,,elem5ts ,,( ,,*emi/ry1 ,,9 ,a ,,new ,,sy/ematic ,,ord]1 ,,conta9+ ,,all ,,! ,,mod]n ,,discov]ies4 ,,illu/rat$ ,,) ,,?irte5 ,,copp]plates4 ,,by ,,mr ,,lavoisi]1 ,memb] ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ,royal ,society ( ,m$ic9e1 & ,agricultural ,society ( ,p>is1 ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,london1 & ,philosophical ,societies ( ,orleans1 ,bologna1 ,basil1 ,philadelphia1 ,ha]lem1 ,man*e/]1 c4 c4 ,,translat$ ,,f ,,! ,,fr5*1 ,,by ,,rob]t ,,k]r1 ,f4,r4 ,a4,,ss4,e4 ,memb] ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons1 & ,surgeon to ! ,orphan ,hospital ( ,ed9burgh4 ,,ed9burgh3 ,,pr9t$ ,,= ,,william ,,cree*1 ,,& ,,sold ,,9 ,,london ,,by ,g4 ,g4 ,,& ,j4 ,j4 ,,rob9sons4 ,,mdccxc4 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999 999999999999999999999999 ,transcrib]'s note3 ,tables ne$$ to be split to fit space con/ra9ts4 ,m9or typos h be5 correct$ & footnotes mov$ to ! end ( ! *apt]s4 ,! italic m>kup = s+le italiz$ lett]s 7su* z v>iables 9 equations7 & weight abbreviations are delet$ = easi] read+4 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999 9999999999999999999999999999999999999999 999999999999999999999999 ,,adv]tisem5t ,,( ,,! ,,translator4 ,! v high "* ( ,mr ,lavoisi] z a *emical philosoph]1 & ! great revolution :i*1 9 ! op9ion ( _m excell5t *emi/s1 he has effect$ 9 ! !ory ( *emi/ry1 has long made x mu* desir$ to h a connect$ acc\nt ( 8 discov]ies1 & ( ! new !ory he has f\nd$ ^u ! mod]n exp]im5ts writt5 by himself4 ,?is is n[ accompli%$ by ! publication ( 8 ,elem5ts ( ,*emi/ry2 !re=e no excuse c be at all necess>y = giv+ ! foll[+ "w to ! public 9 an ,engli% dress2 & ! only hesitation ( ! ,translator is ) reg>d to 8 own abilities = ! task4 ,he is mo/ ready to confess1 t 8 k ( ! composition ( language fit = publication is f> inf]ior to 8 atta*m5t to ! subject1 & to 8 desire ( appe>+ dec5tly be=e ! judgm5t ( ! _w4 ,he has e>ne/ly endeav\r$ to give ! mean+ ( ! ,au?or ) ! mo/ scrupul\s fidelity1 hav+ paid inf9itely great] att5tion to accuracy ( translation ?an to elegance ( /ile4 ,?is la/ inde$1 _h he ev51 by prop] lab\r1 be5 capable ( atta9+1 he has be5 oblig$1 = v obvi\s reasons1 to neglect1 f> m ?an accord$ ) 8 wi%es4 ,! ,fr5* copy did n rea* 8 h&s be=e ! middle ( ,septemb]2 & x 0 judg$ necess>y by ! ,publi%] t ! ,translation %\ld be ready by ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,univ]sity ,session at ! end ( ,octob]4 ,he at fir/ int5d$ to h *ang$ all ! weights & measures us$ by ,mr ,lavoisi] into _! correspond5t ,engli% d5om9ations1 b1 ^u trial1 ! task 0 f\nd inf9itely too great = ! "t all[$2 & to h execut$ ?is "p ( ! "w inaccurately1 mu/ h be5 bo? useless & mislead+ to ! read]4 ,all t has be5 attempt$ 9 ?is way is add+1 betwe5 brackets 7 71 ! degrees ( ,fahr5heit's scale correspond+ ) ^? ( ,reaumeur's !rmomet]1 :i* is us$ by ! ,au?or4 ,rules are add$1 h[ev]1 9 ! ,app5dix1 = conv]t+ ! ,fr5* weights & measures into ,engli%1 by :i* means ! read] may at any "t calculate su* quantities z occur1 :5 desir\s ( comp>+ ,mr ,lavoisi]'s exp]im5ts ) ^? ( ,briti% au?ors4 ,by an ov]sight1 ! fir/ "p ( ! translation w5t to press )\t any di/9ction be+ pres]v$ betwe5 *>coal & its simple elem5t>y "p1 :i* ent]s into *emical comb9ations1 especially ) oxyg5 or ! acidify+ pr9ciple1 =m+ c>bonic acid4 ,?is pure elem5t1 :i* exi/s 9 great pl5ty 9 well made *>coal1 is nam$ by ,mr ,lavoisi] c>bone1 & ought to h be5 s 9 ! translation2 b ! att5tive read] c v easily rectify ! mi/ake4 ,!re is an error 9 ,plate ,,xi4 :i* ! engrav] copi$ /rictly f ! orig9al1 & :i* 0 n discov]$ until ! plate 0 work$ (f at press1 :5 t "p ( ! ,elem5ts :i* treats ( ! app>atus !re repres5t$ came to be translat$4 ,! two tubes #ba4 & #bd4 by :i* ! gas is convey$ into ! bottles ( alkal9e solution #bb4 #be4 %\ld h be5 made to dip into ! liquor1 :ile ! o!r tubes #bc4 & #bf4 :i* c>ry (f ! gas1 ought to h be5 cut (f "s way above ! surface ( ! liquor 9 ! bottles4 ,a few explanatory notes are add$2 & inde$1 f ! p]spicuity ( ! ,au?or1 v few 7 f\nd necess>y4 ,9 a v small numb] ( places1 ! lib]ty has be5 tak5 ( ?r[+ to ! bottom ( ! page1 9 notes1 "s p>5!tical expressions1 only relative to ! subject1 :i*1 9 _! orig9al place1 t5d$ to confuse ! s5se4 ,^!1 & ! orig9al notes ( ! ,au?or1 are di/+ui%$ by ! lett] ,a1 & to ! few :i* ! ,translator has v5tur$ to add1 ! lett] ,e is subjo9$4 ,mr ,lavoisi] has add$1 9 an ,app5dix1 sev]al v useful ,tables = facilitat+ ! calculations n[ necess>y 9 ! advanc$ /ate ( mod]n *emi/ry1 :]e9 ! mo/ scrupul\s accuracy is requir$4 ,x is prop] to give "s acc\nt ( ^!1 & ( ! reasons = omitt+ sev]al ( !m4 ,no4 ,i4 ( ! ,fr5* ,app5dix is a ,table = conv]t+ ounces1 gros1 & gra9s1 into ! decimal fractions ( ! ,fr5* p\nd2 & ,no4 ,,ii4 = r$uc+ ^! decimal fractions aga9 into ! vulg> subdivisions4 ,no4 ,,iii4 conta9s ! numb] ( ,fr5* cubical in*es & decimals :i* correspond to a det]m9ate weight ( wat]4 ,! ,translator w\ld mo/ readily h conv]t$ ^! ,tables into ,engli% weights & measures2 b ! necess>y calculations mu/ h occupi$ a great deal m "t ?an c\ld h be5 sp>$ 9 ! p]iod limit$ = publication4 ,!y are !re=e omitt$1 z altoge!r useless1 9 _! pres5t /ate1 to ! ,briti% *emi/4 ,no4 ,,iv4 is a ,table = conv]t+ l9es or twelf? p>ts ( ! in*1 & twelf? p>ts ( l9es1 into decimal fractions1 *iefly = ! purpose ( mak+ ! necess>y corrections ^u ! quantities ( gasses accord+ to _! b>ometrical pressure4 ,?is c h>dly be at all useful or necess>y1 z ! b>omet]s us$ 9 ,brita9 are graduat$ 9 decimal fractions ( ! in*1 b1 be+ ref]r$ to by ! ,au?or 9 ! text1 x has be5 reta9$1 & is ,no4 ,i4 ( ! ,app5dix to ?is ,translation4 ,no4 ,v4 ,is a ,table = conv]t+ ! obs]v$ heights ( wat] )9 ! j>s us$ 9 pneumato-*emical exp]im5ts into