from the ,google ,print project47       
,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,thought1     
,,or ,,the ,,act ,,of ,,thinking1  ,,and
 ,,its ,,connexion ,,with ,a            
,,perspicuous ,,sentence4  ,,by ,,john  
,,haslam1 ,m4,d4 ,,late ,,of ,,pembroke 
,,hall1 ,,cambridge1 ,,and ,,author ,,of
 ,,many ,,works ,,on ,,this ,,subject   
,,of ,,insanity4  ,london3 ,printed by  
,g4 ,,hayden1 ,little ,college ,street1 
,westminster1  ,,published ,,by         
,,longman1 ,,rees1 ,,orme1 ,,brown1     
,,green  ,,longman1 ,,paternoster ,,row4
  #ahce4  ,,price ,,two ,,shillings4    
,polonius--,what do you read1 my ,lord8 
,hamlet--,words1 words1 words4--,act    
#b;d4         99       99       99      
99       99                             
,,mephistopheles4       ,im             
,ganzen--haltet euch an ,worte6         
,dann geht ihr durch die sichere ,pforte
      ,zum ,tempel der ,gewissheit ein4 
,,schuler4       ,doch ein ,begriff muss
 bey dem ,worte seyn4                   
,,mephistopheles4       ,schon gut6 nur 

muss man sich nicht allzu ngstlich      
qulen1      ,denn eben wo ,begriffe     
fehlen1      ,da stellt ein ,wort zur   
rechten zeit sich ein4      ,mit ,worten
 lsst sich trefflich streiten1      ,mit
 ,worten ein ,system bereiten4      ,an 
,werte lsst sich trefflich glauben1     
,von einem ,wort lsst sich kein ,iota   
rauben4--,gothe's ,faust4         99    
99       99       99       99       ,and
 when ,i have enumerated these1 ,i      
imagine ,i have comprehended      almost
 every thing which can enter into the   
composition of the      intellectual    
life of man4 ,with the single exception 
of reason1 7and      reason can scarcely
 operate without the intervention of    
language17      is there any thing more 
important to man1 more peculiar to him1 
or      more inseparable from his nature
 than speech8 ,nature indeed could      
not have bestowed on us a gift more     
precious than the human voice1          
which1 possessing sounds for the        
expression of every feeling1 and        

being capable of distinctions as minute1
 and combinations as      intricate as  
the most complex instrument of music2 is
 thus enabled      to furnish materials 
so admirable for the formation of       
artificial      language4 ,the greatest 
and most important discovery of human   
ingenuity is writing2 there is no       
impiety in saying1 that it was          
scarcely in the power of the ,deity to  
confer on man a more glorious           
present than ,,language1 by the medium  
of which1 he himself has been           
revealed to us1 and which affords at    
once the strongest bond of      union1  
and the best instrument of              
communication4 ,so inseparable          
indeed are mind and language1 so        
identically one are thought and         
speech1 that although we must always    
hold reason to be the great             
characteristic and peculiar attribute of
 man1 yet language also1      when we   
regard its original object and intrinsic
 dignity1 is well      intitled to be   

considered as a component part of the   
intellectual      structure of our      
being4 ,and although1 in strict         
application1 and      rigid expression1 
thought and speech always are1 and      
always must      be1 regarded as two    
things metaphysically distinct1--yet    
there only      can we find these two   
elements in disunion1 where one or both 
have      been employed imperfectly or  
amiss4 ,nay1 such is the effect of the  
original unity or identity that1 in     
their most extensive      varieties of  
application1 they can never be totally  
disunited1 but      must always remain  
inseparable1 and every where be exerted 
in      combination4--,frederick        
,schlegel's ,lectures on the ,history of
      ,literature1 7,english            
,translation1 #ahah17 page #aa4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,to  ,,mrs4 ,,hunter1 ,,dundee4   ,my  
dearest ,daughter1  ,this ,essay on     
,,thought is appropriately dedicated to 
a lady of whom ,i am constantly         

thinking3--whose dutiful conduct1 and   
filial affection1 have rendered a       
protracted life the subject of          
consolation1 under all its contingent   
miseries4  #cc1 ,great ,ormond ,street1 
,june #ahce4     ,,on  ,,the ,,nature   
,,of ,,thought1  c4 c4 c4   ,in our     
survey of the ,creation endowed with    
life and intellect1 we are impelled to  
the conclusion1 that the human mind is1 
beyond all comparison1 the most perfect 
specimen that the ,divine ,author has   
chosen to allot to his creatures4 ,the  
history of our species unfolds the      
splendid catalogue of man's             
achievements3 many monuments1 reared by 
his patriotism and piety1 and elaborated
 by his tasteful ingenuity1 that have   
resisted the corrosions of time1 and the
 spoliations of conquest1 remain in our 
possession3 and we still preserve those 
intellectual treasures that embalm the  
poetry1 the eloquence1 and the wisdom of
 the enlightened nations of antiquity4  
,these are1 deservedly1 the models we   

have endeavoured to imitate1 and they   
have even been considered the boundaries
 of attainment3 but a new epoch has     
arisen1 distinguished for the           
cultivation of that which tends to      
ultimate advantage1 where the mind1     
confiding in its native energies1 and   
exercising its own thought on human     
affairs1 has been less disposed to      
submit to the dictates of authority4    
,at this period we possess abundant     
facilities for the acquirement of       
valuable knowledge3 under this system1  
the mental faculties have been directed 
to their proper objects1 and the time   
consumed in teaching has been           
considerably abbreviated4 ,this         
abridgement of the usual course of      
education has conduced to the neglect of
 that classical learning1 which required
 a painful and enduring attention1 even 
for many years1 to two languages that   
have ceased to be spoken1 and are only  
addressed to the eye in written         
character4 ,it is in no manner intended 

to under-rate the value of classical    
literature1 the constituent of a        
scholar1 and the passport and ornament  
of a gentleman2 but to introduce a very 
probable opinion1 that few of those who 
have devoted many of the most productive
 years of their existence to the ,greek 
and ,latin writers1 ever attain a       
critical knowledge of those tongues3 and
 that the substance of morals1 wisdom1  
and even the elegant turns of           
expression1 may be more certainly       
conveyed through the medium of the best 
translations1 which we now possess1 and 
the performance of which has occupied a 
large portion of the time of            
accomplished scholars4 ,this conversion 
of talent to that which is useful1 and  
productive of emolument1 has given a    
more energetic impulse to the mind1 and 
accelerated that march of which we now  
so justly boast3 but it cannot be       
denied1 that in the rapidity of our     
advancement1 and flushed with the ardent
 hope of arriving at our destination1 we

 have bestowed but little notice on the 
machinery that urged us forwards1 or    
contemplated the scenery through which  
we passed4  ,most persons concur that   
the human mind is the noblest subject of
 investigation2 but few will be at the  
trouble of undertaking its analysis4    
,with the multitude there is neither    
leisure nor inclination1 and the        
doctrines that have been dictated       
concerning our intellectual faculties   
and their operations1 have tended rather
 to stifle than to promote inquiry4 ,it 
is therefore unnecessary to enumerate   
the catalogue of illustrious names whose
 contradictory systems have created     
suspicion and distaste in the student4  
,the science that has been improperly   
termed ,metaphysics1 ought to be        
considered a branch of human physiology1
 not abstracted from1 but in this state 
of existence1 connected with the        
phenomena of life4 ,the citations on the
 reverse of the ,title-page1 to which   
many more might have been added1 clearly

