produced from images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,illustration3 ,author ,,soil ,,culture2 ,,containing ,a ,,comprehensive ,,view ,,of ,,agriculture1 ,,horticulture1 ,,pomology1 ,,domestic ,,animals1 ,,rural ,,economy1 ,,and ,,agricultural ,,literature4 ,,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,walden1 ,a4 ,m4 ,,illustrated ,,by ,,numerous ,,engravings ,,new ,,york3 ,,published ,,by ,,robert ,,sears1 #aha ,,william ,,street4 #aheh4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #aheg1 ,,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,walden1 in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states1 in and for the ,northern ,district of ,illinois4 ,,savage ,mc,c,r,e,a1 ,,stereotypers1 ,c4 ,a4 ,,alvord1 ,,printer1 #ac ,chambers ,street1 ,n4,y4 ,no4 #ae ,vandewater ,street1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,to ,,the ,,practical ,,cultivators ,,of ,,the ,,soil1 ,the ,true ,lords of the ,manor1 ,,this ,,volume ,,is ,,dedicated1 ,,by ,,their ,,sincere ,,friend1 ,,the ,,author4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,prefatory ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,reader4 ,if he who causes two blades of grass to grow where but one grew before1 is a benefactor of his race1 he is not less so who imparts to millions a knowledge of the methods by which it is done4 ,the last half century has been the era of experiments and writing on the cultivation of the soil4 ,the result has been the acquisition of more knowledge on the subjects embraced1 than the world had attained in all its previous history4 ,that knowledge is scattered through many volumes of numerous periodicals and books1 and interspersed with many theories1 and much speculation1 that can never be valuable in practice4 ,in the form in which it is presented1 it confuses1 rather than aids1 the great mass of cultivators4 ,hence the prejudice against book-farming4 ,provided established facts only are presented1 they are none the worse for being printed4 ,the object of this volume is to condense1 and present in an intelligible form1 all important established facts in the science of soil-culture4 ,the author claims originality1 as to the discovery of facts and principles1 in but few cases4 ,during ten years of preparatory study for this work1 he has sought the rewards of industry1 in sifting out the certain and the useful from the hypothetical and the fanciful1 and the results of judicious discrimination between fallacy and just reasoning1 in support of theories4 ,this volume is designed to be a complete manual for all but amateur cultivators4 ,while it is believed that he who follows its directions will be certain of success1 it is not intended to disparage the merits of other works1 but to encourage and extend their perusal4 ,we can not too strongly recommend to young culturists to keep themselves well posted in this kind of literature1 and give to every discovery and invention in this science a fair trial2 not on a large scale1 so as to sink money in fruitless experiments1 but sufficient to afford a sure test of their real value4 ,to no class of men is study more important than to soil-culturists4 ,it is believed that the directions here given1 if followed1 will save millions of dollars annually to that class of cultivators who can least afford to waste time and money in experimenting4 ,with beginners it is important to be successful at first2 which is impossible without availing themselves of the experience of others4 ,while we thus aim to give our volume this exclusively practical form1 and utilitarian character1 we do not undervalue the labors of amateur cultivators4 ,a meed of praise is due to those who are willing to spend time and money in experiments1 by which great truths are evolved for the benefit of mankind4 ,perfection is not claimed for this volume4 ,but the author hopes nothing will be found here that is untrue4 ,a fear of inserting errors may have induced us to omit some things that may yet prove valuable4 ,if anything seems to be at variance with a cultivator's observation1 in a given locality1 he will discover in our general principles on climate1 soil1 and location1 that it is a natural result4 ,accurate as far as we go has been our motto4 ,it is hoped the form is most convenient4 ,all is arranged under one alphabet1 with a complete index4 ,the author has consulted many intelligent cultivators and writers1 who1 without exception1 approve his plan4 ,all agree in saying that it is designed to fill a place not occupied by any other single volume in the language4 ,it is impossible1 without cumbering the volume1 to give suitable credit to the authors and persons consulted4 ,suffice it to say1 the author has carefully studied all the works mentioned in this volume1 and availed himself of a great variety of verbal suggestions1 by scientific and practical men4 ,if this work shall1 in any good degree1 serve the purpose for which it is intended1 it will amply reward the author for an amount of labor1 experiment1 observation1 and study1 appreciable only by few4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,walden4 ,,new ,,york1 ,january #a1 #aheh4 ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,apple-,worms #bb ,apple-,tree ,borer #bd ,caterpillar ,eggs #be ,canker-,worm ,moths #be ,baldwin ,apple #cd ,bellflower ,apple #ce ,early ,harvest ,apple #cf ,spitzbergen ,apple #cg ,rhode ,island ,greening #ch ,fall ,pippin #ci ,newtown ,pippin #dj ,rambo ,apple #da ,rome ,beauty #db ,westfield ,seek-no-further #dc ,northern ,spy #dd ,roxbury ,russet #de ,swaar ,apple #df ,maiden's ,blush #dg ,barberries #ef ,working ,bee1 ,queen and ,drone #fi ,high-,bush ,blackberry #hc ,budding 7,six ,illustrations7 #ia ,cherries 7,six ,illustrations7 #abb ,milking ,qualities of ,cows ,illustrated ,the ,flanders ,cow #ade ,the ,selvage ,cow #adg ,the ,curveline ,cow #adh ,the ,bicorn ,cow #adi ,the ,demijohn ,cow #aej ,the ,square ,escutcheon ,cow #aea ,the ,lemousine ,cow #aea ,the ,horizontal ,cut ,cow #aeb ,bastards #aeb ,cranberries #aef ,fig #aha ,cleft and ,tongue ,grafting #baj ,isabella ,grapes #bbc ,catawba ,grapes #bbc ,rebecca ,grapes #bbd ,delaware ,grapes #bbe ,hedge-,pruning 7#d engravings7 #bch ,ground ,plan of ,farm ,buildings #beb ,ground ,plan of ,piggery #bec ,ground ,plan of ,country ,residence1 ,farm ,buildings1 ,fruit ,garden1 and ,grounds #bed ,laying out ,curves ,illustrated #bee ,ground ,plan of ,farm-,house #bee ,summer-,house #bef ,laborer's ,cottage #beg ,ground ,plan of ,laborer's ,cottage #beg ,italian ,farm-,house #beh ,ground ,plan of ,italian ,farm-,house #beh ,neglected ,peach-,tree #cbd ,properly-,trimmed ,peach-,tree #cbd ,plan of a ,pear-,orchard #cch ,bartlett ,pear #cdj ,beurr ,diel ,pear #cda ,white ,doyenne ,pear #cdb ,flemish ,beauty #cdc ,seckel #cde ,gray ,doyenne ,pear #cdf ,the ,curculio #cee ,lawrence's ,favorite ,plum #cef ,imperial ,gage #ceg ,egg-,plum #ceg ,green ,gage #ceh ,jefferson ,plum #ceh ,washington ,plum #cei ,french ,merino ,ram #chf ,shepherdia1 or ,buffalo ,berry #cij ,strawberry ,blossoms #cig ,fan ,training 7,four ,illustrations7 #dag1 #dah ,horizontal ,training 7,two ,illustrations7 #dai ,conical ,training 7,four ,illustrations7 #dbj ,,soil ,,culture4 ,,acclimation4 ,this is the art of successfully changing fruits or plants from one climate to another4 ,removal to a colder climate should be effected in the spring1 and to a warmer one in the fall4 ,this may be done by scions or seeds4 ,by seeds is better1 in all cases in which they will produce the same varieties4 ,very few imported apple or pear trees are valuable in this country2 while our finest varieties1 perfectly adapted to our climate1 were raised from seeds of foreign fruits and their descendants4 ,the same is true of the extremes of this country4 ,baldwin apple-trees1 forty or fifty years old1 are perfectly hardy in the colder parts of ,new ,england2 while the same imported from warmer sections of the ,union fail in severe winters4 ,this fact has given many new localities the reputation of being poor fruit-regions4 ,when we remove fruit-trees to a similar climate in a new country1 they flourish well1 and we call it a good fruit-country4 ,remove trees from the same nursery to a different climate and soil1 and they are not hardy and vigorous1 and we call it a poor fruit-country4 ,these two localities may be equally good for fruit1 with suitable care in acclimating the tree and preparing the soil4 ,thus the rich prairies of central ,illinois are often said not to be adapted to fruit4 ,give time to raise fruits from the seed1 and to apply the principles of acclimation1 and those rich prairies will be among the great fruit-growing regions of the world4 ,two things are essential to successful fruit-culture1 on all the alluvial soils of the ,northwest3 raise from seed1 and prune closely and head-in short1 and thus put back and strengthen the trees for the first ten years1 and no more complaints will be heard4 ,the peach has been gradually acclimated1 until1 transplanted from perpetual summer1 it successfully endures a temperature of thirty-five degrees below zero4 ,this prince of fruits will yet be successfully grown even beyond the northern limits of ,minnesota4 ,many vegetables may also be grown in very different climates1 by annually importing the seed from localities where they naturally flourish4 ,sweet potatoes are thus grown abundantly in ,massachusetts4 ,we wonder this subject has received so little attention4 ,we commend these brief hints to the earnest consideration of all practical cultivators1 hoping they may be of great value in the results to which they may lead4 ,,almonds4 ,almonds are natives of several parts of ,asia and ,africa4 ,they perfectly resemble the peach in all but the fruit4 ,the peach and almond grow well1 budded into each other4 ,in ,france1 almond-stocks are preferred for the peach4 ,their cultivation and propagation are in all respects the same as the peach4 ,varieties4--#a4 ,long1 hard shell4 ,this is the best for cultivation in western and middle states1 and in all cold regions4 ,very ornamental4 #b4 ,common sweet4 ,productive in middle states1 but not so good as the first4 #c4 ,ladies' thin shell4 ,fruit large1 long1 and sweet2 the very best variety1 but not so hardy as the first two4 ,grows well in warm locations1 with slight protection in winter4 #d4 ,the bitter4 ,large1 with very ornamental leaves and blossoms4 ,fruit bitter1 and yielding that deadly poison1 prussic acid4 #e4 ,peach almond4 ,so called from having a pulp equal to a poor peach4 ,not hardy in northern climates4 ,other varieties are named1 but are of no consequence to the practical cultivator4 #f4 ,two varieties of ornamental almonds are very beautiful in spring--the large1 double flowering1 and the well-known dwarf flowering4 ,but we regard peach-blossoms quite as ornamental1 and the ripe peaches much more so1 and so prefer to cultivate them4 ,almonds are extensively cultivated in the south of ,europe1 especially in ,portugal1 as an article of commerce4 ,they will grow equally well in this country2 but labor is so cheap in ,europe1 that ,american cultivators can not compete with it in the almond market4 ,but every one owning land should cultivate a few as a family luxury4 ,,apples4 ,the original of all our apples was the wild ,european crab4 ,we have in this country several native crabs larger and better than the ,european2 but they have not yet1 as we are aware1 been developed into fine apples4 ,apple-trees are hardy and long-lived1 doing well for one hundred and fifty years4 ,highly-cultivated trees1 however1 are thought to last only about fifty years4 ,an apple-tree1 imported from ,england1 produced fruit in ,connecticut at the age of two hundred and eight years4 ,the apple is the most valuable of all fruits4 ,the peach1 the best pears1 the strawberries1 and others1 are all delicious in their day2 but apples are adapted to a greater variety of uses1 and are in perfection all the year2 the earliest may be used in ,june1 and the latest may be kept until that time next year4 ,as an article of food1 they are very valuable on account of both their nutritive and medicinal qualities4 ,as a gentle laxative1 they are invaluable for children1 who should always be allowed to eat ripe apples as they please1 when they can be afforded4 ,children will not long be inclined to eat ripe fruit to their injury4 ,an almost exclusive diet of baked sweet apples and milk is recorded as having cured chronic cases of consumption1 and other diseases caused by too rich food4 ,let dyspeptics vary the mode of preparing and using an apple diet1 until it agrees with them1 and many aggravated cases may be cured without medicine4 ,it is strange how the idea has gained so much currency that apples1 although a pleasant luxury1 are not sufficiently nutritious for a valuable article of diet4 ,there is no other fruit or vegetable in general use that contains such a proportion of nutriment4 ,it has been ascertained in ,germany1 by a long course of experiments1 that men will perform more labor1 endure more fatigue1 and be more healthy1 on an apple diet1 than on that universal indispensable for the poor1 the potato4 ,apples are more valuable than potatoes for food4 ,they are equally valuable as food for fowls1 swine1 sheep1 cattle1 and horses4 ,hogs have been well fattened on apples alone4 ,cooked with other vegetables1 and mixed with a little ground grain or bran1 they are an economical food for fattening pork or beef4 ,sweet or slightly-acid apples1 fed to neat stock or horses1 will prevent disease1 and keep the animals in fine condition4 ,for human food they may be cooked in a greater variety of ways than almost any other article4 ,apple-cider is valuable for some uses4 ,it makes the best vinegar in general use1 and1 when well made and bottled1 is better than most of our wines for invalids4 ,apple-molasses1 or boiled cider1 which is sweet-apple cider boiled down until it will not ferment1 is excellent in cookery4 ,apple-butter is highly esteemed in many families4 ,dried apples are an important article of commerce4 ,green apples are also exported to most parts of the world4 ,notwithstanding the increased attention to their cultivation during the last half-century1 their market value is steadily increasing1 and doubtless will be1 for the best varieties1 for the next five hundred years4 ,it does not cost more than five or six cents per bushel to raise apples2 hence they are one of the most profitable crops a farmer can raise4 ,no farm1 therefore1 is complete without a good orchard4 ,the man who owns but five acres of land should have at least two acres in fruit-trees4 ,soil4--,apples will succeed well on any soil that will produce good cabbages1 potatoes1 or ,indian corn4 ,land needs as much manure and care for apple-trees as for potatoes4 ,rough hillsides and broken lands1 unsuitable for general cultivation1 may be made very valuable in orchards4 ,it must be enriched1 if not originally so1 and kept clean about the trees4 ,on no crop does good culture pay better4 ,many suppose that an apple-tree1 being a great grower1 will take care of itself after having attained a moderate size4 ,whoever observes the great and rapid growth of apple-trees must see1 that1 when the ground is nearly covered with them1 they must make a great draft on the soil4 ,to secure health and increased value1 the deficiency must be supplied in manure and cultivation4 ,the quantity and quality of the fruit depend mainly on the condition of the land4 ,the kinds and proportions of manures best for an apple-orchard are important practical questions4 ,we give a chemical analysis of the ashes of the apple-tree1 which will indicate1 even to the unlearned1 the manure that will probably be needed3-- ,analysis of the ash of the apple-tree4 ,sap-wood4 ,heart-wood4 ,bark of trunk4 ,potash #af4ai #f4fbj #d4icj ,soda #c4aa #g4ice #c4bhe ,chloride of sodium #j4db #j4baj #j4edj ,sulphate of lime #j4je #j4ebf #j4fcg ,phosphate of peroxyde #j4hj #j4ejj #j4cge of iron ,phosphate of lime #ag4ej #e4baj #b4dbe ,phosphate of magnesia #j4bj #j4aij ,carbonic acid #bi4aj #cf4bge #dd4hcj ,lime #ah4fc #cg4jai #ea4egh ,magnesia #h4dj #f4ijj #j4aej ,silicia #j4he #j4djj #j4bjj ,soluble silicia #j4hj #j4cjj #j4djj ,organic matter #d4fj #b4dej #b4ajj #ajj4fe #ajd4ece #aaa4dej ,this table will indicate the application of plenty of wood-ashes and charcoal2 lime in hair1 bones1 horn-shavings1 old plaster1 common lime1 and a little common salt4 ,lime and ashes1 or dissolved potash1 are indispensable on an old orchard2 they will improve the fruit one half1 both in quantity and quality4 ,propagation4--,this is done mainly by seeds1 budding and grafting4 ,the best method is by common cleft-grafting on all stocks large enough1 and by whip or tongue grafting on all others4 7,see under article1 ,grafting47 ,grafting into the sycamore is recommended by some4 ,the scions are said to grow profusely1 and to bear early and abundantly2 but they are apt to be killed by cold winters4 ,we do not recommend it4 ,almost everything does best budded or grafted into vigorous stocks of its own nature4 ,root-grafting1 as it is termed1--that is1 cutting up roots into pieces three or four inches long1 and putting a scion into each--has been a matter of much discussion and diversity of opinion4 ,it is certainly a means of most rapidly multiplying a given variety1 and is therefore profitable to the nurseryman4 ,for ourselves1 we should prefer trees grafted just above1 or at the ground1 using the whole stock for one tree4 ,we do not1 however1 undertake to settle this controverted point4 ,our minds are fixed against it4 ,others must do as they please4 ,propagation by seed is thought to be entirely uncertain1 because1 as is supposed1 the seeds will not reproduce their own varieties4 ,we consider this far from being an established fact4 ,when grafts are put into large trees1 high up from the ground1 their fruit may be somewhat modified by the stock4 ,there is also a slight tendency in the seeds of all grafts to return to the varieties from which they descended4 ,but we believe the general rule to be1 that the seeds of grafts1 put in at the ground and standing alone1 will generally produce the same varieties of fruit4 ,the most prominent obstacle in the way of this reproduction is the presence of other varieties1 which mix in the blossom4 ,the planting of seeds from any mixed orchard can never settle this question1 because they are never pure4 ,propagation by seeds1 then1 is an inconvenient method1 only to be resorted to for purposes of acclimation4 ,but it is so seldom we have a good bearing apple-tree so far removed from others as not to be affected by the blossoms1 that we generally get from seeds a modification of varieties4 ,raising suitable stocks for grafting is done by planting seeds in drills thirty inches apart1 and keeping clear of weeds until they are large enough to graft4 ,the soil should be made very rich1 to save time in their growth4 ,land where root-crops grew the previous year is the best4 ,if kept clear of weeds1 on rich1 deep soil1 from one to two thirds of them will be large enough for whip-grafting after the first year's growth4 ,the pomice from the cider-mill is often planted4 ,it is better to separate the seeds1 and plant them with a seed-drill4 ,they will then be in straight1 narrow rows1 allowing the cultivator and hoe to pass close by them1 and thus save two thirds of the cost of cultivation4 ,the question of keeping seeds dry or moist until planting is one of some importance4 ,most seeds are better for being kept slightly moist until planted2 but with the apple it makes no difference4 ,keep apple-seeds dry and spread1 as they are apt to heat4 ,freezing them is not of the slightest importance4 ,if you plant pomice1 put in a little lime or ashes to counteract the acid4 ,for winter-grafting1 pull the seedlings that are of suitable size1 cut off the tops eight inches from the root1 and pack in moist sand in a cellar that will not freeze4 ,after grafting1 tie them up in bunches1 and pack in tight boxes of moist sand or sawdust4 ,transplanting4--,this is fully treated elsewhere in this work4 ,we give under each fruit only what is peculiar to that species4 ,in mild climates transplant in the fall1 and in cold in the spring4 ,spring-planting must never be done until the soil has become dry enough to be made fine4 ,a thoroughly-pulverized soil is the great essential of successful transplanting4 ,trees for spring-planting should always be taken up before the commencement of vegetation4 ,but in very wet springs1 this occurs before the ground becomes sufficiently dry2 it is then best to take up the trees and heel them in1 and keep them until the soil is suitable4 ,the place for an apple-tree should be made larger than for any other tree1 because its roots are wide-spreading1 like its branches4 ,the earth should be thrown out to the depth of twenty inches1 and four or five feet square1 for an ordinary-sized tree4 ,this1 however1 will not do on a heavy clay subsoil1 for it would form a basin to hold water and injure the tree4 ,a ditch1 as low as the bottom of the holes1 should extend from tree to tree1 and running out of the orchard1 constructed in the usual method of drains1 and1 whatever be the subsoil1 the trees will flourish4 ,the usual compost to manure the trees in transplanting will be found elsewhere4 ,in the bottom of these places for apple-trees should be thrown a plenty of cobblestones1 with a few sods1 and a little decaying wood and coarse manure4 ,we know of nothing so good under an apple-tree as small stones2 the tree will always be the larger and thriftier for it4 ,this is1 in a degree1 beneficial to other fruits1 but peculiarly so to the apple4 ,size for transplanting4--,small trees usually do best4 ,large trees are often transplanted with the hope of having an abundance of fruit earlier4 ,this usually defeats the object4 ,the large trees will bear a little fruit earlier than the small ones2 but the injury by removal is so much greater1 that the small stocky trees come into full1 regular bearing much the soonest4 ,from five to eight feet high is often most convenient for field-orchard culture4 ,but1 wherever we can take care of them1 it is better to set out smaller trees2 they will do better for years4 ,a suitable drain1 extending through the orchard1 under each row of trees1 will make a good orchard on low1 wet land4 ,trimming at the time of transplanting4--,injured roots should be removed as in the general directions under ,transplanting4 ,but the idea of cutting off most of the top is a very serious error4 ,when large trees are transplanted1 which must necessarily lose many of their roots in removal1 a corresponding portion of the top must be separated2 but in no other case4 ,the leaves are the lungs of the tree4 ,how shall it have vitality if most of them are removed8 ,it is like destroying one lung and half of the other1 and then expect a man to be in vigorous health4 ,we have often seen the most of two years' growth of trees lost by such reckless pruning4 ,if the roots are tolerably whole and sound1 leave the top so4 ,a peach-tree needs to be trimmed much closer when transplanted1 because it has so many more buds to throw out leaves4 ,mulching4--,this is quite as beneficial to apple-trees as to all transplanted trees4 ,well done1 it preserves a regularity of moisture that almost insures the life of the tree4 ,pruning4--,the tops should be kept open and exposed to the sun1 the cross limbs cut out1 and everything removed that shows decided symptoms of decay4 ,the productiveness of apple-trees depends very much upon pruning very sparingly and judiciously4 ,there are two ways to keep an open top3 one is1 to allow many large limbs to grow1 and cut out most of the small ones1 thus leaving a large collection of bare poles without anything on which the fruit can grow2--the other method is to allow few limbs to grow large1 and keep them well covered with small twigs1 which always bear the fruit4 ,the latter method will produce two or three times as much fruit as the former4 ,the head of an apple-tree should be formed at a height that will allow a team to pass around under its branches4 ,distance apart4--,in a full-grown orchard1 that is designed to cover the ground1 the trees should be two rods 7thirty-three feet7 apart4 ,when it is designed always to cultivate the ground1 and land is plenty1 set them fifty or sixty feet apart4 ,you will be likely always to have fine fruit1 and a crop on the land beside4 ,our recommendation to every one is to set out all orchards1 of whatever fruit1 so as to have them cover the whole ground when in maturity4 ,among apple-trees1 dwarf pears1 peaches1 or quinces1 may be set1 which will be profitable before the apples need all the ground4 ,bearing years4--,a cultivator may have a part of his orchard bear one year1 and the remainder the next1 or he may have them all bear every year4 ,there are two reasons why a tree bears full this year and will not bear the next4 ,one is1 it is allowed to have such a superabundance of fruit to mature this year1 that it has no strength to mature fruit-buds for the next1 and hence a barren year2 the other reason is1 a want of proper culture and the specific manures for the apple4 ,manure highly1 keep off the insects1 cultivate well1 and do not allow too much to remain on the trees one season1 and you will have a good crop every year4 ,but if one would let his trees take the natural course1 but wishes to change the bearing year of half of his orchard1 he can accomplish it by removing the blossoms or young fruit from a part of his trees on the bearing year1 and those trees having no fruit to mature will put forth an abundance of buds for fruit the following season2 thus the fruit-season will be changed without lessening the productiveness4 ,go through a fruit-region in what is called the non-bearing seasons1 and you will find some orchards and some trees very full of fruit4 ,trees of the same variety in another orchard near by will have very little fruit4 ,this shows that the bearing season is a matter of mere habit1 in all except what is determined by late frosts4 ,this fact may be turned to great pecuniary value1 by producing an abundance of apples every year4 ,plowing and pasturing4--,an apple-orchard should be often plowed1 but not too deep among the roots4 ,when not actually under the plow1 it should be pastured1 with fowls1 calves1 or sheep4 ,swine are recommended1 as they will eat all the apples that fall prematurely1 and with them the worms that made them fall4 ,but we have often seen hogs1 by their rooting and rubbing1 kill the trees4 ,better to pick up the apples that fall too early1 and give them to the swine4 ,turkeys and hens in an orchard will do much to destroy the various insects4 ,they may be removed for a short time when they begin to peck the ripening fruit4 ,orchards pastured by sheep are said not to be infested with caterpillars4 ,sheep pastured and salted under apple-trees greatly enrich the soil1 and in those elements peculiarly beneficial4 ,enemies4--,there are several of these that are quite destructive1 when not properly guarded against4 ,two things are necessary1 and1 united and thoroughly performed1 they afford a remedy or a preventive for most of the depredations of all insects3 #a4 ,keep the trees well cleared of all rough1 loose bark1 which affords so many hiding-places for insects4 #b4 ,wash the trunks and large limbs of the trees1 twice between the #beth of ,may and the #aeth of ,august1 with a ley of wood-ashes or dissolved potash4 ,apple-trees will bear it strong enough to kill some of the finest cherries4 ,we add another very effectual wash4 ,let cultivators choose between the two4 ,into two gallons of water put two quarts of soft-soap and one fourth pound of sulphur4 ,if you add tobacco-juice1 or any other very offensive article1 it will be still better4 ,apple-worm4--,the insect that produces this worm lays its egg in the blossom-end of the young apple4 ,that egg makes a worm that passes down about the core and ruins the fruit4 ,apples so affected will fall prematurely1 and should be picked up and fed to swine4 ,this done every day during their falling1 which does not last a great while1 will remedy the evil in two seasons4 ,the worm that crawls from the fallen apple gets into crevices in rough bark1 and spins his cocoon1 in which he remains till the following spring4 ,bonfires1 for a few evenings in the fore part of ,june1 in an orchard infested with moths1 will destroy vast numbers of them1 before they have deposited their eggs4 ,this can not be too strongly insisted upon4 ,illustration3 ,apple-,worms4 a ,the young worm4 b ,the full-grown worm4 c ,the same magnified4 d ,cocoon4 e ,chrysalis4 f ,perfect insect4 g ,the same magnified4 h i ,passage of the worm in the fruit4 j ,worm in the fruit4 k ,place of egress4 ,bark-louse4--,dull white1 oval scales1 one tenth of an inch long1 which sometimes appear on the stems of trees in vast numbers1 may be destroyed by the wash recommended above4 ,woolly aphis--called in ,europe by the misnomer1 ,american blight--is very destructive across the water1 but does not exist extensively on this side4 ,it is supposed to exist1 in this country1 only where it has been introduced with imported trees4 ,it appears as a white downy substance in the small forks of trees4 ,this is composed of a large number of very minute woolly lice1 which increase with wonderful rapidity4 ,they are easily destroyed by washing with diluted sulphuric acid--three fourths of an ounce1 by measure1 from the druggist's--and seven and a half ounces of water1 applied by a rag tied to the end of a stick4 ,the operator must keep it from his clothes4 ,after the first rain this is perfectly effectual4 ,apple-tree borer4--,this is a fleshy-white grub1 found in the trunks of the trees4 ,it enters at the surface of the ground where the bark is tender1 and either girdles or thoroughly perforates the tree1 causing its death4 ,this is produced by a brown and white striped beetle about half an inch long4 ,it does not go through its different stages annually1 but remains a grub two or three years4 ,it finally comes out in its winged state1 early in ,june1 flying in the night and laying its eggs4 ,if the borers are already in the tree1 they may be killed by cutting out1 or by a steel wire thrust into their holes4 ,but better prevent them4 ,this can be done effectually by placing a small mound of ashes or lime around each tree early in the spring4 ,on nursery-trees their attacks may be prevented by washing with a solution of potash--two pounds in eight quarts of water4 ,as this is a good manure1 as well as a great remedy for insects1 it had better be used every season4 ,illustration3 ,borer4 ,eggs4 ,beetle4 ,caterpillars are the product of a miller of a reddish-brown color1 measuring about an inch and a half when flying4 ,they deposit many eggs about the forks and near the extremities of young branches4 ,these hatch in spring1 in season for the young foliage1 on which they feed voraciously4 ,when neglected for two or three years1 they often defoliate large trees4 ,the habits of the caterpillar are favorable to their destruction4 ,they weave their webs in forks of trees1 and are always at home in rainy weather1 and in the morning till nine o'clock4 ,the remedy is to kill them4 ,this is most effectually done by a sponge on the end of a pole1 dipped in strong spirits of ammonia4 ,each one touched by it is instantly killed1 and it is not difficult to reach them all4 ,they may also be rubbed off with a brush or swab on the end of a pole1 and burned4 ,the principle is to get them off1 web and all1 and destroy them4 ,this can always be effectually done1 if attended to early in the season1 and early in the morning4 ,if any have been missed1 and come out in insects to deposite more eggs1 bonfires are most effectual4 ,these should be made of shavings1 in different parts of the orchard1 and about the middle of ,june1 earlier or later1 according to latitude and season4 ,the ends of twigs on which the eggs are laid in bunches of hundreds 7see figure71 may be cut off in the fall and destroyed4 ,as this can be done with pruning-shears1 it may be an economical method of destroying them4 ,illustration3 ,caterpillar ,eggs4 ,canker-worm ,moths1 ,male and ,female4 ,canker-worm4--,the male moth has pale-ash colored wings1 with a black dot1 and is about an inch across4 ,the female has no wings1 is oval in form1 dark-ash colored above1 and gray underneath4 ,these rise from the ground as early in spring as the frost is out4 ,some few rise in the fall4 ,the females travel slowly up the body of the tree1 while the winged males fly about to pair with them4 ,soon you may discover the eggs laid1 always in rows1 in forks of branches and among the young twigs4 ,every female lays nearly a hundred1 and covers them over carefully with a transparent1 waterproof glue4 ,the eggs hatch from ,may #ast to ,june #ast1 according to the latitude and season1 and come out an ash-colored worm with a yellow stripe4 ,they are very voracious1 sometimes entirely stripping an orchard of its foliage4 ,at the end of about four weeks they descend to the ground1 to remain in a chrysalis state1 about four inches below the surface1 until the following spring4 ,these worms are very destructive in some parts of ,new ,england1 and have been already very annoying1 as far west as ,iowa4 ,they will be likely to be transported all over the country on young trees4 ,many remedies are proposed1 but to present them all is only to confuse4 ,the best of anything is sufficient4 ,we present two1 for the benefit of two classes of persons4 ,for all who have care enough to attend to it1 the best remedy is to bind a handful of straw around the tree1 two feet from the ground1 tied on with one band1 and the ends allowed to stand out from the tree4 ,the females1 who can not fly1 but only ascend the trunk by crawling1 will get up under the straw1 and may easily be killed1 by striking a covered mallet on the straw1 and against the tree below the band4 ,this should be attended to every day during the short season of their ascent1 and all will be destroyed4 ,burn the straw about the last of ,may4 ,but those who are too indolent or busy to do this often till their season is past1 may melt ,india-rubber over a hot fire1 and smear bandages of cloth or leather previously put tight around the tree4 ,this will prevent the female moth from crossing and reaching the limbs4 ,tar is used1 but ,india-rubber is better1 as weather will not injure it as it will tar1 so as to allow the moth to pass over4 ,put this on early and well1 and let it remain till the last of ,may4 ,but the first1 the process of killing them1 is far the best4 ,gathering-and preserving4--,all fruit1 designed to be kept even for a few weeks1 should be picked1 and not shaken off1 and laid1 not dropped into a basket1 and with equal care put into the barrels in which it is to be kept or transported4 ,the barrel should be slightly shaken and filled entirely full4 ,let it stand open two days1 to allow the fruit to sweat and throw off the excessive moisture4 ,then head up tight1 and keep in a cool open shed until freezing weather2 then keep where they can occasionally have good air1 and in as cool a place as possible1 without danger of freezing4 ,of all the methods of keeping apples on shelves1 buried as potatoes1 in various other articles1 as chaff1 sawdust1 c41 this is1 on the whole1 the best and cheapest4 ,wrapping the apples in paper before putting them into the barrels1 may be an improvement4 ,apples gathered just before hard frosts1 or as they are beginning to ripen1 but before many have fallen from the trees1 and packed as above1 and the barrels laid on their sides in a good dry1 dark cellar1 where air can occasionally be admitted1 can be kept in perfection from six to eight weeks1 after the ordinary time for their decay4 ,apples for cider1 or other immediate use1 may be shaken off upon mats or blankets spread under the tree for that purpose4 ,they are not quite so valuable1 but it saves times in gathering4 ,varieties are exceedingly numerous and uncertain4 ,cole estimates that two millions of varieties have been produced in the single state of ,maine1 and that thousands of kinds may there be found superior to those generally recommended in the fruit-books4 ,the minute description of fruits is not of the least use to one out of ten thousand cultivators4 ,the best pomologists differ in the names and descriptions of the various fruits4 ,some varieties have as many as twenty-five synonyms4 ,of what use1 then1 is the minute description of the hundred and seventy-seven varieties of ,cole's ,american fruit-book1 or of the vast numbers described by ,downing1 ,elliott1 ,barry1 and ,hooper8 ,the best pear we saw in ,illinois could not be identified in ,elliott's fruit-book by a practical fruit-grower4 ,we had in our orchard in ,ohio a single apple-tree1 producing a large yield of one of the very best apples we ever saw2 it was called ,natural ,beauty4 ,we could not learn from the fruit-books what it was4 ,we took it to an amateur cultivator of thirty years' experience1 and he could not identify it4 ,this is a fair view of the condition of the nomenclature of fruits4 ,the ,london experimental gardens are doing much to systemize it1 and the most scientific growers are congratulating them on their success4 ,but it never can be any better than it is now4 ,varieties will increase more and more rapidly1 and synonyms will be multiplied annually1 and the modification of varieties by stocks1 manures1 climates1 and location1 will render it more and more confused4 ,we can depend only upon our nurserymen to collect all improved varieties1 and where we do not see the bearing-trees for ourselves1 trust the nurseryman's description of the general qualities of fruit4 ,seldom1 indeed1 will a cultivator buy fruit-trees1 and set out his orchard1 and master the descriptions in the fruit-books1 and after his trees come into bearing1 minutely try them by all the marks to see whether he has been cheated1 and1 if so1 take up the trees and put out others1 to go the same round again1 perhaps with no better success4 ,hence1 if possible1 let planters get trees from a nursery so near at hand that they may know the quality of the fruit of the trees from which the grafts are taken1 get the most popular in their vicinity1 and always secure a few scions from any extraordinary apple they may chance to taste4 ,it is well1 also1 to deal only with the most honorable nurserymen4 ,remember that varieties will not do alike well in all localities4 ,many need acclimation4 ,every extensive cultivator should keep seedlings growing1 with a view to new varieties1 or modifications of old ones1 adapted to his locality4 ,we did think of describing minutely a few of the best varieties1 adapted to the different seasons of the year4 ,but we can see no advantage it would be to the great mass of cultivators1 for whom this book is designed4 ,those who wish to acquaint themselves with those descriptions will purchase some of the best fruit-books4 ,we shall content ourselves with giving the lists1 recommended by the best authority1 for different sections1 followed by a general description of the qualities of a few of the best4 ,downing's lists are the following3-- ,,apples ,,for ,,middle ,,and ,,southern ,,portions ,,of ,,the ,,eastern ,,states1 ,,ripening ,,in ,,succession4 ,early ,harvest4 ,vandevere of ,new ,york4 ,red ,astrachan4 ,jonathan4 ,early ,strawberry4 ,melon4 ,summer ,rose4 ,yellow ,bellflower4 ,william's ,favorite4 ,domine4 ,primate4 ,american ,golden ,russet4 ,american ,summer ,pearmain4 ,cogswell4 ,garden ,royal4 ,peck's ,pleasant4 ,jefferis4 ,wagener4 ,porter4 ,rhode ,island ,greening4 ,jersey ,sweet4 ,king of ,tompkins ,county4 ,large ,yellow ,bough4 ,swaar4 ,baldwin4 ,gravenstein4 ,lady ,apple4 ,maiden's ,blush4 ,ladies' ,sweet4 ,autumn ,sweet ,bough4 ,red ,canada4 ,fall ,pippin4 ,newtown ,pippin4 ,mother4 ,boston ,russet4 ,smokehouse4 ,northern ,spy4 ,rambo4 ,wine ,sap4 ,esopus ,spitzenburg4 ,,apples ,,for ,,the ,,north4 ,red ,astrachan4 ,fameuse4 ,early ,sweet ,bough4 ,pomme ,gris4 ,saps of ,wine or ,bell's ,canada ,reinette4 ,early4 ,yellow ,bellflower4 ,golden ,sweet4 ,golden ,ball4 ,william's ,favorite4 ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,porter4 ,jewett's ,fine ,red4 ,dutchess of ,oldenburgh4 ,rhode ,island ,greening4 ,keswick ,codlin4 ,baldwin4 ,hawthornden4 ,winthrop ,greening4 ,gravenstein4 ,danvers ,winter-,sweet4 ,mother4 ,ribston ,pippin4 ,tolman ,sweet4 ,roxberry ,russet4 ,,apples ,,for ,,the ,,western ,,states1 ,made up from the contributions of twenty different cultivators1 from five ,western states4 ,early ,harvest4 ,domine4 ,carolina ,red ,june4 ,swaar4 ,red ,astrachan4 ,westfield ,seek-no-further4 ,american ,summer ,pearmain4 ,broadwell4 ,sweet ,june4 ,vandevere of ,new ,york1 or ,newtown ,spitzenburg4 ,large ,sweet ,bough4 ,ortly1 or ,white ,bellflower4 ,summer ,queen4 ,yellow ,bellflower4 ,maiden's ,blush4 ,white ,pippin4 ,keswick ,codlin4 ,american ,golden ,russet4 ,fall ,wine4 ,herfordshire ,pearmain4 ,rambo4 ,white ,pearmain4 ,belmont4 ,wine ,sap4 ,fall ,pippin4 ,rawle's ,janet4 ,fameuse4 ,red ,canada4 ,jonathan4 ,willow ,twig4 ,tolman ,sweet4 ,,apples ,,for ,,the ,,south ,,and ,,southwest4 ,early ,harvest4 ,nickajack4 ,carolina ,juice4 ,maverack's ,sweet4 ,red ,astrachan4 ,batchelor or ,king4 ,gravenstein4 ,buff4 ,american ,summer ,pearmain4 ,shockley4 ,julian4 ,ben ,davis4 ,mangum4 ,hall4 ,fall ,pippin4 ,mallecarle4 ,maiden's ,blush4 ,horse4 ,summer ,rose4 ,bonum4 ,porter4 ,large ,striped ,pearmain4 ,rambo4 ,rawle's ,janet4 ,large ,early ,bough4 ,disharoon4 ,fall ,queen1 or ,ladies' ,meigs4 ,favorite4 ,cullasaga4 ,oconee ,greening4 ,camack's ,sweet4 ,some varieties are included in all these lists1 showing that the best cultivators regard some of our finest apples as adapted to all parts of the country4 ,a careful comparison of ,hooper's lists1 as recommended by the best ,western cultivators1 whose names are there mentioned1 will show that they name the same best varieties1 with a few additions4 ,we have carefully examined the varieties recommended by ,ernst1 by ,kirtland and ,elliott1 by ,barry1 and by the national convention of fruit-growers1 and find a general agreement on the main varieties4 ,there are some differences of opinion1 but they are minor4 ,they have left out some of ,downing's list1 and added some1 as a matter of course4 ,all this only goes to show the established character of our main varieties4 ,out of all these1 select a dozen of those named1 in most of the lists1 and you will have all that ever need be cultivated for profit4 ,the best six might be still better4 ,yet1 in your localities1 you will find good ones not named in the books1 and new ones will be constantly rising4 ,downing adds that ,newtown ,pippin does not succeed generally at the ,west1 yet in some locations they are very fine4 ,rhode ,island ,greening and ,baldwin generally fail in many sections1 while in others they are excellent4 ,now1 it is contrary to all laws of vegetation and climate1 that a given fruit should be good in one county and useless in the next1 if they have an equal chance in each place4 ,a suitable preparation of the soil1 in supplying1 in the specific manures1 what it may lack1 getting scions from equally healthy trees1 and grafting upon healthy apple-seedling stocks--observing our principles of acclimation--and not one of our best apples will fail1 in any part of ,north ,america4 ,on a given parallel of latitude1 a man may happen to plant a tree upon a fine calcareous soil1 and it does well4 ,another chances to plant one upon a soil of a different character1 and it does not succeed4 ,it is then proclaimed that fruit succeeds well in one locality1 and is useless in another near by and in the same latitude4 ,the truth is1 had the latter supplied calcareous substances to his deficient soil1 as he might easily have done1 in bones1 plaster1 lime1 c41 the fruit would have done equally well in both cases4 ,we should like to see this subject discussed1 as it never has been in any work that has come under our observation4 ,it would redeem many a section from a bad reputation for fruit-growing1 and add much to the luxuries of thousands of our citizens4 ,apples can be successfully and profitably grown on every farm of arable land in ,north ,america4 ,we present1 in the following cuts1 a few of our best apples1 in their usual size and form4 ,some are contracted for the want of room on the page4 ,we shall describe a few varieties1 in our opinion the best of any grown in this country4 ,these are all that need be cultivated1 and may be adapted to all localities4 ,we lay aside all technical terms in our description1 which we give1 not for purposes of identification1 but to show their true value for profitable culture4 ,the quality of fruit1 habits of the tree1 and time of maturity1 are all that are necessary1 for any practical purpose4 ,,nickajack4--,synonyms--,wonder1 ,summerour4 ,origin1 ,north ,carolina4 ,tree vigorous1 and a constant prolific bearer4 ,fruit large1 skin yellowish1 shaded land striped with crimson1 and sprinkled with lightish dots4 ,yellowish flesh1 fine subacid flavor4 ,tender1 crisp1 and juicy4 ,season1 ,november to ,april4 ,,baldwin4--,synonyms--,late ,baldwin1 ,woodpecker1 ,pecker1 ,steele's ,red ,winter4 ,illustration ,stands at the head of all apples1 in the ,boston market4 ,fruit large and handsome4 ,tree hardy1 and an abundant bearer4 ,it is of the family of ,esopus ,spitzenburg4 ,yellowish white flesh1 crisp and beautiful flavor1 from a mingling of the acid and saccharine4 ,season1 from ,november to ,march4 ,on some rich western soils1 it is disposed to bitter rot1 which may be easily prevented1 by application to the soil of lime and potash4 ,,canada ,,red4--,synonyms--,old ,nonsuch1 ,richfield ,nonsuch1 ,steele's ,red ,winter4 ,an old fruit in ,massachusetts and ,connecticut4 ,tree not a great grower1 but a profuse bearer4 ,good in ,ohio1 ,michigan1 and other ,western states4 ,retains its fine flavor to the last4 ,january to ,may4 ,,bellflower4--,synonyms--,yellow ,bellflower1 ,lady ,washington1 ,yellow ,belle-fleur4 ,illustration ,fruit very large1 pale lemon yellow1 with a blush in the sun4 ,subacid1 juicy1 crisp flesh4 ,tree vigorous1 regular and excellent bearer4 ,season1 ,november to ,march4 ,highly valuable4 ,,early ,,harvest4--,synonyms--,early ,french ,reinette1 ,prince's ,harvest1 ,july ,pippin1 ,yellow ,harvest1 ,large ,white ,juneating1 ,tart ,bough4 ,illustration ,the best early apple4 ,bright straw color4 ,subacid1 white1 tender1 juicy1 and crisp4 ,equally good for cooking and the dessert4 ,season1 the whole month of ,july in central ,new ,york2 earlier south1 and later north1 as of all other varieties4 ,,red ,,astrachan4--,brought to ,england from ,sweden in #ahaf4 ,one of the most beautiful apples in the whole list4 ,fruit very large1 and very smooth and fair4 ,color deep crimson1 with a little greenish yellow in the shade and occasionally a little russet near the stalk4 ,flesh white and crisp1 rich acid flavor4 ,gather as soon as nearly ripe1 or it will become mealy4 ,abundant bearer4 ,july and ,august4 ,,esopus ,,spitzenburg4--,synonym--,true ,spitzenburg4 ,illustration ,large1 fine flavored1 lively red fruit4 ,it is everywhere well known1 as one of the very best apples ever cultivated1 both for cooking and the desert4 ,december to ,february1 and often good even into ,april4 ,a very great bearer4 ,,king ,,of ,,tompkins ,,county4--,synonym--,king ,apple4 ,this is an abundant annual bearer4 ,skin rather yellowish1 shaded with red and striped with crimson4 ,flesh rather coarse1 but juicy and tender1 with a very agreeable vinous aromatic flavor4 ,one of the best4 ,december and ,march4 ,,rhode ,,island ,,greening4--,synonyms--,burlington ,greening1 ,jersey ,greening1 ,hampshire ,greening4 ,illustration ,a universal favorite1 everywhere known4 ,acid1 lively1 aromatic1 excellent alike for the dessert and kitchen4 ,great bearer4 ,november to ,march4 ,it is said to fail on some rich alluvial soils at the ,west4 ,avoid root grafting1 and apply the specific manures1 and we will warrant it everywhere4 ,,bonum4--,synonym--,magnum ,bonum4 ,from ,north ,carolina4 ,fruit large1 from light to dark red4 ,flesh yellow1 subacid1 rich1 and delicious4 ,tree hardy1 vigorous1 and an early and abundant bearer4 ,,american ,,golden ,,russet4--,synonyms--,sheep ,nose1 ,golden ,russet1 ,bullock's ,pippin1 ,little ,pearmain4 ,the ,english ,golden ,russet is a variety cultivated in this country1 but much inferior to the above4 ,the fruit is small1 but melting juicy1 with a very pleasant flavor4 ,it is one of the most regular and abundant bearers known4 ,tree hardy and thrifty4 ,october to ,january4 ,we know from raising and using it at the ,west1 that it is one of the very best4 ,,pippin1 ,,fall4--,confounded with ,holland ,pippin and several other varieties4 ,illustration ,a noble fruit1 unsurpassed by any other autumn apple4 ,very large1 equally adapted to table and kitchen4 ,fine yellow1 when fully ripe1 with a few dots4 ,flesh is white1 mellow1 and richly aromatic4 ,october and ,december4 ,a fair bearer1 though not so great as many others4 ,,newtown ,,pippin4--,synonyms--,green ,newtown ,pippin1 ,green ,winter ,pippin1 ,american ,newtown ,pippin1 ,petersburg ,pippin4 ,illustration ,this is put down as the first of all apples4 ,it commands the highest price1 in the ,london market4 ,it keeps long without the least shriveling or loss of flavor4 ,fruit medium size1 olive green1 with small gray specks4 ,flesh greenish white1 juicy1 crisp1 and of an exceedingly delicious flavor4 ,the best keeping apple1 good for eating from ,december to ,may4 ,the yellow pippin1 is another variety nearly as good4 ,,porter4--,a ,massachusetts fruit1 very fair2 a very great bearer4 ,is a favorite in ,boston4 ,deserves general cultivation4 ,september and into ,october4 ,,smokehouse4--,synonyms--,mill ,creek ,vandevere1 ,english ,vandevere4 ,an old variety from ,pennsylvania1 where the original tree grew by a gentleman's smoke-house2 hence its name4 ,skin yellow1 shaded with crimson1 sprinkled with large gray or brown dots4 ,september to ,february4 ,one of the very best for cooking4 ,,rambo4--,synonyms--,romanite1 ,bread and cheese apple1 ,seek-no-further4 ,illustration ,this is a great fall apple4 ,medium size1 flat1 yellowish white in the shade1 and marbled with pale yellow and red in the sun1 and speckled with large rough dots4 ,flesh greenish white1 rich1 subacid4 ,october to ,december4 ,,canada ,,reinette4--,this has ten synonyms in ,europe1 which indicates its popularity4 ,in this country it is known only under the above name4 ,fruit of the very largest size4 ,a good bearer4 ,the quality is in all respects good4 ,lively1 subacid flavor4 ,december to ,april1 unless allowed to hang on the tree too long4 ,pick early in the fall4 ,,rome ,,beauty4--,synonyms--,roman ,beauty1 ,gillett's ,seedling4 ,illustration ,fruit large1 yellow1 ground shaded1 and striped with red1 and sprinkled with little dots4 ,flesh yellowish1 juicy1 tender1 subacid4 ,bears every year a great crop of very large showy apples4 ,it is not superior in flesh or flavor1 but keeps and sells very well4 ,always must be very profitable1 and hence very popular4 ,,autumn ,,sweet ,,bough4--,synonyms--,late ,bough1 ,fall ,bough1 ,summer ,bell ,flower1 ,philadelphia ,sweet4 ,tree very vigorous and productive4 ,fruit medium4 ,skin smooth1 pale yellow with a few brown dots4 ,flesh white1 tender1 sweet vinous flavor4 ,one of the best dessert sweet apples4 ,august and ,october4 ,,westfield ,,seek-,,no-,,further4--,synonyms--,seek -no-further1 ,red ,winter ,pearmain1 ,connecticut ,seek-no-further4 ,illustration ,fruit large1 pale dull red1 sprinkled with obscure russety yellow dots4 ,flesh white1 tender and fine-grained4 ,on all accounts good4 ,october to ,february according to ,downing4 ,elliott says from ,december to ,february4 ,but the doctors often disagree4 ,so you had better eat your apples when they are good1 whether it be ,october or ,december1 or according to ,downing1 ,elliott1 or ,hooper4 ,,ribston ,,pippin4--,synonyms--,glory of ,york1 ,travers'1 ,formosa ,pippin1 ,rock hill's ,russet4 ,this occupies as high a place in ,england1 as any other apple4 ,in this country1 two or three others1 as ,baldwin and ,newtown ,pippin1 are more highly esteemed4 ,this is most successfully grown in the colder parts of the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,fruit medium1 deep yellow1 firm1 crisp2 flavor sharp aromatic4 ,november to ,april4 ,,northern ,,spy4--,this is a new ,american variety1 with no synonyms4 ,it originated near ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,illustration ,there is not a better dessert apple known4 ,it retains its exceedingly pleasant juiciness1 and excellent flavor from ,january to ,june4 ,in western ,new ,york1 they have been carried to the harvest field1 in ,july in excellent condition4 ,a fair bearer of beautiful fruit4 ,subacid with a peculiar freshness of flavor4 ,dark stripes of purplish red in the sun1 but a greenish pale yellow in the shade4 ,high culture and an open top for admission of the sun1 affects the fruit more favorably than any other4 ,,roxbury ,,russet4--,synonyms--,boston ,russet1 ,putnam ,russet4 ,illustration ,an excellent fruit1 and prodigious bearer4 ,medium size1 flesh greenish white1 rather juicy1 and subacid4 ,good in ,january1 and one of the best in market in ,june4 ,there are other russets of larger size1 but much inferior4 ,this should be in every collection4 ,it is not first in richness and flavor1 but it is superior to most in productiveness1 and is one of the best keepers4 ,,large ,,yellow ,,bough4--,synonyms--,early ,sweet ,bough1 ,sweet ,harvest1 ,bough4 ,no harvest-apple equals this1 except the ,,early ,,harvest4 ,excellent for the dessert1 but rather sweet for pies and sauce4 ,fruit above medium4 ,tree a moderate grower1 but a profuse bearer4 ,flesh white and very tender4 ,very sweet and sprightly4 ,july and ,august4 ,should have a place1 even in a small collection4 ,,swaar4--,one of the best ,american fruits4 ,its name in ,dutch1 where it originated on the ,hudson ,river1 means heavy4 ,illustration ,fruit is large1 and when fully ripe1 of a dead gold color1 dotted with many brown specks4 ,flesh yellowish1 fine grained1 and tender4 ,flavor aromatic and exceedingly rich4 ,bears good crops4 ,december to ,march4 ,,winesap4--,this is one of the best apples for cider1 and good also for the table and kitchen4 ,fruit hangs long on the tree without injury4 ,it is very productive1 and does well on a variety of soils4 ,very fine in the ,west4 ,yellow flesh1 very firm1 and high flavored4 ,november to ,may4 ,deservedly1 a very popular orchard variety4 ,,maiden',s ,,blush4--,a comparatively new variety from ,new ,jersey4 ,remarkably beautiful4 ,admired as a dessert fruit1 and equally good for the kitchen and for drying4 ,clear lemon yellow1 with a blush cheek1 sometimes a brilliant red cheek4 ,rapid growing tree1 with a fine spreading head1 bearing most abundantly4 ,august and ,october4 ,illustration ,,ladies' ,,sweeting4--,the finest sweet apple1 for dessert in winter1 that has yet been produced4 ,skin smooth and nearly covered with red1 in the sun4 ,flesh is greenish white1 very tender1 juicy1 and crisp4 ,without any shriveling or loss of flavor1 it keeps till ,may4 ,so good a winter and spring sweet apple is a desideratum in any orchard or garden4 ,the foregoing are all that any practical cultivator will need4 ,most will select from our list1 perhaps half a dozen1 which will be all they wish to cultivate4 ,from our descriptions1 which are not designed to enable planters to identify the varieties1 but to ascertain their qualities1 any one can select such as he prefers4 ,and they are so generally known1 that there will be but little danger of getting varieties1 different from those ordered4 ,we subjoin1 from ,hooker's excellent ,western ,fruit-,book1 the following-- ,,list ,,of ,,apples ,,for ,,the ,,western ,,states4 ,the following list1 says ,hooker1 contains a catalogue of the most popular varieties of apples1 recommended by various pomological societies of the ,united ,states for the ,western states4 ,these varieties can be obtained of all respectable nurserymen4 ,the list may be of use to some cultivators in the different states mentioned4 ,the general qualities of the best of these will be found in our descriptions under the cuts3-- ,baldwin4--,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,illinois4 ,roxbury ,russet4--,michigan1 ,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,indiana1 ,illinois4 ,rhode ,island ,greening4--,michigan1 ,iowa1 ,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,illinois4 ,swaar4--,ohio1 ,illinois1 ,michigan4 ,esopus ,spitzenburg4--,missouri1 ,illinois1 ,michigan1 ,ohio4 ,early ,harvest4--,virginia1 ,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,indiana1 ,illinois1 ,michigan1 ,iowa4 ,sweet ,bough4--,illinois1 ,virginia1 ,missouri1 ,indiana1 ,ohio4 ,summer ,rose4--,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,illinois4 ,fall ,pippin4--,michigan1 ,virginia1 ,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,illinois4 ,belmont4--,michigan1 ,ohio4 ,golden ,sweet4--,missouri4 ,red ,astrachan4--,iowa1 ,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,illinois4 ,jonathan4--,ohio1 ,missouri4 ,early ,strawberry4--,ohio4 ,danvers ,winter ,sweet4--,ohio4 ,american ,summer ,pearmain4--,illinois4 ,maiden ,blush4--,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,indiana1 ,illinois4 ,porter4--,ohio1 ,missouri4 ,gravenstein4--,ohio4 ,vandevere4--,missouri1 ,indiana1 ,illinois4 ,yellow ,bellflower4--,michigan1 ,iowa1 ,virginia1 ,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,illinois4 ,fameuse4--,illinois4 ,newtown ,pippin4--,michigan1 ,iowa1 ,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,indiana1 ,illinois4 ,rambo4--,michigan1 ,iowa1 ,ohio1 ,missouri1 ,indiana1 ,illinois4 ,smokehouse4--,virginia1 ,indiana4 ,fallawalden4--,ohio4 ,golden ,russet4--,ohio1 ,illinois4 ,wine ,sap4--,ohio1 ,illinois4 ,white ,bellflower4--,missouri1 ,illinois4 ,holland ,pippin4--,michigan1 ,missouri1 ,indiana4 ,raule's ,janet4--,iowa1 ,virginia1 ,illinois4 ,lady ,apple4--,ohio1 ,missouri4 ,for the value of these varieties1 in the states mentioned1 you have the authority of the best pomological societies4 ,the several states are mentioned so frequently1 that it will be seen that most of them are adapted to all the states4 ,attend to acclimation and manure1 and guard against insects1 and they will all flourish1 in all parts of the ,west and of the ,union4 ,,apricot4 ,this is a fruit about half-way between a peach and a plum4 ,the stone is like the plum1 and the flesh rather more like the peach4 ,it is esteemed1 principally1 because it comes earlier in the season than anything else of the kind4 ,it is used as a dessert-fruit1 for preserving1 drying1 and various purposes in cookery4 ,it does well on plum-stock1 and best in good deep1 moist loam1 manured as the peach and plum4 ,the best varieties produce their like from the seed4 ,seedlings are more hardy than any grafted trees4 ,grafts on plums are much better than on the peach4 ,the latter seldom produce good hardy1 thrifty trees1 although many persist in trying them4 ,the apricot is a favorite tree for espalier training against walls and fences1 in small yards1 where it bears luxuriantly4 ,it also makes a good handsome standard tree for open cultivation4 ,it is as much exposed to depredations from curculio as the plum1 and must be treated in the same way4 ,cultivation same as peach4 ,it produces its fruit1 like the peach1 only on wood of the previous year's growth2 hence it must be pruned like the peach4 ,especially must it be headed in well1 to secure the best crop4 ,varieties are quite numerous1 a few of which only deserve cultivation4 ,any of the nine following varieties are good3-- ,,brown',s ,,early4--,yellow1 with red cheek4 ,a very productive1 great grower4 ,,newhall',s ,,early4--,bright-orange color1 with deep-red cheek4 ,a good cling-stone variety1 every way worthy of cultivation4 ,,moorpark4--,yellow1 with ruddy cheek4 ,an enormous bearer1 though of slow growth4 ,it is a freestone variety of ,english origin1 and needing a little protection in our colder latitudes4 ,,dubois' ,,early ,,golden4--,color1 pale-orange4 ,very hardy and productive4 ,in #ahdf1 the original tree at ,fishkill1 ,n4 ,y41 bore ninety dollars' worth of fruit4 ,,large ,,early4--,orange1 but red in the sun4 ,an excellent1 early1 productive variety4 ,,hemskirke4--,bright-orange1 with red cheek4 ,an ,english variety1 vigorous tree1 and good bearer4 ,,peach4--,yellow1 with deep-brown on the sun-side4 ,an excellent ,french variety4 ,,breda4--,deep-orange1 with blush spots in the sun4 ,a vigorous1 productive1 ,african variety4 ,,roman4--,pale-yellow1 with occasionally red dots4 ,good for northern latitudes4 ,from these1 planters may select those that best suit their localities and fancy4 ,they are a little liable to be frost-bitten in the blossoms1 as they bloom very early4 ,otherwise they are always very productive4 ,they are ornamental1 both in the leaf and in the blossom4 ,eaten plain1 before thoroughly ripe1 they are not healthy2 otherwise1 harmless and delicious4 ,every garden should have half a dozen4 ,,artichoke4 ,there are two plants known by this name4 ,the ,jerusalem artichoke1 so called1 not from ,jerusalem in ,palestine1 but a corruption of the ,italian name which signifies the tuber-rooted sunflower4 ,the tubers are only used for pickling4 ,they make a very indigestible pickle1 and the plant is injurious to the garden1 so they had better not be raised4 ,the artichoke proper grows something like a thistle1 bearing certain heads1 that1 at a particular stage of their growth1 are fine for food4 ,the soil should be prepared as for asparagus1 only fifteen inches deep will do well4 ,the plot of ground should be where the water will not stand on it at any time in the winter1 as it will on most level gardens4 ,this will kill the roots4 ,when a new bed is made with slips from old plants1 carefully separate vigorous shoots1 remove superfluous leaves1 plant five inches deep in rows five feet apart1 and two feet apart in the rows4 ,keep very clean of weeds4 ,the first year1 some pretty good1 though not full-sized heads will be produced4 ,plant fresh beds each year1 and you will have good heads from ,july to ,november4 ,small heads will grow out along the stalk like the sunflower4 ,remove most of these small ones when they are about the size of hens' eggs1 and the others will grow large4 ,when the scales begin to diverge1 but before the blossoms come out1 is the time to cut them for use4 ,lay brush over them to prevent suffocation1 and cover with straw in winter1 to protect from severest cold4 ,too much warmth1 however1 is more injurious than frost4 ,spring-dress much like asparagus4 ,remove from each plant all the stocks but two or three of the best4 ,those removed are good for a new bed4 ,a bed1 properly made1 will last four or five years4 ,to save seed1 bend down a few good heads1 so as to prevent water from standing in them2 tie them to a stake1 until the seed is matured4 ,but1 like ,early ,york cabbage1 imported seed is better4 ,the usual way of serving them is1 the full heads boiled4 ,in ,italy the small heads are cut up1 with oil1 salt1 and pepper4 ,this vegetable would be a valuable accession to ,american kitchen gardens4 ,,ashes4 ,are one of the best applications to the soil1 for almost all plants4 ,leeched ashes are a valuable manure1 but not equal to unleached4 ,few articles about a house or farm should be saved with greater care4 ,be as choice of them as of your small change4 ,they are worth three times as much on the land as they can be sold for other purposes4 ,on corn1 at first hoeing1 they are nearly equal to plaster4 ,on onions and vines1 they promote the growth and keep off the insects4 ,sprinkle on dry1 when plants are damp1 but not too wet4 ,do not put wet ashes on plants1 or water while the ashes are on4 ,it will kill them4 ,mix ashes and plaster with other manures1 and their power will be greatly increased4 ,mixed in manure of hot-beds1 they accelerate the heat4 ,on sour land they are equal to lime for correcting the acidity4 ,,asparagus4 ,this is a universal favorite in the vegetable garden4 ,by the application of sand and compost1 the soil should be kept loose1 to allow the sprouts to spring easily from the crowns4 ,propagation is best effected by seed1 transplanting after one year's growth4 ,older roots divided and transplanted are of some value1 but not equal to young roots1 nor will they last as long4 ,preparation of the soil for an asparagus-bed is most important to success4 ,dig a trench on one edge of the plat designed for the bed1 and the length of it1 eighteen inches wide and two feet deep4 ,put in the bottom one foot of good barn-yard manure1 and tread down4 ,then spade eighteen inches more1 by the side of and as deep as the other1 throwing the soil upon the manure in the trench4 ,fill with manure and proceed as before1 and so until the whole plat has been trenched2 then wheel the earth from the first ditch to the other side and fill into the last trench1 thus making all level4 ,if there is danger that water will stand in the bottom1 drain by a blind ditch4 ,if this is objected to as too expensive1 let it be remembered that such a bed1 with a little annual top-dressing1 will be good for twenty years1 which is the age at which asparagus-plants begin to deteriorate2 then a new bed should be ready to take its place4 ,planting4--,mark the plat into beds five feet wide1 leaving paths two feet wide between them4 ,in each bed put four rows lengthwise1 which will be just fifteen inches apart1 and set plants fifteen inches apart in the row4 ,dig a trench six inches wide and six inches deep for each row2 put an inch of rich mould in the bottom2 set the plants on the mould1 with the roots spread naturally1 with the ends pointing a little downward4 ,be very particular about the position of the roots4 ,fill the trench1 and round it up a little with well-mixed soil and fine manure4 ,the bed is then perfect1 and will improve for many years4 ,after-,culture4--,in the fall1 after the frost has killed the stalks1 cut them down and burn them on the bed4 ,cover the bed with fine rotted manure1 to the depth of two inches1 and one half-bushel salt to each square rod4 ,as soon as frost is out in spring1 with a fork work the top-dressing into the soil to the depth of four inches1 and stir the soil to the depth of eight inches between the rows1 using care not to touch the crowns of the roots with the fork4 ,cutting should never be performed until the third year4 ,set out the plants when one year old1 let them grow one year in the bed1 and the next year they will be fit to cut4 ,cut all the shoots at a suitable age1 up to the last days of ,june4 ,the shoots should be regularly cut just below the surface1 when they are four or six inches high4 ,if you are tempted to cut after the #beth of ,june1 leave two or three thrifty shoots to each root1 to grow up for seed1 or you will weaken the plants1 and they will die in winter4 ,this is the reason why so many vacancies are seen in many asparagus beds4 ,this plant may be forced in hotbeds1 so as to yield an abundance of good shoots long before they will start in the open air1 affording an early luxury to those who can afford it4 ,this vegetable is equal or superior to green peas1 and by taking all the pains recommended above1 in the beginning1 an abundance can be raised for twenty years1 on the same bed1 at a very trifling cost4 ,early radishes and other vegetables can be raised1 between the rows1 without any harm to the asparagus4 ,,balm4 ,this is a medicinal plant1 very useful1 and easily raised4 ,a strong infusion of the leaves1 drank freely for some time by a nervous1 hypochondriacal person1 is1 perhaps1 better than any other medicine4 ,it is also good in flatulency and fevers4 ,its propagation is by slips or roots4 ,it is perennial1 affording a supply for many years4 ,gather just as the blossoms are appearing1 and dry quickly in a slow oven1 or in the shade4 ,press and do up in white papers1 and keep in a tight1 dry drawer1 until needed for use4 ,,barberry4 ,illustration3 ,barberries4 ,a prickly shrub1 from five to ten feet high1 growing wild in this country and in ,europe1 on poor1 hard soils1 or in moist situations1 by walls1 stones1 or fences4 ,its propagation is by seeds1 suckers1 or offshoots4 ,this shrub is used for jellies1 tarts1 pickles1 c4 ,preserves made of equal parts of barberry and sweet apples1 or outer-part of fine water-melons1 are very superior4 ,it is also one of the best shrubs for hedge4 ,the bark has much of the tannin principle1 and with the wood1 is used for coloring yellow4 ,shrub1 blossoms1 and fruit1 are quite ornamental1 forming a beautiful hedge1 but rather inclined to spread4 ,will do well on any land and in any situation4 ,the discussion in ,new ,england about its blasting contiguous fields of grain1 is about as sensible as the old witchcraft mania4 ,every garden should have two or three4 ,,barley4 ,does best on land which was hoed the previous year4 ,if properly tilled1 such land is rich1 free from weeds1 and easily pulverized4 ,sod1 plowed deep in the fall1 rolled early in the spring1 well harrowed1 the seed sown and harrowed in1 and all rolled level1 will produce a good crop4 ,two bushels of seed should be sowed on an acre1 unless the land be very rich2 in that case1 one half-bushel less4 ,essential to a good crop is rain about the time of heading and filling4 ,hence early sowing is always surest4 ,in many parts of the country it is of little use to sow barley1 unless it be gotten in ,,very ,,early4 ,in not more than one season in twelve can you get a good crop of barley from late sowing in all the middle and western states4 ,barley is more favorably affected than any other grain1 by soaking twenty-four hours before sowing1 and mixing with dry ashes4 ,a weak solution of nitre is best for soaking the seed4 ,varieties are two1 four1 and six rowed4 ,the two-rowed grows the tallest1 and is most conveniently harvested4 ,it is controverted whether the six-rowed variety yields the largest crop to the acre4 ,if the weather be dry1 and the worms attack the young plants1 rolling when two or three inches high1 with a heavy roller1 will save and increase the crop4 ,rolling is a great help to the harvesting1 as it levels the surface4 ,harvesting should always be attended to just as it turns1 but by all means before the straw becomes dry4 ,if it stands up1 cut with cradle or reaper1 and bind4 ,if lodged1 cut with a scythe1 and cure in small cocks like clover4 ,standing until very ripe1 or lying scattered until quite dry1 is very wasteful4 ,products are all the way from fifteen to seventy bushels to the acre1 according to season and cultivation4 ,reasonable care will secure an average annual crop of forty-five or fifty bushels per acre1 which makes it a profitable crop while the demand continues4 ,it is a good crop for ground feed for all animals1 the beards being a little troublesome when fed whole4 ,the straw is one of the very best for animals4 ,barley requires the use of the land only ninety days1 leaving it in good condition for fall-grain4 ,used for malting1 and for food for men and beasts4 ,it makes handsome flour and good bread4 ,hulled1 it is a better article of food than rice4 ,it succeeds well on land not stiff and tenacious enough for wheat1 or moist and cool enough for oats4 ,if farmers should raise only for malt1 the nation would become drunk and poor on beer1 and the market would be ruined4 ,but raised as food1 it is one of the most profitable agricultural products4 ,,barns4 ,a barn should always front the north4 ,the yard for stock should be on the south side1 with tight fences for protection on the east and west4 ,as this is designed for winter use1 it is a great saving of comfort to the creatures4 ,the barn-yard should be hollowed out by excavation1 until four or five feet lower in the centre than on the edges4 ,the border should be nearly level1 inclining slightly toward the centre1 to allow the liquid in the yard to run into it for purposes of manure4 ,the front of a barn should be on the summit of a small rise of ground1 to allow water to run away from the door1 to prevent mud4 ,in hilly countries it is very convenient to build barns by hills1 so as to allow hay and grain to be drawn in near the top1 and be thrown down1 instead of being pitched up4 ,these general principles are sufficient for all ordinary barns4 ,those who are able to build expensive barns had better build them circular1 eight or sixteen square1 and one hundred feet in diameter--the lower part1 to top of stable1 of stone4 ,let the stable extend all around next to the wall1 and a floor over the stable1 that teams may be driven all around to pitch into the bays1 and upon the mows and scaffolds1 at every point4 ,thus teams may go round and out the door at which they entered4 ,such a floor will accommodate several teams at the same time4 ,the cellar should be in the centre1 surrounded by the stable4 ,such a cellar would never freeze1 and would hold roots enough for one hundred head of cattle1 which the stable would easily accommodate4 ,let the mangers be around next the cellar1 for convenience of feeding4 ,such a barn would be more convenient for a dairy of one hundred cows1 or for winter-fattening of cattle1 than any other form4 ,it would cost no more than many barns in western ,new ,york that are not half as convenient4 ,,beans4 ,these are divided into two classes--pole and bush beans4 ,they are subdivided into many varieties4 ,we omit the ,english1 or horse-bean1 as being less valuable1 for any purpose1 than our well-known beans or peas4 ,pole beans are troublesome to raise1 and are only grown on account of excellence of quality1 and to have successive gatherings from the same vines4 ,pole beans are only used for horticultural purposes4 ,field-,beans4--,for general culture there are three varieties of white--small1 medium1 and large4 ,of all known beans1 we prefer the medium white4 ,the ,china bean1 white with a red face1 is an early variety4 ,all ripen nearly at the same time4 ,it cooks almost as soon as a potato1 and is good for the table2 but it is less productive1 and less saleable because not wholly white4 ,for planting among corn1 as for a very late crop1 this bean is valuable1 because it matures in so short a time4 ,good beans may be raised among corn1 without injury to the corn-crop4 ,this can only be done when it is designed to cultivate the corn but one way4 ,many fail in attempts to grow beans among corn1 by planting them at first hoeing4 ,the corn1 having so much the start1 will shade the beans and nearly destroy them4 ,but plant at the same time of the corn1 and they will mature before the corn will shade them much1 and not be in the way even of the ordinary crop of pumpkins4 ,but double-cropping land in this way1 at any time1 is of very doubtful utility4 ,a separate plat of ground for each crop1 in nearly all cases1 is the most economical4 ,to raise a good crop of beans1 prepare the soil as thoroughly as for any other crop4 ,beans will mature on land so poor and hard as to be almost worthless for other crops4 ,but a rich1 mellow soil is as good for beans as anything else1 though not so indispensable4 ,drill in with a planter as near together as possible1 and allow a cultivator to pass between them4 ,one bushel to the acre on ordinary land1 and three fourths of a bushel on very rich land1 is about the quantity of seed requisite4 ,hoe and cultivate them while young4 ,late cultivation is useless--more so than on most other crops4 ,beans should not be much hilled in hoeing1 and should never be worked when wet4 ,all plants with a rough stalk1 like the bean1 potato1 and vine1 are greatly injured1 sometimes ruined1 by having the earth stirred around them when they are wet1 or even damp4 ,beans are usually pulled2 this should be done when the latest pods are full-grown1 but not dry4 ,place them in small bunches on the ground with the roots up4 ,if the weather be dry1 they need not be moved until time to draw them in4 ,if the weather be damp1 they should be stacked loosely in small stacks around poles1 and covered with straw on the top1 to shed rain4 ,always haul in when very dry4 ,avoid stacking if possible1 for they are always wasted rapidly by moving4 ,in drawing in1 keep the rack under them covered with blankets to save those that shell4 ,in pulling beans1 be sure and take hold below the pods1 otherwise the pods will crack2 and although no harm appears then to be done1 yet1 when they dry1 every pod that has been squeezed by pulling1 will turn wrong side out1 and the contents be wasted4 ,if your beans are part ripe and the remainder green1 and it is necessary to pull them to save the early ones1 or guard against frost1 when the ripe ones are dry1 thrash them lightly4 ,this will shell all the ripe ones1 and none of the green ones4 ,put the straw upon a scaffold and thrash again in winter4 ,thus you will save all1 and have beautiful beans4 ,bean-straw should always be kept dry for sheep in winter2 it is equal to hay4 ,garden-,beans4--,there are many varieties1 a few of which only should be cultivated4 ,having the best1 there is no object in raising an inferior quality4 ,the best early string-bean is the ,early ,mohawk2 it will stand a pretty smart spring-frost without injury2 comes early1 and is good4 ,early ,yellow1 ,early ,black1 and ,quaker1 or dun-colored1 are also early and good4 ,refugee1 or ,thousand-to-one1 are the best string-beans known2 have a round1 crisp1 full1 succulent pod2 come as soon as the ,mohawks are out of the way2 and are very productive4 ,planted in ,august1 they are excellent until frost2 the very best for pickling4 ,for an early shell-bean we recommend the ,china red-face2 the white kidney and numerous other varieties are less certain and productive4 ,running ,beans are numerous4 ,the true ,lima1 very large1 greenish1 when ripe and dry1 is the richest bean known2 is nearly as good in winter1 cooked in the same way1 as when shelled green4 ,they are very productive1 continuing in blossom till killed by frost4 ,in warm countries they grow for years1 making a tree1 or growing like a large grapevine4 ,the ,london ,horticultural--called also ,speckled ,cranberry1 and ,wild ,goose--is a very rich variety4 ,the only objection is the difficulty of shelling2 one only can be removed at once1 because of the tenderness of the pod4 ,the ,carolina or butter bean often passes for the ,lima4 ,it has similar pods1 the bean is of similar shape1 but always white1 instead of greenish like the ,lima1 and smaller1 earlier1 and of inferior quality4 ,the ,scarlet ,runner1 formerly only grown as an ornament on account of its great profusion of scarlet blossoms continuing until frost1 is a very productive variety2 pods very large and very succulent1 making an excellent string-bean2 a rich variety when dry1 but objectionable on account of their dark color4 ,the ,red and the ,white ,cranberries1 ,dutch ,caseknife1 and many other varieties1 have good qualities1 but are inferior to those mentioned above4 ,beans may be forwarded in hotbeds1 by planting on sods six inches square1 put bottom-up on the hotbed1 and covered with fine mould2 plant four beans on each sod2 when frost is gone1 remove the sod in the hill beside the pole1 previously set1 leave only two pole-beans to grow in a hill2 they will always produce more than a greater number4 ,a shrub six feet high1 with the branches on1 is better than a pole for any running bean2 nearly twice as many will grow on a bush as on a pole4 ,use a crowbar for setting poles1 or drive a stake down first1 and set poles very deep1 or they will blow down and destroy the beans4 ,,bees ,,and ,,beehives4 ,the study of the honey-bee has been pursued with interest from remote ages4 ,a work on bees1 by ,de ,montfort1 published at ,antwerp in #afdi1 estimates the number of treatises on this subject1 before his time1 at between five and six hundred4 ,as that was two hundred and eight years ago1 the number has probably increased to two thousand or more4 ,we have some knowledge of the character of these early works1 as far back as ,democritus1 four hundred and sixty years before the ,christian era4 ,the great men of antiquity gave particular attention to study and writing on the honey-bee4--,among them we notice ,aristotle1 ,plato1 ,columella1 ,pliny1 and ,virgil4 ,at a later period1 we have ,huber1 ,swammerdam1 ,warder1 ,wildman1 c4 ,in our own day1 we have ,huish1 ,miner1 ,quinby1 ,weeks1 ,richardson1 ,langstroth1 and a host of others4 ,for the first two thousand years from the date of these works1 the bee was treated mainly as a curious insect1 rather than as a source of profit and luxury to man4 ,and although ,palestine was eulogized as a land flowing with milk and honey1 before the ,hebrews took possession of it1 yet the science of bee-culture was wholly unknown4 ,in the earliest attention to bees1 they were supposed to originate in the concentrated aroma of the sweetest and most beautiful flowers4 ,virgil1 and others of his time1 supposed them to come from the carcasses of dead animals4 ,but the remarkable experiments of ,huber1 sixty years ago1 developed many facts respecting their origin and economy4 ,subsequent observers have added still more to the stock of our knowledge respecting these wonderful creatures4 ,the different stages of growth1 from the minute egg of the queen to a full grown bee1 and the precise time occupied by each1 are well established4 ,the three classes of bees1 in every perfect colony1 and the offices of each2 their mechanical skill in constructing the different sized and shaped cells1 for honey1 for raising drones1 workers1 and queens1 all differing according to the purposes for which they are intended2 the wars of the queens1 and their sovereignty over their respective colonies2 the methods by which working-bees will raise a young queen1 when the old one is destroyed1 out of the larvae of common bees2 the peculiar construction and situation of the queen cells2 and1 above all1 the royal jelly 7differing from everything else in the hive7 which they manufacture for the food of young queens2 the manner in which they ventilate their hives by a swift motion of their wings1 causing the buzzing noise they make in a summer evening2 their method of repairing broken comb1 and building fortifications1 before their entrances1 at certain times1 to keep out the sphinx--all these curious matters are treated fully in many of our works on bees4 ,but we must forego the pleasure of presenting these at length1 it being our sole object to enable all who follow our directions1 so to manage bees as to render them profitable4 ,in preparing the brief directions that follow1 we have most carefully studied all the works1 ,american and foreign1 to which we could get access4 ,between this article and the best of those works there will be found a general agreement1 except as it respects beehives4 ,we present views of hives1 that we are not aware have ever been written4 ,the original idea1 or new principle 7which consists in constructing the hive with the entrance near the top71 was suggested to us by ,samuel ,pierce1 ,esq41 of ,troy1 ,n4 ,y41 who is the great ,american inventor of cooking-ranges and stoves4 ,we have carefully considered the principle in its various relations to the habits of the bee1 and believe it correct4 ,to most of our late works on honey-bees we have one serious objection3 it is1 that they bear on their face the evidence of having been written to make