,,adequate ,,preparation ,,for ,,the    
,,teacher ,,of ,,biological ,,sciences  
,,in ,,secondary ,,schools4             
,j4 ,daley ,mc,donald       ,submitted  
to the ,school of ,education of the     
,university of     ,california in       
partial fulfillment of the minor        
requirements     for the degree of      
,doctor of ,philosophy4                 
,november #aeth                         
#aiba                                   
,,contents     ,introduction            
#c     ,retarding factors in improvement
                               #d       
,qualifications in subject matter       
#e     ,scope of ,biology               
#f     ,values and relations of ,biology
                                #g      
,adaptation of course to community      
conditions                  #aj         
,freedom from textbook slavery          
#aa     ,materials and laboratory       
equipment                            #ab
     ,historical setting                
#ac     ,spirit of research             

#ad   ,qualifications in method         
#af     ,factors determining correct    
method                            #af   
,history of scientific method           
#ag     ,problem method                 
#ag     ,accuracy and logical           
constructive thinking                   
#ah     ,teacher's final method         
necessarily unique                      
#ai   ,summary of necessary             
qualifications                          
#ai   ,opportunity for adequate         
preparation                             
#bj     ,lack of professional course    
#bj     ,requirements of ,teachers      
,recommendation in ,zoology             
#ba     ,courses not adapted for        
teacher-preparation                     
#bb     ,professional course the goal   
#bc     ,suggested modifications of     
present courses                    #bd  
,course in special methods              
#be     ,practice teaching              
#bg   ,bibliography                     
#bi     ,the use of the term preparation

 herein is intended to indicate         
partially the limitation of the problem 
attempted4 ,the following discussion    
will be concerned only with such        
attributes of the successful teacher as 
are the direct result1 or at least      
greatly enhanced by thorough            
preparation4 ,a sufficiently            
comprehensive and difficult problem     
remains after still further restriction 
of the field so as to include only      
subject matter and the method of        
biological science4  ,it is scarcely    
necessary to make the statement that the
 standards of preparation and the       
facilities for meeting these standards  
have been enormously improved within the
 past few years4 ,evidence of this is   
found in the changes recently made in   
the curricula of and the requirements   
for graduation from the ,california     
,state ,teachers ,colleges4 ,neither is 
it necessary to say that improvement    
must continue4 ,such problems are       
evolutionary4 ,notwithstanding that     

requirements for teachers certificates  
have been raised the country over1 the  
universities are not generally making   
very rapid strides in affording         
opportunities for better preparation in 
subject-matter and special methods4 ,in 
corroboration1 witness the recent       
criticisms of the departmental courses  
in special methods now given in         
universities generally 7,swift1 #aiah2  
,taylor1 #aiah74 ,the length of time or 
the number of units of work required for
 certification may be increased but that
 does not insure a finer quality of     
preparation4  ,in attempting to explain 
the slow pace of improvement in the     
quality of preparation for the teaching 
of science1 one becomes involved in a   
cycle4 ,science had its development in  
the college and university whence it    
diffused slowly into the secondary      
schools1 and finally slightly into the  
elementary grades4 ,the differences     
between the aims of college science and 
secondary school science were and still 

are not taken sufficiently into account4
 ,as an inevitable result there are to  
be found in the curricula of high       
schools too many science courses that   
are mere dilutions of the college type1 
with no modification of purpose1 and    
just enough change in method and subject
 matter to bring them partially within  
the power of understanding of the less  
mature mind4 ,this situation in turn    
reflected upon the higher institutions  
of learning in such a way that it seemed
 that they were giving adequate training
 of the correct type4 ,and such would   
have been the case had the college      
course in the particular science been   
planned for the express purpose of being
 diluted to suit secondary school needs4
 ,but it will be generally conceded that
 such courses never have existed4       
,another retarding factor in the        
evolution of the problem has been the   
subordination of special training in    
subject matter to other really less     
important qualifications1 in the        

selection of teachers4 ,the table given 
below1 compiled from statistics gathered
 in one of the ,states during #aiaf1    
shows sufficient justification for the  
above statement4 ,and not only has the  
preparation in subject matter been too  
little considered in choosing teachers1 
but also in the administration of       
schools specially intended for          
teacher-training4 ,an educator of high  
standing in ,california is credited with
 making the criticism of the ,normal    
,schools of the ,state2 that they       
attempt to teach a person how to teach  
intelligently something about which he  
knows nothing4 ,when teachers have      
adequate preparation in subject matter  
as well as in methods1 and when they are
 employed to teach only those subjects  
for which they are fitted1 then the     
problem of maintaining a high standard  
of teaching will be well nigh solved4   
,subject   ,prepared   ,not prepared    
,prepared and  ,total                   
teaching     teaching   not teaching    

----------------------------------------
------------------     ,physiology      
#ai            #h            #eg        
#hd                                     
----------------------------------------
------------------     ,botany          
#ga           #ci            #gd        
#ahd                                    
----------------------------------------
------------------     ,zoology         
#i           #bj             #e         
#cd                                     
----------------------------------------
------------------     ,agriculture     
#fc           #ad            #hd        
#afa                                    
----------------------------------------
------------------                      
,preparation in ,subject ,matter        
,before facing the problem of           
preparation for the teaching of         
biological sciences in the secondary    
schools1 there must be a clear          
conception of the aims and legitimate   
purposes of these sciences in the high  

school4 ,we are fortunate in having the 
aims of biology clearly and concisely   
stated by the ,commission on the        
,reorganization of ,secondary ,education
 of the ,n4,e4,a4 7,reorganization of   
,science in ,secondary ,schools1 ,u4,s4 
,dep't4 ,interior1 ,bureau of           
,education1 ,bulletin #bf1 #aibj74      
,these aims will not be considered in   
their entirety but only in so far as    
they bear directly on the problems that 
follow4 ,before proceeding further1 for 
simplification we will assume that the  
teacher is assigned to teach biological 
sciences only4 ,even then the field is  
quite comprehensive1 for besides        
instruction in general biology1 there   
will be courses of a more advanced type1
 in ,zoology1 ,botany1 ,physiology1 and 
often ,bacteriology1 ,sanitation1 or    
,agriculture4 ,however1 with preparation
 in the fundamentals necessary for      
biology a teacher should be able to     
conduct such courses without difficulty4
 ,thus the problem is sufficiently      

