file was produced from images produced  
by ,core ,historical ,literature in     
,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell         
,university7       ,,transcribers'      
,,notes  ,most pages of the book include
 at the bottom a number of questions for
 the student to consider4 ,these have   
been retained in this version and       
enclosed in square brackets4  ,some     
corrections to typographical errors have
 been made4 ,these are recorded at the  
end of the text4         99       99    
99       99       99     ,g4 ,e4        
,,waring1 ,,jr4  ,consulting            
,agriculturist4  ,,accurate ,,analyses  
,,of ,,soils1 ,,manures1 ,,and ,,crops  
,,procured4 ,,farms ,,visited1          
,,treatment ,,recommended1 ,,etc4       
,letters of advice on analyses will be  
written for those who require them1 for 
#be each4  ,letters on other branches of
 the subject1 inclosing a suitable fee1 
will receive prompt attention4          
,,office1 #adc ,,fulton-,,street1 ,,new 
,,york1 7,,up ,,stairs4 ,,post-,,office 

,,address1 ,,rye1 ,n4 ,y4   ,,dr4       
,,charles ,,enderlin1  ,,analytical     
,,and ,,consulting  ,chemist1  #hd      
,,walker-,,street1 ,,new ,,york4        
,,analysis ,,of ,,minerals1             
,,soils1--,,organic ,,analysis1 ,,etc4  
,d4 ,,appleton  ,,company  ,,have ,,in  
,,course ,,of ,,preparation1  ,,the     
,,earthworker2  ,,or1  ,book of         
,husbandry4  ,,by ,g4 ,e4 ,,waring1     
,,jr4  ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,elements   
,,of ,,agriculture4   ,this book is     
intended as a sequel to the ,elements of
 ,agriculture1 being a larger and more  
complete work1 containing fuller        
directions for the treatment of the     
different kinds of soils1 for the       
preparation of manures1 and especially  
for the drainage of lands1 whether      
level1 rolling1 hilly1 or springy4      
,particular attention will be paid to   
the use of analysis4 ,the feeding of    
different animals1 and the cultivation  
of the various crops1 will be described 
with care4  ,the size of the work will  

be about #djj pp4 #hvo41 and it will    
probably be published ,january #ast1    
#ahef4 ,price #a4 ,orders sent to the   
publishers1 or to the author1 at ,rye1  
,n4 ,y41 will be supplied in the order  
in which they are received4             
,,elements  ,,of  ,,agriculture         
,extract from a letter to the author    
from ,prof4 ,mapes1 editor of the       
,working ,farmer3      99 99 99 ,after a
 perusal of your manuscript1 ,i feel    
authorized in     assuring you that1 for
 the use of young farmers1 and schools1 
your book is superior to any other      
elementary work extant4 ,,james     ,j4 
,,mapes4         99       99       99   
99       99  ,letter from the ,editor of
 the ,n4 ,y4 ,tribune3      ,,my        
,,friend ,,waring1      ,if all who need
 the information given in your ,elements
 of     ,agriculture will confess their 
ignorance as frankly as ,i do1     and  
seek to dispel it as promptly and       
heartily1 you will have     done a vast 
amount of good by writing it4 99 99 99  

99 99 ,i have found     in every chapter
 important truths1 which ,i1 as a       
would-be-farmer1 needed to know1 yet    
which ,i did not know1 or     had but a 
confused and glimmering consciousness   
of1 before ,i     read your lucid and   
straightforward exposition of the bases 
of     ,agriculture as a science4 ,i    
would not have my son grow up as        
ignorant of these truths as ,i did for  
many times the price of     your book2  
and1 ,i believe1 a copy of that book in 
every family     in the ,union1 would   
speedily add at least ten per cent4 per 
acre     to the aggregate product of our
 soil1 beside doing much to stem     and
 reverse the current which now sets so  
strongly away from the     plow and the 
scythe toward the counter and the       
office4 ,trusting     that your labors  
will be widely regarded and appreciated1
                            ,i remain   
yours truly1                            
,,horace ,,greeley4      ,new ,york1    
,june #bc1 #ahed4     ,,the ,,elements  

,,of ,,agriculture3  ,a ,book for ,young
 ,farmers1  ,,with ,,questions          
,,prepared ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of       
,,schools4  ,,by  ,,geo4 ,e4 ,,waring1  
,,jr41 ,,consulting ,,agriculturist4    
,the effort to extend the dominion of   
man over nature is the most healthy and 
most noble of all ambitions4--,,bacon4  
,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and      
,,company1 #cdf  #cdh ,,broadway4  ,m   
,,dccc ,,liv4     ,entered according to 
,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahed1 by
  ,,geo4 ,e4 ,,waring1 ,,jr41  in the   
,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court
 of the ,united ,states for the         
,southern ,district of ,new ,york4      
,,to  ,,my ,,friend ,,and ,,tutor1      
,,prof4 ,,james ,j4 ,,mapes1  ,,the     
,,pioneer ,,of ,,agricultural ,,science 
,,in ,,america1  ,this ,book  ,,is      
,,respectfully ,,dedicated  ,,by ,,his  
,,pupil1        ,,the ,,author4     ,,to
 ,,the ,,student4   ,this book is       
presented to you1 not as a work of      
science1 nor as a dry1 chemical         

treatise1 but as a plain statement of   
the more simple operations by which     
nature produces many results1 so common 
to our observation1 that we are         
thoughtless of their origin4 ,on these  
results depend the existence of man and 
the lower animals4 ,no man should be    
ignorant of their production4  ,in the  
early prosecution of the study1 you will
 find1 perhaps1 nothing to relieve its  
tediousness2 but1 when the foundation of
 agricultural knowledge is laid in your 
mind so thoroughly that you know the    
character and use of every stone1 then  
may your thoughts build on it fabrics of
 such varied construction1 and so varied
 in their uses1 that there will be      
opened to you a new world1 even more    
wonderful and more beautiful than the   
outward world1 which exhibits itself to 
the senses4 ,thus may you live two      
lives1 each assisting in the enjoyment  
of the other4  ,but you may ask the     
practical use of this4 ,the world is    
made up of little things1 saith the     

proverb4 ,so with the productive arts4  
,the steam engine consists of many      
parts1 each part being itself composed  
of atoms too minute to be detected by   
our observation4 ,the earth itself1 in  
all its solidity and life1 consists     
entirely of atoms too small to be       
perceived by the naked eye1 each visible
 particle being an aggregation of       
thousands of constituent elements4 ,the 
crop of wheat1 which the farmer raises  
by his labor1 and sells for money1 is   
produced by a combination of particles  
equally small4 ,they are not            
mysteriously combined1 nor irregularly1 
but each atom is taken from its place of
 deposit1 and carried to its required   
location in the living plant1 by laws as
 certain as those which regulate the    
motion of the engine1 or the revolutions
 of the earth4  ,it is the business of  
the practical farmer to put together    
these materials1 with the assistance of 
nature4 ,he may learn her ways1 assist  
her action1 and succeed2 or he may      

remain ignorant of her operations1 often
 counteract her beneficial influences1  
and often fail4  ,a knowledge of the    
inner world of material things about us 
will produce pleasure to the thoughtful1
 and profit to the practical4           
,,contents4   ,,section ,,first4  ,,the 
,,plant4                                
,,page4  ,,chapter ,i4--,introduction1  
#aa        ,,ii4--,atmosphere1          
#ae       ,,iii4--,hydrogen1 ,oxygen1   
and ,nitrogen1                          
#bc        ,,iv4--,inorganic ,matter1   
#bi         ,v4--,growth1               
#dj        ,,vi4--,proximate division of
 ,plants1                            #dc
       ,,vii4--,location of the         
,proximates1 and variations in the      
,ashes of ,plants1                      
#eb      ,,viii4--,recapitulation1      
#ef   ,,section ,,second4  ,,the ,,soil4
  ,,chapter ,i4--,formation and         
,character of the ,soil1                
#fe        ,,ii4--,uses of ,organic     
,matter1                                

#gg       ,,iii4--,uses of ,inorganic   
,matter1                                
#hd   ,,section ,,third4  ,,manures4    
,,chapter ,i4--,character and varieties 
of ,manure1                       #ic   
,,ii4--,excrements of ,animals1         
#if       ,,iii4--,waste of ,manure1    
#aja        ,,iv4--,absorbents1         
#aji         ,v4--,composting ,stable   
,manure1                                
#aah        ,,vi4--,different kinds of  
,animal ,excrement1                     
#abf       ,,vii4--,other ,organic      
,manures1                               
#acf      ,,viii4--,mineral ,manures1   
#adi        ,,ix4--,deficiencies of     
,soils1 means of ,restoration1 etc41    
#aee         ,x4--,atmospheric          
,fertilizers1                           
#aig        ,,xi4--,recapitulation1     
#bjc   ,,section ,,fourth4  ,,mechanical
 ,,cultivation4  ,,chapter              
,i4--,mechanical ,character of the      
,soil1                       #bji       
,,ii4--,under-draining1                 

#baa       ,,iii4--,advantages of       
,under-draining1                        
#bag        ,,iv4--,sub-soil ,plowing1  
#bcb         ,v4--,plowing and other    
modes of ,pulverizing the ,soil1        
#bci        ,,vi4--,rolling1 ,mulching1 
,weeding1 etc41                         
#bde   ,,section ,,fifth4  ,,analysis4  
,,chapter ,i4--,nature of ,analysis1    
#bei        ,,ii4--,tables of ,analysis1
                                        
#bfd   ,,the ,,practical ,,farmer1      
#bgi  ,,explanation ,,of ,,terms1       
#bhg     ,,section ,,first4  ,,the      
,,plant4     ,,chapter ,i4              
,,introduction4   ,what is the object of
 cultivating the soil8  ,what is        
necessary in order to cultivate with    
economy8  ,are plants created from      
nothing8  ,the object of cultivating the
 soil is to raise from it a crop of     
plants4 ,in order to cultivate with     
economy1 we must raise the largest      
possible quantity with the least        
expense1 and without permanent injury to

 the soil4  ,before this can be done we 
must study the character of plants1 and 
learn their exact composition4 ,they are
 not created by a mysterious power1 they
 are merely made up of matters already  
in existence4 ,they take up water       
containing food and other matters1 and  
discharge from their roots those        
substances that are not required for    
their growth4 ,it is necessary for us to
 know what kind of matter is required as
 food for the plant1 and where this is  
to be obtained1 which we can learn only 
through such means as shall separate the
 elements of which plants are composed2 
in other words1 we must take them apart1
 and examine the different pieces of    
which they are formed4  ,what must we do
 to learn the composition of plants8    
,what takes place when vegetable matter 
is burned8  ,what do we call the two    
divisions produced by burning8  ,where  
does organic matter originate8          
,inorganic8  ,how much of chemistry     
should farmers know8  ,if we burn any   

vegetable substance it disappears1      
except a small quantity of earthy       
matter1 which we call ashes4 ,in this   
way we make an important division in the
 constituents of plants4 ,one portion   
dissipates into the atmosphere1 and the 
other remains as ashes4  ,that part     
which burns away during combustion is   
called organic matter2 the ashes are    
called inorganic matter4 ,the organic   
matter has become air1 and hence we     
conclude that it was originally obtained
 from air4 ,the inorganic matter has    
become earth1 and was obtained from the 
soil4  ,this knowledge can do us no good
 except by the assistance of chemistry1 
which explains the properties of each   
part1 and teaches us where it is to be  
found4 ,it is not necessary for farmers 
to become chemists4 ,all that is        
required is1 that they should know      
enough of chemistry to understand the   
nature of the materials of which their  
crops are composed1 and how those       
materials are to be used to the best    

advantage4  ,this amount of knowledge   
may be easily acquired1 and should be   
possessed by every person1 old or young1
 whether actually engaged in the        
cultivation of the soil or not4 ,all are
 dependent on vegetable productions1 not
 only for food1 but for every comfort   
and convenience of life4 ,it is the     
object of this book to teach children   
the first principles of agriculture3 and
 it contains all that is absolutely     
necessary to an understanding of the    
practical operations of cultivation1    
etc4  ,is organic matter lost after     
combustion8  ,of what does it consist8  
,how large a part of plants is carbon8  
,we will first examine the organic part 
of plants1 or that which is driven away 
during combustion or burning4 ,this     
matter1 though apparently lost1 is only 
changed in form4  ,it consists of one   
solid substance1 carbon 7or charcoal71  
and three gases1 oxygen1 hydrogen and   
nitrogen4 ,these four kinds of matter   
constitute nearly the whole of most     

plants1 the ashes forming often less    
than one part in one hundred of their   
dry weight4  ,what do we mean by gas8   
,does oxygen unite with other           
substances8  ,give some instances of its
 combinations  ,when wood is burned in a
 close vessel1 or otherwise protected   
from the air1 its carbon becomes        
charcoal4 ,all plants contain this      
substance1 it forming usually about one 
half of their dry weight4 ,the remainder
 of their organic part consists of the  
three gases named above4 ,by the word   
gas1 we mean air4 ,oxygen1 hydrogen and 
nitrogen1 when pure1 are always in the  
form of air4 ,oxygen has the power of   
uniting with many substances1 forming   
compounds which are different from      
either of their constituents alone4     
,thus3 oxygen unites with iron and forms
 oxide of iron or iron-rust1 which does 
not resemble the gray metallic iron nor 
the gas oxygen2 oxygen unites with      
carbon and forms carbonic acid1 which is
 an invisible gas1 but not at all like  

pure oxygen2 oxygen combines with       
hydrogen and forms water4 ,all of the   
water1 ice1 steam1 etc41 are composed of
 these two gases4 ,we know this because 
we can artificially decompose1 or       
separate1 all water1 and obtain as a    
result simply oxygen and hydrogen1 or we
 can combine these two gases and thus   
form pure water2 oxygen combines with   
nitrogen and forms nitric acid4 ,these  
chemical changes and combinations take  
place only under certain circumstances1 
which1 so far as they affect            
agriculture1 will be considered in the  
following pages4  ,as the organic       
elements of plants are obtained from    
matters existing in the atmosphere which
 surrounds our globe1 we will examine   
its constitution4     ,,chapter ,,ii4   
,,atmosphere4   ,what is atmospheric air
 composed of8  ,in what proportions8    
,what is the use of nitrogen in air8    
,does the atmosphere contain other      
matters useful to vegetation8  ,what are
 they8  ,atmospheric air is composed of 

oxygen and nitrogen4 ,their proportions 
are1 one part of oxygen to four parts of
 nitrogen4 ,oxygen is the active agent  
in the combustion1 decay1 and           
decomposition of organized bodies 7those
 which have possessed animal or         
vegetable life1 that is1 organic        
matter71 and others also1 in the        
breathing of animals4 ,experiments have 
proved that if the atmosphere consisted 
of pure oxygen every thing would be     
speedily destroyed1 as the processes of 
combustion and decay would be greatly   
accelerated1 and animals would be so    
stimulated that death would soon ensue4 
,the use of the nitrogen in the air is  
to dilute the oxygen1 and thus reduce   
the intensity of its effect4  ,besides  
these two great elements1 the atmosphere
 contains certain impurities which are  
of great importance to vegetable growth2
 these are1 carbonic acid1 water1       
ammonia1 etc4   ,,carbonic ,,acid4      
,what is the source of the carbon of    
plants8  ,what is carbonic acid8  ,what 

is its proportion in the atmosphere8    
,where else is it found8  ,how does it  
enter the plant8  ,what are the offices 
of leaves8  ,carbonic acid is in all    
probability the only source of the      
carbon of plants1 and consequently is of
 more importance to vegetation than any 
other single sort of food4 ,it is a gas1
 and is not1 under natural              
circumstances1 perceptible to our       
senses4 ,it constitutes about #a_/bejj  
of the atmosphere1 and is found in      
combination with many substances in     
nature4 ,marble1 limestone and chalk1   
are carbonate of lime1 or carbonic acid 
and lime in combination2 and carbonate  
of magnesia is a compound of carbonic   
acid and magnesia4 ,this gas exists in  
combination with many other mineral     
substances1 and is contained in all     
water not recently boiled4 ,its supply1 
though small1 is sufficient for the     
purposes of vegetation4 ,it enters the  
plant in two ways--through the roots in 
the water which goes to form the sap1   

and at the leaves1 which absorb it from 
the air in the form of gas4 ,the leaf of
 the plant seems to have three offices3 
that of absorbing carbonic acid from the
 atmosphere--that of assisting in the   
chemical preparation of the sap--and    
that of evaporating its water4 ,if we   
examine leaves with a microscope we     
shall find that some have as many as    
#agj1jjj openings1 or mouths1 in a      
square inch2 others have a much less    
number4 ,usually1 the pores on the under
 side of the leaf absorb the carbonic   
acid4 ,this absorptive power is         
illustrated when we apply the lower side
 of a cabbage leaf to a wound1 as it    
draws strongly--the other side of the   
leaf has no such action4 ,young sprouts 
may have the power of absorbing and     
decomposing carbonic acid4  ,what parts 
of roots absorb food8  ,how much of     
their carbon may plants receive through 
their roots8  ,what change does carbonic
 acid undergo after entering the plant8 
,in what parts of the plant1 and under  

what influence1 is carbonic acid        
decomposed8  ,the roots of plants       
terminate at their ends in minute       
spongioles1 or mouths for the absorption
 of fluids containing nutriment4 ,in    
these fluids there exist greater or less
 quantities of carbonic acid1 and a     
considerable amount of this gas enters  
into the circulation of the plants and  
is carried to those parts where it is   
required for decomposition4 ,plants1    
under favorable circumstances1 may thus 
obtain about one-third of their carbon4 
,carbonic acid1 it will be recollected1 
consists of carbon and oxygen1 while it 
supplies only carbon to the plant4 ,it  
is therefore necessary that it be       
divided1 or decomposed1 and that the    
carbon be retained while the oxygen is  
sent off again into the atmosphere1 to  
reperform its office of uniting with    
carbon4 ,this decomposition takes place 
in the green parts of plants and only   
under the influence of daylight4 ,it is 
not necessary that the sun shine        

directly on the leaf or green shoot1 but
 this causes a more rapid decomposition 
of carbonic acid1 and consequently we   
find that plants which are well exposed 
to the sun's rays make the most rapid   
growth4  ,explain the condition of      
different latitudes4  ,does the         
proportion of carbonic acid in the      
atmosphere remain about the same8  ,the 
fact that light is essential to         
vegetation explains the conditions of   
different latitudes1 which1 so far as   
the assimilation of carbon is concerned1
 are much the same4 ,at the ,equator the
 days are but about twelve hours long4  
,still1 as the growth of plants is      
extended over eight or nine months of   
the year1 the duration of daylight is   
sufficient for the requirements of a    
luxuriant vegetation4 ,at the ,poles1 on
 the contrary1 the summer is but two or 
three months long2 here1 however1 it is 
daylight all summer1 and plants from    
continual growth develop themselves in  
that short time4  ,it will be           

recollected that carbonic acid          
constitutes but about #a_/bejj of the   
air1 yet1 although about one half of all
 the vegetable matter in the world is   
derived from this source1 as well as all
 of the carbon required by the growth of
 plants1 its proportion in the          
atmosphere is constantly about the same4
 ,in order that we may understated this1
 it becomes necessary for us to consider
 the means by which it is formed4       
,carbon1 by the aid of fire1 is made to 
unite with oxygen1 and always when      
bodies containing carbon are burnt with 
the presence of atmospheric air1 the    
oxygen of that air unites with the      
carbon1 and forms carbonic acid4 ,the   
same occurs when bodies containing      
carbon decay1 as this is simply a slower
 burning and produces the same results4 
,the respiration 7or breathing7 of      
animals is simply the union of the      
carbon of the blood with the oxygen of  
the air drawn into the lungs1 and their 
breath1 when thrown out1 always contains

 carbonic acid4 ,from this we see that  
the reproduction of this gas is the     
direct effect of the destruction of all 
organized bodies1 whether by fire1      
decay1 or consumption by animals4       
,explain some of the operations in which
 this reproduction takes place4  ,how is
 it reproduced8  ,furnaces are its      
wholesale manufactories4 ,every cottage 
fire is continually producing a new     
supply1 and the blue smoke issuing from 
the cottage-chimney1 as described by so 
many poets1 possesses a new beauty1 when
 we reflect that besides indicating a   
cheerful fire on the hearth1 it contains
 materials for making food for the      
cottager's tables and new faggots for   
his fire4 ,the wick of every burning    
lamp draws up the carbon of the oil to  
be made into carbonic acid at the flame4
 ,all matters in process of combustion1 
decay1 fermentation1 or putrefaction1   
are returning to the atmosphere those   
constituents1 which they obtained from  
it4 ,every living animal1 even to the   

smallest insect1 by respiration1 spends 
its life in the production of this      
material necessary to the growth of     
plants1 and at death gives up its body  
in part for such formation by decay4    
,thus we see that there is a continual  
change from the carbon of plants to air1
 and from air back to plants1 or through
 them to animals4 ,as each dollar in    
gold that is received into a country    
permanently increases its amount of     
circulating medium1 and each dollar sent
 out permanently decreases it until     
returned1 so the carbonic acid sent into
 the atmosphere by burning1 decay1 or   
respiration1 becomes a permanent stock  
of constantly changeable material1 until
 it shall be locked up for a time1 as in
 a house which may last for centuries1  
or in an oak tree which may stand for   
thousands of years4 ,still1 at the decay
 of either of these1 the carbon which   
they contain must be again resolved into
 carbonic acid4  ,what are the coal-beds
 of ,pennsylvania8  ,what are often     

found in them8  ,the coal-beds of       
,pennsylvania are mines of carbon once  
abstracted from the atmosphere by       
plants4 ,in these coal-beds are often   
found fern leaves1 toads1 whole trees1  
and in short all forms of organized     
matter4 ,these all existed as living    
things before the great floods1 and at  
the breaking away of the barriers of the
 immense lakes1 of which our present    
lakes were merely the deep holes in     
their beds1 they were washed away and   
deposited in masses so great as to take 
fire from their chemical changes4 ,it is
 by many supposed that this fire acting 
throughout the entire mass 7without the 
presence of air to supply oxygen except 
on the surface7 caused it to become     
melted carbon1 and to flow around those 
bodies which still retained their       
shapes1 changing them to coal without   
destroying their structures4 ,this coal1
 so long as it retains its present form1
 is lost to the vegetable kingdom1 and  
each ton that is burned1 by being       

changed into carbonic acid1 adds to the 
ability of the atmosphere to support an 
increased amount of vegetation4         
,explain the manner in which they become
 coal4  ,how does the burning of coal   
benefit vegetation8  ,is carbon ever    
permanent in any of its forms8  ,what   
enables it to change its condition8     
,thus we see that1 in the provisions of 
nature1 carbon1 the grand basis1 on     
which all organized matter is founded1  
is never permanent in any of its forms4 
,oxygen is the carrier which enables it 
to change its condition4 ,for instance1 
let us suppose that we have a certain   
quantity of charcoal2 this is nearly    
pure carbon4 ,we ignite it1 and it      
unites with the oxygen of the air1      
becomes carbonic acid1 and floats away  
into the atmosphere4 ,the wind carries  
it through a forest1 and the leaves of  
the trees with their millions of mouths 
drink it in4 ,by the assistance of light
 it is decomposed1 the oxygen is sent   
off to make more carbonic acid1 and the 

carbon is retained to form a part of the
 tree4 ,so long as that tree exists in  
the form of wood1 the carbon will remain
 unaltered1 but when the wood decays1 or
 is burned1 it immediately takes the    
form of carbonic acid1 and mingles with 
the atmosphere ready to be again taken  
up by plants1 and have its carbon       
deposited in the form of vegetable      
matter4  ,give an instance of such      
change4  ,how do plants and animals     
benefit each other8  ,describe the      
experiment with the glass tube4  ,the   
blood of animals contains carbon derived
 from their food4 ,this unites with the 
oxygen of the air drawn into the lungs  
and forms carbonic acid4 ,without this  
process1 animals could not live4 ,thus1 
while by the natural operation of       
breathing1 they make carbonic acid for  
the uses of the vegetable world1 plants1
 in taking up carbon1 throw off oxygen  
to keep up the life of animals4 ,there  
is perhaps no way in which we can better
 illustrate the changes of form in      

carbon than by describing a simple      
experiment4  ,take a glass tube filled  
with oxygen gas1 and put in it a lump of
 charcoal1 cork the ends of the tube    
tightly1 and pass through the corks the 
wires of an electrical battery4 ,by     
passing a stream of electrical fluid    
over the charcoal it may be ignited1    
when it will burn with great brilliancy4
 ,in burning it is dissolved in the     
oxygen forming carbonic acid1 and       
disappears4 ,it is no more lost1        
however1 than is the carbon of wood     
which is burned in a stove2 although    
invisible1 it is still in the tube1 and 
may be detected by careful weighing4 ,a 
more satisfactory proof of its presence 
may be obtained by decomposing the      
carbonic acid by drawing the wires a    
short distance apart1 and giving a spark
 of electricity4 ,this immediately      
separates the oxygen from the carbon    
which forms a dense black smoke in the  
tube4 ,by pushing the corks together we 
may obtain a wafer of charcoal of the   

same weight as the piece introduced4 ,in
 this experiment we have changed carbon 
from its solid form to an invisible gas 
and back again to a solid1 thus fully   
representing the continual changes of   
this substance in the destruction of    
organic matter and the growth of plants4
     ,,chapter ,,iii4  ,,hydrogen1      
,,oxygen ,,and ,,nitrogen4   ,,hydrogen 
,,and ,,oxygen4  ,what is water composed
 of8  ,if analyzed1 what does it yield8 
,how do plants obtain their hydrogen and
 oxygen8  ,let us now consider the three
 gases1 hydrogen1 oxygen and nitrogen1  
which constitute the remainder of the   
organic part of plants4  ,hydrogen and  
oxygen compose water1 which1 if         
analyzed1 yields simply these two gases4
 ,plants perform such analysis1 and in  
this way are able to obtain a sufficient
 supply of these materials1 as their sap
 is composed chiefly of water4 ,whenever
 vegetable matter is destroyed by       
burning1 decay1 or otherwise1 its       
hydrogen and oxygen unite and form      

water1 which is parted with usually in  
the form of an invisible vapor4 ,the    
atmosphere of course contains greater or
 less quantities of watery vapor arising
 from this cause and from the           
evaporation of liquid water4 ,this vapor
 condenses1 forming rains1 etc4         
,hydrogen and oxygen are never taken    
into consideration in manuring lands1 as
 they are so readily obtained from the  
water constituting the sap of the plant1
 and consequently should not occupy our 
attention in this book4   ,,nitrogen4   
,if vegetable matter be destroyed1 what 
becomes of these constituents8  ,what is
 the remaining organic constituent8     
,why is it worthy of close attention8   
,do plants appropriate the nitrogen of  
the atmosphere8  ,nitrogen1 the only    
remaining organic constituent of        
vegetable matter1 is for many reasons   
worthy of close attention4  #a4 ,it is  
necessary to the growth and perfection  
of all cultivated plants4  #b4 ,it is   
necessary to the formation of animal    

muscle4  #c4 ,it is often deficient in  
the soil4  #d4 ,it is liable to be      
easily lost from manures4  ,although    
about four fifths of atmospheric air are
 pure nitrogen1 it is almost certain    
that plants get no nutriment at all from
 this source4 ,it is all obtained from  
some of its compounds1 chiefly from the 
one called ammonia4 ,nitric acid is also
 a source from which plants may obtain  
nitrogen1 though to the farmer of less  
importance than ammonia4   ,,ammonia4   
,what is the principal source from which
 they obtain nitrogen8  ,what is        
ammonia8  ,how is it formed8  ,where    
does it always exist8  ,how do plants   
take up ammonia8  ,ammonia is composed  
of nitrogen and hydrogen4 ,it has a     
pungent smell and is familiarly known as
 hartshorn4 ,the same odor is           
perceptible around stables and other    
places where animal matter is           
decomposing4 ,all animal muscle1 certain
 parts of plants1 and other organized   
substances1 consist of compounds        

containing nitrogen4 ,when these        
compounds undergo combustion1 or are in 
any manner decomposed1 the nitrogen     
which they contain usually unites with  
hydrogen1 and forms ammonia4 ,in        
consequence of this the atmosphere      
always contains more or less of this    
gas1 arising from the decay1 etc41 which
 is continually going on all over the   
world4  ,this ammonia in the atmosphere 
is the capital stock to which all       
plants1 not artificially manured1 must  
look for their supply of nitrogen4 ,as  
they can take up ammonia only through   
their roots1 we must discover some means
 by which it may be conveyed from the   
atmosphere to the soil4  ,does water    
absorb it8  ,what is spirits of         
hartshorn8  ,why is this power of water 
important in agriculture8  ,what        
instance may be cited to prove this8    
,water may be made to absorb many times 
its bulk of this gas1 and water with    
which it comes in contact will          
immediately take it up4 ,spirits of     

hartshorn is merely water through which 
ammonia has been passed until it is     
saturated4,a ,this power of water has a 
direct application to agriculture1      
because the water constituting rains1   
dews1 c41 absorbs the ammonia which the 
decomposition of nitrogenous matter had 
sent into the atmosphere1 and we find   
that all rain1 snow and dew1 contain    
ammonia4 ,this fact may be chemically   
proved in various ways1 and is          
perceptible in the common operations of 
nature4 ,every person must have noticed 
that when a summer's shower falls on the
 plants in a flower garden1 they        
commence their growth with fresh vigor  
while the blossoms become larger and    
more richly colored4 ,this effect cannot
 be produced by watering with spring    
water1 unless it be previously mixed    
with ammonia1 in which case the result  
will be the same4  ,although ammonia is 
a gas and pervades the atmosphere1 few1 
if any1 plants can take it up1 as they  
do carbonic acid1 through their leaves4 

,it must all enter through the roots in 
solution in the water which goes to form
 the sap4 ,although the amount received 
from the atmosphere is of great         
importance1 there are few cases where   
artificial applications are not         
beneficial4 ,the value of farm-yard and 
other animal manures1 depends chiefly on
 the ammonia which they yield on        
decomposition4 ,this subject1 also the  
means for retaining in the soil the     
ammoniacal parts of fertilizing matters1
 will be fully considered in the section
 on manures4  ,can plants use more      
ammonia than is received from the       
atmosphere8  ,on what does the value of 
animal manure chiefly depend8  ,what    
changes take place after ammonia enters 
the plant8  ,may the same atom of       
nitrogen perform many different offices8
  ,after ammonia has entered the plant  
it may be decomposed1 its hydrogen sent 
off1 and its nitrogen retained to answer
 the purposes of growth4 ,the changes   
which nitrogen undergoes1 from plants to

 animals1 or1 by decomposition1 to the  
form of ammonia in the atmosphere1 are  
as varied as those of carbon and the    
constituents of water4 ,the same little 
atom of nitrogen may one year form a    
part of a plant1 and the next become a  
constituent of an animal1 or1 with the  
decomposed dead animal1 may form a part 
of the soil4 ,if the animal should fall 
into the sea he may become food for     
fishes1 and our atom of nitrogen may    
form a part of a fish4 ,that fish may be
 eaten by a larger one1 or at death may 
become food for the whale1 through the  
marine insect1 on which it feeds4 ,after
 the abstraction of the oil from the    
whale1 the nitrogen may1 by the         
putrefaction of his remains1 be united  
to hydrogen1 form ammonia1 and escape   
into the atmosphere4 ,from here it may  
be brought to the soil by rains1 and    
enter into the composition of a plant1  
from which1 could its parts speak as it 
lies on our table1 it could tell us a   
wonderful tale of travels1 and assure us

 that1 after wandering about in all     
sorts of places1 it had returned to us  
the same little atom of nitrogen which  
we had owned twenty years before1 and   
which for thousands of years had been   
continually going through its changes4  
,is the same true of the other          
constituents of plants8  ,is any atom of
 matter ever lost8  ,the same is true of
 any of the organic or inorganic        
constituents of plants4 ,they are       
performing their natural offices1 or are
 lying in the earth1 or floating in the 
atmosphere1 ready to be lent to any of  
their legitimate uses1 sure again to be 
returned to their starting point4  ,thus
 no atom of matter is ever lost4 ,it may
 change its place1 but it remains for   
ever as a part of the capital of nature4
  ,,footnotes3  ,a ,by saturated1 we    
mean that it contains all that it is    
capable of holding4     ,,chapter ,,iv4 
,,inorganic ,,matter4   ,what are ashes 
called8  ,how many kinds of matter are  
there in the ashes of plants8  ,into    

what three classes may they be divided8 
,what takes place when alkalies and     
acids are brought together8  ,we will   
now examine the ashes left after burning
 vegetable substances4 ,this we have    
called inorganic matter1 and it is      
obtained from the soil4 ,organic matter1
 although forming so large a part of the
 plant1 we have seen to consist of four 
different substances4 ,the inorganic    
portion1 on the contrary1 although      
forming so small a part1 consists of no 
less than nine or ten different kinds of
 matter4,b ,these we will consider in   
order4 ,in their relations to           
agriculture they may be divided into    
three classes--alkalies1 acids1 and     
neutrals4,c  ,is the character of a     
compound the same as that of its        
constituents8  ,give an instance of     
this4  ,do neutrals combine with other  
substances8  ,name the four alkalies    
found in the ashes of plants4  ,alkalies
 and acids are of opposite properties1  
and when brought together they unite and

 neutralize each other1 forming         
compounds which are neither alkaline nor
 acid in their character4 ,thus1        
carbonic acid 7a gas17 unites with      
lime--a burning1 caustic substance--and 
forms marble1 which is a hard tasteless 
stone4 ,alkalies and acids are          
characterized by their desire to unite  
with each other1 and the compounds thus 
formed have many and various properties1
 so that the characters of the          
constituents give no indication of the  
character of the compound4 ,for         
instance1 lime causes the gases of      
animal manure to escape1 while sulphate 
of lime 7a compound of sulphuric acid   
and lime7 produces an opposite effect1  
and prevents their escape4  ,the        
substances coming under the             
signification of neutrals1 are less     
affected by the laws of combination1    
still they often combine feebly with    
other substances1 and some of the       
resultant compounds are of great        
importance to agriculture4   ,,alkalies4

  ,the alkalies which are found in the  
ashes of plants are four in number2 they
 are potash1 soda1 lime and magnesia4   
,,potash4  ,how may we obtain potash    
from ashes8  ,what are some of its      
agricultural uses8  ,when we pour water 
over wood ashes it dissolves the potash 
which they contain1 and carries it      
through in solution4 ,this solution is  
called ley1 and if it be boiled to      
dryness it leaves a solid substance from
 which pure potash may be made4 ,potash 
left exposed to the air absorbs carbonic
 acid and becomes carbonate of potash1  
or pearlash2 if another atom of carbonic
 acid be added1 it becomes              
super-carbonate of potash1 or salratus4 
,potash has many uses in agriculture4   
#a4 ,it forms a constituent of nearly   
all plants4  #b4 ,it unites with silica 
7a neutral71 and forms a compound which 
water can dissolve and carry into the   
roots of plants2 thus supplying them    
with an ingredient which gives them much
 of their strength4,d  #c4 ,it is a     

strong agent in the decomposition of    
vegetable matter1 and is thus of much   
importance in preparing manures4  #d4   
,it roughens the smooth round particles 
of sandy soils1 and prevents their      
compacting1 as they are often liable to 
do4  #e4 ,it is also of use in killing  
certain kinds of insects1 and1 when     
artificially applied1 in smoothing the  
bark of fruit trees4  ,the source from  
which this and the other inorganic      
matters required are to be obtained1    
will be fully considered in the section 
on manures4   ,,soda4  ,where is soda   
found most largely8  ,what is ,glauber's
 salts8  ,what is washing soda8  ,what  
are some of the uses of lime8  ,soda1   
one of the alkalies contained in the    
ashes of plants1 is very much the same  
as potash in its agricultural character4
 ,its uses are the same as those of     
potash--before enumerated4 ,soda exists 
very largely in nature1 as it forms an  
important part of common salt1 whether  
in the ocean or in those inland deposits

 known as rock salt4 ,when combined with
 sulphuric acid it forms sulphate of    
soda or ,glauber's salts4 ,in           
combination with carbonic acid1 as      
carbonate of soda1 it forms the common  
washing soda of the shops4 ,it is often 
necessary to render soils fertile4      
,,lime4  ,lime is in many ways important
 in agriculture3  #a4 ,it is a          
constituent of plants and animals4  #b4 
,it assists in the decomposition of     
vegetable matter in the soil4  #c4 ,it  
corrects the acidity,e of sour soils4   
#d4 ,as chloride or sulphate of lime it 
is a good absorbent of fertilizing      
gases4  ,how is caustic lime made8  ,how
 much carbonic acid is thus liberated8  
,how does man resemble ,sinbad the      
sailor8  ,in nature it usually exists in
 the form of carbonate of lime3 that is1
 as marble1 limestone1 and chalk--these 
all being of the same composition4 ,in  
manufacturing caustic 7or quick7 lime1  
it is customary to burn the carbonate of
 lime in a kiln2 by this means the      

carbonic acid is thrown off into the    
atmosphere and the lime remains in a    
pure or caustic state4 ,a ,french       
chemist states that every cubic yard of 
limestone that is burned1 throws off ten
 thousand cubic yards of carbonic acid1 
which may be used by plants4 ,this      
reminds us of the story of ,sinbad the  
sailor1 where we read of the immense    
genie who came out of a very small box  
by the sea-shore1 much to the surprise  
of ,sinbad1 who could not believe his   
eyes1 until the genie changed himself   
into a cloud of smoke and went into the 
box again4 ,sinbad fastened the lid1 and
 the genie must have remained there     
until the box was destroyed4  ,now man  
is very much like ,sinbad1 he lets the  
carbonic acid out from the limestone    
7when it expands and becomes a gas72 and
 then he raises a crop1 the leaves of   
which drink it in and pack the carbon   
away in a very small compass as         
vegetable matter4 ,here it must remain  
until the plant is destroyed1 when it   

becomes carbonic acid again1 and        
occupies just as much space as ever4    
,the burning of limestone is a very     
prolific source of carbonic acid4       
,,magnesia4  ,what do you know about    
magnesia8  ,what is phosphoric acid     
composed of8  ,with what substance does 
it form its most important compound8    
,magnesia is the remaining alkali of    
vegetable ashes4 ,it is well known as a 
medicine1 both in the form of calcined  
magnesia1 and1 when mixed with sulphuric
 acid1 as epsom salts4  ,magnesia is    
necessary to nearly all plants1 but too 
much of it is poisonous1 and it should  
be used with much care1 as many soils   
already contain a sufficient quantity4  
,it is often found in limestone rocks   
7that class called dolomites71 and the  
injurious effects of some kinds of lime1
 as well as the barrenness of soils made
 from dolomites1 may be attributed      
entirely to the fact that they contain  
too much magnesia4   ,,acids4           
,,phosphoric ,,acid4  ,phosphoric       

acid4--,this subject is one of the      
greatest interest to the farmer4        
,phosphoric acid is composed of         
phosphorus and oxygen4 ,the end of a    
loco-foco match contains phosphorus1 and
 when it is lighted it unites with the  
oxygen of the atmosphere and forms      
phosphoric acid2 this constitutes the   
white smoke which is seen for a moment  
before the sulphur commences burning4   
,being an acid1 this substance has the  
power of combining with any of the      
alkalies4 ,its most important compound  
is with lime4  ,will soils1 deficient in
 phosphate of lime1 produce good crops8 
,from what source do plants obtain their
 phosphorus8  ,phosphate of lime forms  
about #fe per cent4 of the dry weight of
 the bones of all animals1 and it is all
 derived from the soil through the      
medium of plants4 ,as plants are        
intended as food for animals1 nature has
 provided that they shall not attain    
their perfection without taking up a    
supply of phosphate of lime as well as  

of the other earthy matters2            
consequently1 there are many soils which
 will not produce good crops1 simply    
because they are deficient in phosphate 
of lime4 ,it is one of the most         
important ingredients of manures1 and   
its value is dependent on certain       
conditions which will be hereafter      
explained4  ,another use of phosphoric  
acid in the plant is to supply it with a
 small amount of phosphorus1 which seems
 to be required in the formation of the 
seed4   ,,sulphuric ,,acid4  ,what is   
sulphuric acid composed of8  ,what is   
plaster8  ,what is silica8  ,why is it  
necessary to the growth of plants8      
,what compounds does it form with       
alkalies8  ,sulphuric acid is important 
to vegetation and is often needed to    
render soils fertile4 ,it is composed of
 sulphur and oxygen1 and is made for    
manufacturing purposes1 by burning      
sulphur4 ,with lime it forms sulphate of
 lime1 which is gypsum or 'plaster4' ,in
 this form it is often found in nature1 

and is generally used in agriculture4   
,other important methods for supplying  
sulphuric acid will be described        
hereafter4 ,it gives to the plant a     
small portion of sulphur1 which is      
necessary to the formation of some of   
its parts4   ,,neutrals4  ,,silica4     
,how can you prove its existence in corn
 stalks8  ,what instance does ,liebig   
give to show its existence in grass8    
,how do we supply silicates8  ,why does 
grain lodge8  ,what is the most         
important compound of chlorine8  ,this  
is sand1 the base of flint4 ,it is      
necessary for the growth of all plants1 
as it gives them much of their strength4
 ,in connection with an alkali it       
constitutes the hard shining surface of 
corn stalks1 straw1 etc4 ,silica unites 
with the alkalies and forms compounds1  
such as silicate of potash1 silicate of 
soda1 etc41 which are soluble in water1 
and therefore available to plants4 ,if  
we roughen a corn stalk with sand-paper 
we may sharpen a knife upon it4 ,this is

 owing to the hard particles of silica  
which it contains4 ,window glass is     
silicate of potash1 rendered insoluble  
by additions of arsenic and litharge4   
,liebig tells us that some persons      
discovered1 between ,manheim and        
,heidelberg in ,germany1 a mass of      
melted glass where a hay-stack had been 
struck by lightning4 ,they supposed it  
to be a meteor1 but chemical analysis   
showed that it was only the compound of 
silica and potash which served to       
strengthen the grass4  ,there is always 
enough silica in the soil1 but it is    
often necessary to add an alkali to     
render it available4 ,when grain1 etc41 
lodge or fall down from their own       
weight1 it is altogether probable that  
they are unable to obtain from the soil 
a sufficient supply of the soluble      
silicates1 and some form of alkali      
should be added to the soil to unite    
with the sand and render it soluble4    
,,chlorine4  ,of what use is chloride of
 lime8  ,what is oxide of iron8  ,what  

is the difference between the peroxide  
and the protoxide of iron8  ,chlorine is
 an important ingredient of vegetable   
ashes1 and is often required to restore 
the balance to the soil4 ,it is not     
found alone in nature1 but is always in 
combination with other substances4 ,its 
most important compound is with sodium1 
forming chloride of sodium 7or common   
salt74 ,sodium is the base of soda1 and 
common salt is usually the best source  
from which to obtain both soda and      
chlorine4 ,chlorine unites with lime and
 forms chloride of lime1 which is much  
used to absorb the unpleasant odors of  
decaying matters1 and in this character 
it is of use in the treatment of        
manures4   ,,oxide ,,of ,,iron4  ,oxide 
of iron1 one of the constituents of     
ashes1 is common iron rust4 ,iron itself
 is naturally of a grayish color1 but   
when exposed to the atmosphere1 it      
readily absorbs oxygen and forms a      
reddish compound4 ,it is in this form   
that it usually exists in nature1 and   

many soils as well as the red sandstones
 are colored by it4 ,it is seldom1 if   
ever1 necessary to apply this as a      
manure1 there being usually enough of it
 in the soil4  ,this red oxide of iron1 
of which we have been speaking1 is      
called by chemists the peroxide4 ,there 
is another compound which contains less 
oxygen than this1 and is called the     
protoxide of iron1 which is poisonous to
 plants4 ,when it exists in the soil it 
is necessary to use such means of       
cultivation as shall expose it to the   
atmosphere and allow it to take up more 
oxygen and become the peroxide4 ,the    
black scales which fly from hot iron    
when struck by the blacksmith's hammer  
are protoxide of iron4  ,the peroxide of
 iron is a very good absorbent of       
ammonia1 and consequently1 as will be   
hereafter described1 adds to the        
fertility of the soil4  ,what can you   
say of the oxide of manganese8  ,how do 
you classify the inorganic constituents8
  ,,oxide ,,of ,,manganese1 though often

 found in small quantities in the ashes 
of cultivated plants1 cannot be         
considered indispensable4  ,having now  
examined all of the materials from which
 the ashes of plants are formed1,f we   
are enabled to classify them in a simple
 manner1 so that they may be            
recollected4 ,they are as follows3--    
,,alkalies4    ,,acids4                 
,,neutrals4  ,potash4    ,sulphuric     
acid4   ,silica4 ,soda4      ,phosphoric
       ,chlorine4 ,lime4                
,oxide of ,iron4 ,magnesia4             
,manganese4  ,,footnotes3  ,b ,bromine1 
iodine1 etc41 are sometimes detected in 
particular plants1 but need not occupy  
the attention of the farmer4  ,c ,this  
classification is not strictly          
scientific1 but it is one which the     
learner will find it well to adopt4     
,these bodies are called neutrals       
because they have no decided alkaline or
 acid character4  ,d ,in some soils the 
fluorides undoubtedly supply plants with
 soluble silicates1 as fluoric acid has 

the power of dissolving silica4 ,thus1  
in ,derbyshire 7,england71 where the    
soil is supplied with fluoric acid1     
grain is said never to lodge4  ,e       
,sourness4  ,f ,there is reason to      
suppose that alumina is an essential    
constituent of many plants4             
,,chapter ,v4  ,,growth4   ,of what does
 a perfect young plant consist8  ,how   
must the food of plants be supplied8    
,can carbon and earthy matter be taken  
up at separate stages of growth1 or must
 they both be supplied at once8  ,having
 examined the materials of which plants 
are made1 it becomes necessary to       
discover how they are put together in   
the process of growth4 ,let us therefore
 suppose a young wheat-plant for        
instance to be in condition to commence 
independent growth4  ,it consists of    
roots which are located in the soil2    
leaves which are spread in the air1 and 
a stem which connects the roots and     
leaves4 ,this stem contains sap vessels 
7or tubes7 which extend from the ends of

