 and the older poems that had survived the fire and sword of the ,vikings were translated from the original ,northumbrian dialect into the ,west ,saxon dialect4 ,it is1 therefore1 in the ,west ,saxon dialect that these poems#a have come down to us4 ,old ,english poetry contains in all only about thirty thousand lines2 but it includes epic1 lyric1 didactic1 elegiac1 and allegorical poems1 together with war-ballads1 paraphrases1 riddles1 and charms4 ,of the five elegiac poems 7,wanderer1 ,seafarer1 ,ruin1 ,wife's ,complaint1 and ,husband's ,message71 the ,wanderer is the most artistic1 and best portrays the gloomy contrast between past happiness and present grief so characteristic of the ,old ,english lyric4 ,old ,english literature has no love poems4 ,the central themes of its poets are battle and bereavement1 with a certain grim resignation on the part of the hero to the issues of either4 ,the movement of the thought is usually abrupt1 there being a noticeable poverty of transitional particles1 or connectives1 8which10 says ,ten ,brink1 8are the cement of sentence-structure40 7b7 ,beowulf4 ,the greatest of all ,old ,english poems is the epic1 ,beowulf4#b ,it consists of more than three thousand lines1 and probably assumed approximately its present form in ,northumbria about ,a4,d4 #gjj4 ,it is a crystallization of continental myths2 and1 though nothing is said of ,england1 the story is an invaluable index to the social1 political1 and ethical ideals of our ,germanic ancestors before and after they settled along the ,english coast4 ,it is most poetical1 and its testimony is historically most valuable1 in the character-portraits that it contains4 ,the fatalism that runs through it1 instead of making the characters weak and less human1 serves at times rather to dignify and elevate them4 8,fate10 says ,beowulf 7l4 #egb71 recounting his battle with the sea-monsters1 8often saves an undoomed man if his courage hold out40 8,the ethical essence of this poetry10 says ,ten ,brink1 8lies principally in the conception of manly virtue1 undismayed courage1 the stoical encounter with death1 silent submission to fate1 in the readiness to help others1 in the clemency and liberality of the prince toward his thanes1 and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they reward him40 ,,note #a4--,many different interpretations have been put upon the story of ,beowulf 7for argument of story1 see texts74 ,thus ,mllenhoff sees in ,grendel the giant-god of the storm-tossed equinoctial sea1 while ,beowulf is the ,scandinavian god ,freyr1 who in the spring drives back the sea and restores the land4 ,laistner finds the prototype of ,grendel in the noxious exhalations that rise from the ,frisian coast-marshes during the summer months2 ,beowulf is the wind-hero1 the autumnal storm-god1 who dissipates the effluvia4 ,footnote #a3 ,this does not1 of course1 include the few short poems in the ,chronicle1 or that portion of ,genesis 7,genesis ,b7 supposed to have been put directly into ,west ,saxon from an ,old ,saxon original4 ,there still remain in ,northumbrian the version of ,cdmon's ,hymn1 fragments of the ,ruthwell ,cross1 ,bede's ,death-,song1 and the ,leiden ,riddle4 ,footnote #b3 ,the word bowulf1 says ,grimm1 meant originally bee-wolf1 or bee-enemy1 one of the names of the woodpecker4 ,sweet thinks the bear was meant4 ,but the word is almost certainly a compound of ,bow 7cf4 ,o4,e4 bow grain71 a ,danish demigod1 and wulf used as a mere suffix4 ,,ii4 ,,structure4 7a7 ,style4 ,in the structure of ,old ,english poetry the most characteristic feature is the constant repetition of the idea 7sometimes of the thought7 with a corresponding variation of phrase1 or epithet4 ,when1 for example1 the ,queen passes into the banquet hall in ,beowulf1 she is designated at first by her name1 ,wealhow2 she is then described in turn as cwn ,hrgres 7,hrothgar's queen71 gold-hroden 7the gold-adorned71 frolc wf 7the noble woman71 ides ,helminga 7the ,helmings' lady71 bag-hroden cwn 7the ring-adorned queen71 mde geungen 7the high-spirited71 and gold-hroden frolcu folc-cwn 7the gold-adorned1 noble folk-queen74 ,and whenever the sea enters largely into the poet's verse1 not content with simple 7uncompounded7 words 7such as s1 lagu1 holm1 stram1 mre1 etc471 he will use numerous other equivalents 7phrases or compounds71 such as waema gebind 7the commingling of waves71 lagu-fld 7the sea-flood71 lagu-strt 7the sea-street71 swan-rd 7the swan-road71 etc4 ,these compounds are usually nouns1 or adjectives and participles used in a sense more appositive than attributive4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that this abundant use of compounds1 or periphrastic synonyms1 grows out of the desire to repeat the idea in varying language4 ,it is to be observed1 also1 that the ,old ,english poets rarely make any studied attempt to balance phrase against phrase or clause against clause4 ,theirs is a repetition of idea1 rather than a parallelism of structure4 ,,note #a4--;,it is impossible to tell how many of these synonymous expressions had already become stereotyped1 and were used1 like many of the epithets in the ,iliad and ,odyssey1 purely as padding4 ,when1 for example1 the poet tells us that at the most critical moment ,beowulf's sword failed him1 adding in the same breath1 ren r-gd 7matchless blade71 we conclude that the bard is either nodding or parroting4 7b7 ,meter4 ,re-read #aj1 7#c74 ,primary ,stress4 ,old ,english poetry is composed of certain rhythmically ordered combinations of accented and unaccented syllables4 ,the accented syllable 7the arsis7 is usually long1 and will be indicated by the macron with the acute accent over it 7-72 when short1 by the breve with the same accent 774 ,the unaccented syllable or syllables 7the thesis7 may be long or short1 and will be indicated by the oblique cross 774 ,secondary ,stress4 ,a secondary accent1 or stress1 is usually put upon the second member of compound and derivative nouns1 adjectives1 and adverbs4 ,this will be indicated by the macron with the grave accent1 if the secondary stress falls on a long syllable 7-72 by the breve with the same accent1 if the secondary stress falls on a short syllable 774 ,nouns3 ,hrgres 7--71 fondgrpum 7--71 fromgum 7--71 ast-,dna 7-71 ,helminga 7--71 ,scyldinga 7--71 nhaga 7-71 ,ecgowes 7--71 sinc-fato 7-74 ,adjectives3#a ghwylcne 7--71 rsthdig 7--71 gold-hroden 7-71 drorigne 7--71 gyldenne 7--71 erne 7--71 gstlcum 7--71 wynsume 7-71 nigne 7--74 ,adverbs3#b unsfte 7--71 heardlce 7--71 smninga 7--74 ,the ,old ,english poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending of present participles 7-ende71 and upon the penultimate of weak verbs of the second class 7 #acj71 provided the root-syllable is long4#c ,present participles3 slpendne 7--71 ws-hycgende 7---71 flotendra 7--71 hrosende 7--74 ,weak verbs3 swynsode 7-71 ancode 7-71 wnigean 7-71 scawian 7-71 scawige 7-71 hlfian 7-74 ,footnote #a3 ,it will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly derivatives in -ig1 -en1 -er1 -lc1 and -sum4 ,footnote #b3 ,most of the adverbs belonging here end in -lce1 -unga1 and -inga1 #ic1 7#a71 7#b73 such words as t-gdere1 on-gan1 on-wg1 t-ganes1 t-mddes1 etc41 are invariably accented as here indicated4 ,footnote #c3 ,it will save the student some trouble to remember that this means long by nature 7lcodon71 or long by position 7swynsode71 or long by resolution of stress 7maelode71--see next paragraph4 ,resolved ,stress4 ,a short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented syllable 7usually short also7 is equivalent to one long accented syllable 7 -74 ,this is known as a resolved stress1 and will be indicated thus1 2 hlea 771 guman 771 ,gode 771 sle-ful 771 ides 771 fyrena 771 maelode 771 hogode 771 mgen-llen 7-71 hige-ihtigne 7--71 ,metudes 771 lagulde 7-71 unlyfigendes 7--71 biforan 771 forolian 771 baian 771 worolde 7-74 ,resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses3 sinc-fato 7-71 dryht-sle 7-71 ferloca 7-71 forwege 7-74 ,the ,normal ,line4 ,every normal line of ,old ,english poetry has four primary accents1 two in the first half-line and two in the second half-line4 ,these half-lines are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration1 the alliterative letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second half-line4 ,this syllable1 therefore1 gives the cue to the scansion of the whole line4 ,it is also the only alliterating syllable in the second half-line4 ,the first half-line1 however1 usually has two alliterating syllables1 but frequently only one 7the ratio being about three to two in the following selections74 ,when the first half-line contains but one alliterating syllable1 that syllable marks the first stress1 rarely the second4 ,the following lines are given in the order of their frequency3 7#a7 r ws hlea hlahtor2 hln swnsode4 7#b7 mde gengen1 mdo-ful tbr4 7#c7 sna t onfnde frena hrde4 ,any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial vowel or diphthong2 but a consonant requires the same consonant1 except st1 sp1 and sc1 each of which alliterates only with itself4 ,remembering1 now1 that either half-line 7especially the second7 may begin with several unaccented syllables 7these syllables being known in types ,a1 ,d1 and ,e as the anacrusis71 but that neither half-line can end with more than one unaccented syllable1 the student may begin at once to read and properly accentuate ,old ,english poetry4 ,it will be found that the alliterative principle does not operate mechanically1 but that the poet employs it for the purpose of emphasizing the words that are really most important4 ,sound is made subservient to sense4 ,when1 from the lack of alliteration1 the student is in doubt as to what word to stress1 let him first get the exact meaning of the line1 and then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the chief burden of the poet's thought4 ,,note #a4--;,a few lines1 rare or abnormal in their alliteration or lack of alliteration1 may here be noted4 ,in the texts to be read1 there is one line with no alliteration3 ,wanderer #eh2 three of the type a b a b3 ,beowulf #fed1 #hcj1 #bgdf2 one of the type a a b a3 ,beowulf #bgdd2 one of the type a a b c3 ,beowulf #bgah2 and one of the type a b c a3 ,beowulf #bgch4 ,the ,five ,types4 ,by an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in ,old ,english verse1 the half-line1 ,professor ,eduard ,sievers1#d of the ,university of ,leipzig1 has shown that there are only five types1 or varieties1 employed4 ,these he classifies as follows1 the perpendicular line serving to separate the so-called feet1 or measures3 #a4 ,a - - #b4 ,b - - #c4 ,c - - #d4 ,d ,d#a - - - ,d#b - - - #e4 ,e ,e#a - - - ,e#b - - - ,it will be seen 7#a7 that each half-line contains two1 and only two1 feet2 7#b7 that each foot contains one1 and only one1 primary stress2 7#c7 that ,a is trochaic1 ,b iambic2 7#d7 that ,c is iambic-trochaic2 7#e7 that ,d and ,e consist of the same feet but in inverse order4 ,footnote #d3 ,sievers' two articles appeared in the ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der deutschen ,sprache und ,literatur1 ,vols4 ,x 7#ahhe7 and ,,xii 7#ahhg74 ,a brief summary1 with slight modifications1 is found in the same author's ,altgermanische ,metrik1 pp4 #abj-add 7#ahic74 ,before attempting to employ ,sievers' types1 the student would do well to read several pages of ,old ,english poetry1 taking care to accentuate according to the principles already laid down4 ,in this way his ear will become accustomed to the rhythm of the line1 and he will see more clearly that ,sievers' work was one primarily of systematization4 ,sievers himself says3 8,i had read ,old ,english poetry for years exactly as ,i now scan it1 and long before ,i had the slightest idea that what ,i did instinctively could be formulated into a system of set rules40 7,altgermanische ,metrik1 ,vorwort1 p4 #aj47 ,the ,five ,types ,illustrated4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,in the printed book1 all examples line up vertically at the main 4 ,all the illustrations1 as hitherto1 are taken from the texts to be read4 ,the figures prefixed indicate whether first or second half-line is cited4 ,b ,beowulf2 ,w ,wanderer4 #a4 ,,type ,a1 - - ,two or more unaccented syllables 7instead of one7 may intervene between the two stresses1 but only one may follow the last stress4 ,if the thesis in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives1 of course1 a secondary stress4 7#b7 ful gesealde1 ,b4 #faf1 - - 7#a7 wdre gewindan1 ,b4 #gfd1 - - 7#a7e ,gemunde s gda1 ,b4 #gei - - 7#a7e swylce h on ealder-dagum1 ,b4 #geh1 - 7#a7 de sw isne eardgeard1 ,w4 #he1 - - - 7#a7 ws-fst wordum1 ,b4 #fbg1 - - - 7#a7 gryre-lo galan1 ,b4 #ghg1 - 7#b7 smod tgdre1 ,w4 #ci1 - 7#a7 dugue nd geogoe1 ,b4 #fbb1 7#a7 fger fold-bold1 ,b4 #ggd1 - - - 7#a7 atelc gesa1 ,b4 #ghe1 - 7#b7 goldwine mnne1 ,w4 #bb1 - - 7#a7 gesan on 99han3 #aah1 ,b4 #bgcg1 - ,,note4--,rare forms of ,a are - - - 7does not occur in texts71 - - - - 7occurs once1 ,b4 #gha 7#a771 and - - - 7once1 ,b4 #bgdc 7#a774 ,footnote #e3 ,the first perpendicular marks the limit of the anacrusis4 #b4 ,,type ,b1 - - ,two1 but not more than two1 unaccented syllables may intervene between the stresses4 ,the type of ,b most frequently occurring is - -4 7#a7 nd frolc wf1 ,b4 #faf1 - - 7#b7 h on lust geeah1 ,b4 #fai1 - - 7#b7 se eling gong1 ,b4 #bgaf1 - 7#b7 seah on nta geweorc1 ,b4 #bgah1 - - 7#a7 ofer flda genipu1 ,b4 #bhji1 - 7#a7 foram m wtan ne earf1 ,b4 #bgdb1 - - 7#b7 aes e hire se willa gelamp1 ,b4 #fbg1 - - 7#a7 foron ne mg weoran ws1 ,w4 #fd1 - - 7#a7 ,nfre ic negum n'gum mn1 ,b4 #fef1 - - ,,note4--,in the last half-line ,sievers substitutes the older form ngum1 and supposes elision of the e in ,nfre 7 ,nfr-ic3 - -74 #c4 ,,type ,c1 - - ,the conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and derivative