 shew that the doctrine of words being  
the elements of ,thought1 did not       
originate from my own conjecture or     
inference1 and1 consequently1 that the  
endeavour to investigate its truth has  
been the sole object of my research2    
under the persuasion that1 if ideas were
 inadequate1 words only remained to     
afford the solution of this important   
process4 ,the necessary connexion of    
thought with the construction of a      
perspicuous sentence1 has not1 to my    
knowledge1 been previously noticed4  ,we
 are said to ,,think on certain         
subjects1 and this process is confessed 
to require an intense exertion of our   
intellectual faculties3 but for this    
operation1 the materials have not been  
clearly specified1 nor the manner of the
 elaboration defined4 ,it has been held1
 that our thoughts are produced by some 
mysterious assemblage and arrangement of
 ,,ideas1 which the mind or soul        
performs by a dexterous and             
imperceptible contrivance2 although we  

are conscious of all our acts of        
intelligence1 and on a moment's         
consideration it will be evident1 that  
such intelligence would be useless      
without our consciousness4  ,mr4        
,,locke1 whose name can never be        
mentioned without a grateful            
recollection for the instruction he has 
afforded us1 and for the candour with   
which he has recorded the difficulties  
that obstructed the progress of his     
inquiries1 has employed this ideal      
system most extensively3 but it is      
evident1 that he felt the obscurity of  
his own definition4 ,in his             
,introduction to the ,essay1 p4 #e1 #fth
 edition1 he says1 ,before ,i proceed on
 what ,i have thought on this subject1  
,i must here in the entrance beg pardon 
of my reader1 for the frequent use of   
the word ,idea1 which he will find in   
the following ,treatise4 ,it being that 
term which1 ,i think1 serves best to    
stand for whatsoever is the object of   
the understanding1 when a man thinks4 ,i

 have used it to express whatever is    
meant by ,phantasm1 ,notion1 ,species1  
,,or ,,whatever ,,it ,,is1 which the    
mind can be employed about in thinking2 
and ,i could not avoid frequently using 
it4 ,dr4 ,,reid follows nearly in the   
same track3--,it is a fundamental       
principle of the ,ideal system1 that    
every object of thought1 must be an     
impression or an ,idea1 that is1 a faint
 copy of some preceding                 
impression4--,inquiry into the ,human   
,mind on the ,principles of ,common     
,sense1 #agfe1 p4 #da4  ,the doctrine of
 ,innate ,ideas having been deservedly  
exploded1 it follows that these ,ideas  
must be derived from our intercourse    
with the world we inhabit4 ,for this    
purpose we are furnished with five      
senses1 from each of which we obtain a  
separate and different kind of          
intelligence1 which is denominated      
,perception4 ,the perceptions of the    
,eye1 under an attentive inspection1    
leave on the ,sensorium a phantasm or   

,idea of the object1 a vivid memorial of
 that which has been perceived2 but the 
other senses do not convey any similar  
phantasm4#a ,the doctrine of ,ideas     
appears to have been countenanced1 and  
reconciled under all its difficulties1  
from a presumed spiritual operation and 
guidance in the act of thinking1 and    
especially to an implacable aversion to 
any explanation that might be deemed to 
savour of materialism4 ,this term1 the  
denunciation of the pious1 the          
convenient obloquy of the ignorant1     
being equal in its sweeping persecution1
 to the horrible word craven1 demands a 
brief and modest exposition4 ,that we   
exist in a material world1 will scarcely
 be denied1 and it is a fair inference1 
that the annihilation of matter would   
involve our globe and its inhabitants in
 equal destruction4 ,of this matter1 the
 concentrated power of man cannot create
 nor exterminate a single atom4 ,the    
human body is a material fabric3 the    
brain and nerves1 together with those   

delicate organs that are the instruments
 of our perceptions1--whereby we receive
 light1 detect fragrance1 apprehend     
sounds1 relish viands1 and enjoy the    
gratifications of contact1 are all of   
material structure3 and when that state1
 called ,death1 has ensued1 their       
offices cease1 and they undergo the     
decompositions to which all animal      
matter is subjected4  ,the ,capacities1 
by which we feel1 experience pleasure   
and pain1 perceive1 remember1 exercise  
volition1 and become conscious1 may be  
termed ,spiritual1 or if it be          
preferred1 ,divine endowments2 and it is
 not probable that we shall ever detect 
the immediate agency by which these     
operations are performed4 ,the state of 
,life1 the indispensable medium for the 
display of the phenomena of intelligence
 in our present condition of existence1 
is equally inscrutable by human         
sagacity1 although different hypotheses 
have been adventured for its solution4  
,to account for the harmonious          

concurrence of motions and processes    
that distinguish living animals1 a      
,,matter ,,of ,,life has been supposed1 
and its nature conjectured to be some   
modification#b of electricity or        
galvanism1 and which being unsupported1 
is not deserving of further comment4    
,another sect of physiologists has      
conceived that life is the immediate    
result of a particular organization2 but
 they are unable to demonstrate that any
 arrangement of parts is consequently   
endowed with vital actions4 ,this       
arrangement of particular tissues1 may  
be absolutely necessary for the         
performance of various functions in the 
living state3 but this is altogether    
different from the energy or cause that 
excites the action4 ,a violin and its   
bow are prepared to discourse most      
excellent music1 yet they are mute until
 guided by the skilful hands of the     
performer4 ,when death ensues from many 
diseases1 the organization remains1 for 
without this concession our anatomical  

knowledge must be very imperfect4 ,thus 
the nature of life1 whether it be       
developed in the vegetable creation1 or 
display its admirable complications in  
the higher animals1 is inexplicable on  
any of the principles that regulate our 
philosophy1 and can only be referred to 
the contrivance and disposition of      
infinite wisdom3 yet the vehicle in     
which these stupendous operations are   
conducted owns a material basis3 even   
the confused mass that composes the     
earth we tread on possesses certain     
intrinsic properties4 ,every atom is    
subjected to definite regulation1 and   
without exaggeration1 may be considered 
endowed with instinctive tendency to    
coalesce or disunite under favourable   
opportunities1 and the correct          
observation of these habitudes1         
constitutes the foundations of chemical 
science4 ,when the power and            
intelligence of the supreme ,artificer  
is conspicuous in the ultimate particles
 of matter1 we ought to be more         

temperate in our invectives against the 
doctrine of materialism4  ,ideas have   
been generally employed1 and held       
competent1 by many of the tribe of      
metaphysicians1 to explain the phenomena
 and operations of our intellectual     
nature3 but they have failed in the     
attempt4 ,they have endeavoured to      
confer on them an agency they do not    
possess1 and have given the mind a      
dominion over them that it cannot       
exert4#c ,ideas are the memorial        
phantasms of visual perception1 a       
largess bestowed1 perhaps exclusively1  
on the sense of sight1 and this bounty  
contributes essentially to the          
acquirement and retention of knowledge4 
,they are the unfading transcripts of   
vision1 and they exhibit the original   
picture to the retrospect of memory4    
,they are but little under the immediate
 direction of the will1 and cannot be   
arbitrarily summoned or dismissed1 but  
owe their introduction to a different   
source1 to be explained hereafter4 ,they

 perform important offices1 although    
they are not the materials to rear and  
consolidate the edifice of thought4     
,those writers on the human mind who    
have adhered to the doctrine of ,ideas1 
and have been the advocates for the     
,spirituality of ,thought1 have         
insufficiently considered1 or held in   
subordinate regard1 ,language2 the      
prominent criterion1 by which a human   
being is proudly elevated above the rest
 of the animated creation4 ,speech1 and 
its representation by characters1 are   
exclusively comprehensible by man2 and  
these have been the sources of his vast 
attainments and rapid progression4 ,the 
ear receives the various intonations    
that convey intelligence1 and the       
characters or symbols of these          
significant sounds are detected by the  
human eye4 ,some of the more docile     
animals have been supposed capable of   
comprehending the meaning of a few      
individual words1 but no one worthy of  
belief1 has affirmed that they could    