correspond5t heights ( m]cury = correct+ ! volume ( gasses4 ,?is1 9 ,mr ,lavoisi]'s ,"w1 is express$ = ! wat] 9 l9es1 & = ! m]cury 9 decimals ( ! in*1 & consequ5tly1 = ! reasons giv5 respect+ ! ,f\r? ,table1 mu/ h be5 ( no use4 ,! ,translator has !re=e calculat$ a ,table = ?is correction1 9 :i* ! wat] is express$ 9 decimals1 z well z ! m]cury4 ,?is ,table is ,no4 ,,ii4 ( ! ,engli% ,app5dix4 ,no4 ,,vi4 conta9s ! numb] ( ,fr5* cubical in*es & decimals conta9$ 9 ! correspond+ ounce-measures us$ 9 ! exp]im5ts ( our celebrat$ c\ntryman ,dr ,prie/ley4 ,?is ,table1 :i* =ms ,no4 ,,iii4 ( ! ,engli% ,app5dix1 is reta9$1 ) ! addition ( a column1 9 :i* ! correspond+ ,engli% cubical in*es & decimals are express$4 ,no4 ,,vii4 ,is a ,table ( ! weights ( a cubical foot & in*1 ,fr5* measure1 ( ! diff]5t gasses express$ 9 ,fr5* ounces1 gros1 gra9s1 & decimals4 ,?is1 :i* =ms ,no4 ,,vi4 ( ! ,engli% ,app5dix1 has be51 ) consid]able lab\r1 calculat$ into ,engli% weight & measure4 ,no4 ,,viii4 ,gives ! specific gravities ( a great numb] ( bodies1 ) columns1 conta9+ ! weights ( a cubical foot & in*1 ,fr5* measure1 ( all ! sub/ances4 ,! specific gravities ( ?is ,table1 :i* is ,no4 ,,vii4 ( ! ,engli% ,app5dix1 are reta9$1 b ! additional columns1 z useless to ! ,briti% philosoph]1 are omitt$2 & to h conv]t$ ^! into ,engli% d5om9ations mu/ h requir$ v long & pa9ful calculations4 ,rules are subjo9$1 9 ! ,app5dix to ?is translation1 = conv]t+ all ! weights & measures us$ by ,mr ,lavoisi] into correspond+ ,engli% d5om9ations2 & ! ,translator is pr\d to ackn[l$ge 8 obligation to ! le>n$ ,pr(essor ( ,natural ,philosophy 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ed9burgh1 :o k9dly suppli$ him ) ! necess>y in=mation = ?is purpose4 ,a ,table is likewise add$1 ,no4 ,,iv4 ( ! ,engli% ,app5dix1 = conv]t+ ! degrees ( ,reaumeur's scale us$ by ,mr ,lavoisi] into ! correspond+ degrees ( ,fahr5heit1 :i* is univ]sally employ$ 9 ,brita9#a4 ,?is ,translation is s5t into ! _w ) ! utmo/ diffid5ce1 temp]$1 h[ev]1 ) ?is consolation1 t1 ?\gh x mu/ fall greatly %ort ( ! elegance1 or ev5 propriety ( language1 :i* e writ] ought to endeav\r to atta91 x _c fail ( advanc+ ! int]e/s ( true *emical sci5ce1 by dissem9at+ ! accurate mode ( analysis adopt$ by its ju/ly celebrat$ ,au?or4 ,%\ld ! public call = a second edition1 e c>e %all be tak5 to correct ! =c$ imp]fections ( ! pres5t translation1 & to improve ! "w by valuable additional matt] f o!r au?ors ( reputation 9 ! sev]al subjects treat$ (4 ,,ed9burgh1 ,oct4 #bc4 #aghi4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,! ,translator has s9ce be5 enabl$1 by ! k9d assi/ance ( ! g5tleman above allud$ to1 to give ,tables1 ( ! same nature ) ^? ( ,mr ,lavoisi]1 = facilitat+ ! calculations ( ! results ( *emical exp]im5ts4 ,,preface ,,( ,,! ,,au?or4 ,:5 ,i began ! foll[+ ,"w1 my only object 0 to ext5d & expla9 m