 the roots to the surfaces of the       
leaves1 thus affording a passage for the
 sap1 and consequently allowing the     
matters taken up to be distributed      
throughout the plant4  ,what seems to be
 nature's law with regard to this8      
,what is the similarity between making a
 cart and raising a crop8  ,in the      
growth of a young plant1 what operations
 take place about the same time8  ,it is
 necessary that the materials of which  
plants are made should be supplied in   
certain proportions1 and at the same    
time4 ,for instance1 carbon could not be
 taken up in large quantities by the    
leaves1 unless the roots1 at the same   
time1 were receiving from the soil those
 mineral matters which are necessary to 
growth4 ,on the other hand1 no          
considerable amount of earthy matter    
could be appropriated by the roots      
unless the leaves were obtaining carbon 
from the air4 ,this same rule holds true
 with regard to all of the constituents 
required2 ,nature seeming to have made  

it a law that if one of the important   
ingredients of the plant is absent1 the 
others1 though they may be present in   
sufficient quantities1 cannot be used4  
,thus1 if the soil is deficient in      
potash1 and still has sufficient        
quantities of all of the other          
ingredients1 the plant cannot take up   
these ingredients1 because potash is    
necessary to its life4  ,if a farmer    
wishes to make a cart he prepares his   
wood and iron1 gets them all in the     
proper condition1 and then can very     
readily put them together4 ,but if he   
has all of the wood necessary and no    
iron1 he cannot make his cart1 because  
bolts1 nails and screws are required1   
and their place cannot be supplied by   
boards4 ,this serves to illustrate the  
fact that in raising plants we must give
 them every thing that they require1 or 
they will not grow at all4  ,in the case
 of our young plant the following       
operations are going on at about the    
same time4  ,the leaves are absorbing   

carbonic acid from the atmosphere1 and  
the roots are drinking in water from the
 soil4  ,what becomes of the carbonic   
acid8  ,how is the sap disposed of8     
,what does it contain8  ,how does the   
plant obtain its carbon8  ,its oxygen   
and hydrogen8  ,its nitrogen8  ,its     
inorganic matter8  ,under the influence 
of daylight1 the carbonic acid is       
decomposed2 its oxygen returned to the  
atmosphere1 and its carbon retained in  
the plant4  ,the water taken in by the  
roots circulates through the sap vessels
 of the plant1 and1 from various causes1
 is drawn up towards the leaves where it
 is evaporated4 ,this water contains the
 nitrogen and the inorganic matter      
required by the plant and some carbonic 
acid1 while the water itself consists of
 hydrogen and oxygen4  ,thus we see that
 the plant obtains its food in the      
following manner3--  ,,carbon4--,in the 
form of carbonic acid from the          
atmosphere1 and from            that    
contained in the sap1 the oxygen being  

returned to the            air4         
,,oxygen    ,from the elements of the   
water constituting the sap4             
,,hydrogen4  ,,nitrogen4--,from the soil
 7chiefly in form of ammonia74 ,it is   
carried            into the plant       
through the roots in solution in water4 
,,inorganic ,from the soil1 and only in 
solution in water4 ,,matter4    ,what   
changes does the food taken up by the   
plant undergo8  ,many of the chemical   
changes which take place in the interior
 of the plant are well understood1 but  
they require too much knowledge of      
chemistry to be easily comprehended by  
the young learner1 and it is not        
absolutely essential that they should be
 understood by the scholar who is merely
 learning the elements of the science4  
,it is sufficient to say that the food  
taken up by the plant undergoes such    
changes as are required for its growth2 
as in animals1 where the food taken into
 the stomach1 is digested1 and formed   
into bone1 muscle1 fat1 hair1 etc41 so  

in the plant the nutritive portions of  
the sap are resolved into wood1 bark1   
grain1 or some other necessary part4    
,the results of these changes are of the
 greatest importance in agriculture1 and
 no person can call himself a practical 
farmer who does not thoroughly          
understand them4     ,,chapter ,,vi4    
,,proximate ,,division ,,of ,,plants1   
,,etc4   ,we have hitherto examined what
 is called the ultimate division of     
plants4 ,that is1 we have looked at each
 one of the elements separately1 and    
considered its use in vegetable growth4 
,of what do wood1 starch and the other  
vegetable compounds chiefly consist8    
,are their small ashy parts important8  
,what are these compounds called8  ,into
 how many classes may proximate         
principles be divided8  ,of what do the 
first class consist8 ,the second8  ,what
 vegetable compounds do the first class 
comprise8  ,we will now examine another 
division of plants1 called their        
proximate division4 ,we know that plants

 consist of various substances1 such as 
wood1 gum1 starch1 oil1 etc41 and on    
examination we shall discover that these
 substances are composed of the various 
organic and inorganic ingredients       
described in the preceding chapters4    
,they are made up almost entirely of    
organic matter1 but their ashy parts1   
though very small1 are 7as we shall soon
 see7 sometimes of great importance4    
,these compounds are called proximate   
principles1,g or vegetable proximates4  
,they may be divided into two classes4  
,the first class are composed of carbon1
 hydrogen1 and oxygen4  ,the second     
class contain the same substances and   
nitrogen4  ,are these substances of     
about the same composition8  ,can they  
be artificially changed from one to     
another8  ,give an instance of this4    
,is the ease with which these changes   
take place important8  ,from what may   
the first class of proximates be formed8
  ,the first class 7those compounds not 
containing nitrogen7 comprise the wood1 

starch1 gum1 sugar1 and fatty matter    
which constitute the greater part of all
 plants1 also the acids which are found 
in sour fruits1 etc4 ,various as are all
 of these things in their characters1   
they are entirely composed of the same  
ingredients 7carbon1 hydrogen and       
oxygen71 and usually combined in about  
the same proportion4 ,there may be a    
slight difference in the composition of 
their ashes1 but the organic part is    
much the same in every case1 so much so1
 that they can often be artificially    
changed from one to the other4  ,as an  
instance of this1 it may be recollected 
by those who attended the ,fair of the  
,american ,institute1 in #ahcd1 that    
,prof4 ,mapes exhibited samples of      
excellent sugar made from the juice of  
the cornstalk1 starch1 linen1 and woody 
fibre4  ,the ease with which these      
proximates may be changed from one to   
the other is their most important       
agricultural feature1 and should be     
clearly understood before proceeding    

farther4 ,it is one of the fundamental  
principles on which the growth of both  
vegetables depends4  ,the proximates of 
the first class constitute usually the  
greater part of all plants1 and they are
 readily formed from the carbonic acid  
and water which in nature are so        
plentifully supplied4  ,why are those of
 the second class particularly important
 to farmers8  ,what is the general name 
under which they are known8  ,what is   
the protein of wheat called8  ,why is   
flour containing much gluten preferred  
by bakers8  ,can protein be formed      
without nitrogen8  ,if plants were      
allowed to complete their growth without
 a supply of this ingredient1 what would
 be the result8  ,the second class of   
proximates1 though forming only a small 
part of the plant1 are of the greatest  
importance to the farmer1 being the ones
 from which animal muscle,h is made4    
,they consist1 as will be recollected1  
of carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen and         
nitrogen1 or of all of the organic      

elements of plants4 ,they are all of    
much the same character1 though each    
kind of plant has its peculiar form of  
this substance1 which is known under the
 general name of protein4  ,the protein 
of wheat is called gluten--that of      
,indian corn is zein--that of beans and 
peas is legumin4 ,in other plants the   
protein substances are vegetable        
albumen1 casein1 etc4  ,gluten absorbs  
large quantities of water1 which causes 
it to swell to a great size1 and become 
full of holes4 ,flour which contains    
much gluten1 makes light1 porous bread1 
and is preferred by bakers1 because it  
absorbs so large an amount of water4    
,what is the result if a field be       
deficient in nitrogen8  ,the protein    
substances are necessary to animal and  
vegetable life1 and none of our         
cultivated plants will attain maturity  
7complete their growth71 unless allowed 
the materials required for forming this 
constituent4 ,to furnish this condition 
is the object of nitrogen given to      

plants as manure4 ,if no nitrogen is    
supplied the protein substances cannot  
be formed1 and the plant must cease to  
grow4  ,when on the contrary ammonia is 
given to the soil 7by rains or          
otherwise71 it furnishes nitrogen1 while
 the carbonic acid and water yield the  
other constituents of protein1 and a    
healthy growth continues1 provided that 
the soil contains the mineral matters   
required in the formation of the ash1 in
 a condition to be useful4  ,the wisdom 
of this provision is evident when we    
recollect that the protein substances   
are necessary to the formation of muscle
 in animals1 for if plants were allowed 
to complete their growth without a      
supply of this ingredient1 our grain and
 hay might not be sufficiently well     
supplied with it to keep our oxen and   
horses in working condition1 while under
 the existing law plants must be of     
nearly a uniform quality 7in this       
respect71 and if a field is short of    
nitrogen1 its crop will not be large1   

and of a very poor quality1 but the soil
 will produce good plants as long as the
 nitrogen lasts1 and then the growth    
must cease4,i   ,,animals4  ,that this  
principle may be clearly understood1 it 
may be well to explain more fully the   
application of the proximate            
constituents of plants in feeding       
animals4  ,of what are the bodies of    
animals composed8  ,what is the office  
of vegetation8  ,what part of the animal
 is formed from the first class of      
proximates8  ,from the second8  ,which  
contains the largest portions of        
inorganic matter1 plants or animals8    
,must animals have a variety of food1   
and why8  ,animals are composed 7like   
plants7 of organic and inorganic matter1
 and every thing necessary to build them
 up exists in plants4 ,it seems to be   
the office of the vegetable world to    
prepare the gases in the atmosphere1 and
 the minerals in the earth for the uses 
of animal life1 and to effect this      
plants put these gases and minerals     

together in the form of the various     
proximates 7or compound substances7     
which we have just described4  ,in      
animals the compounds containing no     
nitrogen comprise the fatty substances1 
parts of the blood1 etc41 while the     
protein compound1 or those which do     
contain nitrogen1 form the muscle1 a    
part of the bones1 the hair1 and other  
portions of the animal4  ,animals       
contain a larger proportion of inorganic
 matter than plants do4 ,bones contain a
 large quantity of phosphate of lime1   
and we find other inorganic materials   
performing important offices in the     
system4  ,in order that animals may be  
perfectly developed1 they must of course
 receive as food all of the materials   
required to form their bodies4 ,they    
cannot live if fed entirely on one      
ingredient4 ,thus1 if starch alone be   
eaten by the animal1 he might become    
fat1 but his strength would soon fail1  
because his food contains nothing to    
keep up the vigor of his muscles4 ,if on

 the contrary the food of an animal     
consisted entirely of gluten1 he might  
be very strong from a superior          
development of muscle1 but would not be 
fat4 ,hence we see that in order to keep
 up the proper proportion of both fat   
and muscle in our animals 7or in        
ourselves71 the food must be such as    
contains a proper proportion of the two 
kinds of proximates4  ,why is grain good
 for food8  ,on what does the value of  
flour depend8  ,is there any relation   
between the ashy part of plants and     
those of animals8  ,how may we account  
for unhealthy bones and teeth8  ,it is  
for this reason that grain1 such as     
wheat for instance1 is so good for food4
 ,it contains both classes of           
proximates1 and furnishes material for  
the formation of both fat and muscle4   
,the value of flour depends very much on
 the manner in which it is manufactured4
 ,this will be soon explained4  ,what is
 a probable cause of consumption8  ,what
 is an important use of the first class 

of proximates8  ,what may lungs be      
called8  ,explain the production of heat
 during decomposition4  ,why is the heat
 produced by decay not perceptible8     
,apart from the relations between the   
proximate principles of plants1 and     
those of animals1 there exists an       
important relation between their ashy or
 inorganic parts2 and1 food in order to 
satisfy the demands of animal life1 must
 contain the mineral matter required for
 the purposes of that life4 ,take bones 
for instance4 ,if phosphate of lime is  
not always supplied in sufficient       
quantities by food1 animals are         
prevented from the formation of healthy 
bones4 ,this is particularly to be      
noticed in teeth4 ,where food is        
deficient of phosphate of lime1 we see  
poor teeth as a result4 ,some physicians
 have supposed that one of the causes of
 consumption is the deficiency of       
phosphate of lime in food4  ,why is the 
heat produced by combustion apparent8   
,explain the production of heat in the  

lungs of animals8  ,why does exercise   
augment the animal heat8  ,under what   
circumstances is the animal's own fat   
used in the production of heat8  ,the   
first class of proximates 7starch1      
sugar1 gum1 etc471 perform an important 
office in the animal economy aside from 
their use in making fat4 ,they          
constitute the fuel which supplies the  
animal's fire1 and gives him his heat4  
,the lungs of men and other animals may 
be called delicate stoves1 which supply 
the whole body with heat4 ,but let us   
explain this matter more fully4 ,if     
wood1 starch1 gum1 or sugar1 be burned  
in a stove1 they produce heat4 ,these   
substances consist1 as will be          
recollected1 of carbon1 hydrogen1 and   
oxygen1 and when they are destroyed in  
any way 7provided they be exposed to the
 atmosphere71 the hydrogen and oxygen   
unite and form water1 and the carbon    
unites with the oxygen of the air and   
forms carbonic acid1 as was explained in
 a preceding chapter4 ,this process is  

always accompanied by the liberation of 
heat1 and the intensity of this heat    
depends on the time occupied in its     
production4 ,in the case of decay1 the  
chemical changes take place so slowly   
that the heat1 being conducted away as  
soon as formed1 is not perceptible to   
our senses4 ,in combustion 7or burning7 
the same changes take place with much   
greater rapidity1 and the same amount of
 heat being concentrated1 or brought out
 in a far shorter time1 it becomes      
intense1 and therefore apparent4 ,in the
 lungs of animals the same law holds    
true4 ,the blood contains matters       
belonging to this carbonaceous class1   
and they undergo in the lungs the       
changes which have been described under 
the head of combustion and decay4 ,their
 hydrogen and oxygen unite1 and form the
 moisture of the breath1 while their    
carbon is combined with the oxygen of   
the air drawn into the lungs1 and is    
thrown out as carbonic acid4 ,the same  
consequence--heat--results in this1 as  

in the other cases1 and this heat is    
produced with sufficient rapidity for   
the animal necessities4 ,when an animal 
exercises violently1 his blood          
circulates with increased rapidity1 thus
 carrying carbon more rapidly to the    
lungs4 ,the breath also becomes quicker1
 thus supplying increased quantities of 
oxygen4 ,in this way the decomposition  
becomes more rapid1 and the animal is   
heated in proportion4  ,thus we see that
 food has another function besides that 
of forming animal matter1 namely to     
supply heat4 ,when the food does not    
contain a sufficient quantity of starch1
 sugar1 etc41 to answer the demands of  
the system the animal's own fat is      
carried to the lungs1 and there used in 
the production of heat4 ,this important 
fact will be referred to again4         
,,footnotes3  ,g ,by proximate          
principle1 we mean that combination of  
vegetable elements which is known as a  
vegetable product1 such as wood1 etc4   
,h ,muscle is lean meat1 it gives to    

animals their strength and ability to   
perform labor4  ,i ,this1 of course1    
supposes that the soil is fertile in    
other respects4     ,,chapter ,,vii4    
,,location ,,of ,,the ,,proximates ,,and
 ,,variations ,,in ,,the ,,ashes ,,of   
,,plants4   ,of what proximate are      
plants chiefly composed8  ,what is the  
principal constituent of the potato     
root8  ,of the carrot and turnip8  ,what
 part of the plant contains usually the 
most nutriment8  ,let us now examine    
plants with a view to learning the      
location of the various plants4  ,the   
stem or trunk of the plant or tree      
consists almost entirely of woody fibre2
 this also forms a large portion of the 
other parts except the seeds1 and1 in   
some instances1 the roots4 ,the roots of
 the potato contain large quantities of 
starch4 ,other roots such as the carrot 
and turnip contain pectic acid1,j a     
nutritious substance resembling starch4 
,it is in the seed however that the more
 nutritive portions of most plants      

exist1 and here they maintain certain   
relative positions which it is well to  
understand1 and which can be best       
explained by reference to the following 
figures1 as described by ,prof4         
,johnston3--  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4  
,thus a shows the position of the oil in
 the outer part of the seed--it exists  
in minute drops1 inclosed in six-sided  
cells1 which consists chiefly of gluten2
 b1 the position and comparative        
quantity of the starch1 which in the    
heart of the seed is mixed with only a  
small proportion of gluten2 c1 the germ 
or chit which contains much gluten4,k   
,is the composition of the inorganic    
matter of different parts of the plant  
the same1 or different8  ,what is the   
difference between the ash of the straw 
and that of the grain of wheat8  ,the   
location of the inorganic part of plants
 is one of much interest1 and shows the 
adaptation of each part to its          
particular use4 ,take a wheat plant1 for
 instance--the stalk1 the leaf1 and the 

grain1 show in their ashes1 important   
difference of composition4 ,the stalk or
 straw contains three or four times as  
large a proportion of ash as the grain1 
and a no less remarkable difference of  
composition may be noticed in the ashes 
of the two parts4 ,in that of the straw1
 we find a large proportion of silica   
and scarcely any phosphoric acid1 while 
in that of the grain there is scarcely a
 trace of silica1 although phosphoric   
acid constitutes more than one half of  
the entire weight4 ,the leaves contain a
 considerable quantity of lime4  ,what  
is the reason for this difference8  ,in 
what part of the grain does phosphoric  
acid exist most largely8  ,this may at  
first seem an unimportant matter1 but on
 examination we shall see the use of it4
 ,the straw is intended to support the  
grain and leaves1 and to convey the sap 
from the roots to the upper portions of 
the plant4 ,to perform these offices1   
strength is required1 and this is given 
by the silica1 and the woody fibre which

 forms so large a proportion of the     
stalk4 ,the silica is combined with an  
alkali1 and constitutes the glassy      
coating of the straw4 ,while the plant  
is young1 this coating is hardly        
apparent1 but as it grows older1 as the 
grain becomes heavier1 7verging towards 
ripeness71 the silicious coating of the 
stalk assumes a more prominent          
character1 and gives to the straw       
sufficient strength to support the      
golden head4 ,the straw is not the most 
important part of the plant as food1 and
 therefore requires but little          
phosphoric acid4  ,why is ,graham flour 
more wholesome than fine flour8  ,are   
the ashes of all plants the same in     
their composition8  ,the grain1 on the  
contrary1 is especially intended as     
food1 and therefore must contain a large
 proportion of phosphoric acid--this    
being1 as we have already learned1      
necessary to the formation of           
bone--while1 as it has no necessity for 
strength1 and as silica is not needed by

 animals1 this ingredient exists in the 
grain only in a very small proportion4  
,it may be well to observe that the     
phosphoric acid of grain exists most    
largely in the hard portions near the   
shell1 or bran4 ,this is one of the     
reasons why ,graham flour is more       
wholesome than fine flour4 ,it contains 
all of the nutritive materials which    
render the grain valuable as food1 while
 flour which is very finely bolted,l    
contains only a small part of the outer 
portions of the grain 7where the        
phosphoric acid1 protein and fatty      
matters exist most largely74 ,the       
starchy matter in the interior of the   
grain1 which is the least capable of    
giving strength to the animal1 is       
carefully separated1 and used as food   
for man1 while the better portions1 not 
being ground so finely1 are rejected4   
,this one thing alone may be sufficient 
to account for the fact1 that the lives 
of men have become shorter and less     
blessed with health and strength1 than  

they were in the good old days when a   
stone mortar and a coarse sieve made a  
respectable flour mill4  ,another       
important fact concerning the ashes of  
plants is the difference of their       
composition in different plants4 ,thus1 
the most prominent ingredient in the ash
 of the potato is potash2 of wheat and  
other grains1 phosphoric acid2 of meadow
 hay1 silica2 of clover1 lime2 of beans1
 potash1 etc4 ,in grain1 potash 7or     
soda71 etc41 are among the important    
ingredients4  ,of what advantage are    
these differences to the farmer8  ,of   
what are plants composed8  ,these       
differences are of great importance to  
the practical farmer1 as by             
understanding what kind of plants use   
the most of one ingredient1 and what    
kind requires another in large          
proportion1 he can regulate his crops so
 as to prevent his soil from being      
exhausted more in one ingredient than in
 the others1 and can also manure his    
land with reference to the crop which he

 intends to grow4 ,the tables of        
analyses in the fifth section will point
 out these differences accurately4      
,,footnotes3  ,j ,this pectic acid      
gelatinizes food in the stomach1 and    
thus renders it more digestible4  ,k    
,see ,johnston's ,elements1 page #da4   
,l ,sifted through a fine cloth called a
 bolting cloth4     ,,chapter ,,viii4   
,,recapitulation4   ,we have now learned
 as much about the plant as is required 
for our immediate uses1 and we will     
carefully reconsider the various points 
with a view to fixing them permanently  
in the mind4  ,plants are composed of   
organic and inorganic matter4  ,what is 
organic matter8 ,inorganic8  ,of what   
does organic matter consist8 ,inorganic8
  ,how do plants obtain their organic   
food8  ,how their inorganic8  ,how is   
ammonia supplied8 ,carbonic acid8       
,organic matter is that which burns away
 in the fire4 ,inorganic matter is the  
ash left after burning4  ,the organic   
matter of plants consists of three      

gases1 oxygen1 hydrogen and nitrogen1   
and one solid substance carbon 7or      
charcoal74 ,the inorganic matter of     
plants consists of potash1 soda1 lime1  
magnesia1 sulphuric acid1 phosphoric    
acid1 chlorine1 silica1 oxide of iron1  
and oxide of manganese4  ,plants obtain 
their organic food as follows3--,oxygen 
and hydrogen from water1 nitrogen from  
some compound containing nitrogen       
7chiefly from ammonia71 and carbon from 
the atmosphere where it exists as       
carbonic acid--a gas4  ,they obtain     
their inorganic food from the soil4     
,the water which supplies oxygen and    
hydrogen to plants is readily obtained  
without the assistance of manures4      
,ammonia is obtained from the           
atmosphere1 by being absorbed by rain   
and carried into the soil1 and it enters
 plants through their roots4 ,it may be 
artificially supplied in the form of    
animal manure with profit4  ,carbonic   
acid is absorbed from the atmosphere by 
leaves1 and decomposed in the green     

parts of plants under the influence of  
daylight2 the carbon is retained1 and   
the oxygen is returned to the           
atmosphere4  ,when plants are destroyed 
by combustion or decay1 what becomes of 
their constituents8  ,how does the      
inorganic matter enter the plant8  ,are 
the alkalies soluble in their pure      
forms8  ,which one of them is injurious 
when too largely present8  ,how may     
sulphuric acid be supplied8  ,is        
phosphoric acid important8  ,how must   
silica be treated8  ,from what source   
may we obtain chlorine8  ,when plants   
are destroyed by decay1 or burning1     
their organic constituents pass away as 
water1 ammonia1 carbonic acid1 etc41    
ready again to be taken up by other     
plants4  ,the inorganic matters in the  
soil can enter the plant only when      
dissolved in water4 ,potash1 soda1 lime1
 and magnesia1 are soluble in their pure
 forms4 ,magnesia is injurious when     
present in too large quantities4        
,sulphuric acid is often necessary as a 

manure1 and is usually most available in
 the form of sulphate of lime or        
plaster4 ,it is also valuable in its    
pure form to prevent the escape of      
ammonia from composts4  ,phosphoric acid
 is highly important1 from its frequent 
deficiency in worn-out soils4 ,it is    
available only under certain conditions 
which will be described in the section  
on manures4  ,silica is the base of     
common sand1 and must be united to an   
alkali before it can be used by the     
plant1 because it is insoluble except   
when so united4  ,chlorine is a         
constituent of common salt 7chloride of 
sodium71 and from this source may be    
obtained in sufficient quantities for   
manurial purposes4  ,what is the        
difference between peroxide and         
protoxide of iron8  ,how must the food  
of plants be supplied8  ,what takes     
place after it enters the plant8  ,what 
name is given to the compounds thus     
formed8  ,how are proximates divided8   
,which class constitutes the largest    

part of the plant8  ,of what are animals
 composed1 and how do they obtain the   
materials from which to form their      
growth8  ,oxide of iron is iron rust4   
,there are two oxides of iron1 the      
peroxide 7red7 and the protoxide        
7black74 ,the former is a fertilizer1   
and the latter poisons plants4  ,oxide  
of manganese is often absent from the   
ashes of our cultivated plants4  ,the   
food of plants1 both organic and        
inorganic1 must be supplied in certain  
proportions1 and at the time when it is 
required4 ,in the plant1 this food      
undergoes such chemical changes as are  
necessary to growth4  ,the compounds    
formed by these chemical combinations   
are called proximates4  ,proximates are 
of two classes1 those not containing    
nitrogen1 and those which do contain it4
  ,the first class constitute nearly the
 whole plant4  ,the second class1       
although small in quantity1 are of the  
greatest importance to the farmer1 as   
from them all animal muscle is made4    

,animals1 like plants1 are composed of  
both organic and inorganic matter1 and  
their bodies are obtained directly or   
indirectly from plants4  ,what parts of 
the animal belong to the first class of 
proximates8  ,what to the second8  ,what
 is necessary to the perfect development
 of animals8  ,why are seeds valuable   
for working animals8  ,what other       
important use1 in animal economy1 have  
proximates of the first class8  ,under  
what circumstances is animal fat        
decomposed8  ,the first class of        
proximates in animals comprise the fat1 
and like tissues4  ,the second class    
form the muscle1 hair1 gelatine of the  
bones1 etc4  ,in order that they may be 
perfectly developed1 animals must eat   
both classes of proximates1 and in the  
proportions required by their natures4  
,they require the phosphate of lime and 
other inorganic food which exist in     
plants4  ,seeds are the best adapted to 
the uses of working animals1 because    
they are rich in all kinds of food      

required4  ,aside from their use in the 
formation of fat1 proximates of the     
first class are employed in the lungs1  
as fuel to keep up animal heat1 which is
 produced 7as in fire and decay7 by the 
decomposition of these substances4      
,when the food is insufficient for the  
purposes of heat1 the animal's own fat  
is decomposed1 and carried to the lungs 
as fuel4  ,the stems1 roots1 branches1  
etc41 of most plants consist principally
 of woody fibre4  ,their seeds1 and     
sometimes their roots1 contain          
considerable quantities of starch4      
,name the parts of the plant in which   
the different proximates exist4  ,state 
what you know about flour4  ,do we know 
that different plants have ashes of     
different composition8  ,the protein and
 the oils of most plants exist most     
largely in the seeds4  ,the location of 
the proximates1 as well as of the       
inorganic parts of the plant1 show a    
remarkable reference to the purposes of 
growth1 and to the wants of the animal  

world1 as is noticed in the difference  
between the construction of the straw   
and that of the kernel of wheat4  ,the  
reason why the fine flour now made is   
not so healthfully nutritious as that   
which contained more of the coarse      
portions1 is that it is robbed of a     
large proportion of protein and         
phosphate of lime1 while it contains an 
undue amount of starch1 which is        
available only to form fat1 and to      
supply fuel to the lungs4  ,different   
plants have ashes of different          
composition4 ,thus--one may take from   
the soil large quantities of potash1    
another of phosphoric acid1 and another 
of lime4  ,by understanding these       
differences1 we shall be able so to     
regulate our rotations1 that the soil   
may not be called on to supply more of  
one ingredient than of another1 and thus
 it may be kept in balance4  ,how are   
farmers to be benefited by such         
knowledge8  ,the facts contained in this
 chapter are the alphabet of            

agriculture1 and the learner should not 
only become perfectly familiar with     
them1 but should also clearly understand
 the reasons why they are true1 before  
proceeding further4     ,,section       
,,second4  ,,the ,,soil4     ,,chapter  
,i4  ,,formation ,,and ,,character ,,of 
,,the ,,soil4   ,what is a necessary    
condition of growth8  ,in the foregoing 
section1 we have studied the character  
of plants and the laws which govern     
their growth4 ,we learned that one      
necessary condition for growth is a     
fertile soil1 and therefore we will     
examine the nature of different soils1  
in order that we may understand the     
relations between them and plants4      
,what is a fixed character of soils8    
,how is the chemical character of the   
soil to be ascertained8  ,what do we    
first learn in analyzing a soil8  ,how  
do the proportions of organic or        
inorganic parts of soils compare with   
those of plants8  ,of what does the     
organic part of soils consist8  ,the    

soil is not to be regarded as a         
mysterious mass of dirt1 whereon crops  
are produced by a mysterious process4   
,well ascertained scientific knowledge  
has proved beyond question that all     
soils1 whether in ,america or ,asia1    
whether in ,maine or ,california1 have  
certain fixed properties1 which render  
them fertile or barren1 and the science 
of agriculture is able to point out     
these characteristics in all cases1 so  
that we can ascertain from a scientific 
investigation what would be the chances 
for success in cultivating any soil     
which we examine4  ,the soil is a great 
chemical compound1 and its chemical     
character is ascertained 7as in the case
 of plants7 by analyzing it1 or taking  
it apart4  ,we first learn that fertile 
soils contain both organic and inorganic
 matter2 but1 unlike the plant1 they    
usually possess much more of the latter 
than of the former4  ,in the plant1 the 
organic matter constitutes the most     
considerable portion of the whole4 ,in  

the soil1 on the contrary1 it usually   
exists in very small quantities1 while  
the inorganic portions constitute nearly
 the whole bulk4  ,can the required     
proportion be definitely indicated8     
,from what source is the inorganic part 
of soils derived8  ,do all soils        
decompose with equal facility8  ,how    
does frost affect rocks8  ,does it      
affect soils in the same way8  ,the     
organic part of soils consists of the   
same materials that constitute the      
organic part of the plants1 and it is in
 reality decayed vegetable and animal   
matter4 ,it is not necessary that this  
organic part of the soil should form any
 particular proportion of the whole1 and
 indeed we find it varying from one and 
a half to fifty1 and sometimes1 in peaty
 soils1 to over seventy per cent4 ,all  
fertile soils contain some organic      
matter1 although it seems to make but   
little difference in fertility1 whether 
it be ten or fifty per cent4  ,the      
inorganic part of soils is derived from 

the crumbling of rocks4 ,some rocks     
7such as the slates in ,central ,new    
,york7 decompose1 and crumble rapidly on
 being exposed to the weather2 while    
granite1 marble1 and other rocks will   
last for a long time without perceptible
 change4 ,the causes of this crumbling  
are various1 and are not unimportant to 
the agriculturist2 as by the same       
processes by which his soil was formed1 
he can increase its depth1 or otherwise 
improve it4 ,this being the case1 we    
will in a few words explain some of the 
principal pulverizing agents4  #a4 ,the 
action of frost4 ,when water lodges in  
the crevices of rocks1 and freezes1 it  
expands1 and bursts the rock1 on the    
same principle as causes it to break a  
pitcher in winter4 ,this power is very  
great1 and by its assistance1 large     
cannon may be burst4 ,of course the     
action of frost is the same on a small  
scale as when applied to large masses of
 matter1 and1 therefore1 we find that   
when water freezes in the pores,m of    

rocks or stones1 it separates their     
particles and causes them to crumble4   
,the same rule holds true with regard to
 stiff clay soils4 ,if they are ridged  
in autumn1 and left with a rough surface
 exposed to the frosts of winter1 they  
will become much lighter1 and can       
afterwards be worked with less          
difficulty4  ,what is the effect of     
water on certain rocks8  ,how are some  
rocks affected by exposure to the       
atmosphere8 ,give an instance of this4  
#b4 ,the action of water4 ,many kinds of
 rock become so soft on being soaked    
with water1 that they readily crumble4  
#c4 ,the chemical changes of the        
constituents of the rock4 ,many kinds of
 rock are affected by exposure to the   
atmosphere1 in such a manner1 that      
changes take place in their chemical    
character1 and cause them to fall to    
pieces4 ,the red kellis of ,new ,jersey 
7a species of sandstone71 is1 when first
 quarried1 a very hard stone1 but on    
exposure to the influences of the       

atmosphere1 it becomes so soft that it  
may be easily crushed between the thumb 
and finger4  ,what is the similarity    
between the composition of soils and the
 rocks from which they were formed8     
,what does feldspar rock yield8 ,talcose
 slate8 ,marls8  ,does a soil formed    
entirely from rock contain organic      
matter8  ,how is it affected by the     
growth of plants8  ,other actions1 of a 
less simple kind1 exert an influence on 
the stubbornness of rocks1 and cause    
them to be resolved into soils4,n ,of   
course1 the composition of the soil must
 be similar to that of the rock from    
which it was formed2 and1 consequently1 
if we know the chemical character of the
 rock1 we can tell whether the soil     
formed from it can be brought under     
profitable cultivation4 ,thus feldspar1 
on being pulverized1 yields potash2     
talcose slate yields magnesia2 marls    
yield lime1 etc4  ,the soil formed      
entirely from rock1 contains1 of course1
 no organic matter4,o ,still it is      

capable of bearing plants of a certain  
class1 and when these die1 they are     
deposited in the soil1 and thus form its
 organic portions1 rendering it capable 
of supporting those plants which furnish
 food for animals4 ,thousands of years  
must have been occupied in preparing the
 earth for habitation by man4  ,as the  
inorganic or mineral part of the soil is
 usually the largest1 we will consider  
it first4  ,as we have stated that this 
portion is formed from rocks1 we will   
examine their character1 with a view to 
showing the different qualities of      
soils4  ,what is the general rule       
concerning the composition of rocks8    
,do these distinctions affect the       
fertility of soils formed from them8    
,what do we mean by the mechanical      
character of the soil8  ,is its         
fertility indicated by its mechanical   
character8  ,as a general rule1 it may  
be stated that all rocks are either     
sandstones1 limestones1 or clays2 or a  
mixture of two or more of these         

ingredients4 ,hence we find that all    
mineral soils are either sandy1         
calcareous1 7limey71 or clayey2 or      
consist of a mixture of these1 in which 
one or another usually predominates4    
,thus1 we speak of a sandy soil1 a clay 
soil1 etc4 ,these distinctions 7sandy1  
clayey1 loamy1 etc47 are important in   
considering the mechanical character of 
the soil1 but have little reference to  
its fertility4  ,by mechanical          
character1 we mean those qualities which
 affect the ease of cultivation--excess 
or deficiency of water1 ability to      
withstand drought1 etc4 ,for instance1 a
 heavy clay soil is difficult to        
plow--retains water after rains1 and    
bakes quite hard during drought2 while a
 light sandy soil is plowed with ease1  
often allows water to pass through      
immediately after rains1 and becomes dry
 and powdery during drought4            
,notwithstanding those differences in   
their mechanical character1 both soils  
may be very fertile1 or one more so than

 the other1 without reference to the    
clay and sand which they contain1 and   
which1 to our observation1 form their   
leading characteristics4 ,the same facts
 exist with regard to a loam1 a         
calcareous 7or limey7 soil1 or a        
vegetable mould4 ,their mechanical      
texture is not essentially an index to  
their fertility1 nor to the manures     
required to enable them to furnish food 
to plants4 ,it is true1 that each kind  
of soil appears to have some general    
quality of fertility or barrenness which
 is well known to practical men1 yet    
this is not founded on the fact that the
 clay or the sand1 or the vegetable     
matter1 enter more largely into the     
constitution of plants than they do when
 they are not present in so great       
quantities1 but on certain other facts  
which will be hereafter explained4      
,what is a sandy soil8 ,a clay soil8 ,a 
loamy soil8 ,a marl8 ,a calcareous soil8
 ,a peaty soil8  ,as the following names
 are used to denote the character of    

soils1 in ordinary agricultural         
description1 we will briefly explain    
their application3  ,a ,sandy soil is1  
of course1 one in which sand largely    
predominates4  ,clay soil1 one where    
clay forms a large proportion of the    
soil4  ,loamy soil1 where sand and clay 
are about equally mixed4  ,marl contains
 from five to twenty per cent4 of       
carbonate of lime4  ,calcareous soil    
more than twenty per cent4  ,peaty      
soils1 of course1 contain large         
quantities of organic matter4,p   ,how  
large a part of the soil may be used as 
food by plants8  ,what do we learn from 
the analyses of barren and fertile      
soils8  ,we will now take under         
consideration that part of the soil on  
which depends its ability to supply food
 to the plant4 ,this portion rarely     
constitutes more than five or ten per   
cent4 of the entire soil1 sometimes     
less--and it has no reference to the    
sand1 clay1 and vegetable matters which 
they contain4 ,from analyses of many    

fertile soils1 and of others which are  
barren or of poorer quality1 it has been
 ascertained that the presence of       
certain ingredients is necessary to     
fertility4 ,this may be better explained
 by the assistance of the following     
table3                                  
----------------------------------------
------------------------   ,in one      
hundred pounds4     ,soil fertile       
,good        ,barren4                   
without       wheat soil4               
manure4                                 
----------------------------------------
------------------------  ,organic      
matter1              #i4g           #g4j
          #d4j  ,silica 7sand71         
#fd4h          #gd4c         #gg4h      
,alumina 7clay71              #e4g      
#e4e          #i4a  ,lime1              
#e4i           #a4d           4#d       
,magnesia1                     4#i      
4#g           4#a  ,oxide of iron1      
#f4a           #d4g          #h4a       
,oxide of manganese1           4#a      

4#a  ,potash1                       4#b 
#a4g          ,soda1                    
4#d            4#g          ,chlorine1  
4#b            4#a          ,sulphuric  
acid1               4#b            4#a  
,phosphoric acid1              4#d      
4#a         ,carbonic acid1             
#d4j                        ,loss during
 the analysis     #a4d           #c4f   
4#d                                     
-------------------------------------   
#ajj4j         #ajj4j        #ajj4j     
----------------------------------------
------------------------  ,what can you 
say of the soils represented in the     
table of analyses8  ,what proportion of 
the fertilizing ingredients is required8
  ,if the soil represented in the third 
column contained all the ingredients    
required except potash and soda1 would  
it be fertile8  ,what would be necessary
 to make it so8  ,what is the reason for
 this8  ,what are the offices performed 
by the inorganic part of soils8  ,the   
soil represented in the first column    

might still be fertile with less organic
 matter1 or with a larger proportion of 
clay 7alumina71 and less sand 7silica74 
,these affect its mechanical character2 
but1 if we look down the column1 we     
notice that there are small quantities  
of lime1 magnesia1 and the other        
constituents of the ashes of plants     
7except ox4 of manganese74 ,it is not   
necessary that they should be present in
 the soil in the exact quantity named   
above1 but not one must be entirely     
absent1 or greatly reduced in           
proportion4 ,by referring to the third  
column1 we see that these ingredients   
are not all present1 and the soil is    
barren4 ,even if it were supplied with  
all but one or two1 potash and soda for 
instance1 it could not support a crop   
without the assistance of manures       
containing these alkalies4 ,the reason  
for this must be readily seen1 as we    
have learned that no plant can arrive at
 maturity without the necessary supply  
of materials required in the formation  

of the ash1 and these materials can be  
obtained only from the soil2            
consequently1 when they do not exist    
there1 it must be barren4  ,the         
inorganic part of soils has two distinct
 offices to perform4 ,the clay and sand 
form a mass of material into which roots
 can penetrate1 and thus plants are     
supported in their position4 ,these     
parts also absorb heat1 air and moisture
 to serve the purposes of growth1 as we 
shall see in a future chapter4 ,the     
minute portions of soil1 which comprise 
the acids1 alkalies1 and neutrals1      
furnish plants with their ashes1 and are
 the most necessary to the fertility of 
the soil4   ,,geology4  ,what is        
geology8  ,is the same kind of rock     
always of the same composition8  ,how do
 rocks differ8  ,the relation between   
the inorganic part of soils and the     
rocks from which it was formed1 is the  
foundation of ,agricultural ,geology4   
,geology may be briefly named the       
science of rocks4 ,it would not be      

proper in an elementary work to         
introduce much of this study1 and we    
will therefore simply state that the    
same kind of rock is of the same        
composition all over the world2         
consequently1 if we find a soil in ,new 
,england formed from any particular     
rock1 and a soil from the same rock in  
,asia1 their natural fertility will be  
the same in both localities4 ,some rocks
 consist of a mixture of different kinds
 of minerals2 and some1 consisting      
chiefly of one ingredient1 are of       
different degrees of hardness4 ,both of 
these changes must affect the character 
of the soil1 but it may be laid down as 
rule that1 when the rocks of two        
locations are exactly alike1 the soils  
formed from them will be of the same    
natural fertility1 and in proportion as 
the character of rocks changes1 in the  
same proportion will the soils differ4  
,what rule may be given in relation to  
soils formed from the same or different 
rocks8  ,are all soils formed from the  

rocks on which they lie8  ,what         
instances can you give of this8  ,in    
most districts the soil is formed from  
the rock on which it lies2 but this is  
not always the case4 ,soils are often   
formed by deposits of matter brought by 
water from other localities4 ,thus the  
alluvial banks of rivers consist of     
matters brought from the country through
 which the rivers have passed4 ,the     
river ,nile1 in ,egypt1 yearly overflows
 its banks1 and deposits large          
quantities of mud brought from the      
uninhabited upper countries4 ,the       
prairies of the ,west owe a portion of  
their soil to deposits by water4 ,swamps
 often receive the washings of adjacent 
hills2 and1 in these cases1 their soil  
is derived from a foreign source4  ,we  
might continue to enumerate instances of
 the relations between soils and the    
sources whence they originated1 thus    
demonstrating more fully the importance 
of geology to the farmer2 but it would  
be beyond the scope of this work1 and   

should be investigated by scholars more 
advanced than those who are studying    
merely the elements of agricultural     
science4  ,the mind1 in its early       
application to any branch of study1     
should not be charged with intricate    
subjects4 ,it should master well the    
rudiments1 before investigating those   
matters which should follow such        
understanding4  ,in what light will     
plants and soils be regarded by those   
who understand them8  ,by pursuing the  
proper course1 it is easy to learn all  
that is necessary to form a good        
foundation for a thorough acquaintance  
with the subject4 ,if this foundation is
 laid thoroughly1 the learner will      
regard plants and soils as old          
acquaintances1 with whose formation and 
properties he is as familiar as with the
 construction of a building or simple   
machine4 ,a simple spear of grass will  
become an object of interest1 forming   
itself into a perfect plant1 with full  
development of roots1 stem1 leaves1 and 

seeds1 by processes with which he feels 
acquainted4 ,the soil will cease to be  
mere dirt2 it will be viewed as a       
compound substance1 whose composition is
 a matter of interest1 and whose care is
 productive of intellectual pleasure4   
,the commencement of study in any       
science must necessarily be wearisome to
 the young mind1 but its more advanced  
stages amply repay the trouble of early 
exertions4  ,,footnotes3  ,m ,the spaces
 between the particles4  ,n ,in very    
many instances the crevices and seams of
 rocks are permeated by roots1 which1 by
 decaying and thus inducing the growth  
of other roots1 cause these crevices to 
become filled with organic matter4      
,this1 by the absorption of moisture1   
may expand with sufficient power to     
burst the rock4  ,o ,some rocks contain 
sulphur1 phosphorus1 etc41 and these    
may1 perhaps1 be considered as organic  
matter4  ,p ,these distinctions are not 
essential to be learned1 but are often  
convenient4     ,,chapter ,,ii4  ,,uses 