understand a sentence or distinct       
proposition3 still less1 has any person1
 however confiding in the marvellous1   
ever ventured to assert that they were  
able to read4 ,the important feature1   
and obvious utility of language1        
consists in the commutation of our      
perceptions for a significant sound or  
word1 which by convention may be        
communicated to others1 bearing a common
 and identical meaning4 ,in this manner 
we become intelligible to each other1 by
 the transmission and reception of these
 articulate and significant sounds4     
,words are not only the representatives 
of the perceptions we receive through   
the medium of our five senses1 but      
likewise of many internal feelings1     
passions1 and emotions1 together with   
all that the ,mind 7the aggregate of    
capacity and acquired intelligence7 has 
elaborated4 ,the result of this         
commutation renders the word the        
intelligible substitute for the thing   
perceived1 so that the presence of the  

object recalls its name1 and the name   
when uttered excites the immediate      
recollection of the absent object4 ,this
 reciprocal substitution or mutual      
exchange1 forms the basis1 and affords a
 reason for ,language4 ,whoever will    
take the trouble to watch the progress  
of the child from the commencement of   
its efforts to speak1 will be surprised 
with its display of curiosity and       
intelligence4 ,it feels delighted with  
the existence it enjoys1 and with the   
power its senses possess to examine the 
objects of the world that surrounds it4 
,every organ1 in succession1 is occupied
 in noticing the wonders and mysteries  
that are presented4 ,this incessant1 but
 silent play of perception1 proceeds    
until a sound1 often repeated1 interests
 the sense of hearing1 and although at  
first dimly comprehended1 is meant to   
represent some present object or person1
 and which1 by an excitement little     
understood1 urges the effort of         
imitation4 ,the success of intelligible 

pronunciation impels it forward to other
 attempts1 vires acquirit eundo1 and in 
a time comparatively short1 it          
accumulates a copious vocabulary4 ,these
 are the incipient efforts to establish 
that commutation of the object of       
perception for the word1 on which the   
structure of language is erected4 ,it is
 unnecessary further to trace these     
dawnings of speech1 or to describe the  
satisfaction that is felt1 when the     
child by this commutation of perceptions
 for words1 can communicate the wonders 
it has seen1 the delicacies it has      
tasted1 or the flattering commendations 
bestowed on its person and              
accomplishments4 ,this commutation      
confers additional satisfaction by being
 enabled to invest the object of        
immediate perception with an appropriate
 and intelligible name4 ,thus by the    
repeated exercise of this commutation1  
which soon becomes confirmed into habit1
 we speak of the past1 by the assistance
 of memory1 with the correctness and    

feeling of the present4 ,at a certain   
age we learn to discriminate the        
characters that compose words1          
7letters7--the order in which they are  
placed1 7orthography17 and with greater 
difficulty1 the position of these words1
 to convey a definite and connected     
meaning4 ,when reading has been fully   
attained1 it must be recollected that   
all the sentences in the volume we      
peruse1 are composed of individual      
words1 that are examples of the         
commutation mentioned2 and although the 
objects are absent1 and the actions have
 been long since performed1 often for   
centuries1 we are interested in the     
narrative1 and bestow the appropriate   
tribute of sympathy or admiration4      
,words1 thus impregnated with definite  
meaning1 become the floating currency of
 the mind1 are the efficient materials  
of ,thought1 and of its perspicuous     
expression4  ,it has been frequently    
remarked1 that the mind is more         
delighted by making distant excursions1 

than in the examination of surrounding  
objects1 or of those directly obvious4  
,such immediate assistance for the      
pursuit and development of this inquiry 
is presented in two remarkable          
instances1 where ,nature digresses from 
her usual course1 and which are not of  
rare occurrence4 #ast4 ,some persons are
 born with their ears impervious to     
sound1 and as language is acquired by   
imitation1#d such as are deaf1 remain   
mute or dumb4#e ,with the exception of  
the sense of hearing1 they are like     
animals the creatures of perception4    
,some have displayed considerable       
curiosity in examining objects by the   
eye1 and by the organs of touch1 taste1 
and smell3 but they do not1 with these  
elements of knowledge1 progressively    
advance in intelligence1 until they have
 been circuitously taught the characters
 that are the constituents of words1 and
 also to comprehend1 that the word      
itself is the commuted substitute for   
the object perceived4 ,notwithstanding  

these deficiencies1 and                 
disqualifications for human intercourse1
 these deaf1 and consequently dumb      
persons1 must be1 in a very high degree1
 the subjects of ,ideas1 or of those    
phantasms that are associated with      
visual perception4  ,the second         
instance1 is of those who are born      
blind1 and continue sightless through   
life4 ,a person under such total        
privation of vision1 must be exempt from
 those phantasms or ,ideas1 that are    
connected with1 or are the residuary    
contingents on visual perception3 yet   
the blind acquire speech1 when young1   
with equal facility1 as the children who
 enjoy sight2 but visible objects must1 
to them1 be abstract or complex terms1  
as all such necessarily are1 that cannot
 be the objects of perception4 ,the     
other sensitive organs1 and especially  
the touch1 to a limited extent1 become  
the substitutes for visual defect1      
although they are no actual             
compensations for sight4 ,by models the 

blind can become acquainted with        
alphabetic characters1 and unite them   
into words3 and in the same manner      
discriminate1 and record the musical    
notes4 ,some of the blind have become   
highly intelligent1 and have excelled in
 conversational acuteness2 and as human 
beings have left the deaf and dumb in   
the rear1 notwithstanding the latter are
 furnished with all the ,ideas that can 
be inherited from sight4 ,this constant 
employment of words1 impregnated with   
meaning1 affords the blind considerable 
facility in acquiring information by    
pertinent questions1 and enables him to 
communicate his thoughts with precision 
and correctness4 ,these words1 and the  
intelligence that resides in them1 are  
the only sources of his knowledge1 7his 
perceptions being commuted for words17  
and the meaning they import is all that 
it is necessary for him to comprehend4  
,it may here be repeated that the       
capacity by which man exclusively       
exercises the range of thought by sounds

 that are significant1 and receives from
 others the same oral intelligence1 has 
no material basis that we can possibly  
detect or logically infer3 but must be  
considered an endowment of infinite     
power and wisdom4  ,before we attribute 
such vast powers to these ,ideas or     
phantasms1 the shadows of visual        
perception1 it will be convenient to    
inquire into their nature1 and endeavour
 to ascertain the laws by which they are
 regulated4 ,in that state of mental    
relaxation1 when the intellect is not   
intently occupied on any particular     
subject1 numberless phantasms will      
involuntarily intrude3 for1 during the  
time we are awake1 the mind is never    
wholly unoccupied1 and such irregular   
presentations of ,ideas constitute our  
reveries4 ,however these ignes fatui may
 glimmer in their wanderings1           
tumultuously assemble1 or abruptly      
depart2 such confluence or dispersion   
contributes nothing to effective        
thought4 ,as far as these ,ideas or     

phantasms1 the obsequious shadows of    
visual perception1 can be traced1 they  
are incapable of being summoned to      
appear by any voluntary command2 but are
 consequently revived by the term or    
word for which the perception is        
commuted4 ,thus1 having previously      
noticed them with attention1 when we    
speak of ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral or     
,westminster ,abbey1 the attendant      
visions of these buildings immediately  
arise1 and we are impressed with a      
memorial picture in conjunction with1   
and through the intervention of the     
word4 ,the will possesses no power to   
unite or separate ,ideas2 they adhere   
to1 and remain the unalterable deposits 
of perception4 ,let it next be asked1   
what human purpose can be effected by   
their sole agency8 ,on those solemn     
occasions when we address our prayers to
 the ,divine ,source1 can these         
effusions of grateful feeling1 and      
humble petition1 be conveyed in         
phantasms8 ,does not the lamenting and  