fully ! ,memoir :i* ,i read at ! public meet+ ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 ! mon? ( ,april #aghg1 on ! necessity ( re=m+ & complet+ ! ,nom5clature ( ,*emi/ry4 ,:ile engag$ 9 ?is employm5t1 ,i p]ceiv$1 bett] ?an ,i _h ev] done be=e1 ! ju/ice ( ! foll[+ maxims ( ! ,abb de ,condillac1 9 8 ,sy/em ( ,logic1 & "s o!r ( 8 works4 ,we ?9k only ?r\gh ! m$ium ( words4--,languages are true analytical me?ods4--,algebra1 :i* is adapt$ to its purpose 9 e species ( expression1 9 ! mo/ simple1 mo/ exact1 & be/ mann] possible1 is at ! same "t a language & an analytical me?od4--,! art ( reason+ is no?+ m ?an a language well arrang$4 ,?us1 :ile ,i ?\ght myself employ$ only 9 =m+ a ,nom5clature1 & :ile ,i propos$ to myself no?+ m ?an to improve ! *emical language1 my "w trans=m$ itself by degrees1 )\t my be+ able to prev5t x1 into a treatise ^u ! ,elem5ts ( ,*emi/ry4 ,! impossibility ( sep>at+ ! nom5clature ( a sci5ce f ! sci5ce itself1 is ow+ to ?is1 t e bran* ( physical sci5ce mu/ consi/ ( ?ree ?+s2 ! s]ies ( facts :i* are ! objects ( ! sci5ce1 ! ideas :i* repres5t ^! facts1 & ! words by :i* ^! ideas are express$4 ,l ?ree impressions ( ! same seal1 ! ^w ought to produce ! idea1 & ! idea to be a picture ( ! fact4 ,&1 z ideas are pres]v$ & communicat$ by means ( words1 x necess>ily foll[s t we _c improve ! language ( any sci5ce )\t at ! same "t improv+ ! sci5ce itself2 nei!r c we1 on ! o!r h&1 improve a sci5ce1 )\t improv+ ! language or nom5clature :i* belongs to x4 ,h[ev] c]ta9 ! facts ( any sci5ce may be1 &1 h[ev] j ! ideas we may h =m$ ( ^! facts1 we c only communicate false impressions to o!rs1 :ile we want words by :i* ^! may be prop]ly express$4 ,to ^? :o w consid] x ) att5tion1 ! fir/ "p ( ?is treatise w af=d frequ5t pro(s ( ! tru? ( ! above obs]vations4 ,b z1 9 ! conduct ( my "w1 ,i h be5 oblig$ to obs]ve an ord] ( arrangem5t ess5tially diff]+ f :at has be5 adopt$ 9 any o!r *emical "w yet publi%$1 x is prop] t ,i %\ld expla9 ! motives :i* h l$ me to d s4 ,x is a maxim univ]sally admitt$ 9 geometry1 & inde$ 9 e bran* ( k1 t1 9 ! progress ( inve/igation1 we %\ld proce$ f kn[n facts to :at is unkn[n4 ,9 e>ly infancy1 our ideas spr+ f our wants2 ! s5sation ( want excites ! idea ( ! object by :i* x is to be gratifi$4 ,9 ?is mann]1 f a s]ies ( s5sations1 obs]vations1 & analyses1 a successive tra9 ( ideas arises1 s l9k$ toge!r1 t an att5tive obs]v] may trace back to a c]ta9 po9t ! ord] & connection ( ! :ole sum ( human k4 ,:5 we beg9 ! /udy ( any sci5ce1 we are 9 a situation1 respect+ t sci5ce1 simil> to t ( *ildr52 & ! c\rse by :i* we h to advance is precisely ! same :i* ,nature foll[s 9 ! =mation ( _! ideas4 ,9 a *ild1 ! idea is m]ely an effect produc$ by a s5sation2 &1 9 ! same mann]1 9 comm5c+ ! /udy ( a physical sci5ce1 we ought to =m no idea b :at is a necess>y consequ5ce1 & imm$iate effect1 ( an exp]im5t