inclusive if it concerns preparation for
 biology alone4  ,the brief literal     
translation of the word biology1 science
 of life1 is full explanation of its    
scope4 ,a course in the subject is not  
,zoology1 nor ,botany1 nor              
,bacteriology1 nor ,physiology--but     
rather all of these in one4 ,biology    
should logically follow the nature study
 of the elementary grades4 ,the course  
must be so planned that it will give the
 pupils the maximum of serviceable      
fundamentals and at the same time be a  
basis for further study in advanced     
courses1 if he desires to continue2 but 
such that he will miss none of the      
essentials if he does not4 ,since       
science is the product of mature minds1 
the culmination of knowledge1 then in   
this course for adolescents1 the ology  
must not be too greatly stressed lest   
the essential part1 the bios be         
obscured4 ,the goal then is a course in 
which a study of plant life1 a study of 
bacteria in relation to human welfare1 a

 study of animal life1 and the biology  
of the human1 are all incorporated with 
well balanced emphasis4 ,this is the    
type of course recommended by the       
,commission on ,reorganization for the  
ninth or tenth year pupils1 so is the   
end toward which preparation should be  
made4  ,the next question concerns what 
constitutes adequate preparation for the
 direction of studies of animate nature4
 ,first and foremost is a realization of
 the aims1 or better1 the values1 and   
relations of biology4 ,it is a          
socializing subject and must be so      
taught--man is social4 ,biology affects 
man vitally1 directly his behavior      
follows natural laws1 and indirectly by 
illustration and comparison brings him  
to a better understanding biologic laws 
underlying the organization of society4 
,by way of illustration we need only to 
cite the struggle for existence and the 
division of labor with their far        
reaching influence in determining the   
course of evolution4 ,it would be       

impossible1 ,i believe1 to teach biology
 so poorly that it did not have some    
socializing value2 but it comes very    
near to being done in some cases1 there 
is little doubt4  ,a paramount aim is   
the improvement of living conditions1   
both as it concerns measures for group  
sanitation and factors in the health of 
the individual4 ,this should be the     
almost exclusive aim in those parts of  
the course dealing with bacteria and    
disease1 and the biology of man1 or     
physiology and eugenics4 ,biology has   
many applications in our economic life4 
,it is the very foundation of           
agriculture4 ,the lumber industry is    
beginning to find that there are        
biologic laws4 ,the ,government of the  
,united ,states some time ago           
established a ,bureau of ,fisheries for 
the purpose of studying the biological  
problems involved in the continuance and
 furtherance of our extensive fisheries 
industry4  ,so far as the individual is 
concerned1 biology should train him to  

observe life phenomena accurately and to
 form logical conclusions1 through the  
use of problems4 ,this ability is a     
valuable asset whatever his life work   
may be4 ,also1 if it is the right kind  
of a course1 and well taught1 it will   
enrich the life of the boy or girl      
through the aesthetic appeal of plants  
and animals1 and so make possible a     
sincere appreciation and enjoyment of   
nature4 ,in addition1 the study of      
biology should make clear to the pupil  
the important part that the intensive   
study of the various biological sciences
 has played in the whole marvelous      
scientific progress of the past         
centuries4  ,along with these values    
certain relations of biology must be    
well understood if it is to be well     
taught4 ,these relations may be         
conveniently segregated into five       
groups1 #a7 relations to world problems1
 #b7 to problems of the state1 #c7 to   
the community1 #d7 to the school        
curriculum1 and #e7 to individual       

pupils4 ,to world problems biology bears
 many relations1 for example1 it is     
fundamental in the analysis of          
immigration problems1 especially those  
phases concerning health1               
over-population1 and the probable       
hereditary effects of assimilation      
through hybridization4 ,state problems  
of health protection1 conservation of   
game and forests1 control of rodents and
 other crop pests1 and others can only  
be solved after gaining a thorough      
knowledge of the underlying natural     
laws1 and acting in accordance with     
them4 ,how inadequate a game            
conservation law of closed season1      
without regard to the breeding habits of
 the animal concerned6 ,again1 ,state   
regulations regarding the care of       
mentally deficient1 especially in the   
prevention of intermarriage1 must be    
given consideration from the biological 
as well as the ethical point of view4   
,as we consider the smaller group unit  
so the relations of biology to that     

group become more special4 ,a biology   
course may be readily standardized for  
national problems1 but for any given    
community the course must be somewhat   
unique4 ,a course planned for a rural   
population would not be fitted for a    
school in an overcrowded section of a   
city4 ,where there are differences in   
social and biological problems there    
also must be fitting adaptive changes in
 the course in biology4 ,in addition to 
these community relations1 the teacher  
must keep in mind the relations between 
the biology course and the other courses
 in the curriculum of the school4 ,such 
a question as this should arise in the  
mind of the teacher2 how may my work be 
made to correlate with that of ,domestic
 ,science8 ,the possibilities are many1 
there is the field of dietetics1        
scientific determination of the best    
methods of sweeping methods by bacterial
 culture methods1 and the role of       
bacteria1 yeasts and molds in the       
culinary arts constitute a few of them4 