words1 and the second stress 7not so strong as the first7 is frequently on a short syllable4 ,the two arses rarely alliterate4 ,as in ,b1 two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than one4 7#a7 t ho on nigne1 ,b4 #fbh1 - - 7#a7 t ic nunga1 ,b4 #fce1 - - 7#b7 ode gold-hroden1 ,b4 #fda1 - 7#a7 gemyne mro1 ,b4 #ffj1 - 7#a7 on isse meodu-healle1 ,b4 #fci1 - 7#b7 t brimes nosan1 ,b4 #bhjd1 7#b7 t ,wealhon -owan1 ,b4 #fcj1 - - 7#a7 geond lagulde1 ,w4 #c1 - 7#a7 ,sw cw eardstapa1 ,w4 #f1 - 7#b7 al byrnwiga1 ,w4 #id1 - 7#b7 n r fela bringe1 ,w4 #ed1 - #d4 ,,type ,d1 ,d#a - - - ,d#b - - - ,both types of ,d may take one unaccented syllable between the two primary stresses 7- - - 1 - - -74 ,the secondary stress in ,d#a falls usually on the second syllable of a compound or derivative word1 and this syllable 7as in ,c7 is frequently short4 7a7 ,d#a - - - 7#a7 cwn ,hrgres1 ,b4 #fad1 - - - 7#b7 dl ghwylcne1 ,b4 #fbb1 - - - 7#a7 ,bowulf maelode1 ,b4 #fcb1 - 7#b7 slt unwearnum1 ,b4 #gdb1 - - - 7#a7 wrra wlsleahta1 ,w4 #g1 - - - 7#a7 wd wintercearig wint'rcearig1 ,w4 #bd1 - - 7#a7 shte sle drorig1 ,w4 #be1 - - 7#a7 ne shte searo-nas1 ,b4 #bgci1 - - ,,note4--,there is one instance in the texts 7,b4 #fac1 7#a77 of apparent - - 3 word wron wynsume4 7,the triple alliteration has no significance4 ,the sense1 besides1 precludes our stressing wron47 ,the difficulty is avoided by bringing the line under the ,a type3 - - 4 7b7 ,d#b - - - 7#b7 ,for nar tstp1 ,b4 #gdf1 - - - 7#b7 eorl furur stp1 ,b4 #gfb1 - - - 7#b7 ,dnum eallum wear1 ,b4 #gfh1 - - 7#a7 grtte ,gata lod1 ,b4 #fbf1 - - - 7#a7 nig yrfe-weard1 ,b4 #bgcb1 - - - 7#a7 hrosan hrm and snw1 ,w4 #dh1 - - - 7#b7 swimma eft on weg1 ,w4 #ec1 - - - ,very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded4 7#b7 egn ungemete till1 ,b4 #bgbb1 - - - 7#a7 hrsan heolster biwrh1 ,w4 #bc1 - - - #e4 ,,type ,e1 ,e#a - - - ,e#b - - - ,the secondary stress in ,e#a falls frequently on a short syllable1 as in ,d#a4 7a7 ,e#a - - - 7#a7 wyrmlcum fh1 ,w4 #ih1 - - - 7#b7 medo-ful tbr1 ,b4 #fbe1 - 7#a7 s-bt gest1 ,b4 #fcd1 - - - 7#a7 sige-folca swg1 ,b4 #fde1 - - 7#b7 ,nor-,dnum std1 ,b4 #ghd1 - - 7#a7 fond-grpum fst1 ,b4 #fcg1 - - - 7#b7 wyn eal gedras1 ,w4 #cf1 - - - 7#b7 feor oft gemn1 ,w4 #ij1 - - - ,as in ,d#b1 the thesis in the first foot is very rarely expanded4 7#a7 wn-rnes geweald1 ,b4 #fee1 - - - 7#a7 ,hafa n nd geheald1 ,b4 #fei1 - - 7#a7 searo-ncum besmiod1 ,b4 #ggf1 - ,,note4--,our ignorance of ,old ,english sentence-stress makes it impossible for us to draw a hard-and-fast line in all cases between ,d#b and ,e#a4 ,for example1 in these half-lines 7already cited71 wyn eal gedras feor oft gemn ,for nar tstp if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their verbs1 the type is ,d#b4 ,lessen the stress on the adverbs and increase it on the verbs1 and we have ,e#a4 ,the position of the adverbs furnishes no clue2 for the order of words in ,old ,english was governed not only by considerations of relative emphasis1 but by syntactic and euphonic considerations as well4 7b7 ,e#b - - - ,this is the rarest of all types4 ,it does not occur in the texts1 there being but one instance of this type 7l4 #bdcg 7#b771 and that doubtful1 in the whole of ,beowulf4 ,abnormal ,lines4 ,the lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are comparatively few4 ,they may be divided into two classes1 7#a7 hypermetrical lines1 and 7#b7 defective lines4 7#a7 ,,hypermetrical ,,lines4 ,each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses1 thus giving six stresses to the whole line instead of two4 ,these lines occur chiefly in groups1 and mark increased range and dignity in the thought4 ,whether the half-line be first or second1 it is usually of the ,a type without anacrusis4 ,to this type belong the last five lines of the ,wanderer4 ,lines #ib and #ic are also unusually long1 but not hypermetrical4 ,the first half-line of #fe is hypermetrical1 a fusion of ,a and ,c1 consisting of 7-- -74 7#b7 ,,defective ,,lines4 ,the only defective lines in the texts are ,b4 #gdh and #bgae 7the second half-line in each74 ,as they stand1 these half-lines would have to be scanned thus3 rhte ongan - - bealo-n woll - - ,sievers emends as follows3 rhte tganes - - ,a bealo-ne woll - - ,e#a ,these defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations found on almost every page of ,old ,english prose4 ,that they occur so rarely in poetry is strong presumptive evidence1 if further evidence were needed1 in favor of the adequacy of ,sievers' five-fold classification4 ,,note4--,all the lines that could possibly occasion any difficulty to the student have been purposely cited as illustrations under the different types4 ,if these are mastered1 the student will find it an easy matter to scan the lines that remain4 ,,selections ,,for ,,reading4 ,,vi4 ,,extracts ,,from ,,beowulf4 ,,the ,,banquet ,,in ,,heorot4 ,lines #fab-ffb4 ,the ,heyne-,socin text has been closely followed4 ,i have attempted no original emendations1 but have deviated from the ,heyne-,socin edition in a few cases where the ,grein-,wlker text seemed to give the better reading4 ,the argument preceding the first selection is as follows3 ,hrothgar1 king of the ,danes1 or ,scyldings1 elated by prosperity1 builds a magnificent hall in which to feast his retainers2 but a monster1 ,grendel by name1 issues from his fen-haunts1 and night after night carries off thane after thane from the banqueting hall4 ,for twelve years these ravages continue4 ,at last ,beowulf1 nephew of ,hygelac1 king of the ,geats 7a people of ,south ,sweden71 sails with fourteen chosen companions to ,dane-land1 and offers his services to the aged ,hrothgar4 8,leave me alone in the hall to-night10 says ,beowulf4 ,hrothgar accepts ,beowulf's proffered aid1 and before the dread hour of visitation comes1 the time is spent in wassail4 ,the banquet scene follows4 r ws hlea hleahtor1 hlyn swynsode1 word wron wynsume4 ode ,wealhow for1 cwn ,hrgres1 cynna gemyndig2 grtte gold-hroden guman on healle1 #fae nd frolc wf ful gesealde rest ast-,dna el-wearde1 bd hine blne t re bor-ge1 lodum lofne2 h on lust geeah symbel nd sle-ful1 sige-rf kyning4 #fbj ,ymb-ode ides ,helminga dugue nd geogoe dl ghwylcne1 sinc-fato sealde1 o t sl lamp t ho#a ,bowulfe1 bag-hroden cwn1 mde geungen1 medo#b-;ful tbr2 #fbe grtte ,gata lod1 ,gode ancode ws-fst wordum1 s e hire se willa gelamp1 t ho on nigne eorl gelfde fyrena frfre4 ,h t ful geeah1 wl-row wiga1 t ,wealhon1 #fcj nd gyddode ge gefsed2 ,bowulf maelode1 bearn ,ecgowes3 8,ic t hogode1 ic on holm gesth1 s-bt gest mid mnra scga gedriht1 t ic nunga owra loda #fce willan geworhte1 oe on wl crunge fond-grpum fst4 ,ic gefrmman sceal eorlc llen1 oe nde-dg on isse meodu#b-;healle mnne gebdan40 m wfe word wel lcodon1 #fdj gilp-cwide ,gates2 ode gold-hroden frolicu folc-cwn t hire fran sittan4 ws eft sw r inne on healle r-word sprecen1#c od on slum1 sige-folca swg1 o t smninga #fde sunu ,healfdnes scean wolde fen-rste2 wiste m hlcan#d t m hah-sle hilde geinged1 sian he sunnan loht geson ne meahton oe npende niht ofer ealle1 #fej scadu-helma gesceapu scran cwman1#e wan under wolcnum4 ,werod eall rs2 grtte giddum guma erne ,hrgr ,bowulf1 nd him hl bad1 wn-rnes geweald1 nd t word cw3 #fee 8,nfre ic negum#f mn r lfde1 sian ic hnd nd rnd hbban mihte1 r-rn ,dna bton n 4 ,hafa n nd geheald hsa slest1 gemyne mro1#g mgen-llen c1 #ffj waca wi wrum4 ,ne bi wilna gd1 gif t llen-weorc aldre#h gedgest40 #a ho4 #b medu-4 #c gesprecen4 #d glcan4 #e cwmon4 #f nigum4 #g mre 7acc4 sing474 #h ealdre 7instr4 sing474 ,linenotes3 #fbc3 sinc-fato sealde4 ,banning 7,die epischen ,formeln im ,beowulf7 shows that the usual translation1 gave costly gifts1 must be given up2 or1 at least1 that the costly gifts are nothing more than beakers of mead4 ,the expression is an epic formula for passing the cup4 #fch-ci3 nde-g 444 mnne4 ,this unnatural separation of noun and possessive is frequent in ,o4,e4 poetry1 but almost unknown in prose4 #fda-db3 ode 444 sittan4 ,the poet might have employed t sittanne 7 #ajh1 7#a772 but in poetry the infinitive is often used for the gerund4 ,alfred himself uses the infinitive or the gerund to express purpose after gn1 gngan1 cuman1 and sndan4 #fdg-ea3 wiste 444 cwman4 ,a difficult passage1 even with ,thorpe's inserted ne2 but there is no need of putting a period after geinged1 or of translating oe by and3 ,he 7,hrothgar7 knew that battle was in store 7geinged7 for the monster in the high hall1 after as soon as they could no longer see the sun's light1 or that is after night came darkening over all1 and shadowy figures stalking4 ,the subject of cwman cwmon is niht and gesceapu4 ,the student will note that the infinitive 7scran7 is here employed as a present participle after a verb of motion 7cwman74 ,this construction with cuman is frequent in prose and poetry4 ,the infinitive expresses the kind of motion3 ic cm drfan ,i came driving4 ,,the ,,fight ,,between ,,beowulf ,,and ,,grendel4 ,lines #gdj-hcg4 ,the warriors all retire to rest except ,beowulf4 ,grendel stealthily enters the hall4 ,from his eyes gleams 8a luster unlovely1 likest to fire40 ,the combat begins at once4 ,ne t se glca yldan hte1 #gdj ac h gefng hrae forman se slpendne rinc1 slt unwearnum1 bt bn-locan1 bld drum dranc1 syn-sndum swealh2 sna hfde unlyfigendes eal gefeormod #gde ft nd folma4 ,for nar tstp1 nam mid handa hige-ihtigne rinc on rste2 rhte ongan fond mid folme2 h onfng hrae inwit-ancum nd wi earm gest4 #gej ,sna t onfunde fyrena hyrde1 t h ne mtte middan-geardes1 eoran scatta1 on lran mn mund-gripe mran2 h on mde wear forht1 on ferhe2 n r fram meahte4 #gee ,hyge ws him hin-fs1 wolde on heolster flon1 scan dofla gedrg2 ne ws his drohto r1 swylce h on ealder#a-;dagum r gemtte4 ,gemunde se gda mg ,higelces fen-sprce1 p-lang std #gfj nd him fste wifng2 fingras burston2 eoten ws t-weard2 eorl furur stp4 ,mynte se mra1 hwr h meahte sw1 wdre gewindan nd on weg anon flon on fn-hopu2 wiste his fingra geweald #gfe on grames grpum4 t ws gocor s1 t se hearm-scaa t ,heorute#b tah4 ,dryht-sle dynede2 ,dnum eallum wear ceaster-bendum1 cnra gehwylcum1 eorlum ealu-scerwen4 ,yrre wron bgen #ggj re rn-weardas4 ,rced hlynsode2 ws wundor micel1 t se wn-sle wihfde heao-dorum1 t h on hrsan ne fol1 fger fold-bold2 ac h s fste ws innan nd tan ren-bndum #gge searo-ncum besmiod4 r fram sylle bag medu-bnc mnig1 mne gefrge1 golde geregnad1 r graman wunnon2 s ne wndon r witan ,scyldinga1 t hit mid gemete manna nig1 #ghj betlc nd bn-fg1 tbrecan meahte1 listum tlcan1 nyme lges fm swulge on swaule4 ,swg p stg nwe geneahhe2 ,nor-,dnum std atelc gesa1 nra gehwylcum1 #ghe ra e of wealle wp gehrdon1 gryre-lo galan ,godes ndsacan1 sige-lasne sang1 sr wnigean hlle hfton4#c ,hold hine fste1 s e manna ws mgene strngest #gij on m dge ysses lfes4 ,nolde eorla hlo nige inga one cwealm-cuman cwicne forltan1 n his lf-dagas loda nigum nytte tealde4 r genehost brgd #gie eorl ,bowulfes ealde lfe1 wolde fra-drihtnes feorh ealgian1 mres odnes1 r he meahton sw4 ,he t ne wiston1 he gewin drugon1 heard-hicgende hilde-mcgas1 #hjj nd on healfa gehwone hawan hton1 swle scan3 one syn-scaan nig ofer eoran renna cyst1 g-billa nn1 grtan nolde2 ac h sige-wpnum forsworen hfde1 #hje cga gehwylcre4 ,scolde his aldor#d-;gedl on m dge ysses lfes earmlc wuran#e nd se llor-gst on fonda geweald feor sian4 t onfunde1 s e fela ror #haj mdes myre manna cynne fyrene gefrmede 7h ws fg wi ,god71 t him se lc-hma lstan nolde1 ac hine se mdega#f mg ,hygelces hfde be hnda2 ws gehwer rum #hae lifigende l4 ,lc-sr gebd atol glca#g2 him on eaxle wear syn-dolh sweotol2 seonowe onsprungon2 burston bn-locan4 ,bowulfe wear g-hr gyfee4 ,scolde ,grndel nan #hbj feorh-soc flon under fn-hleou1#h scean wyn-las wc2 wiste geornor1 t his aldres#i ws nde gegngen1 dgera dg-rm4 ,dnum eallum wear fter m wl-rse willa gelumpen4 #hbe ,hfde geflsod1 s e r feorran cm1 snotor nd sw-ferh1 sle ,hrgres1 genred wi ne4 ,niht-weorce gefeh1 llen-mrum2 hfde ast-,dnum ,gat-mcga lod gilp gelsted2 #hcj swylce once ealle gebtte1 inwid-sorge1 e he r drugon nd for ra-ndum olian scoldon1 torn unltel4 t ws tcen sweotol1 syan hilde-dor hnd lgde1 #hce earm nd eaxle 7r ws eal geador ,grndles grpe7 under gapne hrf4 #a ealdor-4 #b ,heorote4 #c hftan4 #d ealdor-4 #e weoran4 #f mdiga4 #g glca4 #h -hliu4 #i ealdres4 ,linenotes3 #gdj3 t1 the direct object of yldan1 refers to the contest about to ensue4 ,beowulf1 in the preceding lines1 was wondering how it would result4 #gdf3 tstp4 ,the subject of this verb and of nam is ,grendel2 the subject of the three succeeding verbs 7rhte1 onfng1 gest7 is ,beowulf4 #gea-eb3 ,the ,o4,e4 poets are fond of securing emphasis or of stimulating interest by indirect methods of statement1 by suggesting more than they affirm4 ,this device often appears in their use of negatives 7ne1 l4 #ac2 p4 #adj1 l4 #c2 n1 p4 #adj1 l4 #a lines #geb1 #geg1 #gee71 and in the unexpected prominence that they give to some minor detail usually suppressed because understood2 as where the narrator1 wishing to describe the terror produced by ,grendel's midnight visits to ,heorot1 says 7ll4 #ach-aci71 8,then was it easy to find one who elsewhere1 more commodiously1 sought rest for himself40 ,it is hard to believe that the poet saw nothing humorous in this point of view4 #gee3 n 444 meahte1 none the sooner could he away4 ,the omission of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries magan1 mtan1 sculan1 and willan is very frequent4 ,cf4 ,beowulf's last utterance1 p4 #adg1 l4 #ag line #bhag4 #gfh3 ,the lines that immediately follow constitute a fine bit of description by indication of effects4 ,the two contestants are withdrawn from our sight2 but we hear the sound of the fray crashing through the massive old hall1 which trembles as in a blast2 we see the terror depicted on the faces of the ,danes as they listen to the strange sounds that issue from their former