or obs]vation4 ,besides1 he t ent]s ^u ! c>e] ( sci5ce1 is 9 a less advantage\s situation ?an a *ild :o is acquir+ 8 fir/ ideas4 ,to ! *ild1 ,nature gives v>i\s means ( rectify+ any mi/akes he may commit respect+ ! salut>y or hurtful qualities ( ! objects :i* surr\nd him4 ,on e occasion 8 judgm5ts are correct$ by exp]i5ce2 want & pa9 are ! necess>y consequ5ces aris+ f false judgm5t2 gratification & pleasure are produc$ by judg+ aright4 ,"u su* ma/]s1 we _c fail to become well in=m$2 & we soon le>n to reason ju/ly1 :5 want & pa9 are ! necess>y consequ5ces ( a contr>y conduct4 ,9 ! /udy & practice ( ! sci5ces x is q diff]5t2 ! false judgm5ts we =m nei!r affect our exi/5ce nor our welf>e2 & we are n =c$ by any physical necessity to correct !m4 ,imag9ation1 on ! contr>y1 :i* is ev] w&]+ beyond ! b\nds ( tru?1 jo9$ to self-love & t self-confid5ce we are s apt to indulge1 prompt u to draw conclusions :i* are n imm$iately d]iv$ f facts2 s t we become 9 "s measure int]e/$ 9 deceiv+ ourselves4 ,h5ce x is by no means to be wond]$1 t1 9 ! sci5ce ( physics 9 g5]al1 m5 h (t5 made suppositions1 in/ead ( =m+ conclusions4 ,^! suppositions1 h&$ d[n f "o age to ano!r1 acquire additional weight f ! au?orities by :i* !y are support$1 till at la/ !y are receiv$1 ev5 by m5 ( g5ius1 z fundam5tal tru?s4 ,! only me?od ( prev5t+ su* errors f tak+ place1 & ( correct+ !m :5 =m$1 is to re/ra9 & simplify our reason+ z mu* z possible4 ,?is dep5ds entirely ^u ourselves1 & ! neglect ( x is ! only s\rce ( our mi/akes4 ,we mu/ tru/ to no?+ b facts3 ,^! are pres5t$ to u by ,nature1 & _c deceive4 ,we ought1 9 e in/ance1 to submit our reason+ to ! te/ ( exp]im5t1 & nev] to se>* = tru? b by ! natural road ( exp]im5t & obs]vation4 ,?us ma!maticians obta9 ! solution ( a problem by ! m]e arrangem5t ( data1 & by r$uc+ _! reason+ to su* simple /eps1 to conclusions s v obvi\s1 z nev] to lose sight ( ! evid5ce :i* guides !m4 ,?or\ghly conv9c$ ( ^! tru?s1 ,i h impos$ ^u myself1 z a law1 nev] to advance b f :at is kn[n to :at is unkn[n2 nev] to =m any conclusion :i* is n an imm$iate consequ5ce necess>ily fl[+ f obs]vation & exp]im5t2 & always to arrange ! facts1 & ! conclusions :i* are drawn f !m1 9 su* an ord] z %all r5d] x mo/ easy = beg9n]s 9 ! /udy ( *emi/ry ?or\ghly to und]/& !m4 ,h5ce ,i h be5 oblig$ to dep>t f ! usual ord] ( c\rses ( lectures & ( treatises ^u *emi/ry1 :i* always assume ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce1 z kn[n1 :5 ! pupil or ! read] %\ld nev] be suppos$ to "k !m till !y h be5 expla9$ 9 subsequ5t lessons4 ,9 almo/ e in/ance1 ^! beg9 by treat+ ( ! elem5ts ( matt]1 & by expla9+ ! table ( aff9ities1 )\t consid]+1 t1 9 s do+1 !y mu/ br+ ! pr9cipal ph5om5a ( *emi/ry into view at ! v outset3 ,!y make use ( t]ms :i* h n be5 def9$1 & suppose ! sci5ce to be und]/ood by ! v p]sons !y are only beg9n+ to tea*4 ,x ought likewise