repentant sinner emphatically articulate
 his anxious supplications8 ,can any    
human contract be concluded by mere     
,ideas1 or any system of jurisprudence  
be established on such visionary basis8 
,ideas therefore cannot enable us to    
perform our duty towards ,god1 or our   
neighbour4#f  ,in pursuing this         
important subject1 the candid confession
 of ,mr4 ,,locke bewrays his distrust of
 the powers and efficiency of his       
favourite ,ideas4 ,to form a clear      
notion of ,truth1 it is very necessary  
to consider ,truth of ,thought1 and     
,truth of words distinctly one from     
another3 but yet it is very difficult to
 treat of them asunder4 ,because it is  
unavoidable1 in treating of mental      
propositions to make use of words2 and  
then the instances given of mental      
propositions1 cease immediately to be   
barely mental1 and become verbal4 ,for a
 mental proposition1 being nothing but a
 bare consideration of the ,ideas1 as   
they are in our minds stripped of names1

 they lose the nature of purely mental  
propositions1 as soon as they are put   
into words4 ,and that which makes it yet
 harder to treat of mental and verbal   
,propositions separately1 is1 that most 
men1 if not all1 in their ,,thinking1   
and reasonings within themselves1 make  
use of ,,words1 instead of ,ideas1 at   
least when the subject of their         
meditation contains in it complex       
,ideas4 ,which is a great evidence of   
the imperfection and uncertainty of our 
,ideas of that kind1 and may1 if        
attentively made use of1 serve for a    
mark to shew us1 what are those things1 
we have clear and perfect established   
,ideas of1 and what not4--,vol4 ,,ii4   
,c4 #e1 p4 #aie4 ,mr4 ,,locke was a     
patient and acute observer of that which
 passed in his own mind1 when he        
strictly meditated any particular       
subject3 and in this process he was     
likewise aware1 in common with others1  
that he employed words instead of ,ideas
 in his thinking and reasoning within   

himself4 ,by ,ideas alone1 he confesses 
that he could not advance2 and for this 
evident reason1 because ,ideas are      
incapable of being communicated to      
others1 or received by ourselves1       
excepting through a verbal medium4      
,there is no evidence of ,thought       
without it be perspicuously expressed in
 words addressed to the ear1 or by their
 characters presented to the eye2 and   
the vain consciousness we may feel that 
our mind is teeming with important      
,thoughts1 is little to be relied on1   
until we are capable of expressing them 
orally1 or exhibiting them in writing4  
,it has been a prevailing opinion with  
those attached to the ,ideal doctrine1  
and who are advocates for the spiritual 
process of ,thought1 that the ,idea is  
first conceived mentally1 and           
subsequently1 by some process not       
explained1 invested with the            
corresponding expression4 ,it is however
 certain that the word itself1 with the 
meaning that is attached to it1 must be 

previously acquired1 and thoroughly     
comprehended1 before the abstract ,idea1
 or naked ,thought1 can select the      
befitting expression1 and ransack the   
vast range of a copious vocabulary4 ,the
 believers in the extreme rapidity of   
thought to which we shall presently     
advert1 must be alarmed at this manner  
of explanation1 which necessarily       
constitutes ,thought a two-fold process1
 and consequently would consume1 at     
least double the time for its           
disclosure4 ,perhaps in all instances   
the phraseology we employ1 like our     
manners1 is derived from the society we 
frequent3 that which is imbibed from    
persons of good education bears the     
stamp of superior discrimination and    
correctness1 contrasted with the rude   
dialect of the vulgar3 but it still     
remains unsolved1 by what means these   
phantasms1 or ,ideas1 accommodate       
themselves with the appropriate words to
 express the ,thoughts they have        
conceived4  ,can it be supposed that the

 abstract1 naked1 and incommunicable    
conception possesses an innate sagacity 
to clothe itself with a verbal garb1 at 
best of capricious and transient        
fashion8        ,multa renascentur1 qu  
jam cecidere1 cadentque      ,qu nunc   
sunt in honore vocabula1 si volet usus1 
,quem penes arbitrium est1 et jus et    
norma loquendi4   ,it is certain that   
,ideas may exist in the mind1 as the    
connected results1 and enduring         
phantasms of visual perception1         
independently of words1 and such        
condition is exemplified in those born  
deaf1 who are consequently dumb3 to whom
 the business of life is a mere         
pantomime1 who only communicate the     
impulses of passion1 and expose their   
want of comprehension4        ,in dumb  
significants proclaim their             
,thoughts4--,henry ,v,ith4   ,from these
 examples it appears that a human being 
may possess a multitude of ,ideas1 and  
yet be wholly ignorant of language3 and 
in the instances of those born blind1 he

 may acquire speech to its fullest      
extent without having any ,ideas1 which 
therefore cannot be considered the      
necessary instruments of ,thought4      
,thus1 the presumed mutual intercourse1 
and reciprocal correspondence between   
,ideas and words is a very disputable   
conclusion4  ,when the ,idea or phantasm
 that is connected with visual          
perception appears1 in consequence of   
the word being mentioned 7which by      
commutation is its substitute71 the     
presentation is immediate4 ,he who has  
visited and attentively noted           
interesting scenes1 mountainous         
districts1 cataracts or prospects1 when 
they are mentioned1 will have their     
phantasms or pictured images occur to   
him1 and he will be aware of them1 like 
the intrusion of a sudden flash4 ,from  
this phenomenon the generally received  
opinion of the rapidity of ,thought may 
in all probability have originated4     
,all popular and settled notions1       
however unfounded1 like prejudices early

 imbibed1 are with difficulty           
eradicated4 ,among these may be         
instanced the dictum of the astonishing 
rapidity of ,thought1 which is almost   
proverbial1 and generally believed3 even
 ,mr4 ,,tooke1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #bh1       
conforms to this established maxim4     
,words have been called winged3 and they
 well deserve that name1 when their     
abbreviations are compared with the     
progress which speech could make without
 these inventions2 but when compared    
with the rapidity of thought1 they have 
not the smallest claim to that title4   
,by calculation1 the progress of light  
from the sun and other luminaries is    
said to be ascertained2 and likewise the
 rate at which sound travels3 but       
hitherto no contrivance has been        
fabricated to estimate the rapidity of  
thought4 ,if the succession of our      
thoughts should be more rapid than they 
can be distinctly apprehended1 confusion
 must ensue1 and their rapidity would   
render them useless4 ,our perceptions   

are regulated by the same law4 ,if the  
prismatic colours be painted on a       
surface which is revolved with great    
rapidity1 the individual colours will   
not be apparent4 ,the succession of     
sounds to a definite number1 may be     
severally distinguished1 in a certain   
interval3 but if the succession be      
increased beyond the power of           
discrimination1 they will impress the   
ear as one uniform sound4 ,the same     
principle must regulate our thoughts1   
whether they be composed of ,ideas or   
words1 or1 if it be possible1 of both   
jumbled together4 ,it does not appear   
that our thoughts for any useful        
purpose1 which must imply their         
communication to others1 or for a record
 in written characters1 can be more     
rapid than the intelligible             
pronunciation of the words themselves1  
and which1 when delivered in quick      
succession1 leave the short-hand-writer 
behind4#g  ,as ,ideas can be nothing    
more than the mere phantasms attendant  

on visual perception1 which1 like the   
perceptions of the other senses1 are    
commuted for words1 that1 by the aid of 
memory1 recall in their absence the     
objects that have been perceived2 it    
would be difficult to suppose that      
,ideas could fortuitously or voluntarily
 assemble in a more rapid succession1   
than the words for which they have been 
commuted1 without producing confusion4  
,it frequently happens to inexperienced 
persons1 in giving evidence before a    
legal tribunal1 or in addressing a      
popular assembly1 that they cannot      
proceed2 and they are generally disposed
 to interpret this failure1 to their    
thoughts occurring in a succession too  
rapid for their utterance4 ,allowing the
 apology to be correct1 it is a proof   
that such rapidity is inconvenient1 and 
renders the ,thought wholly useless if  
it cannot be communicated4  ,when we    
attentively measure the steps of our own
 minds in the act of thinking1 and also 
observe the progress of others1 it will 