,,of ,,organic ,,matter4   ,what        
proportion of organic matter is required
 for fertility8  ,how does the soil     
obtain its organic matter8  ,how does   
the growth of clover1 etc41 affect the  
soil8  ,it will be recollected that1 in 
addition to its mineral portions1 the   
soil contains organic matter in varied  
quantities4 ,it may be fertile with but 
one and a half per cent4 of organic     
matter1 and some peaty soils contain    
more than fifty per cent4 or more than  
one half of the whole4  ,the precise    
amount necessary cannot be fixed at any 
particular sum2 perhaps five parts in a 
hundred would be as good a quantity as  
could be recommended4  ,the soil obtains
 its organic matter in two ways4 ,first1
 by the decay of roots and dead plants1 
also of leaves1 which have been brought 
to it by wind1 etc4 ,second1 by the     
application of organic manures4  ,when  
organic matter decays in the soil1 what 
becomes of it8  ,is charcoal taken up by
 plants8  ,are humus and humic acid of  

great practical importance8  ,when a    
crop of clover is raised1 it obtains its
 carbon from the atmosphere2 and1 if it 
be plowed under1 and allowed to decay1 a
 portion of this carbon is deposited in 
the soil4 ,carbon constitutes nearly the
 whole of the dry weight of the clover1 
aside from the constituents of water2   
and1 when we calculate the immense      
quantity of hay1 and roots grown on an  
acre of soil in a single season1 we     
shall find that the amount of carbon    
thus deposited is immense4 ,if the      
clover had been removed1 and the roots  
only left to decay1 the amount of carbon
 deposited would still have been very   
great4 ,the same is true in all cases   
where the crop is removed1 and the roots
 remain to form the organic or vegetable
 part of the soil4 ,while undergoing    
decomposition1 a portion of this matter 
escapes in the form of gas1 and the     
remainder chiefly assumes the form of   
carbon 7or charcoal71 in which form it  
will always remain1 without loss1 unless

 driven out by fire4 ,if a bushel of    
charcoal be mixed with the soil now1 it 
will be the same bushel of charcoal1    
neither more nor less1 a thousand years 
hence1 unless some influence is brought 
to bear on it aside from the growth of  
plants4 ,it is true that1 in the case of
 the decomposition of organic matter in 
the soil1 certain compounds are formed1 
known under the general names of humus  
and humic acid1 which may1 in a slight  
degree1 affect the growth of plants1 but
 their practical importance is of too   
doubtful a character to justify us in   
considering them4 ,the application of   
manures1 containing organic matter1 such
 as peat1 muck1 animal manure1 etc41    
supplies the soil with carbon on the    
same principle1 and the decomposing     
matters also generate,q carbonic acid   
gas while being decomposed4 ,the        
agricultural value of carbon in the soil
 depends 7as we have stated71 not on the
 fact that it enters into the           
composition of plants1 but on certain   

other important offices which it        
performs1 as follows3--  ,on what does  
the agricultural value of the carbon in 
the soil depend8  ,why does it make the 
soil more retentive of manure8  ,what is
 the experiment with the barrels of     
sand8  #a4 ,it makes the soil more      
retentive of manures4  #b4 ,it causes it
 to appropriate larger quantities of the
 fertilizing gases of the atmosphere4   
#c4 ,it gives it greater power to absorb
 moisture4  #d4 ,it renders it warmer4  
#a4 ,carbon 7or charcoal7 makes the soil
 retentive of manures1 because it has in
 itself a strong power to absorb1 and   
retain,r fertilizing matters4 ,there is 
a simple experiment by which this power 
can be shown4  ,ex4--,take two barrels  
of pure beach sand1 and mix with the    
sand in one barrel a few handfuls of    
charcoal dust1 leaving that in the other
 pure4 ,pour the brown liquor of the    
barn-yard through the pure sand1 and it 
will pass out at the bottom unaltered4  
,pour the same liquor through the       

barrel1 containing the charcoal1 and    
pure water will be obtained as a result4
 ,the reason for this is that the       
charcoal retains all of the impurities  
of the liquor1 and allows only the water
 to pass through4 ,charcoal is often    
employed to purify water for drinking1  
or for manufacturing purposes4  ,will   
charcoal purify water8  ,if a piece of  
tainted meat1 or a fishy duck be buried 
in a rich garden soil1 what takes place8
  ,what is the reason of this8  ,how    
does charcoal overcome offensive odors8 
,how can you prove that charcoal absorbs
 the mineral impurities of water8  ,a   
rich garden-soil contains large         
quantities of carbonaceous matter2 and1 
if we bury in such a soil a piece of    
tainted meat or a fishy duck1 it will1  
in a short time1 be deprived of its     
odor1 because the charcoal in the soil  
will entirely absorb it4  ,carbon       
absorbs gases as well as the impurities 
of water2 and1 if a little charcoal be  
sprinkled over manure1 or any other     

substance1 emitting offensive odors1 the
 gases escaping will be taken up by the 
charcoal1 and the odor will cease4  ,it 
has also the power of absorbing mineral 
matters1 which are contained in water4  
,if a quantity of salt water be filtered
 through charcoal1 the salt will be     
retained1 and the water will pass       
through pure4  ,we are now able to see  
how carbon renders the soil retentive of
 manures4  #ast4 ,manures1 which        
resemble the brown liquor of barn-yards1
 have their fertilizing matters taken   
out1 and retained by it4  ,how does     
charcoal in the soil affect the manures 
applied8  ,why does charcoal in the soil
 cause it to appropriate the gases of   
the atmosphere8  ,what fertilizing gases
 exist in the atmosphere8  ,how are they
 carried to the soil8  ,does the carbon 
retain them after they reach the soil8  
,what can you say of the air circulating
 through the soil8  ,how does carbon    
give the soil power to absorb moisture8 
#b;d4 ,the gases arising from the       

decomposition 7rotting7 of manure are   
absorbed by it4  #c;d4 ,the soluble     
mineral portions of manure1 which might 
in some soils leach down with water1 are
 arrested and retained at a point at    
which they can be made use of by the    
roots of plants4  #b4 ,charcoal in the  
soil causes it to appropriate larger    
quantities of the fertilizing gases of  
the atmosphere1 on account of its power1
 as just named1 to absorb gases4  ,the  
atmosphere contains results1 which have 
been produced by the breathing of       
animals and by the decomposition of     
various kinds of organic matter1 which  
are exposed to atmospheric influences4  
,these gases are chiefly ammonia and    
carbonic acid1 both of which are largely
 absorbed by water1 and consequently are
 contained in rain1 snow1 etc41 which1  
as they enter the soil1 give up these   
gases to the charcoal1 and they there   
remain until required by plants4 ,even  
the air itself1 in circulating through  
the soil1 gives up fertilizing gases to 

the carbon1 which it may contain4  #c4  
,charcoal gives to the soil power to    
absorb moisture1 because it is itself   
one of the best absorbents in nature2   
and it has been proved by accurate      
experiment that peaty soils absorb      
moisture with greater rapidity1 and part
 with it more slowly than any other     
kind4  ,how does it render it warmer8   
,is the heat produced by the            
decomposition of organic matter         
perceptible to our senses8  ,is it so to
 the growing plant8  ,what is another   
important part of the organic matter in 
the soil8  #d4 ,carbon in the soil      
renders it warmer1 because it darkens   
its color4 ,black surfaces absorb more  
heat than light ones1 and a black coat1 
when worn in the sun1 is warmer than one
 of a lighter color4 ,by mixing carbon  
with the soil1 we darken its color1 and 
render it capable of absorbing a greater
 amount of heat from the sun's rays4    
,it will be recollected that1 when      
vegetable matter decomposes in the soil1

 it produces certain gases 7carbonic    
acid1 etc471 which either escape into   
the atmosphere1 or are retained in the  
soil for the use of plants4 ,the        
production of these gases is always     
accompanied by heat1 which1 though      
scarcely perceptible to our senses1 is  
perfectly so to the growing plant1 and  
is of much practical importance4 ,this  
will be examined more fully in speaking 
of manures4  ,how is it obtained by the 
soil8  ,what offices does the organic   
matter in the soil perform8  ,another   
important part of the organic matter in 
the soil is that which contains         
nitrogen4 ,this forms but a very small  
portion of the soil1 but it is of the   
greatest importance to vegetables4 ,as  
the nitrogen in food is of absolute     
necessity to the growth of animals1 so  
the nitrogen in the soil is             
indispensable to the growth of          
cultivated plants4 ,it is obtained by   
the soil in the form of ammonia 7or     
nitric acid71 from the atmosphere1 or by

 the application of animal matter4 ,in  
some cases1 manures called nitrates,s   
are used2 and1 in this manner1 nitrogen 
is given to the soil4  ,we have now     
learned that the organic matter in the  
soil performs the following offices3--  
,organic matter thoroughly decomposed is
 carbon1 and has the various effects    
ascribed to this substance on p4 #gi4   
,organic matter in process of decay     
produces carbonic acid1 and sometimes   
ammonia in the soil2 also its decay     
causes heat4  ,organic matter containing
 nitrogen1 such as animal substances1   
etc41 furnish ammonia1 and other        
nitrogenous substances to the roots of  
plants4  ,,footnotes3  ,q ,produce4  ,r 
,by absorbing and retaining1 we mean    
taking up and holding4  ,s ,nitrates are
 compounds of nitric acid 7which        
consists of nitrogen and oxygen71 and   
alkaline substances4 ,thus nitrate of   
potash 7saltpetre71 is composed of      
nitric acid and potash3 nitrate of soda 
7cubical nitre71 of nitric acid and     

soda4     ,,chapter ,,iii4  ,,uses ,,of 
,,inorganic ,,matter4   ,what effect has
 clay besides the one already named8    
,how does it compare with charcoal for  
this purpose8  ,the offices performed by
 the inorganic constituents of the soil 
are many and important4  ,these1 as well
 as the different conditions in which   
the bodies exist1 are necessary to be   
thoroughly studied4  ,those parts which 
constitute the larger proportion of the 
soil1 namely the clay1 sand1 and limy   
portions1 are useful for purposes which 
have been named in the first part of    
this section1 while the clay has an     
additional effect in the absorption of  
ammonia4  ,for this purpose1 it is as   
effectual as charcoal1 the gases        
escaping from manures1 as well as those 
existing in the atmosphere1 and in      
rain-water1 being arrested by clay as   
well as charcoal4,t  ,what particular   
condition of inorganic matter is        
requisite for fertility8  ,what is the  
fixed rule with regard to this8  ,what  

is the condition of the alkalies in most
 of their combinations8 ,of the acids8  
,what is said of phosphate of lime8     
,the more minute ingredients of the     
soil--those which enter into the        
construction of plants--exist in        
conditions which are more or less       
favorable or injurious to vegetable     
growth4 ,the principal condition        
necessary to fertility is capacity to be
 dissolved1 it being 7so far as we have 
been able to ascertain7 a fixed rule1 as
 was stated in the first section1 that  
no mineral substance can enter into the 
roots of a plant except it be dissolved 
in water4  ,the alkalies potash1 soda1  
lime1 and magnesia1 are in nearly all of
 their combinations in the soil         
sufficiently soluble for the purposes of
 growth4  ,the acids are1 as will be    
recollected1 sulphuric and phosphoric4  
,these exist in the soil in combination 
with the alkalies1 as sulphates and     
phosphates1 which are more or less      
soluble under natural circumstances4    

,phosphoric acid in combination with    
lime as phosphate of lime is but        
slightly soluble2 but1 when it exists in
 the compound known as super-phosphate  
of lime1 it is much more soluble1 and   
consequently enters into the composition
 of plants with much greater facility4  
,this matter will be more fully         
explained in the section on manures4    
,how may silica be rendered soluble8    
,what is the condition of chlorine in   
the soil8  ,do peroxide and protoxide of
 iron affect plants in the same way8    
,how would you treat a soil containing  
protoxide of iron8  ,on what does the   
usefulness of all these matters in the  
soil depend8  ,the neutrals1 silica1    
chlorine1 oxide of iron1 and oxide of   
manganese1 deserve a careful            
examination4 ,silica exists in the soil 
usually in the form of sand1 in which it
 is1 as is well known1 perfectly        
insoluble2 and1 before it can be used by
 plants1 which often require it in large
 quantities1 it must be made soluble1   

which is done by combining it with an   
alkali4  ,for instance1 if the silica in
 the soil is insoluble1 we must make an 
application of an alkali1 such as       
potash1 which will unite with the       
silica1 and form the silicate of potash1
 which is in the exact condition to be  
dissolved and carried into the roots of 
plants4  ,chlorine in the soil is       
probably always in an available         
condition4  ,oxide of iron exists1 as   
has been previously stated1 usually in  
the form of the peroxide 7or red oxide74
 ,sometimes1 however1 it exists in the  
form of the protoxide 7or black oxide71 
which is poisonous to plants1 and       
renders the soil unfertile4 ,by         
loosening the soil in such a manner as  
to admit air and water1 this compound   
takes up more oxygen1 which renders it a
 peroxide1 and makes it available for   
plants4 ,the oxide of manganese is      
probably of little consequence4  ,the   
usefulness of all of these matters in   
the soil depends on their exposure2 if  

they are in the interior of particles1  
they cannot be made use of2 while1 if   
the particles are so pulverized that    
their constituents are exposed1 they    
become available1 because water can     
immediately attack to dissolve1 and     
carry them into roots4  ,what is one of 
the chief offices of plowing and hoeing8
  ,is the subsoil usually different from
 the surface soil8  ,what circumstances 
have occasioned the difference8 ,in what
 way8  ,this is one of the great offices
 of plowing and hoeing2 the lumps of    
soil being thereby more broken up and   
exposed to the action of atmospheric    
influences1 which are often necessary to
 produce a fertile condition of soil1   
while the trituration of particles      
reduces them in size4   ,,subsoil4  ,may
 the subsoil be made to resemble the    
surface soil8  ,may all soils be brought
 to the highest state of fertility8  ,on
 what examination must improvement be   
based8  ,what is the difference between 
the soil of some parts of ,massachusetts

 and that of the ,miami valley8  ,the   
subsoil is usually of a different       
character from the surface soil1 but    
this difference is more often the result
 of circumstances than of formation4    
,the surface soil from having been long 
cultivated has been more opened to the  
influences of the air than is the case  
with the subsoil1 which has never been  
disturbed so as to allow the same       
action4 ,again the growth of plants has 
supplied the surface soil with roots1   
which by decaying have given it organic 
matter1 thus darkening its color1       
rendering it warmer1 and giving greater 
ability to absorb heat and moisture1 and
 to retain manures4 ,all of these       
effects render the surface soil of a    
more fertile character than it was      
before vegetable growth commenced2 and1 
where frequent cultivation and manures  
have been applied1 a still greater      
benefit has resulted4 ,in most instances
 the subsoil may by the same means be   
gradually improved in condition until it

 equals the surface soil in fertility4  
,the means of producing this result1    
also farther accounts of its advantages1
 will be given under the head of        
,cultivation 7,sect4 ,,iv47             
,,improvement4  ,from what has now been 
said of the character of the soil1 it   
must be evident that1 as we know the    
causes of fertility and barrenness1 we  
may by the proper means improve the     
character of all soils which are not now
 in the highest state of fertility4     
,chemical analysis will tell us the     
composition of a soil1 and an           
examination1 such as any farmer may     
make1 will inform us of its deficiencies
 in mechanical character1 and we may at 
once resort to the proper means to      
secure fertility4 ,in some instances the
 soil may contain every thing that is   
required1 but not in the necessary      
condition4 ,for instance1 in some parts 
of ,massachusetts1 there are nearly     
barren soils which show by analysis     
precisely the same chemical composition 

as the soil of the ,miami valley of     
,ohio1 one of the most fertile in the   
world4 ,the cause of this great         
difference in their agricultural        
capabilities1 is that the ,miami soil   
has its particles finely pulverized2    
while in the ,massachusetts soil the    
ingredients are combined within         
particles 7such as pebbles1 etc471 where
 they are out of the reach of roots4    
,why do soils of the same degree of     
fineness sometimes differ in fertility8 
,can soils always be rendered fertile   
with profit8  ,can we determine the cost
 before commencing the work8  ,what must
 be done before a soil can be cultivated
 understandingly8  ,what must be done to
 keep up the quality of the soil8  ,in  
other cases1 we find two soils1 which   
are equally well pulverized1 and which  
appear to be of the same character1     
having very different power to support  
crops4 ,chemical analysis will show in  
these instances a difference of         
composition4  ,all of these differences 

may be overcome by the use of the proper
 means4 ,sometimes it could be done at  
an expense which would be justified by  
the result2 and1 at others1 it might    
require too large an outlay to be       
profitable4 ,it becomes a question of   
economy1 not of ability1 and science is 
able to estimate the cost4  ,soil cannot
 be cultivated understandingly until it 
has been subjected to such an           
examination as will tell us exactly what
 is necessary to render it fertile4     
,even after fertility is perfectly      
restored it requires thought and care to
 maintain it4 ,the ingredients of the   
soil must be returned in the form of    
manures as largely as they are removed  
by the crop1 or the supply will         
eventually become too small for the     
purposes of vegetation4  ,,footnotes3   
,t ,it is due to our country1 as well as
 to ,prof4 ,mapes and others1 who long  
ago explained this absorptive power of  
clay and carbon1 to say that the subject
 was perfectly understood and           

practically applied in ,america a number
 of years before ,prof4 ,way published  
the discovery in ,england as original4  
,,section ,,third4  ,,manures4          
,,chapter ,i4  ,,character ,,and        
,,varieties ,,of ,,manures4   ,what must
 a farmer know in order to avoid        
failures8  ,can this be learned entirely
 from observation8  ,what kind of action
 have manures8  ,give examples of each  
of these4  ,may mechanical effects be   
produced by chemical action8  ,how does 
potash affect the soil8  ,to understand 
the science of manures is the most      
important branch of practical farming4  
,no baker would be called a good        
practical baker who kept his flour      
exposed to the sun and rain4 ,no        
shoemaker would be called a good        
practical shoemaker1 who used morocco   
for the soles of his shoes1 and heavy   
leather for the uppers4 ,no carpenter   
would be called a good practical        
carpenter1 who tried to build a house   
without nails1 or other fastenings4 ,so 

with the farmer4 ,he cannot be called a 
good practical farmer if he keeps the   
materials1 from which he is to make     
plants1 in such a condition1 that they  
will have their value destroyed1 uses   
them in the wrong places1 or tries to   
put them together without having every  
thing present that is necessary4 ,before
 he can avoid failures with certainty1  
he must know what manures are composed  
of1 how they are to be preserved1 where 
they are needed1 and what kinds are     
required4 ,true1 he may from observation
 and experience1 guess at results1 but  
he cannot know that he is right until he
 has learned the facts above named4 ,in 
this section of our work1 we mean to    
convey some of the information necessary
 to this branch of practical farming4   
,we shall adopt a classification of the 
subject somewhat different from that    
found in most works on manures1 but the 
facts are the same4 ,the action of      
manures is either mechanical or         
chemical1 or a combination of both4 ,for

 instance3 some kinds of manure improve 
the mechanical character of the soil1   
such as those which loosen stiff clay   
soils1 or others which render light     
sandy soils compact--these are called   
mechanical manures4 ,some again furnish 
food for plants--these are called       
chemical manures4  ,many mechanical     
manures produce their effects by means  
of chemical action4 ,thus potash        
combines chemically with sand in the    
soil4 ,in so doing1 it roughens the     
surfaces of the particles of sand1 and  
renders the soil less liable to be      
compacted by rains4 ,in this manner1 it 
acts as a mechanical manure4 ,the       
compound of sand and potash1,u as well  
as the potash alone1 may enter into the 
composition of plants1 and hence it is a
 chemical manure4 ,in other words1      
potash belongs to both classes described
 above4  ,it is important that this     
distinction should be well understood by
 the learner1 as the words mechanical   
and chemical in connection with manures 

will be made use of throughout the      
following pages4  ,what are absorbents8 
,what kind of manure is charcoal8       
,there is another class of manures which
 we shall call absorbents4 ,these       
comprise those substances which have the
 power of taking up fertilizing matters1
 and retaining them for the use of      
plants4 ,for instance1 charcoal is an   
absorbent4 ,as was stated in the section
 on soils1 this substance is a retainer 
of all fertilizing gases and many       
minerals4 ,other matters made use of in 
agriculture have the same effect4 ,these
 absorbents will be spoken of more fully
 in their proper places4  ,,table4      
,,mechanical ,,manures are those which  
improve the mechanical condition of     
soils4  ,,chemical          are those   
which serve as food for plants4         
,,absorbents         are those          
substances which absorb and retain      
fertilizing matters4  ,into what classes
 may manures be divided8  ,what are     
organic manures8  ,inorganic8           

,atmospheric8  ,manures may be divided  
into three classes1 viz43 organic1      
inorganic1 and atmospheric4  ,,organic  
manures comprise all animal and         
vegetable matters which are used to     
fertilize the soil1 such as dung1 muck1 
etc4  ,,inorganic manures are those     
which are of a purely mineral character1
 such as lime1 ashes1 etc4              
,,atmospheric manures consist of those  
organic manures which are in the form of
 gases in the atmosphere1 and which are 
absorbed by rains and carried to the    
soil4 ,these are of immense importance4 
,the ammonia and carbonic acid in the   
air are atmospheric manures4            
,,footnotes3  ,u ,silicate of potash4   
,,chapter ,,ii4  ,,excrements ,,of      
,,animals4   ,of what is animal         
excrement composed8  ,explain the       
composition of the food of animals4     
,what does hay contain8  ,to what does  
,liebig compare the consumption of food 
by animals1 and why8  ,the first organic
 manure which we shall examine1 is      

animal excrement4  ,this is composed of 
those matters which have been eaten by  
the animal as food1 and have been thrown
 off as solid or liquid manure4 ,in     
order that we may know of what they     
consist1 we must refer to the           
composition of food and examine the     
process of digestion4  ,the food of     
animals1 we have seen to consist of both
 organic and inorganic matter4 ,the     
organic part may be divided into two    
classes1 i4 e41 that portion which      
contains nitrogen--such as gluten1      
albumen1 etc41 and that which does not  
contain nitrogen--such as starch1 sugar1
 oil1 etc4  ,the inorganic part of food 
may also be divided into soluble matter 
and insoluble matter4   ,,digestion     
,,and ,,its ,,products4  ,of what does  
that part of dung consist which         
resembles soot8  ,what else does the    
dung contain8  ,in what manner does the 
digested part of food escape from the   
body8  ,let us now suppose that we have 
a full-grown ox1 which is not increasing

 in any of his parts1 but only consumes 
food to keep up his respiration1 and to 
supply the natural wastes of his body4  
,to this ox we will feed a ton of hay   
which contains organic matter1 with and 
without nitrogen1 and soluble and       
insoluble inorganic substances4 ,now let
 us try to follow it through its changes
 in the animal1 and observe its         
destination4 ,liebig compares the       
consumption of food by animals to the   
imperfect burning of wood in a stove1   
where a portion of the fuel is resolved 
into gases and ashes 7that is1 it is    
completely burned71 and another portion1
 which is not thoroughly burned1 passes 
off as soot4 ,in the animal action in   
question1 the food undergoes changes    
which are similar to this burning of    
wood4 ,a part of the food is digested   
and taken up by the blood1 while another
 portion remains undigested1 and passes 
the bowels as solid dung--corresponding 
to soot4 ,this part of the dung then1 we
 see is merely so much of the food as   

passes through the system without being 
materially changed4 ,its nature is      
easily understood4 ,it contains organic 
and inorganic matter in nearly the same 
condition as they existed in the hay4   
,they have been rendered finer and      
softer1 but their chemical character is 
not materially altered4 ,the dung also  
contains small quantities of nitrogenous
 matter1 which leaked out1 as it were1  
from the stomach and intestines4 ,the   
digested food1 however1 undergoes       
further changes which affect its        
character1 and it escapes from the body 
in three ways--i4 e41 through the lungs1
 through the bladder1 and through the   
bowels4 ,it will be recollected from the
 first section of this book1 p4 #bb1    
that the carbon in the blood of animals1
 unites with the oxygen of the air drawn
 into the lungs1 and is thrown off in   
the breath as carbonic acid4 ,the       
hydrogen and oxygen unite to form a part
 of the water which constitutes the     
moisture of the breath4  ,explain the   

escape of carbon1 hydrogen and oxygen4  
,what becomes of the nitrogenous parts8 
,how is the soluble ash of the digested 
food parted with8  ,the insoluble8  ,if 
any portions of the food are not        
returned in the dung1 how are they      
disposed of8  ,that portion of the      
organic part of the hay which has been  
taken up by the blood of the ox1 and    
which does not contain nitrogen         
7corresponding to the first class of    
proximates1 as described in ,sect4 ,i71 
is emitted through the lungs4 ,it       
consists1 as will be recollected1 of    
carbon1 hydrogen and oxygen1 and these  
assume1 in respiration1 the form of     
carbonic acid and water4  ,the organic  
matter of the digested hay1 in the      
blood1 which contains nitrogen          
7corresponding to the second class of   
proximates1 described in ,sect4 ,i71    
goes to the bladder1 where it assumes   
the form of urea--a constituent of urine
 or liquid manure4  ,we have now        
disposed of the imperfectly digested    

food 7dung71 and of the organic matter  
which was taken up by the blood4 ,all   
that remains to be examined is the      
inorganic or mineral matter in the      
blood1 which would have become ashes1 if
 the hay had been burned4 ,the soluble  
part of this inorganic matter passes    
into the bladder1 and forms the         
inorganic part of urine4 ,the insoluble 
part passes the bowels1 in connection   
with the dung4  ,how is their place     
supplied8  ,is food put out of existence
 when it is fed to animals8  ,what does 
the solid dung contain8 ,liquid manure8 
,the breath8  ,if any of the food taken 
up by the blood is not returned as above
 stated1 it goes to form fat1 muscle1   
hair1 bones1 or some other part of the  
animal1 and as he is not growing 7not   
increasing in weight7 an equivalent     
amount of the body of the animal goes to
 the manure to take the place of the    
part retained4,v  ,we now have our      
subject in a form to be readily         
understood4 ,we learn that when food is 

given to animals it is not put out of   
existence1 but is merely changed in     
form2 and that in the impurities of the 
breath1 we have a large portion of those
 parts of the food which plants obtain  
from air and from water2 while the solid
 and liquid excrements contain all that 
was taken by the plants from the soil   
and manures4  ,the ,,solid ,,dung       
contains the undigested parts of the    
food1 the                 insoluble     
parts of the ash1 and the nitrogenous   
matters which have escaped from the     
digestive organs4  ,,liquid ,,manure the
 nitrogenous or second class of         
proximates of the                       
digested food1 and the soluble parts of 
the ash4  ,,the ,,breath contains the   
first class of proximates1 those which  
contain                 carbon1 hydrogen
 and oxygen1 but no nitrogen4,w         
,,footnotes3  ,v ,this account of       
digestion is not1 perhaps1 strictly     
accurate in a physiological point of    
view1 but it is sufficiently so to give 

an elementary understanding of the      
character of excrements as manures4  ,w 
,the excrements of animals contain more 
or less of sulphur1 and sometimes small 
quantities of phosphorus4     ,,chapter 
,,iii4  ,,waste ,,of ,,manure4   ,what  
are the first causes of loss of manure8 
,what is evaporation8  ,the loss of     
manure is a subject which demands most  
serious attention4 ,until within a few  
years1 little was known about the true  
character of manures1 and consequently1 
of the importance of protecting them    
against loss4  ,the first causes of     
waste are evaporation and leaching4     
,,evaporation4  ,name a solid body which
 evaporates4  ,what takes place when a  
dead animal is exposed to the atmosphere
 for a sufficient time8  ,what often    
assist the evaporation of solids8       
,evaporation is the changing of a solid 
or liquid body to a vapory form4 ,thus  
common smelling salts1 a solid1 if left 
exposed1 passes into the atmosphere in  
the form of a gas or vapor4 ,water1 a   

liquid1 evaporates1 and becomes a vapor 
in the atmosphere4 ,this is the case    
with very many substances1 and in       
organic nature1 both solid and liquid1  
they are liable to assume a gaseous     
form1 and become mixed with the         
atmosphere4 ,they are not destroyed1 but
 are merely changed in form4  ,as an    
instance of this action1 suppose an     
animal to die and to decay on the       
surface of the earth4 ,after a time1 the
 flesh will entirely disappear1 but is  
not lost4 ,it no longer exists as the   
flesh of an animal1 but its carbon1     
hydrogen1 oxygen1 and nitrogen1 still   
exist in the air4 ,they have been       
liberated from the attractions which    
held them together1 and have passed     
away2 but 7as we already know from what 
has been said in a former section7 they 
are ready to be again taken up by       
plants1 and pressed into the service of 
life4  ,the evaporation of liquids may  
take place without the aid of any thing 
but heat2 still1 in the case of solids1 

it is often assisted by decay and       
combustion1 which break up the bonds    
that hold the constituents of bodies    
together1 and thus enable them to return
 to the atmosphere1 from which they were
 originally derived4  ,what is the cause
 of odor8  ,when we perceive an odor1   
what is taking place8  ,why do manures  
give off offensive odors8  ,how may we  
detect ammonia escaping from manure8    
,it must be recollected that every      
thing1 which has an odor 7or can be     
smelled71 is evaporating4 ,the odor is  
caused by parts of the body floating in 
the air1 and acting on the nerves of the
 nose4 ,this is an invariable rule2 and1
 when we perceive an odor1 we may be    
sure that parts of the material1 from   
which it emanates1 are escaping4 ,if we 
perceive the odor of an apple1 it is    
because parts of the volatile oils of   
the apple enter the nose4 ,the same is  
true when we smell hartshorn1 cologne1  
etc4  ,manures made by animals have an  
offensive odor1 simply because volatile 

parts of the manure escape into the air1
 and are therefore made perceptible4    
,all organic parts in turn become       
volatile1 assuming a gaseous form as    
they decompose4  ,we do not see the     
gases rising1 but there are many ways by
 which we can detect them4 ,if we wave a
 feather over a manure heap1 from which 
ammonia is escaping1 the feather having 
been recently dipped in manure1 white   
fumes will appear around the feather1   
being the muriate of ammonia formed by  
the union of the escaping gas with the  
muriatic acid4 ,not only ammonia1 but   
also carbonic acid1 and other gases     
which are useful to vegetation escape1  
and are given to the winds4 ,indeed it  
may be stated in few words that all of  
the organic part of plants 7all that was
 obtained from the air1 water1 and      
ammonia71 constituting more than nine   
tenths of their dry weight1 may be      
evaporated by the assistance of decay or
 combustion4 ,the organic part of       
manures may be lost in the same manner2 

and1 if the process of decomposition be 
continued long enough1 nothing but a    
mass of mineral matter will remain1     
except perhaps a small quantity of      
carbon which has not been resolved into 
carbonic acid4  ,what remains after     
manure has been long exposed to         
decomposition8  ,what gaseous compounds 
are formed by the decomposition of      
manures8  ,the proportion of solid      
manure lost by evaporation 7made by the 
assistance of decay71 is a very large   
part of the whole4 ,manure cannot be    
kept a single day in its natural state  
without losing something4 ,it commences 
to give out an offensive odor           
immediately1 and this odor is           
occasioned1 as was before stated1 by the
 loss of some of its fertilizing parts4 
,animal manure contains1 as will be seen
 by reference to p4 #ajj1 all of the    
substances contained in plants1 though  
not always in the correct relative      
proportions to each other4 ,when        
decomposition commences1 the carbon     

unites with the oxygen of the air1 and  
passes off as carbonic acid2 the        
hydrogen and oxygen combine to form     
water 7which evaporates71 and the       
nitrogen is mostly resolved into        
ammonia1 which escapes into the         
atmosphere4  ,describe fire-fanging4    
,what takes place when animal manure is 
exposed in an open barn-yard8  ,what    
does liquid manure lose by evaporation8 
,if manure is thrown into heaps1 it     
often ferments so rapidly as to produce 
sufficient heat to set fire to some     
parts of the manure1 and cause it to be 
thrown off with greater rapidity4 ,this 
may be observed in nearly all heaps of  
animal excrement4 ,when they have lain  
for some time in mild weather1 gray     
streaks of ashes are often to be seen in
 the centre of the pile4 ,the organic   
part of the manure having been burned   
away1 nothing but the ash remains1--this
 is called fire-fanging4  ,manures kept 
in cellars without being mixed with     
refuse matter are subject to the same   

losses4  ,when kept in the yard1 they   
are still liable to be lost by          
evaporation4 ,they are here often       
saturated with water1 and this water in 
its evaporation carries away the        
ammonia1 and carbonic acid which it has 
obtained from the rotting mass4 ,the    
evaporation of the water is rapidly     
carried on1 on account of the great     
extent of surface4 ,the whole mass is   
spongy1 and soaks the liquids up from   
below 7through hollow straws1 etc471 to 
be evaporated at the surface on the same
 principle as causes the wick of a lamp 
to draw up the oil to supply fuel for   
the flame4  ,,liquid ,,manure containing
 large quantities of nitrogen1 and      
forming much ammonia1 is also liable to 
lose all of its organic part from       
evaporation 7and fermentation71 so that 
it is rendered as much less valuable as 
is the solid dung4,x  ,when does the    
waste of exposed manure commence8  ,what
 does economy of manure require8  ,what 
is the effect of leaching8  ,give an    

illustration of leaching4  ,from these  
remarks1 it may be justly inferred that 
a very large portion of the value of    
solid and liquid manure as ordinarily   
kept is lost by evaporation in a        
sufficient length of time1 depending on 
circumstances1 whether it be three      
months or several years4 ,the wasting   
commences as soon as the manure is      
dropped1 and continues1 except in very  
cold weather1 until the destruction is  
complete4 ,hence we see that true       
economy requires that the manures of the
 stable1 stye1 and poultry-house1 should
 be protected from evaporation 7as will 
be hereafter described71 as soon as     
possible after they are made4           
,,leaching4  ,the subject of leaching is
 as important in considering the        
inorganic parts of manures as           
evaporation is to the organic1 while    
leaching also affects the organic gases1
 they being absorbed by water in a great
 degree4  ,a good illustration of       
leaching is found in the manufacture of 

potash4 ,when water is poured over      
wood-ashes1 it dissolves their potash   
which it carries through in solution1   
making ley4 ,if ley is boiled to        
dryness1 it leaves the potash in a solid
 form1 proving that this substance had  
been dissolved by the water and removed 
from the insoluble parts of the ashes4  
,how does water affect decomposing      
manures8  ,does continued decomposition 
continue to prepare material to be      
leached away8  ,how far from the surface
 of the soil may organic constituents be
 carried by water8  ,in the same way    
water in passing through manures takes  
up the soluble portions of the ash as   
fast as liberated by decomposition1 and 
carries them into the soil below2 or1 if
 the water runs off from the surface1   
they accompany it4 ,in either case they 
are lost to the manure4 ,there is but a 
small quantity of ash exposed for       
leaching in recent manures2 but1 as the 
decomposition of the organic part       
proceeds1 it continues to develope it   

more and more 7in the same manner as    
burning would do1 only slower71 thus    
preparing fresh supplies to be carried  
off with each shower4 ,in this way1     
while manures are largely injured by    
evaporation1 the soluble inorganic parts
 are removed by water until but a small 
remnant of its original fertilizing     
properties remains4  ,what arrests their
 farther progress8  ,what would be the  
effect of allowing these matters to     
filter downwards8  ,what does           
evaporation remove from manure8         
,leaching8  ,it is a singular fact      
concerning leaching1 that water is able 
to carry no part of the organic         
constituents of vegetables more than    
about thirty-four inches below the      
surface in a fertile soil4 ,they would  
probably be carried to an unlimited     
distance in pure sand1 as it contains   
nothing which is capable of arresting   
them2 but1 in most soils1 the clay and  
carbon which they contain retain all of 
the ammonia2 also nearly all of the     

matters which go to form the inorganic  
constituents of plants within about the 
above named distance from the surface of
 the soil4 ,if such were not the case1  
the fertility of the earth must soon be 
destroyed1 as all of those elements     
which the soil must supply to growing   
plants would be carried down out of the 
reach of roots1 and leave the world a   
barren waste1 its surface having lost   
its elements of fertility1 while the    
downward filtration of these would      
render the water of wells unfit for our 
use4 ,now1 however1 they are all        
retained near the surface of the soil1  
and the water issues from springs       
comparatively pure4  ,,evaporation      
removes from manure--      ,carbon1 in  
the form of carbonic acid4              
,hydrogen and oxygen1 in the form of    
water4      ,nitrogen1 in the form of   
ammonia4  ,,leaching removes from       
manure--      ,the soluble and most     
valuable parts of the ash in solution in
     water1 besides carrying away some  

of the named above forms of     organic 
matter4  ,,footnotes3  ,x ,it should be 
recollected that every bent straw may   
act as a syphon1 and occasion much loss 
of liquid manure4     ,,chapter ,,iv4   
,,absorbents4   ,what substances are    
called absorbents8  ,what is the most   
important of these8  ,what substances   
are called charcoal in agriculture8     
,how is vegetable matter rendered useful
 as charcoal8  ,before considering      
farther the subject of animal excrement1
 it is necessary to examine a class of  
manures known as absorbents4 ,these     
comprise all matters which have the     
power of absorbing1 or soaking up1 as it
 were1 the gases which arise from the   
evaporation of solid and liquid manures1
 and retaining them until required by   
plants4  ,the most important of these is
 undoubtedly carbon or charcoal4        
,,charcoal4  ,charcoal1 in an           
agricultural sense1 means all forms of  
carbon1 whether as peat1 muck1 charcoal 
dust from the spark-catchers of         

locomotives1 charcoal hearths1 river and
 swamp deposits1 leaf mould1 decomposed 
spent tanbark or sawdust1 etc4 ,in      
short1 if any vegetable matter is       
decomposed with the partial exclusion of
 air 7so that there shall not be oxygen 
enough supplied to unite with all of the
 carbon71 a portion of its carbon       
remains in the exact condition to serve 
the purposes of charcoal4  ,what is the 
first-named effect of charcoal8 ,the    
second8 ,third8 ,fourth8  ,explain the  
first action4  ,the offices performed in
 the soil by carbonaceous matter were   
fully explained in a former section 7p4 
#gi1 ,sect4 #b71 and we will now examine
 merely its action with regard to       
manures4 ,when properly applied to      
manures1 in compost1 it has the         
following effects3  #a4 ,it absorbs and 
retains the fertilizing gases           
evaporating from decomposing matters4   
#b4 ,it acts as a divisor1 thereby      
reducing the strength 7or intensity7 of 
powerful manures--thus rendering them   

less likely to injure the roots of      
plants2 and also increases their bulk1  
so as to prevent fire fanging in        
composts4  #c4 ,it in part prevents the 
leaching out of the soluble parts of the
 ash4  #d4 ,it keeps the compost moist4 
,the first-named office of charcoal1 i4 
e41 absorbing and retaining gases1 is   
one of the utmost importance4 ,it is    
this quality that gives to it so high a 
position in the opinion of all who have 
used it4 ,as was stated in the section  
on soils1 carbonaceous matter seems to  
be capable of absorbing every thing     
which may be of use to vegetation4 ,it  
is a grand purifier1 and while it       
prevents offensive odors from escaping1 
it is at the same time storing its pores
 with food for the nourishment of       
plants4  ,explain its action as a       
divisor4  ,how does charcoal protect    
composts against injurious action of    
rains8  ,how does it keep them moist8   
#b;d4 ,in its capacity as a divisor for 
manures1 charcoal should be considered  

as excellent in all cases1 especially to
 use with strongly concentrated 7or     
heating7 animal manures4 ,these1 when   
applied in their natural state to the   
soil1 are very apt to injure young roots
 by the violence of their action4 ,when 
mixed with a divisor1 such manures are  
diluted1 made less active1 and          
consequently less injurious4 ,in        
composts1 manures are liable1 as has    
been before stated1 to become burned by 
the resultant heat of decomposition2    
this is called fire fanging1 and is     
prevented by the liberal use of         
divisors1 because1 by increasing the    
bulk1 the heat being diffused through a 
larger mass1 becomes less intense4 ,the 
same principle is exhibited in the fact 
that it takes more fire to boil a       
cauldron of water than a tea-kettle     
full4  #c;d4 ,charcoal has much power to
 arrest the passage of mineral matters  
in solution2 so much so1 that compost   
heaps1 well supplied with muck1 are less
 affected by rains than those not so    

supplied4 ,all composts1 however1 should
 be kept under cover4  #dth4 ,charcoal  
keeps the compost moist from the ease   
with which it absorbs water1 and its    
ability to withstand drought4  ,what    
source of carbon is within the reach of 
most farmers8  ,what do we mean by muck8
  ,of what does it consist8  ,how does  
it differ in quality8  ,with these      
advantages before us1 we must see the   
importance of an understanding of the   
modes for obtaining charcoal4 ,many     
farmers are so situated that they can   
obtain sufficient quantities of charcoal
 dust4 ,others have not equal           
facilities4 ,nearly all1 however1 can   
obtain muck1 and to this we will now    
turn our attention4   ,,muck1 ,,and     
,,the ,,lime ,,and ,,salt ,,mixture4    
,what is the first step in preparing    
muck for decomposition8  ,with what     
proportion of the lime and salt mixture 
should it be composted8  ,why should    
this compost be made under cover8  ,what
 is this called after decomposition8    

,why should we not use muck immediately 
after taking it from the swamp8  ,by    
muck1 we mean the vegetable deposits of 
swamps and rivers4 ,it consists of      
decayed organic substances1 mixed with  
more or less earth4 ,its principal      
constituent is carbon1 in different     
degrees of development1 which has       
remained after the decomposition of     
vegetable matter4 ,muck varies largely  
in its quality1 according to the amount 
of carbon which it contains1 and the    
perfection of its decomposition4 ,the   
best muck is usually found in           
comparatively dry locations1 where the  
water which once caused the deposit has 
been removed4 ,muck which has been long 
in this condition1 is usually better    
decomposed than that which is saturated 
with water4 ,the muck from swamps1      
however1 may soon be brought to the best
 condition4 ,it should be thrown out1 if
 possible1 at least one year before it  
is required for use 7a less time may    
suffice1 except in very cold climates7  

and left1 in small heaps or ridges1 to  
the action of the weather1 which will   
assist in pulverizing it1 while1 from   
having its water removed1 its           
decomposition goes on more rapidly4     
,after the muck has remained in this    
condition a sufficient length of time1  
it may be removed to the barn-yard and  
composted with the lime and salt mixture
 7described on page #aae7 in the        
proportion of one cord of muck to four  
bushels of the mixture4 ,this compost   
ought to be made under cover1 lest the  
rain leach out the constituents of the  
mixture1 and thus occasion loss2 at the 
end of a month or more1 the muck in the 
compost will have been reduced to a fine
 pulverulent mass1 nearly equal to      
charcoal dust for application to animal 
excrement4 ,when in this condition it is
 called prepared muck1 by which name it 
will be designated in the following     
pages4  ,muck should not be used        
immediately after being taken from the  
swamp1 as it is then almost always sour1

 and is liable to produce sorrel4 ,its  
sourness is due to acids which it       
contains1 and these must be rectified by
 the application of an alkali1 or by    
long exposure to the weather1 before the
 muck is suitable for use4   ,,lime     
,,and ,,salt ,,mixture4  ,what          
proportions of lime and salt are        
required for the decomposing mixture8   
,explain the process of making it4  ,why
 should it be made under cover8  ,the   
lime and salt mixture1 used in the      
decomposition of muck1 is made in the   
following manner3  ,,recipe4--,take     
three bushels of shell lime1 hot from   
the kiln1 or as fresh as possible1 and  
slake it with water in which one bushel 
of salt has been dissolved4  ,care must 
be taken to use only so much water as is
 necessary to dissolve the salt1 as it  
is difficult to induce the lime to      
absorb a larger quantity4  ,in          
dissolving the salt1 it is well to hang 
it in a basket in the upper part of the 
water1 as the salt water will           

immediately settle towards the bottom   
7being heavier71 and allow the freshest 
water to be nearest to the salt4 ,in    
this way1 the salt may be all dissolved1
 and thus make the brine used to slake  
the lime4 ,it may be necessary to apply 
the brine at intervals of a day or two1 
and to stir the mass often1 as the      
amount of water is too great to be      
readily absorbed4  ,this mixture should 
be made under cover1 as1 if exposed1 it 
would obtain moisture from rain or dew1 
which would prevent the use of all the  
brine4 ,another objection to its        
exposure to the weather is its great    
liability to be washed away by rains4   
,it should be at least ten days old     
before being used1 and would probably be
 improved by an age of three or four    
months1 as the chemical changes it      
undergoes will require some time to be  
completed4  ,explain the character of   
this mixture as represented in the      
diagram4 7,black board47  ,the character
 of this mixture may be best described  

by the following diagram3--  ,we have   
originally--                            
----------------------------------      
,lime-                        ,salt     
consisting of                           
---,chlorine     ,chloride              
and           of                        
-,sodium4      ,sodium4                 
--,carbonic acid                        
and                            --,oxygen
 in the air4       -,chloride of lime4- 
-,carbonate of ,soda4                   
,y  ,the lime unites with the chlorine  
of the salt and forms chloride of lime4 
,the sodium1 after being freed from the 
chlorine1 unites with the oxygen of the 
air and forms soda1 which1 combining    
with the carbonic acid of the           
atmosphere1 forms carbonate of soda4    
,chloride of lime and carbonate of soda 
are better agents in the decomposition  
of muck than pure salt and lime2 and1 as
 these compounds are the result of the  
mixture1 much benefit ensues from the   
operation4  ,when shell lime cannot be  

obtained1 ,thomaston1 or any other very 
pure lime1 will answer1 though care must
 be taken that it do not contain much   
magnesia4   ,,lime4  ,what effect has   
lime on muck8  ,on what does the energy 
of this effect depend8  ,why should a   
compost of muck and lime be protected   
from rain8  ,muck may be decomposed by  
the aid of other materials4 ,lime is    
very efficient1 though not as much so as
 when combined with salt4 ,the action of
 lime1 when applied to the muck1 depends
 very much on its condition4 ,air-slaked
 lime 7carbonate of lime71 and hydrate  
of lime1 slaked with water1 have but a  
limited effect compared with lime       
freshly burned and applied in a caustic 
7or pure7 form4 ,when so used1 however1 
the compost should not be exposed to    
rains1 as this would have a tendency to 
make mortar which would harden it4      
,,potash4  ,is potash valuable for this 
use8  ,from what sources may potash be  
obtained8  ,in what proportion should   
ashes be applied to muck8 ,sparlings8   