banqueting hall2 by these sounds we1 too1 measure the progress and alternations of the combat4 ,at last we hear only the 8terror-lay0 of ,grendel1 8lay of the beaten10 and know that ,beowulf has made good his promise at the banquet 7gilp gelsted74 #gfi3 cnra gehwylcum4 ,the indefinite pronouns 7 #gg7 may be used as adjectives1 agreeing in case with their nouns2 but they frequently1 as here1 take a partitive genitive3 nra gehwylcum1 to each one 7 to each of ones72 nige 7instrumental7 inga1 for any thing 7 for any of things72 on healfa gehwone1 into halves 7 into each of halves72 ealra dgra gehwm1 every day 7 on each of all days72 htna gehwylce1 every morning 7 on each of mornings74 #ghj3 ,notice that hit1 the object of tbrecan1 stands for wn-sle1 which is masculine4 ,see p4 #ci1 ,note #b #ee1 #b4 ,manna is genitive after gemete1 not after nig4 #ghg-hi3 gryre-lo 444 hfton hftan4 ,note that verbs of hearing and seeing1 as in ,mn4,e41 may be followed by the infinitive4 ,they heard ,god's adversary sing 7galan7 444 hell's captive bewail 7wnigean74 ,had the present participle been used1 the effect would have been1 as in ,mn4,e41 to emphasize the agent 7the subject of the infinitive7 rather than the action 7the infinitive itself74 #gie-if3 r 444 lfe4 ,beowulf's followers now seem to have seized their swords and come to his aid1 not knowing that ,grendel1 having forsworn war-weapons himself1 is proof against the best of swords4 ,then many an earl of ,beowulf's 7 an earl of ,b4 very often7 brandished his sword4 ,that no definite earl is meant is shown by the succeeding he meahton instead of h meahte4 ,see p4 #aaj1 ,note4 ,linenote #aaj4e-f #gii3 ,they did not know this 7t71 while they were fighting2 but the first ,he refers to the warriors who proffered help2 the second he1 to the combatants1 ,beowulf and ,grendel4 ,in apposition with t1 stands the whole clause1 one synscaan 7object of grtan7 444 nolde4 ,the second1 or conjunctional1 t is here omitted before one4 ,see p4 #aab1 note on ll4 #ah-ai4 #hcg3 grpe genitive singular1 feminine1 after eal4 ,,beowulf ,,fatally ,,wounded4 ,lines #bgab-bgeb4 ,hrothgar1 in his gratitude for the great victory1 lavishes gifts upon ,beowulf2 but ,grendel's mother must be reckoned with4 ,beowulf finds her at the sea-bottom1 and after a desperate struggle slays her4 ,hrothgar again pours treasures into ,beowulf's lap4 ,beowulf1 having now accomplished his mission1 returns to ,sweden4 ,after a reign of fifty years1 he goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon that is ravaging his kingdom4 ,in the struggle ,beowulf is fatally wounded4 ,wiglaf1 a loyal thane1 is with him4 so#a wund ongn1 e him se eor-draca r geworhte1 swlan nd swellan4 ,h t sna onfand1 t him on brostum bealo-n woll #bgae ttor on innan4 se eling gong1#b t h b wealle1 ws-hycgende1 gest on sesse2 seah on nta geweorc1 h stn-bogan stapulum fste ce eor-rced innan healde4 #bgbj ,hyne mid handa heoro-drorigne1 oden mrne1 egn ungemete till1 wine-dryhten his wtere gelafede1 hilde-sdne1 nd his helm onspon4 ,bowulf#c maelode2 h ofer bnne sprc1 #bgbe wunde wl-blate2 wisse h gearwe1 t h dg-hwla gedrogen hfde eoran wynne2 ws eall sceacen dgor-germes1 da ungemete nah3 8,n ic suna mnum syllan wolde #bgcj g-gewdu1 r m gifee sw nig yrfe-weard fter wurde lce gelnge4 ,ic s lode hold fftig wintra2 ns se folc-cyning ymbe-sittendra nig ra1 #bgce e mec g-winum grtan dorste1 gesan on4 ,ic on earde bd ml-gesceafta1 hold mn tela1 n shte searo-nas1 n m swr fela a on unriht4 ,ic s ealles mg1 #bgdj feorh-bnnum soc1 gefan habban2 for-m m wtan ne earf ,waldend#d fra moror-bealo#e mga1 onne mn sceace lf of lce4 ,n lungre geong#f hord scawian under hrne stn1 #bgde ,wglf lofa1 n se wyrm lige1 swefe sre wund1 since berafod4 ,bo#g n on ofoste1 t ic r-welan1 gold-ht ongite1 gearo scawige swegle searo-gimmas1 t ic sft mge #bgej fter mum-welan mn ltan lf nd lod-scipe1 one ic lnge hold40 ,linenotes3 #bgaf3 se eling is ,beowulf4 #bgah3 nta geweorc is a stereotyped phrase for anything that occasions wonder by its size or strangeness4 #bgbj3 healde4 ,heyne1 following ,ettmller1 reads holdon1 thus arbitrarily changing mood1 tense1 and number of the original4 ,either mood1 indicative or subjunctive1 would be legitimate4 ,as to the tense1 the narrator is identifying himself in time with the hero1 whose wonder was 8how the stone-arches 444 sustain the ever-during earth-hall03 the construction is a form of oratio recta1 a sort of miratio recta4 ,the singular healde1 instead of healden1 has many parallels in the dependent clauses of ,beowulf1 most of these being relative clauses introduced by ra e 7 of those that 444 a singular predicate74 ,in the present instance1 the predicate has doubtless been influenced by the proximity of eor-rced1 a quasi-subject2 and we have no more right to alter to healden or holdon than we have to change ,shakespeare's gives to give in 8,words to the heat of deeds too cold breath gives40 7,macbeth1 ,,ii1 i1 #fa47 #bgbb3 ,the egn ungemete till is ,wiglaf1 the bravest of ,beowulf's retainers4 #bgbe3 h ofer bnne sprc4 ,the editors and translators of ,beowulf invariably render ofer in this passage by about2 but ,beowulf says not a word about his wound4 ,the context seems to me to show plainly that ofer 7cf4 ,latin supra7 denotes here opposition in spite of4 ,we read in ,genesis1 l4 #eid1 that ,eve took the forbidden fruit ofer ,drihtenes word4 ,beowulf fears 7l4 #bcca7 that he may have ruled unjustly ofer ealde riht2 and he goes forth 7l4 #bdji7 ofer willan to confront the dragon4 #bgca-cc3 r m 444 gelnge1 if so be that 7r 444 sw7 any heir had afterwards been given me 7m gifee 444 fter wurde7 belonging to my body4 #bgdd-de3 geong gng 444 scawian4 ,see note on ode 444 sittan1 p4 #acg1 ll4 #ai-bj lines #fda-db4 ,in ,mn4,e4 ,go see1 ,go fetch1 etc41 is the second verb imperative 7cordinate with the first71 or subjunctive 7that you may see71 or infinitive without to8 #bgea-eb3 mn 444 lf4 ,see note on nde-dg 444 mnne1 p4 #acg1 ll4 #af-ag lines #fch-ci4 #a so4 #b gong4 #c ,bowulf4 #d ,wealdend4 #e moror-bealu4 #f gng 7gang74 #g ,bo4 ,,beowulf',s ,,last ,,words4 ,lines #bgic-bhba4 ,wiglaf brings the jewels1 the tokens of ,beowulf's triumph4 ,beowulf1 rejoicing to see them1 reviews his career1 and gives advice and final directions to ,wiglaf4 ,bowulf#a maelode1 gmel on giohe 7gold scawode73 8,ic ra frtwa ,fran ealles anc1 #bgie ,wuldur-cyninge1 wordum scge cum ,dryhtne1 e ic hr on starie1 s e ic mste mnum lodum r swylt-dge swylc gestrnan4 ,n ic on mma hord mne bebohte #bhjj frde feorh-lge1 frmma g n loda earfe2 ne mg ic hr lng wesan4 ,hta heao-mre hlw gewyrcean1 beorhtne fter ble t brimes nosan2 s scel#b t gemyndum mnum lodum #bhje hah hlfian on ,hrnes nsse1 t hit s-lend syan htan#c ,bowulfes#a biorh#a e brentingas ofer flda genipu feorran drfa40 ,dyde him of healse hring gyldenne #bhaj oden#a rst-hdig2 egne gesealde1 geongum gr-wigan1 gold-fhne helm1 bah nd byrnan1 ht hyne brcan well4 8 eart nde-lf sses cynnes1 ,wgmundinga2 ealle wyrd forswop #bhae mne mgas t metod-sceafte1 eorlas on lne2 ic him fter sceal40 t ws m gmelan gingeste word brost-gehygdum1 r h bl cure1 hte heao-wylmas2 him of hrere gewt #bhbj swol scean s-fstra dm4 #a o1 io o1 eo4 #b sceal4 #c hten4 ,linenotes3 #bgie-ii3 ,the expression scgan anc takes the same construction as ancian2 i4e41 the dative of the person 7,fran7 and the genitive 7a genitive of cause7 of the thing 7ra frtwa74 ,cf4 note on biddan1 p4 #de #fe1 #c4 ,the antecedent of e is frtwa4 ,for the position of on1 see #id1 7#e74 ,the clause introduced by s e 7because7 is parallel in construction with frtwa1 both being causal modifiers of scge anc4 ,the ,christian coloring in these lines betrays the influence of priestly transcribers4 #bhjj3 ,now that ,i1 in exchange for 7on7 a hoard of treasures1 have bartered 7bebohte7 the laying down 7-lge licgan7 of my old life4 ,the ethical codes of the early ,germanic races make frequent mention of blood-payments1 or life-barters4 ,there seems to be here a suggestion of the 8wergild40 #bhja3 frmma g4 ,the plural imperative 7as also in ,hta7 shows that ,beowulf is here speaking not so much to ,wiglaf in particular as1 through ,wiglaf1 to his retainers in general1--to his comitatus4 #bhjf3 ,the desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent expression in early literatures4 ,the tomb of ,achilles was situated 8high on a jutting headland over wide ,hellespont that it might be seen from off the sea40 ,elpenor asks ,ulysses to bury him in the same way4 neas places the ashes of ,misenus beneath a high mound on a headland of the sea4 #bhjg3 hit hlw1 which is masculine4 ,see p4 #ci1 ,note #b #ee1 #b4 #bhaj-aa3 him 444 oden4 ,the reference in both cases is to ,beowulf1 who is disarming himself 7do-of doff7 for the last time2 egne to ,wiglaf4 ,note1 where the personal element is strong1 the use of the dative instead of the more colorless possessive2 him of healse1 not of his healse4 #bhag3 ic 444 sceal4 ,see note on n 444 meahte1 p4 #adj1 l4 #a line #gee4 #bhbj3 him of hrere4 ,cf4 note on him 444 oden1 p4 #adg1 ll4 #aj-aa lines #bhaj-aa4 #bhbj-ba3 ,for construction of gewt 444 scean1 see note on ode 444 sittan1 p4 #acg1 ll4 #ai-bj lines #fda-db4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,wanderer4 ,exeter ,,ms4 8,the epic character of the ancient lyric appears especially in this3 that the song is less the utterance of a momentary feeling than the portrayal of a lasting state1 perhaps the reflection of an entire life1 generally that of one isolated1 or bereft by death or exile of protectors and friends40 7,ten ,brink1 ,early ,eng4 ,lit41 ,i47 ,i adopt ,brooke's threefold division 7,early ,eng4 ,lit41 p4 #cef73 8,it opens with a ,christian prologue1 and closes with a ,christian epilogue1 but the whole body of the poem was written1 it seems to me1 by a person who thought more of the goddess ,wyrd than of ,god1 whose life and way of thinking were uninfluenced by any distinctive ,christian doctrine40 ,the author is unknown4 ,,prologue4 ,oft him nhaga re gebde1 ,metudes#a miltse1 ah e h mdcearig geond lagulde lnge sceolde hrran mid hndum hrmcealde s1 wadan wrclstas3 wyrd bi ful rd6 #e ,sw cw eardstapa earfea#b gemyndig1 wrra wlsleahta1 winemga hryres3 ,,plaint ,,of ,,the ,,wanderer4 8,oft ic sceolde na htna gehwylce mne ceare cwan2 nis n cwicra nn1 e ic him mdsefan mnne durre #aj sweotule#c scgan4 ,ic t se wt t bi in eorle indryhten aw1 t h his ferlocan fste binde1 healde his hordcofan1 hycge sw h wille2 ne mg wrig md wyrde wistndan #ae n s hro hyge helpe gefrmman3 for on dmgeorne drorigne oft in hyra brostcofan binda fste4 ,sw ic mdsefan mnne sceolde oft earmcearig le bidled1 #bj fromgum feor feterum slan1 sian gara i goldwine mnne hrsan heolster biwrh1 and ic han nan wd wintercearig ofer waema gebind1 shte sle drorig sinces bryttan1 #be hwr ic feor oe nah findan meahte one e in meoduhealle#d miltse wisse oe mec frondlasne frfran wolde1 wnian mid wynnum4 ,wt s e cunna h slen bi sorg t gefran #cj m e him lt hafa lofra geholena3 wara hine wrclst1 nles wunden gold1 ferloca frorig1 nls foldan bld2 gemn h slescgas and sincge1 h hine on geogue his goldwine #ce wnede t wiste3 wyn eal gedras6 ,for on wt s e sceal his winedryhtnes lofes lrcwidum lnge forolian1 onne sorg and slp smod tgdre earmne nhagan oft gebinda3 #dj ince him on mde t h his mndryhten clyppe and cysse1 and on cno lcge hnda and hafod1 sw h hwlum r in gardagum giefstles brac2 onne onwcne eft winelas guma1 #de gesih him biforan fealwe wgas1 baian brimfuglas1 brdan fera1 hrosan hrm and snw hagle gemnged4 onne bo hfigran heortan bnne1 sre fter swsne2 sorg bi genwad2 #ej onne mga gemynd md geondhweorfe1 grte glwstafum1 georne geondscawa4 ,scga geseldan swimma eft on weg2 flotendra fer#e n r fela bringe cra cwidegiedda2 cearo#f bi genwad #ee m e sndan sceal swe geneahhe ofer waema gebind wrigne sefan4 ,for on ic gencan ne mg geond s woruld for hwan mdsefa mn ne gesweorce1 onne ic eorla lf eal geondnce1 #fj h h frlce flt ofgafon1 mdge maguegnas4 ,sw s middangeard ealra dgra gehwm drose and fealle2 for on ne mg weoran ws wer1 r h ge wintra dl in woruldrce4 ,wita sceal geyldig1 #fe ne sceal n t htheort n t hrdwyrde1 n t wc wiga n t wanhdig1 n t forht n t fgen n t feohgfre1 n nfre gielpes t georn1 r h geare cunne4 ,beorn sceal gebdan1 onne h bot sprice1 #gj o t collenfer cunne gearwe hwider hrera gehygd hweorfan wille4 ,ongietan sceal glaw hle h gstlc bi1 onne eall isse worulde wela wste stnde1 sw n missenlce geond isne middangeard #ge winde biwune#g weallas stnda1 hrme bihrorene1#h hryge ederas4 ,wria wnsalo1#i waldend licga drame bidrorene#aj2 dugu eal gecrng wlnc b wealle3 sume wg fornm1 #hj frede in forwege2 sumne fugel#aa obr ofer hanne holm2 sumne s hra wulf dae gedlde2 sumne drorighlor in eorscrfe eorl gehdde3 de sw isne eardgeard lda ,scyppend1 #he o t burgwara breahtma lase eald nta geweorc dlu stdon4 ,s onne isne wealsteal wse gehte1 and is deorce lf dope geondnce1 frd in fere#ab feor oft gemn #ij wlsleahta worn1 and s word cwi3 #8,hwr cwm mearg8 hwr cwm mago#ac8 hwr cwm mumgyfa8 hwr cwm symbla gesetu8 hwr sindon sledramas8 al beorht bune6 al byrnwiga6 al odnes rym6 h so rg gewt1 #ie genp under nihthelm1 sw ho n wre6 ,stnde n on lste lofre dugue weal wundrum hah1 wyrmlcum fh3 eorlas fornmon asca re1 wpen wlgfru1 wyrd so mre2 #ajj and s stnhleou#ad stormas cnyssa2 hr hrosende hrsan binde1 wintres wma1 onne wn cyme1 npe nihtsca1 noran onsnde hro hglfare hleum on andan4 #aje ,eall is earfolc eoran rce1 onwnde wyrda gesceaft weoruld under heofonum3 hr bi feoh lne1 hr bi frond lne1 hr bi mn lne1 hr bi mg lne2 eal is eoran gesteal del weore6'0 #aaj ,,epilogue4 ,sw cw snottor on mde1 gest him sundor t rune4 ,til bi s e his trowe gehealde2 ne sceal nfre his torn t rycene beorn of his brostum can1 neme h r bte cunne2 eorl mid lne gefrmman4 ,wel bi m e him re sce1 frfre t ,fder on heofonum1 r