,transcriber's ,note  ,music notation in
 this ebook is rendered using scientific
 pitch notation1 in which1 for example1 
middle ,c is rendered as ,c#d1 ,c below 
middle ,c is rendered as ,c#c1 and ,c   
above middle ,c is rendered as ,c#e1    
etc4 ,for more information on this      
notation method1 see                    
http3_/_/en4wikipedia4org_/wiki_/,scient
ificpitchnotation       ,,the ,,voice   
,its ,production1 ,care and             
,preservation     ,by   ,,frank ,e4     
,,miller1 ,m4 ,d4     ,with a ,note by  
,,gustav ,,kobb    ,,sixth ,,edition    
,,new ,,york3 ,g4 ,,schirmer   ,,boston3
 ,,boston ,,music ,,co4                 
,,copyright1 #aiaj   ,,by ,g4 ,,schirmer
     ,,note   ,dr4 ,frank ,e4 ,miller1  
the author of this book1 is one of the  
leading ,new ,york specialists on       
throat1 nose and ear4 ,he numbers many  
singers among his patients and is       
physician to the ,manhattan ,opera      
,house1 ,mr4 ,oscar ,hammerstein's      
company4  ,to expert knowledge of the   

physiology of the vocal organs he adds  
practical experience as a vocalist4     
,before and during his student years he 
was a singer and held1 among other      
positions1 that of tenor in one of the  
large ,new ,york churches4 ,this        
experience has been of great value to   
him in his practice among singers4 ,he  
understands them temperamentally as well
 as physically4 ,moreover1 it has led   
him1 in writing this book1 to consider  
questions of temperament as well as     
principles of physiology4 ,great as is  
the importance that he attaches to a    
correct physiological method of         
voice-production1 he makes full         
allowance for what may be called the    
psychological factors involved          
therein--mentality1 artistic            
temperament1 correct concept on the part
 of the singer of the pitch and quality 
of the tone to be produced1 etc4  ,above
 all1 ,dr4 ,miller1 while convinced that
 the tones of the vocal scale require1  
for their correct emission1 subtly      

corresponding changes of adjustment in  
the vocal organs1 utterly rejects       
anything like a deliberate or conscious 
attempt on the singer's part to bring   
about these adjustments4 ,he holds that 
they should occur automatically 7or     
subconsciously7 as the result1 in very  
rare instances1 of supreme natural      
gifts1 in others as a spontaneous       
sequence to properly developed artistry4
  ,in fact1 while based on accurate     
scientific knowledge1 ,dr4 ,miller's    
book also is the outcome of long        
observation and experience1 so that it  
might well be entitled ,the ,common     
,sense of ,singing4  ,,gustav ,,kobb4   
,,contents                              
,,page      ,,note                      
v      ,,chapter     ,i4   ,a ,,rational
 ,,vocal ,,method               #a      
,,chapter    ,,ii4   ,,the ,,choice ,,of
 ,a ,,teacher              #ae          
,,chapter   ,,iii4   ,,on ,,breathing3  
,,inspiration            #bg            
,,chapter    ,,iv4   ,,on ,,breathing3  

,,expiration             #di            
,,chapter     ,v4   ,,the ,,physiology  
,,and ,,psychology                      
,,of ,,voice-,,production               
#fg      ,,chapter    ,,vi4   ,,pitch   
,,and ,,sympathetic ,,vibration      #hi
      ,,chapter   ,,vii4   ,,registers  
,,of ,,the ,,voice              #ajc    
,,chapter  ,,viii4   ,,subdivisions ,,of
 ,,the ,,voice           #aag           
,,chapter    ,,ix4   ,,the ,,stroke ,,of
 ,,the ,,glottis           #acb         
,,chapter     ,x4   ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the
 ,,voice                #adg            
,,chapter    ,,xi4   ,,more ,,vocal     
,,hygiene                  #afi         
,,chapter   ,,xii4   ,,nodes ,,and      
,,their ,,cure                #ahb      
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,the ,,throat
 ,,and ,,adjoining ,,structures  #a1    
,larynx4 #b1 ,epiglottis4 #c1 ,lower    
,pharynx4 #d1 ,lips4 #e1 ,teeth4 #f1    
,tongue4 #g1 ,mouth 7,oral ,cavity74 #h1
 ,uvula and ,soft ,palate4 #i1 ,hard    
,palate4 #aj1 ,upper ,pharynx4 #aa1     

,nasal ,cavities4 #ab1 ,nose4  ,a1      
,arytenoid ,cartilage4 ,c1 ,cricoid     
,cartilage4 ,t1 ,thyroid ,cartilage4 ,w1
 ,windpipe4 ,x1 ,adam's ,apple4         
,,chapter ,i  ,a ,,rational ,,vocal     
,,method   ,song1 so far as             
voice-production is concerned1 is the   
result of physiological action1 and as  
voice-production is the basis of all    
song1 it follows that a singing method1 
to be correct1 must be based on the     
correct physiological use of the vocal  
organs4 ,the physiology of              
voice-production lies1 therefore1 at the
 very foundation of artistic singing4   
,the proper physiological basis for a   
singing method having been laid1        
something else1 something highly        
important1 remains to be superimposed4  
,voice is physical4 ,but everything that
 colors voice1 charging it with emotion1
 giving it its peculiar quality and     
making it different from other voices1  
is largely1 although not wholly1 the    
result of a psychical control--a control

 not exercised mysteriously from        
without1 like ,svengali's over ,trilby1 
but by the singer himself from within4  
,every singer is his own mesmerist1 or  
he has mistaken his vocation4 ,for while
 voice is a physical manifestation1 its 
atmosphere1 its emotional thrill and    
charm1 is a psychical one--the result of
 the individual's thought and feeling1  
acting unconsciously or1 better still1  
subconsciously1 on that physical thing1 
the voice4  ,between the two1 however1  
between mind and body1 there lies1 like 
a borderland of fancy1 yet most real1   
the nervous system1 crossed and         
recrossed by the most delicate1 the most
 sensitive filaments ever spun1         
filaments that touch1 caress1 or        
permeate each and every muscle concerned
 in voice-production1 calling them into 
play with the rapidity of mental        
telegraphy4 ,over this network of nerves
 the mind1 or--if you prefer to call it 
so--the artistic sense1 sends its       
messages1 and it is the nerves and      

muscles working in harmony that results 
in a correct production of the voice4   
,so important1 indeed1 is the coperation
 of the nervous system1 that it is a    
question whether the whole psychology of
 song may not be referred to it--whether
 the degree of emotional thrill1 in     
different voices1 may not be the result 
of greater or less sensitiveness in the 
nervous system of different singers4    
,this might explain why some very       
beautiful voices lack emotional quality4
 ,in such singers the physical action of
 the vocal organs and of all the        
resonance cavities of the head may be   
perfect1 but the nerves are not         
sufficiently sensitive to the emotion   
which the song is intended to express1  
and so fail to carry it to the voice4   
,immense progress has been made in      
anatomical research1 and in no other    
branch more than in the study of the    
throat and of the larynx1 which is the  
voice-box of the human body4 ,there also
 has been a great advance in the study  

of metaphysics4 ,it would seem high     
time1 therefore1 that both the results  
of modern anatomical study and the      
deductions of advanced psychological    
research1 should be recognized in the   
use of that subtle and beautiful thing1 
the human voice1 which in its ultimate  
quality is a combination of             
physiological and psychological         
phenomena--the physical1 voice-producing
 organs acting within and for           
themselves1 but also being acted upon by
 a series of suggestive impulses from   
the mind and soul1 countless in number  
and variety4 ,indeed1 one might say that
 while in singing the vocal organs are  
the first essential1 they must1 in order
 to achieve their full effect1 be in    
tune with the infinite4 ,artistic       
singing involves complete physiological 
control of the voice-producing function1
 combined with complete command of the  
metaphysical resources of art4 ,thus    
only can voice be produced with that    
apparent spontaneity which we call      

artistic1 and at the same time be       
charged with the emotional quality which
 gives it individual significance4      
,these two factors of voice-production1 
the physical and the psychical1 should  
be recognized both by the teacher and by
 the student in striving to develop the 
voice1 and by the physician who seeks to
 restore an impaired voice to its       
pristine quality4 ,the substitution by  
teachers of various methods1 originated 
by themselves1 for the natural          
physiological method to which the vocal 
organs become self-adjusted and for the 
correct processes of auto-suggestion    
originating within the well-taught      
singer himself1 is the cause of most    
ruined voices4 ,the physician who       
realizes this will1 in treating an      
impaired voice1 know how to maintain the
 proper balance between the two         
factors--between medicine and surgery on
 the one hand and considerations of     
temperament and mentality on the other4 
,there have been written books on       

voice-method of which be natural is the 
slogan2 books on the physiology of      
voice-production1 in which1 as far as   
the singer is concerned1 too much       
importance is attached to the results of
 laryngoscopic examination2 and books on
 the psychology of voice-production in  
which the other factors are wholly      
neglected4 ,none of these three         
varieties of book1 however1 covers the  
ground1 but each only a part of it4 ,the
 three--nature1 physiology and          
psychology--must be combined in any book
 that professes to offer a synthetic    
method of voice-production4  ,it is     
possible that knowledge of the structure
 of the vocal organs is of more         
importance to the physician and to the  
teacher than to the singer himself1 and 
that too constant thought of them might 
distract the latter's attention from the
 product to the machine1 from the       
quality of voice to be produced to the  
vocal apparatus producing it4           
,nevertheless1 some knowledge of the    

organs which he brings into play in     
singing cannot fail to be helpful to the
 vocalist himself1 and surely their     
importance to the teacher of singing and
 to the physician who has an impaired   
voice to restore cannot be              
overestimated4 ,correct teaching1 in    
fact1 directs the mind to the end1 and  
by taking into account the physical     
parts concerned in singing1 imparts to  
them the habit of unconsciously obeying 
natural laws4 ,singing may not be a     
question of how a distorted throat looks
 in an oblique mirror1 yet the knowledge
 that1 because a note is faultily       
produced1 the throat must be distorted1 
and how1 will be of great service to the
 teacher who wishes to correct the      
fault1 and indispensable to the         
physician who wishes to eradicate the   
results of a bad method4 ,the very first
 principle of a vocal method should be1 
to establish so correct a use of the    
vocal organs that nature in this respect
 becomes second nature4 ,for correct    

action of the voice-organs can develop  
into a habit so perfectly acquired that 
the singer acts upon it automatically2  
and the most disastrous result of poor  
teaching is that a bad habit also       
becomes second nature and is almost     
impossible to eradicate4  ,there seems  
to be no question but that the old      
,italian masters of singing1 whether    
knowingly or unknowingly1 taught        
according to correct physiological      
principles1 and that1 because of a      
neglect of these principles since then1 
while there has been a general advance  
in everything else1 the art of          
voice-production actually has           
retrograded4 ,for not only did the old  
,italian masters understand the voice in
 its physical aspects2 they also        
insisted1 because they understood it so 
well1 on a course of voice-training     
which lasted long enough to give the    
pupil complete ease and entire control  
of technic4 ,the story of the famous    
master1 ,porpora1 and his equally famous

 pupil1 ,caffarelli1 is worth recalling4
 ,on a single sheet of music paper      
,porpora wrote all the feats of which   
the voice is capable1 and from that one 
sheet ,caffarelli studied with him five1
 some say six years4 ,then the great    
master dismissed him with these words3  
,go1 my son1 ,i have nothing more to    
teach you2 you are the greatest singer  
in ,italy and in the world4 ,in our own 
hurried days the teacher is only too    
apt1 after a few months1 or even after  
only a few weeks1 to say3 ,go1 my dear4 
,you know enough4 ,you are pretty to    
look at1 and you'll make a hit6 ,for1   
curiously enough1 while the student of  
the pianoforte or the violin still will 
devote years to acquiring perfection    
upon it1 a person who thinks himself    
gifted with a voice expects to become a 
singer with a year or two of            
instruction1 possibly even after        
studying only a few months4 ,yet the    
apparatus concerned in voice-production 
is a most delicate one1 and1 being      

easily ruined when incorrectly used1    
haste in learning how to use it not only
 is absurd but criminal--voice-murder1  
in fact4  ,it has been said that one    
error of the old ,italian method was    
that it concerned itself only with      
beautiful tone-production1 whereas real 
singing is the vitalization of words by 
emotion4 ,but the vitalization of words 
by emotion may well follow upon         
beautiful tone-production and1 though in
 the case of the old ,italians this     
undoubtedly was aided by the smoothly   
flowing quality of the ,italian         
language1 a singer1 properly taught1    
should be able to sing beautifully in   
any tongue4  ,besides haste1 one great  
danger to-day to the art of singing1 and
 especially to the art of beautiful     
tone-production1 which lies at the root 
of all beautiful singing1 is the modern 
worship of individualism1 of the ability
 of a person simply to do things        
differently from some one else1 instead 
of more artistically1 so that we are    

beginning to attach more importance to  
whims and personality than to observance
 of the canons of true art4 ,it is only 
when the individual has supreme         
intelligence1 that any such disregard of
 what constitutes true art should be    
tolerated4 ,henry ,irving1 for example1 
was extraordinarily effective in certain
 rles1 while in others his acting was   
atrocious4 ,but even in these latter    
there was intellect behind what he did1 
and the spectator became so interested  
in observing his manner of striving for 
an effect1 that he forgave him for      
falling short of what he strove for4    
,but this is a very exceptional and a   
very dangerous kind of precedent4 ,art  
ever is more honored in the observance  
than in the breach4 ,yet its breach     
often is honored by modern audiences1   
and especially operatic audiences1      
because they tend to rate temperament   
too high and art too low1 and to        
tolerate singers whose voice-production 
is atrocious1 simply because their      

temperament or personality interests    
them4 ,take a case in point3 ,the       
,croatian prima donna1 ,milka ,ternina1 
whose art ranges from ,tosca to ,isolde1
 sings 7in ,tosca7 the invocation to the
 ,virgin which precedes the killing of  
,scarpia1 with a wealth of voice        
combined with a power of dramatic       
expression that simply is overwhelming2 
and she acts the scene of the killing   
with sufficient realism to raise her    
entire performance to the highest level 
of vocal dramatic art4 ,an ,italian     
prima donna who has been heard in the   
same rle at the same opera house sings  
the invocation wretchedly1 but acts the 
following scene1 the killing of         
,scarpia1 with startling realism4 ,she  
wins applause for her performance1 as   
much applause as the other1 which shows 
that an operatic audience will not only 
tolerate1 but even applaud a singer who 
substitutes physical attractions1       
temperament and a peculiar wriggle of   
the spinal column for beautiful voice   

and correct method4  ,we all possess    
voice-mechanism1 and possibly there is  
no other physical apparatus that is     
misused so much4 ,americans misuse it   
even in speech2 yet what a valuable     
possession is an agreeable and pleasant 
speaking-voice4 ,this abuse of the vocal
 organs by the great majority of        
,americans makes the establishment of a 
correct method of voice-production in   
this country all the more desirable4    
,yet1 what do we find here8 ,almost any 
charlatan can set up as a               
singing-teacher1 and this despite the   
fact that the voice-mechanism is a most 
delicate and subtle structure1 and that 
a slight physical disturbance or wrong  
use of it seriously affects the quality 
of the voice produced4  ,had ,i not been
 a singer before ,i became a physician1 
,i might not realize the part that      
nature1 properly guided1 plays in the   
use of the voice4 ,had ,i remained a    
singer and not become a physician1 ,i   
might not realize how important an aid  

in properly guiding nature in the use of
 the voice is a scientific knowledge of 
the action of the voice-producing       
organs4 ,had ,i not been a singer and   
were not now a physician1 ,i might not  
realize the influence upon the artist's 
physical well-being1 and especially upon
 that delicate apparatus1 the           
voice-mechanism1 of temperament1 mental 
condition and other purely metaphysical 
factors4 ,this book1 then1 while it     
believes in consulting nature1 does not 
believe in that natural method which    
simply tells you to stand up and sing2  
nor does it believe in that             
physiological method which instructs you
 to plant yourself in front of a mirror 
and examine your throat with a          
laryngoscope2 nor in advising you to    
follow minutely the publications of the 
,society for ,psychological ,research4  
,it believes in a synthetic cordination 
of the three4 ,in my practice ,i have   
become convinced that every impairment  
of the voice is due to outraged nature1 

resulting in a physiological condition  
of the vocal organs that should not     
exist1 and1 in turn1 inducing a         
psychological condition1 such as worry  
and despondency1 which also should not  
exist4 ,by discovering with the aid of  
the laryngoscope the physiological      
defect and removing it1 body1 and1 with 
it1 mind and voice are restored to their
 proper condition4 ,but if the singer   
goes back to a teacher whose method is  
wrong1 the same impairment1 or even     
worse1 will result4  ,jean de ,reszke is
 a perfect example of how a singer can  
develop his voice when he turns from a  
wrong method to a right one4 ,this      
celebrated tenor actually thought he was
 a baritone1 and so did his teacher4 ,he
 was trained as a baritone1 made his    
dbut in a baritone rle and sang as a    
baritone for several years4 ,but he     
experienced great fatigue in singing1   
much greater fatigue than seemed proper 
or necessary4 ,this led him eventually  
to have his voice tested by another     

teacher1 who discovered that he was a   
tenor4 ,singing with the wrong voice1   
which also means with a wrong method1   
had exhausted him4 ,as a tenor his      
beautiful voice-production1 based on a  
correct physiological method1 made him  
equally at home and equally at ease in  
rles making the most opposite demands   
upon his powers4 ,he sang equally well  
in ,gounod and ,wagner2 and in ,wagner1 
whether he was singing the young        
,siegfried1 ,siegfried of               
,gtterdmmerung1 or ,tristan4  ,the      
proper cordination of all the parts of  
the physical vocal apparatus with the   
powers of mind and emotion1 is what in  
the end constitutes the perfect singer1 
and that proper cordination has1 as its 
first basis1 a due regard for the       
physiology of voice-production as well1 
of course1 as for the general rules of  
health4 ,in ,gilbert and ,sullivan's    
,mikado1 ,nanki ,poo1 hearing a tomtit  
by the river reiterating a colorless tit
 willow1 asks the bird if its foolish   

song is due to a feeble mind or a       
careless diet4      ,is it weakness of  
intellect1       ,birdie1 ,i cried1     
,or a rather tough worm       ,in your  
little inside8   ,but all that the dear 
little birdie replied1   ,was1 ,willow1 
,tit ,willow1 ,tit ,willow4             
,colloquially expressed1 what ,mr4      
,nanki ,poo asked the bird was as       
follows3 ,being gifted by nature with a 
perfect larynx1 which should enable you 
to sing beautifully1 do you confine     
yourself to singing a colorless ',tit   
,willow' because you don't know any     
better1 or because you are attempting to
 sing on top of an improperly selected  
meal8 ,in other words1 he put violation 
of the laws of hygiene by a singer on a 
par with idiocy4 ,thus1 even from comic 
opera1 in the performance of which most 
of the rules of vocal art are violated1 
one yet may gather certain truths--by   
listening to the words--provided the    
singers know enough to enunciate them   
distinctly4  ,the physiology of         

voice-production not only offers a      
rational method1 it also enables the    
student to guide his own development1 to
 advance his physical welfare1 and1     
because he knows the why and wherefore  
of things vocal1 to perceive what is    
best in the performance of others and to
 profit by it4 ,moreover1 correct method
 of voice-production is in itself a     
health developer1 and a singer who is   
taught by it often is able to overcome  
the disadvantages of a poor physique2   
while a singer1 originally of strong    
physique1 may find himself physically   
weakened by the use of a faulty method4 
,as between a person who employs a      
beautiful voice artistically and a      
person who sings less beautifully1      
relying chiefly on interesting          
personality and temperament1 instead of 
on correct method1 the former singer    
usually long outlasts the latter4 ,in   
other words1 genuine vocal art is the   
crowning glory of a naturally beautiful 
voice4     ,,chapter ,,ii  ,,the        

,,choice ,,of ,a ,,teacher   ,further   
observations of a general character may 
be allowed to precede a more detailed   
consideration of method4  ,some people  
wonder why a person who is gifted with  
voice simply can't get up and sing      
without any instruction4 ,the reason is 
that voice is an instrument2 a natural1 
human instrument1 it is true1 yet one in
 the use of which the fortunate         
possessor requires practice and         
training4 ,the purpose of a             
singing-method is to produce a perfect  
cordination of all parts of the human   
voice-producing mechanism1 an apparatus 
which is by no means simple but1 in     
fact1 rather intricate and complicated4 
,it will be found1 for example1 that    
such a natural function of life as      
breathing has to be especially adapted  
to the requirements of the singing      
voice2 that breathing such as suffices  
for the average person will not suffice 
for correct voice-production4 ,again1 in
 every voice certain notes are better   

than others1 and a correct method of    
voice-production1 while it may not be   
able to make every note in the range of 
voice of equal quality1 brings the whole
 voice up to a more even standard of    
excellence4 ,it leaves the best notes as
 good as ever and brings the notes which
 naturally are not so satisfactory1     
nearer the standard of the best4 ,the   
great singers1 in addition to natural   
aptitude1 remain students throughout    
their careers4  ,there are certain      
fundamental principles in a correct     
method of voice-production1 for it is   
based upon study and knowledge of the   
organs concerned therein4 ,but if the   
method were a hard-and-fast one1 it     
would not be correct4 ,for there are so 
many individual differences1 physical   
and temperamental1 between pupils1 that 
there must be elasticity and            
adaptability in a method that claims to 
produce the best results4  ,knowledge   
and experience should be combined in a  
teacher4 ,garcia wrote a voice-manual2  

and ,tosi published a method as far back
 as #agbc4 ,but a teacher who has bought
 a translation of the ,trait complet de 
l',art de ,chant by no means is a second
 ,garcia1 nor has a teacher who chances 
to have read ,tosi's book a right to set
 himself up as an instructor of singing 
after the old ,italian method4 ,the old 
,italians1 like ,tosi and ,porpora1 were
 men of great practical experience in   
teaching1 and they understood how to    
adapt method to individual needs4       
,consciously or unconsciously1 their    
method was physiological--the           
fundamental principles of the physiology
 of voice-production were there2 but    
these great teachers knew that          
individual differences had to be allowed
 for and that a singing-method is not a 
shoemaker's last4  ,sometimes1 indeed1  
it is the pupil who makes the master4   
,one of those born singers1 man or      
woman1 whom ,nature has endowed with    
superlative gifts and whom some unknown 
yet meritorious teacher1 perhaps in     

,america1 has started aright1 goes      
abroad and1 after a while1 comes forth1 
not made1 but fortunately not marred1   
from a foreign vocal studio and enters  
upon a great career--and the foreign    
teacher's fame becomes international4   
,the real foundation for that career may
 have been laid in an ,american city4   
,but ambitious young ,americans1 instead
 of seeking out that teacher1 will flock
 to the foreign one4  ,in such matters  
we are the most gullible people on the  
face of the earth4 ,an ,italian1 now    
dead1 but in his day the most           
high-priced singing-teacher in ,london1 
used to devote the greater part of his  
lesson periods to telling his pupils how
 fond certain members of the ,english   
,royal family were of him and to        
pointing out the souvenirs of their     
favor which he had displayed in his     
studio4 ,yet1 doubtless1 his pupils     
thought that1 all the while they were   
listening to his chatter1 they were     
taking lessons in voice-production6     

,americans dearly love a foreign name1  
and especially an ,italian one1 when it 
comes to selecting a singing-teacher4   
,but all is not gold that glitters1 and 
the fact that a teacher writes ,signor  
before his name does not necessarily    
signify that he is ,italian1 but often  
only that he would like people to       
believe he is1 because there is a       
foolish belief that every ,italian      
teaches the old ,italian method4 ,the   
famous ,mme4 ,marchesi1 in spite of her 
name1 is not ,italian4 ,she acquired it 
by marriage to ,salvatore ,marchesi1 an 
,italian baritone4 ,before that she was 
,frulein ,mathilde ,graumann1 a concert 
singer of ,frankfort-on-the-,main2 and  
sometimes ,i wonder whether1 if she had 
remained ,frulein ,mathilde ,graumann1  
she ever would have become the famous   
teacher she is4 ,but ,marchesi she is1  
and famous2 and ,i do not doubt justly  
so4 ,yet even the pupils of so famous a 
teacher differ regarding the value of   
her method4 ,thus ,melba never fails to 

sing her praises4 ,on the other hand1   
,emma ,eames1 knowing that she was      
speaking for publication and that a     
stenographer was taking down her words1 
said3 ,mme4 ,marchesi is a thoroughly   
good musician4 ,any one who goes to her 
with an established voice can learn a   
great deal from her in the              
interpretation of many rles4 ,she is an 
admirable teacher of expression and of  
the general conception of a character4  
,as a drillmaster she is altogether     
admirable4 ,she teaches you the value of
 utilizing your time1 and she makes you 
take a serious view of your work1 which 
is important1 for hardly an ,american   
girl who goes to her has an idea of     
studying seriously4 ,she also is capital
 at languages4 ,but when it comes to    
voice-development1 ,i consider that she 
fails4 ,my voice naturally was broad and
 heavy4 ,after the end of the first two 
years' study with her ,i could not sing 
,a without difficulty4 ,she did not seem
 to know how to make my voice light4 ,it

 was getting heavier and less flexible  
all the time4  ,some years ago ,mme4    
,marchesi's daughter1 ,mme4 ,blanche    
,marchesi1 appeared on the concert stage
 in ,new ,york4 ,as the daughter and    
pupil from childhood of her famous      
mother1 she was supposed to be an ideal 
exponent of the ,marchesi method4       
,professional singers and instructors   
flocked to her first concert4 ,it was to
 be an experience1 an object-lesson4    
,well--it was4 ,they saw a fine-looking 
woman with a mediocre voice and a worse 
method1 a method so hopelessly bad that 
even her undoubted musicianship could   
not atone for it4  ,all this goes to    
prove that a method1 to be elastic and  
adaptable1 should be based on a         
knowledge of the physiology of the      
voice-producing organs1 for such a      
method naturally adapts itself to       
physical differences in different       
individuals4 ,without doubt ,mme4       
,marchesi's method was admirably adapted
 to ,melba1 but not to ,eames or to her 

own daughter4  ,bear these circumstances
 in mind in selecting a teacher4 ,the   
great singers are not always safe guides
 in the choice of a teacher1 because    
their own superlative gifts and         
willingness to slave for the object of  
their ambition may have been as         
important factors in their success as   
the instruction they received4 ,probably
 a singer of only fair natural gifts who
 yet has made a success--which shows    
that he must have been well taught--can 
give better advice as to the choice of  
an instructor than the great artist who 
owes so much to himself4 ,moreover1     
great artists who have studied with the 
same teacher will1 like ,melba and      
,eames1 differ in their estimate of that
 teacher4  ,there is1 however1 one great
 singer1 ,lillian ,nordica1 who knows to
 whom to give credit for that skill in  
voice-production which enables her to   
sing ,valentine1 ,aida and ,isolde with 
equal success4 ,the foundation for her  
career was laid in this country4        