,how about cooperation with the ,english
 ,department8 ,certainly every bit of   
written work1 every oral recitation1    
should measure up to standards of       
ability in expression as well as to     
standards of attainment in the mastery  
of certain scientific information4 ,this
 cooperation has been carried out to    
great mutual benefit in some schools4   
,these illustrations are sufficient to  
illustrate1 though the teacher should   
not overlook any department of the      
school4  ,relations to class and to     
individual will be considered in        
conjunction with teaching methods4  ,the
 values and interrelations of biology   
have been discussed at some length      
because they must serve as criteria in  
deciding what constitutes adequate      
preparation4  ,the comprehensiveness and
 vital nature of the subject1 biology1  
present at once an inspiration and an   
element of fear to the conscientious    
teacher4 ,they cause him to regard in   
utter amazement1 the applicant for a    

position who in answer to question      
replies ,no1 ,i have never taken any    
courses in biological ,science1 but ,i  
can easily prepare myself to teach it1  
if need be4 ,the impossibility of such  
impromptu development of skill in the   
teaching of biology will become more    
apparent as we proceed4  ,besides a full
 appreciation of the aims and relations 
of the subject1 the teacher must be able
 to construct a course especially       
adapted in content to the peculiar needs
 of the particular community4 ,this     
follows from what was said of relations 
in a previous paragraph4 ,the           
development of such a course demands    
sufficient knowledge of economics and   
sociology to make possible a correct    
analysis of local conditions and so find
 what is required4 ,the course to       
fulfill the requirements will           
necessarily be to some extent new1 and  
just to such extent may the teacher feel
 something of the inspiration of the    
pioneer4 ,relative values must be       

established2 emphasis must be properly  
placed--life of distant regions should  
not be taught except as local material  
may not be available to illustrate some 
very essential point1 yet too often a   
carefully pickled grasshopper is        
transported from ,florida to            
,california1 there to be dissected by   
some unfortunate high school lad4 ,not  
only must the larger divisions of the   
course be carefully balanced and tested 
for value1 but each lesson must justify 
its induction into it4 ,it is at this   
point that the relation to the          
individual is the chief criterion4      
,each lesson of the series that makes up
 the course must justify its place by   
having some rather direct bearing upon  
the life of the individual pupil4 ,the  
core of the lesson must be either the   
pupils problem or one in which his      
interest can be readily stimulated4     
,herein is the value of the project     
method of science teaching1 the problem 
is sure to be of interest to the pupil  

since he himself chooses it4 ,other     
questions to which the lesson must give 
satisfactory answer are2 ,why this      
particular lesson1 at all8 ,what        
relation does it bear to the preceding  
and following lessons8 ,is it of real   
value to the pupil in his living8 ,what 
biological phenomenon does it teach8 ,is
 it the best problem to illustrate that 
particular phenomenon8 ,what            
generalizations and practical           
applications can the pupil make8  ,the  
organization of a course in biology     
which is fitted to the needs of a       
certain community1 the conditions of a  
particular class of pupils1 and to the  
needs of the individual pupils so far as
 possible1 requires that the teacher    
have an extensive knowledge of the      
subject matter as a background freeing  
him from the necessity of dependence on 
a textbook4 ,anyway1 a biology teacher  
conducting the right sort of a course1  
will see that the textbook is only an   
incidental1 if used at all4 ,a          

continuation of set assignments in most 
textbooks would dampen the ardor of     
pupils generally4 ,besides1 few         
localities have textbooks fitted to     
their specific needs4 ,one that does    
have is ,new ,york ,city4 ,in fact it   
has two1 ,elementary ,biology by        
,peabody  ,hunt1 and ,civic ,biology by 
,hunter4 ,these both have a large sale  
throughout the ,united ,states1 ,but1 of
 course1 in most localities they can be 
used only to furnish supplementary      
reading1 since portions only will be    
adapted to the conditions of the        
restricted locality4 ,the fundamental   
life processes are the same the world   
over1 but varying environmental         
conditions necessitates a variation in  
emphasis1 in application1 and in the    
choice of problems which make up the    
course4 ,if the teacher is well prepared
 in subject matter1 there is little use 
for a laboratory manual except as it may
 suggest new methods and new            
experimental materials4 ,students of the

 high school age should never be        
compelled to follow a set laboratory    
outline with detailed instructions for  
procedure2 it will kill every whit of   
initiative4 ,the teacher must be so     
prepared1 then1 that he is able to steer
 a free course1 employing books for     
reference and supplementary reading     
almost exclusively4 ,he will cause the  
student to realize that the books are   
the result of human effort and therefor 
not infallible1 and that they must      
always take second place to first hand  
observation and experiment4 ,the study  
of animate nature1 with endless         
opportunity for observation and         
experiment on every hand1 permits little
 excuse for such method as is           
illustrated by ,be prepared to recite on
 the next three pages in the book1      
tomorrow1 and read experiment #cg so    
that you wont have to waste any time in 
getting started with the laboratory     
work4  ,somewhere in the course of      
preparation the teacher must have       

obtained a thorough knowledge of        
laboratory apparatus and supplies4 ,the 
selection of types of apparatus best    
fitted to the course1 and the knowledge 
of where to buy are both necessary4     
,also judgement must be exercised in    
purchase for few are the places where   
funds are adequate for the ideal        
equipment of a laboratory4 ,the money   
value of every piece of apparatus must  
be balanced against its relative        
usefulness in the successful culmination
 of the course4 ,besides this there must
 be a knowledge of the various uses to  
which the available apparatus may be    
put4 ,a great deal depends on the       
ingenuity of the teacher in the         
adaptation of even comparatively simple 
apparatus4 ,in connection with the      
laboratory part 7and this should be the 
major part7 of the course1 there arises 
the question of field work and          
excursions4 ,laboratory is at best      
merely a substitute for the great       
out-of-doors1 so the more work that can 

be done in the field the better4 ,aside 
from exploration to discover what parts 
of the particular locality will yield   
the largest fund of valuable biological 
information1 the problem here is mainly 
one of method4  ,the teacher to be at   
his best must be somewhat of a          
naturalist4 ,upon his fund of           
interesting stories about the animals   
and plants that the children all know1  
will depend very largely the appeal of  
the work to the pupil4 ,something of the
 spirit that distinguished ,john ,muir  
as the great naturalist is an           
inestimable asset to the teacher4 ,if it
 is not among his natal blessings1 he   
need not be completely discouraged for  
it can be acquired to some degree at    
least4 ,besides the advantage just      
mentioned1 the fauna and flora must be  
sufficiently well known so that choice  
is possible for laboratory experiment   
and illustrative purposes4  ,in order to
 present any subject well1 its          
historical aspect enters into           