s eal so fstnung stnde4 #aae #a ,metodes4 #b earfoa4 #c sweotole4 #d medu-4 #e ferh4 #f cearu4 #g ,see bewwan4 #h ,see behrosan4 #i wnsalu4 #aj ,see bedrosan4 #aa fugol4 #ab ferhe4 #ac magu4 #ad -hliu4 ,linenotes3 #g3 ,the ,,ms4 reading is hryre 7nominative71 which is meaningless4 #h3 ,for htna gehwylce1 see note on cnra gehwylcum1 p4 #adj ,beowulf #gfi4 #aj3 e 444 him4 ,see #ge 7#d74 ,cf4 ,merchant of ,venice1 ,,ii1 v1 #ej-ea4 #bg3 ,for mine 7,,ms4 in71 which does not satisfy metrical requirements1 ,i adopt ,kluge's plausible substitution of miltse2 miltse witan to show 7know1 feel71 pity4 ,the myne wisse of ,beowulf 7l4 #afi7 is metrically admissible4 #cg3 ,the object of wt is ince him on mde2 but the construction is unusual1 inasmuch as both t's 7t pronominal before wt and t conjunctional before ince7 are omitted4 ,see p4 #aab1 ll4 #ah-ai4 #da3 ince him on mde 7see note on him 444 oden1 p4 #adg ,beowulf #bhaj-aa74 8,no more sympathetic picture has been drawn by an ,anglo-,saxon poet than where the wanderer in exile falls asleep at his oar and dreams again of his dead lord and the old hall and revelry and joy and gifts1--then wakes to look once more upon the waste of ocean1 snow and hail falling all around him1 and sea-birds dipping in the spray40 7,gummere1 ,germanic ,origins1 p4 #bba47 #ec-ee3 ,scga 444 cwidegiedda ,but these comrades of warriors those seen in vision again swim away fade away2 the ghost of these fleeting ones brings not there many familiar words2 i4e4 he sees in dream and vision the old familiar faces1 but no voice is heard3 they bring neither greetings to him nor tidings of themselves4 #fe3 ,wita sceal geyldig4 ,either bon 7wesan7 is here to be understood after sceal1 or sceal alone means ought to be4 ,neither construction is to be found in ,alfredian prose1 though the omission of a verb of motion after sculan is common in all periods of ,old ,english4 ,see note on n 444 meahte1 p4 #adj ,beowulf #gee4 #ge3 sw n4 8,the ,old ,english lyrical feeling10 says ,ten ,brink1 citing the lines that immediately follow sw n1 8is fond of the image of physical destruction02 but ,i do not think these lines have a merely figurative import4 ,the reference is to a period of real devastation1 antedating the ,danish incursions4 8,we might fairly find such a time in that parenthesis of bad government and of national tumult which filled the years between the death of ,aldfrith in #gje and the renewed peace of ,northumbria under ,ceolwulf in the years that followed #gbi40 7,brooke1 ,early ,eng4 ,lit41 p4 #cee47 #ic3 cwm 444 gesetu4 ,ettmller reads cwmon2 but see p4 #ajg1 note on ws 444 gland linenote #ajg4ad-ae4 ,the occurrence of hwr cwm three times in the preceding line tends also to hold cwm in the singular when its plural subject follows4 ,note the influence of a somewhat similar structural parallelism in seas hides of these lines 7,winter's ,tale1 ,,iv1 iv1 #ejj-ejb73 8,not for 444 all the sun sees or ,the close earth wombs or the profound seas hides ,in unknown fathoms1 will ,i break my oath40 #aaa3 gest 444 rne1 sat apart to himself in silent meditation4 #aad3 eorl 444 gefrmman4 ,supply sceal after eorl4 ,i4 ,,glossary4 ,,old ,,english--,,modern ,,english4 ,the order of words is strictly alphabetical1 except that follows t4 ,the combination follows ad4 ,gender is indicated by the abbreviations1 m4 7 masculine71 f4 7 feminine71 n4 7 neuter74 ,the usual abbreviations are employed for the cases1 nom41 gen41 dat41 acc41 and instr4 ,other abbreviations are sing4 7 singular71 pl4 7 plural71 ind4 7 indicative mood71 sub4 7 subjunctive mood71 pres4 7 present tense71 pret4 7 preterit tense71 prep4 7 preposition71 adj4 7 adjective71 adv4 7 adverb71 part4 7 participle71 conj4 7 conjunction71 pron4 7 pronoun71 intrans4 7 intransitive71 trans4 7 transitive74 ,figures not preceded by refer to page and line of the texts4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,references to verse selections 7pages #acf-aec7 are followed by the actual line number in double brackets4 ,a4 1 ever1 always1 aye4 abbudisse1 f41 abbess ,lat4 abbatissa4 bodan 7 #aji71 bid1 offer2 him hl bad #ach1 #i ,beowulf #fed bade him hail1 wished him health4 brecan 7 #abj1 ,note #b71 break down1 destroy4 bgan 7 #aji1 ,note #a71 give way1 start bow away4 ac1 conj41 but4 cwean 7 #aae71 say1 speak4 can 7 #abf71 reveal1 proclaim c4 d1 m41 funeral pile4 adesa1 m41 adze1 hatchet4 7w71 f41 law4 dre 7dre71 f41 stream1 canal1 vein2 bld drum dranc #aci1 #d ,beowulf #gdc drank blood in streams 7instr474 fstnis1 f41 piety4 fen-rst1 f41 evening rest4 fen-sprc1 f41 evening speech4 fst 7wfst71 law-abiding1 pious4 fstnis1 see fstnis4 fre1 ever1 always4 fter1 prep4 7 #id1 7#a771 after2 fter m1 after that1 thereafter2 fter m e1 conj41 after4 fter1 adv41 after1 afterwards4 ghw 7 #gg1 ,note71 each1 every4 ghwilc 7 #gg1 ,note71 each1 any4 glca1 see glca4 ger 7ghwer1 er7 7 #gg1 ,note71 each1 either2 ger 444 er 444 er1 either 444 or 444 or2 ger ge 444 ge 7 #ie1 7#b771 both 444 and2 ger ge 444 ge 444 ge1 both 444 and 444 and4 ht1 f41 property1 possession gan4 lc 7 #gg71 each4 lde 7ielde7 7 #dg71 m4 pl41 men2 gen4 pl41 lda4 lmihtig1 almighty4 metta1 m41 leisure empti-ness4 nig 7 #gg71 any2 nige inga #ada1 #bb ,beowulf #gib for anything4 7,see #adj1 #ae ,beowulf #gfi1 ,note47 r1 adv41 before1 formerly1 sooner2 n r #adj1 #a ,beowulf #gee none the sooner2 ror1 comparative1 before1 formerly2 rest1 superlative1 first4 r1 conj4 7 #aje1 #b71 ere1 before r m e4 r1 prep1 with dat41 before 7time72 r m e1 conj4 7 #aje1 #b71 before4 rcebisceop1 m41 archbishop ,lat4 archiepiscopus4 rendgewrit1 n41 message1 letter4 rendwreca 7-raca71 m41 messenger4 rest1 adj4 7 #if1 7#d771 first4 rnan 7 #abg71 ride1 gallop iernan4 rra1 adj4 7 #if1 7#d771 former4 rwela1 m41 ancient wealth4 sc1 m41 ash1 spear2 gen4 pl41 asca4 scesdn1 f41 ,ashdown 7in ,berkshire74 stel1 m41 book-mark ,lat4 hastula4 t 7 #id1 7#a771 at1 in2 with leornian1 to learn1 geicgan1 to receive1 and other verbs of similar import1 t from3 #aae1 #ah2 #acg1 #h ,beowulf #fcj1 etc4 tberan 7 #aad71 bear to1 hand4 tgd7e7re1 adv41 together4 tsteppan 7 #aaf71 step up1 advance2 pret4 sing41 tstp4 ele1 noble1 excellent4 eling1 m41 a noble1 prince4 elwulfing1 m41 son of ,ethelwulf4 ered1 m41 ,ethelred4 feallan 7 #aag71 fall4 fierran 7 #abg71 remove feor4 gan 7 #acf71 to own1 possess4 gen1 adj4-part41 own2 dat4 sing41 gnum gan4 giefan 7 #aae71 give back4 glca 7glca71 m41 monster1 champion4 hton1 see gan4 ltan 7 #aag71 let go1 leave4 aldor1 see ealdor4 lcgan 7 #abe1 ,note71 lay down licgan2 past part41 ld4 lesend1 m41 ,redeemer lesan release1 ransom4 limpan 7 #aaj71 befall1 occur4 lfan 7 #abf71 entrust1 permit4 ambor1 m41 measure2 gen4 pl41 ambra 7 #bg1 7#d774 ambyre1 favorable4 n 7 #hi71 one2 na1 alone1 only2 nra gehwylcum #ada1 #ae ,beowulf #ghe to each one4 7,see #adj1 #ae1 ,note4 ,beowulf #gfi7 anda1 m41 zeal1 injury1 indignation2 hleum on andan #aec1 #f ,wanderer #aje harmful to men4 andfn1 f41 proportion1 amount4 andgiet 7-git71 n41 sense1 meaning4 andgitfullce1 intelligibly2 -gitfullcost1 superlative4 andswaru1 f41 answer4 andwyrdan 7 #abg71 to answer2 pret41 andwyrde4 ,angel1 n41 ,anglen 7in ,denmark72 dat4 sing41 ,angle 7 #bg 7#d774 ,angelcynn1 n41 ,english kin1 ,english people1 ,england4 nhaga 7-hoga71 m41 a solitary1 wanderer n hogian1 to meditate4 nlpig1 single1 individual4 nunga 7 #ic1 7#b771 once for all n4 apostol1 m41 apostle ,gr4 4 r1 f41 honor1 property1 favor2 re gebde #adh1 #c ,wanderer #a waits for divine favor 7gen474 rd1 adj41 inexorable4 rdan 7 #abf71 read4 rcc7e7an 7 #abh71 translate1 expound4 rfstnis1 f41 virtue4 rsan 7 #ajb71 arise4 asca1 see aesc4 scgan 7 #acb71 say1 relate4 sttan 7 #abg71 set1 place4 singan 7 #aaj71 sing4 spndan 7 #abg71 spend1 expend4 stgan 7 #ajb71 ascend1 arise4 stndan 7 #aaf71 stand up4 tah1 see ton4 atelc1 horrible1 dire4 ton 7 #aah71 draw1 draw away1 take 7as a journey74 atol1 horrible1 dire4 ttor1 n41 poison4 tuge1 see ton4 1 m41 oath4 er1 see ger4 wccan 7 #abh71 awake1 arouse2 pret4 sing41 weahte1 whte4 aweg1 away4 wndan 7 #abg71 turn1 translate4 wrtan 7 #ajb71 write1 compose4 wyrcan 7 #abh71 work1 do1 perform4 ,b4 ,bchscg1 m41 ,bagsac4 bcbord1 n41 larboard1 left side of a ship4 bl1 n41 funeral fire1 funeral pile4 bn1 n41 bone4 bn-fg1 adorned with bones or antlers4 bn-loca1 m41 flesh bone-locker4 ,basengas1 m4 pl41 ,basing 7in ,hantshire74 be 7b7 7 #id1 7#a771 by1 about1 concerning1 near1 along1 according to2 be noran m wstenne 7 #id1 7#d771 north of the waste 7desert72 be fullan1 fully1 perfectly4 bag1 see bgan4 bag-hroden1 ring-adorned4 bah 7bag71 m41 ring1 bracelet1 collar bgan4 bealo-n1 m41 dire hatred1 poison1 venom4 bearn1 n41 child1 son bairn4 bebodan 7 #aji71 command1 bid1 entrust 7with dat474 bebo-1 see bebo-4 bebohte1 see bebycgan4 bebycgan 7 #abh71 sell4 bc1 see bc4 becuman 7 #aad71 come1 arrive1 befall4 bedlan 7 #abf71 separate1 deprive4 bedrosan 7 #aji71 deprive2 past part4 pl41 bedrorene 7bidrorene7 dross1 dreary4 befstan 7 #abg71 fasten1 implant4 befolan 7 #aaj71 apply one's self2 ra e spda hbben t he m befolan mgen #aai1 #bj of those who have the means by which they may apply themselves to it4 beforan1 prep4 with dat41 before4 bgen 7declined like twgen1 #hi71 both4 begeondan 7begiondan71 prep4 with dat41 beyond4 begietan 7 #aae71 get1 obtain1 find4 beginnan 7 #aaj71 begin4 beheonan 7behionan71 prep4 with dat41 on this side of4 behresan 7 #aji71 fall upon1 cover2 past part4 pl41 behrorene 7bihrorene74 belimpan 7 #aaj71 pertain1 belong4 beniman 7 #aad71 take1 derive4 bnn1 f41 wound bana murderer4 bon 7bon7 7 #acd71 be1 consist4 beorh 7beorg1 biorh71 m41 mound barrow4 beorht1 bright1 glorious4 ,beormas1 m4 pl41 ,permians4 beorn1 m41 man1 hero1 chief4 bor-gu1 f41 beer-drinking icgan receive4 bot1 n41 boast4 beran 7 #aad71 bear4 berafian 7 #acj71 bereave2 since berafod #ade1 #bb ,beowulf #bgdg bereft of treasure4 beren1 adj41 of a bear1 bear4 berstan 7 #aaj71 burst1 crack4 besmiian 7 #acj71 make hard 7as at the forge of a smith74 bt1 see wel 7 #ig1 7#b774 btan 7 #abf71 make good1 requite2 past part4 pl41 gebtte4 btera 7btra71 see gd 7 #if1 7#c774 betlc1 excellent4 btsta1 see gd 7 #if1 7#c774 betuh 7betux7 7 #id1 7#a771 between4 betwonan 7 #id1 7#a771 between4 betnan 7 #abf71 close1 end tn enclosure4 bewwan 7 #aag71 blow upon2 past part4 pl41 bewune 7biwune1 bewwene74 bewron 7 #aah1 #a71 enwrap2 pret4 #c;d sing41 bewrh 7biwrh74 b1 see be4 bi-1 see be-4 bdan 7 #ajb71 bide1 await1 expect1 endure 7with gen474 biddan 7 #aae1 ,note #b71 bid1 pray1 request 7 #fe1 ,note #c72 bd hine blne #acf1 #g ,beowulf #fah bade him be blithe4 bindan 7 #aaj71 bind4 bo1 see bo 7imperative sing474 bisceop 7biscep71 m41 bishop ,lat4 episcopus4 bisceop-stl1 m41 episcopal seat1 bishopric4 bisigu1 f41 business1 occupation2 dat4 pl41 bisgum4 btan 7 #ajb71 bite1 cut4 biwrh1 see bewron4 bld1 m41 glory1 prosperity blwan blow1 inflate4 ,blcinga-g1 f41 ,blekingen4 bliss1 f41 bliss ble4 ble1 blithe1 happy4 bld1 n41 blood4 bc 7 #fh1 7#a71 ,note #a71 f41 book4 bcere1 m41 scribe bc4 bna 7bana71 m41 murderer bane4 bt1 f41 boot1 remedy1 help1 compensation4 brd 7 #if1 7#a771 broad4 brdan 7 #abf71 extend1 spread brd4 brdra1 see brd4 brgd1 see bregdan4 brac1 see brcan4 breahtm1 m41 noise1 revelry2 burgwara breahtma lase #aeb1 #aj ,wanderer #hf bereft of the revelries of citizens4 bregdan 7 #aaj71 brandish1 draw braid2 pret4 ind4 #c;d sing41 brgd4 brenting1 m41 high ship4 brost1 n41 breast 7the pl4 has the same meaning as the sing474 brost-cofa1 m41 breast-chamber1 heart1 mind4 brost-gehygd1 n41 breast-thought1 thought of the heart1 emotion4 brim1 n41 sea1 ocean4 brimfugol1 m41 sea-fowl4 bringan 7 #abh71 bring4 brhte1 brhton1 see bringan4 bror 7brur7 7 #fh1 7#b771 m41 brother4 brcan 7 #aji1 ,note #a71 use1 enjoy 7 #fb1 ,note #a2 but ,alfred frequently employs the acc4 with brcan74 brycg1 f41 bridge4 brc1 see brcan4 brytta1 m41 distributor1 dispenser brotan break in pieces4 ban 7 #abf1 ,note #b71 dwell1 cultivate bower4 bde1 see ban4 bufan1 prep4 with dat4 and acc41 above4 bgan 7 #aji1 ,note #a71 bow1 bend1 turn4 bune1 f41 cup4 burg 7burh7 7 #fh1 7#a71 ,note71 f41 city1 borough2 dat4 sing41 byrig4 ,burgenda1 m4 gen4 pl41 of the ,burgundians2 ,burgenda land1 ,bornholm4 burgware 7 #dg71 m4 pl41 burghers1 citizens4 burh1 see burg4 btan 7bton71 prep4 7 #id1 7#a771 without1 except1 except for1 but4 btan 7bton71 conj41 except that1 unless4 bt1 both 7 both--two4 ,the word is compounded of the combined neuters of bgen and twgen1 but is m4 and f4 as well as n474 bn 7 #abf1 ,note #b71 cultivated4 byrde1 adj41 of high rank1 aristocratic4 byrig1 see burg4 byrne1 f41 byrnie1 corselet1 coat of mail4 byrnwiga1 m41 byrnie-warrior1 mailed soldier4 byr1 see beran4 ,c4 cann1 m41 sacred canon1 ,bible ,lat4 canon1 ,gr4 4 cearu 7cearo71 f41 care4 ceaster-bend1 m41 castle-dweller4 cne1 keen1 bold1 brave4 cosan 7 #aji71 choose1 accept1 encounter4 cild1 n41 child4 cirice1 f41 church2 nom4 pl41 ciricean4 cirr 7cierr71 m41 turn1 time1 occasion char1 chore1 ajar on char1 on the turn4 cirran 7 #abg71 turn4 clne1 clean1 pure4 clne1 adv41 entirely 8clean out of the way10 ,shaks44 cldig1 rocky having boulders or masses like clouds4 clyppan 7 #abg71 embrace1 accept clip clasp for letters1 papers1 etc44 cnapa1 m41 boy knave4 cno 7cnow71 n41 knee2 acc4 pl41 cno4 cniht1 m41 knight1 warrior4 cnyssan 7 #abe71 beat4 collenfer 7-ferh71 proud-minded1 fierce4 costnung1 f41 temptation4 ,crcas 7,cracas71 m4 pl41 ,greeks4 cringan 7 #aaj71 cringe1 fall4 ,crst1 m41 ,christ4 ,crsten1 ,christian2 nom4 pl4 m41 ,crstene1 ,crstne4 cuma1 m41 new-comer1 stranger4 cuman 7 #aad71 come4 7,see p4 #ach1 ,note on ll4 #b-f47 cunnan 7 #acg71 know1 can1 understand4 cunnian 7 #acj71 make trial of1 experience cunnan4 cure1 see cosan4 c1 well-known1 familiar past part4 of cunnan3 cf4 uncouth4 ce1 cen1 con1 see cunnan4 cwden1 cwdon1 see cwean4 cwalu1 f41 death1 