,potash is a very active agent in       
decomposing vegetable matter1 and may be
 used with great advantage1 especially  
where an analysis of the soil which is  
to be manured shows a deficiency of     
potash4  ,unleached wood ashes are      
generally the best source from which to 
obtain this1 and from five to           
twenty-five bushels of these mixed with 
one cord of muck will produce the       
desired result4,z  ,the sparlings 7or   
refuse7 of potash warehouses may often  
be purchased at sufficiently low rates  
to be used for this purpose1 and answer 
an excellent end4 ,they may be applied  
at the rate of from twenty to one       
hundred pounds to each cord of muck4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,by any of the foregoing methods1 muck  
may be prepared for use in composting4  
,,footnotes3  ,y ,there is1 undoubtedly1
 some of this lime which does not unite 
with the chlorine2 this1 however1 is    
still as valuable as any lime4  ,z      
,leached ashes will not supply the place

 of these1 as the leaching has deprived 
them of their potash4     ,,chapter ,v4 
,,composting ,,stable ,,manure4   ,what 
principles should regulate us in        
composting8  ,in what condition is solid
 dung of value as a fertilizer8  ,what  
do we aim to do in composting8  ,in     
composting stable manure in the most    
economical manner1 the evaporation of   
the organic parts and the leaching of   
the ashy 7and other7 portions must be   
avoided1 while the condition of the mass
 is such as to admit of the perfect     
decomposition of the manure4  ,solid    
manures in their fresh state are of but 
very little use to plants4 ,it is only  
as they are decomposed1 and have their  
nitrogen turned into ammonia1 and their 
other ingredients resolved into the     
condition required by plants1 that they 
are of much value as fertilizers4 ,we   
have seen that1 if this decomposition   
takes place without proper precautions  
being made1 the most valuable parts of  
the manure would be lost4 ,nor would it 

be prudent to keep manures from         
decomposing until they are applied to   
the soil1 for then they are not         
immediately ready for use1 and time is  
lost4 ,by composting1 we aim to save    
every thing while we prepare the manures
 for immediate use4   ,,shelter4  ,what 
is the first consideration for composts8
  ,describe the arrangement of floor4   
,the first consideration in preparing   
for composting1 is to provide proper    
shelter4 ,this may be done either by    
means of a shed or by arranging a cellar
 under the stables1 or in any other     
manner that may be dictated by          
circumstances4 ,it is no doubt better to
 have the manure shed enclosed so as to 
make it an effectual protection2 this   
however is not absolutely necessary if  
the roof project far enough over the    
compost to shelter it from the sun's    
rays and from driving rains4  ,the      
importance of some protection of this   
kind1 is evident from what has already  
been said1 and indeed it is impossible  

to make an economical use of manures    
without it4 ,the trifling cost of       
building a shed1 or preparing a cellar1 
is amply repaid in the benefit resulting
 from their uses4   ,,the ,,floor4  ,the
 floor or foundation on which to build  
the compost deserves some consideration4
 ,it may be of plank tightly fitted1 a  
hard bed of clay1 or better1 a cemented 
surface4 ,whatever material is used in  
its construction 7and stiff clay mixed  
with water and beaten compactly down    
answers an excellent purpose71 the floor
 must have such an inclination as will  
cause it to discharge water only at one 
point4 ,that is1 one part of the edge   
must be lower than the rest of the      
floor1 which must be so shaped that     
water will run towards this point from  
every part of it2 then--the floor being 
water-tight--all of the liquids of the  
compost may be collected in a   ,,tank4 
,how should the tank be attached8  ,this
 tank used to collect the liquids of the
 manure may be made by sinking a barrel 

or hogshead 7according to the size of   
the heap7 in the ground at the point    
where it is required1 or in any other   
convenient manner4  ,in the tank a pump 
of cheap construction may be placed1 to 
raise the liquid to a sufficient height 
to be conveyed by a trough to the centre
 of the heap1 and there distributed by  
means of a perforated board with raised 
edges1 and long enough to reach across  
the heap in any direction4 ,by altering 
the position of this board1 the liquid  
may be carried evenly over the whole    
mass4  ,the appearance of the apparatus 
required for composting1 and the compost
 laid up1 may be better shown by the    
following figure4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#b4  a1 tank2 b1 pump2 c  g1 perforated 
board2 d1 muck2 e1 manure2 f1 floor4    
,how is the compost made8  ,the compost 
is made by laying on the floor ten or   
twelve inches of muck1 and on that a few
 inches of manure1 then another heavy   
layer of muck1 and another of manure1   
continuing in this manner until the heap

 is raised to the required height1      
always having a thick layer of muck at  
the top4  ,what liquids are best for    
moistening the compost8  ,how should    
they be applied8  ,what are the         
advantages of this moistening8  ,how    
does it compare with forking over8      
,after laying up the heap1 the tank     
should be filled with liquid manure from
 the stables1 slops from the house1     
soap-suds1 or other water containing    
fertilizing matter1 to be pumped over   
the mass4 ,there should be enough of the
 liquid to saturate the heap and filter 
through to fill the tank twice a week1  
at which intervals it should be again   
pumped up1 thus continually being passed
 through the manure4 ,this liquid should
 not be changed1 as it contains much    
soluble manure4 ,should the liquid      
manures named above not be sufficient1  
the quantity may be increased by the use
 of rain-water4 ,that falling during the
 first ten minutes of a shower is the   
best1 as it contains much ammonia4  ,the

 effects produced by frequently watering
 the compost is one of the greatest     
advantages of this system4  ,the soluble
 portions of the manure are equally     
diffused through every part of the heap4
  ,should the heat of fermentation be   
too great1 the watering will reduce it4 
,when the compost is saturated with     
water1 the air is driven out2 and1 as   
the water subsides1 fresh air enters and
 takes its place4 ,this fresh air       
contains oxygen1 which assists in the   
decomposition of the manure4  ,in short1
 the watering does all the work of      
forking over by hand much better and    
much more cheaply4  ,why will the       
ammonia of manure thus made1 not escape 
if it be used as a top dressing8  ,what 
are the advantages of preparing manures 
in this manner8  ,what is the profit    
attending it8  ,at the end of a month or
 more1 this compost will be ready for   
use4 ,the layers in the manure will have
 disappeared1 the whole mass having     
become of a uniform character1 highly   

fertilizing1 and ready to be immediately
 used by plants4  ,it may be applied to 
the soil1 either as a top-dressing1 or  
otherwise1 without fear of loss1 as the 
muck will retain all of the gases which 
would otherwise evaporate4  ,the cost   
and trouble of the foregoing system of  
composting are trifling compared with   
its advantages4 ,the quantity of the    
manure is much increased1 and its       
quality improved4 ,the health of the    
animals is secured by the retention of  
those gases1 which1 when allowed to     
escape1 render impure the air which they
 have to breathe4  ,the cleanliness of  
the stable and yard is much advanced as 
the effete matters1 which would         
otherwise litter them1 are carefully    
removed to the compost4  ,as an instance
 of the profit of composting1 it may be 
stated that ,prof4 ,mapes has decomposed
 ninety-two cords of swamp muck1 with   
four hundred bushels of the lime and    
salt mixture1 and then composted it with
 eight cords of fresh horse dung1 making

 one hundred cords of manure fully equal
 to the same amount of stable-manure    
alone1 which has lain one year exposed  
to the weather4 ,indeed one cord of muck
 well decomposed1 and containing the    
chlorine lime and soda of four bushels  
of the mixture1 is of itself equal in   
value to the same amount of manure which
 has lain in an open barn-yard during   
the heat and rain of one season1 and is 
then applied to the land in a raw or    
undecomposed state4  ,in what other     
manners may muck be used in the         
preservation of manures8  ,how may      
liquid manure be made most useful8  ,the
 foregoing system of composting is the  
best that has yet been suggested for    
making use of solid manures4 ,many other
 methods may be adopted when            
circumstances will not admit of so much 
attention4 ,it is a common and excellent
 practice to throw prepared muck into   
the cellar under the stables1 to be     
mixed and turned over with the manure by
 swine4 ,in other cases the manures are 

kept in the yard1 and are covered with a
 thin layer of muck every morning4 ,the 
principle which renders these systems   
beneficial is the absorbent power of    
charcoal4   ,,liquid ,,manure4  ,liquid 
manure from animals may1 also1 be made  
useful by the assistance of prepared    
muck4 ,where a tank is used in          
composting1 the liquids from the stable 
may all be employed to supply moisture  
to the heap2 but where any system is    
adopted1 not requiring liquids1 the     
urine may be applied to muck heaps1 and 
then allowed to ferment4 ,fermentation  
is necessary in urine as well as in     
solid dung1 before it is very active as 
a manure4 ,urine1 as will be            
recollected1 contains nitrogen and forms
 ammonia on fermentation4  ,describe the
 manner of digging out the bottoms of   
stalls4  ,it is a very good plan to dig 
out the bottoms of the stalls in a      
circular or gutter-like form1 three or  
four feet deep in the middle1 cement the
 ground1 or make it nearly water-tight1 

by a plastering of stiff clay1 and fill 
them up with prepared muck4 ,the        
appearance of a cross section of the    
floor thus arranged would be as follows3
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4  ,the        
prepared muck in the bottom of the      
stalls would absorb the urine as soon as
 voided1 while yet warm with the animal 
heat1 and receive heat from the animal's
 body while lying down at night4 ,this  
heat will hasten the decomposition of   
the urea1,,aa and if the muck be renewed
 twice a month1 and that which is       
removed composted under cover1 it will  
be found a most prolific source of good 
manure4 ,in ,flanders1 the liquid manure
 of a cow is considered worth #aj per   
year1 and it is not less valuable here4 
,as was stated in the early part of this
 section1 the inorganic 7or mineral7    
matter contained in urine1 is soluble1  
and consequently is immediately useful  
as food for plants4  ,by referring to   
the analysis of liquid and solid manure1
 in section ,v41 their relative value   

may be seen4     ,,chapter ,,vi4        
,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,animal       
,,excrement4   ,the manures of different
 animals are1 of course1 of different   
value1 as fertilizers1 varying according
 to the food1 the age of the animals1   
etc4   ,,stable ,,manure4  ,by stable   
manure we mean1 usually1 that of the    
horse1 and that of horned cattle4 ,the  
case described in chap4 #b 7of this     
section71 was one where the animal was  
not increasing in any of its parts1 but 
returned1 in the form of manure1 and    
otherwise1 the equivalent of every thing
 eaten4 ,this case is one of the most   
simple kind1 and is subject to many     
modifications4  ,is the manure of       
full-grown animals of the same quality  
as that of other animals8  ,why does    
that of the growing animal differ8  ,why
 does not the formation of fat reduce   
the quality of manure8  ,what does milk 
remove from the food8  ,the growing     
animal is increasing in size1 and as he 
derives his increase from his food1 he  

does not return in the form of manure as
 much as he eats4 ,if his bones are     
growing1 he is taking from his food     
phosphate of lime and nitrogenous       
matter2 consequently1 the manure will be
 poorer in these ingredients4 ,the same 
may be said of the formation of the     
muscles1 in relation to nitrogen4  ,the 
fatting animal1 if full grown1 makes    
manure which is as good as that from    
animals that are not increasing in size1
 because the fat is taken from those    
parts of the food which is obtained by  
plants from the atmosphere1 and from    
nature1 7i4 e4 from the #ast class of   
proximates74 ,fat contains no nitrogen1 
and1 consequently1 does not lessen the  
amount of this ingredient in the manure4
  ,milch ,cows turn a part of their food
 to the formation of milk1 and          
consequently1 they produce manure of    
reduced value4  ,how do the solid and   
liquid manure of the horse and ox       
compare8  ,what occasions these         
differences8  ,the solid manure of the  

horse is better than that of the ox1    
while the liquid manure of the ox is    
comparatively better than that of the   
horse4 ,the cause of this is that the   
horse has poorer digestive organs than  
the ox1 and consequently passes more of 
the valuable parts of his food1 in an   
undigested form1 as dung1 while the ox1 
from chewing the cud and having more    
perfect organs1 turns more of his food  
into urine than the horse4              
,,recapitulation4  ,,full ,,grown       
animals not        producing milk1 and  
full  make the best manure4   grown     
animals fattening    ,,growing ,,animals
 reduce the value of their manure1      
taking portions of their food to form   
their bodies4  ,,milch ,,cows reduce the
 value of their manure by changing a    
part of their food into milk4  ,,the    
,,ox makes poor dung and rich urine4    
,,the ,,horse makes rich dung and poor  
urine4,,ab   ,,night ,,soil4  ,what is  
the most valuable manure accessible to  
the farmer8  ,what is the probable value

 of the night soil yearly lost in the   
,united ,states8  ,of what does the     
manure of man consist8  ,the best manure
 within the reach of the farmer is night
 soil1 or human excrement4 ,there has   
always been a false delicacy about      
mentioning this fertilizer1 which has   
caused much waste1 and great loss of    
health1 from the impure and offensive   
odors which it is allowed to send forth 
to taint the air4  ,the value of the    
night soil yearly lost in the ,united   
,states is1 probably1 about fifty       
millions of dollars 7#ej1jjj1jjj72 an   
amount nearly equal to the entire       
expenses of our ,national ,government4  
,much of the ill health of our people is
 undoubtedly occasioned by neglecting   
the proper treatment of night soil4     
,describe this manure as compared with  
the excrements of other animals4  ,does 
the use of night soil produce           
disagreeable properties in plants8      
,that which directly affects            
agriculture1 as treated of in this book1

 is the value of this substance as a    
fertilizer4 ,the manure of man consists 
7as is the case with that of other      
animals7 of those parts of his food     
which are not retained in the increase  
of his body4 ,if he be growing1 his     
manure is poorer1 as in the case of the 
ox1 and it is subject to all the other  
modifications named in the early part of
 this chapter4 ,his food is usually of a
 varied character1 and is rich in       
nitrogen1 the phosphates1 and other     
inorganic constituents2 consequently1   
his manure is made valuable by          
containing large quantities of these    
matters4 ,as is the case with the ox1   
the dung contains the undigested food1  
the secretions 7or leakings7 of the     
digestive organs1 and the insoluble     
parts of the ash of the digested food4  
,the urine1 in like manner1 contains a  
large proportion of the nitrogen and the
 soluble inorganic parts of the digested
 food4 ,when we consider how much richer
 the food of man is than that of horned 

cattle1 we shall see the superior value 
of his excrement4  ,night soil has been 
used as a manure1 for ages1 in ,china1  
which is1 undoubtedly1 one great secret 
of their success in supporting a dense  
population1 for so long a time1 without 
impoverishing the soil4 ,it has been    
found1 in many instances1 to increase   
the productive power of the natural soil
 three-fold4 ,that is1 if a soil would  
produce ten bushels of wheat per acre1  
without manure1 it would produce thirty 
bushels if manured with night soil4     
,some have supposed that manuring with  
night soil would give disagreeable      
properties to plants3 such is not the   
case2 their quality is invariably       
improved4 ,the color and odor of the    
rose become richer and more delicate by 
the use of the most offensive night soil
 as manure4  ,what is the direct object 
of plants8  ,what would result if this  
were not the case8  ,how may night soil 
be easily prepared for use1 and its     
offensive odor prevented8  ,it is       

evident that this is the case from the  
fact that plants have it for their      
direct object to make over and put      
together the refuse organic matter1 and 
the gases and the minerals found in     
nature1 for the use of animals4 ,if     
there were no natural means of rendering
 the excrement of animals available to  
plants1 the earth must soon be shorn of 
its fertility1 as the elements of growth
 when once consumed would be essentially
 destroyed1 and no soil could survive   
the exhaustion4 ,there is no reason why 
the manure of man should be rejected by 
vegetation more than that of any other  
animal2 and indeed it is not1 for ample 
experience has proved that for most     
soils there is no better manure in      
existence4  ,a single experiment will   
suffice to show that night soil may be  
so kept that there shall be no loss of  
its valuable gases1 and consequently no 
offensive odor arising from it1 while it
 may be removed and applied to crops    
without unpleasantness4 ,all that is    

necessary to effect this wonderful      
change in night soil1 and to turn it    
from its disagreeable character to one  
entirely inoffensive1 is to mix with it 
a little charcoal dust1 prepared muck1  
or any other good absorbent--thus making
 what is called poudrette4 ,the mode of 
doing this must depend on circumstances4
 ,in many cases1 it would be expedient  
to keep a barrel of the absorbent in the
 privy and throw down a small quantity  
every day4 ,the effect on the odor of   
the house would amply repay the trouble4
  ,should pure night soil be used as a  
manure8  ,what precaution is necessary  
in preparing hog manure for use8  ,the  
manure thus made is of the most valuable
 character1 and may be used under any   
circumstances with a certainty of       
obtaining a good crop4 ,it should not be
 used unmixed with some absorbent1 as it
 is of such strength as to kill plants4 
,for an analysis of human manure1 see   
,section ,v4   ,,hog ,,manure4  ,hog    
,manure is very valuable1 but it must be

 used with care4 ,it is so violent in   
its action that1 when applied in a pure 
form to crops1 it often produces        
injurious results4 ,it is liable to make
 cabbages clump-footed1 and to induce a 
disease in turnips called ambury 7or    
fingers and toes74 ,the only precaution 
necessary is to supply the stye with    
prepared muck1 charcoal-dust1           
leaf-mould1 or any absorbent in         
plentiful quantities1 often adding fresh
 supplies4 ,the hogs will work this over
 with the manure2 and1 when required for
 use1 it will be found an excellent     
fertilizer4 ,the absorbent will have    
overcome its injurious tendency1 and it 
may be safely applied to any crop4 ,from
 the variety and rich character of the  
food of this animal1 his manure is of a 
superior quality4  ,why is the manure   
from butchers' hog-pens very valuable8  
,how does the value of poultry manure   
compare with that of guano8  ,how may it
 be protected against loss8  ,butchers' 
hog-pen manure is one of the best       

fertilizers known4 ,it is made by       
animals that live almost entirely on    
blood and other animal refuse1 and is   
very rich in nitrogen and the           
phosphates4 ,it should be mixed with    
prepared muck1 or its substitute1 to    
prevent the loss of its ammonia1 and as 
a protection against its injurious      
effect on plants4   ,,poultry ,,house   
,,manure4  ,next in value to night soil1
 among domestic manures1 are the        
excrements of poultry1 pigeons1 etc4    
,birds live on the nice bits of         
creation1 seeds1 insects1 etc41 and they
 discharge their solid and liquid       
excrements together4 ,poultry-dung is   
nearly equal in value to guano 7except  
that it contains more water71 and it    
deserves to be carefully preserved and  
judiciously used4 ,it is as well worth  
twenty-five cents per bushel as guano is
 worth fifty dollars a ton 7at which    
price it is now sold74  ,poultry-manure 
is liable to as much injury from        
evaporation and leaching as is any other

 manure1 and equal care should be taken 
7by the same means7 to prevent such     
loss4 ,good shelter over the roosts1 and
 daily sprinkling with prepared muck or 
charcoal-dust will be amply repaid by   
the increased value of the manure1 and  
its better action and greater durability
 in the soil4 ,the value of this manure 
should be taken into consideration in   
calculating the profit of keeping       
poultry 7as indeed with all other       
stock74 ,it has been observed by a      
gentleman of much experience1 in poultry
 raising1 that the yearly manure of a   
hundred fowls applied to previously     
unmanured land would produce extra corn 
enough to keep them for a year4 ,this is
 probably a large estimate1 but it      
serves to show that this fertilizer is  
very valuable1 and also that poultry may
 be kept with great profit1 if their    
excrements are properly secured4  ,the  
manure of pigeons has been a favorite   
fertilizer in some countries for more   
than #bjjj years4  ,market gardeners    

attach much value to rabbit-manure4     
,,sheep ,,manure4  ,what can you say of 
the manure of sheep8  ,the manure of    
sheep is less valuable than it would be1
 if so large a quantity of the nitrogen 
and mineral parts of the food were not  
employed in the formation of wool4 ,this
 has a great effect on the richness of  
the excrements1 but they are still a    
very good fertilizer1 and should be     
protected from loss in the same way as  
stable manure4   ,,guano4  ,should the  
use of guano induce us to disregard     
other manures8  ,where and in what      
manner is the best guano deposited8     
,guano as a manure has become world     
renowned4 ,the worn-out tobacco lands of
 ,virginia1 and other fields in many    
parts of the country1 which seemed to   
have yielded to the effect of an        
ignorant course of cultivation1 and to  
have sunk to their final repose1 have in
 many cases been revived to the         
production of excellent crops1 and have 
had their value multiplied many fold by 

the use of guano4 ,although an excellent
 manure1 it should not cause us to lose 
sight of those valuable materials which 
exist on almost every farm4 ,every ton  
of guano imported into the ,united      
,states is an addition to our national  
wealth1 but every ton of stable-manure1 
or poultry-dung1 or night soil          
evaporated or carried away in rivers1 is
 equally a deduction from our riches4   
,if the imported manure is to really    
benefit us1 we must not allow it to     
occasion the neglect and consequent loss
 of our domestic fertilizers4  ,the     
,peruvian guano 7which is considered the
 best7 is brought from islands near the 
coast of ,peru4 ,the birds which        
frequent these islands live almost      
entirely on fish1 and drop their        
excrements here in a climate where rain 
is almost unknown1 and where1 from the  
dryness of the air1 there is but little 
loss sustained by the manure4 ,it is    
brought to this country in large        
quantities1 and is an excellent         

fertilizer1 superior even to night soil4
  ,how should it be prepared for use8   
,it should be mixed with an absorbent   
before being used1 unless it is plowed  
deeply under the soil1 as it contains   
much ammonia which would be lost from   
evaporation4 ,it would probably also    
injure plants4 ,the best way to use     
guano1 is in connection with sulphuric  
acid and bones1 as will be described    
hereafter4  ,the composition of the     
various kinds of guano may be found in  
the section on analysis4  ,,footnotes3  
,,aa ,the nitrogenous compound in the   
urine4  ,,ab ,comparatively4            
,,chapter ,,vii4  ,,other ,,organic     
,,manures4   ,the number of organic     
manures is almost countless4 ,the most  
common of these have been described in  
the previous chapters on the excrements 
of animals4 ,the more prominent of the  
remaining ones will now be considered4  
,as a universal rule1 it may be stated  
that all organic matter 7every thing    
which has had vegetable or animal life7 

is capable of fertilizing plants4       
,,dead ,,animals4  ,what are the chief  
fertilizing constituents of dead        
animals8  ,what becomes of these when   
exposed to the atmosphere8  ,how may    
this be prevented8  ,the bodies of      
animals contain much nitrogen1 as well  
as valuable quantities1 the phosphates  
and other inorganic materials required  
in the growth of plants4 ,on their      
decay1 the nitrogen is resolved into    
ammonia1,,ac and the mineral matters    
become valuable as food for the         
inorganic parts of plants4  ,if the     
decomposition of animal bodies takes    
place in exposed situations1 and without
 proper precautions1 the ammonia escapes
 into the atmosphere1 and much of the   
mineral portion is leached out by rains4
 ,the use of absorbents1 such as        
charcoal-dust1 prepared muck1 etc41 will
 entirely prevent evaporation1 and will 
in a great measure serve as a protection
 against leaching4  ,if a dead horse be 
cut in pieces and mixed with ten loads  

of muck1 the whole mass will1 in a      
single season1 become a most valuable   
compost4 ,small animals1 such as dogs1  
cats1 etc41 may be with advantage buried
 by the roots of grape-vines or trees4  
,,bones4  ,of what do the bones of      
animals consist8  ,what is gelatine8    
,describe the fertilizing qualities of  
fish4  ,the bones of animals contain    
phosphate of lime and gelatine4 ,the    
gelatine is a nitrogenous substance1 and
 produces ammonia on its decomposition4 
,this subject will be spoken of more    
fully under the head of 'phosphate of   
lime' in the chapter on mineral manures1
 as the treatment of bones is more      
directly with reference to the          
fertilizing value of their inorganic    
matter4   ,,fish4  ,in many localities  
near the sea-shore large quantities of  
fish are caught and applied to the soil4
 ,these make excellent manure4 ,they    
contain much nitrogen1 which renders    
them strongly ammoniacal on             
decomposition4 ,their bones consist of  

phosphate and carbonate of lime2 and1   
being naturally soft1 they decompose in 
the soil with great facility1 and become
 available to plants4 ,the scales of    
fish contain valuable quantities of     
nitrogen1 phosphate of lime1 etc41 all  
of which are highly useful4  ,refuse    
fishy matters from markets and from the 
house are well worth saving4 ,these and 
fish caught for manure may be made into 
compost with prepared muck1 etc42 and1  
as they putrefy rapidly1 they soon      
become ready for use4 ,they may be added
 to the compost of stable manure with   
great advantage4  ,should these be      
applied as a top dressing to the soil8  
,what are the fertilizing properties of 
woollen rags8  ,what is the best way to 
use them8  ,fish 7like all other        
nitrogenous manures7 should never be    
applied as a top dressing1 unless       
previously mixed with a good absorbent  
of ammonia1 but should when used alone  
be immediately plowed under to          
considerable depth1 to prevent the      

evaporation--and consequent loss--of    
their fertilizing gases4   ,,woollen    
,,rags1 ,,etc4  ,woollen rags1 hair1    
waste of woollen factories1 etc41       
contain both nitrogen and phosphate of  
lime2 and1 like all other matters       
containing these ingredients1 are       
excellent manures1 but must be used in  
such a way as to prevent the escape of  
their fertilizing gases4 ,they decompose
 slowly1 and are therefore considered a 
lasting manure4 ,like all lasting       
manures1 however1 they are slow in their
 effects1 and the most advantageous way 
to use them is to compost them with     
stable manure1 or with some other       
rapidly fermenting substance1 which will
 hasten their decomposition and render  
them sooner available4  ,rags1 hair1    
etc41 thus treated1 will in a short time
 be reduced to such a condition that    
they may be immediately used by plants  
instead of lying in the soil to be      
slowly taken up4 ,it is better in all   
cases to have manures act quickly and   

give an immediate return for their cost1
 than to lie for a long time in the soil
 before their influence is felt4  ,what 
is their value compared with that of    
farm-yard manure8  ,how should old      
leather be treated8  ,describe the      
manurial properties of tanners' refuse4 
,how should they be treated8  ,are horn 
piths1 etc4 valuable8  ,a pound of      
woollen rags is worth1 as a manure1     
twice as much as is paid for good linen 
shreds for paper making2 still1 while   
the latter are always preserved1 the    
former are thrown away1 although        
considered by good judges to be worth   
forty times as much as barn-yard manure4
  ,old leather should not be thrown     
away4 ,it decomposes very slowly1 and   
consequently is of but a little value2  
but1 if put at the roots of young trees1
 it will in time produce appreciable    
effects4  ,tanners' and curriers'       
refuse1 and all other animal offal1     
including that of the slaughter-house1  
is well worth attention1 as it contains 

more or less of those two most important
 ingredients of manures1 nitrogen and   
phosphate of lime4  ,it is unnecessary  
to add that1 in common with all other   
animal manures1 these substances must be
 either composted1 or immediately plowed
 under the soil4 ,horn piths1 and horn  
shavings1 if decomposed in compost1 with
 substances which ferment rapidly1 make 
very good manure1 and are worth fully   
the price charged for them4   ,,organic 
,,manures ,,of ,,vegetable ,,origin4    
,muck1 the most important of the purely 
vegetable manures1 has been already     
sufficiently described4 ,it should be   
particularly borne in mind that1 when   
first taken from the swamp it is often  
sour1 or cold1 but that if exposed for a
 long time to the air1 or if well       
treated with lime1 unleached ashes1 the 
lime and salt mixture1 or any other     
alkali1 its acids will be neutralized   
7or overcome71 and it becomes a good    
application to any soil1 except peat or 
other soils already containing large    

quantities of organic matter4 ,in       
applying muck to the soil 7as has been  
before stated71 it should be made a     
vehicle for carrying ammoniacal manures4
   ,,spent ,,tan ,,bark4  ,why is       
decomposed bark more fertilizing than   
that of decayed wood8  ,spent tan bark1 
if previously decomposed by the use of  
the lime and salt mixture1 or potash1   
answers all the purposes of prepared    
muck1 but is more difficult of          
decomposition4  ,how may bark be        
decomposed8  ,why should tan bark be    
composted with an alkali8  ,why is it   
good for mulching8  ,is sawdust of any  
value8  ,the bark of trees contains a   
larger proportion of inorganic matter   
than the wood1 and much of this1 on the 
decomposition of the bark1 becomes      
available as manure4 ,the chemical      
effect on the bark1 of using it in the  
tanning of leather1 is such as to render
 it difficult to be rotted by the       
ordinary means1 but1 by the use of the  
lime and salt mixture it may be reduced 

to the finest condition1 and becomes a  
most excellent manure4 ,it probably     
contains small quantities of nitrogen   
7obtained from the leather71 which adds 
to its value4 ,unless tan bark be       
composted with lime1 or some other      
alkali1 it may produce injurious effects
 from the tannic acid which it is liable
 to contain4 ,alkaline substances will  
neutralize this acid1 and prevent it    
from being injurious4  ,one great       
benefit resulting from the use of spent 
tan bark1 is due to its power of        
absorbing moisture from the atmosphere4 
,for this reason it is very valuable for
 mulching,,ad young trees and plants    
when first set out4   ,,sawdust4  ,why  
is sawdust a good addition to the       
pig-stye8  ,what is the peculiarity of  
sawdust from the beech1 etc48  ,what is 
a peculiarity of soot8  ,why may soot be
 used as a top dressing without losing  
its ammonia8  ,sawdust in its natural   
state is of very little value to the    
land1 but when decomposed1 as may be    

done by the same method as was described
 for tan bark1 it is of some importance1
 as it contains a large quantity of     
carbon4 ,its ash1 too1 which becomes    
available1 contains soluble inorganic   
matter1 and in this way it acts as a    
direct manure4 ,so far as concerns the  
value of the ash1 however1 the bark is  
superior to sawdust4 ,sawdust may be    
partially rotted by mixing it with      
strong manure 7as hog manure71 while it 
acts as a divisor1 and prevents the too 
rapid action of this when applied to the
 soil4 ,some kinds of sawdust1 such as  
that from beech wood1 form acetic acid  
on their decomposition1 and these should
 be treated with1 at least1 a sufficient
 quantity of lime to correct the acid4  
,soot is a good manure4 ,it contains    
much carbon1 and has1 thus far1 all of  
the beneficial effects of charcoal dust4
 ,the sulphur1 which is one of its      
constituents1 not only serves as food   
for plants1 but1 from its odor1 is a    
good protection against some insects4   

,by throwing a handful of soot on a     
melon vine1 or young cabbage plant1 it  
will keep away many insects4  ,soot     
contains some ammonia1 and as this is in
 the form of a sulphate1 it is not      
volatile1 and consequently does not     
evaporate when the soot is applied as a 
top dressing1 which is the almost       
universal custom4   ,,green ,,crops4    
,what plants are most used as green     
crops8  ,what office is performed by the
 roots of green crops8  ,how do such    
manures increase the organic matter of  
soils8  ,green crops1 to plow under1 are
 in many places largely raised1 and are 
always beneficial4 ,the plants most used
 for this purpose1 in our country1 are  
clover1 buckwheat1 and peas4 ,these     
plants have very long roots1 which they 
send deep in the soil1 to draw up       
mineral matter for their support4 ,this 
mineral matter is deposited in the      
plant4 ,the leaves and roots receive    
carbonic acid and ammonia from the air1 
and from water4 ,in this manner they    

obtain their carbon4 ,when the crop is  
turned under the soil1 it decomposes1   
and the carbon1 as well as the mineral  
ingredients obtained from the subsoil1  
are deposited in the surface soil1 and  
become of use to succeeding crops4 ,the 
hollow stalks of the buckwheat and pea1 
serve as tubes1 in the soil1 for the    
passage of air1 and thus1 in heavy      
soils1 give a much needed circulation of
 atmospheric fertilizers4  ,what office 
is performed by the straw of the        
buckwheat and pea8  ,what treatment may 
be substituted for the use of green     
crops8  ,which course should be adopted 
in high farming8  ,why is the use of    
green crops preferable in ordinary      
cultivation8  ,name some other valuable 
manures4  ,although green crops are of  
great benefit1 and are managed with     
little labor1 there is no doubt but the 
same results may be more economically   
produced4 ,a few loads of prepared muck 
will do more towards increasing the     
organic matter in the soil1 than a very 

heavy crop of clover1 while it would be 
ready for immediate cultivation1 instead
 of having to lie idle during the year  
required in the production and          
decomposition of the green crop4 ,the   
effect of the roots penetrating the     
subsoil is1 as we have seen1 to draw up 
inorganic matter1 to be deposited within
 reach of the roots of future crops4 ,in
 the next section we shall show that    
this end may be much more efficiently   
attained by the use of the sub-soil     
plow1 which makes a passage for the     
roots into the subsoil1 where they can  
obtain for themselves what would1 in the
 other case1 be brought up for them by  
the roots of the green crop4  ,the      
offices of the hollow straws may be     
performed by a system of ridging and    
back furrowing1 having previously       
covered the soil with leaves1 or other  
refuse organic material4  ,in high      
farming1 where the object of the        
cultivator is to make a profitable      
investment of labor1 these last named   

methods will be found most expedient2   
but1 if the farmer have a large quantity
 of land1 and can afford but a limited  
amount of labor1 the raising of green   
crops1 to be plowed under in the fall1  
will probably be adopted4  ,before      
closing this chapter1 it may be well to 
remark that there are various other     
fertilizers1 such as the ammoniacal     
liquor of gas-houses1 soapers' wastes1  
bleachers' lye1 lees of old oil casks1  
etc41 which we have not space to        
consider at length1 but which are all   
valuable as additions to the compost    
heap1 or as applications1 in a liquid   
form1 to the soil4  ,what are the       
advantages arising from burying manure  
in its green state8  ,which is generally
 preferable1 this course1 or composting8
 ,why8  ,in many cases 7when heavy      
manuring is practised71 it may be well  
to apply organic manures to the soil in 
a green state1 turn them under1 and     
allow them to undergo decomposition in  
the ground4 ,the advantages of this     

system are1 that the heat1 resulting    
from the chemical changes1 will hasten  
the growth of plants1 by making the soil
 warmer2 the carbonic acid formed will  
be presented to the roots instead of    
escaping into the atmosphere2 and if the
 soil be heavy1 the rising of the gases 
will tend to loosen it1 and the leaving 
vacant of the spaces occupied by the    
solid matters will1 on their being      
resolved into gases1 render the soil of 
a more porous character4 ,as a general  
rule1 however1 in ordinary farming1     
where the amount of manure applied is   
only sufficient for the supply of food  
to the crop1 it is undoubtedly better to
 have it previously decomposed--cooked  
as it were1 for the uses of the         
plants--as they can then obtain the     
required amount of nutriment as fast as 
needed4   ,,absorption ,,of ,,moisture4 
,it is often convenient to know the     
relative power of different manures to  
absorb moisture from the atmosphere1    
especially when we wish to manure lands 

that suffer from drought4 ,the following
 results are given by ,c4 ,w4 ,johnson1 
in his essay on salt1 7pp4 #h and #ai74 
,in these experiments the animal manures
 were employed without any admixture of 
straw4                                  
,,parts #ajjj parts of horse dung1 dried
 in a temperature            of #ajj1   
absorbed by exposure            for     
three hours1 to air saturated           
with moisture1 of the temperature of    
#fb                                     
#ade #ajjj parts of cow dung1 under the 
same circumstances1            absorbed 
#acj #ajjj parts pig dung               
#abj #ajjj      sheep                   
#ha #ajjj      pigeon                   
#ej #ajjj      rich alluvial soil       
#ad #ajjj      fresh tanner's bark      
#aae #ajjj      putrified               
#ade #ajjj      refuse marine salt sold 
as manure            #di #ajjj      soot
                                        
#cf #ajjj      burnt clay               
#bi #ajjj      coal ashes               

#ad #ajjj      lime                     
#aa #ajjj      sediment from salt pans  
#aj #ajjj      crushed rock salt        
#aj #ajjj      gypsum                   
#i #ajjj      salt                      
#d;,,ae  ,muck is a most excellent      
absorbent of moisture1 when thoroughly  
decomposed4   ,,distribution ,,of       
,,manures4  ,the following table from   
,johnson1 on manures1 will be found     
convenient in the distribution of       
manures4  ,by its assistance the farmer 
will know how many loads of manure he   
requires1 dividing each load into a     
stated number of heaps1 and placing them
 at certain distances4 ,in this manner  
manure may be applied evenly1 and       
calculation may be made as to the       
amount1 per acre1 which a certain       
quantity will supply4,,af               
----------------------------------------
----------------------------- ,,distance
   ,,of         ,,the ,,heaps4          
,,number ,,of ,,heaps ,,in ,a ,,load4   
----------------------------------------

--------------------             #a     
#b    #c    #d    #e    #f    #g    #h  
#i    #aj                               
----------------------------------------
-------------------- #c yards4   #ech   
#bfi  #agi  #acd  #ajh   #hi  #gg   #fg 
#fj   #ed #c do4     #cie  #afh  #acb   
#ii   #gi   #ff   #ef  #di  #dd   #ci #d
  do4     #cjc  #aea  #aja   #ge  #fj   
#ej  #dc  #cg  #cc  #cj #d do4     #bci 
#abj   #gi  #fj   #dg  #ci  #cd  #cj    
#bf  #bd #e  do4     #aid   #ig   #fd   
#dh  #ch  #cb  #bg  #bd  #ba  #ai #e do4
     #afj   #hj   #ec  #dj   #cb   #bf  
#bb  #bj   #ag  #af #f  do4     #aca    
#fg   #dd  #cc  #bg   #bb  #ai  #af  #ae
   #ac #f do4     #aae   #eg  #ch  #bh  
#bc   #ai   #af  #ad  #ab  #aa #g  do4  
#ii   #di  #cc   #bd  #ai  #af  #ad     
#ab  #aa   #aj #g do4      #hf   #dc    
#bh  #ba  #ag  #ad  #ab  #aj   #i   #h  
#h  do4      #ge  #cg  #be  #ai   #ae   
#ab  #aj   #i   #h   #g #h do4      #fg 
#cc  #bb  #af  #ac  #aa   #i   #h   #g  
#f #i  do4      #fj   #cj   #bj   #ae   

#ab   #aj    #h   #g   #f   #f #i do4   
#ec  #bf  #ah   #ac  #aj   #i    #g   #f
   #f    #e #aj do4      #dh  #bd  #af  
#ab    #i   #h    #g    #f    #e   #d   
----------------------------------------
--------------------  ,example          
#a4--,required1 the number of loads     
necessary to manure an acre of ground1  
dividing each load into six heaps1 and  
placing them at a distance of #d yards  
from each other8 ,the answer by the     
table is #ci4  ,example #b4--;,a farmer 
has a field containing #e acres1 over   
which he wishes to spread #hb loads of  
dung4 ,now #hb divided by #e1 gives #ae 
loads per acre2 and by referring to the 
table1 it will be seen that the desired 
object may be accomplished1 by making #d
 heaps of a load1 and placing them #i   
yards apart1 or by #i heaps at #f yards1
 as may be thought advisable4           
,,footnotes3  ,,ac ,under some          
circumstances1 nitric acid is formed1   
which is equally beneficial to vegetable
 growth4  ,,ad ,see the glossary at the 

end of the book4  ,,ae ,working ,farmer1
 vol4 #a1 p4 #ee4  ,,af ,it is not      
necessary that this and the foregoing   
table should be learned by the scholar1 
but they will be found valuable for     
reference by the farmer4     ,,chapter  
,,viii4  ,,mineral ,,manures4   ,how    
many kinds of action have inorganic     
manures8  ,what is the first of these8  
,the second8 ,third8 ,fourth8  ,do all  
mineral manures possess all of these    
qualities8  ,the second class of manures
 named in the general division of the   
subject1 in the early part of this      
chapter1 comprises those of a mineral   
character1 or inorganic manures4  ,these
 manures have four kinds of action when 
applied to the soil4  #ast4 ,they       
furnish food for the inorganic part of  
plants4  #b;d4 ,they prepare matters    
already in the soil1 for assimilation by
 roots4  #c;d4 ,they improve the        
mechanical condition of the soil4  #dth4
 ,they absorb ammonia4  ,some of the    
mineral manures produce in the soil only

 one of these effects1 and others are   
efficient in two or all of them4  ,the  
principles to be considered in the use  
of mineral manures are essentially given
 in the first two sections of this book4
 ,it may be well1 however1 to repeat    
them briefly in this connection1 and to 
give the reasons why any of these       
manures are needed1 from which we may   
learn what rules are to be observed in  
their application4  ,relate what you    
know of the properties of vegetable     
ashes8  ,how does this relate to the    
fertility of the soil8  ,according to   
what two rules may we apply mineral     
manures8  ,what course would you pursue 
to raise potatoes on a soil containing a
 very little phosphoric acid and no     
potash8  #ast4 ,those which are used as 
food by plants4 ,it will be recollected 
that the ash left after burning plants1 
and which formed a part of their        
structures1 has a certain chemical      
composition2 that is1 it consists of    
alkalies1 acids1 and neutrals4 ,it was  

also stated that the ashes of plants of 
the same kind are always of about the   
same composition1 while the ashes of    
different kinds of plants may vary      
materially4 ,different parts of the same
 plant too1 as we learned1 are supplied 
with different kinds of ash4  ,for      
instance1 clover1 on being burned1      
leaves an ash containing lime1 as one of
 its principal ingredients1 while the   
ash of potatoes contains more of potash 
than of any thing else4  ,in the second 
section 7on soils71 we learned that some
 soils contain every thing necessary to 
make the ashes of all plants1 and in    
sufficient quantity to supply what is   
required1 while other soils are either  
entirely deficient in one or more       
ingredients1 or contain so little of    
them that they are unfertile for certain
 plants4  ,would you manure it in the   
same way for wheat8  ,why8  ,from this1 
we see that we may pursue either one of 
two courses4 ,after we know the exact   
composition of the soil--which we can   

learn only from correct analysis--we may
 manure it with a view either to making 
it fertile for all kinds of plants or   
only for one particular plant4 ,for     
instance1 we may find that a soil       
contains a very little phosphoric acid1 
and no potash4 ,if we wish to raise     
potatoes on such a soil1 we have only to
 apply potash 7if the soil is good in   
other particulars71 which is largely    
required by this plant1 though it needs 
but little phosphoric acid2 while1 if we
 wish to make it fertile for wheat1 and 
all other plants1 we must apply more    
phosphoric acid as well as potash4 ,as a
 universal rule1 it may be stated that  
to render a soil fertile for any        
particular plant1 we must supply it     
7unless it already contains them7 with  
those matters which are necessary to    
make the ash of that plant2 and1 if we  
would render it capable of producing all
 kinds of plants1 it must be furnished  
with the materials required in the      
formation of all kinds of vegetable     

ashes4  ,it is not absolutely necessary 
to have the soil analyzed before it can 
be cultivated with success1 but it is   
the cheapest way4  ,how is the fertility
 of the soil to be maintained1 if the   
crops are sold8  ,what rule is given for
 general treatment8  ,give an instance  
of matters in the soil that are to be   
rendered available by mineral manures8  
,we might proceed from an analysis of   
the plant required 7which will be found 
in ,section ,v471 and apply to the soil 
in the form of manure every thing that  
is necessary for the formation of the   
ash of that plant4 ,this would give a   
good crop on any soil that was in the   
proper mechanical condition1 and        
contained enough organic matter2 but a  
moment's reflection will show that1 if  
the soil contained a large amount of    
potash1 or of phosphate of lime1 it     
would not be necessary to make an       
application of more of these            
ingredients--at an expense of perhaps   
three times the cost of an analysis4 ,it

 is true that1 if the crop is sold1 and 
it is desired to maintain the fertility 
of the soil1 the full amount of the ash 
must be applied1 either before or after 
the crop is grown2 but1 in the ordinary 
use of crops for feeding purposes1 a    
large part of the ash will exist in the 
excrements of the animals2 so that the  
judicious farmer will be able to manure 
his land with more economy than if he   
had to apply to each crop the whole     
amount and variety required for its ash4
 ,the best rule for practical manuring  
is probably to strengthen the soil in   
its weaker points1 and prevent the      
stronger ones from becoming weaker4 ,in 
this way1 the soil may be raised to the 
highest state of fertility1 and be fully
 maintained in its productive powers4   
#b;d4 ,those manures which render       
available matter already contained in   
the soil4  ,how may silica be developed8
  ,how does lime affect soils containing
 coarse particles8  ,how do mineral     
manures sometimes improve the mechanical

 texture of the soil8  ,silica 7or      
sand71 it will be recollected1 exists in
 all soils2 but1 in its pure state1 is  
not capable of being dissolved1 and     
therefore cannot be used by plants4 ,the
 alkalies 7as has been stated71 have the
 power of combining with this silica1   
making compounds1 which are called      
silicates4 ,these are readily dissolved 
by water1 and are available in vegetable
 growth4 ,now1 if a soil is deficient in
 these soluble silicates1 it is well    
known that grain1 etc41 grown on it1 not
 being able to obtain the material which
 gives them strength1 will fall down or 
lodge2 but1 if such measures be taken1  
as will render the sand soluble1 the    
straw will be strong and healthy4       
,alkalies used for this purpose1 come   
under the head of those manures which   
develope the natural resources of the   
soil4  ,again1 much of the mineral      
matter in the soil is combined within   
particles1 and is therefore out of the  
reach of roots4 ,lime1 among other      

thing1 has the effect of causing these  
particles to crumble and expose their   
constituents to the demand of roots4    
,therefore1 lime has for one of its     
offices the development of the          
fertilizing ingredients of the soil4    
#c;d4 ,those manures which improve the  
mechanical condition of the soil4  ,the 
alkalies1 in combining with sand1       
commence their action on the surfaces of
 the particles1 and roughen them--rust  
them as it were4 ,this roughening of    
particles of the soil prevents them from
 moving among each other as easily as   
they do when they are smooth1 and thus  
keeps the soil from being compacted by  
heavy rains1 as it is liable to be in   
its natural condition4 ,in this way1 the
 mechanical texture of the soil is      
improved4  ,it has just been said that  
lime causes the pulverization of the    
particles of the soil2 and thus1 by     
making it finer1 improves its mechanical
 condition4  ,some mineral manures1 as  
plaster and salt1 have the power of     

absorbing moisture from the atmosphere2 
and this is a mechanical improvement to 
dry soils4  ,name some mineral manures  
which absorb ammonia8  #dth4 ,those     
mineral manures which have the power of 
absorbing ammonia4  ,plaster1 chloride  
of lime1 alumina 7clay71 etc41 are large
 absorbents of ammonia1 whether arising 
from the fermentation of animal manures 
or washed down from the atmosphere by   
rains4 ,the ammonia thus absorbed is of 
course very important in the vegetation 
of crops4  ,having now explained the    
reasons why mineral manures are         
necessary1 and the manner in which they 
produce their effects1 we will proceed  
to examine the various deficiencies of  
soils and the character of many kinds of
 this class of fertilizers4             
,,chapter ,,ix4  ,,deficiencies ,,of    
,,soils1 ,,means ,,of ,,restoration1    
,,etc4   ,as will be seen by referring  
to the analyses of soils on p4 #gb1 they
 may be deficient in certain            
ingredients1 which it is the object of  

mineral manures to supply4 ,these we    
will take up in order1 and endeavor to  
show in a simple manner the best means  
of managing them in practical farming4  
,,alkalies4  ,,potash4  ,do all soils   
contain a sufficient amount of potash8  
,how may its deficiency have been       
caused8  ,how may its absence be        
detected8  ,does barn-yard manure       
contain sufficient potash to supply its 
deficiency in worn-out soils8  ,potash  
is often deficient in the soil4 ,its    
deficiency may have been caused in two  
ways4 ,either it may not have existed   
largely in the rock from which the soil 
was formed1 and consequently is equally 
absent from the soil itself1 or it may  
have once been present in sufficient    
quantities1 and been carried away in    
crops1 without being returned to the    
soil in the form of manure until too    
little remains for the requirements of  
fertility4  ,in either case1 its absence
 may be accurately detected by a skilful
 chemist1 and it may be supplied by the 