consideration4 ,the influence of        
individuals1 of governments1 of         
religion1 and of the social ideals have 
all had their share in determining the  
present status of the subject4 ,science 
as it now is1 is the result of growth1  
it has undergone evolution1 and is at   
present evolving4 ,this will be         
thoroughly understood by the teacher of 
science1 and this understanding will    
determine in part the method of         
presentation4 ,in the history of the    
development of science there are many   
men well worthy of hero worship4 ,it is 
hard to find more inspirational         
characters than those of ,pasteur1 and  
,lazear2 men who devoted 7in latter     
instance1 sacrificed life7 their lives  
to service for humanity4 ,in the life   
and work of ,charles ,darwin we find a  
splendid example of painstaking search  
for the truth4 ,the records of the      
rocks1 7,paleontology1 the              
nature-written history of biology7 will 
often come to the rescue of the teacher 

in clearing up the presentation of the  
difficult problems of evolution4 ,the   
historic attitude must be put over to   
the pupil too1 for he must know his     
world as the result of the evolutionary 
process1 and as still in the process of 
evolution4  ,even at the risk of adverse
 criticism ,i desire to include among   
the qualifications of a good teacher the
 spirit of research4 ,this spirit can be
 acquired by specialization in one of   
the fields of biological science1       
followed by some actual research work4  
,research in science is fundamental4 ,it
 has three aims or ends1 #a7 discovery  
of facts thus increasing the sum total  
of knowledge4 ,this is science for      
science sake4 #b7 ,individual           
development4 ,and1 #c7 ,social service4 
,these last two aims are most important 
to the teacher4 ,so1 his problem for    
investigation should have some practical
 bearing1 and should be of his own      
choosing1 not pointedly suggested by the
 professor in charge as is too often the

 case4 ,if the research student is given
 a problem which is some minor part of a
 larger problem being investigated by   
his professor it will preclude the very 
thing the prospective teacher needs1    
namely practice in recognizing1         
analyzing1 and solving a problem in its 
entirety and solely on his own          
resources4 ,being a mere helper is      
probably not the best way to secure such
 ability4 ,investigation may be         
broadening and developing to the        
individual or it may prove to be quite  
the reverse1 but that lies within the   
control of the individual4 ,research for
 the teacher must emphasize equally     
actual additions to knowledge and       
personal attitude4 ,it must not be an   
end in itself but a means to an end4    
,the attitude of the investigator is    
essential to the understanding of       
children for the child is first of all  
an investigator4 ,his questions1 what8  
why8 how8 when8 prove this beyond doubt4
 ,what is this but a search for truth1  

causal factors1 and interrelations8     
,education uses this wholesome curiosity
 as a foundation principle1 so the      
teacher must exhibit a sympathetic      
understanding of this universal         
attribute of children4 ,no better       
summary of a discussion of the values of
 research can be found for our purposes 
than that by ,g4 ,w4 ,a4 ,luckey4 ,it   
follows4      ,in order that teaching   
may be intelligent and in harmony       
with the laws of nature there must be a 
deeper and clearer     knowledge of     
human growth and development4 ,the      
teacher must     know the nature of the 
individual to be taught and the ends    
to be reached in proper nurture4 ,this  
can not be gained     through the study 
of books alone1 but may come through    
properly directed research in the       
workshop of life4      ,one of the aims 
of present day education is to develop a
     man1 the best man possible under   
the conditions2 to assist     nature    
through nurture2 to enable the          

individual to find     himself and to   
evolve naturally and rapidly to the     
highest     levels and even to rise     
above them4 ,according to this          
conception 444 the initiative must come 
from within4 ,the aim     of the teacher
 should be to develop a self-sustaining1
     self-directing1 altruistic         
individual keenly alive to the          
interests of humanity4 ,such an ideal is
 progressive1     scientific1 and fits  
one through studies of yesterday and    
today to live the best and truest life  
tomorrow4 ,to see and     appreciate    
this ideal1 research is necessary4  ,the
 last requirement to be considered in   
this discussion1 is a good foundation in
 ,physics and ,chemistry4 ,biological   
science is not entirely separable from  
physical science1 for a majority of life
 phenomena1 in final analysis can be    
explained only in terms of physical     
science4 ,physiology has for its very   
foundation ,physics and ,chemistry4     
,among the newest of the sciences is    

,biochemistry1 the chemistry of life2   
and within its limits are some of the   
most promising fields of research4 ,no  
argument is necessary1 a knowledge of   
physical science is indispensable in the
 interpretation of life phenomena1 and  
the understanding of biological         
processes4                              
,,preparation in ,,methods   ,method is 
more closely associated with personality
 and with native ability than is subject
 matter4 ,so much more must preparation 
in this field be general in nature4 ,it 
must mainly concern the general         
principles of the scientific method4    
,specific problems and minor details    
will have to be worked out in actual    
practice4 ,the final method found most  
satisfactory by any teacher1 will be to 
some extent unique1 but will be largely 
determined by three factors2 the        
aptitudes of the teacher1 himself1 the  
group that he is teaching1 and lastly1  
the consideration of the individual     
pupil4 ,ability to adapt ones procedure 