,afterward she studied with ,mme4       
,maretzek and in ,milan with ,san       
,giovanni1 but only interpretation4 ,her
 voice-production she acquired not from 
,madame this or ,signor that1 but from  
plain ,john ,o',neill1 of ,boston1 a    
scholarly man who had made a profound   
study of the physiology of the voice1   
and she took good care not to allow any 
other teacher1 however famous1 to undo  
the work of the man who had taught her  
voice-production based on correct       
knowledge of the physiology of the      
voice-producing organs4  ,this matter of
 choosing a teacher is1 of course1 of   
the greatest importance1 but it barely  
can be touched on in this book4 ,the    
selection should be made most           
cautiously1 but1 once made1 the pupil's 
parents should not go to the teacher a  
few weeks later and ask1 ,why don't you 
give ,clara some 'pieces'8 ,they should 
recall the story of ,porpora and        
,caffarelli which ,i related in the     
previous chapter4 ,pieces are not in    

order until the voice is prepared for   
them1 and the teacher is the best judge 
of that4 ,a voice trained on pieces soon
 goes to pieces4  ,another mistaken idea
 is that any teacher is good enough for 
a beginner1 whereas the beginning is the
 very time that the foundation of right 
method or wrong method is laid4         
,classifying the voice is1 of itself1 of
 great importance4 ,remember that ,jean 
de ,reszke's first teacher thought he   
was a baritone and that he sang as a    
baritone in opera for five years before 
a more competent teacher discovered that
 he was really a tenor4 ,some voices are
 so near the dividing line that it      
requires wide experience and a fine ear 
for quality on the part of a teacher to 
determine in what direction they should 
be developed to greatest advantage4 ,a  
fine ear may determine that the seeming 
mezzo is a true soprano1 that the notes 
of the pupil who comes as a baritone    
have the tenor quality and that his     
scale safely can be added to1 while the 

would-be tenor has the baritone timbre  
which will prevent his notes from ever  
ringing out with the true tenor quality4
 ,yes1 this initial task of voice       
classification is far too important to  
be entrusted to any teacher4  ,there are
 piano-thumping teachers of voice1 who  
not having voices themselves are obliged
 to give their pupils the pitch of each 
note by pounding it out on the          
pianoforte4 ,voice quality has nothing  
in common with pianoforte quality of    
tone1 yet constant thumping of the      
pianoforte by a singing-teacher in order
 to give the pupil the pitch1 is apt to 
mix pianoforte color into a pupil's     
voice and mar its translucent vocal     
quality4 ,a teacher need not be a fine  
singer--few vocal teachers are--but1 at 
least1 he should be able to give pitch  
vocally and to suggest with sufficient  
definition the quality of tone the pupil
 is to produce4  ,at what age should    
singing-lessons begin8 ,some say the    
earlier the better4 ,others hold that1  

under no circumstances1 should a boy or 
girl be taught to sing before the age of
 puberty1 before the voice has mutated4 
,those who believe that singing can be  
taught in childhood and safely continued
 even during the critical period of     
mutation1 point out that the muscles of 
the voice-producing organs are most     
flexible and adapt themselves most      
easily to the task in hand during       
childhood and that the process of       
training them had best begin then1 and  
that1 with proper care1 the lessons can 
be continued during the period of       
mutation4  ,my own opinion is that this 
period is so critical and proper care is
 so apt not to be taken1 that the safest
 rule is not to begin singing-lessons   
until the adult voice undisputably has  
arrived4 ,so many voices have been      
ruined by lack of care during mutation  
that it is better no risk should be     
taken4 ,but why not1 it may be asked1   
have the child taught and1 when the     
period of mutation arrives1 have the    

lessons suspended8 ,there would be no   
harm in this1 excepting that here again 
is run the risk that proper care will   
not be taken to stop soon enough and    
that the career of a possibly fine      
singer may be ruined4 ,it has happened  
again and again that voices have been   
lost irretrievably or impaired          
permanently by careless use of them     
during the change from youth to manhood4
 ,therefore1 and also because the       
muscles remain limber and flexible in   
young people for some years after they  
have arrived at puberty1 ,i advise that 
singing-lessons should not begin until  
the period of mutation is well over4    
,sir ,morell ,mackenzie1 after stating  
that the doctrine long has been held    
universally that not only should        
systematic training be interrupted1 but 
singing altogether forbidden during that
 critical period1 nevertheless          
maintained that if due care is exercised
 there is no reason why the voice should
 not be used in singing during the      

transition period3 but the training must
 be carried out within certain limits   
and under strict supervision by a       
competent person4 ,but there is so much 
risk that due care will not be          
exercised1 that those certain limits    
will be overstepped1 that the strict    
supervision will be relaxed or not      
exercised by a competent person1 that ,i
 strongly advise not to begin lessons   
until the period of change is over4  ,in
 this view ,i am supported by ,garcia1  
who took sharp issue with ,mackenzie4   
,my father1 wrote ,garcia1 went through 
the transition time without ceasing to  
sing1 and without having done himself   
the least harm4 ,but both my sisters1   
,mesdames ,malibran and ,viardot1 were  
obliged to wait a year4 ,i continued to 
sing1 and my voice was ruined6          
,continuing1 ,garcia says that the old  
rule which has preserved so many        
voices--that singing should cease       
altogether during mutation--should not  
be thrust aside on account of some rare 

exceptions1 and young singers be handed 
over to the doubtful caprice of ignorant
 or careless teachers4 ,a person might  
with due care and strict supervision    
live in a plague-stricken city without  
contracting the disease1 but one would  
not recommend his going there for his   
health4 ,why deliberately expose the    
voice to danger of loss or permanent    
impairment by advising that it can be   
used with safety during the period of   
transition8 ,far better to be on the    
safe side1 wait until manhood or        
womanhood is definitely established1 and
 then begin lessons as soon as possible4
     ,,chapter ,,iii  ,,on ,,breathing3 
,,inspiration   ,we speak of the breath 
of life2 and breath is the life of song4
 ,beautiful singing is predicated upon  
correct methods of breathing1 without   
which1 though there be a perfect larynx 
and perfectly formed resonance chambers 
above1 the result will be               
unsatisfactory4 ,breathing1 in fact1 is 
the foundation of the art of singing4   

,breathing consists of taking air into  
the lungs and expelling it again1 or as 
the physiologist would say1 respiration 
consists of inspiration and expiration4 
,although they are essentially different
 actions1 the laws governing each       
frequently have been confused by        
teachers of voice-culture4  ,there are  
books in which the singer is told to    
breathe naturally1 and this direction is
 harped on and extolled for its         
simplicity4 ,surely no rule could be    
more simple2 and1 so far as simplicity  
goes1 it is admirable4 ,so far also as  
it casts doubt upon various             
breathing-methods which teachers of     
singing put forth as their own          
individual and pet devices1 without     
which1 they claim1 aspirants for the    
concert and operatic stage would be     
hopelessly lost1 this direction serves a
 useful purpose4 ,the trouble with it   
is1 however1 that it is too simple4 ,it 
does not go far enough4 ,it leaves too  
much to the individual4 ,for obviously  

there will be1 if not as many1 certainly
 nearly as many opinions among as many  
different people as to what constitutes 
natural breathing2 and a person may have
 become so habituated to a faulty method
 of breathing that he believes it       
natural1 although it is not4  ,correct  
breathing1 although a function of the   
body1 also is an art4 ,the method of a  
singer to be correct should be based on 
artistic1 not merely on natural1        
breathing4 ,for while all artistic      
breathing is natural1 it does not follow
 that all natural breathing is artistic4
 ,therefore1 the first direction to a   
singer should be1 breathe artistically1 
with some definition of what constitutes
 artistic breathing4  ,could the singer 
be relied on to breathe as naturally and
 unconsciously as in normal slumber1    
when the body is in a state of calm1    
nearly everything that has been written 
on the art of singing could be dispensed
 with4 ,that1 practically1 is what the  
direction to breathe naturally amounts  

to4 ,for such breathing is both natural 
and artistic4 ,unfortunately1 however1 a
 singer is not a somnambulist1 and when 
he faces his teacher1 or a large        
audience1 he not only is not in that    
deliciously unconscious state induced by
 normal slumber1 but he is very much    
awake1 with the added tension caused by 
nervousness and excitement4 ,he is      
conscious1 self-conscious in the        
artistic sense1 unless he has been      
trained to appear otherwise4 ,for1 in   
the final analysis1 that lack of        
self-consciousness1 that ease and       
spontaneity which we associate with the 
highest art1 is1 save in the case of a  
few superlatively gifted individuals1   
the result of method and training4      
,therefore1 the direction to breathe    
naturally is begging the question4 ,it  
states a result1 without explaining how 
it is to be acquired4 ,once acquired1   
method is merged into habit and habit   
into seeming instinct--that is to say1  
it becomes method1 responding so        

spontaneously to the slightest          
suggestion of the will1 that only the   
perfected result of it is apparent to   
the listener4 ,under such favorable     
conditions created by a correct method  
of instruction1 the nervousness         
inseparable from a dbut1 and in many    
singers never wholly overcome even after
 frequent public appearances1 is        
disguised by an assumption of calm1 into
 which the poise and aspect of a trained
 singer naturally fall4 ,all this is    
much facilitated by the fundamental     
acquisition of correct breathing4  ,this
 correct breathing1 which is the        
artistic respiration of the accomplished
 singer1 is based upon physiological    
laws which can be described1 prescribed 
and practised4 ,when ,salvatore         
,marchesi1 the husband of ,mathilde     
,marchesi1 and himself a famous singer1 
said that prepared or instructed        
mechanical effort to get more breath    
results in less1 he said what is true   
only if the instruction is wrong4 ,his  

dictum1 if accepted unreservedly1 would 
leave the door open to all kinds of     
natural1 haphazard and go-as-you-please 
methods of breathing1 the simplicity of 
which consists in simply being          
incorrect4 ,the physiology of breathing 
is an exact science1 and the singer who 
is taught its laws and obeys them1 will 
acquire in due time the habit of        
artistic respiration4 ,it is that       
breathing that is as natural and        
unconscious as in normal slumber1 so    
natural in fact that it has to be       
acquired through correct instruction1   
because most men and women are unnatural
 or have taken on habits that are       
unnatural4  ,taking in the breath1 the  
function of inspiration1 results in a   
readjustment of certain organs which    
become disadjusted by the act of        
expiration or outbreathing4 ,in general 
it may be said that the singer should   
breathe with the least possible         
disadjustment1 so that only the least   
possible readjustment will be needed and

 the effort of breathing be minimized4  
,nature herself is economical1 and the  
singer should economize the resources of
 breath4 ,to breathe easily and without 
a waste of energy is essential to the   
best art1 and gives a feeling to the    
listener that the singer1 whose work he 
has enjoyed1 has even more in reserve   
than he has given out4 ,that sense of   
reserve force is one of the greatest    
triumphs of art4 ,it is largely the     
result of effortless breathing1 in which
 it is not necessary or even desirable  
that the singer always should strive to 
fill the lungs to the utmost1 since that
 induces an obvious effort which        
diminishes the listener's enjoyment4    
,moreover1 effort goes against the      
economy of nature4 ,by keeping this in  
mind and by the use of correct methods1 
the singer will be able1 in time1 to    
gauge the amount of breath he requires  
for the tone he is about to produce or  
the phrase he is about to deliver1 and  
the natural demand of the lungs will    

become his guide4  ,it is essential to  
correct breathing that the organs of the
 tract through which the breath passes  
in and out should at least be known4    
,they include the mouth1 nose1 larynx1  
trachea 7or windpipe71 the bronchial    
tubes and the lungs4 ,a narrow slit in  
the larynx1 called the glottis1 and     
where the vocal cords are located1 leads
 into the windpipe1 a pliable tube      
composed of a series of rings of gristly
 or cartilaginous substance4 ,the       
bronchial tubes are tree-like branches  
of the windpipe1 and extend to the      
lungs1 which are extremely elastic and1 
upon being filled with air1 become      
inflated and expand somewhat like a     
balloon4 ,it is necessary that in taking
 in breath and expelling it1 this       
natural apparatus should be under the   
singer's control and that no undue force
 should be exerted upon the whole or    
upon any part of it1 since this would   
result in its physical impairment and a 
corresponding impairment in production  

and quality of voice4 ,it cannot be     
emphasized too often that the scientific
 method of voice-production based on the
 study of the physiology of the vocal   
tract is not a fad2 as is proved by the 
fact that every violation of physical   
law affecting the vocal tract results in
 injury to it and in the same proportion
 affects the efficiency of the voice4   
,before considering various methods of  
breathing it should be said that1       
irrespective of these1 air should1      
whenever it is possible to do so1 be    
taken into the lungs through the        
nostrils and not through the mouth4     
,true1 there are times in singing when  
breath has to be taken so rapidly that  
mouth-breathing is a necessity1 as      
otherwise the inspiration would not be  
rapid enough4 ,but to inspire through   
the nostrils1 whenever feasible1 is a   
law not alone for the singer1 but a     
fundamental law of health4 ,in the      
passage from the mouth to the lungs     
there is no provision for sifting the   

air1 for freeing it from foreign matter1
 or for warming it if it is too cold2   
whereas the nostrils appear to have been
 designed for this very purpose4 ,their 
narrow and winding channels are covered 
with bristly hairs which filter or sift 
and arrest the dust and other impurities
 in the air2 and in the channels of the 
nostrils and back of them the air is    
warmed or sufficiently tempered before  
it reaches the lungs4 ,moreover it can  
be felt that the lungs fill more readily
 when air is taken in through the       
nostrils than when inspiration takes    
place through the mouth4 ,that breath   
should be taken in through the nostrils 
is1 like all rules in the correct       
physiology of voice-production1 deduced 
from incontrovertible physical facts4   
,it is1 moreover1 preventive of many    
affections of the lungs1 bronchial tubes
 and throat4  ,three methods of         
breathing usually are recognized in     
books on singing--but there should be   
only one4 ,for only one method is       

correct and that really is a combination
 of the three4 ,these three are called1 
respectively1 clavicular1 abdominal or  
diaphragmatic1 and costal2 clavicular1  
because it employs a forced movement of 
the clavicle or collar-bone accompanied 
by a perceptible raising of the         
shoulder-blades2 abdominal or           
diaphragmatic1 because breathing by this
 method involves an effort of the       
diaphragm and of the abdominal muscles2 
and costal1 which consists of an elastic
 expansion and gentle contraction of the
 ribs1 the term costal signifying       
pertaining to the ribs4  ,let me say    
right here1 subject to further          
explanation1 that neither of these      
methods by itself is complete for       
voice-production and that the correct   
method of breathing consists of a       
combination of the three1 with the      
costal1 or rib-expansion method1        
predominating4 ,for of the three methods
 mentioned the expansion of the ribs    
creates the largest chest-cavity1 within

 which the lungs will have room to      
become inflated1 so that more air can be
 drawn into them by this method than by 
either of the others4 ,but a still      
larger cavity can be created and a still
 greater intake of air into the lungs be
 provided for1 if1 simultaneously as the
 ribs are expanded1 the diaphragm1 the  
large muscle separating the cavity of   
the chest from that of the abdomen1 is  
allowed to descend and the clavicle is  
slightly raised1 the final act in this  
correct method of breathing being a     
slight drawing in of the lower wall of  
the abdomen4 ,ignoring the slight       
raising of the clavicle1 this method may
 be called the mixed costal and         
diaphragmatic1 for it consists mainly in
 expanding the ribs and in allowing the 
dome-shaped top of the diaphragm to     
descend toward the abdomen4 ,it calls   
into play all the muscles that control  
respiration and their coperative nerves1
 provides the largest possible space for
 the expansion of the lungs1 and is     

complete in its results1 whereas each of
 the three methods of which it is a     
combination is only partial and         
therefore incomplete in result4  ,in the
 method of breathing called clavicular1 
the hoisting of the shoulder-blades is  
an upward perpendicular effort which is 
both ugly to look at and disagreeable in
 its results4 ,for in art no effort1 as 
such1 should be perceptible4 ,moreover1 
as in all errors of method in           
voice-teaching1 there is a precise      
physiological reason why clavicular     
breathing is incorrect4 ,correct        
breathing results1 with each intake of  
breath1 in as great an enlargement of   
the chest-cavity as is necessary to make
 room for the expansion of the lungs    
when inflated4 ,but as clavicular       
breathing acts only on the upper ribs1  
it causes only the upper part of the    
chest to expand1 and so actually        
circumscribes the space within which and
 the extent to which the lungs can be   
inflated4 ,it is an effort to expand the

 chest that is only partially           
successful1 therefore only partially    
effective4  ,in fact1 clavicular1 or    
high breathing1 requires a great effort 
to supply only a small amount of air2   
and this not only necessitates a        
frequent repetition of an unsightly     
effort1 but1 in consequence1 weakens the
 singer's control over his              
voice-mechanism1 makes inspiration      
through the nostrils awkward and1 when  
the air has to be renewed quickly1 even 
impossible1 obliging the singer to      
breathe in violently1 pantingly1 and    
with other disagreeable and distressing 
symptoms of effort1 through the mouth4  
,the correct method of breathing        
involves only what may be called the    
breathing-muscles1 but it utilizes all  
of these1 thus insuring complete and    
effectual action2 whereas clavicular    
breathing secures only a partial        
coperation of these muscles1 and in the 
effort involved in raising the clavicle 
and shoulder-blades actually is obliged 

to call on muscles that simply are      
employed to lift the weight of the body1
 have nothing whatever to do with       
breathing and1 from their position1 are 
a hindrance rather than an aid to       
chest-expansion4  ,a better name for the
 method of breathing that is called     
abdominal would be abominable4 ,it is   
predicated upon an exaggerated idea of  
the force of the action required of the 
diaphragm1 or midriff1 the large        
dome-shaped muscle which separates the  
thoracic from the abdominal cavity1 in  
other words1 the cavity of the chest    
from the cavity of the stomach4 ,it is  
true that some animals can get all the  
breath they require to maintain life by 
the action of the diaphragm alone1 yet  
it is a mistake to predicate breathing1 
and especially inspiration1 upon a more 
or less violent action of the diaphragm 
and the abdominal muscles4 ,both        
diaphragm and the abdominal muscles are1
 indeed1 used in breathing1 but not to  
the forcible extent that would justify  

applying the term diaphragmatic or      
abdominal to the correct method of      
respiration4  ,the abdominal style of   
breathing was advocated by the          
physiologist ,mandl1 and it is said that
 soon afterward in the schools of       
singing which followed his theory most  
unusual devices were practised for the  
purpose of keeping the ribs in a fixed  
position and compelling the pupil to    
breathe by the action of the diaphragm  
and abdominal muscles only4 ,thus1 the  
pupil was compelled to sing while lying 
down on a mattress1 sometimes with      
weights placed on his chest4 ,in fact1  
masters are said even to have made a    
practice of seating themselves upon the 
chests of their pupils4 ,gallows1 with  
thongs and rings for binding the upper  
half of the body and keeping it rigid1  
corsets and a pillory1 which enclosed   
the frame and held the ribs in a fixed  
position1 were some of the apparatus    
used in teaching the art of singing     
based upon abdominal breathing4  ,i have

 characterized clavicular breathing as  
an upward perpendicular force1 ugly and 
only partially effective4 ,abdominal or 
diaphragmatic breathing is a downward   
perpendicular force just as ugly and as 
ineffective1 besides being positively   
harmful1 the pressure of the diaphragm1 
if violently exerted1 often being       
injurious to the organs of the body     
contained in the abdominal cavity and   
especially to the female organs of sex4 
,yet unfortunately and only too often1  
this style of breathing is taught to    
women1 because women1 owing to corsets  
and tight lacing1 incline to breathe too
 much with the upper chest 7to employ   
clavicular or high breathing71 which1   
however1 does not justify teachers in   
going to the other extreme and1 in order
 to overcome one faulty method1         
instructing their pupils in another that
 is faultier still and even physically  
harmful4  ,a more nearly correct method 
of breathing is the costal--that is by  
expansion and contraction of the ribs4  

,it enlarges the chest cavity more than 
does either the clavicular or the       
diaphragmatic method2 but does not      
enlarge it to its full capacity4 ,each  
method by itself alone1 therefore1 falls
 short of the complete result desired4  
,with none of them are the lungs wholly 
filled with air1 but only partly--the   
upper part and a portion of the central 
lungs in clavicular breathing1 the lower
 part and a portion of the central lungs
 in diaphragmatic breathing1 and the    
central and upper parts in costal       
breathing4 ,the correct method combines 
the three--adds to the inflation of the 
central and upper parts of the lungs    
accomplished by costal breathing1 the   
inflation of the lower part accomplished
 in diaphragmatic breathing and of the  
extreme upper part accomplished in      
clavicular breathing4 ,in other words1  
the correct method inflates the whole of
 the lungs and creates a cavity large   
enough to accommodate them4  ,it is     
mixed costal and diaphragmatic          

accompanied by a slight raising of the  
clavicle4 ,as the air is taken into the 
lungs and the framework of the ribs     
expands1 the dome of the diaphragm1     
naturally1 and as if voluntarily1       
descends and1 at first1 the walls of the
 abdomen extend or are pushed outward4  
,the clavicle is slightly1 one might say
 passively1 raised and1 finally1 the    
lower part of the anterior abdominal    
wall is slightly drawn in1 thus forming 
a support or foundation for the lungs   
and at the same time putting the        
abdominal muscles in position for       
participation in the work of expelling  
breath4  ,this is the most natural and1 
from the standpoint of physiology1 the  
most effective method of inspiration4   
,for it creates the largest possible    
cavity in which the lungs can expand4   
,the description of it may sound        
complicated1 but the act of inspiration 
itself is not4 ,if attention is         
concentrated upon expanding the entire  
framework of the ribs the rest seems to 

follow in natural sequence4 ,as the     
framework of the chest expands1 the     
movement of the ribs is outward and at  
the same time sidewise and upwards4     
,this expansion of the chest naturally  
enlarges the cavity behind it1 and the  
lungs themselves find more space in     
which to expand4 ,this triple movement  
of the ribs1 especially in the combined 
outward and upward direction1 the latter
 at right angles to the spine1 causes a 
great enlargement of the chest-cavity   
and gives the lungs a great amount of   
space in which to expand4 ,combined with
 the sinking of the diaphragm1 which    
still further adds to the space1 and a  
slight raising of the clavicle which    
assists the expansion of the upper      
portion of the lungs1 it constitutes the
 correct method of breathing4 ,it is    
mixed costal and diaphragmatic--effected
 by the ribs1 with the assistance of the
 diaphragm and the abdominal muscles1   
but very different from the method of   
breathing predicated upon so violent an 

effort of diaphragm and abdomen that it 
is called diaphragmatic or abdominal    
breathing1 and very different also from 
pure costal breathing4  ,patrons of     
opera and concert will have noticed that
 many great singers1 when emitting the  
voice1 incline the body slightly forward
 toward the audience1 as if feeling more
 assured that their voices would carry  
to the listeners1 or as if striving to  
get upon a more intimate footing with   
them4 ,this forward poise of the body1  
however1 is a natural and physiological 
aid to a correct method of singing4 ,i  
have stated that the upward and outward 
movement of the ribs greatly enlarges   
the chest-cavity1 and with this slight  
forward poise of the body it is not     
necessary for the ribs to move all the  
way upward to the natural horizontal    
position in order to stand at right     
angles to the spine4 ,in other words1   
the forward poise of the body eliminates
 a portion of the movement involved in  
inspiration1 the spine now taking part  

and doing its share4 ,this can readily  
be tested by holding the back straight  
or rigidly upright and taking a full    
breath by lifting the chest4 ,the       
physical effort will be found much      
greater than when the body is slightly  
poised forward1 and if the singer will  
gradually assume that poise and again   
fill his lungs with air1 he will find   
that to do so requires less time and    
less strain4 ,the forward poise of the  
body also favors many of the muscles    
employed in inspiration1 because many of
 these extend upward and forward so that
 the forward inclination aids them in   
assisting the horizontal lifting of the 
ribs and the resultant enlargement of   
the chest-cavity4 ,this assistance is   
greatly needed1 for the singer sometimes
 is required within the brief space of a
 quarter of a second to expand the      
framework of the ribs sufficiently to   
take into the lungs from #ajj to #aej   
cubic inches more of air than they      
previously held4  ,this forward poise of

 the body is another illustration of the
 sound logic that lies in the           
application of physical laws to         
voice-production4 ,for the forward poise
 which singers find so advantageous and 
which aids in the horizontal lifting of 
the ribs1 also induces that gentle      
sinking in of the lower abdominal wall  
which is the final detail in the correct
 method of drawing in the breath and on 
which the old ,italian masters of bel   
canto insisted as an important factor in
 their methods4  ,in considering the    
diaphragm and its part in costal or     
rib-breathing1 care should be taken to  
make clear why it is that1 while this   
muscle is a valuable aid to inspiration1
 its value would be impaired were it    
whipped into action like a conscript    
instead of being drafted1 so to speak1  
as a volunteer4  ,in breathing a singer 
is required to take in1 on an average1  
from #ajj to #aej cubic inches of air1  
and one of the purposes of artistic     
breathing is to provide room in the     

chest-cavity for the expansion of the   
lungs due to this intake4 ,the natural1 
voluntary1 and1 ,i am tempted to say1   
logical descent of the dome of the      
diaphragm in artistic breathing allows  
for #be cubic inches of the number      
required1 and by no effort can it be    
forced down further to allow for more2  
or1 to put the matter more correctly1   
the gain will be too insignificant to   
make the effort worth while4 ,the gain  
of #be cubic inches1 although1 of       
course1 highly important1 seems slight  
when the size and shape of the diaphragm
 are considered4 ,it would appear as if 
the descent of the dome would allow for 
a much greater displacement4 ,but the   
discrepancy is accounted for by the fact
 that about two inches above its lower  
border the diaphragm is attached to the 
ribs so that only a partial displacement
 is possible1 which shows the futility  
of the more or less violent effort      
involved in pure diaphragmatic or       
abdominal breathing4 ,moreover1 the     

hollow vein 7vena cava7 which leads the 
blood back to the heart1 passes through 
the diaphragm1 or1 to be more exact1    
through its central tendon1 and any     
violent action of the diaphragm in      
taking in breath tends to stretch this  
vein and1 after a while1 to create      
dizziness4  ,i should be sorry if what  
,i have said regarding the diaphragm    
were to be construed as belittling its  
importance as an aid to artistic        
breathing4 ,my comments are directed    
against the exaggerated importance      
attached to it by advocates of wholly   
diaphragmatic or abdominal breathing1   
when it is capable of physiological     
demonstration that violent effort will  
accomplish no more with the diaphragm   
than that accommodating muscle          
accomplishes of its own accord when the 
singer1 in taking in breath1 correctly  
applies the principles of mixed costal  
and diaphragmatic respiration4 ,in women
 only one-fifth and in men only         
one-sixth of the cavity needed for the  

inflation of the lungs can be made by   
sinking the diaphragm1 the remaining    
four-fifths and five-sixths being       
created by the expansion of the ribs4   
,therefore1 the diaphragm would be      
obliged to move five or six times as far
 downward as the ribs move upward1 in   
order to make room for the same amount  
of air4 ,in other words1 the ribs need  
only make about one-fifth or one-sixth  
as much effort as the diaphragm1 and    
effort--conscious1 noticeable effort--is
 one of the first things to be avoided  
in any art and especially in the art of 
singing4 ,if a full1 pan-costal         
inspiration be taken after a complete   
expiration1 writes ,dr4 ,harry ,campbell
 in his ,respiratory ,exercises in the  
,treatment of ,disease1 no more air1 or 
at all events only a small quantity1 can
 be inhaled by means of the diaphragm4  
,this1 however1 should be construed as  
meaning that1 after the diaphragm has   
performed its correct function in       
inspiration1 any further violent effort 

on its part is practically futile4 ,for 
the term full1 pan-costal inspiration1  
substitute mixed costal and             
diaphragmatic1 which will imply that the
 diaphragm has done its duty by the     
singer--and it is that apparently       
effortless performance of its duty that 
gives it its real importance4 ,the      
diaphragm really is a most courteous and
 accommodating muscle when its          
assistance is politely invited1 but most
 obstreperous when one tries to force it
 into action4  ,in proper breathing the 
feeling is as if the intake commenced   
with the upper ribs and terminated over 
the abdomen4 ,we even feel1 in taking in
 a deep breath1 as if all our power were
 directed toward the four or five upper 
ribs and as if we were giving the       
greatest expansion to the very apex of  
the lungs2 but the simple fact is that  
the six upper ribs encompass more space 
than the six lower ones1 consequently in
 proper breathing the most movement is  
experienced where the cavity formed     

admits of the greatest expansion of the 
lungs4  ,to say that no other style of  
breathing excepting that which has been 
described as correct1 the mixed costal  
and diaphragmatic1 ever should be       
employed1 would be a mistake1 but any   
other should be employed1 when at all1  
only for rare and specific effects4 ,for
 example1 a tenor in reaching for a high
 note may find that the violent raising 
of the collarbone and shoulder-blades1  
which is involved in clavicular         
breathing1 assists him at the critical  
moment1 and he may1 rightfully1 perhaps1
 employ that method in that one great   
effort of an evening--remembering1      
however1 that ,rubini actually broke his
 collarbone in delivering a very high   
note4 ,tenors sometimes reach for their 
high notes with their arms and legs1 and
 if the high note comes out all right1  
we forget the effort in the thrill over 
the result1 provided effort does not    
degenerate into contortion4 ,similarly  
in an unusually powerful1 explosive     

fortissimo1 a momentary use of pure     
abdominal breathing may be excusable4   
,but these are exceptions that prove the
 rule1 and very rare exceptions they    
should remain4  ,in breathing1 the      
correct method of inspiration is to     
provide the room required for the       
inflation of the lungs by enlarging the 
chest-cavity to its greatest possible   
extent1 which is accomplished by        
expanding the whole framework of the    
ribs and allowing the diaphragm to      
descend1 the clavicle rising passively  
while the wall of the abdomen at first  
extends and then1 as to its lower       
anterior portion1 slightly sinks in4    
,sir ,morell ,mackenzie recognized that 
artistic inspiration is a combination of
 methods4 ,when costal or diaphragmatic 
breathing is spoken of1 he writes in    
,hygiene of the ,vocal ,organs1 it must 
always be remembered that in the normal 
human body both methods are always used 
together1 the one assisting and         
completing the other4 ,the terms are in 

reality relative1 and are1 or should be1
 applied only as one or the other type  
predominates in an individual at a given
 time4 ,the only trouble about applying 
these terms singly to genuinely artistic
 breathing is that1 in the nomenclature 
of respiration1 they signify methods    
that are only partial1 whereas correct  
inspiration is mixed costal and         
diaphragmatic1 with a touch of the      
clavicular added4 ,such1 then1 is that  
natural method which also is artistic4  
,it is based on sound physiological     
laws2 and because these laws are1 in    
turn1 founded on fact1 it is as         
efficient in practice as it is correct  
in theory4     ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,on     
,,breathing3 ,,expiration   ,air having 
been taken into the lungs1 the act of   
exhaling it--the act of expiration--is1 
for ordinary purposes1 a very simple    
matter4 ,the elasticity of the parts of 
the body1 the expansion of which made   
room for the inflation of the lungs1 as 
these became filled with the air that   

was being drawn into them1 permits the  
disadjustment to be readjusted almost   
automatically4 ,elasticity implies that 
a body which has been expanded returns  
spontaneously to its normal size and    
position4 ,thus with expiration the     
lungs return to their position of rest  
and the diaphragm and the walls of the  
abdomen follow them4 ,this voluntary    
readjustment suffices for ordinary      
expiration4 ,but the expiration of a    
singer should not be ordinary4 ,it      
should be artistic4 ,to begin with1     
while1 whenever possible1 air should be 
taken into the lungs through the        
nostrils1 in singing it should always be
 expelled through the mouth4 ,if part of
 the air-column is allowed to go out    
through the nose1 there is danger of a  
nasal quality of tone-production4  ,in  
ordinary breathing the emission of air  
immediately follows the intake2         
expiration begins the moment inspiration
 ceases1 and the respiration is         
completed4 ,the elasticity of the lungs 

causes the diaphragm to rise and the    
walls of the chest to return to their   
natural position4 ,thus1 in ordinary    
breathing1 relaxation immediately       
follows the expansion1 and almost as    
soon as the air is inhaled1 it is       
expelled again4  ,but as breath is the  
foundation of song1 it is something not 
to be wasted1 but to be husbanded to the
 utmost4 ,for of what value to the      
singer is a correct method of taking in 
breath if all or part of the air passes 
out before the tone is produced8 ,it is 
an income dissipated1 a fortune         
squandered4  ,the first step toward that
 breath-economy so essential in singing 
is to retain the breath a little while1 
to pause between inspiration and        
expiration4 ,pause and reflect1 one     
might say4 ,for that pause1             
physiologically so helpful1 as will be  
shown1 appears psychologically to warn  
the singer against wasting breath and so
 to manage it that breath and tone issue
 forth simultaneously1 the tone borne   

along on a full current of air that     
carries it to the remotest part of hall 
or theatre4  ,the pause before exhaling 
will be found by the singer a great aid 
in enabling him to maintain control of  
the outgoing column of air and to       
utilize it as he sees fit without       
wasting any portion of it4 ,wilful waste
 makes woeful want in singing as in     
life4  ,how long should the breath be   
retained before emission8 ,there can be 
no hard and fast rule4 ,it is a matter  
of circumstance entirely1 and it        
certainly is detrimental to postpone the
 next inspiration to the last moment    
before the next note has to be intoned  
or the next phrase started4 ,every      
opportune rest should be utilized for   
inspiration1 and1 if possible1 the      
breath should be inhaled a second or two
 before the note or phrase to be sung1  
and the breath retained until the       
crucial moment4 ,then breath and song   
together should float out in a steady   
stream4 ,the result will be pure1 full1 

resonant tone4 ,a pianissimo upon a full
 breath is like the pianissimo of a     
hundred violins1 which is a hundred     
times finer than that of a single       
instrument1 and so rich in quality that 
it carries much further4 ,it is the     
stage-whisper of music4  ,this pause and
 the steadiness produced by it probably 
constitute what the old ,italian masters
 of singing had in mind when they laid  
down for their pupils the rule filar il 
tuono or spin the tone1 in other words1 
the practice of emitting the breath just
 sufficiently to produce a whisper and  
then convert it into a delicate and     
exquisite tone--a mere filament of      
music4 ,even in rapid passages which    
succeed each other at very brief        
intervals and such as frequently occur  
in the ,italian arias1 it is possible to
 replenish the breath in such a way that
 some pause1 however brief1 can be made 
between inspiration and expiration4     
,watch ,melba singing the ,mad ,scene   
from ,lucia1 ,tetrazzini1 the ,shadow   