farmer in various ways4 ,potash1 as well
 as all of the other mineral manures1 is
 contained in the excrements of animals1
 but not 7as is also the case with the  
others7 in sufficient quantities to     
restore the proper balance to soils     
where it is largely deficient1 nor even 
to make up for what is yearly removed   
with each crop1 except that crop 7or its
 equivalent7 has been fed to such       
animals as return all of the fertilizing
 constituents of their food in the form 
of manure1 and this be all carefully    
preserved and applied to the soil4 ,in  
all other cases1 it is necessary to     
apply more potash than is contained in  
the excrements of animals4  ,what is    
generally the most available source from
 which to obtain this alkali8  ,will    
leached ashes answer the same purpose8  
,how may ashes be used8  ,unleached wood
 ashes is generally the most available  
source from which to obtain this alkali4
 ,the ashes of all kinds of wood contain
 potash 7more or less according to the  

kind--see analysis section ,v47 ,if the 
ashes are leached1 the potash is        
removed2 and1 hence for the purpose of  
supplying it1 they are worthless2 but   
unleached ashes are an excellent source 
from which to obtain it4 ,they may be   
made into compost with muck1 as directed
 in a previous chapter1 or applied      
directly to the soil4 ,in either case   
the potash is available directly to the 
plant1 or is capable of uniting with the
 silica in the soil to form silicate of 
potash4 ,neither potash nor any other   
alkali should ever be applied to animal 
manures unless in compost with an       
absorbent1 as they cause the ammonia to 
be thrown off and lost4  ,from what     
other sources may potash be obtained8   
,how may we obtain soda8  ,in what      
quantities should pure salt be applied  
to the soil8  ,potash sparlings1 or the 
refuse of potash warehouses1 is an      
excellent manure for lands deficient in 
this constituent4  ,potash marl1 such as
 is found in ,new ,jersey1 contains a   

large proportion of potash1 and is an   
excellent application to soils requiring
 it4  ,feldspar1 kaolin1 and other      
minerals containing potash1 are1 in some
 localities1 to be obtained in          
sufficient quantities to be used for    
manurial purposes4  ,granite contains   
potash1 and if it can be crushed 7as is 
the case with some of the softer kinds17
 it serves a very good purpose4         
,,soda4  ,if applied in large quantities
 will it produce permanent injury8  ,in 
what quantities should salt be applied  
to composts8 ,to asparagus8  ,soda1 the 
requirement of which is occasioned by   
the same causes as create a deficiency  
of potash1 and all of the other         
ingredients of vegetable ashes1 may be  
very readily supplied by the use of     
common salt 7chloride of sodium71 which 
consists of about one half sodium 7the  
base of soda74 ,the best way to use salt
 is in the lime and salt mixture1       
previously described1 or as a direct    
application to the soil4 ,if too much   

salt be given to the soil it will kill  
any plant4 ,in small quantities1        
however1 it is highly beneficial1 and if
 six bushels per acre be sown broadcast 
over the land1 to be carried in by rains
 and dews1 it will not only destroy many
 insects 7grubs1 worms1 etc471 but will1
 after decomposing and becoming chlorine
 and soda1 prove an excellent manure4   
,salt1 even in quantities large enough  
to denude the soil of all vegetation1 is
 never permanently injurious4 ,after the
 first year1 it becomes resolved into   
its constituents1 and furnishes chlorine
 and soda to plants1 without injuring   
them4 ,one bushel of salt in each cord  
of compost will not only hasten the     
decomposition of the manures1 but will  
kill all seeds and grubs--a very        
desirable effect4 ,while small          
quantities of salt in a compost heap are
 beneficial1 too much 7as when applied  
to the soil7 is positively injurious1 as
 it arrests decomposition2 fairly       
pickles the manures1 and prevents them  

from rotting4  ,what is generally the   
best way to use salt8  ,what is nitrate 
of soda8  ,what plants contain lime8    
,for asparagus1 which is a marine plant1
 salt is an excellent manure1 and may be
 applied in almost unlimited quantities1
 while the plants are growing1 if used  
after they have gone to top1 it is      
injurious4 ,salt has been applied to    
asparagus beds in such quantities as to 
completely cover them1 and with apparent
 benefit to the plants4 ,of course large
 doses of salt kill all weeds1 and thus 
save labor and the injury to the        
asparagus roots1 which would result from
 their removal by hoeing4 ,salt may be  
used advantageously in any of the       
foregoing manners1 but should always be 
applied with care4 ,for ordinary farm   
purposes1 it is undoubtedly most        
profitable to use the salt with lime1   
and make it perform the double duty of  
assisting in the decomposition of       
vegetable matter1 and fertilizing the   
soil4  ,soda unites with the silica in  

the soil1 and forms the valuable        
silicate of soda4  ,nitrate of soda1 or 
cubical nitre1 which is found in ,south 
,america1 consists of soda and nitric   
acid4 ,it furnishes both soda and       
nitrogen to plants1 and is an excellent 
manure4   ,,lime4  ,the subject of lime 
is one of most vital importance to the  
farmer2 indeed1 so varied are its modes 
of action and its effects1 that some    
writers have given it credit for every  
thing good in the way of farming1 and   
have gone so far as to say that all     
permanent improvement of agriculture    
must depend on the use of lime4         
,although this is far in excess of the  
truth 7as lime cannot plow1 nor drain1  
nor supply any thing but lime to the    
soil71 its many beneficial effects      
demand for it the closest attention4    
,do all soils contain enough lime for   
the use of plants8  ,what amount is     
needed for this purpose8  ,what is its  
first-named effect on the soil8  ,its   
second8 ,third8 ,fourth8 ,fifth8  ,how  

are acids produced in the soil8  ,as    
food for plants1 lime is of considerable
 importance4 ,all plants contain        
lime--some of them in large quantities4 
,it is an important constituent of      
straw1 meadow hay1 leaves of fruit      
trees1 peas1 beans1 and turnips4 ,it    
constitutes more than one third of the  
ash of red clover4 ,many soils contain  
lime enough for the use of plants1 in   
others it is deficient1 and must be     
supplied artificially before they can   
produce good crops of those plants of   
which lime is an important ingredient4  
,the only way in which the exact        
quantity of lime in the soil can be     
ascertained is by chemical analysis4    
,however1 the amount required for the   
mere feeding plants is not large1 7much 
less than one per cent471 but lime is   
often necessary for other purposes2 and 
setting aside1 for the present1 its     
feeding action1 we will examine its     
various effects on the mechanical and   
chemical condition of the soil4  #a4 ,it

 corrects acidity 7sourness74  #b4 ,it  
hastens the decomposition of the organic
 matter in the soil4  #c4 ,it causes the
 mineral particles of the soil to       
crumble4  #d4 ,by producing the above   
effects1 it prepares the constituents of
 the soil for assimilation by plants4   
#e4 ,it is said to exhaust the soil1 but
 it does so in a very desirable manner1 
the injurious effects of which may be   
easily avoided4  ,how does lime correct 
them8  ,how does it affect animal       
manures in the soil8  #a4 ,the          
decomposition of organic matter in the  
soil1 often produces acids which makes  
the land sour1 and cause it to produce  
sorrel and other weeds1 which interfere 
with the healthy growth of crops4 ,lime 
is an alkali1 and if applied to soils   
suffering from sourness1 it will unite  
with the acids1 and neutralize them1 so 
that they will no longer be injurious4  
#b4 ,we have before stated that lime is 
a decomposing agent1 and hastens the    
rotting of muck and other organic       

matter4 ,it has the same effect on the  
organic parts of the soil1 and causes   
them to be resolved into the gases and  
minerals of which they are formed4 ,it  
has this effect1 especially1 on organic 
matters containing nitrogen1 causing    
them to throw off ammonia2 consequently1
 it liberates this gas from the animal  
manures in the soil4  #c4 ,various      
inorganic compounds in the soil are so  
affected by lime1 that they lose their  
power of holding together1 and crumble1 
or are reduced to finer particles1 while
 some of their constituents are rendered
 soluble4 ,one way in which this is     
accomplished is by the action of the    
lime on the silica contained in these   
compounds1 forming the silicate of lime4
 ,this crumbling effect improves the    
mechanical as well as the chemical      
condition of the soil4  #d4 ,we are now 
enabled to see how lime prepares the    
constituents of the soil for the use of 
plants4  ,inorganic compounds8  ,how    
does lime prepare the constituents of   

the soil for use8  ,what can you say of 
the remark that lime exhausts the       
organic matter in the soil8  ,by its    
action on the roots1 buried stubble1 and
 other organic matter in the soil1 it   
causes them to be decomposed1 and to    
give up many of their gaseous and       
inorganic constituents for the use of   
roots4 ,in this manner the organic      
matter is prepared for use more rapidly 
than would be the case1 if there were no
 lime present to hasten its             
decomposition4  ,by the decomposing     
action of lime on the mineral parts of  
the soil 7#c71 they also are placed more
 rapidly in a useful condition than     
would be the case1 if their preparation 
depended on the slow action of          
atmospheric influences4  ,thus1 we see  
that lime1 aside from its use directly  
as food for plants1 exerts a beneficial 
influence on both the organic and       
inorganic parts of the soil4  #e4 ,many 
contend that lime exhausts the soil4    
,if we examine the manner in which it   

does so1 we shall see that this is no   
argument against its use4  ,how can lime
 exhaust the mineral parts of the soil8 
,must the matter taken away be returned 
to the soil8  ,it exhausts the organic  
parts of the soil1 by decomposing them1 
and resolving them into the gases and   
minerals of which they are composed4 ,if
 the soil do not contain a sufficient   
quantity of absorbent matter1 such as   
clay or charcoal1 the gases arising from
 the organic matter are liable to       
escape2 but when there is a sufficient  
amount of these substances present 7as  
there always should be71 these gases are
 all retained until required by the     
roots of plants4 ,hence1 although the   
organic matter of manure and vegetable  
substances may be altered in form1 by   
the use of lime1 it can escape 7except  
in very poor soils7 only as it is taken 
up by roots to feed the crop1 and such  
exhaustion is certainly profitable2     
still1 in order that the fertility of   
the soil may be maintained1 enough of   

organic manure should be applied1 to    
make up for the amount taken from the   
soil by the crop1 after liberation for  
its use by the action of the lime4 ,this
 will be but a small proportion of the  
organic matter contained in the crop1 as
 it obtains the larger part from the    
atmosphere4  ,the only way in which lime
 can exhaust the inorganic part of the  
soil is1 by altering its condition1 so  
that plants can use it more readily4    
,that is1 it exposes it for solution in 
water4 ,we have seen that fertilizing   
matter cannot be leached out of a good  
soil1 in any material quantity1 but can 
only be carried down to a depth of about
 thirty-four inches4 ,hence1 we see that
 there can be no loss in this direction2
 and1 as inorganic matter cannot        
evaporate from the soil1 the only way in
 which it can escape is through the     
structure of plants4  ,if this course be
 pursued1 will the soil suffer from the 
use of lime8  ,is it the lime1 or its   
crop1 that exhausts the soil8  ,is lime 

containing magnesia better than pure    
lime8  ,what is the best kind of lime8  
,if lime is applied to the soil1 and    
increases the amount of crops grown by  
furnishing a larger supply of inorganic 
matter1 of course1 the removal of       
inorganic substances from the soil will 
be more rapid than when only a small    
amount of crop is grown1 and the soil   
will be sooner exhausted--not by the    
lime1 but by the plants4 ,in order to   
make up for this exhaustion1 it is      
necessary that a sufficient amount of   
inorganic matter be supplied to         
compensate for the increased quantity   
taken away by plants4  ,thus we see1    
that it is hardly fair to accuse the    
lime of exhausting the soil1 when it    
only improves its character1 and        
increases the amount of its yield4 ,it  
is the crop that takes away the         
fertility of the soil 7the same as would
 be the case if no lime were used1 only 
faster as the crop is larger71 and in   
all judicious cultivation1 this loss    

will be fully compensated by the        
application of manures1 thereby         
preventing the exhaustion of the soil4  
,is the purchase of marl to be          
recommended8  ,how is lime prepared for 
use8 7,note47  ,describe the burning and
 slaking of lime4  ,kind of lime to be  
used4 ,the first consideration in       
procuring lime for manuring land1 is to 
select that which contains but little1  
if any magnesia4 ,nearly all stone lime 
contains more or less of this1 but some 
kinds contain more than others4 ,when   
magnesia is applied to the soil1 in too 
large quantities1 it is positively      
injurious to plants1 and great care is  
necessary in making selection4 ,as a    
general rule1 it may be stated1 that the
 best plastering lime makes the best    
manure4 ,such kinds only should be used 
as are known from experiment not to be  
injurious4  ,shell lime is undoubtedly  
the best of all1 for it contains no     
magnesia1 and it does contain a small   
quantity of phosphate of lime4 ,in the  

vicinity of the sea-coast1 and near the 
lines of railroads1 oyster shells1 clam 
shells1 etc41 can be cheaply procured4  
,these may be prepared for use in the   
same manner as stone lime4,,ag  ,the    
preparation of the lime is done by first
 burning and then slaking1 or by putting
 it directly on the land1 in an unslaked
 condition1 after its having been       
burned4 ,shells are sometimes ground1   
and used without burning2 this is hardly
 advisable1 as they cannot be made so   
fine as by burning and slaking4 ,as was 
stated in the first section of this     
book1 lime usually exists in nature1 in 
the form of carbonate of lime1 as       
limestone1 chalk1 or marble 7being lime 
and carbonic acid combined71 and when   
this is burned1 the carbonic acid is    
thrown off1 leaving the lime in a pure  
or caustic form4 ,this is called burned 
lime1 quick-lime1 lime shells1 hot lime1
 etc4 ,if the proper quantity of water  
be poured on it1 it is immediately taken
 up by the lime1 which falls into a dry 

powder1 called slaked lime4 ,if         
quick-lime were left exposed to the     
weather1 it would absorb moisture from  
the atmosphere1 and become what is      
termed air slaked4  ,what is air        
slaking8  ,if slaked lime be exposed to 
the air1 what change does it undergo8   
,what is the object of slaking lime8    
,how much carbonic acid is contained in 
a ton of carbonate of lime8  ,how much  
lime does a ton of slaked lime contain8 
,what is the most economical form for   
transportation8  ,when slaked lime      
7consisting of lime and water7 is       
exposed to the atmosphere1 it absorbs   
carbonic acid1 and becomes carbonate of 
lime again2 but it is now in the form of
 a very fine powder1 and is much more   
useful than when in the stone4  ,if     
quick-lime is applied directly to the   
soil1 it absorbs first moisture1 and    
then carbonic acid1 becoming finally a  
powdered carbonate of lime4  ,one ton of
 carbonate of lime contains #aa cwt4 of 
lime2 the remainder is carbonic acid4   

,one ton of slaked lime contains about  
#ae cwt4 of lime2 the remainder is      
water4  ,hence we see that lime should  
be burned1 and not slaked1 before being 
transported1 as it would be unprofitable
 to transport the large quantity of     
carbonic acid and water contained in    
carbonate of lime and slaked lime4 ,the 
quick-lime may be slaked1 and carbonated
 after reaching its destination1 either 
before or after being applied to the    
land4  ,what is the best form for       
immediate action on the inorganic matter
 in the soil8  ,for most other purposes8
  ,as has been before stated1 much is   
gained by slaking lime with salt water1 
thus imitating the lime and salt        
mixture4 ,indeed in many cases1 it will 
be found profitable to use all lime in  
this way4 ,where a direct action on the 
inorganic matters contained in the soil 
is desired1 it may be well to apply the 
lime directly in the form of quick-lime2
 but1 where the decomposition of the    
vegetable and animal constituents of the

 soil is desired1 the correction of     
sourness1 or the supplying of lime to   
the crop1 the mixture with salt would be
 advisable4  ,the amount of lime        
required by plants is1 as was before    
observed1 usually small compared with   
the whole amount contained in the soil2 
still it is not unimportant4            
,,of ,,lime4 #be bus4 of wheat contain  
about    #ac   lbs4 #be        barley   
#aj    #be        oats                  
#aa      #b tons of turnips             
#ab      #b       potatoes              
#e      #b       red clover             
#gg      #b       rye grass             
#cj    ,,ah  ,what is the best guide    
concerning the quantity of lime to be   
applied8  ,what is said of the sinking  
of lime in the soil8  ,what is plaster  
of ,paris composed of8  ,why is it      
called plaster of ,paris8  ,the amount  
of lime required at each application1   
and the frequency of those applications1
 must depend on the chemical and        
mechanical condition of the soil4 ,no   

exact rule can be given1 but probably   
the custom of each district--regulated  
by long experience--is the best guide4  
,lime sinks in the soil2 and therefore1 
when used alone1 should always be       
applied as a top dressing to be carried 
into the soil by rains4 ,the tendency of
 lime to settle is so great that1 when  
cutting drains1 it may often be observed
 in a whitish streak on the top of the  
subsoil4 ,after heavy doses of lime have
 been given to the soil1 and have       
settled so as to have apparently ceased 
from their action1 they may be brought  
up and mixed with the soil by deeper    
plowing4  ,lime should never be mixed   
with animal manures1 unless in compost  
with muck1 or some other good absorbent1
 as it is liable to cause the escape of 
their ammonia4   ,,plaster ,,of ,,paris4
  ,plaster of ,paris or ,gypsum         
7sulphate of lime7 is composed of       
sulphuric acid and lime in combination4 
,it is called 'plaster of ,paris1'      
because it constitutes the rock         

underlying the city of ,paris4  ,is it a
 constituent of plants8  ,what else does
 it furnish them8  ,how does it affect  
manure8  ,how does it produce sorrel in 
the soil8  ,how may the acidity be      
overcome8  ,it is a constituent of many 
plants4 ,it also furnishes them with    
sulphur--a constituent of the sulphuric 
acid which it contains4  ,it is an      
excellent absorbent of ammonia1 and is  
very useful to sprinkle around stables1 
poultry houses1 pig-styes1 and privies1 
where it absorbs the escaping gases1    
saving them for the use of plants1 and  
purifying the air1 thus rendering       
stables1 etc41 more healthy than when   
not so supplied4  ,it has been observed 
that the extravagant use of plaster     
sometimes induces the growth of sorrel4 
,this is probably the case only where   
the soil is deficient in lime4 ,in such 
instances1 the lime required by plants  
is obtained by the decomposition of the 
plaster4 ,the lime enters into the      
construction of the plant1 and the      

sulphuric acid remains free1 rendering  
the soil sour1 and therefore in         
condition to produce sorrel4 ,in such a 
case1 an application of lime will       
correct the acid by uniting with it and 
converting it into plaster4   ,,chloride
 ,,of ,,lime4  ,what does chloride of   
lime supply to plants8  ,how does it    
affect manures8  ,how may it be used8   
,how may magnesia be supplied1 when     
wanting8  ,what care is necessary       
concerning the use of magnesia8         
,chloride of lime is a compound of lime 
and chlorine4 ,it furnishes both of     
these constituents to plants1 and it is 
an excellent absorbent of ammonia and   
other gases arising from                
decomposition--hence its usefulness in  
destroying bad odors1 and in preserving 
fertilizing matters for the use of      
crops4  ,it may be used like plaster1 or
 in the decomposition of organic        
matters1 where it not only hastens      
decay1 but absorbs and retains the      
escaping gases4 ,it will be recollected 

that chloride of lime is one of the     
products of the lime and salt mixture4  
,lime in combination with phosphoric    
acid forms the valuable phosphate of    
lime1 of which so large a portion of the
 ash of grain1 and the bones of animals1
 is formed4 ,this will be spoken of more
 at length under the head of 'phosphoric
 acid4'   ,,magnesia4  ,magnesia is a   
constituent of vegetable ashes1 and is  
almost always present in the soil in    
sufficient quantities4 ,when analysis   
indicates that it is needed1 it may be  
applied in the form of magnesian lime1  
or refuse epsom salts1 which are        
composed of sulphuric acid and magnesia 
7sulphate of magnesia74  ,the great care
 necessary concerning the use of        
magnesia is1 not to apply too much of   
it1 it being1 when in excess1 as has    
been previously remarked1 injurious to  
the fertility of the soil4 ,some soils  
are hopelessly barren from the fact that
 they contain too much magnesia4        
,,acids4  ,,sulphuric ,,acid4  ,what is 

sulphuric acid commonly called8  ,how   
may it be used8  ,how does it prevent   
the escape of ammonia8  ,sulphuric acid 
is a very important constituent of      
vegetable ashes1 especially of oats and 
the root-crops4  ,it is often deficient 
in the soil1 particularly where potatoes
 have been long cultivated4 ,one of the 
reasons why plaster 7sulphate of lime7  
is so beneficial to the potato crop is  
undoubtedly that it supplies it with    
sulphuric acid4  ,sulphuric acid is     
commonly known by the name of oil       
vitriol1 and may be purchased for       
agricultural purposes at a low price4   
,it may be used in a very dilute form   
7weakened by mixing it with a large     
quantity of water7 to the compost heap1 
where it will change the ammonia to a   
sulphate as soon as formed1 and thus    
prevent its loss1 as the sulphate of    
ammonia is not volatile2 and1 being     
soluble in water1 is useful to plants4  
,some idea of the value of this compound
 may be formed from the fact that       

manufacturers of manures are willing to 
pay seven cents per lb41 or even more1  
for sulphate of ammonia1 to insure the  
success of their fertilizers4           
,notwithstanding this1 many farmers     
persist in throwing away hundreds of    
pounds of ammonia every year1 as a tax  
for their ignorance 7or indolence71     
while a small tax in money--not more    
valuable1 nor more necessary to their   
success--for the support of common      
schools1 and the better education of the
 young1 is too often unwillingly paid4  
,what is the effect of using too much   
sulphuric acid8  ,if a tumbler full of  
sulphuric acid 7costing a few cents71 be
 thrown into the tank of the compost    
heap once a month1 the benefit to the   
manure would be very great4  ,where a   
deficiency of sulphuric acid in the soil
 is indicated by analysis1 it may be    
supplied in this way1 or by the use of  
plaster or refuse epsom salts4  ,care is
 necessary that too much sulphuric acid 
be not used1 as it would prevent the    

proper decomposition of manures1 and    
would induce a growth of sorrel in the  
soil by making it sour4  ,in many       
instances1 it will be found profitable  
to use sulphuric acid in the manufacture
 of super-phosphate of lime 7as directed
 under the head of 'phosphoric acid1'7  
thus making it perform the double       
purpose of preparing an available form  
of phosphate1 and of supplying sulphur  
and sulphuric acid to the plant4        
,,phosphoric ,,acid4  ,how large a part 
of the ashes of grain consists of       
phosphoric acid8  ,of what other        
substances does it form a leading       
ingredient8  ,how many pounds of        
sulphuric acid are contained in one     
hundred bushels of wheat8  ,we come now 
to the consideration of one of the most 
important of all subjects connected with
 agriculture1 that is1 phosphoric acid4 
,phosphoric acid1 forming about one half
 of the ashes of wheat1 rye1 corn1      
buckwheat1 and oats2 nearly the same    
proportion of those of barley1 peas1    

beans and linseed2 an important         
ingredient of the ashes of potatoes and 
turnips2 one quarter of the ash of milk 
and a large proportion of the bones of  
animals1 often exists in the soil in the
 proportion of only about one or two    
pounds in a thousand4 ,the cultivation  
of our whole country has been such1 as  
to take away the phosphoric acid from   
the soil without returning it1 except in
 very minute quantities4 ,every hundred 
bushels of wheat sold contains 7and     
removes permanently from the soil7 about
 sixty pounds of phosphoric acid4 ,other
 grains1 as well as the root crops and  
grasses1 remove likewise a large        
quantity of it4 ,it has been said by a  
contemporary writer1 that for each cow  
kept on a pasture through the summer1   
there is carried off in veal1 butter and
 cheese1 not less than fifty lbs4 of    
phosphate of lime 7bone-earth7 on an    
average4 ,this would be one thousand    
lbs4 for twenty cows2 and it shows      
clearly why old dairy pastures become so

 exhausted of this substance1 that they 
will no longer produce those nutritious 
grasses1 which are favorable to butter  
and cheese-making4  ,how much phosphate 
of lime will twenty cows remove from a  
pasture during a summer8  ,what has this
 removal of phosphate of lime           
occasioned8  ,how have the ,genesee and 
,mohawk valleys been affected by this   
removal of phosphoric acid8  ,that this 
removal of the most valuable constituent
 of the soil1 has been the cause of more
 exhaustion of farms1 and more          
emigration1 in search of fertile        
districts1 than any other single effect 
of injudicious farming1 is a fact which 
multiplied instances most clearly prove4
  ,it is stated that the ,genesee and   
,mohawk valleys1 which once produced an 
average of thirty-five or forty bushels 
of wheat1 per acre1 have since been     
reduced in their average production to  
twelve and a half bushels4 ,hundreds of 
similar cases might be stated2 and in a 
large majority of these1 could the cause

 of the impoverishment be ascertained1  
it would be found to be the removal of  
the phosphoric acid from the soil4  ,how
 may this devastation be arrested8  ,is 
any soil inexhaustible8  ,what is       
usually the best source from which to   
obtain phosphoric acid8  ,the evident   
tendency of cultivation being to        
continue this murderous system1 and to  
prey upon the vital strength of the     
country1 it is necessary to take such   
measures as will arrest the outflow of  
this valuable material4 ,this can never 
be fully accomplished until laws shall  
be made preventing the wastes of cities 
and towns4 ,such laws have existed for a
 long time in ,china1 and have          
doubtlessly been the secret of the long 
subsistence and present prosperity of   
the millions of people inhabiting that  
country4  ,we have1 nevertheless1 a     
means of restoring to fertility many of 
our worn-out lands1 and preserving our  
fertile fields from so rapid            
impoverishment as they are now          

suffering4 ,many suppose that soils     
which produce good crops1 year after    
year1 are inexhaustible1 but time will  
prove to the contrary4 ,they may possess
 a sufficiently large stock of          
phosphoric acid1 and other constituents 
of plants1 to last a long time1 but when
 that stock becomes so reduced1 that    
there is not enough left for the uses of
 full crops1 the productive power of the
 soil will yearly decrease1 until it    
becomes worthless4 ,it may last a long  
time1 a century1 or even more1 but as   
long as the system is--to remove every  
thing1 and return nothing1--the fate of 
the most fertile soil is evident4  ,the 
source mentioned1 from which to obtain  
phosphoric acid1 is the bones of        
animals4 ,these contain large quantities
 of phosphate of lime4 ,they are the    
receptacles which collect nearly all of 
the phosphates in crops1 which are fed  
to animals1 and are not returned in     
their excrements4 ,for the grain1 etc41 
sent out of the country1 there is no way

 to be repaid except by the importation 
of this material2 but1 all that is fed  
to animals1 or to human beings1 may1 if 
a proper use be made of their excrement1
 and of their bones after death1 be     
returned to the soil4 ,with the         
treatment of animal excrements we are   
already familiar1 and we will now turn  
our attention to the subject of         
,,bones4  ,of what do dried bones       
consist8  ,what is the organic matter of
 bones8  ,the inorganic8  ,what can you 
say of the use of whole bones8  ,bones  
consist1 when dried1 of about one third 
organic matter1 and two thirds inorganic
 matter4  ,the organic matter consists  
chiefly of gelatine--a compound         
containing nitrogen4  ,the inorganic    
part is chiefly phosphate of lime4      
,hence1 we see that bones are excellent1
 as both organic and mineral manure4    
,the organic part1 containing nitrogen1 
forms ammonia1 and the inorganic part   
supplies the much needed phosphoric acid
 to the soil4  ,liebig says that1 as a  

producer of ammonia1 #ajj lbs4 of dry   
bones are equivalent to #bej lbs4 of    
human urine4  ,how does the value of    
bone dust compare with that of broken   
bones8  ,what is the reason of the      
superiority of bone dust8  ,how is      
bone-black made8  ,of what does it      
consist8  ,bones are applied to the soil
 in almost every conceivable form4      
,whole bones are often used in very     
large quantities2 their action1 however1
 is extremely slow1 and it is never     
advisable to use bones in this form4    
,ten bushels of bones1 finely ground1   
will produce larger results1 during the 
current ten years after application1    
than would ensue from the use of one    
hundred bushels merely broken1 not      
because the dust contains more          
fertilizing matter than the whole bones1
 but because that which it does contain 
is in a much more available condition4  
,it ferments readily1 and produces      
ammonia1 while the ashy parts are       
exposed to the action of roots4  ,should

 farmers burn bones before using them8  
,how would you compost bones with ashes8
  ,in what way would you prevent the    
escape of ammonia8  ,bone-black4 ,if    
bones are burned in retorts1 or         
otherwise protected from the atmosphere1
 their organic matter will all be driven
 off1 except the carbon1 which not being
 supplied with oxygen cannot escape4 ,in
 this form bones are called ivory black1
 or bone-black4 ,it consists of the     
inorganic matter1 and the carbon of the 
bones4 ,the nitrogen having been        
expelled it can make no ammonia1 and    
thus far the original value of bones is 
reduced by burning2 that is1 one ton of 
bones contains more fertilizing matter  
before1 than after burning2 but one ton 
of bone black is more valuable than one 
ton of raw bones1 as the carbon is      
retained in a good form to act as an    
absorbent in the soil1 while the whole  
may be crushed or ground much more      
easily than before being burned4 ,this  
means of pulverizing bones is adopted by

 manufacturers1 who replace the ammonia 
in the form of guano1 or otherwise2 but 
it is not to be recommended for the use 
of farmers1 who should not lose the     
ammonia1 forming a part of bones1 more  
than that of other manure4  ,composting 
bones with ashes is a good means of     
securing their decomposition4 ,they     
should be placed in a water-tight vessel
 7such as a cask72 first1 three or four 
inches of bones1 then the same quantity 
of strong unleached wood ashes1         
continuing these alternate layers until 
the cask is full1 and keeping them      
always wet4 ,if they become too dry they
 will throw off an offensive odor1      
accompanied by the escape of ammonia1   
and consequent loss of value4 ,in about 
one year1 the whole mass of bones       
7except1 perhaps1 those at the top7 will
 be softened1 so that they may be easily
 crushed1 and they are in a good        
condition for manuring4 ,the ashes are1 
in themselves1 valuable1 and this       
compost is excellent for many crops1    

particularly for ,indian corn4 ,a little
 dilute sulphuric acid1 occasionally    
sprinkled on the upper part of the      
matter in the cask1 will prevent the    
escape of the ammonia4  ,what is the    
effect of boiling bones under pressure8 
,how is super-phosphate of lime made8   
,describe the composition of phosphate  
of lime1 and the chemical changes which 
take place in altering it to            
super-phosphate of lime4  ,boiling bones
 under pressure1 whereby their gelatine 
is dissolved away1 and the inorganic    
matter left in an available condition1  
from its softness1 is a very good way of
 rendering them useful2 but1 as it      
requires1 among other things1 a steam   
boiler1 it is hardly probable that it   
will be largely adopted by farmers of   
limited means4  ,any or all of these    
methods are good1 but bones cannot be   
used with true economy1 except by       
changing their inorganic matter into    
,,super-,,phosphate ,,of ,,lime4        
,super-phosphate of lime is made by     

treating phosphate of lime1 or the ashes
 of bones1 with sulphuric acid4         
,phosphate of lime1 as it exists in     
bones1 consists of one atom of          
phosphoric acid and three atoms of lime4
 ,it may be represented as              
,lime ,phosphoric acid   ,lime          
,lime  ,by adding a proper quantity of  
sulphuric acid with this1 it becomes    
super-phosphate of lime2 that is1 the   
same amount of phosphoric acid1 with a  
smaller proportion of lime 7or a        
super-abundance of phosphoric acid71 the
 sulphuric acid1 taking two atoms of    
lime away from the compound1 combined   
with it making sulphate of lime         
7plaster74 ,the changes may be thus     
represented4                            
,phosphoric acid ,super-phosphate       
,phosphate of lime ,lime              of
 lime4                   ,lime          
,lime ,sulphate of lime4                
,sulphuric acid  ,super-phosphate of    
lime may be made from whole bones1 bone 
dust1 bone-black1 or from the pure ashes

 of bones4  ,how should sulphuric acid  
be applied to whole bones8  ,what is the
 necessity for so large an amount of    
water8  ,the process of making it from  
whole bones is slow and troublesome1 as 
it requires a long time for the effect  
to diffuse itself through the whole mass
 of a large bone4 ,when it is made in   
this way1 the bones should be dry1 and  
the acid should be diluted in many times
 its bulk of water1 and should be       
applied to the bones 7which may be      
placed in a suitable cask1 with a       
spiggot at the bottom71 in quantities   
sufficient to cover them1 about once in 
ten days2 and at the end of that time1  
one half of the liquid should be drawn  
off by the spiggot4 ,this liquid is a   
solution of super-phosphate of lime1    
containing sulphate of lime1 and may be 
applied to the soil in a liquid form1 or
 through the medium of a compost heap4  
,the object of using so much water is to
 prevent an incrustation of sulphate of 
lime on the surfaces of the bones1 this 

must be removed by stirring the mass1   
which allows the next application of    
acid to act directly on the phosphate   
remaining4 ,the amount of acid required 
is about #ej or #fj lbs4 to each #ajj   
lbs4 of bones4 ,the gelatine will remain
 after the phosphate is all dissolved1  
and may be composted with muck1 or      
plowed under the soil1 where it will    
form ammonia4  ,may less water be       
employed in making super-phosphate from 
bone dust or crushed bones8  ,bone dust1
 or crushed bones1 may be much more     
easily changed to the desired condition1
 as the surface exposed is much greater1
 and the acid can act more generally    
throughout the whole mass4 ,the amount  
of acid required is the same as in the  
other case1 but it may be used stronger1
 two or three times its bulk of water   
being sufficient1 if the bones are      
finely ground or crushed--more or less  
water should be used according to the   
fineness of the bones4 ,the time        
occupied will also be much less1 and the

 result of the operation will be in     
better condition for manure4  ,bones may
 be made fine enough for this operation1
 either by grinding1 etc41 or by boiling
 under pressure1 as previously          
described2 indeed1 by whatever method   
bones are pulverized1 they should always
 be treated with sulphuric acid before  
being applied to the soil1 as this will 
more than double their value for        
immediate use4  ,bone-black is chiefly  
used by manufacturers of super-phosphate
 of lime1 who treat it with acid the    
same as has been directed above1 only   
that they grind the black very finely   
before applying the acid4  ,what other  
forms of bones may be used in making    
super-phosphate of lime8  ,why is       
super-phosphate of lime a better        
fertilizer than phosphate of lime8      
,what can you say of the lasting        
manures8  ,bone ashes1 or bones burned  
to whiteness1 may be similarly treated4 
,indeed1 in all of the forms of bones   
here described1 the phosphate of lime   

remains unaltered1 as it is             
indestructible by heat2 the differences 
of composition are only in the admixture
 of organic constituents4  ,the reason  
why super-phosphate of lime is so much  
better than phosphate1 may be easily    
explained4 ,the phosphate is very slowly
 soluble in water1 and consequently     
furnishes food to plants slowly4 ,a     
piece of bone as large as a pea may lie 
in the soil for years without being all 
consumed2 consequently1 it will be years
 before its value is returned1 and it   
pays no interest on its cost while lying
 there4 ,the super-phosphate dissolves  
very rapidly and furnishes food for     
plants with equal facility2 hence its   
much greater value as a manure4  ,it is 
true that the phosphate is the most     
lasting manure2 but1 once for all1 let  
us caution farmers against considering  
this a virtue in mineral manures1 or in 
organic manures either1 when used on    
soils containing the proper absorbents  
of ammonia4 ,they are lasting1 only in  

proportion as they are lazy4 ,manures   
are worthless unless they are in        
condition to be immediately used4 ,the  
farmer who wishes his manures to last in
 the soil1 and to lose their use1 may be
 justly compared with the miser1 who    
buries his gold and silver in the ground
 for the satisfaction of knowing that he
 owns it4 ,it is an old and a true      
saying that a nimble sixpence is better 
than a slow shilling4   ,,improved      
,,super-,,phosphate ,,of ,,lime4  ,what 
are the ingredients of the improved     
super-phosphate of lime8  ,to show the  
manner in which super-phosphate of lime 
is perfected1 and rendered the best     
manure for general uses1 which has yet  
been made1 containing large quantities  
of phosphoric acid and a good supply of 
ammonia1--hereby covering the two       
leading deficiencies in a majority of   
soils1 it may be well to explain the    
composition of the improved             
super-phosphate of lime invented by     
,prof4 ,mapes4  ,this manure consists of

 the following ingredients in the       
proportions named3--  #ajj  lbs4        
bone-black 7phosphate of lime and       
carbon74 #ef        sulphuric acid4 #cf 
guano4 #bj        sulphate of ammonia4  
,explain the uses of these different    
constituents4  ,what is nitrogenized    
phosphate8  ,the sulphuric acid has the 
before-mentioned effect on the          
bone-black1 and fixes the ammonia of the
 guano by changing it to a sulphate4    
,the twenty pounds of sulphate of       
ammonia added increase the amount1 so as
 to furnish nitrogen to plants in       
sufficient quantities to give them      
energy1 and induce them to take up the  
super-phosphate of lime in the manure   
more readily than would be done1 were   
there not a sufficient supply of ammonia
 in the soil4  ,the addition of the     
guano1 which contains all of the        
elements of fertility1 and many of them 
in considerable quantities1 renders the 
manure of a more general character1 and 
enables it to produce very large crops  

of almost any kind1 while it assists in 
fortifying the soil in what is usually  
its weakest point--phosphoric acid4     
,prof4 ,mapes has more recently invented
 a new fertilizer called nitrogenized   
super-phosphate of lime1 composed of the
 improved super-phosphate of lime and   
blood1 dried and ground before mixture1 
in equal proportions4 ,this manure1 from
 its highly nitrogenous character1      
theoretically surpasses all others1 and 
probably will be found in practice to   
have great value2 its cost will be      
rather greater than guano4  ,we         
understand its manufacture will shortly 
be commenced by a company now forming   
for that purpose4  ,what should be      
learned before purchasing amendments for
 the soil8  ,what do you know of silica8
  ,many farmers will find it expedient  
to purchase bones1 or bone dust1 and    
manufacture their own super-phosphate of
 lime2 others will prefer to purchase   
the prepared manure4 ,in doing so1 it   
should be obtained of men of known      

respectability1 as manures are easily   
adulterated with worthless matters2 and1
 as their price is so high1 that such   
deception may occasion great loss4  ,we 
would not recommend the application of  
any artificial manure1 without first    
obtaining an analysis of the soil1 and  
knowing to a certainty that the manure  
is needed2 still1 when no analysis has  
been procured1 it may be profitable to  
apply such manures as most generally    
produce good results--such as stable    
manure1 night soil1 the improved        
super-phosphate of lime2 or1 if this    
cannot be procured1 guano4   ,,neutrals4
  ,,silica4  ,silica 7or sand7 always   
exists in the soil in sufficient        
quantities for the supply of food for   
plants2 but1 as has been often stated in
 the preceding pages1 not always in the 
proper condition4 ,this subject has been
 so often explained to the student of   
this book1 that it is only necessary to 
repeat here1 that when the weakness of  
the straw or stalk of plants grown on   

any soil indicates an inability in that 
soil to supply the silicates required   
for strength1 not more sand should be   
added1 but alkalies1 to combine with the
 sand already contained in it1 and make 
soluble silicates which are available to
 roots4  ,sand is often necessary to    
stiff clays1 as a mechanical manure1 to 
loosen their texture and render them    
easier of cultivation1 and more         
favorable to the distribution of roots1 
and to the circulation of air and water4
   ,,chlorine4  ,how may chlorine be    
applied8  ,chlorine1 a necessary        
constituent of plants1 and often        
deficient in the soil 7as indicated by  
analysis71 may be applied in the form of
 salt 7chloride of sodium71 or chloride 
of lime4 ,the former may be dissolved in
 the water used to slake lime1 and the  
latter may1 with much advantage1 be     
sprinkled around stables and other      
places where fertilizing gases are      
escaping1 and1 after being saturated    
with ammonia1 applied to the soil1 thus 

serving a double purpose4   ,,oxide ,,of
 ,,iron4  ,how may the protoxide of iron
 be changed to peroxide8  ,nearly all   
soils contain sufficient quantities of  
oxide of iron1 or iron rust1 so that    
this substance can hardly be required as
 a manure4  ,some soils1 however1       
contain the protoxide of iron in such   
quantities as to be injurious to        
plants1--see page #hf4 ,when this is the
 case1 it is necessary to plow the soil 
thoroughly1 and use such other          
mechanical means as shall render it open
 to the admission of air4 ,the protoxide
 of iron will then take up more oxygen1 
and become the peroxide--which is not   
only inoffensive1 but is absolutely     
necessary to fertility4   ,,oxide ,,of  
,,manganese4  ,this can hardly be called
 an essential constituent of plants1 and
 is never taken into consideration in   
manuring lands4   ,,various ,,other     
,,mineral ,,manures4  ,,leached ,,ashes4
  ,why are leached ashes inferior to    
those that have not been leached8  ,on  

what do the benefits of leached ashes   
depend8  ,can these ingredients be more 
cheaply obtained in another form8  ,why 
do unleached ashes1 applied in the      
spring1 sometimes cause grain to lodge8 
,among the mineral manures which have   
not yet been mentioned--not coming      
strictly under any of the preceding     
heads1 is the one known as leached      
ashes4  ,these are not without their    
benefits1 though worth much less than   
unleached ashes1 which1 besides the     
constituents of those which have been   
leached1 contain much potash1 soda1 etc4
  ,farmers have generally overrated the 
value of leached ashes1 because they    
contain small quantities of available   
phosphate of lime1 and soluble          
silicates1 in which most old soils are  
deficient4 ,while we witness the good   
results ensuing from their application1 
we should not forget that the           
fertilizing ingredients of thirty       
bushels of these ashes may be bought in 
a more convenient form for ten or       

fifteen cents1 or for less than the cost
 of spreading the ashes on the soil4 ,in
 many parts of ,long ,island farmers pay
 as much as eight or ten cents per      
bushel for this manure1 and thousands of
 loads of leached ashes are taken to    
this locality from the river counties of
 ,new ,york1 and even from the ,state of
 ,maine1 and are sold for many times    
their value1 producing an effect which  
could be as well and much more cheaply  
obtained by the use of small quantities 
of super-phosphate of lime and potash4  
,these ashes often contain a little     
charcoal 7resulting from the imperfect  
combustion of the wood71 which acts as  
an absorbent of ammonia4  ,it is        
sometimes observed that unleached ashes1
 when applied in the spring1 cause grain
 to lodge4 ,when this is the case1 as it
 seldom is1 it may be inferred that the 
potash which they contain causes so     
rapid a growth1 that the soil is not    
able to supply silicates as fast as they
 are required by the plants1 but after  

the first year1 the potash will have    
united with the silica in the soil1 and 
overcome the difficulty4   ,,old        
,,mortar4  ,what are the most           
fertilizing ingredients of old mortar8  
,old mortar is a valuable manure1       
because it contains nitrate of potash   
and other compounds of nitric acid with 
alkalies4  ,these are slowly formed in  
the mortar by the changing of the       
nitrogen of the hair 7in the mortar7    
into nitric acid1 and the union of this 
with the small quantities of potash1 or 
with the lime of the plaster4 ,nitrogen1
 presented in other forms1 as ammonia1  
for instance1 may be transformed into   
nitric acid1 by uniting with the oxygen 
of the air1 and this nitric acid        
combines immediately with the alkalies  
of the mortar4,,ai  ,the lime contained 
in the mortar may be useful in the soil 
for the many purposes accomplished by   
other lime4   ,,gas ,,house ,,lime4     
,how may gas-house lime be prepared for 
use8  ,why should it not be used fresh1 

from the gas house8  ,on what do its    
fertilizing properties depend8  ,what   
use may be made of its offensive odor8  
,the refuse lime of gas works1 where it 
can be cheaply obtained1 may be         
advantageously used as a manure4 ,it    
consists1 chiefly1 of various compounds 
of sulphur and lime4 ,it should be      
composted with earth or refuse matter1  
so as to expose it to the action of air4
 ,it should never be used fresh from the
 gas house4 ,in a few months the sulphur
 will have united with the oxygen of the
 air1 and become sulphuric acid1 which  
unites with the lime and makes sulphate 
of lime 7plaster71 which form it must   
assume1 before it is of much value4     
,having been used to purify gas made    
from coal1 it contains a small quantity 
of ammonia1 which adds to its value4 ,it
 is considered a profitable manure in   
,england1 at the price there paid for it
 7forty cents a cartload71 and1 if of   
good quality1 it may be worth double    
that sum1 especially for soils deficient

 in plaster1 or for such crops as are   
much benefited by plaster4 ,its price   
must1 of course1 be regulated somewhat  
by the price of lime1 which constitutes 
a large proportion of its fertilizing   
parts4 ,the offensive odor of this      
compound renders it a good protection   
against many insects4  ,the refuse      
liquor of gas works contains enough     
ammonia to make it a valuable manure4   
,,soapers' ,,ley ,,and ,,bleachers'     
,,ley4  ,what use may be made of the    
refuse ley of soap-makers and bleachers8
  ,what peculiar qualities does soapers'
 ley possess8  ,the refuse ley of soap  
factories and bleaching establishments  
contains greater or less quantities of  
soluble silicates and alkalies          
7especially soda and potash71 and is a  
good addition to the tank of the compost
 heap1 or it may be used directly as a  
liquid application to the soil4 ,the    
soapers' ley1 especially1 will be found 
a good manure for lands on which grain  
lodges4  ,much of the benefit of this   