so as to most nearly meet these         
requirements1 will come about only      
through experience4 ,ability to profit  
by experience1 the human attribute which
 makes possible the progress of         
civilization1 is a no less valuable     
asset to a teacher than to any other    
member of society4  ,balliet points out 
that science teaching has passed through
 three stages in the past generation4   
,the first stage is characterized by the
 textbook method1 occasionally          
supplemented by illustrative experiment1
 performed by the teacher4 ,the second  
stage is characterized by individual    
laboratory experiment1 a manual for a   
guide1 and by a lack of application of  
the principles except for a few         
traditional cases4 ,the third stage     
improves upon the second by leading the 
pupil1 after formulating his            
generalizations1 to apply them to the   
facts and phenomena of nature4 ,but1    
continues ,balliet1 we must advance to a
 fourth stage4 ,we must not only apply  

the generalizations1 but make the       
explanation of the facts and phenomena  
of nature--the interpretation of        
nature--the very goal of science        
teaching4 ,all problems should be chosen
 then in the light of this last aim4    
,the problems must be natural1 not in   
any way artificial1 and they should be  
those of the immediate environment of   
the pupil4 ,to meet these obligations   
may be in some cases difficult1 but it  
should not be impossible4  ,in          
biological science there is a rich field
 permitting a considerable choice in    
method4 ,there are observations1        
projects1 experiments1 excursions1      
individual reports1 book readings1      
quizzes1 and conferences4 ,in a single  
well chosen problem or project nearly   
all of these will be employed4 ,biology 
lends itself ideally to the problem     
method of teaching4 ,by using some every
 day problem of the pupil1 his interest 
is assured4 ,even a seemingly simple    
problem if skilfully directed1 will     

ramify into several fields of biology   
before its solution is completed4 ,and  
the number of practicable problems is   
almost limitless1 but not all are       
equally good for the purpose1 so the    
teacher must often tactfully modify the 
pupils choice4 ,original choices are    
likely to be too complex for the pupil  
to solve at his stage of progress1 so   
must be simplified1 without his feeling 
that he has been interfered with1       
without causing a wane in his interest4 
,it is clear that the real problem in   
the problem-method is the teacher's4    
,practically1 it is quite impossible to 
handle individual projects in large     
classes4 ,in the writer's experience1 he
 has had on the average #hj different   
pupils per day in four separate classes4
 ,it is clearly beyond the power of any 
teacher to direct simultaneously eighty 
different projects1 and it would be a   
physical impossibility to furnish the   
necessary laboratory apparatus4 ,so1 for
 this reason the teacher may find it    

necessary to divide1 as diplomatically  
as possible1 the classes into congenial 
groups1 each with its problem1 so that  
the total number of problems will be so 
limited that each one may be given      
adequate attention4 ,it seems that such 
must be the limitation of the           
problem-method under the conditions     
prevailing in the public schools today4 
,the procedure in solving a problem will
 consist of these steps in the order    
named1 #a7 understanding of the purpose1
 #b7 the procedure or method of attack1 
#c7 observation of results1 #d7 and the 
use of these in making some             
generalizations or arriving at some     
conclusions4 ,then there must follow a  
testing of these generalizations or     
conclusions by further experimentation4 
,accuracy must be the keynote of all    
work1 accuracy in recording experiments1
 accuracy in observation1 accuracy in   
drawing1 which serves as a shortcut     
method of description4 ,neatness is very
 desireable but should never supercede  

thinking and understanding4 ,if the     
problem has stimulated some accurate    
logical thinking on the part of the     
pupil1 then time spent on it has been   
well spent4 ,if1 besides1 it has yielded
 some valuable useable information1 the 
solving of the problem has been a marked
 success4 ,the laboratory method has    
been such an emancipation from the      
textbook slavery that there is some     
tendency to elevate it to an end in     
itself1 whereas it must serve only as a 
very valuable means to an end4 ,the     
ideal laboratory is only a reasonably   
good substitute for the out-of-doors4   
,so far as preparation in the methods of
 science teaching is concerned1 much    
good may be accomplished in teachers    
courses and in practice teaching4 ,but  
it must necessarily be of a general     
nature1 for the unique individual       
method1 determined by the interaction of
 teacher and pupil and the reaction of  
both to subject matter can evolve only  
hand in hand with teaching experience4  

,before proceeding further it might be  
well1 by way of summary1 to remind      
ourselves that the minimum              
qualifications for a teacher of biology 
must include the following2 a7 a large  
fund of the most interesting and most   
valuable facts of biology1 b7 a full    
realization of the values and vital     
relations of biology to humanity1 c7    
ability to develop a course meeting the 
unique needs of the community1 d7       
familiarity with purchase and useability
 of laboratory equipment1 e7 knowledge  
of the history of science1 f7 spirit of 
and sympathy with research1 g7 a        
knowledge of physical science as related
 to biology1 h7 and knowledge of the    
laboratory method and its value in the  
promotion of accurate logical           
constructive thinking4                  
,,opportunity ,,for ,,adequate          
,,preparation4   ,what possibilities of 
making adequate preparation1 are to be  
found in colleges and universities8 ,and
 how much preparation is required by the

 ,teacher's ,recommendation or other    
standards of fitness8 ,in search of the 
answers to our questions1 we may study  
conditions at the ,university of        
,california1 for there is as good       
opportunity and standards are as high in
 this school as anywhere in the country4
 ,the quantity of preparation is fairly 
assured by the five-year requirement for
 the ,teacher's ,recommendation1 but the
 quality of the preparation is not so   
certainly assured4 ,with the possible   
exception of the ,education ,department1
 no department considers the training of
 teachers even nearly equal in          
importance to the production of         
specialists in the subject who shall    
devote their lives to research4 ,the    
subject is regarded as an end in itself4
  ,if a person were directed to make    
preparation for the teaching of biology1
 he would be at a loss in searching for 
the ,biology ,department1 or even a     
department that gave a good             
comprehensive course in biology4 ,the   