be found that effective ,thought does   
not result from this rapid and          
tumultuous rush of ,ideas2 but is a very
 deliberate1 and in many cases painful  
elaboration3 and must1 when committed to
 writing1 be subjected to subsequent    
revisals and repeated corrections1 and  
which must be applied to the words      
constituting the sentence in which the  
thought is contained4 ,from this general
 view of the subject1 it is concluded   
that ,ideas1 the residuary phantasms of 
visual perception1 cannot directly      
constitute or become the immediate      
instruments of ,thought4  ,the present  
,essay being considered an humble       
attempt to investigate a portion of     
intellectual physiology1 an apology will
 scarcely be deemed necessary for a     
short digression to inquire into the    
powers and faculties of the human mind3 
and which1 when determined1 may be      
viewed as the alphabet of mental        
science4  ,systems prematurely          
constructed1 and under the impression of

 authority1 have been especial          
impediments to our intellectual         
progress3 and this truth has been       
remarkably exemplified in the works that
 have treated of the human mind4 ,in the
 numerous treatises on this subject that
 have issued from the press1 there is   
but little agreement concerning these   
powers or faculties1 and it is evident  
that a definite number must be required3
 some writers enumerate more1 others    
less1 and it is not unusual for some of 
these metaphysical projectors to split a
 single and presumed faculty into a     
variety of subdivisions4 ,to the acute  
and patient observer1 it will appear    
that the operations of ,nature are      
contrived with admirable simplicity2 but
 man1 in his endeavours to explain them1
 has generally resorted to a mysterious 
and discouraging complexity4 ,thus1 as  
might be expected1 the same faculty1    
according to different authorities1 has 
dissimilar energies1--one is detected to
 encroach on the boundary of another1   

and when the mechanism of mind1         
fabricated by these scholastic          
dictators1 is attempted to be set in    
motion1 it is found incapable of        
working4 ,for the grand moving power we 
have an undefined1 and consequently     
unintelligible doctrine of ,ideas1 of   
supposed spiritual and directing agency2
 the admission of which would destroy   
the responsibility of a human being both
 here and hereafter1 and degrade his    
ennobled condition to the instinct of   
the speechless brute4 ,to endow these   
insubstantial and reflected phantasms   
with some activity and mimic play1 a    
theory of the association of ,ideas has 
been erected1 without having previously 
established that they are capable of    
such confederation4 ,a wearisome        
catalogue of faculties1 many of which   
are conjectural1 has been enumerated2   
,abstraction1 ,conception1              
,contemplation1 ,consciousness1         
,comparison1 ,imagination1 ,judgment1   
,memory1 ,recollection1 ,reminiscence1  

,retention1 ,perception1 ,sensation1    
,reflection1 ,thought1 ,understanding1  
,volition1 and many others that caprice 
has created1 or a subtle discrimination 
helped to multiply4 ,these are the      
materials out of which scholastic       
metaphysicians have fashioned their     
unresembling model1 and deserted        
,nature4 ,it is not intended in this    
abbreviated essay to settle the         
pretensions of these numerous faculties1
 the discussion of which would require  
an ample volume3 and the award might    
probably be protracted1 till the claim  
was forgotten4 ,when we contemplate the 
dexterities that the hand performs1 and 
the monuments of skill and taste that it
 has elaborated2 it would only create   
unnecessary distinctions to affirm that 
it possessed the faculties of           
sculpturing1 painting1 writing1         
spinning1 weaving1 sewing1 and          
numberless other manipulations3 besides 
those that ulterior discoveries may     
enable it to accomplish4 ,however       

profuse these constructors of the mind  
may have been in the accumulation of its
 component faculties1 they appear to    
have little regarded language1 its most 
prominent and important feature2 the    
universal menstruum of intelligence1 and
 accredited currency for the circulation
 and exchange of thought4 ,there are two
 faculties or capacities that are       
peculiar to the human intellect1 by     
which our species has attained a        
supremacy that leaves all other animated
 beings in a distant rear3 the          
possession of which has rendered man a  
progressive being1 and the race of      
animals so nearly stationary1 that      
however they may be tortured into       
improvement1 they feel no emulation to  
proceed1 and the acquirement perishes   
where the brute expires4 ,these         
undisputed faculties are ,speech1 with  
its recording characters1 and the       
comprehension of numbers1 the powerful  
sources of that pre-eminence which man  
has already attained1 and to which he   

must be indebted for his further        
advancement4  ,as ,ideas are wholly     
incompetent to explain the process of   
thought1 the next inquiry will be1      
whether words are capable of affording  
the adequate solution4 ,for this        
purpose1 the simple experiment would be 
sufficient2 and as we are conscious1    
under due attention of all the acts that
 the mind performs1 every person1 in    
proportion to his habits of deliberately
 noting that which passes within        
himself1 will be enabled to institute   
this examination4 ,it is however to be  
lamented1 that ,thought is not the      
constant or habitual exercise of the    
mind on the phenomena of ,nature1 the   
occurrences of life1 or the subjects we 
listen to and peruse3 but is only       
occasionally awakened by difficulties1  
excited by contention1 or invoked by the
 promise of fame and by the hope of     
emolument4 ,the usual course of         
education is but little calculated to   
promote the habitudes of thinking1 and  

especially that teaching where authority
 dictates1 and demonstration is         
neglected4 ,much of this instruction is 
enforced by degradation and terror2 and 
the pupil1 at an early age1 is compelled
 to swallow doctrines which he is unable
 to comprehend1 and consequently cannot 
digest1 except through the peptic       
assistance of the scourge3 and which1   
when matured by manhood1 and enlightened
 by reason1 he is forced to reject4     
,thought requires knowledge as its      
basis1 and in proportion to its extent  
on any given subject1 the investigation 
will be productive4 ,this knowledge may 
be acquired by conversation1 reading1 or
 experiment1 and these require          
,language1 or a composition of words4   
,knowledge supplies the materials for   
thought1 and every thought must be a    
distinct proposition1 or sentence       
composed of words4 ,a single word1      
although it possesses a distinct        
meaning1 cannot constitute a thought1   
which implies a separate proposition or 

inference contained in a sentence3 still
 less can it be supposed to result from 
an individual phantasm or ,idea4 ,when  
it is considered that language is       
composed of words adapted by position to
 represent all the phenomena and        
contingencies of human affairs1 and that
 we employ them1 by commutation1 for all
 that we can experience as sentient and 
intellectual beings1 we shall be able to
 understand that they are the mental    
currency previously described1 and that 
they are the only instruments of        
intelligence to which we can resort for 
the communication of our thoughts1 or   
for the process of their elaboration4   
,they must be expressed in words1 and by
 words prepared for such expression4    
,without attempting to investigate the  
different kinds of words1 or parts of   
speech1 the province of general or      
philosophical grammarians1 whose        
unsettled disputes still perplex the    
patient and modest inquirer1 it will be 
sufficient to remark that we possess    

words adapted to convey all the shades  
of opinion and degrees of feeling3 and  
when these words1 under the guidance of 
acquired knowledge1 are perspicuously   
arranged into a proposition or sentence1
 they constitute ,thought3 and the act  
of thinking consists in their correct   
selection and arrangement for the       
purpose of promulgation by speech or    
writing1 and which is very properly     
termed composition4 ,when we reflect1   
that from our infancy to the natural    
decline of our intellectual powers1 we  
are employed1 during our waking hours1  
in the exercise of language2#h--;by     
conversation1 often desultory1 where we 
range through a variety of topics1 as   
the bird sports from branch to twig2 to 
the more deliberate act of composition1 
where the mind enduringly broods on the 
subject2--or when we read1 and          
attentively consider the thoughts of    
others3--these occupations contribute to
 augment our vocabulary1 and fix the    
meaning of the words we employ4 ,by     

these words1 and the intelligence that  
resides in them1 although many centuries
 have passed by1 we participate1 and    
feel impregnated with the pure and      
exalted spirit that conceived the ,iliad
 and ,odyssey4 ,time has not diminished 
the vigour or impaired the beauty of    
those memorials that have survived the  
extinction of the ,grecian states1 and  
the glory of the eternal city2 and such 
is the luminous correspondence of       
,language1 that by transfusion into our 
vernacular idiom1 we may receive a      
satisfactory measure of the original    
inspiration4 ,let it be kept in view1   
that ,ideas1 the frail associates of a  
perception1 possess no permanence1 are  
incapable of being transferred1 and must
 fade away when our existence           
terminates4 ,it is the word that forms  
the nucleus1 and contains the           
intellectual deposit1 that may become   
the inheritance of future generations4  
,this process1 in no manner or degree   
tends to subvert the spiritual nature of