manure arises from the soluble silicates
 it contains1 while its nitrogenous     
matter1,,aj obtained from those parts of
 the fatty matters which cannot be      
converted into soap1 and consequently   
remains in this solution1 forms a       
valuable addition4 ,heaps of soil       
saturated with this liquid in autumn1   
and subjected to the freezings of       
winter1 form an admirable manure for    
spring use4 ,mr4 ,crane1 near ,newark   
7,n4 ,j471 has long used a mixture of   
spent ley and stable manure1 applied in 
the fall to trenches plowed in the soil1
 and has been most successful in        
obtaining large crops4   ,,irrigation4  
,on what does the benefit arising from  
irrigation chiefly depend8  ,what kind  
of water is best for irrigation8  ,how  
do under-drains increase the benefits of
 irrigation8  ,irrigation does not come 
strictly under the head of inorganic    
manures1 as it often supplies ammonia to
 the soil4 ,its chief value1 however1 in
 most cases1 must depend on the amount  

of mineral matter which it furnishes4   
,the word irrigation means simply       
watering4 ,in many districts water is in
 various ways made to overflow the land1
 and is removed when necessary for the  
purposes of cultivation4 ,all river and 
spring water contains some impurities1  
many of which are beneficial to         
vegetation4 ,these are derived from the 
earth over1 or through which1 the water 
has passed1 and ammonia absorbed from   
the atmosphere4 ,when water is made to  
cover the earth1 especially if its rapid
 motion be arrested1 much of this       
fertilizing matter settles1 and is      
deposited on the soil4 ,the water which 
sinks into the soil carries its         
impurities to be retained for the uses  
of plants4 ,when1 by the aid of         
under-drains1 or in open soils1 the     
water passes through the soil1 its      
impurities are arrested1 and become     
available in vegetable growth4 ,it is1  
of course1 impossible to say exactly    
what kind of mineral matter is supplied 

by water1 as that depends on the kind of
 rock or soil from which the impurities 
are derived2 but1 whatever it may be1 it
 is generally soluble and ready for     
immediate use by plants4  ,what is the  
difference between water which only runs
 over the surface of the earth1 and that
 which runs out of the earth8  ,why     
should strong currents of water not be  
allowed to traverse the soil8  ,water   
which has run over the surface of the   
earth contains both ammonia and mineral 
matter1 while that which has arisen out 
of the earth1 contains usually only     
mineral matter4 ,the direct use of the  
water of irrigation as a solvent for the
 mineral ingredients of the soil1 is one
 of its main benefits4  ,to describe the
 many modes of irrigation would be too  
long a task for our limited space4 ,it  
may be applied in any way in which it is
 possible to cover the land with water1 
at stated times4 ,care is necessary1    
however1 that it do not wash more       
fertilizing matter from the soil than it

 deposits on it1 as would often be the  
case1 if a strong current of water were 
run over it4 ,brooks may be dammed up1  
and thus made to cover a large quantity 
of land4 ,in such a case the rapid      
current would be destroyed1 and the     
fertilizing matter would settle2 but1 if
 the course of the brook were turned1 so
 that it would run in a current over any
 part of the soil1 it might carry away  
more than it deposited1 and thus prove  
injurious4 ,small streams turned on to  
land1 from the washing of roads1 or from
 elevated springs1 are good means of    
irrigation1 and produce increased       
fertility1 except where the soil is of  
such a character as to prevent the water
 from passing away1 in which case it    
should be under-drained4  ,irrigation   
was one of the oldest means of fertility
 ever used by man1 and still continues  
in great favor wherever its effects have
 been witnessed4   ,,mixing ,,soils4    
,how are soils improved by mixing8  ,the
 mixing of soils is often all that is   

necessary to render them fertile1 and to
 improve their mechanical condition4    
,for instance1 soils deficient in       
potash1 or any other constituent1 may   
have that deficiency supplied1 by mixing
 with them soil containing this         
constituent in excess4  ,it is very     
frequently the case1 that such means of 
improvement are easily availed of4      
,while these chemical effects are being 
produced1 there may be an equal         
improvement in the mechanical character 
of the soil4 ,thus stiff clay soils are 
rendered lighter1 and more easily       
workable1 by an admixture of sand1 while
 light blowy sands are compacted1 and   
made more retentive of manure1 by a     
dressing of clay or of muck4  ,why may  
the same effect sometimes be produced by
 deep plowing8  ,what is absolutely     
necessary to economical manuring8  ,of  
course1 this cannot be depended on as a 
sure means of chemical improvement1     
unless the soils are previously         
analyzed1 so as to know their           

requirements2 but1 in a majority of     
cases1 the soil will be benefited1 by   
mixing with it soil of a different      
character4 ,it is not always necessary  
to go to other locations to procure the 
soil to be applied1 as the subsoil is   
often very different from the surface   
soil1 and simple deep plowing will      
suffice1 in such cases1 to produce the  
required admixture1 by bringing up the  
earth from below to mingle it with that 
of a different character at the surface4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,in the foregoing remarks on the    
subject of mineral manures1 the writer  
has endeavored to point out such a      
course as would produce the greatest    
good to the greatest number1 and1       
consequently1 has neglected much which  
might discourage the farmer with the    
idea1 that the whole system of          
scientific agriculture is too expensive 
for his adoption4 ,still1 while he has  
confined his remarks to the more simple 
improvements on the present system of   

management1 he would say1 briefly1 that 
no manuring can be strictly economical  
that is not based on an analysis of the 
soil1 and a knowledge of the best means 
of overcoming the deficiencies          
indicated1 together with the most       
scrupulous care of every ounce of       
evaporating or soluble manure4          
,,footnotes3  ,,ag ,marl is earth       
containing lime1 but its use is not to  
be recommended in this country1 except  
where it can be obtained at little cost1
 as the expenses of carting the earth   
would often be more than the value of   
the lime4  ,,ah ,the straw producing the
 grain and the turnip and potato tops   
contain more lime than the grain and    
roots4  ,,ai ,see ,working ,farmer1 vol4
 #b1 p4 #bgh4  ,,aj ,glycerine1 etc4    
,,chapter ,x4  ,,atmospheric            
,,fertilizers4   ,are the gases in the  
atmosphere manures8  ,what would be the 
result if they were not so8  ,it is not 
common to look on the gases in the      
atmosphere in the light of manures1 but 

they are decidedly so4 ,indeed1 they are
 almost the only organic manure ever    
received by the uncultivated parts of   
the earth1 as well as a large portion of
 that which is occupied in the          
production of food for man4  ,if these  
gases were not manures2 if there were no
 means by which they could be used by   
plants1 the fertility of the soil would 
long since have ceased1 and the earth   
would now be in an unfertile condition4 
,that this must be true1 will be proved 
by a few moments' reflection on the     
facts stated in the first part of this  
book4 ,the fertilizing gases in the     
atmosphere being composed of the        
constituents of decayed plants and      
animals1 it is as necessary that they   
should be again returned to the form of 
organized matter1 as it is that         
constituents taken from the soil should 
not be put out of existence4            
,,ammonia4  ,how is ammonia used by     
plants8  ,how may it be carried to the  
soil8  ,how may the value of organic    

manures be estimated8  ,what effects has
 ammonia beside supplying food to       
plants8  ,the ammonia in the atmosphere 
probably cannot be appropriated by the  
leaves of plants1 and must1 therefore1  
enter the soil to be assimilated by     
roots4 ,it reaches the soil in two ways4
 ,it is either arrested from the air    
circulating through the soil1 or it is  
absorbed by rains in the atmosphere1 and
 thus carried to the earth1 where it is 
retained by clay and carbon1 for the    
uses of plants4 ,in the soil1 ammonia is
 the most important of all organic      
manures4 ,in fact1 the value of organic 
manure may be estimated1 either by the  
amount of ammonia which it will yield1  
or by its power of absorbing ammonia    
from other sources4  ,the most important
 action of ammonia in the soil is the   
supply of nitrogen to plants2 but it has
 other offices which are of consequence4
 ,it assists in some of the chemical    
changes necessary to prepare the matters
 in the soil for assimilation4 ,some    

argue that ammonia stimulates the roots 
of plants1 and causes them to take up   
increased quantities of inorganic       
matter4 ,the discussion of this question
 would be out of place here1 and we will
 simply say1 that it gives them such    
vigor that they require increased       
amounts of ashy matter1 and enables them
 to take this from the soil4  ,to how   
great a degree can the farmer control   
atmospheric fertilizers8  ,what should  
be the condition of the soil8  ,what    
substances are good absorbents in the   
soil8  ,how may sandy soils be made     
retentive of ammonia8  ,although1 in the
 course of nature1 the atmospheric      
fertilizers are plentifully supplied to 
the soil1 without the immediate         
attention of the farmer1 it is not      
beyond his power to manage them in such 
a manner as to arrest a greater         
quantity4 ,the precautions necessary    
have been repeatedly given in the       
preceding pages1 but it may be well to  
name them again in this chapter4  ,the  

condition of the soil is the main point 
to be considered4 ,it must be such as to
 absorb and retain ammonia--to allow    
water to pass through it1 and be        
discharged below the point to which the 
roots of crops are searching for        
food--and to admit of a free circulation
 of air4  ,the power of absorbing and   
retaining ammonia is not possessed by   
sand1 but it is a prominent property of 
clay1 charcoal1 and some other matters  
named as absorbents4 ,hence1 if the soil
 consists of nearly pure sand1 it will  
not make use of the ammonia brought to  
it from the atmosphere1 but will allow  
it to evaporate immediately after a     
shower4 ,soils in this condition require
 additions of absorbent matters1 to     
enable them to use the ammonia received 
from the atmosphere4 ,soils already     
containing a sufficient amount of clay  
or charcoal1 are thus far prepared to   
receive benefit from this source4  ,why 
does under-draining increase the        
absorptive power of the soil8  ,how do  

plants obtain their carbonic acid8  ,how
 does carbonic acid affect caustic lime 
in the soil8  ,the next point is to     
cause the water of rains to pass through
 the soil4 ,if it lies on the surface1  
or runs off without entering the soil1  
or even if it only enters to a slight   
depth1 and comes in contact with but a  
small quantity of the absorbents1 it is 
not probable that the fertilizing       
matters which it contains will all be   
abstracted4 ,some of them will          
undoubtedly return to the atmosphere on 
the evaporation of the water2 but1 if   
the soil contains a sufficient supply of
 absorbents1 and will allow all rain    
water to pass through it1 the           
fertilizing gases will all be retained4 
,they will be filtered 7or raked7 out of
 the water4  ,this subject will be more 
fully treated in ,section ,,iv4 in      
connection with under-draining4         
,besides the properties just described1 
the soil must possess the power of      
admitting a free circulation of air4 ,to

 effect this1 it is necessary that the  
soil should be well pulverized to a     
great depth4 ,if1 in addition to this1  
the soil be such as to admit water to   
pass through1 it will allow that        
circulation of air necessary to the     
greatest supply of ammonia4   ,,carbonic
 ,,acid4  ,what power does it give to   
water8  ,what condition of the soil is  
necessary for the reception of the      
largest quantity of carbonic acid8  ,may
 oxygen be considered a manure8  ,what  
is the effect of the oxidation of the   
constituents of the soil8  ,carbonic    
acid is received from the atmosphere1   
both by the leaves and roots of plants4 
,if there is caustic lime in the soil1  
it unites with it1 and makes it milder  
and finer4 ,it is absorbed by the water 
in the soil1 and gives it the power of  
dissolving many more substances than it 
would do without the carbonic acid4     
,this use is one of very great          
importance1 as it is equivalent to      
making the minerals themselves more     

soluble4 ,water dissolves carbonate of  
lime1 etc41 exactly in proportion to the
 amount of carbonic acid which it       
contains4 ,we should1 therefore1 strive 
to have as much carbonic acid as        
possible in the water in the soil2 and  
one way1 in which to effect this1 is to 
admit to the soil the largest possible  
quantity of atmospheric air which       
contains this gas4  ,the condition of   
soil necessary for this1 is the same as 
is required for the deposit of ammonia  
by the same circulation of air4         
,,oxygen4  ,how does it affect the      
protoxide of iron8  ,how does it        
neutralize the acids in the soil8  ,how 
does it affect its organic parts8  ,how 
does it form nitric acid8  ,how may it  
affect excrementitious matter of plants8
  ,what effect has it on the mechanical 
condition of the soil8  ,oxygen1 though 
not taken up by plants in its pure form1
 may justly be classed among manures1 if
 we consider its effects both chemical  
and mechanical in the soil4  #a4 ,by    

oxidizing or rusting some of the        
constituents of the soil1 it prepares   
them for the uses of plants4  #b4 ,it   
unites with the protoxide of iron1 and  
changes it to the peroxide4  #c4 ,if    
there are acids in the soil1 which make 
it sour and unfertile1 it may be opened 
to the circulation of the air1 and the  
oxygen will prepare some of the mineral 
matters contained in the soil to unite  
with the acids and neutralize them4  #d4
 ,oxygen combines with the carbon of    
organic matters in the soil1 and causes 
them to decay4 ,the combination produces
 carbonic acid4  #e4 ,it combines with  
the nitrogen of decaying substances and 
forms nitric acid1 which is serviceable 
as food for plants4  #f4 ,it undoubtedly
 affects in some way the matter which is
 thrown out from the roots of plants4   
,this1 if allowed to accumulate1 and    
remain unchanged1 is often very         
injurious to plants2 but1 probably1 the 
oxygen and carbonic acid of the air in  
the soil change it to a form to be      

inoffensive1 or even make it again      
useful to the plant4  #g4 ,it may also  
improve the mechanical condition of the 
soil1 as it causes its particles to     
crumble1 thus making it finer2 and it   
roughens the surfaces of particles1     
making them less easy to move among each
 other4  ,these properties of oxygen    
claim for it a high place among the     
atmospheric fertilizers4   ,,water4     
,why may water be considered an         
atmospheric manure8  ,what classes of   
action have manures8  ,what are chemical
 manures8 ,mechanical8  ,water may be   
considered an atmospheric manure1 as its
 chief supply to vegetation is received 
from the air in the form of rain or dew4
 ,its many effects are already too well 
known to need farther comment4  ,the    
means of supplying water to the soil by 
the deposit of dew will be fully        
explained in ,section ,,iv4             
,,chapter ,,xi4  ,,recapitulation4      
,manures have two distinct classes of   
action in the soil1 namely1 chemical and

 mechanical4  ,chemical manures are     
those which enter into the construction 
of plants1 or produce such chemical     
effects on matters in the soil as shall 
prepare them for use4  ,mechanical      
manures are those which improve the     
mechanical condition of the soil1 such  
as loosening stiff clays1 compacting    
light sands1 pulverizing large          
particles1 etc4  ,what are the three    
kinds of manures8  ,what are organic    
manures1 and what are their uses8       
,mineral8 ,atmospheric8  ,manures are of
 three distinct kinds1 namely1 ,organic1
 mineral1 and atmospheric4  ,organic    
manures comprise all vegetable and      
animal matters 7except ashes7 which are 
used to fertilize the soil4 ,vegetable  
manures supply carbonic acid1 and       
inorganic matter to plants4 ,animal     
manures supply the same substances and  
ammonia4  ,mineral manures comprise     
ashes1 salt1 phosphate of lime1 plaster1
 etc4 ,they supply plants with inorganic
 matter4 ,their usefulness depends on   

their solubility4  ,many of the organic 
and mineral manures have the power of   
absorbing ammonia arising from the      
decomposition of animal manures1 as well
 as that which is brought to the soil by
 rains--these are called absorbents4    
,atmospheric manures consist of ammonia1
 carbonic acid1 oxygen and water4 ,their
 greatest usefulness requires the soil  
to allow the water of rains to pass     
through it1 to admit of a free          
circulation of air among its particles1 
and to contain a sufficient amount of   
absorbent matter to arrest and retain   
all ammonia and carbonic acid presented 
to it4  ,what rule should regulate the  
application of manures8  ,how must      
organic manures be managed8             
,atmospheric8  ,manures should never be 
applied to the soil without regard to   
its requirements4  ,ammonia and carbon  
are almost always useful1 but mineral   
manures become mere dirt when applied to
 soils not deficient of them4  ,the only
 true guide to the exact requirements of

 the soil is chemical analysis2 and this
 must always be obtained before farming 
can be carried on with true economy4    
,organic manures must be protected      
against the escape of their ammonia and 
the leaching out of their soluble parts4
 ,one cord of stable manure properly    
preserved1 is worth ten cords which have
 lost all of their ammonia by           
evaporation1 and their soluble parts by 
leaching--as is the case with much of   
the manure kept exposed in open         
barn-yards4  ,atmospheric manures cost  
nothing1 and are of great value when    
properly employed4 ,in consequence of   
this1 the soil which is enabled to make 
the largest appropriation of the        
atmospheric fertilizers1 is worth many  
times as much as that which allows them 
to escape4     ,,section ,,fourth4      
,,mechanical ,,cultivation4             
,,chapter ,i4  ,,the ,,mechanical       
,,character ,,of ,,soils4   ,what is the
 first office of the soil8  ,how does it
 hold water for the uses of the plant8  

,how does it obtain a part of its       
moisture8  ,the mechanical character of 
the soil is well understood from        
preceding remarks1 and the learner knows
 that there are many offices to be      
performed by the soil aside from the    
feeding of plants4  #a4 ,it admits the  
roots of plants1 and holds them in their
 position4  #b4 ,by a sponge-like       
action1 it holds water for the uses of  
the plant4  #c4 ,it absorbs moisture    
from the atmosphere to supply the       
demands of plants4  ,how may it obtain  
heat8  ,what is the use of the air      
circulating among its particles8  ,could
 most soils be brought to the highest   
state of fertility8  ,what is the first 
thing to be done8  ,should its color be 
darkened8  #d4 ,it absorbs heat from the
 sun's rays to assist in the process of 
growth4  #e4 ,it admits air to circulate
 among roots1 and supply them with a    
part of their food1 while the oxygen of 
that air renders available the minerals 
of the soil2 and its carbonic acid1     

being absorbed by the water in the soil1
 gives it the power of dissolving1 and  
carrying into roots more inorganic      
matter than would be contained in purer 
water4  #f4 ,it allows the              
excrementitious matter thrown out by    
roots to be carried out of their reach4 
,all of these actions the soil must be  
capable of performing1 before it can be 
in its highest state of fertility4      
,there are comparatively few soils now  
in this condition1 but there are also   
few which could not be profitably       
rendered so1 by a judicious application 
of the modes of cultivation to be       
described in the following chapters4    
,the three great objects to be          
accomplished are3--  #a4 ,to adopt such 
a system of drainage as will cause all  
of the water of rains to pass through   
the soil1 instead of evaporating from   
the surface4  #b4 ,to pulverize the soil
 to a considerable depth4  #c4 ,to      
darken its color1 and render it capable 
of absorbing atmospheric fertilizers4   

,name some of the means used to secure  
these effects4  ,why are under-drains   
superior to open drains8  ,the means    
used to secure these effects are        
under-draining1 sub-soil and            
surface-plowing1 digging1 applying muck1
 etc4     ,,chapter ,,ii4               
,,under-,,draining4   ,the advantages of
 under-drains over open drains are very 
great4  ,when open drains are used1 much
 water passes into them immediately from
 the surface1 and carries with it       
fertilizing parts of the soil1 while    
their beds are often compacted by the   
running water and the heat of the sun1  
so that they become water-tight1 and do 
not admit water from the lower parts of 
the soil4  ,the sides of these drains   
are often covered with weeds1 which     
spread their seeds throughout the whole 
field4 ,open drains are not only a great
 obstruction to the proper cultivation  
of the land1 but they cause much waste  
of room1 as we can rarely plow nearer   
than within six or eight feet of them4  

,there are none of these objections to  
the use of under-drains1 as these are   
completely covered1 and do not at all   
interfere with the cultivation of the   
surface4  ,with what materials may      
under-drains be constructed8  ,describe 
the tile4  ,under drains may be made    
with brush1 stones1 or tiles4 ,brush is 
a very poor material1 and its use is    
hardly to be recommended4 ,small stones 
are better1 and if these be placed in   
the bottoms of the trenches1 to a depth 
of eight or ten inches1 and covered with
 sods turned upside down1 having the    
earth packed well down on to them1 they 
make very good drains4   ,,tile         
,,draining4  ,the best under-drains are 
those made with tiles1 or burnt clay    
pipes4 ,the first form of these used was
 that called the horse-shoe tile1 which 
was in two distinct pieces2 this was    
superseded by a round pipe1 and we have 
now what is called the sole tile1 which 
is much better than either of the       
others4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d--,sole 

,tile4  ,why is the sole tile superior  
to those of previous construction8  ,how
 are these tiles laid8  ,how may the    
trenches be dug8  ,this tile is made    
7like the horse-shoe and pipe tile7 of  
common brick clay1 and is burned the    
same as bricks4 ,it is about one half or
 three quarters of an inch thick1 and is
 so porous that water passes directly   
through it4 ,it has a flat bottom on    
which to stand1 and this enables it to  
retain its position1 while making the   
drain1 better than would be done by the 
round pipe4 ,the orifice through which  
the water passes is egg-shaped1 having  
its smallest curve at the bottom4 ,this 
shape is the one most easily kept clear1
 as any particles of dirt which get into
 the drain must fall immediately to the 
point where even the smallest stream of 
water runs1 and are thus removed4 ,an   
orifice of about two inches is          
sufficient for the smaller drains1 while
 the main drains require larger tiles4  
,these tiles are laid1 so that their    

ends will touch each other1 on the      
bottoms of the trenches1 and are kept in
 position by having the earth tightly   
packed around them4 ,care must be taken 
that no space is left between the ends  
of the tiles1 as dirt would be liable to
 get in and choke the drain4 ,it is     
advisable to place a sod--grass side    
down--over each joint1 before filling   
the trench1 as this more effectually    
protects them against the entrance of   
dirt4 ,there is no danger of keeping the
 water out by this operation1 as it will
 readily pass through any part of the   
tiles4  ,in digging the trenches it is  
not necessary 7except in very stony     
ground7 to dig out a place wide enough  
for a man to stand in1 as there are     
tools made expressly for the purpose1 by
 which a trench may be dug six or seven 
inches wide1 and to any required depth4 
,one set of these implements consists of
 a long narrow spade and a hoe to       
correspond1 such as are represented in  
the accompanying figure4  ,illustration3

 ,fig4 #e4  ,upton tool4  ,spade and    
hoe4  ,with these tools1 and a long     
light crowbar1 for hard soils1 trenches 
may be dug much more cheaply than with  
the common spade and pickaxe4 ,where    
there are large boulders in the soil1   
these draining tools may dig under them 
so that they will not have to be        
removed4  ,when the trenches are dug to 
a sufficient depth1 the bottoms must be 
made perfectly smooth1 with the required
 descent 7from six inches to a few feet 
in one hundred feet74 ,then the tiles   
may be laid in1 so that their ends will 
correspond1 be packed down1 and the     
trenches filled up4 ,such a drain1 if   
properly constructed1 may last for ages4
 ,unlike the stone drain1 it is not     
liable to be frequented by rats1 nor    
choked up by the soil working into it4  
,the position of the tile may be best   
represented by a figure1 also the mode  
of constructing stone drains4  ,why are 
small stones better than large stones in
 the construction of drains8  ,on what  

must the depth of under-drains depend8  
,it will be seen that the tile drain is 
made with much less labor than the stone
 drain1 as it requires less digging1    
while the breaking up of the stone for  
the stone drain will be nearly1 or quite
 as expensive as the tiles4 ,drains made
 with large stones are not nearly so    
good as with small ones1 because they   
are more liable to be choked up by      
animals working in them4,,ak            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4  a--,tile drain
 trench4 b--,stone drain trench4 c--,sod
 laid on the stone4  ,describe the      
principle which regulates these relative
 depths and distances4 7,blackboard47   
,which is usually the cheaper plan of   
constructing drains8  ,the depth of the 
drains must depend on the distances at  
which they are placed4 ,if but twenty   
feet apart1 they need be but three feet 
deep2 while1 if they are eighty feet    
apart1 they must be five feet deep1 to  
produce the same effect4 ,the reason for
 this is1 that the water in the drained 

soil is not level1 but is higher midway 
between the drains1 than at any other   
point4 ,it is necessary that this       
highest point should be sufficiently far
 from the surface not to interfere with 
the roots of plants1 consequently1 as   
the water line between two drains is    
curved1 the most distant drains must be 
the deepest4 ,this will be understood by
 referring to the following diagram4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4  aa--#e feet   
drains1 #hj ft4 apart4 bb--#c feet      
drains1 #bj ft4 apart4  ,the curved line
 represents the position of the water4  
,in most soils it will be easier to dig 
one trench five feet deep1 than four    
trenches three feet deep1 and the deep  
trenches will be equally beneficial2 but
 where the soil is very hard below a    
depth of three feet1 the shallow        
trenches will be the cheapest1 and in   
such soils they will often be better1 as
 the hard mass might not allow the water
 to pass down to enter the deeper       
drains4  ,by following out these        

instructions1 land may be cheaply1      
thoroughly1 and permanently drained4    
,,footnotes3  ,,ak ,it is probable that 
a composition of hydraulic cement and   
some soluble material will be invented1 
by which a continuous pipe may be laid  
in the bottoms of trenches1 becoming    
porous as the soluble material is       
removed by water4     ,,chapter ,,iii4  
,,advantages ,,of ,,under-,,draining4   
,the advantages of under-draining are   
many and important4  #a4 ,it entirely   
prevents drought4  #b4 ,it furnishes an 
increased supply of atmospheric         
fertilizers4  #c4 ,it warms the lower   
portions of the soil4  #d4 ,it hastens  
the decomposition of roots and other    
organic matter4  #e4 ,it accelerates the
 disintegration of the mineral matters  
in the soil4  #f4 ,it causes a more even
 distribution of nutritious matters     
among those parts of soil traversed by  
roots4  #g4 ,it improves the mechanical 
texture of the soil4  #h4 ,it causes the
 poisonous excrementitious matter of    

plants to be carried out of the reach of
 their roots4  #i4 ,it prevents grasses 
from running out4  #aj4 ,it enables us  
to deepen the surface soil4  ,by        
removing excess of water--  #aa4 ,it    
renders soils earlier in the spring4    
#ab4 ,it prevents the throwing out of   
grain in winter4  #ac4 ,it allows us to 
work sooner after rains4  #ad4 ,it keeps
 off the effects of cold weather longer 
in the fall4  #ae4 ,it prevents the     
formation of acetic and other organic   
acids1 which induce the growth of sorrel
 and similar weeds4  #af4 ,it hastens   
the decay of vegetable matter1 and the  
finer comminution of the earthy parts of
 the soil4  #ag4 ,it prevents1 in a     
great measure1 the evaporation of water1
 and the consequent abstraction of heat 
from the soil4  #ah4 ,it admits fresh   
quantities of water from rains1 etc41   
which are always more or less imbued    
with the fertilizing gases of the       
atmosphere1 to be deposited among the   
absorbent parts of soil1 and given up to

 the necessities of plants4  #ai4 ,it   
prevents the formation of so hard a     
crust on the surface of the soil as is  
customary on heavy lands4         99    
99       99       99       99  ,how does
 under-draining prevent drought8  #a4   
,under-draining prevents drought1       
because it gives a better circulation of
 air in the soil2 7it does so by making 
it more open74 ,there is always the same
 amount of water in and about the       
surface of the earth4 ,in winter1 there 
is more in the soil than in summer1     
while in summer1 that which has been    
dried out of the soil exists in the     
atmosphere in the form of a vapor4 ,it  
is held in the vapory form by heat1     
which acts as braces to keep it         
distended4 ,when vapor comes in contact 
with substances sufficiently colder than
 itself1 it gives up its heat--thus     
losing its braces--contracts1 and       
becomes liquid water4  ,this may be     
observed in hundreds of common          
operations4  ,why is there less water in

 the soil in summer than in winter1 and 
where does it exist8  ,what holds it in 
its vapory form8  ,how is it affected by
 cold substances8  ,describe the deposit
 of moisture on the outside of a pitcher
 in summer4  ,what other instances of   
the same action can be named8  ,it is   
well known that a cold pitcher in summer
 robs the vapor in the atmosphere of its
 heat1 and causes it to be deposited on 
its own surface4 ,it looks as though the
 pitcher were sweating1 but the water   
all comes from the atmosphere1 not1 of  
course1 through the sides of the        
pitcher4  ,if we breathe on a           
knife-blade1 it condenses in the same   
manner the moisture of the breath1 and  
becomes covered with a film of water4   
,stone houses are damp in summer1       
because the inner surfaces of the walls1
 being cooler than the atmosphere1 cause
 its moisture to be deposited in the    
manner described4 ,by leaving a space1  
however1 between the walls and the      
plaster1 this moisture is prevented from

 being troublesome4  ,how does this     
principle affect the soil8  ,explain the
 experiment with the two boxes of soil4 
,nearly every night in the summer       
season1 the cold earth receives moisture
 from the atmosphere in the form of dew4
  ,a cabbage1 which at night is very    
cold1 condenses water to the amount of a
 gill or more4  ,the same operation     
takes place in the soil4 ,when the air  
is allowed to circulate among its lower 
and cooler particles1 they receive      
moisture from the same process of       
condensation4 ,therefore1 when1 by the  
aid of under-drains1 the lower soil     
becomes sufficiently open to admit of a 
circulation of air1 the deposit of      
atmospheric moisture will keep the soil 
supplied with water at a point easily   
accessible to the roots of plants4  ,if 
we wish to satisfy ourselves that this  
is practically correct1 we have only to 
prepare two boxes of finely pulverized  
soil1 one1 five or six inches deep1 and 
the other fifteen or twenty inches deep1

 and place them in the sun at mid-day in
 summer4 ,the thinner soil will be      
completely dried1 while the deeper one1 
though it may have been perfectly dry at
 first1 will soon accumulate a large    
amount of water on those particles      
which1 being lower and more sheltered   
from the sun's heat than the particles  
of the thin soil1 are made cooler4      
,with an open condition of subsoil1     
then1 such as may be secured by         
under-draining1 we entirely overcome    
drought4  ,how does under-draining      
supply to the soil an increased amount  
of atmospheric fertilizers8  ,how does  
it warm the lower parts of the soil8    
#b4 ,under-draining furnishes an        
increased supply of atmospheric         
fertilizers1 because it secures a change
 of air in the soil4 ,this change is    
produced whenever the soil becomes      
filled with water1 and then dried2 when 
the air above the earth is in rapid     
motion1 and when the comparative        
temperature of the upper and lower soils

 changes4 ,it causes new quantities of  
the ammonia and carbonic acid which it  
contains to be presented to the         
absorbent parts of the soil4  #c4       
,under-draining warms the lower parts of
 the soil1 because the deposit of       
moisture 7#a7 is necessarily accompanied
 by an abstraction of heat from the     
atmospheric vapor1 and because heat is  
withdrawn from the whole amount of air  
circulating through the cooler soil4    
,when rain falls on the parched surface 
soil1 it robs it of a portion of its    
heat1 which is carried down to equalize 
the temperature for the whole depth4    
,the heat of the rain-water itself is   
given up to the soil1 leaving the water 
from one to ten degrees cooler1 when it 
passes out of the drains1 than when     
received by the earth4  ,there is always
 a current of air passing from the lower
 to the upper end of a well constructed 
drain2 and this air is always cooler in 
warm weather1 when it issues from1 than 
when it enters the drain4 ,its lost heat

 is imparted to the soil4  ,how does it 
hasten the decomposition of roots and   
other organic matter in the soil8  ,how 
does it accelerate the disintegration of
 its mineral parts8  ,why is this       
disintegration necessary to fertility8  
,this heating of the lower soil renders 
it more favorable to vegetation1        
partially by expanding the spongioles at
 the end of the roots1 thus enabling    
them to absorb larger quantities of     
nutritious matters4  #d4 ,under-draining
 hastens the decomposition of roots and 
other organic matters in the soil1 by   
admitting increased quantities of air1  
thus supplying oxygen1 which is as      
essential in decay as it is in          
combustion4 ,it also allows the         
resultant gases of decomposition to pass
 away1 leaving the air around the       
decaying substances in a condition to   
continue the process4  ,this organic    
decay1 besides its other benefits1      
produces an amount of heat perfectly    
perceptible to the smaller roots of     

plants1 though not so to us4  #e4       
,draining accelerates the disintegration
 of the mineral matters in the soil1 by 
admitting water and oxygen to keep up   
the process4 ,this disintegration is    
necessary to fertility1 because the     
roots of plants can feed only on matters
 dissolved from surfaces2 and the more  
finely we pulverize the soil1 the more  
surface we expose4 ,for instance1 the   
interior of a stone can furnish no food 
for plants2 while1 if it were finely    
crushed1 it might make a fertile soil4  
,any thing1 tending to open the soil to 
exposure1 facilitates the disintegration
 of its particles1 and thereby increases
 its fertility4  ,how does              
under-draining equalize the distribution
 of the fertilizing parts of the soil8  
,why does this distribution lessen the  
impoverishment of the soil8  ,how does  
under-draining improve the mechanical   
texture of the soil8  ,how do drains    
affect the excrementitious matter of    
plants8  #f4 ,draining causes a more    

even distribution of nutritious matters 
among those parts of soil traversed by  
roots1 because it increases the ease    
with which water travels around1        
descending by its own weight1 moving    
sideways by a desire to find its level1 
or carried upward by attraction to      
supply the evaporation at the surface4  
,by this continued motion of the water1 
soluble matter of one part of the soil  
may be carried to some other part2 and  
another constituent from this latter    
position may be carried back to the     
former4 ,thus the food of vegetables is 
continually circulating around among    
their roots1 ready for absorption at any
 point where it is needed1 while the    
more open character of the soil enables 
roots to occupy larger portions1 making 
a more even drain on the whole1 and     
preventing the undue impoverishment of  
any part4  #g4 ,under-drains improve the
 mechanical texture of the soil2        
because1 by the decomposition of its    
parts1 as previously described 7#d and  

#e71 it is rendered of a character to be
 more easily worked2 while smooth round 
particles1 which have a tendency to     
pack1 are roughened by the oxidation of 
their surfaces1 and move less easily    
among each other4  #h4 ,drains cause the
 excrementitious matter of plants to be 
carried out of the reach of their roots4
 ,nearly all plants return to the soil  
those parts of their food1 which are not
 adapted to their necessities1 and      
usually in a form that is poisonous to  
plants of the same kind4 ,in an open    
soil1 this matter may be carried by     
rains to a point where roots cannot     
reach it1 and where it may undergo such 
changes as will fit it to be again taken
 up4  ,why do they prevent grasses from 
running out8  #i4 ,by under-draining1   
grasses are prevented from running out1 
partly by preventing the accumulation of
 the poisonous excrementitious matter1  
and partly because these grasses usually
 consist of tillering plants4  ,these   
plants continually reproduce themselves 

in sprouts from the upper parts of their
 roots4 ,these sprouts become           
independent plants1 and continue to     
tiller 7thus keeping the land supplied  
with a full growth71 until the roots of 
the stools 7or clumps of tillers71 come 
in contact with an uncongenial part of  
the soil1 when the tillering ceases2 the
 stools become extinct on the death of  
their plants1 and the grasses run out4  
,the open and healthy condition of soil 
produced by draining prevents the       
tillering from being stopped1 and thus  
keeps up a full growth of grass until   
the nutriment of the soil is exhausted4 
#aj4 ,draining enables us to deepen the 
surface-soil1 because the admission of  
air and the decay of roots render the   
condition of the subsoil such that it   
may be brought up and mixed with the    
surface-soil1 without injuring its      
quality4  ,the second class of          
advantages of under-draining1 arising in
 the removal of the excess of water in  
the soil1 are quite as important as     

those just described4  ,how does the    
removal of water render soils earlier in
 spring8  ,why does it prevent the      
throwing out of grain in winter8  ,why  
does it enable us to work sooner after  
rains8  ,why does it keep off the       
effects of cold weather longer in the   
fall8  #aa4 ,soils are1 thereby1        
rendered earlier in spring1 because the 
water1 which rendered them cold1 heavy1 
and untillable1 is earlier removed1     
leaving them earlier in a growing       
condition4  #ab4 ,the throwing out of   
grain in winter is prevented1 because   
the water falling on the earth is       
immediately removed instead of remaining
 to throw up the soil by freezing1 as it
 always does from the upright position  
taken by the particles of ice4  #ac4 ,we
 are enabled to work sooner after rains1
 because the water descends1 and is     
immediately removed instead of lying to 
be taken off by the slow process of     
evaporation1 and sinking through a heavy
 soil4  #ad4 ,the effects of cold       

weather are kept off longer in the fall1
 because the excess of water is removed1
 which would produce an unfertile       
condition on the first appearance of    
cold weather4  ,the drains also1 from   
causes already named 7#c71 keep the soil
 warmer than before being drained1 thus 
actually lengthening the season1 by     
making the soil warm enough for         
vegetable growth earlier in spring1 and 
later in autumn4  ,how does it prevent  
lands from becoming sour8  ,why does it 
hasten the decay of roots1 and the      
comminution of mineral matters8  ,how   
does it prevent the abstraction of heat 
from the soil8  #ae4 ,lands are         
prevented from becoming sour by the     
formation of acetic acid1 etc41 because 
these acids are produced in the soil    
only when the decomposition of organic  
matter is arrested by the antiseptic    
7preserving7 powers of water4 ,if the   
water is removed1 the decomposition of  
the organic matter assumes a healthy    
form1 while the acids already produced  

are neutralized by atmospheric          
influences1 and the soil is restored    
from sorrel to a condition in which it  
is fitted for the growth of more        
valuable plants4  #af4 ,the decay of    
roots1 etc41 is allowed to proceed1     
because the preservative influence of   
too much water is removed4 ,wood1       
leaves1 or other vegetable matter kept  
continually under water1 will last for  
ages2 while1 if exposed to the action of
 the weather1 as in under-drained soils1
 they soon decay4  ,the presence of too 
much water1 by excluding the oxygen of  
the air1 prevents the comminution of    
matters necessary to fertility4  ,how   
much heat does water take up in becoming
 vapor8  ,why does water sprinkled on a 
floor render it cooler8  ,why is not a  
cubic inch of vapor warmer than a cubic 
inch of water8  ,why does a wet cloth on
 the head make it cooler when fanned8   
,how does this principle apply to the   
soil8  #ag4 ,the evaporation of water1  
and the consequent abstraction of heat  

from the soil1 is in a great measure    
prevented by draining the water out at  
the bottom of the soil1 instead of      
leaving it to be dried off from the     
surface4  ,when water assumes the       
gaseous 7or vapory7 form1 it takes up   
#agbc times as much heat as it contained
 while a liquid4 ,a large part of this  
heat is derived from surrounding        
substances4 ,when water is sprinkled on 
the floor1 it cools the room2 because1  
as it becomes a vapor1 it takes heat    
from the room4 ,the reason why vapor    
does not feel hotter than liquid water  
is1 that1 while it contains #agbc times 
as much heat1 it is #agbc as large4     
,hence1 a cubic inch of vapor1 into     
which we place the bulb of a            
thermometer1 contains no more heat than 
a cubic inch of water4 ,the principle is
 the same in some other cases4 ,a sponge
 containing a table-spoonful of water is
 just as wet as one twice as large and  
containing two spoonsful4  ,if a wet    
cloth be placed on the head1 and the    

evaporation of its water assisted by    
fanning1 the head becomes cooler--a     
portion of its heat being taken to      
sustain the vapory condition of the     
water4  ,the same principle holds true  
with the soil4 ,when the evaporation of 
water is rapidly going on1 by the       
assistance of the sun1 wind1 etc41 a    
large quantity of heat is abstracted1   
and the soil becomes cold4  ,when there 
is no evaporation taking place1 except  
of water which has been deposited on the
 lower portions of soil1 and carried to 
the surface by capillary attraction 7as 
is nearly true on under-drained soils71 
the loss of heat is compensated by that 
taken from the moisture in the          
atmosphere by the soil1 in the          
above-named manner4  ,this cooling of   
the soil by the evaporation of water1 is
 of very great injury to its powers of  
producing crops1 and the fact that      
under-drains avoid it1 is one of the    
best arguments in favor of their use4   
,some idea may1 perhaps1 be formed of   

the amount of heat taken from the soil  
in this way1 from the fact that1 in     
midsummer1 #be hogsheads of water may be
 evaporated from a single acre in twelve
 hours4  ,when rains are allowed to     
enter the soil1 how do they benefit it8 
,how do under-drains prevent the        
formation of a crust on the surface of a
 soil8  #ah4 ,when not saturated with   
water the soil admits the water of      
rains1 etc41 which bring with them      
fertilizing gases from the atmosphere1  
to be deposited among the absorbent     
parts of soil1 and given up to the      
necessities of the plant4 ,when this    
rain falls on lands already saturated1  
it cannot enter the soil1 but must run  
off from the surface1 or be removed by  
evaporation1 either of which is         
injurious4 ,the first1 because          
fertilizing matter is washed away4 ,the 
second1 because the soil is deprived of 
necessary heat4  #ai4 ,the formation of 
crust on the surface of the soil is due 
to the evaporation of water1 which is   

drawn up from below by capillary        
attraction4 ,it arises from the fact    
that the water in the soil is saturated 
with mineral substances1 which it leaves
 at its point of evaporation at the     
surface4 ,this soluble matter from      
below1 often forms a very hard crust1   
which is a complete shield to prevent   
the admission of air with its           
ameliorating effects1 and should1 as far
 as possible1 be avoided4               
,under-draining is the best means of    
doing this1 as it is the best means of  
lessening the evaporation4  ,the        
foregoing are some of the more important
 reasons why under-draining is always   
beneficial4 ,thorough experiments have  
amply proved the truth of the theory4   
,what kinds of soil are benefited by    
under-draining8  ,the kinds of soil     
benefited by under-draining are nearly  
as unlimited as the kinds of soil in    
existence4 ,it is a common opinion1     
among farmers1 that the only soils which
 require draining are those which are at

 times covered with water1 such as      
swamps and other low lands2 but the     
facts stated in the early part of this  
chapter1 show us that every kind of     
soil--wet1 dry1 compact1 or             
light--receives benefit from the        
treatment4 ,the fact that land is too   
dry1 is as much a reason why it should  
be drained1 as that it is too wet1 as it
 overcomes drought as effectually as it 
removes the injurious effects of too    
much water4  ,all soils in which the    
water of heavy rains does not           
immediately pass down to a depth of at  
least thirty inches1 should be          
under-drained1 and the operation1 if    
carried on with judgment1 would         
invariably result in profit4  ,what do  
,english farmers name as the profits of 
under-draining8  ,what stand has been   
taken by the ,english government with   
regard to under-draining8  ,of the      
precise profits of under-draining this  
is not the place to speak3 many of the  
agricultural papers contain numerous    

accounts of its success4 ,it may be well
 to remark here1 that many ,english     
farmers give it1 as their experience1   
that under-drains pay for themselves    
every three years1 or that they produce 
a perpetual profit of #cc-a_/c per      
cent41 or their original cost4 ,this is 
not the opinion of theorists and book   
farmers4 ,it is the conviction of       
practical men1 who know1 from           
experience1 that under-drains are       
beneficial4  ,the best evidence of the  
utility of under-draining is the        
position1 with regard to it1 which has  
been taken by the ,english national     
government1 which affords much          
protection to the agricultural interests
 of her people--a protection which in   
this country is unwisely and unjustly   
withheld4  ,in ,england a very large sum
 from the public treasury has been      
appropriated as a fund for loans1 on    
under-drains1 which is lent to farmers  
for the purpose of under-draining their 
estates1 the only security given being  

the increased value of the soil4 ,the   
time allowed for payments is twenty     
years1 and only five per cent4 interest 
is charged4 ,by the influence of this   
patronage1 the actual wealth of the     
kingdom is being rapidly increased1     
while the farmers themselves1 can raise 
their farms to any desired state of     
fertility1 without immediate investment4
  ,how does under-draining affect the   
healthfulness of marshy countries8      
,describe the sub-soil plow4  ,the best 
proof that the government has not acted 
injudiciously in this matter is1 that   
private capitalists are fast employing  
their money in the same manner1 and     
loans on under-drains are considered a  
very safe investment4  ,there is no     
doubt that we may soon have similar     
facilities for improving our farms1 and 
when we do1 we shall find that it is    
unnecessary to move ,west to find good  
soil4 ,the districts nearer market1     
where the expense of transportation is  
much less1 may1 by the aid of           

under-drains1 and a judicious system of 
cultivation1 be made equally fertile4   
,one very important1 though not strictly
 agricultural1 effect of thorough       
drainage is its removal of certain local
 diseases1 peculiar to the vicinity of  
marshy or low moist soils4 ,the         
health-reports in several places in     
,england1 show that where fever and ague
 was once common1 it has almost entirely
 disappeared since the general use of   
under-drains in those localities4       
,,chapter ,,iv4  ,,sub-,,soil ,,plowing4
   ,describe the ,mapes plow4  ,why is  
the motion in the soil of one and a half
 inches sufficient8  ,how does the      
oxidation of the particles of the soil  
resemble the rusting of cannon balls in 
a pile8  ,the sub-soil plow is an       
implement differing in figure from the  
surface plow4 ,it does not turn a       
furrow1 but merely runs through the     
subsoil like a mole--loosening and      
making it finer by lifting1 but allowing
 it to fall back and occupy its former  

place4 ,it usually follows the surface  
plow1 entering the soil to the depth of 
from twelve to eighteen inches below the
 bottom of the surface furrow4  ,the    
best pattern now made 7the ,mapes plow7 
is represented in the following figure4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4  ,the ,mapes   
plow and its mode of action4 a--,shape  
of the foot of the plow1 b--,its effect 
on the soil4  ,the sub-soil plows first 
made raised the whole soil about eight  
inches1 and required very great power in
 their use often six1 eight1 or even ten
 oxen4 ,the ,mapes plow1 raising the    
soil but slightly1 may be worked with   
much less power1 and produces equally   
good results4 ,it may be run to its full
 depth in most soils by a single yoke of
 oxen4  ,of course a motion in the soil 
of but one and a half inches is very    
slight1 but it is sufficient to move    
each particle from the one next to it   
which1 in dry soils1 is all that is     
necessary4 ,whoever has examined a pile 
of cannon-balls must have observed that 