subject as best taught in the secondary 
schools is subdivided into various      
components1 each with its special aim4  
,the prospective teacher has no         
carefully prepared course of study for  
his pursuit1 as has the prospective     
doctor1 engineer1 or farmer4 ,the state 
provides a specially adapted course of  
training for its veterinarians1 those   
who care for its livestock4 ,why not a  
special course of high standard for     
those who plan to devote their lives to 
the direction of the formative years of 
its children8 ,it is probably explained 
in large part by the failure to         
recognize teaching as a profession4 ,the
 ,schools of ,education throughout the  
country have been insisting upon real   
professional training for teachers but  
other departments are deplorably slow in
 cooperating4  ,in order to avoid       
becoming entangled in abstractions1 we  
may choose a specific instance to show  
the difficulties in the way of securing 
the correct kind of preparation1 even   

though the quantity is guaranteed4 ,the 
,zoology ,department 7,i choose this    
department neither because it is worse  
nor better than any other1 but because  
,i am better acquainted with the content
 of its courses7 makes the following    
requirements for the ,teacher's         
,recommendation3    ,general ,zoology   
,invertebrate ,zoology -- an advanced   
course which omits all                  
consideration of insects1 and all       
discussion of parasitic forms4          
,vertebrate ,zoology -- mainly a course 
in comparative morphology1              
which gives no field knowledge of       
,california                             
vertebrates1 the most essential thing   
for                         the high    
school teacher4    and one subject from 
each of the following groups1    ,group 
,i     ,comparative ,anatomy4           
,cytology -- basic principles must be   
understood by the teacher               
but he should not have to spend one     
whole half year                 to      

acquire them4     ,embryology -- the    
above is also true for this course4     
,group ,,ii4     ,biology of ,water     
,supplies -- this course is primarily   
for                                     
sanitary engineers4     ,protozoology --
 ,all that is necessary of this could be
                     incorporated in a  
general course4     ,parasitology --    
essential for health instruction and for
                     illustration of    
certain biological principles4    ,group
 ,,iii4     ,experimental ,zoology      
combination of these valuable4          
,animal ,behavior            ,heredity1 
,evolution1 and ,eugenics -- this course
 is very essential                      
for any teacher4    7,required in the   
fifth year1 the ,teachers' ,course1 some
 work in   research1 and practice       
teaching47  ,taken as a whole1 the chief
 criticism to be made is that the       
subject has been so subdivided to insure
 no overlapping of courses1 that it     
becomes necessary to take every course  

in order to obtain a well rounded       
preparation in the field4 ,this requires
 more time than any individual can      
devote to it1 for he must also have     
preparation in ,botany1 ,physiology1 and
 ,bacteriology and ,hygiene1 and in     
these departments the arrangement of    
courses is essentially the same4 ,the   
general course in ,zoology is           
inadequate1 for it is planned for an    
introduction to the more advanced       
courses and is careful not to steal too 
much from their fund of interesting     
information4 ,the aim is to lay a       
thorough foundation rather than to      
discuss the more interesting facts and  
general principles of biology1 though ,i
 am glad to believe that the present    
trend is decidedly in this latter       
direction4  ,here we find adequate      
preparation for a teacher of ,zoology1  
but in no secondary school of the state 
will a teacher be employed for ,zoology 
alone4 ,in high schools the biological  
science curriculum the first course must

 be ,biology1 and it must be            
all-inclusive1 for it is all of the     
biological science that the majority of 
the pupils will take4 ,it would be a    
great step in advance if every school   
required even that much for graduation4 
,of the courses in ,invertebrate        
,zoology and ,vertebrate ,zoology1 it   
can be safely said that they overlook   
the importance of field work4 ,boys and 
girls sometimes have a surprisingly     
large superficial knowledge of the      
plants and animals of their vicinity1   
and this knowledge is of the sort       
obtained through observation of their   
ways in nature1 that is1 it is a field  
knowledge4 ,the teacher must be prepared
 to use this to the greatest possible   
extent1 but how can this be expected if 
the teacher knows little if any more    
than the children about the habits of   
plants and animals4 ,such training would
 have to be obtained through some of the
 field work of the ,museum of           
,vertebrate zoology4 ,but no work in    

that department is required for the     
,teachers ,recommendation4 ,a knowledge1
 though not an intensive knowledge1 of  
each of the subjects that make up the   
three groups included in the            
requirements is quite necessary but it  
is out of the question for a person to  
take them all unless he specialize in   
,zoology4 ,not all can be expected to   
major in ,zoology1 and those that do    
will find it necessary to omit much that
 is essential in the other departments  
of biological science4 ,each department 
should have a general course covering   
fully its field of work so that those   
majoring in some other department may in
 minimum time gain a fair knowledge of  
its field4 ,it is very doubtful if such 
a course is given in any department at  
present4  ,at present only a meagre view
 is had of the history of ,biology1     
until the fifth year when it is given as
 seminar work4 ,and at no time1 in any  
course1 are the aims and relations of   
biology presented in such a way as to be

 helpful to one attempting to plan the  
most valuable type of high school       
course4 ,graduate research has been     
sufficiently considered previously1 and 
the teachers' course will be considered 
last4  ,it will be conceded generally in
 thinking of the solution of the problem
 that the ideal arrangement would be a  
real teachers' course1 at least five    
years in length4 ,this could be         
comparatively easily accomplished by a  
slight modification of the departments  
concerned and their hearty cooperation  
with the ,department of ,education4 ,the
 disregard for method on the part of the
 former and the failure to realize the  
importance of a thorough knowledge of   
subject matter by the latter1 can are   
obstacles that can be easily overcome ,i
 am sure4 ,the student would enter upon 
this course with the intention of       
becoming a teacher1 just as does any    
student enter upon his professional     
course with the intention of becoming   
the professional man for which his      

training is preparing him4 ,few freshmen
 now come to the ,university of         
,california with the intention of       
becoming teachers in the secondary      
schools1 that ,i admit1 but the reasons 
and the remedy for that are not for     
discussion here4 ,suffice it to say that
 when reward is adequate1 then the      
profession will grow and come to be made
 up of the highest type of men and      
women4  ,the time of the ,teachers      
,course is not far distant and it might 
be worth while to see what could be done
 without radical modifications in the   
curricula of the departments as they now
 are4 ,for a working basis ,i would like
 to present the following skeleton      
programme1 which seems practicable4 ,in 
this schedule all preparation except    
that in subject matter and method is    
understood to be included in electives4 
,a major in ,zoology is assumed4 ,each  
biological science department would have
 a course of similar plan built about   
its major as a core4    ,first year1    