,song from ,dinorah1 or ,sembrich1 the  
music of the ,queen of the ,night in the
 ,magic ,flute1 and you will observe    
that they replenish the original intake 
of breath with half-breaths1 a practice 
which enables them at every opportunity 
to make the required pause before       
breath-emission4 ,moreover1 it always   
allows of a reserve quantity of air     
being retained in the lungs4 ,that sense
 of unwasted resource1 the feeling so   
important to convey to the audience     
that1 much as the singer has            
accomplished1 the limit of his capacity 
has by no means been reached1 and that1 
like a great commander1 he has his      
forces well in hand1 is holding back his
 reserves and does not expect to launch 
them into action at all1 can be created 
only by perfect control of the          
air-column2 and that control of breath  
is gained best by a pause1 if only for a
 fraction of a second1 between          
inspiration and expiration4  ,moreover1 
holding the breath for a little while   

before expiration is conducive to good  
health1 a condition1 needless to say1   
which creates confidence and buoyancy in
 the singer and adds greatly to the     
efficiency of his voice and the         
effectiveness of his performance4       
,proper breathing is a cleaning process 
for the interior of the body4 ,it       
cleanses the residual air1 the air that 
remains in the lungs after each         
respiration2 and it does much more4 ,air
 enters the lungs as oxygen2 it comes   
out as carbonic acid1 an impure gas     
created by the impurities of the body4  
,the process of breathing dispatches the
 blood on a cleansing process through   
the whole body1 and1 while traveling    
through this1 it collects all the       
poisonous gases and carries them back to
 the lungs to be emitted with           
expiration4 ,by holding the breath we   
prolong this process1 make it more      
thorough1 and correspondingly free the  
body of more impurities4 ,from the      
classic ages down physicians have       

advocated retaining the breath for a    
little while after inspiration as an aid
 to general health1 and the taking and  
holding of a full breath has been       
compared with opening doors and windows 
of a house for ventilation4  ,sir       
,morell ,mackenzie emphasizes this      
purifying function of respiration in his
 book on the ,hygiene of the ,vocal     
,organs4 ,it consists1 as he says1      
essentially in an exchange of gases     
between the blood and the air1 wherein  
the former yields up some of the waste  
matters of the system in the form of    
carbonic acid1 receiving in return a    
fresh supply of oxygen4 ,it is evident  
from this how important it is to have a 
sufficient supply of pure air1 air which
 contains its due proportion of oxygen  
to renovate the blood4 ,a room in which 
a number of people are sitting soon     
becomes close if the windows and doors  
are kept shut4 ,this indicates that the 
oxygen in the air is exhausted1 its     
place being taken by carbonic acid      

exhaled from the lungs of the assembly1 
so that the purification of the blood   
must necessarily become more and more   
imperfect4  ,besides their principal    
function of purifying the blood1 writes 
,sir ,morell ,mackenzie1 the lungs are  
the bellows of the vocal instrument4    
,they propel a current of air up the    
windpipe to the narrow chink of the     
larynx1 which throws the membranous     
edges or lips 7vocal cords7 of that     
organ into vibration1 and thereby       
produces sound4 ,through this small     
chink1 the air escaping from the lungs  
is forced out gradually in a thin       
stream1 which is compressed1 so to      
speak1 between the edges of the cords   
that form the opening1 technically      
called the glottis1 through which it    
passes4 ,the arrangement is typical of  
the economical workmanship of nature4   
,the widest possible entrance is        
prepared for the air which is taken into
 the lungs1 as the freest ventilation of
 their whole mucous surface is          

necessary4 ,when the air has been fully 
utilized for that purpose it is1 if need
 be1 put to a new use on its way out for
 the production of voice1 and in that   
case it is carefully husbanded and      
allowed to escape in severely regulated 
measure1 every particle of it being made
 to render its exact equivalent in force
 to work the vocal mill-wheel4 ,thus    
again is illustrated the close analogy  
between vocal art and physical law1 and 
further evidence given of the value of a
 physiological method of                
voice-production as opposed to those    
methods that are purely empirical4 ,in  
fact when it is considered that speech  
is ,nature's method of communication and
 that song is speech vitalized by       
musical tone1 it would seem as if song  
were ,nature's art and1 therefore1 more 
than any other based on ,nature's laws4 
,no effort is involved in holding the   
breath4 ,the pause before emission is   
accomplished without any internal       
muscular struggle1 and without any      

constriction of the larynx4 ,some       
writers lay down the rule that after    
inhaling1 the singer should retain the  
breath by closing the vocal cords4 ,the 
only objection to laying down this rule 
is that it is apt to make the pupil     
perform consciously an act that is so   
nearly voluntary as to be unconscious4  
,it inclines the pupil to make an effort
 when effort is unnecessary4 ,retain the
 breath and you can feel the vocal cords
 close in consequence1 and as if of     
their own accord1 and open again with   
the act of emission4 ,it is all         
voluntary1 or nearly so4 ,in fact1      
artistic breathing becomes after a while
 a fixed habit and is performed         
unconsciously4 ,in the early days of    
practice the pupil may be apt           
consciously to perform each of the      
successive acts comprised in artistic   
breathing4 ,gradually1 however1 messages
 begin to travel so swiftly over the    
nerves which connect the will1 mind1 or 
artistic sense with the                 

breathing-muscles that these seem to    
have become sensitive by anticipation to
 what is required of them and           
voluntarily to bring themselves into    
play4 ,the most subtle filament ever    
spun still is less fine than the line   
which divides the physiology of         
voice-production from the psychology of 
song and1 by crossing which1 song1 the  
art of ,nature1 becomes second nature4  
,the singer having after inspiration    
retained the air in his lungs for a     
brief space of time1 also must maintain 
control of the stream of air when he    
begins to emit it4 ,it should rise from 
the lungs through the bronchial tubes1  
the windpipe and the larynx into the    
mouth and flow out from between the lips
 like a river between smooth and even   
banks and bearing voice upon its        
current--a stream of melody4 ,the more  
slowly1 within reason1 the singer allows
 his breath to flow out1 the better2 and
 this is as true of rapid phrases as of 
broad cantabile4 ,breath should be      

emitted as slowly in a long1 rapid      
phrase as in a slow phrase of the same  
length4 ,it is only when rapid phrases  
succeed each other so quickly that there
 is no time between them for a          
deliberate1 full inspiration1 that      
half-breaths have to be taken to        
replenish the air-supply4 ,but a singer 
who thinks that rapid singing also      
involves rapid breathing should rid     
himself of that mistaken notion as      
quickly as possible4 ,a choirmaster once
 told me that he had trained his boys so
 perfectly in breath-control that they  
could sustain a note for thirty seconds 
on one breath4 ,for them to sing on one 
breath a rapid phrase lasting just as   
long1 would be equally feasible4 ,it is 
the slow emission of breath that gives  
to long1 rapid phrases a smooth and     
limpid quality2 and it is the taking of 
breath at inopportune moments1 as badly 
taught singers are obliged to do1 that  
makes such phrases choppy and           
ineffectual4 ,this fault is never       

observable in artists trained in the    
real traditional ,italian school of     
singing--not necessarily by ,italians1  
but in the traditional school of the old
 ,italian masters4  ,the choppy method  
of singing is noticeable1 not in all1   
but in many ,german singers4 ,it is due 
to incomplete breath-control1 for which 
in turn carelessness in matters of      
hygiene largely is responsible4 ,the    
average ,german is of a naturally strong
 physique1 and for this very reason he  
is less apt to take care of himself4    
,the singer1 in order to keep the keen1 
artistic edge on his voice1 has to      
sacrifice many things that contribute to
 the comfort of the average man2 and    
this is especially true of diet4 ,a     
strict rgime is a necessity4 ,you will  
find that every great singer has to deny
 himself many things4 ,but the ,german  
is apt to sneer at such precaution and  
to glory in what he calls living        
naturally1 which means that he thinks it
 is all right to eat and drink what he  

wants to and as much as he wants to4 ,in
 point of fact1 however1 the great      
singer does not live at all4 ,he exists 
for his voice1 sacrificing everything to
 it4 ,his diet1 his hours1 are carefully
 regulated4 ,he is always in training4  
,the ,german is apt to neglect such     
matters4 ,the inevitable result is      
shortness of breath and lack of control 
of breath-emission4 ,voice is breath2   
lack of breath is lack of voice4  ,i    
once attended a ,german performance of  
,die ,walkre with an ,italian master of 
bel canto4 ,you call that a love-scene6 
he exclaimed during the latter part of  
the first act1 between ,siegmund and    
,sieglinde4 ,they are barking at each   
other like two dogs6 ,and so they were4 
,the natural process of expiration is   
one of complete relaxation4 ,just as the
 intake of air into the lungs inflates  
and expands them1 so1 when the intake   
ceases1 the elasticity of the lungs     
exerts a natural pressure on the air    
they have taken in and causes its almost

 effortless exit4 ,this exit1 however1  
is so gentle as to be useless for the   
production of voice4 ,for this reason   
the singer must control the breath and  
retard its exit1 and the slower his     
expiration1 the more control he will    
gain over the tone or phrase4 ,those    
familiar with the performances of some  
of the great opera singers who have been
 heard here will have observed that1    
when singing1 they do not allow the     
chest to collapse1 but hold it as full  
and as firm as if the lungs still were  
inflated4 ,this physical index to a     
correct method of expiration is more    
easily noticed in men than in women4    
,the ,de ,reszkes1 ,caruso1             
,planon--these have been some of the    
most notable exponents of correct       
voice-production who have appeared on   
the ,american operatic stage4 ,let the  
reader1 when next he hears ,caruso or   
,planon1 note that they never strain    
after an effect1 never labor1 never grow
 red in the face1 never employ excessive

 gesture to help force out a note4 ,with
 them respiration consists of           
inspiration and expiration--never of    
perspiration4 ,there is little danger   
that ,caruso ever will break his collar 
bone in producing high ,c1 and his      
delivery of the romance1 ,una furtiva   
lagrima1 in ,l',elisir d',amore1 is a   
most exquisite example of breath-control
 and of voice-management in cantabile2  
while ,planon's singing from a chest    
absolutely immobile1 even in long and   
difficult phrases1 is so effortless that
 his performances are a delight to every
 lover of the art of song1 his voice    
flowing out in a broad1 smooth stream of
 music4 ,physically1 the reason why an  
expanded chest retards the emptying of  
the lungs is apparent4 ,the pressure of 
a relaxing chest would accelerate their 
return to a condition of repose and the 
breath would be expended too soon1 with 
the result that some or much of it would
 be wasted4 ,moreover1 an expanded chest
 is a splendid resonance-chamber1       

affords a firm support to the windpipe  
and adds to the sure and vibrant quality
 of the tone produced4 ,the wobble1     
which at times causes disappointment    
with voices that had seemed unusually   
fine1 is the result of lack of attention
 to this detail of vocal method4 ,the   
windpipe1 requiring the support of a    
firm chest-wall1 becomes unsteady1 the  
singer loses his control of the         
air-column1 and the vibrations of the   
vocal ligaments are uncertain1 instead  
of tense and sure4  ,to maintain the    
expanded chest during expiration1 which 
also means during singing1 is not       
difficult4 ,there is nothing forced     
about it4 ,for if there is the correct  
pause after inspiration1 if the breath  
is held for a brief space of time1 the  
pressure naturally exerted outward upon 
the upper chest is readily felt4        
,accompanying it is a gradual drawing in
 of the lower abdominal wall1 not       
forceful enough to be called stringent  
but simply following the return of the  

diaphragm to its natural position as the
 lungs return to theirs4 ,therefore1    
when it is stated that if a crescendo is
 to be produced on a single tone or     
phrase1 this is accomplished by         
increasing the outward pressure on the  
chest and the inward and upward pressure
 of the abdominal muscles2 there is no  
thought of prescribing a sudden and     
undue strain1 but simply of employing   
more potently and more effectively      
certain forces of pressure which ,nature
 herself already has brought into play4 
,what is perhaps the most important     
distinction of this method of           
breath-control and voice-management is  
the fact that it relieves the throat of 
all pressure1 the correct tension and   
vibration of the vocal cords being      
brought about by the reflex action of   
muscles and nerves4 ,this lack of strain
 on the throat does away with all danger
 of a throaty quality of                
voice-production1 which not only is     
highly inartistic but also leads to     

various throat troubles4                
,breath-control implies that no breath  
is wasted1 that every particle of       
breath1 as it comes out1 is converted   
into voice4 ,dissipation of breath      
results in uncertainty of               
voice-production1 a branch of the       
subject which will be taken up in the   
chapter on attack4 ,an excellent test   
for economy of breath is to hold a      
lighted candle before the mouth while   
singing4 ,if the flame flickers1 breath 
is being wasted1 is coming out as empty 
air instead of as voice4 ,there is the  
same difference between voice produced  
on breath that is under the singer's    
control and that produced on breath     
which is not properly steadied1 as there
 is between a line drawn straight and   
sure by a firm hand and a wavering line 
drawn by a hand that is nervous and     
trembling4 ,in fact1 in singing the     
waver of the voice that results from    
poor control of breath is a tremble1 a  
tremolo1 and is one of the worst faults 

in a singer4  ,it also should be pointed
 out that the singer is not to continue 
an expiration beyond the point when it  
ceases to be easy for him to do so4 ,as 
soon as the air-column becomes thin the 
singer's control over it becomes        
insecure1 and1 from that point on1 the  
air that remains should be regarded     
simply as a reserve supply and aid to   
the next inspiration4  ,to sum up3      
,breathing consists of two separate     
actions1 inspiration and expiration1 the
 intake of air and its emission4 ,of the
 three kinds of inspiration mentioned in
 most books on singing and termed       
clavicular1 abdominal or diaphragmatic1 
and costal1 neither completely fills the
 bill4 ,the correct method of           
inspiration is a combination of all     
three4 ,it is costal--that is indicated 
by an expansion of the whole framework  
of the ribs--assisted by an almost      
automatic sinking of the diaphragm and a
 very slight1 almost passive1 rising of 
the clavicle1 the final detail being a  

slight sinking in of the lower front    
wall of the abdomen4 ,in this method1   
although it is a combination of the     
three--the clavicular1 the diaphragmatic
 and the costal--the clavicle plays so  
small a part1 that the method may be    
termed mixed costal and diaphragmatic4  
,the breath having been taken in1 it    
should be held for a brief space of     
time4  ,in expiration1 allow the breath 
to escape very slowly4 ,maintain the    
chest firm and expanded1 and add1 as    
occasion requires1 to the natural inward
 and upward pressure of the abdominal   
muscles4 ,avoid all throat effect4      
,after expiration the chest and         
abdominal pressure is relaxed and the   
next inspiration prepared for4  ,take in
 breath through the nostrils1 emit it   
through the mouth4 ,this latter         
instruction may seem superfluous1 but it
 is not4 ,in the so-called backward     
production of voice1 considerable air   
escapes through the nasal passages and  
the tone-quality is nasal and           

disagreeable4  ,it is of the highest    
importance to acquire a correct method  
of breathing1 and to acquire it so      
thoroughly that it becomes second       
nature4 ,in the beginning it may be     
necessary to bear each successive step  
in mind and make sure that it is not    
omitted4 ,but very soon artistic        
breathing to sustain song becomes as    
much a habit as is breathing to sustain 
life4 ,we breathe1 or we cannot live2 we
 breathe artistically1 or we cannot     
sing4 ,but to breathe artistically      
really is no great problem4 ,it is a    
simple matter1 yet fraught with great   
and invaluable results to the singer2   
and it is a simple matter because it    
becomes so easily a matter of habit4    
,the nerves of the breathing-muscles    
send and receive messages to and from   
the nerve-centre1 but after incredibly  
little practice this interchange of     
messages over the nervous system becomes
 so swift that it may be said to take   
place by anticipation1 and the person   

who benefits by it is unaware that it   
takes place at all4 ,correct breathing  
has then become a habit4 ,this habit1   
this smooth working1 automatic          
coperation of nerves with               
breathing-muscles1 may be thrown out of 
gear by something unusual1 such as the  
excitement attending a dbut4  ,the      
singer faces an audience or a strange   
audience for the first time1 and the    
first unfavorable and disconcertive     
effect travels over the nerves to the   
respiratory organs4 ,regular breathing  
is at such times one of the best ways to
 allay the undue excitement caused by   
the unusual surroundings4 ,before       
beginning to sing the artist should1 and
 on such occasions with conscious       
artistry1 immediately restablish control
 of respiration by taking a few deep    
breaths4 ,i have said before that the   
borderline between the physiology of    
voice-production and the psychology of  
song is a narrow one--whereof the above 
cure for stage-fright is but another    

case in point4     ,,chapter ,v  ,,the  
,,physiology ,,and ,,psychology ,,of    
,,voice-,,production   ,above this      
chapter ,i might well have placed the   
following lines which ,george ,eliot    
wrote above ,chapter ,,xxxi4 of         
,middlemarch4    ,how will you know the 
pitch of that great bell1   ,too large  
for you to stir8 ,let but a flute       
,play 'neath the fine-mixed metal6      
,listen close   ,till the right note    
flows forth1 a silvery rill3   ,then    
shall the huge bell tremble--then the   
mass   ,with myriad waves concurrent    
shall respond   ,in low1 soft unison4   
,the lines telling of the great bell    
stirred by the note of a flute played at
 the proper pitch suggest the moving    
power that lies in sympathetic          
vibration4 ,the first time a military   
body crossed the ,brooklyn ,bridge1 the 
spectators were surprised to hear the   
order given for the soldiers to march   
out of step4 ,they had expected to be   
thrilled by the sight of a thousand men 

crossing the great structure in measured
 tread1 with band playing and colors    
flying4 ,they did not know that the     
structure1 being a suspension bridge1   
might have been weakened and possibly   
destroyed by the force of rhythmic      
oscillation4 ,yet the accumulated force 
in the tramp of a thousand men is no    
greater than that which lies in the     
sympathetic vibrations of a musical     
note4 ,every metal structure has its    
note1 and it is an old engineering saw  
that a huge structure like the ,brooklyn
 ,bridge eventually could be destroyed  
by the cumulative force of sympathetic  
vibration evoked by a musical instrument
 constantly reiterating the note of the 
bridge4  ,sound has three dimensions3   
pitch1 loudness and timbre4  ,pitch     
depends upon the frequency of           
vibrations4 ,the more rapid the         
vibrations1 the higher the pitch4       
,loudness is determined by the amplitude
 of the vibrations4 ,as their length or 
excursion increases1 so does the sound  

gain in loudness4 ,conversely1 the      
diminution in the size of vibrations    
causes corresponding decrease of        
loudness4  ,differences in the shapes of
 vibrations cause differences in quality
 or timbre4  ,after voice has originated
 within the restricted limits of the    
larynx1 its power1 its carrying quality 
is much augmented by the sympathetic    
vibrations within the resonance cavities
 above the larynx4 ,these include the   
pharynx1 nasal passages1 mouth1 bone    
cavities of the face--in fact pretty    
much every hollow space in the head1    
every space that will resound in        
response to vibration and assist in     
multiplying it4 ,moreover1 the cavities 
of resonance by their differences in    
shape in different individuals determine
 the timbre or quality of individual    
voices4 ,the chest1 although situated   
below the larynx1 is a resonance cavity 
of voice4 ,in fact1 in a certain        
register its vibration is felt so       
distinctly that we speak of these notes 

as being sung in the chest register1    
which1 so far as it implies that the    
tones are produced in the chest1 is a   
misnomer4 ,the same is true of head     
register1 in which vibration is felt in 
the head where1 however1 it is needless 
to say1 the head tones do not originate4
  ,expiration--breath-emission--is the  
motor function of the vocal organs2 and 
there are two other physical functions  
of the organs--vibratory and resonant4  
,added to these is the sensory function1
 to which ,i attach great importance2   
and ,i call it a psychological function 
because it acts through the nerves upon 
the physical organs of voice4 ,without  
it the three physical functions--motor1 
vibratory and resonant combined--would  
remain ineffectual4 ,they could generate
 voice1 but it would be voice lacking   
those higher qualities that are summed  
up in the word artistic4 ,it would be a 
physical1 not an art product1 a product 
generated by the body without the       
coperation of the mind or soul4 ,when it

 is considered that the larynx1 in which
 the vocal cords are situated1 is       
permeated by a network of muscles       
through which it is capable of some     
#af1jjj adjustments and readjustments of
 shape1 all of them pertinent to        
voice-production1 and that the same     
thing also is true of the pliable       
portions of the resonance cavities2 that
 these muscles act in response to an    
even finer network of nervous filament2 
and that the constant shaping and       
reshaping of various parts of the vocal 
tract during voice-emission is directed 
by messages from the mind1 soul1 or     
art-sense of the singer1 messages which 
travel via nerve to muscle--the only    
route by which they can travel--it      
becomes possible to appreciate the      
importance of the sensory or            
psychological function which1 ,i hold1  
should be added to the purely physical  
ones of motor1 vibration and resonance4 
,for by it these functions are enlisted 
in the service of art and made          

immediately and exquisitely responsive  
to the emotional exaltation of music and
 song4 ,nor are these vague terms4      
,psychology of song and psychological   
action in general may seem indefinite   
and unintelligible4 ,they become1       
however1 absolutely definite and        
intelligible when the part played by the
 nerves as intermediaries between mind  
and muscular action of a subtle and     
highly refined order is appreciated4    
,the mind presses the button1 the nerves
 carry the messages1 and muscle acts    
instantaneously and responsively4  ,the 
student need not despair because so many
 separate acts seem necessary to the    
production of even a single tone4 ,it is
 true that air has to be taken into the 
lungs and emitted from them2 that it    
must be controlled by the singer as it  
passes up the windpipe2 that the vocal  
cords and other parts of the larynx must
 be given their specific adjustment for 
each note2 and the cavities of resonance
 shaped in sympathetic cordination with 

those numerous adjustments1 while the   
lips also have their function to        
perform4 ,but it is equally true that   
correct instruction supplemented by     
assiduous practice merges all these     
separate acts into one4 ,the singer     
thinks the note1 forms what may be      
called a sounding vision of it in his   
mind1 and straightway the vocal tract   
adapts and cordinates all its parts to  
the artistic emission of that note4 ,it 
is auto-suggestion become habit through 
practice4  ,because the larynx is so    
important a factor in generating voice1 
writers on voice-production have        
described it with much minuteness1 and  
because of these minute descriptions    
readers may have obtained an exaggerated
 idea of the size of this organ4 ,but   
one of the marvels of voice-production  
is the smallness of the organ in which  
voice is generated1 the size of the     
average larynx being about two inches in
 height by an inch and a half in width4 
,yet so numerous are the adjustments in 

shape of which this small organ is      
capable that the phenomenal soprano1    
,mara1 could make #ajj changes in pitch 
between any two notes in her voice1 and 
as this had a compass of twenty-one     
notes1 it follows that she could produce
 no less than #ba1jjj changes in pitch  
within a range of twenty-one notes4     
,while in ,mara's day this no doubt was 
attributed to a natural gift of voice1  
modern study of voice-physiology and of 
the metaphysics of voice-production     
readily accounts for it4 ,it needs an   
ear naturally or by training so         
delicately attuned to pitch that not    
only all the fundamental notes of a     
voice1 but all the numerous overtones at
 infinitesimal intervals are heard in   
what may be called the singer's mental  
ear2 that the nerves convey each of     
these sounding mental conceptions to the
 intricate system of muscles in the     
larynx and resonant cavities and that   
the right muscles immediately adjust the
 larynx and cavities of resonance to the

 shape they have to assume to sound the 
corresponding note4 ,every vocal tone   
is1 in fact1 a mental concept reproduced
 as voice by the physical organs of     
voice-production1 so that every vocal   
tone is1 in its origin1 a mental        
phenomenon4 ,that is why an inaccurate  
ear for pitch results in a vocalist     
singing off pitch4 ,his mental          
conception of the note is wrong1 the    
message conveyed from the mind over the 
nerves to the muscles of the vocal      
organs is wrong1 consequently they shape
 themselves for a note that is wrong1   
and1 when the note issues from between  
the singer's lips1 it is wrong--wrong   
from start to finish1 from mind to lips4
 ,thus again is illustrated the intimate
 connection between psychology and      
physiology in voice-production1 and the 
necessity of having every function      
concerned therein so thoroughly trained 
that every act from mental concept to   
sounding voice is correctly performed   
through a habit so thoroughly acquired  

that it has become second nature4 ,in   
common parlance one might say to the    
student of song1 ,get the correct       
voice-habit and keep it up1 for that    
really is what it amounts to1 only it is
 necessary that great stress should be  
laid on the word correct4  ,it now      
becomes necessary to describe the       
larynx1 and this ,i will endeavor to    
accomplish without puzzling the reader  
with too many technical terms4 ,the     
study of the larynx was made possible by
 the invention of the laryngoscope in   
#ahee by ,manuel ,garcia1 a celebrated  
singing-master4 ,it is a simple         
apparatus--which1 however1 does not     
detract from but rather adds to its     
value as an invention--and has been a   
boon to the physician in locating and   
curing affections of the throat4 ,its   
essentials are a small mirror fixed at  
an obtuse angle to a slender handle4    
,introduced into the mouth it can be    
placed in such position that the larynx 
is reflected in the mirror and thus can 

be observed by the operator4 ,those who 
have had their throats examined with the
 laryngoscope will recall that the      
operator wears a reflector over his     
right eye4 ,through a central           
perforation in the reflector he views   
the image1 which is seen the more       
clearly for the light thrown upon the   
laryngoscopal mirror by the reflector4  
,it would be possible after             
comparatively little practice with the  
apparatus for a singer to examine his   
own larynx4 ,but it would be most       
inadvisable for him to do so4 ,either he
 soon would become hipped on the subject
 of innumerable imaginary throat        
troubles1 or his voice-production would 
become mechanical1 which is very        
different from the spontaneous          
adjustment of the vocal tract described 
above4   ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,the
 ,,glottis ,,and ,,vocal ,,cords        
,,viewed ,,from ,,below ,n4 ,b4--,vocal 
cords approximated   ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #c4 ,,the ,,glottis ,,and ,,vocal