money1 by promoting the sale of some patent hive4 ,these works all have a little in common that is interesting2 the remainder seems designed to oppose some former patent and commend a new one4 ,they thus swell their volumes to a troublesome and expensive size1 with that which is of no use to practical men4 ,a work made to fight a patent1 or to sell one1 can not be reliable4 ,the requisites to successful bee-management are the following3-- #a4 ,always have large1 strong swarms4 ,such only are able successfully to contend with their enemies4 ,this is done by uniting weak swarms1 or sending back a young1 feeble swarm when it comes out 7as herein after directed74 #b4 ,use medium-sized hives4 ,in too large hives1 bees find it difficult to guard their territories4 ,they also store up more honey than they need1 and yield less to the cultivator4 ,the main box should be one foot square by fifteen inches high4 ,make hives of new boards2 plane smooth and paint white on the outside4 ,the usual direction is to leave the inside rough1 to aid in holding up the honey1 but to plane the inside edges so as to make close joints4 ,we counsel to plane the inside of the hive smooth1 and draw a fine saw lightly length wise of the boards1 to make the comb adhere4 ,this will be a great saving of the time of bees1 when it is worth the most in gathering honey4 ,they always carry out all the sawdust from the inside of their hives4 ,better save their time by planing it off4 #c4 ,to prevent robberies among bees1 when a weak colony is attacked1 close their entrances so that but one bee can pass at once1 and they will then take care of themselves4 ,to prevent a disposition to pillage1 place all your hives in actual contact1 on the sides1 and make a communication between them1 but not large enough to allow bees to pass4 ,this will give the same scent to the whole1 and make them feel like one family4 ,bees distinguish strangers only by the smell3 hence1 so connected1 they will not quarrel or pillage4 #d4 ,comb is usually regarded better for not being more than two or three years old4 ,the usual theory is1 that cells fill up by repeated use1 and1 becoming smaller1 render the bees raised in them diminutive4 ,this is not probable1 as a known habit of the bee is to clean out the cells before reusing them4 ,huber demonstrated that bees raised in drone-cells 7which are always larger than for workers7 grew no larger than in their own natural cells4 ,and as bees build their cells the right size at first1 it is probable they keep them so4 ,quinby assures us that bees have been grown twenty years in the same comb1 and that the last were as large as the first4 ,but for other reasons1 it is better to change the comb4 ,in all ordinary cases1 it is better to transfer the swarm to a new hive every third year4 ,many think it best to use hives composed of three sections1 seven and a half inches deep each1 screwed together with strips of wood on the sides1 and the top screwed on that it may easily be removed2 thick paper or muslin should be pasted around1 on the places of intersection1 to guard against enemies2 the two lower sections only allowed to contain bees--the upper one being designed for the honey-boxes1 to be removed4 ,each spring1 after two years old1 the lower section is taken out and a new one put on the top1 the cover of the old one having been first removed4 ,this is the old pyramidal beehive1 which is the title of a treatise on bees1 by ,p4 ,ducouedic1 translated from the ,french and abridged by ,silas ,dinsmore in #ahbi4 ,this has recently been revived and patented as a new thing4 ,we think with ,quinby1 that these hives are too expensive and too complicated1 and that the great mass of cultivators will succeed best with hives of simple construction4 #e4 ,allowing bees to swarm in their own time and way is better than all artificial multiplication of colonies4 ,if there are no small trees near the apiary1 place bushes1 upon which the bees will usually light1 when they come out4 ,if they seem determined to go away without lighting1 throw sand or dust among them2 this produces confusion1 and causes them to settle near4 ,the practice of ringing bells and drumming on tin1 c41 is usually ridiculed2 but we believe it to be useful1 and that on philosophic principles4 ,the object to be secured is to confuse the swarm and drown the voice of the queen4 ,the bees move only with their queen2 hence1 if anything prevents them from hearing her1 confusion follows1 and the swarm lights3 therefore1 any noise among them may answer the purpose1 and save the swarm4 ,to hive bees1 place them on a clean white cloth1 and set the hive over them1 raised an inch or two by blocks under the corners4 ,it is said that a little sweetened water or honey1 applied to the inside of the hive1 will incline the bees to remain4 ,the best preparation is to fasten a piece of new white comb on the top of the inside of the hive4 ,this is done by dipping the end of a piece of comb in melted beeswax1 and sticking it to the top4 ,bees should never be allowed to send off more than two colonies in one season4 ,to restrict them to one is still better4 ,excessive swarming is a precursor of destruction1 rather than an evidence 7as usually regarded7 of prosperity4 ,a given number of bees will make far less honey in two hives than in one1 unless they are so numerous as greatly to crowd the hive4 ,when a late swarm comes out1 take away the queen1 and they will immediately return4 ,any one may easily find the queen3 she is always in the centre of the bunch into which the swarm collects on lighting4 ,if they form two or three clusters1 it is because they have that number of queens4 ,then all the queens should be destroyed4 ,the following cuts of the three classes of bees will enable one to distinguish the queen4 ,illustration3 ,working ,bee4 ,queen4 ,drone4 ,the queen is sometimes1 but not always1 larger than the common bee2 but her body is always longer1 and blackish above and yellowish underneath4 ,to unite any two swarms together1 turn the hive you wish to empty bottom-up1 and place the one into which you would have them go on the top of the other1 with their mouths together2 then tie a cloth around1 at the place of intersection1 to prevent the egress of the bees4 ,gently rap the lower hive on all sides1 near the bottom1 gradually rising until you reach the top of the lower hive1 and all the bees will go into the upper one4 ,in the same way1 it is easy to remove a colony into a new hive1 whenever you think they need changing4 ,this should be performed in the dusk of the evening1 and need occupy no more than half an hour4 ,the hive should then be put in its place4 ,uniting weak new swarms1 may be done whenever they come out2 but changing a swarm from an old hive to a new one should be performed as early as the middle of ,june4 ,if moths get in1 change hives at any time when it is warm enough for bees to work1 and give them all the honey in their old hive4 ,if you discover moths too late for the bees to build comb in a new hive1 take the queen from the hive infested with moths1 and place it where the bees will unite with another colony1 and feed them all the honey from the deserted hive4 ,this1 or the destruction of the bees and saving the honey1 is always necessary1 when moth-worms are in possession1 unless they are so near the bottom1 that all the comb around them may be cut out4 ,bees are fond of salt4 ,always keep some on a board near them4 ,they also need water4 ,if a rivulet runs near the apiary1 it is well4 ,if not1 place water in shallow pans1 with pebbles in them1 on which the bees can stand to drink4 ,change the water daily4 ,it is too late to speak of the improvidence of killing bees1 to get their honey4 ,use boxes of any size or construction you choose4 ,in common hives1 boxes should be attached to the sides1 and not placed on the top4 ,it is a wasteful tax upon the time and strength of loaded bees1 to make them travel through the whole length of the hive1 into boxes on the top4 ,place boxes as near as possible to their entrance or below that entrance4 ,bees should be kept out of the boxes until they have pretty well filled the hive1 or they may begin to raise young bees in the boxes4 ,wintering bees successfully1 is one of the most difficult matters in bee-culture4 ,two evils are to be guarded against1 dampness and suffocation4 ,excessive dampness1 sometimes causes frost about the entrance that fills it up and suffocation ensues4 ,sometimes snow falls1 or is blown over the entrance1 and the bees die in a few hours for the want of air4 ,many large colonies1 with plenty of honey1 are thus destroyed4 ,dampness is very injurious to bees on other accounts4 ,in a good bee-house there is no danger from snow1 and little from dampness4 ,bees1 not having honey enough for winter1 should be fed in pleasant fall weather1 after they have nearly completed the labors of the season4 ,weighing hives is unnecessary4 ,a moderate degree of judgment will determine whether a swarm has a sufficient store for winter4 ,if not1 feed them4 ,never give bees dry sugar4 ,they take up their food1 as an elephant does water in his trunk2 it1 therefore1 should be in a liquid form4 ,boil good sugar for ten minutes in ale or beer1 leaving it about as thick as honey4 ,put it in a feed trough2 which should be flat-bottomed4 ,fasten together thin slats1 one fourth of an inch apart1 so as to fit the inside of the feed trough and lie on the surface of the liquid1 so as to rise and fall with it4 ,put this in a box and attach it to the hive1 as for taking box-honey1 and the bees will work it all up4 ,put out-door1 it tempts other bees1 and may lead to quarrels1 and robbery4 ,it is not generally known1 that a good swarm of bees may be destroyed1 by feeding them plenty of honey1 early in the spring4 ,they carry it in and fill up their empty cells and leave no room for raising young bees2 hence the whole is ruined for want of inhabitants1 to take the places of those that get destroyed1 or die of age4 ,to winter bees well1 utterly exclude the light during all the cold weather1 until it becomes so warm1 that they will not get so chilled when out that they can not return4 ,intense cold is not injurious to bees1 provided they are kept in the hive and are dry4 ,a large swarm1 will not eat two pounds of honey during the whole cold winter1 if kept from the light4 ,when tempted out1 every warm day they come into the sunshine and empty themselves1 and return to consume large quantities of honey4 ,kept in the dark1 they are nearly torpid1 eat but a mere trifle1 and winter well4 ,whatever your hive or house1 then1 keep your bees entirely from the light1 in cold weather4 ,this is the only reason why bees keep so well in a dark dry cellar1 or buried in the ground1 with something around them1 to preserve them from moisture1 and a conductor through the surface1 to admit fresh air4 ,it is not because it keeps out the cold1 but because it excludes the light1 and renders the bees inactive4 ,gilmore's patent bee-house1 is a great improvement on this account4 ,of the diseases of bees1 such as dysentery1 c41 we shall not treat4 ,all that can profitably be done1 to remedy these evils1 is secured by salt1 water1 and properly-prepared food1 as given above4 ,but the great question in bee-culture is1 ,how to prevent the depredation of the wax-moth8 ,to this subject1 much study has been given1 and respecting it many theories have been advanced4 ,the following suggestions are1 to us1 the most satisfactory4 ,the miller1 that deposites the egg1 which soon changes to the worm1 so destructive in the beehive1 commences to fly about1 at dark4 ,in almost every country-house1 they are seen about the lights in the evening4 ,they are still during all the day4 ,they are remarkably attracted by lights in the evening4 ,hence our first rule3-- #a4 ,place a teasaucer of melted lard or oil1 with a piece of cotton flannel for a wick1 in or near the apiary at dusk2 light it and allow it to burn till near morning1 expiring before daylight4 ,this done every night during the month of ,june1 will be very effectual4 #b4 ,keep grass and weeds away from the immediate vicinity of your apiary4 ,let the ground be kept clean and smooth4 ,this destroys many of the hiding-places of the miller1 and forces him away to spend the day4 ,this precaution has many other advantages4 #c4 ,keep large strong colonies4 ,they will be able to guard their territories1 and contend with this and all other enemies4 #d4 ,never have any opening in a beehive near the bottom1 during the season of millers 7see ,beehive74 ,let the openings be so small1 that only one or two bees can pass at once4 ,to accommodate the bees1 increase the number of openings4 ,millers will seldom enter among a strong swarm1 with such openings4 ,all around the bottom1 it should be so tight1 that no crevice can be found1 in which a miller can deposite an egg4 ,better plaster around1 closely1 with some substance1 the place of contact between the hive and the board on which it stands1 and keep it entirely tight during the time in which the millers are active4 #e4 ,if1 through negligence1 worms have got into a hive1 examine it at once2 and if they are near the bottom only1 within sight and reach1 cut out the comb around them1 and remove them from the hive4 ,if this is not practicable1 transfer the swarm to a new hive1 or unite it with another1 without delay4 #f4 ,the great remedy for the moth is in the right construction of a ,,beehive4 ,whatever the form of the hive you use1 have the entrance within three or four inches of the top4 ,millers are afraid of bees2 they will not go among them1 unless they are in a weak1 dispirited condition4 ,they steal into the hive when the bees are quiet1 up among the comb1 or when they hang out in warm weather1 but are still and quiet4 ,if the hive be open on all sides 7as is so often recommended71 the miller enters on some side where the bees are not4 ,now bees are apt to go to the upper part of the hive and comb1 and leave the lower part and entrance exposed4 ,if the entrance be at the upper part1 the bees will fill it and be all about it4 ,a bee can easily pass through a cluster of bees1 and enter or leave a hive2 but a miller will never undertake it3 this1 then1 will be a perfect safeguard against the depredations of the moth4 ,this hive is better on every account4 ,moisture rises3 in a hive open only at the bottom1 it is likely to rise to the top of the hive and injure the bees2 with the opening near the top it easily escapes4 ,the objection that would be soonest raised to this suggestion is1 that bees need a good circulation of fresh air1 and such a hive would not favor it4 ,to this we reply1 a hive open near the top secures the best possible air to the swarm2 any foul air has opportunity freely to escape4 ,that peculiar humming heard in a hive in hot weather is produced by a certain motion of the wings of the bees1 designed to expel vitiated air1 and admit the pure1 by keeping up a current4 ,in the daytime1 when the weather is hot1 you will see a few bees near the entrance on the outside1 and hear others within1 performing this service1 and1 when fatigued1 others take their place4 ,this is one of the most wonderful things in all the habits and instincts of bees4 ,they thus keep a pure atmosphere in a crowded hive in hot weather4 ,now1 it would require much less fanning to expel bad air from a hive open at the top1 than from one where all that air had to be forced down1 through an opening at the bottom4 ,this theory is sustained by the natural habits of bees in their wild state4 ,wild bees1 that select their own abodes1 are found in trees and crevices of rocks4 ,they usually build their combs downward from their entrance1 and their abode is air-tight at the bottom2 they have no air only what is admitted at their entrance1 near the top of their dwelling1 and with no current of air only what they choose to produce by fanning4 ,the purest atmosphere in any room is where it enters and passes out at the top2 in such a room only does the external atmosphere circulate naturally4 ,it is on the same principle that bees keep better buried than in any other way1 provided only they are kept dry4 ,yet they are in a place air-tight1 except the small conductor to the atmosphere above them4 ,the old pyramidal beehive of ,ducouedic1 with three sections1 one above the other1 allowing the removal of the lower one each spring1 and the placing of a new one on the top--thus changing the comb1 so that none shall ever be more than two years old1 with the opening always within three or four inches of the top1 is the best of the patent hives4 ,we prefer plain1 simple hives4 ,the general adoption of this principle1 whatever hives are used1 would be a new era in the science of bee-culture4 ,no beehive should ever be exposed to the direct rays of the sun in a beehouse4 ,a hive standing alone1 with a free circulation of air on every side1 will not be seriously injured by the sun4 ,but when the rays are intercepted by walls or boards1 in the rear and on the sides1 they are very disastrous4 ,other hints1 such as clearing off occasionally1 in all seasons except in the cold of winter1 the bottom board1 c41 are matters upon which we need not dwell4 ,no cultivator would think of neglecting them4 ,let no one be alarmed at finding dead bees on the bottom when clearing out a hive2 bees live only from five to seven months1 and their places are then supplied with young ones4 ,the above suggestions followed1 and a little care taken in cultivating the fruits1 grains1 and grasses1 that yield the best flowers for bees1 would secure uniform success in raising honey4 ,this is one of the finest luxuries2 and1 what is a great desideratum1 it is within the easy reach of every poor family1 even1 in all the rural districts of the land4 ,good honey1 good vegetables1 and good fruit1 like rain and sunshine1 may be the property of all4 ,the design of this volume is to enable the poor and the unlearned to enjoy these things in abundance1 with only that amount of care and labor necessary to give them a zest4 ,,beets4 ,of this excellent root there are quite a number of varieties4 ,mangel-,wurtzel yields most for field-culture1 and is the great beet for feeding to domestic animals2 not generally used for the table4 ,french ,sugar or ,amber ,beet is good for field-culture1 both in quality and yield2 but it is not equal to the ,wurtzel4 ,yellow-,turnip-rooted1 ,early ,blood-,turnip-rooted1 ,early ,dwarf ,blood1 ,early ,white ,scarcity1 and ,long ,blood1 are among the leading garden varieties4 ,of all the beets1 three only need be cultivated in this country--the ,wurtzel for feeding1 and the ,early ,blood ,turnip-rooted and ,long ,blood for the table4 ,the ,early ,blood is the best through the whole season1 comes early1 and can be easily kept so as to be good for the table in the spring4 ,the ,long ,blood is later1 and very much esteemed4 ,beets may be easily forwarded in hotbeds4 ,sow seed early1 and transplant in garden as soon as the soil is warm enough to promote their growth4 ,when well done1 the removal retards their growth but little4 ,young beets are universally esteemed4 ,to have them of excellent quality during all the winter1 it is only necessary to plant on the last days of ,july4 ,if the weather be dry1 water well1 so as to get them up1 and they will attain the size and age at which they are most valued4 ,keep them in the cellar for use1 as other beets4 ,they will keep as well as old ones4 ,field-,culture4--,make the soil very mellow1 fifteen to eighteen inches deep4 ,soil having a little sand in its composition is always best4 ,even very sandy land is good if it be sufficiently enriched4 ,choose land on which water will not stand in a wet season4 ,beets endure drought better than extreme wet4 ,having made the surface perfectly mellow1 and free from clods1 weeds1 and stones1 sow in drills1 with a machine for the purpose1 two feet apart4 ,this is wide enough for a small cultivator to pass between them4 ,after planting1 roll the surface smooth and level2 this will greatly facilitate early cultivation4 ,on a rough surface you can not cultivate small plants without destroying many of them2 hence the necessity of straight rows and thorough rolling4 ,the ,english books recommend planting this and other roots on ridges3 for their climate it is good1 but for ours it is bad4 ,they have to guard against too much moisture1 and we against drought2 hence1 they should plant on ridges1 and we on an even surface4 ,to get the largest crop1 plow a deep furrow for each row1 put in plenty of good manure1 cover it with the plow and level the surface1 and plant over the manure4 ,when well growing1 they should be thinned to six or eight inches in the row4 ,often stirring the earth while they are young is of great benefit4 ,the quality and quantity of a root-crop depend much upon the rapidity of its growth4 ,slow growth gives harder roots of worse flavor1 as well as a stinted crop4 ,harvesting should be done just before severe frosts4 ,they will grow until frost comes1 however early they were planted1 or whatever size they may have attained4 ,they grow as rapidly after light frosts as at any time in the season2 but very severe frosts expose them to rot during winter4 ,preserving for table use is usually done by putting in boxes with moist sand1 or the mould in which they grew4 ,this excludes air1 and1 if kept a little moist1 will preserve them perfectly4 ,roots are always better buried below frost out-door on a dry knoll1 where water will not stand in the pits4 ,but in cold climates it is necessary to have some in the cellar for winter use4 ,the common method of burying beets1 and turnips1 and all other roots out-door1 is well understood4 ,the only requisites are1 a dry location secured from frost1 straw next the roots1 a covering of earth1 not too deep while the weather is yet mild2 as it grows cold1 put on another covering of straw1 and over it a foot of earth2 as it becomes very cold1 put on a load or two of barnyard manure3 this will save them beyond the power of the coldest winter4 ,vast quantities of roots buried outdoor are destroyed annually by frost1 and there is no need of ever losing a bushel4 ,you thought they would not freeze1 is not half as good as spending two hours' time in covering1 so that you know they can not freeze4 ,there is hardly a more provoking piece of carelessness1 in the whole range of domestic economy1 than the needless loss of so many edible roots by frost4 ,the table use of beets is everywhere known2 their value for feeding animals is not duly appreciated in this country4 ,no one who keeps domestic animals or fowls should fail to raise a beet-crop2 it is one of the surest crops grown2 it is never destroyed by insects1 and drought affects it but very little4 ,on good soil1 beets produce an enormous weight to the acre4 ,the lower leaves may be stripped off twice during the season1 to feed to cows or other stock1 without injury to the crop4 ,cows will give more milk for fifteen days1 fed on this root alone1 than on any other feed2 they then begin to get too fat1 and decline in milk3 hence1 they should be fed beets and hay or other food in about equal parts1 on which they will do better than in any other way4 ,horses do better on equal parts of beet and hay than on ordinary hay and grain4 ,horses fed thus will fatten1 needing only the addition of a little ground grain1 when working hard4 ,plenty of beets1 with a little other food1 makes cows give milk as well as in summer4 ,raw beets cut fine1 with a little milk1 will fatten hogs as fast as boiled potatoes4 ,all fowls are fond of them1 chopped fine and mixed with other food4 ,sheep1 also1 are fond of them4 ,they are very valuable to ewes in the spring when lambs come1 when they especially need succulent food4 ,the free use of this root by ,english farmers is an important reason of their great success in raising fine sheep and lambs4 ,they promote the health of animals1 and none ever tire of them4 ,as it needs no cooking1 it is the cheapest food of the root kind4 ,beets will keep longer1 and in better condition1 than any other root4 ,they never give any disagreeable flavor to milk4 ,it is considered established1 now1 that four pounds of beet equal in nourishment five pounds of carrot4 ,every large feeder should have a cellar beyond the reach of frosts1 and of large dimensions1 accessible at all times1 in which to keep his roots4 ,these beets should be piled up there as cord-wood1 to give a free circulation of the air4 ,in ,germany1 the beet-crop takes the place of much of their meadows1 at a great saving of expense1 producing remarkably fine horses1 and fattening immense herds of cattle1 which they export to ,france4 ,we insist upon the importance of a beet-crop to every man who owns an acre of land and a few domestic animals1 or only a cow and a few fowls4 ,,bene ,,plant4 ,introduced into the ,southern states by negroes from ,africa4 ,they boil a handful of the seed with their allowance of ,indian corn4 ,it yields a larger proportion than any other plant of an excellent oil4 ,it is extensively cultivated in ,egypt as food for horses1 and for culinary purposes4 ,it is remarkable that this native of a southern clime should flourish well1 as it does1 in the ,northern states4 ,it should be cultivated throughout the ,north as a medicinal herb4 ,a ,virginia gentleman gave ,thorburn ,son1 seed-dealers of ,new ,york1 the following account of its virtues3 a few green leaves of the plant1 plunged a few times in a tumbler of cold water1 made it like a thin jelly1 without taste or color4 ,children afflicted with summer-complaint drink it freely1 and it is thought to be the best remedy for that disease ever discovered2 it is believed that three thousand children were saved by it in ,baltimore the first summer after its introduction4 ,plant in ,april1 in the middle states1 about two feet apart4 ,when half grown1 break off the plants1 to increase the quantity of leaves4 ,we recommend to all families to raise it1 and try its virtues1 under the advice of their family physicians4 ,,birds4 ,these are exceedingly useful in destroying insects4 ,so of toads and bats4 ,no one should ever be wantonly killed4 ,boys1 old or young1 should never be allowed to shoot birds1 or disturb their nests1 only as they would domestic fowls1 for actual use4 ,a wanton recklessness is exhibited about our cities and villages1 in killing off small birds1 that are of no use after they are dead4 ,living1 they are valuable to every garden and fruit-orchard4 ,in every state1 stringent laws should be made and enforced against their destruction4 ,even the crow1 without friends as he is1 is a real blessing to the farmer3 keep him from the young corn for a few days1 as it is easy to do1 and1 all the rest of the year1 his destruction of worms and insects is a great blessing4 ,birds1 therefore1 should be baited1 fed1 and tamed1 as much as possible1 to encourage them to feel at home on our premises4 ,having protected our small fruits1 they claim a share1 and they have not always a just view of the rights of property1 nor do they always exhibit good judgment in dividing it4 ,it is best to buy them off by feeding them with something else4 ,if they still prefer the fruit1 hang little bells in the trees1 where they will make a noise2 or hang pieces of tin1 old looking-glass1 or even shingles1 by strings1 so that they will keep in motion1 and the birds will keep away4 ,images standing still are useless1 as the birds often build nests in the pockets4 ,,blackberry4 ,this berry grows wild1 in great abundance1 in many parts of the country4 ,it has been so plentiful1 especially in the newer parts1 that its cultivation has not been much attended to until recently4 ,like all other berries1 the cultivated bear the largest and best fruit4 ,uses4--,it is one of the finest desert berries2 excellent in milk1 and for tarts1 pies1 c4 ,blackberries make the best vinegar for table use1 and a wine that retains the peculiar flavor1 and of a beautiful color4 ,this berry comes in after the raspberries1 and ripens long in succession on the same bush4 ,illustration3 ,high-bush ,blackberry4 ,varieties of wild ones1 usually found growing in the borders of fields and woods1 are the low-bush and the high-bush4 ,downing gives the first place to the low4 ,our experience is1 that the high is the best bearer of the best fruit4 ,we have often gathered them one and one fourth inches in length1 very black1 and of delicious sweetness4 ,the low ones that have come under our observation have been smaller and nearer round1 and not nearly so sweet4 ,the best cultivated varieties are-- ,,the ,,dorchester--,introduced from ,massachusetts1 and a vigorous1 large1 regular bearer4 ,,lawton1 ,,or ,,new ,,rochelle4--,this is the great blackberry of this country1 by the side of which1 no other1 yet known1 need be cultivated4 ,it is a very hardy1 great grower4 ,it is an enormous bearer of such fruit that it commands thirty cents per quart1 when other blackberries sell for ten4 ,on a rather moist1 heavy loam1 and especially in the shade1 its productions are truly wonderful4 ,continues to ripen daily for six weeks4 ,propagation is by offshoots from the old roots1 or by seeds4 ,when by seeds1 they should be planted in mellow soil1 and where the sun will not shine on them between eight and five o'clock in hot weather4 ,in transplanting1 much care is requisite4 ,the bark of the roots is like evergreens1 very tender and easily broken1 or injured by exposure to the atmosphere2 hence1 take up carefully1 and keep covered from sun and air until transplanted4 ,this is destined to become one of the universally-cultivated small fruits--as much so as the strawberry4 ,the best manures are1 wood-ashes1 leaves1 decayed wood1 and all kinds of coarse litter1 with stable manure well incorporated with the soil1 before transplanting4 ,animal manure should not be very plentifully applied4 ,we have seen in ,illinois a vigorous bush1 and apparently good bearer1 of perfect fruit--a variety called white blackberry4 ,the fruit was greenish and pleasant to the taste4 ,,black ,,raspberry4 ,the common wild1 found by fences1 especially in the margin of forests1 in most parts of the ,united ,sates1 is very valuable for cultivation in gardens4 ,coming in after the red raspberry1 and ripening in succession until the blackberry commences1 it is highly esteemed4 ,cultivated with little animal manure1 but plenty of sawdust1 tan-bark1 old leaves1 wood1 chips1 and coarse litter1 it improves very much from its wild state4 ,fruit is all borne on bushes of the previous year's growth2 hence1 after they have done bearing1 cut away the old bushes4 ,to secure the greatest yield on rich land1 cut off the tops of the shoots rising for next year's fruit1 when they are four or five feet high4 ,the result will be1 strong shoots from behind all the leaves on the upper part of the stalk1 each of which will bear nearly as much fruit as would the whole have done without clipping4 ,a dozen of these would occupy but a small place in a border1 or by a wall4 ,not an ,american garden should be found without them4 ,,bones4 ,bones are one of the most valuable manures4 ,they yield the phosphates in large measure4 ,on all land needing lime1 they are very valuable4 ,the heads1 c41 about butchers' shops will bear a transportation of twenty miles to put upon meadows4 ,break them with the head of an axe1 and pound them into the sod1 even with the surface4 ,they add greatly to the products of a meadow4 ,ground1 they make one of the best manures of commerce4 ,a cheap method for the farmer is to deposite a load of horse-manure1 and on that a load of bones1 and alternate each1 till he has used up all his bones4 ,cover the last load of bones deep with manure4 ,it will make a splendid hotbed1 and the fermentation of the manure will dissolve or pulverize the bones1 and the heap will become one mass of the most valuable manure1 especially for roots and vines1 and all vegetables requiring a rich1 fine manure4 ,,borecole1 ,,or ,,kale4 ,there are some fifteen or twenty kinds cultivated in ,europe4 ,two only1 the green and the brown1 are desirable in this country4 ,cultivate as cabbage4 ,in portions of the middle states they will stand the frosts of winter well1 without much protection2 further north1 they need protection with a little brush and straw during severe frosts4 ,those grown on rather hard land are better for winter2 being less succulent1 they endure cold better4 ,cut them off for use whenever you choose4 ,they do not head like cabbage2 they have full bunches of curled leaves4 ,cut off so as to include all1 not over eight inches long4 ,in winter1 after having been pretty well exposed to the frost1 they are very fine4 ,set out the stumps early in spring1 and they will yield a profusion of delicious sprouts4 ,this would be a valuable addition to many of our kitchen gardens4 ,,broccoli4 ,this may be regarded as a late flowering species of cauliflower4 ,it should be planted and treated as cabbage1 and fine heads will be formed1 in the middle states1 in ,october3 at the ,south much earlier1 according to latitude4 ,take up in ,november1 and preserve as cabbage1 and good ones may be had in winter4 ,to prevent ravages of insects1 mix ashes in the soil when transplanting1 or fresh loam or earth from a new field2 or trench deep1 so as to throw up several inches of subsoil1 which had not before been disturbed4 ,to save seed1 transplant some of the best in spring2 break off all the lower sprouts1 allowing only a few of the best centre ones to grow4 ,tie them to stakes1 to prevent destruction by storms4 ,be sure to have nothing else of the cabbage kind near your seed broccoli4 ,,broom ,,corn4 ,cultivated like other corn1 only that this is more generally planted in drills4 ,three feet apart1 and six inches in the drill1 it yields more weight of better corn to the acre than to have it nearer4 ,the great fault in raising this crop is getting it too thick4 ,the finest-looking brush is of corn cut while yet so green that the seed is useless4 ,but the brush is stronger1 and will make better brooms for wear1 when the corn is allowed to stand until the seed is hard1 though not till the brush is dry4 ,the land should be rich4 ,this is a hard1 exhausting crop for the soil4 ,to harvest1 bend down1 two feet from the ground1 two rows1 allowing them so to fall across each other as to expose all the heads4 ,cut off the heads1 with six or eight inches of the stalk1 and place them on top of the bent rows to dry4 ,in a week1 in dry weather1 they will be well cured1 and should be then spread thin1 under cover1 in plenty of air4 ,there is no worse article to heat and mould4 ,in large crops1 they usually take off the seed before curing2 it is much lighter to handle1 and less bulky4 ,it may be done then1 or in winter1 as you prefer4 ,the seed is removed on a cylinder eighteen inches long1 and two and a half feet in diameter1 having two hundred wrought nails with their points projecting4 ,it is turned by a crank1 like a fanning mill4 ,the corn is held in a convenient handful1 like flax on a hatchel4 ,where large quantities are to be cleaned of the seed1 power is used to turn the machine4 ,ground or boiled1 the seed makes good feed for most animals4 ,dry1 it has too hard a shell4 ,fowls1 with access to plenty of gravel1 do well on it4 ,broom-corn is not a very profitable crop1 except to those who manufacture their own corn into brooms4 ,there is much labor about it1 and considerable hazard of injuring the crop1 by the inexperienced2 hence1 young farmers had1 generally1 better let it alone4 ,there are two varieties--they may be forms of growth1 from peculiar habits of culture--one1 short1 with a large1 stiff brush running up through the middle1 with short branches to the top1 called pine-top3 it is of no value2--the other is a long1 fine brush1 the middle being no coarser than the outside4 ,it should be planted with a seed-drill1 to make the rows straight and narrow for the convenience of cultivation4 ,harrowing with a span of horses1 with a ,v drag1 one front tooth out1 as soon as the corn is up1 is beneficial to the crop4 ,,brussels ,,sprouts4 ,this is a species of cabbage4 ,a long stem runs up1 on which grow numerous cabbage-heads in miniature4 ,the centre head is small and of little use1 and the large leaves drop off early4 ,it will grow among almost anything else1 without injury to either4 ,it is raised from seed like cabbage1 and cultivated in all respects the same4 ,eighteen inches apart each way is a proper distance1 as the plant spreads but little4 ,good1 either as a cabbage1 or when very small1 as greens4 ,they are good even after very hard frosts4 ,by forwarding in hotbed in the spring1 and by planting late ones for winter1 they may be had most of the year4 ,if they are disposed to run to seed too early1 it may be prevented by pulling up1 and setting out again in the shade4 ,save seed as from cabbage1 but use great caution that they are not near enough to receive the farina from any of the rest of the cabbage-tribe4 ,,buckthorn4 ,this is the most valuable of the thorn tribe1 for hedge1 in this country4 ,it never suffers from those enemies that destroy so much of the hawthorn4 ,this is also used for dyeing and for medicine4 ,,buckwheat4 ,this will grow well on almost any soil2 even that too poor for most other crops will yield very good buckwheat--though rich land is better for this1 as for all other crops4 ,the heat of summer is apt to blast it when filling2 hence1 in the middle states1 it is not best to sow it until into ,july4 ,it fills well in cool1 moist weather1 and is quite a sure crop if sowed at the right time4 ,on poor land1 one bushel of seed is required for an acre1 while half a bushel is sufficient on rich land1 where stalks grow large4 ,the blossoms yield to the honey-bee very large quantities of honey1 much inferior to that made of white clover2 it may be readily distinguished in the comb by its dark color and peculiar flavor4 ,ground1 it is good for most animals1 and for fowls unground1 mixed with other grain4 ,it remains long in land2 but it is a weed easily killed with the hoe2 or a farmer may set apart a small field for an annual crop1 keeping up the land by the application of three pecks of plaster per acre each year4 ,it is very popular as human food1 and always made into pancakes4 ,the free use of it is said to promote eruptive diseases4 ,the ,india buckwheat is more productive1 but of poorer quality4 ,the bran is the best article known to mix with horse-manure and spade into radish beds1 to promote growth and kill worms4 ,,budding4 ,this is usually given under the article on peaches4 ,but1 as it is a general subject1 it should be in a separate article1 reserving what is peculiar to the different fruits to be noticed under their respective heads4 ,illustration3 ,budding4 ,budding small trees should usually be performed very near the ground1 and on a smooth place4 ,any sharp pocket-knife will do2 but a regular budding knife1 now for sale in most hardware-stores1 is preferable4 ,cut through the bark in the form of a horizontal crescent 7a in the cut74 ,split the bark down from the cut three fourths of an inch1 and1 with the ivory-end of the knife1 raise the corners and edges of the bark4 ,select a vigorous shoot of this year's growth1 but having buds well matured--select a bud that bids fairest to be a leaf-bud1 as blossom-buds will fail--insert the knife half an inch below the bud1 and cut upward in a straight line1 severing the bark and a thin piece of the wood to one half inch above the bud1 and let the knife run out3 you then have a bud ready for insertion 7c in cut74 ,the ,english method is to remove the wood from the bud before inserting it2 this is attended with danger to the vitality of the bud1 and is1 therefore1 less certain of success1 and it is no better when it does succeed4 ,hence1 ,american authorities favor inserting the bud with the wood remaining4 ,insert the lower end of this slip between the two edges of the bark1 passing the bud down between those edges1 until the top of the slip comes below the horizontal cut1 and remaining contiguous to it4 ,if the bud slip be too long1 after it is sufficiently pressed down1 cut off the top so as to make a good fit with the bark above the cut 7b in cut74 ,the lower end of the bud will have raised the split bark a little more to make room for itself1 and thus will set very close to the stalk4 ,tie the bud in with a soft ligature2 commence at the bottom of the split1 and wind closely until the whole wound is covered1 leaving only the bud exposed 7d in cut74 ,it is more convenient to commence at the top1 but it is less certain to confine the slip opposite the bud in close contact with the stalk3 this is indispensable to success4 ,we have often seen buds adhere well at the bottom1 but stand out from the stalk1 and thus be ruined4 ,preparation of ,buds4--,take thrifty1 vigorous shoots of this year's growth1 with well-matured buds2 cut off the leaves one half inch from the stalks 7e in cut72 wrap them in moist moss or grass1 or put them in sawdust1 or bury them one foot in the ground4 ,bands4--,the best yet known is the inside bark of the linden or ,american basswood4 ,in ,june1 when the bark slips easily1 strip it from the tree1 remove the coarse outside1 immerse the inside bark in water for twenty days2 the fibres will then easily separate1 and become soft and pliable as satin ribbon4 ,cut it into convenient lengths1 say one foot1 and lay them away in a dry state1 in which they will keep for years4 ,this will afford good ties for many uses1 such as bandages of vegetables for market1 c4 ,matting that comes around ,russia iron and furniture does very well for bands2 woollen yarn and candle-wicking are also used2 but the bass-bark is best4 ,after ten days the bands should be loosened and retied2 then1 if the bud is dried1 it is spoiled1 and the tree should be rebudded in another place2 at the end of three weeks1 if the bud adheres firmly1 remove the band entirely4 ,better not bud on the south side2 it is liable to injury in winter4 ,in the spring1 after the swelling of buds1 but before the appearance of leaves1 cut off the top four inches above the bud2 when the bud grows1 tie the tender shoot to the stalk 7growing bud in cut1 f74 ,in ,july1 cut the wood off even with the base of the bud and slanting up smoothly4 ,causes of ,failure4--,if you insert a blossom-bud you will get no shoot1 although the bud may adhere well4 ,if scions cut for buds remain two hours in the sun with the leaves on1 in a hot day1 they will all be spoiled4 ,the leaves draw the moisture from the bud1 and soon ruin it4 ,cut the leaves off at once4 ,if you use buds from a scion not fully grown1 very few of them will live2 they must be matured4 ,if the top of the branch selected be growing and very tender1 use no buds near the top of it4 ,if in raising the bark to make room for the bud1 you injure the soft substance between the bark and the wood1 the bud will not adhere4 ,if the bud be not brought in close contact with the stalk and firmly confined there1 it will not grow4 ,with reasonable caution on these points1 not more than one in fifty need fail4 ,time for ,budding4--,this varies with the season4 ,in the latitude of central ,new ,york1 in a dry season1 when everything matures early1 bud peaches from the #aeth to the #beth of ,august--plums1 c41 earlier4 ,in wet and great growing seasons1 the first ten days in ,september are best4 ,much budding is lost on account of having been done so late as to allow no time for the buds to adhere before the tree stops growing for the season4 ,if budding is performed too early1 the stalk grows too much over the bud1 and it gums and dies4 ,it is utterly useless to bud when the bark is with difficulty loosened2 it is always a failure4 ,,bushes4 ,the growth of bushes over pastures1 along fences1 and in the streets1 shows a great want of thrift1 and an unpardonable carelessness in a farmer4 ,in pastures1 so far from being harmless1 they take so much from the soil as to materially injure the quality and quantity of the grass4 ,the only truly effectual method of destroying noxious shrubs1 is by grubbing them up with a mattock4 ,frequent cutting of bushes inclining to spread only increases the difficulty1 by giving strength and extension to the roots4 ,cutting bushes thoroughly in ,august1 in a wet season1 and applying manure and plaster to promote the growth of grass1 will sometimes quite effectually destroy them4 ,larger trees1 as the sweet locust1 that are troublesome on account of sprouting out from the roots1 when cut down1 are effectually killed by girdling two feet from the ground1 and allowing to stand one year4 ,the tree1 roots1 and all1 are sure to die4 ,,butter4 ,raising the cream1 churning1 working1 and preserving1 are the points in successful butter-making4 ,to raise cream1 milk may be set in tin1 wood1 or cast-iron dishes4 ,the best are iron1 tinned over on the inside4 ,tin is better than wood1 only on account of its being more easily kept clean4 ,no one can ever make good butter without keeping everything about the dairy perfectly clean and sweet4 ,milk should never stand more than three inches deep in the pans1 to raise the best and most cream4 ,it should be set in an airy room1 containing nothing else4 ,butter and milk will collect and retain the flavor of any other substance near them1 more readily than anything else2 hence1 milk set in a cellar containing onions1 or in a room with new cheese1 makes butter highly flavored with those articles4 ,temperature is an important matter4 ,it should be regular1 at from fifty to fifty-five degrees of ,fahrenheit's thermometer4 ,it is sometimes difficult to be exact in this matter1 but come as near it as possible4 ,this can be well regulated in a good cool cellar1 into which air can be plentifully admitted at pleasure4 ,those who are so situated that their milk-house can stand over a spring1 with pure water running over its stone floor1 are favored4 ,those who will take pains to lay ice in their milk-rooms1 in very warm weather1 will find it pay largely in the quality and quantity of their butter4 ,those who will not follow either of the above directions1 must be content to make less butter1 and of rather inferior quality1 out of the same quantity of milk4 ,skimming should be attended to when the milk has soured just enough to have a little of it curdle on the bottom of the pan4 ,if it should nearly all curdle1 it would not be a serious injury1 unless it should become old4 ,if you have not conveniences for keeping milk sufficiently warm in cold weather1 place it over the stove at once1 when drawn1 and give it a scalding heat1 and the cream will rise in a much shorter space of time1 and more plentifully4 ,milk should be strained and set as soon as possible after being drawn from the cow1 and with the least possible agitation4 ,the unpleasant flavor imparted to milk from the food of the cows1 such as turnips or leeks1 may be at once removed by adding to the milk1 before straining1 one eighth of its quantity of boiling water2 or two ounces of nitre boiled in one quart of water and bottled1 and a small teacupful put in twelve quarts of milk1 will answer the same purpose4 ,milking should be performed with great care4 ,experiments have demonstrated that the last drawn from a cow yields from six to sixteen times as large a quantity of better cream than that first drawn4 ,careless milking will make the quantity of butter less1 and the quality inferior1 while it dries up the cows4 ,there are probably millions of cows now in the ,united ,states that are indifferent milkers from this very cause4 ,quick and clean milking1 from the time they first came in1 would have made them worth twice as much1 for butter and milk1 as they are now4 ,always milk as quickly as possible1 and without stopping1 after you commence1 and as nearly as possible at the same hour of the day4 ,leaving a teacupful1 or even half that quantity1 in milking each cow1 will very materially lessen the products of the dairy1 and seriously injure the cows for future use4 ,great milkers will yield considerable more by having it drawn three times per day4 ,the quantity of milk given by a cow will never injure her1 provided she be well fed4 ,as it takes food to make meat1 so it does also to make milk2 you can never get something for nothing4 ,the best breeds of swine1 cattle1 or fowls1 can not be fattened without being well fed3 so the best cows will never give large messes of milk unless they are largely fed4 ,churning4--,this is entirely a mechanical process4 ,the agitation of the cream dashes the oily globules in the cream against each other1 and they remain together and grow larger1 until the butter is1 what the dairy woman calls1 gathered4 ,the butter in the milk1 when drawn from the cow1 is the same as when on the table1 only it is in the milk in the form of very small globes3 churning brings them together4 ,the object then to be secured1 by any form of a churn1 is agitation1 or dashing and beating together4 ,temperature of the ,cream should be from sixty to sixty-five degrees--perhaps sixty-two is best4 ,this had better always be determined by a thermometer immersed in it4 ,many churns have been invented and patented2 and every new one is1 of course1 the best4 ,a cylinder is usually preferred as the best form for a churn1 and the churning is performed by turning a crank4 ,an oblong square box is far better than a cylinder4 ,in churning in a cylinder1 it may often occur that the cream moves round in a body with the dasher1 and so is but slightly agitated4 ,but change that cylinder into an oblong square1 and the cream is so dashed against the corners of the box that a most rapid agitation is the result1 and the churning is finished in a short space of time4 ,any person of a little mechanical genius can construct a churn1 equal to any in use1 and at a trifling expense4 ,it is well to make a churn double1 leaving an inch between the two1 into which cold or warm water can be poured1 to regulate the temperature of the cream4 ,this would be a great saving of time and patience in churning4 ,those who use the old-fashioned churns with dashes can most conveniently warm or cool their cream1 by placing the churn containing it in a tub of cold or boiling water1 as the case may require1 until it comes to the temperature of sixty or seventy degrees4 ,to make butter of extra quality for the fair1 or for a luxury on your own table1 set only one third of the milk1 and that the last drawn from the cow4 ,the ,scotch1 so celebrated for making butter of more marrowy richness than any other1 first let the calves draw half or two thirds of the milk1 and then take the remainder4 ,this makes the finest butter in the world4 ,preserving ,butter depends upon the treatment immediately after churning4 ,success depends upon getting the buttermilk all out1 and putting in all the salt you put in at all1 immediately--say within ten minutes after churning4 ,some accomplish this by washing1 and others by working it1 being much opposed to putting in a drop of water4 ,those who use water in their butter1 and those who do not1 are equally confident of the superiority of their own method4 ,but all good butter-makers agree1 that the less you work butter1 and still remove all the milk1 the better it will be2 and the more you are obliged to work it1 the more gluey1 and therefore the poorer the quality4 ,very good butter is made by immediately working all the milk out and salting thoroughly--working the salt into every part1 without the use of water4 ,working over butter1 the next day after churning1 should be nothing more than nicely forming it into rolls1 without any further working or any more salt4 ,an error1 that spoils more butter than any other1 is that of doing very little with butter when it first comes out of the churn1 because it must be gone through with the next day4 ,many do not know why their butter has different colors in the same mass--some white1 and some quite yellow1 and all shades between4 ,the reason always is1 putting in the salt immediately on churning1 but neglecting to incorporate that salt into every part of the mass equally3 thus1 where there is most salt there will be one color1 and where less1 another4 ,another evil is1 when the salt is thus put in carelessly1 while much buttermilk remains1 that salt dissolves2 and when the butter is worked over the next day1 the salt is mostly worked out1 with the milk or water left in1 the previous day4 ,the addition of more salt then will not save it4 ,it has received an injury1 by retaining the milk or water for twenty-four hours1 from which no future treatment will enable it to recover4 ,we recommend washing as preferable2 it has the following advantages3 it cools butter quickly in warm weather1 bringing it at once into a situation to be properly worked and salted4 ,the buttermilk is also removed more speedily than in any other way2 this is a great object4 ,it removes the milk with less working1 and consequently with less injury1 than the other method4 ,these three advantages1 cooling in hot weather1 expelling the milk in the shortest time1 and working the butter the least1 lead us to prefer using water1 by one hundred per cent4 ,we have for years used butter that has been made in this way1 and never tasted better4 ,butter made in this way in summer will keep well till next summer1 to our certain knowledge4 ,immediately after churning1 pour off all the milk and put in half a pailful of water1 more or less according to quantity2 agitate the whole with the dasher1 and pour off the water4 ,repeat this once or twice until the water runs off clear1 without any coloring from the milk1 and nearly all the buttermilk is out2 this can all be done in five minutes after churning4 ,press out the very little water that will remain1 and put in all the salt the butter will require1 and work it thoroughly into every part4 ,all this need occupy no more than ten minutes1 and the butter is set away for putting up in rolls1 or packing down in jars the next day4 ,such butter would keep tied up in a bag1 and hung in a good airy place4 ,best to put it down in a jar1 packed close2 put a cloth over top1 and cover with half an inch of fine salt4 ,the only difficulty in keeping butter grows out of failure to get out all the milk1 and thoroughly salt every particle1 within fifteen minutes after churning4 ,speedy removal of buttermilk and water1 and speedy salting1 will make any butter keep4 ,this subject is so important1 as good butter is such a luxury on every table1 that we recapitulate the essentials of good butter making3-- #a4 ,keep everything sweet and clean1 and well dried in the sun4 #b4 ,milk the cows1 as nearly as possible1 at the same hour1 and draw the milk very quickly and very clean4 #c4 ,set the milk1 in pans three inches deep1 in good air1 removed from anything that might give it an unpleasant flavor1 and where it will be at a temperature of fifty to sixty degrees4 #d4 ,churn the cream at a temperature of sixty-two degrees4 #e4 ,get out the buttermilk1 and salt thoroughly within fifteen minutes after churning1 either with water or without1 as you prefer4 ,mix the salt thoroughly in every particle4 ,put up in balls1 or pack closely in jars the next day4 #f4 ,remember to work the butter as little as possible in removing the milk2 the more it is worked1 the more will it be like salve or oil1 and the poorer the quality3 hence1 it is better to wash it with cold water1 because you can wash out the buttermilk with much less working of the butter4 #g4 ,to make the best possible quality of butter1 use only one third of the milk of the cows at each milking1 and that the last drawn4 #h4 ,in the winter1 when cream does not get sufficiently sour1 put in a little lemon-juice or calves' rennet4 ,if too white1 put in a little of the juice of carrot to give it a yellow hue4 ,,butternut4 ,this is a rich1 pleasant nut1 but contains rather too much oil for health4 ,the oil1 obtained by compression1 is fine for clocks1 c4 ,the root1 like the branches1 are wide-spreading1 and hence injurious to the land about them4 ,two or three trees on some corner not desired for cultivation1 or in the street1 will be sufficient4 ,a rough piece of ground1 not suitable for cultivation1 might be occupied by an orchard of butternut-trees1 and be profitable for market and as a family luxury4 ,the bark is often used as a coloring substance4 ,,cabbage4 ,the best catalogues of seeds enumerate over twenty varieties1 beside the cauliflowers1 borecoles1 c4 ,a few are superior1 and should1 therefore1 be cultivated to the exclusion of the others4 ,,early ,,york is best for early use4 ,it is earlier than any other1 and with proper treatment nearly every plant will form a small1 compact1 solid head1 tender1 and of delicious flavor4 ,no garden is complete without it4 ,,early ,,dutch1 ,,and ,,early ,,sugarloaf1 come next in season to the ,early ,york1 producing much larger heads4 ,,large ,,york is a good variety1 maturing later than the preceding1 and before the late drumheads4 ,large ,drumhead1 ,late ,drumhead1 or ,large ,flat ,dutch1 are the best for winter and spring use4 ,there are many varieties under these names1 so that cultivators often get disappointed in purchasing seeds4 ,it is now difficult to describe cabbages intelligibly4 ,every worthless hybrid goes under some excellent name4 ,a ,dutch cabbage1 with a short stem and very small at the ground1 is the best with which we are acquainted4 ,of this variety 7the seed of which was brought from ,germany71 we have raised solid heads1 larger than a half bushel1 while others called good1 standing by their side1 did not grow to more than half that size4 ,this variety may be distinguished by the purple on the top of the grown head1 and by the decided purple of the young plants1 resembling the ,red ,dutch1 though not of quite so deep a color4 ,,red ,,dutch1 having a very hard1 small head1 deep purple throughout1 is the very best for pickling2 every garden should have a few4 ,they are also good for ordinary purposes4 ,,green ,,curled ,,savoy1 when well grown1 is a good variety4 ,the ,imperial1 the ,russian1 ,large ,scotch for feeding1 and others1 are enumerated and described1 but are inferior to the above4 ,it is useless to endeavor to grow cabbages on any but the best of soil4 ,plant corn on poor land1 and it will mature and yield a small crop4 ,plant cabbages on similar soil1 and you will get nothing but a few leaves for cattle4 ,therefore1 if your land designed for cabbages be not already very rich1 put a load of stable-manure on each square rod4 ,cabbages are a very exhausting crop4 ,the soil should be worked fully eighteen inches deep1 and have manure well mixed with the whole4 ,the best preparation we ever made was by double-plowing--not subsoiling1 but plowing twice with similar plows3 put on a good coat of manure1 and plow with two teams in the same furrow1 one plow gauged so as to turn a light furrow1 and the other a very deep one1 throwing it out of the bottom of the first2 when the first plow comes round1 it will throw the light furrow into the bottom of the deep one4 ,this repeated over the whole plot will stir the soil sixteen or eighteen inches deep1 and put from four to six inches of the top1 manure and all1 in the bottom1 under the other4 ,we have done this admirably with one plow1 changing the gauge of the clevis every time round1 and going twice in a furrow3 this is the best way for those who use but one team in plowing2 it is worth much more than the additional time required in plowing4 ,enrich the surface a little with fine manure1 and you have land in the best possible condition for cabbages4 ,this is a fine preparation for onions and other garden vegetables1 and for all kinds of berries4 ,subsoiling is good1 but double-plowing is better in all cases1 where you can afford to enrich the surface1 after this deep plowing4 ,the alluvial soils of the ,west need no enriching after double-plowing4 ,land so level1 or having so hard a subsoil as to allow water to stand on it in a wet season1 is not good for cabbages4 ,they also suffer more than most crops from drought4 ,one of the most important offices of plenty of manure is its control of the moisture4 ,land well manured does not so soon feel the effects of drought4 ,one of the best means of preserving moisture about the roots of cabbages1 is to put a little manure in the bottom of the holes when transplanting2 put it six inches below the surface4 ,manure from a spent hotbed is excellent for this purpose2 it is in the best condition about the time for transplanting cabbages4 ,it is then very wet1 and has a wonderful power of retaining the moisture4 ,manure from the blacksmith-shop1 containing hoof-parings1 c41 is very good4 ,if the manure be too dry1 pour in water and cover immediately4 ,set the plant in the soil1 over the manure1 the roots extending down into it1 with a little fine mould mixed in it1 and it will retain moisture through a severe drought2 no further watering will be necessary1 and not one out of twenty-five of all your plants will fail to make a good head4 ,in climates subject to drought in summer1 cabbages should be set out earlier2 they require more time in dry weather than in wet4 ,should they incline to crack open from too rapid growth1 raise them a little1 and push them down again2 this will break some roots1 and so loosen the remainder that the growth will be checked and the heads saved4 ,winter cabbages should be allowed to stand in the ground as long as possible1 without danger of freezing in4 ,the question of transplanting1 and of sowing the seed in the places where they are designed to head1 has been much controverted4 ,we have succeeded well in both ways1 but prefer transplanting2 it gives opportunity to stir the ground deep1 and keep down weeds1 and thus preserve moisture until summer1 when it is time to transplant2 it also makes shorter1 smaller1 and straighter stems1 which is favorable to a larger growth of heads4 ,sow seed on poor land2 the plants will be straighter1 more hardy1 and less affected by insects4 ,seed for early spring cabbages should be sown on poor soil in ,september or ,october2 if inclined to get too forward1 transplant1 once or twice2 late in fall1 set them close together1 lay poles in forks of limbs put down for the purpose1 and cover with straw1 as a protection from severe frost2 the poles are to prevent the covering from lying on the plants4 ,preserving1 for winter or spring use1 is best done by plowing a furrow on land where water will not stand1 and placing the heads in the furrow with the roots up4 ,cover with earth from three to six inches deep1 letting the roots protrude4 ,the large leaves will convey all the water off from the heads1 and they will come out as fresh and good as in the fall4 ,if you wish some1 more easily accessible1 for winter use1 set them in the cellar in a small trench1 in which a little water should be kept1 and they will not only be preserved fresh1 but will grow all winter1 if the cellar be free from frost4 ,they are also well preserved put in trenches eighteen inches deep1 out door1 with a little good soil in the bottom1 and protected with poles and straw as directed for winter plants4 ,cabbages that have scarcely any heads in the fall1 so treated1 will grow all winter1 and come out good1 tender1 fresh heads in spring4 ,transplanting4--,this is usually done in wet weather3 if it be so wet as to render the soil muddy by stirring1 it injures the plants4 ,this may be successfully done in dry weather1 not excessively hot4 ,have a basin of water1 in which dip the root and shake it1 so as to wash off all the earth from the seed-bed that adheres to it4 ,put the plant in its place at once1 and the soil in which it is to grow takes hold of the roots readily1 and nearly every one will live4 ,transplant with your hand1 a transplanting trowel1 a stick1 or a dibble made of a spade-handle1 one foot long1 sharpened off abruptly1 and the eye left on for a handle4 ,put the plant in its place1 thrust the dibble down at a sharp angle with the plant1 and below it1 and move it up to it4 ,the soil will thus be pressed close around the roots1 leaving no open space1 and the plant will grow4 ,do not leave the roots so long that they will be doubled up in transplanting--better cut off the ends4 ,large cabbages should be three feet apart each way1 and in perfectly straight rows2 this saves expense in cultivating1 as it can be done with a horse4 ,the usual objections of farmers to gardening1 on account of the time required to hoe and weed1 would be remedied by planting in long1 straight rows1 at suitable distances apart1 to allow the free use of horse1 cultivator1 and plow1 in cultivating2 thus1 beets1 carrots1 cabbages1 onions1 c41 are almost as easily raised as corn4 ,an easy method of raising good cabbages is on greensward4 ,put on a good dressing of manure1 plow once and turn over handsomely1 roll level1 and harrow very mellow on the top1 without disturbing the turf below2 make places for planting seeds at the bottom of the turf2 a little stirring of the surface1 and destruction of the few weeds that will grow1 will be all the further care necessary4 ,the roots will extend under the sod in the manure below it1 and will there find plenty of moisture1 even when the surface is quite dry1 and will grow profusely4 ,seed4--,nothing is more difficult in cabbage culture than raising pure seed2 nothing hybridizes worse1 and in nothing else is the effect worse4 ,it must not be raised in the same garden with anything else of the cabbage or turnip kind2 they will mix in the blossoms1 and the worse will prevail4 ,raise seeds only from the best heads1 and only one variety2 break off all the lower shoots1 allowing only a few of the best to mature4 ,seeds raised from stumps1 from which the head has been removed for use1 will incline the leaves to grow down1 as we often see1 instead of closing up into heads4 ,,calves4 ,the best method of raising calves is of much importance4 ,it controls the value and beauty of grown cattle4 ,stint the growth of a calf1 and when he is old he will not recover from it4 ,much attention has been paid to the breed of cattle1 and some are very highly recommended4 ,it is true that the breed of stock has much to do with its excellence4 ,it is equally true that the care taken with calves and young cattle1 has quite as much to do with it4 ,we can take any common breed1 and by great care in raising1 have quite as good cattle1 for market or use1 as can another1 who has the best breed in the world1 but keeps them indifferently4 ,but good breeds and good keeping make splendid animals1 and will constantly improve them4 ,the old adage1 ,anything worth doing at all1 is worth doing well is nowhere more true1 than in the care of calves4 ,we shall not pause to present the various and contradictory methods of raising calves1 that are presented in the numerous books1 on the subject1 that have come under our observation4 ,hay-tea1 various preparations of linseed-meal1 oilcake-meal1 oatmeal1 and every variety of ground feed1 sometimes mixed up with gin1 or some kind of cheap spirits 7for the purpose of keeping calves quiet71 are recommended4 ,the discussion of the merits of these1 would be of no practical benefit to our readers4 ,the following brief directions are sufficient3-- #a4 ,seldom raise late calves4 ,their place is in the butcher's shop1 after they are five weeks old4 #b4 ,raise only those calves that are well formed4 ,straight back1 small neck1 not very tall1 and a good expression of countenance1 are the best marks4 #c4 ,let every calf suck its dam two days4 ,it is for the health of the calf and the good of the cow4 #d4 ,to fatten a calf1 let it suck one half the milk for two weeks1 three fourths the third1 and the whole the fourth4 ,continue it another week1 and the veal will be better4 ,but we think it preferable to take calves off from the cow after two days4 ,feed them the milk warm from the cow1 and give them some warm food at noon4 ,feed three times a day1 they will fatten faster4 ,it also gives opportunity to put oatmeal in their food after the second week1 which will improve the veal1 and give you a little milk1 if you desire it4 ,our first method is easier1 and our last better1 for fattening calves4 #e4 ,to raise calves for stock1 take them from the cows after the second day4 ,feed them half the milk 7if the cow gives a reasonable quantity7 for the first two weeks4 ,begin then to put in a little oatmeal4 ,after two weeks more1 give one fourth of the milk1 and increase the quantity of meal4 ,when the calf is eight or ten weeks old1 feed it only on meal and such skimmed milk1 sour milk1 or buttermilk1 as you may have to spare4 ,this is the course when the object is to save milk4 ,if not1 let the calf have the whole1 with such addition of meal as you think desirable4 ,the easiest way to raise calves1 when you do not desire the milk for the family or dairy1 is to let them run with the cows and have all the milk when they please4 ,others let them suck a part of the milk1 and feed them with meal1 c41 besides4 ,this is difficult4 ,if you milk your own share first1 you will leave much less for the calf than you suppose4 ,if he gets his portion first1 he will be sure to get a part of yours also4 ,this can only be well done by allowing the calf to suck all the udders1 but not clean4 ,the remainder1 being the last of the milk will make the best of butter4 ,but it is difficult to regulate it as you please1 and more difficult to feed a calf properly1 that sucks1 than one that depends wholly upon what you feed him4 ,hence it is preferable to feed all your calves1 whether for veal or stock4 ,a little oilcake pulverized is a valuable addition4 ,indian-meal and the coarse flour of wheat are good for calves1 but not equal to oatmeal4 ,good calves have been raised on gruels made of these meals1 without any milk after the first two weeks4 #f4 ,in winter1 feed chopped roots and meal1 mixed with plenty of hay and pure water1 and always from a month old give salt twice a week4 #g4 ,if calves are inclined to purge or scour1 as the farmers call it1 put a little rennet in their food4 ,if they are costive1 put in a little melted lard1 or some kind of inoffensive oil4 ,these will prove effectual remedies4 ,there is1 however1 very little danger of disease1 to calves1 well1 regularly1 and properly fed1 as above4 ,fat calves are not apt to have lice4 ,but should such a thing occur1 washing in tobacco-water is a speedy and perfect remedy4 #h4 ,during cold nights in fall1 and all of the first winter1 calves should be shut up in a warm dry place4 ,keep them curried clean4 ,the cold and wet of the first winter are very injurious4 ,after they are a year old they will give very little trouble4 ,the great difficulty with calves is a want of enough to eat4 ,they should not only be kept growing1 but fat1 all the first year4 ,they will then make fine1 healthy1 and profitable animals4 ,chalk or dry yellow loam1 placed within their reach is very useful4 ,they will eat of it1 enough to correct the excessive acidity of their stomachs4 ,the operation of changing calves into oxen1 should be performed before they are twenty days old4 ,it will then be only slightly injurious4 ,,cans4 ,these are much used for preserving fruits and vegetables4 ,there are a number of patent articles said to work well4 ,they are1 in our opinion1 more expensive1 and more likely to fail in inexperienced hands1 than those that an ordinary tinman can readily make4 ,the best invention for general use is that that is most simple4 ,cans should be made in cylindrical form1 with an orifice in the top large enough to admit whatever you wish to preserve1 and should contain about two quarts4 ,fill the cans and solder on the top1 leaving an opening as large as a pin-head1 from which steam may escape4 ,set the cans in water nearly to their tops1 and gradually increase the heat under them until the water begins to boil4 ,take out the cans1 drop solder on the opening1 and all will be air-tight4 ,this operation requires at least three hours1 as the heating must be moderate4 ,you may preserve in glass bottles1 filling and putting in a cork very tight1 and well tied1 and gradually heating as above2 this will require four hours1 as glass will be in danger of bursting by too rapid heating4 ,but for tomatoes1 or anything that you have no objection to boiling and seasoning before preserving1 the best way is to prepare and cook as for the table1 putting in only pepper and salt1 and fill cans while the mass is boiling1 and1 with a sealing-wax that you can get at any druggist's laid around the orifice1 place the cover upon it2 the heat will melt the wax1 and when it cools1 the cover will be fastened1 and all will be air-tight4 ,this will require no process of slow boiling4 ,set the cans or bottles in a cool cellar1 and whatever they contain may be taken out1 at the end of a year1 as good as when put in4 ,the last method is the best and most simple of all4 ,the whole principle of preserving is to make the cans air-tight4 ,,carrots4 ,these are cultivated for the table1 and for food for animals4 ,boiled and pickled1 or eaten with an ordinary boiled dish1 they are esteemed4 ,they are really excellent in soups4 ,as a root for animals1 they are very valuable4 ,they are often preferred to beets2--this is a mistake--four pounds of beet are equal to five pounds of carrot for feeding to domestic animals4 ,work the soil for carrots very deep1 make it very rich with stable manure1 with a mixture of lime2 harrow fine and mellow1 and roll entirely smooth4 ,plant with a seed-sower1 that the rows may be straight2 rows two feet apart will allow a horse and small cultivator to pass between them4 ,planted one foot apart1 and cultivated with a horse1 and a cultivator that will take three rows at once1 they will yield much more to the acre1 and may be cultivated at a moderate expense1 exceeding but a little that of ordinary field-crops4 ,sow as early as convenient1 as the longer time they have1 the larger will be the product4 ,they grow until hard frosts1 whenever you may sow them4 ,there are several varieties1 but the ,long ,orange is the only one that it is ever best to grow2 it is richer than the white1 and yields as well3 the earlier sorts are no better1 as the carrot may be used at any stage of its growth4 ,they should be kept in the ground as long as it is safe4 ,they will stand hard frosts1 but1 if too much frozen1 they are inclined to rot in winter4 ,dig in fair weather1 dry in the sun1 and keep dry4 ,it is the best of all root crops1 except the beet4 ,all animals will eat it freely1 while they have to acquire a taste for the beet4 ,,cauliflower4 ,the two varieties known in this country are the ,english and the ,french--distinguished1 also1 as early and late4 ,the ,french only is suitable for cultivation here2 especially in the colder regions1 as it is earlier4 ,this is cultivated in every way like cabbage4 ,in several respects it is preferable to cabbage2 it has a more pleasant flavor1 and is more easy of digestion4 ,it is excellent for pickling4 ,seeds may be raised in the same way1 and with the same precautions1 as cabbage2 but it is generally imported4 ,,celery4 ,this is one of the finest of our table vegetables1 eaten raw with salt1 or in soups4 ,sow seed1 early in spring1 in open ground2 or sow in hotbeds1 if you wish it very early4 ,when the plants are six inches high1 they should be transplanted in trenches eighteen inches deep1 containing six inches of well-rotted manure or compost4 ,this should be well watered1 and fine mould mixed with it1 and the plants placed in it eight inches apart4 ,the trenches should be from four to six feet apart4 ,if the weather be warm and sun bright at the time of transplanting1 a board laid lengthwise over the top of the trench will afford perfect protection4 ,as the plants grow1 draw the earth up to them1 not allowing it to separate the leaves2 do this two or three times during the season1 and the stalks will be beautifully bleached4 ,heavy loam is much better than sand4 ,preserving for winter is best done by taking up late in the fall1 cutting the small roots off1 and rounding down to a point the large root1 removing the coarse1 useless leaves1 and placing in a trench at an angle of forty-five degrees1 so that six inches of the upper end of the leaves will be above the surface4 ,cover with soil and place poles over1 and cover with straw1 and in a very cold climate cover with earth4 ,keep out the water4 ,the end can be opened to take it out whenever you please1 and it will be as fresh as in the fall4 ,this is better than the methods of keeping in the cellar2 it is more certain1 and keeps the celery in perfect condition4 ,,cheese4 ,the methods of cheese-making differ materially in different countries1 and in different parts of the same country4 ,it is also so much a matter of experience and observation1 that we recommend to beginners to visit cheese-dairies1 and get instructions from practical makers4 ,but we give the following more general outlines1 leaving our readers to learn all further details as recommended above4 ,rennet1 or the calf's stomach1 is used1 as nature's agent to turn the milk1 or to curdle it without having it sour4 ,there are many fanciful ways of preparing the rennet1 putting in sweet herbs1 c4 ,but the ordinary plain method is quite sufficient--which is1 to steep it in cold salt water4 ,the milk should be set at once on coming from the cow4 ,setting it too hot1 or cooling it with cold water1 inclines the cheese to heave4 ,too much rennet gives it a strong1 unpleasant smell and taste4 ,break the curd as fine as possible with the hand or dish1 or better with a regular cheese-knife with three blades4 ,this is especially important in making large cheeses2 small ones need less care in this respect4 ,if the curd be too soft1 scald it with very hot whey or water2 if it be hard1 use a little more than blood-warm whey3 it should stand a few minutes in this whey and then be separated1 and the curd put into the cheese-hoop1 making it heaped full1 and pressed hard with the hand4 ,spread a cloth over it1 and turn it out4 ,wash the hoop and put back the cheese1 with the cloth between the curd and the hoop1 and put it in the press4 ,after a few hours take it out1 wash the cloth and put it again around the cheese1 and return it to the press4 ,after seven or eight hours more take it out again1 pare off the edges if they need it1 and rub salt all over it--as much as it will take in3 this is the best way of salting cheese2 the moisture in it at this stage will cause it to absorb just about as much salt as will be agreeable4 ,return it to the press in the hoop without the cloth2 let it stand in the press over night2 in the morning turn it in the hoop1 and continue it in the press until the next morning4 ,place it upon the shelf in the cheese-room1 and turn it every day1 or at least every other day4 ,if the weather be hot1 the doors and windows of the cheese-room should be shut2 if cool1 they should be open to admit air4 ,color4--,the richest is supposed to be about that of beeswax4 ,this is produced by annotta1 or otter1 rubbed into the milk at the time of setting1 when warm from the cow--or1 if the milk has stood till cold1 after it has been warmed4 ,cold milk must1 before setting1 be warmed to about blood or milk heat4 ,this coloring process has no virtue but in its influence on the looks of the cheese4 ,sage cheese is colored by the juice of pounded sage-leaves put into the fine curd before it is put in the hoop2 this is the reason of its appearing in streaks1 as it would not do if put into the milk1 like the annotta4 ,when the cheese is ten days old1 it should be soaked in cold whey until the rind becomes soft1 and then scraped smooth with a case-knife2 then rinse1 and wipe and dry it1 and return it to the cheese-room1 and turn it often until dry enough for market4 ,rich cheeses are apt to spread in warm weather2 this is prevented by sewing them in common cheap cotton1 exactly fitting4 ,skippers4--,some persons are very fond of skippery cheese4 ,but few1 however1 like meat and milk together1 especially if the meat be alive3 hence1 to remove skippers from cheese into which they have intruded is quite desirable4 ,the following method is effectual3--wrap up the cheese in thin paper1 through which moisture will readily strike2 dig a hole two feet deep in pure earth1 and bury the cheese2--in thirty-six hours every skipper will be on the outside2 brush them off and keep the cheese from the flies1 and you will have no further trouble4 ,a mixture of ,spanish brown and butter1 rubbed on the outside of a cheese1 frequently gives that yellow coating so often witnessed1 and exerts some influence in preserving it4 ,the rank and putrid taste sometimes observed in cheese may be prevented by putting a spoonful of salt in the bottom of each pan1 before straining the milk2 it will also preserve the milk in hot weather1 and give more curd4 ,an ,english cheese called ,stilton cheese1 from the name of the place most celebrated for making it1 is a superior article1 made in the following way3 put the cream of the night's milk with the morning's milk2 remove the curd with the least possible disturbance1 and without breaking2 drain and gradually dry it in a sieve2 compress it gradually until it becomes firm2 put it in a wooden hop on a board1 to dry gradually2 it should be often turned between binders1 top and bottom1 to be tightened as the cheese grows smaller4 ,this makes the finest cheese known4 ,as the size makes no difference1 it can be made by a person having but one cow4 ,to preserve cheese1 keep it from flies1 and in a place not so damp as to cause mould4 ,of cheese-pressers there is a great variety3 each maker will select the one which he considers best or most convenient1 within his reach4 ,in some places1 as on the ,western ,reserve1 in ,ohio1 one establishment makes all the cheese for the neighborhood1 buying the curd from all the families around4 ,in such places they have their own methods1 which they have understood by all their customers4 ,,cherry4 ,cherries are among our first luxuries in the line of fruits4 ,we have cultivated varieties1 ripening in succession throughout the cherry season4 ,there is no necessity for cultivating the common red and very acid cherry1 except in climates too vigorous for the more tender cultivated varieties4 ,the cherry is an ornamental tree1 making a beautiful shade1 besides the luxury of its fruit4 ,it is one of the most suitable trees we have for the roadside2--it ought to be extensively planted by the highways throughout all our rural districts1 as it is in some parts of ,europe4 ,in northern ,germany the highways are avenues1 shaded with cherry-trees for distances of fifty or sixty miles together3 these trees have been planted by direction of the princes1 and afford shade and refreshment to the weary pedestrian1 who is always at liberty to eat as much of the fruit as he pleases2 this is eminently worthy of imitation in our own country4 ,extremes of cold and heat are not favorable to the cherry3 hence1 cool places must be selected in hot countries1 and warm locations in cold regions4 ,very much1 however1 can be done by acclimation2 it will1 probably1 yet naturalize the cherry throughout the continent4 ,a deep and moderately rich loam is the best soil for the cherry2 very rich soil causes too rapid growth1 which makes the tree tender4 ,it will bear more moisture than the grape or peach1 and requires less than the apple or pear4 ,it will endure very dry situations tolerably well1 while in very wet ones it will soon perish4 ,propagation is generally by budding small trees near the ground4 ,the best stocks are those raised from the seeds of the common black ,mazzard4 ,it makes a more thrifty tree than any other4 ,the tree grows very large1 and bears an abundance of medium