,geography or ,geology     ,aims of     
science and its human values4           
,chemistry     ,electives    ,second    
year1     ,zoology1     ,physics1       
,electives    ,third year1              
,zoology--advanced courses     ,botany1 
,physiology     ,electives    ,fourth   
year1     ,zoology--advanced courses    
,bacteriology1 and ,public ,health      
,electives    ,fifth year1              
,zoology--research     ,history of      
,science     ,teachers' ,course1        
correlated with and supplementary to    
practice teaching4     ,electives  ,the 
reasons for selection and sequence of   
subjects in this schedule are fairly    
evident from what has gone before1 but a
 few points will bear additional        
explanation4  ,a course in the aims and 
values of science should be             
introductory1 for in the absence of     
general knowledge concerning values1    
such as has grown up with other         
professions1 the student must be given  
early in his work an enthusiasm for it  

and a sort of guide for future choice of
 subjects for study4 ,the difference in 
aim between university and secondary    
school science must be clearly          
understood at the start4 ,too often1    
university courses accept science as an 
end in itself and it is taught from that
 point of view1 whereas the prospective 
teacher must hold to his point of view1 
that to humanity generally science is   
only a very effective means to an end2  
it is just a faithful servant4  ,the    
schedule just submitted may seem to be  
overbalanced with science courses1 but  
it must be somewhat so1 especially if   
courses are not to be completely        
reorganized4 ,science would not need to 
consume quite so large a part of the    
time if special courses were given for  
teachers--another argument for a high   
grade1 strictly professional course4    
,duplication of teachers' courses in    
special methods would be eliminated for 
a single course for all of the          
departments of biological science would 

be sufficient4 ,biology is the hub1 and 
not the separate biological sciences1 in
 the courses in this field in the       
secondary schools4 ,the methods         
concerned are biological methods1 and   
therefore a single course for all       
prospective teachers of biological      
science regardless of the nature of     
their major work1 is a logical          
procedure4 ,whether such a course is a  
success or a failure is largely         
dependent on the professor in charge4   
,in the past there have been many       
failures1 mainly because the person     
conducting it has never had secondary   
school experience1 knows little or      
nothing of the problems1 and has no     
sincere enthusiasm for the teaching of  
science to boys and girls below the     
university age4  ,the course suggested  
would cover an entire year4 ,at least   
that much time is required to give any  
direction or instruction that is worth  
while4 ,the first half of the year might
 well be devoted to a digestion and     

correlation of all previous work1       
organizing it into a form easily useable
 in the work to follow4 ,questions of   
method1 recitation1 laboratory and field
 work1 textbooks and reference books    
purchase and use of equipment1 must be  
given consideration in some part of the 
course4 ,an outline course1 with the    
separate lessons that make it up should 
be worked out in detail1 for some       
particular locality1 preferably the one 
where practice teaching is to be done4  
,this should then be carefully tested by
 the criteria of a good biology course1 
as pointed out by the best authorities1 
and by common sense4 ,but why make this 
skeleton outline beforehand8 ,why be    
prepared in anything8 ,it will be too   
late to prepare at the moment the       
problem has to be met4 ,few new teachers
 will find a well planned course        
awaiting their arrival in a new field1  
and without previous experience a new   
teacher is likely to build up a course  
without due respect to relative values  

which comes only with a perspective of a
 course in its entirety4 ,to illustrate1
 in the course given by an inexperienced
 teacher there is too much chance of six
 weeks time being spent on the study of 
the grasshopper1 with only four weeks   
left at the end of the school year to be
 devoted to the biology of the human4   
,the mapping of a course1 by way of     
practice1 gives the prospective teacher 
practice in the exercise of judgment1   
with helpful constructive criticism4    
,practice teaching now becomes only the 
trying out of the course and            
accompanying methods4 ,as1 one practice 
teacher remarked when this plan was     
suggested ,but1 ,i might have to make my
 course all over4 ,such would often be  
the case4 ,any wide-awake teacher will  
change his course more or less from year
 to year4 ,even if the first plan were  
entirely discarded the energy and       
thought prompted by its making would not
 be lost4 ,and now let us change the    
name given to those in charge of        

practice teachers4 ,advisor would be    
more fitting than supervisor1 for they  
should remain in the background except  
for rendering helpful service1 and      
making constructive criticism in excess 
of destructive4  ,in order for practice 
teaching to be effective there must be  
nothing of an artificial sort enter in4 
,conditions must be of the regular sort 
met every day in the teaching game4     
,this statement seems superfluous1 but a
 visit to some of the classes where     
practice teaching is being done will    
justify its insertion here4 ,the        
practice teacher should not be handed   
over a laboratory properly equipped4 ,of
 course1 the equipment should be        
available4 ,the course should not be    
ready-cut4 ,the practice teacher must   
meet all of the problems and this is    
cheating him out of a part of his fun4  
,through his solution of these problems 
there will be a two-fold benefit1 for   
the advisor too may profit by the       
ingenuity of the newcomer4 ,resignation 

should be requested of any advisor who  
has outgrown the ability to learn4 ,it  
is most likely to be the green person1  
who will develop really new methods1 or 
evolve a more fitting experiment1 or    
turn a bit of apparatus to a new use4   
,above all1 the practice teacher should 
be required to scout for living         
material--there will usually be an      
abundance all about him1 and much that  
is of interest should find its way into 
the laboratory4 ,training in the use of 
living material can not be over         
emphasized4  ,the course which ,i have  
outlined in the previous pages1 is not  
satisfactory1 but ,i firmly believe that
 it would be an improvement over the    
present situation4 ,when tried out it   
would show many shortcomings1 but by    
trial and improvement has our entire    
educational system evolved4 ,even an    
ideal professional course in use today  
would be obsolete tomorrow4 ,it would be
 unfortunate were it not so1 for growth 
involves ecdysis1 and growth is the law 