 ,,cords ,,viewed ,,from ,,above #a1    
,glottis4 #b1 ,true ,cords4 #c1 ,false  
,cords4 #d1 ,epiglottis4 #e1 ,base of   
,tongue4 ,n4 ,b4--,glottis open for     
inspiration   ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 
,,the ,,glottis ,,and ,,vocal ,,cords   
,,viewed ,,from ,,above #a1 ,glottis4   
#b1 ,true ,cords4 #c1 ,false ,cords4 #d1
 ,epiglottis4 #e1 ,base of ,tongue4 ,n4 
,b4--,vocal cords approximated          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,vertical    
,,transverse ,,section ,,of ,,the       
,,larynx  #a1 ,the ,glottis 7i4 e41 the 
opening between the opposed edges of the
 ,vocal ,cords74 #b1 ,true ,vocal       
,cords4 #c1 ,false ,vocal ,cords4 #d1   
,epiglottis4  7,n4 ,b4--,in singing1 the
 true cords are closely approximated47  
,v1 ,ventricles4 ,t1 ,thyroid           
,cartilage4 ,c1 ,cricoid ,cartilage4 ,w1
 ,windpipe or ,trachea4  7,n4 ,b4--,in  
,,straining1 the false cords are closely
 approximated47   ,the laryngoscope     
should not1 in fact1 leave the hands of 
the physician4 ,invaluable for the      

detection of diseases of the throat     
which impair the voice and which have to
 be cured either by treatment or        
operation before the voice can be       
restored to its original potency or     
charm1 its value in studying the        
physiology of voice-production and the  
functions of the vocal organs is        
doubtful4 ,in fact1 it is its use by    
amateur laryngoscopists that has        
resulted in the promulgation of all     
kinds of absurd theories of voice-study 
and in those innumerable pet methods of 
vocal instruction1 each one of which may
 safely be guaranteed to destroy        
expeditiously whatever of voice         
originally existed4 ,fascinating as it  
may seem to the singer to examine his   
own larynx while he is producing a vocal
 tone--during phonation1 the            
physiologist would say--the value of the
 deductions formed from such observation
 may be doubted1 if for no other reason 
than that the introduction of the mirror
 into the back of the mouth makes the   

whole act of phonation strained and the 
effects observed unnatural4 ,in fact1 as
 ,mackenzie already has pointed out1    
although the laryngoscope is invaluable 
in the recognition and treatment of     
diseases which before only could be     
guessed at1 with the exception of       
certain points relating to the          
'falsetto' register1 it can scarcely be 
said to have thrown any new light on the
 mechanism of the voice4 ,in other      
words1 the instrument belongs in the    
hands of the physician1 not in those of 
the singer4  ,the larynx1 as ,i already 
have stated1 is a small organ1 on an    
average two inches long and one and a   
half inch wide4 ,the reader can form a  
good idea of its location by the ,adam's
 apple1 which is its most forward       
projection at the top4  ,from the       
singer's point of view the larynx exists
 for the sake of the vocal cords--in    
order that they may be acted upon by    
certain muscles and thus relaxed or     
tightened1 lengthened or shortened1 or  

by a combination of these states        
properly adjusted to the note that is to
 be produced4 ,the vocal cords lie      
parallel to each other4 ,the space      
between them 7the opening through which 
the air from the windpipe passes up into
 the larynx7 is called the glottis4     
,with every loosening1 tightening1      
lengthening or shortening of the vocal  
cords or other effect of muscular action
 upon them1 the space between them--the 
glottis--alters in size and shape4      
,these subtle changes in the size and   
shape of the glottis are1 as ,i shall   
expect to show1 of great importance in  
voice-production4 ,they form the first  
step in the actual creation of voice4   
,the numerous and subtle adjustments and
 readjustments in shape of which the    
larynx is capable could not be effected 
if its shell consisted of so hard and   
unyielding a substance as bone4         
,consequently1 it has to consist of a   
substance which1 while sufficiently     
solid to form a background for the      

attachment of its numerous muscles1 yet 
is sufficiently pliable to yield with a 
certain degree of elasticity to the     
action of these4 ,nature therefore has  
built up the larynx with cartilage1 or  
gristle1 providing a framework made up  
of a series of cartilages1 sufficiently 
joined to form a firm shell surrounding 
the muscular tissue1 yet1 being hinged  
as well as joined1 capable of           
independent as well as of combined      
movement1 and1 withal1 possessing the   
requisite degree of pliability to       
respond in whole or part to the         
extremely varied and often delicate     
action of the laryngeal muscles--muscles
 which indeed are required to be as     
practised and as sensitive to suggestion
 as if they were nerves4  ,the principal
 cartilage of the larynx is the thyroid 
or shield cartilage1 named from the     
,greek thureos 7shield74 ,it really     
consists of two shields joined along the
 edges in front 7its most forward upper 
projection being the ,adam's apple7 and 

opening out at the back4 ,the thyroid is
 the uppermost cartilage of the larynx  
and the ,adam's apple is the uppermost  
portion of the front of the larynx4 ,but
 as the shields open out back of the    
,adam's apple1 they slope upward and at 
the extreme back each shield has a      
marked upward prolongation like a horn4 
,by these horns1 enforced by membrane1  
the thyroid cartilage and through it the
 whole larynx is attached to and is     
suspended from the hyoid bone1 or       
tongue-bone4 ,this gives mobility to the
 larynx and freedom of movement to the  
neck2 and the larynx1 while mobile as a 
whole1 furthermore is capable of an     
infinite number of muscular adjustments 
and readjustments within itself4  ,at   
the back the lower edges of the thyroid 
rest upon the cricoid cartilage1 which  
derives its name from the ,greek krikos1
 a signet-ring4 ,this is next in size to
 the thyroid4 ,the broader portion1 the 
part which corresponds to the seal in a 
signet-ring1 is at the back4 ,attached  

at the back1 the two cartilages do not1 
however1 meet in front4 ,place a finger 
on the ,adam's apple1 slide it down a   
little way1 and the slight depression   
there met with locates the front        
opening1 covered with yielding membrane1
 between the thyroid and cricoid        
cartilages4  ,on the broader part of the
 cricoid--that is1 on the part in the   
back of the larynx--and rising inside   
the thyroid are two smaller cartilages1 
the arytenoid or ladle cartilages1 named
 from the ,greek arutaina1 a ladle4     
,though smaller than either thyroid or  
cricoid1 they are highly important1     
because they form points of attachment  
for the vocal cords4 ,these 7the vocal  
cords7 are attached in front to the     
inner part of the angle formed by the   
two wings of the thyroid just back of   
the ,adam's apple1 and behind to a      
forward projecting spur at the base of  
each of the arytenoid cartilages1 which 
for this reason often are spoken of as  
the vocal process4  ,the vocal cords1 as

 has been stated1 lie parallel to each  
other1 and the space between them is    
known as the glottis or chink of the    
glottis4 ,above the glottis and on      
opposite sides are two pockets or       
ventricles1 and above these are the     
so-called false cords or ventricular    
bands4 ,the pockets are1 in fact1       
bordered below by the vocal cords and   
above by the false cords4 ,the false    
cords or ventricular bands 7a name given
 to them by ,mackenzie7 are the lower   
edges of membranous folds that form the 
upper entrance to the larynx4 ,here are 
two pairs of small cartilages1 the      
cartilages of ,santorini and the        
cartilages of ,wrisberg4 ,usually they  
are dismissed as of little or no        
importance4 ,yet they have1 in          
connection with muscles located in that 
part of the larynx1 their rles to play  
in those numerous adjustments and       
readjustments which1 as ,i shall show a 
little later on1 are of the greatest    
importance in voice-generation4 ,for ,i 

consider1 as ,i also will show1 that the
 numerous1 indeed innumerable1 and      
extremely subtle and exquisite changes  
of shape of which the larynx is capable 
within itself1 have much to do with the 
actual creation of the tone which       
eventually issues from the lips2        
although ,i believe this statement to be
 contrary to all accepted authority4    
,for the present1 however1 ,i must      
content myself with this mere statement4
  ,the larynx is protected above by a   
lid1 a flexible1 leaf-shaped cartilage1 
the epiglottis4 ,the gullet1 or         
food-passage to the stomach1 is situated
 behind the larynx and windpipe1 and the
 function of the epiglottis is to close 
the larynx and to act as a bridge over  
which food passes from the mouth into   
the gullet4 ,but for the epiglottis1    
food might get into the larynx and      
thence into the windpipe every time we  
swallowed1 with what distressing and    
even disastrous effect any one who has  
ever swallowed the wrong way well knows4

 ,when open1 on the other hand1 the     
epiglottis forms a beautifully smooth   
cartilaginous curve1 over which the     
sounding air1 the tone1 as it issues    
from the larynx1 is guided to the       
resonance cavities above the larynx1    
which are the cavities of the mouth and 
of the nose4 ,while parts of these      
cavities are solid1 like the roof of the
 mouth1 other parts1 like the soft      
palate1 are pliable2 while the tongue is
 so astoundingly mobile that it         
constantly can alter the resonance      
cavity of the mouth as to dimension and 
shape4  ,the larynx is swathed and lined
 with membrane and muscle4 ,these       
membranes and muscles are named after   
the cartilages to which they are        
attached1 between which they lie1 or    
which they operate4 ,there is no reason 
why they should be enumerated now4 ,the 
function of the muscles of the larynx is
 stated by all authorities with which ,i
 am familiar to be twofold--to open and 
close the glottis 7the space between the

 vocal cords71 and to regulate the      
tension of the vocal cords1 because the 
vibrations of these are considered the  
determining factor of vocal pitch4 ,sir 
,morell ,mackenzie1 however1 in         
describing the muscles of the larynx in 
a passage couched in untechnical        
language1 unconsciously gives a hint of 
another purpose for which the complexity
 of muscles in the larynx may exist4    
,after speaking of the innumerable      
little fingers of the muscles which move
 the vocal cords1 he continues3 ,these  
fingers 7which prosaic anatomists call  
fibres71 besides being almost countless 
in number1 are arranged in so intricate 
a manner that every one who dissects    
them finds out something new1 which1 it 
is needless to say1 is forthwith given  
to the world as an important discovery4 
,it is probable that no amount of       
macerating or teasing ever will bring us
 to 'finality' in this matter2 nor do ,i
 think it would profit us much as       
regards our knowledge of the physiology 

of the voice if the last fibrilla of    
tiny muscle were run to earth4 ,the mind
 can form no clearer notions of the     
infinitely little than of the infinitely
 great1 and the microscopic movements of
 these tiny strips of contractile tissue
 would be no more real to us than the   
figures which express the rapidity of   
light and the vast stretches of         
astronomical time and distance4         
,moreover1 no two persons have their    
laryngeal muscles arranged in precisely 
the same manner--a circumstance which of
 itself goes a considerable way toward  
explaining the almost infinite variety  
of human voices4 ,the wonderful         
diversity of expression in faces which  
structurally1 as we may say1 are almost 
identical1 is due to minute differences 
in the arrangement of the little muscles
 which move the skin4 ,the same thing   
holds good of the larynx4  ,these are   
significant words4 ,the distinguished   
physician who wrote them might just as  
well have said that the generally       

prevailing theory that in               
voice-production the muscles of the     
larynx exist solely to open and close   
the glottis and to regulate the tension 
and hence the vibration of the vocal    
cords1 is incorrect4 ,for they also     
exist in order to shape and reshape the 
entire larynx within itself according to
 the note to be produced1 and the       
opening or closing of the glottis with  
the degree of tension of the vocal cords
 resulting therefrom is but one detail  
in the cordination of adjustments and   
readjustments which prepare the vocal   
tract to produce the tone the singer    
hears in his mind4 ,nearly every        
authority on the physiology of          
voice-production believes that the vocal
 tone is produced solely by the         
vibration of the vocal cords1 and that  
the entire vocal tract situated above   
the vocal cords is concerned merely with
 augmenting the tone and determining its
 timbre or quality4 ,let us examine this
 theory and ascertain how tenable it is4

  ,to begin with1 the term cord as      
applied to the vocal cords is           
misleading4 ,it suggests a resemblance  
between the vocal cords and the strings 
of a violin1 which are capable of great 
tension1 or at least a resemblance      
between the vocal cords and the         
vibrating reed of a reed-instrument4 ,in
 point of fact1 the vocal cords are     
neither strings nor reeds1 and are not  
even freely suspended from end to end or
 from one end like reeds1 but are       
attached along their entire lower       
portion to the inner wall of the larynx4
 ,therefore they are not cords1 nor     
strings1 nor reeds in any sense         
whatsoever4 ,they are shelves composed  
of flesh and muscle1 their substance    
resembles neither the catgut of which   
the strings of stringed instruments are 
made nor the cane1 wood or metal of     
which the reeds of reed-instruments are 
formed2 and the entire length of each   
cord is a trifle more than half an inch 
in men and a little less than half an   

inch in women4 ,almost every writer on  
voice appears to consider the term cord 
as applied to them a misnomer4 ,they    
have been spoken of as membranous lips4 
,the vocal 'cord' is not a string1 but  
the free edge of a projecting fold of   
membrane1 says ,mackenzie4 ,yet it is   
not only claimed but announced over and 
over again as a physiological fact that 
the human voice1 sometimes sweet and    
mellow1 sometimes tense and vibrant and 
with its great range1 is produced solely
 by the vibration of two projecting     
folds of membrane1 free only at their   
edges and at their longest only a little
 over half an inch in length4  ,at least
 one writer on voice-production1 ,prof4 
,wesley ,mills1 appears to have doubted 
the correctness of the old and          
oft-repeated theory4 ,allusion must be  
made1 he writes in ,voice-,production in
 ,singing and ,speaking1 to the danger  
of those engaged in mathematical and    
physical investigation applying their   
conclusions in too rigid a manner to the

 animal body4 ,it was held until        
recently that the pitch of a vocal tone 
was determined solely by the number of  
vibrations of the vocal bands1 as if    
they acted like the strings of a violin 
or the reed of a clarinet1 while the    
resonance chambers were thought to      
simply take up these vibrations and     
determine nothing but the quality of    
tone4444 ,it seems probable that the    
vocal bands so beat the air within the  
resonance chambers as to determine the  
rate of vibration of the air of these   
cavities1 and so the pitch of the tone  
produced4 ,this at least shows          
dissatisfaction with the old theory and 
attaches some share of their due        
importance to the resonance cavities1   
but it still is far from describing the 
correct phenomenon of voice-production4 
,show a lateral section of a larynx to a
 trumpet or horn player and he will at  
once recognize its similarity to the    
cupped mouthpiece and tube of trumpet or
 horn1 the cup in the larynx being      

formed by the ventricles or pockets     
above the vocal cords4 ,extend the      
picture so that it includes not only the
 larynx but the resonance cavities of   
the head as well1 and the cornet1       
trumpet or horn player will recognize   
the similarity to the tube of his       
instrument as it turns upon itself4 ,the
 manner in which the lips shape         
themselves as the player blows into the 
instrument1 the form and size of the    
cup1 the gyration and friction of the   
air within it and within the bent       
portion of the tube1 determine the pitch
 and the quality of the tone that issues
 from the bell of the instrument4  ,the 
shape assumed by the lips1 which are    
capable of many exquisite variations in 
shape1 conditions the form of the       
air-column as it enters the cup of the  
trumpet or horn4 ,this ,i believe to be 
one important function performed for the
 larynx by the vocal cords1 which       
,mackenzie1 with an aptness he could not
 have appreciated1 called the lips of   

the glottis4 ,they are1 in fact1 the    
lips of the essential organ of voice1   
the larynx4 ,if they are looked at from 
below they will be seen to be bevelled1 
and their resemblance to lips even more 
striking4  ,while1 however1 the         
importance of the vocal cords in        
tone-production has been overestimated1 
,i should be going to the opposite      
extreme if ,i limited their importance  
to their function as the lips of the    
glottis4 ,not only are they lips1 but   
vibrating lips1 their vibrations1       
however1 requiring enforcement through  
the sympathetic vibrations which they   
generate within the cup of the larynx   
and in the cavities above4 ,as lips1 the
 vocal cords shape the air-column as it 
enters the larynx1 to the required note2
 as vibrating lips--set into vibration  
by the very air-column to which they    
have given shape--they start the        
vibrations essential to pitch and pass  
them along into the cup of the larynx1  
which also has shaped itself to the note

 and where gyration and friction begin  
to reinforce the vibrations started by  
the cords4 ,what is true of the cup also
 is true of the resonance-cavities4 ,in 
other words1 the entire vocal tract1    
from cords to lips1 shapes and reshapes 
itself with reference to the tone that  
is to be produced1 and what thus goes on
 above the vibrating cords coperates to 
produce the effect formerly attributed  
to the cords alone4  ,the fact that the 
cup of the larynx subtly changes its    
shape for each tone produced1 makes the 
hitherto obscure subject of registers of
 the voice1 which many writers have     
written around but none about1 perfectly
 clear4 ,the cup assumes what may be    
called a generic shape for each         
register1 and then goes through subtle  
adjustments of shape for the different  
notes within each register4 ,but this is
 a subject to be taken up in detail     
later4  ,the reader now will understand 
why at different points in this chapter 
,i have emphasized the fact that the    

larynx as a whole and throughout all its
 parts is capable of numerous           
adjustments in shape1 and that the same 
is true of the resonance-cavities4 ,the 
vocal tract of an accomplished singer is
 capable of as many adjustments as a    
sensitive face is of changes in         
expression4 ,this phenomenon is the     
vocal tract making ready to generate1   
vitalize and emit the tone suggested by 
the mind--mind pressing the button1 the 
physical organs of voice-production     
doing the rest4     ,,chapter ,,vi      
,,pitch ,,and ,,sympathetic ,,vibration 
,it is sympathetic vibration1           
manifesting itself in some instances in 
the chest and in the head cavities1 and 
in other instances almost entirely      
within the latter1 that gives to voices 
their peculiar timbre or                
tone-quality--their physiognomy4 ,it is 
by timbre that we distinguish voices as 
we distinguish features4 ,with          
instruments1 differences in quality of  
tone--differences in timbre--are due to 

differences of shape2 and in case of    
instruments of the same kind1 for       
example1 violins1 to slight differences 
in form or to the grain1 age and quality
 of the wood4 ,in the same manner1 there
 are minute differences in the structure
 of the vocal tract of different people2
 and it is especially the structural    
differences between the resonant        
cavities of individual singers that     
determine differences of timbre or      
quality4 ,it is easy to distinguish     
between tones even of the same pitch    
that come from a harp1 a violin1 a      
trumpet1 a flute or from the human      
voice4 ,between two violins of exactly  
the same make1 played on by the same    
person1 there would be greater          
difficulty in discovering differences in
 the quality of tone1 although1 even if 
made after the same pattern and about   
the same date1 there probably would be  
minute structural differences that would
 differentiate their timbre to a musical
 ear2 while if1 of two violins1 one of  

the instruments were new1 and the other 
old1 a musical ear probably would       
immediately detect differences in their 
tone-quality4  ,it is easier to         
distinguish between voices even of the  
same range1 than between instruments of 
the same kind1 because there is strong  
individuality in voices4 ,this is due to
 the fact that structural differences   
between the vocal tracts of individuals 
are far more numerous and far more      
minute than possibly can be introduced  
into instruments4 ,moreover1 the vocal  
tract1 being part of the human body1 is 
subtly responsive to innumerable        
impulses and adjusts and readjusts      
itself in innumerable ways4 ,instruments
 are made of material1 chiefly wood and 
metal1 and1 unlike the vocal tract1     
cannot change structurally4 ,the cornet1
 for example1 is made of brass4 ,the    
lips of the player protruding into the  
cup can effect certain changes in shape1
 and changes also can be made in the    
tube between the mouthpiece and the bell

 of the instrument by pistons or valves4
 ,but these changes are absurdly small  
in number compared with the structural  
changes of which the vocal tract is     
capable1 and commonplace in character   
compared with the refined and subtle    
minuteness of the latter4 ,for this     
reason1 while there is a distinct timbre
 for each kind of instrument1 there are 
innumerable timbres of the human        
voice--as many as there are voices1 and 
all due to the pliability of the vocal  
tract4  ,it is the manner in which the  
numerous individual conformations of the
 vocal tract affect the overtones in the
 voice that makes voices different from 
each other2 for the overtones are the   
chief agency in determining the timbre1 
quality1 or physiognomy of any tone4    
,every tone consists of a fundamental or
 ground tone with its overtones4 ,the   
fundamental tone determines the pitch2  
the overtones determine the quality1    
tone-color1 timbre1 or physiognomy of   
the tone4  ,the overtones1 or harmonics1

 as they also are called1 vibrate in    
certain simple harmonic relations with  
the fundamental--from twice to five     
times as often per second1 sounding the 
octave above1 the fifth of that octave1 
the second octave1 the major third of   
that octave1 etc4 ,so important is it to
 the individual musical quality of tone1
 to secure the coperation of overtones1 
that in certain large open organ pipes1 
which are deficient in these1 extra     
pipes of higher pitch and corresponding 
with the overtones of the fundamental   
note1 are added and joined to the       
register4 ,overtones without the        
fundamental can be obtained on stringed 
instruments by stopping one of the      
strings and then touching it lightly at 
other points4 ,the soft1 sweet1 ethereal
 character of the harmonics produced in 
this manner on a violin conveys some    
idea of the manner in which the many    
overtones of a note give it its         
distinctive quality4  ,in a way the     
overtones may be said to echo the       

fundamental1 but the ear receives       
fundamental and overtones blended as one
 tone of a certain timbre4 ,what that   
timbre is1 is determined by the shape of
 the resonating cavity or cavities1 the 
shape of which in turn is determined by 
the shape of the instrument1 and in     
different voices by infinitesimal       
differences in the shape of various     
parts of the vocal tract4 ,all          
instruments of a kind are made more or  
less on the same pattern and vary but   
little in shape4 ,for this reason we    
have the distinct violin1 horn1 clarinet
 or pianoforte timbre1 and so on down   
the list1 but ,i repeat here that there 
are not such minute and individual      
differences between instruments of the  
same kind as there are between voices of
 the same range1 because there are no   
such minute and individual structural   
differences in instruments as in the    
vocal organs of individuals--differences
 that each individual can multiply ad   
infinitum by the subtle and delicate    

play of muscles acting in response to   
mental suggestion1 art sense1           
inspiration1 temperament1 psychic       
impulse1 or by whatever cognate term one
 may choose to call it4  ,there is      
little or nothing of psychology in      
,mackenzie's book1 and yet1 like other  
writers on voice-production1 he appears 
now and then to be groping for it4      
,thus1 when he speaks of the fundamental
 tone being reinforced by its           
overtones--by a number of secondary     
sounds higher in pitch and fainter in   
intensity--he adds very beautifully that
 every resonance-cavity has what may be 
called its elective affinity1 or one    
particular note1 to the vibrations of   
which it responds sympathetically like a
 lover's heart answering that of his    
beloved4 ,as the crude tone issues from 
the larynx1 the mouth1 tongue and soft  
palate1 moulding themselves by the most 
delicately adaptive movements into every
 conceivable variety of shape1 clothe   
the raw bones of sound with body and    

living richness of tone4 ,each of the   
various resonance-chambers rechoes its  
corresponding tone1 so that a single    
well-delivered note is1 in reality1 a   
full choir of harmonious sounds4  ,voice
 being1 like instrumental tone1 a       
commixture of fundamental and overtones1
 and the manner in which the composite  
conformation of collective waves strikes
 the ear being largely determined by the
 cavities of resonance1 the control of  
these is of great importance to the     
singer4 ,this control should1 by        
thorough training1 be brought to such a 
degree of efficiency that it becomes    
subconscious and automatic1 so that the 
resonance-cavities shape themselves     
instantly to the note that is being     
produced within the larynx and1         
vibrating in sympathy with it1 sound the
 overtones4 ,the reciprocal principle of
 elective affinity between fundamental  
and overtone1 between the shape assumed 
by the larynx for pitch and the shape   
assumed by the resonance-cavities for   

quality1 is illustrated by the exciting 
influence of a sounding instrument upon 
a silent one tuned to the same pitch    
which1 although not touched by human    
hand1 sounds in sympathy with the one   
that is being played on4 ,even a jar    
standing upon a mantel-shelf1 a globe on
 a lamp1 a glass on a table1 or some    
other object in the room1 may vibrate   
and rattle when a certain note is struck
 on the pianoforte4 ,this is the result 
of sympathetic vibration4 ,thus1        
although vocal tone originates within   
the larynx1 it sets the                 
resonance-cavities into sympathetic     
vibration1 and these produce the        
harmonics that give the fundamental tone
 its timbre2 the resonance-cavities     
being to the vocal cords or lips what   
the body or resonance-box of the violin 
and the sounding-board of the pianoforte
 are to their strings1 the tube of a    
cornet or horn to the lips1 the body of 
the clarinet to its reed--the resonating
 factor which determines the overtones  

and through these the timbre4           
,excepting the chest and trachea the    
resonance-cavities of the voice are     
located above the larynx4 ,to the chest 
as a resonator the low tones of the     
voice owe much of their great volume4   
,indeed1 the chest is such a superb and 
powerful resonating box that1 if it     
resonated also for the high tones1      
these1 with their inherent capacity for 
penetration1 probably would become      
disagreeably acute4 ,therefore1 nature1 
wise in this as in many other things1   
has decreased chest vibration as the    
voice ascends the scale4  ,above the    
larynx is the pharynx1 a space extending
 to the base of the skull and opening   
into the mouth1 and higher up connecting
 with the base of the nose by means of  
two passages1 the posterior nares1 or   
back nasal passages4 ,the walls of the  
pharynx are permeated by a network of   
muscles1 so that this important space or
 resonance-cavity immediately above the 
larynx is susceptible of numerous       

adjustments and readjustments in size   
and shape2 and as it lies with its back 
wall against the spinal column1 it also 
is susceptible and immediately          
responsive to suggestion from the mind4 
,another important resonance-cavity1    
indeed1 the most important1 is the      
mouth1 roofed by the hard palate which  
separates the mouth from the nasal      
chamber1 to which latter it also forms  
the floor4 ,in the mouth is the tongue1 
extremely mobile1 and thus capable of   
materially changing the size and shape  
of the mouth-cavity4 ,hanging from the  
rear of the hard palate1 like a veil    
over the root of the tongue1 is the soft
 palate2 attached to which is the uvula4
 ,this hangs vertically down from the   
soft palate and1 if the rear end of the 
tongue is allowed to bulge upward       
slightly1 can be made to form with it a 
kind of valve1 by which voice is        
conveyed directly into the mouth-cavity 
without any of it escaping up the       
posterior nasal passage2 while the soft 

palate by itself alone can be drawn up  
so as to touch the back wall of the     
pharynx1 completely closing the passage 
to the nose1 so that a continuous curved
 resonance-cavity is afforded from      
larynx to lips4  ,the soft palate is    
continued on either side by two folds   
known as the fauces2 and each of the    
fauces has two ridges1 the pillars of   
the fauces1 between which are the       
tonsils4 ,the pillars of the fauces     
enclose muscular fibres which act       
respectively on the tongue1 the sides of
 the pharynx1 and the upper part of the 
larynx1 and thus aid in the necessary   
movements of the vocal tract4  ,the     
nasal passage1 divided into two ducts by
 a vertical partition1 the vomer septum1
 was referred to in the chapter on      
inspiration4 ,the so-called sinuses are 
hollow spaces in small bones on either  
side and above the nasal passage and    
communicating directly or indirectly    
with it4 ,a question regarding the nasal
 cavity1 including the sinuses1 suggests