black fruit1 smallest at the blossom end1 and having seeds very large in proportion to the size of the fruit4 ,in ,white's ,gardening for the ,south1 it is stated that the common ,morello of that region does better1 by far1 for seedling stocks for budding1 than the ,mazzard4 ,use1 then1 the ,mazzard for the ,north1 and the ,mahaleb or common ,morello for the ,south4 ,pick them when ripe2 let them stand two or three days1 till the pulp decays enough to separate easily from the seed by washing4 ,immediately plant the seeds in rows where you wish them to grow2 this is better than keeping them over winter in sand1 as a little neglect in spring will spoil them1 they are so tender1 when they begin to germinate4 ,keep them clean of weeds4 ,the next spring1 set them in rows ten inches or a foot apart1 placing the different sizes by themselves1 that large ones need not overshadow small ones and prevent their growth4 ,in the following ,august1 or on the last of ,july1 bud them near the ground4 ,the stocks are to be headed back the following spring1 and the bud will make five or six feet of growth the same season4 ,the cherry-tree seldom needs pruning1 further than to pinch off any little shoots that may come out in a wrong place 7and they will be very few71 and cut away dead branches4 ,any removal of large limbs will produce gum1 which is apt to end in decay1 and finally in the death of the tree4 ,whatever pruning you must do1 do it in the hottest summer weather1 and the wounds will dry and prevent the exudation of gum4 ,trees are generally trained horizontally4 ,some1 however1 are trained as espaliers against walls1 and in fan shape4 ,when once the form is perfected 7as given under ,training71 nothing is necessary but to cut off--twice in each season1 about six weeks apart1 in the most growing time--all other shoots that come out within four inches of their base4 ,new shoots will be constantly springing1 and the tree will keep its shape and bear excellent fruit4 ,trees so trained are usually in warm locations1 and where they can be easily protected in winter2 hence1 this is adapted to the finer and more tender varieties4 ,the varieties of cherries are numerous1 and rapidly increasing4 ,they are less distinguishable than most other fruits4 ,we shall only present a few of the best1 and give only their general qualities1 without any effort to enable our readers to identify varieties4 7,see our remarks on the nomenclature of apples47 ,downing1 in #ahdf1 recommended the following1 as choice and hardy1 adapted to the middle states3-- #a4 ,black ,tartarean4 #b4 ,black ,eagle4 #c4 ,early ,white ,heart4 #d4 ,downton4 #e4 ,downer's ,late4 #f4 ,manning's ,mottled4 #g4 ,flesh-color'd ,bigarreau #h4 ,elton4 #i4 ,belle de ,choisy4 #aj4 ,may ,duke4 #aa4 ,kentish4 #ab4 ,knight's ,early ,black4 ,the ,national ,convention of ,fruit-growers recommend the following as the best for the whole country3-- #a4 ,may ,duke4 #b4 ,black ,tartarean4 #c4 ,black ,eagle4 #d4 ,bigarreau4 #e4 ,knight's ,early ,black4 #f4 ,downer4 #g4 ,elton4 #h4 ,downton4 ,we recommend the following as all that need be cultivated for profit4 ,they are adapted alike to the field and the garden4 ,we omit the synonyms1 and give only the predominant color4 ,the figures in the cuts refer to our numbers in the list3-- ,name4 ,color4 ,time4 #a4 ,rockport ,bigarreau1 red4 ,june #ast4 #b4 ,knight's ,early ,black1 black4 ,june #eth4 #c4 ,black ,tartarean1 purplish4 ,june #aeth4 #d4 ,kirtland's ,mary1 marbled1 light-red4 ,june1 ,july4 #e4 ,delicate1 amber-yellow4 ,june #beth4 #f4 ,late ,bigarreau1 deep-yellow4 ,june #cjth4 #g4 ,late ,duke1 dark-red4 ,aug4 #ajth4 #h4 ,cleveland ,bigarreau1 red4 ,june #ajth4 #i4 ,american ,heart1 pale4 ,june #ast4 #aj4 ,napoleon1 purplish-black4 ,july #eth4 ,the time is that of their greatest perfection1 but varies with latitude and location4 ,we know none better than the foregoing4 ,in the long lists of the fruit-books1 there are others of great excellence1 some of which are hardly distinguishable from our list4 ,we recommend to all cultivators to procure the best in their localities1 under the advice of the best pomologists in their vicinity4 ,such men as ,barry will be consulted for the latitude of ,western ,new ,york2 ,elliott and ,kirtland for ,cleveland1 ,ohio2 ,cole and others for ,new ,england and ,canada2 ,hooker and other great fruit-growers of ,southern ,ohio1 c41 c4 ,these gentlemen1 like all scientific men1 are happy to communicate their knowledge for the benefit of others4 ,illustration3 ,cherries--,natural ,size and ,shape4 7,see page #aba47 ,we see no reason for cultivating more than ten or twelve varieties2 and1 as the above are productive and excellent1 including all desirable colors and qualities1 and ripening through the whole cherry season1 we know not what more would be profitable to the cultivator4 ,if you wish more for the sake of variety1 your nurseryman will name them1 and show the quality of each1 that renders it the best that ever was1 until you will become tired of hearing1 and more weary of paying for them4 ,decayed wood1 spent tanbark1 and forest-leaves1 are good for the cherry4 ,in removing and transplanting1 be careful not to injure the roots1 or expose them to sun and air1 as they are so tender1 that a degree of exposure that would be little felt by the apple or peach tree will destroy the cherry4 ,if you are going to keep a cherry-tree out of the ground half an hour1 throw a damp mat1 or damp straw1 over the roots1 and you will save disappointment4 ,the rich alluvial soils of the ,west are regarded unfavorable to the cherry4 ,we know from observation and experience that the common red cherry does exceedingly well there1 while the best cultivated are apt to suffer much from the winters4 ,one reason is1 the common cherry is a slow-going1 hardy tree1 while the cultivated is more thrifty1 and therefore more tender4 ,we give the following as a sure method of raising the cultivated cherries in great perfection on all the rich prairies of the ,west4 ,it is all included in dry locations1 root-pruning1 and slight heading-in3-- #a4 ,dry locations4 ,it is known that the rich alluvial soils of the ,west are remarkable for retaining water in winter4 ,on level1 and even high prairie land1 water will stand in winter1 and thoroughly saturate the soil and freeze up4 ,this is very destructive to the tender1 porous root of the cherry-tree4 ,how shall such locations be made dry1 and these evils prevented8 ,by carting on gravel and sand4 ,put two or three loads of sand or gravel1 or both1 in the shape of a slight mound1 for each cherry-tree4 ,there should first be a slight excavation1 that the sand and gravel may be about half below the level of the surrounding soil1 and half above it3 this will so elevate the tree that no water can stand around it1 and none can stand in the gravel and sand below it4 ,the freezing of such soil will not be injurious to the roots of the tree4 #b4 ,root-pruning is to prevent too rapid growth4 ,such growth is always more tender and susceptible of injury from sudden and severe freezing4 7,see ,root-pruning47 #c4 ,heading-in puts back the growth and throws the sap into the lateral twigs1 thus maturing the wood already grown1 instead of producing new wood1 so young and tender that it will die in winter and spread decay through the whole tree4 ,heading-in1 with the cherry1 must only be done with small twigs4 ,cultivators will see at a glance that this method will certainly succeed in all the ,west and ,southwest4 ,it is considered difficult to raise cherries at the ,south2 the hot sun destroys the trees4 ,plant in the coolest situations1 where there is a little shade from other trees1 though not too near1 or from buildings2 cut them back1 so as to cause shoots near the ground1 and then head-in as the peach1 so as to keep the whole covered with leaves1 to shade the trunk and large limbs1 and perfect success will crown your efforts4 ,but in all cutting-back and heading-in of cherry-trees1 remove the limbs when very small4 ,,charcoal4 ,there are but few who realize the value of charcoal applied to the soil4 ,whoever will observe fields where coal has been burned1 will see that grass or grain about the bed of the former pits1 will be earlier and much more luxuriant than in any other portion of the field4 ,this difference is discernible for twenty years4 ,it is the best known agent for absorbing any noxious matter in the soil or in the moisture about the roots of the trees4 ,no peach-tree should be planted without a few quarts of pulverized charcoal in the soil4 ,this would also prove highly beneficial to cherry-trees on land where they might be exposed to too much moisture4 ,its color also renders it an excellent application to the surface of hills of vines4 ,it is quite effectual against the ravages of insects1 and so absorbs the rays of the sun as to promote a rapid growth of the plants4 ,,chestnuts ,are among our best nuts1 if not allowed to get too dry4 ,when dried hard they are rather indigestible4 ,the tree grows well in most parts of the ,united ,states1 provided the soil be light sand or dry gravel4 ,if the soil be not suitable1 every man may have a half-dozen chestnut-trees1 at a trifling expense4 ,haul ten or fifteen loads of sand upon a square rod1 and plant a tree in it1 and it will flourish well4 ,five or six trees would afford the children in a family a great luxury1 annually4 ,the blossoms appear so very late1 that they are seldom cut off by the frost4 ,the second growth chestnut-tree is also decidedly ornamental4 ,,cider4 ,the usual careless way of making cider1 in which is used all kinds of apples1 even frozen and decayed ones1 and without any reference to their ripeness2 without straining1 and neglecting all means of regulating the fermentation1 is too well known4 ,this is the more general practice throughout the country2 but it makes cider only fit for vinegar1 although it is used for general purposes4 ,we give the most approved method of making and keeping cider1 that is better for invalids than any of our adulterated wines 7and this is the character of nearly all our imported wines74 ,our domestic wines1 and bottled cider1 should take the place of all others4 ,select apples best suited for cider1 and gather them at the commencement of hard frosts4 ,let them lie a few days1 until they become ripe and soft4 ,then throw out all decayed and immature fruit4 ,grind fine and uniform4 ,let the pulp remain in the vat two days4 ,it will increase the saccharine principle and improve the color4 ,put into the press in dry straw1 and strain the juice into clean casks4 ,place the casks in an open shed or cellar1 if it be cold weather1 give plenty of air and leave the bung out4 ,as the froth works out of the bung1 fill up every day or two1 with some of the same pressing kept for the purpose4 ,in three weeks or less this rising will cease1 and the bung should be put in loose1 and after three days driven in tight4 ,leave a small vent-hole near the bung4 ,in a cool cellar the fermentation will cease in two days4 ,this is known by the clearness of the liquor1 the thick scum that rises1 and the cessation of the escape of air4 ,draw off the clear cider into a clean cask4 ,if it remains quiet it may stand till spring4 ,a gill of fine charcoal added to a barrel will secure this end1 and prevent fermentation from going too far4 ,but if a scum collects on the surface1 and the fermentation continues1 rack it off again at once4 ,then drive the vent-spile tight4 ,rack it off again in early spring4 ,if not perfectly clear1 dissolve three quarters of an ounce of isinglass in cider1 and put it in the barrel1 and it will soon be perfectly fine4 ,bottle between this and the last of ,may4 ,fill the bottles within an inch of the bottom of the cork1 and allow them to stand an hour1 then drive the cork4 ,lay them in dry sand1 in boxes in a cool cellar1 and the cider will improve by age1 and is better for the sick than imported wines4 ,,citrons ,are only used for preserving4 ,their appearance and growth resemble in all respects the watermelon4 ,planted near the latter1 they utterly ruin them1 making them more citron than melon4 ,they are injurious to most other contiguous vines4 ,they are to be planted and cultivated like the watermelon4 ,are very fine preserved2 but we think the outside 7removing the rind7 of a watermelon better1 and should not regret to know1 that not another citron was ever to be raised4 ,,clover4 ,the only varieties successfully cultivated in this country1 are the red and the white4 ,red clovers are divided into large1 medium1 and small4 ,the white is all alike4 ,the long-rooted clover of ,hungary is an excellent productive variety1 enduring successfully almost any degree of drought4 ,but in all the colder parts of this country it winter-kills so badly as to render it unprofitable4 ,clover makes good pastures1 being nutritious1 and early and rapid growing4 ,red-clover makes fair hay1 though inferior to timothy or red-top4 ,white clover is unsuitable for hay2 it shrinks so much in drying1 that it is very unproductive4 ,it is the best of all grasses for sheep pasture1 and its blossoms afford in abundance the best of honey4 ,red clover plowed in1 even when full-grown1 is an excellent fertilizer4 ,it begins to be regarded1 in western ,new ,york1 as productive of the weevil1 so destructive to wheat4 ,further observation is necessary to settle this question4 ,red-clover hay is too dusty for horses1 and too wasteful for cattle4 ,the stalks are so large a proportion1 and so slightly nutritious1 that it is unprofitable even as cut-feed4 ,it is best to cultivate clover mainly for pastures and as a fertilizer4 ,sowing clover and timothy together for hay is much practised4 ,the first year it will be nearly all clover1 and the second year mostly timothy4 ,but sown together1 they are not good for hay1 because they do not mature within ten or fifteen days of the same time4 ,but1 for those who are determined to make hay out of red clover1 the following directions for curing may be valuable3 mow when dry1 spread at once1 and let it wilt thoroughly2 then put up into small cocks1 not rolled1 but one fork full laid upon another until high enough2--it will then shed water2 but when rolled up1 water will run down through4 ,let it stand till thoroughly dried1 and then draw into the barn2 it will be bright and sweet4 ,another method is to cut when free from dew or rain1 spread even1 and allow it to wilt1 and the leaves and smaller parts to dry2 then draw into the barn1 putting alternate loads of clover and dry straw into the mow1 salting the clover very lightly4 ,the clover is sometimes put in when quite green1 and salted sufficiently to preserve it4 ,it is injurious to cattle1 by compelling them to eat more salt than they need4 ,cattle will eat but little salt in winter1 when it stands within their reach2 too much salt in hay compels them to eat more1 which engenders disease4 ,clover cured as above makes the best possible clover-hay1 if great care be used to prevent excessive salting4 ,saving clover-seed is a matter of considerable importance4 ,the large red clover is too late a variety to produce seed on a second crop the same season1 as do the medium and small4 ,the first growth must be allowed to ripen4 ,cut when the heads are generally dead1 but before it has begun to shell4 ,the medium and small red clovers will produce a good crop of seed from second growth1 if it be not too dry1 immediately after mowing4 ,cut when the heads generally are dry1 rake into small winrows at once1 and soon put it in small bunches and let it stand until very dry1 and then draw in4 ,raking and stirring after it becomes dry will waste one half of it4 ,,coffee ,,bean4 ,this grows in a pod somewhat resembling the pea2 easily raised1 as other beans2 and is very productive4 ,browned and ground1 it is used as a substitute for coffee4 ,by many persons it is much esteemed4 ,if this and the orange carrot were adopted extensively1 instead of coffee1 it would afford a great relief to the health1 as well as the pockets1 of the ,american people4 ,,corn4 ,this is the most valuable of all ,american products of the soil1 not excepting wheat or cotton4 ,it is used for human food all over the world4 ,and there is no domestic animal or fowl1 whose habits require grain1 whether whole or ground1 that is not fond of it4 ,it is easily raised1 and is a sure and abundant crop1 in all latitudes south of forty-six degrees north4 ,the varieties are few1 and principally local4 ,the soil can not be made too rich for corn4 ,it should be planted in rows each way1 to allow cultivating both ways with a horse4 ,the distance of rows apart has been a subject of some differences of opinion2 there is a disposition to crowd it too near together4 ,in western ,new ,york1 where much attention has been given to it1 the usual distance is three and one half feet each way2 others plant four feet apart4 ,on all land we have ever seen1 we believe four feet apart each way1 with four or five stalks in a hill1 will produce the largest yield4 ,it lets in the sun sufficiently around every hill1 and the proportion of ears to the stalks will be larger than in any other distance4 ,planting with a span of horses1 and a planter on which a man can ride and plant two rows at once1 is the easiest and most expeditious4 ,we can not too strongly recommend harrowing corn as soon as it comes out of the ground4 ,it increases the crop1 and saves much expense in cultivating4 ,all planters should know that ,indian corn is one of those plants which will come to maturity at a certain age1 whether it be large or small2 hence1 anything that will increase the growth while young will add to the product4 ,corn neglected when small receives1 thereby1 an injury from which it will never recover2 after-hoeing may help it1 but never can fully restore it4 ,if there are small weeds1 the harrowing will destroy them1 and give all the strength of the soil to the young corn2 if there are no weeds1 the effect of the harrowing will be to give the young plants twice as large a growth in the first two weeks as they would make without it4 ,harrow with a ,v drag1 with the front tooth out1 that the remaining teeth may go each side of the row4 ,use two horses1 allowing the row to stand between them2 let the harrow-teeth run as near the corn as possible4 ,never plant corn until the soil has become warm enough to make it come up quickly and grow rapidly4 ,if you feed corn to cattle whole1 feed it with the husks on1 as it will compel them to chew it better1 and will thus be a great saving4 ,crib corn only when very dry1 and avoid the ,western and ,southern method of leaving cribs uncovered2 the corn thus becomes less valuable for any use4 ,a little plaster or wood-ashes applied to corn on first coming up1 and again when six inches high1 will abundantly repay cost and labor2--it will pay even on the prairie-lands of the ,west1 and is quite essential on the poorer soils of the ,east and ,north4 ,it had better never be neglected4 ,the crop will weigh more to the acre1 by allowing it to stand as it grew1 until thoroughly dry4 ,the next larger crop is when the stalks are cut off above the ear 7called topping7 after it has become glazed4 ,still a little less will be the product when it is cut up at the ground1 while the leaves are yet quite green4 ,the two latter methods are adapted for the purpose of saving fodder in good condition for cattle4 ,intelligent farmers regard the fodder of much more value than the decrease in the weight of the grain4 ,corn thus cut up1 and fed without husking1 is the best possible way for winter-fattening cattle on a large scale1 and where corn is abundant4 ,to save the whole1 swine should follow the cattle1 changing yards once a week4 ,seed-corn should be gathered from the first ripe large ears before frost1 and while the general crop is yet green4 ,select ears above the average size1 that are well filled out to the end1 and your corn will improve from year to year4 ,take your seed indiscriminately from the crib at planting-time1 and your corn will deteriorate4 ,the largest and best ears ripen neither first nor last2 hence1 select the largest ears before all is ripe1 and reject the small earliest ears4 ,soaking seed twenty-four hours1 and then rolling in plaster before planting1 is recommended2 it is conveniently practised only where you plant by hand4 ,soaking without rolling in plaster is good1 if you plant in a wet time2 but if in a dry time1 it is absolutely injurious4 ,once in a while there occurs quite a general failure of seed-corn to come up4 ,farmers say that their corn looks as fair as ever1 but does not vegetate well4 ,when this is general1 there is a remedy that every farmer can successfully apply4 ,the difficulty is not 7as we have often heard asserted7 from the intense cold of the winter3 it is sometimes the result of cold1 wet weather after planting4 ,but we do not believe that such would be the effect1 with good seed1 on properly-prepared land4 ,the difficulty is1 the fall was very wet1 and the seed was allowed to stand out and get thoroughly soaked2 when it was gathered it was damp1 and the intense cold of winter destroyed its vitality1 without injuring its appearance4 ,there is no degree of cold1 in a latitude where corn will grow1 that will injure the seed1 if it be gathered dry and kept so4 ,our rules for saving seed1 given above1 will always remedy this evil4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the most profitable of all green crops for soiling cattle4 ,sown on clean1 mellow land1 it will produce an enormous weight of good green fodder1 suitable for summer and early fall feeding of cows1 just at a time when dry weather has nearly destroyed their pastures4 ,corn-fodder1 well cured1 is better for milch-cows than the best of hay4 ,cut fine and mixed with ground feed1 it is excellent for cattle and horses4 ,it is best preserved in small stacks or large shocks1 that will perfectly dry through4 ,the tops and leaves1 removed while green1 are very fine4 ,,cotton4 ,no product of the soil is more useful than this4 ,to this country alone we give the highest value to ,indian corn4 ,but1 in usefulness to the whole world1 corn must yield the palm to cotton4 ,it employs more hands and capital in manufacturing1 and enters more largely into the clothing of mankind1 than any other article4 ,the history of cotton and the cotton-gin1 and of the manufacture of cotton goods1 is exceedingly interesting4 ,the eminence of ,great ,britain as the first commercial nation of the world is due1 in no small degree1 to her cotton manufactures4 ,and the influence of this great staple ,american product upon all the interests of this country1 social and political1 civil and religious1 is universally felt and acknowledged4 ,the cotton-fields of the ,south1 at certain stages of growth1 and especially when in bloom1 present scenes of beauty unsurpassed by any other growing crop4 ,it does not come within our design in this work to give a very extended view of cotton culture4 ,this business in the ,united ,states is confined principally to a particular class of men1 known as planters4 ,they cultivate it on a large scale1 having the control of large means4 ,such men seek knowledge of those of their own class1 and would hardly condescend to listen to an essay on their peculiar business1 written by a ,northern man1 not experienced in planting4 ,and yet an article1 not covering more than ten pages of this volume1 might be written1 condensing in a clear manner all that is established in this branch of ,american industry1 as found in the publications of the ,south4 ,such an article1 well written1 by a man who would be regarded good authority1 would be of vast pecuniary value to the ,south4 ,whoever carefully reads ,southern agricultural papers1 and ,,turner',s ,,cotton-,,planter',s ,,manual1 will see a great conflict of opinions on the subject1 and yet a presentation of many facts1 that one thoroughly conversant with soil culture in general would see to be true and important4 ,the embodiment of these facts and principles in a brief1 plain article that would be received and practised1 would add value to the annual cotton crop1 that would be counted by millions4 ,what better service can some ,southern gentleman do for his own chosen and favorite region than to write such an article8 ,we give the following brief view of the whole subject1 not presuming to teach cotton-planters what they are supposed to understand much better than we do1 but to throw out some thoughts that may be suggestive of improvements that others may mature and carry out1 and to lead young men1 just commencing the business of planting1 to look about and see if they may not make some improvements upon what they behold around them4 ,this will not fail of being interesting to ,northern men1 most of whom know nothing of the cotton-plant1 or the modes of its cultivation4 ,it is interesting1 too1 that some of the most essential points are in perfect accordance with the great principles of soil culture throughout the world4 ,there are three species of cotton3 tree-cotton1 shrub-cotton1 and herbaceous cotton4 ,the tree-cotton is cultivated to considerable extent in northern ,africa1 and produces a fair staple of cotton for commerce2 being produced on trees from ten to twenty-five feet high1 it is not so easily gathered4 ,the shrub-cotton is cultivated in various parts of the world1 particularly in ,asia and ,south ,america4 ,growing in the form of small bushes1 it is convenient1 and the staple is fair4 ,but these are both inferior to the herbaceous cotton4 ,this is an herb growing annually1 like corn1 a number of feet in height1 more or less according to soil and season1 and producing the best known cotton4 ,under these species there are many varieties3 we need speak only of the varieties of herbaceous cotton4 ,writers vary in their estimates of varieties2 some say there are eight1 and others put them as high as one hundred4 ,this is a question of no practical moment4 ,the sea-island cotton1 called also long staple on account of its very long silky fibres1 is the finest cotton known4 ,its name arose from the fact of its production in greatest perfection on the low1 sandy islands near the coasts of some of the ,southern states4 ,it does well on low land near the seashore4 ,the saltness and humidity of such locations seem peculiarly favorable to its greatest perfection4 ,it yields about half as much as the short staple called ,mexican and ,petit gulf cotton1 and known in commerce as upland cotton4 ,but the sea-island1 or long staple1 sells for three or four times as much per pound1 and1 hence1 is most profitable to the planter1 in all regions where it will flourish well4 ,the ,mexican is very productive on most soils1 and is easily gathered and prepared for market4 ,there are quite a number of other varieties2 as1 banana1 ,vick's hundred-seed1 ,pitt's prolific1 multibolus1 mammoth1 sugar-loaf1 c41 c4 ,the sugar-loaf is highly commended1 as are some of the others named4 ,they have had quite a run among seed-sellers4 ,most of these varieties are the improved ,mexican4 ,it is well to get seed frequently from a distance2 but any extravagant prices are unwise4 ,improvement of cotton-seed is an important part of its most profitable culture4 ,while much said about it by interested parties is doubtless mere humbug1 yet there is great importance to be attached to improvement of seed4 ,this is true of all agricultural products1 and no less so of cotton than of others4 ,two things only are essential to constant improvement in cotton-seed--selection and care4 ,select from the best quality1 producing the largest yield1 and maturing early2 pick it before much rain has fallen on it after ripening2 dry it thoroughly before ginning1 and dry it very thoroughly after it is clear of the fibre1 before putting it in bulk4 ,cotton-seed1 without extra care in drying1 has moisture enough to make it heat in bulk1 by which its germinating power is greatly impaired4 ,it is this1 and the effects of fall rains1 that causes seed to trouble planters so seriously by not coming up3 this makes it difficult to obtain good even stands1 and causes much loss by diminished crops4 ,care in these respects would add many pounds to the acre in most cotton-fields of the land4 ,preparing the ,soil for ,planting4--,on all land not having a porous subsoil1 plow very deep2 it gives opportunity for the long tap-root of the plant to penetrate deep1 and guard against excessive drought4 ,the usual custom is to lay the ground into beds1 elevated a little in the middle1 and a depression between them1 in which excessive moisture may run off2 also to increase the action of the sun and air4 ,the surface of the soil to be planted should be made very fine and smooth4 ,this is true of everything planted--it should be in finely-pulverized soil2 it comes up more readily and evenly4 ,soil left in coarse lumps or particles gives the air too much action on the germinating seeds and young plants1 and retards and stints their growth4 ,deep plowing guards alike against too much or too little moisture4 ,too much water has room to sink away from the surface and allow it to dry speedily4 ,it also forms a sort of reservoir to hold water for use in a drought4 ,the seed should be planted in as straight a line as possible1 from three and a half to five and a half feet apart one way1 and from fourteen to twenty-five inches the other1 according to the quality of the land1 and the growth of the variety planted4 ,rich lands will not bear the plants so close as the poor4 ,many are great losers by not securing plants enough on the ground4 ,straight lines greatly facilitate culture1 as it can mostly be done with the plow or cultivator4 ,turning land over deep1 just before planting1 is the best known remedy for the cut-worm2 it is said to put them back until the plants grow beyond their reach4 ,the best planters generally cover with a piece of plank drawn over the furrow in which the seed is dropped4 ,it would be far better to roll it1 as some few planters do2 the effect on the early vegetation of the seed and rapid growth of the young plant would be very great1 on the general principles given on ,rolling4 ,the object of cultivation is to keep down the grass1 which is the great enemy of the cotton4 ,plowing the last thing before planting aids this1 by giving the cotton quite as early a start as the weeds or grass4 ,cultivate early1 and the grass will be easily covered and killed4 ,always plant when it will come up speedily and grow rapidly2 this is better than very early planting1 and certainly much better than very late4 ,thin out to one in a place1 as early as the plants are out of danger of dying4 ,gathering should commence as soon as bolls enough are in right condition to allow a hand to gather forty pounds per day4 ,it is better and cheaper than to risk the injury from rains after the crop is ripe4 ,,manures4--,perhaps this is1 at the present time1 the greatest question for cotton-planters4 ,the application of all the most approved principles and agents of fertilization would do more for the interests of the cotton crop than anything else4 ,cotton-plantations are sometimes said to run down so as to render it necessary to abandon portions of the land1 and select new4 ,instead of this1 land may not only be kept up with proper manuring1 but made to yield larger crops from year to year4 ,the following analysis of the ash of the cotton-plant will indicate the wants of the soil in which it grows3-- #a4 ,potash #bi4eh #b4 ,lime #bd4cd #c4 ,magnesia #c4gc #d4 ,chloride #j4fe #e4 ,phosphoric acid #cd4ib #f4 ,sulphuric acid #c4ed #g4 ,silica #c4bd ---- #ajj4jj ,this analysis shows that the soil for cotton needs much lime1 bones or bone-dust1 and wood-ashes1 besides the ordinary barn-yard and compost manures4 ,all the preparations and applications of manures specified in this work1 under the head of ,manures1 are applicable to cotton4 ,the usual recommendations of rotation in crops is1 perhaps1 more important in cotton culture than anywhere else4 ,judicious fallowing1 on principles adapted to a ,southern climate1 is another great means of keeping up and improving the land4 ,this is also the only effectual means of guarding against the numerous enemies and diseases of the cotton-plant4 ,the health of the plants is secured1 and they are made to outstrip their enemies only by the fertility and fine tilth of the soil in which they grow4 ,this is confirmed on every hand by the correspondence of the most intelligent planters of the ,south4 ,let cotton-growers go into a thorough system of fertilization of their soils1 and attend personally to the improvement of their cotton-seed1 by selection1 as recommended above1 and the result will be an addition of one eighth1 or one fourth1 to the products of cotton in the ,united ,states1 without adding another acre to the area under cultivation4 ,when this comes to be understood1 men of small means will cultivate a little cotton by their own individual labor1 as the poorer men do corn and other agricultural products1 and thus improve their condition4 ,the above suggestions are the conclusions to which we come1 from a thorough examination of what has been published to the world on this subject4 ,we recommend the careful perusal of ,the ,cotton-,planter's ,manual1 by ,turner 7published by ,saxton and ,co41 ,new ,york71 and increased attention to the subject1 by the intelligent1 educated1 and practical men with whom the cotton-growing regions abound4 ,,cows4 ,the cow occupies the first place among domestic animals1 in value to the ,american people1 not excepting even the horse4 ,from the original stock1 still kept as a curiosity on the grounds of some ,english noblemen1 cattle have been greatly improved by care in breeding and feeding4 ,those wild animals are still beautiful1 but only about one third of the weight of the ordinary improved cattle1 and not more than one fourth that of the most improved4 ,improving the breed of cattle is a subject by itself1 demanding a separate treatise4 ,it is not to be expected that we should go into it at length in a work like this4 ,but so much depends upon the cow1 that we can hardly write an article on her without giving those general principles that lie at the foundation of all improvement in cattle4 ,the few suggestions that follow1 if heeded1 would be worth many times the value of this book to any farmer not already familiar with the facts4 ,the cow affects all other stock in two ways2 first1 the form of calves1 and consequently of grown cattle1 is affected as much by the cow as by the bull4 ,the quality and quantity of her milk1 also1 has a great influence upon the early growth of all neat stock4 ,cattle are usually named from their horns1 as short horns1 c4 ,it is a means of distinction1 like a name1 but not expressive of quality4 ,the leading marks of a good cow are1 medium height for her weight1 small neck1 straight and wide back1 wide breast--giving room for healthy action of the lungs--heavy hind-quarters1 and soft skin with fine hair1 skin yellowish1 with much dandruff above the bag behind4 ,a smart countenance is also expressive of good qualities2 there is as much difference in the eyes and expression of cattle as of men4 ,select only such cows to raise stock from1 and allow them to go to no bull that has not good marks1 and is not of a superior form4 ,another important matter is to avoid breeding in and in4 ,this is injurious in all domestic animals and fowls4 ,always have the cow and the bull from different regions3 attention to this would constantly improve any breed we have1 and by improving the size of cattle1 and milking qualities of cows1 would add vast amounts to the wealth of farmers1 without the necessity of purchasing1 at a great price1 any of the high-bred cattle4 ,we have observed1 in our article on calves1 that abundant feeding during the first year has much to do with the excellence of stock4 ,unite with these regularity in feeding1 watering1 and salting1 keeping dry and warm in stormy1 cold weather1 and well curried and clean1 and a farmer's stock will be much more profitable to him4 ,but this brief mention of the general principles must suffice1 while we give all the further space we can occupy with this article to-- ,,the ,,infallible ,,marks ,,of ,,the ,,milking ,,qualities ,,of ,,cows4--,m4 ,francis ,guenon1 of ,france1 has published a treatise1 in which he shows1 by external marks alone1 the quality and quantity of milk of any cow1 and the length of time she will continue to give milk4 ,these marks are so plain1 that they are applicable to calves but a few weeks old1 as well as to cows4 ,whoever will take a little pains to understand this1 can know1 when he proposes to buy a cow1 how much milk she will give1 with proper feed and treatment1 the quality of her milk1 and the length of time she will give milk after having been gotten with calf4 ,if the farmer has heifer-calves1 some of which he proposes to send to the butcher and others to raise1 he may know which will make poor milkers1 and which good ones1 and raise the good and kill the poor4 ,thus1 he may see a calf that his neighbor is going to slaughter1 and1 from these external marks1 he may discover that it would make one of the best milking cows of the neighborhood2 it would then pay to buy and raise it1 though he might have to kill and throw away his own1 which he could see would make a poor cow if raised4 ,thus1 all extraordinary milkers would be raised1 and all poor ones be slaughtered3 this alone would improve the whole stock of the country twenty-five per cent4 in as many years4 ,attention has been called to this1 in the most emphatic manner1 by ,the ,new ,york ,tribune--a paper that always takes a deep interest in whatever will advance the great industrial interests of the whole people--and yet1 this announcement will be new to a vast number of farmers into whose hands this volume will fall4 ,to many it will be utterly incredible1 especially when we inform them that the indications are1 mainly1 the growth of the hair1 on the cow behind1 from the roots of the teats upward4 ,impossible6 many a practical1 common-sense man will say4 ,but that same man will acknowledge that a bull has a different color1 different neck1 and different horns1 left in his natural state1 from those he would exhibit if altered to an ox4 ,why is it not equally credible that the growth of the hair1 c41 should be affected by the secretion and flow of the milk on that part of the system where those operations are principally carried on8 ,but1 aside from all reasonings on the subject1 the fact is certain1 and whoever may read this article may test its correctness1 as applied to his own cows or those of his neighbor4 ,the great agriculturists of ,france 7and it is no mean agricultural country7 have tested it1 under the direction of the agricultural societies1 and pronounced it entirely certain4 ,this was followed by an award1 by the ,french government1 of a pension of three thousand francs per annum to ,guenon1 as a benefactor of the people by the discovery he had made4 ,the same has been amply tested in this country1 with the same certain results4 ,it now only remains for every farmer to test it for himself1 and avail himself of the profits that will arise from it4 ,guenon divides cows into eight classes1 and has eight orders under each class1 making sixty-four cows1 of which he has cuts in his work4 ,he also adds what he calls a bastard-cow in each class1 making seventy-two in all4 ,now1 to master all these nice distinctions in his classes and orders would be tedious1 and nearly useless4 ,efforts at this would tend to confusion4 ,we desire to give the indications in a brief manner1 with a very few cuts2 and yet1 we would hope to be much better understood by the masses than we believe ,guenon to be4 ,we claim no credit2 ,guenon is the discoverer1 and we only promulgate his discovery in the plainest language we can command2 and if we can reach the ear of the ,american farmers1 and call their attention to this1 we shall not have labored in vain4 ,the appearance of the hind-part of the cow1 from a point near the gambrel-joint up to the tail1 ,guenon calls the escutcheon4 ,the following cuts show the marks of all of ,guenon's eight classes1 the first and the last in each class4 ,the intermediate ones are in regular gradation from the first to the eighth order4 ,each class is divided into high1 medium1 and low1 yielding milk somewhat in proportion to their size4 ,we give the quantity of milk which the large cows will yield4 ,this also supposes cows to be well fed on suitable food4 ,smaller cows of the same class and order1 or those that are poorly cared for and fed1 will1 of course1 give less4 ,the names of all these eight classes are entirely arbitrary--they mean nothing4 ,m4 ,guenon adopted them on account of the shape of the escutcheon1 or from the name of the place from which the cows came4 ,but cows with these peculiar marks are found among all breeds1 in all countries1 and of all colors1 sizes1 and ages4 ,these marks are certain1 except the variations that are caused by extra care or neglect4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,first ,,class4 ,fig4 #b4 ,order #a4 ,,flanders ,,cow4 ,order #h4 ,this class of cows has a delicate bag1 covered with fine downy hair1 growing upward from between the teats1 and1 above the bag behind1 it blends itself with a growth of hair pointing upward1 and covering the region marked in figure #a4 ,this upward growth of hair begins on the legs just above the gambrel-joint1 covers the inside of the thighs1 and extends up to the tail1 as in figure first4 ,above the hind teats they generally have two oval spots1 two inches wide by three long1 formed by hair growing downward1 and of paler color than the hair that surrounds them 7,e1 ,e1 in fig4 #a74 ,the skin covered by the whole of this escutcheon is yellowish1 with a few black spots1 and a kind of bran1 or dandruff1 detaches from it4 ,cows of this class and order1 when well kept1 give about twenty-two quarts of milk per day1 when in full flow1 and before getting with calf again2 after this a little less1 but still a large quantity4 ,they will continue to give milk till eight months gone with calf1 or till they calve again1 if you continue to milk them4 ,this1 however1 should never be done2 it exposes the health of cows at the time of calving1 and injures the young4 ,from this there is a gradual diminution in the quantity of milk through the orders1 down to the eighth4 ,cows of this order 7fig4 #b71 or with the marks you see in the drawing1 will never yield more than about five quarts per day in their best state1 and they will only continue to give milk until two months with calf3 hence1 these are only fit for the butcher4 ,the intervening six in ,gruenon's classification are gradually poorer than the first1 and better than the last1 in our cuts4 ,the marks are but very slightly different from the above1 except in size2 the difference is so trifling1 that any one can at once see that they belong to this class2--and the comparative size of this mark will show1 infallibly1 their value compared with the above4 ,in the intermediate grades1 the spots 7,e1 ,e1 fig4 #a7 are smaller1 and as the orders descend1 these spots are wanting1 and some slight changes in the form of the whole mark are observed1 yet the general outline remains the same4 ,now1 as the decrease in the eight orders in each class is about from two and a half to three or three and a half quarts1 no man with eyes need be deceived in buying a cow1 or raising a calf1 in the quantity of milk she may be made to give4 ,any man can tell1 within one or two quarts1 the yield of any cow or heifer4 ,the only chance for mistake is in the case of bastard-cows1 which rapidly dry up on getting with calf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,,second ,,class4 ,fig4 #d4 ,order #a4 ,,selvage ,,cow4 ,order #h4 ,in this class1 the shape of the escutcheon is entirely distinct1 so that no one will confound it with the first4 ,the gradations are the same as in the preceding1 only this class1 all through1 is inferior to the other4 ,the first 7fig4 #c7 will give only twenty or twenty-one quarts1 and the poorest only four quarts4 ,this escutcheon is formed by ascending hair1 but with a very different outline from the first class2 it has the same spots above the hind teats as the first1 formed by descending hair4 ,in the lower orders these disappear--first one1 then one small one1 and then none at all--and as they descend1 similar spots appear1 formed in the same way1 on one or both sides of the vulva 7,f1 fig4 #c74 ,the skin of the inside surface of the thigh is yellowish4 ,the time of giving milk--viz41 eight months gone with calf1 or as long as you continue to milk them--is the same as in the first class4 ,the last order 7fig4 #d7 of this class give very little milk after getting with calf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,,third ,,class4 ,fig4 #f4 ,order #a4 ,,curveline ,,cow4 ,order #h4 ,this escutcheon is easily distinguished from the others1 by its outline figure4 ,the spots on the bag above the hind teats are formed as in the preceding1 and as gradually disappear in the lower orders4 ,in those orders there is a slight difference in the outline1 but its general form is the same4 ,the first of this class 7fig4 #e7 yields twenty or twenty-one quarts a day1 and gives milk till within a month of calving4 ,the last order of the class 7fig4 #f7 gives only three and a half quarts1 and goes dry on getting with calf4 ,the intermediate gradations between the first and eighth orders are the same as in the preceding classes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,,fourth ,,class4 ,fig4 #h4 ,order #a4 ,,bicorn ,,cow4 ,order #h4 ,these escutcheons are unmistakably diverse from either of the others2 gradations1 from first to eighth orders1 the same4 ,the first order in this class 7fig4 #g7 will give eighteen quarts a day1 and give milk until eight months with calf4 ,the dandruff which detaches from the skin within the escutcheon of the first order is yellowish or copperish color4 ,the two marks on the sides of the vulva are narrow streaks of ascending hair1 not in the general mark4 ,the last order of the class 7fig4 #h7 gives three and a half quarts only a day1 and goes dry when with calf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,,fifth ,,class4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,order #a4 ,,demijohn ,,cow4 ,order #h4 ,here is another general mark1 easily distinguishable from all the others by its outline4 ,the first order 7fig4 #i7 will give eighteen quarts a day1 and give milk eight months1 or within a month of calving4 ,yellowish skin2 delicate bag1 covered with fine downy hair1 as in the higher orders of all the preceding classes4 ,the eighth order of this class 7fig4 #aj7 will give only two and a half quarts per day1 and none after conceiving anew4 ,the gradation from first to eighth order is regular1 as in the others4 ,,sixth ,,class4 ,yield of first order 7fig4 #aa7 eighteen quarts per day2 time1 eight months4 ,skin within the escutcheon same color1 bag equally delicate1 and hair fine1 as in all the first orders4 ,eighth order 7fig4 #ab7 yields about two quarts per day1 and dries up on getting with calf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,order #a4 ,,square ,,escutcheon ,,cow4 ,order #h4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,,seventh ,,class4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,order #a4 ,,limousine ,,cow4 ,order #h4 ,first order in this class 7fig4 #ac7 gives fifteen quarts2 time1 eight months4 ,the skin1 bag1 and hair1 same as in the higher orders in all the classes4 ,the eighth order 7fig4 #ad7 will yield two and a half quarts per day1 and dry up when with calf4 ,,eighth ,,class4 ,first order 7fig4 #ae7 will give fifteen quarts per day2 time1 eight months4 ,skin in escutcheon reddish-yellow and silky1 hair fine1 teats far apart4 ,the eighth order 7fig4 #af7 yields two and a half quarts a day1 and dries up on getting with calf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,fig4 #af4 ,order #a4 ,,horizontal ,,cut ,,cow4 ,order #h4 ,each class of cows has a kind called bastards1 among those whose escutcheons would otherwise indicate the first order of their class3 these often deceive the most practised eye4 ,the only remedy is to become familiar with the infallible marks given by ,guenon by which bastards may be known4 ,this defect will account for the irregularity of many cows1 and their suddenly going dry on becoming with calf1 and often for the bad quality of their milk4 ,they are distinguished by the lines of ascending and descending hair in their escutcheon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,in the ,,flanders ,,cow 7fig4 #ag7 there are two bastards2 one distinguished by the fact that the hair forming the line of the escutcheon bristles up1 like beards on a head of grain1 instead of lying smooth1 as in the genuine cow2 they project over the intersection of the ascending and descending hair in a very bristling manner4 ,the other bastard of the ,,flanders ,,cow is known by having an oval patch of downward growing hair1 about eight inches below the vulva1 and in a line with it2 in the large cows it is four inches long1 and two and a half wide1 and the hair within it always of a lighter color than that surrounding it4 ,cows of this mark are always imperfect4 ,in the bastards1 the skin on the escutcheon is usually reddish2 it is smooth to the touch1 and yields no dandruff4 ,bastards of the ,,selvage ,,cow are known by two oval patches of ascending hair1 one on each side of the vulva1 four or five inches long1 by an inch and a half wide 7fig4 #ah74 ,the larger the spot1 and the coarser the hair1 the more defective they prove1 and vice versa4 ,bastards of the ,,curveline ,,cow are known by the size of spots of hair on each side of the vulva 7fig4 #ah74 ,when they are of four or five inches by one and a half1 and pointed or rounded at the ends1 they indicate bastards4 ,if they be small1 the cow will not lose her milk very rapidly on getting with calf4 ,bastards of the ,,bicorn ,,cow are indicated precisely as in the preceding--by the size of the spots of ascending hair1 above the escutcheon and by the sides of the vulva 7,f1 ,f1 fig4 #ah74 ,bastards of the ,,demijohn ,,cow are distinguished precisely as the two preceding--size of the streaks 7fig4 #ah74 ,the ,,square ,,escutcheon ,,cow indicates bastards1 by a streak of hair at the right of the vulva 7fig4 #ai74 ,when that ascending hair is coarse and bristly1 it is a sure evidence that the animal is a bastard4 ,,limousine ,,cows show their bastards precisely as do the ,,curveline and ,,bicorn1 by the size of the ascending streaks of hair1 on the right and left of the vulva4 7,fig4 #ai47 ,bastards of the ,,horizontal ,,cut ,,cows have no escutcheon whatever4 ,by this they are always known4 ,some bastards are good milkers until they get with calf1 and then very soon dry up4 ,others are poor milkers4 ,those with coarse hair and but little of it1 in the escutcheon1 give poor1 watery milk4 ,those of fine1 thick hair will give good milk4 ,,bulls have escutcheons of the same shape as the cows1 but on a smaller scale4 ,whenever there are streaks of descending hair bristling up among the ascending hair of the escutcheon1 rendering it quite irregular and rough in its appearance1 the animal is regarded as a bastard4 ,never put a cow to any bull that has not a regular1 well-defined1 and smooth escutcheon4 ,this is as fully as we have room to go into ,m4 ,guenon's details4 ,we fear this will fall into the hands of many who will not take the pains to master even these distinctions4 ,to those who will1 we trust they will be found plain1 and certain in their results4 ,from all this1 one thing is certain1 and that is of immense value to the farmer3 it is1 that on general principles1 without remembering the exact figure of one of the indications above given1 or one of the arbitrary terms it has been necessary to use1 any man can tell the quality and quantity of milk a cow will give1 and the time she will give milk1 with sufficient accuracy to buy no cow and raise no heifer that will not be a profitable dairy cow1 if that is what he desires4 ,the rules by which these things may be known are the following3 ,no cow1 of any class1 is ever a good milker1 that has not a large surface of hair growing upward from the teats and covering the inner surface of the thighs1 and extending up toward or to the tail4 ,no cow that is destitute of this mark1 or only has a very small one1 is ever a good milker4 ,every cow having a scanty growth of coarse hair in the above mark will only give poor1 watery milk2 and every cow having a thick growth of fine hair on the escutcheon1 or surface where it ascends1 and considerable dandruff1 will always give good rich milk1 and be good for butter and cheese4 ,every cow on which this mark is small will give but little milk1 and dry up soon after getting with calf1 and is not fit to be kept4 ,observe these brief rules1 and milk your cows at certain hours every day--milk very quickly1 without stopping1 and very clean1 not leaving a drop--and you never will have a poor cow on your farm1 and at least twenty-five per cent4 will be added to the value of the ordinary dairy1 that is made up of cows purchased or raised in the usual1 hap-hazard way4 ,if your cows' udders swell after calving1 wash them in aconite made weak with water2 it is very good for taking out inflammation4 ,other common remedies are known4 ,if your cow or other creature gets choked1 pour into the throat half a pint1 at least1 of oil2 and by rubbing the neck1 the obstruction will probably move up or down4 ,curry your cows as thoroughly as you do your horses2 and if they ever chance to get lousy1 wash them in a decoction of tobacco4 ,,cranberry4 ,illustration ,this is native in the northern parts of both hemispheres4 ,in ,england and on the continents of ,europe and ,asia1 native cranberries are inferior1 in size and quality1 to the ,american4 ,our own have also been greatly improved by cultivation4 ,they have become an important article of commerce1 and find a ready sale1 at high prices1 in all the leading markets of the country4 ,their successful cultivation1 therefore1 deserves attention1 as really as that of other fruits4 ,mr4 ,b4 ,eastwood has written a volume on the subject1 which probably contains all the facts already established1 together with many opinions of scientific and practical cultivators4 ,the work is valuable1 but much less so than it would have been1 had the author put into a few pages the important facts1 and left out all speculations and diversities of opinion4 ,the objection to most of this kind of literature is the intermixture of facts and valuable suggestions with so much that is not only useless1 but absolutely pernicious1 by the confusion it creates4 ,we think the following directions for the cultivation of the cranberry are complete1 according to our present knowledge3-- ,soil4--,it is universally agreed that beach sand is the best4 ,not from the beach of the ocean barely1 but of lakes1 ponds1 or rivers4 ,there is no evidence that any saline quality that may be in sand from the beach of the sea1 is particularly useful4 ,it is the cleanness of the sand1 on which account it is less calculated to promote a growth of weeds1 and allows a free passage of moisture toward the surface4 ,hence white sand is preferable1 and the cleaner the better4 ,whoever has a moist meadow in the soil of which there is considerable sand has a good place for a cranberry bed4 ,if you have not a sand meadow1 select a plat of ground as moist as any you have1 upon which water will not stand unless you confine it there1 and draw on sand to the depth of four or six inches1 having first removed any grass or break-turf1 that may be in danger of coming up as weeds to choke the vines4 ,if you make the ground mellow below and then put on the sand1 you will have a bed that will give you but little further trouble4 ,peat soils will do1 if you take off the top and expose to the weather1 frosts and rains1 one year before planting4 ,the first year1 peat will dry and crack1 so as to destroy young cranberry vines4 ,but after one winter's frost1 it becomes pulverized and will not again bake4 ,hence it is next to sand for a cranberry bed4 ,situation4--,the shore of a body of water1 or of a small pond is best1 if it be not too much exposed to violent action of wind and waves4 ,land that retains much moisture within a foot of the surface1 but which does not become stagnant1 is very valuable4 ,the bottoms of small ponds that can be drained off are very good4 ,any land that can be flowed with water at pleasure is good4 ,by flooding1 the blossoms are kept back till late spring frosts are gone4 ,any upland can be prepared as above4 ,but if it be a very dry soil it must have a liberal supply of water during dry weather1 or success may not be expected4 ,planting4--,there are several methods4 ,sod planting consists in preparing the land and then cutting out square sods containing vines1 and setting them at the distances apart1 you desire4 ,this was the general method2 but it is objectionable1 on account of the weeds that will grow out of the sod and choke the vines4 ,this method is improved by tearing away the sod1 leaving the roots naked1 and then planting4 ,another method is to cut off a vigorous shoot1 and plant the middle of it1 with each end protruding from the soil two or three inches apart4 ,roots will come out by all the leaves that are buried1 and promote the springing of many new vines1 and thus the early matting of the bed which is very desirable4 ,others take short slips and thrust four or five of them together down into the soil as they do slips of currant bushes1 thus making a hill of as many plants4 ,and yet another method is1 to cut up the vines into pieces of two or three inches in length1 and broad cast them on mellow soil1 and harrow them in as wheat--,others bury the short pieces in drills4 ,in either case they will soon mat the whole ground1 if the land be not weedy4 ,the best plan for small beds is probably the middle planting4 ,distances apart depend upon your design in cultivating4 ,if your soil is such that so many weeds will grow as to require cultivating with a horse1 or much hoeing1 four feet one way and two the other is the best4 ,better have land so well covered with clean sand1 that very few weeds will grow and no cultivation be needed4 ,then set vines one foot apart and very soon the whole ground will be perfectly matted and will need very little care for years4 ,for two or three years pull out the weeds by hand1 and the ground will be covered and need nothing more4 ,varieties4--,there are three principal ones of the lowland species4 ,the bell1 the bugle1 and the cherry cranberries4 ,these are named from their shape4 ,probably the cherry is the best1 being the size1 shape1 and color of the cultivated red cherries4 ,there has recently been discovered an upland variety1 on the shores of ,lake ,superior1 that bids fair to be as hardy and productive as the common currant4 ,on all poor1 hard1 and even very dry uplands1 it does remarkably well4 ,it grows extensively in the northern part of the ,british provinces4 ,the fruit is smaller than the other varieties but is delicious1 beautiful in color1 and very abundant4 ,it will probably be one of our great and universal luxuries4 ,healthy and ,unhealthy ,plants4--,by this cultivators denote those that bear well and those that do not4 ,and yet the unhealthy1 or those that bear the least1 are the larger1 greener-leaved1 and rapid-growing varieties4 ,it is difficult to describe them so that an unpractised eye would know them from each other4 ,the best way to be sure of getting the right kind is to purchase of a man you can trust1 or visit the beds when the fruit is in perfection and witness where the crop is abundant1 mark it1 and let it remain until you are ready to plant4 ,this is always best done in the spring1 or from ,may #aeth to ,june #aeth4 ,gathering--is performed by hand1 or with a cranberry-rake4 ,hand-picking is best for the vines1 but is more expensive4 ,if a rake be used1 it will draw out some small runners and retard the growth of young vines4 ,but it is such a saving of expense1 it had better be used1 and always drawn the same way4 ,the fruit should be cleared of leaves and decayed berries2 and if intended for a near market1 be packed dry in barrels4 ,if to be transported far1 put them in small casks1 say half-barrels1 with good water4 ,they may thus be carried around the globe in good condition4 ,to keep well they should not be exposed to fall frosts1 and should not be picked before ripe4 ,a little practice1 and at first on a small scale1 may enable ,american cultivators of the soil1 generally1 to have good cranberry beds4 ,much of the practical part of this can only be learned by experience4 ,the above suggestions will save much loss and discouragement4 ,enemies--are worms that attack the leaves1 and another species that attack the berries4 ,there are only two remedies proposed1 viz41 fire and water4 ,if you can flood your beds you will destroy them4 ,if not1 take a time not very dry so as to endanger burning the roots1 and burn over your cranberry-beds1 so as to consume all the vines4 ,next season new vines will grow up free from worms4 ,,cucumbers4 ,there are quite a number of varieties4 ,but a few only deserve attention4 ,the best1 for all uses1 is the ,early ,cluster1 a great bearer of firm1 tender1 brittle fruit4 ,early ,frame1 ,long ,white1 ,turkey1 and ,long ,green ,turkey1 are rather beautiful1 but not prolific varieties4 ,long ,prickly1 is very good for pickles1 and fills a cask rapidly1 but is by no means so pleasant as the ,early ,cluster4 ,the ,short ,prickly and ,white ,spined are considerably used4 ,the ,west ,india or small ,gherkin is used only for pickling1 and is considered fine4 ,but we regard all these inferior to the ,early ,cluster4 ,soil should be made very rich with compost and vegetable mould1 with a liberal application of sand4 ,all vines do better in a sandy soil4 ,plant in the open air only after the weather has become quite warm4 ,an effort to get early cucumbers by early out-door planting is usually a failure2 seeds decay1 or having come up1 after a long while1 they grow slowly1 and vines and fruit are apt to be imperfect4 ,six feet apart1 each way1 is the best distance2 and after the plants get out of the way of insects1 and become well established1 two vines in each hill is better than more3 the fruit will be better and more abundant1 and they will bear much longer than when vines are left to grow very thick4 ,they need water in dry weather 7see ,watering74 ,the first week in ,july is the best time to plant for pickling4 ,in a warm1 dry climate1 cucumbers do better a little shaded1 but not too much4 ,planted among young fruit-trees1 or in alternate rows with corn1 they do well4 ,if allowed to run up bushes like peas1 they produce more and better fruit4 ,forcing for an early crop is often done1 by digging a hole in the ground1 two feet deep and two feet square1 and filling with hot manure1 stamped down well1 and covered with six inches of fine mould4 ,put around a frame and cover with glass1 at an angle of thirty-five degrees to the sun4 ,plant one hundred seeds on the two feet square2 when they come up1 put two plants in a pot1 set in a regular hotbed1 and keep well watered and aired until the weather be warm enough to transplant in the open air2 then remove from the pots without breaking the ball of earth1 and plant six feet apart4 ,four plants left in the original hill will bear earlier than those that have been removed4 ,to get a large quantity of very early ones1 plant a corresponding number of hills1 with the two feet of manure1 as above2 whenever the weather becomes hot1 they will need to be well watered1 or they will dry up4 ,all cucumber-plants forced should have the main runner cut off1 after the second rough leaf appears2 this brings fruit earlier and twice as abundant4 ,on transplanting cucumbers1 or any other vines1 cover them wholly from the sun for three days1 or1 if the weather be dry1 for a whole week4 ,we once thought melons and cucumbers very difficult to transplant successfully2 but we ascertained the only difficulty to be1 the want of sufficient water and shade4 ,when roots and soil were so dry that the dirt all fell off1 we have transplanted with perfect success2 but for a week the plants appeared to be ruined4 ,we kept them covered and well watered1 and they revived and made a great crop1 much earlier than seeds planted at the same time4 ,protection of plants from insects has been a subject of much study and many experiments4 ,ashes and lime1 and various decoctions and offensive mixtures1 have been recommended4 ,we discard them all1 as both troublesome and ineffectual4 ,our experience is1 most decidedly1 in favor of fencing each hill1 of all vines1 to keep off insects4 ,a box a foot square and fifteen inches high1 the lower edge set in the soil1 will usually prove effectual4 ,put over a pane of glass1 and it will be more sure1 and increase the warmth and consequently the growth of the plants4 ,put millinet over the boxes1 instead of glass1 and not a hill will be lost4 ,if a cutworm chances to be fenced in1 he will show himself by cutting off a plant4 ,search him out and kill him1 and all will be safe4 ,such boxes1 well taken care of1 will last for ten years4 ,this1 then1 is a cheap as well as effectual method4 ,cucumbers are a cooling1 healthy article of diet1 used in reasonable quantities4 ,they should be sliced into cold water1 taken out1 and put in sharp vinegar with pepper and salt4 ,ripe cucumbers make one of the best of pickles3 for directions in making1 we refer to the cook-books4 ,if you have room near your back door for one large hill of cucumbers1 you may obtain a remarkable growth4 ,dig down deep enough to set in an old barrel1 with head and bottom out1 leaving the top even with the surface4 ,fill with manure from the stable1 well trod down4 ,in fine rich mould1 around on the outside of the barrel1 plant twenty or thirty cucumber-seeds4 ,put a pail of water in the barrel every day4 ,the water comes up through the soil to the roots of the plants1 bringing with it the stimulus of the manure1 and the effect is wonderful4 ,a large barrel has been filled with pickles from one such hill4 ,if bushes be put up to support the vines1 it is still better4 ,neglect to pour in water1 and they will dry up2 but continue to water them1 and they will bear till frost in autumn4 ,,currants4 ,these are among the very best of all the small fruits2 immensely productive in all locations1 and adapted to a great variety of uses1 and hang long on the bushes after ripening4 ,there is quite a number of varieties1 some of which are probably the mere result of cultivation of others well known4 ,the common red is too well known to need description--very acid1 and always remarkably productive1 in all soils and situations4 ,the size and quality of the fruit are affected by location and culture4 ,the native currants1 as found in the north of ,europe1 are small and inferior2 but all excellent modern varieties have sprung from them by cultivation4 ,in working these important changes1 the ,dutch and ,french gardeners have been the chief agents3 hence our names1 ,red and ,white ,dutch currants4 ,the common red and the common white are still cultivated in the great majority of ,american gardens2 and yet1 they are not worthy to be named with the ,white ,dutch and the ,red ,dutch1 which may easily be obtained by every cultivator4 ,these two varieties are all that ever need be cultivated4 ,long lists of currants are described in many of the fruit-books2 the result1 as in all such cases1 is confusion and loss to the mass of growers4 ,we will not even give the list4 ,the common red and the white currants are greatly improved by cultivation4 ,but the ,dutch have longer bunches1 of larger fruit1 the lower ones in the stem holding their size much better than common currants2 the stems are usually full and perfect1 and the fruit less acid and more pleasant4 ,a new1 strong-growing variety1 called the cherry currant on account of its large size1 is now considerably grown4 ,a few bushes for variety1 and for their beautiful appearance1 may be well enough2 but it is not a very good bearer1 and therefore is not so profitable as the ,dutch4 ,the ,attractor is a new ,french variety1 said to be valuable4 ,knight's ,early ,red has the single virtue of ripening a few days earlier than the others4 ,the ,victoria is perhaps the latest of all currants1 hanging on the bushes fully two weeks longer than others4 ,the ,white ,grape1 the ,red ,grape1 and the ,transparent1 are all good and beautiful4 ,the utilitarian will cultivate the ,red ,dutch and the ,white ,dutch as his main crop1 with two or three of the others for a variety4 ,the amateur will get all the varieties1 and amuse himself by comparing their qualities1 and trying his skill at modifying them4 ,as these efforts have resulted1 in past time1 in the production of our best varieties1 so they may1 in future1 in something far better than we yet have4 ,there is no probability that any of our fruits have reached the acme of perfection4 ,the common black1 or ,english black currant has long been cultivated4 ,a jam made of it is valuable for sore throat4 ,the highest medical authority pronounces black currant wine the best1 in many cases of sickness1 of any wine known4 ,the ,black ,naples possesses the same virtues1 and being a much larger fruit1 and more productive1 should take the place of the ,english black1 and exclude it from all gardens4 ,cultivation4--,currant-bushes should be set four feet apart each way1 and the whole ground thoroughly mulched2 it keeps down all weeds and grass1 saving all further labor in cultivation1 and greatly increases the size and quantity of the fruit4 ,on nothing does mulching pay better4 7,see article ,mulching47 ,any good garden-soil is suitable for currants4 ,on the north side of a wall or building1 or in the shade of trees1 they will be considerably later4 ,the same effect may be produced by covering bushes a part of the time with blankets or mats4 ,some are retarded by this means1 so as to be in perfection after others are gone3 thus1 the currant that naturally comes to perfection about midsummer is preserved on the bushes until ,october4 ,many cultivate currants in the tree form2 allowing no sprouts from the roots1 and no branches within a foot or two of the ground4 ,this object is secured by cutting from the slip you are to plant1 from which to raise a bush1 all the lower buds to within two or three of the top1 and then pinching off at once all shoots that may start out of the stem below2 this makes beautiful little shrubs1 but the top is apt to be broken off by the wind1 and they must be replaced by new ones every four or five years4 ,downing strongly recommends it1 but we can not do so4 ,let bushes grow in the natural way1 removing all old1 decaying branches1 and all suckers that rise too far from the parent-bush1 and keep the clusters of bushes and leaves thin enough to allow the sun free access1 and prevent continued moisture in wet weather1 which will rot the fruit1 and you will find it the cheapest and best4 ,we have seen quite as large and as fine fruit grow on such bushes1 that we knew to be more than twenty years old1 as we ever saw of the same variety when cultivated in the tree form4 ,,dairy4 ,for cheese1 the dairy should contain three rooms3 one for setting the milk1 with suitable boilers1 c42 next1 a press-room1 in which the cheese should be salted1 as given under article ,cheese2 the third1 a store-room4 ,in all climates a cheese-house should be made as tight as possible2--thick stone walls are best2 windows should be on two sides1 north and west1 but not on opposite sides1 so as to create a draught3 this is no better for cheese or butter1 and is always dangerous to the operator4 ,let all persons who would enjoy good health avoid a draught of air as they would an arrow4 ,if your cheese-house can be shaded on the east1 south1 and west1 by trees1 and have only a northern exposure1 it will aid you much in guarding against extremes of heat and cold4 ,windows should be fitted closely1 and covered with wire-cloth on the outside1 so as to exclude all flies4 ,a dairy for butter needs but two rooms1 and a cool1 dry cellar1 with windows in north and west4 ,the first room should be for setting and skimming the milk1 and the other for churning and working the butter1 and scalding and cleaning the utensils4 ,if your milk-room can be a spring-house with stone-floor1 and a little water passing over it1 you will find it a great benefit4 ,the shade1 situation of windows1 avoiding a current1 c41 should be the same as in the cheese-dairy4 ,to prevent the taste of turnips or other food of cows in milk and butter1 put one quart of hot water into eight quarts of the milk just drawn from the cow1 and strain it at once4 ,it has been recently declared1 by intelligent farmers1 that if you feed the turnips to cows immediately after milking1 the next milking1 twelve hours after feeding the roots1 will be free from their taste or odor4 ,the easiest remedy is the boiling water4 ,,declension ,,of ,,fruits4 ,that there are instances of decided decline in the quality of fruits is certain4 ,but on the causes of those changes pomologists do not agree4 ,one theory is1 that fruits1 like animals and vegetables of former ages1 may decline and finally become extinct4 ,should this theory be established1 the declension would be so gradual that a century would make no perceptible change4 ,but we do not credit the theory1 even as applied to former geological periods in the history of our globe4 ,the changes of past ages1 as revealed in geology1 have been brought about1 not gradually1 but by great convulsions of nature1 such as volcanoes1 or the deluge1 that resulted in the destruction of the old order of things1 and in a new creation4 ,the true theory of this declension of varieties of fruits1 is1 that it is the result of repeated budding upon unhealthy stocks1 and of neglect and improper cultivation4 ,apply the specific manures--that is1 those particularly demanded by a given fruit--prune properly1 mulch well1 and bud or graft only on healthy seedling stocks of the same kind1 and1 instead of declension1 we may expect our best fruits to improve constantly1 in quality and quantity4 ,,dill4 ,an herb1 native in the south of ,europe1 and on the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,it is grown1 particularly at the ,south1 as a medicinal herb4 ,the leaves are sometimes used for culinary purposes2 but it is principally cultivated for its sharp aromatic seed1 used for flatulence and colic in infants1 and put into pickled cucumbers to heighten the flavor4 ,the seeds may be sown early in the spring1 or at the time of ripening4 ,a light soil is best4 ,clear of weeds1 and thin in the rows1 are the conditions of success4 ,,drains4 ,drains are of two kinds--under-drains and surface-drains4 ,the latter are simply open ditches to carry off surface-water1 that might otherwise stand long enough to destroy the prospective crop4 ,these are frequently useful along at the foot of hills1 when they should be proportioned to the extent of the surface above them4 ,they are also very useful on low1 level meadow-lands4 ,properly constructed1 they will reclaim low swamps1 and make them excellent land4 ,millions of acres of land in the ,united ,states1 as good as any we have1 are lying useless1 and spreading pestilence around1 that by this simple method of ditching might be turned to most profitable account4 ,the direction of these drains should be determined by the shape of the land to be drained by them--straight whenever they will answer the purpose1 but crooked when they will do better4 ,on low and very level land1 they should be not more than five rods apart2 they should be three times as wide at the top as they are at the bottom1 and as deep as the width at the top2 made so slanting1 the sides will not fall in2--they should be so shaped as to allow only a very gentle flow of the water3 if it flows too rapidly1 it will wash down the sides1 and obstruct the ditch1 and waste the land4 ,excavations for under-draining are made in the same way1 only the top need not be so much wider than the bottom2 it would be a waste of labor in excavating a useless quantity of earth4 ,there are four methods of filling up the ditch1 viz41 with brush2 with small stones thrown in promiscuously2 with a throat laid in the bottom and filled with small stones2 and with a throat made of tile from the pottery4 ,in all cases1 that with which the ditch is filled must not come so near the surface as to be reached by the plow4 ,brush1 put in green and covered with straw or leaves1 will answer a good purpose for several years1 and may be used where small stones can not easily be obtained4 ,the tile is more expensive than either of the others1 and not so good as the stones2 it is so tight that the water does not enter it so readily2 and if by any chance dirt gets into the throat1 it obstructs it1 and there is no other channel through which the water can pass off4 ,small stones thrown in promiscuously serve a good purpose for a long time1 if they be covered with straw or cornstalks before the earth is put in4 ,but the best method is to make a throat1 six inches square1 in the bottom of the drain1 laying the large stones over the top of it1 and filling in the small stones above1 and covering with straw2--the water will find its way into the throat through the numerous openings2 and if the throat should ever be filled1 the water could still pass off between the small stones above4 ,such drains will last many years1 and add one half to the products of all wet springy land4 ,the earth over the new drain should be six inches higher than the surface of the field1 that1 when well settled1 it may be level4 ,leave no places open for surface-water to run in2 that would soon fill up and ruin a drain4 ,drains made to carry off spring-water are often useless by being in a wrong location4 ,springs come out near the foot of rising ground4 ,just where they come out should be the location of the drain1 which would then carry off the water and prevent it from saturating and chilling the soil in the field below4 ,many persons locate their ditch down in the centre of the wet level below the rise of ground2 this is of no use to the surface above1 to the point where the water springs4 ,locate the drain just at the point where the land begins to be unduly wet4 ,on very wet1 level land1 a small drain may also be needed below the first and main one4 ,the cost of a covered drain as described above will be from fifty to seventy-five cents per rod1 and an uncovered one will cost from twenty to thirty cents4 ,when you have low swamps to drain1 you can realize more than the cost of draining1 by carting the excavations upon other land1 or into the barnyard as material for compost4 ,perhaps no expenditure1 on land needing it1 pays so well as thorough draining4 ,it is important1 for all fruit-orchards on low land1 to put a drain through under each row of trees3 it is indispensable to cherries1 and highly favorable to all other fruits4 ,,ducks4 ,there are a number of varieties1 the wild ,black ,spanish1 the ,canvass-,back1 and the ordinary little duck of the farmyard1 are all good4 ,the common duck is the only one we recommend for the ,american poultry-yard4 ,a close pasture1 including a rivulet1 or a small stream of water1 affords facilities for raising ducks at a cheap rate4 ,from one hundred to one thousand ducks may be raised in such an enclosure of an acre or two1 quite profitably4 ,if there is plenty of grass1 they will still need a little grain4 ,in the winter the cheapest feed is beets or potatoes cut fine1 with a very little grain4 ,each duck1 well kept1 will lay from fifty to one hundred eggs1 larger than hen's eggs1 and about as good for cooking purposes4 ,they may be picked as geese1 for live feathers1 though not quite so frequently4 ,the feathers will nearly pay for keeping1 leaving the eggs and increase as profit4 ,,dwarfing4 ,this has some advantages in its application to fruit-trees4 ,it will enable the cultivator to raise more fruit on a small plat of ground1 to get fruit much earlier than from standard trees1 and sometimes1 with high cultivation1 the fruit will be larger4 ,dwarfing is done by grafting into small slow-growing stocks4 ,almost all fruits have such kinds4 ,grafting into other stocks1 as the pear into the foreign quince1 is a very effectual method4 ,the ,paradise stock for the apple1 the ,canada and other slow-growing stocks for the plum1 the dwarf wild cherry of ,europe and the ,mahaleb for cherries4 ,dwarfs produced by grafting upon other stocks are short-lived1 compared with standards of the same varieties4 ,they should only be used to economize room1 to test varieties1 and produce fruit while standards are coming into bearing4 ,better and much longer-lived dwarfs may be produced by frequent transplanting1 thorough trimming of the roots1 and repeated heading-in4 ,the fruit on such dwarfs must be well thinned out when young1 or it will be smaller than is natural4 ,the effect of heading in is to cause the sap to mature an abundance of fruit-buds4 ,this will tax the tree too much1 unless they be well thinned out4 ,root-pruning is an effectual method of dwarfing 7see ,pruning74 ,dwarfing by root-pruning1 repeated transplanting1 and thorough heading-in1 will not render the trees very short-lived1 and in many situations it is profitable4 ,the same is true of the dwarf pear on the quince4 ,all other dwarfing is more for the amateur than the utilitarian4 ,,early ,,fruits ,,and ,,vegetables ,are often considered a great luxury1 and always command a high price4 ,early vegetables are secured by hotbeds and the various methods of forcing1 as given under the different species4 ,early fruits are obtained by dwarfing1 as given on that subject4 ,location1 soil1 and mode of cultivation1 also1 have much to do with it4 ,warm location1 finely-pulverized soil1 often stirred and kept moist1 will materially shorten the time of the maturity of fruits and vegetables4 ,seeds imported from the ,north1 where seasons are shorter1 will mature earlier4 ,another means of hastening maturity is to plant successively1 from year to year1 the very first that ripens2 this tends to dwarf in proportion as the time of maturity is hastened4 ,in this way such dwarfs as the little ,canada corn1 that will mature at the ,south in six weeks1 have been produced4 ,various early plants1 as tomatoes1 cabbages1 peppers1 and egg-plants1 may be started in boxes or flower-pots in the house4 ,planted in ,february here1 or in ,january in the ,south1 they will grow as well as house-plants1 and acquire considerable size before it is time to place them in the open ground4 ,this is convenient for those who have no hotbeds4 ,they must be kept from frost1 and occasionally set out in a warm day to harden1 and they will do well4 ,,egg ,,plant4 ,the white is merely ornamental4 ,the large purple is one of the greatest luxuries of the vegetable garden4 ,plant seeds in hotbed at the time of planting tomatoes or peppers4 ,set out in land made very rich with stable-manure and decayed forest-leaves1 two feet and a half apart each way4 ,kept clean1 and earthed up a little1 and the bugs kept off while the plants are small1 they will produce an abundance of fruit4 ,there are two varieties of the purple--large prickly-stem purple1 growing sometimes eight inches in diameter2 and the long purple1 bearing smaller1 long fruit1 but a large quantity1 and considerably earlier than the large4 ,many do not