of nature4                              
,literature from which helpful          
suggestions were received during the    
course                             of   
this work4     ,bagley1 ,w4 ,c4    ,the 
training of teachers as a phase of      
democracy's                             
educational programme4 ,ed4 ,adm4       
,supervsn4 vol4#d                       
no4#a1 ,jan4'#ah4    ,balliet1 ,t4 ,m4  
and ,robinson1 ,c4 ,h4    ,training of  
,science ,teachers4                     
,n4 ,e4 ,a4 ,report1 vol4#ed1 #aiaf1    
pp4#gcd-g4    ,bessey1 ,c4 ,e4          
,preparation of botanical teachers4     
,science1 ,n4,s41                       
vol4#cc1 pp4#fcc-i1 #aiaa4    ,boas1 ,f4
 ,s4    ,teachers and research4         
,contemp41 vol4#aaf1 pp4#dbf-dca4       
#aiai4    ,boggs1 ,l4 ,p4    ,making    
,teachers4 ,school  ,soc41 vol4#g1      
pp4#cfi-gd4    ,caldwell1 ,w4 ,o4       
,preparation of the teacher of biology4 
,school                   ,sci4  ,math41
 vol4#af1 pp4#che-ib4    ,coulter1 ,j4  

,g4    ,the training of elementary      
science teachers4                       
,school ,rev41 vol4#bd1 pp4#bf-cj4      
,curtis1 ,c4,b4    ,secondary school    
science4 ,ed4 ,adm4  ,supervsn41        
vol4#c1 ,nov4#aiag4    ,dewey1 ,j4 ,d4  
,democracy and ,education4    ,kent ,r4 
,a4    ,university preparation of       
teachers for high schools4              
,school ,rev41 vol4#bg1 pp4#agb-he4     
,lange1 ,a4 ,f4    ,preparation of high 
school teachers from the                
standpoint of the university4 ,u4 ,c4   
,a4 ,report1 #aijg1                     
pp4#gah-bc4    ,lloyd1 ,f4 ,e4 and      
,bigelow1 ,m4 ,a4    ,the teaching of   
biology4 #aiji4                         
,longmans1 ,green  ,co4    ,luckey1 ,g4 
,w4 ,a4    ,essentials in the training  
of a teacher4 ,school                   
and ,society1 vol4#a1 pp4#bfc-i4        
,mc,elroy1 ,r4 ,m4    ,teaching         
teachers4 ,ind41 vol4#ic1 pp4#ebe-4     
,pillsbury1 ,w4 ,h4    ,buffalo plan of 
teacher training4 ,elem4 ,sch4 ,jr4     

vol4#ba1 pp4#eie-fjf4    ,swift1 ,f4 ,h4
    ,college courses in methods of      
teaching high school                    
subjects4 ,sch4  ,soc41 vol4#f1         
pp4#fia-i4    ,taylor1 ,w4 ,s4          
,project methods in teacher-training    
courses4 ,sch4                    ,soc41
 vol4#h1 pp4#dhg-ij4    ,wieman1 ,h4 ,l4
    ,teaching the scientific method vs4 
teaching the                   facts of 
science4 ,sch4  ,soc41 vol4#c1          
pp4#bdc-e4    ,williams1 ,j4,t4         
,teacher training in colleges4  ,sch4   
,soc41 vol4#i1                          
pp4#aje-i4    ,winship1 ,a4 ,e4         
,prepare rather than train for teaching4
 ,n4 ,e4 ,a4                   ,report1 
#aiah1 pp4#bbb-f4    ----    ,research  
vs4 teaching4  ,sch4  ,soc41 vol4#aa1   
pp4 #fhd-e4    ----    ,research as a   
means of teacher training4 ,sch4  ,soc41
 vol4#c1                   pp4#bdc-e4   
----    ,reorganization of science in   
secondary schools4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep't4      
,interior1 ,bureau ,ed41 ,bull4#bf1     

#aibj4    ----    ,cardinal principles  
of secondary education4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep't4 
,interior1 ,bureau ,ed41 ,bull4#ce1     
#aiah4                ,twiss1           
,g4,r4--,principles of ,science         
,teaching4                              
,macmillan4 #aiag4                      
,,transcriber',s ,,notes   #a4 ,passages
 in underlines are surrounded by        
underscores4  #b4 ,tables have been     
moved from the middle of a paragraph to 
the closest paragraph break4  #c4 ,the  
original pages included corrections made
 by hand which have been retained in    
this e-text4  #d4 ,the following        
misprints have been corrected3          
intellegently corrected to intelligently
 7page #e7     basterial corrected to   
bacterial 7page #i7     would would     
corrected to would 7page #aa7     natuer
 corrected to nature 7page #ae7         
,abilty corrected to ,ability 7page #ag7
     ,baillet corrected to ,balliet     
7page #ag7     taht corrected to that   
7page #bb7     modificacations corrected

 to modifications 7page #bd7     succes 
corrected to success 7page #bf7     in  
corrected to ,in at start of sentence   
7page #bf7     fialures corrected to    
failures 7page #bf7     toworrow        
corrected to tomorrow 7page #bh7        
,teahcing corrected to ,teaching 7page  
#cj7  #e4 ,some of the punctuation      
errors1 e4g41 comma instead of period1  
extra period1 etc4 in the original have 
been silently corrected while those     
requiring interpretation have been left 
as such4  #f4 ,the titles listed in the 
table of contents do not match with the 
headings in the original text4 ,however1
 no changes have been made in this      
e-text for these mismatches4  #g4 ,other
 than the corrections listed above1     
printer's inconsistencies in spelling   
and punctuation have been retained4