murder cwelan4 cwealm-cuma1 m41 murderous comer4 cwelan 7 #aad71 die to quail4 cwn1 f41 queen4 ,cwnas1 m4 pl41 a ,finnish tribe4 cwean 7 #aae71 say1 speak quoth1 bequeath4 cwic1 living1 alive quicksilver2 the quick and the dead4 cwidegiedd1 n41 word1 utterance cwean and gieddian1 both meaning to speak4 cwan 7 #abf71 bewail 7trans474 cwm1 see cuman4 cyle 7ciele71 m41 cold chill2 cyle gewyrcan #aaj1 #g produce cold1 freeze4 cyme1 m41 coming cuman4 cyn7n71 n41 kin1 race4 cyn7n71 adj4 7used only in pl471 fitting things1 etiquette1 proprieties1 courtesies2 cynna gemyndig #acf1 #c ,beowulf #fad mindful of courtesies4 cynerce1 n41 kingdom4 cyning1 m41 king4 cyssan 7 #abe71 kiss4 cyst1 f41 the choice1 the pick1 the best cosan4 can 7 #abf71 make known1 display1 c2 #b;d sing4 imperative1 c4 ,d4 dd1 f41 deed4 dg1 m41 day4 dg-hwl1 f41 day-while1 day2 h dg-hwla gedrogen hfde eoran wynne #ade1 #b ,beowulf #bgbg he had spent his days of earth's joy4 dg-rm1 n41 number of days day-rime2 dgera daeg-rm #adc1 #g ,beowulf #hbd the number of his days4 dl1 n41 dale4 dl1 m41 part1 deal1 division4 dad1 dead4 da1 m41 death4 dman 7 #abf71 deem1 judge4 ,dnamearc1 see ,dnemearc4 ,dne 7 #dg71 m4 pl41 ,danes4 ,dnemearc 7,dnemearce71 f41 ,denmark2 dat4 sing41 ,dnemearce 7strong71 ,dnemearcan 7weak74 ,dnisc1 ,danish2 ,dniscan1 the ,danes4 dofol1 m41 n41 devil2 gen4 sing41 dofles 7 #bg1 7#d774 dope1 deeply1 profoundly dop4 dor1 n41 wild animal deer4 deorc1 dark1 gloomy4 dgor1 n41 day2 gen4 pl41 dgora1 dgera1 dgra4 dgor-germ1 n41 number of days1 lifetime4 dm1 m41 doom1 judgment1 glory4 dmgeorn1 adj41 eager for glory doom-yearning4 dn 7 #ace71 do1 cause1 place1 promote1 remove4 dorste1 dorston1 see durran4 dram1 m41 joy1 mirth dream4 drogan 7 #aji71 endure1 enjoy1 spend ,scotch dree4 drorig1 dreary1 sad4 drorighlor1 adj41 with sad face hlor cheek1 face1 leer4 drosan 7 #aji71 fall1 perish dross4 drfan 7 #ajb71 drive4 drihten1 see dryhten4 drincan 7 #aaj71 drink4 drohto 7-a71 m41 mode of living1 occupation drogan4 drugon1 see drogan4 dryhten 7drihten71 m41 lord1 ,lord2 dat4 sing41 dryhtne4 dryht-sle1 m41 lordly hall4 dugu1 f41 warrior-band1 host1 retainers doughtiness4 ,in dugu and geogo1 the higher 7older7 and lower 7younger7 ranks are represented1 the distinction corresponding roughly to the medival distinction between knights and squires4 durran 7 #acg71 dare4 duru1 f41 door4 dyde1 see dn4 dynnan 7 #abe71 resound din4 dre 7dere1 dore1 dore71 dear1 costly4 ,e4 a1 f41 river2 gen4 sing41 as2 dat4 and acc4 sing41 a4 ac1 also1 likewise a nickname an eek-name4 ,see #fe1 ,note #b2 ac swilce 7swelce7 #aab1 #c also4 aca1 m41 addition ac2 t acan in addition to 7 #id1 7#d774 age1 n41 eye4 eahta1 eight4 al1 oh6 alas6 eala1 see ealu4 eald 7 #if1 7#b771 old4 ealdor 7aldor71 n41 life2 gif t llenweorc aldre gedgest #ach1 #ag ,beowulf #ffb if thou survivest that feat with thy life 7instr474 ealdor-dg 7aldor-1 ealder-71 m41 day of life4 ealdor-gedl 7aldor-71 n41 death life-deal4 ealdormn1 m41 alderman1 chief1 magistrate4 ealgian1 7 #acj71 protect1 defend4 eall 7eal71 all2 ealne weg1 all the way 7 #ih1 7#a772 ealneg 7 ealne weg71 always2 ealles 7 #ih1 7#c771 adv41 altogether1 entirely4 ,eall 7eal7 is frequently used with partitive gen4 all of3 #adc1 #ai ,beowulf #hcf2 #ade1 #c ,beowulf #bgbh4 ealu 7ealo7 7 #fh71 n41 ale2 gen4 sing41 eala4 ealu-scerwen1 f41 mortal panic ale-spilling4 eard1 m41 country1 home eore4 eardgeard1 m4 earth earth-yard4 eardian 7 #acj71 dwell eard4 eardstapa1 m41 wanderer earth-stepper4 are1 n41 ear4 earfo 7earfe71 n4 hardship1 toil2 gen4 pl41 earfea4 earfolc1 adj41 full of hardship1 arduous4 earm1 m41 arm4 earm1 adj41 poor1 wretched4 earmcearig1 wretched1 miserable4 earmlc1 wretched1 miserable4 earnung1 f41 merit earning4 ast1 east4 astan 7 #ic1 7#e771 from the east4 ast-,dne 7 #dg71 ,east-,danes4 asteweard1 eastward4 astrihte 7astryhte7 7 #ic1 7#f771 eastward4 astron1 pl41 ,easter4 ae1 easily4 amdlce1 humbly4 eaxl1 f41 shoulder axle4 ,ebrisc1 adj41 ,hebrew4 ce1 eternal1 everlasting4 cg1 f41 sword edge4 edor1 m41 enclosure1 dwelling2 nom4 pl41 ederas4 drum1 see dre4 efne1 adv41 just1 only evenly4 eft1 adv41 again1 afterwards aft4 gesa1 m41 fear1 terror awe4 llen1 n41 strength1 courage2 mid lne boldly2 on lne #adg1 #ag ,beowulf #bhag mightily1 suddenly1 or in their 7earls'7 strength 7prime74 llen-mru1 f4 fame for strength1 feat of strength4 llen-weorc1 n41 feat of strength4 llenwdnis1 f41 zeal1 fervor4 llor-gst1 m41 inhuman monster alien ghost4 ln1 f41 ell el-bow4 lne1 see llen4 lra1 adj4 comparative1 another 99le cognate with ,lat4 alius2 on lran mn #aci1 #ad ,beowulf #gec in another man4 emnlong 7-lang71 equally long2 on emnlange along 7 #id1 7#d774 nde1 m41 end4 ndebyrdnes1 f41 order4 nde-dg1 m41 end-day1 day of death4 nde-lf1 f41 last remnant end-leaving4 ngel1 m41 angel ,lat4 angelus4 nglafeld 7 #ea71 m41 ,englefield 7in ,berkshire74 ngle 7 #dg71 m4 pl41 ,angles4 nglisc1 adj41 ,english2 on nglisc #aag1 #ah and #ai in ,english1 into ,english4 ngliscgereord1 n41 ,english language4 nt1 m41 giant4 ode1 see gn4 eodorcan 7 #acj71 ruminate4 eorl1 m41 earl1 warrior1 chieftain4 eorlc1 earl-like1 noble4 eor-draca1 m41 dragon earth-drake4 eore1 f41 earth4 eor-rced1 n41 earth-hall4 eorscrf1 n41 earth-cave1 grave4 eoten1 m41 giant1 monster4 ow1 see 4 owland1 n41 land 7an island in the ,baltic ,sea74 rian 7 #abe71 plow to ear4 ,estland1 n41 land of the ,estas 7on the eastern coast of the ,baltic ,sea74 ,estmre1 m41 ,frische ,haff4 ,estum1 dat4 pl41 the ,estas4 etan 7 #aae71 eat ort4 ttan 7 #abg71 graze etan4 el1 m41 territory1 native land allodial4 el-weard1 m41 guardian of his country4 ,f4 fc1 n41 interval1 space4 fder 7 #fh1 7#b771 m41 father4 fgen1 fain1 glad1 exultant4 fger 7fger71 fair1 beautiful4 flsian 7 #acj71 cleanse4 frlce1 suddenly fr fear4 fst1 fast1 held fast4 fste1 adv41 fast1 firmly4 fstnung1 f41 security1 safety4 ft1 n41 vessel wine-fat1 vat4 ftels1 m41 vessel2 acc4 pl41 ftels4 fm1 m41 embrace1 bosom fathom the space embraced by the extended arms4 fg 7fh71 hostile2 h ws fg wi ,god #adb1 #ah ,beowulf #hab he was hostile to ,god4 fh 7fg71 variegated1 ornamented4 ,falster1 ,falster 7island in the ,baltic ,sea74 fandian 7 #acj71 try1 investigate findan4 faran 7 #aaf71 go fare4 feallan 7 #aag71 fall1 flow4 fealu1 fallow1 pale1 dark2 nom4 pl4 m41 fealwe4 fawe 7fa1 fawa71 pl41 few4 fela 7indeclinable71 much1 many 7with gen474 feld 7 #ea71 m41 field4 fell 7fel71 n41 fell1 skin1 hide4 fng1 see fn4 fn-hli1 n41 fen-slope4 fn-hop1 n41 fen-retreat4 feoh1 n41 cattle1 property fee2 gen4 and dat4 sing41 fos1 fo4 feohgfre1 greedy of property1 avaricious4 feohtan 7 #aaj71 fight4 fol1 see feallan4 fond 7 #fh1 7#c771 m41 enemy1 fiend4 fond-grp1 f41 fiend-grip4 feor 7 #if1 7#d771 adj41 far1 far from 7with dat474 feor1 adv41 far1 far back 7time74 feorh1 m41 n41 life4 feorh-bnn1 f41 life-wound1 mortal wound4 feorh-lgu1 f41 laying down of life4 7,see p4 #adf1 ,note on l4 #ac4 ,beowulf #bhjj7 feorh-soc1 life-sick1 mortally wounded4 feorm 7fiorm71 f41 use1 benefit 7food1 provisions7 farm4 feormian 7 #acj71 eat1 devour4 feorran1 from afar4 fowertig1 forty2 gen41 fowertiges 7 #ia1 ,note #a74 ferh 7fer71 m41 heart1 mind1 spirit4 frian 7 #abe71 carry1 transport to ferry2 frede in forwege #aeb1 #e ,wanderer #ha carried away4 fers1 n41 verse ,lat4 versus4 fersc1 fresh4 ferloca 7ferh-71 m41 heart1 mind1 spirit heart-locker4 ft1 see ft4 fetor1 f41 fetter ft2 instr4 pl41 feterum4 feer1 f41 feather2 acc4 pl41 fera4 fierd1 f41 ,english army faran4 ff1 five4 fftene1 fifteen4 fftig1 fifty2 gen4 sing41 fftiges 7 #ia1 ,note #a72 dat4 pl41 fftegum 7 #ia1 ,note #c74 findan 7 #aaj71 find4 finger1 m41 finger4 ,finnas1 m4 pl41 ,fins4 fiorm1 see feorm4 fras1 m4 pl41 men feorh2 gen4 pl41 fra2 dat4 pl41 frum4 firrest 7fierrest71 see feor 7 #if1 7#d774 first1 m41 time1 period4 fisca 7fiscna71 m41 fishing4 fiscere1 m41 fisherman4 fiscna1 see fisca4 flon 7 #aah1 ,,ii471 flee4 flotan 7 #aji71 float4 flt1 n41 floor of the hall4 fld1 m41 flood1 wave4 folc1 n41 folk1 people4 folc-cwn1 f41 folk-queen4 folc-cyning1 m41 folk-king4 folcgefeoht1 n41 folk-fight1 battle1 general engagement4 fold-bold1 n41 earth-building1 hall4 folde1 f41 earth1 land1 country feld4 folm1 f41 hand flan feel4 fn 7 #aah71 seize1 capture1 take fang2 t rce fn come to 7ascend7 the throne4 for 7 #id1 7#a771 for1 on account of2 for m 7e71 for on 7e71 because2 for on1 for 1 for m 7for-m71 therefore4 fr1 see faran4 forbrnan 7 #abg71 burn thoroughly for is intensive1 like ,lat4 per4 forgiefan 7-gifan7 7 #aae71 give1 grant4 forhrgian 7 #acj71 harry1 lay waste4 forhogdnis1 f41 contempt4 forht1 fearful1 afraid4 forhwga1 about1 at least4 forltan 7 #aag71 abandon1 leave4 forlt1 forlton1 see forltan4 forma1 first2 forman se1 the first time 7instr474 forniman 7 #aad71 take off1 destroy4 forspndan 7 #abg71 spend1 squander4 forstndan 7-standan7 7 #aaf71 understand4 forswpan 7 #aag71 sweep away2 pret4 #c;d sing4 indic41 forswop4 forswrian 7 #aaf71 forswear 7with dat472 past part41 forsworen4 for1 forth1 forward4 forolian 7 #acj71 miss1 go without 7with dat47 not to thole or experience4 forweg1 m41 way forth2 in forwege1 away4 ft 7 #fh1 7#a771 m4 foot4 ,frna1 m41 ,frene4 frtwe1 f4 pl41 fretted armor1 jewels fret4 fram1 see frm4 fra1 m41 lord1 ,lord4 fra-drihten1 m41 lord1 master4 frfran 7 #acj71 console1 cheer frfor4 frmde1 strange1 foreign2 frmdan1 the strangers4 frmman 7 #abe71 accomplish1 perform1 support to frame4 frmsumnes 7-nis71 f41 kindness1 benefit4 fro 7fro71 free2 gen4 pl41 frora 7frora74 frodm1 m41 freedom4 frolc1 noble free-like4 fromg1 m41 free kinsman4 frond 7 #fh1 7#c771 m41 friend4 frondlas1 friendless4 frondlce1 in a friendly manner4 frorig1 cold1 chill froran4 frora1 see fro4 fri1 m41 n41 peace1 security bel-fry4 frd1 old1 sage1 prudent4 frfor1 f41 comfort1 consolation1 alleviation2 fyrena frfre #acg1 #g ,beowulf #fbi as an alleviation of outrages 7dat474 frm 7fram7 7 #id1 7#a771 from1 by4 frm1 adv41 away1 forth4 fruma1 m41 origin1 beginning frm4 frumsceaft1 f41 creation4 fugela1 see fugol4 fugelere1 m41 fowler4 fugol 7fugel71 m41 fowl1 bird2 gen4 pl41 fugela4 ful1 n41 cup1 beaker4 fl1 foul4 flian 7 #acj71 grow foul1 decompose4 full 7ful71 adj41 full 7with gen472 be fullan1 fully1 perfectly4 full 7ful7 adv41 fully1 very4 fultum1 m41 help4 furor 7furur71 adv41 further4 furum1 adv41 even4 fyl1 see feallan4 fyren 7firen71 f41 crime1 violence1 outrage4 fyrhtu1 f41 fright1 terror2 dat4 sing41 fyrhtu4 fyrst1 adj41 superlative1 first1 chief4 fsan 7 #abf71 make ready1 prepare fs ready2 ge gefsed #acg1 #i ,beowulf #fca ready for battle4 ,g4 gd1 n41 lack4 gst1 see gst4 gafol1 n41 tax1 tribute4 galan 7 #aaf71 sing nightingale4 glnes1 f41 lust1 impurity4 gn 7 #acd71 go4 gr1 m41 spear gore1 gar-fish4 gr-wiga1 m41 spear-warrior4 gst 7gst71 m41 spirit1 ghost4 gstlc 7gstlc71 ghastly1 terrible4 ge1 and2 see ger4 g1 ye2 see 4 geador1 together4 gemetigian 7 #acj71 disengage from 7with acc4 of person and gen4 of thing7 empty4 gernan 7 #abg71 gain by running iernan4 gap1 spacious4 gar1 n41 year2 gen4 pl41 gara1 is used adverbially of yore1 formerly4 gardg1 m41 day of yore4 geare 7gearo1 gearwe71 readily1 well1 clearly yarely4 ,gat1 m41 a ,geat1 the ,geat 7i4e4 ,beowulf74 ,gatas1 m4 pl41 the ,geats 7a people of ,south ,sweden74 ,gat-mecgas1 m4 pl41 ,geat men 7 the fourteen who accompanied ,beowulf to ,heorot74 geborscipe1 m41 banquet1 entertainment4 gebtan 7 #abf71 make amends for bt4 gebdan 7 #ajb71 wait1 bide one's time 7intrans472 endure1 experience 7trans41 with acc474 gebind1 n41 commingling4 gebindan 7 #aaj71 bind4 gebrowan 7 #aji71 brew4 gebrowen1 see gebrowan4 gebd1 gebn1 see ban 7 #abf1 ,note #b74 gebyrd1 n41 rank1 social distinction4 gecosan 7 #aji71 choose1 decide4 gecnwan 7 #aag71 know1 understand4 gecoren1 see gecosan4 gecringan 7 #aaj71 fall1 die cringe4 gedlan 7 #abf71 deal out1 give2 dae gedlde #aeb1 #g ,wanderer #hc apportioned to death 7dat471 or1 tore 787 in death 7instr474 gedafenian 7 #acj71 become1 befit1 suit 7impersonal1 usually with dat41 but with acc4 #aab1 #aj74 gedgan 7 #abf71 endure1 survive4 gedn 7 #ace71 do1 cause1 effect4 gedrg1 n41 company4 gedrosan 7 #aji71 fall1 fail4 gedriht 7gedryht71 n41 band1 troop4 gedrogen1 see drogan4 gedrync1 n41 drinking4 gendian 7 #acj71 end1 finish4 gefaran 7 #aaf71 go1 die4 gefa1 m41 joy4 gefeaht1 see gefeohtan4 gefeh1 see gefon4 gefng1 see gefn4 gefeoht1 n41 fight1 battle4 gefeohtan 7 #aaj71 fight4 gefon 7 #aah1 v471 rejoice at 7with dat472 pret4 #c;d sing41 gefeah1 gefeh4 gefra1 m41 companion1 comrade co-farer4 gefleman 7 #abf71 put to flight flon4 gefohten1 see gefeohtan4 gefn 7 #aah1 vii471 seize4 gefr1 see gefaran4 gefrge1 n41 hearsay1 report2 mne gefrge 7instr47 #ada1 #g ,beowulf #ggg as ,i have heard say1 according to my information4 gefrmman 7 #abe71 perform1 accomplish1 effect4 gefultumian 7 #acj71 help fultum4 gefylce1 n41 troop1 division folc2 dat4 pl41 gefylcum1 gefylcium4 gefyllan 7 #abg71 fill 7with gen472 past part4 pl41 f41 gefylda4 geglngan 7 #abg71 adorn4 gehtland1 n41 promised land gehtan to promise4 gehealdan 7 #aag71 hold1 maintain4 geheran 7gehran7 7 #abf71 hear4 gehersumnes1 f41 obedience4 gehola1 m41 protector helan4 gehw 7 #gg1 ,note71 each2 on healfa gehwone #adb1 #g ,beowulf #hja 7see ,note #adj1 #ae ,beowulf #gfi4 ,observe that the pron4 may1 as here1 be masc4 and the gen4 fem474 gehwer 7 #gg1 ,note71 each1 either1 both4 gehwylc 7gehwilc7 7 #gg1 ,note71 each 7with gen4 pl4 ,see ,note #adj1 #ae ,beowulf #gfi74 gehwyrfan 7 #abg71 convert1 change4 gehdan 7 #abf71 hide1 conceal1 consign4 gehygd1 f41 n41 thought1 purpose4 gehran1 see geheran4 gehrnes1 f41 hearing2 eal h in gehrnesse geleornian meahte #aae1 #ad all things that he could learn by hearing4 geldan 7 #abf71 lead4 gelred1 part4-adj41 learned2 superlative1 gelredest4 gelafian 7 #acj71 lave4 gelnge1 along of1 belonging to 7with dat474 geleornian 7-liornian7 7 #acj71 learn4 gelce1 likewise2 in like manner to 7with dat474 gelefan 7gelfan7 7 #abf71 believe2 t ho on nigne eorl gelfde #acg1 #f ,beowulf #fbh that she believed in any earl4 gelimpan 7 #aaj71 happen1 be fulfilled4 gelimplc1 proper1 fitting4 gelfan1 see gelefan4 gelfed1 weak1 infirm left 7hand74 gmde1 see geman4 gemet1 n41 meter1 measure1 ability4 gemtan 7 #abf71 meet4 gemn1 see gemunan4 gemunan 7 #acf71 remember2 indic4 pres4 #ast and #c;d sing41 gemn2 pret4 sing41 gemunde4 gemynd1 n41 memory1 memorial2 t gemyndum #adg1 #e ,beowulf #bhje as a memorial4 gemyndgian 7-mynian7 7 #acj71 remember2 mid hine gemyndgade #aae1 #ae he treasured in his memory2 gemyne mro #ach1 #ae ,beowulf #ffj be mindful of glory 7imperative #b;d sing474 gemyndig1 mindful of 7with gen474 genp1 see genpan4 geneahhe1 enough1 often2 genehost1 superlative1 very often4 genip1 n41 mist1 darkness4 genpan 7 #ajb71 grow dark4 genwian 7 #acj71 renew4 genh1 enough4 genumen1 see niman4 geoc1 n41 yoke4 gocor1 dire1 sad4 geogo1 f41 youth1 young people1 young warriors4 7,see dugu47 geond 7giond7 7 #id1 7#b771 throughout yond4 geondhweorfan 7 #aaj71 pass over1 traverse1 recall2 onne mga gemynd md geondhweorfe #aej1 #ae ,wanderer #ea then his mind recalls the memory of kinsmen4 geondscawian 7 #acj71 survey1 review2 georne geondscawa #aej1 #af ,wanderer #eb eagerly surveys them4 geondnc7e7an 7 #abh71 think over1 consider4 geong 7 #if1 7#b771 young2 giengest1 7gingest71 superlative1 youngest1 latest1 last4 geong gng1 see gngan 7imperative #b;d sing474 gong 7gong71 see gngan 7pret4 #c;d sing474 georn 7giorn71 eager1 desirous1 zealous1 sure yearn4 georne1 eagerly1 certainly2 wiste geornor #adc1 #e ,beowulf #hbb knew the more certainly4 geornfulnes1 f41 eagerness1 zeal4 geornlce1 eagerly1 attentively4 geornor1 see georne4 gercednes1 f41 narration rccan4 gerisenlc1 suitable1 becoming4 german 7 #abf71 extend1 7trans47 rm4 gesliglc1 happy1 blessed silly4 gesamnode1 see gesmnian4 gesceaft1 f41 creature1 creation1 destiny scieppan4 gesceap1 n41 shape1 creation1 destiny scieppan4 gescieldan 7 #abg71 shield1 defend4 gesealde1 see gesllan4 geseglian 7 #acj71 sail4 geselda1 m41 comrade4 gesllan 7 #abh71 give4 geson 7geson7 7 #aah71 see1 observe2 pres4 indic4 #c;d sing41 gesih4 geset1 n41 habitation1 seat4 gesttan 7 #abg71 set1 place1 establish4 gesewen1 see son1 geson 7past part474 gesewenlc1 seen1 visible seen-like4 gesiglan 7 #abg71 sail4 gesih1 see geson4 gesittan 7 #aae1 ,note #b71 sit 7trans41 as to sit a horse1 to sit a boat1 etc472 sit1 sit down 7intrans474 geslgen1 see slan 7 #aah74 gesmnian 7 #acj71 assemble1 collect4 gesmnung1 f41 collection1 assembly4 gesth1 see gestgan4 gestaelian 7 #acj71 establish1 restore standan4 gesteal1 n41 establishment1 foundation stall4 gestgan 7 #ajb71 ascend1 go stile1 stirrup1 sty 7 a rising on the eye74 gestrangian 7 #acj71 strengthen4 gestron1 n41 property4 gestrnan 7 #abf71 obtain1 acquire gestron4 gesweorcan 7 #aaj71 grow dark1 become sad2 ,for on ic gencan ne mg geond s woruld for hwan mdsefa mn ne gesweorce #aea1 #c-d lines #eh-ei ,therefore in this world ,i may not understand wherefore my mind does not grow 8black as night40 7,brooke47 geswcan 7 #ajb71 cease1 cease from 7with gen474 getl1 n41 something told1 narrative4 getruma1 m41 troop1 division4 geanc1 m41 n41 thought4 geeah1 see geicgan4 genc7e7an 7 #abh71 think1 remember1 understand1 consider4 geodan 7 #abf71 join4 geode 7-ode71 n41 language1 tribe4 geodnis1 f41 association2 but in #aab1 #b this word is used to render the ,lat4 appetitus desire4 geicg7e7an 7 #aae1 ,note #b71 take1 receive2 pret4 indic4 #c;d sing41 geeah4 geungen1 part4-adj41 distinguished1 excellent on1 to thrive4 geyldig1 patient olian4 geweald 7gewald71 n41 control1 possession1 power wield4 geweorc1 n41 work1 labor4 geweorian 7 #acj71 honor to attribute worth to4 gewcian 7 #acj71 dwell4 gewin7n71 n41 strife1 struggle4 gewindan 7 #aaj71 flee wend4 gewissian 7 #acj71 guide1 direct4 gewtan 7 #ajb71 go1 depart4 geworht1 see gewyrcan4 gewrit1 n41 writing1 ,scripture4 gewunian 7 #acj71 be accustomed1 be wont4 gewyrc7e7an 7 #abh71 work1 create1 make1 produce4 gid7d71 n41 word1 speech4 giefan 7 #aae71 give4 giefstl1 m41 gift-stool1 throne4 giefu 7gifu71 f41 gift4 gielp 7gilp71 m41 n41 boast yelp4 geman 7gman7 7 #abf71 endeavor1 strive4 get 7gt1 gt71 yet1 still4 gif 7gyf71 if not related to give4 gifee 7gyfee71 given1 granted4 gilp1 see gielp4 gilp-cwide1 m41 boasting speech yelp-speech4 gingest1 see geong 7adj474 gioho 7gehu71 f41 care1 sorrow1 grief4 gi 7i71 formerly1 of old4 gld 7gld71 glad4 glaw1 wise1 prudent4 glwstf1 m41 glee1 joy2 instr4 pl4 7used adverbially71 glwstafum #aej1 #af ,wanderer #eb joyfully4 ,god1 m41 ,god4 gd 7 #if1 7#c771 good2 mid his gdum #aae1 #ab with his possessions 7goods74 godcund1 divine ,god4 godcundlce1 divinely4 gold1 n41 gold4 gold-ht1 f41 gold treasure4 gold-fh1 gold-adorned4 gold-hroden1 part4-adj41 gold-adorned4 goldwine1 m41 prince1 giver of gold1 lord gold-friend4 gomel 7gomol71 old1 old man4 gngan 7gangan7 7 #aag71 go gang2 imperative #b;d sing41 geong2 pret4 sing41 gong1 gong1 gng2 past part41 gegngen1 gegangen4 ,the most commonly used pret4 is ode1 which belongs to gn 7 #acd74 ,gotland1 n41 ,jutland 7in ,ohthere's ,second ,voyage71 ,gothland 7in ,wulfstan's ,voyage74 gram1 grim1 angry1 fierce1 the angry one4 grp1 f41 grasp1 clutch1 claw4 grtan 7 #abf71 greet1 attack1 touch4 grwan 7 #aag1 7#b771 grow4 gryre-lo1 n41 terrible song grisly lay4 guma1 m41 man1 hero groom2 see #fe1 ,note #a4 g1 f41 war1 battle4 g-bill1 n41 sword war-bill4 g-gewde1 n41 armor war-weeds4 g-hr1 f41 war-fame4 g-wine1 m41 sword war-friend4 gyddian 7 #acj71 speak formally1 chant giddy2 the original meaning of giddy was mirthful1 as when one sings4 gyf1 see gif4 gyfee1 see gifee4 gyldan 7gieldan7 7 #aaj71 pay2 indic4 #c;d sing41 gylt4 gylden1 golden gold4 ,h4 habban 7 #acc71 have4 hd1 m41 order1 rank1 office1 degree -hood1 -head4 hfta1 m41 captive4 hgel 7hagol71 m41 hail2 instr4 sing41 hagle4 hglfaru1 f41 hail-storm hail-faring4 hle1 see hle4 hl1 f41 hail1 health1 good luck4 hle 7hle71 m41 hero1 warrior4 ht1 see htan4 hen1 heathen4 ,hum 7t ,hum71 ,haddeby 7 ,schleswig74 hl1 hale1 whole4 hlettan 7 #abg71 greet1 salute to hail4 ,halfdne1 ,halfdane 7proper name74 hlga1 m41 saint4 ,hlgoland1 ,halgoland 7in ancient ,norway74 hlig1 holy4 hlignes1 f41 holiness4 hm1 m41 home2 dat4 sing41 hme1 hm 7p4 #ajd1 ,note72 used adverbially in hm ode #aab1 #ah went home4 hand1 see hnd4 hr1 hoary1 gray4 ht1 hot4 htan 7 #aag1 ,note #b71 call1 name1 command2 pret4 sing41 heht1 ht4 htheort1 hot-hearted4 htte1 see htan4 h1 ho1 hit 7 #ec71 he1 she1 it4 hafod1 n41 head4 hah 7 #if1 7#b771 high2 acc4 sing1 m41 hanne4 hah-sle1 m41 high hall4 hahungen1 highly prosperous1 aristocratic hah past part4 of on 7 #aah74 healdan 7 #aag71 hold1 govern1 possess2 #add1 #i ,beowulf #bgbj hold up1 sustain4 healf1 adj41 half4 healf1 f41 half1 side1 shore4 heall1 f41 hall4 heals1 m41 neck4 han1 abject1 miserable4 hanne1 see hah4 heard1 hard4 heard-hicgende1 brave-minded hard-thinking4 hearm-scaa1 m41 harmful foe harm-scather4 hearpe1 f41 harp4 heao-dor1 battle-brave4 heao-mre1 famous in battle4 heao-wylm1 m41 flame-surge1 surging of fire battle-welling4 hawan 7 #aag71 hew1 cut4 hbban1 hf1 hfon1 gehafen 7 #aag71 heave1 lift1 raise4 hfig1 heavy1 oppressive4 heht1 see htan4 helan 7 #aad71 conceal4 hll1 f41 hell4 helm1 m41 helmet4 ,helmingas1 m4 pl41 ,helmings 7,wealtheow1 ,hrothgar's queen1 is a ,helming74 help1 f41 help4 helpan 7 #aaj71 help 7with dat474 heofon1 m41 heaven4 heofonlc1 heavenly4 heofonrce1 n41 kingdom of heaven4 hold1 see healdan4 heolstor 7-ster71 n41 darkness1 concealment1 cover holster4 heora 7hiera71 see h4 heord1 f41 care1 guardianship hoard4 heoro-drorig1 bloody sword-dreary4 ,heorot1 ,heorot1 ,hart 7the famous hall which ,hrothgar built74 heorte1 f41 heart4 hr1 here1 hither2 in the ,chronicle the meaning frequently is at this date1 in this year3 #ii1 #a4 hre1 m41 ,danish army4 hrenis1 f41 praise4 hrgian 7 #acj71 raid1 harry1 ravage hre4 hrgung1 f41 harrying1 plundering4 hrian 7hrigean7 7 #abe71 praise4 hrsumedon1 see hersumian4 ht1 see htan4 hider 7hieder71 hither4 hiera1 see h4 heran 7hran7 7 #abf71 hear1 belong4 hierde1 m41 shepherd1 instigator keeper of a herd4 hierdebc1 f41 pastoral treatise shepherd-book1 a translation of ,lat4 ,cura ,pastoralis4 herra1 see hah4 hersumian 7hr-1 hr-7 7 #acj71 obey 7with dat474 hige 7hyge71 m41 mind1 heart4 hige-ihtig1 bold-hearted4 hild1 f41 battle4 hilde-dor1 battle-brave4 hilde-mecg1 m41 warrior4 hilde-sd1 battle-sated4 hin-fs1 eager to be gone hence-ready4 hira1 see h4 hlw 7hlw71 m41 mound1 burial mound ,ludlow and other place-names1 low meaning hill4 hlford1 m41 lord1 master loaf-ward84 hleahtor1 m41 laughter4 hlo1 m41 refuge1 protector lee4 hlfian 7 #acj71 rise1 tower4 hlyn1 m41 din1 noise4 hlynsian 7 #acj71 resound4 hof1 n41 court1 abode4 hogode1 see hycgan4 holm1 m41 sea1 ocean4 hnd 7hand71 f41 hand2 on gehwre hnd1 on both sides4 hord1 m41 n41 hoard1 treasure4 hordcofa1 m41 breast1 heart hoard-chamber hors1 n41 horse4 horshwl1 m41 walrus4 hrdwyrde1 hasty of speech hrd quick4 hrgel1 n41 garment2 dat4 sing41 hrgle4 hrn1 m41 reindeer4 hrae1 quickly1 soon rath-er4 hro 7hroh71 rough1 cruel1 sad4 hrosan 7 #aji71 fall4 hrran 7 #abf71 stir4 hreer1 m41 n41 breast1 purpose2 dat4 sing41 hrere4 hrm1 m41 rime1 hoarfrost4 hrmceald1 rime-cold4 hring1 m41 ring1 ring-mail4 hr1 f4 7871 snow-storm4 hrf1 m41 roof4 ,hrones nss1 literally ,whale's ,ness1 whale's promontory2 see nss4 hrse1 f41 earth hrosan3 deposit4 hryre1 m41 fall1 death hrosan4 hrer1 n41 cattle rinder-pest4 hryig1 ruined 7871 storm-beaten2 nom4 pl4 m41 hryge4 h1 how4 ,humbre1 f41 river ,humber4 hund1 hundred4 hunig1 n41 honey4 hunta1 m41 hunter4 hunto 7-ta71 m41 hunting4 hru1 adv41 about4 hs1 n41 house4 hw1 hwt 7 #gd71 who8 what8 sw hwt sw 7 #gg1 ,note71 whatsoever2 indefinite1 any one1 anything2 for hwan 7instr471 wherefore4 hwl1 m41 whale4 hwlhunta1 m41 whale-hunter4 hwlhunta1 m41 whale-fishing4 hwr1 where8 hwr 444 sw1 wheresoever2 wel hwr1 nearly everywhere4 hwthwugu1 something4 hwer1 whether1 which of two8 hwre1 however1 nevertheless4 hwne1 see hwn4 hweorfan 7 #aaj71 turn1 go4 hwider1 whither4 hwl1 f41 while1 time2 ealle hwle e1 all the while that2 hwlum 7instr4 pl471 sometimes4 hwilc 7hwylc1 hwelc7 7 #gd1 ,note #a71 which8 what8 hwn1 n41 a trifle2 hwne 7instr4 sing471 somewhat1 a little4 hwnan1 when4 h1 see he4 hycgan 7 #acb71 think1 resolve2 pret4 #c;d sing41 hogode4 hd1 f41 hide1 skin4 hyge1 see hige4 hyra 7hiera71 see h4 hran1 see heran4 hyrde1 see hierde4 hys 7his71 see h4 hyt 7hit71 see h4 ,i4 ic 7 #gb71 ,i4 del1 idle1 useless1 desolate4 ides1 f41 woman1 lady4 ieldra1 adj41 see eald4 ieldra1 m41 an elder1 parent1 ancestor4 iernan 7yrnan7 7 #aab71 run4 glnd 7gland71 n41 island4 ilca 7ylca71 the same of that ilk4 ,ilfing1 the ,elbing4 in1 in1 into 7with dat4 and acc472 in on1 in on1 to1 toward4 inbryrdnis 7-nes71 f41 inspiration1 ardor4 indryhten1 very noble4 ingng1 m41 entrance4 innan1 adv41 within1 inside2 on innan1 within4 innanbordes1 adv4-gen41 within borders1 at home4 inne1 adv41 within1 inside4 intinga1 m41 cause1 sake4 inweardlce1 inwardly1 fervently4 inwid-sorg 7inwit-sorh71 f41 sorrow caused by an enemy4 inwit-anc1 m41 hostile intent4 raland1 n41 ,ireland 7but in ,ohthere's ,second ,voyage1 ,iceland is probably meant74 ren1 n41 iron1 sword2 gen4 pl41 renna1 rena4 ren-bnd1 m41 f41 iron-band4 u1 see gu4 ,k4 kynerce1 see cynerce4 kyning1 see cyning4 kyrtel1 m41 kirtle1 coat4 ,l4 ,lden1 ,latin4 ,ldengeode 7-ode71 n41 ,latin language4 ,ldenware 7 #dg71 m4 pl41 ,latin people1 ,romans4 lfan 7 #abf71 leave4 lge1 see licgan4 ,lland1 n41 ,laaland 7in ,denmark74 ln1 n41 loan2 t lne #aba1 #b as a loan4 lne1 adj41 as a loan1 transitory1 perishable4 lran 7 #abf71 teach1 advise1 exhort lr4 lssa1 lsta1 see ltel4 lstan 7 #abg71 last1 hold out 7intrans472 perform1 achieve 7trans474 ltan 7 #aag71 let1 leave4 lf1 f41 something left1 remnant1 heirloom 7often a sword72 t lfe1 as a remnant1 remaining4 laguld1 f41 sea lake-way1 ld leading1 direction1 way4 land1 see lnd4 lang1 see lng4 ,langaland1 n41 ,langeland 7in ,denmark74 lr1 f41 lore1 teaching4 lrcwide1 m41 precept1 instruction1 cwide cwean4 lrow1 m41 teacher lr ow4 lst1 m41 track1 footprint shoemaker's last2 on lst7e71 in the track of1 behind 7with dat474 l1 loathsome1 hateful4 las1 loose1 free from1 bereft of 7with gen474 lasung1 f41 leasing1 deception1 falsehood4 lcgan 7 #abe1 ,note71 lay4 lfdon1 see lefan4 leger1 n41 lying in1 illness licgan4 lng1 see lnge4 lngra1 see lng4 lod1 m41 prince1 chief4 lod1 f41 people1 nation 7the plural has the same meaning74 lod-scipe1 m41 nation people-ship4 lof1 dear lief4 leoht1 adj41 light4 loht1 n41 light1 brightness4 leornere1 m41 learner1 disciple4 leornian 7 #acj71 learn4 leornung 7liornung71 f41 learning4 lo1 n41 song lay84 locrft1 m41 poetic skill lay-craft4 losng1 n41 song1 poem4 lt1 see ltan4 libban 7 #acc71 live2 pres4 part41 lifigende1 living1 alive4 lc1 n41 body1 corpse lich-gate1 ,lichfield4 licgan 7 #aae1 ,note #b71 lie1 extend1 flow1 lie dead2 #c;d sing4 indic4 pres41 lige1 l4 lchama 7-hma71 m41 body body-covering4 lcian 7 #acj71 please 7with dat47 like4 lc-sr1 n41 body-sore1 wound in the body4 lefan 7lfan7 7 #abf71 permit1 allow 7with dat47 grant leave to4 lf1 n41 life4 lf-dagas1 m4 pl41 life-days4 lifigende1 see libban4 lg1 m41 flame1 fire4 lige1 see licgan4 lim1 n41 limb4 list1 f41 cunning2 dat4 pl41 listum1 is used adverbially cunningly4 l1 see licgan4 lof1 m41 praise1 glory4 lnd 7land71 n41 land1 country4 lng 7lang7 7 #if1 7#b771 long4 lnge 7lange7 7 #ig1 7#b771 long2 lnge on dg1 late in the day4 lufan1 see lufu4 lufian 7lufigean7 7 #aca71 love4 luflce1 lovingly4 lufu1 f41 love2 dat4 sing4 7weak71 lufan4 lungre1 quickly4 lust1 m41 joy lust2 on lust1 joyfully4 lt1 indeclinable1 little1 few 7with