 ,thought1 which has its source in the  
capacities whereby we perceive1         
remember1 and comprehend that           
significant sounds or words are the     
commuted representatives of the objects 
of intelligence4 ,the perceptive organs 
of many animals are more exquisitely    
endowed than man1 and their local memory
 more retentive2 yet they are wholly    
incapable of comprehending language or  
calculating numbers2--capacities by     
which the ,creator has exclusively      
dignified the human race4  ,it may      
excite some surprise that an ,essay on  
,thought should be connected with the   
construction of a perspicuous sentence4 
,to explain this conjunction1 it may be 
urged1 that there can be no evidence of 
thought1 until it is promulgated by     
speech or written character3 and1 on all
 important occasions1 such              
communications of meaning become        
absolutely necessary4 ,acquiescence or  
dissent may indeed be tacitly conveyed1 
by holding up the hand1 or by ballot1   

without condescending to offer any      
verbal reasons for the adoption or      
rejection of the proposed measure4      
,affirmation or negation does not in any
 manner constitute ,thought2 such       
determination may result from caprice1  
from ignorance1 or from prejudice1      
without the slightest consideration4    
,thought requires some proposition      
clearly conceived and perspicuously     
expressed in a sentence2 and the        
clearness of the ,thought will be       
ascertained by the perspicuity of its   
verbal expression4 ,there may be some   
difficulty respecting the precise       
meaning of individual words1 arising    
from the corruptions of the ignorant2   
but more especially from the perversions
 of writers who have been deemed        
authorities4 ,this distortion of the    
original sense1 is1 in a certain degree1
 incidental to all living languages1    
which being in childhood acquired by the
 ear1 the learner is compelled to adopt 
the signification of words1 and employ  

the current phraseology of those with   
whom he associates4 ,when he is         
subsequently taught to speak and write  
by rule1 or grammatically1 generally at 
an age anterior to the exercise of      
reason1 he is coerced to imbibe that    
which is forced in the way of           
instruction4 ,even at a more advanced   
period the student cannot readily       
comprehend how a perspicuous sentence is
 formed by the position of individual   
words1 each bearing a distinct          
signification1 which it is presumed must
 be the fact3 but ,mr4 ,,dugald         
,,stewart1 in his ,philosophical        
,essays1 p4 #aee1 has introduced a      
doctrine entirely opposite to this      
well-founded position4 ,so different is 
all this from the fact1 that our words  
when examined separately1 are often as  
completely insignificant as the letters 
of which they are composed3 deriving    
their meaning solely from the connexion1
 or relation in which they stand to     
others4  ,for the memory of ,mr4        

,,stewart1 in common with his surviving 
pupils1 ,i feel the reverence that is   
due to a learned1 eloquent and amiable  
instructor1 although ,i may now differ  
with him in many essential points       
relating to his philosophy of the human 
mind4 ,the fact1 that every word        
possesses a distinct meaning1 appears to
 constitute one of the foundations of   
language3 and it is impossible to       
conceive that any word1 in itself       
completely insignificant1 can impart    
signification to others2 that which it  
does not contain cannot be communicated4
 ,the reservation contained in the word 
often1 implies that some words really   
are significant2 but no directions are  
given how to discover1 and select from  
the copious vocabulary of our language1 
such as are impregnated with meaning1 in
 order to expunge those that are        
insignificant4 ,when we consult ,dr4    
,,johnson',s ,dictionary1 we find that  
the greater part of the words enumerated
 in his ample collection1 instead of    

being senseless1 enjoy an exuberance of 
meaning4 ,thus the verb to think has ten
 significations2 the substantive        
,thought 7the preterite of the verb71   
#ab2 ,something1 n4 s41 #e2 ,nothing1 n4
 s41 #aa2 ,smooth1 adj41 #f2 ,rough1    
adj41 #ab2 ,to stand1 v4 n41 #fi2 ,to   
run1 v4 n41 #fb2 ,empty1 adj41 #i2      
,full1 adj41 #ae2 ,beginning1 n4 s41 #e2
 ,end1 n4 s41 #bj2 ,before1 prepos41    
#ab2 ,after1 prep41 #f4 ,however        
strange1 or perhaps ludicrous1 these    
numbers may seem1 yet1 in the progress  
of language from barbarism to           
refinement1 from the assumed authority  
of writers1 this accumulation of        
meanings is inevitable4 ,however precise
 the primitive signification of words   
may have been1 imagination1 passion1 or 
feeling would readily train them to     
deflect from their original import1     
under the effusions of the poet1 the    
lunatic1 or the lover4 ,a correct       
etymology would unfold the rude and     
simple origin of many words1 that our   

,anglo-saxon1 and ,norman ancestors have
 bequeathed to us2 although we are now  
but little sensible of the legacy2 as   
the great mass feels no inclination to  
revert to the source of derivation4     
,many have been distorted by corruption1
 and these are the most difficult to    
trace3 to which may be added1 that the  
terms we now employ to express our      
feelings and passions1 and all that     
depicts mind and its operations1 are of 
a figurative or metaphorical origin4    
,instead of any word being              
insignificant1 there is no one but may  
become the keystone in a sentence2 and  
therefore a word blotted out in a       
perspicuous1 that is1 a properly        
constructed sentence1 would render it   
unintelligible4 ,to the composition of a
 sentence1 whatever may be the thought1 
certain words are absolutely necessary1 
each containing an individual meaning2  
which1 like a sum in addition1 composed 
of different units1 each possessing a   
separate and intrinsic value1 may1 when 

added together1 produce the total4 ,to  
those who have not attentively          
considered the subject1 there is        
considerable difficulty in understanding
 how a determinate number of words can  
include the intelligence contained in a 
proposition or sentence3 and especially 
how these components of separate        
significations can become connected for 
such general and comprehensive meaning4 
,it should be recollected that such is  
the amazing inclosure of language1 that 
it comprehends all the living and       
inanimate materials of this world1 all  
that perception can detect1 memory      
recall1 or thought elaborate4 ,this     
exposition includes the present posture 
of human affairs1 and the movements we  
observe3--much that has heretofore      
occurred1 which the characters of       
language have preserved unfaded from    
dark and remote ages3 and are competent 
to transmit to a distant posterity1 with
 accumulated interest3 all that         
experience has amassed1 accompanied with

 the consoling promises of the future1  
which ,revelation has unfolded4 ,the    
extended empire of speech1 and its      
perpetuating characters1 embrace this   
prodigious range2 but their             
comprehension is exclusively limited to 
the human race4 ,when words can         
represent all that is evident and all   
that is conjectural--the works of       
,omnipotence1 and the fabrications of   
man--we need to seek no further for the 
necessary materials of thought4 ,the    
difficulty that has perplexed many      
persons respecting the compactness and  
unity of intelligence that a sentence   
contains1 principally arises from their 
ignorance of the precise meaning of     
individual words4 ,etymologists would   
employ them in their original sense1 and
 consider themselves justified by       
referring to their primitive import3    
others would use them according to their
 ordinary acceptation1 which may be     
perverted2 for in the currency of       
language1 much is defective and         