like them at first2 but after tasting a few times1 almost all persons become very fond of them4 ,if not properly cooked1 they are not at all palatable4 ,although it belongs to the cook-book1 yet1 to save this excellent plant from condemnation1 we give a recipe for cooking it4 ,it is fit for use from one third grown1 until the seeds begin to turn4 ,without paring1 cut the fruit into slices one third of an inch thick2 put it in a little water with plenty of salt1 and let it stand over night1 or six hours at least2 take it out1 and fry very soft and brown in butter or fresh lard--if not fried soft and brown1 it is disagreeable4 ,salt1 ashes1 and bonedust1 or superphosphate of lime1 are the best manures1 as more than two thirds of the fruit is made up of potash1 soda1 and phosphates1 as shown by chemical analysis4 ,,eggs4 ,of the quality of eggs you can always judge correctly by looking at them toward the light3 if they are translucent they are good2 if they look dark they are old--or you may get a chicken1 when you only paid for an egg4 ,many methods for preserving eggs are recommended4 ,packed away in fine salt they will keep1 but1 like salt meat1 have not the same flavor as fresh4 ,set them on their small ends in a tight cask1 and fill it with pure lime-water1 and they will keep1 but it changes their flavor4 ,this1 however1 is a very common method4 ,the best way known to us1 is to pack fresh eggs down in ,indian meal1 allowing no two to touch each other4 ,keep very dry in a cool cellar1 and they will remain for months unchanged4 ,,elderberry4 ,this is a healthy berry1 dried and used for making pies1 especially mixed with some other fruit4 ,the blossoms are much used as medicine for small children4 ,the common sweet elder is the only kind cultivated4 ,the earlier red are offensive and poisonous4 ,they are easily grown on rough waste land1 or in any situation you prefer4 ,of this berry is made a wine1 superior in flavor and effect to any port wine now to be obtained in market2 it has had the preference among the best judges in the country2--it is fast coming into notice and cultivation4 ,the wine is so entirely superior to the poisonous substances of that name in commerce1 that it would be well for every neighborhood to make enough for their sick4 ,the process is sure and easily intelligible to all4 7,see article ,wine47 ,,endive4 ,this is a well-known winter-lettuce4 ,sow from ,july to ,september1 according to latitude4 ,it should come into maturity at the time of the first smart frosts4 ,to get beautiful1 white1 tender bunches1 they should be tied up when the leaves are about six inches long4 ,when frost comes1 protect by covering4 ,in very cold climates1 place it in the cellar1 with the roots in moist earth1 and it will keep for a long time4 ,it will not be extensively used in this country for soups and stews1 as it is in ,europe2 and but few of the ,american people care much about winter-lettuce4 ,this is the best variety of lettuce1 except for those who have hot-houses and attend to winter-gardening4 ,they will prefer the other finer varieties4 ,there are two varieties of endive cultivated in this country3 green curled1 which is the most common1 and used principally as a salad2 the broad-leaved1 or ,batavian1 has thicker leaves and large heads1 and is principally used in stews and soups4 ,still another variety1 called succory1 which is used to some extent in ,europe as a winter-salad1 but is cultivated mainly for the root4 ,it is dried and ground to mix with coffee3 some consider it quite as good4 ,this is more cultivated at the ,south than at the ,north--their winters are much better adapted to it4 ,the medicinal virtues of this plant are nearly equal to those of the dandelion4 ,when it is bleached1 by tying or earthing up1 the bitterness is removed1 and the taste is pleasant2 this must be done when the plants are dry1 or they will rot4 ,plant them in a sunny place and in a light soil4 ,,feeding ,,animals4 ,feed as nearly as possible at the same hours4 ,all creatures do much better for being so fed4 ,do not feed domestic animals too much3 animals will be more healthy1 grow faster1 and fatten better1 by being fed almost1 but not quite as much as they will eat4 ,giving food to lie by them is poor economy2 always let them eat it all up1 and desire a little more2--at the same time1 let it be remembered that creatures kept very poorly for a considerable time1 especially while young1 will never fully recover from it4 ,this is often done under the idea of keeping them cheap1 but it is dear keeping4 ,they never can make as fine animals afterward4 ,all grains and vegetables1 except beets and turnips1 are better for being boiled or steamed4 ,the increased value is much more than the cost of cooking1 provided persons are not so careless as to allow food to be injured by standing after cooking4 ,cooking is supposed to add one fourth to the value of food4 ,grinding dry grains adds nearly as much to their value1 as feed for animals1 as cooking4 ,if you neither grind nor boil hard grain for feed1 it will pay well to soak it somewhat soft before feeding4 ,variety of food is as pleasant and healthy for animals as for men4 ,,fences4 ,these are matters of great importance to the farmers of the whole country1 but especially to those on the prairies of the west4 ,in all localities where stone can be obtained from the fields or quarry1 the best and cheapest fence is a stone wall4 ,if the stones are flat1 make the wall two feet thick at bottom1 and one at top1 five feet high4 ,if the stones are very irregular the wall should be thicker4 ,stone walls should have transverse rows of shingles1 boards1 or split sticks1 about half an inch thick1 laid in the wall at suitable distances4 ,if stones are quite flat three rows are desirable1 one two1 the next three1 and the other four feet from the ground4 ,if the wall is made of rough stones it will require one more course of sticks1 leaving them only a foot apart4 ,the sticks should be of such lengths as to come out just even with the wall1 on each side4 ,the lower courses will be longer than the upper ones4 ,these sticks are to keep the wall from falling down4 ,dig a ditch one foot deep1 two feet from the wall1 and throw the earth excavated up against the wall1 and the water will run off and prevent heaving by frost1 and such a wall will need the merest trifle of attention during a generation1 and will last for centuries4 ,a cord of stones will make one rod4 ,we can not too strongly recommend this kind of fence1 in all places where stones can be obtained reasonably4 ,the pieces of wood laid in a wall1 will keep well for thirty years1 when they will need replacing4 ,next to stone is a good board fence4 ,well made and of good materials1 it is durable and always in its place4 ,hence it is a cheap fence4 ,of the various styles of picket1 and other fancy fences for front yards1 c41 it is more the province of the architect or the mechanic to treat4 ,styles vary and are constantly increasing in number4 ,the great point to be secured in all such1 to render them most durable1 is to have the smallest possible points of contact4 ,a picket fence with horizontal base should never have the pickets standing on the base board4 ,they should be separated1 from one quarter to one half an inch4 ,a good style for villages1 is a cap1 water tight1 and wide enough to cover the ends of the posts and pickets with a neat little cornice4 ,it looks well and is very durable4 ,in all localities where timber is not too valuable1 a cheap and substantial fence is made of split rails4 ,the crooked rail-fence1 with stakes and riders1 is well known4 ,also that with upright stakes and caps1 which is decidedly preferable4 ,it will stand much longer1 and the stakes are out of the way4 ,no farmer should ever risk his crop with a rail-fence without stakes4 ,but the best of all rail-fences1 is that made of posts and rails4 ,the rails are put in as bars1 but so firmly that the fence can not be taken down1 without commencing at the end4 ,where cedar or locust posts1 and oak or cedar rails can be obtained1 a fence may be made that will not get out of repair for twenty-five years4 ,no creature can tear it down1 for human hands can not take it down without tools1 or without commencing at the end4 ,this is considered expensive4 ,but as the farmer may prepare his posts and rails in winter1 and it will require no attention to keep it up1 and is very durable and perfectly effectual against cattle1 it is an economical fence4 ,for hedges1 see that article4 ,,fennel4 ,this is a hardy perennial plant of ,southern ,europe1 and belongs to both the culinary and the medicinal departments4 ,it grows well on almost any soil1 and is propagated by seeds1 offshoots1 or by parting the roots4 ,it is much inclined to spread4 ,a few roots1 kept within reasonable bounds1 are enough for a family4 ,it is much used in ,europe for soups1 salads1 and garnishes4 ,the ,italians treat it as celery4 ,in this country it is mostly used medicinally4 ,it is stimulant and carminative4 ,very beneficial to children in cases of flatulency and colic4 ,,figs4 ,illustration ,this fruit is native in the warmer parts of ,asia3 hence1 the cold winters of the ,middle1 ,northern1 and ,western states1 and of ,canada1 would destroy the trees in the open air without protection4 ,but as the trees are low-growing shrubs1 they may easily be protected either in cellars1 greenhouses1 or the open air1 and uncovered or planted out in the beginning of warm weather4 ,frequent removals and transplantings injure the fig less than any other fruit1 and our summers are long enough to produce large crops of excellent figs4 ,in ,new ,england they are raised in tubs1 set out of the cellar in spring1 and produce largely4 ,south of ,virginia1 the fig is hardy1 and may be cultivated with profit in the open air4 ,the best method of raising all kinds of fruit1 in climates where the winters are too cold for them1 is to build a wall twelve feet high on one side1 and six feet on the other1 with the ends closed1 and cover it with glass facing the south4 ,this should only be kept warm enough to prevent freezing1 which would require only a small outlay4 ,men of moderate means might thus have oranges1 lemons1 figs1 c41 of their own raising4 ,in all except our coldest latitudes1 such fruits might be raised at a profit4 ,soil4--,the best is a deep1 rich loam1 with a dry subsoil4 ,propagation is by layers and cuttings4 ,the latter should be taken off in the spring1 be of last year's growth1 with half an inch of the previous year's growth3 they take root better4 ,varieties are numerous1 and names uncertain4 ,white1 in his ,gardening for the ,south1 says1 some of the best varieties are not in the books1 or so imperfectly described that they can not be recognised4 ,this is true of all the fruits1 and hence our decision1 in this work1 not to attempt to describe fruits with a view to their identification4 ,as this fruit is more for the ,south than the ,north1 we give the whole of ,white's list1 as being adapted to those regions3-- #a1 ,brunswick2 #b1 ,brown ,turkey2 #c1 ,brown ,ischia2 #d1 ,small ,brown ,ischia2 #e1 ,black ,genoa2 #f1 ,celestial2 #g1 ,common ,blue2 #h1 ,round ,white1 ,common ,white1 ,lemon ,fig2 #i1 ,white ,genoa1 ,white ,italian2 #aj1 ,nerii2 #aa1 ,pregussatta2 #ab1 ,allicant2 #ac1 ,black ,ischia2 #ad1 ,white ,ischia4 ,these1 with a few others1 are those described in most of our fruit-books4 ,the catalogue of the ,london ,horticultural ,society enumerates forty-two varieties4 ,only a few of them have been introduced into this country4 ,any of these varieties are good at the ,south4 ,the five following are the most hardy1 and1 being in all respects good1 are all we need in our more northern latitudes3-- #a4 ,brunswick4--,very hardy1 productive1 and excellent4 #b4 ,brown ,turkey4--,the very hardiest1 and one of the most regular and abundant bearers4 #c4 ,black ,ischia4--,bears an abundance of medium-sized1 excellent fruit1 very dark-colored4 #d4 ,nerii4--,said to be the richest fig in ,britain3 from an acid mixture in its flavor1 it is exceedingly delicious4 #e4 ,celestial4--,this may be the ,malta of ,downing4 ,under whatever name1 though small1 it is one of the very best figs grown in this country4 ,for forcing under glass1 the best are the ,allicant and ,marseilles4 ,with care1 the first three of the above list may be raised in the ,middle states1 without removal in winter4 ,any variety may be protected by bending and tying down the branches1 and covering with four inches of soil4 ,below ,philadelphia1 a little straw will be a sufficient protection4 ,dried figs are an important article of import into this country2 yet they might be raised as plentifully and profitably in the ,southern states4 ,prune only to keep the tree low and regular4 ,the fig-tree is a great and regular bearer1 only when the wood makes too strong a growth1 as it is somewhat apt to do4 ,the remedy is root-pruning4 ,cut off1 on the first of ,november1 the roots to half the length of the branches from the tree1 and occasionally shorten the branches a little1 and the fruit will be abundant1 and not fall off4 ,the ripening of the fruit may be hastened and perfected by putting a drop of oil in the blossom-end of each fig4 ,this is done by dipping the end of a straw in oil1 and then putting it into the end of the fruit4 ,this is extensively practised in ,france4 ,compost1 containing a pretty liberal proportion of lime1 is the best manure for the fig4 ,,fish4 ,the cultivation of fish is attracting much attention in this country and in ,europe4 ,the study and experiments of scientific and practical men have established important facts upon this subject4 ,fish may be successfully cultivated wherever water can be conveniently obtained4 ,the creeks1 ponds1 and small rivers of our land may be well stocked with fish4 ,fish may be raised as a source of profit and luxury1 with as much ease and certainty1 and at a much less expense than fowls4 ,this is so important to the whole people1 that it demands the earnest attention of our state authorities1 as it has engaged that of the government of ,france4 ,the species of fish best adapted to artificial culture1 in particular climates and in different kinds of water1 have been ascertained4 ,a man may know what fish to put in his waters1 as well as what crops to put on his land1 or what stocks on his farm4 ,the following brief synopsis of the best methods of cultivation will be sufficient to insure success4 ,the first requisite is suitable water for hatching eggs that have been artificially fecundated1 and for the occupancy of fish of different ages1 and for different species of fish4 ,fish of different ages are much inclined to destroy each other for food2 and hence1 in order to multiply them most rapidly1 they should be kept in separate ponds until considerably grown1 when they will take care of themselves4 ,a spring sending forth a rivulet of clear water1 and not subject to overflow in freshets1 is the best location4 ,clear1 cool water is essential to the trout1 while some other fish will do well in warm and even roily water4 ,the rivulet running from the spring should be made to form a succession of ponds1 three or four in number4 ,these ponds should be connected with flumes made of plank4 ,if the space they must occupy be small1 make the flumes zigzag1 to increase their length4 ,put across those flumes1 once in four or five feet1 a piece of plank half as high as the sides of the flume1 with a notch cut in the centre of the top1 that the fish may easily pass over3 this will afford a succession of little falls1 in which the trout very much delights4 ,these different ponds are for the occupancy of fish of different ages1 one age only inhabiting one pond4 ,the flumes should have four inches of fine and coarse gravel in the bottom1 making the most perfect spawning-ground4 ,although you would not wish the female-trout to deposite her eggs in the natural way1 but will extrude them by the hand 7as hereinafter directed71 yet they must have these natural conveniences1 or they will not incline to spawn at all4 ,at the upper end of each of these flumes separating the ponds1 there should be a gate of wire-cloth1 to prevent the passage of the fish from one pond to the other2 also one at the outlet of the lower pond1 to prevent egress of the fish4 ,these must all be so arranged that freshets will not connect them all together4 ,when trout are about to spawn in their natural waters1 they select a gravelly margin1 and remove1 from a circle of about one foot or two feet in diameter1 all the sediment1 leaving only clean gravel1 among which they deposite their eggs1 where they are hatched4 ,they want running water of three or four inches in depth for this purpose4 ,a male and female occupy each nest4 ,if left to themselves1 they will gradually increase2 but so many of their eggs fail of being fecundated1 and so many are destroyed before they hatch1 by enemies1 and by the collection of sediment in the nest1 that the number of young fish is small compared with the whole number of eggs deposited4 ,artificial spawning1 fecundation1 and hatching1 are far more productive4 ,the process is simple and easy3 when the female-fish first begins to deposite her eggs1 catch her with a small net4 ,it can not be done with bait1 for fish will bite nothing at the time of spawning4 ,we recollect1 often when a boy1 of trying to catch trout out of the brooks in ,october1 where we could see large1 beautiful fish1 lying lazily in the places from which we had caught many in the summer1 and put our bait carefully on every side of them1 and they would not bite4 ,then we knew not the cause3 since studying the habits of fish1 we have learned that they never will bite while spawning2 with trout1 this is done from the #ast to the #aeth of ,october1 some few spawning till the last of ,november4 ,having caught two fish1 male and female1 take the female in one hand1 and press her abdomen gently with the other hand1 gradually moving it downward1 and the eggs will be easily extruded1 and should fall into an earthen vessel of pure water4 ,then take the male-fish1 and go through the same process1 which will press out the spermatic fluid1 which should be allowed to fall into the same vessel with the eggs2 stir up the whole together1 and1 after it has stood fifteen minutes1 pour off the water1 put in more and stir it up1 and let it stand as before4 ,this having been done three times1 the eggs will be thoroughly fecundated1 and are ready to be deposited in the nests for hatching4 ,if the fish are caught before the time of beginning to spawn1 the eggs and the spermatic fluid will not be mature1 and will be only extruded by hard pressing1 and failing to be fecundated1 the eggs will perish4 ,the fluid from one male will fecundate the eggs of half a dozen females4 ,these eggs may be hatched in the flumes described above1 though hatching-boxes are preferable4 ,the old fish can be returned to the water1 and may live many years and produce thousands of fish4 ,these fish1 carefully treated and fed1 will become so tame as to eat out of your hand1 like the ,naiad ,queen of ,professors ,ackley and ,garlick1 of ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,among all the hatching apparatus we have seen described1 we regard that of the above professors at ,cleveland the best4 ,to these gentlemen the country is much indebted for the knowledge derived from their zeal and success in fish culture4 ,at the head of a spring they built a house eight by twelve feet2 in the end of the house toward the spring they made a tank four feet wide1 eight feet long1 and two feet deep2 this was made of plank4 ,water enters the tank through a hole near the top1 and escapes through a similar one at the other end1 and is received into a series of ten successive boxes1 each one a little lower than the preceding one4 ,these boxes were eighteen inches long1 eight inches wide1 and six inches deep4 ,these were filled to the depth of two inches with clean sand and gravel4 ,the impregnated eggs were scattered among the gravel1 care being exercised not to have them in piles or masses4 ,clean water is necessary1 as the sediment deposited by impure water is very destructive to the eggs4 ,if it be seen to be collecting1 it should be removed by agitating the water with a goose-quill or soft brush1 and allowing it to run off2 continue this till it runs clear4 ,but there is a method of preventing impurities in spring-water1 that will be always effectual3 just around on the upper side of the spring make a tight fence two feet high1 and it will turn aside1 and cause to run around the spring1 all the water that may flow down the rise above in time of rains4 ,the house being near the head1 there will not water enough get into the spring1 in any storm1 to roil the water4 ,on the side of the boxes where the water escapes should be wire-cloth1 so fine as not to allow the eggs to pass through4 ,such an apparatus will be perfect4 ,this great care is only necessary for trout4 ,all other fish worthy of cultivation1 will only need spawning-beds on the margin of their pond4 ,a convenient hatching apparatus is a number of wicker-baskets1 fine enough not to allow the eggs to pass through1 set in a flume of clear running water4 ,the method of ,gehen and ,remy1 the great fish-cultivators of ,france1 whose efforts and discoveries have contributed more to this science than those of any1 if not of all other men1 was to place the eggs in zinc-boxes of about one foot in diameter1 having a lid over them--the top and sides of the boxes pierced with small holes1 smooth on the inside2 these boxes were partly filled with clean sand and gravel1 and set in clear running water4 ,m4 ,costa's method1 at the college of ,france1 is to arrange boxes in the form of steps1 the top one being supplied with water by a fountain1 and that passing from one to the other through all the series1 and the eggs placed on willow-hurdles instead of gravel4 ,another very simple method may be arranged in the house4 ,it is a reservoir--a barrel or cask--set perhaps two and a half feet from the floor1 and a little hatching trough a few inches lower1 into which water gradually runs through a faucet1 from the reservoir4 ,this water running through the hatching-box1 escapes into a tub a little below4 ,whatever plan be adopted1 great care is necessary in preventing sediment from depositing4 ,cleanliness is a principal condition of success4 ,the eggs of the trout thus fecundated and deposited in ,october or ,november will hatch in the spring4 ,young trout need no feeding for a month after leaving the egg4 ,there is a small bladder or vesicle under the fore part of the body1 when they first come out1 from which they derive their sustenance4 ,after this disappears1 or at the end of about a month1 they should be fed1 in very small quantities4 ,too much will leave a portion to decay on the bottom and injure the water4 ,the best possible food 7except the angle-worm7 is lean flesh of animals1 boiled and hashed fine for the young fish4 ,the flesh of other kinds of fish1 when they are plenty and not very valuable1 would be very good4 ,these young fish should be kept in the first pond until a year old4 ,then let them into the second pond1 closing the gate after them1 to make room for another brood in the first pond4 ,the next year let them into the third1 and those into the second that are now in the first1 and so on till the fourth4 ,in the last pond1 those of different ages will all be large enough to take care of themselves4 ,but sometimes a trout two years old is said to swallow one a year old4 ,but when they get to be three or four years old1 this sort of cannibalism ceases4 ,these principles can be carried out in small streams1 by constructing gates to keep sections separate1 and by forming banks and waste ways for water1 with wire gates so high1 that the water will not overflow in freshets1 and carry the fish away4 ,in taking trout use angle-worms or the fly4 ,a fine light-colored small line is best4 ,they are very shy4 ,the following is a list of other fish1 beside the trout1 that are well worthy of cultivation3-- ,black ,bass4--,when full grown1 this fish is from twelve to eighteen inches in length4 ,one of the better fish for the table1 and profitable to raise in a pond covering not less than half an acre4 ,chub1 being a very prolific little fish1 may be kept in the same pond as food for the black bass and other large fish4 ,they are very fond of them4 ,minnows are the best bait for these fish1 though they will bite a trolling hook of any ordinary kind4 ,you may raise them as given for the trout above1 or allow them to deposite their eggs in spawn beds of their own selection in their pond4 ,they will do well in water less pure than is demanded for the trout4 ,white ,bass4--,not so large as the black bass4 ,seldom weighs more than two pounds4 ,one of the best for food4 ,thrives well in small ponds4 ,requires the same treatment as the preceding4 ,spawns in ,may and hatches soon4 ,easily caught1 as he is a great biter1 at almost any bait4 ,grass ,bass or ,roach4--,one of the most beautiful of the bass kind1 and as a panfish highly esteemed4 ,it prefers sluggish water1 and hence is well adapted to small artificial ponds4 ,spawns in ,may4 ,may be treated as the preceding4 ,bites the angle-worm well1 and several other kinds of bait4 ,rock ,bass4--,a small fish seldom reaching a pound in weight1 but is fine and very easily raised in small ponds of any kind of water4 ,spawns in ,may and may be treated in all respects as the rest of the bass family1 only it will flourish well in quite small ponds4 ,pickerel4--,is one of the best of fish1 weighs from three to fifteen pounds4 ,suitable only for large ponds4 ,spawns early in the spring in the marshy edges of sluggish water4 ,the eggs may be procured and treated as the trout1 only cold running water is not necessary4 ,best caught by trolling4 ,it is not a good fish to raise with others1 as it is apt to eat them up4 ,yellow ,perch4--,is everywhere well known as a beautiful little fresh-water fish1 and good for the table1 at all seasons when the water is cool4 ,perfectly hardy and adapted to sluggish waters1 it is one of the best for artificial ponds4 ,treat like all the preceding2 or allowed to take its own course in the pond1 it will increase rapidly4 ,sun-,fish4--,rarely weighs more than half a pound1 but is a good pan-fish4 ,this and the grass bass and yellow perch may be put together in the same pond4 ,eels4--,may be cultivated with great success in almost any water4 ,but we are so prejudiced against them1 never consenting to taste one1 that we can not speak in their favor4 ,of the methods of introducing fish into our rivers and creeks1 from which they have nearly all been taken by the fishermen1 it is not our design to treat4 ,that subject may be found fully presented in treatises on fish culture1 and should command the immediate attention of the authorities in all the states4 ,we have here given all that is necessary to success among the masses all over the land4 ,there is hardly a township in the ,united ,states or ,british provinces1 where good fish-ponds might not be constructed so as to be a source of profit and luxury to the inhabitants4 ,fish are so certainly and easily raised1 that the practice of cultivating them should be universally adopted4 ,transporting fish alive is somewhat hazardous1 especially if they be of considerable size4 ,the difficulty is greatly lessened by keeping ice in the water with the fish4 ,change water twice a day and keep ice in it1 and you may safely transport fish around the globe4 ,eggs of fish are best transported in boxes six inches square1 filled with alternate layers of sand and eggs scattered over4 ,when full1 make quite wet1 and fasten on the cover4 ,other methods are adopted which will be easily learned of those engaged in the trade4 ,,flax4 ,change the seed every season4 ,this will greatly increase the quantity1 and improve the quality4 ,in nothing else is it more important4 ,in ,ireland1 the great flax-growing country of the world1 they always sow foreign seed when it can be procured4 ,american seed is preferred1 and brings the highest price4 ,experiments with different seeds1 on varieties of soils1 are much needed4 ,changing from all the soils and latitudes of our country would be useful4 ,the general rule1 however1 as with all seeds1 is to change from colder to warmer regions4 ,soils4--,the best are strong alluvial soils4 ,any soil good for a garden is good for flax4 ,as much clay as will allow soil soon to become dry and easily to be made mellow1 is desirable2 black loam1 with hard1 poor clay-subsoil1 is also good4 ,mellow1 friable soils are not more important to any other crop than to flax4 ,land must not be worked when too wet4 ,the land should be rich from a previous year's manuring4 ,salt1 lime1 ashes1 and plaster1 are good applications to flax after it has come up4 ,on light soil with bad tillage1 when the flax was so poor that the cultivator was about to plow it up1 the application of three bushels of plaster1 in the morning when the dew was on1 produced a larger yield of better flax from an acre than adjoining growers got from two acres of their best land4 ,,flowers4 ,floriculture is an employment appropriate to all classes1 ages1 and conditions4 ,no yard connected with a dwelling is complete without a flower-bed4 ,the cultivation of flowers is eminently promotive of health1 refinement of manners1 and good taste4 ,constant familiarity with the most exquisite beauties of nature must refine the feelings and produce gentleness of spirit4 ,association with flowers should be a part of every child's education4 ,their cultivation is suitable for children and young ladies in all the walks of life4 ,house-plants1 and bouquets in sick-rooms1 are injurious2 their influence on the atmosphere of the rooms is unhealthy4 ,but the cultivation of flowers in the garden or yard is in every way beneficial4 ,we earnestly recommend increased attention to flowers by the whole ,american people4 ,the necessary limits of our article will allow us to do but little more than to call attention to the subject4 ,those who become interested will seek information from some of the numerous works devoted exclusively to ornamental flowers4 ,flowers should be planted on rather level land1 that the rains may not wash off the seeds and fine mould4 ,choose a southern or eastern exposure whenever practicable4 ,avoid1 as much as possible1 planting in the shade4 ,soil--,should be a deep1 rich mould1 neither too wet nor too dry1 and should be enriched with a little compost1 every year4 ,sowing the ,seeds is a most important matter in cultivating flowers4 ,many fail to come up1 solely on account of improper planting4 ,the seeds of most flowers are very fine and delicate4 ,planted in coarse earth1 they will not vegetate2 planted near the surface in a dry time1 they usually perish4 ,it is best to cover all small flower-seeds1 by sifting fine mould upon them2 and if the weather does not do it1 use artificial means to keep the soil suitably moist until the seeds are fairly up4 ,stir the soil gently often1 and keep out all weeds4 ,it is always best to plant the seeds in rows or hills1 with small stakes to indicate their location2 you can then stir the ground freely without destroying them4 ,flowers usually need more watering than most other plants4 ,the usual application of water to the leaves by using a sprinkler is injurious2 it may be better than no watering at all1 but is the worst way to apply water4 ,make a basin in the soil near the plants1 and fill it with water4 ,the selection of suitable varieties for a small flower-garden is quite important4 ,we shall only mention a brief list4 ,those who would make this more of a study1 are recommended to study ,breck's ,book of ,flowers1 which is quite as complete for ,american cultivators as anything we have4 ,the principal divisions are1 bulbous flowering roots1 flowering shrubs1 and flowering herbs--annual1 biennial1 and perennial--the first blossoming and dying the year they are sown2 the second blossoming and dying the second year1 without having blossomed the first2 the last blossoming1 and the top dying down and coming up the next spring1 for a series of years4 ,bulbous ,flowering ,roots4--,these need considerable sand in their soil4 ,they should be taken up after the foliage is all dead1 and if they are hardy1 put the soil in good condition1 and dry the bulbs and reset them1 and let them remain through the winter4 ,they may need slight protection1 by spreading coarse straw1 manure1 or forest-leaves over them late in the fall2 but all the more tender bulbs do better kept in sand until early spring4 ,the best list with which we are acquainted1 for a small garden1 is the following3 the well-known lilies1 the tulips1 gladiolas1 hyacinths1 ,feraria tigrida1 crocus1 narcissus1 and jonquils4 ,flowering ,shrubs4--,the following is a select small list3 ,roses1 as large a variety as you please1 out of the hundreds known2 flowering almond1 ,indigo shrub1 wahoo or fire-shrub1 the mountain-ash1 althea1 snowball1 lilac1 fringe-tree1 snow-drop1 double-flowering peach1 ,siberian crab1 the smoke-tree1 or ,french tree1 or ,venitian sumach1 honeysuckle1 double-flowering cherry4 ,the list of beautiful herbaceous flowers is very lengthy4 ,we give only a few of those most easily raised1 and most showy2 the list is designed only to aid the inquiries of those who are unacquainted with them3 superb amaranth1 tri-colored amaranth1 ,china and ,german astors--the latter are very beautiful--,canterbury bell1 carnation pinks 7great variety71 chrysanthemum 7many varieties and splendid until very late in autumn71 morning glory or convolvulus1 japonicas1 ,cupid's car1 dahlias1 dwarf bush1 morning bride or fading beauty1 fox-glove1 golden coreopsis 7we have raised a variety that proved biennial1 which was superb all the season71 ice-plant1 larkspur1 passion-flower1 peony1 sweet pea1 pinks1 sweet-williams1 annual ,china pink1 polyanthus 7a great beauty71 hyacinth bean1 scarlet-runner bean1 poppy1 portalucca1 nasturtium1 marigolds 7especially the large double ,french1 and the velvet variegated71 martineau1 cypress vine4 ,,fowls4 ,we are glad to believe that the hen mania1 that has prevailed so extensively during the last fifteen or twenty years1 has considerably abated4 ,after all the extravagant notions about the profits of hens shall have passed away1 the truth will be seen to be about the following3 ,every farmer who has considerable waste grain about1 and plenty more to supply the deficiency when the fowls shall have gathered up all the scatterings1 had better keep a hundred hens4 ,if he has sand and gravel1 and wheat-bran and lime for shells1 within their reach1 and plenty of fresh water1 they will do well1 without much further care1 in mild weather4 ,in cold weather in winter1 keep not more than forty hens together1 in a tight1 warm place1 well ventilated2 give them their usual food1 with burnt bones pounded fine and mixed with mush1 given warm1 with occasionally a little animal food and boiled vegetables1 and they will lay more than in summer4 ,they will lay all winter without being inclined to set4 ,every family1 who will treat them as above1 may profitably keep one or two dozen through the winter4 ,most persons who undertake1 with a few acres of land1 to keep fowls as a business1 will lose by it4 ,a few only of the most experienced and careful can make money by it4 ,it may be cheapest for some persons to raise a few chickens for their own use1 although they cost them more than the market-price1 though it would not be best to raise chickens in that way to sell4 ,but some one raised the chickens in market for the market-price1 and why not ,i8 ,because1 they raised a few that got fat on waste grain1 and you must buy grain for yours1 and give more for it than you can get for your chickens4 ,whoever would make money by raising fowls on a large scale1 must first serve some kind of an apprenticeship at it1 as in all other business4 ,get this experience1 and learn by experiment the cheapest and most profitable food1 and keep from five hundred to a thousand fowls1 and a reasonable though not large profit may be realized4 ,for store-fowls1 boiled vegetables and beets cut very fine1 with a little meal mixed in1 are a good and cheap feed4 ,when keeping fowls out-door in warm weather1 keep no more than fifty together1 and them on not less than one fourth of an acre of land4 ,the expensive hen-houses and artificial nests are mostly humbugs4 ,have many places of concealment about1 where they can make their nests as they please4 ,when a hen begins to set1 remove her1 nest and all1 to a yard to which layers have no access1 and you need have no difficulty with her4 ,set a hen near the ground1 in a dry place1 on fifteen fresh eggs1 all put under her at once1 and they will hatch about the same time at the end of twenty days4 ,old hens1 of the common kind1 are best to set4 ,let them have their own way in everything but running in the wet with their young chickens--and that they will not be much inclined to do if they are well fed4 ,much is said about the diseases of fowls and their remedies4 ,we have very little confidence in any of it4 ,sick chickens will die unless they get well4 ,time spent in doctoring them does not generally pay4 ,wormwood and tansy1 growing1 or gathered and scattered1 or steeped and sprinkled about the premises occupied by hens1 will protect them from small vermin4 ,never give them anything salt or sour1 unless it be sour milk4 ,the eggs of ducks1 turkeys1 or geese1 may be hatched under hens4 ,time1 thirty days4 ,hence1 if put under with hens' eggs1 they must be set ten days earlier1 that they may all hatch at once4 ,fattening chickens may be well done in six days1 by feeding rice1 boiled rather soft in sweet skimmed milk1 fed plentifully three times a day4 ,feed these in pans1 well cleaned before each meal1 and give only what they will eat up at once1 and desire a very little more4 ,put a little pounded charcoal within their reach1 and a little rice-water1 milk1 or clear water4 ,this makes the most beautiful meal at a low price4 ,never feed a chicken for sixteen or twenty-four hours before killing it4 ,varieties or ,breeds4--,this has been matter of much speculation4 ,the result has been 7what was probably a main object7 the sale of many fowls and eggs at exorbitant prices4 ,when chickens have sold at fifty dollars per pair1 and eggs at six dollars a dozen1 some persons must have made money1 while others lost it4 ,yet1 there is some choice in the breed of hens4 ,the kind makes less difference1 as far as flesh is concerned1 than is usually imagined4 ,it requires about a given quantity of grain to make a certain amount of flesh4 ,large fowls give us much larger weight of flesh than small ones1 but they also eat a much larger quantity of grain4 ,large fowls are certainly large eaters4 ,the three best layers are the black ,polands1 the ,malayas1 and the ,shanghaes4 ,half-bloods1 by crossing with the common fowl1 are better for this country than either of the above1 pure4 ,fowls are generally improved by frequent crossing4 ,the best we have ever had1 for their flesh1 we produced by putting a black ,poland rooster with common hens2 they grew larger than either1 and their flesh was very fine4 ,shanghaes and half-blood ,shanghaes have proved permanently the best layers we have ever had4 ,early pullets make great fall and winter layers1 and late chickens are great layers in the spring1 when older ones wish to set4 ,ducks we have considered in a separate article4 ,we shall do the same with turkeys4 ,killing1 dressing1 and preparing all fowls for market1 will be treated under the head of ,poultry4 ,geese will also be considered in another place4 ,we should give drawings of aviaries1 but we consider these generally worse than useless1 as they are usually constructed4 ,an airy place for summer1 and a warm room for winter1 poles with rough bark on for roosts1 and plenty of feed and water1 sand1 gravel1 and lime1 will give abundant success4 ,,fruit4 ,the value of fruit is not fully appreciated in this country4 ,as an article of diet nothing is more natural and healthy4 ,the ,creator gave this to man for food1 when human nature1 physically1 was in its normal condition4 ,and why meats have since been allowed1 ,i know not1 unless it be the reason why ,moses allowed divorce in certain cases1 although it was not so in the beginning1 viz41 the hardness of their hearts4 ,why the stomach1 upon the healthy condition of which all physical1 mental1 and moral functions so materially depend1 should be made the receptacle of dead animals1 and especially those so long dead1 as much of the meat offered in market1 it would puzzle a philosopher to tell4 ,but we will not write an elaborate article on the healthfulness of a diet composed mainly of milk1 fruits1 and vegetables4 ,suffice it to say that experience and observation1 as well as analysis and physiology1 unite in demonstrating that ripe fruits contain virtues1 that go far toward preventing the ordinary diseases of men4 ,they are good1 plain or cooked1 and for sick or well persons1 except in extreme cases4 ,they regulate the bowels and control the secretions1 better than any other article of food4 ,they are so highly nutritious1 that they sustain nature under arduous toil1 better than either meat1 fine bread1 or the ,irish potato4 ,with proper care the fruits are cheaper than any other article of food4 ,they can be raised cheaper than corn or potatoes4 ,they may be enjoyed all the year1 are profitable for market1 and for food for animals4 ,,fruitfulness4 ,inducing it in ,fruit-,trees4--,fruit-trees often grow luxuriantly1 but bear no fruit1 or very little4 ,in nearly all cases the evil may be remedied4 ,one remedy is shortening in4 ,this is done by cutting off half the present year's growth in ,july4 ,this checks the tendency of the sap to promote so large a growth1 and forces it to mature blossom-buds for the next season4 ,another effectual means is to bend down all the principal branches and tie them down4 ,this has a great influence in checking excessive growth and forming fruit-buds4 ,frequent transplanting has a tendency also to induce fruitfulness4 ,root pruning is one of the best means of securing this object4 ,lay bare the upper roots and cut off all the larger ones two feet from the tree4 ,this will check excessive formation of wood and foliage1 render the wood firm1 and the organic matter of the sap will form abundance of fruit-buds4 ,these methods will produce fruit in abundance on nineteen twentieths of barren or poor-bearing fruit-trees4 ,,garden4 ,the garden has been the most delightful abode of man ever since his creation1 before and since the fall4 ,one of the most pleasant pastimes1 for ladies and children1 is gardening4 ,the flower1 vegetable1 and fruit departments are all pleasant and healthful4 ,situation of a garden is important4 ,this varies with climates4 ,in a cold country the warmest exposures are best1 and in a hot climate select the coolest4 ,a garden combining both is the best possible4 ,the warmest exposure is good for early vegetables1 and the cooler and more shady for the main crop4 ,much can be done to regulate this by fences and buildings4 ,they will be warm and early on one side1 and cool and late on the other4 ,soil4--,a rich loam is always best4 ,to convert stiff clay1 or light sand and gravel1 into a good loam1 is an easy matter on so small a plat as is usually devoted to a garden4 ,draw an abundance of sand on clay-ground1 plow deep and mix well1 and one winter's frost will so pulverize the whole that it will be in excellent condition4 ,in warm climates1 the incorporation of the sand with the clay is effected by frequent plowing and rains4 ,on sand and gravel draw plenty of clay and loam1 if it can be easily procured2 thus it is easy to form a good friable1 retentive loam1 adapted to every variety of soil-culture4 ,decayed wood and forest-leaves are excellent for garden-soils4 ,manure well2 but remember that it is possible to overfeed the soil of a garden1 so as to render it unproductive4 ,deep plowing or spading is very important2 it is the best possible remedy for excessive drought or unusual rains4 ,the water will not stand on the surface when it first falls1 and will be retained long in the soil for the use of the plants4 ,the soil should be very mellow4 ,plowing or spading too early1 in hope of getting earlier vegetables1 is often a failure4 ,the earlier the better1 if you can pulverize the soil2 otherwise not4 ,plowing when covered with a heavy dew1 or when it rains gently1 is equal to a good coat of manure4 ,a garden should be on level land well drained2 if much inclined1 rains will wash off the best of the soil1 and destroy many seeds and plants4 ,no weeds should be allowed to grow to any considerable size in a garden4 ,early and frequent hoeings are important to success4 ,directions for the cultivation of each garden vegetable and fruit are given under each of those articles respectively4 ,methods of gardening at the ,south and the ,north vary but little in the main articles4 ,at the ,north we have to guard against too much cool weather1 and at the ,south against too much heat4 ,some vegetables that need planting on ridges in the ,north1 to obtain more sun and heat1 should be planted on level land at the ,south1 to guard against too much heat and drought4 ,besides this1 the main difference is in the time of planting1 which varies more or less with every degree of latitude1 or every five hundred feet of elevation4 ,have no fruit-trees in your vegetable or fruit garden1 unless it may be a few dwarf-pears on the quince-stock1 and these had better be by themselves4 ,the plan of a garden is a matter of taste1 and depends much upon its size and necessary situation4 ,we prefer ornamental shrubs in front of the house1 the flowers adjoining it and passing the windows of those rooms that are constantly occupied1 and the fruit-department in the rear of the flowers1 while the vegetable-garden should be at the right or left of the fruit1 and in the rear of the kitchen4 ,on the other side of the house should be the larger fruit-trees1 extending back as far as the fruit and vegetable garden1 and in the rear of it1 the carriage-house and other out-buildings4 ,the best fence is of good wrought iron1 sharp and strong enough to exclude all intruders4 ,when this can not be afforded1 a good hedge1 made of the plants best adapted to hedges in your latitude1 is preferred2 next to this a good tight board-fence4 ,all fruit-gardens should have alleys1 eight or ten feet wide1 within four rods of each other1 to afford space for carting on manures1 c4 ,a vegetable-garden of one acre should have such an alley through the centre each way1 with a place in the end1 opposite the entrance1 to turn around a summer-house1 arbor1 or tool-house4 ,one rod from the fence1 on all sides1 should be an alley four or five feet wide2 other small alleys as convenience or taste may require4 ,the usual way is to sink the alleys three or four inches below the level of the beds1 and cover with gravel1 tanbark1 shells1 c4 ,we strongly recommend raising the alleys in their middle1 at least four inches above the surface of the beds4 ,the paths are always neater1 and the moisture is retained for the use of the plants4 ,excessive rains can be allowed to pass off4 ,this making alleys low sluice-ways for water is a great mistake in yards and gardens4 ,,garlic4 ,this is a hardy perennial plant1 from the south of ,europe1 and has been in cultivation1 as a garden vegetable1 for hundreds of years4 ,it is cultivated as the onion1 and needs much ashes1 bonedust1 and lime1 in the soil4 ,it is much esteemed in some countries1 in soups4 ,it is but little used in the ,united ,states3 it is used at the ,south as a medicinal herb4 ,we know of no important use of garlic for which onions will not answer as well1 and therefore do not recommend garlic as an ,american garden vegetable4 ,those who wish to cultivate it will pursue the same course as in raising onions from sets4 ,this will always be successful4 ,,gathering ,,fruits4 ,this is almost as important as proper cultivation4 ,this is especially true of the pear4 ,many cultivators raise inferior pears from trees of the very best varieties1 for want of a correct knowledge of the best methods of gathering1 preserving1 and ripening the fruit4 ,complete directions will be found under each fruit4 ,,geese4 ,farmers usually are opposed to keeping geese1 believing them to destroy more than they are worth4 ,if you have a suitable place to keep them1 they may be profitable4 ,they should have a pasture with a fence they can not pass1 enclosing a spring1 pond1 or stream4 ,they do better to have a little grain the year round4 ,this1 with plenty of grass in summer and cut roots in winter1 will keep them in fine condition4 ,the feathers will pay the cost of keeping1 leaving the increase and feathers of the young as profit4 ,on an acre or two1 one hundred geese may be kept1 and if the proportion of males and females be right1 they will yield a profit of two dollars each4 ,,gooseberry4 ,this is a native of the north of ,europe and ,asia1 from which all our fine varieties have been produced by cultivation4 ,our own native varieties are not known to have produced any very desirable ones4 ,probably the zeal of the ,lancashire weavers1 in ,england1 will surpass all that ,americans will do for the next century in gooseberry culture4 ,they publish a small book annually1 giving an account of new varieties4 ,the last catalogue of the ,london ,horticultural ,society mentions one hundred and forty-nine varieties1 as worthy of cultivation4 ,a few only should receive attention among us4 ,gooseberries delight in cool and rather moist situations4 ,they do not flourish so naturally south of ,philadelphia2 though they grow well in all the mountainous regions1 and may produce fair fruit in many cool1 moist situations4 ,deep mulching is very beneficial2 it preserves the moisture1 and protects from excessive heat4 ,the land must be trenched and manured deep4 ,in ,november1 cut out one half of the top1 both old and new wood1 and a good crop of fine fruit may be expected each year1 for five or six years1 when new bushes should take the place of old ones4 ,propagate by cuttings of the last growth4 ,cut out all the eyes1 below the surface1 when planted4 ,plant six inches deep in loam1 in the shade4 ,press the soil close around them4 ,to prevent mildew1 it is recommended to sprinkle lime or flour of sulphur over the foliage and flowers1 or young fruit4 ,the fruit-books recommend the best varieties1 and very open tops1 as not exposed to mildew4 ,we recommend spreading dry straw1 or fine charcoal1 on the surface under the bushes1 as a perfect remedy1 if the top be not left too thick4 ,there is no necessity for mildew on gooseberries4 ,the fall is much the best season for trimming1 though early spring will do4 ,varieties are divided into red1 green1 white1 and yellow4 ,these are subdivided into hundreds of others1 with names entirely arbitrary4 ,the following are the best varieties1 generally cultivated in this country3-- #a4 ,houghton's ,seedling4--,flavor1 superior2 skin1 thin and tender2 color1 reddish-brown4 ,prodigious grower and bearer--none better known4 ,free from mildew4 ,native of ,massachusetts4 #b4 ,red ,warrington4--,later and larger than the preceding2 hangs long on the bush without cracking1 and improves in flavor4 #c4 ,woodward's ,whitesmith--is one of the best of the white varieties4 #d4 ,cleworth's ,white ,lion4--,large and late2 excellent4 #e4 ,collier's ,jolly ,angler--is a good green gooseberry2 fruit large1 excellent1 and late4 #f4 ,early ,green ,hairy4--,very early2 rather small2 prolific4 #g4 ,buerdsill's ,duckwing--is a good1 late1 yellow gooseberry2 large fruit1 and a fine-growing bush4 #h4 ,prophets ,rockwood4--,very large fruit of excellent quality1 ripening quite early4 ,the foregoing list1 giving two of each of the four colors1 and early and late1 are all1 we think1 that need be cultivated4 ,many more varieties1 nearly equalling the above1 may be selected2 but we are not aware that any improvement would be made4 ,downing gives the following list for a garden3-- ,red4--,red ,warrington1 ,companion1 ,crown ,bob1 ,london1 ,houghton's ,seedling4 ,yellow4--,leader1 ,yellow ,ball1 ,catharine1 ,gunner4 ,white4--,woodward's ,whitesmith1 ,freedom1 ,taylor's ,bright ,venus1 ,tally ,ho1 ,sheba ,queen4 ,green4--,pitmaston ,green ,gage1 ,thumper1 ,jolly ,angler1 ,massey's ,heart of oak1 ,parkinson's ,laurel4 ,thus you have ,downing's authority2 his list includes most of those we have recommended above4 ,the varieties are less important than in most fruits1 provided only you get the large varieties of ,english gooseberry4 ,proper cultivation will insure success4 ,whoever cultivates1 only tolerably well1 the ,houghton ,seedling1 will be sure to raise good berries1 free from mildew4 ,,grafting4 ,this is one of the leading methods of obtaining such fruits as we wish1 on stocks of such habits of growth and degrees of hardiness1 as we may desire4 ,the stock will control1 in some degree1 the growth of the scion1 but leave the fruit mainly to its habits on its original tree4 ,the advantages of grafting are principally the following3-- ,good varieties may be propagated very rapidly4 ,a single tree may produce a thousand annually1 for a series of years4 ,large trees of worthless fruit may be changed into any variety we please1 and in a very short time bear abundantly4 ,fruits not easily multiplied in any other way1 can be rapidly increased by grafting4 ,early bearing of seedlings can be secured by grafting on bearing trees4 ,tender and exotic varieties may be acclimated by grafting into indigenous stocks4 ,fruit can be raised on an uncongenial soil1 by grafting into stocks adapted to that soil4 ,several varieties may be produced on the same tree1 for ornament or economy of room4 ,dwarfs of any variety may be produced by grafting on dwarf stocks1 and we may thus grow many trees on a small space4 ,a slow-growing variety may be made to form a large top1 by grafting into large vigorous-growing stocks4 ,we are enabled to carry varieties to any part of the world1 at a cheap rate1 as the scions1 properly done up1 may safely be carried around the globe4 ,time of ,grafting4--,grafts may be made to live1 put in in any month of the year1 but the beginning of the opening of the buds in spring1 is the preferable season4 ,stone fruits should be budded2 and all fruits may be made to do well budded4 ,budding is usually only practised on small trees1 while grafting may be performed on trees of any size4 ,cutting and preserving ,scions4--,mature shoots of the previous year's growth are best4 ,those of the year before will also do4 ,they may be cut at any time from ,november to time of setting4 ,perhaps the month of ,february is best4 ,they may be well preserved in moist sawdust in tight boxes4 ,the more there are together the better they will keep4 ,they keep better by being cut a little below the beginning of the last year's growth1 but it is more injurious to the tree4 ,they may be kept well in fine sand1 moist and cool4 ,too much moisture is always injurious4 ,put the lower ends in shallow water1 and they will look very fine1 but not one of them will live4 ,scions cut in the fall and buried six inches deep in yellow loam or fine sand1 will keep well till next spring4 ,there are several methods of grafting only two of which deserve particular attention4 ,these are cleft-grafting and tongue or splice grafting1 see figures4 ,illustration3 ,cleft-,grafting4 ,illustration3 ,tongue-,grafting4 ,cleft-,grafting is performed in most cases1 when scions are grafted upon stocks much larger than themselves4 ,it is too well known to need particular description4 ,tools should be sharp1 and it should be performed before the bark slips so easily as to be started by splitting the stock4 ,it endangers the growth of the scions4 ,the requisite to success in all grafting1 is to have some point of actual contact1 between the inside barks of both the scion and the stock4 ,this is more certainly secured by causing the scion to stand at a slight angle with the stock4 ,tongue-,grafting is generally used in grafting on small stocks--seedlings or roots4 ,with a sharp knife1 cut off the scion slanting down1 and the stock slanting up1 split each in the centre1 and push one in to the other until the barks meet1 and wind with thick paper or thin muslin1 with grafting wax on one side4 ,this is generally used in root-grafting4 ,the question of root-grafting has excited considerable discussion recently4 ,many suppose it to produce unhealthy trees1 and that retaining the variety is less certain than by other modes4 ,root-grafting is a cheap and rapid means of multiplying trees1 and hence is greatly prized by nursery men4 ,practical cultivators of ,illinois have assured us1 that it is impossible to produce good ,rhode ,island greenings in that state1 by root-grafting--that they will not produce the same variety4 ,we see no principle upon which they should fail1 but will not undertake to settle this important question4 ,for ourselves we prefer to use one whole stock for each tree1 cutting it off at the ground and grafting there4 ,grafting ,composition or ,wax4--,one part beef's tallow1 two parts beeswax1 and four parts rosin1 make the best4 ,harder or softer1 it is liable to be injured by the weather4 ,warm weather will melt it1 and cold will crack it4 ,melt these together and pour them into cold water1 and pull and work as shoemaker's wax4 ,when using1 it is to be kept in cool or warm water1 as the weather may demand4 ,in its application1 it is to be pressed closely over all the wound made by sawing and splitting the limb1 and close around the scions1 so as to exclude air and water4 ,clay is often used for grafting1 but is not equal to wax4 ,you can use grafting tools1 invented especially for the purpose1 or a common saw1 mallet1 knife1 and wedge4 ,,grapes4 ,those cultivated so extensively in ,europe were natives of ,persia--showing that they may be acclimated far from their native home4 ,foreign grapes are not suitable for out-door culture in this country1 except a very few varieties1 which do well in the ,southern states4 ,the native grapes of this country have produced some excellent varieties1 which are now in general cultivation4 ,others are beginning to attract notice1 and seedlings will probably multiply rapidly1 and great improvements in our native grapes may be expected4 ,the subject of grape-culture deserves greatly-increased attention4 ,to all palates the grape is delicious2 it is not only one of the most palatable articles of diet1 but is more highly medicinal than any other fruit4 ,it is the natural source of pure wine4 ,pure wine made of grapes is only to be procured1 in this country1 by domestic manufacture4 ,probably not one out of a thousand gallons of imported wines1 sold as pure1 contains a drop of the juice of the grape2--they are manufactured of poisonous drugs and ardent spirits--generally common whiskey4 ,a ,french chemist discovered a method of imitating fermented liquor without fermentation1 and distilled spirits without distillation4 ,his process has been published in this country in book form1 and by subscription2 and while those books are unknown in the bookstores1 they are generally possessed by prominent liquor dealers2--and the practice of those secret arts is terribly dangerous to the community4 ,antecedent to this chemical manufacture of poisonous liquors1 such a disease as delirium tremens was unknown4 ,thus the ,frenchman's discovery filled the liquor-sellers' pockets with cash1 and the land with mourning1 over frequent deaths by a disease1 the horror of which is equalled only by hydrophobia4 ,in self-defence1 all should give up the use of everything purporting to be imported wines or liquors4 ,wine should not be used as a common beverage by the healthy4 ,the best medical authority in the world has pronounced it absolutely injurious4 ,but in many cases of sickness1 especially in convalescence from fevers1 it is one of the very best articles that can be used2 hence1 a pure article1 of domestic manufacture1 should be accessible to all the sick4 7,see our article on ,wine47 ,the luxury of good grapes can be enjoyed by every family in the land who have a yard twenty feet square4 ,in the cities1 almost every house may have a grapevine or two where nothing else would grow4 ,allow a vine to run up trellis-work in the rear of the house1 and over the roof of a wing1 or rear-part1 raised two feet above the roof1 supported by a rack4 ,in such situations they will bear better than elsewhere1 will be out of the way1 and decidedly ornamental4 ,in such small yards1 from five to twenty-five bushels have often grown in a season4 ,some climates and soils are much better suited to grape-culture than others4 ,but we have varieties that will flourish wherever ,indian corn will mature4 ,location4--,for vineyards1 the sides of hills are usually chosen1 sometimes for the purpose of a warm exposure1 but generally to secure the most perfect drainage4 ,a northern exposure is preferable for all varieties adapted to the climate4 ,to mature late varieties1 choose a southern or eastern exposure4 ,soil4--,gravelly1 with a little sand1 on a dry subsoil1 is preferable1 though good grapes may be grown upon any land upon which water will not stand4 ,grapes always need much lime4 ,if the vineyard is not located on calcareous soil1 lime must be liberally supplied1 especially for wine-making4 ,a dry subsoil1 or thorough draining1 is indispensable to successful grape-culture4 ,we prefer level land1 wherever thorough draining is practicable4 ,propagation4--,choice grapes are propagated by grafts1 layers1 or cuttings4 ,new ones are produced from seeds4 ,the more kinds that are cultivated together1 the greater will be the varieties raised from their seeds1 by cross-fertilization in the blossoms4 ,a small grape crossed with a large one1 or an early with a late one1 or two of different flavors1 will produce mediums between them4 ,seeds should be cleaned1 and planted in the fall1 or kept in sand till spring4 ,in the fall1 cover up the young vines4 ,the second or third year1 the young vines should be set in the places where they are designed to remain4 ,by efforts to get new varieties1 we may adapt them to every latitude1 from the gulf of ,mexico to ,pembina4 ,layers4--,these produce large vines and abundance of fruit earlier than any other method of propagation4 ,put down old wood in ,may or early ,june1 and new wood a month later2 fasten down with pegs having a hook to hold the vine1 and cover up with earth2 they will take root freely at the joints1 and may be removed in autumn or spring4 ,if you put down wood too late1 or do not keep it covered with moist earth1 it will fail2 otherwise it is always sure4 ,cuttings--may be from any wood you have to spare1 and should be about a foot long1 having two buds4 ,plant at an angle of forty-five degrees1 one bud and two thirds of the cutting under the soil4 ,a little shade and moisture will cause nearly all to grow4 ,a little grafting-wax on the top will aid the growth1 by preventing evaporation4 ,the cutting1 so buried as to have the top bud half an inch under fine mould1 is said to be surer4 ,cuttings should be made late in fall1 or early in winter1 and preserved as scions for grafting4 ,cuttings made in the spring are less sure to grow1 and their removal is much more injurious to the vine4 ,vines raised from cuttings may be transplanted when one or two years old4 ,grafting--should be performed after the leaves are well developed in the spring4 ,the sap becomes thick1 which aids the process4 ,remove the earth1 and saw off the vine two or three inches below the surface4 ,graft with scions of the previous year's growth1 but well matured1 and apply cement1 to keep the sap from coming out4 ,cover all but the top bud4 ,in stocks an inch in diameter put two scions4 ,very few need fail4 ,budding--maybe done as in other cases1 but always after the leaves are well developed1 to avoid bleeding4 ,these modes of propagation stand in the following order in point of preference1 the best being named first3 layers1 cuttings1 grafting1 budding4 ,culture and ,manure4--,land prepared by deep subsoil plowing1 highly manured and cultivated the previous season in a root-crop1 is the best for a vineyard4 ,the trenches for the rows should be spaded twenty inches deep1 and a part of the surface-soil put in the bottom4 ,after planting the vines1 stir the ground often and keep clear of weeds4 ,at first1 stir the soil deep2 but1 as the roots extend1 avoid working among them1 and never disturb the roots with a plow4 ,mulching preserves the soil in a moist1 loose condition1 and is a good preventive of mildew4 ,in many instances it is said to have doubled the crop4 ,common animal-manures are good for young vines1 and in preparing the soil1 but are rather too stimulating for bearing vines1 often injuring the fruit4 ,ashes and cinders from the smith's forge1 wood-ashes1 charcoal1 soapsuds1 bones and bonedust1 lime1 and forest and grape leaves and trimmings1 carefully dug into the soil around the vines1 are all very good4 ,a liberal supply of suitable manures will keep the vines in a healthy condition1 and preserve the fruit from disease and decay4 ,this1 with judicious pruning1 will render the grape-crop regular and sure4 ,vineyards--should be in rows five feet apart1 with vines four feet apart in the row4 ,layers of one1 and cuttings of two years' growth1 will bear the second year1 and very plentifully the third year4 ,a good vineyard in the latitude of ,cincinnati yields about one hundred and fifty bushels of grapes per acre1 making four hundred gallons of wine4 ,the average yield of wine per acre1 throughout the country1 is estimated at two hundred gallons4 ,training under ,glass4--,by this means the fine foreign varieties may be brought to perfection in our high latitudes4 ,with most of the best kinds1 this can be done by solar heat alone4 ,a house covered with glass at an angle of forty-five degrees1 facing the south1 will answer the purpose4 ,with a slight artificial heat1 the finest varieties may be perfected1 and others forwarded1 so as to have fine grapes at most seasons of the year4 ,the vines are planted on the outside of the grapehouse1 and allowed to pass in through an aperture two feet from the ground1 and are trained up near the glass on the inside4 ,protect the roots in winter by a covering of coarse straw manure4 ,wind the vines on the inside with straw1 lay them down on the ground in the grape-house1 and keep it closed during the winter4 ,a house one hundred feet long and twenty-five feet wide1 filled mainly with ,black ,hamburg1 with a few other choice varieties1 would afford a great luxury1 and prove a profitable investment4 ,from one such house1 near a large city1 a careful cultivator may realize a thousand dollars per annum4 ,native and even hardy varieties are often greatly improved by cultivation under glass1 or by a little protection in winter4 ,the ,isabella grape is hardy and productive in western ,new ,york4 ,in #ahef1 we noticed a vine that had been laid down in a dry place and covered slightly with earth1 in autumn2 the fruit was more abundant1 and one fourth larger1 than that on a similar vine by its side that had remained on the trellis during winter3 this shows the value of protection even to hardy vines4 ,training4--,there are many methods1 and the question of preference depends upon the location of the vines1 the space they may occupy1 and the taste of the cultivator4 ,there are four principal systems--the cane or renewal system1 spur system1 fan-training1 and spiral or hoop training4 ,the renewal system we prefer for trellises4 ,put posts firmly in the ground eight feet apart1 allowing them to be seven feet above ground after they are set2 put slats of wood or wire across these1 a foot apart1 commencing a foot above the ground4 ,set vines eight feet apart2 let the vines be composed of two branches1 coming out near the ground3 these can be formed by cutting off a young vine near the ground1 and training two of the shoots that will spring from the bottom4 ,these two vines should be bent down in opposite directions1 and tied horizontally to the lower slat of the trellis2 cut these off1 so as to have them meet similar vines from the next root2 upright shoots from these will extend to the top of the trellis1 and it is then covered1 and the work is complete4 ,after these upright canes have borne1 cut off every alternate one1 two or three inches from its base1 and train up the strongest shoot for a bearer next year3 thus cut off and train new alternate ones every year1 and the vine will be constantly renewing1 and be in the most productive state2 keep the vines clipped at the top of the trellis1 and the sap will mature strong buds for next year's fruit4 ,we regard this the most effectual of all training4 ,the principle of renewal can be applied to any form of vine1 and eminently promotes fruitfulness4 ,many complain that their vines1 though liberally pruned1 do not bear well4 ,the difficulty may be that the new wood is principally removed1 while the old is left to throw out strong-growing shoots1 bearing abundance of foliage and little fruit4 ,more of the old wood removed1 and more of the young saved1 would have produced less vines and much more fruit4 ,pruning--is the most important part of successful grape-culture4 ,mistakes on this subject are very injurious4 ,let vines grow in their own way1 and you will have much wood and foliage1 and very little1 poor fruit4 ,some cut off the shoots in summer just above the fruit1 and remove most of the leaves around it to expose the fruit to the sun4 ,this often proves to be a ruinous mistake2 the sap ascends to the leaves1 and there amalgamates with what they absorb from the atmosphere1 and thus forms food for the vine and fruit4 ,it is the leaves1 and not the fruit1 which need the sun3 the leaves are the lungs1 upon the action of which the life and health of the fruit depend4 ,blight of the leaves destroys the fruit1 and a frequent repetition of it destroys the vine4 ,grape-vines should not be pruned at all until three years old1 as it retards the growth of the roots1 and thus weakens the vines4 ,older vines should be freely pruned in ,november or ,december2 pruned in winter they may bleed in the spring1 and pruned in the spring they certainly will bleed4 ,tender vines1 not protected1 may have an excess of wood left in the fall to allow for what may perish in winter2 in this case1 cut away the dead and surplus wood in spring1 but never until the leaves are well developed1 so as to prevent bleeding4 ,necessary summer-pruning is of much importance4 ,remove no leaves1 except the ends of branches1 that have already made as much wood as they can mature4 ,in the ,middle states this should be done about the last of ,july1 and at the ,south a month earlier4 ,weak lateral branches1 that bear no fruit1 may be removed1 but not all of them1 for it is on the wood of this year's growth that the fruit will be found the following season4 ,old wood does not send out wood in spring that will bear fruit the same season2 that wood will bear fruit next season if allowed to remain4 ,whoever observes will notice that grapes grow on young shoots of the same season2 but they are shoots from wood of the previous year's growth1 and not from old wood4 ,many suppose if they trim their vines very closely1 as the old vines send forth abundance of new wood1 and it is new wood on which the fruit grows1 of course they will have abundance of grapes2 and they are disappointed by a failure4 ,the explanation of the whole is1 fruit grows on new wood1 from wood of previous year's growth1 and not from old vines2 hence1 in lessening a vine1 remove old wood4 ,this is the renewal system1 whatever the form of the vine1 and is the whole secret of successful pruning4 ,this accounts for the great success of the ,germans in producing such quantities of grapes on low vines4 ,in their best vineyards1 they do not allow their vines to grow more than six or seven feet high1 and yet they produce abundantly for many years4 ,they so prune as to have plenty of last year's wood for the production of fruit the current season2 after this has borne fruit1 they remove it to make room for the young wood that will produce the next season4 ,this principle is applicable to vines of any shape or size you may choose to form4 ,the removal1 in summer1 of excessive growth1 and shortening the ends of those you design to retain1 throws the strength of the vine into the fruit1 and to perfect the wood already formed4 ,liberal fall-pruning is necessary to induce the formation of new wood the next season1 for bearing the following year4 ,parts that grow late do not mature sufficiently to bear fruit the next season2 hence1 cut off the ends in summer1 and let what remains have the benefit of all the sap4 ,reduction of ,fruit4--,the grape is disposed to excessive bearing1 which weakens the vine1 and injures the quality of the fruit4 ,liberal pruning in autumn does much to remedy this evil1 by not leaving room for an excessive amount of fruit3 hence1 when you have a plenty of fruit-bearing wood1 cut off the ends1 so as to leave spurs with two buds1 or at the most only four2 when too much fruit sets1 remove it very early1 before the juices of the vine have been wasted upon it4 ,a vine cut or wounded in spring will bleed profusely4 ,sheet ,india-rubber1 or two or three thicknesses of a bladder1 wet and bound closely around1 may prevent the bleeding4 ,mildew--is very destructive in confined locations1 without a good circulation of air4 ,sulphur and quicklime1 separate or combined1 dug into the soil around the vines1 is a preventive4 ,straw or litter of any kind1 spread thick under the vines1 is1 perhaps1 the best remedy--the action of it is in every way beneficial4 ,insects4--,the rosebug1 spanworm1 great greenworm1 and many other insects1 infest grapevines1 and do much injury4 ,the large worms are most easily destroyed by hand2 the small insects by flour-of-sulphur1 or by snuff1 sprinkled over profusely when the vines are wet4 ,the various applications recommended in this work for the destruction of insects1 are useful on the grapevine4 ,the principle is to apply something offensive to the insects1 without being injurious to the vines4 ,preserving ,grapes4--,packed in sawdust or wheat-bran1 always thoroughly dried by heat1 they will keep well until spring4 ,another method is packing them in cotton-batting or wadding 7the latter is best72 or put them in baskets holding no more than four or five quarts1 cover tight with cotton1 and hang up in a cool1 airy place1 and they will long remain in good condition4 ,in shallow boxes1 six inches deep1 put a sheet of wadding1 and on it a layer of bunches of grapes1 not allowed to touch each other2 on the top of the grapes put another sheet of cotton1 and then another layer of grapes1 and so the third1 covering the last with cotton1 and put the cover on tight1 and keep in a cool place4 ,this is the most successful method4 ,a new method is to suspend hoops by three cords1 like a baby-jumper1 and hang the bunches of grapes all around it1 as near as possible without touching1 on little wire hooks1 passing through the lower ends of the clusters1 allowing the stem end to be suspended1 and the grapes hang away from each other1 and if the place be not damp enough to mould them1 and not dry enough to cause them to shrivel1 they keep exceedingly well4 ,it requires more care and judgment1 than the other methods4 ,a very cool situation1 without freezing1 is essential in all cases4 ,it is also necessary to remove all broken or immature grapes1 from the clusters you would preserve4 ,varieties are very numerous1 and their nomenclature is confused1 as that of other fruits4 ,it is utterly useless to cultivate foreign grapes in the open air in this country4 ,they succeed very imperfectly1 even in the ,southern states4 ,but for cultivation under glass1 they are preferable to any of our own4 ,the following foreign grapes are preferred in this country3-- ,black ,prince1 ,white ,muscat1 ,white ,constantia1 ,white ,muscadine1 ,white ,sweet-water1 ,early ,white ,muscat1 ,black ,cluster1 ,black ,hamburg4 ,the latter is the best of all foreign grapes for cultivation under glass4 ,it is very delicious1 a great bearer1 of very large clusters4 ,it requires only solar heat to bring it to perfection4 ,native ,grapes4--,of these we now have a large number1 many of which are valuable4 ,we call attention only to a very few of the best4 ,the ,isabella as a table luxury is hardly surpassed4 ,in the ,eastern1 ,middle1 and ,western states1 it is generally hardy and prolific4 ,in northern ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 and ,vermont1 it does not ripen well4 ,the seasons are too short4 ,it also feels somewhat the severity of the weather1 on the western prairies4 ,it is also apt to decay at the ,south4 ,for all other parts it is one of the very best4 ,it is an enormous bearer1 one vine having been known to produce more than ten bushels1 in a single year4 ,illustration3 ,the ,isabella ,grape4 ,illustration3 ,the ,catawba ,grape4 ,next is the ,catawba1 better for wine1 more vinous but not so sweet as the ,isabella1 ripens two or three weeks later1 and hence not so good in high latitudes4 ,the ,rebecca ,grape4--,this is a comparatively new variety1 of great promise4 ,white like the ,sweet-water1 flavor very fine1 vine hardy and productive4 ,the ,diana is a small delicious grape1 excellent flavor for the dessert1 and ripens two weeks earlier than the ,isabella4 ,hence good for northern latitudes4 ,the ,concord4--,large1 showy1 of good but not the best flavor1 and ripens with the ,diana4 ,should be cultivated at the ,north4 ,the ,york ,madeira is similar to the ,isabella1 smaller and a few days earlier4 ,illustration3 ,the ,rebecca ,grape4 ,illustration3 ,the ,delaware ,grape4 ,the ,delaware is a small brown grape1 excellent and hardy4 ,ripens quite as early as the ,isabella4 ,best outdoor grape1 in many localities4 ,the ,canadian ,chief4--,one of the very best grapes for ,canada4 ,canby's ,august4--,very fine2 considered better for the table than the ,isabella1 ripens ten days earlier1 and as it is a good bearer1 it should be generally cultivated4 ,the ,ohio ,grape is a good variety1 beginning to attract much notice4 ,the ,scuppernong is the best of all grapes1 for general cultivation at the ,south4 ,it is never affected by the rot4 ,not easily raised from cuttings4 ,layers are better4 ,it does best trained on an arbor4 ,the soil and climate of the ,south are well adapted to the grape1 even the finer varieties that do not flourish well at the ,north4 ,they are1 however1 seriously affected by the rot1 an evil incident to the heat and humidity of the climate4 ,it being very warm1 the dews and rains incline the fruit to decay4 ,we think the evil may be prevented by two very simple means3 ,keep the vines very open1 that they may dry very soon after rain2 and train them to trellises1 from six to ten feet high1 and over the top put a coping of boards1 in the shape of a roof1 extending eighteen inches on each side of the trellis4 ,it will prevent the rain and heavy dews from falling on the grapes1 and is said to preserve them perfectly4 ,this arrangement is about equal1 in a warm climate1 to cold graperies at the north4 ,we recommend increased attention to this great luxury1 in all parts of the country4 ,seedlings will arise1 adapted to every locality on the continent4 ,,grasses4 ,there is a great number of varieties1 adapted to cultivation in some countries and climates1 but not suitable for ,american culture4 ,on the comparative value of different grasses there is a diversity of opinions4 ,the best course for the practical farmer is1 having the best and surest1 therewith to be content4 ,sir ,john ,sinclair says there are two hundred and fifteen grasses cultivated in ,great ,britain4 ,we shall notice a very few of them1 with a view to their comparative value3-- #a4 ,sweet-scented ,vernal ,grass4--,small growth2 yield of hay light4 ,for pastures it is very early1 and grows quickly after being cropped1 and is excellent for milch-cows2 grows well on almost any soil1 but most naturally on high1 well-drained meadows4 ,it grows in great abundance in ,massachusetts4 #b4 ,meadow ,foxtail4--,early like the preceding1 but more productive and more nutritious4 ,it is one of the five or six kinds usually sown together in ,english pastures2 best for sheep and horses4 #c4 ,rough ,cocksfoot4--,orchard-grass of the ,united ,states2 cows are fond of it4 ,in ,england it is taking the place of clovers and rye-grass4 ,about ,philadelphia it is supplanting timothy4 ,it is earlier1 and therefore better to mix with clover for hay1 as they mature at the same time2 grows well in the shade1 and on both loams and sands2 springs rapidly after being cropped4 ,colonel ,powell1 one of the best ,american farmers1 says it produces more pasture than any other grass he has seen in this country4 ,two bushels of seed are sown on an acre4 #d4 ,tall ,oat-,grass4--,a valuable grass1 deserving increased attention4 ,it will produce three crops in a season2 grows four or five feet high1 and should be cut for hay when in blossom4 ,of all grasses1 it is the earliest and best for green fodder4 #e4 ,tall ,fescue4--,cut in blossom1 it contains more nutriment than any other known grass4 ,grows well by the sides of ditches1 and is well adapted to wet bogs1 as1 by its rapid growth1 it keeps down coarse1 noxious grass and weeds4 #f4 ,rye ,grass4--,this is extensively cultivated in ,scotland and in the north of ,england4 ,it is mixed with clover4 ,respecting its comparative value there is a diversity of opinion4 ,some do not speak well of it4 #g4 ,red ,clover and ,white ,clover4--,see article ,clover4 #h4 ,lucern4--,this yields much more green feed at a single crop than any other grass4 ,for soiling cattle it is one of the best1 and may be cut twice as often as red clover4 ,this makes a good crop1 soon after time for planting corn4 ,common corn or pop-corn1 and later1 ,stowell's evergreen sweet corn1 are the best for soiling cattle2 but for early soiling1 use lucern1 or some other quick-growing1 large grass4 ,lucern needs clean land1 or cultivation at first1 as young plants are tender4 ,the tap-root runs down very deep2 hence1 hard clay or wet soils are not favorable4 ,it stands the cold1 in latitudes forty to forty-five degrees in this country1 better than red clover4 #i4 ,long-rooted ,clover4--,this is a ,hungarian variety--biennial1 but resows itself several years in succession1 on good1 clean land4 ,its yield of hay and seed is abundant4 ,needs a deep1 dry soil1 and stands a drought better than any other grass4 ,to plow in as a fertilizer1 or for soiling cattle1 it is valuable1 wherever it will flourish4 #aj4 ,sain-,foin4--,adapted to calcareous or chalky soils2 considered one of the best plants ever introduced into ,england2 but in ,new ,england it proves almost a failure--it requires more cool moisture and less frost4 #aa4 ,timothy4--,in ,england1 ,meadow ,cats'-tail1 and in ,new ,england1 ,herd's-grass4 ,this is the most valuable of all the grasses1 and wherever it will thrive well1 should never be superseded by anything else for hay4 ,it should be cut when the seed has begun to harden1 but before it begins to shell1 and never in the blossom4 ,let every farmer remember that timothy1 cut in the seed1 contains twice as much nutriment as when cut in the blossom2 hence1 it is not worth more than half as much for hay1 sown among clover1 as when sown by itself1 as it must be cut too early1 to avoid losing the clover4 #ab4 ,red ,top4--,we can not find this described in agricultural books2 but we have been familiar with it for thirty-five years1 and can not find a ,new ,york or ,new ,england farmer who does not know it well and prize it highly4 ,for low1 moist1 rich meadows1 the red top is the best for hay of any known grass4 ,it yields abundantly1 and may be cut at any time1 from ,july to last of ,september4 ,the hay is better for cattle than timothy4 ,many intelligent gentlemen insist that it is the most healthy hay for horses4 ,after all that has been written on the various grasses1 we regard it best for farmers throughout the continent to cultivate only the following3-- ,for early pastures1 vernal grass and meadow foxtail2 pastures through the season1 white clover1 cocks-foot1 meadow foxtail1 red clover1 and timothy2 for lowland pastures1 red top and tall fescue2 for hay1 timothy1 red top1 orchard grass1 and tall fescue2 for the shade of fruit-trees1 orchard grass2 to be plowed in as fertilizers1 red clover and white clover1 for soiling cattle1 tall oat-grass and lucern4 ,time of sowing grass-seed is important4 ,some prefer the fall1 and others the spring4 ,fall sowing should be very early or very late4 ,early sowing will give the young plants strength to endure the frosts of winter1 which would kill late sown2 but sow so late that it will not vegetate until spring1 and it will come up early and get out of the way of the droughts of summer4 ,grass-seed sown late in the spring will always fail1 except when followed by a very wet season4 ,sow timothy with fall grain1 or late in the fall1 or on a light snow toward the close of winter4 ,do not sow clover in the fall1 as the young plants will generally fail in the cold winter2--sow it on the last light snow of winter1 and it will always succeed4 ,roll the land in spring on which you have sown grass-seed in the last of winter2 it will benefit the grain1 and cause the grass-seed to catch well1 and get an earlier and more rapid growth4 ,let all who would not lose their seed and labor1 remember that grass-seed not sown so as to form good roots1 before the frosts of winter or the drought of summer1 will be lost2 the plants will be killed4 ,timothy-seed sown in the fall1 one peck to the acre1 will produce a good crop the next season4 ,,greenhouse4 ,greenhouses vary as much in style and cost as dwellings4 ,the simplest is any tight enclosure1 covered with a glass roof at an angle of forty-five degrees1 facing the south1 and kept warm by artificial heat4 ,the temperature is not allowed to be lower than forty nor higher than seventy degrees of ,fahrenheit2 this will keep plants growing and make them blossom1 and affords a good place for starting plants to be transplanted to out-door hotbeds1 and finally to the vegetable garden1 after frosts are over4 ,there is but one main danger in greenhouse culture1 and that is obviated by a little care3 it is1 allowing the air to become too much heated for the health of the plants2 they require but little heat1 but need it regularly4 ,some greenhouses are warmed by stoves1 and serve a good purpose2 others have a stove set in a flue which is built in the wall1 gradually rising until it has passed around two or three sides of the building4 ,place three or four sheet-iron pans over this flue1 at different points1 and keep them filled with water2 the fire in the flue will heat the water1 and impart both warmth and humidity to the atmosphere1 which is very favorable to the health and growth of plants4 ,such a house is favorable to the growth of tender exotic fruits and plants4 ,a similar house without any artificial heat affords an excellent place for the cultivation of the finest varieties of foreign grapes4 ,,gypsum1 ,,or ,,plaster ,,of ,,paris4 ,the fertilizing properties of this article were discovered by a ,german laborer in a quarry1 who observed the increased luxuriance of the grass by his path1 when the dust fell from his shoes and clothes4 ,this led to experiments which demonstrated its fertilizing power4 ,with the protracted controversies on gypsum we have nothing to do2 certain important facts are established which are valuable to agriculturists4 ,gypsum is valuable as an application to the soil1 at from three fourths to one and a quarter bushels to the acre4 ,on poor land1 for a flax crop three bushels per acre1 applied after the plants were up1 and when wet1 produced a great crop4 ,it should be applied only once in two years1 or in very small quantities every year4 ,applied as a top-dressing1 it will do no good until a considerable quantity of rain has fallen upon it4 ,if it be applied in the spring1 and the summer prove a dry one1 its greatest effect will be felt the next season4 ,its most marked effects are on poor soils2 on land already rich it seems to produce but little effect2 on dry1 sandy or gravelly soils1 it will increase a clover crop from one fourth to two thirds2 sowed among clover and immediately plowed in1 it acts powerfully4 ,plants of large leaves feel its influence much more than those with small ones1 hence its excellence on clover1 potatoes1 and vines4 ,some soils contain enough plaster already3 the farmer must determine by analysis or experiment4 ,on the compost heap it is valuable in small quantities2 it is also useful on all long1 coarse1 or fresh manures of the previous winter4 ,seeds rolled in it before planting vegetate sooner and stronger4 ,mixed with an equal quantity of ashes and a little lime1 and applied to any crop immediately after hoeing1 or when just coming up1 it adds materially to its growth4 ,it is better to apply it twice--on first coming up1 and immediately after first hoeing2 small quantities are best2--it will ten times repay the cost and labor4 ,upland pastures and meadows1 except clay soils1 are greatly benefited by it4 ,a time-saving method of sowing plaster on fields of grass or grain1 is to sow out of a wagon driven slowly through the field1 the driver being guided by his former tracks1 while two men sow out of the wagon4 ,it is customary to put plaster and ashes1 mixed1 around the hills of corn1 or throw it upon the plants4 ,sown on the field of hoed or hill crops1 its effects are much greater than when only put on the hill4 ,it should be sown equally over the whole ground4 ,,harrowing4 ,the very liberal use of the harrow is one of the principal requisites of successful farming4 ,no other single tool does so much to pulverize the soil1 as the harrow4 ,a full crop can only be raised on a fine mellow soil4 ,seeds planted in soil left coarse and uneven1 will vegetate unevenly1 grow unequally1 ripen at different times1 and produce unequal quantities4 ,many farmers insist that it is a mere notion1 without reason1 to harrow land four or five times1 and roll it once or twice4 ,not one in five hundred believes in the full utility of such a thorough working of the soil4 ,coarse lumpy soils expose the seeds and roots of young plants to drought1 and to too strong action of the atmosphere4 7,see article on ,rolling47 ,harrow sandy and sod land whenever you please4 ,if you work any other soil when very wet1 it will not recover from the effects of it during the whole season4 ,harrow land the first time the same way it was plowed4 ,the form of a harrow is of no importance1 except avoiding the butterfly drag1 that seldom works well4 ,the square harrow with thirty teeth is usually preferred4 ,every farmer should have a ,v drag also4 ,corn1 potatoes1 peas1 and other crops that are planted in straight rows1 should be harrowed just after coming up1 with a ,v drag1 drawn by two horses4 ,the front teeth should be taken out that the row may pass between the teeth1 as well as between the horses4 ,such a cultivation will do more good than any other single subsequent one4 ,it stirs the whole surface1 pulverizing the soil1 keeps it mellow and moist1 and destroys the weeds1 and all at the best possible time1 for the benefit of the crop4 ,no other form of cultivation is so good for a young crop4 ,try two acres1 one in the usual way1 and the other by harrowing1 as we recommend1 when it first comes up1 and you will never after neglect harrowing all your hoed crops4 ,,hay4 ,farmers differ in their modes of making and preserving hay4 ,the following directions for timothy and clover1 are applicable to all grasses suitable for hay1 as they are all divided into two classes1 broad-leaved1 and the fine-leaved1 or grasses proper4 ,the principles involved in these directions may be considered comparatively well settled1 and they are sufficient for all purposes4 ,cut clover when half the blossoms are dried1 and the other half in full bloom4 ,cut later1 the stalks are so dried1 that they are of much less value4 ,cut earlier1 it is so immature1 as to be of small value for hay4 ,in case of great growth and lodging down1 clover may be cut earlier1 as it is better to save hay of less value1 than to lose the whole4 ,to cure clover for hay1 spread it evenly1 immediately after the scythe1 let it thoroughly wilt1 but not dry4 ,rake it up1 before any of the leaves are dry so as to break1 and put it in small cocks1 such as a man can pitch upon a cart at once or twice with a fork4 ,this should be laid on and not rolled up from a winrow4 ,in the former case it will shed nearly all the water1 and the latter method suffers the rain to run down through the whole4 ,unless the weather be very wet1 clover will cure in this way1 without opening until time to haul it in1 and will retain its beautiful green color1 almost equal to that of ,england and ,germany1 cured in the shade1 which1 at two or three years old1 appears almost as bright as though not cured at all4 ,if the weather be quite wet1 cut clover when free from dew or rain1 wilt it at once1 and draw it in1 put as much as possible in thin layers on scaffolds1 and under cover1 to cure in the shade4 ,put the remainder in alternate layers with equal quantities of dry straw1 with one peck of salt to a ton4 ,a ton may bear half a bushel of salt1 less is better1 and more is injurious to stock1 by compelling them to eat too much salt4 ,the most beautiful and palatable clover hay is that cured in the shade1 on scaffolds and afterward mowed away4 ,timothy should never be cut1 until the seed is far enough advanced to grow4 ,careful experiments have shown that cut in the blossom1 the hay will contain only about one half as much nutriment1 as when cut in the full-grown seed1 but before it commences shelling4 ,cure as clover1 but in twice as large cocks1 and never salt1 unless compelled to draw in when damp or too green4 ,,hedge4 ,the question of fencing in this country1 so much of which is prairie1 and in other parts of which there is such a wanton waste of timber1 gives great importance to successful hedging4 ,the same plants are not equally good for hedge in all parts of the country4 ,there are but few plants suitable for hedges in our climate4 ,the ,osage ,orange--is the best1 in all latitudes where it will flourish4 ,it has no diseases or enemies by which it will be destroyed1 except too cold winters4 ,of ,southern origin1 yet it flourishes in many places at the ,north4 ,in cold localities1 where there is but little snow1 it suffers much until three or four years old4 ,it is being extensively introduced into central and northern ,illinois1 where unusually cold winters destroy vast quantities of young plants1 and kill the tops of much old hedge4 ,it is still insisted that it will succeed2 but we consider it too uncertain1 and consequently too expensive1 for general fencing in such climates4 ,the roots and lower parts of the plants may be preserved1 however1 by setting them out for a hedge on level ground1 instead of ridges as usual1 and plowing a furrow three feet from each side of the row1 to drain off surplus water4 ,mulch thoroughly in the fall1 and thus protect from frost until they have been set in the hedge for three years1 and they may succeed and make a good live fence4 ,to raise the plants1 soak the seeds thoroughly1 and1 at the usual time of corn-planting1 plant in straight rows1 and keep clean of weeds4 ,set out in hedge the following spring4 ,the soil of the hedge-row should be deep1 mellow1 and moderately1 not excessively rich4 ,too rich soil makes a larger growth1 of spongy and more tender wood4 ,plants should have a portion of the tap-root cut off1 and be planted a foot apart in the row4 ,the ,hawthorn--will never be extensively cultivated for live fence in this country1 being subject to borers1 as destructive as in fruit-trees4 ,the ,virginia ,thorn--is equally uncertain4 ,the ,buck ,thorn--after fifteen years' trial1 in ,new ,england1 bids fair to answer every purpose for ,american live fence3 it is easily propagated1 of rapid growth1 very hardy1 thickens up well at the bottom1 and is exempt from the depredations of insects4 ,it may yet prove the great ,american hedge-shrub4 ,the ,newcastle ,thorn--cultivated in ,new ,england1 is much more beautiful1 and promises to rival the buck thorn1 but has not been sufficiently tested to settle its claims4 ,much is anticipated from it4 ,illustration3 ,shearing down young hedges4 ,illustration3 ,properly-trimmed hedge 7end view74 ,illustration3 ,badly-trimmed hedge 7end view74 ,illustration3 ,neglected hedge 7side view74 ,there are plants well adapted to hedge at the ,south1 which are too tender for the ,north4 ,in ,white's ,gardening for the ,south1 we have the following given as hedge-shrubs1 adapted to that region3 ,osage ,orange1 ,pyracanth1 ,cherokee1 and single ,white ,macartney roses4 ,the ,macartney1 being an evergreen thorn1 and said to make as close a hedge as the ,osage ,orange and much more beautiful1 is quite a favorite at the ,south4 ,they usually train the rose-shrubs for hedge on some kind of paling or wire fence4 ,they render some of them impenetrable even by rabbits or sparrows2 this is done by layers1 and trimming twice a year1 commencing after the first three months' growth4 ,pruning is the most important matter in the whole business of hedging4 ,a hedge set out ever so well1 and composed of the best variety of plants1 if left in the weeds1 without proper care in trimming1 will be nearly useless4 ,a well-trimmed hedge around a fruit-orchard will keep out all fruit-thieves4 ,the great difficulty is the unwillingness of cultivators to cut off1 so short and so frequently1 the fine growth4 ,shear off the first year's growth 7a7 within three inches of the ground 7b74 ,cut the vigorous shoots that will rise from this shearing1 four inches higher1 about the middle of ,july1 and similar and successive cuttings1 each a little longer1 in the two following years2 these will bring the hedge to a proper height4 ,the form of trimming shown in end view of properly-trimmed hedge1 protects the bottom from shade by too much foliage on the top3 the effects of that shade are seen in neglected hedge in the cut4 ,,hemp4 ,this is one of the staple articles of ,american agriculture4 ,it is much cultivated in ,kentucky and other contiguous states4 ,its market value is so fluctuating that many farmers are giving up its cultivation4 ,the substance of these directions is taken from an elaborate article from the pen of the honorable ,henry ,clay4 ,had not the length of that article rendered it inconsistent with the plan of this volume1 we should have given it to the ,american people as it came from the hand of their greatest statesman1 who was so eminently ,american in all his sentiments and labors4 ,preparation of the ,soil--should be as thorough as for flax2--this can not be too strongly insisted on4 ,much is lost by neglect1 under the mistaken notion that hemp will do about as well on coarse1 hard land4 ,plants for seeds should be sown in drills four feet apart1 and separate from that designed only for the lint4 ,the stalks should be allowed to stand about eight inches apart in the rows4 ,plants are male and female1 distinguished in the blossoms4 ,when the farina from the blossoms on the male plants 7the female plants do not blossom7 has generally fallen1 pull up the male plants1 leaving only the females to mature4 ,cut the seed-plants after the first hard frost1 and carry in wet1 so as to avoid loss by shelling4 ,seed is easily separated by a common flail4 ,after the seeds are thrashed out1 they should be spread thin1 and thoroughly dried1 or their vegetative power will be destroyed by heat or decay4 ,they should be spread to be kept for the next spring's planting1 and not be kept in large bulk4 ,their vegetation is very uncertain after they are a year old4 ,sow hemp for lint broadcast1 when the weather has become warm enough for corn-planting4 ,opinions vary as to the quantity of seed1 from one bushel to two and a half bushels per acre4 ,probably a bushel and a peck is best4 ,plowing in the seed is good on old land2 rolling is also useful4 ,if it gets up six inches high1 so that the leaves cover the ground well1 few crops are less effected by the vicissitudes of the weather4 ,some sow a part of their hemp at different times1 that it may not all ripen at once and crowd them in their labor4 ,cutting it ten days before it is ripe1 or allowing it to stand two weeks after1 will not materially injure it4 ,hemp is pulled or cut4 ,cutting1 as near the ground as possible1 is the better method4 ,the plants are spread even on the ground and cured2 bound up in convenient handfuls and shocked up1 and bound around the top as corn4 ,it is an improvement to shake off the leaves well before shocking up4 ,if stacked after a while1 and allowed to remain for a year1 the improvement in the lint is worth more than the loss of time4 ,there are two methods of rotting--dew-rotting1 and water-rotting--one by spreading out on grass-land1 and the other by immersing in water2 the latter is much the preferable mode4 ,the question of sufficient rotting is determined by trial4 ,hemp is broken and cleaned like flax4 ,the stalks need to be well aired and dried in the sun to facilitate the operation4 ,extremes in price have been from three to eight dollars per hundred pounds3 five dollars renders it a very profitable crop4 ,thorough rotting1 good cleaning1 and neat order1 are the conditions of obtaining the first market price4 ,an acre produces from six hundred to one thousand pounds of lint--an average of about one hundred pounds to each foot of height of the stalks4 ,hemp exhausts the soil but a mere trifle1 if at all2 the seventeenth successive crop on the same land having proved the best4 ,nothing leaves the land in better condition for other crops2 it kills all the weeds1 and leaves the surface smooth and even4 ,,hoeing4 ,much depends upon the proper and timely use of the hoe4 ,never let weeds press you2 hoe at proper times1 and you never will have any large weeds4 ,as soon as vegetables are up1 so that you can do it safely1 hoe them4 ,the more frequent the hoeing while plants are young1 the larger will be the crop4 ,premium crops are always hoed very frequently4 ,hoeing cabbages1 corn1 and similar smooth plants1 when it rains slightly1 is nearly equal to a coat of manure4 ,but beans1 potatoes1 and vines1 and whatever has a rough stalk1 are much injured by stirring the ground about them while they are wet1 or even much damp4 ,we have known promising crops of vines nearly destroyed by hoeing when wet4 ,hoeing near the roots of vines after they have formed runners one or two feet long1 will also nearly ruin them2--the same is true of onions3 hoe near them1 cutting off the lateral roots1 and you will lessen the crop one half4 ,in hoeing1 make no high hills except for sweet potatoes4 ,high hilling up originated in ,england1 where their cool1 humid1 cloudy atmosphere demands it1 to secure more warmth4 ,in this country we have to guard more against drought and heat4 ,,hops4 ,these are native in this country1 being found1 growing spontaneously1 by many of our rivers4 ,there are four or five varieties1 but no preference has been given to any particular one4 ,moist1 sandy loam is the best soil1 though good hops may be grown in abundance on any land suitable for corn or potatoes4 ,plow the land quite deep in autumn2 in the spring1 harrow the same way it was plowed4 ,spread evenly over the surface sixteen cords of manure to the acre1 if your soil be of ordinary richness2 cross-plow as deep as the first plowing2 furrow out as for potatoes1 four feet apart each way4 ,plant hops in every other hill of every other row1 making them eight feet apart each way4 ,plant all the remaining hills with potatoes4 ,four cuttings of running roots of hops should be planted in each hill4 ,many hop-yards are unproductive on account of being too thick2--less than eight feet each way deprives the vines of suitable air and sun1 and prevents plowing them with ease4 ,the first year1 they only need to be kept clean of weeds by hoeing them with the potatoes4 ,in the fall of the first year1 to prevent injury from hard frosts1 put a large shovelful of good manure on the top of each hill4 ,each spring1 before the hops are opened1 spread on each acre eight cords of manure2 coarse straw manure is preferable4 ,plow both ways at first hoeing4 ,they require three hoeings1 the last when in full bloom in the beginning of ,august4 ,open the hops every spring by the middle of ,may2 at the ,south1 by the last of ,april4 ,this is done by making four furrows between the rows1 turning them from the hills2 the earth is then removed from the roots with a hoe1 and all the running roots cut in with a sharp knife within two inches of the main roots4 ,the tops of the main roots must also be cut in1 and covered with earth two inches deep4 ,set the poles on the first springing of the vines2 never have more than two poles in a hill1 or more than two vines on a pole1 and no pole more than sixteen feet high4 ,neglect this root-pruning1 and multiply poles and crowd them with vines1 and you will get very few hops4 ,select the most thrifty vines for the poles1 and destroy all the others4 ,watch them during the summer1 that they do not blow down from the poles4 ,they must be picked as soon as they are ripe1 and before frosts4 ,the best picking-box is a wooden bin made of light boards1 nine feet long1 three feet wide1 and two and a half feet deep2 the poles are laid across this1 and the hops picked into it by hand4 ,in gathering hops1 cut the vines two feet from the ground1 that bleeding may not injure the roots4 ,curing is the most important matter in hop-growing4 ,hops would all be of one quality1 and bring the first price1 if equally well cured4 ,the following description 7with slight abbreviation7 of the process of curing1 by ,william ,blanchard1 ,esq41 is1 perhaps1 as complete as anything that can be obtained4 ,much depends upon having a well-constructed kiln4 ,for the convenience of putting the hops on the kiln1 a side hill is generally chosen for its situation2 it should be a dry situation4 ,it should be dug out the same bigness at the bottom as at the top2 the side walls laid up perpendicularly1 and filled in solid with stone to give it a tunnel form3 twelve feet square at the top1 two feet square at the bottom1 and at least eight feet deep1 is deemed a convenient size4 ,on the top of the walls sills are laid1 having joists let into them1 as for laying a floor1 on which laths1 about one and a half inches wide1 are nailed1 leaving open spaces between them three fourths of an inch1 over which a thin linen cloth is spread and nailed at the edges to the sills4 ,a board about twelve inches wide is set up on each side of the kiln1 on the inner edge of the sill1 to form a bin to receive the hops4 ,fifty pounds1 after they are dry1 is all such a kiln will hold at once4 ,the larger the stones made use of in the construction of the kiln the better1 as it will give a more steady and dense heat4 ,the inside of the kiln should be well plastered with mortar to make it air-tight4 ,charcoal is the best fuel4 ,heat the kiln well before putting on the hops2 keep a steady and regular heat while drying4 ,hops must not remain in bulk long after being picked1 as they will heat and spoil4 ,do not stir them while drying4 ,after they are thoroughly dry1 remove them into a dry room1 and lay in heaps1 and not stir unless they are gathering dampness that will change their color2 then spread them4 ,this will only occur when they have not been properly dried4 ,they are bagged by laying cloth into a box1 so made that it can be removed1 and give opportunity to sew up the bag while in the press4 ,the hops are pressed in by a screw4 ,in bulk they will sweat a little1 which will begin to subside in about eight days1 at which time they should be bagged4 ,if they sweat much and begin to change their color1 they must be dried before bagging4 ,the best size for bags is about two hundred and fifty pounds' weight1 in a bag about five feet long4 ,common tow-cloth or ,russia-hemp bags are best4 ,extensive hop-growers build houses over the kiln1 that they may be able to use them in wet weather4 ,in this case1 keep the doors open as much as possible without letting in the rain4 ,dried without sufficient air1 their color is changed1 and their quality and market-value injured4 ,these houses are made much larger than the kiln1 in many instances1 for the convenience of storing and bagging the hops when dry2 in this case1 tight partitions should separate the storerooms from the kiln1 to avoid dampness from the drying hops4 ,the form of manuring recommended is contrary to the old practice of putting a little manure only in the hill3 that practice exposed vines to decay and destruction by worms1 and this does not2 our system also produces hops equal to new land4 ,,horse4 ,this noble animal is in general use1 and everywhere highly prized4 ,by the last census1 we see that there are two thirds as many horses as cows in the ,united ,states--#d1cce1ceh horses1 and over six millions of cows4 ,but1 valuable as is the horse1 he suffers much ill treatment and neglect from his master4 ,to give a history of the horse1 the various breeds of different countries1 and the efforts to improve them1 would be interesting1 did it fall within the limits of our design4 ,the patronage of the kings and nobility of ,england has done much to elevate the horse to his present standard of excellence4 ,it has now become the custom for intelligent gentlemen in rural districts1 in all enlightened countries1 to give much attention to the improvement of horses4 ,unfortunately1 some of that enthusiasm is perverted to the channel of horse-racing1 a practice alike injurious to horses and the morals of men4 ,a few brief hints are all we have space for1 where a volume would be interesting and useful4 ,the farmer should exercise constant care to improve the breed of his horses3 it pays best to raise good horses4 ,this depends upon the qualities of the dam and sire1 and upon proper feed and care4 ,this is a subject that farmers should carefully study from books and from their own observation4 ,the most important matter in raising horses1 is care in working and feeding4 ,nineteen out of twenty of all sick horses are made so by bad treatment4 ,the prevention of disease is better than cure4 ,steady1 and even hard work1 will not injure a horse that is well and regularly fed4 ,but a few moments of crowding a horse's speed1 or of an unnatural strain on his strength1 may ruin him4 ,let it always be remembered that it is speed1 and not heavy loads1 that most injures a horse4 ,a mile an hour too fast will soon run down your horse4 ,a horse fed with grain1 or watered1 when warm1 is liable to be foundered2 and if not so fed as actually to be foundered1 he will gradually grow stiff4 ,horses are liable to take cold by any unreasonable exposure to the weather1 in the same circumstances as men1 and the effects on health and comfort are very similar4 ,a horse having become warm by driving1 should never stand a minute without a blanket4 ,when a man goes from a heated room1 or in a perspiration1 into inclement weather1 he takes cold the moment the cold or storm strikes him3 in a few moments the effects on the pores of the body are such that there is no particular exposure4 ,it is so with a horse4 ,he takes cold when you are only going to allow him to stand but a minute1 and during that time you leave him uncovered4 ,if you are under the necessity of doing an unusual day's work with a horse1 do not feed him heavily on that day4 ,unusual feed the day before and the day after will do him good2 but on the day of excessive work it injures him4 ,never feed horses too much2 they will often eat one third more than is good for their health4 ,keep the bottom of the trough in which you feed your horses grain1 plastered over with a mixture of equal parts of salt and ashes1 that they may eat a little of it when they please4 ,when the water of your horse becomes thick and yellowish1 or whitish1 give him a piece of rosin as large as a walnut1 pulverized and put in his grain4 ,if a horse has the heaves1 give him no hay or oats2 corn1 ground or soaked1 should be his only grain1 and green corn-fodder in summer1 and cornstalks1 cut fine1 with a little warm water on them1 mixed with meal1 should constitute his only food4 ,all except a few of the most confirmed and long-standing cases of heaves are entirely relieved by this course of feeding1 and that relief is permanent as long as the feed is continued1 and it frequently effects a cure so radical that the disease will not return on a change of food4 ,to bring up horses that have had hard usage and poor feed1 and to secure growth in colts1 feed them milk4 ,the milk of a butter-dairy is not more profitably used in any other way1 than fed to horses and colts4 ,give them no water for two or three days1 and they will readily learn to drink all the sour1 thick milk you will give them4 ,colts will grow faster on milk than on any other food4 ,horses should be often rubbed down and kept clean1 and when put in the stable wet1 they should be rubbed dry4 ,it is very essential to the health of a horse that he have pure air4 ,stables in this country are usually airy enough4 ,but if the stable be tight1 it should be well ventilated4 ,the gases from a wet stable floor are injurious4 ,disinfecting agents are good remedies2 a little plaster-of-,paris spread over a stable-floor is very useful4 ,these brief directions1 followed1 will prevent most of the diseases to which horses are subject2 or in case a horse be attacked1 he will have the disease lightly1 as temperate men do epidemics4 ,,horseradish4 ,this is regarded a healthy condiment1 especially in the spring of the year4 ,grated1 with a little vinegar1 it may be eaten with any food you choose4 ,small shavings of the root are esteemed in mangoes4 ,when steeped in vinegar for two weeks1 it is said effectually to remove freckles from the face4 ,any pieces of the roots will grow in any good garden-soil4 ,larger and better roots may be produced1 by trenching the bed two feet deep1 and putting in the bottom1 ten inches of good manure1 and planting selected roots1 about six inches deep4 ,,hotbeds4 ,these are designed to force an early growth of plants4 ,it is done by the use of solar heat1 and that arising from fermenting manures1 combined4 ,the following directions for constructing and managing hotbeds will enable every one to be successful4 ,nail boards on pieces of scantling placed in the inside corners1 in the form of a box1 sixteen feet long and six feet wide2 make it three and a half feet high on the back-side1 and two feet high in front1 facing the sun2 nail a piece of board across the middle1 let in at the top1 to prevent the box from spreading when filled4 ,fill that with good1 fresh horse-manure1 with but little straw2 tread it down firmly4 ,put over the whole1 sashes made with cross-pieces but one way1 and filled with glass1 lapped half an inch1 like shingles on a roof1 to carry off the rain2 putty in the glass lightly1 or it may adhere to fresh-painted frames2 let the frames be halved on their edges1 so as to lap and be tight2 put these over the filled hotbed1 perfectly fitted all around1 and enough of them to cover the whole bed2 in two or three days the manure will become pretty warm1 when it should be covered1 four inches deep1 with rich mould1 sheltered for the purpose the previous fall1 and the seeds planted4 ,when the plants come up1 see that they are kept sufficiently moist1 and not have the hot sun pour upon them intensely1 and they will grow rapidly2 when too warm1 they should be partly covered with mats1 and the frames raised to let in air4 ,put small wedges between the sash and the boards1 which will let in sufficient air4 ,keep it closed when the air is cold1 and covered with mats when the sun is too hot4 ,plants are often destroyed by over-heating4 ,when in danger of freezing1 cover closely with mats or straw1 or both4 ,we have had plants growing in such a bed when the thermometer stood eight degrees below zero4 ,if the heat of the manure subsides too early1 pack fresh horse-manure all around the outside of the box1 and as it heats it will communicate warmth to the inside of the bed4 ,as plants grow up1 transplant a part to a fresh bed1 so as to give all a chance to grow stocky and strong4 ,almost everything that grows in the garden may be forwarded greatly in the hotbed4 ,vines1 beets1 tomatoes1 cabbages1 peppers1 egg-plants1 celery1 beans1 corn1 and potatoes1 may be obtained much earlier by this means4 ,those that are injured most by transplanting should be planted in the hotbed1 on inverted sods1 or grass turfs1 six inches square1 which can be removed with the growing plants on them1 without seriously disturbing the roots4 ,plenty of shade and moisture on transplanting will save the most tender plants1 and they will speedily recover4 ,make a hotbed of any size you may desire on the same principle4 ,the boards and frames will last many years1 with proper care1 and occasional supply of a broken light of glass4 ,into such sash1 broken glass of any size can be put1 by cutting it to a proper width in one direction1 no matter how far the points lap4 ,,houses4 ,it is not our design to give an extended view of rural architecture4 ,but this work can not be complete without a brief notice of farm-buildings1 and a few plans for such buildings1 adapted to the wants of those possessing limited means4 ,we hope these directions and plans will prove important aids in getting up cheap1 yet convenient and beautiful1 country residences1 especially in all the newer parts of the country4 ,our reading on rural architecture1 and an extensive observation in many states of the ,union1 have made us acquainted with nothing1 combining beauty1 cheapness1 and utility1 better than the following4 ,the scale at the bottom will enable any mechanic to determine the size of each of these buildings1 and their relation to each other4 ,they can1 on the same general plan1 be made of any dimensions1 to suit the wishes of the proprietor4 ,the wagon-house in the range is forty feet long1 affording ample shelter for all kinds of vehicles1 connected by a covered way with the horse-stables and barn-floor4 ,illustration3 ,range of ,farm-,buildings4 ,a lean-to is built on the north side of the wagon-house1 in which is a tool-house opening into it1 and a stable for eight milch-cows1 that will thus be convenient for winter-milking2 these cows are fed from the loft over the wagon-house4 ,the barn is thirty by forty feet1 with floor in the middle and bay on each side3 this can be driven into on one side and out on the other4 ,from the floor is a covered way to cattle and horse stables1 and into the wagon and tool house1 without going outdoor4 ,the ,piggery4--,large and small swine do not do so well together2 hence1 the larger ones are to occupy the feeding-pen and bed on the right 7in the cut71 those of medium size on the left1 and the smaller ones in the rear4 ,the dimensions and relative size of apartments can be determined from the plan4 ,the other buildings sufficiently explain themselves in the cut4 ,illustration3 ,ground-plan of ,piggery4 ,with this range of buildings1 let a farmer do his own thrashing1 with a small horse-power1 and thrash a part at a time during the winter1 keeping the straw in an apartment in the bay1 dry for litter1 and for cut feed for cattle and horses1 and it will be the best and most economical method of thrashing and keeping stock4 ,every farmer should do at least a part of his thrashing in this way1 during the winter1 for the benefit of fresh straw1 c4 ,country ,residence4--,this includes the range of buildings given opposite1 their distance from the house1 and all the parts of a complete residence1 with all the comforts and conveniences that can be crowded into such a space1 and at a very reasonable expense4 ,three fourths of an acre are devoted to the ornamental grounds2 except the walks and small flower-beds1 it is all green turf4 ,plowed very deep and thoroughly enriched1 the trees are set out1 and all then made very level1 and one and a half bushels grass-seed sown on it and brushed in very smooth4 ,this soon makes a very thick green turf1 to be cut every ten days during the most growing season1 and less frequently as the season advances4 ,the trees1 for a few years1 need careful working around and mulching4 ,the gravel carriage-road is twelve feet wide1 and winding around shrubbery1 it leads to the carriage-house in the range of buildings4 ,the foot-walks are five feet wide4 ,the curves in the walks may be accurately laid out in the following manner4 ,determine the general position by a few points measured off4 ,lay a pole upon the ground1 in the direction of the walk2 stick a peg in the ground at the first end and at its middle2 move the pole round a little1 leaving the middle the same1--then stick a peg at its end1 and move it forward--moving it forward and round equally1 each time1 by measurement4 ,a longer or shorter curve is made by a greater or less side-movement of the pole4 ,in a regular curve1 the movements are the same2 but in going from a shorter to a longer1 or from a longer to a shorter curve1 the side-measurement must increase or diminish regularly4 ,illustration3 ,country ,residence1 ,farm ,buildings1 ,grounds1 and ,fruit-,gardens4 ,illustration3 ,laying out ,curves4 ,illustration3 ,first floor4 ,illustration3 ,chambers4 ,the following cuts show the plan of the house3 three principal rooms and a bed-room below1 and four rooms above4 ,the hall extends through the house1 affording good ventilation in summer1 and entrance to each room1 without passing through another4 ,the chimney in the centre economizes heat4 ,this small and cheap house affords more conveniences than most large ones4 ,one of the finest things about such a house is a good cellar4 ,for a farm-house1 the cellar should be under the whole2 make it eight feet deep1 gravel and water lime made smooth on the bottom1 flagging under the bottom of the wall extending out a foot1 the wall above ground built double1 the inside four inches thick1 with brick1 with a space of two inches1 and outside stone wall a foot thick4 ,the windows should be double and well fitted1 the inside one hung on hinges2 the outside one to be removed in spring1 and its place supplied with a well-fitted frame1 covered with wire-cloth to admit air and exclude intruders during summer4 ,this will not freeze1 and never need banking4 ,no rat can enter1 for they always work close to the wall1 and coming to the projecting flat stone at the bottom1 they give it up4 ,on one side of the cellar1 under the kitchen1 make a large rain-water cistern1 with a pump in the kitchen and a faucet in the cellar1 and the whole arrangement is perfect4 ,if the farm be large1 you will need some of the good1 but cheap houses described in the following part of this article1 where your men will live and board themselves1 which is always the best and cheapest way4 ,an open view from the house in the country residence extends to the summer-house 7b7 on the right4 ,this is one of the neatest cheap summer-houses that can be made4 ,the following directions for making it may be useful4 ,set eight cedar posts1 six inches in diameter1 in the ground1 in a circle2 saw them off even at the top1 and connect them by plank nailed on their tops4 ,make an eight-sided roof of boards2 nail lath from post to post1 forming lattice-work1 leaving a space between two posts for a door4 ,put a seat around on the inside4 ,leave all the materials except the seat unplaned1 and cover with a white or brown wash1 and it need not cost more than five or six dollars1 and1 covered with vines of some kind1 it will be ornamental4 ,illustration3 ,summer-house4 ,illustration3 ,laborer's ,cottage4 ,illustration3 ,plan of ,laborer's ,cottage4 ,this form of a cheap house is convenient and pleasant4 ,built of four-inch scantling1 the plates and sills being connected only by the upright plank1 and the wings thoroughly bracing the upright posts2 when lumber is cheap1 it may be built for one hundred and fifty or two hundred dollars1 with cellar1 well1 and cistern4 ,occasional whitewash is as good as paint4 ,with cellar under the whole1 filled in with brick1 and having blinds1 it may cost three hundred and fifty dollars4 ,the plan of the house sufficiently explains itself4 ,the next cut illustrates a neat country-house1 for a family who think more of neatness1 comfort1 and intellectual pursuits1 than of mere ornament1 and may serve the purpose of a farmhouse1 or the residence of a retired or professional gentleman4 ,it has the unconstrained air of the ,italian style1 without a rigid adherence to any rules1 and may therefore be altered or added to without destroying its effect4 ,illustration3 ,italian ,farmhouse4 ,illustration3 ,plan of ,italian ,farm ,house4 ,the plan is intelligible without explanation4 ,built in a plain way1 the four large rooms not larger than fifteen by seventeen1 and ten feet high1 plain in its finish1 it would cost about sixteen hundred dollars complete4 ,it may go up from that1 according to size and height of rooms1 and style of finish1 to three thousand dollars4 ,it then makes as good a house as any person ever need to occupy1 out of great cities4 ,,hybrids4 ,although this subject has received far too little attention1 yet our limits will only allow us to mention a few facts1 of the most practical moment4 ,plants hybridize only through their blossoms4 ,this can only occur in plants of similarity1 in nature and habits4 ,squashes and pumpkins planted near each other mix badly1 and the poorer will prevail4 ,varieties of corn mix at considerable distances1 by the falling of pollen from the tassel upon the silk of another variety4 ,watermelons are always ruined by being planted near citrons4 ,the seeds from melons so grown will not produce one good melon4 ,how far watermelons and muskmelons1 or squashes with melons1 will hybridize1 is uncertain4 ,by planting nutmeg muskmelons with the common roughskinned variety1 we have produced a kind about half way between them1 that was of great excellence4 ,two kinds of cabbage or turnip seed should never be raised in the same garden4 ,cabbage and turnip seed raised near together is valueless4 ,in strawberries1 different plants are essential to each other1 the quality of the fruit being determined by the plant fertilized1 and not by the fertilizer4 ,this subject is further treated under articles on different plants4 ,,inarching4 ,this is a method of effecting a union of trees or branches1 while both retain their hold in the ground4 ,shave off a little wood from each1 and put them together1 fitting closely1 so that the barks will meet1 as in grafting2 tie firmly1 and cover with wax4 ,when they have got well to growing1 cut off the top of the old one1 and after a while cut the new one from the ground4 ,when you have a tree that it is difficult to propagate in the usual way1 you may transplant it to a thrifty stock4 ,vigorous branches may by this means be transferred to old1 poor-bearing1 or slow-growing trees4 ,so also may a tree be prolonged beyond its ordinary age1 as the pear on the quince1 by inarching young shoots4 ,we can only recommend this to the curious experimenter1 who has little else to do4 ,,insects4 ,these are the natural enemies of fruits and plants2 and to prevent their depredations requires much care4 ,there is no universal remedy4 ,birds and young fowls--especially ducks and chickens--are useful in a garden4 ,the ducks must not be kept there too long4 ,they will appropriate a little to their own use1 but will save much more for the proprietor4 ,insects have their peculiar tastes for particular fruits and plants1 of which we have treated1 under those heads1 respectively4 ,success in many branches of horticulture and pomology1 depends upon attention to the habits of insects4 ,the most general remedy is to wash trees or plants with a strong decoction of some offensive herb1 or with whale-oil soapsuds4 ,tobacco is very useful for this purpose4 ,,iron ,,filings4 ,it has been ascertained by analysis1 that iron enters largely into the composition of the pear4 ,iron filings spread under them1 or worked into the soil1 increases the growth of pear-trees1 and improves the quality of the fruit4 ,,irrigation4 ,this is one of the most important matters1 that can engage the attention of agriculturists of the present day4 ,a stream of water that may be caused to flow gently over a field1 or different parts of a farm1 at pleasure1 is a mine of wealth4 ,plants receive their food from the air and water4 ,we shall discuss this more fully when treating of manures4 ,a poor1 porous1 sandy1 or gravelly soil usually produces a fine crop1 in a wet season4 ,that is an addition to the soil of nothing but water4 ,hence all springs and streams can be turned to great account1 on a farm or garden4 ,watering gardens by hand or with a garden-pump1 will often pay better than any other expenditure on the land4 ,employing a man1 in a dry season1 to spend his whole time in watering five acres of garden1 of berries and vegetables1 as cabbages1 vines1 onions1 and potatoes1 will pay a very large profit4 ,strawberries will bear twice as much and twice as long1 for daily watering1 after they begin to bud for blossoms1 until the fruit is gone4 ,it is a necessary caution not to water irregularly1 and only occasionally1 in a dry season4 ,better not commence than to leave off1 or neglect it in a dry time1 before a rain4 ,read further in our article on ,watering4 ,,labels4 ,it is important1 on many accounts1 to have fruit-trees and shrubs well labelled4 ,many labels have been invented4 ,we prefer ,cole's1 as given in his ,fruit ,book1 to any other4 ,take a piece of sound pine or other soft wood1 whittle two sides smooth1 leaving one wider than the other1 with a sharp corner between them4 ,for one1 cut one notch in the edge1 and so up to four1 four notches for four4 ,for five1 cut across the narrow side4 ,for ten cut across the wide side1 and a notch for every ten up to forty4 ,for fifty1 cut obliquely across the narrow side1 and for one hundred cut obliquely across the wide side4 ,keep the names in a book1 with numbers corresponding with the notches or numbers on the labels4 ,fasten these to trees1 loosely1 by a small copper or brass wire4 ,transported to any distance1 exposed to any weather1 or buried in the ground1 they will not be obliterated4 ,pieces of sheet lead1 tin1 or zinc1 cut wide at one end1 and written on with a sharp awl1 and narrow at the other end1 to be bent around a limb1 will answer a pretty good purpose4 ,any soft wood1 made smooth1 and a little white paint applied1 and written on with a good pencil1 will preserve the mark for a long time4 ,fasten with small wire4 ,there are many labels1 but we know none preferable to the above4 ,by all means make labels accurate and permanent4 ,otherwise great losses may occur by budding or grafting from wrong varieties4 ,,landscape ,,gardens4 ,these deserve much more attention than they receive in this country4 ,on most farms land enough is lying waste1 to make a picturesque landscape1 at a small expense4 ,trees planted1 weeds destroyed1 grass cultivated1 and paths made1 according to the most approved rules of carelessness1 would secure this object4 ,with a wealthy man1 the omission of such a park about his dwelling is hardly pardonable4 ,landscape gardening is an extensive subject4 ,we can only give a few of the most general simple rules1 that may be practised1 without the possession of very large means4 #a4 ,place the house some distance from the main street4 #b4 ,make the carriage-way leading to the house1 at least twelve feet wide1 and do not allow it to extend in a straight line1 but in gentle curves1 around clusters of trees and plats of grass1 apparently rendering the curves necessary4 #c4 ,have no large trees directly in front of the house4 #d4 ,plant trees of the thickest and greenest foliage near the house1 and those of more open tops at a greater distance4 ,standard pear1 and handsome cherry trees1 do well planted among the forest trees4 ,clusters of them1 at suitable distances1 are not only beautiful1 but they bear exceedingly well4 ,they are well protected by the forest trees1 and standing alone are injured less by insects4 #e4 ,never set trees in a landscape garden1 in straight rows1 nor trees of similar size and form together4 ,nature never does so4 #f4 ,let none of the walks be straight lines1 but curves1 meandering among trees and grass4 ,if there be any water in the vicinity1 let there be an open space1 giving a fair view of it from the house4 ,if you have a stream1 make rustic bridges over it1 the plainer the better4 ,here and there have rustic arbors4 ,attached to all this should be three other gardens1 one of flowers1 another of vegetables1 and the third of fruits4 ,these three should never grow together4 ,fruit-trees ruin vegetables and injure flowers4 ,and flowers in a vegetable garden are mere weeds4 ,a separate plat for each is the correct rule1 both for beauty and profit4 ,all this need require but little time and expense4 ,all landholders can1 at a moderate cost1 live amid scenes of perpetual beauty1 while the rich may spend as much money in this way as they choose4 ,,layering4 ,this is a method of propagation1 by bending down a branch1 and fastening it under the soil1 leaving the upper end projecting1 until it takes root4 ,cut half way through the branch so as to raise the top1 and fasten it at the point where it is cut1 in a trench1 with a stick thrust into the ground over it nearly horizontally1 or with a stick having a hook made by cutting off a limb4 ,cover well with soil1 and mulch it1 and water when dry4 ,this done in the spring1 in ,august the branch will be well rooted1 and may be cut away from the parent stalk4 ,this is important in any tree or shrub 7like the snowball71 difficult to propagate by slips or grafting4 ,,laying ,,in ,,trees4 ,dig a trench where water will not stand1 and lay the trees in at an angle of forty-five degrees1 and cover the roots and lower part1 very closely1 with earth4 ,in this way they may be well preserved through the winter1 if buried so deep that the tap-root will not freeze1 which is always injurious to trees that have been removed from their original soil4 ,such freezing is always destructive to trees out of the ground4 ,small trees and seedlings may be covered entirely1 to be kept through the winter4 ,put coarse straw manure on the earth1 over trees large enough for setting1 that are to be preserved heeled in during winter2 and straw or corn-fodder over the tops1 during the coldest weather1 and they will come out perfect in the spring4 ,if not ready to set out your trees at once1 you may preserve them in perfect condition to very late in spring1 in this way1 by raising them once1 to check vegetation1 and putting them back1 and shading their stems and mulching the roots1 after the commencement of warm weather4 ,trees may thus be preserved in better condition for transplanting than those left in the nursery1 and they will make a larger growth the first season4 ,,leeks4 ,these are said to be natives of ,switzerland4 ,we think this doubtful1 as they are an article of daily food in ,egypt1 and were so highly esteemed there1 centuries ago1 as to become an object of worship4 ,they are used as a pot-herb1 to give a flavor to soups and stews4 ,they are not bulbous1 like onions1 but have a long stem1 which is principally used4 ,they are transplanted very deep1 so as to obtain a long white neck4 ,the ends of the roots are to be cut off when transplanted1 and they should be set in rows a foot apart1 and from four to six inches in the row4 ,there are several varieties1 distinguished mainly by the width of the leaves1--the ,flanders 7or narrow-leafed71 the ,scotch1 and the ,broad ,london4 ,we know no use of leeks for which onions would not be equally good1 and1 hence1 do not recommend their cultivation4 ,,lemon4 ,this is the finest acid fruit grown1 and belongs to warm climates2 but by getting good budded trees from the ,south1 and setting in glass-houses1 protected from severe frosts1 we may grow lemons in abundance at the ,north4 ,by a system of acclimation and protection1 we anticipate seeing oranges and other ,southern fruits grown at the ,north as a domestic luxury1 and perhaps at a profit for market4 ,the houses necessary for protection may be worth more for other purposes than their cost and care1 without interfering with their use for orange and lemon culture4 ,,lettuce4 ,the varieties are numerous1 and most of them do well on very rich land1 well hoed4 ,only two kinds of summer-lettuce need be cultivated--the ice-head lettuce1 and the brown4 ,the ice-head has a very thick and tender leaf1 continuing to be excellent up to midsummer1 from one sowing2 and if not allowed to stand nearer together than six inches1 it will produce fine heads4 ,the brown lettuce is very large and very good4 ,there are other1 earlier kinds1 and many others that form large heads4 ,but we can get the above kinds early1 by sowing in a hotbed and transplanting2 or by sowing so as to have plants get of considerable size in the fall1 and protect by covering in winter4 ,these will be suitable for the table early in the spring4 ,lettuce does better for transplanting2 it forms larger heads than in the original bed1 and is a little later4 ,make the soil very rich with stable-manure4 ,lettuce is more affected by the quality of the soil than most other vegetables4 ,this is a pleasant and healthy article of food1 in spring and early summer4 ,,licorice4 ,this is a hardy plant from ,southern ,europe4 ,the root in substance1 or the extracted dried juice1 is much used4 ,needs a deep1 rich soil4 ,it is propagated by cuttings of roots set out in deeply-trenched land1 in rows three feet apart1 and one foot in the row4 ,small vegetables may be grown among the plants the first year2 afterward keep clear of weeds1 and manure every autumn4 ,at the end of the third year1 after the leaves are dead1 take up the roots and dry them thoroughly4 ,this does well at the ,south4 ,a few roots are sufficient for a family1 and the demand will not be sufficient to require its culture very extensively as an article of commerce4 ,the low price of labor in ,southern ,europe enables them to supply the demand cheaper than can be afforded in this country4 ,,lime4 ,this is a valuable application to the soil4 ,for wheat it is very important1 except on soil containing a large proportion of calcareous matter4 ,usually air-slaked1 and applied as a top-dressing1 or plowed or harrowed in1 its effects are important4 ,on moist1 sour land1 producing wild grass1 it corrects the acidity1 introduces other grass1 and prepares the soil for cultivation4 ,on hard1 stiff lands1 it has a tendency to make them friable1 and keep them in a mellow condition1 thus saving more than its cost1 in the labor of cultivation4 ,very valuable in a compost heap4 ,so much may be applied as to burn the soil and prove injurious4 ,it will not do as a substitute for everything else4 ,see further on ,manures4 ,,lime4 ,a fruit resembling the lemon1 growing in the same climate1 but of smaller size4 ,it is used for the same purposes as the lemon1 but is not so valuable4 ,preserved green1 it is highly esteemed4 ,it is cultivated as the orange and lemon1 needing the same protection in cold climates4 ,to preserve all these from destruction by insects1 wash them in a strong decoction of bitter or offensive herbs1 or with whale-oil soap-suds2 tobacco is very effectual4 ,these remedies are useful on all fruit-trees4 ,,location4 ,this is important to everything we cultivate4 ,but1 as everything can not have the best location1 we should study it with reference to those things most affected by it1 especially fruits4 ,fruits escape late frosts when growing near rills or small brooks4 ,orchards near the shores of bodies of water--as on ,lake ,erie about ,cleveland1 ,ohio--bear luxuriantly when all fruit a few miles back is cut off by late frosts4 ,on the summits of hills1 fruits escape late frosts1 when they are all cut off in the valleys below4 ,on the ,ohio river above ,cincinnati1 peaches are very liable to destruction by late frosts4 ,we have seen them all frozen through in one night1 and turned black the next day1 in the month of ,may1 after they had grown to the size of marrowfat-peas4 ,one season1 when there were no peaches in any other locality within a hundred miles1 we knew an orchard1 on a ,kentucky hill1 so high and steep1 that it took miles of winding around the hill1 to ascend it with a team4 ,those trees were perfectly loaded with peaches1 that sold on the tree at four dollars per bushel1 and in ,cincinnati market at seven to eight dollars4 ,in ,ohio1 ,kentucky1 and ,virginia1 there are such hills1 that may be turned to more valuable account than any of the rest of their land1 that are not now considered good for anything--even for sheep-pastures4 ,the same is true in the hilly parts of all the states4 ,good fruit of some kind will grow on them all1 every year4 ,,locust-,,trees4 ,it will soon be a great object with ,american farmers to cultivate locust-trees1 in all locations to which they are adapted4 ,even in this new world1 we shall soon be dependent on cultivated timber for fence-posts1 railroad-ties1 and building purposes4 ,our native forests are rapidly disappearing1 while demand for timber is as rapidly increasing4 ,probably no other tree is so profitable for cultivation in this country as the locust4 ,it is of rapid growth1 and hard and durable1 and adapted to many uses4 ,the second-growth locust is not so durable as the native forest-tree1 as found in parts of ,ohio2 but1 cut at a suitable age and at the right season of the year1 it is as durable as white cedar1 and much more valuable4 ,the profits of the culture would be great4 ,an acre of locust-trees fifteen or twenty years old would be worth fifteen hundred or two thousand dollars4 ,the expense of growing it1 aside from the use of the land1 would be trifling4 ,the grove would afford a good place for fowls1 while the blossoms would be nearly equal to white clover for honey4 ,the limbs would make excellent wood1 and the ground would need no planting for a second growth4 ,fortunate will be the men on the prairies of the ,west1 and along the railroads and rivers of the land1 who shall early plant fields of locust4 ,the profits of it will greatly exceed the increase in the value of the land4 ,,manures4 ,soils1 manures1 and preparing the soil--plowing1 harrowing1 c4--are the three great subjects in any good agricultural work4 ,we shall treat this subject under the following divisions3-- #a4 ,the substances of which manures are composed4 #b4 ,preparation and saving of manures4 #c4 ,time and modes of application4 #d4 ,the principles of their action upon plants4 ,manures are of two classes--called putrescent and fossil4 ,the putrescent are composed of decayed1 or decaying1 vegetable and animal substances4 ,the fossil are those dug from the earth1 as lime1 marl1 and gypsum4 ,all vegetable substances not useful for other purposes are valuable for manure4 ,rotten wood1 leaves1 straw1 and all the vegetable parts of stable manure1 and any spoiled vegetables or grain1 are all valuable4 ,at the ,south1 their immense quantities of cotton-seed are a mine of wealth1 if properly prepared and applied as manure4 ,animal manures consist of the animal parts of stable manure1 dry and liquid1 parts of bones1 brine1 spoiled meat1 kitchen slops1 soapsuds1 and all dead animals4 ,in decaying1 these substances all pass through a process of fermentation4 ,left exposed without suitable care1 they become unhealthy and offensive4 ,it is probable that a large share of the diseases suffered in the rural districts are caused by these impurities2 and the impossibility of keeping large cities free from these substances is the cause of their increased mortality4 ,in the country1 a little timely caution and labor1 in removing these substances and regulating their fermentation1 would save much sickness2 while the labor would pay a larger per-cent4 profit than any other performed on the soil4 ,no manures should be allowed to ferment1 or decay1 without being mixed or covered with enough common earth1 sand1 peat1 or muck1 to retain all the gases and exhalations of such putrescence4 ,the smallest quantity that will answer is one load of earth to two of the decaying substances4 ,the proportions reversed would be better3 put one bushel of lime to two loads1 two quarts of ground plaster1 and half a bushel of ashes1 and you have the very best compost heap4 ,the following are brief general rules for the preparation of manures4 ,it is always most economical to feed cattle in the stable or under cover1 and never have manure exposed to the weather4 ,but if cattle must be fed outdoor1 let them be fed in a yard1 lowest in the centre1 that the liquids and washings may run into the centre1 and be absorbed by straw and litter4 ,put manure on the land1 or into heaps for compost1 before very warm weather4 ,always feed sheep under cover1 and keep their manure from rain2 heap it together with earth in the spring1 or apply it to the soil at once4 ,manure thrown out of a stable should be kept under cover1 out of the rain1 and not allowed to heat in winter2 its best qualities are evaporated by fermentation in the yard4 ,manures often rained on in winter1 or left in large piles without intermixture of earth1 lime1 plaster1 and ashes1 will ferment and waste4 ,construct your stables so that the liquid manure will run into a vat filled with earth2 muck is best4 ,experiments have shown that the liquid manures are at least one sixth better than the solid4 ,a gentleman dug a pit1 thirty-six feet square and four feet deep1 and walled it in on all sides4 ,he filled his vat from a cultivated field1 and so constructed his sewers from the stables adjoining that the urine saturated the whole4 ,he kept fourteen head of cattle there for five months1 allowing none but the liquid part of the manure to pass into the vat4 ,he spread forty loads of this on an acre4 ,for ten years he tried equal quantities of this and well rotted and prepared stable-manure1 side by side1 in the same field1 and obtained great crops2 but in no stage of their growth could he see that crops on the land manured from the stable were any better than those that had received only the soil from the vat4 ,the latter were quite as good as the former4 ,the contents of his vat manured seven acres1 or half an acre to each creature stabled4 ,the result is proof that one cow discharges urine sufficient in five months to manure abundantly half an acre of land4 ,save the solid manure equally well1 and a cow will make manure enough1 in five or six months1 to increase a crop sufficiently to pay for herself4 ,it is certainly safe to say1 that a careful man can make the manure of a cow pay for her body every year4 ,is not this an important branch of farming operations8 ,few pay sufficient attention to it4 ,fowls should roost where their droppings may be mixed with common garden soil or loam4 ,the manure from each fowl1 carefully saved and judiciously applied1 will pay for its body twice a year4 ,the hogstye may be very productive of manure1 one fourth better than that from the stable4 ,connected with your hogpen1 have a yard fifteen feet square for every five hogs2 let that yard have no floor4 ,throw the straw out of their sleeping-room frequently to make room for new2 throw into the yard1 also1 all sorts of weeds1 refuse vegetables1 corn-husks1 peapods1 c42 also the dirt that will naturally accumulate in the backyard of a dwelling1 including sawdust1 fine chips1 cleanings of cellars1 scrapings of ditches1 and occasionally a load of loam1 muck1 or clay--and six loads of manure to each hog may be made1 that will prove far better than any stable manure2 it has been known to produce fifty bushels of corn to the acre1 when stable-manure produced but forty bushels4 ,old wood1 brush1 and chips1 should never be allowed to remain on uncultivated1 useless land4 ,wood throws out the same amount of heat in decaying as it does when consumed as fuel4 ,the action of that heat on the soil is highly beneficial1 retaining it long in a mellow state3 hence1 all wood1 too old to be of value for any other purpose1 should be put in heaps1 covered up till decomposed1 and then applied to the soil1 as other manures4 ,for potatoes or vines1 but especially melons1 it is preferable to any other manure4 ,nothing is so good for muskmelons as old chips from the woodyard4 ,leaves of fruit and forest trees are also very good2 blood and offal of animals1 hair1 hoofs1 bones1 horns1 refuse feathers1 woollen rags1 mud from sewers1 rivers1 roads1 swamps1 or ponds1 turf1 ashes1 old brine1 soapsuds1 all kinds of fish1 oyster and clam shells--all are valuable1 and no part of them should ever be thrown away or wasted2 they are all good in compost heaps1 or applied directly to the soil4 ,bones are best ground1 but may be used whole1 pounded1 or chemically dissolved1 or mixed with alternate layers of fresh horse-manure1 they will be decomposed by the fermentation of the manure 7see ,bones74 ,perhaps there is as much imprudence in wasting manures as in any part of ,american domestic economy4 ,one who leaves his stock without care1 and so exposed to the weather as to lose half of them and injure the others1 is not fit to be a farmer2 yet1 many waste manure that would produce plants for man and beast1 of far more value than the loss of stock complained of1 and yet no one notices it--it is a matter of course1 exciting no surprise4 ,wastefulness in a family1 if it be of bread1 flour1 or meat1 is considered wicked and impoverishing2 while ten times that amount may be wasted in manures1 that would enrich the soil1 and excite little or no disapprobation4 ,we hope the agricultural periodicals will keep this subject before the people1 until these mines of wealth will no longer be neglected or wasted4 ,application of ,manures is a subject that has been much discussed1 and respecting which1 intelligent agriculturists differ materially4 ,some apply them extensively as a top-dressing for grass lands4 ,this does much good1 but probably one half of their virtues is lost by washing rains1 and by evaporation4 ,a better way is not to keep land down in grass long at a time1 and1 when under the plow1 manure thoroughly4 ,we knew a piece of light land that annually produced half a ton of hay per acre4 ,the owner plowed it up1 raised a crop1 put a moderate quantity of stable-manure1 and ten loads of leached ashes to the acre4 ,we saw it in haying time1 the third season after it had been manured and subsoiled and seeded down1 and they were then taking fully three tons of timothy hay from an acre1 which was the quantity it had yielded three years in succession1 without any top-dressing4 ,if a top-dressing of manure is to be applied1 harrow the land quite thoroughly1 and always apply the manure in the fall--it is worth twice as much as when applied in the spring4 ,the rains and snows of winter cause it to sink into the soil1 while the heat of spring and summer evaporate it4 ,a mixture of plaster1 lime1 ashes1 and a very little salt1 sowed on meadows1 immediately after haying1 secures a good growth of feed1 much sooner than it will come on other meadows4 ,it also increases1 quite considerably1 the hay crop of the following season4 ,it is a universal rule not to allow manure to lie long on the surface to which it is applied1 before plowing in4 ,place manure in heaps1 as large as will be convenient for spreading1 and spread it just before the plow4 ,never spread manure one day to be plowed in the next4 ,when manuring in the hill1 have the planters follow the manure-cart4 ,in manuring potatoes in the hill1 drop the potatoes1 and put the manure on them and cover at once4 ,in a dry season1 the yield will be double that of those planted in the usual way4 ,for fall grains1 plow in the manure1 just before sowing the seed4 ,this is better than plowing it in under the sod4 ,if the land be not sod land1 and you can plow the manure in only deep enough to cover it1 and then1 just before sowing the seed1 plow again very deep1 the effect is excellent4 ,apply manure to land in the fall1 or just after harvest1 and plow it in1 let the land remain till spring1 and then plow deep1 and you get the best possible effect4 ,on an onion crop1 manure does the most good on the surface4 ,on those raised from sets1 or on any onions1 after they get large enough to give room1 put fine manure enough to keep down all weeds1 and it will double the crop4 ,gypsum is better sowed than in any other way4 ,mixed with a little lime and salt1 or wood-ashes and salt1 the effect on corn is better than from either alone4 ,to hoed crops apply these articles twice1 and always by sowing1 and not by putting it around or upon the hills2 the effect is much greater sowed1 besides the labor that is saved4 ,in applying guano1 do not allow it to come in contact with the plants1 as it is apt to destroy them4 ,it only remains to consider the principles on which manure acts upon soils1 and produces growth in plants4 ,the action of manure on the soil1 by which it is enabled to retain and appropriate moisture1 constitutes its main1 if not its whole benefit4 ,it may afford a stimulus to the roots of plants4 ,even the specific manures1 that are supposed to supply organic matter to particular plants1 may impart their benefits by their action upon the air and water4 ,facts are certainly at hand to show that the great and leading benefits of manures are in their control of moisture1 and where that control is not needed1 plants get a great growth on what we call poor soil4 ,no manures1 either fossil or putrescent1 afford any considerable food for plants4 ,vegetation receives its growth mainly from water and from the atmosphere4 ,facts in support of this theory are abundant4 ,a trial was made to ascertain whence comes the matter of which a tree is composed4 ,a quantity of kiln-dried earth was weighed and then put into a tight vessel4 ,a willow shrub was also weighed and planted in that earth1 and the vessel covered with perforated tin to keep out the dust2 for a year and a half it was supplied only with pure water4 ,the tree was then taken out1 and found1 by weight1 to have gained one hundred and sixty pounds4 ,the earth was then kiln-dried1 as before1 and weighed1 and its weight was found to be only two ounces less than it was a year and a half before1 when it was deposited there4 ,the tree1 then1 must have received its growth1 not from the soil1 but from the water or the atmosphere1 or both4 ,another fact3 take a load of manure1 dry it thoroughly1 and weigh it4 ,then moisten it and apply it to the soil1 and it will increase the weight of vegetation from ten to thirty or forty times its own weight when dry1 and yet most of that manure may still be found in the soil4 ,hence it can only feed plants in a very limited degree4 ,its action must be on air and water1 or the control it gives the soil over those elements4 ,it is also matter of common observation that soil well manured1 will continue moist for a long time after similar land by its side1 but which has not been manured1 is dried up4 ,hard coarse soils dry up very quickly1 while soft1 mellow1 and friable ones will endure a long drought4 ,the gases and moisture generated by the decomposition of manures produce this mellow state4 ,hence the necessity of having that decomposition take place under the soil1 or of plowing in the manure4 ,another important fact bearing on this question is1 that what are regarded very poor soils1 such as light sandy or gravelly land1 will produce good crops in a season remarkable for the frequency of showers4 ,on such soils crops are from twice to four times as large1 in a wet season as in a dry1 and yet there is an addition of nothing but moisture1 and in such a manner1 as not to have it stand and become stagnant among the roots of the plants4 ,yet another evidence is in the strength of clay soils4 ,a hard clay is very unproductive4 ,but so disintegrated that plants can grow in it1 it produces a great crop4 ,this is because clay is of so close a texture1 that when mixed with manure1 turf1 sand1 or muck1 although friable1 it retains more moisture1 than sand or ordinary loam4 ,this is the reason of the superior fertility of land annually overflowed with water1 as ,egypt in the vicinity of the ,nile4 ,it is not that the ,nile brings down deposites from the mountains of the ,moon1 so rich above all that is in the valleys below4 ,the entire weight of all that a river deposites on ten acres would not equal in weight the increased vegetation of a single acre4 ,the cause of the increased fertility is the fact that the deposite is so fine that it prevents rapid evaporation1 and thus causes the soil to retain moisture for the large growth1 and maturity of the plants4 ,one more evidence is found on our sandy pine plains4 ,our common forest-trees1 as beech1 maple1 elm1 or linden1 will not flourish there4 ,such land will produce comparatively no corn1 oats1 or wheat4 ,but rye that stands drought better than any other grain1 grows tolerably well4 ,but such plains always produce an enormous growth of pine timber1 hardly equalled in the number of cords to the acre1 by the heaviest-timbered land of the river bottoms4 ,why is this8 ,does a maple need so much more food than a pine1 or is it in the habits of the trees8 ,it is not in the richness or poverty of the soil1 but in the adaptation of the trees to reach and appropriate moisture4 ,the roots of the maple and beech1 spread out near the surface of the ground4 ,and it being a light1 porous1 sandy soil1 it does not retain moisture enough to promote their growth4 ,but whoever notices a pine-tree that has been turned up from the roots by the wind1 will see that the roots run down almost perpendicularly ten or fifteen feet into the sand4 ,there they find plenty of moisture and hence their great growth4 ,this principle explains the comparative productiveness of all soils4 ,a soil composed of light muck1 or a kind of peet-soil1 will dry up soon4 ,there is nothing to prevent rapid evaporation2 hence it is always unproductive1 for want of suitable moisture4 ,mix with it clay1 to render its texture more firm1 and it will retain the moisture1 and be very productive4 ,clay alone is too solid to retain moisture2 it runs off1 as from a brick4 ,mix sand with it1 and it becomes mellow1 and retains moisture1 and produces great growth4 ,sand allows so free and rapid an evaporation that it is unproductive4 ,we say it leaches and is hungry1 and so it is1 because it has little power to retain water4 ,our manures do it good1 only as they are calculated to aid it in controlling moisture4 ,if we apply a light manure as we would to clay1 it is comparatively useless2 it adds no firmness to the texture of the soil1 and hence does not increase its capacity for controlling water4 ,on such land1 the only good that manure does1 is while decomposition is taking place in the soil1 it renders it more moist1 and hence more productive4 ,apply clay to such a soil1 and it will increase its firmness and consequent capacity of retaining and appropriating moisture1 and thus render it highly valuable4 ,dry straw manure is sometimes said to dry up land1 and ruin crops4 ,so of turf in a dry season4 ,in a wet season they greatly increase the growth of crops4 ,now they contain just as much food for plants in one season as another4 ,hence a soil too easily impervious to the atmosphere1 will be a poor soil1 that is1 will produce poorly1 simply because it has no power to retain the necessary moisture4 ,we suppose these facts and reasons to establish our theory1 that the principal benefit of manures1 and of mixing different soils1 is in the control they give over the moisture and the atmosphere4 ,hence the greatly increased crop of clover from the application of three quarters of a bushel of plaster to an acre4 ,the increased weight of clover on five square rods1 would outweigh the plaster applied1 and still that plaster remains1 in almost its full weight1 on the soil4 ,this principle explains the benefit of mulching trees1 plants1 or vegetables4 ,this is the best means of preserving trees1 the first year after transplanting1 and of securing a great growth1 of any kind of shrubs or plants4 ,this may be done with common straw or leaves4 ,now wherein is their utility8 ,not in the nourishment they afford the plants1 but in the fact that mulching so covers the surface as to prevent rapid evaporation4 ,in such cases1 it is the more abundant moisture that secures the greater growth4 ,hence the first study of a soil culturist should be to ascertain how he shall so mix and manage the materials at his command1 as to cause them to retain moisture for the longest time1 without leaving water to stand about the roots of his plants4 ,on this depends the whole importance of deep plowing and ditching4 ,on this theory we may also account for the fact that certain plants prefer a certain kind of manure to all others4 ,it is that those plants act in a certain manner on the soil requiring a specific action of manure to enable it to appropriate moisture and tax the atmosphere for their growth4 ,this theory explains why too much manure is bad4 ,not because we give too much food to plants1 but because excess of manure dries up the land4 ,but whatever theory we adopt1 we all agree in the utility of fertilizers4 ,and the experience of practical farmers is of more value in aiding us to reach right conclusions1 than all chemical essays on the subject that have ever been written4 ,,marl4 ,this is one of the best distributed and most universal fertilizers4 ,marl proper contains nearly equal proportions of clay and lime4 ,sand-marl is spoken of1 in which sand and lime are the main ingredients4 ,clay-marls are to be applied to sandy and gravelly soils1 and sand-marls to clayey soils4 ,shell-marls are very valuable1 and seldom contain clay4 ,marls may easily be known1 even by those not at all acquainted with chemistry4 ,apply any mineral acid1 or even very strong vinegar1 and if it be a marl1 an effervescence will at once be observed3 this effect is produced by acid upon lime4 ,,marjorum4 ,there are two varieties in cultivation--the sweet1 an annual herb2 and the winter1 a hardy perennial4 ,they are grown and used as summer savory--used green1 or dried for winter4 ,they give a sweet1 aromatic flavor to soups1 stews1 and dressings4 ,the cultivation is1 in all respects1 like other garden-herbs of the kind1 whether for medicinal or culinary purposes4 ,,melons4 ,there are two species--musk and water melons--which are subdivided into many varieties of each4 ,these are among the most delicious of all the products of the garden4 ,a little use makes all persons very fond of them4 ,the climate of the ,middle and ,southern states is well adapted to raising melons2 much better than the same latitudes in ,europe4 ,the following brief directions will insure success in their cultivation4 ,a light1 rich soil is always desirable4 ,there should always be a little sand in the composition of soil for melons4 ,if not there naturally1 supply it2 it will always pay4 ,the warm sands of ,long ,island and ,new ,jersey are the best possible for melons1 especially for water-melons4 ,it may be well to trench deep for the hills1 and mix in a little well-rotted manure1 and cover it with fine mould4 ,a quantity of manure1 left in bulk under the hills1 will dry them up at the worst possible time4 ,when you plant only a few in a garden1 mulch your musk-melons with chips or sawdust from the wood-yard1 or leaves and decayed wood from the forest1 and you will get a great growth4 ,they will grow luxuriantly in a pile of chips1 with a little soil1 in a door-yard1 where hardly any other plant would flourish4 ,the water-melon does best in almost pure sand1 if it be enriched with liquid or some other of the finer manures4 ,plant musk-melons six feet apart1 and water-melons nine feet each way4 ,when the plants become established1 never leave more than two or three in a hill4 ,the product will be greatly increased in number and size1 by picking off the end bud of the first runners when they show their blossom-buds2 this causes them to throw out many strong lateral vines1 which will produce abundantly4 ,the attacks of striped bugs1 so well known as the enemies of vines1 and also of the black fleas1 or hoppers 7very minute1 but quite destructive to tender vines when first up71 may be prevented 7says ,downing7 by sprinkling near the plants a little guano4 ,as but a small portion of cultivators will have it1 or can obtain it1 we recommend to put many seeds in a hill1 to provide for the depredations of the bugs1 and sprinkle offensive articles around them4 ,these will not always be effectual4 ,we have recommended elsewhere to fence each hill1 as the most effectual method4 ,a box1 with gauze or a pane of glass over the top1 is a certain remedy in every case2 it also greatly promotes the growth of the young vines4 ,this is equally effectual against the cutworm and all other insects2 and1 as the boxes will last a dozen years or so1 we should use them if we had ten acres of melons4 ,but by early and late planting1 and watchfulness1 and replanting1 you will succeed without protection4 ,an excessive quantity of stable-manure does not increase the growth1 especially of water-melons4 ,plaster1 bonedust1 and ashes1 are good applications2 hog-manure is the best of all4 ,the seeds should be soaked two days1 and planted an inch deep on broad hills1 raised in the centre four inches above the level of the bed1 that water may not stand around them2 planted low1 they sometimes perish in a few hours in a hot sun1 after a rain4 ,hoe them often1 but never when they are wet1 and never hoe near them after they have commenced running2 the roots spread1 about as much as the vines1 and hoeing deep near them cuts off the roots1 and materially injures them4 ,many a promising plat of melons has been ruined by stirring the soil when they were wet1 and hoeing around them after they had begun to run4 ,in walking among melons1 great harm is done by stepping on the ends of vines4 ,no one should be allowed among melons but the one who hoes or picks them4 ,many are lost by drought1 after great care4 ,we have often used an effectual remedy2 it consists in turning up the vines1 if they have begun to run before the drought1 and putting around each hill from a peck to half a bushel of wet1 well rotted manure2 that from a spent hotbed is excellent for this purpose2 and hoe from a distance between the hills1 and cover the manure an inch or two deep with fine mould1 lay down the vines1 and saturate the hill with water1 and they will hardly get dry again during the season4 ,a little judicious watering will give you a great crop in the most severe drought4 ,varieties of the ,musk-melon4--,these are numerous1 and the nomenclature uncertain4 ,the ,london ,horticultural ,society's catalogue enumerates seventy4 ,most of them are of no use to any one4 ,two or three of the best are