at the points where they touch each     
other1 there is a little rust4 ,in the  
soil1 the same is often the case4 ,where
 the particles touch each other1 there  
is such a chemical change produced as   
renders them fit for the use of plants4 
,while these particles remain in their  
first position1 the changed portions are
 out of the reach of roots2 but1 if1 by 
the aid of the sub-soil plow1 their     
position is altered1 these parts are    
exposed for the uses of plants4 ,if we  
hold in the hand a ball of dry clay1 and
 press it hard enough to produce the    
least motion among its particles1 the   
whole mass becomes pulverized4 ,on the  
same principle1 the sub-soil plow       
renders the compact lower soil          
sufficiently fine for the requirements  
of fertility4  ,why are the benefits of 
sub-soiling not permanent on wet lands8 
,does sub-soiling overcome drought8     
,how does it deepen the surface soil8   
,notwithstanding its great benefits on  
land1 which is sufficiently dry1        

sub-soiling cannot be recommended for   
wet lands2 for1 in such case1 the rains 
of a single season would often be       
sufficient to entirely overcome its     
effects by packing the subsoil down to  
its former hardness4  ,on lands not     
overcharged with water1 it is productive
 of the best results1 it being often    
sufficient to turn the balance between a
 gaining and a losing business in       
farming4  ,it increases nearly every    
effect of under-draining2 especially    
does it overcome drought1 by loosening  
the soil1 and admitting air to circulate
 among the particles of the subsoil and 
deposit its moisture on the principle   
described in the chapter on             
under-draining4  ,it deepens the        
surface-soil1 because it admits roots   
into the subsoil where they decay and   
leave carbon1 while the circulation of  
air so affects the mineral parts1 that  
they become of a fertilizing character4 
,the deposit of carbon gives to the     
subsoil the power of absorbing1 and     

retaining the atmospheric fertilizers1  
which are more freely presented1 owing  
to the fact that the air is allowed to  
circulate with greater freedom4 ,as a   
majority of roots decay in the          
surface-soil1 they there deposit much   
mineral matter obtained from the        
subsoil4  ,why is the retention of      
atmospheric manures ensured by          
sub-soiling8  ,why are organic manures  
plowed deeply under the soil1 less      
liable to evaporation than when         
deposited near the surface8  ,how does  
sub-soiling resemble under-draining in  
relation to the tillering of grasses8   
,when the subsoil consists of a thin    
layer of clay on a sandy bed1 what use  
may be made of the sub-soil plow8  ,the 
retention of atmospheric manures is more
 fully ensured by the better exposure of
 the clayey portions of the soil4       
,those manures which are artificially   
applied1 by being plowed under to       
greater depths1 are less liable to      
evaporation1 as1 from the greater amount

 of soil above them1 their escape will  
more probably be arrested2 and1 from the
 greater prevalence of roots1 they are  
more liable to be taken up by plants4   
,the subsoil often contains matters     
which are deficient in the surface-soil4
 ,by the use of the sub-soil plow1 they 
are rendered available4  ,sub-soiling is
 similar to under-draining in continuing
 the tillering of grasses1 and in       
getting rid of the poisonous            
excrementitious matter of plants4  ,when
 the subsoil is a thin layer of clay on 
a sandy bed 7as in some plants of       
,cumberland ,co4 ,maine71 the sub-soil  
plow1 by passing through it1 opens a    
passage for water1 and often affords a  
sufficient drainage4  ,to how great a   
depth will the roots of plants usually  
occupy the soil8  ,what is the object of
 loosening the soil8  ,how are these    
various effects better produced in deep 
than in shallow soils8  ,if plants will 
grow better on a soil six inches deep   
than on one of three inches1 there is no

 reason why they should not be benefited
 in proportion1 by disturbing the soil  
to the whole depth to which roots will  
travel--which is usually more than two  
feet4 ,the minute rootlets of corn and  
most other plants1 will1 if allowed by  
cultivation1 occupy the soil to the     
depth or thirty-four inches1 having a   
fibre in nearly every cubic inch of the 
soil for the whole distance4 ,there are 
very few cultivated plants whose roots  
would not travel to a depth of thirty   
inches or more4 ,even the onion sends   
its roots to the depth of eighteen      
inches when the soil is well cultivated4
  ,the object of loosening the soil is  
to admit roots to a sufficient depth to 
hold the plant in its position--to      
obtain the nutriment necessary to its   
growth--to receive moisture from the    
lower portions of the soil--and1 if it  
be a bulb1 tuber1 or tap1 to assume the 
form requisite for its largest          
development4  ,it must be evident that  
roots1 penetrating the soil to a depth  

of two feet1 anchor the plant with      
greater stability than those which are  
spread more thinly near the surface4    
,the roots of plants traversing the soil
 to such great distances1 and being     
located in nearly every part1 absorb    
mineral and other food1 in solution in  
water1 only through the spongioles at   
their ends4 ,consequently1 by having    
these ends in every part of the soil1 it
 is all brought under contribution1 and 
the amount supplied is greater1 while   
the demand on any particular part may be
 less than when the whole requirements  
of plants have to be supplied from a    
depth of a few inches4  ,may garden     
soils be profitably imitated in field   
culture8  ,the ability of roots1 to     
assume a natural shape in the soil1 and 
grow to their largest sizes1 must depend
 on the condition of the soil4 ,if it is
 finely pulverized to the whole depth to
 which they ought to go1 they will be   
fully developed2 while1 if the soil be  
too hard for penetration1 they will be  

deformed or small4 ,thus a carrot may   
grow to the length of two and a half    
feet1 and be of perfect shape1 while1 if
 it meet in its course at a depth of    
eight or ten inches a cold1 hard        
subsoil1 its growth must be arrested1 or
 its form injured4  ,roots are turned   
aside by a hard sub-soil1 as they would 
be if received by the surface of a plate
 of glass4  ,add to this the fact that  
cold1 impenetrable subsoils are         
chemically uncongenial to vegetation1   
and we have sufficient evidence of the  
importance1 and in many cases the       
absolute necessity of sub-soiling and   
under-draining4  ,it is unnecessary to  
urge the fact that a garden soil of two 
feet is more productive than a field    
soil of six inches2 and it is certain   
that proper attention to these two modes
 of cultivation will in a majority of   
cases make a garden of the field--more  
than doubling its value in ease of      
working1 increased produce1 certain     
security against drought1 and more even 

distribution of the demands on the      
soil--while the outlay will be          
immediately repaid by an increase of    
crops4  ,is the use of the sub-soil plow
 increasing8  ,will its use ever injure 
crops8  ,the subsoil will be much       
improved in its character the first     
year1 and a continual advancement       
renders it in time equal to the original
 surface-soil1 and extending to a depth 
of two feet or more4  ,the sub-soil plow
 is coming rapidly into use4 ,there are 
now in ,new ,jersey more foundries      
casting sub-soil plows than there were  
sub-soil plows in the ,state six years  
ago4 ,the implement has there1 as well  
as in many other places1 ceased to be a 
curiosity2 and the man who now objects  
to its use1 is classed with him who     
shells his corn on a shovel over a      
half-bushel1 instead of employing an    
improved machine1 which will enable him 
to do more in a day than he can do in   
the good old way in a week4  ,had we    
space1 we might give many instances of  

the success of sub-soiling1 but the     
agricultural papers of the present day  
7at least one of which every farmer     
should take7 have so repeatedly         
published its advantages1 that we will  
not do so4  ,in no case will its use be 
found any thing but satisfactory1 except
 in occasional instances where there is 
some chemical difficulty in the subsoil1
 which an analysis will tell us how to  
overcome4  ,as was before stated1 its   
use on wet lands is not advisable until 
they have been under-drained1 as excess 
of water prevents its effects from being
 permanent4     ,,chapter ,v4  ,,plowing
 ,,and ,,other ,,modes ,,of             
,,pulverizing ,,the ,,soil4   ,may the  
satisfaction attending labor be         
increased by an understanding of the    
natural laws which regulate our         
operations8  ,on what depends the kind  
of plow to be used8  ,the advantages of 
pulverizing the soil1 and the reasons   
why it is necessary1 are now too well   
known to need remark4 ,few farmers1 when

 they plow1 dig1 or harrow1 are enabled 
to give substantial reasons for so      
doing4 ,if they will reflect on what has
 been said in the previous chapters1    
concerning the supply of mineral food to
 the plant by the soil1 and the effect  
of air and moisture about roots1 they   
will find more satisfaction in their    
labor than it can afford when applied   
without thought4   ,,plowing4  ,what is 
a general rule with regard to this8     
,should deep plowing be immediately     
adopted8 ,why8  ,why is this course of  
treatment advisable for garden culture8 
,the kind of plow used in cultivating   
the surface-soil must be decided by the 
kind of soil4 ,this question the        
practical1 observing farmer will be able
 to solve4  ,as a general rule1 it may  
be stated that the plow which runs the  
deepest1 with the same amount of force1 
is the best4  ,we might enter more fully
 into this matter but for want of space4
  ,the advantages of deep plowing cannot
 be too strongly urged4  ,the statement 

that the deeper and the finer the soil  
is rendered1 the more productive it will
 become1 is in every respect true1 and  
which no single instance will           
contradict4  ,it must not be inferred   
from this1 that we would advise a       
farmer1 who has always plowed his soil  
to the depth of only six inches1 to     
double the depth at once4 ,such a       
practice in some soils would be highly  
injurious1 as it would completely bury  
the more fertile and better cultivated  
soil1 and bring to the top one which    
contains no organic matter1 and has     
never been subject to atmospheric       
influences4 ,this would1 perhaps1 be so 
little fitted for vegetation that it    
would scarcely sustain plants until     
their roots could reach the more fertile
 parts below4 ,such treatment of the    
soil 7turning it upside down7 is        
excellent in garden culture1 where the  
great amount of manures applied is      
sufficient to overcome the temporary    
barrenness of the soil1 but it is not to

 be recommended for all field           
cultivation1 where much less manure is  
employed4  ,how should field plowing be 
conducted8  ,how does such treatment    
affect soils previously limed8  ,how may
 it sometimes improve sandy or clay     
soils8  ,the course to be pursued in    
such cases is to plow one inch deeper   
each year4 ,by this means the soil maybe
 gradually deepened to any desired      
extent4 ,the amount of uncongenial soil 
which will thus be brought up1 is       
slight1 and will not interfere at all   
with the fertility of the soil1 while   
the elevated portion will become1 in one
 year1 so altered by exposure1 that it  
will equal the rest of the soil in      
fertility4  ,often where lime has been  
used in excess1 it has sunk to the      
subsoil1 where it remains inactive4 ,the
 slight deepening of the surface plowing
 would mix this lime with the           
surface-soil1 and render it again       
useful4  ,when the soil is light and    
sandy1 resting on a heavy clay subsoil1 

or clay on sand1 the bringing up of the 
mass from below will improve the texture
 of the soil4  ,as an instance of the   
success of deep plowing1 we call to mind
 the case of a farmer in ,new ,jersey1  
who had a field which had yielded about 
twenty-five bushels of corn per acre4   
,it had been cultivated at ordinary     
depths4 ,after laying it out in eight   
step lands 7#bd feet71 he plowed it at  
all depths from five to ten inches1 on  
the different lands1 and sowed oats     
evenly over the whole field4 ,the crop  
on the five inch soil was very poor1 on 
the six inch rather better1 on the seven
 inch better still1 and on the ten inch 
soil it was as fine as ever grew in ,new
 ,jersey2 it had stiff straw and broad  
leaves1 while the grain was also much   
better than on the remainder of the     
field4  ,what kind of soils are         
benefited by fall plowing8  ,there is an
 old anecdote of a man who died1 leaving
 his sons with the information that he  
had buried a pot of gold for them1      

somewhere on the farm4 ,they commenced  
digging for the gold1 and dug over the  
whole farm to a great depth without     
finding the gold4 ,the digging1 however1
 so enriched the soil that they were    
fully compensated for their             
disappointment1 and became wealthy from 
the increased produce of their farm4    
,farmers will find1 on experiment1 that 
they have gold buried in their soil1 if 
they will but dig deep enough to obtain 
it4 ,the law gives a man the ownership  
of the soil for an indefinite distance  
from the surface1 but few seem to       
realize that there is another farm below
 the one they are cultivating1 which is 
quite as valuable as the one on the     
surface1 if it were but properly worked4
  ,fall plowing1 especially for heavy   
lands1 is a very good means of securing 
the action of the frosts of winter to   
pulverize the soil4 ,if it be a stiff   
clay1 it may be well to throw the soil  
up into ridges 7by ridging and back     
furrowing71 so as to expose the largest 

possible amount of surface to the       
freezing and thawing of winter4 ,sandy  
soils should not be plowed in the fall1 
as it renders them too light4           
,,digging ,,machines4  ,what is the     
digging machine8  ,a recent invention   
has been made in ,england1 known as the 
digging machine or rotary spade1        
which--although from having too much    
gearing between the power and the part  
performing the labor1 it is not adapted 
to general use--has given such promise  
of future success1 that ,mr4 ,mechi 7an 
agricultural writer of the highest      
standing7 has said that the plow is     
doomed4 ,this can hardly be true1 for   
the varied uses to which it may be      
applied1 will guarantee its continuance 
in the favor of the farmer4  ,already1  
in this country1 ,messrs4 ,gibbs        
,mapes1 have invented a digging machine 
of very simple construction1 which seems
 calculated to serve an excellent       
purpose1 even in the hands of the farmer
 of limited means4  ,its friends assert 

that1 with one pair of oxen1 it will dig
 perfectly three feet wide1 and for a   
depth of fifteen inches4 ,an experiment 
with an unperfected machine1 in the     
presence of the writer1 seemed to       
justify their hopes4  ,this machine     
thoroughly pulverizes the soil to a     
considerable depth1 and for smooth land 
must prove far superior to the plow4    
,,the ,,harrow ,,and ,,cultivator4  ,why
 is the harrow a defective implement8   
,why is the cultivator superior to the  
harrow8  ,the harrow1 an implement      
largely used in all parts of the world1 
to pulverize the soil1 and break clods1 
has become so firmly rooted in the      
affections of farmers1 that it must be a
 very long time before they can be      
convinced that it is not the best       
implement for the use to which it is    
devoted4 ,it is true that it pulverizes 
the soil for a depth of two or three    
inches1 and thus much improves its      
appearance1 benefiting it1 without      
doubt1 for the earliest stages of the   

growth of plants4 ,its action1 however1 
is very defective1 because1 from the    
wedge shape of its teeth1 it continually
 acts to pack the soil2 thus--although  
favorable for the germination of the    
seed--it is not calculated to benefit   
the plant during the later stages of its
 growth1 when the roots require the soil
 to be pulverized to a considerable     
depth4  ,the cultivator may be          
considered an improved harrow4 ,the     
principal difference between them being1
 that while the teeth of the harrow are 
pointed at the lower end1 those of the  
cultivator are shaped like a small      
double plow1 being large at the bottom  
and growing smaller towards the top4    
,they lift the earth up1 instead of     
pressing it downwards1 thus loosening   
instead of compacting the soil4  ,many  
styles of cultivators are now sold at   
agricultural warehouses4 ,a very good   
one1 for field use1 may be made by      
substituting the cultivator teeth for   
the spikes in an old harrow frame4      

,,chapter ,,vi4  ,,rolling1 ,,mulching1 
,,weeding1 ,,etc4   ,,rolling4  ,name   
some of the benefits of rolling8        
,rolling the soil with a large roller1  
arranged to be drawn by a team1 is in   
many instances a good accessory to      
cultivation4 ,by its means1 the         
following results are obtained3--  #a4  
,the soil at the surface is pulverized  
without the compacting of the lower     
parts1 the area of contact being large4 
#b4 ,the stones on the land are pressed 
down so as to be out of the way of the  
scythe in mowing4  #c4 ,the soil is     
compacted around seeds after sowing in  
such a manner as to exclude light and to
 touch them in every part1 both of which
 are essential to their germination and 
to the healthfulness of the plants4     
,under what circumstances should the    
roller be used8  #d4 ,the soil is so    
compacted at the surface1 that it is    
less frequented by grubs1 etc41 than    
when it is more loose4  #e4 ,when the   
soil is smoothed in this manner1 there  

is less surface exposed for the         
evaporation of water with its cooling   
effect4  #f4 ,light sandy lands1 by     
being rolled in the fall1 are rendered  
more compact1 and the loosening effects 
of frequent freezing and thawing are    
avoided4  ,although productive of these 
various effects1 rolling should be      
adopted only with much care1 and should 
never be applied to very heavy lands1   
except in dry weather when lumpy after  
plowing1 as its tendency in such cases  
would be to render them still more      
difficult of cultivation4 ,soils in     
which air does not circulate freely1 are
 not improved by rolling1 as it presses 
the surface-particles still more closely
 together1 and prevents the free        
admission of the atmosphere4  ,if well  
under-drained1 a large majority of soils
 would doubtless be benefited by a      
judicious use of the roller4,,al        
,,mulching4  ,what is mulching8  ,what  
are some of its benefits8  ,mulching    
7called ,gurneyism in ,england7 consists

 in covering the soil with salt hay1    
litter1 seaweed1 leaves1 spent tanbark1 
chips1 or other refuse matter4  ,every  
farmer must have noticed that1 if a     
board or rail1 or an old brush-heap be  
removed in spring from soil where grass 
is growing1 the grass afterwards grows  
in those places much larger and better  
than in other parts of the field4  ,this
 improvement arises from various causes4
  #a4 ,the evaporation of water from the
 soil is prevented during drought by the
 shade afforded by the mulch2 and it is 
therefore kept in better condition1 as  
to moisture and temperature1 than when  
evaporation goes on more freely4 ,this  
condition is well calculated to advance 
the chemical changes necessary to       
prepare the matters--both organic and   
mineral--in the soil for the use of     
plants4  #b4 ,by preventing evaporation1
 we partially protect the soil from     
losing ammonia resultant from decaying  
organic matter4  #c4 ,a heavy mulch     
breaks the force of rains1 and prevents 

them from compacting the soil1 as would 
be the result1 were no such precaution  
taken4  #d4 ,mulching protects the      
surface-soil from freezing as readily as
 when exposed1 and thus keeps it longer 
open for the admission of air and       
moisture4 ,when unprotected1 the soil   
early becomes frozen2 and all water     
falling1 instead of entering as it      
should do1 passes off on the surface4   
,why does mulching take the place of    
artificial watering8  ,why is the late  
sowing of oats beneficial8  ,from what  
arises the chief benefit of top dressing
 the soil with manure in autumn8  #e4   
,the throwing out of winter grain is    
often prevented1 because this is due to 
the freezing of the surface-soil4  #f4  
,mulching prevents the growth of some   
weeds1 because it removes from them the 
fostering heat of the sun4  ,many of the
 best nursery-men keep the soil about   
the roots of young trees mulched        
continually4 ,one of the chief arguments
 for this treatment is1 that it prevents

 the removal of the moisture from the   
soil and the consequent loss of heat4   
,also that it keeps up a full supply of 
water for the uses of the roots1 because
 it keeps the soil cool1 and causes a   
deposit of dew4  #g4 ,it also prevents  
the baking of the soil1 or the formation
 of a crust4  ,it is to be recommended  
in nearly all cases to sow oats very    
thinly over land intended for winter    
fallow after the removal of crops1 as   
they will grow a little before being    
killed by the frost1 when they will fall
 down1 thus affording a very beneficial 
mulch to the soil4  ,when farmers spread
 manure on their fields in the fall to  
be plowed under in the spring1 they     
benefit the land by the mulching more   
than by the addition of fertilizing     
matter1 because they give it the        
protecting influence of the straw1 etc41
 while they lose much of the ammonia of 
their manure by evaporation4 ,the same  
mulching might be more cheaply done with
 leaves1 or other refuse matter1 and the

 ammonia of the manure made available by
 composting with absorbents4  ,why is   
snow particularly beneficial8  ,it is an
 old and true saying that snow is the   
poor man's manure4 ,the reason why it is
 so beneficial is1 chiefly1 that it acts
 as a most excellent mulch4 ,it contains
 no more ammonia than rain-water does2  
and1 were it not for the fact that it   
protects the soil against loss of heat1 
and produces other benefits of mulching1
 it would have no more advantageous     
effect4 ,the severity of winters at the 
,north is partially compensated by the  
long duration of snow4  ,it is a well   
known fact that when there is but little
 snow in cold countries1 wheat is very  
liable to be winter killed4 ,the same   
protection is afforded by artificial    
mulching4  ,this treatment is peculiarly
 applicable to the cultivation of       
flowers1 both in pots and in beds out of
 doors4 ,it is almost indispensable to  
the profitable production of            
strawberries1 and many other garden     

crops1 such as asparagus1 rhubarb1 etc4 
,many say that the best treatment for   
trees is to put stones about their      
roots4 ,this is simply mulching them1   
and might be done more cheaply by the   
use of leaves1 copying the action of    
nature in forests2,,am for1 unless these
 stones be removed in spring1 they will 
sink and compact the soil in part during
 open weather4   ,,weeding4  ,what are  
some of the uses of weeds8 ,their       
disadvantages8  ,if a farmer were       
asked--what is the use of weeds8 he     
might make out quite a list of their    
benefits1 among which might be some of  
the following3--  #a4 ,they shade tender
 plants1 and in a measure serve as a    
mulch to the ground4  #b4 ,some weeds1  
by their offensive odor1 drive away many
 insects4  #c4 ,they may serve as a     
green crop to be plowed into the soil1  
and increase its organic matter4  #d4   
,they make us stir the soil1 and thus   
increase its fertility4  ,still1 while  
thinking out these excuses for weeds1 he

 would see other and more urgent reasons
 why they should not be allowed to grow4
  #a4 ,they occupy the soil to the      
disadvantage of crops4  #b4 ,they       
exclude light and heat from cultivated  
plants1 and thus interfere with their   
growth4  #c4 ,they take up mineral and  
other matters from the soil1 and hold   
them during the growing season1 thus    
depriving crops of their use4  ,it is   
not necessary to argue the injury done  
by weeds4 ,every farmer is well         
convinced that they should be destroyed1
 and the best means of accomplishing    
this are of the greatest importance4    
,how may we protect ourselves against   
their increase8  ,why is it especially  
important for this purpose to maintain  
the balance of the soil8  ,in the first 
place1 we should protect ourselves      
against their increase4 ,this may be    
done3--  ,by decomposing all manures in 
compost1 whereby the seeds contained    
will be killed by the heat of           
fermentation2 or1 if one bushel of salt 

be mixed through each cord of compost   
7as before recommended71 it will kill   
seeds as well as grubs1--  ,by hoeing1  
or1 otherwise1 destroying growing weeds 
before they mature their seeds1 and  ,by
 keeping the soil in the best chemical  
condition4  ,this last point is one of  
much importance4 ,it is well known that 
soils deficient in potash1 will         
naturally produce one kind of plants1   
while soils deficient in phosphoric acid
 will produce plants of another species1
 etc4 ,many soils produce certain weeds 
which would not grow on them if they    
were made chemically perfect1 as        
indicated by analysis4 ,it is also      
believed that those weeds1 which        
naturally grow on the most fertile      
soils1 are the ones most easily         
destroyed4 ,there are exceptions 7of    
which the ,thistle is one71 but this is 
given as a general rule4  ,how much salt
 may be used with advantage8  ,why is   
the scuffle-hoe superior to the common  
hoe8  ,by careful attention to the      

foregoing points1 weeds may be kept from
 increasing while those already in the  
soil may be eradicated in various ways1 
chiefly by mechanical means1 such as    
hoeing1 plowing1 etc4,,an  ,prof4 ,mapes
 says that six bushels of salt annually 
sown broadcast over each acre of land1  
will destroy very many weeds as well as 
grubs and worms4  ,the common hoe is a  
very imperfect tool for the purpose of  
removing weeds1 as it prepares a better 
soil for1 and replants in a position to 
grow1 nearly as many weeds as it        
destroys4  ,the scuffle-hoe 7or         
push-hoe7 is much more effective1 as1   
when worked by a man walking backwards1 
and retiring as he works1 it leaves     
nearly all of the weeds on the surface  
of the soil to be killed by the sun4    
,when used in this way1 the earth is not
 trodden on after being hoed--as is the 
case when the common hoe is employed4   
,this treading1 besides compacting the  
soil1 covers the roots of many weeds1   
and causes them to grow again4  ,how may

 much labor be saved in removing weeds8 
,what is the ,langdon horse-hoe8        
,describe the universal cultivator8     
,much of the labor of weeding usually   
performed by men1 might be more cheaply 
done by horses4 ,there are various      
implements for this purpose1 some of    
which are coming1 in many parts of the  
country1 into very general use4  ,one of
 the best of these is the ,langdon      
,horse ,hoe1 which is a shovel-shaped   
plow1 to be run one or two inches deep4 
,it has a wing on each side to prevent  
the earth from falling on to the plants 
in the rows4 ,at the rear1 or upper     
edge1 is a kind of rake or comb1 which  
allows the earth to pass through1 while 
the weeds pass over the comb and fall on
 the surface of the soil1 to be killed  
by the heat of the sun4 ,it is a simple 
and cheap tool1 and will perform the    
work of twenty men with hoes4 ,the hand 
hoe will be necessary only in the rows4 
,,cultivator4  ,the cultivator1 which   
was described in the preceding chapter1 

and of which there are various patterns 
in use1 is excellent for weeding1 and   
for loosening the soil between the rows 
of corn1 etc4 ,the one called the       
universal cultivator1 having its side   
bars made of iron1 curved so that at    
whatever distance it is placed the teeth
 will point straight forward1 is a much 
better tool than those of the older     
patterns1 which had the teeth so        
arranged that when set for wide rows1   
they pointed towards the clevis4 ,it is 
difficult to keep such a cultivator in  
its place1 while the universal is as    
difficult to move out of a straight     
line4   ,,improved ,,horse-,,hoe4  ,what
 is the improved horse-hoe8  ,the       
improved horse-hoe is a combination of  
the ,langdon horse hoe and the          
cultivator1 and is the best implement1  
for many purposes1 that has yet been    
made4,,ao  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i      
,,harvesting ,,machines4  ,until within 
a comparatively short period1 but little
 attention has been paid to the         

production of machines for harvesting   
the various crops4  ,during the past few
 years1 however1 many valuable          
inventions have appeared4 ,among these  
we notice ,ketchum's mower1 ,hussey's   
mower and reaper1 and ,wagener's grain  
and grass seed harvester4 ,the latter   
machine gathers only the grain and seeds
 of the crop1 leaving the straw to be   
plowed under the soil1 thus maintaining 
its supply of soluble silicates1 and    
increasing its amount of organic matter4
 ,after taking the seed heads from the  
standing straw and grasses1 it thrashes 
them1 blows out the chaff1 separates the
 different kinds of seeds1 and          
discharges them into bags ready for     
market4 ,it consists of a car containing
 the machinery2 to this may be attached 
any required number of horses4 ,the     
inventor affirms that it has harvested  
the grain of two acres in one hour1     
performing the work with accuracy4,,ap  
99       99       99       99       99  
,there is much truth in the following   

proverbs3  ,a garden that is well kept1 
is kept easily4  ,you must conquer      
weeds1 or weeds will conquer you4  ,what
 are the two great rules in mechanical  
cultivation8  ,it is almost impossible  
to give a recapitulation of the matters 
treated in this section1 as it is1      
itself1 but an outline of subjects which
 might occupy our whole book4 ,the      
scholar and the farmer should understand
 every principle which it contains1 as  
well as they understand the             
multiplication table2 and their         
application will be found1 in every     
instance1 to produce the best results4  
,the two great rules of mechanical      
cultivation are--  ,,thorough           
,,under-,,draining4  ,,deep ,,and       
,,frequent ,,disturbance ,,of ,,the     
,,soil4  ,,footnotes3  ,,al ,field      
rollers should be made in sections1 for 
ease of turning4  ,,am ,the beneficial  
effects of mulching is so great as to   
lead us to the conclusion that it has   
other means of action than those        

mentioned in this book4 ,future         
experiments may lead to more knowledge  
on this subject4  ,,an ,it is possible  
that the excrementitious matter thrown  
out by some plants may be sufficiently  
destructive to other kinds to           
exterminate them from the soil--thus1   
farmers in ,maine say that a single crop
 of turnips will entirely rid the soil  
of witch grass4 ,this is1 undoubtedly1  
the effect of the excrementitious matter
 of the turnips4 ,this subject is one of
 practical importance1 and demands close
 investigation by farmers1 which may    
lead to its being reduced to a system4  
,,ao ,the improved horse-hoe is made and
 sold by ,ruggles1 ,nourse  ,mason1 of  
,worcester1 ,mass41 and ,quincy ,hall1  
,boston4  ,,ap ,this machine is more    
fully noticed in the advertising pages4 
,,section ,,fifth4  ,,analysis4         
,,chapter ,i4   ,why does true practical
 economy require that the soil should be
 analyzed8  ,at the present time1 when  
such marked improvements have been1 and 

are still being made1 in the practice of
 agriculture1 the farmer cannot be too  
strongly advised to procure an analysis 
of his soil1 and for obvious reasons4   
,it has been sufficiently proved that   
the plant draws from the soil certain   
kinds of mineral matter1 in certain     
proportions2 also1 that if the soil do  
not contain the constituents required1  
the plants cannot obtain them1 and      
consequently cannot grow4 ,furthermore1 
in proportion to the ability of the soil
 to supply these materials1 in exactly  
the same proportion will it1 when under 
good treatment1 produce good and        
abundant crops4  ,can each farmer make  
his own analyses8  ,why will not        
travelling chemists answer the purpose8 
,how must an analysis be used8  ,all    
admit the value and the necessity of    
manures2 they are required to make up   
deficiencies in the soil1 and           
consequently1 they must supply to it the
 matters which are wanting4 ,in order to
 know what is wanting1 we must know the 

composition of the soil4 ,this can be   
learned only by accurate chemical       
analysis4 ,such an analysis every farmer
 must possess before he can conduct his 
operations with true practical economy4 
,an important question now arises as to 
whether each farmer can make his own    
analyses4 ,he cannot do so without long 
study and practice4 ,the late ,prof4    
,norton said that1 at least two years'  
time would be necessary to enable a man 
to become competent to make a reliable  
analysis4 ,when we reflect that a farmer
 may never need more than five or six   
analyses1 we shall see that the time    
necessary to learn the art would be much
 more valuable than the cost of the     
analyses 7at #e or #aj each71 setting   
aside the cost of apparatus1 and the    
fact that while practising in the       
laboratory1 he must not use his hands   
for any labor that would unfit them for 
the most delicate manipulations4        
,neither will travelling chemists be    
able to make analyses as accurately and 

as cheaply as those who work in their   
own laboratories1 where their apparatus 
is not liable to the many injuries      
consequent on frequent removal4 ,the    
cost of sending one hundred samples of  
soil to a distant chemist1 would be much
 less than the expense of having his    
apparatus brought to the town where his 
services are required4  ,how may a      
farmer obtain the requisite knowledge8  
,when are the services of a consulting  
agriculturist required8  ,the way in    
which an analysis should be used is a   
matter of much importance4 ,to a man who
 knows nothing of chemistry 7be he ever 
so successful a farmer71 an analysis1 as
 received from a chemist1 would be as   
useless and unintelligible as though it 
were written in ,chinese2 while1 if a   
chemist who knew nothing of farming1    
were to give him advice concerning the  
application of manures1 he would be led 
equally astray1 and his course would be 
any thing but practical4 ,it is         
necessary that chemical and practical   

knowledge should be combined1 and then  
the value of analysis will be fully     
demonstrated4 ,the amount of knowledge  
required is not great1 but it must be   
thorough4 ,the information contained in 
this little book is sufficient1 but it  
would be folly for a man to attempt to  
use an analysis from reading it once    
hurriedly over4 ,it must be studied and 
thought on with great care1 before it   
can be of material assistance4 ,the     
evenings of one winter1 devoted to this 
subject1 will enable a farmer to        
understand the application of analysis  
to practical farming1 especially if     
other and more compendious works are    
also read4 ,a less time could hardly be 
recommended4  ,is there any doubt as to 
the practical value of analysis8  ,how  
should samples of soil for analysis be  
selected8  ,where this attention cannot 
be given to the subject1 the services of
 a ,consulting ,agriculturist should be 
employed to advise the treatment        
necessary to render fertile the soil    

analyzed4  ,every farmer1 however1      
should learn enough of the principles of
 agriculture to be able to use an       
analysis1 when procured1 without such   
assistance4,,aq  ,nearly all scientific 
men 7all of the highest merit7 are      
unanimous in their conviction of the    
practical value of an analysis of soils2
 and a volume of instances of their     
success1 with hardly a single failure1  
might be published4  ,prof4 ,mapes says1
 in the ,working ,farmer1 that he has   
given advice on hundreds of different   
soils1 and not a single instance can be 
found where he has failed to produce a  
profit greater than the cost of analysis
 and advice4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,c4 ,jackson1 of  
,boston1 the late ,prof4 ,norton1 of    
,yale ,college1 and others1 have had    
universal success in this matter4       
,analysis must be considered the only   
sure road to economical farming4  ,to   
select samples of soil for analysis1    
take a spadeful from various parts of   
the field--going to exactly the depth to

 which it has been plowed--until1 say a 
wheel-barrow full1 has been obtained4   
,mix this well together1 and send about 
a quart or a pint of it 7free from      
stones7 to the chemist4 ,this will      
represent all of that part of the farm  
which has been subject to the same      
cultivation1 and is of the same         
mechanical character4 ,if there are     
marked differences in the kinds of soil1
 separate analyses will be necessary4   
,give an instance of the success of     
treatment according to analysis8  ,when 
an analysis is obtained1 a regular      
debtor and creditor account may be kept 
with the soil2 and the farmer may know  
by the composition of the ashes of his  
crops1 and the manures supplied1 whether
 he is maintaining the fertility of his 
soil4  ,prof4 ,mapes once purchased some
 land which could not produce corn at   
all1 and by applying only such manures  
as analysis indicated to be necessary1  
at a cost of less than #b per acre1 he  
obtained the first year over fifty      

bushels of shelled corn per acre4 ,the  
land has since continued to improve1 and
 is as fertile as any in the ,state4 ,it
 has produced in one season a sufficient
 crop of cabbages to pay the expense of 
cultivation1 and over #bej per acre     
besides1 though it was apparently       
worthless when he purchased it4  ,these 
are strong facts1 and should arouse the 
farmers of the whole country to their   
true interests4 ,let them not call the  
teachings of science book-farming1 but  
prove all things--hold fast that which  
is good4  ,,footnotes3  ,,aq ,see       
,author's card in the front of the book4
     ,,chapter ,,ii4  ,,tables ,,of     
,,analysis4  ,,analyses ,,of ,,the      
,,ashes ,,of ,,crops4   ,no4 ,i4        
----------------------------------------
---------------------------             
,wheat4     ,wheat      ,rye4    ,rye   
,straw4             ,straw4             
----------------------------------------
--------------------------- ,ashes in   
#ajjj dry parts          #bj         #fj

        #bd      #dj                    
----------------------------------------
--------------------------- ,silica     
7sand7                  #af        #fed 
#e     #fde ,lime                       
#bh         #fg        #ej      #ia     
,magnesia                        #abj   
#cc       #ajd      #bd ,peroxide of    
,iron                  #g         #ac   
#ad      #ad ,potash                    
#bcg        #abd       #bba     #agd    
,soda                             #ia   
#b       #aaf       #c ,chlorine        
#aa                 #e ,sulphuric ,acid 
#c         #eh        #aj       #h      
,phosphoric ,acid                 #dih  
#ca       #dif      #ch                 
----------------------------------------
---------------------------  ,no4 ,,ii4 
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,corn4    ,corn      ,barley4   ,barley 
,stalks4             ,straw4            
----------------------------------------
---------------------------- ,ashes in  

#ajjj dry parts4           #ae          
#dd        #bh      #fa                 
----------------------------------------
---------------------------- ,silica    
7sand7                    #ae       #bgj
       #bga     #gjf ,lime              
#ae        #hf        #bf      #ie      
,magnesia                          #afb 
#ff        #ge      #cb ,peroxide of    
,iron                    #c         #h  
#ae       #g ,oxide of ,manganese       
#a ,potash                              
#bfa        #if       #acf      #fb     
,soda                               #fc 
#bgg        #ha       #f ,chlorine      
#b        #bj         #a      #aj       
,sulphuric ,acid                     #bc
         #e         #a      #af         
,phosphoric ,acid                   #ddi
       #aga       #chi      #ca         
----------------------------------------
----------------------------  ,no4      
,,iii4                                  
----------------------------------------
---------------------                   

,oats4     ,oat     ,buck   ,potatoes4  
,straw4  ,wheat4                        
----------------------------------------
--------------------- ,ashes in #ajjj   
dry parts      #bj       #ea      #ba   
#ij                                     
----------------------------------------
--------------------- ,silica 7sand7    
#g      #dhd       #g       #db ,lime   
#fj       #ha      #fg       #ba        
,magnesia                     #ii       
#ch     #ajd       #ec ,peroxide of     
,iron              #d       #ah      #aa
        #e ,potash                      
#bfb     #aia      #hg      #eeg ,soda  
#ig     #bja       #ai ,chlorine        
#c       #cb               #dc          
,sulphuric ,acid              #ajd      
#cc      #bb      #acg ,phosphoric ,acid
             #dch       #bg     #ejj    
#abf ,organic ,matter                   
#gej                                    
,water4                                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------  ,no4 ,,iv4        

----------------------------------------
-------------------                     
,peas4   ,beans4  ,turnips4  ,turnip    
,tops4                                  
----------------------------------------
------------------- ,ashes in #ajjj dry 
parts     #be      #bg       #gf        
#agj                                    
----------------------------------------
------------------- ,silica 7sand7      
#e      #ab       #ga         #h ,lime  
#ec      #eh      #abh       #bcc       
,magnesia                    #he        
#hj       #dh        #ca ,peroxide of   
,iron            #aj       #f        #i 
#h ,potash                     #cfa     
#ccf      #cih       #bhf ,soda         
#ia     #ajf      #ajh        #ed       
,chlorine                    #bc        
#g       #cg       #afj ,sulphuric ,acid
              #dd      #aj      #aca    
#abe ,phosphoric ,acid            #ccc  
#cgh       #fg        #ic ,organic      
,matter                           #hgj  
,water4                                 

----------------------------------------
-------------------  ,no4 ,v4           
----------------------------------------
----------------------                  
,flax4  ,linseed4  ,meadow   ,red       
,hay4   ,clover4                        
----------------------------------------
---------------------- ,ashes in #ajjj  
dry parts       #ej      #df       #fj  
#ge                                     
----------------------------------------
---------------------- ,silica 7sand7   
#beg      #ge      #cdd       #dh       
,alumina 7clay7              #cg8       
,lime                         #adh      
#hc      #aif      #cga ,magnesia       
#dd     #adf       #gh       #df        
,peroxide of ,iron              #cf8    
#i        #g        #b ,potash          
#aag     #bdj      #bcf      #bfg ,soda 
#aah      #de       #ai       #ga       
,chlorine                      #bi      
#b       #bh       #dh ,sulphuric ,acid 
#cb      #bc       #bi       #fj        
,phosphoric ,acid              #acj     

#cfe       #eh       #hh                
----------------------------------------
----------------------  ,no4 ,,vi4      
,amount of ,inorganic ,matter removed   
from the soil by ten bushels of grains1 
etc41 and by the straw1 etc41 required  
in their production--estimated in       
pounds3                                 
----------------------------------------
------------------                      
#abjj lbs4            #afbj lbs4        
,wheat4    ,wheat      ,rye4       ,rye 
,straw4              ,straw4            
----------------------------------------
------------------ ,potash              
#b4hf      #h4ig      #b4ea       #aa4cd
 ,soda                 #a4jd       4#ab 
#a4cc         4#bj ,lime                
4#cd      #d4hd       4#ef        #e4ia 
,magnesia             #a4df      #b4gf  
#a4ah        #a4eh ,oxide of ,iron      
4#jh       4#id       4#ae         4#hh 
,sulphuric ,acid        4#jc      #d4bj 
4#aa         4#je ,phosphoric ,acid     
#f4ja      #b4bb      #e4fd        #b4di

 ,chlorine                        4#gi  
4#cj ,silica                4#ad        
#dg4af       4#je       #db4be          
----------------------------------------
------------------ ,pounds carried off  
#ab       #gb        #aa        #ff     
----------------------------------------
------------------  ,no4 ,,vii4         
----------------------------------------
-------------                           
#afbj lbs4        #gjj lbs4             
,corn4    ,corn    ,oats4   ,oat        
,stalks4          ,straw4               
----------------------------------------
------------- ,potash              #b4gh
     #f4hd     #a4fi   #ab4jh ,soda     
#ai4hc           ,lime                  
4#ab     #f4jb      4#ci    #c4ci       
,magnesia            #a4eb     #d4gd    
4#fd    #a4ei ,oxide of ,iron           
4#eg      4#jb     4#gh ,sulphuric ,acid
                4#cf      4#ff    #a4da 
,phosphoric ,acid     #d4eb    #ab4ae   
#b4hj    #a4jg ,chlorine                
#a4cc      4#jb    #a4cf ,silica        

4#jf    #ai4af      4#ah   #bj4cb       
----------------------------------------
------------- ,pounds carried off    #i 
#ga      #f      #db                    
----------------------------------------
-------------  ,no4 ,,viii4             
----------------------------------------
----------------                        
,buck             #ffj lbs4  #bjjj lbs4 
,wheat4  ,barley4   ,barley     ,flax4  
,straw4                                 
----------------------------------------
---------------- ,potash                
#a4ja     #a4ij     #b4eg      #aa4gh   
,soda                 #b4ac     #a4ah   
4#bc      #aa4hb ,lime                  
4#gh      4#if     #c4hh      #aa4he    
,magnesia             #a4bj     #a4jj   
#a4ca       #i4ch ,oxide of ,iron       
4#ad      4#bj      4#ij       #g4cb    
,sulphuric ,acid        4#be      4#ja  
4#ff       #c4ai ,phosphoric ,acid      
#e4dj     #e4ce     #a4be      #ac4je   
,chlorine                       4#ja    
4#dj       #b4ij ,silica                

4#ji     #c4ij    #bh4hj      #be4ga    
----------------------------------------
---------------- ,pounds carried off    
#aa       #ad       #dj       #ajj      
----------------------------------------
----------------  ,no4 ,,ix4            
----------------------------------------
-------------------                     
#aabj lbs4          #acff lbs4          
,beans4    ,bean      ,field     ,pea   
,straw4     ,peas4    ,straw4           
----------------------------------------
------------------- ,potash             
#e4ed     #cf4bh      #e4ij      #c4gh  
,soda                  #a4hc      #a4ji 
#a4dj     ,lime                 #ih4ih  
#ac4fj       4#ha     #dc4ic ,magnesia  
4#bh      #d4ee      #a4cj      #e4ej   
,oxide of ,iron          4#aj       4#bj
       4#ae      #a4dj ,sulphuric ,acid 
4#af       4#fd       4#fd      #e4dc   
,phosphoric ,acid       #g4hj      #e4jj
      #e4ej      #c4hf ,chlorine        
4#ac      #a4gd       4#bc       4#jh   
,silica                 4#ah      #d4ij 

4#g      #af4jb                         
----------------------------------------
------------------- ,pounds carried off 
#ag        #fh        #af        #hj    
----------------------------------------
-------------------  ,no4 ,x4           
----------------------------------------
--------------------------              
#fce lbs4               #bjjj lbs4      
#a ,ton     ,turnip      #a ,ton        
,red                       ,turnips4    
,tops4    ,potatoes4    ,clover4        
----------------------------------------
-------------------------- ,potash      
#g4ad       #d4cd       #bg4hb          
#ca4da ,soda                    4#hf    
4#hd         4#ic        #h4cd ,lime    
#b4ca       #c4fa        #a4jc          
#dc4gg ,magnesia                4#ia    
4#dh        #b4fc        #e4be ,oxide of
 ,iron           4#bc        4#ac       
4#bf         4#bc ,sulphuric ,acid      
#b4cj       #a4ha        #f4ha          
#g4je ,phosphoric ,acid        #a4bi    
#a4ca        #f4be       #aj4bh         

,chlorine                4#fa           
#b4ce        #b4ac        #e4hf ,silica 
#a4cf        4#ac        #b4ad          
#e4ha                                   
----------------------------------------
-------------------------- ,pounds      
carried off      #ag         #ae        
#ej          #aah                       
----------------------------------------
--------------------------  ,no4 ,,xi4  
----------------------------------------
---------------                         
#bjjj lbs4  #bjjj lbs4                  
,meadow    ,cabbage                     
,hay4    ,water #i-aj                   
----------------------------------------
--------------- ,potash                 
#ah4aa         #e4be ,soda              
#a4ce         #i4bj ,lime               
#bb4ie         #i4de ,magnesia          
#f4ge         #b4gj ,oxide of ,iron     
#a4fi          4#be ,sulphuric ,acid    
#b4gj         #i4fj ,phosphoric ,acid   
#e4ig         #e4fj ,chlorine           
#b4ei         #b4fj ,silica             

#cg4hi          4#ce                    
----------------------------------------
--------------- ,pounds carried off     
#ajj            #de                     
----------------------------------------
---------------  ,no4 ,,xii4            
,composition of ,ashes1 leached and     
unleached1 showing their manurial value3
                                        
----------------------------------------
----------------------------            
,oak        ,oak       ,beech           
,beech                                  
unleached4  leached4  unleached4        
leached4                                
----------------------------------------
---------------------------- ,potash    
#hd          --       #aeh          --  
,soda                         #ef       
--        #bi          -- ,lime         
#gej         #edh       #fcd            
#dbf ,magnesia                     #de  
#f       #aac          #gj ,oxide of    
,iron                 #f          --    
#h          #ae ,sulphuric ,acid        

#ab          --        #ad          --  
,phosphoric ,acid              #ce      
#h        #ca          #eg ,chlorine    
#b                                      
----------------------------------------
----------------------------  ,no4      
,,xiii4                                 
----------------------------------------
-------------                     ,birch
      ,seaweed    ,bituminous           
leached4  unleached4   ,coal            
unleached4                              
----------------------------------------
------------- ,potash                -- 
#ahj          #b ,soda                  
--        #baj          #b ,lime        
#ebb        #id          #ba ,magnesia  
#cj        #ii           #b ,oxide of   
,iron          #e         #c            
#dj ,sulphuric ,acid        --          
#bdh           #i ,phosphoric ,acid     
#dc        #eb           #b ,chlorine   
--        #ih           #a              
----------------------------------------
-------------  ,no4 ,,xiv4  ,,tobacco4  