counterfeit3 but in general the         
authority of writers who are accredited1
 however they may disagree1 is adopted4 
,the intrinsic meaning of many words1   
especially the particles1 will appear   
obscure2 because they are disguised     
abbreviations of other words1 and1 in   
some instances1 are sunk so deeply1 that
 they cannot be fathomed4 ,a protracted 
life might now be consumed in the       
investigation of these convenient and   
necessary particles1 including the      
voluminous efforts of those illustrious 
grammarians who have terminated their   
discordant labours1 without arriving at 
their primitive signification4 ,the     
chemical elements of matter have        
undergone various reforms1 and actual   
revolutions1 and still await ulterior   
confusion4  ,the clearness of the       
thought will be manifested by the       
perspicuity of the sentence that        
expresses it4 ,whatever may be related1 
is most readily comprehended1 when      
detailed in the strict order of its     

occurrence4 ,if a procession be         
described1 the exact sequence of its    
train must be noted1 otherwise it will  
become a confused mixture of persons1 or
 a mob4 ,the same regularity is required
 in the construction of a sentence2 and 
it appears fortunate that the ,english  
language reconciles this direct location
 of words1 on which1 its conformity to  
natural events and human transactions   
principally depends4 ,from this         
straight-forward expression of meaning  
we may expect a future excellence of    
composition1 and a more direct          
elaboration of thought4 ,this distant   
prospect which imagination paints1 and  
hope promotes1 can only be realized     
under a system where light streams      
uncontrolled1 and the atmosphere we     
breathe is free4 ,the spirit of liberty 
must preside where improvement is       
expected4 ,when we have acquired the    
power and habit of original thinking1   
the most important part of education1   
the mind is emancipated1 and its        

independence commences3 we cease to be  
espaliers1 and become standards4        
,hitherto we have been principally      
trained according to the ancient models4
 ,the ,greek and ,latin historians1     
orators1 and poets1 have consumed1 to a 
great extent1 the docile season of      
youth3 when perception is active1 and   
memory most permanently retains its     
various deposits1 to the dereliction of 
the great presentations of ,nature1 the 
operations of numbers1 the foundations  
of science1 and more especially the     
exercise of thought4 ,after we have     
quitted school1 and commenced our career
 of profitable employment1 these studies
 are seldom continued1 and from         
desuetude are soon forgotten2 or only   
revived1 perhaps unaptly1 in an         
occasional quotation4 ,even a living    
language1 when not exercised1 fades from
 the recollection4 ,the indirect        
location of words which prevails in     
,latin1 can be no model for ,english    
composition1 where regular and          

consecutive meaning constitute the      
perspicuity of the sentence2 and        
according to the reasoning that has been
 adopted1 of the thought itself4 ,words1
 and the meaning which resides in each  
individual1 are the only media by which 
our thoughts can be conveyed2 and if    
these1 which are connected by sense and 
subject1 are so separated1 or           
dislocated1 that it becomes a puzzle to 
reduce them to their natural order1 such
 distraction ought not to be considered 
an example for the process of thinking1 
and its development by composition or   
construction of sentences in the        
,english language4 ,the connexion that  
exists in a perspicuous sentence1 is the
 conjunction of meaning1 a further proof
 of the individual signification of     
words1 and which bearing a definite     
sense1 are selected for the purpose of  
that composition1 which we term the     
process of thinking4 ,to this connexion 
we are directed by the knowledge we     
possess of any particular subject1 when 

we are intently occupied in its         
investigation1 with a view to confute or
 confirm it1 or by a more successful    
effort to arrive at discovery3 and these
 acts of thought involve the            
continuation of meaning by the addition 
of words adapted to fulfil such         
intention4  ,connexion1 in a great      
degree1 is the contrivance of our own   
minds1 and has been frequently          
confounded with successive occurrences1 
many of which1 on examination1 are      
detected to be in no manner related2    
most persons link together circumstances
 that ought to be kept apart1 and which 
often prove the source of unsurmountable
 prejudices4  ,it will scarcely be      
contended1 that the order of time       
establishes such concatenation1 although
 it forms the basis of historical       
narrative4 ,each portion of time must be
 individual and distinct1 and           
essentially consists in its             
subdivisions3 indeed1 if we were to fuse
 together hours1 days and years1 our    

existence would only amount to a tedious
 dream4 ,the letters of the alphabet are
 insulated symbols1 and have no natural 
connexion with each other1 but may be   
arranged to constitute words1 which     
possess a definite meaning4 ,words are  
in the same situation1 there is no      
connexion in a vocabulary2 they resemble
 the individuals of our species4 ,each  
is a separate being1 charged with his   
own propensities and peculiar character2
 but he may become connected with others
 in friendship1 in interest1 or as the  
member of a society for particular      
objects3 he may confederate with immense
 bodies1 for the protection of his      
rights1 or become part of an army for   
the destruction of his neighbours4 ,thus
 one philosophical system1 in pamphlets 
or in formidable volumes1 endeavours to 
overturn another3 but the words are     
individual1 and have no tendency to     
associate until they are enlisted and   
disciplined into the composition of     
sentences4  ,when the proposition or    

sentence is formed1 it ought to bear    
evidence of the most direct connexion1  
for the purposes of being readily       
comprehended and enduringly retained4   
,from the nature of our minds1 we       
recollect events1 however unconnected1  
in the order of their occurrence1 and we
 acquire by heart any passage1 of level 
construction1 with greater facility than
 where the natural sequence is          
disarranged2 we repeat lines from ,pope 
with superior fidelity than quotations  
from ,,milton4  ,to compress this ,essay
 into the smallest compass1 citations   
have been studiously avoided2 yet there 
is a temptation to illustrate this      
subject by the introduction of an       
,epigram from ,,martial1 ,lib4 #e1      
,epig4 #a4         #ac   #ad     #ah    
#ae     #ag      #af    #ah      ,hoc   
tibi ,palladi seu collibus uteris ,alb1 
#b   #ai  #bj     #bb      #ba      #bc 
#bd      ,csar et hinc ,triviam         
prospicis inde ,thetin3        #be #bh  
#bf        #bg     #bh       #bf        

,seu tua veridic discunt responsa       
sorores1        #cj      #ca     #bi    
#cb    #cj   #ca      ,plana suburbani  
qua cubat unda freti3        #cc   #cj  
#ce    #cd    #cg   #ch    #ci      ,seu
 placet ne nutrix1 seu filia solis1     
#dj       #db        #da     #da    #db 
,sive salutiferis candidus anxur aquis2 
#ab    #a   #f     #c     #h     #e     
#d      ,mittimus o rerum felix tutela  
salusque1          #g     #g    #ab     
#h      #aj    #i      ,sospite quo     
gratum credimus esse ,jovem4   ,the     
figures pointing out the ordo verborum  
are according to the subjoined          
interpretation of ,mons4 ,,collesson1   
who prepared this ,delphine edition4    
,the same figures have been placed where
 the adjective agrees with the          
substantive or pronoun2 and for this    
clew to the consecutive arrangement of  
these disbanded and dispersed members of
 the sentence1 some young gentlemen at  
school1 and many who have finished their
 education1 will be under considerable  

obligations4  ,it is of considerable    
moment that this question should be     
fully discussed in order to be finally  
determined4 ,the groundwork is          
physiological1 the superstructure       
involves some moral considerations3 and 
the conclusions will have an extensive  
influence on the system of education    
that ought to be adopted4 ,if the       
perceptions of the eye1 and its         
associated phantasms1 or memorial       
visions1 under the name of ,,ideas1 are 
to be viewed as the effective materials 
of our ,thoughts2 such inference is     
directly confuted by the instances of   
those born blind1 and continue through  
life without sight1 and who must        
necessarily be deficient of such        
materials4 ,if ,thought be the result of
 any immediate spiritual dictation1     
which the difficulty of accounting for  
it without such mysterious agency1 has  
led many to suppose3 and of which we are
 not conscious1 the responsibility of   
our species is destroyed4 ,if ,thought  