 itself4 ,of what use is the nasal      
passage as a cavity of resonance if1 in 
order to prevent a nasal quality of     
tone1 the passage during voice-emission 
is shut off by the action of the soft   
palate1 or by the combined action of the
 soft palate1 uvula and tongue8 ,the    
answer is1 first1 that it is not always 
to be closed off1 because there are     
times when a slightly nasal timbre in   
voice is desirable2 secondly1 that even 
when the nasal cavity is shut off1 the  
hard palate being not only the roof of  
the mouth but also the floor of the     
nose1 its vibrations are communicated to
 the nasal cavity1 but not directly     
enough to give a disagreeable nasal     
quality to the voice4  ,from this survey
 it will be seen that the cavities of   
resonance along the vocal tract may be  
divided into such parts as are solid1   
pliable and movable4 ,the solid parts   
are sharply resonant2 they are1 par     
excellence1 the resonators in           
voice-production2 while a pliable part1 

like the pharynx1 although resonant in a
 less degree1 is valuable in adjusting  
structural shape to every condition that
 arises2 and the most movable parts of  
all1 the tongue and the lips1 probably  
wholly devoid of resonance1 have their  
great rles to play in effecting what may
 be called wholesale changes in the size
 and shape of the mouth-cavity1 which   
could not be brought about by any other 
agencies less mobile4 ,the roof of the  
mouth1 the teeth1 the hard gums1 the    
cones of the nasal passage1 and the     
sinuses are the solid portions of the   
cavities of resonance4 ,when ,svengali  
gazed into ,trilby's mouth and          
exclaimed1 ,himmel1 what a roof6 he     
spoke from the depths of vocal          
knowledge4 ,for a highly arched mouth   
roof1 especially if the tone enters the 
mouth cavity from a wide1 well-rounded  
pharynx1 is of great value to the       
singer4 ,so is a fine1 shapely1 regular 
set of teeth1 especially as regards the 
upper front teeth1 behind which the     

vibrations appear to centre in so called
 forward production4 ,cautiously brought
 into play1 the posterior nasal passage 
assists1 with its resonance1 the head   
tones of the female voice and the upper 
range of male voices2 but care must be  
taken not to carry the tone up into the 
nose and thus give it a nasal quality4  
,some writers class the walls of the    
pharynx with the solid parts of the     
vocal tract4 ,but the walls of the      
pharynx are pliable1 as already has been
 pointed out1 together with the         
admirable results to be derived from    
their flexibility when under the        
singer's control4 ,the movable parts of 
or pertaining to the resonance-cavities 
are the soft palate with the uvula1 the 
fauces1 the cheeks1 the lips1 the lower 
jaw and1 most mobile of all1 the tongue4
  ,the uvula often is too long1 either  
by nature or through a disease called   
prolongation of the uvula4 ,it can be   
treated by astringents or the elongation
 can be cut off1 which usually is the   

most prompt and efficacious way4 ,the   
operator1 however1 in case the patient  
is a singer1 must calculate to a nicety 
just how much to remove1 otherwise the  
voice will suffer4 ,there are isolated  
cases of deformed soft palate with uvula
 so enormous that it cannot be raised4  
,in such cases1 one of which is         
instanced by ,kofler1 a surgical        
operation being out of the question1 the
 patient simply has to give up singing4 
,enlarged tonsils1 whether from         
inflammation or other causes1 also have 
to be operated on1 as their enlargement 
obviously hinders free voice-emission4  
,even at its best the mouth-passage here
 is narrowest--and called the           
isthmus--and nothing must be allowed to 
make it narrower than it is by nature4  
,the lips never should lie flat against 
the teeth1 since this would muffle      
resonance4 ,on the other hand1 the teeth
 should not be bared1 as this results in
 a foolish grin4 ,the cheeks naturally  
conform to the action of the lips4 ,the 

lower jaw should be relaxed1 which gives
 the so-called floating chin4 ,when the 
lower jaw1 and with it the chin1 is     
raised1 the throat is tightened1 and    
voice-action becomes constricted4 ,the  
floating chin does not1 of course1 mean 
that the chin is to be thrust downward  
into the chest4 ,in singing1 as in      
everything else1 there is a golden rule 
to be observed4  ,it is obvious that the
 tongue also is a highly responsible    
member of the vocal tract4 ,raise it too
 high1 and you bring it so close to the 
hard palate that the mouth becomes too  
small for free1 resonant voice-emission4
 ,the tone becomes wheezy4 ,let the     
tongue lie too flat1 and the            
mouth-cavity becomes too large and      
cavernous for tense1 vibrant            
voice-emission4 ,the tone becomes too   
open4 ,let the base of the tongue move  
back too far1 and it will tend to close 
the pharynx and to check free egress    
from the pharynx into the mouth1 making 
the tone muffled4 ,raise the back of the

 tongue until it touches the soft       
palate1 and the two combined close the  
mouth-cavity from behind1 with the      
result that voice is carried up the     
nasal passage and is charged with a     
disagreeable nasal quality4  ,for every 
tone produced there is a special        
adjustment throughout the entire vocal  
tract4 ,these adjustments should1 by    
practice1 become automatic1 simple acts 
of swift and unconscious obedience to   
the will4 ,then the question of forward1
 backward1 or middle production1        
according to the part of the roof of the
 mouth where the tone-vibrations appear 
to centre1 will become a matter wholly  
of the quality of voice which it is     
desired to produce for any given        
emotional state4 ,forward               
production--vibration appearing to      
centre a little back of the upper front 
teeth--is1 as a general thing1 the best4
 ,yet a voice brilliant to the point of 
hardness can be mellowed by middle or   
backward production4 ,these are matters 

of judgment4 ,but when ,i am told1 as ,i
 was by a young girl1 that she was being
 taught to centre the tone-vibrations   
back of her eyes1 all ,i can do is to   
throw up my hands and exclaim1 ,o       
voice-production1 what crimes are       
committed in thy name6 ,yes--there      
should be a ,rescue ,league1 or a       
,society for the ,prevention of ,cruelty
 to ,singers4     ,,chapter ,,vii       
,,registers ,,of ,,the ,,voice   ,the   
subject of vocal registers is a         
difficult one--difficult to understand  
and1 when understood1 difficult to make 
intelligible to others4 ,in fact1 it is 
so difficult that some people get rid of
 it by calmly asserting that there are  
no registers4 ,this is unfortunate1     
because the blending of the registers1  
the smoothing out of the voice where one
 register passes over into another1 the 
elimination of the break between them1  
is one of the greatest problems which   
the teacher of voice-production is      
obliged to solve4 ,like so many other   

branches in the art of voice-production1
 the subject is complicated by initial  
misunderstandings4 ,numerous people     
suppose1 for example1 that the vocal    
registers are synonymous with the       
different kinds of voices1 and speak of 
the alto1 soprano1 bass or tenor        
register as if register stood for       
quality1 which it does not4 ,another    
complication results from the fact that 
certain phenomenal voices1 chiefly      
tenor1 literally rise superior to the   
law of vocal registers4 ,thus1 a        
phenomenal tenor like ,duprez sang with 
ease the whole tenor range1 including   
the high ,c1 in the powerful1 vibrant   
chest register1 whereas the average     
tenor1 while producing a great portion  
of his voice in the chest register1 is  
obliged at a certain point in the       
ascending scale to pass into the middle 
and beyond that into the head register4 
,the breaks that occur in average voices
 at certain points of the scale have    
established the divisions of the voice  

into registers4 ,these breaks can be    
accounted for on scientific grounds2 and
 if the physiology of voice-production  
had done no more than explain the why   
and wherefore of vocal registers1 it    
would have justified itself through this
 alone4  ,suppose there were a man able 
to produce the entire male vocal        
compass1 from deepest bass to highest   
tenor4 ,while for every note throughout 
the entire compass there would be subtle
 changes in the adjustment of the vocal 
tract1 the following also would be      
true3--,that1 beginning with the lowest 
note and throughout the first octave of 
his voice1 the changes in the adjustment
 of the vocal tract would not alter the 
general character of the adjustment for 
that octave2 that1 on entering the      
second octave1 there would be a tendency
 toward change in the general adjustment
 of the vocal tract2 while1 for the     
production of the remaining notes above1
 an almost startling change in the      
adjustment of the vocal tract would take

 place4 ,the same would be true if a    
woman1 capable of producing the entire  
female vocal compass1 were to begin with
 the lowest contralto and sing up to the
 highest soprano tone4 ,it is the       
general character of the adjustment of  
the vocal tract for a certain range of  
notes in the vocal scale that determines
 each register1 the two principal       
changes in adjustment causing two breaks
 in the smooth progression of the voice4
  ,allowing for the fact that the male  
voice is an octave below the female     
voice1 but in all other respects        
corresponds with it in range1 the       
adjustment of the vocal tract throughout
 each register is the same for both men 
and women singers4 ,there is1 ,i fear1 a
 prevalent notion on the part of the    
musical public that each voice has its  
own separate registers2 that1 for       
example1 the registers of the soprano   
voice are at different points of the    
scale from those of the alto1 and those 
of the tenor at different points from   

both of these4 ,but this is not the     
case4 ,always allowing for the octave   
difference between the male and female  
voice1 the registers for all voices are 
at fixed points of the scale and are1 or
 should be1 sung by all voices with the 
same adjustment of the vocal tract4 ,a  
few examples will make this clear4  ,the
 lowest register for female voice is3   
,music3 ,f#c-;,f#d  that for male voice3
    ,music3 ,f#b-;,f#c  i4e41 an octave 
lower4 ,these are the first eight notes 
of the alto of the female voice and of  
the bass of the male voice4 ,alto and   
bass sing these notes with precisely the
 same adjustment of the vocal tract4    
,the vocal cords in this register       
vibrate along their entire length1 the  
space between them1 also the cup and the
 general adjustment of the vocal tract1 
are open4 ,a good soprano can come down 
into this register as far as ,music3    
,c#d and a good tenor as far as ,music3 
,c#c1 and when these voices come down   
into this register they too sing with   

the same adjustment of the vocal tract  
as is used for the same tones by alto   
and bass4 ,this1 therefore1 constitutes 
the lowest register for all voices--not 
because it consists of certain notes1   
but because these notes require the same
 general adjustment of the vocal tract  
for their production by all voices4     
,when it comes to the next or middle    
register3--,music3 ,f#d-;,f#e for female
 voices 7and an octave below for male   
voices71 soprano and tenor sing through 
this entire register with ease1 using a 
slightly different adjustment of the    
vocal tract from that which they        
employed when they went down into the   
lowest register4 ,the ordinary alto     
stops at ,c in this register1 as does   
also the bass at an octave lower4 ,when 
they enter it their vocal tract adjusts 
itself to it and corresponds with the   
adjustment employed in it by soprano and
 tenor4 ,in this register the vocal     
cords still vibrate along their entire  
length1 but as the voice progresses     

upward1 they show a tendency to shorten 
the glottic chink1 and the cup1 as well 
as the adjustment of the entire vocal   
tract1 tends to become less open4 ,it is
 the register of transition1 placed     
between the lowest and highest1 as if to
 bridge over the interval4  ,the highest
 register3 ,music3 ,f#e-;,c#f 7an octave
 lower for male voice7 calls for an     
extraordinary change in the adjustment  
of the vocal tract4 ,the vocal cords are
 pressed tightly together at the rear   
and sometimes both at the rear and      
front4 ,these portions thus cease to    
vibrate4 ,only the small free parts     
vibrate and these only at the edges4 ,as
 the voice progresses up the scale the  
stop action ceases1 the elliptical      
opening and the cup become smaller1 and 
the entire vocal tract is1 comparatively
 speaking1 contracted4 ,this register   
practically belongs only to sopranos and
 tenors4 ,for example1 although some    
baritones are capable of adjusting their
 vocal tracts to this register1 their   

voices lose the baritone timbre1 take on
 a feminine quality1 and become male    
altos4  ,in other words1 there are three
 registers1 and they correspond for all 
voices1 but certain voices sing more in 
one register than in the others4 ,thus1 
the lowest register is the special      
province of the alto and the bass2      
soprano and tenor can come down only a  
few notes into it4 ,the middle and the  
highest registers are the special       
province of soprano and tenor4 ,the     
ordinary alto and bass can come up only 
part way into the middle register and   
cannot follow soprano and tenor at all  
into the highest4  ,the division of the 
registers which ,i have made is subject 
to many practical exceptions1 which so  
far ,i have avoided mentioning1 because 
,i wanted to fix in the reader's mind   
the fact that the registers are the same
 for all voices and are determined by   
the special adjustment of the vocal     
apparatus required for their production1
 and not by voice-quality4 ,now and then

 in a generation there may appear upon  
the scene a singer1 usually tenor1 who  
for his high notes is not obliged to    
adopt the somewhat artificial adjustment
 required by the highest register1 but  
can sing all his tones in the easier    
adjustments of the lowest or middle     
register4 ,but he is a phenomenon1 the  
exception that proves the rule4 ,another
 practical exception to my rigid        
division of the registers is furnished  
by the overlapping of registers1 the    
capacity of a singer to produce the     
lower notes of one register with the    
vocal adjustment employed for the higher
 notes of the register below1 and vice  
versa2 so that where the registers meet 
there are possibly some half a dozen    
optional notes4 ,most basses and        
baritones1 for example1 sing only in one
 register1 that is1 they carry the vocal
 adjustment for the lowest register into
 the notes they are able to sing in the 
register above4 ,these exceptions will  
be considered later4 ,at present1 in    

order to treat this difficult subject in
 something that at least approaches an  
elementary manner1 it is necessary to   
make the division of the vocal scale    
into registers a somewhat rigid one4    
,it is1 then1 the three different       
adjustments of the vocal tract which    
determine the three divisions of the    
vocal scale and likewise the positions  
or registers for each division4 ,the    
basis1 therefore1 for the division of   
voice-production into registers is not  
haphazard1 but rests on the science of  
physiology4 ,that there are not separate
 registers for men and women is due to  
the fact that men's voices run parallel 
to those of women at an interval of an  
octave below1 and that1 note for note1  
the adjustment of the male vocal tract  
is the same as that of the female vocal 
tract an octave above4 ,for this reason 
basses and baritones1 although singing  
an octave below contraltos and altos1   
sing in the same registers2 for this    
reason also1 tenors1 although singing an

 octave below sopranos1 employ the same 
registers4 ,i am1 of course1 speaking of
 average voices1 not of phenomenal ones4
  ,mackenzie has defined a register as a
 series of tones of like quality        
producible by a particular adjustment of
 the vocal cords4 ,mills defines        
register as a series of tones of a      
characteristic clang1 timbre1 color or  
quality due to the employment of a      
special mechanism of the larynx in a    
particular manner4 ,both definitions    
practically mean the same thing4 ,what  
,i object to in them is their use of the
 word quality1 and ,mackenzie's         
limitation of the adjustment to the     
vocal cords and ,mills' to the larynx4  
,the adjustment takes place throughout  
the entire vocal tract4 ,indeed1 one of 
the claims ,i make for this book is1    
that it does not limit the              
voice-producing factor to the vibrations
 of the vocal cords1 but while          
recognizing the importance of these1    
also considers the importance of the    

rest of the vocal tract in relation to  
them4 ,other writers hold that voice is 
produced solely by the vibrations of the
 vocal cords1 and that the rest of the  
vocal tract is concerned merely with    
determining the timbre of the voice4    
,but ,i do not limit the function of the
 vocal tract below and above the cords  
simply to voice quality4 ,to produce a  
given tone requires not only vibration  
of the cords but an adjustment along the
 entire tract and especially a change in
 the size and shape of the cup space4   
,if one wished to be exasperatingly     
accurate one might say that each        
adjustment constituted a register1 and  
that in every voice there were as many  
registers as there are tones4 ,but      
surveying the progress of the voice up  
the vocal scale1 and as a whole1 it is  
found that up to a certain point the    
general character of adjustment within  
the vocal tract is the same1 that beyond
 that point there is a change to another
 adjustment of a general character1 and 

further beyond still another--in other  
words1 that there are three registers4  
,some writers recognize only two        
physical changes in the mechanism of the
 vocal tract and consequently only two  
registers instead of three4 ,they       
dispense entirely with the middle       
register because the general change     
there in the adjustment within the vocal
 tract is not1 in their opinion1        
sufficient to determine a new register4 
,in point of fact1 however1 while the   
lower vocal range calls the vocal cords 
into vibration along their entire       
length1 and while for the highest range 
only a portion of the edges of the vocal
 cords vibrate1 the adjustment for the  
medium tones shows a gradual change from
 the first condition to the third4 ,it  
is a bridge by which the voice crosses  
in safety from the lowest to the highest
 register--a register of transition1 but
 a register withal4  ,moreover1 as the  
voice progresses upward through the     
scale1 three distinct physical          

sensations are experienced by the singer
 according as to whether he is singing  
low1 middle or high4 ,there is one      
physical sensation for the lower1       
another for the middle and a third for  
the higher notes4 ,this would indicate  
that there is1 after all1 more of a     
change in the adjustment of the vocal   
tract for the middle notes than is      
apparent superficially1 and confirms the
 position of those who hold that there  
are three vocal registers instead of    
two4  ,in voice-production of the lower 
notes there is a physical sensation of  
vibration in the upper chest2 on the    
medium notes1 in the pharynx2 on the    
higher notes1 in the head4 ,these       
physical sensations have determined the 
names of chest register for the lower   
and head register for the higher range  
of tones4 ,strictly speaking1 the middle
 range should be denominated pharyngeal 
or throat register1 but usually it is   
called the medium or middle register4   
,in the chest register the vibrations of

 the vocal cords are slow and heavy2 the
 vocal tract being in its relaxed1 open 
adjustment1 the larynx sinks slightly   
and1 the vibrations taking place in     
their nearest proximity to the chest1   
they are communicated to it4 ,in the    
middle register the adjustment of the   
vocal tract is more closed than in the  
chest register1 the larynx rises a      
little1 the shape of the vocal tract is 
determined largely by the relative      
positions assumed by the epiglottis and 
the soft palate1 and the vibrations no  
longer can communicate themselves to the
 chest1 but are felt in the pharynx4 ,in
 the head register the vocal cords come 
together at one end1 sometimes at both  
ends1 and only the upturned edges of the
 resulting small aperture vibrate1      
throwing the sensation of vibration up  
into the head4 ,in every way ,nature    
seems to indicate that there are three  
vocal registers4  ,the most extreme     
limits of human voice so far known were 
found in the voices of ,ludwig ,fischer1

 a bass singer1 and of ,lucrezia        
,agujari 7,la ,bastardella71 a florid   
soprano4 ,fischer created the rle of    
,osmin in ,mozart's ,entfhring aus dem  
,serail4 ,his voice went down to contra 
,f ,music3 ,f#a an entire octave lower  
than the ordinary bass singer4 ,la      
,bastardella sang as high as ,music3    
,c#g or an octave higher than what      
usually is spoken of as soprano high ,c4
 ,these1 however1 were marvellous       
voices1 so extraordinary that they form 
part of the history of singing4 ,indeed1
 ,baker1 in his ,biographical           
,dictionary of ,musicians1 credits      
,fischer with ,d--a#a ,music3           
,d#b-;,a#d4  ,a reasonable statement of 
the vocal compass would be #b-a_/b      
octaves1 or ,music3 ,f#c to ,c#f for    
female voice and the same1 an octave    
lower1 for male voice4 ,allowing for    
unusual voices1 the statement would be  
as follows3    ,music3    ,treble staff3
   ,low or ,chest ,register4 ,d#c-;,f#d 
,middle ,register4 ,g#d-;,f#e   ,high or

 ,head ,register4 ,g#e-;,f#f    ,bass   
staff3   ,low or ,chest ,register4      
,c#b-;,f#c   ,middle ,register4         
,g#c-;,f#d   ,high or ,head ,register4  
,g#d-;,c#e  ,this musical example shows 
that save for the lowest note of the    
bass voice and the three highest of the 
soprano1 the male and female compass    
parallel each other at an interval of an
 octave apart1 and that the division of 
the registers is the same for both4     
,still utilizing the same musical       
example1 but noting now the two chief   
divisions of male and female voices     
7bass and tenor in the male and alto and
 soprano in the female71 the example    
would be divided as follows3    ,music3 
,alto4   ,low or ,chest ,register4      
,d#c-;,f#d   ,middle ,register4         
,g#d-;,f#e    ,soprano4   ,low or ,chest
 ,register4 ,c#d-;,f#d   ,middle        
,register4 ,g#d-;,f#e   ,high or ,head  
,register4 ,g#e-;,f#f    ,bass4   ,low  
or ,chest ,register4 ,c#b-;,f#c         
,middle ,register4 ,g#c-;,e#d    ,tenor4

   ,low or ,chest ,register4            
,bflat#b-;,f#c   ,middle ,register4     
,g#c-;,f#d   ,high or ,head ,register4  
,g#d-;,c#e  ,it must be borne in mind   
that registers overlap1 that they extend
 up and down one into another1 and that 
at points where this occurs it is       
optional with the singer in which of the
 two overlapping registers he will      
produce his tones4 ,there are many      
singers who can sing at will the lower  
half of the middle register either in   
chest or middle1 and the upper half of  
the middle either in middle or head4 ,it
 is to be noted1 however1 that it is    
easier to bring down a tone from a      
higher into a lower register than to    
force up a register1 the latter         
proceeding often being ruinous to the   
voice4  ,duprez1 a phenomenal tenor1    
could1 as ,i have stated1 sing the whole
 tenor range in the chest register4 ,he 
could emit the ut de poitrine1 which    
means that he could sing even tenor high
 ,c in the chest register4 ,the result  

was that half the tenors of ,europe     
ruined their voices trying to imitate   
him4 ,for they ignored the natural      
three-register divisions of the voice1  
and thought they could accomplish with  
their average voices what is reserved   
only for phenomenal ones4  ,there are   
three registers2 and the interrelations 
between these and the different voices  
within the male and female range must   
now be considered4     ,,chapter ,,viii 
,,subdivisions ,,of ,,the ,,voice   ,it 
should be remembered that in the old    
days1 from which traditions of          
phenomenally high voices have come down 
to us1 musical pitch was lower than it  
is now4 ,in those days a tenor1 for     
example1 could carry up his voice in the
 adjustment for the middle or in        
phenomenal cases even for the chest     
register1 instead of changing to the    
head register1 more easily than can be  
done now4 ,in fact1 nowadays1 when a    
composer calls for a very high note1 it 
usually is transposed1 so that actually 

the supposedly high ,c of ,di quella    
pira nearly always is a ,b flat4        
,probably there has been no general     
deterioration in voices1 popular opinion
 to the contrary notwithstanding4       
,phenomenal voices always have been     
rare1 and doubtless are no rarer now    
than at any other period4 ,at any time  
any opera house would have been proud of
 two such tenors as ,caruso and ,bonci1 
or of two such sopranos as ,melba and   
,tetrazzini1 while there is no period in
 which a ,sembrich would not have been a
 rara avis4 ,the artist who1 seemingly  
taught by nature1 spontaneously employs 
the correct registers and sings the most
 difficult music with ease and accuracy1
 always has been an unusually gifted    
person--a vocal phenomenon1 in fact4    
,the preceding chapter gave only the    
main divisions for male and female      
voices--alto and soprano for female and 
baritone and tenor for male4 ,there are 
subdivisions of these4 ,contralto is a  
subdivision of alto1 mezzo-soprano of   

soprano2 and soprano itself may be      
dramatic or florid4 ,baritone is a      
division of bass2 and tenor is either   
dramatic or lyric4 ,even when one of    
these subdivisions of voice is able to  
enter the range of another1 it cannot do
 the same things with the same ease as  
the one which naturally belongs there4  
,an alto of extraordinary range1 like   
,schumann-,heink1 may be able to achieve
 high soprano in the head register4 ,it 
is a valuable accomplishment1 insuring  
ease in singing of rles that lie in the 
balance between high alto and           
mezzo-soprano1 but it does not make the 
singer a soprano4 ,a dramatic soprano   
may be able to sing florid rles1 but    
never with the success of the soprano   
whose natural gifts are of the florid   
order4 ,a ,wagner singer rarely succeeds
 in the traditional ,italian rles1 nor a
 singer of these in ,wagner rles4 ,lilli
 ,lehmann always insisted that ,norma   
was one of her great rles1 and craved   
the opportunity to sing it here4 ,at    

last the opportunity came1 but it is not
 on record that the public clamored for 
its repetition or ranked her ,casta diva
 with her singing of ,isolde's          
,liebestod4 ,melba1 one of the most     
exquisite of florid sopranos1 once      
attempted ,brnnhilde in ,siegfried4 ,one
 performance1 and her good judgment came
 to her rescue4 ,it is to ,sembrich's   
credit that she always has remained     
within her genre and for this reason    
never1 so far as ,i know1 has made a    
failure4 ,the sign-post that stands at  
the entrance to the path leading to     
vocal success might read as follows3    
,find out what your voice is1 and remain
 strictly within it4  ,the voice which1 
because of its great range1 best        
illustrates the three-register division 
of the vocal scale1 is the soprano4 ,the
 average soprano ranges from ,music3    
,c#d-;,a#e2 but combining the three     
types of soprano voices1 the soprano    
compass is as given in the previous     
chapter1 the extremes being1 of course1 

exceptional4  ,among types of sopranos1 
the dramatic averages the greatest      
compass4 ,the voice is heavier than     
florid soprano and incapable of being   
handled with the same agility4 ,but it  
contains more low notes and almost as   
many high ones1 unless in the latter    
respect one compares it with florid     
soprano voices of the phenomenal order4 
,otherwise1 so far as the high notes are
 concerned1 the difference lies in      
quality rather than in compass4 ,the    
,inflammatus in ,rossini's ,stabat      
,mater1 which is written for dramatic   
soprano1 contains the high ,c1 and no   
one who has heard ,nordica sing it need 
be told of the noble effect a great     
dramatic soprano can produce with it4   
,it is possible to sing the three       
highest notes of the chest register of  
dramatic soprano with the adjustment for
 the middle register2 and the higher    
notes of the middle register with the   
adjustment for the head register4 ,this 
option is not merely a convenience4 ,its

 artistic value is great4 ,in loud      
phrases those optional notes which      
naturally lie in the chest register are 
delivered most effectively in that      
register2 but in piano phrases they are 
more effective when sung with the       
adjustment of the middle register4 ,the 
same thing applies to those optional    
tones which naturally lie in the middle 
register4 ,in loud phrases they are sung
 best in their natural register--the    
middle2 in piano phrases1 in the head   
register4 ,these are two capital        
illustrations of the value of the       
overlapping of registers and the        
necessity of training a voice to be     
equally at home in both registers on all
 notes that are optional4               
,theoretically1 the florid soprano      
produces the three lowest notes of its  
range in the chest register2 the notes  
from ,music3 ,f#d-;,f#e in the middle2  
and the notes above these in the head   
register4 ,in practice1 however1 the    
small larynx and the limited cup space  

found in florid sopranos make it        
difficult if not impossible for them to 
adjust their vocal tracts to the chest  
register4 ,the problem is met by        
bringing the head register as far down  
as possible into the middle2 and by     
singing what theoretically should be    
chest tones in the middle register4 ,it 
hardly need be pointed out that the     
lower notes of florid sopranos are weak4
 ,this accounts for it4 ,florid soprano1
 the voice of the head register1 is a   
voice of extraordinary agility--the     
voice of vocal pyrotechnics4 ,to achieve
 it ,nature appears to have found it    
necessary to sacrifice the heavier      
middle and chest registers which make   
for dramatic expression2 with dramatic  
sopranos1 on the other hand1 to         
sacrifice the muscular flexibility which
 makes for agility4 ,mezzo-soprano is a 
voice that lies within the compass of   
dramatic soprano1 usually extending     
neither quite so low nor quite so high1 
but governed by the same laws4  ,for    

altos the ordinary compass is ,music3   
,g#c-;,c#e4 ,a low alto or contralto is 
supposed to go down to the ,e below2    
while altos of unusual range go high as 
,music3 ,f#e4 ,i even have seen the alto
 compass in notation run up to high ,c2 
but to control this high range an alto  
would have to be another                
,schumann-,heink who has cultivated     
upper notes in the head register4 ,the  
tone-quality of some alto voices        
approaches so nearly that of the male   
voice1 especially in the lowest tones of
 the chest register1 that these altos   
are known as female baritones4 ,in fact 
there is no voice in which register     
affects tone-quality as plainly as in   
alto4 ,for in alto voices the chest     
register is apt to give tones that are  
heavy without corresponding vibrance and
 sonority1 while tones produced in the  
adjustment of the head register are apt 
to be too thin4 ,the middle register1   
however1 produces in the alto voice a   
tone that is rich without being too     