sufficient4 ,there are three general classes of musk-melons--the green-fleshed1 as the citron and nutmeg2 yellow-fleshed1 as the cantelope1 or long yellow2 and ,persian melon4 ,the last is the finest of all1 but is too tender for general cultivation with us1 requiring much care and very warm seasons4 ,the yellow-fleshed are very large1 but much inferior in quality to either of the others4 ,the green-fleshed are the musk-melons for this whole country4 ,the nutmeg has long been celebrated2 but1 it being much smaller than the citron1 and in no way superior in quality1 we think the latter the best for all ,american gardens4 ,the following are enumerated in ,white's ,gardening for the ,south1 as adapted to the latitude of the ,southern states3 ,christiana1 ,beechwood1 ,hoosainee1 ,sweet ,ispahan1 ,pineapple1 ,cassabar1 ,netted ,citron1 and ,rock4 ,these are doubtless all fine1 and would do well at the ,north1 with suitable care and protection4 ,downing's catalogue is nearly the same1 with a very few additions4 ,varieties of ,water-melons--are also numerous1 and names uncertain4 ,the best varieties1 however1 are well known4 ,the most choice are the following3 ,imperial1 ,carolina1 ,black ,spanish1 ,mountain-,sprout1 ,mountain-,sweet1 ,apple-seeded1 and ,ice-cream4 ,the following excellent water-melons all originated in ,south ,carolina3 ,souter2 ,clarendon1 or dark-speckled2 ,bradford1 very dark-green1 with stripes mottled and streaked with green2 ,ravenscroft1 and ,odell's large white4 ,there is a fine little melon1 called the orange-melon1 because the flesh and skin separate like an orange4 ,these varieties will all do well with care4 ,to preserve any one of them1 it must be grown at some distance from other varieties4 ,all water-melons should be far removed from citrons1 which resemble them1 raised only for preserving4 ,they always ruin the next generation of water-melons4 ,different varieties of musk-melons planted together produce hybrids1 partaking of the qualities of both1 and are often very fine4 ,we raised a cross between the yellow-fleshed cantelope and the nutmeg1 which was excellent4 ,seeds of most vines are better for being two or three years old1 as they produce less vines1 but more fruit4 ,melons are a luxury that should grow in every garden1 and the state should enact severe laws against stealing them1 making the punishment no less than fine and imprisonment4 ,,millet4 ,this is a species of grain1 partaking much of the nature of a large grass4 ,sowed thin1 it produces a good yield4 ,the seed is excellent for fowls4 ,ground1 it is good for keeping or fattening all domestic animals4 ,it is about equal to ,indian corn for bread4 ,cut while green1 but when nearly ripe1 it is a good substitute for hay1 producing a much larger quantity per acre4 ,all animals prefer millet1 cut in the milk1 to hay4 ,it is a less profitable crop for grain1 on account of the irregularity of its ripening1 and its extreme liability to shell1 when dry4 ,it must be cut as soon as the seed begins to harden4 ,it also attracts swarms of birds1 which are exceedingly fond of the seed4 ,about three tons per acre is an average crop on tolerably good land4 ,from one to three pecks of seed to the acre are sown broadcast4 ,when sown in drills and cultivated1 it grows very large1 and requires only four quarts of seed per acre4 ,it will make good fodder sown at any time from ,april to ,july4 ,its more extensive cultivation for fodder is recommended4 ,,mint4 ,this genus of plants comprises twenty-four species4 ,those usually cultivated in gardens are three1 ,peppermint1 ,spearmint1 and ,pennyroyal mint4 ,all mints are propagated by the same methods4 ,parting the roots1 offset young plants1 and cuttings from the stalks4 ,spearmint and peppermint like a moist and even wet soil4 ,pennyroyal does better in a rich loam4 ,plants come into use the same season they are set4 ,set the plants eight inches apart1 and on beds four feet wide1 leaving a path two feet between them4 ,in field culture1 for the oils and essences1 place them two feet apart1 for the convenience of going between the rows with a horse4 ,thus cultivation becomes easy4 ,they should be cut in full blossom1 and dried in small bunches in the shade1 but better by artificial heat1 like hops4 ,they should be cut when dry4 ,for domestic uses1 dry quickly1 and pulverize1 and put away in tight glass bottles4 ,they will retain all their strength1 keep free from dust1 and always be ready for use4 ,the same is true of all the herbs for domestic use4 ,as a field crop1 mints are profitable4 ,,mulberry4 ,there are three varieties cultivated in this country4 ,we place them in the order of their qualities3-- #a4 ,the ,johnson4--,a new variety1 thus described by ,kirtland3 ,fruit very large2 oblong cylindric2 blackish1 subacid1 and of mild and agreeable flavor4 ,growth of wood strong4 #b4 ,the ,black ,mulberry4--,an ,asiatic variety1 rather tender for the ,north1 though it succeeds tolerably well in some parts of ,new ,england4 ,fruit large and delicious2 tree low and spreading4 ,easily cultivated on almost any soil4 ,propagated by seeds1 layers1 cuttings1 or roots4 #c4 ,the ,red ,mulberry4--,a native of this country4 ,fruit small and pleasant1 but inferior to the two preceding4 ,,mulching4 ,this is placing around plants or trees1 coarse manure or litter of any kind1 to keep down weeds1 and prevent too rapid evaporation of moisture4 ,all straw1 corn stalks1 old weeds or stubble1 forest leaves1 seaweeds1 old wood1 sawdust1 old tanbark1 chips1 c41 are good for mulching4 ,any tree taken up and planted with reasonable care1 and well mulched and watered1 will live4 ,one of fifty need not die4 ,cover the loose earth deep enough to prevent the springing of weeds4 ,put a little earth on the outer edge of the manure1 leaving it dishing about the tree4 ,fill that occasionally with water1 and you will get a good growth1 even in a dry season4 ,plant gooseberries or currants1 and mulch the whole ground between the bushes1 and give them no other cultivation1 and the berries will grow nearly twice as large as the same varieties standing neglected1 to grow up to weeds1 in the usual way4 ,mulching with clean1 dry straw1 or with charcoal1 is a preventive of mildew4 ,it is the easiest method of taking care of strawberries after they are in blossom2 the vines will bear much more and finer fruit1 and it will be clean and neat4 ,mulching vines is a great means of insuring a crop4 ,every crop that can be mulched will be greatly benefited by it2 hence1 all the straw and litter that can be saved is money in the pocket2 for mulching alone1 it is worth five times as much as it can be sold for4 ,burning or in any way destroying cobs1 cornstalks1 stubble1 old straw1 or decaying wood1 is extravagant wastefulness4 ,,mushrooms ,are vegetables growing up in old pastures1 or on land mulched and the straw partly covered with soil4 ,they are also cultivated in beds for the purpose4 ,picked at the right stage1 they are a fine article of diet1 almost equalling oysters4 ,the use of the wild ones1 however1 is attended with some danger1 for the want of knowledge of the varieties1 or of the difference between the genuine mushroom1 and the toadstools that so much resemble them4 ,persons have been poisoned unto death by eating toadstools instead of mushrooms4 ,when of middle size1 mushrooms are distinguished by the fine pink or flesh color of their gills1 and by their pleasant smell4 ,in a more advanced stage1 the gills become of a chocolate color2 they are then apt to be confounded with injurious kinds4 ,the toadstool that most resembles the true mushroom is slimy to the touch1 and rather disagreeable to the smell4 ,the noxious kind grows in the borders of woods1 while the mushroom only grows in the open field4 ,it is better1 however1 not to eat them unless gathered by a practised hand1 so as to be sure of no mistake4 ,with the help of one accustomed to gathering them1 you will learn in a few moments1 so as to be accurate and safe4 ,mushroom ,beds4--,prepare a bed in the corner of the hothouse1 or1 in the absence of that1 in a warm1 dry cellar4 ,the first of ,october is the best time4 ,make the bed four feet wide1 and as long as you require4 ,it should be one foot high perpendicularly at the edges1 and sloping toward the middle2 it should be of horse-manure1 well forked1 and put in compact and even1 so as to settle all alike4 ,cover it with long straw1 to preserve heat and the exhalations that would rise4 ,at the end of ten days1 the heat will be such as to allow you to remove the straw1 and put an inch of good mould over the top of the bed4 ,on this put the spawn or seed of the mushroom1 in rows of six inches apart4 ,the spawn are white fibres1 found in old pastures1 where mushrooms grow1 or in old spent hotbeds1 and sometimes under old stable floors4 ,the warmth of the bed will produce mushrooms plentifully for a considerable time4 ,if the production diminishes and nearly ceases1 it may be renewed by removing the mould1 and putting on good horse-manure to the depth of twelve inches1 and covering and planting as before1 and the production will be plentiful for a number of weeks4 ,,mustard4 ,there are two kinds cultivated1 the black and the white1 annuals1 and natives of ,great ,britain4 ,the white mustard is cultivated in this country principally for greens1 and sometimes for a small salad like the cress4 ,it may be sown at any time from opening of spring to the beginning of autumn4 ,but sown in hot weather1 the bed must be shaded4 ,the ,spaniards prefer the white mustard for grinding for table use1 because of its mildness and its whiter flour4 ,white mustard-seed1 being much larger than the black1 is preferred for mangoes1 and all pickling purposes4 ,black mustard is cultivated principally in the field1 for the mills4 ,it is there ground1 and makes the well known condiment found on most tables4 ,sow in ,march or ,april1 broadcast on land tolerably free from weeds1 and if you get it too thick1 hoe up a part4 ,in ,july or ,august1 you may get a good crop4 ,cradle it as wheat1 before ripe enough to shell4 ,mustard used in various ways is medicinal4 ,it is one of the safest and most speedy emetics4 ,stir up a table-spoonful of the flour and drink it4 ,follow it with repeated draughts of warm water1 and in half an hour1 you will have gone through all the stages of a thorough emetic1 without having been weakened by it4 ,,nasturtium4 ,this annual plant1 found in most gardens1 is too well known to need description4 ,were it not so common1 its flowers1 that appear in great profusion1 from early summer till destroyed by frost1 would be regarded very beautiful4 ,its main use is for pickles4 ,its green berries are nearly equal to capers for that purpose4 ,it grows well on any good garden soil2 bears more berries on less vines1 planted on land not too rich4 ,single vines four feet apart1 on rich land1 do best4 ,,nectarine4 ,this is only a fine variety of the peach1 having a smooth skin4 ,downing gives instances of its return to the peach1 and others of the production of nectarines and peaches on the same limb4 ,the appearance of the tree is hardly distinguishable from the peach4 ,it is one of the most beautiful of dessert fruits3 it has no down on the skin1 being entirely smooth and beautiful1 like waxwork4 ,its smooth skin exposes it to the ravages of the curculio4 ,it is longer-lived on plum-stocks1 but is more generally budded on the peach4 ,it is usually productive wherever peaches flourish1 if not destroyed by the curculio4 ,it is even more important than in the peach to head-in the trees often1 to produce good large fruit4 ,varieties--are divided into freestone and clingstone1 with quite a number in each class4 ,we give only a few of those most esteemed4 ,boston4--,freestone1 ,american seedling2 hardy and productive2 color deep-yellow1 with a bright-red cheek4 ,time1 ,september #ast4 ,due du ,telliers4--,freestone1 pale-green1 with a marbled reddish cheek2 flesh whitish1 inclining to green2 very fine2 a great bearer of rather large fruit4 ,time1 last of ,august4 ,hunt's ,tawny4--,very fine and early2 a great bearer2 tree hardy2 color1 pale-orange1 with a dark-red cheek1 with many russety specks4 ,time1 forepart of ,august4 ,pitmaston ,orange4--,a fine yellow nectarine1 maturing the last of ,august4 ,the ,early ,violet--is an old ,french variety1 everywhere esteemed2 it has sixteen synonyms2 fruit high-flavored4 ,time1 last of ,august4 ,newington4--,a good clingstone2 an ,english variety that has long been cultivated2 it has many synonyms2 the color dark-red when exposed4 ,time1 #ajth of ,september4 ,newington ,early--,is one of the best1 earlier1 larger1 and better1 than the preceding2 ripens first of ,september4 ,the same varieties are excellent for the ,south1 where they ripen considerably earlier4 ,the following selection of choice1 hardy nectarines for a small garden1 is from ,downing3-- ,early ,violet1 ,elruge1 ,hardwicke ,seedling1 ,hunt's ,tawny1 ,boston1 ,roman1 and ,new ,white4 ,,new ,,fruits4 ,that these are constantly appearing1 is a matter of common observation2 but the manner of their production has given rise to much diversity of opinion4 ,the theory that they are the results of replanting1 from the seeds of successive generations of the same tree1 is called the ,van ,mons' theory1 after ,dr4 ,van ,mons1 of ,belgium1 who devoted many years of close study and application to the improvement of fruit1 especially of pears1 by this method4 ,his directions may be briefly summed up as follows4 ,plant seeds from any good variety of fruit2 let those seedlings stand without grafting1 until they bear4 ,take the first fruit from the best of those seedlings1 and plant it and produce other seedlings1 and so on4 ,the peach and plum are said to reach a high state of excellence in the third generation1 while the pear requires the fifth4 ,seeds from old trees are said to have a great tendency to return to their wild origin1 while those of young1 improving trees will more generally produce a better fruit4 ,the seeds from a graft from a young tree does not produce a better than itself4 ,the succession must be of seedlings4 ,this theory requires long practice1 and is exposed to interruptions by the crosses that will necessarily occur between different trees in blossom4 ,and we have in so many cases had a fruit of great perfection arise from a single planting of seed from some known variety1 that we must conclude the improvement to be produced by some other principle than that of the ,van ,mons' theory4 ,the evidence is in favor of the opinion that new varieties of fruit arise from cross-fertilization in the blossoms of different kinds1 and that the improvement of the qualities of any given variety is the result of cultivation4 ,some of the best plums we have are known to have been the product of fertilizing the blossoms of one tree from the pollen of another2 this is constantly taking place with our fruits1 and is consequent upon our mixed orchards4 ,let this be attended to artificially1 by covering branches with gauze1 to prevent the fertilization by bees and winds1 and make the cross between any two varieties you choose1 and the results may prove highly beneficial4 ,the amateur cultivator may render essential service to pomology by this practice4 ,we know that all our choice fruits have come from those not fit for use4 ,it is not improved cultivation of the old1 barely1 but the production of new varieties4 ,the subject of further improvement1 therefore1 demands careful study and practice4 ,the seeds of established varieties1 planted at once without drying1 will often reproduce the same4 ,we are not certain but they generally would1 if not affected by blossoms of contiguous trees4 ,,nursery4 ,of this subject we can only give the general outlines4 ,this department of soil-culture is so distinct1 that the few who engage in it as a business are expected to make it an especial study4 ,in a work like this1 it is only desirable to give those general principles that will enable the cultivator of the soil to raise such trees as he may desire on his own premises4 ,these directions may be considered reliable1 and1 as far as they go1 are applicable to all nurseries4 ,location4--,this is the first point demanding attention4 ,if a piece of land containing a variety of soils can be selected1 it will prove beneficial1 as different trees require different soils for their greatest perfection4 ,a situation through which a rivulet may run1 or in which a pond may be constructed1 fed by a spring or hydrant1 is of great value for watering4 ,the situation of the nursery1 as it respects shade or exposure1 is also important4 ,trees should generally be as much exposed to the elements1 in the nursery1 as they will be when transplanted in the orchard4 ,trees removed from shaded situations to the open field will be stinted in growth for some time1 and may be permanently injured4 ,never allow your nursery to be shaded by large trees4 ,bearing trees1 designed to show the quality of your fruit1 should occupy a place by themselves4 ,soil4--,a theory that has had many adherents is that trees raised on poorer and harder land than that they will occupy in the orchard1 will grow more vigorously1 and do better1 than those transplanted from better to worse soil4 ,thus1 trees have often been preferred from high1 hard hills1 to transplant in good loam or alluvium4 ,on the same principle1 a calf or colt should be more healthy1 and make a better creature1 for having been nearly starved for the first year or two4 ,neither of these is true4 ,give fruit-trees as great a growth as possible while young1 without producing too tender and spongy wood for cold winters4 ,it is only desirable to check the early growth of fruit-trees on the rich prairies of the ,west1 and that should be done1 not by the poverty of the soil1 but by root-pruning or heading-in2 this prevents a spongy1 tender growth1 that is apt to be injured by their trying winds4 ,trees that are brought from a colder to a warmer region1 always do better4 ,preparation of the ,soil4--,it should be made quite rich with stable-manure1 lime1 and wood-ashes1 and cultivated in a root-crop the previous year--any roots except potatoes4 ,those left in the ground will come up so early and vigorous in the spring1 that you can not eradicate them without destroying many of your young seedlings4 ,the land should be worked very deep by subsoiling1 or better with double-plowing1 by which the manure and top-soil are put in the bottom4 ,as manure always works up1 the effect will be excellent4 ,buckwheat is good to precede a nursery2 it shades the ground so densely as to protect it from the scorching sun1 and effectually destroy all weeds4 ,trees planted on land prepared by double-plowing 7see our article on ,plowing7 will make one third greater growth1 in a given time1 than those on land prepared in the ordinary way4 ,in double-plowing1 if the subsoil be very poor1 it will be necessary to give a top-dressing of well-rotted manure1 worked in with a cultivator4 ,thorough draining is also very essential to a nursery4 ,time of ,planting4--,the general practice is to plant in the fall1 at any time before the ground freezes4 ,the better way is to keep seeds in moist sand1 or dry and spread thin1 until spring1 and plant as early as the ground will allow4 ,freezing apple-seeds is of no use4 ,hard-shelled seeds had better be frozen1 to open the stones and give them an opportunity to germinate4 ,the advantage of spring-planting is1 the ground can be put in much better condition1 and the seeds will start quite as early as the weeds1 and much labor may be saved in tending4 ,method of ,planting4--,plant with a drill that will run about an inch deep1 putting the seeds in straight rows1 not more than an inch wide1 and two and a half feet apart2 this will allow the use of a small horse and cultivator1 which will destroy nearly all the weeds4 ,use a potato-fork or hoe1 across the rows1 among the seedlings1 and very little weeding will be necessary4 ,it is not more than one fourth of the ordinary work to keep a nursery clean in this way4 ,two thirds of those thus planted and cultivated will be large enough for root-grafting the first season1 and for cleft-grafting the second4 ,when your seedlings are six inches high1 if you thoroughly mulch them with fine straw or manure1 you will be troubled with no more weeds1 and your trees will get a strong growth4 ,for root-grafting1 pull up those of suitable size very late in the fall1 cut off the tops eight inches from the root1 and pack in boxes1 in moist sand1 and keep in a cellar that does not freeze2 graft in winter1 and repack them in the boxes with moist sand1 sawdust1 or moss1 and keep them until time to transplant in spring4 ,they should not be wet1 but only slightly moist4 ,in the spring1 plant them in rows three feet apart1 and ten inches in the row4 ,the second year1 if they are not wanted in market1 they should be taken up and reset1 in rows four feet apart1 and two feet in the row4 ,cut off the ends of large roots1 to encourage the growth of numerous fibrous roots4 ,large nursery-trees1 that have not been transplanted1 are of little value for the orchard1 being nearly destitute of fibrous roots4 ,but large trees1 even of bearing size1 when transplanted in the orchard1 do quite as well as small ones1 provided they have been several times transplanted in the nursery4 ,this produces many fibrous roots1 upon which the health and life of the tree depend4 ,in many regions1 great care must be taken to prevent destruction of young trees by snow-drifts4 ,this is done by selecting locations1 and by constructing or removing fences1 to allow the snow to blow off2 treading it down as it falls is also very useful1 both in protecting the trees from breaking down by the settling of drifts in a thaw1 and from the depredations of mice under the snow4 ,trees should be taken up from the nursery with the least possible injury to the roots4 ,do not leave them exposed to the air for an hour1 not even in a cloudy day4 ,it is an easy matter to cover the roots with mats1 straw1 or earth4 ,protect also from frosts2 many trees are ruined by exposure to air and frost1 of which the nurseryman is very careful in all other respects4 ,for transportation1 they should be closely packed in moist straw1 and wound in straw or mats1 firmly tied and kept moist4 ,trees1 cared for and packed in this way1 may be transported thousands of miles1 and kept for two months1 without injury4 ,,nuts4 ,more attention to the cultivation of nuts1 would add materially to our domestic luxuries4 ,there are so many nuts in market1 that are the spontaneous productions of other countries1 or raised where labor is cheap1 that we can not afford to raise them as an article of commerce4 ,but a few trees of the various kinds1 would be a great addition to every country residence4 ,we could always be certain that our nuts were fresh and good4 ,a small piece of ground devoted to nuts1 and occupied by fowls1 would be pleasant and profitable4 ,english walnuts do well here4 ,we have varieties of hickory nuts1 native in this country1 which1 to our taste1 are not surpassed by any other4 ,chestnuts are easily grown here 7see our directions elsewhere in this volume74 ,butternuts1 filberts1 peanuts 7growing in the ground like potatoes71 and even our little forest beechnuts1 are easily raised4 ,the dwarf chestnut of the ,middle and ,southern states is decidedly ornamental in a fruit garden4 ,its qualities are in all respects like the common chestnut1 only the fruit is but half the size1 and the tree grows from five to ten feet high4 ,in all our landscape gardens1 and in all places where we retain forest trees for ornamental purposes1 it is better to cultivate trees that will bear good nuts4 ,the varieties of nut-bearing trees1 interspersed with evergreens1 make a beautiful appearance4 ,,oaks4 ,raising oak-timber1 on a large scale1 will soon be demanded in this country4 ,in some sections we have immense quantities of native oaks2 but they are fast disappearing1 and the present expense of transporting the timber1 to places where it is needed1 is much greater than would be the cost of raising it4 ,a million of acres of oaks ought to be planted within the next five years4 ,a crop of white oak1 of only twenty-five years' growth1 would be very valuable2 and twenty-five or fifty acres1 of forty years' growth1 would be worth a handsome fortune1 especially in the ,west4 ,on all the bluffs in the ,west they grow well1 and on the prairies they will do even better1 after they have been cultivated a few years4 ,the application of a little common salt on rich alluvial soils1 is a great advantage in growing timber4 ,preserve acorns in moist sand during winter1 and plant in the spring1 in rows six feet apart1 to give opportunity for other crops among them for a year or two1 to encourage good cultivation4 ,plant a foot apart in the row1 that1 in thinning out1 good straight trees may be left2 at three or four years old1 thin to four feet in the rows2 afterward1 only remove as appears absolutely necessary4 ,trim straight and smooth4 ,the question of transplanting is important4 ,shall we plant thick1 as in a nursery1 and then transplant1 or shall we plant where they are to grow8 ,in fruit-trees1 the object is to get a low1 full1 and spreading top1 of horizontal branches1 that will bear much fruit4 ,this is eminently promoted by transplanting1 root-pruning1 and heading-in4 ,but in raising timber1 the object is to get trees of long1 straight bodies1 with the fewest possible low branches4 ,such are the native trees of the forest4 ,this is best promoted by planting thick1 never transplanting1 and keeping all the lower limbs well trimmed off4 ,these directions are for raising timber on good tillable land4 ,such groves may be good for pastures1 and for poultry-yards1 for a long time4 ,beside this1 we have large areas of rough land1 that will not soon be brought into cultivation for other purposes4 ,fine timber may be grown on such land1 with no care but trimming4 ,,oats4 ,this is one of the great staple agricultural products of all regions1 sufficiently moist and cool for their successful growth4 ,oatmeal makes the most wholesome bread ever eaten by man4 ,for all horses1 except those having the heaves1 oats are the best grain2 to such horses they should never be fed--corn1 soaked or ground1 is best4 ,they are valuable for all domestic animals and fowls4 ,varieties4--,these are numerous4 ,those called side-oats yield the largest crops3 but of these there are several varieties4 ,the genuine ,siberian oats are tall1 heavy1 dark-colored side-oats1 the most productive of any known4 ,swedish oats1 and other new varieties1 are coming into notice2 most of these are the ,siberian1 under other names1 and perhaps slightly modified by location and culture4 ,the barley-oats1 ,scotch oats1 and those usually cultivated1 will yield only about two thirds as much per acre as the true ,siberian2 the same difference is apparent in the growth of straw4 ,oats will produce something on poor land1 with bad tillage1 but repay thorough fertilization and tillage as well as most other crops4 ,enrich the land1 work it deep and thoroughly1 and roll after harrowing4 ,moist1 cool situations are much preferable for oats3 hence1 success in warm climates depends upon very early sowing4 ,oats sowed as late as the first of ,july1 in latitude forty-two and further north1 will mature2 yet1 all late oats1 even with large straw and handsome heads1 will be found to be only from one half to two thirds filled in proportion to the lateness of sowing4 ,the entire profits of an oat-crop depend upon early sowing4 ,harvest as soon as the grain begins to harden1 and the straw to turn yellow4 ,allowed to get quite ripe1 they shell badly1 and the straw becomes useless1 except for manure4 ,cut with reaper or cradle1 and bind3 all grain so cut is more easily handled1 thrashed1 and fed4 ,mow no grain that is not so lodged down that a cradle or reaper can not be used4 ,the straw of oats cut quite green is nearly as good as hay4 ,,okra4 ,a valuable garden plant1 easily propagated by seeds4 ,it is excellent in cookery1 as a sauce4 ,its ripe seeds1 used as coffee1 very much resemble the genuine article4 ,the green pods are much used in the ,west ,indies1 in soups and pickles4 ,plant at the usual time of corn-planting1 in rows four feet apart1 two or three seeds in a place1 eight inches apart in the row2 leave but one in a place after they get a few inches high1 and hoe as peas1 and the crop will be abundant4 ,,olives4 ,these are natives of ,asia1 but have1 beyond date1 been extensively cultivated in ,southern ,europe4 ,olive-oil is an important article of commerce in most countries4 ,its use in all kinds of cookery1 in countries where it flourishes1 renders olives as important1 to the mass of the people1 as cows are in ,new ,england4 ,it should be a staple product of the ,southern states1 to which it is eminently adapted4 ,it is hardy further north than the orange4 ,with protection1 it may be cultivated1 with the orange and lemon1 all over the country4 ,olive-trees attain a greater age than any other fruit-tree4 ,an ,italian olive-plantation1 near ,terni1 is believed to have stood since the days of ,pliny4 ,once set out1 the trees require very little attention1 and they flourish well on the most rocky lands1 that are utterly useless for any other purpose4 ,calcareous soils are most favorable to their growth4 ,they are propagated by suckers1 seeds1 or by little eggs that grow on the main stalk1 and are easily detached by a knife1 and planted as potatoes or corn4 ,olives will bear at four or five years from the seed2 they bear with great regularity1 and yield fifteen or twenty pounds of oil per annum to each tree4 ,there are several varieties4 ,plantations now growing at the ,south are very promising4 ,,onions4 ,of this well-known garden vegetable there are quite a number of varieties4 #a4 ,the ,large ,red4--,one of the most valuable4 #b4 ,the ,yellow4--,large and profitable1 keeping better than any other4 #c4 ,the ,silver-skin4--,the handsomest variety1 excellent for pickling1 brings the highest price of all1 but is not quite so good a keeper as the red or yellow1 and does not yield as well4 #d4 ,the ,white ,portugal4--,a larger white onion1 often taken for the true silver-skin4 ,it is a good variety4 ,the preceding are all raised from the black seed1 growing on the top4 #e4 ,the ,egg ,onion4--,so called from its size and shape4 ,on good rich soil1 the average size may be that of a goose-egg1 which it resembles in form4 ,it is of a pale-red color1 and more mild in flavor than any other4 ,they are usually raised by sowing the black seed1 very thick1 to form sets for next year4 ,those sets1 put out early1 will form large onions for early market1 that will sell more readily than any other offered4 #f4 ,the ,top ,onion4--,so called because the seed consists of small onions1 growing on the top of the stalks1 in place of the black seed of other onions4 ,these are good for early use1 grow large1 but are poor keepers4 #g4 ,the ,hill or ,potato ,onion4--,of these there are several kinds1 most of which are unworthy of cultivation4 ,the ,large ,english is the only valuable variety4 ,the small onions1 for sets1 grow in the ground from the same roots1 by the side of the main onion4 ,some of these grow large enough for cooking4 ,the main onion is the earliest known1 grows large1 and has a mild1 pleasant flavor2--they will mature at a certain season1 whatever time you plant them2 hence1 they must be planted very early to produce a good crop4 ,we have planted them on good ground so late as to get little more than the seed4 ,they are fine for summer and fall use1 but keep poorly4 ,the foregoing are all that are necessary4 ,they can all be brought forward by early planting of sets raised the previous season1 by sowing the black seed so thick that they can not grow larger than peas1 or small cherries4 ,good sandy loam and black muck are the best soils for onions4 ,any good garden soil may be made to produce large crops2 good1 well rotted stable-manure and leached ashes are the best4 ,the theory of shallow plowing1 and treading down onion-beds is incorrect4 ,the roots of onions are numerous and long4 ,the land should be well-manured1 double-plowed1 and thoroughly pulverized4 ,the only objection to a very mellow onion-bed is the difficulty of getting the seed up3 this is obviated by rolling after sowing1 which packs the mould around the seed1 so as to retain moisture and insure vegetation4 ,fine manure1 mixed in the surface of the soil for onions1 is highly beneficial2 on no other crop does manure on the surface do so much good4 ,mulching the whole bed1 as soon as the plants are large enough1 is in the highest degree beneficial1 both in promoting growth1 and keeping down weeds4 ,an onion-bed must be made very smooth and level1 to favor very early hoeing1 without destroying the small plants4 ,all root-crops that come up small1 are tended with less than half the expense1 if the surface be made very smooth and level4 ,never divide your onion-ground into small beds1 but sow the longest way1 in straight narrow rows1 eighteen inches apart1 for convenience of weeding and hoeing4 ,cultivate while very young1 and work the soil toward the rows1 so as to hill up the plants2 this should be removed after they begin to form large bulbs4 ,breaking down the tops to induce them to bottom1 is a fallacy3 it will lessen the crop4 ,rich soil1 deep plowing1 thorough pulverizing1 early sowing1 and frequent hoeings1 will insure success4 ,our system of double-plowing is the best for this crop4 ,they will do equally well1 some say improve1 for twenty years on the same bed4 ,work the tops into the soil where the plants grow4 ,let the rows be very narrow and very straight1 and you will save half the ordinary expense of cultivation4 ,to gather and preserve well1 you should house them when very dry4 ,a day's exposure to a warm autumn sun is very beneficial4 ,keep them in an open barn or shed until there is danger of frost4 ,a warm1 damp cellar always ruins them2 keep them through winter in the coolest dry place possible1 without severe freezing4 ,once freezing is not injurious1 but frequent freezing and thawing ruins them4 ,they are very finely preserved braided into strings and hung in a cool1 dry room4 ,,oranges4 ,this name covers a variety of species of the same general habits4 ,it flourishes well on the coast of ,florida1 and all along the gulf of ,mexico4 ,it will stand considerable freezing1 if protected from sudden thawing4 ,in southern ,europe1 they are grown abundantly by being protected by a shed of boards4 ,they may become perfectly hardy1 as far north as ,philadelphia4 ,and by a thorough system of acclimation1 and a little winter protection1 they may be grown abundantly1 in every state of the ,union4 ,the great enemy of the orange-tree is the scaled insect4 ,it has been very destructive in ,florida4 ,a certain remedy is said to have been discovered in the camomile4 ,cultivate the plant under orange-trees1 and it will prevent their attacks4 ,the herb hung up in the trees1 or the tree and foliage syringed with a decoction of it1 will effectually destroy these insects4 ,the orange is long-lived4 ,a tree called ,the ,grand ,bourbon at ,versailles was planted in #adba1 and now1 being #dcg years old1 is one of the largest and finest trees in ,france4 ,there are several varieties mentioned in the fruit books4 ,the common ,sweet ,orange1 the ,maltese1 the ,blood ,red--very fine with red flesh4 ,the ,mandarin ,orange1 an excellent little fruit from ,china4 ,the ,st4 ,michael's is described as the finest of all oranges1 and the tree the best bearer4 ,oranges are propagated by budding1 and cultivated much in the same way as the peach4 ,,orchards4 ,an orchard is a plat of ground1 large or small1 occupied by trees for the purpose of bearing fruit4 ,the main directions for orchard culture1 are given under the respective fruits4 ,any soil good for vegetables or grains1 is suitable for orchards4 ,any land where excessive moisture will not stand1 to the injury of the trees1 may be adapted to any of the fruits4 ,set pears on the heaviest land1 peaches on the lightest1 and the other fruits on the intermediate qualities4 ,although peaches will do quite well on light soil1 yet they do better on a rich deep loam1 or alluvium4 ,when it is desirable to set out an orchard on land originally too wet1 a blind ditch must pass under each row1 extending out of the orchard1 and the place where each tree is to stand1 should be raised a foot above the level around it4 ,the aspect is also important4 ,a southern or eastern exposure is preferable1 in all latitudes where the transitions from summer to winter1 and from winter to summer are so sudden as to allow but little alternate thawing and freezing4 ,this would therefore be the rule in high latitudes4 ,in climates of long changeable springs1 a northern or western exposure is better4 ,trees may be made to start and blossom later in the spring by snow and ice about them1 well pressed down in winter1 and covered with straw4 ,this will prevent the first warm weather from starting the leaves and blossoms1 and cause them to be a little later1 but surer and better4 ,subsoiling ground for an orchard1 is of great importance4 ,plant two orchards1 one on land that has been subsoiled very deep1 and the other upon that plowed in the ordinary way1 and for ten years the difference will be discernable1 as far as you can distinguish the trees in the two orchards4 ,manures of all kinds1 are good for orchards1 except coarse stable manure1 which should be composted4 ,a bushel of fine charcoal1 thoroughly mixed in the soil in which you set a fruit-tree1 will exert a very beneficial influence1 for a dozen years4 ,orchards should be cultivated every alternate three successive years1 and the rest of the time be kept in grass4 ,just about the trees1 the ground should be kept loose1 and free from weeds and grass4 ,this may be done by spading and hoeing1 but better by thorough mulching4 ,distances apart4--,apples thirty-three feet4 ,pears twenty feet4 ,peaches and plums1 sixteen feet4 ,pruning1 destroying insects1 and all other matters bearing on successful fruit growing1 are treated under the several fruits4 ,,oxen4 ,every farmer who can afford to keep two teams1 should have a pair of oxen4 ,for many uses on a farm1 they are preferable to horses2 especially for clearing up new land4 ,oxen to be most valuable1 should be large1 well matched1 ruly1 and not very fat4 ,they should be kept in good heart1 by the quality of their food4 ,fast walking is one of the best qualities in both horses and oxen1 for all working purposes1 provided they are judiciously used and not overloaded4 ,well built1 strong animals are best for work4 ,working oxen should be turned out for beef1 at eight or nine years old4 ,to break oxen well1 commence when they are very young4 ,put calves into yokes frequently1 until they will readily yield to your wishes4 ,yoke them often1 and tie their tails together to prevent them from turning the yoke and injuring themselves4 ,if left without training1 until they are three or four years old1 they will improve every opportunity to run away1 to the danger and damage of proprietor and driver4 ,it is quite an art to learn oxen to back a load4 ,place them before a vehicle1 in a locality descending in the rear4 ,as it rolls down hill1 they will easily learn to follow1 backward4 ,then try them on level ground4 ,then accustom them to back up hill1 and finally to back a load1 almost as heavy as they can draw4 ,breaking vicious animals is always best done by gentleness4 ,we have known vicious horses whipped severely1 and in every way treated harshly1 and finally given up as useless4 ,we have seen those same horses1 in other hands1 brought to be regular1 gentle1 and safe1 as could be desired1 by mild means1 without a blow or harsh word4 ,oxen should be driven in a low tone of voice1 and without much use of the goad4 ,the usual manner of driving1 by whipping and bawling1 to the annoyance of the whole neighborhood1 and until the driver becomes hoarse with his perpetual screams1 is one of the most pernicious habits on a farm4 ,oxen will grow lazy and insensible under threat1 or scream1 or goad4 ,driven in a low tone of voice1 without confusion by rapid commands1 and no whoa put in1 unless you wish them to stand still1 oxen may be made more useful on a farm than horses4 ,their gears are cheap and never in the way4 ,they can draw more and in worse places than horses1 and it costs less to keep them4 ,the various methods of drawing with head or horns1 in vogue in other countries1 need not be discussed here1 as the ,american people will not probably change their yoke and bows for any other method4 ,feed oxen1 as other animals1 regularly1 both in time and quantity4 ,curry them often and thoroughly4 ,it improves their looks1 health1 and temper1 and attaches them to their owner4 ,,parsley4 ,this is a hardy biennial1 highly prized as a garnish1 and as a pot-herb for flavoring soups and boiled dishes4 ,the large-rooted variety is used for the table1 as carrots or parsnips4 ,the principal varieties are--the double-curled1 the dwarf-curled1 the ,siberian 7single1 very hardy1 and fine-flavored71 the ,hamburgh 7large-rooted1 used as an edible root74 ,the double-curled is well known1 easily obtained1 and suitable for all purposes4 ,those who desire the roots instead of parsnips1 c41 should cultivate the ,hamburgh or large-rooted4 ,it needs the same treatment as beets4 ,seed should always be of the previous year's growth1 or it may not vegetate4 ,it is four or five weeks in coming up1 unless it be soaked twelve hours in a little sulphur-water1 when it will vegetate in two weeks4 ,by cutting the leaves close1 even1 and regular1 a succession of fine leaves may be had for a whole year from the same plants1 when they will go to seed1 and new ones should take their place4 ,in cold climates they should be covered in winter with straw or litter4 ,the ,siberian is cultivated in the field1 sown with grass or the small grains4 ,it is said to prevent the disease called the rot in sheep1 and is good for surfeited horses4 ,the large-rooted should not be sowed in an excessively rich soil1 as it produces an undue proportion of tops4 ,,parsnips4 ,english authors speak of but one variety of this root in cultivation in ,england4 ,the ,french have three--the ,coquaine1 the ,lisbonaise1 and the ,siam4 ,the first runs down1 in rich mellow soil1 to the depth of four feet1 and grows from six to sixteen inches in circumference2 the ,lisbonaise is shorter and larger round2 the ,siam is smaller than the others1 of a yellowish color1 and of excellent quality4 ,we are not aware that our little hollow-crown carrot1 so early and good1 is included in the ,french varieties4 ,we cultivate only the hollow-crown1 and a common large variety2 both are good for the table1 and as food for animals4 ,they need a light1 deep1 rich soil4 ,a sandy loam is best1 as for all roots4 ,seed kept over one season seldom vegetates4 ,should be soaked a day or two1 and sown in straight rows1 covered an inch deep1 and the rows slightly rolled4 ,it is much better1 with this and the carrot1 to sow radish-seed in the same rows4 ,they come up so soon that they protect the parsnips and carrots from too hot a sun while tender1 and also serve to mark the rows1 so that they may be hoed early1 without danger of destroying the young plants4 ,parsnips may be grown many years on the same bed without deterioration1 provided a little decomposed manure or compost be annually added4 ,fresh manure is good if it be buried a foot deep4 ,the yield will be greater if thinned to eight inches apart4 ,rows two feet apart1 and the plants six inches in the row1 are most suitable in field-culture4 ,they will grow till frost comes1 and are better for the table1 when allowed to stand in the ground through the winter4 ,they may be dug and preserved as other roots4 ,parsnips contain more sugar than any other edible root1 and are therefore worth more per bushel for food4 ,all domestic animals and fowls fatten on them very rapidly1 and their flesh is peculiarly pleasant4 ,fed to cows1 they increase the quantity of milk1 and impart a beautiful color and agreeable flavor to the butter4 ,it is superior to the beet1 that we have so highly recommended elsewhere1 in all respects except one--it is less easily tended and harvested4 ,still1 they should be cultivated on every farm where cattle1 hogs1 or fowls1 are kept4 ,,pastures4 ,these are very important to all who keep domestic animals4 ,the following brief directions for successful pasturing are essential4 ,it is very poor economy to have all your pasture-lands in one field1 or to put all your animals together4 ,pasture fields in rotation1 two weeks each1 allowing rest and growth for six weeks3 first horned cattle1 next horses1 then sheep4 ,horses feed closer than cattle1 and sheep closer than horses2 each also eats something that the others do not relish4 ,pasturing land with sheep thickens the grass on the ground4 ,for the kinds of grass preferable for pastures1 see our article on ,grasses4 ,plaster sown on pastures containing clover1 materially increases their growth4 ,a little lime1 plaster1 and common salt1 sown on any pasture1 will prove very beneficial4 ,streams or springs in pastures double their value4 ,the idea that creatures need no water when feeding on green grass is a mistake4 ,every pasture without a spring or stream should have a well4 ,cattle in a pasture in warm weather need shade4 ,it is usual to advise the growth of trees in the borders1 or scattered over the whole field4 ,sheds are much better4 ,trees absorb the moisture1 stint the growth of the grass1 and injure its quality4 ,a pasture containing many trees is not worth more than half price2 it will keep about half as much stock1 and keep them poorly4 ,bushes1 which so often occupy pastures1 should be grubbed up1 and by all means destroyed2 so should all thistles1 briers1 and large weeds4 ,hogs and geese should be kept in no pastures but their own4 ,never turn into pastures when the ground is very soft and wet1 in the spring2 the tread of the creatures will destroy much of the turf4 ,creatures in pasture should be salted twice a week4 ,the age of grass1 to make the best feed for animals1 is often mistaken3 most suppose that young and tender grass is preferable2 this is far from correct4 ,grass that is headed out1 and in which the seed has begun to mature1 is far more nutritious1 as every farmer can ascertain by easy experiments4 ,tall grass1 approaching maturity1 will fatten cattle much faster than the most tender young growth4 ,pasturing land enriches it4 ,it is well to mow pastures and pasture meadows occasionally1 though few meadows and pastures should lie long without plowing4 ,top-dressings of manure1 on all grass-lands1 are valuable2 better applied in the fall than in the spring2 evaporation is less1 and it has opportunity to soak into the soil4 ,,peas4 ,these are sown in the field and garden4 ,as a field-crop1 peas and oats are sown together1 and make good ground or soaked feed for horses1 or for fattening animals4 ,early peas and large marrowfats are frequently sown broadcast on rich1 clean land1 near large cities1 to produce green peas for market4 ,it does not pay as well as to sow in rows three feet apart1 and cultivate with a horse4 ,all peas1 for picking while green1 are more convenient when bushed4 ,they may produce nearly as well when allowed to grow in the natural way1 but can not be picked as easily1 and the second crop is less1 and inferior1 from the injury to the vines by the first picking4 ,early ,kent peas 7the best early variety7 mature so nearly at the same time that the vines may be pulled up at once4 ,all other peas had better be bushed1 that they may be easily picked1 and that the later ones may mature4 ,bushes need not be set so close as usual4 ,a good bush1 put firmly in the ground1 to enable it to resist the wind1 once in two and a half feet1 is quite sufficient4 ,those clinging to the bushes will hold up the others4 ,to bush peas in this way is but little work1 and pays well4 ,it is often said that stable-manure does no good on pea-ground---that peas are neither better nor more abundant for its use4 ,we think this utterly a mistake4 ,we have often raised twice the quantity on a row well manured1 that grew on another row by its side1 where no manure had been applied4 ,if peas be sowed thick on thoroughly-manured land1 the crop will be small3 it is from this fact that the idea has gained currency4 ,they are generally planted too thick on rich land4 ,peas planted six inches deep will produce nearly twice as much as those covered but an inch4 ,plowing in peas and leveling the surface is one of the best methods of planting4 ,to get an early crop in a cold climate1 they may be forced in hotbeds1 or planted in a warm exposure1 very early1 and protected by covering1 when the weather is cold4 ,at the ,south1 it is best to plant so as to secure a considerable growth in the fall1 and protect by covering with straw during cold weather4 ,the only known remedy for the bugs that are so common in peas1 is late sowing4 ,in latitude forty-two1 peas sown as late as the #ajth of ,june will have no bugs4 ,bugs in seed-peas may be killed by putting the peas into hot water for a quarter of a minute2 plant immediately1 and they will come up sooner and do well4 ,seed imported from the more northern parts of ,canada have no bugs2 it is probably owing to the lateness of the season of their growth4 ,but late peas are often much injured by mildew2 this is supposed to be caused by too little moisture in the ground1 and too much and too cool in the atmosphere1 in dew or rain4 ,liberal watering then would prevent it4 ,varieties--are numerous4 ,two are quite sufficient4 ,early ,kent the earliest we have ever been able to obtain1 ripen nearly all at once2 moderate bearers1 but of the very best quality4 ,this variety of pea is the only garden vegetable with which we are acquainted that produces more and better fruit for being sowed quite thick4 ,the other variety that we recommend is the large ,marrowfat4 ,these should not stand nearer together1 on rich land1 than three or four inches1 and always be bushed4 ,there are many other varieties of both late and early peas1 but we regard them inferior to these4 ,white's ,gardening for the ,south mentions ,landreth's ,extra ,early1 ,prince ,albert1 ,cedo-,nulli1 ,fairbank's ,champion1 ,knight's tall ,marrow1 and ,new ,mammoth4 ,whoever wishes a greater variety can get any of these under new names4 ,the large blue ,imperial is a rich pea1 like many of the dwarfs1 both of the large and small1 but is very unproductive4 ,we advise all to select the best they can find1 and plant but two kinds1 late and early4 ,plant at intervals to get a succession of crops4 ,but very late peas1 in our dry climate1 amount to but little1 without almost daily watering4 ,,peach4 ,this native of ,persia is one of the most healthy and universally-favorite fruits4 ,in its native state1 it was hardly suitable for eating1 resembling an almond more than our present fine peaches4 ,perhaps no other fruit exhibits so wide a difference in the products of seeds from the same tree4 ,all the fine varieties are what we call chance products of seeds1 not one out of a thousand of which deserved further cultivation4 ,the prevailing opinion is1 that planting the seeds is not a certain method of propagating a given variety2 hence the general practice of budding 7which see74 ,others assert that there are permanent varieties1 that usually produce the same from the seed1 when not allowed to mix in the blossoms4 ,some prefer to raise the trees for their peach-orchards from seed1 thinking them longer-lived and more healthy4 ,whole peaches planted when taken from the tree1 or the pits planted before having become dry1 are said to be much more certain to produce the same fruit4 ,we know an instance in which the fruit of an early ,crawford peach1 thus planted1 could not be distinguished from those that grew on a budded tree in the same orchard4 ,one of the difficulties in reproducing the same from seed1 is the great difficulty in getting the seed of any variety pure4 ,we everywhere have so many varieties of fruit-trees in the same orchard1 that the seeds of no one can be pure2 they mix in the blossoms4 ,on this account1 the surest method of perpetuating a variety is by budding4 ,this tree is of rapid growth1 often bearing the third year from the seed1 and producing abundantly the fifth4 ,the peach-tree is often called thrifty when its growth is very luxuriant1 but tender and unhealthy1 perishing in the following winter4 ,a moderate1 steady1 hardy growth is most profitable4 ,the following directions1 though brief1 are complete3-- ,raising ,seedlings4--,dry the pits in the shade2 put them away till the last of winter2 then soak them two days in water1 and spread them on some place in the garden where water will not stand1 and cover them an inch deep with wet sand1 and leave them to freeze4 ,when about time to plant them 7which is early corn-planting time71 take them up and select all those that are opened by the frost1 and that are beginning to germinate1 and plant in rows four feet apart and one foot in the row4 ,these will grow and be ready for budding considerably earlier than those not opened by frost4 ,crack the others on a wooden block1 by striking their side-edge with a hammer2 you thus avoid injury to the germ that is endangered by striking the end4 ,plant these in rows like the others1 but only six inches apart in the row1 as they will not all germinate4 ,plant them on rich soil covering an inch or two deep4 ,keep them clear of weeds1 and they will be ready for budding from ,august #aeth to ,september #ajth1 according to latitude or season4 ,in a dry season1 when everything matures early1 budding must not be deferred as long as in a wet season4 ,for full directions for budding1 see our article on that subject4 ,transplanting4--,perhaps no other fruit-tree suffers so much from transplanting when too large4 ,this should always be done1 after one year's growth1 from the bud4 ,the best time for transplanting is the spring in northern latitudes subject to hard frosts1 and in autumn in warmer climates4 ,soil and ,location4--,all intelligent fruit-growers are aware that these exert a great influence upon the size1 quality1 and quantity1 of all varieties of fruits4 ,an accurate description of a variety in one climate will not always identify it in another4 ,some few varieties are nearly permanent and universal1 but most are adapted to particular localities1 and need a process of acclimation to adapt them to other soils and situations4 ,light sandy soils are usually regarded best for the peach3 it is only so because nineteen out of twenty cultivators will not take pains to suitably prepare other soils4 ,some of the best peaches we have ever seen grew on the richest ,illinois prairie1 and others on the limestone bluffs of the ,ohio river4 ,thorough drainage is indispensable for the peach1 on all but very light1 porous soils3 with such drainage1 peaches will do best on soil best adapted to growing corn and potatoes4 ,bones1 bonedust1 lime1 ashes1 stable-manure1 and charcoal1 are the best applications to the soil of a peach-orchard4 ,whoever grows peaches should put at least half a bushel of fine charcoal in the earth in which he sets each tree4 ,mix it well with the soil1 and the tree will grow better1 and the fruit be larger and finer1 for a dozen years4 ,any good soil1 well drained and manured with these articles1 will produce great crops of peaches4 ,for the location of peach-orchards1 see our general remarks on ,location of ,fruit-trees4 ,but we would repeat here the direction to choose a northern exposure1 in climates subject to late frosts4 ,elevations are always favorable1 as are also the shores of all bodies of water4 ,in our remarks on location1 we have shown by facts the great value of hills1 so high as to be useless for any other purpose4 ,between ,pittsburgh and the mouth of the ,ohio river1 there are enough high elevations1 now useless1 to supply all the cities within fifty miles of the rivers1 down to ,new ,orleans1 with the best of peaches every year4 ,in no year will they ever be cut off by frost on those hills4 ,warm exposures1 with a little winter protection1 will secure good peaches in climates not adapted to them4 ,in some parts of ,france1 they grow large quantities for market by training them against walls1 where they do not flourish in the open field4 ,by this practice1 and by enclosures and acclimation1 the growth of this excellent fruit may be extended to the coldest parts of the ,united ,states4 ,transplanting--should be performed with care1 as in the case of all other fruit-trees4 ,every injured root should be cut off smooth from the under side1 slanting out from the tree4 ,leave the roots1 as nearly as possible1 in the position in which they were before4 ,set the tree an inch lower than it stood in the nursery2 it saves the danger of the roots getting uncovered1 and of too strong action of the atmosphere on the roots1 in a soil so loose4 ,the opposite is often recommended1 viz41 to allow the tree in its new location to stand an inch or two higher than before2 but we are sure1 from repeated trials1 that it is wrong4 ,shake the fine earth as closely around the roots as possible1 mulch well1 and pour on a pailful of tepid water1 if it be rather a dry time1 and the tree will be sure to live and make a good growth the first year4 ,when a peach-tree is transplanted1 after one year's growth from the bud1 it should have the top cut off within eighteen inches or two feet of the ground1 and all the limbs cut off at half their length4 ,this will induce the formation of a full1 large head4 ,a low1 full-branching head is always best on a peach-tree4 ,pruning is perhaps the most important matter in successful peach culture4 ,the fruit is borne wholly on wood of the previous year's growth4 ,hence a tree that has the most of that growth1 in a mature state1 and properly situated1 will bear the most and the finest fruit4 ,a tree left to its natural state1 with no pruning but of a few of the lower limbs from the main trunk1 will soon exhibit a collection of long naked limbs1 without foliage1 except near their extremities 7see the cut overleaf74 ,in this case fruit will be too thick on what little bearing wood there is1 and it should be thinned4 ,but very few cultivators even attend to that4 ,the fruit is consequently small1 and it weakens the growth of the young wood above1 for next year's fruiting1 and thus tree and fruit are perpetually deteriorating4 ,observe a shoot of young peachwood1 you will see near its base1 leaf-buds4 ,on the middle there are many blossom-buds1 and on the top1 leaf-buds again4 ,the tendency of sap is to the extremity4 ,hence the upper leaf-buds will put out at once4 ,and for their growth1 and the maturity of the excessive fruit on the middle1 the power of the sap is so far exhausted1 that the leaf-buds at the base do not grow4 ,hence when the fruit is removed1 nothing is left below the terminal shoots1 but a bare pole4 ,this is the condition in which we find most peach-trees4 ,for this there is a certain preventive4 ,it consists in shortening in1 by cutting off in the month of ,september1 from a third to a half of the current season's growth4 ,if the top be large1 cut off one half the length of the new wood4 ,if it be less vigorous and rank1 and you fear you will not have room for a fair crop of peaches1 cut off but one third4 ,this heading-in is sometimes recommended to be done in the spring4 ,for forming a head in a young tree the spring is better4 ,but to mature the wood1 and increase the quantity1 and improve the quality of the fruit1 ,september is much the best4 ,such shortening in early in ,september1 directs the sap to maturing the wood1 already formed and developing fruit-buds1 instead of promoting the growth of an undue quantity of young and tender wood1 to be destroyed by the winter1 or to hinder the growth of the fruit of the next season4 ,this heading-in process1 with these young shoots1 is most easily performed with pruning shears1 with wooden handles1 of a length suited to the height of the tree4 ,illustration3 ,neglected ,peach-,tree4 ,illustration3 ,properly-trimmed ,peach-,tree4 ,but a work to precede this annual shortening-in1 is the original formation of a head to a peach-tree4 ,take a tree a year old from the bud1 and cut it down to within two and a half feet from the ground4 ,below that numerous strong shoots will come out4 ,select three vigorous ones and let them grow as they please1 carefully pinching off all the rest4 ,in the fall you will have a tree of three good strong branches4 ,in the next spring cut off these three branches1 one half4 ,below these cuts1 branches will start freely4 ,select one vigorous shoot to continue the limb1 and another to form a new branch4 ,check the growth of the shoots below1 by cutting off their ends1 but do not rub them off1 as they will form fruit branches4 ,at the close of the season you will have a tree with six main branches1 and some small ones for fruit1 on the older wood4 ,repeat this process the third year1 and you have a tree with twelve main branches1 and plenty smaller ones for fruit4 ,all these small branches on the old wood1 should be shortened in half their length1 to cause the leaf-buds near their base to start1 so as to produce large numbers of young shoots4 ,continue this as long as you please1 and make just as large a head and just such a form as you may wish1 being careful only to control the shape of the top so as to let the sun and air freely into every part4 ,trees thus trained may be planted thick enough to allow four hundred to stand on an acre1 and will bear an abundance of the finest fruit1 and all low enough to be easily picked4 ,this method of training is much better than allowing the tree to shoot out on all sides from the ground3 in that case1 the branches are apt to split down and perish4 ,this system of heading-in freely every year1 preserves the life and health of the tree remarkably4 ,many of the finest peach-trees in ,france are from thirty to sixty years old1 and some a hundred4 ,we may1 in this country1 have peach-trees live fifty years1 in the most healthy bearing condition4 ,by trimming in this way1 and carrying out fully this system1 some have thrifty-looking peach-trees1 more than a foot in diameter1 bearing the very best of fruit4 ,it is sheer neglect that causes our peach-orchards to perish after having borne from three to six years4 ,let every man who plants a peach-tree remember1 that this system of training will make his tree live long1 be healthy1 grow vigorously1 and bear abundantly4 ,diseases of peach-trees have been a matter of much speculation4 ,the result is1 that the hope of the peach-grower is mainly in preventives4 ,the ,yellows is usually regarded as a disease4 ,imagination has invented many causes of this evil4 ,some suppose it to be produced by small insects2 others that it is in the seed4 ,again1 it is ascribed to the atmosphere4 ,it has been supposed to be propagated in many ways--by trimming a healthy tree with a knife that had been used on a diseased one2 by contagion in the atmostphere1 as the measles or small-pox2 by impregnation from the pollen1 through the agency of winds or bees2 by the migration of small insects2 or by planting diseased seeds1 or budding from diseased trees4 ,this great diversity of opinion leaves room to doubt whether the yellows in peach-trees be a disease at all1 or only a symptom of general decay4 ,the symptoms1 as given in all the fruit-books1 are only such as would be natural from decay and death of the tree1 from any cause whatever4 ,this may result from neglect to supply the soil with suitable manures1 and to trim trees properly1 and especially from over-bearing4 ,this view of the case is more probable1 from the fact that none pretend to have found a remedy4 ,all advise to remove the tree thus affected at once1 root and branch4 ,we have seen the following treatment of such trees tried with marked success4 ,cut off a large share of the top1 as when you would renew an old1 neglected tree2 lay the large roots bare1 making a sort of basin around the body of the tree1 and pour in three pailfuls of boiling water3 the tree will start anew and do well4 ,this is an excellent application to an old1 failing peach-tree4 ,the sure preventive of the yellows is1 planting seeds of healthy trees1 budding from the most vigorous1 heading-in well1 supplying appropriate manures1 and general good cultivation4 ,curled ,leaves is another evil among peach-trees1 occurring before the leaves are fully grown1 and causing them to fall off after two or three weeks4 ,other leaves will put out1 but the fruit is destroyed1 and the general health of the tree injured4 ,elliott says the curl of the leaf is produced by the punctures of small insects4 ,one kind of curled leaf is1 but not this4 ,but we have no doubt that ,barry's theory is the correct one1 viz41 that it is the effect of sudden changes of the weather4 ,we have noticed the curled leaf in orchards where the trees were so close together as to guard each other4 ,on the side where the cold wind struck them1 we noticed they were badly affected2 while on the warm side1 and in the centre where they were protected by the others1 they exhibited very few signs of the curl4 ,in western ,new ,york1 unusual cold east winds always produce the curled leaves1 on trees much exposed3 hence1 the only remedy is the best protection you can give1 by location1 c4 ,mildew is a minute fungus growing on the ends of tender shoots of certain varieties1 checking their growth1 and producing other bad effects4 ,syringe the trees with a weak solution of nitre1 one ounce in a gallon of water1 which will destroy the fungus and invigorate the tree4 ,the ,borer has been the great enemy of the peach-tree1 since about the close of the last century4 ,the female insect1 that produces the worms1 deposites her eggs under rough bark1 near the surface of the ground4 ,this is done mostly in ,july1 but occasionally from ,june to ,october4 ,the eggs are laid in small punctures1 and covered with a greenish glue2 in a few days they come out1 a small white worm1 and eat through the bark where it is tender1 just at1 or a little below1 the surface of the ground2 they eat under the bark1 between that and the wood1 and1 consuming a little of each1 they frequently girdle the tree2 as they grow larger1 they perforate the solid wood2 when about a year old1 they make a cocoon just below the surface of the ground1 change into a chrysalis state1 and shortly come out a winged insect1 to deposite fresh eggs4 ,but the practical part of all this is the remedy3 keep the ground clean around the trees1 and rub off frequently all the rough bark2 place around each tree half a peck of air-slaked lime1 and the borer will not attack it4 ,this should be placed there on the first of ,may1 and be spread over the ground on the first of ,october2 refuse tobacco-stems1 from the cigar-makers1 or any other offensive substance1 as hen-manure1 salt and ashes1 c41 will answer the same purpose4 ,we should recommend the annual cultivation of a small piece of ground in tobacco1 for use around peach-trees4 ,we have found it very successful against the borer1 and it is an excellent manure2 applied two or three times during the season1 it proves a perfect remedy1 and is in no way injurious1 as an excessive quantity of lime might be4 ,leaf ,insects4--,there are several varieties1 which cause the leaves to curl and prematurely fall4 ,this kind of curled leaf differs from the one described as the result of sudden changes and cold wind2 that appears general wherever the cold wind strikes the tree1 while this only affects a few leaves occasionally1 and those surrounded by healthy leaves4 ,the remedy is to syringe them with offensive mixtures1 as tobacco-juice1 or sprinkle them when wet with fine1 air-slaked lime4 ,varieties4--,their name is legion1 and they are rapidly increasing1 and their synonyms multiplying4 ,a singular fact1 in most of our fruit-books1 is a minute description of useless kinds1 and such descriptions of those that they call good1 as not one in ten thousand cultivators will ever try to master--they are worse than useless1 except to an occasional amateur cultivator4 ,elliott1 in his fruit-book1 divides peaches into three classes3 the first is for general cultivation2 under this class he describes thirty-one varieties1 with ninety-eight synonyms4 ,his second class is for amateur cultivators1 and includes sixty-nine varieties1 with eighty-four synonyms4 ,his third class1 which he says are unworthy of further cultivation1 describes fifty-four varieties1 with seventy-seven synonyms4 ,cole gives sixty-five varieties1 minutely described1 and many of them pronounced worthless4 ,in ,hooker's ,western ,fruit-,book1 we have some eighty varieties1 only a few of which are regarded worthy of cultivation4 ,downing gives us one hundred and thirty-three varieties1 with about four hundred synonyms4 ,in all these works the descriptions are minute4 ,the varieties of serrated leaves1 the glandless1 and some having globose glands on the leaves1 and others with reniform glands4 ,then we have the color of the fruit in the shade and in the sun1 which will1 of course1 vary with every degree of sun or shade4 ,we submit the opinion that those books would have possessed much more value1 had they only described the best mode of cultivating peaches1 without having mentioned a single variety1 thus leaving each cultivator to select the best he could find4 ,had they given a plain description of ten1 or certainly of not more than fifteen varieties1 those books would have been far more valuable for the people4 ,we give a small list1 including all we think it best to cultivate4 ,perhaps confining our selection to half a dozen varieties would be a further improvement3-- #a4 ,the first of all peaches is ,crawford's ,early4 ,this is an early1 sure1 and great bearer1 of the most beautiful1 large fruit2--a good-flavored1 juicy peach1 though not the very richest4 ,it is1 on the whole1 the very best peach in all parts of the country4 ,time1 from ,july #aeth to ,september #ast4 ,freestone4 #b4 ,crawford's ,late is very large and handsome2 uniformly productive1 though not nearly so good a bearer as ,crawford's ,early4 ,ripens last of ,september and in ,october4 ,fair quality1 and always handsome2 freestone2 excellent for market4 #c4 ,columbia4--,origin1 ,new ,jersey4 ,it is a thoroughly-tested variety1 raised and described by ,mr4 ,cox1 who wrote one of the earliest and best ,american fruit-books4 ,fine specimens were exhibited in #ahef1 grown in ,covington1 ,ky4 ,excellent in all parts of the ,united ,states4 ,freestone4 #d4 ,george the ,fourth4--,a large1 delicious1 freestone peach1 an ,american seedling from ,mr4 ,gill1 ,broad street1 ,new ,york4 ,the ,national ,pomological ,society have decided the tree to be so healthy and productive as to adapt it to all localities in this country4 ,it has twenty-five synonyms4 #e4 ,early ,york4--,freestone2 the best1 and first really good1 early peach4 ,time ,july at ,cincinnati1 and ,august at ,cleveland4 ,time of ripening of all varieties varies with latitude1 location1 and season4 #f4 ,grass ,mignonne4--,a foreign variety1 a great favorite in ,france1 in the time of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,very rich freestone1 flourishing in all climates from ,boston south4 ,the high repute in which it has long been held is seen in its thirty synonyms4 ,one of the best1 when you can obtain the genuine4 ,time1 ,august4 #g4 ,honest ,john4--,a large1 beautiful1 delicious1 freestone variety4 ,highly prized as a late peach1 maturing from the middle to the last of ,october4 ,indispensable in even a small selection4 #h4 ,malacatune4--,a very popular ,american freestone peach1 derived from a ,spanish1 and is the parent of the ,crawford peaches1 both early and late4 #i4 ,morris ,white4--,everywhere well known2 a good bearer2 best for preserving at the ,north2 a good dessert peach ,south4 #aj4 ,morris ,red ,rare-ripe4--,a favorite1 freestone1 ,july peach4 ,the tree is healthy and a great bearer4 #aa4 ,old ,mixon4--,should be found in all gardens and orchards2 it is of excellent quality and ripens at a time when few good peaches are to be had2 it endures spring-frosts better than any other variety2 profitable4 #ab4 ,old ,mixon ,cling4--,one of the most delicious early clingstones4 ,deserves a place in all gardens4 #ac4 ,monstrous ,cling4--,not the best quality1 but profitable for market on account of its great size4 #ad4 ,heath ,cling4--,very good ,south and ,west4 ,wrapped in paper and laid in a cool room1 it will keep longer than any other variety4 ,tree hardy and often produces when others fail4 ,excellent for preserving1 and when quite ripe1 is superior as a dessert fruit4 #ae4 ,blood ,cling4--,a well-known peach1 excellent for pickling and preserving4 ,it sometimes measures twelve inches in circumference4 ,the old ,french ,blood ,cling is smaller4 ,many of these varieties will be found under other names4 ,you will have to depend upon your nursery-man to give you the best he has1 and be careful to bud from any choice variety you may happen to taste4 ,difficulties and disappointments will always attend efforts to get desired varieties4 ,,pear4 ,the pear is a native of ,europe and ,asia1 and1 in its natural state1 is quite as unfit for the table as the crab-apple4 ,cultivation has given it a degree of excellence that places it in the first rank among dessert-fruits4 ,no other ,american fruit commands so high a price4 ,new varieties are obtained by seedlings1 and are propagated by grafting and budding3 the latter is generally preferred4 ,root-grafting of pears is to be avoided2 the trees will be less vigorous and healthy4 ,the difficulty of raising pear-seedlings has induced an extensive use of suckers1 to the great injury of pear-culture4 ,fruit-growers are nearly unanimous in discarding suckers as stocks for grafting4 ,the difficulty in raising seedling pear-trees is the failure of the seeds to vegetate4 ,a remedy for this is1 never to allow the seeds to become dry1 after being taken from the fruit1 until they are planted4 ,keep them in moist sand until time to plant them in the spring1 or plant as soon as taken from the fruit4 ,the spring is the best time for planting1 as the ground can be put in better condition1 rendering after-culture much more easy4 ,the pear will succeed well on any good soil1 well supplied with suitable fertilizers4 ,the best manures for the pear are1 lime in small quantities1 wood-ashes1 bones1 potash dissolved1 and applied in rotten wood1 leaves1 and muck1 with a little stable-manure and iron-filings--iron is very essential in the soil for the pear-tree4 ,in all soils moderately supplied with these articles1 all pear-trees grafted on seedling-stocks1 and those that flourish on the foreign quince1 will do well4 ,a good yellow loam is most natural2 light sandy or gravelly land is unfavorable4 ,it is better to cart two or three loads of suitable soil for each tree on such land4 ,the practice of budding or grafting on apple-stocks1 on crab-apples1 and on the mountain-ash1 should be utterly discarded4 ,for producing early fruit1 quince-stocks and root-pruning are recommended4 ,setting out pear-trees properly is of very great importance4 ,the requisites are1 to have the ground in good condition1 from manure on the crop of the last season1 and thoroughly subsoiled and drained4 ,pear-trees delight in rather heavy land1 if it be well drained2 but water1 standing in the soil about them1 is utterly ruinous4 ,pear-trees1 well transplanted on moderately rich land1 well subsoiled and well drained1 will almost always succeed4 ,by observing the following brief directions1 any cultivator may have just such shaped tops on his pear-trees as he desires4 ,cut short any shoots that are too vigorous1 that those around them may get their share of the sap1 and thus be enabled to make a proportionate growth4 ,after trees have come into bearing1 symmetry in the form of their heads may be promoted by pinching off all the fruit on the weak branches1 and allowing all on the strong ones to mature4 ,those two simple methods1 removing the fruit from too vigorous shoots1 and cutting in others1 half or two-thirds their length1 will enable one to form just such heads as he pleases1 and will prove the best preventives of diseases4 ,diseases4--,there are many insects that infest pear-orchards1 in the same manner as they do apples1 and are to be destroyed in the same way4 ,the slugs on the leaves are often quite annoying4 ,these are worms1 nearly half an inch long1 olive-colored1 and tapering from head to tail1 like a tadpole4 ,ashes or quicklime1 sprinkled over the leaves when they are wet with dew or rain1 is an effectual remedy4 ,insect-,blight4--,this has been confounded with the frozen-sap blight1 though they are very different4 ,in early summer1 when the shoots are in most vigorous growth1 you will notice that the leaves on the ends of branches turn brown1 and very soon die and become black4 ,this is caused by a worm from an egg1 deposited just behind or below a bud1 by an insect4 ,the egg hatches1 and the worm perforates the bark into the wood1 and commits his depredations there1 preventing the healthy flow of the sap1 which kills the twig above4 ,soon after the shoot dies1 the worm comes out in the form of a winged insect1 and seeks a location to deposite its eggs1 preparatory to new depredations4 ,the remedy is to cut off the shoots affected at once1 and burn them4 ,the insect-blight does not affect the tree far below the location of the worm4 ,watch your trees closely1 and cut off all affected parts as soon as they appear1 and burn them immediately1 and you will soon destroy all the insects4 ,but very soon after the appearance of the blight they leave the limb2 hence a little delay will render your efforts useless4 ,these insects often commit the same depredations on apple and quince-trees4 ,we had an orchard in ,ohio seriously affected by them4 ,we know no remedy but destruction as above4 ,the ,frozen-,sap ,blight is a much more serious difficulty4 ,its nature and origin are now pretty well settled4 ,in every tree there are two currents of sap3 one passes up through the outer wood1 to be digested by the leaves2 the other passing down in the inner bark1 deposites new wood1 to increase the size of the tree4 ,now1 in a late growth of this kind of wood1 the process is rapidly going on1 at the approach of cold weather1 and the descending sap is suddenly frozen1 in this tender bark and growing wood4 ,this sudden freezing poisons the sap1 and renders the tree diseased4 ,the blight will show itself1 in its worst form1 in the most rapid growing season of early summer1 though the disease commenced with the severe frosts of the previous autumn4 ,its presence may be known by a thick1 clammy sap1 that will exude in winter or spring pruning1 and in the discoloration of the inner bark and peth of the branches4 ,on limbs badly affected on one side1 the bark will turn black and shrivel up4 ,but its effects in the death of the branches only occur when the growth of the tree demands the rapid descent of the sap3 then the poisoned sap which was arrested the previous fall1 in its downward passage1 is diluted and sent through the tree2 and when it is abundant1 the whole tree is poisoned and destroyed in a few days2 in others more slightly affected1 it only destroys a limb or a small portion of the top4 ,another effect of this fall-freezing of sap and growing wood1 is to rupture the sap-vessels1 and thus prevent the inner bark from performing its functions4 ,this theory is so well established1 that an intelligent observer can predict1 in the fall1 a blight-season the following summer4 ,if the summer be cool1 and the fall warm and damp1 closed by sudden cold1 the blight will be troublesome the next season1 because the plentiful downward flow of sap1 and rapid growth of wood1 were arrested by sudden freezing4 ,if the summer is favorable1 and the wood matures well before cold weather1 the blight will not appear4 ,this is of the utmost practical moment to the pear-culturist4 ,anything in soil1 situation1 or pruning1 that favors early maturity of wood1 will serve as a preventive of blight2 hence1 cool1 moist situations are not favorable in climates subject to sudden and severe cold weather in autumn4 ,root-pruning and heading-in1 which always induce early maturity of wood1 are of vast importance2 they will1 almost always1 prevent frozen-sap blight4 ,if1 in spite of you1 your pear-trees will make a late luxuriant growth1 cut off one half of the most vigorous shoots before hard freezing1 and you will check the flow of sap1 by removing the leaves and shoots that control it1 and save your trees4 ,if blight makes its appearance1 cut off at once all the parts affected4 ,the effects will be visible in the wood and inner bark1 far below the external apparent injury4 ,remove the whole injured part1 or it will poison the rest of the tree4 ,when this frozen sap is extensive1 it poisons and destroys the whole tree2 when slight1 the tree often wholly recovers4 ,if a spot of black1 shrivelled bark appears1 shave it off1 deep enough to remove the affected parts1 and cover the wound with grafting-wax4 ,remove all affected limbs4 ,these are the only remedies4 ,but the practice of pruning both roots and branches will prove a certain preventive4 ,a tree growing in grass1 where it grows more slowly1 and matures earlier in the season1 will escape this blight2 while one growing in very rich garden soil1 and continuing to grow until cold weather1 will suffer severely4 ,the effects on orchards1 in different soils and localities everywhere1 confirm this theory4 ,a little care then will prevent this evil1 which has sometimes been so great as to discourage attempts at raising pears4 ,in some localities1 some of the finer varieties of pears1 as the virgalieu1 are ruined by cracking on the trees before ripening4 ,applications of ashes1 salt1 charcoal1 iron-filings1 and clay on light lands1 will remedy this evil4 ,distances apart4--,all fruit-trees had better occupy as little ground as is consistent with a healthy vigorous growth4 ,they are manured and well cultivated1 at a much less expense4 ,the trees protect each other against inclement weather4 ,the fruit is more easily harvested4 ,and it is a great saving of land1 as nothing else can be profitably grown in an orchard of large fruit-trees4 ,the two kinds of pear-trees1 dwarf and standard1 may be planted together closely and be profitable for early and abundant bearing4 ,the plan given on the next page of a pear-orchard1 recommended in ,cole's ,fruit ,book1 is the best we have seen4 ,in the plan the trees on pear-stocks1 designed for standards1 occupy the large black spots where the lines intersect4 ,they are thirty-three feet apart4 ,the small spots indicate the position of dwarf-trees on quince stocks4 ,of these there are three on each square rod4 ,an acre then would have forty standard trees1 and four hundred and eighty dwarfs4 ,the latter will come into early bearing1 and be profitable1 long before the former will produce any fruit4 ,this will induce and repay thorough cultivation4 ,they should be headed in1 and finally removed1 as the standards need more room4 ,one acre carefully cultivated in this way1 will afford an income sufficient for the support of a small family4 ,illustration3 ,plan of a ,pear-,orchard4 ,gathering and ,preserving4--,most fruits are better when allowed fully to ripen on the tree4 ,but with pears1 the reverse is true2 most of them