partitive gen474 ltel 7ltel7 7 #if1 7#b771 little1 small4 ,m4 m1 see micle 7 #ig1 7#b774 mg1 see magan4 mg1 m41 kinsman2 nom4 pl41 mgas 7 #bg1 7#b774 mgen n41 strength1 power might and main4 mgen-llen1 n41 main strength1 mighty courage4 mg1 f41 tribe4 mghd1 m41 maidenhood1 virginity4 ml-gesceaft1 f41 appointed time ml meal1 time4 mran 7 #abf71 make famous1 honor4 mre1 famous1 glorious1 notorious4 mro 7mro1 mr71 f41 glory1 fame4 msseprost1 m41 mass-priest4 mst1 see micel4 magan 7 #acg71 be able1 may4 mgas1 see mg4 magu 7mago71 m41 son1 man4 maguegn1 m41 vassal1 retainer4 man7n71 see mn7n74 mancus1 m41 mancus1 half-crown2 gen4 pl41 mancessa4 mndd1 f41 evil deed4 manig1 see mnig4 manigfeald1 see mnigfeald4 mra1 see micel4 maelian 7 #acj71 harangue1 speak4 mum 7mum71 m41 gift1 treasure1 jewel2 gen4 pl41 mma4 mumgyfa1 m41 treasure-giver1 lord4 mum-wela1 m41 wealth of treasure4 m1 see ic4 meaht1 f41 might1 power4 meahte1 see magan4 mearc1 f41 boundary1 limit mark1 march4 mearg 7mearh71 m41 horse2 nom4 pl41 maras4 mear1 m41 marten4 mec1 see ic4 medmicel1 moderately large1 short1 brief4 medu 7medo71 m41 mead4 medu-bnc1 f41 mead-bench4 medu-ful1 n41 mead-cup4 medu-heall1 f41 mead-hall4 mn1 see mn7n74 mngan 7 #abg71 mingle1 mix4 mnigu 7mnigeo71 f41 multitude many4 mnniscnes1 f41 humanity1 incarnation man4 meolc1 f41 milk4 ,more1 ,mre 7in ,sweden74 mre1 m41 lake1 mere1 sea mermaid4 ,meretn1 m41 ,merton 7in ,surrey74 mtan 7 #abf71 meet1 find4 ,metod 7,meotod1 ,metud71 m41 ,creator1 ,god4 metod-sceaft1 f41 appointed doom1 eternity4 micel 7 #if1 7#c771 great1 mighty1 strong1 large mickle2 mra1 more1 stronger1 larger4 micle 7micele71 greatly1 much4 miclum1 7 #ic1 7#d771 greatly4 mid1 with1 amid1 among 7with dat4 and acc474 middangeard1 m41 earth1 world middle-yard4 middeweard1 midward1 toward the middle4 ,mierce1 m4 pl41 ,mercians4 mihte1 see magan4 ml1 f41 mile ,lat4 mille4 mildheortnes1 f41 mild-heartedness1 mercy4 milts1 f41 mildness1 mercy4 mn 7 #gf71 my1 mine4 mislc1 various4 missenlc1 various4 md1 n41 mood1 mind1 courage4 mdcearig1 sorrowful of mind4 mdega1 mdga1 see mdig4 mdgeanc1 m41 purpose of mind4 mdig1 moody1 brave1 proud4 mdor1 f41 mother4 mdsefa1 m41 mind1 heart4 mn7n7 7man1 mann7 7 #fh2 #gj1 ,note71 m41 man1 one1 person1 they4 mna1 m41 moon4 mna 7 #fh1 7#a71 ,note71 m41 month mna2 dat4 sing41 mne4 mn7n7cynn1 n41 mankind4 mndryhten1 m41 liege lord4 mnian 7manian7 7 #acj71 admonish4 mnig 7manig1 mneg1 mnig71 many4 mnigfeald 7manig-71 manifold1 various4 mne1 see mna4 mr1 m41 moor4 morgen1 m41 morning2 dat4 sing41 morgen7n7e4 moror-bealu 7-bealo71 n41 murder murder-bale2 see urfan4 mste1 see mtan4 mtan 7 #acg71 may1 be permitted1 must4 mund-gripe1 m41 hand-grip4 munuc1 m41 monk ,lat4 monachus4 munuchd1 m41 monkhood1 monastic rank4 m1 m41 mouth4 myntan 7 #abg71 be minded1 intend2 pret4 indic4 #c;d sing41 mynte4 mynster1 n41 monastery ,lat4 monasterium2 dat4 sing41 mynstre4 mre1 f41 mare mearh4 myr1 f41 joy1 mirth2 mdes myre #adb1 #ag ,beowulf #haa with joy of heart4 ,n4 n 7n71 not ne n-ever2 n ne1 not1 not at all4 nabban 7p4 #cb1 ,note71 not to have4 ndre1 f41 serpent1 adder4 nfde1 see nabban4 nfre1 never4 nnig 7 #gg71 no one1 no1 none4 nre1 nren1 nron1 see #dj1 ,note #b4 ns ne ws1 see #dj1 ,note #b4 nss1 m41 ness1 headland4 nht1 see nht4 nls 7nles71 not at all n ealles4 nam1 see niman4 nama1 see nma4 nmon1 see niman4 nn1 not one1 no1 none ne n4 nnwuht1 n41 nothing no whit4 ne1 not4 n1 nor2 n 444 n1 neither 444 nor4 nah 7 #if1 7#d771 near4 nah1 adv41 nigh1 near1 nearly1 almost2 comparative1 nar1 nearer4 neaht1 see niht4 nalcan 7-lcan7 7 #abf71 draw near to1 approach 7with dat474 nar1 see nah1 adv4 nat1 n41 neat1 cattle4 nmnan 7 #abg71 name4 neme1 7nyme71 except1 unless4 nrian 7 #abe71 save1 preserve4 nten1 see neten4 nedbeearf1 needful1 necessary4 nehst1 see nah 7 #if1 7#d774 neten 7nten71 n41 neat1 beast1 cattle4 nigontene1 nineteen4 niht 7neaht7 7 #fh1 7#a71 ,note71 night4 nihthelm1 m41 night-helm1 shade of night4 nihtsca1 m41 shadow of night4 niht-weorc1 n41 night-work4 niman 7 #aad71 take1 gain nimble1 numb4 npan 7 #ajb71 grow dark1 darken4 nis1 see #dj1 ,note #b4 n1 m41 malice1 violence4 nwe1 new1 novel1 startling4 n1 see n4 nht 7nht1 n-wiht71 n41 not a whit1 naught1 nothing2 not1 not at all4 nhwer 7nhwer71 neither2 nhwer n 444 ne 444 n 444 ne #aah1 #h neither 444 nor4 nolde1 noldon ne wolde1 ne woldon1 see willan4 nma 7nama71 m41 name4 nor 7 #ig1 7#a771 north1 in the north1 northwards4 noran 7 #ic1 7#e771 from the north2 be noran1 see #id1 7#d74 ,nor-,dne1 m4 pl41 ,north-,danes4 noreweard1 northward4 ,norhymbre1 m4 pl41 ,northumbrians4 ,normanna1 see ,normn4 ,normn1 see ,normn4 normest1 see nor4 ,normn 7-man7 7 #fh1 7#a771 ,norwegian4 noror1 see nor4 norryhte1 northward4 norweard1 northward4 ,norweg1 ,norway4 nose1 f41 cape1 naze ness1 nose4 notu1 f41 office1 employment4 n1 now2 now that1 seeing that2 n #ach1 #ac ,beowulf #feh now then4 nhst 7nehst71 see nah4 nyme1 see neme4 nysse1 see nytan4 nyste1 see nytan4 nyt7t71 useful1 profitable4 nytan 7nitan ne witan1 #acf71 not to know2 #c;d sing4 pret41 nysse1 nyste4 ,o4 of 7 #id1 7#a771 of1 from1 concerning4 ofer 7 #id1 7#b771 over1 across1 after1 in spite of 7see #add1 #ad ,beowulf #bgbe72 ofer eoran #adb1 #i ,beowulf #hjc on earth4 ofer1 adv41 over1 across4 oferfran 7 #abf71 go over1 traverse4 oferfrosan 7 #aji71 freeze over4 oferfroren1 see oferfrosan4 ofgiefan 7 #aae71 give up1 relinquish4 ofost1 f41 haste4 ofslgen1 see ofslan4 ofslan 7 #aah71 slay off1 slay4 ofslge1 see ofslan4 oft1 oft1 often2 superlative1 oftost4 on 7 #id1 7#c771 in1 into1 on1 against1 to1 among1 during2 on ff oe syx #aji1 #f into five or six parts2 on weg #adj1 #aj ,beowulf #gfd away2 on innan #add1 #e ,beowulf #bgaf within2 on unriht #ade1 #ae ,beowulf #bgdj falsely4 onbrnan 7 #abf71 kindle1 inspire4 onc1 f41 distress1 suffering4 nd 7and71 and4 ndsaca1 m41 adversary4 ndswarian 7 #acj71 answer4 ndweard1 adj41 present4 onfng1 see onfn4 onfeohtan 7 #aaj71 fight4 onfindan 7 #aaj71 find out1 discover2 pret4 indic4 #c;d sing41 onfunde4 onfn 7 #aah71 receive1 seize violently4 onfunde1 see onfindan4 ongan1 prep41 against1 towards 7with dat4 and acc474 ongan1 adv41 just across1 opposite4 ngelcynn 7,angel-71 n41 ,angle kin1 ,english people1 ,england4 ngelod 7,angel-71 f41 the ,english people or nation4 ongemang 7-mng71 among 7with dat474 ongietan 7-gitan7 7 #aae71 perceive1 see1 understand4 onginnan 7 #aaj71 begin1 attempt4 onltan 7 #aji71 bow1 incline 7intrans47 lout a stooper4 onrdan 7 #ajb71 ride against1 make a raid on4 onsndan 7 #abg71 send4 onslpan 7onslpan7 7 #abf71 fall asleep1 sleep4 onspnnan 7 #aag71 loosen unspan2 pret4 #c;d sing4 indic41 onspon4 onspringan 7 #aaj71 spring apart1 unspring4 onstl1 m41 institution1 supply4 onstllan 7 #abh71 establish2 pret4 #c;d sing4 indic41 onstealde4 onwcnan 7 #abg71 awake 7intrans474 onweald 7-wald71 m41 power1 authority wield4 onwndan 7 #abg71 change1 overturn to wind4 r1 n41 beginning4 o 7 #id1 7#b771 until1 as far as 7of time and place72 o t1 o e1 until4 oberan 7 #aad71 bear away4 er1 other1 second2 er 444 er1 the one 444 the other4 ofstan 7 #abg71 set to 7a task74 ofeallan 7 #aag7 fall off1 decline4 oe1 or2 oe 444 oe1 either 444 or4 ,p4 plega1 m41 play1 festivity4 port1 m41 port ,lat4 portus4 ,r4 rd1 f41 raid4 rcan 7 #abf71 reach2 pret4 #c;d sing41 rhte4 rst1 see rst4 ,radingas1 m4 pl41 ,reading 7in ,berkshire74 rccan 7 #abh71 narrate1 tell2 pret4 pl4 indic41 rhton1 reahton4 rccelas1 reckless1 careless4 rced1 n41 house1 hall4 regnian 7rnian7 7 #acj71 adorn1 prepare2 past part41 geregnad4 regollc 7-lec71 according to rule1 regular4 rn-weard1 m41 mighty warden1 guard1 champion4 rst 7rst71 f41 rest1 resting-place1 bed4 re1 fierce1 furious4 rce1 rich1 powerful1 aristocratic4 rce1 n41 realm1 kingdom bishopric4 rcsian 7 #acj71 rule4 rdan 7 #ajb71 ride4 rman 7 #abf71 count rime4 rinc1 m41 man1 warrior4 rd1 f41 rood1 cross2 rde tcen1 sign of the cross4 ,rmware1 m4 pl41 ,romans4 rnd 7rand71 m41 shield4 rn1 f41 rune1 secret meditation to round to whisper4 rycene 7ricene71 quickly1 rashly4 ryhtnoranwind1 m41 straight north-wind4 ,s4 s1 f41 sea4 s-bt1 m41 sea-boat4 sd1 n41 seed4 sde1 see scgan4 sl1 m41 f41 time1 happiness sil-ly2 on slum #acg1 #bb ,beowulf #fdd joyous1 merry4 slan 7 #abf71 bind4 s-lend 7 #fh1 7#c771 m41 seafarer 7nom4 and acc4 pl4 same as nom4 and acc4 sing474 sam 444 sam1 whether 444 or4 same1 similarly2 sw same1 just the same1 in like manner4 samod1 see smod4 sanct1 m41 f41 saint ,lat4 sanctus2 gen4 sing41 sanct1 f41 sancti1 m4 sang1 see sng4 sr1 f41 n41 sore1 pain1 wound4 sr1 adj41 sore1 grievous4 sre1 sorely4 swan 7 #aag17 sow4 swol1 f41 soul2 oblique cases1 sing41 swle 7 #ci1 ,note74 scacan 7sceacan7 7 #aaf71 shake1 go1 depart2 past part41 scacen1 sceacen4 scadu-helm1 m41 cover of night1 shadow-covering shadow-helm2 scadu-helma gesceapu1 see ,note on #ach1 #b-f lines #fdg-ea4 sceal1 see sculan4 scap1 n41 sheep4 scat1 m41 corner1 region1 quarter sheet2 eoran scatta #aci1 #ad ,beowulf #gec in the regions of earth 7gen4 used as locative74 scawi7g7an 7 #acj71 view1 see shew4 scawung1 f41 seeing4 sceolde1 see sculan4 scop 7scp71 see scieppan4 scowyrhta1 m41 shoe-maker4 scan 7 #aaf71 injure1 scathe 7with dat474 scieppan 7 #aaf71 create4 ,scieppend1 m41 ,creator4 scnan 7 #ajb71 shine4 scip 7scyp71 n41 ship4 scipen1 n41 stall4 sciprp1 m41 ship-rope1 cable4 scr1 f41 shire1 district4 ,sciringeshal1 m41 ,sciringesheal 7in ,norway74 scolde1 see sculan4 scmu1 f41 shame1 dishonor4 ,scng1 f41 ,skaane 7southern district of the ,scandinavian peninsula74 scopgereord1 n41 poetic language4 scran 7 #ajb71 stride1 stalk4 sculan 7 #acf2 #acg1 ,note #b71 shall1 have to1 ought4 ,scyldingas1 m4 pl41 ,scyldings1 ,danes4 scyp1 see scip4 ,scyppend1 see ,scieppend4 s1 so1 t 7 #bh2 #bh1 ,note #c71 the2 that2 he1 she1 it2 who1 which1 that2 s1 from then1 afterwards1 therefore2 s e 7p4 #aaj1 l4 #b71 with what2 444 t 7p4 #aaj1 ll4 #g-h71 for this reason 444 because2 t m 444 sw1 to such an extent 444 as2 y 771 the 7adverbial1 with comparatives72 444 1 the 444 the4 seah1 see son4 sealde1 see sllan4 searo-gimm1 m41 artistic gem1 jewel4 searo-n1 m41 cunning hatred1 plot4 searo-nc1 m41 cunning thought1 device4 ,seaxe1 m4 pl41 ,saxons1 ,saxony4 sc7e7an 7 #abh71 to seek1 visit1 meet4 scg1 m41 man1 warrior4 scgan 7 #acb71 say1 tell4 sefa1 m41 mind1 spirit4 sfte1 more easily 7comparative of sfte74 segel1 m41 n41 sail2 dat4 sing4 segle4 seglian 7 #acj71 sail4 sle1 m41 hall4 sledram1 m41 hall joy1 festivity4 sle-ful1 n41 hall cup4 slescg1 m41 hall warrior1 retainer4 slest1 best 7no positive74 self 7sylf71 self1 himself 7declined as strong or weak adjective74 sllan 7syllan7 7 #abh71 give sell1 han7d7sel4 smninga1 forthwith1 straightway4 sndan 7 #abg71 send4 so1 see s4 soc1 sick4 seofon 7syfan71 seven4 seolh1 m41 seal2 gen4 sing4 soles 7 #bg1 7#c774 son 7 #aah71 see1 look4 seonu1 f41 sinew2 nom4 pl41 seonowe4 sess1 m41 seat4 sibb1 f41 friendship1 peace gossip4 sidu 7siodu71 m41 custom1 morality1 good conduct4 se1 see bon4 siex1 six2 syxa 7siexa7 sum1 see sum4 siextig1 sixty4 sige1 m41 victory4 sige-folc1 n41 victorious people4 sige-las1 victory-less1 of defeat4 sige-rf1 victory-famed1 victorious4 sige-wpen1 n41 victory-weapon4 siglan 7 #abg71 sail4 ,sillende1 ,zealand4 sinc1 n41 treasure1 prize4 sinc-ft1 n41 see #acg1 #a ,beowulf #fbc treasure-vat4 sinc-gu1 f41 receiving of treasure icgan4 sind1 sint1 sindon1 see bon4 singan 7 #aaj71 sing4 sittan 7 #aae1 ,note #b71 sit1 take position4 s1 m41 journey1 time2 forman se #aci1 #b ,beowulf #gda the first time 7instr4 sing474 sian 7 #acj71 journey4 sian1 after that1 afterwards1 after4 slp1 m41 sleep4 slpan 7 #aag71 sleep4 slan 7 #aah71 slay slow-worm4 sltan 7 #ajb71 slit1 tear to pieces4 slen1 savage1 perilous4 sml1 narrow4 smalost1 see sml4 snw1 m41 snow4 snot7t7or1 wise1 prudent4 shte1 see scan4 smod 7samod71 together4 sna1 soon4 sng1 m41 n41 song1 poem4 sngcrft1 m41 art of song and poetry4 sorg 7sorh71 f41 sorrow4 s1 true4 s1 n41 truth2 t se1 for a truth1 truly1 verily4 s-fst1 truthful1 just4 slce1 truly4 spd1 f41 possessions1 success1 riches speed4 spdig1 rich1 prosperous4 spell1 n41 story1 tale gospel4 spow1 see spwan4 spere1 n41 spear4 spor1 n41 track1 footprint4 spwan 7 #aag71 succeed 7impersonal with dat474 sprc1 f41 speech1 language4 sprecan 7 #aae71 speak4 spyrian 7spyrigean7 7 #acj71 follow 7intrans47 spor4 stf1 staff1 rod2 pl4 literature1 learning4 stlhrn1 m41 decoy-reindeer4 stlwiere1 serviceable 7see p4 #ef1 ,note #b74 str1 n41 story1 narrative ,lat4 historia4 st1 n41 shore4 stn1 m41 stone1 rock4 stn-boga1 m41 stone-arch stone-bow4 standan1 see stndan4 stnhli 7-hleo71 n41 stone-cliff4 stapol1 m41 column staple4 starian 7 #abe71 stare1 gaze4 stde1 m41 place4 stelan 7 #aad71 steal4 stnt1 see stndan4 storbord1 n41 starboard1 right side of a ship4 stppan 7 #aaf71 step1 advance2 pret4 indic4 #c;d sing41 stp4 stilnes1 f41 stillness1 quiet4 stndan 7 #aaf71 stand4 stp1 see stppan4 storm1 m41 storm4 stw1 f41 place stow1 and in names of places4 strang1 see strng4 strngest1 see strng4 strng 7 #if1 7#b771 strong4 styccemlum1 here and there4 sum 7 #ia1 ,note #b71 some1 certain1 a certain one2 h syxa sum #ajd1 #be he with five others4 sumera1 see sumor4 sumor1 m41 summer2 dat4 sing4 sumera4 sumorlida1 m41 summer-army4 sundor1 apart4 sunne1 f41 sun4 sunu1 m41 son4 s1 south1 southwards4 san 7 #ic1 7#e771 from the south2 be san1 south of 7 #id1 7#d774 seweard1 southward4 sryhte1 southward4 sw 7sw71 so1 as1 how1 as if2 sw sw1 just as1 as far as2 sw 444 sw1 the 444 the1 as 444 as2 sw hwt sw1 whatsoever 7 #gg1 ,note74 sws1 beloved1 own4 sw1 n41 track1 footprint swath4 swaul1 m48 n481 smoke4 swealh1 see swelgan4 swefan 7 #aae71 sleep1 sleep the sleep of death4 swefn1 n41 sleep1 dream4 swg1 m41 sound1 noise4 swegle1 bright1 clear4 swlan 7 #abf71 burn sweal4 swelgan 7 #aaj71 swallow2 pret4 indic4 #c;d sing41 swealh2 subj41 