heavy1 so that it avoids undue heaviness
 on the one hand and on the other a     
thinness that is in no way comparable   
with the light tones of soprano1 but    
simply a thin and unsatisfactory alto4  
,alto tone in the middle register       
therefore gives the standard            
tone-quality for alto voice2 and when   
singing in chest or head register1 an   
alto should endeavor to relieve the     
chest notes of their heaviness and the  
head notes of their thinness by giving  
them as much as she can the quality of  
tones in the middle register4 ,this can 
be accomplished by bringing head tones  
down to middle and by carrying the      
middle register adjustment down into the
 chest register4 ,but all this is as    
much a matter of correct ear and trained
 will power to make the voice reproduce 
the mental audition as it is of physical
 adjustment4  ,the great prizes of the  
operatic stage and concert hall go to   
the higher voices--to sopranos1 for     
example1 instead of to altos4 ,yet the  

proper training of an alto voice is a   
most difficult matter because1 while the
 chest register is the natural singing  
register of alto1 it produces too big a 
tone--a tone so big as to be heavy and  
unwieldy4 ,the middle register in alto  
really is an assumed position1 yet it is
 the register in which the standard alto
 tone is produced4 ,teachers who either 
are ignorant of these facts or disregard
 them are apt to carry up the cumbersome
 chest register until it meets the thin 
head register1 producing a voice whose  
low notes are too heavy and tend toward 
the uncanny and by no means agreeable   
female baritone quality1 while the      
higher notes are thin and undecided in  
character4  ,the male voice-range is the
 same as the female1 save that it lies  
an octave lower2 its mechanism is the   
same2 and its registers are the result  
of identical physical functions4 ,thus1 
allowing for the octave difference1 the 
tenor voice and the laws that govern it 
correspond for all practical purposes   

with soprano4  ,tenors are lyric and    
dramatic1 a distinction that explains   
itself4 ,the lyric tenor is light and   
flexible4 ,the dramatic tenor is a      
ringing1 vibrant voice1 especially on   
the high notes4 ,probably it is the     
splendor of these high notes that is    
responsible for the theory that they are
 produced by carrying the chest register
 upward4 ,in point of fact1 a genuine   
chest register rarely is employed by    
tenors4 ,their easiest1 their natural   
singing range1 is in the middle         
register1 and the tones which in the    
notation of the tenor compass are       
assigned to the chest register1 really  
are sung in what is more like a downward
 extension of the middle register4 ,just
 as the larynx of the soprano is not as 
large as that of the alto or contralto  
and is not capable of the open          
adjustment required by the chest        
register1 so the larynx of the tenor is 
smaller than that of bass or baritone   
and1 like the soprano1 less capable of  

the open adjustment for chest register4 
,the result is the same--a perceptible  
weakness on the lower notes1 the great  
qualities of the voice lying in the     
middle and head registers1 especially in
 the latter4  ,the lyric tenor is a     
lighter voice than the dramatic for the 
same reason that florid soprano is      
lighter than dramatic soprano4 ,the cup 
space within the larynx is1             
comparatively speaking1 small4 ,thus1   
while the head tones of the dramatic    
tenor are powerful and vibrant1 the     
lyric tenor's head tones are lighter and
 more graceful1 but are lacking in      
brilliant1 resonant dramatic quality4 ,a
 tenor like ,jean de ,reszke1 who sang  
baritone for several years1 must have a 
larynx somewhat larger than that of a   
genuine dramatic tenor1 and his         
production of robust tenor notes in the 
head register must have required a most 
artistic series of adjustments of his   
voice tract throughout this entire      
register4 ,but while it cannot be denied

 that ,jean de ,reszke was an artist in 
the truest sense of the term1 it also   
cannot be denied that his high voice    
just lacked the true vibrant tenor      
quality and had a suspicion of baritone 
in it4  ,some tenors who cannot sing    
unusually high in head register are able
 to acquire what is known as falsetto1  
and even tenors who are not obliged to  
resort to falsetto sometimes employ it  
for special effects4 ,falsetto is       
produced by carrying the adjustment for 
head register to its extreme limit4     
,practically it is the artificial       
reproduction within the throat of an    
adult of the small larynx before the    
period of mutation4 ,in singing falsetto
 the false vocal cords drop down to     
within a quarter of an inch of the true 
cords and even closer1 reducing the cup 
space in the larynx to its dimensions   
before mutation4 ,to secure a good      
quality of tone in falsetto the singer  
must have complete control of the cup   
space--be able to diminish it not only  

by allowing the false cords to drop down
 almost upon the vocal cords1 but also  
by contracting it laterally4 ,if he can 
do this1 he can produce some genuinely  
artistic effects in falsetto4 ,when a   
tenor cannot control the muscles that   
contract the cup space1 his falsetto    
will be of a poor quality--a mere dodge 
to add some higher notes to those of his
 legitimate vocal range4  ,there are    
singers whose control over the registers
 is so expert that1 when they are called
 upon to follow a loud1 singing1 vibrant
 head tone with a pp effect on the same 
note1 they can accomplish this by       
imperceptibly changing to falsetto4     
,they can glide from head into falsetto 
and back again without a break and add  
the charm of varied tone-color to       
natural beauty of voice4 ,this is       
especially true of dramatic tenors4 ,if 
they can vary the naturally full and    
sonorous quality of their head tone with
 an artistic falsetto1 they are able to 
secure many beautiful effects by an     

interchange of registers4 ,whenever the 
high tones of a lyric tenor sound thin1 
it is because high head tones do not lie
 naturally within the singer's range and
 he is obliged to substitute falsetto   
for them4 ,baritone tenors usually      
cannot achieve their higher notes in    
head register and are obliged to adopt  
falsetto1 but as their voices are       
naturally fuller than those of the lyric
 tenor their falsetto is more agreeable4
  ,falsetto is a remnant of the voice   
before mutation1 the male singer who can
 produce falsetto having such control   
over the larynx that he can contract the
 cup space until it reverts to its      
original boy size4 ,this accounts for   
the peculiar quality of the male        
falsetto--its alloy of the feminine4    
,boys sing soprano or alto2 and a man's 
voice must be naturally high and possess
 such a genuine tenor quality that      
nothing can rob it of its true timbre1  
to be effective in falsetto4 ,this is   
why the average baritone tenors--singers

 who begin as baritones but whose voices
 lend themselves to being trained       
up--rarely are able to penetrate an     
ensemble with a clear1 ringing high note
 of genuine tenor quality4 ,a good tenor
 falsetto is in fact a reversion to     
boy-soprano with1 however1 the quality  
of adult high voice predominating to    
such a degree that it has the tenor     
timbre2 and in proportion as the high   
notes of the male voice result from     
artificial training instead of from     
natural capacity1 the boy-soprano timbre
 will creep in and weaken the tenor     
quality in falsetto4 ,some basses and   
low baritones can be trained to reach   
the high notes of the male vocal compass
 in falsetto1 but as natural facility to
 produce these notes is lacking in such 
voices and their production is due      
wholly to artifice1 the reversion to the
 boy quality of voice is so complete and
 it predominates to such a degree that  
these voices are known as male altos4   
,falsetto usually is associated with    

tenors1 but falsetto also can be        
employed by women1 the results1 as with 
men1 depending on whether the voice is  
naturally a high one or not4 ,i repeat  
that with voices which naturally are    
high1 falsetto is not a dodge1 but a    
legitimate artistic effect4             
,furthermore1 singers who in addition to
 control of the regular registers have  
control of falsetto1 frequently find    
physical relief in passing from head to 
falsetto and back again4  ,basses are of
 three different kinds4 ,basso profundo 
is the lowest bass2 basso cantante is a 
flexible bass usually unable to sing    
quite as low as basso profundo2 baritone
 is the highest bass--a voice midway    
between bass and tenor and partaking    
somewhat of the quality of both4 ,the   
bass compass parallels that for         
contralto and alto at an interval of an 
octave and1 in their use of the         
registers1 basses and contraltos and    
baritones and altos have much in common4
 ,as with contralto1 the natural singing

 register of basses is the chest        
register4 ,the middle register is       
awkward to establish in bass voices1 as 
the size of the larynx gives a large    
open cup space which is unsuited to the 
chest register4 ,therefore1 with basses1
 when the capacity of the chest register
 is exhausted1 it is best for the       
production of the notes above to make a 
complete change of adjustment to head   
register4 ,thus in bass the middle      
register practically is eliminated4     
,the high bass or baritone compass is   
from ,music3 ,g#b-;,f#d4 ,it was seen   
that the question of registers with     
altos and contraltos was a complicated  
one1 and similar complications exist    
with baritones4 ,some baritones can     
employ the middle register with ease1 so
 that like certain contraltos they can  
sing in three registers--a rather weak  
chest register1 middle and head 7or     
falsetto7 registers4 ,the training of   
baritones is difficult1 and should be   
determined by the tendency of the       

individual baritone voice--whether it   
inclines toward bass or toward tenor4   
,for example1 ,jean de ,reszke was at   
the beginning of his career the victim  
of faulty voice diagnosis4 ,he was      
pronounced a baritone and trained for   
baritone rles1 with the result that he  
suffered from an exaggerated condition  
of fatigue after every appearance4      
,later the probable tenor quality of his
 voice was discovered1 and when it had  
been developed along physiological lines
 best suited to its real quality1 undue 
fatigue after using it ceased4  ,the    
division of the vocal scale into        
registers is not an artifice4 ,it is    
,nature's method of assisting           
vocalization1 her way of relieving the  
strain of the voice4 ,a certain portion 
of the vocal scale lies naturally in the
 chest register4 ,but if this open      
adjustment is carried up too far1 the   
tones are strained and eventually       
ruined4 ,on the other hand if1 at the   
proper point1 the singer passes into the

 middle register1 the strain is         
relieved2 and the relief experienced is 
even greater when passing from middle   
into head1 entirely releasing one set of
 muscles and calling an entirely new set
 into play4  ,the so-called breaks in   
the voice occur at points where one     
register passes into another2 and it    
should be the aim of proper instruction 
in voice-culture to eliminate the       
breaks4 ,they are due to the change in  
adjustment which each register calls    
for4 ,the best method of blending the   
registers--of smoothing out the         
breaks--is to bring a higher register   
several tones down into the one below   
and thus bridge over the passage from   
one adjustment to another4 ,to do this  
consciously would defeat its aim4 ,it   
must be done in spontaneous response to 
the mental conception of the tone or    
phrase to be emitted4 ,it must become   
second nature with the singer1 a        
physiological adjustment in answer to a 
psychical concept--a detail1 in fact one

 of the most important details1 in that 
true physiology of voice-production     
which also takes psychical conditions   
into consideration4     ,,chapter ,,ix  
,,the ,,stroke ,,of ,,the ,,glottis     
,the coup de glotte1 translated as      
stroke of the glottis1 refers to the    
manner in which a note should be        
attacked4 ,this matter of attack already
 has been covered by inference many     
times in the course of this book4 ,for1 
as the effectiveness of vocal attack    
depends upon the way in which the       
air-column strikes the vocal cords1 it  
follows that the advice constantly given
 and in accordance with which the entire
 vocal tract of the singer should adjust
 itself as if by second nature to the   
tone that is to be produced1 each time  
places the cords in the correct position
 to receive the stroke of the outgoing  
air4 ,it does away with all danger of   
the audible stroke which occurs most    
frequently on the very open             
vowel-sounds1 when the air reaches the  

glottis too late and is obliged to force
 its way through1 the result being a    
disagreeable click2 and it also obviates
 the defect from the opposite cause1    
when the air passes through the glottis 
too soon and results in an aspirated    
sound1 an ,h before vowels1 the voice1  
for example1 emitting ,hi for ,i4       
,mackenzie remarks on these points that 
the great object to be aimed at is that 
no air should be wasted or expended     
improvidently2 that just the amount     
required for the particular effect in   
view must be used4 ,too strong a current
 tends to raise the pitch1 a result     
which can be prevented only by extra    
tension of the vocal cords1 which1 of   
course1 entails unnecessary strain4     
,again1 the air may be sent up with such
 velocity that some of it leaks through 
before the glottis has time to intercept
 it2 or with such violence as to force  
the lips of the chink a little too far  
apart4 ,in either case so much motive   
power is thrown away and to that extent 

the brilliancy and fullness of the tone 
are lost4 ,the coup de glotte1 or exact 
correspondence between the arrival of   
the air at the larynx and the adjustment
 of the cords to receive it1 is a point 
that cannot be too strongly insisted on4
  ,the regulation of the force of the   
blast which strikes against the vocal   
cords1 says ,mackenzie1 the placing of  
these in the most favorable position for
 the effect which it is desired to      
produce1 and the direction of the       
vibrating column of air1 are the three  
elements of artistic production4 ,these 
elements must be thoroughly             
cordinated--that is to say1 made        
virtually one act1 which the pupil must 
strive by constant practice to make as  
far as possible automatic4 ,extend this 
admirably expressed paragraph to the    
entire vocal tract instead of limiting  
it simply to the vocal cords as         
,mackenzie does1 and it covers the      
problem of attack4 ,it is not only the  
vocal cords that should set for the tone

 at the moment the air-column strikes   
them1 the entire vocal tract takes part 
in the adjustment that prepares for the 
attack4 ,it is indeed1 as ,mills says1 a
 case of complex and beautiful          
adaptation4 ,therefore1 the term coup de
 glotte imperfectly expresses what the  
modern physiologist of voice means by   
attack4 ,for coup de glotte conveys the 
idea of shock1 hence creates an         
erroneous impression upon the mind of   
the singer4 ,it is spontaneous          
adjustment1 and neither shock nor even  
attack1 that creates artistic tone4     
,voice and ,song1 by ,joseph ,smith1    
expresses very well the combined        
psychical and physical conditions that  
should prevail at this important moment4
 ,to be certain of a good attack1 the   
student should first think the pitch1   
then1 with all the parts concerned      
properly adjusted1 start breath and tone
 simultaneously1 striking the tone      
clearly and smartly right in the middle 
of its pitch4 ,the book also describes  

the three faulty ways of attack3 7#a7   
the vocal cords approximate for the     
production of the tone after the breath 
has started1 resulting in a disagreeable
 breathy attack2 7#b7 the glottis closes
 so firmly that the attack is           
accomplished by an extraordinary        
explosive effect or click2 7#c7 the     
vocal cords seek to adjust themselves to
 the pitch after the tone has started1  
and produce a horrible scoop in the     
attack4 ,one of the worst faults in     
singing1 the tremolo1 is due to that    
unsteadiness of attack which results    
when the relationship between the breath
 and the laryngeal mechanism is not     
maintained--when the vocal tract has not
 been adjusted in time to the note the  
singer is aiming to produce4  ,another  
writer who has a correct conception of  
what occurs at the important moment of  
attack is ,louis ,arthur ,russell1 who  
says that the musical quality of a tone 
is due1 #ast1 to its correct starting at
 the vocal cords2 #b;d1 its proper      

placement or focus in the mouth after   
passing through the upper throat1 etc42 
#c;d1 its proper reinforcement through  
resonance and shape of the mouth        
cavities2 and #dth1 its support by the  
breath4 ,while this seems to describe   
four successive adjustments1 they are so
 nearly simultaneous as to be one4 ,this
 is clearly recognized by ,mr4 ,russell1
 who says further1 that what he has     
described implies that the body has been
 put into condition and that everything 
is in order1 alert1 responsive and ready
 for the call of the will2 that the     
whole body is in singing condition2 that
 everything is in tune1 and that the one
 tone wanted is all that can ensue4 ,the
 last is especially well put4           
,everything has been made               
ready--psychically and physically--for  
the production of artistic voice1 and   
nothing but artistic voice can          
result--no click1 no aspiration1 no     
tremolo1 no wobble4  ,the vocal tone in 
its passage strikes against the walls of

 the vocal tract4 ,that part of the     
tract upon which it last impinges before
 issuing from between the lips          
determines the placement of a tone4 ,the
 singers should think of the tone as    
focussed upon the front of the hard     
palate--behind the upper front teeth at 
about the point where the roof of the   
mouth begins to curve down toward them4 
,if the tone is placed further forward  
than this1 its quality will be metallic2
 if too far back1 throaty4 ,to impinge  
the tone near the nasal passage gives it
 a nasal quality1 a fault most common   
with the ,french1 acquired probably     
through the necessity of singing certain
 ,french words--bien1 for               
example--through the nose4 ,when1       
however1 the ,french speak of singing   
dans le masque1 they should not be      
understood as implying that tone should 
be nasal in quality1 but that it should 
be projected both through mouth and nose
 and not unduly through either4 ,as a   
rule1 nasal placement should be avoided 

by all but the most experienced singers1
 and even by them employed only         
sparingly and only for passing effects  
in tone-color4  ,the individual         
formation of the lips would seem to have
 much to do with their position in      
singing4 ,some singers advocate a lip   
formation that gives an opening like an 
,o2 others lay the ,o on its side       
,illustration3 ,o turned sideways like  
an ellipse4 ,the former represents the  
lip position of ,nordica1 the latter of 
,sembrich--so that1 as ,i have said1 it 
is largely a matter to be determined by 
the individual4 ,but the singer who uses
 the elliptical position must guard     
against exaggerating it1 as it then     
results in the white voice1 another     
frequent fault of ,french singers4      
,after all1 the final test of           
tone-production1 tone-placing and       
position of the lips is the quality of  
the tone produced2 and this is          
determined at first by the sensitive ear
 of the skilful teacher1 and eventually 

by the trained mental audition of the   
pupil4 ,the old ,italian                
singing-teachers have been greatly      
praised because they are said to have   
reasoned from tone to method and not    
from method to tone4 ,those who praise  
them thus1 usually intend their praise  
to be1 incidently1 a condemnation of    
anything like a scientific method of    
voice-production4 ,in point of fact1    
however1 the modern physiologist of     
voice-production is not an advocate of  
too fixed and rigid a method4 ,he1 too1 
proceeds from tone to method1 and he    
goes even further for his tone than did 
the old ,italian masters4 ,for whereas  
they began with the tone as it issued   
from the singer's lips1 the modern      
physiologist of voice-production begins 
with the singer's mental audition--with 
the tone as the singer conceives it and 
to which his vocal tract should         
automatically set or adjust itself even 
before the breath of phonation leaves   
the lungs4  ,with the beginner1 the     

attack should first be performed on the 
easy singing notes of his voice2 and    
although this book does not aim to be a 
singing-method1 but rather a            
physiological basis for one1 it may be  
said here that a1 pronounced as in ah   
and preceded by l--that is to say1      
l--makes an admirable vowel-sound and   
syllable on which to begin training the 
voice4 ,the vowel-sound alone is too    
open4 ,an absolutely pure tone can be   
produced upon it1 but it will lack      
color4 ,it will be a pure tone1 but     
otherwise uninteresting4 ,with the      
consonant added1 it obtains color and   
gains interest4 ,voice is indebted in an
 amazing degree to the consonants4 ,sing
 the phrase ,i love you1 and put the    
emphasis on you1 which1 for practical   
purposes1 is a pure vowel-sound4 ,the   
emotional vocal effect will not be      
nearly so great as when the emphasis is 
put on love in which the vowel o is     
colored by the consonant l4  ,this can  
be explained physiologically4 ,all      

vowels primarily are made in the larynx 
by the vocal cords4 ,the coup de glotte 
really is the process of vowel-making   
without the aid of consonants4 ,this    
process of vowel-making is so smooth and
 open that a succession of legato       
vowel-sounds can be produced with only  
one stroke of the glottis1 the vowel    
sounds flowing into each other1 or each1
 seemingly1 issuing from the other4     
,consonants are formed within the upper 
cavity of resonance1 the mouth1 some by 
the tongue alone1 some by the combined  
action of tongue and lips4 ,voice-color 
being largely determined by the         
resonance-cavities1 the articulation of 
consonants in the resonance-cavity of   
the mouth covers the open process of    
vowel-formation and gives color to the  
resultant word and tone4 ,thus1 when    
love is sung1 although l is not a strong
 consonant but one of a small group     
called subvocals1 it is sufficient to   
cover and color the open o production4  
,the easy singing range of each         

individual voice usually is about       
identical with the pitch of its         
possessor's speaking voice4 ,training   
should begin with the highest tone of   
the easy singing range4 ,the reason for 
this is that the higher tone requires a 
certain muscular tension which places   
the singer1 so to speak1 on the qui vive
 to the importance of the task before   
him2 whereas the greater relaxation on  
the lower notes might cause him to      
regard the problem as too easy4 ,at the 
same time the higher note1 still lying  
within the easy singing range1 does not 
call for a strain but simply acts as a  
spur4  ,kofler gives six examples of    
easy singing ranges for as many         
voice-divisions1 and adds to each the   
qualification more or less1 thus        
allowing for differences in individual  
voices4 ,his easy singing ranges are as 
follows3    ,music3      ,soprano3      
,g#d-;,e#e     ,more or less            
,mezzo-,soprano3   ,e#d-;,d#e           
,alto3            ,d#d-;,c#e            

,tenor3           ,e#c-;,e#d            
,baritone3        ,c#c-;,c#d            
,bass3            ,a#b-;,a#c            
,reference having been made to vowels   
and consonants1 it seems proper to add  
at this point something about diction in
 singing4 ,the interpretation of a song 
is tone-production applied to the       
emotional significance of words4 ,there 
seems little reason to doubt that the   
old ,italian masters sacrificed many    
things1 clarity of diction included1 to 
beauty of tone4 ,this they placed above 
everything4 ,true1 beauty of tone is the
 first essential of artistic singing1   
but it is not the only essential4 ,if   
song is speech vitalized by music1 then 
speech1 the words to which music is set1
 has some claim to consideration4 ,in   
fact1 the singer's diction should convey
 the import of the spoken word with the 
added emotional eloquence of music4     
,indeed1 even some of the earliest      
,italians recognized this4 ,caccini1 at 
the beginning of the seventeenth        

century1 broke away from the            
contrapuntal music of the church because
 it made the words unintelligible4      
,tosi1 who published a vocal method in  
#agbc1 a little less than a century and 
a quarter after ,caccini's declaration1 
still insisted on the importance of     
clear diction4 ,singers should not      
forget the fact1 he wrote1 that it is   
the words which elevate them above      
instrumentalists4 ,but with the         
introduction into ,italian music of     
florid ornamentation1 which of itself   
made the words more or less             
unintelligible1 they lost their due     
importance1 until1 as many an old       
opera-goer still can testify1 a tenor   
like ,brignoli could1 without protest1  
habitually allow himself the liberty of 
substituting la for the words on all    
high notes and phrases1 simply because  
he found it easier to sing them on that 
syllable4 ,at song recitals1 the words  
of the songs often are printed on the   
programmes4 ,printed translations of    

words sung in foreign languages serve an
 obviously useful purpose4 ,but when an 
,english-speaking singer prints the     
words of ,english songs on his          
programme1 it virtually is a confession 
that he does not expect his hearers to  
understand what he is singing to them in
 their own language--so rooted in       
singers has become the evil of          
indistinct pronunciation4 ,their songs  
are songs without words4  ,however1     
there has been an improvement in this   
respect4 ,the old-time opera libretto   
was so stupid that ,voltaire was        
justified in saying1 ,what is too stupid
 to be spoken is sung4 ,but with ,wagner
 the importance of making the words     
clear to the hearer was recognized1 and 
since his works have established        
themselves in the repertory of the      
operatic stage1 and modern opera        
composers1 following in his footsteps1  
have striven to write music that would  
express the dramatic significance of the
 words to which it is composed1 the art 

of libretto construction has greatly    
improved1 and composers demand that the 
singer shall convey to his audience some
 idea of what is being sung4  ,similar  
progress has been made in song-composing
 and song-interpretation4 ,just as the  
,italians formerly strove mainly for    
beautiful tone-production without much  
thought of the underlying word or       
phrase1 so song-composers strove for    
beautiful melody--for music that was    
satisfying in itself1 whether it suited 
the verbal phrase or not4 ,now1 as in   
opera so in song1 the relationship      
between words and music is recognized   
and the importance of combined verbal   
and musical phraseology is insisted     
upon4 ,formerly1 interpretation was a   
matter of emotion only4 ,now1 the       
intellectual process1 the intelligence  
that discriminates1 the thought that    
justifies the singer's emotional        
expression as that fitted to the words1 
are weighed in the balance4             
,consequently the word must be clearly  

pronounced by the singer4 ,vowel        
enunciation and consonant               
articulation--pronunciation being a     
combination of these two processes--must
 be distinct1 or rather should be       
distinct1 since there still is much     
fault to be found with singers in this  
respect4  ,much has been said1          
especially by ,american singers1 about  
,english being a poor language for song4
 ,i think this is a survival of the time
 when song instruction in this country  
largely was in the hands of foreigners1 
mainly ,italians4 ,naturally they       
preferred their own language1 and       
naturally they failed to appreciate the 
genius of ,english4 ,it is true1 as     
,kofler says1 that the ,italian language
 presents few difficulties to the       
singer4 ,in it1 pure vowels predominate 
and consonants are in the minority1 and 
even then many of these consonants are  
vocal1 while the hard aspirates of other
 languages1 especially ,german and      
,english1 are unknown to ,italian lips4 

,but that which is easier1 by no means  
is always the most artistic4 ,ease      
rarely leads to depth4 ,and this ease of
 pronunciation may account for a lack of
 dramatic grandeur and vigor in ,italian
 and for the ,italian's method of tonal 
emphasis and vehemence of gesture4 ,the 
,german or the ,english artist has no   
need for such extravagances1 because the
 immense richness of these              
languages--the great variety of vowels  
and the vigorous aspirated              
elements--gives to his utterance a      
dramatic freshness and force which are  
life and nature itself4  ,the ,english  
language is probably the one that has   
been described by foreigners as the most
 unfit for singing4 ,greater calumny has
 never been uttered4 ,i contend for just
 the opposite3 ,that ,english is the    
very best language for an artistic      
singer to use1 for it contains the      
greatest variety of vocal and aspirate  
elements1 which afford an artistic      
singer the strongest1 most natural and  

expressive means of dramatic reality4   
,the ,english language has all the pure 
vowels and vocal consonants of the      
,italian2 and1 besides1 it is full of   
rich elements1 mixed vowels1 diphthongs 
and an army of vigorous aspirates4 ,i   
admit that it is not as easy for singing
 as ,italian is2 but just here its true 
merit and advantage arise4 ,the         
difficulties thus forced upon the singer
 compel him to study deeply and         
perseveringly2 but the treasures thus   
unearthed and placed within his reach   
will amply repay for hard work4 ,my     
advice to ,american students is3 ,study 
your own language thoroughly1 and       
practise its difficult articulation with
 the utmost fidelity4 ,if once you find 
the application of its forces to        
dramatic expression1 you will like it   
for singing as well as ,i do4 ,but never
 forget that the appreciation of a      
science comes only from a thorough      
mastery of it4  ,the truth of the matter
 is1 that each language has its own     

peculiar genius for song1 and that a    
vocal composer unconsciously is under   
the influence of his native language4   
,italian music is as smooth as the      
,italian tongue2 ,french music has the  
elegance of the ,french language2       
,german the ruggedness of the ,german2  
and the music of ,english composers also
 partakes of the characteristics of the 
language4 ,the highly trained modern    
singer should be a linguist as well as a
 vocalist4 ,as for the amalgamation of  
the spoken word with the sung tone--that
 again is a matter of unconscious       
adjustment of the vocal tract2 and1 not 
to word and tone separately1 but a      
single adjustment to what ,i may call   
the word-tone4     ,,chapter ,x         
,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,voice   ,i should
 say that no one should be more         
scrupulous in his habits than the       
singer4 ,it is more difficult to keep   
the keen edge of the voice in good      
repair than that of the sharpest razor1 
and nothing should be done to dull it4  

,no one more than the singer requires to
 observe the moral and physical laws4   
,the singer should always be in         
training1 always in the pink of         
condition4 ,by nature1 women should be  
more subject to impairment of voice than
 men4 ,but they are not4 ,they are      
brought up to take better care of       
themselves and1 to put it bluntly1 to   
behave themselves better4 ,as a result1 
in spite of recurring disorders1 they   
stand up and do the work demanded of    
them when men do not or cannot4  ,every 
pupil should be instructed to fall      
naturally into an attitude of attention 
when coming into the presence of the    
teacher--as much so as in the presence  
of a distinguished host or hostess4     
,morale1 esprit de corps1 cannot be     
instilled too soon4 ,they may well be   
considered psychical elements in general
 vocal hygiene4  ,personal cleanliness  
is1 of course1 one of the first         
requisites to health4 ,but1 while       
bathing should be regular1 it should not

 be extreme4 ,a cold bath stimulates at 
first1 but is followed by a bad reaction
 in a few hours4 ,a hot bath1 followed  
by exposure to the open air or a        
draught1 is apt to develop a cold by    
night4 ,i recommend for singers a       
lukewarm bath4  ,when singers have had  
their hair cut1 they should watch       
themselves carefully for the next       
twenty-four hours4 ,if possible1 they   
should have it cut shortly before going 
to bed and should protect the head with 
a light hood4 ,some singers catch cold  
every time they have their hair cut1 and
 bald-headed singers always are catching
 cold4 ,and while on this subject1 it   
cannot be stated emphatically enough    
that any hair tonic that stimulates the 
scalp too much is bad4 ,the glands in   
the scalp absorb the lead1 cantharides1 
cayenne pepper1 or whatever the specific
 poison in the tonic may be2 this is    
carried to the respiratory tract1 and   
creates the symptoms of a cold4         
,singers are not apt to take much       

exercise4 ,for this reason they should  
be careful in their diet4 ,they should  
avoid beef1 lamb and mutton4 ,the white 
meat of fowl is the best meat diet for  
the vocalist4 ,milk1 eggs1 toasted      
bread1 string beans1 spinach1 lettuce1  
rice and barley are excellent4 ,potatoes
 should be mashed1 with milk and butter4
 ,fruit is better taken stewed and with 
little sugar4 ,ice cream clears the     
voice for about twenty minutes1 but the 
reaction is bad4  ,regarding tea and    
coffee1 inasmuch as a singer is not a   
cat on a back fence1 but a human being1 
there is no reason why he should not be 
permitted to follow the social law in   
respect to these1 provided he is not a  
sufferer from indigestion4 ,in fact1    
there are times when a cup of coffee    
taken at the right moment will carry a  
singer1 tired from travel or other      
cause1 over a crisis4 ,there can be no  
harm in a cup of coffee 7,java and      
,mocha mixed71 a cup of ,phillip's      
,digestible cocoa1 or a cup of tea      