,analysis of the ash of the ,,plant     
,will  ,fresedius--  ,potash            
#ai4ee ,soda                #j4bg       
,magnesia           #aa4jg ,lime        
#dh4fh ,phosphoric ,acid     #c4ff      
,sulphuric ,acid      #c4bi ,oxide of   
,iron       #b4ii ,chloride of ,sodium  
#c4ed ,loss                #f4ie        
------                   #ajj4jj        
,analysis of the ash of the ,,root      
,berthier--  ,soluble ,matter           
#ab4c ,insoluble                        
#hg4g  ,the ,soluble parts consist of   
nearly--  ,carbonic ,acid               
#aj4j ,sulphuric ,acid                  
#aj4c ,muriatic ,acid 7,chlorine1 c47   
#ah4bf ,potash and ,soda                
#fa4dd                                  
------                                  
#ajj4jj  ,no4 ,,xv4  ,composition of    
some of the more common ,compounds of   
,acids and ,alkalies4                   
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
#ajj ,parts of               ,contain of

 the   ,contain of the                  
,alkalies          ,acids               
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------        
,carbonate of ,potash 7,pearlash7       
,potash  #fh4ji  ,carbonic   #ca4ia     
,bi-,carbonate of ,potash 7,saleratus7  
do4   #ea4fb  ,carbonic   #dh4ch        
,nitrate of ,potash 7,saltpetre7        
do4   #df4ef  ,nitric     #ec4dd        
,silicate of ,potash                    
do4   #ej4ed  ,silicic    #di4df        
,carbonate of ,soda                     
,soda   #eh4eh  ,carbonic   #da4db      
,bi-,carbonate of ,soda 7,common        
,soda7,,ar    do4   #da4db  ,carbonic   
#eh4eh ,nitrate of ,soda                
do4   #cf4fj  ,nitric     #fc4dj        
,sulphate of ,soda 7,glauber ,salts7,,ar
      do4   #ai4ch  ,sulphuric  #bd4he  
,silicate of ,soda                      
do4   #dj4cg  ,silicic    #ei4fc        
,carbonate of ,lime 7,limestone7        
,lime   #ef4bi  ,carbonic   #dc4ga      
,sulphate of ,lime 7,plaster ,paris7,,ar

      do4   #cb4ij  ,sulphuric  #df4ca  
,sulphate of ,lime 7,burned7            
do4   #da4ec  ,sulphuric  #eh4dg        
,phosphate of ,lime                     
do4   #ed4dh  ,phosphoric #de4eb        
,super-,phosphate of ,lime              
do4   #bh4eb  ,phosphoric #ga4dh        
,silicate of ,lime                      
do4   #ch4ae  ,silicic    #fa4he        
,carbonate of ,magnesia                 
,magnesia #dh4ca  ,carbonic   #ea4fi    
,sulphate of ,magnesia 7,epsom          
,salts7,,ar    do4   #af4gj  ,sulphuric 
#cb4dj ,silicate of ,alumina            
,alumina  #ag4je  ,silicic    #gb4ie    
,sulphate of ,iron 7,green ,vitriol7,,ar
   ,oxide of        ,sulphuric  #ca4jc  
,iron  #bg4ai                           
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------  ,no4  
,,xvi4  ,proximate ,analyses of ,crops1 
showing the amount of the different     
,organic ,compounds contained in ,grain1
 ,roots1 ,hay1 etc4--estimated in       
pounds3                                 

----------------------------------------
------------------------------          
,water4  ,husk or  ,starch1  ,gluten1   
,fatty                                  
,woody    ,gum and  ,albumen1  ,matter4 
,fibre4   ,sugar4   ,legumin4           
----------------------------------------
----        #aj ,bushels4               
,wheat            #fjj lbs4     #ij     
#ij    #ccj       #hg        #ah ,barley
           #eae lbs4     #gg       #gg  
#cji       #gj        #ac ,oats         
#dbe lbs4     #fh       #he    #bee     
#gj        #be ,rye              #ebj   
lbs4     #fb       #gh    #cab       #fe
        #ah ,indian ,corn      #fjj lbs4
     #hd       #cf    #dbj       #gb    
#db ,buck ,wheat       #dbe lbs4     #fd
      #ajf    #bab       #cd        #b8 
,beans            #fdj lbs4     #ij     
#fa    #bef      #aff        #af ,peas  
#fdj lbs4     #ij       #eh    #cbj     
#aed        #ad                         
#bjjj lbs4                              
,potatoes                    #aejj      

#hj    #cfj       #dj         #f        
,turnips                     #agfj      
#dj    #ahj;,,as   #cj         #f       
,carrots                     #agjj      
#fj    #bjj;,,as   #cj         #h       
,mangold ,wurtzel             #agjj     
#dj    #bbj;,,as   #dj         8 ,meadow
 ,hay                   #bhj      #fjj  
#hjj      #adj        #gj ,clover ,hay  
#bhj      #ejj    #hjj      #ahf        
#hj ,pea ,straw                    #bej 
#ejj    #ijj      #bdf        #cj ,rye  
,straw                    #bgj      #ijj
    #gfj       #bf         8 ,corn      
,stalks                  #bdj      #ejj 
#ajdj       #fj        #cd #ajj lbs4    
,fine ,wheat ,flour     #aj             
#gi       #aa      #ajj lbs4 ,wheat     
,bran           #ac              #ee    
#ai         #e                          
----------------------------------------
------------------------------  ,no4    
,,xvii4  ,amount of ,ash left after     
burning #ajjj lbs4 of various plants1   
ordinarily dry--  ,wheat         #bj    

its straw   #ej ,barley        #cj      
#ej ,oats          #dj                  
#fj ,rye           #bj                  
#dj ,indian ,corn   #ae                 
#ej ,pea           #cj                  
#ej ,bean          #cj ,meadow   ,hay   
#ej  to    #ajj ,clover       #ij ,rye  
,grass    #ie ,potato         #h  to    
#ae ,turnip         #e  to      #h      
,carrot        #ae  to     #bj          
----------------------------------------
----------------------  ,no4 ,,xviii4   
,,manures4  ,,horse ,,manure4  ,solid   
,dung-- ,combustible ,matter            
#ai4fh ,ash                             
#c4jg ,water                            
#gg4be                                  
------                                  
#ajj4jj  ,composition of the ,ash--     
,silica                                 
#fb4dj ,potash                          
#aa4cj ,soda                            
#a4ih ,oxide of ,iron                   
#a4ag ,lime                             
#d4fc ,magnesia                         

#c4hd ,oxide of ,manganese              
#b4ac ,phosphoric ,acid                 
#aj4di ,sulphuric ,acid                 
#a4hi ,chlorine                         
#j4jc ,loss                             
#j4ad                                   
------                                  
#ajj4jj  ,no4 ,,xix4  ,,night ,,soil4   
,solid 7,ash7--   ,earthy ,phosphates   
and a trace of ,sulphate of ,lime       
#ajj   ,sulphate of ,soda and ,potash1  
and ,phosphate of ,soda       #h        
,carbonate of ,soda                     
#h   ,silica                            
#af   ,charcoal and ,loss               
#ah                                     
---                                     
#aej  ,urine   ,urea,,at                
#cj4aj   ,uric ,acid                    
#a4jj   ,sal ,ammoniac,,at              
#a4ej   ,lactic ,acid1 etc4             
#ag4ad   ,mucus                         
4#cb   ,sulphate of ,potash             
#c4ga   ,sulphate of ,soda              
#c4af   ,phosphate of ,ammonia,,at      

#a4fe   ,earthy ,phosphates             
#c4id   ,salt 7,chloride of ,sodium7    
#d4de   ,silica                         
#j4jc                                   
------                                  
#fg4jj ,water                           
#icc4jj                                 
------                                  
#ajjj4jj  ,no4 ,,xx4  ,,cow ,,manure4   
,solid 7,ash7--   ,phosphates           
#bj4i   ,peroxide of ,iron              
#h4h   ,lime                            
#a4e   ,sulphate of ,lime 7,plaster7    
#c4a   ,chloride of ,potassium          
trace   ,silica                         
#fc4g     ,loss                         
#b4j                                    
-----                                   
#ajj4j  ,no4 ,,xxi4  ,,comparative      
,,value ,,of ,,the ,,urine ,,of         
,,different ,,animals4                  
,solid ,matter4           ,organic4     
,inorganic4           ,total4 ,man      
#bc4d           #g4f                #ca 
,horse       #bg4           #cc4        

#fj ,cow         #ej4           #bj4    
#gj ,pig         #ef4           #ah4    
#gd ,sheep       #bh4           #ab4    
#dj  ,no4 ,,xxii4  ,,guano4  ,water     
#f4dj ,ammonia                     #b4ga
 ,uric ,acid                  #cd4gj    
,oxalic ,acid1 etc4          #bf4gi     
,fixed ,alkaline ,salts4 ,sulphate of   
,soda            #b4id ,phosphate of    
,soda            4#dh ,chloride of      
,sodium 7salt7    4#hf   ,earthy ,salts4
 ,carbonate of ,lime           #a4cf    
,phosphates                 #ai4bd      
,foreign ,matter4 ,silicious grit and   
sand     #d4eb                          
------                           #ajj4jj
  ,for the analysis of fertile and      
barren soils1 see page #gb4             
,,footnotes3  ,,ar ,contain a large     
amount of ,water4  ,,as ,pectic ,acid4  
,,at ,supply ,ammonia4     ,,the        
,,practical ,,farmer4   ,who is the     
practical farmer8 ,let us look at two   
pictures and decide4  ,here is a farm of
 #ajj acres in ordinary condition4 ,it  

is owned and tilled by a hard-working   
man1 who1 in the busy season1 employs   
one or two assistants4 ,the farm is free
 from debt1 but it does not produce an  
abundant income2 therefore1 its owner   
cannot afford to purchase the best      
implements1 or make other needed        
improvements2 besides1 he don't believe 
in such things4 ,his father was a good  
solid farmer2 so was his grandfather2   
and so is he1 or thinks he is4 ,he is   
satisfied that 'the good old way' is    
best1 and he sticks to it4 ,he works    
from morning till night2 from spring    
till fall4 ,in the winter1 he rests1 as 
much as his lessened duties will allow4 
,during this time1 he reads little1 or  
nothing4 ,least of all does he read     
about farming4 ,he don't want to learn  
how to dig potatoes out of a book4 ,book
 farming is nonsense4 ,many other       
similar ideas keep him from agricultural
 reading4 ,his house is comfortable1 and
 his barns are quite as good as his     
neighbors'1 while his farm gives him a  

living4 ,it is true that his soil does  
not produce as much as it did ten years 
ago2 but prices are better1 and he is   
satisfied4  ,let us look at his         
premises1 and see how his affairs are   
managed4 ,first1 examine the land4      
,well1 it is good fair land4 ,some of it
 is a little springy1 but is not to be  
called wet4 ,it will produce a ton and a
 half of hay to the acre--it used to    
produce two tons4 ,there are some stones
 on the land1 but not enough in his     
estimation to do harm4 ,the plowed      
fields are pretty good2 they will       
produce #ce bushels of corn1 #ac bushels
 of wheat1 or #cj bushels of oats per   
acre1 when the season is not dry4 ,his  
father used to get more2 but1 somehow1  
the weather is not so favorable as it   
was in old times4 ,he has thought of    
raising root crops1 but they take more  
labor than he can afford to hire4 ,over1
 in the back part of the land there is a
 muck-hole1 which is the only piece of  
worthless land on the whole farm4  ,now1

 let us look at the barns and           
barn-yards4 ,the stables are pretty     
good4 ,there are some wide cracks in the
 siding1 but they help to ventilate1 and
 make it healthier for the cattle4 ,the 
manure is thrown out of the back        
windows1 and is left in piles under the 
eaves on the sunny side of the barn4    
,the rain and sun make it nicer to      
handle4 ,the cattle have to go some     
distance for water2 and this gives them 
exercise4 ,all of the cattle are not    
kept in the stable2 the fattening stock 
are kept in the various fields1 where   
hay is fed out to them from the stack4  
,the barn-yard is often occupied by     
cattle1 and is covered with their       
manure1 which lies there until it is    
carted on to the land4 ,in the shed are 
the tools of the farm1 consisting of    
carts1 plows--not deep plows1 this      
farmer thinks it best to have roots near
 the surface of the soil where they can 
have the benefit of the sun's heat1--a  
harrow1 hoes1 rakes1 etc4 ,these tools  

are all in good order2 and1 unlike those
 of his less prudent neighbor1 they are 
protected from the weather4  ,the crops 
are cultivated with the plow1 and hoe1  
as they have been since the land was    
cleared1 and as they always will be     
until this man dies4  ,here is the      
'practical farmer' of the present day4  
,hard working1 out of debt1 and         
economical--of dollars and cents1 if not
 of soil and manures4 ,he is a better   
farmer than two thirds of the three     
millions of farmers in the country4 ,he 
is one of the best farmers in his       
town--there are but few better in the   
county1 not many in the ,state4 ,he     
represents the better class of his      
profession4  ,with all this1 he is1 in  
matters relating to his business1 an    
unreading1 unthinking man4 ,he knows    
nothing of the first principles of      
farming1 and is successful by the       
indulgence of nature1 not because he    
understands her1 and is able to make the
 most of her assistance4  ,this is an   

unpleasant fact1 but it is one which    
cannot be denied4 ,we do not say this to
 disparage the farmer1 but to arouse him
 to a realization of his position and of
 his power to improve it4  ,but let us  
see where he is wrong4  ,he is wrong in 
thinking that his land does not need    
draining4 ,he is wrong in being         
satisfied with one and a half tons of   
hay to the acre when he might easily get
 two and a half4 ,he is wrong in not    
removing as far as possible every stone 
that can interfere with the deep and    
thorough cultivation of his soil4 ,he is
 wrong in reaping less than his father  
did1 when he should get more4 ,he is    
wrong in ascribing to the weather1 and  
similar causes1 what is due to the      
actual impoverishment of his soil4 ,he  
is wrong in not raising turnips1        
carrots1 and other roots1 which his     
winter stock so much need1 when they    
might be raised at a cost of less than  
one third of their value as food4 ,he is
 wrong in considering worthless a       

deposit of muck1 which is a mine of     
wealth if properly employed4 ,he is     
wrong in ventilating his stables at the 
cost of heat4 ,he is wrong in his       
treatment of his manures1 for he loses  
more than one half of their value from  
evaporation1 fermentation1 and leaching4
 ,he is wrong in not having water at    
hand for his cattle--their exercise     
detracts from their accumulation of fat 
and their production of heat1 and it    
exposes them to cold4 ,he is wrong in   
not protecting his fattening stock from 
the cold of winter2 for1 under exposure 
to cold1 the food1 which would otherwise
 be used in the formation of fat1 goes  
to the production of the animal heat    
necessary to counteract the chilling    
influence of the weather1 p4 #ej4 ,he is
 wrong in allowing his manure to lie    
unprotected in the barn-yard4 ,he is    
wrong in not adding to his tools the    
deep surface plow1 the subsoil plow1 the
 cultivator1 and many others of improved
 construction4 ,he is wrong in          

cultivating with the plow and hoe1 those
 crops which could be better or more    
cheaply managed with the cultivator or  
horse-hoe4 ,he is wrong in many things  
more1 as we shall see if we examine all 
of his yearly routine of work4 ,he is   
right in a few things2 and but a few1 as
 he himself would admit1 had he that    
knowledge of his business which he could
 obtain in the leisure hours of a single
 winter4 ,still1 he thinks himself a    
practical farmer4 ,in twenty years1 we  
shall have fewer such1 for our young men
 have the mental capacity and mental    
energy necessary to raise them to the   
highest point of practical education1   
and to that point they are gradually but
 surely rising4  ,let us now place this 
same farm in the hands of an educated   
and understanding cultivator2 and1 at   
the end of five years1 look at it again4
  ,he has sold one half of it1 and      
cultivates but fifty acres4 ,the money  
for which the other fifty were sold has 
been used in the improvement of the     

farm4 ,the land has all been            
under-drained1 and shows the many       
improvements consequent on such         
treatment4 ,the stones and small rocks  
have been removed1 leaving the surface  
of the soil smooth1 and allowing the use
 of the sub-soil plow1 which with the   
under-drains have more than doubled the 
productive power of the farm4           
,sufficient labor is employed to        
cultivate with improved tools1 extensive
 root crops1 and they invariably give a 
large yield4 ,the grass land produces a 
yearly average of #b tons of hay per    
acre4 ,from #hj to #ajj bushels of corn1
 #cj bushels of wheat1 and #de bushels  
of oats are the average of the crops    
reaped4 ,the soil has been analyzed1 and
 put in the best possible condition1    
while it is yearly supplied with manures
 containing every thing taken away in   
the abundant crops4 ,the analysis is    
never lost sight of in the regulation of
 crops and the application of manures4  
,the worthless muck bed was retained1   

and is made worth one dollar a load to  
the compost heap1 especially as the land
 requires an increase of organic matter4
 ,a new barn has been built large enough
 to store all of the hay produced on the
 farm4 ,it has stables1 which are tight 
and warm1 and are well ventilated above 
the cattle4 ,the stock being thus       
protected from the loss of their heat1  
give more milk1 and make more fat on a  
less amount of food than they did under 
the old system4 ,water is near at hand1 
and the animals are not obliged to over 
exercise4 ,the manure is carefully      
composted1 either under a shed          
constructed for the purpose with a tank 
and pump1 or is thrown into the cellar  
below1 where the hogs mix it with a     
large amount of muck1 which has been    
carted in after being thoroughly        
decomposed by the lime and salt mixture4
  ,they are thus protected against all  
loss1 and are prepared for the immediate
 use of crops4 ,no manures are allowed  
to lie in the barn-yard1 but they are   

all early removed to the compost heap1  
where they are preserved by being mixed 
with carbonaceous matter4 ,in the tool  
shed1 we find deep surface-plows1       
sub-soil plows1 cultivators1 horse-hoes1
 seed-drills1 and many other valuable   
improvements4  ,this farmer takes one or
 more agricultural papers1 from which he
 learns many new methods of cultivation1
 while his knowledge of the reasons of  
various agricultural effects enables him
 to discard the injudicious suggestions 
of mere book farmers and uneducated     
dreamers4  ,here are two specimens of   
farmers4 ,neither description is        
over-drawn4 ,the first is much more     
careful in his operations than the      
majority of our rural population4 ,the  
second is no better than many who may be
 found in ,america4  ,we appeal to the  
common sense of the reader of this work 
to know which of the two is the         
practical farmer--let him imitate either
 as his judgment shall dictate4         
,,finis4     ,,explanation ,,of ,,terms4

   ,,absorb--to soak in a liquid or a   
gas4  ,,abstract--to take from4         
,,acid--sour2 a sour substance4         
,,agriculture--the art of cultivating   
the soil4  ,,alkali--the direct opposite
 of an acid1 with which it has a        
tendency     to unite4  ,,alumina--the  
base of clay4  ,,analysis--separating   
into its primary parts any compound     
substance4  ,,carbonate--a compound1    
consisting of carbonic acid and an      
alkali4  ,,caustic--burning4            
,,chloride--a compound containing       
chlorine4  ,,clevis--that part of a plow
 by which the drawing power is attached4
  ,,decompose--to separate the          
constituents of a body from their       
combinations1 forming new kinds of      
compounds4  ,,digestion--the            
decomposition of food in the stomach and
 intestines of     animals              
7agricultural74  ,,dew--deposit of the  
insensible vapor of the atmosphere on   
cold bodies4  ,,excrement--the matter   
given out by the organs of plants and   

animals1     being those parts of their 
food which they are unable to           
assimilate4  ,,fermentation--a kind of  
decomposition4  ,,gas--air--aeriform    
matter4  ,,gurneyism--see ,mulching4    
,,ingredient--component part4           
,,inorganic--mineral1 or earthy4        
,,mouldboard--that part of a surface    
plow which turns the sod4               
,,mulching--covering the soil with      
litter1 leaves1 or other refuse matter4 
,see p4 #bdg4  ,,neutralize--,to        
overcome the characteristic properties  
of4  ,,organic ,,matter--that kind of   
matter which at times possesses an      
organized 7or living7 form1 and at      
others exists as a gas in the           
atmosphere4  ,,oxide--a compound of     
oxygen with a metal4  ,,phosphate--a    
compound of phosphoric acid with an     
alkali4  ,,proximate--an organic        
compound1 such as wood1 starch1 gum1    
etc42 a     product of life4            
,,pungent--pricking4                    
,,putrefaction--rotting4  ,,saturate--to

 fill the pores of any substance1 as a  
sponge with water1     or charcoal with 
ammonia4  ,,silicate--a compound of     
silica with an alkali4                  
,,soluble--capable of being dissolved4  
,,solution--a liquid containing another 
substance dissolved in it4  ,,saturated 
,,solution--one which contains as much  
of the foreign substance     as it is   
capable of holding4  ,,spongioles--the  
mouths at the ends of roots4            
,,sulphate--a compound of sulphuric acid
 with an alkali4  ,,vapor--gas4         
,,ketchum',s  ,,patent ,,mowing         
,,machines  ,illustration  ,the greatest
 ,improvement ever made for ,simplicity1
 ,durability1 and ,ease of ,action4     
,it is now beyond a question1 from the  
complete triumph over all other machines
 this season1 that this is the only     
successful ,grass ,cutter known4 ,it is 
in fact the only machine that has ever  
cut all kinds of grass without clogging 
or interruption4 ,more than #ajjj have  
been sold the present season under the  

following warranty1 and not in a single 
instance have we been called on to take 
one back4  7,warranty37 ,that said      
machines are capable of ,cutting and    
,spreading1 with one span of horses and 
driver1 from ten to fifteen acres per   
day1 of any kind of grass1 heavy or     
light1 wet or dry1 lodged or standing1  
and do it as well as is done with a     
scythe by the best mowers4  ,the price  
of our machine1 with two sets of knives 
and extras1 is #aaj1 cash1 delivered on 
board of cars or boat1 free of charge4  
,,howard  ,,co41 ,manufacturers and     
,proprietors1 ,buffalo1 ,n4 ,y4         
,buffalo1 ,aug4 #a1 #ahec4   ,,ruggles1 
,,nourse1 ,,mason  ,co41 ,manufacture   
,ketchum's ,mower for ,new     ,england4
  ,,warder  ,,brokaw1 ,springfield1     
,ohio2 for ,southern ,ohio and          
,kentucky4  ,,seymour  ,,morgan1        
,brockport1 ,n4 ,y42 for ,michigan and  
,illinois4     ,,new ,,and ,,useful     
,,works4  ,,just ,,published ,,by  ,d4  
,,appleton  ,,company   ,a new and much1

 enlarged edition of  ,,dr4 ,,ure',s    
,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,manufactures
 ,,and ,,mines4  ,containing a clear    
,exposition of their principles and     
practice4 ,illustrated with nearly      
#a1fjj engravings4 ,complete in two     
large #hvo4 volumes2 counts over #b1jjj 
pages4 ,price #e4jj4      ,this new     
edition is nearly a quarter of a century
 in advance of     any previous one4    
,it contains one third more matter than 
the latest previous one4      ,the      
statistics1 inventions1 and             
improvements1 are all brought     down  
to the present time4      ,the results  
of the ,london ,exhibition on the       
respective subjects     of which the    
,dictionary treats1 are presented with  
great fulness     and accuracy4         
,the numerous errors in the typography  
of the ,london edition have     been    
corrected in this4   ,,sir ,,charles    
,,lyell',s  ,,principles ,,of ,,geology2
  ,or1 the ,modern ,changes of the      
,earth and its ,inhabitants1 considered 

as illustrative of ,geology4 ,a new and 
much enlarged edition4 ,illustrated with
 maps1 plates1 and wood-cuts4 #a vol4   
#hvo41 of #hej pages4 ,price #b4be4     
,,sir ,,charles ,,lyell',s  ,,manual    
,,of ,,elementary ,,geology2  ,or1 the  
,ancient ,changes of the ,earth and its 
,inhabitants1 as illustrated by         
,geological ,monuments4 ,a new and      
greatly enlarged edition4 ,illustrated  
with #ejj wood-cuts4 #a vol4 #hvo4      
,price #a4ge4      999999 ,the author of
 these works1 stands in the very front  
rank     of scientific men1 and his     
works upon the science to which he      
has devoted his great powers and his    
indefatigable study1 are     the        
standard books upon these subjects4     
,,appleton',s  ,,modern ,,atlas ,,of    
,,the ,,earth4  ,with an ,alphabetical  
,index of the ,latitudes and ,longitudes
 of #ah1jjj places4 ,thirty-four        
beautifully engraved and colored maps1  
with ,temperature ,scales4 #dto4 size1  
bound in #a vol41 royal #hvo4 ,price    

#c4ej4      ,this is the only complete  
portable ,modern ,atlas yet published4  
,the maps are engraved on steel1 and    
executed with great     clearness1      
distinctness and accuracy4 ,the         
delineations of     mountainous         
districts1 the sources of rivers and    
boundary lines1     have been made with 
great care4 ,it is designed for the     
table of     the ,student and the office
 of the ,professional ,man1 and is      
issued in a very finished and elegant   
style1 and embraces     extensive       
details of all the important parts of   
the ,earth4     ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and    
,,co4',s ,,publications4  ,popular      
,science4  ,the ,chemistry of ,common   
,life4  ,,by ,,james ,f4 ,w4 ,,johnston1
 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4,s4 ,l4  ,e41 c4      
,author of ,lectures on ,agricultural   
,chemistry and ,geology1 a ,catechism of
 ,agricultural ,chemistry and ,geology1 
c4   ,,advertisement4      ,the common  
life of man is full of wonders1         
,chemical and     ,physiological4 ,most 

of us pass through this life without    
seeing     or being sensible of them1   
though every day our existence and      
our comforts ought to recall them to our
 minds4 ,one main cause     of this is1 
that our schools tell us nothing about  
them--do not     teach those parts of   
modern learning which would fit us for  
seeing them4 ,what most concerns the    
things that daily occupy our            
attention and cares1 are in early life  
almost sedulously kept     from our     
knowledge4 ,those who would learn any   
thing regarding     them1 must          
subsequently teach themselves through   
the help of the     press3 hence the    
necessity for a ,popular ,chemical      
,literature4      ,it is with a view to 
meet this want of the ,public1 and at   
the     same time to supply a ,manual   
for the ,schools1 that the present      
work has been projected4 ,it treats1 in 
what appears to be their     natural    
order1 of ,,the ,,air ,,we ,,breathe and
 ,,the ,,water ,,we ,,drink1 in         

their relations to human life and       
health--,,the ,,soil ,,we ,,cultivate   
,,and ,,the ,,plant ,,we ,,rear1 as the 
sources from which the chief            
sustenance of all life is               
obtained--,,the ,,bread ,,we ,,eat ,,and
 ,,the     ,,beef ,,we ,,cook1 as the   
representatives of the two grand        
divisions     of human food--,,the      
,,beverages ,,we ,,infuse1 from which so
 much of     the comfort of modern life1
 both savage and civilized1 is          
derived--,,the ,,sweets ,,we ,,extract1 
the history of which presents so        
striking an illustration of the         
economical value of chemical            
science--,,the ,,liquors ,,we ,,ferment1
 so different from the sweets in        
their action on the system1 and yet so  
closely connected with     them in      
chemical history--,,the ,,narcotics ,,we
 ,,indulge ,,in1 as     presenting us   
with an aspect of the human constitution
 which1     both chemically and         
physiologically1 is more mysterious and 

wonderful than any other we are         
acquainted with--,,the ,,odours ,,we    
,,enjoy ,,and ,,the ,,smells ,,we       
,,dislike2 the former because of the    
beautiful illustration it presents of   
the recent progress of     organic      
chemistry in its relations to comforts  
of common life1     and the latter      
because of its intimate connection with 
our most     important sanitary         
arrangements--,,what ,,we ,,breathe     
,,for and ,,why ,,we     ,,digest1 as   
functions of the body at once the most  
important to     life1 and the most     
purely chemical in their nature--,,the  
,,body ,,we     ,,cherish1 as presenting
 many striking phenomena1 and performing
     many interesting chemical functions
 not touched upon in the     discussion 
of the preceding topics--and lastly1    
,,the ,,circulation     ,,of ,,matter1  
as exhibiting in one view the end1      
purpose1 and     method of all the      
changes in the natural body1 in organic 
nature1 and in the mineral kingdom1     

which are connected with and            
determine the existence of life4        
,it has been the object of the ,author  
in this ,work to exhibit the     present
 condition of chemical knowledge and of 
matured     scientific opinion upon the 
subjects to which it is devoted4 ,the   
reader will not be surprised1 therefore1
 should he find in it     some things   
which differ from what is to be found in
 other     popular works already in his 
hands or on the shelves of his          
library4      ,the ,work is being       
published in #e or #f ,,numbers1 price  
#be cents     each1 in the following    
order1 forming #a vol4 #abmo4 of about  
#djj     pages4      #a4 ,the ,,air we  
,breathe and     #b4 ,the ,,water we    
,drink4     #c4 ,the ,,soil we          
,cultivate and     #d4 ,the ,,plant we  
,rear4     #e4 ,the ,,bread we ,eat and 
#f4 ,the ,,beef we ,cook4     #g4 ,the  
,,beverages we ,infuse4     #h4 ,the    
,,sweets we ,extract4     #i4 ,the      
,,liquors we ,ferment4     #aj4 ,the    

,,narcotics we ,indulge in4     #aa4    
,the ,,odours we ,enjoy and     #ab4    
,the ,,smells we ,dislike4     #ac4     
,what we ,,breathe and ,,breathe ,,for1 
and     #ad4 ,what1 ,how1 and ,why we   
,,digest     #ae4 ,the ,,body we        
,cherish1 and     #af4 ,the             
,,circulation of ,,matter1 a            
,recapitulation4     ,,works ,,on       
,,agriculture1 ,,the ,,horse1  ,,dog4   
,published by ,d4 ,appleton1  ,co4      
,,the ,,farmer',s ,,hand-,,book  ,being 
a ,full and ,complete ,guide for the    
,farmer and ,emigrant4 ,comprising--,the
 ,clearing of ,forest and ,prairie      
,lands2 ,gardening2 ,farming ,generally2
 ,farriery2 ,the ,management and        
,treatment of ,cattle2 ,cookery2 ,the   
,construction of ,dwellings2 ,prevention
 and ,cure of ,disease2 with copious    
,tables1 ,recipes1 ,hints1 c41 c4 ,by   
,,josiah ,t4 ,,marshall4 ,one volume1   
#abmo41 illustrated with numerous wood  
engravings4 ,neatly bound4 ,price #a2   
paper cover1 #fb cents4      ,one of the

 most useful books we ever saw4--,boston
 ,post4   ,,rural ,,economy1  ,in its   
relations with ,chemistry1 ,physics1 and
 ,meteorology2 or1 ,chemistry applied to
 ,agriculture4 ,by ,j4 ,b4              
,,bouissangault4 ,translated1 with      
,notes1 etc41 by ,george ,law1          
,agriculturist4 #abmo1 over #ejj pages1 
#a #ej4      ,the work is the fruit of a
 long life of study and experiment1     
and its perusal will aid the farmer     
greatly in obtaining a     practical and
 scientific knowledge of his            
profession4--,american                  
,agriculturist4   ,,the ,,farmer',s     
,,manual3  ,a ,practical ,treatise on   
the ,nature and ,value of ,manures1     
founded from ,experiments on various    
,crops1 with a brief account of the most
 ,recent ,discoveries in ,agricultural  
,chemistry4 ,by ,f4 ,,falkner and the   
,author of ,british ,husbandry4 #abmo1  
#ej cts4   ,,the ,,farmer',s ,,treasure3
  ,containing ,falkner's ,farmer's      
,manual1 and ,smith's ,productive       

,farming1 bound together4 #abmo1 #ge    
cents4   ,,stable ,,economy3  ,a        
,treatise on the ,management of ,horses1
 in relation to ,stabling1 ,grooming1   
,feeding1 ,watering1 and ,working4 ,by  
,,john ,,stewart1 ,veterinary ,surgeon4 
,with ,notes and ,additions1 adapting it
 to ,american ,food and ,climate1 by ,a4
 ,b4 ,,allen4 #abmo1 illustrated with   
#bc ,engravings1 #a4      ,no one should
 build a stable or own a horse without  
consulting     the excellent directions 
for stabling and using the horse1 in    
this book of ,stewart's4 ,it is an      
invaluable vade mecum for all     who   
have the luxury of a stable4--,eve4     
,mirror4   ,,the ,,horse',s ,,foot2     
,,and ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,it ,,sound4   
,with ,illustrations by ,,william       
,,miles1 ,esq41 from the ,third ,london 
,edition1 with #bc plates4 ,price #be   
cents4  ,this work has received the     
unqualified recommendation of the       
,quarterly1 the ,edinburgh1 and the     
,reviews generally1 of ,england4 ,the   

price of the ,english copy is #c4       
,it should be in the hands of every     
owner or friend of the     horse4       
,,dogs3 ,,their ,,origin ,,and          
,,varieties4  ,directions as to their   
general ,management4 ,with numerous     
original anecdotes4 ,also ,complete     
,instructions as to ,treatment under    
,disease4 ,by ,h4 ,d4 ,,richardson4     
,illustrated with numerous ,wood        
,engravings4 #a vol4 #abmo1 #be cts4    
paper cover1 #ch cts4 cloth4      ,this 
is not only a cheap1 but one of the best
 works ever     published on the ,dog4  
,,the ,,book ,,of ,,useful ,,knowledge3 
,a ,cyclopdia of ,six ,thousand         
,practical ,receipts1 and ,collateral   
,information in the ,arts1              
,manufactures1 and ,trades2 including   
,medicine1 ,pharmacy1 and ,domestic     
,economy1 designed as a compendious     
,book of ,reference for the             
,manufacturer1 ,tradesman1 ,amateur1 and
 ,heads of ,families4 ,by ,,arnold      
,,james ,,cooley1 ,practical ,chemist4  

,illustrated with numerous ,wood        
,engravings4 ,forming one handsome      
volume1 #hvo1 of #dfd pages4 ,price #b  
#be1 bound4   ,,treatise ,,on ,,the     
,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,of          
,,landscape ,,gardening3  ,,adapted ,,to
 ,,north ,,america1 ,,with ,a ,,view    
,,to ,,the ,,improvement ,,of ,,country 
,,residences--  ,comprising ,historical 
,notices and ,general ,principles of the
 ,art1 ,directions for       ,laying    
,out ,grounds and ,arranging            
,plantations1 the ,description and      
,cultivation of ,hardy ,trees1          
,decorative ,accompaniments of the      
,house and ,grounds1 the ,formation of  
pieces of ,artificial                   
,water1 ,flower ,gardens1 etc41 with    
remarks on ,rural                       
,architecture4 ,a new edition1 enlarged1
                        revised and     
newly illustrated4  ,by ,a4 ,j4         
,,downing1 author of ,designs for       
,cottage ,residences1 etc4  ,a new and  
improved edition1 #hvo41 illustrated1 #c

 #ej4      ,insult not ,nature with     
absurd expense1     ,nor spoil her      
simple charms by vain pretense2         
,weigh well the subject1 be with caution
 bold1     ,profuse of genius1 not      
profuse of gold4  ,,riker1 ,,thorpe     
,,co41 #abi ,fulton st41 ,new ,york4    
,there is no work extant which can be   
compared in ability to ,downing's volume
 on this subject4 ,it is not overlaid   
with elaborate and learned disquisition1
 like the ,english works1 but it is     
truly practical4--,louisville ,journal4 
,mr4 ,downing's works have been greatly 
influential in recommending among us    
that life which has always seemed to us 
the perfection of human existence--the  
life of men of education1 living upon   
and cultivating their own farms4--,cour4
 and ,enq4  ,the principles he lays down
 are not only sound1 but are developed  
on a uniform system1 which is not       
paralleled in any ,english work4--,prof4
 ,lindley's ,chronicle1 ,london4        
,,ruggles1 ,,nourse1 ,,mason  ,,co41    

,,manufacturers ,,at ,,worcester1  ,and 
,wholesale and ,retail ,dealers in      
,,agricultural ,,implements ,,and       
,,machines1  ,garden1 ,field and ,flower
 ,seeds1  ,,fruit ,,and ,,ornamental    
,,trees1 ,,shrubs1 ,,roses1 ,,vines     
,,and ,,plants1  ,,guano1 ,,bone ,,dust1
 ,,phosphates1 ,,poudrette1 c4  ,also1  
,agricultural and ,horticultural        
,publications1 and ,agents for          
,principal ,nurseries1  ,,at ,,the      
,,quincy ,,hall  ,,agricultural         
,,warehouse ,,and ,,seed ,,store1       
,,over ,,quincy ,,market1 ,,south       
,,market ,,st41  ,,boston1 ,,mass4      
,,wagener',s ,,american ,,seed          
,,harvester4   ,,highest ,,premiums     
,,awarded  ,at the ,world's ,fair       
,exhibition of the ,industry of all     
,nations1 #ahec4  ,,also ,,by ,,the     
,,american ,,institute1 ,,new ,,york4   
,,various ,,other ,,approbations ,,have 
,,been ,,received4  ,this ,machine      
consists of a simple frame and box      
mounted on wheels1 in front of which is 

a cylinder1 set with spiral knives1     
acting in concert with curved spring    
teeth1 in combination with a straight   
knife1 which forms a perfect shear1 and 
severs the head from the stalk2 the     
heads are at the same time discharged   
into the box4 ,the teeth being made to  
spring and vibrate1 not a particle of   
clover1 however stalky or thick1 can    
possibly escape being cut1 or allow the 
teeth to become clogged4 ,the ,cylinder 
and ,knives are protected by an         
adjustible guard plate1 thus allowing   
only the heads to pass to the ,knives1  
retaining the head1 and the head        
only--thus leaving the stalk to enrich  
the soil4 ,the machine is so constructed
 that it can be made adjustible to the  
height of the ,clover and ,timothy4  ,to
 be seen at the ,crystal ,palace4 ,price
 of the machines moderate4      ,the    
,farmer will find that by this process1 
he may save two crops     of ,timothy   
per year4 ,when the seed is ripe the    
tops can be     clipped1 and the straw  

left until fall to mature4 ,you now have
     your seed and hay in two crops of  
equal value2 in case of     clover1 you 
mow the first crop for hay1 the second  
for seed2 you     in both cases get     
better seed and hay with less labor and 
expense than grain crops1 at the same   
time leaving the soil     clothed with a
 coat of straw1 for the coming season1  
which will     increase the value of the
 soil for crops1 make fine pastures and 
fine stock1 while it fits the land for  
fine grain4 ,in this way     lands in   
our states have been raised in          
production from five to     twenty-five 
or thirty bushels of wheat per acre1 in 
the course     of a few years4          
,this is within the reach of every      
farmer1 without money or     labor1 as  
organic matter accumulates from the     
atmosphere and is     deposited in the  
soil4  ,manufactured and for sale by the
 ,patentee and ,proprietor1  ,,jeptha   
,a4 ,,wagener4 ,office #cdh ,west       
,twenty-,fourth ,street1 ,new ,york4    

,all orders for ,machines this season   
should be sent in immediately1 in order 
to have them in readiness for harvest   
time4  ,price of ,machines1 #ajj and    
#aaj1 two sizes1 at the ,manufactory4   
-- ,rights of ,states and ,counties on  
favorable terms4      ,wagener's ,clover
 and ,timothy ,seed ,harvester has been 
in     successful operation two seasons1
 and has received the premium     at the
 ,world's ,fair and at the ,fair of the 
,american ,institute1     and various   
other testimonials of superior value4   
,they are     manufactured and for sale 
by the inventor1 ,jeptha ,a4 ,wagener1  
at     #cdh ,west #bdth street1 ,new    
,york4--,u4 ,s4 ,journal4  ,the ,grain  
,harvester is in course of preparation1 
and will soon be offered for sale4      
,,the ,,working ,,farmer1  ,,published  
,,on ,,the ,,first ,,of ,,each ,,month1 
,at #adc ,fulton ,st41 7upper side17 a  
few doors east of ,broadway1 ,new ,york4
   ,,terms4  ,one year1 payable in      
advance1                         #a #jj 

,clubs of six subscribers1              
#e #jj ,clubs of twelve subscribers1    
#aj #jj ,clubs of twenty-five           
subscribers1                       #bj  
#jj ,single copies1                     
#aj ,volume one1 in paper cover1        
#ej ,volumes two1 three1 four and five1 
in paper cover1 each  #a #jj  ,postage  
on the ,,working ,,farmer1 if paid at   
the ,subscriber's ,post ,office1 is1 for
  ,any distance within the ,united      
,states1 #cjjj miles and under1 one cent
 for each paper4 ,if paid at a          
,subscriber's ,post ,office1 in advance1
 #a cents per quarter1 or #g cents per  
year4  ,postage on bound volumes in     
paper covers1 if pre-paid at the ,new   
,york ,post ,office1                    
,vol4 ,i4   ,vols4 ,,ii41 ,,iii41 ,,iv  
,v4 ,any distance within ,united        
cts4   cts4 ,states1 #cjjj miles and    
under     #bb   #bf each volume4  ,if   
not pre-paid at the ,new ,york ,post    
,office1 double the above rates will be 
charged4  ,subscriptions must commence  

with the year1 namely1 ,march2 or the   
even half year1 ,september2 and for not 
less than one year4  ,remittances can be
 made1 from such ,states as have no     
small paper circulation1 in gold        
dollars1 ,post ,office stamps1 or the   
bills of other ,states4                 
,,advertisements4  ,five lines1 one     
dollar each insertion1 and in the same  
ratio for more lengthy advertisements4  
,post-paid ,letters1 addressed to the   
,publisher1 will meet with prompt       
attention4  ,,fred',k ,mc,c,r,e,a,d,y1  
#adc ,fulton street1 upper side1 a few  
doors east of ,broadway4   ,,mapes'     
,,improved  ,,super  ,,phosphate ,,of   
,,lime  #afj lbs4  ,,fredk4             
,mc,c,r,e,a,d,y  ,,wholesale ,,agt4 #adc
 ,,fulton ,,street1  ,,keep ,,dry4      
,n4,y4  ,,several ,,imitations of this  
celebrated fertilizer having been       
introduced among the dealers since the  
introduction of the ,improved           
,super-,phosphate of ,lime1 ,i beg to   
state that all manufactured under the   

recipe of ,prof4 ,j4 ,j4 ,mapes1 is     
,,marked ,,on ,,the ,,bags ,,as ,,above1
  and each bag contains his certificate 
of having been made under his           
superintendence4  -- ,orders for the    
above fertilizer by mail1 from          
strangers1 should be accompanied with   
the money1 a draft1 or proper           
references4 ,the bags contain exactly   
#afj lbs41 which at two and a half cents
 per pound1 amounts to four dollars4    
,,fred',k ,mc,c,r,e,a,d,y1 #adc ,fulton 
street1 ,new ,york4     ,illustration   
,,the ,,universal ,,cultivator1         
,described on page #bed1  ,is           
represented in the above cut4 ,it is    
manufactured by us1 and is sold by all  
implement dealers4   ,,our  ,,improved  
,,horse ,,hoe1  ,of which a cut may be  
seen on p4 #bed1  ,is now manufactured  
at our establishment1 and is sold       
throughout the ,union4 ,it is the best  
implement for weeding1 etc4 ever made4  
,,the ,,sod ,,and ,,sub-,,soil ,,plow1  
7,sometimes called the ,,michigan       

,,plow17  ,consists of two plows on the 
same beam4 ,the first inverts the sod to
 the depth of a few inches1 and the     
hindmost plow brings up the lower soil1 
depositing it on the inverted sod4      
,,for ,,deep ,,tillage1 especially on   
prairie land1 this is superior to any of
 its competitors4  ,,ruggles1 ,,nourse1 
,,mason  ,,co4 ,worcester1 ,mass41 and  
,quincy ,hall1 ,boston4                 
,,transcribers' ,,notes  ,page   #h     
,page number added for tables of        
analysis ,page  #bb ,period added after 
great brilliancy ,page  #cc seashore    
standardised to sea-shore2 genii        
standardised to genie ,page  #ci ,no    
footnote anchor was in place4 ,anchor   
added after are          formed1 as this
 seemed most reasonable in context4     
,page  #eb quanties corrected to        
quantities2 nutricious corrected to     
nutritious ,page  #ec ,footnote marker  
added for ,see ,johnston's ,elements1   
page #da4 ,page  #ee 8 added after in   
their composition in footer ,page  #gd  

,removed second the in is the the       
foundation of ,agricultural             
,geology4 ,page #adb pigstye            
standardised to pig-stye ,page #add     
plough standardised to plow ,pages #ade1
 #baa subsoil plow standardised to      
sub-soil plow ,note that in             
line with the more common usage in this 
work1 the phrases          sub-soil plow
 and sub-soiling have retained their    
hyphens ,page #adh ,removed second n in 
mannures ,page #aeb postash corrected to
 potash ,page #aeg suplying corrected to
 supplying ,page #afg carbonia corrected
 to carbonic ,page #agd buck-wheat      
standardised to buckwheat ,pages #aif1  
#bcb1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bda      
sub-soil standardised to subsoil ,page  
#bjd 8 ,added after ,mineral in the     
question section ,page #baa water tight 
standardised to water-tight ,page #bbc  
,second #f4 changed to #g4 ,page #bcb   
oxydation standardised to oxidation     
,page #bff ,period added after lbs in   
#afbj lbs rye straw ,page #bgb ,title   

,no4 ,,xvi4 added to table ,page #bgc   
#aj1jjj corrected to #ajj4jj ,page #bij 
accurracy corrected to accuracy ,page   
#bib ,number of pages unclear4 #dfd     
,guessed4