need to be ripened in the house1 and some of them1 as much as possible1 excluded from the light4 ,gather when matured1 and when a few of the wormy full-grown ones begin to fall1 but while they adhere somewhat firmly to the tree4 ,barrel or box them tight1 or put them in drawers in a cool dry place4 ,about the time for them to become soft1 put them in a room1 with a temperature comfortable for a sitting-room1 and you will soon have them in their greatest perfection4 ,they do better in a warm room1 wrapped in paper or cotton4 ,a few only ripen well on the trees4 ,those ripened in the house keep much longer and better4 ,varieties4--,the ,london ,horticultural ,society have proved seven hundred varieties1 from different parts of the world1 in their experimental garden4 ,cole speaks of eight hundred and ,elliott of twelve hundred varieties4 ,there are now probably more than three thousand growing in this country4 ,many seedlings1 not known beyond the neighborhood where they originated1 may be among our very best4 ,from six to ten varieties are all that need be cultivated4 ,we present the following list1 advising cultivators to select five or six to suit their own tastes and circumstances1 and cultivate no more4 ,we do not give the usual descriptions of the varieties selected4 ,the mass of cultivators1 for whom this work is specially intended1 will never learn and test the descriptions4 ,they will depend upon their nursery-man1 and bud and graft from those they have tasted4 ,we give their names and some of their synonyms1 their adaptation to quince or pear stocks1 their manner of growth1 and time of maturity4 ,these will enable the culturist to select whatever best suits his taste2 adapted to quince or pear stocks2 for the table or kitchen2 for summer1 fall1 or winter use1 and for home or the market4 ,,belle ,,lucrative4--,fondante d' ,automne1 ,seigneur d' ,esperin4 ,tree of moderate growth1 but a great bearer4 ,a fine variety1 on quince or pear1 better perhaps on the pear stock4 ,season1 last of ,september4 ,,beurr ,,easter with fifteen synonyms that few would ever read4 ,best on quince4 ,requires a warm soil and considerable care in ripening1 when it proves one of the best4 ,its season--from ,january to ,may--makes it very desirable4 ,large1 yellowish-green1 with russet spots4 ,illustration3 ,bartlett4 ,,bartlett4--,william's1 ,william's ,bon ,chretien1 ,poire ,guilliaume4 ,tree1 a vigorous grower1 and a regular1 early1 good bearer1 of long1 handsome1 perfectly-formed fruit2 on the quince or pear stock4 ,time1 ,august and ,september4 ,illustration3 ,beurr ,diel4 ,,beurr ,,diel4--,diel1 ,diel's ,butterbirne1 ,dorothee ,royale1 ,grosse ,dorothee1 ,beurr ,royale1 ,des ,trois ,tours1 ,de ,melon1 ,melon de ,kops1 ,beurr ,magnifique1 ,beurr ,incomparable4 ,grows well on quince or pear1 but perhaps does best on quince4 ,large1 beautiful1 luscious fruit4 ,season1 ,october to last of ,november4 ,illustration3 ,white ,doyenne4 ,,white ,,doyenne4--,virgalieu4 ,tree vigorous and hardy on pear or quince4 ,everywhere esteemed as one of the very best4 ,needs care in supplying proper manure and clay on light soils1 to prevent the fruit from cracking4 ,september to ,november4 ,if we could have but one we should choose this4 ,,columbia4--,columbian ,virgalieu4 ,native of ,new ,york1 bearing abundantly1 a uniformly smooth1 fair1 large fruit4 ,color1 fine golden yellow1 dotted with gray4 ,season1 ,december and ,january4 ,illustration3 ,flemish ,beauty4 ,,flemish ,,beauty4--,belle de ,flanders1 c4 ,this is a large1 beautiful1 and delicious pear4 ,one of the finest in its season1 but does not last long4 ,ripens last of ,september4 ,very fine on the quince1 and is excellent on the rich prairie-lands of the ,west4 ,deserves increased attention4 ,,beurr ,d',,aremberg4--,duc d',aremberg1 and eight other synonyms4 ,tree very hardy1 does well on the pear stock1 and bears early1 annually1 and abundantly4 ,a very fine foreign variety4 ,the fruit hangs on the tree well1 and may be ripened at will from ,december to ,february1 by placing in a warm room1 when you would ripen them4 ,,buffum4--,a native of ,rhode ,island1 and very successful wherever grown4 ,a great bearer of handsome fruit1 though not of the best quality4 ,it is1 however1 an excellent orchard pear4 ,fruit1 medium size1 ripening in ,september4 ,,louise ,,bonne ,,of ,,jersey4--,william the ,fourth1 and three other useless foreign synonyms4 ,not surpassed1 on the quince4 ,tree very vigorous1 producing a great abundance of large fruit4 ,season1 ,october4 ,,madeleine4--,magdalen1 ,citron des ,carmes4 ,this bears an abundance of small but delicious fruit4 ,is valuable also on account of its season--the last half of ,july4 ,good on pear or quince4 ,must be checked in its growth1 on very rich land1 or it will be subject to the frozen sap-blight4 ,,onondaga4--,american origin4 ,equally good on pear or quince4 ,large1 hardy1 and very productive tree4 ,the fruit is very large1 fine golden yellow when ripe4 ,excellent for market4 ,season1 ,october and ,november4 ,,pound ,,pear4--,winter ,belle1 and twelve other synonyms1 which are unimportant4 ,this is the great winter-pear for cooking4 ,the tree is a very vigorous grower and great bearer4 ,a very profitable orchard variety4 ,december to ,march4 ,,prince',s ,,st4 ,,germain4--,new ,st4 ,germain1 ,brown's ,st4 ,germain4 ,hardy and productive4 ,good keeper1 ripening as easily and as well as an apple4 ,december to ,march4 ,illustration3 ,seckel4 ,,seckel4--,there are a number of synonyms1 but it is always known by this name4 ,tree is small1 but a good and regular bearer of small excellent fruit4 ,time in warm climates1 ,september and ,october4 ,,steven',s ,,genesee4--,stephen's ,genesee1 ,guernsey4 ,desirable for all orchards and gardens1 on quince or pear4 ,fine grower and very productive4 ,fruit large and excellent4 ,elliott says even the wind-falls are very fine4 ,,vicar ,,of ,,wakefield4--,eight synonyms1 but it will hardly be mistaken by nursery-men4 ,does well on quince4 ,it is thrifty and very productive of fruit of second quality4 ,yet it is generally profitable4 ,november to ,january4 ,,winter ,,nellis4--,its six foreign synonyms are of no consequence4 ,this is the best of all winter-pears1 grown on quince or pear4 ,exceedingly well adapted to the rich western prairies4 ,an early and great bearer4 ,november to ,january #ae4 ,illustration3 ,gray ,doyenne4 ,,gray ,,doyenne4--,a superior ,october pear4 ,tree hardy and productive on both pear or quince4 ,partakes much of the excellence of the ,white ,doyenne4 ,from these you can select five or six just adapted to your wishes4 ,the diversity of views1 of the merits of different varieties of pears1 arises mainly from the influence of location1 soil1 and culture4 ,the established known varieties1 may be grown in great perfection anywhere1 with suitable care4 ,at the ,west they must be root-pruned and headed-in until they are ten years old1 after which they will be hardy and productive4 ,if allowed to grow as fast as they will incline to1 on alluvial soils1 when they are exposed to severe winters1 they will disappoint growers4 ,with care they will be sure and profitable4 ,,peppers4 ,the red peppers1 cultivated in this country1 are used for pickling1 for pepper-sauce1 as a condiment for food1 and as a domestic medicine4 ,varieties--are named principally from their shape4 ,the large squash-pepper is best for green pickles1 on account of its size and tenderness4 ,the ,cayenne1 a small1 long variety1 much resembling the original from which it is named1 is very pungent1 used mostly for pepper-sauce4 ,grind1 not very fine1 any of the varieties1 and they are useful on any food of a cold nature and not easily digestible4 ,they are all good for medicinal purposes4 ,the capsicum needs a dry1 warm soil1 with exposure to the sun4 ,plants should stand two feet apart each way2 as they are slow growers1 they should be started in an early hotbed4 ,many will ripen during summer1 and may be gathered4 ,in the fall1 when frost comes1 the vines will be covered with blossoms and with peppers of all sizes4 ,fall-grown green ones1 strung on a thread1 and hung in a warm1 dry room1 will ripen finely4 ,they are very hardy1 and may be transplanted without injury4 ,hen-manure is best for them4 ,,peppergrass4 ,this is a variety of cress1 of quick growth1 used as lettuce4 ,on a rich1 finely-pulverized soil1 sow the seeds in drills1 fifteen inches apart1 and cover very lightly4 ,sow thick and water in dry weather4 ,for use1 cut the tops while they are very tender4 ,a second crop will grow1 but inferior to the first4 ,the water-cress1 growing spontaneously by rills and springs1 is a kind of wild peppergrass1 and is by some persons more esteemed than the garden variety4 ,we prefer early lettuce to cresses or peppergrass1 and see no reason for their cultivation1 but their rapid growth4 ,,plowing4 ,this is one of the most important matters in soil-culture4 ,when1 how1 and how much1 shall we plow8 are the three questions involving the whole4 ,when should plowing be done8 ,as it respects wet or dry1 plow sandy or gravelly land whenever you are ready4 ,it will neither be hard when dry1 nor injured by being plowed when very wet4 ,good loams may be plowed at all times except when excessively wet4 ,clays can only be worked profitably when neither excessively wet or dry4 ,plowing land in a warm rain is almost equal to a coat of manure4 ,plowing in a light snow in the spring will injure it the whole season4 ,we have noticed a marked difference in corn growing but a rod apart1 on land where snow was plowed in1 and the other plowed two or three days later1 after the snow was gone2 this difference was noticeable in the rows throughout the entire field4 ,spring or fall plowing is a question that has been much discussed4 ,sod-land is better plowed in the fall4 ,the action of winter rains and frosts on the turf is beneficial4 ,the same is true of land trenched deep1 where much of the hard1 poor subsoil is brought to the surface3 it is benefited by winter exposure4 ,other cultivated fields are injured by fall-plowing1 unless it be very early4 ,all stubble-land is much benefited by being plowed as soon as the grain is taken off4 ,the weeds and stubble1 plowed under1 will be decomposed by the warm weather and rains1 and benefit the soil almost as much as an ordinary coat of manure4 ,plowed late1 such action does not take place1 and the surface is injured by winter-exposure3 hence1 do all the early fall-plowing possible1 but plow nothing late in the fall but sod-land4 ,how shall we plow8 ,all land should be subsoiled1 except that having a light1 porous subsoil2 one deep plowing on such land is sufficient4 ,subsoiling is done by using two teams at once--one with a common plow1 running deep1 and the other with a subsoil-plow with no mould-board1 and which will1 consequently1 stir and disintegrate the earth to the depth at which it runs1 without throwing it to the surface4 ,the next surface-furrow will cover up this loosened subsoil4 ,in this way1 land may be plowed eighteen inches deep1 to the great benefit of any crop grown on it4 ,if the surface be well manured1 this method of plowing will place the manure between the first furrow and the subsoil1 and increase its value4 ,such plowing is very valuable on land for young fruit-trees4 ,there is another method1 which we denominate double-plowing1 which is more beneficial than ordinary subsoiling3 it is performed by two common plows1 one following in the furrow of the other2 the first furrow need not be very deep--let the furrow in the bottom of the first be as deep as possible1 and thrown out upon the surface2 the next furrow will throw the surface and manure into the bottom of the deep furrow2 the next furrow will cover this surface-soil and manure very deep1 and1 as manure always works up1 it will impregnate the whole4 ,this1 for garden-vegetables1 berries1 nurseries1 or young orchards1 is the best form of plowing that we have ever tried4 ,it may be done with one team1 by simply changing the gauge of the clevis every time round1 gauging it light for the first furrow1 and deep for the second4 ,we once prepared a plat in this way with one team1 on which cabbages made a remarkable growth1 even in a dry season4 ,still a farther improvement would be a light coat of fine manure on the surface4 ,all furrows1 in every description of plowing1 should be near enough together to move the whole1 leaving no hard places between them4 ,the usual cut and cover system1 to get over a large area in a day1 is miserable economy4 ,the more evenly and flatly land can be turned over in plowing1 the better it will be2 it retards the growth of weeds1 and secures a better action upon substances plowed under4 ,an exception to deep plowing is in breaking up the original prairies of the ,west3 they have to be broken with plows kept sharp as a knife1 and not more than two inches deep4 ,the grass then dies and the sod rots4 ,but plowed deep1 the grass comes up through the turf1 and will prove troublesome for two or three years4 ,it must also be broken at a certain season of the year1 to insure success4 ,it may be profitably done for two months after the grass gets a good start in the spring4 ,how much is it best to plow land8 ,once double-plowed1 or thoroughly subsoiled1 and well turned over1 is better than more4 ,land once plowed so as to disintegrate the whole to the depth of the furrow1 will produce more1 and require less care1 than the same would do if cross-plowed once or twice4 ,excessive plowing is a positive injury4 ,all land should be broken up once in three or four years1 and not kept longer than that under the plow at one time4 ,some farmers keep land perpetually in grass1 refusing to have a plow touch it on any condition4 ,they see wrong tillage produce barrenness4 ,but by this practice they are great losers2 they never get over one half the hay or pasturage that could be obtained by frequent tillage and manuring1 and a rotation of crops4 ,,plum4 ,this is one of our best fruits1 but suffers more from enemies than any other4 ,propagation is by seeds or layers1 budding or grafting4 ,seeds from trees not exposed to mixture with other varieties in the blossom1 will produce the same2 hence1 this is the best method of propagating a given variety1 standing alone4 ,but1 for most situations1 budding is preferable to any other method4 ,this should be performed earlier than on the peach4 ,the plum matures earlier1 and hence should be budded about the last of ,july1 or first of ,august4 ,bud on the north side of the tree to avoid the hot sun2 and tie more tightly than in budding other trees4 ,bud plum-trees the second year from the seed4 ,grafting should be resorted to only when buds have failed1 and there is a prospect that the trees will be too large for budding another season4 ,the common wild plums make good stocks1 if grafted at the ground4 ,thoroughly mulch all newly-grafted plum-trees4 ,root-grafting will succeed1 but should never be practised4 ,in all grafting of plums1 put the graft in at the surface of the ground1 and cover with sawdust or mould1 leaving but one bud on the graft exposed4 ,soil4--,all soils are good for the plum1 provided they be thoroughly drained1 and properly fertilized4 ,hard soils are recommended as being almost proof against the curculio4 ,that a soil affording a rather hard1 smooth surface1 will afford less burrows for curculio1 and consequently lessen their ravages1 is no doubt true4 ,but it is not a perfect remedy1 and1 on other accounts1 such a soil is no better4 ,a good firm loam is best4 ,plums will do well also on light land1 but are more exposed to injury from the curculio4 ,transplanting4--,the plum being perfectly hardy1 we recommend transplanting in autumn4 ,shorten in the top1 cut off considerable of the tap-root1 and the ends of the long roots1 transplant well1 and mulch so thoroughly as to prevent too strong action of the frost on the roots1 and they will start early and do well4 ,twelve feet apart for small varieties1 and twenty feet for larger growers1 are the distances usually recommended4 ,we think a rod apart each way will do well for all varieties4 ,pruning4--,once started in a regular growth1 in such a shape as you desire1 no further pruning will be necessary but occasionally heading-in a too luxuriant shoot1 and removing diseased and cross limbs4 ,on rich ,western lands1 and in warm ,southern climes1 young plum-trees must be root-pruned and headed-in1 or they will be unfruitful and unhealthy4 ,root-pruning should be done in ,august1 in the following manner4 ,in case of a tree ten feet high1 take a sharp spade1 and in a circle around the tree1 two feet from the trunk 7making the circle four feet in diameter71 cut off all the roots within reach4 ,in smaller trees1 make the circle smaller1 and in larger ones1 larger4 ,at the same time1 shorten in the current year's growth1 by cutting off one half the length of all the principal shoots2 this will give vigor1 symmetry1 and fruitfulness1 and prove a valuable preventive of disease4 ,plum-trees should always have good1 clean cultivation4 ,manures from the stable and slaughter-house1 with wood-ashes1 lime1 and plenty of salt1 are the best for the plum4 ,the following analysis1 by ,richardson1 of the fruit of the plum1 will aid the culturist in his selection of manures3-- ,potash #ei4ba ,soda 4#ed ,lime #aj4jd ,magnesia #e4df ,sulphuric acid #c4hc ,silicic acid #b4cf ,phosphoric acid #ab4bf ,phosphate of iron #f4jd ,hence1 as wood-ashes contains much potash1 and as this is the largest ingredient in the plum1 it must be the best application to the soil for this fruit4 ,bones1 dissolved in sulphuric acid1 would also be very valuable4 ,bones1 bonedust1 salt1 wood-ashes1 and barnyard manure1 with a little lime1 will be all that will be necessary4 ,diseases4--,in most northern latitudes1 the black wart1 or knot1 is fatal to many plum-trees4 ,it is less prevalent at the ,south3 its origin is not known4 ,many theories respecting it are put forth by different cultivators2 they are unsatisfactory1 and their enumeration here would be useless4 ,it may be either the result of general ill health in the tree1 from budding on suckers and unhealthy stocks1 and a want of proper elements in the soil1 or of improper circulation of sap1 caused by the roots absorbing more than the leaves can digest4 ,in the latter case1 root-pruning and heading-in would be an effectual preventive4 ,in the former1 supply suitable manures1 and give good cultivation4 ,in every case1 remove at once all affected parts1 and wash the wounds and whole tree1 and drench the soil under it1 with copperas-water--one ounce of copperas to two gallons of water4 ,this is stated to be a complete remedy4 ,defoliation of seedlings and bearing trees often occurs in ,july and ,august4 ,land well supplied with the manures recommended1 especially wood-ashes1 salt1 and the copperas-water1 has not been known to produce trees that drop their leaves4 ,decay of the ,fruit is another serious evil4 ,professor ,kirtland and others suppose it to be a species of fungus4 ,poverty of soil1 and wet weather1 may be the cause4 ,if the season be unusually wet1 thin the fruit1 so that no two plums shall touch each other4 ,keep the soil properly manured1 and spread charcoal or straw under the tree1 and you will generally be able to preserve your fruit4 ,the ,curculio is the great enemy of the plum1 and frequently of all smooth-skinned fruits1 as the grape1 nectarine1 c4 ,illustration3 7#a7 ,curculio1 in the beetle-form1 life-size4 7#b7 ,its assumed form when disturbed or shaken from the tree4 7#c7 ,larva1 or worm1 as found in the fallen fruit4 7#d7 ,pupa1 or chrysalis state1 in which it lives in the ground4 ,many remedies are proposed3 making pavements1 or keeping the ground hard and smooth1 under the trees2 pasturing swine and keeping fowls in the plum-orchard2 syringing the whole tops of the trees four or five times with lime and salt water1 or lime and sulphur-water--the proportions are not material1 provided it be not excessively strong4 ,it is recommended to apply with a garden-syringe4 ,but1 as few cultivators will have that instrument1 they may sprinkle the mixture on the trees in any way most convenient4 ,salt1 worked into the soil under plum-trees1 is said to destroy this insect in its pupa state4 ,at any rate1 the salt is a good manure for the plum-tree4 ,we know a remedy for the ravages of the curculio1 unfailing in all seasons and localities--that is1 to kill them3 spread a cloth under the tree1 and with a mallet having a head1 covered with ,india-rubber or cloth that it may not injure the bark1 strike the body and large limbs sudden blows1 which will so jar them as to cause the insects to fall upon the cloth1 and you can then burn them4 ,do this five or six times in the season1 commencing when the fruit begins to set1 and continuing till it becomes nearly full-grown4 ,this is best done in the cool of the morning1 while the insects are still2 their habits of fear and quiet1 when there is a noise about1 are greatly in favor of their destruction by this method4 ,this is somewhat laborious1 but is a sure remedy1 and will pay well in all plum-orchards1 large or small4 ,after two or three years of this treatment1 there will be few or none of those insects left4 ,uses of the plum are various4 ,the fine varieties1 well ripened1 are a good dessert-fruit2 for sweetmeats and tarts they are much esteemed2 they are one of the better and more wholesome dried fruits4 ,the foreign ones are called prunes1 and are an article of commerce4 ,with a little care1 we can raise much better prunes than the imported4 ,like all fruits1 they are better for quick drying by artificial heat4 ,the ,french prunes1 the process of drying which is minutely described by ,downing in his fruit-book1 are no better than our best varieties1 quickly dried by artificial heat in a dry house1 or moderately-heated oven4 ,all dried fruit is much better for having become perfectly ripe before picking4 ,it is a great mistake to suppose unripe fruit will be good dried4 ,illustration3 ,lawrence's ,favorite4 ,varieties are numerous1 and many of them ought to be forgotten1 as is the case with all other fruits4 ,we give a small list1 containing all the good qualities of the whole3-- ,bleecker's ,gage4--,a hardy tree and sure bearer4 ,time1 ,august4 ,illustration3 ,imperial ,gage4 ,illustration3 ,egg4 ,imperial ,gage4--,this is an ,american variety4 ,it is of a lightish-green color1 and excellent flavor4 ,season1 ,july at the ,south1 and ,september at the ,north4 ,egg4--,the above cut represents one of the egg-plums1 of excellent quality in all respects4 ,there are many of this name4 ,lawrence's ,favorite4--,this is a fine plum1 of the gage family4 ,it was raised from the seed of the green gage2 its qualities are seldom surpassed4 ,washington4--,this is a very good plum for high latitudes4 ,at the ,south it is too dry4 ,illustration3 ,green ,gage4 ,illustration3 ,jefferson4 ,green ,gage4--,with fifteen synonyms4 ,excellent4 ,jefferson4--,one of the very best4 ,time1 last of ,august4 ,denniston's ,purple1 or ,red4--,vigorous grower and very productive4 ,time1 ,august #bj4 ,madison4--,a hardy1 productive1 and excellent ,october plum4 ,the foregoing varieties1 with the little black damson-plum1 so hardy and productive1 and so much esteemed for preserving1 will answer all needful purposes4 ,you will find long lists in the fruit-books4 ,some of them are the above varieties1 under different names4 ,procure four or five of the best you can find in your vicinity1 and cultivate them1 and you will need no others4 ,illustration3 ,washington4 ,,pomegranate4 ,this is one of the most delicious and beautiful of all the dessert-fruits4 ,native in ,china1 and much cultivated in ,southern ,europe4 ,it will do quite well as far north as the ,ohio river4 ,trained as an espalier1 with protection of straw or mats1 it will do tolerably well throughout the ,middle states4 ,the fruit is about as large as an ordinary apple1 and has a tough1 orange-colored skin1 with a beautiful red cheek4 ,the tree is of low growth4 ,blossoms are highly ornamental1 as is also the fruit1 during all the season4 ,it is cultivated as the orange4 ,there are several varieties3 the sweet-fruited1 the sub-acid1 and the wild or acid-fruited4 ,the first is the best1 and the second the one most cultivated in this country2 the latter yields a very pleasant acid1 making an excellent sirup4 ,pomegranates should be extensively cultivated at the ,south1 and form an important article of commerce for ,northern cities4 ,,potato4 ,this is far the most valuable of all esculent roots2 supposed to be a native of ,south ,america4 ,it is called the ,irish potato1 because it was grown extensively first in ,ireland4 ,it was first planted on the estate of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh in #afjb4 ,it was introduced into ,england in #afid4 ,it has been represented as having been introduced into ,england from ,virginia as early as #aehf1 but attracted no attention1 and for two centuries formed no considerable part of ,british agriculture4 ,it has become naturalized in all temperate regions1 and in many locations in high latitudes4 ,in tropical climates1 it flourishes on the mountains1 at an elevation sufficient to secure a cool atmosphere4 ,cool moist regions1 as ,ireland and the northern parts of the ,united ,states1 are most favorable for potatoes4 ,in warm climates the potato grows less luxuriantly1 yields much less1 and is liable to be ruined by a second growth4 ,in the latitude of southern ,ohio1 a severe drought1 while the tubers are small1 followed by considerable rain1 causes the young potatoes to sprout1 and send up fresh shoots1 and often make a very luxuriant growth of tops1 to the complete ruin of the tubers4 ,this is called second growth4 ,in cooler climates this second growth simply makes prongs on the tubers1 thus injuring the appearance and quality1 but increasing the crop4 ,the only preventive is watering regularly in a dry time4 ,this can be done advantageously in a garden1 and on a small scale4 ,in field culture1 when second growth occurs1 dig your potatoes at once1 if they are large enough to be of much use4 ,if not they will all be lost4 ,propagation is by annually planting the tubers4 ,no mixture of sorts ever takes place from planting different varieties together4 ,this can only be done in the blossoms1 and will consequently appear in young seedlings4 ,to raise good potatoes1 always plant ripe seed1 and the largest and best1 and leave them whole4 ,selecting small potatoes for seed1 and cutting them up1 and planting mere eyes and pearings as some do1 has done much to injure the health1 quality1 and quantity of yield of the potato4 ,selecting the poorest for seed1 will run out anything we grow in the soil4 ,new varieties have been multiplying within the past few years from seed4 ,some gentlemen are raising varieties by thousands4 ,not more than one out of a thousand prove truly valuable4 ,the quality of a new variety can not be established earlier than the fifth year4 ,many that promised well at first proved worthless4 ,to raise from seed1 gather the balls after they have matured1 hang them in a dry place till they become quite soft1 when separate the seeds and dry them as others1 and plant as early as the temperature of the soil favors vegetation4 ,chance varieties from seed of balls left to decay in the fall1 as tomatoes1 are recorded4 ,probably our present best varieties had such an origin4 ,raising new varieties requires much care and patience4 ,keep each one separate1 plant only the best1 and then you must wait four or five years to determine whether1 out of a thousand1 you have one good variety4 ,varieties4--,these are numerous4 ,those best adapted to one locality1 are often inferior in another4 ,that excellent potato1 the ,carter1 so firm in ,new ,england and western ,new ,york1 is ill-shapen and inferior in many localities in ,illinois4 ,the ,neshannock or common ,mercer produces a larger yield in ,illinois than in the ,eastern states1 but of a slightly inferior quality4 ,most seeds do better transported from a colder to a warmer climate1 but with the potato the reverse is true4 ,the best potatoes of ,ireland are usually inferior in the warmer latitudes of this country4 ,in ordering potatoes for seed it is better to describe the quality than to order by the name4 ,we omit any list1 of even the best varieties4 ,they are known by different names1 and are not equally good in all localities4 ,and all varieties are scattered over the whole country1 very soon1 by dealers1 and through the agency of agricultural societies and periodicals4 ,different varieties should be kept separate1 as they look better for market1 and no two will cook in precisely the same time4 ,plant the large potatoes and plant them whole4 ,from a small eye or a small potato to the largest they will vegetate equally well4 ,and in a wet1 cool season1 the small seed will produce nearly as good a crop as the large4 ,but the large seed matures earlier1 and in a dry season produces a much larger crop4 ,the moisture in a large potato decaying in the hill1 is of great use to the growing plants1 in a dry season4 ,it is also generally conceded that potatoes growing from cut seed are more liable to be affected by the rot4 ,quantity of seed per acre4--,the practices of farmers vary from five to twenty bushels4 ,it takes a less number of bushels per acre when the seed is cut4 ,the quantity is also affected by the size of the seed1 the larger the potatoes the more will it take to seed an acre4 ,plentiful1 but not excessive1 seeding is best4 ,it is a universal fact that you can never get something for nothing4 ,hence light seeding will bring a light yield4 ,we think it best to put one good-sized potato in a place and make the rows three feet apart each way4 ,we think they yield better than at any other distances or in any other way4 ,we have often tried drills1 and found them more trouble1 with no greater yield4 ,the soil should be disintegrated to the depth of sixteen inches and the potatoes planted four inches deep1 and cultivated with subsoil plow1 and other suitable tools1 in a manner to leave the surface nearly flat4 ,hilling up potatoes never does any good4 ,we advise always to harrow the crop1 as soon as they begin to appear through the soil4 ,soil4--,any good rich garden soil is good for this crop1 provided it be well drained4 ,potatoes like moisture1 but are ruined by having water stand in the soil4 ,new land and newly broken-up old pastures are best4 ,manures4--,all the usual fertilizers are good for potatoes1 but especially ashes and plaster4 ,the application above all others1 for potatoes1 is potash4 ,dissolve it in water1 making it quite weak1 and saturate your other manures with it1 and the effect will always be marked4 ,the tops contain a great deal of potash1 and should always be plowed in and decay in the soil where they grow1 otherwise they will rapidly exhaust the land4 ,it is supposed that nothing will do more to restore the former vigor and health of the potato than a liberal application of potash in the soil in which they grow4 ,the crop will be much increased in a dry season by manuring in the hill1 dropping the potato first and putting the manure on the top of it4 ,gathering and ,preserving4--,the usual hand-digging with hoe or potato-fork are well known1 and do well when the crop is not large4 ,but for those who grow potatoes for market1 it is better to employ the plow in digging4 ,modern inventions for this purpose can everywhere be found in the agricultural warehouses4 ,potatoes are well preserved in a good cool cellar1 in boxes or barrels2 and are better for being covered with moist sand4 ,the usual method of burying them outdoor is effectual and safe1 if they be covered beyond the reach of frost1 and have a small airhole at the apex1 filled with straw4 ,the ,potato ,disease4--,this is altogether atmospherical4 ,a new piece of land was cleared for potatoes4 ,in the middle was a close muck1 on a coarse1 gravelly subsoil4 ,in the lowest place a ditch was dug1 to carry off the superabundance of water2 from that ditch the coarse gravel was thrown out on one side1 and suffered to remain at considerable depth4 ,only two or three rods distant1 on one side the plat extended over a knoll of loose sand4 ,potatoes were planted1 from the same seed1 at the same time1 and in the same manner1 on these three kinds of land1 side by side4 ,they were all tended alike1 needing little hoeing or care1 the land being new4 ,the rot prevailed badly that season4 ,on digging the potatoes1 it was found that in the coarse gravel1 where the air could circulate almost as freely as in a pile of stove-wood1 all the potatoes were rotten3 on the muck1 which was unlike a peat-bog1 very fine and tight1 almost impervious to the atmosphere1 they were nearly all sound2 on the sand1 which was quite open1 but tighter than the gravel1 part were decayed and the rest sound4 ,their condition was graduated entirely by the condition of the soil4 ,it is an apparent objection to this theory1 that when the rot prevails1 the best potatoes are raised on light1 sandy soils4 ,it is said that they are open to the action of air4 ,to this it is replied1 that whether they rot or not1 in sandy soils1 depends on the kind of sand4 ,on some sand they rot very badly1 on others hardly at all4 ,sandy soils differ very materially3 some are almost pure silex2 while others are filled with a fine dust1 and1 although apparently loose1 are much more nearly impervious to the air than heavier soils2 on the former1 nearly all will decay1 and on the latter1 most will be preserved4 ,look at the immense potato crops near ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y41 on sandy land4 ,we have personally examined it1 and find it to be filled with dust1 that excludes the air1 and saves the potato from rot4 ,why1 then1 is a heavy clay useless for potatoes8 ,is not clay a very tight soil8 ,unbroken it is2 but1 when plowed1 it is always left in larger particles than other land--it is but seldom pulverized4 ,the spaces between the particles are all open to the free action of the air2 hence1 instead of being close1 it is one of the most open of all our soils4 ,this confirms the theory4 ,the influence of manuring land is still another confirmation4 ,we are directed not to manure our land for potatoes when the disease prevails4 ,it is said we can raise no sound potatoes on rich land when the rot is abroad4 ,this is an error4 ,the richness of the soil does not promote the disease2 but if any kind of manure be applied that1 from its bulk and coarseness1 keeps the soil open to the air1 the potatoes will rot4 ,but fertilize to the highest extent1 in any way that does not make the soil too open1 and let in the air1 and the crop will be greatly increased with perfect safety4 ,thus1 this theory1 like every truth1 perfectly fits in all its bearings4 ,there is1 then1 no perfect remedy for the disease but in the power of ,him who can purify the atmosphere4 ,numerous remedies and preventives have been recommended1 by those who suppose they have tried them with success4 ,but in other localities and soils1 all their remedies have failed1 as will all others that will yet be discovered4 ,a careful examination of the texture of the soils1 upon the principles here indicated1 and a repetition of their experiments1 will show the discoverers that their success depended upon their soils1 while others failed in using the same remedies on other soils4 ,the practical uses of this theory are obvious4 ,when the disease is abroad1 we should select soil that excludes1 as much as possible1 the atmosphere1 and plant deep2 on all land not liable to have water stand on the subsoil4 ,do not be deceived into the belief that all sandy land will bear good potatoes1 in the seasons when the disease prevails4 ,the worst rot we ever had was in #ahee1 on very sandy land4 ,this year 7#aheg7 we have witnessed the worst rot in open sand and gravel4 ,add to this1 great care in preserving the health of the tubers4 ,plant very early1 only whole potatoes1 and of mature growth1 thoroughly ripe2 apply a little salt and lime1 plaster rather plentifully1 and potash1 or plenty of wood-ashes--and you will succeed in the worst of seasons4 ,,preserving ,,fruits1 c4 ,the essentials in preserving fruits1 berries1 and vegetables1 during the whole year1 are1 a total exclusion from atmospheric action1 and1 in some vegetables1 a strong action of heat4 ,we have a variety of patent cans1 and several processes are recommended4 ,the patent cans serve a good purpose1 but1 for general use1 are inferior to those ordinarily made by the tinman4 ,the patent articles are only good for one year1 and are used with greater difficulty by the unskilful4 ,the ordinary tin cans1 made in the form of a cylinder1 with an orifice in the top large enough to admit whatever you would preserve1 will last ten years1 with careful usage1 and they are so simple that no mistakes need be made4 ,it is usually recommended to solder on the cover1 which is simply a square piece of tin large enough to cover the orifice4 ,soldering may be best for those cans that are to be transported a long distance1 but it is troublesome1 and is entirely unnecessary for domestic use4 ,a little sealing-wax1 which any apothecary can make at a cheap rate1 laid on the top of the can when hot1 will melt1 and the cover placed upon it will adhere and cause it to be air-tight4 ,all articles that do not part with their aroma by being cooked1 may be perfectly preserved in such cans1 by putting them in when boiling1 seasoned to your taste1 and putting on the covers at once4 ,the cans should be full1 and set in a cool place1 and the articles will remain in a perfect state for a year4 ,the finest articles of fruit1 as peaches and strawberries1 may be preserved so as to retain all their peculiar aroma1 by putting them into such cans1 filled with a sirup of pure sugar1 and placing the cans so filled in a kettle of water1 and raising it to a boiling heat1 and then putting on the cover as above2 the heat expels the air1 and the cover and wax keep it out4 ,stone jugs are used for the same purposes1 but are not sufficiently tight to keep out the air1 unless well painted after having become cold4 ,wide-mouthed glass bottles are excellent4 ,but1 in using glass or stone ware1 the corks must be put in and tied at the commencement1 leaving a small aperture for the escape of steam1 and the process of raising the water to a boiling heat must be gradual1 requiring three or four hours1 or the bottles will be broken by sudden expansion4 ,make the corks air-tight by covering with sealing-wax on taking from the boiling water4 ,some vegetables1 as peas1 beans1 cauliflowers1 c41 need considerable boiling1 in order to perfect preservation4 ,tin cans may stand in the water and boil an hour or two1 if you choose1 and then be sealed4 ,the bottles should be corked tight1 have the cork tied in1 and then be immersed and boil for an hour3 take them out1 and dip the cork and mouth of the bottles in sealing-wax1 and all will be safe4 ,by one of these processes1 exclusion of the atmosphere and thorough boiling1 we may preserve any fruit or vegetable1 so as to have an abundance1 nearly as good as the fresh in its season1 the whole year1 and that at a trifling expense4 ,all fruits and vegetables may also be preserved by drying4 ,by being properly dried1 the original aroma can be mostly retained4 ,the essentials in properly drying are artificial heat and free circulation of the air about the drying articles4 ,fruit dried in the sun is not nearly so fine as that dried by artificial heat4 ,an oven from which bread has just been taken is suitable for this purpose2 but a dry-house is better4 ,a tight room1 with a stove in the bottom1 and the fruit in shallow drawers1 put in from the outside1 serves a good purpose4 ,construct the room so as to give a draft1 the heated air passing out at the top1 and the process of drying will be greatly facilitated1 and the more rapid the process1 without cooking the fruit1 the better will be its quality4 ,this process is applicable to all kinds of vegetables4 ,roots1 as beets1 carrots1 parsnips1 or potatoes1 should be sliced before drying4 ,the object in drying the latter articles would be to afford the luxury of good vegetables for armies and ships' crews1 in distant regions1 and in climates where they are not grown4 ,milk can be condensed and preserved for a long time1 and1 being greatly reduced in quantity1 it is easily transported4 ,it is not generally known in the country that ,mr4 ,gail ,borden1 of ,new ,york1 has invented a method of condensing milk1 fresh from the cow1 so that it will perfectly retain all its excellences1 including the cream1 and by being sealed up in tin cans1 as above1 may be kept for many months4 ,the milk and the process of condensation have been scientifically examined by the ,new ,york ,academy of ,medicine1 and pronounced perfect1 and of great value to the world4 ,we have used the condensed milk1 which was more than a month old2 it had been kept in a tin can without sealing and without ice1 but in a cool place4 ,it was sweet and good1 differing in no respect from fresh milk from the cow1 except that the heat employed in condensing it gave it the taste of boiled milk4 ,if kept in a warm place1 and exposed to the atmosphere1 it may sour nearly as soon as other milk3 but it may be sealed up and kept cool so as to be good for a long time4 ,the condensation is accomplished by simple evaporation of the watery part1 in pans in vacuo4 ,no substance whatever is put into the milk4 ,four gallons of fresh milk are condensed into one4 ,when wanted for use1 the quantity desired is put into twice the quantity of water1 which makes good cream for coffee2 or one part to four of water makes good new milk2 and one part to five or six makes a better milk than that usually sold in cities4 ,steamers now lay in a supply for a voyage to ,liverpool and return1 and on arrival in ,new ,york1 the milk is as good as when taken on board4 ,the advantages will be numerous4 ,such milk will be among regular supplies for armies and navies1 and for all shipping to distant countries4 ,all cities and villages may have pure1 cheap milk1 as the condensation will render transportation so cheap that milk can be sent from any part of the country where it is most plenty and cheapest4 ,the process is patented1 but will be granted to others at reasonable rates1 by ,borden ,co42 and eventually it will become general1 when farmers can condense and lay by1 in the season when it is abundant1 milk for use in the winter1 when cows are dry4 ,this will make milk abundant at all seasons of the year1 and plenty wherever we choose to carry it4 ,it will also save the lives of thousands of children1 in cities1 that are fed on unwholesome milk or poisonous mixtures4 ,there is no temptation to adulterate such milk1 for the process of condensation is cheaper than any mixture that could be passed4 ,preserving hams is effectually done by either of the following methods4 ,after well curing and smoking1 sew them up in a bag of cotton cloth1 fitting closely1 and dip them into a tub of lime-whitewash1 nearly as thick as cream1 and hang up in a cool room4 ,this is a good method1 though they will sometimes mould4 ,the other process1 and the one we most recommend1 is to put well cured and smoked hams in a cask1 or box1 with very fine charcoal2 put in a layer of charcoal1 and then one of hams2 cover with another layer of coal and then of hams1 and so on1 until the cask is full1 or all your hams are deposited4 ,no mould will appear1 and no insect will touch them4 ,this method is perfect4 ,another process1 involving the same principles as the preceding1 is to wrap the hams in muslin1 and bury them in salt4 ,the muslin keeps the salt from striking in1 and the salt prevents mould and insects4 ,,pumpkin4 ,there are some five or six varieties in cultivation4 ,loudon says six1 and ,russell's catalogue has five4 ,the number is increasing1 and names becoming uncertain4 ,certain varieties are called pumpkins by some1 and squashes by others4 ,the large yellow ,connecticut1 or ,yankee pumpkin1 is best for all uses4 ,the large cheese pumpkin is good at the ,south and ,west4 ,the mammoth that has weighed as high as two hundred and thirty pounds1 is a squash1 more ornamental than useful4 ,the seven years' pumpkin is a great keeper4 ,it has doubtless been kept through several years without decay4 ,pumpkins will grow on any good rich soil1 but best on new land1 and in a wet season4 ,do best alone1 but will grow well among corn and better with potatoes4 ,a good crop of pumpkins can seldom be raised1 two years in succession1 on the same land4 ,care in saving seed is very important4 ,the spot on the end that was originally covered by the blossom1 varies much in dimensions1 on pumpkins of the same size4 ,seeds from those having small blossom-marks1 bear very few1 and from those having large ones1 produce abundantly4 ,they are good fall and winter feed for most animals4 ,they will cause hogs to grow rapidly1 if boiled with roots1 and mixed with a little grain4 ,fed raw to milch cows and fattening cattle1 they are valuable4 ,learn a horse to eat them raw1 and if his work be not too hard1 he will fatten on them4 ,they may be preserved in a dry cellar1 in a warm room as sweet potatoes1 or in a mow of hay or straw1 that will not freeze through4 ,but for family use they are better stewed green1 and dried4 ,,quince4 ,this fruit1 with its uses1 for drying1 cooking1 marmalades1 flavors to tarts and pies made of other fruits1 and for preserving as a sweetmeat1 is well known and highly esteemed4 ,the quince is rather a shrub than a tree4 ,it should be set ten feet apart each way1 in deep1 rich soil4 ,it needs little pruning1 except removing dead or cross branches1 and cutting off and burning at once1 twigs affected with the insect-blight1 as mentioned under pears4 ,the soil should be manured every year1 by working-in a top-dressing of fine manure1 including a little salt4 ,propagation--is by seeds1 buds1 or cuttings4 ,budding does very well4 ,seedlings are not always true to the varieties4 ,cuttings1 put out early and a little in the shade1 nearly all take4 ,this is the best and easiest method of propagation4 ,there are several varieties2 the apple-shaped1 pear-shaped1 and the ,portugal1 are the principal4 ,the apple-shaped1 or orange quince 7and perhaps the large-fruited may be the same7 is1 on the whole1 the best of all4 ,early1 a great bearer1 and excellent for all uses4 ,the pear-shaped is smaller1 harder1 and later4 ,it may be kept longer in a green state1 and therefore be carried much farther4 ,the only reason for cultivating it would be its lateness and its keeping qualities4 ,the ,portugal quince is the finest fruit of all1 but is such a shy bearer as to be unprofitable4 ,the ,rea quince is a seedling raised by ,mr4 ,joseph ,rea1 of ,greene county1 ,new ,york1 and is pronounced by ,downing an acquisition4 ,the fruit is very handsome1 and one third larger than the common apple or orange quince4 ,the tree is thrifty1 hardy1 and productive4 ,it is a valuable modification of the apple-shaped or orange quince1 superior to the original4 ,such varieties may be multiplied and improved1 by new seedlings and high cultivation4 ,,rabbits4 ,to prevent rabbits and mice from girdling fruit-trees in winter1 is very important to fruit-growers4 ,the meadow-mouse is very destructive to young trees1 under cover of snow4 ,rabbits will girdle trees after the green foliage on which they delight to feed is gone4 ,take four quarts of fresh-slaked lime1 the same quantity of fresh cows' dung1 two quarts of salt1 and a handful of flour of sulphur2 mix all together1 with just enough water to bring it to the consistency of thick paint4 ,at the commencement of cold weather1 paint the trunks of the trees two feet high with this mixture1 and not a tree will suffer from rabbits or mice4 ,treading own the snow does good1 but it is very troublesome1 and not a perfect remedy4 ,experience has never known the foregoing wash to fail4 ,,radish4 ,this is a well-known root1 eaten only raw1 and when young and tender4 ,a rich sandy soil is best4 ,like most turnips1 the roots are more tender and perfect when grown in rather cool weather2 hence1 those grown in early spring are better than a summer growth4 ,they do well in an early hotbed4 ,the ,scarlet and ,white ,turnip-rooted are fine for early use4 ,they are always small1 but fair1 and very early4 ,the ,scarlet ,short-top comes next1 and is a very fine variety4 ,these may be had through the whole season1 by sowing at proper intervals2 hence1 others are unnecessary4 ,other good varieties are the ,summer1 or ,long ,white ,naples2 ,long ,salmon1 a large1 gray radish1 not generally described in the books 7a splendid variety in southern ,ohio72 and the ,black ,spanish for fall and winter use4 ,this grows large like a turnip1 and is preserved in the same way4 ,the best method of guarding against worms is to take equal quantities of fresh horse-manure and buckwheat-bran1 and mix and spade them into the bed4 ,active fermentation follows1 and toadstools will grow up within forty-eight hours1 when you should spade up the bed again and sow the seed2 they will grow very quickly1 be very tender1 and entirely free from worms4 ,radish-seed is sown with slow-vegetating seeds1 as carrots1 beets1 parsnips1 c4 ,the radishes mark the rows1 so that they may be cleared of weeds1 and the ground stirred before the plants would otherwise be discernible1 and also shade the germinating seeds and the young plants from destruction from a hot sun4 ,the radishes may be pulled out when the main crop needs the ground and sun4 ,for this purpose the scarlet short-top variety is used1 because the long root loosens the soil in pulling2 and as the crown stands so much above the surface1 they may be crushed down with a small roller1 and thus destroyed without the labor of pulling4 ,sowing radish-seed among root-crops1 and cultivating early with a root-cleaner1 an acre of roots can be raised with about the same labor as an acre of corn4 ,,raspberry4 ,the common black raspberry we have noticed elsewhere as one of the most profitable in cultivation4 ,the other varieties1 worthy of general cultivation1 are the ,franconia1 the ,fastollf1 the red1 and the white or yellow ,antwerp4 ,any good garden-soil is suitable for raspberries4 ,it should be worked deep1 and have decayed wood and leaves mixed with barnyard manure and wood-ashes4 ,in all but very cold latitudes1 raspberries should be planted where they may be a little shaded4 ,none of the finer old varieties produce a good crop of fruit without winter-protection4 ,the canes may live without it1 but will bear but little fruit4 ,the best method of protection is to bend down the canes at the beginning of winter1 before the ground freezes1 and cover them lightly1 with the soil around them4 ,they should first have some well-rotted manure put around the canes4 ,stools should be four feet apart1 and have about five or six canes in a stool4 ,cut away the rest4 ,the best of all manures for raspberries is said to be spent tan-bark4 ,put it around in the fall to the depth of two inches2 work it into the soil in the spring1 and put around fresh tan-bark1 to the same depth4 ,the varieties for general cultivation are few4 ,the common black is one of the best4 ,the common wild ,american red1 native in all the ,middle and ,eastern states1 is greatly improved by cultivation4 ,as it is perfectly hardy1 and a great and early bearer1 it should have a place in every collection4 ,the ,franconia is a fine fruit1 and1 among those generally cultivated1 occupies the first place4 ,the yellow ,antwerp is fine-flavored and good-sized1 but too soft for a general market-berry4 ,the same is true of the ,fastollf4 ,the red ,antwerp is good1 but quite inferior to the new red ,antwerp1 or ,hudson ,river ,antwerp4 ,the ,ohio ,evergreen is a new variety1 hardy1 prolific1 and a long bearer1 fine fruit in considerable quantities having been picked on the #ast of ,november4 ,on this account1 it should be in every garden4 ,there are two kinds of red raspberries brought to notice by ,mr4 ,lewis ,p4 ,allen1 of ,black ,rock1 ,n4 ,y41 that deserve extensive cultivation1 if they warrant his recommendation4 ,mr4 ,allen says he has cultivated them for a number of years1 and1 with no winter protection1 they have borne a large crop of excellent fruit every year1 pronounced by dealers in ,buffalo market superior to any other variety4 ,should these varieties prove equally good elsewhere1 they deserve a place in every garden in the land4 ,,rhubarb4 ,there are several varieties of rhubarb now in cultivation4 ,the ,victoria1 ,mammoth1 and ,scotch ,hybrid1 all of which 7if they be really distinct7 are fine and large1 under proper culture4 ,there is much of the old inferior kind1 which generally affords only small short leaves1 and which is of no value1 compared with the large varieties4 ,the method of growing is very simple1 and yet the value of the plant depends mainly on right cultivation4 ,propagation is by seeds1 or by dividing the roots4 ,by seed is preferable4 ,the idea that the largest kinds will not produce seed is incorrect4 ,we raised four or five quarts of seed from a single plant of the largest variety1 in one season4 ,young plants are suitable for transplanting after the first year's growth4 ,they should be set three feet apart each way4 ,the soil should be thoroughly enriched and trenched two feet deep1 with plenty of well-rotted manure in the bottom1 and mixed in all the soil4 ,plant the crowns two or three inches below the surface to allow stirring the ground in the spring1 without injury4 ,after this they will only want enriching with well-rotted manure in rather liberal quantities1 worked in with a fork in the fall or spring4 ,covering up with manure in the fall is good4 ,those who raise the largest leaves1 lay bare the crowns in spring1 and with a sharp knife1 remove all the smaller crown-buds4 ,the leaves will be greatly reduced in number1 but increased in size4 ,we have often seen a single stem of a leaf that weighed a full pound4 ,the roots live many years4 ,we know a single root1 in ,st4 ,lawrence county1 ,n4 ,y41 from which we ate pies and tarts twenty-two years ago1 and which is now so vigorous as to yield more than a supply for two families through the season4 ,the only care it has ever had1 has been liberal supplies of well-rotted manure4 ,the seed stocks have generally been broken off4 ,they should always be1 unless you wish to raise seed1 then save one or two of the strongest4 ,new crowns come out on the sides1 from year to year1 until each plant will cover a considerable space4 ,the one mentioned1 as being twenty-two years old1 has never been moved during the whole time4 ,it is not the giant kind1 but the leaves are large and long4 ,rhubarb has a better flavor and requires much less sugar1 by blanching4 ,this is best done by placing an old barrel1 without a bottom1 over the hill as it begins to grow4 ,the leaves will grow long1 with white tender stems4 ,use it when the leaves are half or full grown1 as you please4 ,,rice4 ,this1 in its value to the world as an article of food1 is next to ,indian corn4 ,it is the main article of diet for one third of the human race4 ,it is produced only in certain parts of the world1 and its cultivation is so simple and easy1 and so much a department of agriculture by itself1 that we omit directions for growing it4 ,the ravages of the rice-weevil1 so destructive to rice lying in bulk1 are prevented by the application of common salt1 at the rate of half a pound to the bushel4 ,,rocks4 ,we frequently find1 on some of our best land1 large boulders1 very hard1 and too large to be removed1 with any team we can command1 and which would be in the way1 in any place to which we might remove them4 ,the best way to get rid of them1 when it can be afforded1 is to burn or blast them into pieces small enough to be easily handled4 ,when this can not be afforded1 the best method is to make an excavation by the side of them1 deep enough to let them sink below the reach of the plow1 and allow them to fall in1 being careful not to get caught by them4 ,,roller4 ,this is quite as indispensable to good farming and gardening as any other tool4 ,it serves a great variety of useful purposes4 ,the first is to pulverize soils4 ,no man can get a full crop on a soil not made fine on the surface1 however rich that soil may be4 ,it is often the case that land needs rolling two or three times before the last harrowing and sowing the seed4 ,another purpose is1 on all light soils1 to place the soil close around the seeds after they have been covered4 ,when this is not done1 seeds will vegetate very unevenly1 and1 in dry weather1 some of them not at all4 ,another advantage of rolling a field-crop is the greater facility and economy with which it can be harvested4 ,it makes a level1 smooth surface1 sinking small stones out of the way of the scythe or reaper4 ,rolling makes grass-seed catch1 when sown with a spring-crop4 ,all beds of small seeds--as onions1 beets1 carrots1 parsnips1 c4--should be rolled after planting4 ,it will so smooth the surface1 that hoeing and cultivating can be done without injury to the plants4 ,the rows are also much more easily seen while the plants are young4 ,any crop will grow better and larger by not being too much exposed to the action of the atmosphere on its roots4 ,when the soil is coarse1 part of the seeds and roots are greatly exposed to the action of the atmosphere1 and this exposure is very irregular4 ,the roller so crushes the lumps and fills up the openings in the soil as to cause the atmosphere to act regularly on the whole crop4 ,few farmers stop to think that the pressure of the atmosphere on their soils is fifteen pounds' weight on every square inch1 and that1 hence1 the air must penetrate to a considerable depth into the soil2 and where the soil is coarse1 the air enters too freely1 and acts too powerfully for the good of the plants4 ,rollers are made of wood1 iron1 or freestone4 ,for most purposes1 wood is best4 ,a log made true and even1 or1 better1 narrow plank nailed on cylindrical ends1 are the usual forms4 ,from eighteen inches to three feet in diameter is the better size4 ,iron or stone rollers1 in sections1 are best for pulverizing soil disposed to cake from being annually overflowed with water1 or from other causes4 ,,root ,,crops4 ,it is important that ,american farmers learn to attach much greater importance to the culture of roots4 ,the potato is the best of all roots for feeding2 but1 as the yield has become so light in most localities1 and the demand for it for human food has so greatly increased1 it will no longer be grown extensively as food for animals4 ,farmers must1 therefore1 turn their attention to beets1 carrots1 and parsnips4 ,reasonable tillage will produce one thousand bushels to the acre of beets and carrots1 and two hundred more of parsnips4 ,these roots1 raw or cooked1 are valuable for all domestic animals4 ,a horse will do better on part oats and part carrots1 or beets1 than upon clear oats4 ,for milch cows1 young stock1 and fattening cattle1 and for sheep and fowls1 they are highly valuable4 ,with the facilities now enjoyed1 they may be raised at a cheap rate4 ,plant scarlet short-top radish-seed in the rows1 to shade the vegetating seed and young plants1 and to mark the rows1 to facilitate clearing and stirring the ground1 while the plants are very young1 and using the most approved root-cleaners1 and the same amount of food can not be grown at the same price in any other crops4 ,,saffron4 ,this is a well-known medicinal herb1 as easily grown as a bean or sunflower4 ,it is principally used in eruptive diseases1 to induce moisture of the skin and keep the eruption out4 ,sow in any good soil1 in rows eighteen inches apart1 and keep clean of weeds4 ,when in full bloom1 the flowers are gathered and dried4 ,,sage4 ,this is a hardy garden-herb1 easily grown4 ,its value for medicinal and culinary purposes is well known4 ,it is propagated by seeds1 or by dividing the roots4 ,with suitable protection in winter1 roots will live for a number of years1 bearing seed after the first4 ,varieties are1 the red1 the broad-leaved1 the green1 and the small-leaved green4 ,the red is most used for culinary purposes1 and the broad-leaved is most medicinal4 ,all the varieties may be used for the same purposes4 ,any garden-soil1 not decidedly wet1 is suitable for sage4 ,raise new plants once in three or four years4 ,plants may be renovated1 by certain culture and care1 but it is better to grow new ones4 ,cut the leaves two or three times in the season1 and dry quickly1 and put away in paper bags2 or1 better1 pulverize and cork up in glass bottles4 ,this is the best method of preserving all herbs for domestic use4 ,,salsify1 ,,or ,,vegetable ,,oyster4 ,this is a hardy biennial vegetable1 resembling a small parsnip1 and as easily grown4 ,when properly cooked1 its flavor resembles the oyster1 whence its name4 ,sow and cultivate as parsnips or carrots4 ,it is suitable for use from ,november to ,may4 ,it is better for being allowed to remain in the ground until wanted for use1 though it may be well kept1 in moist sand in the cellar4 ,care is necessary in saving seed as it shells and blows away like thistle seed1 as soon as ripe4 ,it must be sown quite thick1 on account of its proneness not to vegetate4 ,it should be more extensively cultivated4 ,,scraping ,,land4 ,this is a process needed only on land that has not been under cultivation long enough to become level4 ,all new land has many knolls of greater or less size4 ,as soon as the roots are out sufficiently to allow it1 the knolls should be plowed and leveled with a common scraper4 ,most farmers neglect it as injurious to the soil1 and too expensive4 ,but when we consider that rough land never gets well plowed1 and that the gradual wearing away of the knolls will continue their unproductiveness for a number of years1 it will be seen that the cheapest way is to plow and scrape the land level at once1 and thoroughly manure the places from which the soil has been scraped4 ,,seeds4 ,the best of everything should be saved for seed4 ,peas1 beans1 corn1 tomatoes1 c41 should not be gathered promiscuously1 finally preserving the last that matures1 for seed4 ,leave some of the finest and earliest stocks1 and from them save seed1 not from the first or the last that matures1 but from the earliest that grows large and fair4 ,save tomato-seed from those that grow largest1 but near the root4 ,gather all seeds as soon as mature1 as remaining exposed to the weather is unfavorable to vegetation4 ,dry in a warm place in the shade1 but not too near a stove or fire4 ,keep in paper bags1 hung in a dry airy place1 beyond the reach of mice4 ,trying the quality of seeds is important1 as it may save loss and disappointment1 from sowing seeds that will not vegetate4 ,a little cotton wool or moss in a tumbler containing a little water1 and placed in a warm room1 will afford a good means of testing seeds4 ,seeds placed on that wool1 will vegetate sooner than they would do in the soil4 ,but a more speedy1 and generally sure method1 is by putting a few seeds on the top of a hot stove4 ,if they are good they will crack like corn in parching2 otherwise they will burn without noise1 and with very little motion4 ,the improvement or declension of fruits1 grains1 and vegetables1 depend very materially upon the manner of gathering and preserving seeds4 ,gather promiscuously and late1 and keep without care1 and rapid declension will be the result4 ,gather the earliest and best1 and plant only the very best of that saved1 and constant improvement will be secured4 ,,sheep4 ,these are the most profitable of all domestic animals4 ,the original cost is trifling1 and the expense of raising and keeping is so light1 and the sale of meat1 tallow1 hide1 and wool1 is so ready1 that sheep-growing is always profitable4 ,so important has this always been considered1 that in all ages of the world1 there have been shepherds1 whose sole business it has been to tend their flocks4 ,were the flesh of sheep and lambs more extensively substituted for that of swine1 in this country1 it would be equally healthy and economical4 ,american farmers do not attach to sheep-growing half the importance it deserves4 ,we recommend a thorough study of the subject1 in the use of the facilities afforded by the writings of practical men4 ,we can only give the outlines of the subject in a work like this4 ,a theory has been scientifically established by ,peter ,a4 ,brown ,,ll4 ,d4 of ,philadelphia1 in which it is shown that all sheep are divided into two species1 ,hair-bearing and ,wool-bearing4 ,these species crossed1 produce sheep that bear both wool and hair1 as the two never change4 ,the hair makes blankets that will not shrink4 ,the wool is good for making fulled cloth4 ,blankets made from the fleeces of sheep that are the product of the cross of these two species1 will shrink in some places and not in others1 just as the hair or wool prevails4 ,it is also true that the hair-bearing sheep delight in low1 moist situations and sea-breezes1 while the wool-bearing sheep does best on high1 airy1 and dry land4 ,these fleeces all pass as wool1 but the microscope shows a marked and permanent difference1 and one can easily learn to distinguish it at once1 by the touch and with the naked eye4 ,this is thrown out here to induce a thorough examination of the whole subject4 ,there are three staples of wool1 short1 three inches long1 middling1 five inches1 and long1 eight inches4 ,varieties of sheep are numerous4 ,we shall only mention a few4 ,the question of the best breeds has been warmly controverted4 ,we have no disposition to try to settle it4 ,the question of the best variety must depend upon locality and design4 ,if the wool is the object1 then the ,vermont ,merino for the ,north1 and the pure ,saxony for the ,south1 are evidently the best4 ,if located near large cities1 where the flesh is the main object1 then the large-bodied1 long-wooled breeds are much preferable4 ,among those much esteemed we note the following3-- ,the ,cotswold mature young1 and the flesh will vary in weight from fifteen to thirty pounds per quarter4 ,the ,new ,leicester is less hardy than the ,cotswold1 but heavier1 weighing from twenty-four to thirty-six pounds per quarter4 ,the ,teeswater sheep1 improved by a cross with the ,leicester1 is considered valuable4 ,the ,bampton is one of the very best grown in ,england4 ,fat ewes average twenty pounds per quarter1 and wethers from thirty to thirty-five pounds4 ,the ,sussex1 ,hampshire1 and ,shropshire varieties of the ,down sheep1 are all highly esteemed4 ,the ,leicester are very valuable4 ,an ordinary fleece weighs from three to five pounds4 ,mr4 ,joseph ,beers of ,new ,jersey had one that sheared thirteen pounds at one time1 and the live weight of the sheep was #cgh pounds4 ,there are ,french1 ,silesian1 and ,spanish ,merinoes1 much esteemed in ,vermont and elsewhere4 ,the average weight of a flock of ewes of ,french merinoes after shearing was #ajc pounds4 ,their fleeces averaged twelve pounds and eight ounces4 ,the fleece of one buck of the same flock weighed twenty pounds and twelve ounces4 ,illustration3 ,the ,french ,merino ,ram4 ,the ,silesian ,merinoes are smaller1 but produce beautiful fleeces4 ,in a flock of nineteen ewes1 the average weight of fleece was seven pounds and ten ounces1 and that of the buck weighed ten and a half pounds4 ,a large flock of ,spanish ,merinoes yielded an average of a little over five pounds of well-washed wool4 ,all these varieties are valuable for wool4 ,the wool of the pure ,saxony sheep1 however1 is best4 ,the ,tartar sheep1 called also ,shanghae and ,broadtail1 is a recently-imported breed1 of great promise for mutton4 ,their fleece is a fine silky hair1 making fine blankets that will not shrink1 but not good for fulled cloths4 ,the ewes are remarkably prolific1 producing sometimes five lambs at a time1 and often twice a year4 ,one ewe bore seven lambs in one year1 all living and being healthy4 ,the flesh is of the highest quality4 ,this may stand at the head of all our sheep as a market animal4 ,the cross of this with our common sheep has proved fine4 ,they need to be further tested in this country4 ,a new kind of sheep has also been imported from ,africa1 within a few years2 a variety unknown to naturalists1 but having some points in common with the ,tartar sheep4 ,diseases of ,sheep4--,there are several that have been very troublesome1 but which experience has enabled us to cure4 ,scours is often very injurious4 ,a little common soot from the chimney1 or pulverized charcoal1 is a sure remedy4 ,mix it with water1 not so thick as to make it difficult to swallow1 and give a teaspoonful every two hours1 and relief will soon be experienced4 ,water in the head is a disease caused by long exposure to wet and cold4 ,this is prevented by a small blanket on the back of the sheep4 ,the wool on the backs of sheep will be seen to be often parted1 exposing the skin4 ,water falling on the back will penetrate the wool and run down1 and wet and chill the whole body4 ,a small cotton blanket1 fifteen inches wide1 and long enough to reach from the neck to the tail1 fastened to its place by tying to the wool1 and painted on the outside1 will cause all the water to run off1 saving the health of the sheep1 and causing him to require less food4 ,in the cold1 wet season1 every sheep should have such a blanket2 they would cost three or four cents each1 and be worth many times their cost in the saving of feed for the animals4 ,the more comfortable an animal is1 the less food will he require4 ,applying tar above the noses of sheep at shearing1 that they may be compelled to smell it and eat a little for a long time1 is considered favorable to their general health1 and a preventive of rot4 ,the foot-rot1 in cattle1 sheep1 and hogs1 is a prevalent disease4 ,boys walking the path1 barefoot1 where such diseased animals frequently pass1 may contract the disease4 ,this is always cured by washing in blue vitriol4 ,most cases are cured by one application1 and the most confirmed by two or three4 ,make a narrow passage1 where only one animal can pass at once4 ,put in a trough twelve feet long1 twelve inches wide1 and as many deep4 ,put in that fifty pounds of blue vitriol and fill with water1 throwing a little straw over the top4 ,cause the diseased animals to pass through that1 and they will be cured4 ,this is thought to be an invariable remedy4 ,if sheep do not appear healthy on lowland pasture1 give them small quantities of fine charcoal and salt1 and they will be as healthy as on the hills4 ,a little salt for sheep is useful during the whole year4 ,the health of sheep is injured more in fall than at any other season2 they are very apt to be neglected at the beginning of winter4 ,they grow poor rapidly when their green feed first fails2 a little hay and grain and a few roots then will keep them up1 prevent disease1 and make it less expensive to keep them through the winter4 ,feed in racks or troughs1 when they can not get their food under foot1 and as far as practicable1 under shelter1 and in a warm place4 ,it is much cheaper1 and keeps the sheep much more healthy4 ,they should have fresh water1 where they can drink1 two or three times a day4 ,salt1 mixed with wood-ashes and pulverized charcoal1 should also be constantly within their reach4 ,a few beets1 carrots1 or parsnips1 are always valuable4 ,some green feed is very essential for ewes1 for some time before the yeaning season4 ,corn is good for fattening sheep2 but1 for increasing the wool1 it is not half as valuable as beans4 ,good bean-straw is better than hay4 ,corn-fodder is excellent4 ,the product of one and a half acres of land1 sowed with corn1 will winter1 in fine condition1 one hundred sheep--the corn sowed the #bjth of ,june1 and cut up after it has begun to lose its weight slightly1 and shocked up closely1 bound round the top with straw1 and then allowed to stand till wanted for feeding4 ,to have healthy sheep1 do not use a ram under two1 or over six or seven years old1 and raise no lambs from unhealthy ewes or rams4 ,the expense of keeping sheep1 as all other animals1 is much less when they are kept warm4 ,much feed is wasted in keeping up animal heat1 which would be saved by warm quarters4 ,sheep-manure is better than any other1 except that of fowls4 ,no other parts with its qualities by exposure so slowly4 ,some farmers save all labor of carting and spreading sheep-manure1 by having movable wire fences1 and putting their sheep on one acre for a few days1 and then removing to another4 ,one hundred sheep may thus be made to manure an acre of land in ten days1 better than any ordinary dressing of other manure4 ,we should prefer carefully collecting and saving it under cover1 mixed with muck or loam1 and apply where and when we choose4 ,keeping a suitable number of sheep on a farm is very important in keeping up the farm4 ,a farm devoted to grain or vegetables1 without a suitable number of animals1 usually runs down4 ,the time when lambs should be allowed to come is important4 ,we much prefer letting them come when they please1 if we have warm quarters1 and can take a little extra care of them4 ,this will give a larger growth1 and furnish large lambs for market1 at a season of the year when they are most desired1 and bring the greatest price4 ,for those who will not take the necessary pains1 let them come when the weather has become warm and grass plenty4 ,sometimes a ewe loses her lamb1 and you wish her to raise one of another ewe's1 that has two4 ,to make a ewe own another's lamb1 take off the skin of her dead lamb1 and bind it on to the other lamb1 and she will smell it and own the lamb2 after which the skin may be removed4 ,sheep-culture is a subject to which farmers should give increased attention1 until the average weight of sheep in the ,united ,states shall become one third greater than at present1 and until there shall be ten sheep to one of all we have at present4 ,,shepherdia ,,or ,,buffalo ,,berry4 ,illustration ,this is an ornamental shrub1 growing from six to fifteen feet high1 bearing a roundish red fruit1 much esteemed for preserves4 ,trees are of two kinds1 male and female1 one bearing staminate and the other pistillate flowers4 ,hence no fruit can be grown without setting out the trees in pairs from six to fifteen feet apart4 ,if you set out only two1 and they chance to be of the same kind1 you will get no fruit4 ,,soils4 ,the nature and management of soils must be measurably understood by any one who would be a thorough cultivator4 ,the productive power of a soil depends much upon the character of the subsoil4 ,a gravelly subsoil is1 on the whole1 the best4 ,a thin soil lying on a cold clay subsoil--the hardpan of the ,east1 and the crowfish clay of the ,west--however rich it may be1 will be unproductive2 while the same soil1 on a gravelly subsoil1 would produce abundantly4 ,the best soils1 for all purposes1 are the brown or hazel-colored4 ,plowed in wet weather1 they do not make mortar1 and in dry weather they will not break in clods4 ,dark-mixed and russet moulds are considered the next best4 ,the worst are the dark-gray or ash-colored4 ,the deep-black alluvial soils of the ,western prairies are an exception to all other soils1 possessing1 under proper treatment1 great powers of production4 ,soils do not1 to any considerable extent1 afford food for plants4 ,a willow-tree has been known to gain one hundred and fifty pounds' weight1 without exhausting more than two or three ounces of the soil1 and even that might have been wasted in drying and weighing4 ,in our article on manures1 we have shown that it is the texture of soils1 and their power to control moisture and heat1 that renders them productive3 hence1 no soil can be poor that is stirred deep and kept in a friable condition1 without being too open and porous2 and no soil can be good that is hard and not retentive of moisture1 without having water stand upon it4 ,hence1 the great secret of successful farming1 is1 such a mixture of the soils1 and of fertilizers with the soil1 as shall keep it friable and moist1 and such thorough drainage as will prevent water from standing so as to become stagnant1 and to unduly chill the roots of growing plants4 ,nature has provided1 near at hand1 all that is essential to productiveness2 all that is necessary is to properly mix them4 ,we do not believe that there is an acre of land now under cultivation in the ,united ,states1 in a latitude where corn will grow1 on which we can not raise a hundred bushels of shelled ,indian corn1 without applying anything but what may be raised out of that soil1 and procured in the shape of manure by animals in consuming that product4 ,the poorest farm in ,america may be brought up to a state of great fertility1 without applying one dollar's worth of any foreign substance4 ,plow deep1 turn under all the green substances possible1 and feed out the products on the farm and apply the manure1 and mix opposite soils1 that may be found in different localities4 ,three years will secure great productiveness1 and the same course will increase its value1 from year to year1 without cost4 ,three things only are essential to convert poor land into the best2 deep and thorough stirring and pulverization1 suitable draining1 and thorough mixture of soils of different qualities1 and the incorporation of such animal and vegetable substances as can be produced on the land itself4 ,we would not declare against foreign manures1 but insist that the necessary ingredients are found1 or may be manufactured near at hand4 ,the philosophy of deep plowing and thorough pulverization is obvious4 ,a fine soil will retain and appropriate moisture in an eminent degree1 on the principle of capillary attraction1 or as a sponge or a piece of loaf sugar will take up water4 ,there is also room for excess of water to sink away from the surface1 and return again when needed4 ,it also affords room for the roots of plants4 ,such a soil also receives moisture from the atmosphere4 ,the atmosphere also contains much water1 and more in the heat of summer than at any other time4 ,the air also1 with a constant pressure of fifteen pounds to the square inch1 enters to a considerable depth into the soil1 and the deeper it is stirred1 and the more thoroughly it is pulverized1 the more it will enter4 ,in coming in contact with the cool moisture below1 it is condensed and waters the soil1 on the principle that a pitcher of cold water in a warm room has large drops of water on the outside2 that water is a mere condensation of moisture in the atmosphere4 ,the cool subsoil acts in the same way upon the atmosphere at night4 ,a deeply disintegrated soil1 also1 seldom washes by rain4 ,shallow-plowed and coarse land sends off the water after a slight rain1 while deep-plowed and thoroughly pulverized land retains it4 ,the philosophy of manures involves the same principles4 ,all the fertilizers act upon soils in such a manner as to render them fine1 and open an immense surface to the action of the atmosphere1 and form large reservoirs for moisture through their innumerable fine pores4 ,draining is to carry off an excess of water that would stand on an unfavorable subsoil4 ,that water1 on undrained land1 causes two evils2 it stagnates and renders plants unhealthy1 and it is too cool1 rendering land what we call cold4 ,thus1 the deeper you plow land1 and the finer you make it1 the warmer it will be1 and the more perfectly it will control moisture4 ,mixing soils by subsoiling1 trenching1 and deep plowing1 and by carting on foreign substances1 is wholly on this principle4 ,sand that drifts about with the wind is too light to retain moisture1 and needs clay carted on4 ,by this means the poorest white sand has often been converted into the most productive soil4 ,definite rules for this mixture of soils can not be safely given4 ,the rules must differ in different localities and circumstances2 it must1 therefore1 be determined by experiment4 ,analyzing soils is sometimes of use1 but usually has too much importance attached4 ,we do not advise farmers to study it4 ,let them try applications and mixtures1 at first on a small scale3 they will soon learn what is best on their farms1 and may then proceed without loss4 ,some lands are of such a character that the carting on1 and suitably mixing1 the substances in which they are deficient1 may cost as much as it did to clear the land of its original forest2 but it will pay well for a long series of years4 ,so well are we persuaded of the utility and correctness of these brief hints1 that1 in selecting a farm1 we should regard the location more than the quality of the soil4 ,the latter we could mend easily2 while we should find it difficult to move our farm to a more favorable location4 ,poor land near a city or large town1 or on some great thoroughfare1 we should much prefer to good land far removed from market1 or in an unpleasant location4 ,,spinage1 ,,or ,,spinach4 ,both these names are correct2 the former is the general one among ,americans4 ,this plant is used in soups1 but more generally boiled alone and served as greens4 ,in the spring of the year1 this is one of the most wholesome vegetables4 ,by sowing at different times1 we may have it at any season of the year1 but it is more tender and succulent in the spring4 ,the male and female flowers are produced on separate plants4 ,the male blossoms are in long1 terminal spikes1 and the female in clusters1 close at the stalk1 on each joint4 ,varieties--,the two best are the broad1 or summer1 and the prickly1 or fall4 ,there are three others--the ,english ,patience ,dock1 the ,holland1 or ,lamb's ,quarter1 and the ,new ,zealand4 ,the first two are sufficient4 ,sow in ,august and ,september for winter and spring use1 and in spring for summer4 ,sow in rich soil1 in drills eighteen inches apart4 ,thin to three inches in the row1 and when large enough for use1 remove every other one1 leaving them six inches apart4 ,to raise seed1 have male plants at convenient distances1 say one in two or three feet4 ,when they have done blossoming1 remove the male plants1 giving all the room to the others1 for perfecting the seed4 ,success depends upon very rich soil and plenty of moisture4 ,,squash4 ,there are several varieties of both summer and winter squashes4 ,all the summer varieties have a hard shell1 when matured4 ,they are usually eaten entire1 outside1 seeds and all1 while young and tender1 from one quarter to almost full grown4 ,they are also used as a fall and winter squash1 rejecting the shell and that portion of the inside which contains the seeds4 ,the ,summer ,crookneck1 and ,summer ,scolloped1 both white and yellow1 are the principal summer squashes4 ,the finest is the ,white ,scolloped4 ,the best winter varieties are the ,acorn1 ,valparaiso1 ,winter ,crookneck1 and ,vegetable ,marrow or ,sweet ,potato squash4 ,the latter is the best known4 ,cultivate as melons1 but leave only two plants in a hill4 ,they do best on new land4 ,varieties should be grown far apart1 and far removed from pumpkins1 as they mix very easily1 and at a great distance4 ,bugs eat them worse than any other garden vegetable4 ,the only sure remedy is the box covered with gauze or glass4 ,as they are great runners1 they do better with their ends clipped off4 ,used as a vegetable for the table1 and in the same manner as pumpkins1 for pies4 ,,strawberry4 ,none of our small fruits are more esteemed1 or more easily raised1 and yet none more frequently fails4 ,failures always result from carelessness1 or the want of a little knowledge of the best methods of cultivation4 ,we omit much that might be