be effected by the selection and        
arrangement of words1 each of which     
possesses a definite meaning1 and is    
capable when conjoined with other words1
 of adding to their significance3 of    
which process1 and the individual steps 
that compose it1 we are conscious under 
due attention1 the mystery vanishes1 and
 the act of thinking becomes unfolded in
 the progressive formation of a         
perspicuous sentence4  ,,footnotes3  #a 
,the eye is the only organ of sense that
 affords a connected phantasm1 vision or
 ,idea4 ,in the other senses1 there is a
 memorial connection1 by which the      
perception is recognised as having      
previously occurred1 and consequently a 
consciousness of former perception4     
,without these adjuncts the repetition  
of these perceptions would be useless as
 instruments of knowledge4 ,avoiding a  
lengthened detail concerning the other  
senses1 it will be sufficient to        
instance the olfactory organ4 ,if we    
scent the essences of rose or jasmine1  

on the second presentation1 they are    
recognised as having occurred before3   
should we have smelled the same perfumes
 from the living plants that exhale     
them1 and by the eye noticed them1 we   
should experience a phantasm or ,idea of
 the figure of the plants1 but there    
would be no phantasm of the odour4 ,the 
excitation of the phantasm associated   
with the perception1 and the            
recollection of the perception without  
the phantasm1 by the attribution of a   
name1 is1 for the present1 purposely    
concealed4  #b ,modification4 ,a word of
 useless application1 unless the modus  
in quo agit1 be defined4  #c ,of the    
supposed operations of these ,ideas1 and
 the purposes to which they are         
subjected1 a few1 among abundant        
instances1 are selected from ,mr4       
,locke's ,essay4 ,some ,ideas forwardly 
offer themselves to all men's           
understanding2 some sorts of truths     
result from any ,ideas1 as soon as the  
mind puts them into propositions3 other 

,truths require a train of ,ideas placed
 in order4--,vol4 ,i4 p4 #fc4  ,when the
 understanding is once stored with these
 simple ,ideas1 it has the power to     
repeat1 compare1 and unite them1 even to
 an almost infinite variety1 and so can 
make at pleasure new complex            
,ideas4--,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ha4  ,the next   
operation we may observe in the mind    
about its ,ideas1 is ,,composition1     
whereby it puts together several of     
those simple ones it has received from  
sensation and reflection1 and combines  
them into complex ones4--,vol4 ,i4 p4   
#aah4  ,if either by any sudden very    
strong impression1 or long fixing his   
fancy upon one sort of thoughts1        
incoherent ,ideas have been cemented    
together so powerfully1 as to remain    
united4--,vol4 ,i4 p4 #aba4  ,but there 
are degree of ,madness as of folly1 the 
disorderly jumbling ,ideas together1 in 
some more1 and some less4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4  
#abb4  ,the acts of the mind wherein it 
exerts its power over its simple ,ideas1

 are chiefly three4 #ast4 ,combining    
several simple ,ideas into one compound 
one1 and thus all complex ,ideas are    
made4 ,the second1 is bringing two      
,ideas1 whether simple or complex       
together1 and setting them by one       
another1 so as to take a view of them at
 once1 without uniting them into one2 by
 which way it gets all its ,ideas of    
relations4 ,the third1 is separating    
them from all other ,ideas that         
accompany them in their real existence2 
this is called ,abstraction4--,vol4 ,i4 
p4 #abd4  #d ,the acquirement of        
language does not wholly consist in the 
imitation of the word1 but likewise in  
the comprehension that the articulate   
sound is the representative of the      
object perceived4 ,there are some       
persons of defective intellect that ,i  
have seen1 whose hearing was perfect1   
and who could whistle some tunes1 but   
who were unable to learn their native   
language so as to understand what was   
said to them1 and consequently          

incompetent to afford an answer4 ,in    
this particular they approximate to the 
state of animals4  #e ,nec missas audire
 queunt1 nec reddere voces4  #f ,on     
consulting the ,concordance of ,,cruden1
 it does not appear that the word       
,,idea1 is to be found in our           
,translations of the ,old and ,new      
,testament4 ,,cruden1 although deemed a 
,lunatic1 was a man of persevering      
research and scrupulous accuracy4  #g   
,it is very probable that ,,martial1 in 
his eulogy of the ,roman ,notarius1 may 
have exceeded the actual performance4   
,currant verba licet1 manus est velocior
 illis3      ,nondum linga suum1 dextra 
peregit opus4                           
,lib4 #ad1 ,epig4 #bjh4  #h ,in         
imitation of the ,auburn 7,american7    
prison1 the ,middlesex magistrates1 in  
their judicial wisdom1 have adopted an  
entirely opposite system2 by imposing an
 awful silence in their house of        
correction4 ,this penance must press    
sorely on the criminals of the softer   

sex1 to whom tea and conversation       
7errors excepted7 constitute the        
principal comforts of life4 ,,catullus  
seems to allude to this infernal art of 
exasperating the miseries of            
incarceration4        ,nulla fug ratio1 
nulla spes3 ,,omnia ,,muta1      ,omnia 
sunt deserta3 ostentant omnia ,lethum4  
,,printed ,,by ,g4 ,,hayden1 ,,little   
,,college ,,street1 ,,westminster4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,list ,,of ,,works ,,by ,,the ,,author4
   ,,observations on ,,madness          
,,melancholy4 ,octavo1 #ahji4           
,,illustrations of ,,madness4 ,octavo1  
#ahaj4  ,,medical ,,jurisprudence1 as it
 relates to ,insanity1 according to the 
,law of ,england4 ,octavo1 #ahag4       
,,considerations on the ,,moral         
,,management of ,,insane ,,persons4     
,octavo1 #ahag4  ,a ,,letter to the     
,,governors of ,,bethlem ,,hospital4    
,octavo1 #ahah4  ,,sound ,,mind4        
,octavo1 #ahai4  ,,letter to the ,,lord 
,,chancellor1 on ,,unsoundness of ,,mind

 and ,imbecility of ,intellect4 ,octavo1
 #ahbc4  ,six ,,lectures on the         
,,intellectual ,,composition of         
,,man4--,vide ,lancet for #ahbg4        
,,letter to the ,,metropolitan          
,,commissioners in ,,lunacy4 ,octavo1   
#ahcj4         99       99       99     
99       99  7,shortly will be          
published7  ,,by ,,dr4 ,,haslam1  ,a    
,,work on the ,,treatment of ,,insanity 
conducive to its ,,cure4  ,this         
,treatise will contain the practical    
experience of forty years4 ,three       
preliminary ,dissertations will be      
prefixed4 #ast4 ,how far ,insanity ought
 to be considered a mental affection4   
#b;d4 ,on the influence which           
individuals are capable of exerting on  
the minds of others1 both in the sane   
and insane state3 the latter of course  
becomes the basis of that regulation    
which is termed moral management4 #c;d4 
,on the connexion between the sexual    
organs and the mind1 including the      
disorders that have been termed         

nymphomania1 furor uterinus1 puerperal  
insanity1 barrenness1 impotence1 and the
 attacks that supervene at the period of
 cessation4 ,on the disorders that      
resemble and are not unfrequently       
confounded with ,insanity1 viz4         
,delirium1 ,hypochondriasis1 ,morbid    
,activity of ,mind1 certain degrees of  
,paralysis1 and various nervous         
affections4 ,an investigation of the    
existing laws that apply to ,lunatics1  
,idiots1 and persons denominated of     
,unsound ,mind3 with an accurate        
examination of the degree of incapacity 
or imbecility that ought to subject them
 to legal protection4 ,reflections on   
the parliamentary inquiries relating to 
insane persons1 and the regulations     
enacted respecting the houses in which  
lunatics are confined4 ,candid remarks  
on the establishment and duties of the  
,metropolitan ,commissioners4 ,estimate 
of the probability of the lives of      
insane persons1 and of those who have   
been visited with mental derangement2   

calculated for the guidance of assurance
 offices4