7,oolong or ,tetley's ,ceylon7 for the  
singer who is in good condition4  ,i    
always have held that a singer could    
drink a small quantity of               
alcohol--claret1 for example--if he     
takes with it enough lithia or other    
alkaline water to counteract the acid in
 the wine4 ,smoking1 however1 is very   
injurious4 ,a famous tenor of to-day    
whispered during a performance in the   
,metropolitan ,opera ,house to the prima
 donna in the cast1 ,i smoked too many  
cigarettes yesterday2 ,i feel it in my  
voice4 ,myron ,w4 ,whitney always left  
off smoking for two weeks before the    
,worcester ,festival4  ,for travel the  
singer should be prepared for           
atmospheric changes as no one else in   
the world4 ,he should be especially     
cautious at night4 ,a singer who filled 
an engagement in ,savannah started from 
there for the ,north at night4 ,he had  
been in perfect voice4 ,as the night was
 warm he left one of the windows of his 
berth open4 ,at ,washington he woke up  

with cold4 ,it was snowing1 and snow had
 come in through the open window on to  
his berth4 ,his nose was stuffed4 ,he   
had no voice when he reached ,new ,york4
 ,this was due to the sudden            
intensification of all the things that  
belong to a cold4 ,if he had worn a     
dressing-gown with a hood--not          
necessarily a heavy one--that would have
 saved him4 ,a garment of that kind     
should be worn by singers at night when 
traveling4 ,they can regulate the       
bed-covering accordingly1 so as not to  
be too warm4  ,clothing should give     
correct aeration for the season4 ,silk  
underclothing ,i regard as dangerous1   
because silk is a non-conductor4 ,good  
,lisle thread or flannel giving proper  
aeration is excellent4 ,no one should be
 more careful about their clothing than 
,new ,yorkers1 because of the sudden    
changes in temperature there4 ,stiff1   
high collars are injurious1 because they
 are irritants to blood-vessels and     
nerves and are non-conductors4 ,collars 

should be worn from a quarter to half an
 inch away from the skin1 for the less  
the ,adam's apple--the highest forward  
point of the larynx--is irritated1 the  
better4  ,there are certain periods of  
the year and even one special day when  
singers should especially look out for  
their voices4 ,from ,january #aeth-#bjth
 is the period of ,january thaw and of  
colds from melting snow4 ,from ,march   
#aith-#beth the earth is beginning to   
ferment and this is a period for spring 
fever and intestinal troubles1 which    
indirectly affect the voice4 ,may #ith  
usually is cold and rainy4 ,the latter  
part of ,may and nearly all ,june1 rose 
cold or ,june cold is prevalent4 ,about 
,august #ast come the dog days and hay  
fever4 ,in fact1 from ,august #ast until
 the autumnal equinox is an anxious time
 for the singer4 ,from ,november        
#aath-#beth there is apt to be alternate
 cold and warm weather conducive to     
asthma4  ,with the singer1 more even    
than with any one else1 the ounce of    

prevention is the pound of cure4 ,the   
first sneeze should send the singer to  
his physician2 and he also should       
realize--as only too few people do--that
 after a cold nature requires from a    
week to nine days to repair the damaged 
processes1 and that he should not work  
too soon4 ,rest is a great cure4  ,one  
of the most distinguished ,french       
laryngologists1 ,dr4 ,g4 ,poyet1 was    
interviewed for the ,european edition of
 the ,n4 ,y4 ,herald on the subject of  
hygiene for the singer4 ,although what  
,dr4 ,poyet says on some points is a    
repetition of matters already gone over 
here1 while other points will be more   
thoroughly gone into than was possible  
for him in the space at his command1 a  
summary of what this clever man had to  
say on a subject of such importance to  
the singer will serve capitally the     
purpose of this chapter4  ,dr4 ,poyet   
began by saying that1 since the voice   
has intimate relationship with the      
entire organism1 it follows that a      

well-understood hygiene should concern  
the totality of the functions4 ,first of
 all1 it is indispensable to avoid any  
cause of disturbance of the circulation1
 and particularly of the pulmonary      
functions4  ,the singer1 as much as     
possible1 should inhabit sufficiently   
large apartments4 ,he should avoid rooms
 warmed by apparatus which may produce  
carbonic acid or which remove from the  
air the watery vapor it contains        
normally4 ,every day on rising he should
 practise exercises in deep breathing   
and1 if possible1 some of the gymnastic 
exercises which it is possible to       
practise in a room4 ,walking is         
undoubtedly the best exercise1 and every
 singer who is careful of the soundness 
of his lungs--which is equivalent to the
 soundness of his voice--should walk for
 an hour every morning before his       
repast4 7,this advice of ,dr4 ,poyet can
 hardly be taken literally1 and should  
be determined largely by the physique of
 the individual47  ,in order to avoid   

colds1 bronchitis1 sore throat1         
catarrhal laryngitis1 the singer should 
regulate in a fitting manner the        
thickness of his clothing in accordance 
with the prevailing temperature4 ,if by 
misfortune he catches cold1 a little    
laryngitis1 a coryza1 all of which cause
 hoarseness1 he should immediately      
abstain from singing4 ,neglect of this  
rule may bring about the persistence of 
vocal accidents often very long in      
curing4 ,it is because professional     
singers cannot interrupt their work in  
such cases that they more often than any
 others suffer from laryngitis and above
 all in the so dangerous form of chronic
 inflammation of the vocal cords1 which 
determines the deplorable singers'      
nodules4  ,the cutaneous secretions     
should be watched in persons who have   
need of a clear voice4 ,almost all      
catarrhal affections of the respiratory 
organs are due to chills4 ,advice is    
therefore given to every person who has 
practised violent singing-exercises1    

which cause perspiration1 immediately to
 change his clothing after having been  
rubbed down with a horsehair glove or   
with flannel sprinkled with alcohol4    
,like the respiration1 the alimentation 
ought to be watched by the singer4 ,as  
much as possible during the process of  
digestion no violent or prolonged       
singing-exercise should be undertaken4  
,digestive troubles are often the cause 
of deterioration of the voice1 either   
because the swelling and distension of  
the stomach by gas trammels the play of 
the diaphragm1 and consequently that of 
the lungs1 or because intestinal        
troubles bring on constipation or       
diarrhoea4  ,very nutritive and very    
digestible food should be chosen for a  
singer1 and a mixed alimentation should 
be employed4 ,among drinks preference   
should be given to wine and beer4       
,alcoholic liquors1 ,dr4 ,poyet thinks1 
should be absolutely forbidden4         
,however1 he advises a singer in the    
course of a fatiguing performance       

sometimes to moisten the throat with1   
and even to take a few mouthfuls of1    
cold water1 to which has been added a   
little old cognac or vin de coca2 but   
never1 on any account1 to take an iced  
drink just after singing4  ,everybody   
who sings ought first to observe in the 
strictest manner the rules of general   
hygiene4 ,thanks to this hygiene it is  
possible completely to develop all the  
faculties of the larynx and to regulate 
the voice in such manner as to assure   
its regular operation4 ,general hygiene1
 moreover1 will permit the singer to    
preserve himself from the external      
influences which may bring about aphony 
or dysphony1 that is1 loss of voice or  
difficulty of voice4  ,a person who     
sings should always assume a natural    
attitude1 since this aids the play of   
the respiratory organs4 ,this play      
should be mixed1 that is to say1 costal 
and diaphragmatic4 ,the respiration     
should be well regulated4 ,the singer   
ought never to take too sudden          

inspirations1 for he would thus run the 
risk of rapidly irritating the vocal    
cords4 ,when it is a question of vocal  
exercises1 one always should proceed    
from the simple to the complex1 taking  
care not to prolong the exercises at the
 beginning4 ,that is1 the first         
singing-exercises should not be too     
prolonged4 ,moreover1 in these first    
exercises the singer should never       
attempt to attain the extreme notes of  
his vocal range4 ,the exercises should  
lie in the middle register4  ,keen      
impressions1 whether of joy or pain1    
are1 in ,dr4 ,poyet's opinion1 bad for  
the voice4 ,great fear may cause a      
passing but instantaneous loss of voice4
 ,vox faucibus hsit4 ,the emotion of    
singing in public1 as everyone knows1   
prevents many artists from showing their
 full capacity4 ,only custom1 and       
sometimes reasoning1 can free them from 
stage-fright4  ,people who sing1 and who
 desire to preserve the integrity of    
their voice1 should abstain from        

smoking4 ,because some singers--,faure1 
in particular--have had a brilliant     
career despite the inveterate use of    
tobacco1 there is no reason that this   
example should be followed4 ,tobacco    
irritates the pharynx1 reddens the vocal
 cords1 and may cause heart troubles    
harmful to singing4  ,pungent scents    
should be proscribed for singers4 ,the  
odors of some flowers are for certain   
artists the cause of persistent         
hoarseness4 ,mme4 ,carvalho could not   
endure the scent of violets1 which      
instantly caused her to lose her voice4 
,scents often determine a rapid         
congestion of the mucous membrane of the
 nose to such an extent that in certain 
persons they cause veritable attacks of 
asthma4 ,dr4 ,poyet also puts singers on
 their guard against scented toilet     
powder4 ,i knew1 he says1 a great singer
 who was obliged to renounce the use of 
the toilet powder called ' la           
,marchale4'  ,in ending the interview1  
he calls attention to the fact that the 

larynx1 while very delicate1 is an      
extremely resistant organ1 since it can 
face fatigues that no other human organ 
could support2 but because it shows     
signs of fatigue only by hoarseness1 is 
no reason to call on it for too         
prolonged efforts4 ,to work two hours a 
day1 either in study or in singing1     
seems to me a maximum that should not be
 overstepped by a person careful of his 
vocal health4  ,another distinguished   
foreign specialist is ,dr4 ,n4 ,j4      
,poock van ,baggen1 of ,the ,hague1     
,holland1 who has contributed to the    
,medical ,record a series of articles on
 throat diseases caused by misuse of the
 voice1 and their cure4,a  ,footnote ,a3
 ,these articles have been reprinted in 
four slim but interesting pamphlets     
published by ,william ,wood  ,co41 ,new 
,york4  ,clergyman's sore throat1 as    
,dr4 ,van ,baggen says1 is a disease    
known to every throat specialist4 ,it is
 produced by misuse of the voice1 and   
the same disease1 often in more         

aggravated form1 is produced in the     
singer and by the same cause4 ,the      
patient1 after singing1 will experience 
a dry and hot feeling in the pharynx and
 larynx1 irritation1 and a frequent     
cough4 ,examination of the patient      
discloses catarrh of the pharynx and of 
the larynx2 congested and swollen mucous
 membrane2 pillars of the fauces swollen
 and unduly developed2 all these        
symptoms accompanied by paresis of the  
vocal cords1 which are red or yellow and
 do not approximate well4 ,to this      
paresis of the cords is united a paresis
 of certain muscles of the larynx2 to   
which is added1 in serious cases1 a     
swelling of the aryepiglottic ligament4 
,that this disorder is not organic1 but 
functional--not caused by enlarged      
tonsils1 adenoids1 nasal polypus or     
malformation of the tongue1 but by      
misuse of the voice--can be proved by   
the beneficial effect produced upon the 
organs by complete rest from singing2   
the symptoms sometimes disappearing     

entirely1 only to reappear1 however1    
when singing is resumed--further proof  
that misuse of the voice is at the root 
of the evil4  ,dividing the muscles into
 those used in breathing1 in            
articulation of consonants and in vowel 
enunciation1 the physician will find    
that in his patient there is no proper  
cordination between these three groups  
of muscles--that through faulty         
respiration and articulation the        
respiratory and articular muscles fail  
to support sufficiently the vocal       
muscles1 with the result that the       
vibration of the vocal cords is         
weakened4 ,one fault begets another4    
,the faulty use of the respiratory      
muscles directs the vibrating air-column
 to the soft palate1 where the tone is  
so smothered that the singer has to     
over-exert himself to be heard1 instead 
of directing it against the hard palate1
 where it would gain vibrance and       
carrying quality4  ,the faulty use of   
the muscles of articulation is disclosed

 when the back of the tongue rises like 
a flabby partition between the opening  
of the mouth and the pharynx1 the       
consonants being formed thereby far back
 in the mouth1 instead of forward with  
the tip or middle of the tongue leaning 
against the hard palate4 ,the           
articulation is1 in consequence1 thick  
and dull4 ,the vocal muscles are        
contracted to an unnatural degree1 and  
every vocal tone is accompanied by an   
audible shock or spasm of the glottis4  
,all this adds to the exertion required 
of the singer to make himself heard1 an 
exertion and strain which eventually    
result in the symptoms that have been   
described1 and which most singers       
believe due to colds and other troubles1
 whereas they are the result of the     
singer's own misuse of his voice4  ,i   
have said that correct breathing is one 
of the fundamentals of correct          
voice-production4 ,no wonder1 therefore1
 that incorrect breathing is one of the 
most potent factors in the misuse of the

 voice that sends the singer as a       
patient to the physician4 ,i have stated
 that there are three kinds of          
breathing--clavicular1 costal and       
diaphragmatic2 and these have been      
described4 ,it has also been pointed out
 that the teacher who instructs in one  
kind of breathing to the exclusion of   
the other two makes a serious mistake4  
,for in correct breathing1 all three are
 cordinated4 ,usually it is spoken of as
 mixed costal and diaphragmatic4 ,in    
truth1 however1 it is mixed costal1     
diaphragmatic and clavicular2 but1 aside
 from the awkwardness of combining all  
three terms in characterizing correct   
breathing1 the clavicles play a less    
important part in it than the diaphragm 
and the ribs4 ,in their relative        
importance to correct breathing the     
diaphragm comes first1 the ribs next and
 then the clavicles4 ,i feel certain    
that ,dr4 ,poyet means the cordination  
of the three when he speaks of mixed    
costal and diaphragmatic breathing1 and 

that ,dr4 ,van ,baggen also means this  
when he speaks of diaphragmatic         
breathing4 ,in fact1 his description of 
diaphragmatic breathing involves the    
ribs2 and if he omits mention of the    
clavicles1 this may be explained by the 
slight part they play in correct        
breathing1 merely topping off1 as it    
were1 the action of diaphragm and ribs4 
,dr4 ,van ,baggen1 in the               
breathing-exercises which he describes  
as beneficial for restoring a voice     
impaired by misuse1 lays emphasis on the
 control of expiration and on the brief 
retention of the breath before exhaling 
it4 ,in his first exercise the abdomen  
is pushed forward and contracted1 the   
idea of breathing being excluded in     
order to concentrate attention upon     
making the movements correctly4  ,the   
second exercise consists of these same  
movements1 but now combined with        
inspiration and expiration through the  
nostrils4 ,when first started1 the      
exercises are limited to a few minutes  

four or five times a day4 ,when this    
method of breathing has become natural  
to the patient1 there is added the brief
 retention of the breath and expiration 
under control--that is1 gradual         
expiration4 ,this constitutes the third 
exercise4  ,in this it is recommended to
 inhale slowly through the mouth1 which 
should be in position to pronounce f1   
that is1 not too open4 ,hold the breath 
while mentally counting three4 ,exhale1 
pronouncing a prolonged s and finishing 
on t4 ,the pronunciation of f during    
inhalation and of s and t during        
exhalation is advised in order to       
provide evidence that inhalation and    
exhalation are carried out evenly and   
without shaking or breaks4  ,built upon 
this is the exercise for teaching the   
vocalist to inhale quickly1 hold his    
breath a brief space1 and exhale as     
slowly as possible1 as must be done in  
singing4 ,the inspiration now is through
 the nostrils2 the pause is not quite so
 long1 but the expiration on s and t is 

longer--say as mentally counting #dj    
would compare with counting #aj4        
,whoever has read carefully the chapters
 on breathing in this book will have    
discovered by this time that the        
breathing-exercises just described lead 
up to the principles of artistic        
breathing set forth in those chapters2  
and that whoever has read them and will 
carry them out never will require       
breathing-exercises to correct misuse of
 the voice from that source1 because his
 breathing will be absolutely correct4  
,the same is true of the exercises given
 by ,dr4 ,van ,baggen to make the       
breathing-muscles coperate with the     
articulation and vocal muscles4         
,nevertheless1 since there are people   
who do not read carefully1 or who go    
along in the same old faulty way until  
brought up suddenly by the dire effects 
of misusing the voice1 ,i may add that  
,dr4 ,van ,baggen's exercises for       
articulation will be found in detail in 
the pamphlets mentioned4  ,when a singer

 who is suffering from misuse of the    
voice comes to a specialist for         
treatment1 the specialist must for the  
moment become a singing-teacher and     
instruct the singer in the artistic     
cordination of breathing1 articulation  
and vocal muscles4 ,the patient1 having 
gained proper breath-control and having 
had impressed upon him the importance of
 forward placement and of the normal    
position of the tongue to correct       
articulation of consonants1 is ready for
 correction of the faulty action of the 
vocal cords4 ,this faulty action is due 
chiefly to faulty attack--a faulty coup 
de glotte--manifest mainly on initial   
vowels in an audible stroke1 shock or   
check and in the emission of unvocalized
 breath4 ,this latter is the so-called  
spiritus asper1 because the emission of 
unvocalized breath which precedes       
phonation gives an aspirated or h sound1
 so that1 instead of ah1 we hear haa4   
,the spiritus asper is caused by a too  
slow contraction of the vocal cords and 

their too gradual approach for          
phonation4  ,in the audible shock of the
 glottis 7sometimes called the check    
glottid7 the vocal cords are pressed    
together and the retained breath causes 
a shock or explosion4 ,dr4 ,van ,baggen 
says that the vowel which is thus formed
 might be called an articulated vowel1  
which accurately describes the effect1  
the vowel being enunciated with the     
circumstance of the articulated         
consonant instead of with the ease of   
the phonated vowel4  ,with a normal     
attack--the spiritus lenis in           
contradistinction to the spiritus       
asper--the glottis is in position for   
phonation at the moment breath passes   
through it4 ,no unvocalized breath      
precedes it and no explosion follows it4
 ,the vowel-attack is clear1 precise and
 distinct4 ,not only is the             
voice-emission pure1 but there is no    
needless fatigue of voice1 because all  
superfluous movement of the glottis is  
avoided4  ,the check glottid or glottic 

shock1 on the other hand1 involves an   
undue effort of the vocal muscles1 and  
the compression of the vocal cords      
causes irritation4 ,the audible shock of
 the glottis cannot be avoided when it  
is necessary to accentuate a word       
beginning with an initial vowel4        
,constantly used1 however1 it is part of
 the misuse of the voice4 ,dr4 ,van     
,baggen recommends1 as a method of      
correcting the too frequent use of the  
audible shock1 that when a word         
beginning with an initial vowel appears 
in the middle of a phrase1 this word    
should be united to the preceding one1  
somewhat after the manner 7but more     
lightly7 of the ,french verbal liaison1 
in which the final consonant of a word  
becomes the initial consonant of the    
following word beginning with a vowel4  
,for example in vous avez1 the s of vous
 is drawn over to and pronounced with   
the a of avez1 the effect being         
vou-z-avez4 ,if the phrase that is to be
 sung commences with a word beginning   

with an initial vowel1 care must be     
taken to employ the normal coup de      
glotte1 or spiritus lenis4  ,although ,i
 have devoted two chapters to the       
registers of the voice1 ,i shall also   
quote ,dr4 ,van ,baggen on the faulty   
use of these and the physical ills that 
result therefrom1 since there are but   
few singers who do not know the         
difficulties which the registers of the 
voice offer2 and many who spoil their   
voices forever by the misuse of those   
registers4 ,generally1 the misuse       
consists in the exaggeration of a lower 
register at the expense of the higher2  
that is1 in order to produce big tone1  
forcing a register up instead of        
bringing the higher one down4           
,especially with dramatic singers1 this 
fault is frequent4 ,there is no voice1  
however strong it may be1 which can     
endure this overstraining of the        
registers1 and sooner or later the      
singer must experience the disastrous   
results of his or her fault--hoarseness1

 fatigue1 roughness1 and impureness in  
singing1 and last1 but not least1       
premature wearing out of the vocal      
organs4  ,the exaggeration of the       
registers is generally united with      
faulty breathing1 which first of all    
must be corrected4 ,only after good     
results have been obtained with regard  
to breath practice1 can exercises for   
the correction of the use of the        
registers be made with success4  ,when  
the fault consists in the exaggeration  
of the low register1 the singing in this
 register must be avoided for some time2
 when both the low and middle registers 
have been used beyond their limit1      
exercises can at first be sung only in  
the high register4  ,the pupil1 while   
practising 7in the first case in the    
middle and high register1 in the second 
only in the high register71 must limit  
himself to a few tones1 singing always  
downwards and very softly4 ,the tones   
will be weak1 husky1 and often impure in
 the beginning2 by and by1 however1 they

 will improve4 ,when those few tones are
 pure and clear1 the pupil may extend   
the exercises downwards1 always singing 
pianissimo and avoiding the lower       
register4 ,the high and middle          
registers1 or only the high register1   
must be extended downwards as far as    
possible4 ,only after all the tones1    
sung as indicated1 are clear and pure   
and have gained sufficiently in         
strength1 may the low or the low and    
middle registers be used again1 but even
 then not more than is strictly         
necessary4  ,the extending downwards of 
a higher register is also an excellent  
help in smoothing out the break in the  
voice at the passage from one register  
to the other4 ,this extending downwards 
of the higher registers always can be   
done without any danger to the voice4   
,the timbre of the voice will even gain 
considerably in brilliancy and fullness 
by exercising in this way4  ,closely    
united to the stretching and relaxing of
 the vocal ligaments is the moving up   

and down of the larynx4 ,many believe   
that the larynx must be kept as         
motionless as possible and in a low     
position4 ,the large number of voices   
which have been spoilt by this unnatural
 fixed position of the voice-box are a  
manifest proof of the evil of this way  
of operating1 against which every singer
 must be warned4  ,the larynx must be   
completely free in its movement1 its    
positions varying according to each tone
 and to the pronunciation of each vowel4
 ,we can easily follow the movement of  
the larynx by laying the finger on the  
prominence in the throat formed by the  
junction of the two wings of the thyroid
 cartilage1 commonly called ,adam's     
apple4 ,when pronouncing successively   
oo1 ow1 oh1 ah1 eh1 ay1 ee1 we shall    
notice that the voice-box rises and     
inclines slightly backwards2 and1 while 
at oo its position is lowest1 it is     
highest at ee4  ,also when singing      
upwards we feel the larynx going up1    
while the inclination backwards can be  

observed even better than when          
pronouncing the vowels4 ,especially when
 singing a high tone after a low one we 
can feel how considerably the position  
of the larynx changes1 and it is clear  
that every obstruction in its movement  
hinders normal voice-production4  ,when 
examining the patient the physician     
should observe the action of the larynx 
and feel if there are no spasmodic      
movements and if the flexibility is     
satisfactory4 ,the action of the larynx 
can be exercised and improved by singing
 seconds1 thirds1 etc4 ,the keynote     
always may be sung on oo2 the second1   
third1 etc41 on ee4     ,,chapter ,,xi  
,,more ,,vocal ,,hygiene   ,vocal       
hygiene is a specific system based upon 
well-regulated principles for a specific
 purpose and applying to a specific     
class in the family of nations4 ,but    
there is the difference that1 whereas   
the laws governing the general health of
 the community have legislative sanction
 and are strenuously enforced by        

official authority1 the laws of vocal   
hygiene bear no seal of state or        
municipal power1 save in the broadly    
general sense indicated1 but rely for   
enforcement upon the individual who is  
most nearly involved1 and who must pay  
swift penalty for any infringement1     
however slight and however innocently   
committed4  ,while this is a truism1 yet
 it cannot be too strongly emphasized   
nor too often reiterated2 for with all  
their notable precautions1 singers are  
often taken unawares and fall when most 
they desire to stand4 ,why8 ,they are   
simply paying the penalty of a broken   
law1 and it does not help them with a   
disappointed club committee1 or in      
framing a telegram of regret1           
accompanied by a physician's            
certificate1 to say that they have erred
 through ignorance4 ,the aphorism that  
ignorance of the law is no excuse is    
just as valid in the court of the       
hygienic judge as in any common law     
court between the oceans4  ,it is the   

prevalent practice to use the physician 
as the court of last resort4 ,but it    
would be vastly better and far more     
sensible if the singer could be made to 
act with swift authority as an agent of 
prevention over the weaknesses of his or
 her own nature4 ,the subject1 thereby1 
would be vastly simplified4 ,it would   
not be so profitable to the specialist2 
but ,i can vouch for it that he would   
not only forgive1 but praise the        
discretion of his patient1 and lend all 
possible aid to educate him along a new 
scientific path--that of prevention4    
,not a new path1 either1 for in its last
 analysis what is hygiene but the       
science of prevention8 ,preservation of 
health means the prevention of disease4 
,this answers the cry of every artist's 
heart1 especially that of the vocal     
artist1 teacher and student3 ,how can ,i
 prevent disease and weakness of the    
vocal machinery8 ,briefly and plainly3  
,how can ,i keep well8  ,in this        
important matter of vocal hygiene a     

prominent part is played by the mucous  
membrane4 ,what is the mucous membrane8 
,it is the membrane which in this       
special sense covers or lines the       
respiratory tract from the very outlet  
of the nose to the terminal bronchi2 in 
fact1 to the very air-cells of the lungs
 themselves4 ,its function is that of   
supplying the involved passages with    
moisture1 and it secretes a glairy or   
watery substance called mucus4 ,now1    
mark this well4 ,the entire area of the 
respiratory tract1 from the nose to the 
bifurcation of the bronchi1 it is said  
on good authority equals one square foot
 of exposed surface1 and the amount of  
secretion per day equals about sixteen  
fluid ounces1 or a pint1 which must be  
secreted by a person in the normal      
condition of health4 ,it also has the   
power of absorption of certain diverse  
substances1 such as alkaloids1 fluids of
 all kinds1 hence the danger of         
alcoholic indulgence to the singer4     
,alcohol coagulates4 ,it causes the     

epithelium to contract and to become so 
disintegrated as to be utterly incapable
 of performing its functions until such 
time as the underlying tissue shall have
 created new cells to take the place of 
those which have been destroyed4 ,to    
illustrate briefly the varied functions 
of this membrane3 ,whereas alcoholic    
stimulant destroys it1 another powerful 
drug1 cocaine1 is absorbed1 often to    
such an extent that the patient is      
prostrated by the poison introduced into
 the system by this means1 and yet      
without impairing the membrane to any   
extent except through persistent        
indulgence4  ,the mucous membrane is the
 telltale of conditions4 ,if a man's    
tongue is coated with detritus--which1  
anglicized1 is nothing more than the    
products of decomposition1 a coating    
formed by over-stimulation of the glands
 lying at the base of the tongue--and   
this has been previously superinduced by
 a disordered stomach1 we know that the 
cause is indigestion4 ,if the follicles 

in the back part of the pharynx or      
throat appear distended1 and even the   
tonsils themselves are affected--and    
these again are part and parcel of this 
same mucous membrane--we can say this is
 due to one of several causes3 either to
 a reflex condition from the stomach1   
due to over-eating or over-indulgence of
 some other equally deleterious sort1 or
 to inactivity of the bowels1 or to     
suppressed perspiration1 or to improper 
or undue use of the vocal organs4       
,again1 let us glance for a moment at   
what a good many people deem a          
superfluous appendage1 the uvula4 ,a    
patient comes into my office with a     
badly swollen uvula4 ,the upper tones of
 the voice are gone4 ,he has no         
complicating quinsy1 and in that case ,i
 can say without hesitation that he has 
outrageously misused his voice4 ,i ask  
him where he was the previous afternoon1
 and find he was jubilantly rooting for 
the ,new ,york ,giants in an exciting   
baseball contest4 ,now1 it in nowise    