swulge4 swellan 7 #aaj71 swell4 ,swoland1 n41 ,sweden4 ,swom1 m41 dat4 pl41 the ,swedes4 sweotol1 clear4 sweotole1 clearly4 swrian 7 #aaf71 swear4 swte1 sweet4 swtnes 7-nis71 f41 sweetness4 swift 7swyft71 swift4 swilc 7swylc7 7 #gg71 such4 swilce1 in such manner1 as1 likewise2 as if1 as though 7with subj474 swimman 7 #aaj71 swim4 swn 7swn71 n41 swine1 hog4 swnsung1 f41 melody1 harmony4 swe 7swe71 very1 exceedingly1 greatly4 swost1 chiefly1 almost4 swr1 see swrian4 swulge1 see swelgan4 swuster 7 #fh1 7#b771 f41 sister4 swylce 7swelce71 see swilce4 swn1 see swn4 swynsian 7 #acj71 resound4 swe1 see swe4 sw-ferh1 strong-souled4 sylf1 see self4 syll1 f41 sill1 floor4 syllan1 see sllan4 symbel1 n41 feast1 banquet4 symle1 always4 synd1 see bon4 syn-dolh1 n41 ceaseless wound1 incurable wound4 syndriglce1 specially4 synn1 f41 sin4 syn-scaa1 m41 ceaseless scather1 perpetual foe4 syn-snd1 f41 huge bit ceaseless bit4 syan1 see sian4 syx1 see siex4 syxtig1 see siextig4 ,t4 tcen1 n41 sign1 token2 dat4 sing41 tcne 7 #cc1 ,note74 tcan 7 #abh71 teach4 tam1 tame4 tela1 properly1 well til4 tllan 7 #abh71 count1 deem tell2 pret4 #c;d sing41 tealde4 ,tmes1 f41 the ,thames4 ton1 arrange1 create2 pret4 sing41 tode4 ,terfinna1 m41 gen4 pl41 the ,terfins4 t1 see t4 td1 f41 tide1 time1 hour4 ten 7tn71 ten4 til7l71 good4 tma1 m41 time4 tintreglc1 full of torment4 t 7 #id1 7#a771 to1 for1 according to1 as2 t hrfe #aad1 #b for 7as7 a roof cf4 ,biblical to wife1 modern to boot4 t1 adv41 too4 tbrecan 7p4 #ha1 ,note #b71 break to pieces1 knock about4 tdlan 7 #abf71 divide4 temnes 7t emnes7 7 #id1 7#d771 along1 alongside4 tforan 7 #id1 7#a771 before4 tgeodan 7 #abf71 join4 thopa1 m41 hope4 tlicgan 7 #aae1 ,note #b71 separate1 lie between2 #c;d sing1 indic4 tl4 tl1 see tlicgan4 tolcan 7 #aji1 ,note #a71 destroy the prefix t reverses the meaning of lcan1 to lock4 torn1 m41 anger1 insult4 t 7 #fh1 7#a771 m41 tooth4 tweard 7 #id1 7#a771 toward4 tweard1 adj41 approaching1 future4 trow1 f41 pledge1 troth4 trownes1 f41 trust4 ,trs1 ,drausen 7a city on the ,drausensea74 tn1 m41 town1 village4 tunge1 f41 tongue4 tngerfa1 m41 bailiff town-reeve2 so sheriff shire-reeve4 tungol1 n41 star4 tw1 see twgen4 twgen1 7 #hi71 two1 twain4 twntig1 twenty4 tn1 see ten4 4 1 then1 when2 444 1 when 444 then2 1 then when when4 1 see s4 r1 there1 where2 r r1 there where where2 r 444 sw #adb1 #d ,beowulf #gih wheresoever2 #ade1 #f ,beowulf #bgca if so be that4 s1 afterwards1 therefore1 thus1 because2 see s4 t 7tte t e71 that1 so that4 afian 7 #acj71 consent to4 anc1 see nc4 ancian 7ncian7 7 #acj71 thank4 anon1 see nan4 s1 see s4 1 see s 7instr4 sing47 and 4 e 7 #ge71 who1 whom1 which1 that4 ah1 though1 although2 ah e1 though1 although4 earf1 see urfan4 earf1 f41 need1 benefit4 aw1 m41 habit1 custom thews4 egn 7egen71 m41 servant1 thane1 warrior4 nc7e7an 7 #abh71 think1 intend4 ening 7-ung71 f41 service2 the pl4 may mean book of service 7#aag1 #ag74 od1 f41 people1 nation4 oden1 m41 prince1 lord4 odscipe1 m41 discipline4 on 7wan7 7 #abf71 oppress ow4 ow1 m41 servant4 owa1 m41 servant4 owotdm 7owot-71 m41 service4 s 7 #gc71 this4 ider1 thither4 iderweard1 thitherward4 n 7 #gf71 thine4 ing1 n41 thing2 nige inga1 see #adj1 #ae ,beowulf #gfi1 ,note4 ingan 7 #abg71 arrange1 appoint4 is1 see s4 issum1 see s4 hte1 hton1 see ncean4 olian 7 #acj71 endure thole4 nan1 thence4 nc1 m41 thanks4 one1 see s4 onne1 than1 then1 when2 onne 444 onne1 when 444 then4 rg1 f41 time4 ra-nd1 f41 compulsion1 oppression1 misery throe-need4 rora1 see re4 ridda1 third4 rie 7r7 7 #hi71 three4 rm1 see re4 rst-hdig1 bold-minded4 rtig1 thirty4 rwung1 f41 suffering4 r1 see re4 rym7m71 m41 renown1 glory1 strength4 r1 f41 power1 multitude 7pl4 used in sense of sing472 asca re #aeb1 #bc ,wanderer #ii the might of spears4 r-rn1 n41 mighty house1 noble hall4 r-word1 n41 mighty word1 excellent discourse4 7 #gb71 thou4 hte1 see yncan4 urfan 7 #acf71 need2 pres4 indic4 #c;d sing41 earf2 pret4 #c;d sing41 orfte2 for-m m wtan ne earf ,waldend fra moror-bealo mga #ade1 #ag ,beowulf #bgdb therefore the ,ruler of men need not charge me with the murder of kinsmen4 urh 7 #id1 7#b771 through4 us1 thus4 send1 thousand4 1 see s4 yder1 see ider4 yncan 7 #abh71 seem1 appear 7impersonal72 m ync1 methinks1 it seems to me2 him hte1 it seemed to him4 ,u4 hta1 m41 dawn2 gen4 pl41 htna4 unbeboht1 unsold bebycgan to sell4 unc1 unknown1 uncertain uncouth4 under1 under 7with dat4 and acc474 understndan 7 #aaf71 understand4 underodan 7-edan7 7 #abf71 subject to2 past part4 underoded subjected to1 obedient to 7with dat474 unforbrned1 unburned4 unfri1 m41 hostility4 ungefge1 excessively4 ungemete1 immeasurably1 very4 ungesewenlc1 invisible past part4 of son lc4 unlyfigend1 dead1 dead man unliving4 unltel1 no little1 great4 unriht1 n41 wrong2 on unriht1 see on4 unrihtwsnes1 f41 unrighteousness4 unspdig1 poor4 unwearnum1 unawares4 p 7pp71 up4 pstgnes1 f41 ascension stgan4 p-lang1 upright4 re 7 #gf71 our4 usses gen4 sing4 neut4 of ser1 see ic4 t1 out1 outside4 tan1 from without1 outside4 tanbordes1 abroad4 tgng1 m41 exodus4 uton1 let us 7with infin47 literally let us go with infin4 of purpose 7see #acg1 #ai-bj1 ,note lines #fda-db72 uton wuton1 corrupted form of #ast pl4 subj4 of wtan1 to go4 t-weard1 outward bound1 moving outwards4 ,w4 wc1 weak1 insignificant4 wacian 7 #acj71 watch1 be on guard2 imperative sing41 waca4 wadan 7 #aaf71 go1 tread wade4 wg1 m41 wave4 ,wgmundigas1 m4 ,wgmundings 7family to which ,beowulf and ,wiglaf belonged74 wl1 n41 slaughter1 the slain4 wl-blat1 deadly slaughter-pitiful4 wlgfre1 greedy for slaughter4 wl-rs1 m41 mortal combat slaughter-race4 wl-row1 fierce in strife4 wlsliht 7-sleaht71 m41 slaughter4 wlstw1 f41 battle-field slaughter-place2 wlstwe gewald1 possession of the battle-field4 wpen1 n41 weapon4 wre1 see bon4 ws1 see bon4 wter1 n41 water4 waldend1 see wealdend4 wan 7wn71 wan1 dark4 wanhdig1 heedless1 rash4 wnigean 7wnian7 7 #acj71 bewail1 lament 7trans47 whine4 warian 7 #acj71 attend1 accompany4 wt1 see witan4 waum1 m41 wave2 gen4 pl41 waema4 weal7l71 m41 wall1 rampart4 wealdend 7 #fh1 7#c771 wielder1 ruler1 lord4 wealh1 m41 foreigner1 ,welshman4 wealhstd1 m41 interpreter1 translator4 weallan 7 #aag71 well up1 boil1 be agitated2 pret4 #c;d4 sing4 indic41 woll4 wealsteal7l71 m41 wall-place1 foundation4 weard1 m41 ward1 keeper4 wear1 see weoran4 weaxan 7 #aag71 wax1 grow4 weg1 m41 way2 hys weges1 see #ic1 7#c72 on weg1 see on4 wel7l71 well1 readily4 wela1 m41 weal1 prosperity1 riches4 welm1 see wielm4 wnan 7 #abf71 ween1 think1 expect4 wndan 7 #abg71 change1 translate wend1 windan4 wnian 7 #acj71 entertain2 wnian mid wynnum #adi1 #bj ,wanderer #bi entertain joyfully2 wnede t wiste #adi1 #bg ,wanderer #cf feasted 7trans474 ,weonodland 7,weonoland71 n41 ,wendland4 weorc1 n41 work1 deed4 weorold 7weoruld71 see woruld4 weorpan 7 #aaj71 throw4 weoran 7 #aaj71 be1 become4 wer1 m41 man werwulf4 wrig1 weary1 dejected4 werod1 n41 army1 band4 wesan1 see bon4 ,wesseaxe1 m4 pl41 ,west ,saxons2 gen4 pl4 ,wesseaxna4 west1 west1 westward4 westanwind1 m41 west wind4 wste1 waste4 wsten1 n41 waste1 desert4 ,wests1 f41 ,west ,sea 7west of ,norway74 ,westseaxe1 m4 pl41 ,west ,saxons1 ,wessex4 wc1 n41 dwelling bailiwick4 wcian 7 #acj71 stop1 lodge1 sojourn wc4 wdre1 adv41 farther1 more widely 7comparative of wde74 wds1 f41 open sea4 wielm 7welm71 m41 welling1 surging flood weallan4 wf1 n41 wife1 woman4 wg1 m41 n41 war1 battle4 wiga1 m41 warrior4 wild1 wild4 wildor1 n41 wild beast1 reindeer2 dat4 pl4 wildrum 7 #cc1 ,note74 willa1 m41 will1 pleasure2 gen4 pl41 wilna 7#ach1 #af ,beowulf #ffa74 willan 7 #acd2 #acg1 ,note #c71 will1 intend1 desire4 wilnung1 f41 wish1 desire2 for re wilnunga #aai1 #d purposely4 ,wiltn1 m41 ,wilton 7in ,wiltshire74 wn1 n41 wine4 wn-rn1 n41 wine-hall4 ,wnburne1 f41 ,wimborne 7in ,dorsetshire74 wind1 m41 wind4 wine1 m41 friend4 ,winedas1 m4 pl41 the ,wends1 the ,wend country4 wine-dryhten1 m41 friendly lord4 winelas1 friendless4 winemg1 m41 friendly kinsman4 wngeard1 m41 vineyard4 winnan 7 #aaj71 strive1 fight win4 wnsl1 n41 wine-hall4 wn-sle1 m41 wine-hall4 winter1 m41 winter2 dat4 sing4 wintra4 wintercearig1 winter-sad1 winter-worn4 ws1 wise4 wsdm1 m41 wisdom4 wse1 wisely4 wse1 f41 manner1 matter1 affair in this wise4 ws-fst1 wise wise-fast2 cf4 shame-faced shamefast4 ws-hycgende1 wise-thinking4 ,wsle1 f41 the ,vistula4 ,wslema1 m41 the mouth of the ,vistula4 wisse1 see witan4 wist1 f41 food1 feast4 wita1 m41 wise man1 councillor4 witan 7 #acf71 know1 show1 experience4 wtan 7 #ajb71 reproach1 blame 7with acc4 of thing1 dat4 of person74 wte1 n41 punishment4 ,wtland1 n41 ,witland 7in ,prussia74 wi 7 #id1 7#c771 against1 toward1 with2 wi astan and wi pp on emnlange m bnum lande1 toward the east1 and upwards along the cultivated land2 wi earm gest #aci1 #aa ,beowulf #gej supported himself on his arm2 genred wi ne 7dat47 #adc1 #aa ,beowulf #hbh had preserved it from 7against7 violence4 wierwinna1 m41 adversary4 wifn 7 #aah71 grapple with 7with dat474 wihabban 7 #acc71 withstand1 resist 7with dat474 wistndan 7 #aaf71 withstand1 resist 7with dat474 wlnc1 proud4 wd1 see wadan4 wolcen1 n41 cloud welkin2 dat4 pl41 wolcnum4 wolde1 see willan4 wma1 m41 noise1 alarm1 terror4 wn1 see wan4 wp1 n41 weeping4 word1 n41 word4 wrian 7 #acj71 totter1 crumble4 worn1 m41 large number1 multitude4 woruld1 f41 world2 t worulde btan ghwilcum nde #ajb1 #ah world without end4 woruldcund1 worldly1 secular4 woruldhd1 m41 secular life world-hood4 woruldrce1 n41 world-kingdom1 world4 worulding1 n41 worldly affair4 wrclst1 m41 track or path of an exile4 wr1 wroth1 angry2 foe1 enemy4 wrtan 7 #ajb71 write4 wucu1 f41 week4 wudu1 m41 wood1 forest4 wuldor1 n41 glory4 ,wuldorfder 7 #fh1 7#b771 m41 ,father of glory2 gen4 sing41 ,wuldorfder4 ,wuldur-cyning1 m41 ,king of glory4 wulf1 m41 wolf4 wund1 f41 wound4 wund1 wounded4 wunden1 twisted1 woven1 convolute 7past part4 of windan74 wundor1 n41 wonder1 marvel4 wundrian 7 #acj71 wonder at 7with gen474 wurdon1 see weoran4 wuran1 see weoran4 wylf1 f41 she wolf4 wylla1 see willan4 wyn-las1 joyless4 wynn1 f41 joy1 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#aaj74 finger1 finger 7 #bf74 fire1 fr 7 #cb74 fisherman1 fiscere 7 #bf74 foreigner1 wealh 7 #bf74 freedom1 frodm 7 #bf74 friend1 wine 7 #de71 frond 7 #fh1 7#c774 friendship1 frondscipe 7 #de74 full1 full 7with genitive7 7 #hj74 ,g4 gain the victory1 sige habban1 sige niman4 gift1 giefu 7 #ch74 give1 giefan 7with dative of indirect object7 7 #aae74 glad1 gld 7 #ha74 glove1 glf 7 #ch74 go1 gn 7 #acd71 faran 7 #aaf74 ,god1 ,god 7 #bf74 good1 gd 7 #hj74 ,h4 ,halgoland1 ,hlgoland 7 #cb74 hall1 heall 7 #ch74 hand1 hnd 7 #eb74 hard1 heard 7 #hj74 have1 habban 7 #cd72 not to have1 nabban 7p4 #cb1 ,note74 he1 h 7 #ec74 head1 hafod 7 #cb74 hear1 heran 7 #abf74 heaven1 heofon 7 #bf74 help1 helpan 7with dative7 7 #aaj74 herdsman1 hierde 7 #bf74 here1 hr4 hither1 hider4 hold1 healdan 7 #aag1 7#b774 holy1 hlig 7 #hb74 horse1 mearh 7 #bf71 hors 7 #cb74 house1 hs 7 #cb74 ,i4 ,i1 ic 7 #gb74 in1 on 7 #id1 7#c774 indeed1 slce4 injure1 scan 7with dative7 7 #aaf74 it1 hit 7 #ec74 ,k4 king1 cyning 7 #bf74 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the1 se1 so1 t 7 #bh74 then1 1 onne4 these1 see this4 they1 he 7 #ec74 thing1 ing 7 #cb74 thirty1 rtig4 this1 s1 os1 is 7 #gc74 those1 see that 7demonstrative74 thou1 7 #gb74 though1 ah 7 #aje1 #b74 three1 re 7 #hi74 throne1 ascend the throne1 t rce fn4 throw1 weorpan 7 #aaj74 to1 t 7 #id1 7#a774 tongue1 tunge 7 #fd74 track1 spor 7 #cb74 true1 s 7 #hj74 truly1 slce4 two1 twgen 7 #hi74 ,v4 very1 swe4 vessel1 ft 7 #cb74 victory1 sige 7 #de74 ,w4 wall1 weall 7 #bf74 warrior1 scg 7 #bf71 eorl 7 #bf74 way1 weg 7 #bf74 weapon1 wpen 7 #cb74 well1 wel 7 #ig1 7#b774 ,welshman1 ,wealh 7 #bf74 went1 see go4 westward1 west1 westrihte4 whale1 hwl 7 #bf74 what8 hwt 7 #gd74 when1 1 onne4 where8 hwr4 which1 e 7 #ge74 who8 hw 7 #gd74 who 7relative71 e 7 #ge74 whosoever1 sw hw sw 7 #gg1 ,note74 will1 willan 7 #acd2 #acg1 ,note #c74 ,wilton1 ,wiltn 7 #bf74 win1 see gain4 wine1 wn 7 #cb74 wisdom1 wsdm 7 #bf74 wise1 ws 7 #hj74 with1 mid 7 #id1 7#a772 to fight with 7 against71 gefeohtan wi 7 #id1 7#c774 withstand1 wistndan 7with dative7 7 #aaf74 wolf1 wulf 7 #bf71 wylf 7 #ch74 woman1 wf 7 #cb74 word1 word 7 #cb74 worm1 wyrm 7 #de74 ,y4 ye1 g 7 #gb74 year1 gar 7 #cb74 yoke1 geoc 7 #cb74 you1 7singular71 g 7plural7 7 #gb74 your1 n 7singular71 ower 7plural7 7 #gf74 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,errata ,the spelling 8,fins0 7translating 8 ,finnas07 is used consistently4 ,errors were trivial1 generally missing punctuation4 ,shakespeare citations have been silently regularized to 8,i1 ii1 #c0 form4 ,the ,old ,english text was not checked for misprints4 ,numbered ,sections3 #i ,note to t43 sttan1 to set to t4 #ci ,,note4--,syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems4 final 4 missing #da so hlignes#a1 holiness4 comma missing #ie for m1 comma missing #ajd corresponding with its function in ,mn4,e4 final 4 missing #acj eard-ian1 eard-ode 444 first comma missing #aca ,,note #a4 ,,note4 #a4 #acb hf-de1 lif-de1 scg-an1 all commas missing ,readings3 ,poetry3 ,structure3 ,meter3 ,type ,b3 ,the type of ,b most frequently occurring is - -4 final 4 missing ,beowulf3 ,the ,banquet in ,heorot 7page #ach74 #h ealdre 7instr4 sing474 final 4 missing ,glossary3 bgan 7 #aji1 ,note #a7 ,note1 #a dofol1 m41 n41 devil2 m4 n41 intinga1 m41 cause1 sake4 intinga4 laguld1 f41 sea lake-way1 ld leading1 direction1 way4 closing bracket printed as parenthesis noran 7 #ic1 7#e771 from the north2 second closing parenthesis missing sl1 m41 f41 time1 happiness sil-ly2 m4 f41 sfte1 more easily 7comparative of sfte74 closing parenthesis missing ,swom1 m41 dat4 pl41 the ,swedes4 final 4 missing tolcan 7 #aji1 ,note #a71 destroy 444 section mark missing wi 7 #id1 7#c771 444 section mark missing