said of the history and uses of the strawberry1 and confine ourselves to a few brief directions1 which1 if strictly followed1 will render every cultivator uniformly successful4 ,no one need ever fail of growing a good crop of strawberries4 ,in #aheg1 we saw plats of strawberries in ,illinois1 in the cultivation of which much money had been expended1 and which were remarkably promising when in blossom1 but which did not yield the cultivators five dollars' worth of fruit4 ,in the language of the proprietors1 they blasted4 ,strawberries never blast2 but1 for the want of fertilizers at suitable distances1 they may not fill4 ,there are but three causes of failure--want of fertilizers1 excessive drought1 and allowing the vines to become too thick4 ,of most of our best varieties1 the blossoms are of two kinds--pistillate and staminate1 or male and female--and they are essential to each other4 ,the pistillate plants bear the fruit1 and the staminates are the fertilizers1 without which the pistillates will be fruitless4 ,there are three kinds of blossom--pistillate1 staminate1 and perfect1 as seen in the cut4 ,illustration3 #a4 ,perfect blossom4 #b4 ,staminate blossom4 #c4 ,pistillate blossom4 ,the first 7#a7 is perfect2 that is1 has both the stamens and pistils well developed3 this will produce a fair crop of fruit1 without the presence of any other variety4 ,the second 7#b7 has the stamens large1 while the pistils 7the apparently small green strawberry in the centre7 are not sufficiently developed to produce fruit3 such plants seldom bear more than a few imperfectly-formed berries4 ,the third 7#c7 has pistils in abundance1 but is destitute of stamens1 and hence1 will not bear alone4 ,the two latter are to be placed near each other1 to render them productive2 they may be readily distinguished when in blossom4 ,it is always safe to cultivate the hermaphrodite plants2 that is1 those producing perfect blossoms2 but the pistillates and staminates1 in due proportions1 produce the largest crops1 and finer fruit4 ,soil4--,much has been said against high fertilization with animal manures1 and in favor of vegetable mould only4 ,we feel entirely satisfied that the largest crops of strawberries are grown on land highly manured with common barnyard manure4 ,to plant and manure a strawberry-bed1 begin on one side1 and dig a trench eighteen inches deep 7from two to three feet is much better7 and as wide2 put six inches of common manure in the bottom2 dig another trench as deep1 and place the soil upon the manure in the first trench2 fill the last with manure as the first1 and so on over the whole plat4 ,manure the surface lightly with very fine manure and wood-ashes4 ,transplanting is usually better in the month of ,august4 ,if done at that season1 and it be not too dry1 the plants will get such a growth the same season as to produce quite a good crop of fruit the next season4 ,planted as early in the spring as it will do to stir the soil1 they are more sure to grow and yield a very few berries the first season1 and very abundantly the next4 ,if you would cultivate in hills1 put them two feet apart each way2 if otherwise1 two feet one way1 and one foot the other4 ,cut off the roots to two or three inches in length1 and remove all the dead leaves2 dip them in mud1 which is a great means of causing them to grow2 and set them in fine mould1 the crown one inch below the level of the soil around1 and leave it in a slight basin1 and water it1 unless the weather be damp4 ,many plants are lost from not being set low enough to escape drought4 ,the basin will hold water1 and nearly every plant will grow2 excessive water will destroy them4 ,set out three or four rows of pistillate plants1 and then one of the staminates1 or fertilizers4 ,some set them out in beds and allow them to cover the whole ground1 and cultivate by spading up the bed in alternate sections of eighteen inches or two feet each year1 turning under1 in the spring1 that portion that bore fruit the previous season--which has long been recommended by good authority4 ,this was the lamented ,downing's method4 ,we think rows preferable for this reason4 ,the young plants formed by the runners are less vigorous after the first2 hence1 the tendency is to deterioration by this mode of culture4 ,and this method does not afford so good an opportunity for stirring the soil around the plants as planting in rows2 this stirring the soil is a great means of protecting from drought1 and securing the most vigorous growth4 ,deep subsoiling between the rows early in the spring1 or after fruiting1 is valuable2 hence1 we always advise to cultivate in hills two feet apart each way1 and renew them after they have borne two1 or at most three crops4 ,hermaphrodites are best for cultivation in beds4 ,many strawberry-beds do well the first year of their bearing1 but are almost useless afterward4 ,the cultivator says they all run to vines4 ,in such cases1 they overlook the fact that the staminate plants grow altogether the fastest1 because their strength goes to support foliage in the absence of fruit1 while bearing vines require much of their strength to mature the fruit2 hence1 if they are allowed to run together the second1 or at most the third year1 the fertilizers will monopolize the ground and prevent fruiting4 ,this is the greatest cause of failure of a crop1 next to a want of both kinds of plants4 ,this is the origin of fears of having land too rich4 ,it is said it all runs to vines without fruit2 this is because the wrong vines have intruded--the staminates have overcome the pistillates4 ,we reject the whole theory of the luxuriance of the vines preventing the production of fruit4 ,the larger the vines the more fruit1 provided only the vines are bearers1 and not too thick3 hence this invariable rule--always have fertilizers within five feet1 and never allow the two kinds to run together4 ,manures should be applied in ,august1 well spaded in4 ,applying in the spring to increase the crop for that season1 is like feeding chickens in the morning to fatten them for dinner--it is too late4 ,fertilizing in ,august is a good preparation for a large crop for the next season4 ,strawberry-vines1 in all freezing climates1 should be covered1 late in the fall1 with forest-leaves or straw1 to protect from the severity of winter1 and enrich the land by what can be dug into the soil in spring4 ,rotten wood1 fine chips1 sawdust1 c41 are all good for a fall top-dressing4 ,after well hoeing and weeding in spring1 until blossom-buds appear1 just before the blossoms open1 cover the bed thoroughly with spent tanbark1 sawdust1 or fine straw4 ,this will keep down weeds1 preserve moisture in the soil1 enrich the ground1 and protect the fruit from injury by rains1 and in part from worms and insects4 ,this should never be omitted4 ,varieties are numerous1 and1 from the ease with which they are raised from seed1 will rapidly increase2 it is so frequent to have blossoms fertilized by pollen from several different varieties4 ,some of the most marked varieties are known in different parts of the country by very different names2 hence1 we advise cultivators to select the best in their locality4 ,every valuable variety is soon scattered over the country4 ,the following are good3-- ,burr's ,new ,pine4--,originated at ,columbus1 ,ohio1 in #ahef4 ,hardy1 vigorous1 and quite productive2 very early2 tender for market1 but superior for a private garden4 ,western ,queen4--,originated at ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 by ,professor ,j4 ,p4 ,kirtland1 #ahdi4 ,very hardy and productive2 larger than the ,hudson or the ,willey2 good for market2 bears carriage well4 ,longworth's ,prolific4--,origin1 ,cincinnati1 #ahdh4 ,regular1 sure1 full bearer of large1 delicious fruit2 good for market2 an independent bearer4 ,m',avoy's ,superior4--,cincinnati1 #ahdh4 ,received one-hundred-dollar prize from the ,cincinnati ,horticultural ,society in #ahea4 ,exceedingly large2 hardy2 female or pistillate flowers2 needs fertilizers1 and then is one of the best ever grown2 rather tender for carriage1 though it is extensively sold in ,western markets4 ,jenney's ,seedling4--,valuable for ripening late2 fruit large and regular2 very productive1 #c1bjj quarts having been gathered from three quarters of an acre4 ,hovey's ,seedling4--,elliott puts it in his second class2 but we can not avoid the conviction that it is one of the best that ever has been raised4 ,it is pistillate1 but with fertilizers it yields immense crops1 of very fine large fruit4 ,boston ,pine is one of the best fertilizers for the ,hovey ,seedling4 ,hudson ,bay4--,a hardy and late variety1 highly esteemed4 ,pyramidal ,chilian4--,hermaphrodite1 highly valued4 ,crimson ,cone4--,an old variety1 quite early1 and something of a favorite in ,eastern markets4 ,peabody's ,new ,hautbois4--,originated in ,columbus1 ,georgia1 by ,charles ,a4 ,peabody4 ,said to bear more degrees of heat and cold than any other variety4 ,very vigorous1 fruit of the largest size1 very many of the berries measuring seven inches in circumference4 ,flesh firm1 sweet1 and of a delicious pine-apple flavor4 ,rich1 deep crimson4 ,it may be seen in full size in the patent office report on agriculture for #ahef4 ,if this new fruit sustains its recommendations1 it will prove the best of all strawberries4 ,downing describes over one hundred varieties4 ,we repeat our recommendation to select the best you can find near home4 ,the following rules will insure success3 #a4 ,make the ground very rich4 #b4 ,put fertilizers within five feet of each other1 and never allow different kinds to run together4 #c4 ,cover the ground two inches deep with tan-bark1 sawdust1 or fine straw1 just before the blossoms open2 tan-bark is best4 #d4 ,never allow the vines to become very thick1 but thin them out4 #e4 ,water every day from the appearance of the blossoms until done gathering the fruit2 this increases the crop largely1 and1 at the ,south1 has continued the vines in bearing until ,november4 ,daily watering will prolong the bearing season greatly in all climates1 and greatly increase the crop4 #f4 ,protect in winter by a slight covering of forest-leaves1 coarse straw1 or cornstalks4 #g4 ,to get a late crop1 keep the vines covered deep with straw4 ,you can retard their maturity two weeks1 and daily watering will prolong it for weeks4 #h4 ,apply1 twice in the fall and once in the spring1 a solution of potash1 one pound in two pails of water1 or two pounds in a barrel of water in which stable-manure has been soaked4 #i4 ,the best general applications to the soil1 in preparing the bed1 are lime1 charcoal1 and wood-ashes--one part of lime to two of ashes and three of charcoal4 ,the application of wood-ashes will render less dissolved potash necessary4 ,these nine rules1 strictly observed1 will render every cultivator successful in all climates and localities4 ,,sugar4 ,there have1 until recently1 been but two general sources of our supply of sugar--the sugar-cane of the ,south1 and the sugar-maple of the ,north4 ,beet-sugar will not be extensively manufactured in this country4 ,we now have added the ,sorgho1 or ,chinese sugar-cane1 and the ,imphee1 or ,african sugar-cane1 adapted to the ,north and the ,south1 flourishing wherever ,indian corn will grow1 and raised as easily and surely1 and much in the same way4 ,of the methods of making sugar from the old sugar-cane of the ,south1 we need give no account4 ,it is not an article of general domestic manufacture4 ,it is made on a large scale on plantations1 and is in itself simple1 and easily learned by the few who become sugar-planters4 ,the process of manufacturing sugar from the maple-tree is very simple and everywhere known4 ,it is to be regretted that our sugar-maples are being so extensively destroyed1 and that those we pretend to keep for sugar-orchards are so unmercifully hacked up1 in the process of extracting the sap4 ,to so tap the trees as to do them the least possible injury1 is a matter of much importance4 ,whether it should be done by boring and plugging up with green maple-wood after the season is over1 or be done by cutting a small gash with an axe and leaving open1 has been a disputed point4 ,many prefer the axe1 and think the tree will be less blackened in the wood1 and will last longer1 provided it be judiciously performed4 ,cut a small1 smooth gash2 one year tap the tree low1 and another high1 and on alternate sides2 scatter the wounds1 made from year to year1 as much as possible4 ,another process of tapping is now most popular with all who have tried it4 ,bore into the tree half an inch1 with a bit not larger than an inch1 slanting slightly up1 that standing sap or water may not blacken the wood4 ,make the spout out of hoop-iron one and a fourth inches wide2 cut the iron1 with a cold chisel1 into pieces four inches long2 grind one end sharp2 lay the pieces over a semicircular groove in a stick of hard wood1 and place an iron rod on it lengthwise over the groove--slight blows with a hammer will bend it4 ,these can be driven into the bark1 below the hole made by the bit4 ,they need not extend to the wood1 and hence make no wound at all4 ,if the wound dries before the season is over1 deepen it a little by boring again1 or by taking out a small piece with a gouge4 ,this process will injure the trees less than any other4 ,the spouts will be cheaper than wooden ones1 and may last twenty years4 ,always hang buckets on wrought nails1 that may be drawn out4 ,buckets made of tin1 to hold three or four gallons1 need cost only about twenty-five cents each1 and1 with good care1 may last twenty years4 ,a crook in the wire of the rim will make a good place to hang upon the nail4 ,a hole bored in the ear of other buckets will answer the same purpose4 ,in all windy situations1 the bucket must be near the end of the spout1 or much will be lost by being blown over by the wind4 ,great care to keep all vessels used1 clean and sweet1 and not burn the sugar in finishing it1 will enable any one to succeed in making good maple-sugar4 ,the various forms in which it is put up1 and the manner of draining1 are familiar to all makers4 ,it is only necessary to add1 that there are few small farms on which the sugar-maple will grow1 where there might not be raised two or three hundred maples1 within fifteen or twenty years1 that would add greatly to the beauty1 comfort1 and value of the farm4 ,on the highway as shade-trees1 or on the side of lots1 they would be very ornamental and profitable1 without doing injury4 ,we can not too strongly recommend raising sugar-maples4 ,always cultivate trees that will bear fruit1 yield sugar1 or be good for timber4 ,sorgho1 or ,chinese sugar-cane1 is raised much as ,indian corn--only1 it will bear some ten or twelve stalks in a hill1 instead of three or four4 ,in all parts of our continent1 it produces enormous crops of stalks4 ,the trials thus far indicate1 that the quantity of saccharine matter it contains is not quite equal to that of the common sugar-cane2 but1 with the necessary facilities for manufacturing1 it makes quite as good sugar and as fine sirups as the other cane4 ,suitable machinery1 that need not be expensive1 owned by a neighborhood of farmers1 may enable all ,northern men1 where other cane will not grow1 to make their own sugar cheaper than to buy4 ,but it will be made probably by large establishments as other sugar4 ,we give no method of making it4 ,the subject is so new1 that every method of manufacture finds its way into all the newspapers1 and what might appear the best to-day would be quite antiquated to-morrow4 ,we have seen as fine sugars and sirups1 of all the different grades1 made from this new cane1 as any others we have ever tasted4 ,the question is settled that imphee and sorgho will make good sugar in abundance4 ,a few years will place such sugars among the great staple products of the country4 ,,summer-,,savory4 ,this is a hardy annual1 raised from seed on any good soil1 with no care but keeping free from weeds4 ,the seed is small1 and may not vegetate well in dry1 warm weather1 without a little shade or regular watering4 ,its use for culinary and medicinal purposes is well known4 ,gather and dry when nearly ripe4 ,keep in paper bags1 or pulverize and put in glass bottles4 ,for the benefit of persons who keep those sprightly pets called fleas1 we mention the fact that dry summer-savory leaves1 put in the straw beds1 will expel those insects4 ,,sunflower4 ,this large1 hardy1 annual plant would be considered very beautiful1 were it not so common4 ,three quarts of clear1 beautiful oil are expressed from a bushel of the seed1 in the same way as linseed-oil4 ,the seed1 in small quantities1 is good for fowls4 ,it may be grown with less labor than corn4 ,,sweet ,,potato4 ,this is a ,southern plant1 but is now being acclimated in ,northern latitudes4 ,good sweet potatoes are now grown in the colder parts of ,vermont1 ,wisconsin1 and ,minnesota4 ,there are many varieties1 and they are increasing by seedlings4 ,not long since1 they were said to bear no seed2 but recently1 in different parts of the country1 seeds have been found1 and new varieties grown from them4 ,certain varieties are best in different localities4 ,they will always find their way through growers of plants4 ,the process of growing is simple1 but must be carefully followed to insure success4 ,plant the seed potatoes in a moderate hotbed1 at the time when grass begins to start freely4 ,keep well watered1 and do not allow them to get too warm4 ,an hour's over-heating will cause them all to decay4 ,the heat1 when it begins to rise too high1 is at once checked by a thorough drenching with cold water3 if too low1 the heat is raised by a tight cover1 in a warm sun1 and by watering with warm water4 ,water them every day after they are up4 ,the sprouts1 when six inches high1 are pulled off from the potato1 and set out as cabbage-plants2 this should be done as soon as all danger of frost has ceased4 ,the same potatoes will sprout as many times as they are pulled off4 ,sweet potatoes need much sun and warmth2 they are1 therefore1 planted on round hills1 or1 better1 on ridges1 which may be principally thrown up with a plow1 and made from a foot to eighteen inches high4 ,set the plants in the top1 about fifteen inches or two feet apart2 keep clear of weeds1 making the hill or ridge a little larger by each hoeing4 ,the tops1 being long running vines1 will soon cover the ground4 ,they produce better tubers for throwing the vines1 in a twist1 up over the top of the rows4 ,they will take root at each joint of vine1 when undisturbed1 which roots will draw from the main tuber4 ,these roots would be as good and large as any1 if they had time3 hence1 at the ,south1 one half of the crop is grown from sets1 from cuttings of the ends of the early-planted vines4 ,at the ,north1 where seasons are short1 these joints must be prevented--by throwing up1 as above1 or loosening--from taking root4 ,the tubers will need all the strength2 the plant and tuber are tender1 and a little frost will kill the vines and cause the potatoes to decay4 ,they may be kept for use until ,january by packing1 when dug in a warm day1 in the soil in which they grew2--kept through winter1 packed in straw or chaff1 in boxes that will contain about two or three bushels each1 and kept in a room with a fire3 the room should be at a temperature of from forty to sixty degrees2 fifty-five is best1 though seventy will not destroy them2 more or less will cause them to decay4 ,the boxes may be placed one upon another1 but should be left open1 that their moisture may evaporate4 ,dry sand 7kiln-dried71 sifted over and close among them1 will preserve them4 ,free circulation of air is indispensable4 ,it is usually cheapest to buy the plants of those who make a business of raising them4 ,they are very hardy--may be transported one thousand miles and do just as well4 ,to transplant with perfect safety in a dry time1 after the plant has been put in its place1 pour in a pint of water1 and cover it with a little dry soil to prevent baking--and not one out of fifty will perish4 ,these few brief directions will enable any one to be successful wherever corn will grow4 ,a new variety has just been brought into ,alabama from ,peru1 that is pronounced superior to all others2 a prodigious bearer1 even on poor sandy land1 and far more hardy than other varieties1 the root retaining its excellence as it came out of the ground till the following ,may4 ,,swine4 ,hogs are evil in their propensities1 mischievous and filthy in their habits1 and yet profitable to the farmer4 ,every farmer should keep a few in proportion to the refuse grain and various slops that his establishment may afford4 ,buying hogs and then purchasing grain on which to fatten them in the usual way is the poorest economy4 ,such pork is often made to cost from twelve to twenty cents per pound4 ,there are many breeds of swine highly recommended4 ,some of the varieties of the ,chinese are the most prolific and have the greatest tendency to fattening of any known4 ,they have formed the basis of the great improvements in the breeds in ,great ,britain4 ,farmers will be able to select the best breed from their own knowledge and observation1 better than from any directions we can give them4 ,every new variety will be introduced by dealers1 and farmers must be cautious how they accept their representations4 ,age of ,swine for ,pork4--,it is most profitable and least troublesome1 to keep over winter1 no swine but breeding sows1 to have pigs early in spring1 to kill in autumn4 ,of any of the good breeds1 they can be made to weigh from #cjj to #cej pounds1 by the proper time for killing4 ,the practice of keeping swine till eighteen or twenty-four months old1 and only fattening them late in the fall and beginning of winter1 is very unprofitable4 ,it is best to give pigs about what they will eat1 from the time of beginning to feed them until they are slaughtered4 ,this is in every way most economical4 ,it secures fattening in the hot weather in summer1 when pork can be made faster and cheaper than at any other time4 ,many farmers begin to fatten their pork1 after the season in which it can most rapidly and cheaply be done4 ,hogs having been kept poor1 on being fed freely for fattening1 become cloyed1 and much time is lost1 while those that always have had what they would eat1 of good wholesome food1 always have a good appetite for as much as they need1 and not root over and injure more4 ,food for ,swine4--,they do better shut up in a pen1 but where they can get access to the ground4 ,all edible roots are good and all the grains4 ,but grain should be ground or soaked4 ,it pays well to cook all food for swine4 ,boiled potatoes1 carrots1 beets1 and parsnips1 are all good4 ,ground feed should be mixed with cooked vegetables4 ,the disposition that swine have to root deep in the ground1 indicates the want of something1 not found in sufficient quantities in their ordinary food4 ,numerous experiments show that that deficiency is abundantly supplied by having charcoal within their reach4 ,the stories of fattening pork wholly on charcoal1 which we find in the books1 we do not credit4 ,but that small quantities of it are uniformly healthy for swine1 is an established fact4 ,the question of sour food has many respectable advocates4 ,cultivators and writers take different sides of the question1 based as they say upon their carefully-tried and noted experiments1 one affirming that fermented food is superior1 and others that it has done his hogs positive injury4 ,this discrepancy grows out of not carefully distinguishing the different kinds of fermentation1 the sweet1 the vinous1 the acid1 and the putrid4 ,the first makes excellent food1 the second will do quite well1 the third is injurious1 and the last absolutely poisonous4 ,as it requires much care and observation to get this right1 and mistakes are easy1 it is best to take the sure method1 give them food in a natural state1 ground1 and either cooked or fed raw4 ,either will make good pork at a reasonable cost1 but cooked food is preferable4 ,sows are prevented from destroying their young by quiet1 plenty of food1 and little animal food1 and but a very little straw in a dry pen1 or washing the pig's backs with a strong decoction of aloes4 ,,tobacco4 ,this is a plant abhorred by everything but man and the tobacco-worm4 ,its use for chewing and snuffing is happily becoming more and more offensive to refined society1 and we hope it may1 after a long struggle1 go out of use4 ,for those who will cultivate it as an article of commerce1 the following brief directions are sufficient4 ,burn over a small bed1 on which sow the seed early in ,march4 ,when the leaves are as large as a quarter of a dollar1 transplant them in deep1 rich soil1 or on new land1 in rows three feet apart each way1 or four feet one way and two the other4 ,tend as cabbage4 ,it is necessary1 twice in the season1 to destroy1 by hand1 the large green worms that feed on this plant4 ,when the plants are from two and a half to three and a half feet high1 according to the richness of the soil on which they grow1 pick out the head or blossom-buds1 except in the few plants you would have go to seed4 ,pinch off also the suckers1 or shoots behind the leaves1 as they come out4 ,when the leaves are full grown and begin to ripen1 which is known by the small1 dusky spots appearing on the leaves1 cut up the stalks and lay them down singly to wilt2 when they are thoroughly wilted1 lay them together1 that they may sweat for forty-eight hours1 then hang them up in a tolerably tight room to dry--hang across poles1 one on each side4 ,a sharp stick put through the but of the stalks and laid over the pole1 leaving one stalk on each side1 is a very good method4 ,when it becomes well dried1 pick off the leaves1 and tie the stems together in small bunches1 and pack away in hogsheads or boxes1 in a dry place4 ,we recommend to every agriculturist to cultivate a little tobacco--not for himself or others to chew1 snuff1 or smoke1 but to use in destroying insects4 ,a strong decoction1 used in washing animals1 will destroy lice on horses and cattle1 and ticks on sheep4 ,tobacco-water applied to plants1 or trees1 will effectually destroy all insects with which they may be infested4 ,boil tobacco-stems or stalks1 or the refuse-tobacco of the cigar-makers1 until you make a strong decoction1 and apply with a syringe1 or in any other way1 and it will prove more effectual than anything else known4 ,tobacco-stems1 stalks1 or leaves1 laid around peach-trees in the month of ,may1 will protect them from the attacks of the borer4 ,this is also a good manure for peach-trees4 ,,tomato4 ,this vegetable is well known1 and has recently come to be generally esteemed4 ,it can always be grown without failure1 and more easily and at one fourth of the cost of potatoes4 ,its use for cooking1 eating raw1 and pickling in various forms1 is known to all4 ,there are several varieties4 ,the best of all is the large red--not the largest1 but the smooth ones3 although smaller1 they contain more1 and are much more conveniently used1 than the very large rough or scolloped variety4 ,the large yellow are less liable to decay on the vines1 and have less of the tomato taste4 ,the small plum-tomato1 both red and yellow1 and the pear or bell-shaped1 are good for preserving as a common sweetmeat1 and for pickling whole4 ,they should be started in early hotbed--in ,february in the ,middle ,states--and transplanted after frosts are over1 in rows eight feet apart each way4 ,that distance will leave none too much room for letting in the sun and for the convenience of picking4 ,they will mature on the poorest land2 but the amount of the crop is graduated altogether by the richness of the soil1 and the care given them4 ,they will produce frequently a bushel to a vine1 lying on the ground4 ,but they ripen better1 and as the vines are not injured by picking the early ones1 they will produce more1 by being trained up4 ,a few sticks to hold them up at first1 and let them break down over them later1 is of no use4 ,train them1 and tie up all the principal bunches1 and they will be greatly benefited thereby4 ,tied to slats1 or any board fence1 in a kind of fan-training form1 they do very well4 ,in all cities and villages1 enough for a large family can be grown on twenty-five feet of board-fence1 exposed to the southern or eastern sun1 and not occupy the ground a single foot from the fence4 ,drive in nails1 and tie up the branches as they grow4 ,removing some of the branches and leaves1 and letting in the sun1 or placing the fruit on a shingle or stone1 hastens its ripening4 ,,tools4 ,it is no part of our design to go into any general description of agricultural implements4 ,there are constant changes and improvements1 and they are introduced at once to the whole country by the inventors or dealers4 ,we also wish to avoid all participation in the controversies respecting the merits of various new inventions4 ,we have several forms of cultivators1 horse-hoes1 subsoil-plows1 drills1 seed-sowers1 land-diggers1 and drainers1 various formed plows1 root-cleaners1 corn-planters1 c41 c4 ,these possess different degrees of merit2 all have their day1 and will be superseded by others1 in the general advancement that marks the science of soil-culture4 ,we strongly recommend the use of the best tools1 especially subsoil-plows1 seed-planters1 and root-cleaners4 ,always have a tool-house1 as much as you do a kitchen4 ,use the best tools2 never lay them down but in their proper place2 and always clean them before putting them away4 ,keep all the wood-work of tools well painted1 and the iron and steel in a condition1 by the application of oil and otherwise1 to prevent rust4 ,good tools facilitate and cheapen cultivation1 and increase the yield of crops1 ,money paid out for such tools is well expended4 ,,training4 ,this is a matter that has received much attention from all fruit-growers4 ,the influence of different modes of training and pruning is very great on the bearing qualities of trees4 ,the peculiarities demanded by the various fruit-trees1 vines1 and bushes1 are given under these articles respectively4 ,we give here only some general principles4 ,the health1 beauty1 and profit1 of most fruit-trees depend upon judicious pruning and training4 ,the following are the general objects3-- #a4 ,to secure regular growth and prevent deformities1 and thus promote the health of trees4 #b4 ,to secure a sufficient number of fruit-bearing shoots1 and in right locations1 and to throw sufficient sap into those shoots to enable them to mature the fruit4 ,with a certain amount of pruning1 you may double the quantity of fruit1 or destroy half that the trees would have produced if not trained at all4 ,one half of the fruit of any orchard depends upon correct pruning4 ,it also has a great influence upon the quality of fruit4 ,the cherry is almost the only fruit-tree that throws out nearly the right number of branches1 and in the right places4 ,it needs a very little direction while young1 and afterward only the removal of decaying branches4 ,the quince needs considerable trimming at first2 but1 the head once formed1 it will need very little after-pruning4 ,next comes the plum1 needing1 perhaps1 a little more pruning than the cherry or quince1 but much less than the other fruits4 ,the plum is apt to throw out strong branches1 in some directions1 quite out of proportion with the rest of the top4 ,such need shortening in1 to distribute the sap equally through the tree1 and thus produce a symmetrical form4 ,this is all the trimming necessary4 ,the roots of a plum-tree are usually stronger than the top1 and absorb more than the leaves can digest2 hence some of its diseases4 ,the natural remedy would be root-pruning1 and leaving the top in its natural state1 except shortening-in the disproportioned branches4 ,removing much of the top of a plum-tree would ordinarily prove injurious4 ,the apple needs considerable pruning1 but not of the spurs and side-twigs which bear the fruit1 but of limbs that grow too thick1 and of disproportioned luxuriance4 7,see under ,apple47 ,so the pear must be often slightly pruned to check the too vigorous growth and encourage the too tardy4 ,the peach must be so pruned as to prevent the long bare poles so often seen1 and to secure annually the growth of a large number of shoots for next year's bearing1 and to check the flow of the sap by cutting off the ends of the growing young shoots1 so as to cause the formation on each1 of a few vigorous fruit-buds4 ,peach-trees1 so pruned1 will be healthy and do well for fifty years1 and produce a larger number of better peaches than will grow on trees left in the usual way4 ,by a system of pruning that will equalize the growth and strength1 the bearing will be general on all the branches of the tree4 ,this will make the fruit more abundant and of better quality4 ,the following six principles--first stated by ,m4 ,dubreuil1 of ,france1 and since presented to the ,american people in ,barry's ,fruit-,garden1 and still later in ,elliott's ,fruit-,book--will guide any attentive cultivator into the correct method of pruning and training3-- #a4 ,the vigor of a tree1 subject to pruning1 depends1 in a great measure1 upon the equal distribution of sap in all its branches4 #b4 ,the sap acts with greater force1 and produces more vigorous growth on a branch pruned short than on one pruned long4 #c4 ,the sap1 tending always to the extremities1 causes the terminal shoots to push with more vigor than the laterals4 #d4 ,the more the sap is obstructed in its circulation1 the more likely it will be to produce fruit-buds4 #e4 ,the leaves serve to prepare the sap for the nourishment of the tree1 and to aid in the formation of fruit-buds4 ,therefore1 trees deprived of their foliage are liable to perish1 and they are injured in proportion to their defoliation4 #f4 ,when the buds of any shoot or branch do not develop before the age of two years1 they can only be forced into activity by very close pruning2 and this will often fail1 especially in the peach4 ,observe the foregoing1 and never cut large limbs from any tree1 except in grafting an old tree 7and then only graft a part of the top in one year1 especially in the pear71 and of old1 neglected peach-trees1 to renew the top1 and any careful cultivator can raise an orchard of healthy1 beautiful1 and profitable trees4 ,there are different forms of training that have gone the rounds of the fruit-books1 that are nearly all more fanciful than useful4 ,there are four forms of fan-training1 and several of horizontal and conical4 ,the following only are useful3-- ,fan-,training4--,a tree but one year from the graft1 or bud1 is planted and headed down to within four buds of the ground1 the buds so situated as to throw out two shoots on each side 7see fan-training1 first stage74 ,illustration3 ,fan-training1 #ast stage4 ,illustration3 ,fan-training1 #b;d stage4 ,illustration3 ,fan-training1 #c;d stage4 ,illustration3 ,fan-training1 ,complete4 ,the following season1 the two upper shoots are to be cut back to three buds1 so as throw out one leading shoot1 and one shoot on each side4 ,the two lower shoots are to be cut back to two buds1 so as to throw out one leading shoot1 and one shoot on the upper side4 ,in this second stage1 you will have a tree with five leading shoots on each side 7see cut1 fan-training1 #b;d stage74 ,these shoots form the future tree1 and should neither be shortened in1 nor allowed to bear fruit this year4 ,each shoot should now be allowed to produce three shoots1 one leading one1 and two others on the upper side1 one near the bottom1 and the other half way up the stem4 ,all others should be pinched off when they first appear4 ,at the end of the third year you will have the appearance in the cut 7,fan-training1 third stage74 ,after this it may bear fruit1 but not too much1 as a young tree so trained1 is disposed to over-bearing4 ,these shoots1 except the leading ones1 should be shortened back2 but to what length depends upon the vigor of the tree4 ,this is to be continued and extended as the grower may choose1 always preventing the top from becoming too dense1 and the shoot too long for a proper flow of sap1 and maturity of fruit-buds4 ,a good form1 though slightly irregular1 is seen in the cut 7,fan-training1 complete74 ,such trees trained against walls1 or better1 on trellis-work1 are beautiful and very productive4 ,illustration3 ,horizontal ,training1 first stage4 ,horizontal ,training is another form contributing to fruitfulness1 by regulating the flow of the sap4 ,this is done by preserving an upright leader with lateral shoots at regular distances4 ,to secure this1 such shoots as you wish to train must be tied in a horizontal position1 and all others pinched off on first appearance4 ,illustration3 ,horizontal ,training1 fourth year4 ,the process is simple and easy1 continued as long as you please4 ,head in the shoots of these lateral branches to two or three buds and they will bear abundantly4 ,as the growth increases1 remove all that are not in the right places1 and train all you spare1 as before4 ,in the fourth year1 you will have trees of the appearance in the cut 7,horizontal ,training1 fourth year74 ,conical ,training4--,the ,quenouille 7pronounced kenoole7 of the ,french1 is the best of all forms of training1 especially for the pear4 ,to produce conical standards1 plant young trees four or five feet high1 and after the first year's growth1 head back the top1 and cut in the side branches1 as in the cut 7,progressive stages of conical training74 ,illustration3 ,progressive stages of ,conical ,training4 ,illustration3 ,conical ,training complete4 ,the next season several tiers of side branches will shoot out4 ,the lowest should be left about eighteen inches from the ground1 and by pinching off a part1 others may be made to grow1 at such distances as you may desire4 ,at the end of the second year1 the leader is headed back to increase the growth of the side shoots4 ,the laterals will constantly increase1 and you must save only a sufficient number4 ,the third or fourth year1 the lateral branches may be bent down and tied to stakes4 ,the branches must be tied down from year to year1 and the top so shortened in as to prevent too vigorous growth1 and throw the sap into the laterals4 ,this may be continued until the tree will exhibit the appearance in the cut 7conical training complete74 ,when the tree has become thoroughly formed it will retain its shape without keeping the branches tied4 ,the fan and horizontal training are valuable for fruits that need winter protection1 and they are also very ornamental1 and enable us to cultivate much fruit on a small place4 ,all these forms of training increase largely the productiveness of fruit-trees4 ,it is recommended for all small gardens and yards1 and will pay in growing fruit for market4 ,,transplanting4 ,trees should be transplanted in spring in cold climates1 and in autumn in warm regions4 ,the top should be lessened about as much as the roots have been by removal4 ,cutting off so large a part of the top as we often see is greatly injurious4 ,trees frequently lose one or two years' growth1 by being excessively trimmed when transplanted4 ,the leaves are the lungs of the tree1 and how can it grow if they are mostly removed8 ,all injured roots should be cut off smoothly on the lower side1 slant out from the tree1 and just above the point of injury4 ,places for the trees should be prepared as given under the different fruits and the trees set firmly in them an inch lower than they stood in the nursery4 ,the great point is to get the fine mould very close around all the roots1 leaving them in the most natural position4 ,trees dipped in a bucket of soil or clay and water1 thick enough to form a coat like paint1 just at the time of transplanting1 are said to be less liable to die4 ,every transplanted tree should have a stake1 and be thoroughly mulched4 ,trees properly transplanted will grow much faster1 and bear a year or two earlier1 than those that have been carelessly set out4 ,for further remarks on this important matter1 see under the different fruits4 ,,turnip4 ,this is one of the great root crops of ,england1 and to considerable extent in this country1 for feeding purposes4 ,we think it should be displaced1 mostly1 by beets1 carrots1 and parsnips4 ,they are more nutritious1 as easily raised1 and more conveniently fed4 ,the ,rutabaga is a productive variety1 and possesses a good deal of nutriment4 ,the essentials in raising good turnips of most varieties1 are very rich soil1 worked deep1 and finely pulverized4 ,they should stand in rows two feet apart1 and one foot apart in the rows4 ,they may be mainly tended with a small cultivator or root-cleaner4 ,english turnips are extensively grown as a second crop on wheat stubble1 c4 ,the soil is highly enriched and the seed sown in rows to allow cultivation4 ,the best method1 however1 is to turn over old greensward say ,june #a1 and yard cattle or sheep on it till ,july #aj1 and then harrow thoroughly1 and sow the seed broadcast4 ,the yield will usually be large1 and they will need very little weeding4 ,if it is not convenient to yard cattle on the turnip-ground1 apply fifteen double wagon loads of fine manure with a few bushels of lime to the acre1 and the crop will be large4 ,the usual time of sowing turnips is from the #ajth to the #beth of ,july4 ,we think the yield is larger when sown by the middle of ,june4 ,the only way to get good early turnips is to sow them very early4 ,the flat1 or common field turnip1 is easily grown on new land1 or on any rich soil tolerably free from weeds and not infested with worms4 ,,wheat4 ,this is the most highly esteemed of all grains1 and has more enemies1 and is more affected in its growth by the weather1 than any other4 ,it has engaged more attention in the study and writings of agriculturists than all other cereals4 ,the outlines only of the results of the vast field of investigation and experiment on wheat-growing can be presented here4 ,there are doubts respecting the origin of wheat4 ,the more general and probable theory is1 that it is the product of the cultivation1 for a series of years1 of a species of grass called gilops4 ,this is indigenous on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 in those countries which1 from time immemorial1 have been the sources of our wheat4 ,no one has ever found wild wheat in any country2 it would be as strange as a wild cabbage or turnip4 ,but the practical question is1 ,how can wheat be most surely and profitably grown8 ,the first requisite is a suitable soil4 ,a clay or limestone soil is usually considered best1 as there is much lime in wheat-bran4 ,such soil is better than light sand1 or some of the poorer loams4 ,but the large yields of wheat on the ,western prairies1 and on the rich alluvial soils of ,california river-bottoms1 shows that the best of wheat may grow on other than clay lands4 ,the truth of the matter respecting soils for wheat1 is1 that any soil good for corn1 potatoes1 or a garden1 may1 with proper tillage1 produce the best of wheat4 ,experience in ,england1 and in all the old countries on the continent of ,europe1 shows us that old land may be made to yield as large crops of wheat as the virgin soil of the ,new ,world4 ,the production of wheat at suitable intervals1 for a century1 on the same land1 need not lessen its power to produce good wheat in large quantities4 ,wheat is a plant demanding a rich soil1 worked deep1 and not too wet3 these three things will produce a good crop on any land4 ,we say to all farmers1 raise wheat on any land that you can afford to prepare4 ,first1 if your land has not a dry subsoil1 underdrain it thoroughly3 water standing in the soil1 and becoming cold or stagnant1 is very injurious to wheat4 ,drainage is hardly more essential to any other crop than this4 ,next1 plow deep4 ,subsoiling1 on most lands1 is very important to wheat4 ,manure highly1 and put the manure between the soil and the subsoil3 this attracts the roots deep into the soil1 which is the greatest protection against winter-killing1 and the effects of excessive drought4 ,render the surface of the soil as fine as possible4 ,a finely-pulverized soil is as essential for wheat as for onions4 ,coarse lumpy soils are so open to the action of the atmosphere as to render the growth unequal1 and cause the roots of the plant to grow too near the surface1 for dry weather or the cold of winter4 ,always apply lime to wheat-lands1 unless it be a limestone soil--not too much at once1 but a few bushels to the acre annually4 ,on no other crop do wood-ashes and dissolved potash1 applied in the coarse manures1 pay so well as on wheat4 ,sowing the seed is next in importance4 ,the three questions in sowing are the manner1 the depth1 and the quantity4 ,shall it be drilled or sowed broadcast8 ,broadcast sowing requires more seed1 and is liable to be less evenly covered2 hence1 we should prefer drilling4 ,the depth of the seed is to be determined by the texture of the soil4 ,careful experiments have shown1 that on clay land there is no perceptible difference in the growth of the plants1 at any of the stages1 in seed sown at any depth1 from a slight covering to three or four inches4 ,at a greater depth1 it comes up less regularly1 and in every way is in a worse condition4 ,but on a light soil1 it is1 no doubt1 best to plant it from four to six inches deep4 ,on very loose soils1 as muck land and alluvial soils1 the roots of the plants grow too near the surface1 and are exposed to being thrown out by winter frosts1 and destroyed4 ,the remedy is deep sowing and thorough rolling4 ,the quantity of seed now more generally sown is from five pecks to two bushels per acre4 ,rich land will not bear so much seed as the poorer4 ,it will grow so thick as to render the straw tender1 and expose it to lodge and ruin the crop4 ,wheat tillers1 or thickens up at the bottom1 making many stalks from a single seed1 quite as much as any other grain2 hence1 we believe that if it be sown at a proper time on very rich land1 three pecks to the acre would be better than more4 ,such sowing would make more vigorous plants1 with much stronger roots1 which would withstand cold and unfavorable weather better than any other4 ,we should still more strongly recommend another form of sowing1 practised by some ,european cultivators with great success3 it is1 to drill in wheat1 in rows two feet apart1 and give it a spring cultivation2 this gives great strength to the plants1 destroys the weeds1 promotes rapid growth by stirring the soil1 and favors tillering1 so that the rows will meet1 and give a great growth4 ,we doubt not this will yet be extensively adopted in this country4 ,all wheat-land had better be rolled after sowing1 and light lands1 with a very heavy roller4 ,light sandy land1 having a little clay mixed in as recommended under soils1 well manured1 the seed planted six inches deep1 and the whole rolled with a heavy roller1 will bear great crops of wheat4 ,as it respects fall or spring wheat1 no positive directions can be given1 adapted to all climates4 ,in many localities it is of little use to sow winter wheat1 as it is very uncertain4 ,in other localities winter wheat almost always succeeds best4 ,this question then must be determined by circumstances4 ,the time of sowing winter wheat varies in different climates1 according as it may be exposed to depredations of worms and insects in the fall4 ,farmers are not liable to mistake in this matter4 ,spring wheat1 in all climates1 should be sowed very early4 ,it is hardly possible in all the ,middle and ,northern states to prepare the ground in spring1 and get in wheat in suitable season4 ,the yield of a crop of spring wheat1 depends materially upon the growth in the cool and moist weather of spring1 when it spreads and its roots get a strong hold before the hot weather1 that hurries up the stalks and ears to maturity4 ,hence plow in the fall1 and harrow in the wheat1 as early as possible1 in the spring4 ,the varieties of wheat are numerous and uncertain4 ,in the state of ,maine1 an intelligent cultivator1 in #ahef1 recommended ,java wheat as having a very stiff straw1 and producing a very heavy yield4 ,the ,mediterranean wheat is also a favorite variety4 ,club wheat has also had a great run1 and is now very popular at the ,west4 ,but of varieties no one can be confident4 ,we notice in the discussions of the best agriculturists of ,england and ,scotland1 that they have doubts of the proper names of some of the best varieties4 ,in a certain rich part of ,illinois we know an unusually popular wheat1 sold at high prices for seed1 under the name of mud club1 as being much better than the ordinary club4 ,we happened to learn that it was nothing but common club wheat1 sown on rather low ground1 where it happened to grow very fair that season4 ,it is only occasionally that such tricks are successfully played1 but it is true that many varieties are the result of extra good or chance cultivation4 ,the celebrated ,chidham wheat1 named from a place where it was successfully grown1 was also called ,hedge wheat1 because a head found growing in a hedge was supposed to be the origin of it4 ,now it is not probable that that head was the only one of the kind in all the country1 and it would by no means be identified in all localities4 ,and as all wheat is the result of the cultivation of the gilops or some other wild grass1 it shows us that varieties may be produced by cultivation4 ,great importance is therefore to be attached to frequently changing seed2 especially bringing it from colder into warmer climates1 and changing from one soil to a very different one4 ,thus seed raised on hard hills is highly valuable for alluvial soils4 ,thus the efforts to introduce so many new varieties from the dominions of the sultan1 will prove of vast advantage to wheat culture in ,america4 ,so let us be constantly importing the best from ,great ,britain and the ,british provinces and from ,california1 and all the extremes of our own country4 ,such wheats are worth more for seeds than others1 but any extravagant prices for seed wheat1 under the idea of almost miraculous powers of production1 are unwise4 ,it would be useless to go into a more extended notice of varieties1 as some do best in certain localities1 and all are rapidly spread through the dealers1 and by the influence of agricultural periodicals4 ,the best time to harvest wheat is when the straw below the head has turned yellow1 and the grain is so far out of the milk as not to be easily mashed between the fingers1 but before it has become hard4 ,the grain is heavier and of better quality1 and wastes far less in harvesting1 than when allowed to ripen and dry standing in the field4 ,drying in good shocks is far better than drying before cut4 ,some have gone to extremes in early cutting1 and harvested their wheat while in the milk1 and suffered serious loss in its weight4 ,we sometimes have rain in harvest1 which causes all the wheat in a large region to grow before getting it dry enough to house4 ,a remedy is1 to go right on and cut your wheat1 rain or shine1 and put it up1 without binding1 in large cocks of from three to five bushels1 packing together as close as possible1 however wet1 and cover the centre with a bundle of wheat to shed rain4 ,it will dry out without growing2 and1 although the straw will be somewhat mouldy1 the grain will be perfectly good1 even when it has been so wet as to make the top of the shocks perfectly green with grown wheat4 ,this process is of great value in a wet season4 ,to prepare seed-wheat for sowing1 soak it for a day or two in very strong brine2 skim off all that rises2 remove the grain from the brine1 and while wet1 sift on fresh-slaked lime until it slightly coats the whole grain2 put on a little plaster to render the sowing more pleasant to the hand4 ,wheat will lie in this condition for days without injury4 ,so prepared1 it will exhibit a marked superiority in the growing crop4 ,enemies of wheat are numerous1 and various remedies are proposed4 ,the wire-worm is sometimes very destructive4 ,wheat planted with a drill1 with a heavy cast-iron roller behind each tooth1 will not suffer by them2 they will only work in the mellow ground between the drills4 ,drive over a field of wheat exposed to injury from wire-worms with a common ox-cart1 and you will notice a marked difference2 wherever the cartwheel passed over1 the wheat remains unharmed by the wire-worm1 while on either side much of it will be destroyed4 ,but the wheat-midge1 or weevil1 is the great enemy1 rendering the cultivation of wheat in some localities useless4 ,one precaution is1 to get the wheat forward so early and fast as to have it out of the way before they destroy it4 ,this is often done by early sowing1 high fertilization1 and warm land4 ,sometimes wheat is too late for them1 and then a good crop is secured4 ,but this can only be relied on in cool1 moist climates4 ,our hot1 dry seasons are not suitable for wheat1 late enough to be out of the way of the weevil4 ,the great remedy for this enemy is his destruction4 ,burning the chaff at thrashing is useless for this purpose4 ,the worm has entered the ground to remain for the winter1 before the wheat is harvested4 ,we know of but one way to kill the weevil1 and that is1 by insect lamps or torches in the field in the evening4 ,the flies are inactive until evening1 when1 from dusk till eight or nine o'clock1 they deposite their eggs in the blossoms and chaff of the wheat4 ,now1 it is ascertained that this fly1 like many other insects1 will fly several rods to a light4 ,twenty-five torches at equal distances1 in a ten-acre lot of wheat1 would be near enough4 ,nearly all the flies in a field would fly to them in half an hour4 ,these need be lighted only on pleasant evenings1 as weevils will not work in wind or rain1 and they only commit their depredations during the time the wheat is in blossom4 ,let twenty-five racks1 or holders of some kind1 be put up on ten acres of wheat1 and have pitch-pine put in them and ignited1 after the manner of night fishermen1 and let this be done a few nights1 during the blossoming season of wheat1 and the fly will be destroyed and the crop saved1 in the worst weevil-season that ever occurred4 ,in the absence of pitch-pine1 some other light can be devised--as1 balls of rags dipped in turpentine and sulphur1 as in a torchlight procession4 ,something can be devised that will burn brilliantly for an hour3 this will not cost fifty cents an acre1 during the weevil-season1 and will prove almost a perfect remedy4 ,rust in wheat is only avoided by getting your wheat to maturity before the rust strikes it4 ,if it is nearly mature1 and the rust strikes it1 cut it and shock it up in the shortest time possible4 ,wheat is a great subject in agriculture1 on which many volumes have been written1 and on which it is customary to write long articles4 ,we trust the recapitulation of what we have said1 in the following brief rules1 is more valuable to the practical wheat-culturist than any large volume could be4 ,analyses of wheat-bran and straw1 the philosophy of rust in wheat1 the length1 size1 and color of the weevil1 and the great diversity of opinions on wheat-growing1 are not what practical men regard4 ,the one question is1 ,how can ,i grow wheat surely and profitably8 ,the following rules answer this important question1 rendering failure unnecessary3-- #a4 ,make your soil very rich1 putting the manure as deep as convenient4 ,apply lime1 wood-ashes1 and potash1 the latter dissolved and applied to your coarse manure4 #b4 ,under-drain thoroughly all wheat-land1 except that on a dry subsoil4 #c4 ,plow deep and subsoil all wheat-lands1 except those on a gravelly or sandy bottom4 #d4 ,plant wheat from two to six inches deep1 according to the texture of the soil--deepest on the lightest soil4 ,roll after sowing1 and roll light lands with a heavy roller4 #e4 ,always get your wheat in early1 and in a finely-pulverized soil1 and be careful not to seed too heavy4 #f4 ,sow seed that has not long been grown in your vicinity1 and steep it two days1 before sowing1 in a brine1 with as much salt as the water will dissolve1 sifting fine1 fresh lime over the wet grain1 after removing it from the brine2 put on1 also1 plaster-of-,paris or wood-ashes4 #g4 ,harvest wheat before the straw becomes dry1 or the grain hard4 #h4 ,destroy weevil by lights in the field1 on the pleasant evenings during the blossoming season4 ,,whortleberry4 ,of this excellent berry there are several varieties1 distinguished by the height of the bushes1 or by the color of the fruit4 ,the main divisions are1 the ,swamp and the ,plain ,whortleberries4 ,the swamp variety has been transferred to gardens1 in ,michigan1 and has proved valuable4 ,the shrub attains considerable size1 producing fruit more surely and regularly than in its wild state1 and of an improved quality and larger size4 ,it may be grown as well as currants all over the country4 ,the small plain variety is usually found on sandy plains1 and is a great bearer of fruit everywhere highly prized4 ,it may be transferred to all our gardens1 by making a bed of sand six inches or a foot deep1 or it may be so acclimated as to grow well in any good garden soil1 and become a universal luxury4 ,we recommend it as a standing fruit for all gardens4 ,,willow4 ,the cultivation of willow for osier-work is pursued to some extent in this country1 and might be greatly increased4 ,at one fourth the present prices1 it would pay as well as any other branch of agriculture4 ,some varieties will grow on land of little value for other purposes1 and all on any good land4 ,willows will take care of themselves after the second or third year4 ,the more usual method of planting is of slips1 ten inches long1 set in mellow ground about eight inches deep1 in straight rows four or six feet apart1 and one foot apart in the rows--except the green willow1 which is put two feet apart in the row4 ,they should be kept clear of weeds for the first two years4 ,the osiers are to be cut when the bark will peel somewhat easily1 and may be put through a machine for the purpose1 invented by ,j4 ,colby1 of ,jonesville1 ,vermont1 at the rate of two tons per day1 removing all the bark1 without injuring the wood4 ,different opinions prevail respecting the varieties most profitable for cultivation2 they vary in different localities4 ,the manufacture of willow-ware will increase with the increased production of osiers1 and the consequent reduction of their cost4 ,,wine4 ,we have elsewhere stated that our only hope for pure wine in this country is in domestic manufacture4 ,we shall here give two recipes that will insure better articles than are now offered under the name of imported wines4 ,currant ,wine4--,this1 as usually manufactured1 is a mere cordial1 rather than a wine4 ,the following recipe gathered from the ,working ,farmer1 is all that need be desired1 on making wine from currants1 cherries1 and most berries1 that are not too sweet4 ,take clean ripe currants and pass them between two rollers1 or in some other way1 crush them1 put them in a strong bag1 and under a screw or weight1 and the juice will be easily expressed4 ,to each quart of this juice1 add three pounds of double-refined loaf sugar 7no other sugar will do7 and water enough to make a gallon4 ,or in a cask that will hold thirty gallons1 put thirty quarts of the juice1 ninety pounds of the sugar1 and fill to the bung with water4 ,put in the bung and roll the cask until you can not hear the sugar moving on the inside of the barrel1 when it will all be dissolved4 ,next day roll it again1 and place it in a cellar of very even temperature1 and leave the bung out to allow fermentation4 ,this will commence in two or three days and continue for a few weeks4 ,its presence may be known by a slight noise like that of soda water1 which may be heard by placing the ear at the bung hole4 ,when this ceases drive the bung tight and let it stand six months1 when the wine may be drawn off and bottled1 and will be perfectly clear and not too sweet4 ,no alcohol should be added4 ,putting in brandies or other spirituous liquors prevents the fermentation of wine1 leaving the mixture a mere cordial4 ,the use of any but double-refined sugar is always injurious1 and yet many will persist in using it1 because it is cheaper4 ,the reason for discarding1 for wine-making1 all but double-refined sugar1 may be easily understood4 ,common sugar contains one half of one per cent4 of gum1 that becomes fetid on being dissolved in water4 ,the quantity of this gum in the sugar1 for a barrel of wine1 is considerable--enough to give a bad flavor to the wine4 ,this is avoided by using double-refined sugar1 which contains no gum4 ,this recipe is equally good for cherry wine4 ,the following recipe for making ,elderberry ,wine1 produces an article that the best judges in ,new ,york and elsewhere have pronounced equal to any imported wine4 ,its excellence has made quite a market for elderberries in ,new ,york4 ,these berries are so easily grown1 and the wine so excellent1 that their growth will be encouraged throughout the country4 ,it is not only an exceedingly palatable wine1 but is better for the sick1 than any other known4 ,to every quart of the berries1 put a quart of water and boil for half an hour4 ,bruise them from the skin and strain1 and to every gallon of the juice add three pounds of double-refined sugar and one quarter of an ounce of cream of tartar and boil for half an hour4 ,take a clean cask and put in it one pound of raisins to every three gallons of the wine1 and a slice of toasted bread covered over with good yeast4 ,when the wine has become quite cool1 put it into the cask1 and place it in a room of even temperature to ferment4 ,when the fermentation has fully ceased1 put the bung in tight4 ,no brandy or alcohol of any kind will be necessary4 ,any one following this recipe exactly1 will be surprised at the excellence of the wine that will be the result4 ,of ,grape ,wines1 there are several varieties1 whose peculiarities are determined mainly by the process of manufacturing4 ,a full treatment of the subject would require a volume4 ,the following brief directions will insure success in making the most desirable grape wines3 #a4 ,let the grapes become thoroughly ripe before gathering1 to increase their saccharine qualities and make a stronger wine4 ,all fruits make much better wine for being fully ripe4 ,cut the bunches with a sharp knife and move carefully to avoid bruising4 ,spread them in a dry shade to evaporate excessive moisture4 #b4 ,assort the grapes before using1 removing all decayed1 green1 or broken ones1 using only perfect berries4 #c4 ,mash the grapes with a beater in a tub1 or by passing them through a cider-mill4 ,treading the wine vat was the ancient method of mashing the grapes1 not now practised except in some parts of ,europe4 #d4 ,to make light wines put them at once into press1 as apple pomace in a cider-press4 #e4 ,to make higher-colored wines let the pomace stand from four to twenty-four hours before pressing4 ,they will be dark in proportion to the length of time the pomace stands4 #f4 ,to make wines resembling the ,austere wines of ,france and ,spain1 let the pomace stand until the first fermentation is over1 called fermenting in the skin4 #g4 ,the must or grape-juice is to be put into casks1 the larger the better1 but only one pressing should be put into one cask4 ,put in a cellar of even temperature1 not lower than fifty nor higher than sixty-five degrees of ,fahrenheit1 and where there is plenty of air4 ,prepare the cask by burning in it a strip of paper or muslin1 dipped in melted sulphur1 and suspended by a wire across the bung-hole4 ,fermentation commences very soon and will be completed within a few days or weeks according to the temperature4 ,its completion is marked by the cessation of the escape of gas4 ,no sugar1 brandy1 or any other substance1 should be added to the grape-juice to make good wine4 ,they are all adulterations4 ,the wine having settled after this fermentation1 may be racked off into clean casks1 prepared as before4 ,a second fermentation will take place in the spring4 ,it should not be bottled until after this second fermentation1 as its expansion will break the glass4 ,while in the casks they should always be kept full1 being occasionally filled from a small cask1 kept for the purpose4 ,when this fermentation ceases1 bottle and cork tight1 and lay the bottles on their sides1 in a cool cellar4 ,the wine will improve with age4 ,sometimes it remains on the lees without racking and is drawn off and bottled4 ,frequently the wine does not become wholly clear and needs fining4 ,various substances are used for this purpose1 as fish-glue1 charcoal1 starch1 rice1 milk1 c4 ,the best of these substances is charcoal1 or the white of eggs and milk4 ,add by degrees according to the foulness of the wine4 ,an ounce of charcoal to a barrel of wine is an ordinary quantity2 or a pint of milk with the white of four eggs--more or less according to the state of the wine4 ,rhine ,wine of ,germany may be made as follows3-- ,take good ,catawba or ,isabella grapes1 and pound or grind them so as to crush every seed and leave them in that state for twenty-four hours4 ,fumigate the cask by burning strips of muslin dipped in sulphur as in the preceding recipe4 ,strain or press out the juice into the cask filling it and keeping it entirely full1 that impurities may run out of the bung1 during fermentation4 ,in the spring prepare another cask in the same way and rack it off into that4 ,when a year old bottle it and it is fit for use4 ,sweeter wines than any of the above are made by adding sugar to the must before fermentation4 ,it should be double-refined sugar1 and still it is an adulteration4 ,,woodlands4 ,one of the greatest errors of ,american farmers is their neglect to cultivate groves of trees for woodlands1 in all suitable places4 ,our primeval forests have been wantonly destroyed1 and the country is not yet old enough to feel the full force of neglecting to replenish them1 by new groves1 in suitable localities4 ,on the points of hills1 rough stony places1 sides of steep hills1 ravines that can not be cultivated1 and by the side of all the highways of the land1 trees should be cultivated3 in some places fruit-trees1 but in most places forest-trees4 ,the advantages would be manifold2 they would afford shade for cattle1 groves for birds1 which would destroy the worms2 they would break off the cold winds from crops1 cattle1 fruit-orchards1 and dwellings2 would greatly enrich the soil by their annual foliage1 afford abundance of fuel at the cheapest rates1 give much good timber1 provide for fine maple-sugar1 and be the greatest ornaments of the rural districts4 ,only think of the comfort and beauty of fifty miles square1 in which not a street could be found which had not trees on each side1 not more than twelve feet apart4 ,when such trees should become twenty years old1 the pedestrian or the carriage could move all day in the shade1 listening to the music of the birds1 and inhaling the aroma of the foliage or flowers4 ,to every owner or occupant of the soil we say1 plant trees4 ,,poultry4 ,fattening and preparing poultry for the market are important items in rural economy4 ,plenty of sweet food and pure water given at regular times1 and the fowls not allowed to wander1 are the requisites of successful fattening4 ,the best feed for fattening fowls is oat-meal4 ,next to this is corn-meal4 ,three things are essential in food for fattening animals1 flesh-forming1 fat-forming1 and heat-producing substances4 ,of all the grains ordinarily fed1 oat-meal contains these in the best proportions1 and next to this comes yellow ,indian corn meal4 ,fat is good1 but must be given in a hard form as in mutton or beef suet4 ,rice boiled in sweet milk1 fed for a day or two before killing fowls is said to render the flesh of a white delicate color4 ,at least one third of the value of poultry in the market depends upon properly preparing and transporting it4 #a4 ,do not feed fowls at all for twenty-four hours before killing them4 #b4 ,kill by cutting the jugular vein with a sharp pen-knife1 just under the sides of the head1 and hang them up to bleed4 #c4 ,pick carefully and very clean1 without tearing the skin1 and without scalding4 ,singe slightly if need be4 ,dip in hot water for three or four seconds and in cold water half a minute4 #d4 ,do not open the breast at all1 but remove the entrails from the hind opening1 leaving the gizzard in its place4 ,put no water in but wipe out the blood with a dry cloth4 ,leaving the entrails in is injurious1 tending to sour the meat and taint it with their flavor4 #e4 ,do not allow your poultry to freeze by any means4 ,for transporting to a distant market1 pack in shallow boxes never containing over three hundred pounds each and in clean straw without chaff or dust1 and in such a manner that no two fowls will touch each other4 #f4 ,geese and ducks look better with the heads cut off4 ,but all fowls having their heads removed must have the skin drawn down and tightly tied over the end of the neck bone4 ,this will preserve them well and give a good appearance4 ,to preserve fowls for a long time in a perfectly sweet condition for family use1 fill them half full or more with pulverized charcoal1 which will act as an absorbent and prevent every particle of taint4 ,,agricultural ,,periodicals4 ,the following list of ,agricultural ,periodicals embraces all that have come to our knowledge4 ,in a subsequent edition we shall endeavor to render the list more complete1 and give the special design of each1 with the frequency of publication1 form1 price1 editor's and publisher's names1 etc4 ,,name ,,of ,,paper4 ,,place ,,of ,,publication4 ,american ,farmers' ,magazine ,new ,york ,city4 ,american ,farmer ,baltimore1 ,md4 ,alabama ,planter ,mobile1 ,ala4 ,american ,agriculturist ,new ,york ,city4 ,canadian ,agriculturist ,toronto1 ,c4 ,w4 ,cultivator ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,cotton ,planter ,montgomery1 ,ala4 ,cultivator ,columbus1 ,ohio4 ,cultivator ,boston1 ,mass4 ,california ,farmer ,san ,francisco1 ,cal4 ,country ,gentleman ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,farmer and ,planter ,pendleton1 ,s4 ,c4 ,granite ,farmer ,manchester1 ,n4 ,h4 ,genesee ,farmer ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,horticulturist ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,homestead ,hartford1 ,ct4 ,journal of ,agriculture ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,maine ,farmer ,augusta1 ,me4 ,michigan ,farmer ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,magazine of ,horticulture ,boston1 ,mass4 ,massachusetts ,ploughman ,boston1 ,mass4 ,new ,england ,farmer ,boston1 ,mass4 ,new ,jersey ,farmer ,trenton1 ,n4 ,j4 ,north ,carolina ,planter ,raleigh1 ,n4 ,c4 ,ohio ,valley ,farmer ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 ,ohio ,farmer ,cleveland1 ,ohio4 ,prairie ,farmer ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,rural ,new ,yorker ,rochester1 ,n4 ,y4 ,rural ,southerner ,ellicott's ,mills1 ,md4 ,rural ,american ,utica1 ,n4 ,y4 ,southern ,planter ,richmond1 ,va4 ,southern ,cultivator ,augusta1 ,ga4 ,southern ,homestead ,nashville1 ,tenn4 ,valley ,farmer ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 ,vermont ,stock ,journal ,middlebury1 ,vt4 ,wisconsin ,farmer ,madison1 ,wisc4 ,working ,farmer ,new ,york ,city4 ,,index4 ,acclimation2 #i ,agricultural ,periodicals1 ,list of2 #ddj ,almonds2 #aj ,animals1 ,rules for feeding2 #agh ,apples2 #ab ,apple-,tree ,wood1 ,analysis of2 #ad ,apple-,worm1 ,remedy for2 #bb ,apricot2 #ej ,artichoke2 #eb ,ashes2 #ec ,asparagus2 #ed ,atmosphere1 ,important ,auxiliary in the ,growth of ,plants2 #bgh ,balm2 #ef ,barberry2 #ef ,barley2 #eg ,barns2 #ei ,bean1 ,coffee2 #acj ,beans2 #fj ,bees and ,beehives2 #fd ,beets2 #gg ,bene ,plant2 #ha ,berries1 ,preservation of2 #cfg ,birds useful in destroying ,insects2 #hb ,blackberry2 #hc ,black ,currant2 #afe ,black ,raspberry2 #he ,board ,fences2 #agi ,bones1 their ,value as a ,fertilizer2 #he1 #bge ,borden's ,milk ,condensation2 #cfi ,borecale2 #hf ,borer1 ,preventive and ,remedy for2 #bc ,breck's ,book of ,flowers2 #aie ,breeding in1 ,deteriorating ,effects of2 #adb ,broccoli2 #hf ,broom-,corn2 #hg ,brussels ,sprouts2 #hi ,buckthorn2 #hi ,buckwheat2 #ij ,budding2 #ia ,buffalo ,berry2 #cij ,bulbous ,flowering ,roots2 #aie ,bushes1 ,eradication of ,noxious2 #id ,butter2 #ie ,butter ,dairy2 #afg ,butter-,making1 ,essential ,rules for2 #ajj ,butternuts2 #ajb ,cabbage2 #ajb ,calves2 #ajh ,canker-,worm1 ,remedy for2 #be ,cans2 #aaa1 #cfg ,carrots2 #aab ,caterpillars1 how destroyed2 #bd ,cauliflower2 #aac ,celery2 #aad ,charcoal2 #abe ,cheese2 #aae ,cheese-,house2 #afg ,cherries2 #aah ,chestnuts2 #abe ,chickens2 #aig-aii ,churn1 ,best ,form of2 #ih ,churning1 ,brief ,rules for2 #ig ,cider2 #abf ,citron2 #abg ,cleft-,grafting2 #baj ,clover2 #abh1 #bce ,coffee ,bean2 #acj ,colts1 ,milk from the ,dairy ,excellent food for2 #bdh ,conical ,training2 #dbj ,corn2 #aca ,corn1 ,broom2 #hg ,cottage1 ,economical ,plan of a ,laborer's2 #beg ,cotton2 #acd ,cotton ,plant1 ,analysis of2 #aci ,country ,residence1 ,plan of2 #bee ,cows2 #adj ,cranberry2 #aef ,cucumber2 #afa ,curculio on ,plum-,trees1 ,unfailing ,remedy for2 #cee ,currants2 #afd ,currants1 ,black2 #afe ,currant ,wine1 ,recipe for making2 #dcc ,dairy2 #afg ,declension of ,fruits1 ,cause of and ,remedy for2 #afh ,dill2 #afi ,downing's ,list of ,gooseberries2 #bjh ,drains2 #agj ,ducks2 #agb ,dwarfing ,fruit-,trees1 ,process of2 #agc ,early ,fruits and ,vegetables1 how produced2 #agd ,eastern ,states1 ,varieties of ,apples adapted to2 #bj ,eastwood's ,work on ,cranberry ,culture2 #aef ,egg ,plant2 #age ,eggs1 how to test and preserve them2 #agf ,elderberry2 #agf ,elderberry ,wine1 a ,recipe for ,making2 #dcd ,endive2 #agg ,fan ,training of ,trees2 #dag ,farm-,buildings2 #bea ,feeding ,animals2 #agh ,fences2 #agi ,fennel2 #aha ,figs2 #aha ,fish2 #ahd ,flax2 #aib ,flowering ,shrubs2 #aie ,flowers2 #aic ,foot-,paths1 ,circular1 how laid out2 #bed ,foot-,rot in ,animals1 ,remedy for2 #chh ,forest ,trees2 #dcg ,fowls2 #aif ,fruit2 #bjj ,fruits1 ,declension of2 #afh ,fruits1 ,early1 how produced2 #agd ,fruits1 ,preservation of2 #cfg ,fruits1 ,manner of ,gathering2 #bje ,fruit-,trees1 ,location of2 #bfi ,fruit-,trees1 how to induce ,productiveness in2 #bja ,garden2 #bjb ,garlic2 #bje ,gathering ,fruits2 #bje ,geese2 #bje ,gooseberry2 #bjf ,grafting2 #bjh ,grafting-,wax1 how made2 #baa ,grapes2 #bab ,grape-,wine1 ,method of making2 #dce ,grasses2 #bbg ,greenhouse2 #bca ,guano1 ,care requisite in the ,application of2 #bgg ,guenon's ,treatise on the ,milking ,qualities of ,cows2 #adb ,gypsum2 #bcb1 #bdg ,hams1 ,preservation of2 #cgj ,harrowing2 #bcc ,hay1 making and preserving of2 #bcd ,hedge2 #bcf ,hedge-,pruning2 #bch ,hedges1 ,shrubs suitable for the ,formation of2 #eg1 #hi1 #bcf-bch ,hemp2 #bci ,hens2 #aif ,herbaceous ,flowers2 #aif ,hive1 ,proper ,construction of2 #gd ,hoeing2 #bda ,hogs2 #dji ,hogstye1 ,plan of2 #beb ,hogstye1 ,manure from the2 #bgd ,hops2 #bdb ,hops1 ,method of curing2 #bdd ,horizontal ,training2 #dai ,horse2 #bdf ,horseradish2 #bdi ,hotbeds2 #bdi ,hothouse2 #bca ,houses2 #bea ,hybrids2 #bei ,inarching2 #bei ,insects2 #bfj ,iron-,filings1 ,beneficial to ,pear-,trees #bfa ,irrigation2 #bfa ,italian ,farmhouse1 ,plan of2 #bbh ,kale2 #hf ,labels for ,fruit-,trees2 #bjb ,laborer's ,cottage1 ,plan of2 #beg ,landscape ,gardens2 #bfc ,lawton ,blackberry2 #hd ,layering2 #bfd ,laying in ,trees2 #bfe ,leeks2 #bff ,lemon2 #bff ,lettuce2 #bfg ,licorice2 #bfh ,lime1 ,value of as a ,fertilizer2 #bfh ,limes2 #bfi ,liquid ,manures1 ,value of2 #bgc ,location2 #bfi ,locust-,trees2 #bgj ,manures2 #bga ,maple-,trees1 ,best ,method of tapping2 #djd ,marjorum2 #bhc ,marl2 #bhb ,melons2 #bhc ,mice1 ,protection of ,fruit-,trees from in ,winter2 #cgc ,milk1 ,condensation and ,preservation of2 #cfi ,milking ,qualities of ,cows1 ,infallible ,marks of2 #adb-aee ,milking1 ,rules for2 #if1 #aee ,milk1 ,value of for ,horses2 #bdh ,millet2 #bhg ,mint2 #bhh ,moisture1 ,retention of1 leading ,benefit of ,manure2 #bgg ,mulberry2 #bhi ,mulching2 #bhi ,mushrooms2 #bij ,muskmelons2 #bhc ,mustard2 #bib ,nasturtium2 #bic ,nectarine2 #bic ,new ,fruits2 #bie ,new ,rochelle 7,lawton7 ,blackberry #hd ,northern ,states1 ,varieties of ,apples suitable for2 #cj ,nursery2 #bif ,nuts2 #cjj ,oaks2 #cja ,oats2 #cjc ,okra2 #cjd ,olives2 #cjd ,onions2 #cje ,oranges2 #cjh ,orchards2 #cji ,orchards1 ,favorable ,locations for2 #bfi ,osage ,orange2 #bcf ,oxen2 #caa ,parsley2 #cab ,parsnips2 #cac ,pastures2 #cae ,peas2 #caf ,peach22 #cai ,pear22 #ccb ,pear-,orchard1 ,plan of2 #ccg ,pennyroyal ,mint2 #bhh ,peppers2 #cdg ,peppergrass2 #cdh ,peppermint2 #bhh ,picket ,fences2 #ahj ,piggery1 ,plan of2 #beb ,plaster of ,paris2 #bcb ,plowing2 #cdh ,plum2 #cea ,plum1 ,analysis of2 #cec ,pomegranate2 #cei ,potato2 #cfj ,potato-,rot1 ,cause of and ,remedy for2 #cfd ,potato1 ,sweet2 #djf ,poultry2 #dch ,preserving ,fruits and ,vegetables #cfg ,protection of ,trees for ,transplanting #bfe1 #cjj ,prunes1 ,domestic2 #cef ,pruning and ,training2 #dad ,pruning ,peach-,trees2 #cbc ,pumpkin2 #cga ,quince2 #cgb ,rabbits1 a ,protection of ,fruit-,trees from in ,winter2 #cgc ,radish2 #cgd ,rail ,fences2 #ahj ,raspberry2 #cge ,raspberry1 ,black2 #he ,rennet1 how prepared2 #aae ,rhubarb2 #cgg ,rice2 #cgh ,rocks1 ,methods of removing2 #cgi ,rollers2 #cgi ,root ,crops2 #chj ,root-,pruning1 ,method of2 #cec ,saffron2 #cha ,sage2 #cha ,salsify or ,vegetable ,oyster2 #chb ,scraping ,land2 #chb ,seeds2 #chc ,shade-,trees2 #dcg ,sheep2 #chd ,sheep-,manure1 ,value of2 #chi ,shepherdia1 or ,buffalo ,berry2 #cij ,skippers in ,cheese2 #aag ,soils2 #cia ,sorgho1 or ,chinese ,sugarcane2 #dje ,south1 ,apples adapted to the ,climate of the2 #ca ,spearmint2 #bhh ,spinage or ,spinach2 #cid ,squash2 #cie ,stable2 #ei ,stilton ,cheese1 ,method of ,making2 #aag ,strawberry2 #cif ,subsoil ,plowing2 #cdi ,succory2 #agg ,sugar2 #djc ,summer-,house1 ,plan of2 #bef ,summer ,savory2 #djf ,sunflower2 #djf ,sweet ,potato2 #djf ,swine2 #dji ,tobacco2 #daa ,tomato2 #dab ,tongue-,grafting2 #baa ,tools2 #dad ,training and ,pruning2 #dad ,transplanting2 #dba ,turnip2 #dbb ,van ,mon's ,theory of the ,production of ,new ,fruits2 #bie ,vegetables1 ,early2 #agd ,vegetable ,oyster2 #chb ,vineyards2 #bac1 #baf ,wagon-,house2 #bea ,walls1 ,stone2 #agi ,watering ,gardens in ,dry ,seasons1 ,benefits of2 #bfa ,watermelons2 #bhc ,wax-,moth1 ,protection against2 #gc ,weevil1 or ,wheat ,midge1 ,remedy for2 #dcj ,western ,states1 ,varieties of ,apples suitable for the2 #cj1 #dh ,wheat2 #dbc ,white ,blackberry2 #hd ,whortleberry2 #dcb ,willow2 #dcb ,wine2 #dcc ,wines1 ,adulteration of ,imported2 #bab ,winter ,lettuce2 #agg ,wood-,ashes1 ,value of as a ,manure2 #ec ,woodlands2 #dcg ,woolly ,aphis1 ,remedy for2 #bc 99 99 99 99 99 ,,agricultural ,,books1 ,,published ,,by ,a4 ,o4 ,,moore1 7,,late ,c4 ,m4 ,,saxton ,,co47 #adj ,,fulton ,,street1 ,,new ,,york1 ,and sent by mail to any part of the ,united ,states on receipt of the price4 #a ,american ,farmers' ,encyclopedia4 ,a work of great value #d #jj #b ,dadd's ,modern ,horse ,doctor #a #jj #c ,dadd's ,anatomy and ,physiology of the ,horse #b #jj #d ,do4 do4 do4 do4 colored plates #d #jj #e ,dadd's ,american ,cattle ,doctor #a #jj #f ,the ,stable ,book #a #jj #g ,the ,horse's ,foot1 and how to keep it sound2 paper #be cts41 cloth #ej #h ,bridgeman's ,gardener's ,assistant #a #ej #i ,bridgeman's ,florist's ,guide1 half cloth #ej cts41 cloth #fj #aj ,bridgeman's ,gardener's ,instructor1 half cloth #ej cts41 cloth #fj #aa ,bridgeman's ,fruit ,cultivator1 half cloth #ej cts41 cloth #fj #ab ,field's ,hand-,book of ,pear ,culture #fj #ac ,cole's ,american ,fruit ,book #ej #ad ,cole's ,american ,veterinarian #ej #ae ,buist's ,american ,flower ,garden ,directory #a #be #af ,buist's ,family ,kitchen ,gardener #ge #ag ,browne's ,american ,bird ,fancier2 paper #be cts41 cloth #ej #ah ,dana's ,muck ,manual1 cloth #a #jj #ai ,dana's ,prize ,essay on ,manures #be #bj ,stockhardt's ,chemical ,field ,lectures #a #jj #ba ,norton's ,scientific and ,practical ,agriculture #fj #bb ,johnston's ,catechism of ,agricultural ,chemistry 7for ,schools7 #be #bc ,johnston's ,elements of ,agricultural ,chemistry and ,geology #a #jj #bd ,johnston's ,lectures on ,agricultural ,chemistry and ,geology #a #be #be ,downing's ,landscape ,gardening #c #ej #bf ,fessenden's ,complete ,farmer and ,gardener #a #be #bg ,fessenden's ,american ,kitchen ,gardener #ej #bh ,nash's ,progressive ,farmer #fj #bi ,richardson's ,domestic ,fowls #be #cj ,richardson on the ,horse #be #ca ,richardson on the ,hog #be #cb ,richardson on the ,pests of the ,farm #be #cc ,richardson on the ,hive and ,honey ,bee #be #cd ,milburn and ,stevens on the ,cow and ,dairy ,husbandry #be #ce ,skinner's ,elements of ,agriculture #be #cf ,topham's ,chemistry ,made ,easy #be #cg ,breck's ,book of ,flowers #a #jj #ch ,leuchar's ,hot ,houses and ,green ,houses #a #be #ci ,chinese ,sugar ,cane and ,sugar ,making #be #dj ,turner's ,cotton ,planter's ,manual #a #jj #da ,allen on the ,culture of the ,grape #a #jj #db ,allen's ,diseases of ,domestic ,animals #ge #dc ,allen's ,american ,farm ,book #a #jj #dd ,allen's ,rural ,architecture #a #be #de ,pardee on the ,strawberry #fj #df ,peddar's ,farmer's ,land ,measurer #ej #dg ,phelp's ,bee-keeper's ,chart #be #dh ,guenon's ,treatise on ,milch ,cows2 paper #ch cts41 cloth #fj #di ,domestic and ,ornamental ,poultry1 plain #a4jj1 colored plates #b #jj #ej ,randall's ,sheep ,husbandry #a #be #ea ,youatt1 ,randall1 and ,skinner's ,shepherd's ,own ,book #b #jj #eb ,youatt on the ,breed and ,management of ,sheep #ge #ec ,youatt on the ,horse #a #be #ed ,youatt1 ,martin1 and ,stevens1 on ,cattle #a #be #ee ,youatt and ,martin on the ,hog #ge #ef ,barry's ,fruit ,garden #a #be #eg ,munn's ,practical ,land ,drainer #ej #eh ,stephens' ,book of the ,farm1 complete1 #dej illustrations #d #jj #ei ,the ,american ,architect1 or ,plans for ,country ,dwellings #f #jj #fj ,thaer1 ,shaw1 and ,johnson's ,principles of ,agriculture #b #jj #fa ,smith's ,landscape ,gardening1 ,parks1 and ,pleasure ,grounds #a #be #fb ,weeks on the ,bee3 paper #be cts41 cloth #ej #fc ,wilson on ,cultivation of ,flax #be #fd ,miner's ,american ,bee-keeper's ,manual #a #jj #fe ,quinby's ,mysteries of ,bee-keeping #a #jj #ff ,cottage and ,farm ,bee-keeper #ej #fg ,elliott's ,american ,fruit ,grower's ,guide #a #be #fh ,the ,american ,florist's ,guide #ge #fi ,hyde on the ,chinese ,sugar ,cane1 paper #be #gj ,every ,lady her own ,flower ,gardener2 paper #be cts41 cloth #ej #ga ,the ,rose ,culturist2 paper #be cts41 cloth #ej #gb ,history of ,morgan ,horses #a #jj #gc ,moore's ,rural ,hand ,books1 #d vols4 #e #jj #gd ,rabbit ,fancier2 paper #be cts41 cloth #ej #ge ,reemelin's ,vine-,dresser's ,manual #ej #gf ,neill's ,fruit1 ,flower1 and ,vegetable ,gardener's ,companion #a #jj #gg ,browne's ,american ,poultry ,yard #a #jj #gh ,browne's ,field ,book of ,manures #a #be #gi ,hooper's ,dog and ,gun #ej #hj ,skilful ,housewife2 paper #be cts41 cloth #ej #ha ,chorlton's ,grape ,grower's ,guide #fj #hb ,sorgho and ,imphee1 ,sugar ,plants #a #jj #hc ,white's ,gardening for the ,south #a #be #hd ,eastwood on the ,cranberry #ej #he ,persoz on the ,culture of the ,vine #be #hf ,boussingault's ,rural ,economy #a #be #hg ,thompson's ,food of ,animals2 paper #ej cts41 cloth #ge #hh ,richardson on ,dogs2 paper #be cts41 cloth #ej #hi ,liebig's ,familiar ,letters to ,farmers #ej #ij ,cobbett's ,american ,gardener #ej #ia ,waring's ,elements of ,agriculture #ge #ib ,blake's ,farmer at ,home #a #be #ic ,rural ,essays #c #jj #id ,fish ,culture #a #jj #ie ,flint on ,grasses #a #be #if ,warder's ,hedges and ,evergreens #a #jj