lessens the force of my illustration    
that this patient was not a singer and  
did not acquire1 if you please1 his     
swollen uvula in orthodox fashion4 ,it  
is only a short time ago that a man came
 to me with a pronounced case of        
oedematous uvula1 or swollen soft       
palate4 ,he announced to me that he was 
no longer a tenor singer1 although he   
had sung tenor for three years2 that    
lately he had been persuaded that his   
voice was baritone2 and1 indeed1 he had 
been singing1 up to the time of coming  
to me1 a baritone part in opera4 ,it was
 this which brought him under my hand as
 a patient4 ,he had changed his teacher1
 who had insisted that he was a tenor1  
within two months1 and since that time  
had been under the instruction of the   
master who had declared that he was a   
baritone4 ,i had known him for some     
time1 and the only perceptible change to
 me in the voice was a decided tendency 
to cover and sombre the upper tones4    
,upon examination1 the only thing       

abnormal was the condition of the soft  
palate and the surrounding tissue       
extending down both pharyngeal pillars4 
,the soft palate was swollen to nearly  
three times its original size and hung  
down upon the tongue4 ,the symptoms he  
complained of were inability to sing    
above ,f1 and all high tones were husky4
 ,the production of the upper tones was 
accompanied with considerable pain4 ,an 
emollient gargle was given and1 soon    
after1 astringent applications2 but in  
vain4 ,it was necessary three weeks     
afterward to amputate the uvula4 ,within
 three weeks more the operation was     
demonstrated a success in that the upper
 tones were fully restored2 but ,i leave
 the question with the teachers whether 
this operation would have been necessary
 had not this young tenor been drawn    
aside on the purely theoretical issue as
 to whether he was not a baritone       
instead4  ,in the case of one of ,new   
,york's most experienced singers1 it    
required two years of persistent effort 

on the part of both patient and         
physician to overcome the habits of a   
lifetime4 ,the case is of general       
importance for the reason that the      
habits he had formed are more or less   
common to all of us1 though perhaps not 
to such an aggravated degree4 ,he was an
 inveterate smoker and a confirmed      
coffee drinker4 ,these habits reflected 
themselves upon the poor1 defenceless   
mucous membrane1 whose function was     
perverted as shown in the constantly    
congested appearance of the respiratory 
tract4 ,i have seen this artist with    
congested vocal cords rehearse an       
oratorio in the afternoon at a public   
rehearsal and sing the same work in the 
evening at the regular concert          
performance1 when1 to use his own words1
 ,i feel as if every note will be my    
last4 ,i have no grip on my voice4 ,it  
was a clear case of indomitable will and
 sheer physical strength carrying the   
singer over obstacles that even to my   
mind seemed well-nigh insurmountable4 ,a

 cure was effected in this obstinate    
case simply by insisting upon observance
 of hygienic law4 ,there is no better   
instance of efficacy of vocal hygiene   
than in the case of this man4 ,the      
gradual reassertion of nature1 as       
indicated by the clearing up of the     
inflamed mucous membrane of the nose1   
the thickened condition of the pharynx  
and the chronically congested cords1 was
 an all-sufficient reward for anxious   
thought spent upon an important subject4
 ,you may ask what was the remedy in    
this case4 ,it was simply advice given  
and heeded1 together with needed        
incidental treatment4 ,i cut off his    
coffee and cigars1 not immediately but  
gradually4 ,he had sufficient force of  
character to aid me by heeding the      
counsel4 ,the result was a diminution of
 secretion of the mucous membrane and a 
return to normal conditions4  ,right    
here there is another phase of the      
situation to which ,i desire to call    
particular attention1 not alone because 

of its vital importance to the singer1  
but also because of the danger to the   
unschooled student of neglect of what we
 ordinarily term a cold in the head in  
its first stages4 ,by the first stage of
 the cold ,i mean that condition which  
obtains before the stage of secretion is
 arrived at1 where the mucous membrane  
is being congested1 where it is almost  
impossible to distinguish what is the   
highest point of normal stimulation     
under which the membrane may be expected
 to do its best work4 ,this point may be
 aptly illustrated by comparison with a 
singer under perfectly normal           
conditions4 ,then1 as is well known1 it 
is the mental impulse that stimulates   
nerve1 muscle and membrane to do their  
best work4 ,but in the other condition  
this result is attained without the     
mental impulse1 as we have the mucous   
membrane and the blood-vessels carried  
to a temporary climax of effectiveness  
due to the systemic disturbance4 ,by    
this ,i wish to make clear my point1    

that artists have often noticed an      
unusual brilliancy of voice under       
circumstances which were all the more   
mysterious because of the sudden        
collapse of the vocal organ under stress
 of use1 and the alarming suddenness of 
the catastrophe which overtakes them and
 leaves them totally incapacitated4     
,then they say1 ,i have a cold2 whereas 
it requires from twenty-four to         
thirty-six hours for the fulfilment of  
these conditions4 ,they should have     
reached this sensible conclusion just   
two days before4 ,i take issue with     
those physicians who urge that certain  
exercises should be given to the artist 
when the vocal cords are in a state of  
congestion1 for the reason that it      
requires a period of from ten to        
fourteen days for the complete relief of
 this inflammation4 ,during that period1
 the blood-vessels are fully employed   
absorbing the products of the           
inflammation1 and any attempt to        
interfere with this necessary process of

 nature can end only in disaster or in a
 prolongation of the difficulty4 ,this  
is the law of pathology1 unalterable and
 not to be evaded4 ,physicians at times 
resort to soothing and astringent       
applications in an emergency1 to carry  
the artist through a performance2 but   
the lack of edge to the voice for weeks 
following is an all-sufficient          
indication of the revenge nature takes  
for this trespass upon her domain4  ,the
 cause of the sudden disaster to the    
voice which ,i have described is not far
 to seek4 ,the cold has caused          
over-stimulation of the mucous membrane 
of the larynx1 and a consequent loss of 
voice4 ,this cold begins in the head1   
and on the third day1 perhaps before1 it
 has attacked the larynx4 ,why8 ,because
 the mucous membrane has become so      
swollen that the nasal passages are     
obstructed and the mucous membrane of   
the larynx has to perform a double      
function1 that of heating the air as it 
is brought to the lungs in the process  

of respiration1 as well as carrying out 
its own obligation to the scheme of     
nature4 ,by a strange coincidence1 this 
membrane of the larynx is supplied with 
sensation by the same nerve that conveys
 motion to one of its tensor muscles4   
,this is the superior laryngeal nerve4  
,by the thickening of the mucous        
membrane1 all the intrinsic muscles of  
the larynx are interfered with1 and1    
consequently1 total extinction of the   
voice follows swiftly upon excessive    
inflammation4 ,there you have it in a   
nutshell4 ,the mucous membrane of the   
larynx and the bronchial tubes1 to      
enlarge upon its duty for a moment1 is  
endowed with very fine1 hair-like       
processes called cilia1 whose action is 
to waft secretions from the interior of 
the lungs outward4 ,hence the danger of 
promiscuous spraying with all sorts of  
everyday nostrums1 or of anything which 
may interfere with the activity of these
 minute bodies or the media in which    
they operate4  ,this intimate relation  

of nerve and muscle and mucous membrane 
is best illustrated by the sneeze4 ,the 
explanation of this is an               
over-stimulation of a part of the mucous
 membrane of the nose called the        
,schneiderian membrane4 ,if we analyze  
the sneeze1 we find that it simply      
consists of a spasm of the pharynx1     
larynx and diaphragm through the reflex 
action of this membrane4 ,the           
over-stimulation of the membrane1 in the
 case of the singer especially1 may     
generally be set down to an incipient   
cold2 but any inflammation of this part 
of the mucous membrane of the nose alone
 may give rise in reflex action to vocal
 disability4  ,there are some peculiarly
 interesting isolated instances of      
disturbance of the vocal mechanism1     
which are unique in that1 while         
apparently harmless and uninteresting   
from the standpoint of even the         
specialist1 they have1 on occasions1    
developed most alarming influence over  
the voice4 ,they have no precedent2     

experience alone can determine their    
influence for evil4 ,they are not a     
matter of record1 they are simply tudes1
 interesting studies in the bypaths of  
vocal hygiene1 and must be dealt with as
 they appear4 ,an exceptional example   
was one wherein the voice of the singer 
was perfectly even except as to the ,g  
sharp in the medium1 which was entirely 
wanting--as though it had never existed4
  ,the singer in question came to me    
after an ,easter rehearsal4 ,i tried her
 voice with the ,e-scale before using   
the laryngeal mirror1 and to my utter   
surprise found the medium ,g sharp      
missing1 while all the rest of her scale
 was perfect even to the ,g sharp above4
 ,this experiment was tried repeatedly  
with the vowels a1 e1 i1 o1 and u1 and  
with consonants prefixed1 but invariably
 with the same result4 ,upon            
examination1 no deviation from the      
normal anatomy was found1 save in the   
left anterior nostril4 ,here a sharp    
spur of bone projected from the septum  

into the turbinated tissue4 ,this       
condition had remained in this singer   
for four years1 according to my previous
 observation1 without causing her any   
inconvenience4 ,a similar condition was 
seen by me in the case of ,mr4 ,santley1
 the famous ,english baritone1 when ,i  
made an examination1 and he declared    
that he was not aware of its producing  
even discomfort--such a capital         
illustration of the necessity for       
non-interference until the laws of      
reflexes are disturbed1 that ,i cannot  
refrain from alluding to it4  ,in my    
patient1 however1 in addition to her    
nasal trouble1 ,i found an enlarged     
follicle about the size of a pea back of
 the posterior pillar of the pharynx1 at
 the junction of posterior pillar and   
pharynx4 ,this follicle was removed by a
 simple process1 when1 as if by magic1  
the ,g sharp responded and has since    
remained unimpaired4 ,my explanation of 
this case is simply one of reflex       
action2 that is1 by a singular          

complication this follicle fell in the  
track of the glosso-pharyngeal1 the     
pharyngeal-plexus1 the                  
external-laryngeal and the recurrent    
laryngeal nerves1 which1 as it were1    
sounded the alarm for retreat of the    
phonating muscles whose harmonious      
action was necessary to produce the     
medium ,g sharp4  ,there are numerous   
instances of affections of the vocal    
cords that might be cited1 all          
superinduced by straining the voice from
 various causes1 but especially by using
 the voice under improper physical      
conditions or of singing in rooms filled
 with foul atmosphere4     ,,chapter    
,,xii  ,,nodes ,,and ,,their ,,cure   ,i
 use the scale of ,e as a means of      
revealing to the ear points wherein the 
voice shows signs of failure4 ,i use    
this scale because within it lie all the
 principal resonances involved in       
voice-production4 ,by this ,i mean that 
somewhere between the interval ,g to ,c 
an oral resonance is developed in the   

majority of voices4 ,this seems to be   
coincident with the action of the lips1 
the tongue and the soft palate1 and the 
other muscles that go to increase or to 
decrease the size of the oral cavity4   
,from ,c to ,e above middle ,c the      
principal changes occur which contribute
 to the development of the nasal        
resonance4 ,some rare voices1 however1  
continue their oral resonance as high as
 ,f before changing4 ,it has occurred to
 me so often in the course of my        
practice that a peculiarly apt reason   
exists for making ,e the foundation-note
 of the test-scale employed in the      
operating room1 that ,i lay particular  
stress upon it4 ,it has seemed the most 
easeful note for the patient to sound1  
whatever his vocal condition1 and ,i    
have been tempted to call it the nature 
tone1 because it may be said to sing    
itself4 ,at least1 it can be sounded    
with naturally open throat and without  
calling into perceptible use the        
multiplied enginery of muscular forces  

which are required for the formation of 
the higher tones of the scale4          
,consider for a moment this enginery of 
muscular forces at the command of the   
singer1 and which his intelligent and   
ripe knowledge must guide4 ,the muscles 
used in voice-production may be divided 
as to action and location into ten      
groups4 ,in these ten groups there are  
one hundred and seventeen individual    
muscles4 ,three of these act alone4 ,one
 hundred and fourteen act in pairs1     
making fifty-seven pairs4 ,again1 these 
muscles are controlled by nerves1 some  
of which act alone and others in        
combination4 ,in one instance1 a single 
nerve presides over two large groups of 
muscles4 ,then1 in still another        
instance1 two separate nerves are       
required to control the action of one   
small group--the palate group4 ,the     
distribution is as follows3 ,single     
muscles1 #c2 muscles in pairs1 #aad2    
groups of muscles1 #aj2 nerves acting   
alone1 #ag2 nerves acting with others   

7eight groups71 #hh4  ,by taking these  
figures and increasing them in          
arithmetical progression1 it is possible
 to calculate what a multiplicity of    
nerve and muscle effort is involved in a
 sneeze4 ,everything that appertains to 
the vocal mechanism is spasmodically    
involved at once1 and the enormous sum  
total of muscle and nerve movement1     
individualized1 is #dfe1abj4 ,this shows
 how absurd is the theory of conscious  
control of the machinery of             
voice-production4 ,as ,i have frequently
 pointed out1 the adjustments of the    
vocal tract to the tone to be produced  
are responses to the will1 physical     
reflexes of the tones which the singer  
hears mentally2 so that voice is mental 
audition converted by responsive        
physical adjustment into audible tone4  
,teachers and singers are aware that    
wrong methods of tone-production result 
in nodes on the vocal cords4 ,the node1 
therefore1 is one of the most familiar  
forms of vocal catastrophe4  ,in its    

simplest form the node is a superficial 
swelling on the edge of a vocal cord1   
sometimes appearing on one and then on  
the other and ofttimes on both1         
dependent entirely upon causation4 ,for 
instance1 the cause might be simply a   
severe spell of coughing1 and this1 of  
course1 might befall a person who was   
not a singer at all4 ,it has been known 
to occur to animals4 ,the node is1 in   
fact1 an oedema or dropsy1 a swelling   
from effusion of watery fluid in the    
cellular tissue beneath the skin or     
mucous membrane4 ,this oedema appears on
 the edge of the vocal cord1 as a slight
 tumor or swelling filled with water4   
,if aggravated by continued use of the  
voice1 it may develop and become        
exceedingly dangerous1 by extending     
inward to the real tissue of the cord   
itself4 ,the membrane is thickened by   
the watery secretion1 and much the same 
thing happens as in the case of a       
pinching bruise or a blistering burn4   
,nature's cure for this state of things 

is by absorption of the fluid contents  
and a consequent diminution in the size 
of the node until finally a normal      
condition of the cord is restored and   
the voice returns in all its fullness4  
,in the formation of the node it is     
worth remarking that the coughing node  
may appear at any point on the cords4   
,it shows first at one point and then at
 another4 ,the node caused by vocal     
weakness or abuse of the natural powers1
 however1 displays an exasperating1 and 
sometimes puzzling1 affinity for        
particular portions of the vocal cords4 
,it is generally found protruding from  
the anterior and middle third on one or 
the other side of the glottic opening1  
or on both1 in chronic cases4 ,the other
 nodes may be found at any place on the 
cord4 ,in fact1 it frequently happens   
that the coughing node1 and what for    
convenience may be styled the vocal     
node1 are simultaneously present1 each  
to be distinguished by its well-defined 
location1 although produced by totally  

different causes4  ,there are cogent    
reasons for the affinity of the vocal   
node for certain fixed positions on the 
cords4 ,they can be explained by the    
trick of the vibrating string and bit of
 paper4 ,if the paper is laid upon the  
string at a certain point1 it will be   
flirted away2 while at another chosen   
point it will slip unagitated to the    
floor4 ,inasmuch as the vocal cords are 
subject to the same laws of vibration1  
the lesson drawn from the string and the
 bit of paper applies to them1 the node 
taking the place of the paper4 ,note1   
however1 the difference4 ,the string is 
single1 and there is no attrition4 ,if  
there were two strings1 the bit of paper
 might be caught and twisted in the     
miniature whirlwind of opposing         
vibrations4 ,but the vocal cords are    
wedded in phonation1 and by their       
attrition the node is formed4 ,very     
often strands of tough mucus appear     
spanning the chink or slit between the  
cords when they are drawn up in         

tone-production4 ,the presence of these 
bands of mucus is an assured precursor  
of the node4 ,often they indicate the   
existence of a node which is hardly     
perceptible through the laryngeal       
mirror4 ,the mucus is nature's effort to
 relieve the attrition1 and so to ease  
the inflammation at the point of        
difficulty4 ,the obstinacy with which   
the nodes caused by vocal disaster thus 
form in the anterior and middle third of
 the cords may be explained as owing to 
the presence in the vocal cords of a    
point which may be called the centre of 
resistance for the intrinsic muscles1   
and indicates that they are caused1 in  
the majority of cases1 by undue and     
improper muscular effort in             
tone-production4 ,consequently1 the     
necessity for the most painstaking care 
on the singer's part to avoid singing   
under unfavorable conditions4 ,a        
trifling over-exertion at an afternoon  
rehearsal in a cold hall1 too much      
talking on the train1 a bad night's rest

 in a sleeper berth1 all may conspire to
 weaken the voice for the time and lay  
it open to attack4 ,under such          
circumstances1 particularly1 it is      
necessary for the vocalist to exercise  
large discretion and to aim for a       
conservative middle course1 and         
especially so in a preliminary          
rehearsal4  ,another cause of the node  
is a lack of cordal cordination4 ,were  
the human form perfect1 both cords would
 be equally strong4 ,as a matter of     
fact1 in my own experience1 ,i have     
found that the major portion of nodal   
formations appear on the left cord1     
indicating that it is the weaker4 ,the  
fact that one cord is slightly lax while
 the other vibrates at full tension     
along its face causes trouble4 ,another 
source of difficulty is subglottic1     
owing to inflammation of the mucous     
membrane in the trachea1 which extends  
upward and involves the cords4 ,the     
inflammation1 passing upward1 may easily
 affect the voice4 ,such inflammation is

 discovered by a tickling sensation in  
the trachea1 causing a dry1 harsh cough 
about the third day after a cold has    
found lodgment in the head1 as the      
phrase goes4  ,the node has been the    
cause of vocal catastrophe from opera   
houses to concert halls1 yet a          
reasonable amount of precaution will    
minimize the chances of attack4 ,singing
 in a room where there is smoking is a  
prolific source of node formation4      
,breathing dust-laden air1 continued    
effort to carry on conversation on the  
cars or amid street noises1 are fruitful
 causes of vocal disorder4  ,the mucous 
membrane of the vocal cords obeys       
natural laws in restoration4 ,a node may
 disappear in three days1 if not teased 
with effort4 ,more often1 however1 it   
requires from seven to ten days for it  
to disappear without treatment4 ,if the 
singer foolishly persists in using the  
voice1 the node will extend into the    
cord tissues1 and result in a most      
unfortunate condition4 ,the cord loses  

its elasticity4 ,it refuses to respond4 
,it will neither act nor will it consent
 to be acted upon4 ,it is in a state of 
collapse1 and the voice for singing     
purposes has gone1 never to return4     
,let me illustrate what rest will do for
 a node4 ,a singer came to me with a    
node of three months' standing1 on the  
left cord4 ,she had been singing with   
her teacher in the regular course of her
 lessons at an unfortunate time1 when1  
too1 she was vocally weak4 ,in singing  
up the scale1 and at the ,c 7as nearly  
as she could remember71 she became      
hoarse1 and1 as she described it to me1 
the voice had a hole in it4 ,throughout 
the remainder of the lesson1 unless she 
exercised great care1 she would always  
break at the point named4 ,her nose     
seemed stuffy1 and she compared her nose
 and throat to a cornet lined with      
velvet4 ,after the break1 and for the   
remainder of the lesson1 her voice was  
husky4 ,her teacher advised her to seek 
expert advice4 ,previously1 the voice   

had been clear1 though she was a novice 
in singing4 ,after remaining away from  
her lessons for two weeks or more and   
finding that recovery was not rapid1 she
 came to me4 ,the node could be plainly 
seen on the left cord4 ,before examining
 her1 ,i tried the voice with the ,e    
scale1 wrote down the diagnosis and     
handed it to her to read4 ,my written   
conclusions were verified with the      
laryngeal mirror4 ,i found no trouble   
except with the left vocal cord1 the    
node being in the anterior middle third4
 ,on the summit of the node the mucous  
membrane appeared very red1 budded1 and 
almost warty4 ,i cocainized the cord1   
and immediately applied pure alum in    
solution to the node itself1 but to no  
purpose4 ,this treatment was continued  
for two weeks1 without any perceptible  
change for the better4 ,then ,i ordered 
the patient to remain quietly in a      
closed room2 she was to see no one1 she 
was not to talk at all1 she was not to  
laugh4 ,as harassing as was the         

experience1 she faithfully observed the 
directions1 and on the fourth day every 
vestige of redness had disappeared4     
,only a slight elevation remained on the
 cord where the node had been4 ,the     
treatment was continued three days      
longer4 ,at the expiration of that      
period no trace of the node could be    
seen4 ,now no one would suspect that a  
node had once affected her voice4       
,experiences like this indicate why ,i  
counsel against use of the voice under  
diseased conditions4  ,as a general     
proposition1 all throat spraying is     
dangerous4 ,a ,new ,york singer1        
suffering while on a concert-tour from a
 case of sub-acute laryngitis1 sought   
advice from a physician who honestly    
tried to aid him1 but shot wide of the  
mark through injudicious use of a spray1
 in which he used menthol and           
eucalyptus1 a combination much affected 
by a certain well-meaning class1 and    
which for a time gives to the throat a  
delightful sense of coolness4 ,the      

singer became afflicted with a violent1 
explosive cough1 which caused the       
formation of a node4 ,he gave up        
singing1 losing nearly #a1jjj in        
engagements4 ,he went to his own room   
and to bed4 ,he remained in his room for
 three weeks4 ,the temperature was      
carefully watched4 ,he did not expose   
himself in the slightest degree1 nor did
 he use his voice4 ,the result was a    
perfect cure4  ,another case is that of 
a church singer whose throat during a   
religious festival service became filled
 with the smoke of incense4 ,the        
irritation caused a troublesome cough1  
and she lost her voice entirely above   
the top ,f4 ,it required fourteen days  
to effect a cure4 ,she stopped singing  
for six days and then sang in church1   
with the result that the difficulty     
returned1 augmented4 ,she sensibly      
rested the succeeding week and perfected
 a cure4 ,rest did far more than any    
amount of medicine1 however it might    
have been administered4  ,paralysis of  

the vocal cords constitutes a second    
form of vocal catastrophe4 ,it should   
need no definition4 ,in reality1        
however1 the paralysis does not lie in  
the cords themselves1 but in the leading
 muscles that control in phonation4     
,there are many forms of this particular
 example of vocal catastrophe1 though ,i
 am now dealing only with those which   
are liable to attack a singer1 and which
 are most frequent in my own experience4
  ,with the singer one form is common1  
viz43 paralysis of the left adductor    
muscles1 or those which inspire the     
arytenoid cartilage in drawing the left 
vocal cord forward to meet its fellow   
for the production of tone4 ,no one can 
ever forget the sight presented by the  
left cord in its helpless condition3 the
 arytenoid1 tipped with its cartilage of
 ,santorini1 extending far over the     
median line of the glottis and drawing  
after it the right vocal cord in a vain 
endeavor to put it in position where it 
can aid its injured mate4  ,the         

paralysis may1 of course1 occur on both 
sides1 and then it is that1 on the side 
which is most exercised1 there is felt a
 sense of distress1 of pain and sudden  
fatigue4 ,this condition generally      
arises from prolonged singing1 and many 
of the cases ,i have seen have been the 
result of overwork during ,easter and   
,christmas2 and all of the cases which  
have come under my observation were     
associated with rheumatic constitutions4
 ,fortunately for these singers1 when   
the conditions were made known to them1 
they were in a position1 or at least    
were perfectly willing1 to rest1 because
 of the fear that a knowledge of their  
condition instilled4 ,indeed1 the       
situation is always one to cause serious
 alarm4 ,the beautiful symmetry of the  
arytenoids is impaired and the agility  
of the voice is destroyed4 ,if the      
singer persists in his vocation1 total  
disability results4 ,as a rule1 complete
 rest is enforced by reason of inability
 to sing at all4 ,if the voice is       

continued in use1 the affection becomes 
permanent and there is one more case of 
irremediable vocal collapse4 ,the remedy
 is rest1 and that1 too1 before the     
disease has passed recoverable ground4  
,if the singer experiences pain on      
either side of the thyroid cartilage1 or
 on either side of the ,adam's apple1   
then let him by all means have a care1  
for those are the symptoms of this      
peculiarly menacing form of paralysis4  
,in the voice a palpable hoarseness is  
manifest4 ,the voice becomes fuzzy      
throughout its entire compass4 ,a       
pronounced disability to make a         
crescendo arises1 and when the effort is
 made 7for in the described             
circumstances use of the voice is       
attended with undue effort71 the tone   
becomes coarse and uncontrollable4 ,the 
range of the voice is lessened and the  
singer finds difficulty in reaching the 
upper tones4 ,in the general            
debilitation the singer tries1 or rather
 is compelled through weakness1 to poise

 the voice from the cords themselves and
 not from the diaphragm4  ,of the other 
forms of vocal-cord paralysis there is  
one of great interest1 known as         
hysterical paralysis4 ,it is usually    
only temporary1 and is sometimes        
produced in singers whose nervous       
condition grows upon itself until the   
system passes into the trying           
disturbance diagnosed by the rudely     
critical public as stage-fright4        
,artists of marked pretension have been 
compelled to abandon a public career    
because of this affliction4 ,there are  
other examples of it even more difficult
 to understand4 ,i have in mind a case  
of a singing-teacher in a conventual    
school1 who was under a peculiar strain 
of preparation for the commencement     
exercises of the school and of her own  
class and their appearance in public4   
,she brought her class up to the        
appearing-point4 ,then her nervous      
system gave way1 and when she came to me
 she was absolutely voiceless4          

,sometimes in coughing her vocal cords  
could be seen to move4 ,with rest she   
recovered1 but she has a recurrent      
tendency to the same trouble every year4
 ,the case would seem to illustrate the 
uselessness of all effort on the part of
 the person so affected permanently to  
overcome it4 ,the remedy is at hand1    
however1 in numerous cases1 in resort to
 a careful and uninterrupted upbuilding 
of the nervous system4  ,i will mention 
some other cases of vocal disorder and  
cure4 ,an operatic tenor came to me with
 a tendency to break in scale-sounding1 
and with a nasal or catarrhal color to  
all his tones above ,e4 ,i found        
attached above and back of the soft     
palate a mass as large as a hickory nut 
and completely blocking up the dome of  
the pharynx4 ,a little cocaine was      
applied1 and with a single sweep of the 
curette he was minus an adenoid on the  
third tonsil1 a tonsil of ,luscha4      
,within ten days his voice was          
completely restored4  ,sometimes the    

physician is obliged to seek far for the
 cause of catastrophe to the voice4 ,a  
fine and thoroughly well-trained tenor  
singer came to me with a singular tremor
 in his voice4 ,the entire scale was    
tremulous4 ,i found nothing the matter  
with any part of his vocal tract save   
that1 on closely studying the condition 
of his mouth1 there was a rapid muscular
 contraction of the soft palate and     
surrounding tissues4 ,this led me to    
examine him from head to foot for       
possible nervous disorder1 of which1    
however1 ,i found no trace4 ,then1      
satisfied that there must be a more     
remote physical cause1 ,i pushed the    
examination further and discovered      
traces of kidney affection4 ,he was     
successfully treated for this and1 with 
its cure1 his voice also was restored4  
,this case shows the close relationship 
between parts of the physical           
constitution and the voice1 and         
illustrates the importance to the singer
 of a generally healthy physical        

condition4  ,another case illustrates a 
further and somewhat peculiar phase of  
the subject4 ,from the posterior nasal  
passage of a singer ,i removed nine     
large adenoid tumors4 ,he was a tenor1  
and within a few days his upper tones   
were perceptibly freer and fuller4 ,he  
had recently changed his instructor2 and
 subsequently ,i found that he was      
attributing to this teacher the marked  
improvement in his voice4 ,the physician
 was receiving no credit as a           
voice-builder whatsoever from either of 
them--which shows that in addition to a 
keen knife1 the specialist should also  
possess a keen sense of humor4          
,transcriber's ,note    ,some spelling  
variation exists in this ebook 7e4g41   
collar-bone and   collarbone1           
chest-cavity and chest cavity1 mucus and
 mucous74 ,these   variations have been 
retained to match the original text4    
,minor corrections to punctuation have  
been made without note4    ,the         
following additional typographical      

corrections have been made3      ,table 
of ,contents3 ,changed #agj to #afi to  
accurately reflect page     number in   
text      ,page #ge3 ,changed           
larynogoscopists to laryngoscopists     
7by amateur laryngoscopists7