to be consid]$1 t v little ( *emi/ry c be le>n$ 9 a fir/ c\rse1 :i* is h>dly suffici5t to make ! language ( ! sci5ce famili> to ! e>s1 or ! app>atus famili> to ! eyes4 ,x is almo/ impossible to become a *emi/ 9 less ?an ?ree or f\r ye>s ( con/ant application4 ,^! inconv5i5cies are occasion$ n s mu* by ! nature ( ! subject1 z by ! me?od ( tea*+ x2 &1 to avoid !m1 ,i 0 *iefly induc$ to adopt a new arrangem5t ( *emi/ry1 :i* appe>$ to me m consonant to ! ord] ( ,nature4 ,i ackn[l$ge1 h[ev]1 t 9 ?us endeav\r+ to avoid difficulties ( "o k9d1 ,i h f\nd myself involv$ 9 o!rs ( a diff]5t species1 "s ( :i* ,i h n be5 able to remove2 b ,i am p]suad$1 t su* z rema9 d n arise f ! nature ( ! ord] ,i h adopt$1 b are r consequ5ces ( ! imp]fection "u :i* *emi/ry /ill lab\rs4 ,?is sci5ce /ill has _m *asms1 :i* int]rupt ! s]ies ( facts1 & (t5 r5d] x extremely difficult to reconcile !m ) ea* o!r3 ,x has n1 l ! elem5ts ( geometry1 ! advantage ( be+ a complete sci5ce1 ! p>ts ( :i* are all closely connect$ toge!r3 ,its actual progress1 h[ev]1 is s rapid1 & ! facts1 "u ! mod]n doctr9e1 h assum$ s happy an arrangem5t1 t we h gr\nd to hope1 ev5 9 our own times1 to see x approa* ne> to ! highe/ /ate ( p]fection ( :i* x is susceptible4 ,! rigor\s law f :i* ,i h nev] deviat$1 ( =m+ no conclusions :i* are n fully w>rant$ by exp]im5t1 & ( nev] supply+ ! abs5ce ( facts1 has prev5t$ me f compreh5d+ 9 ?is "w ! bran* ( *emi/ry :i* treats ( aff9ities1 al?\gh x is p]haps ! be/ calculat$ ( any "p ( *emi/ry = be+ r$uc$ into a completely sy/ematic body4 ,messrs ,ge(froy1 ,gell]t1 ,b]gman1 ,s*eele1 ,de ,morveau1 ,kirwan1 & _m o!rs1 h collect$ a numb] ( p>ticul> facts ^u ?is subject1 :i* only wait = a prop] arrangem5t2 b ! pr9cipal data are /ill want+1 or1 at lea/1 ^? we h are ei!r n suffici5tly def9$1 or n suffici5tly prov$1 to become ! f\ndation ^u :i* to build s v important a bran* ( *emi/ry4 ,?is sci5ce ( aff9ities1 or elective attractions1 holds ! same place ) reg>d to ! o!r bran*es ( *emi/ry1 z ! high] or transc5d5tal geometry does ) respect to ! simpl] & elem5t>y "p2 & ,i ?\ght x improp] to involve ^? simple & pla9 elem5ts1 :i* ,i flatt] myself ! greate/ "p ( my read]s w easily und]/&1 9 ! obscurities & difficulties :i* /ill att5d t o!r v useful & necess>y bran* ( *emical sci5ce4 ,p]haps a s5tim5t ( self-love may1 )\t my p]ceiv+ x1 h giv5 additional =ce to ^! reflections4 ,mr de ,morveau is at pres5t engag$ 9 publi%+ ! article ,aff9ity 9 ! ,me?odical ,encyclopdia2 & ,i _h m reasons ?an "o to decl9e ent]+ ^u a "w 9 :i* he is employ$4 ,x w1 no d\bt1 be a matt] ( surprise1 t 9 a treatise ^u ! elem5ts ( *emi/ry1 !re %\ld be no *apt] on ! con/itu5t & elem5t>y p>ts ( matt]2 b ,i %all take occasion1 9 ?is place1 to rem>k1 t ! fondness = r$uc+ all ! bodies 9 nature to ?ree or f\r elem5ts1 proce$s f a prejudice :i* has desc5d$ to u f ! ,greek ,philosoph]s4 ,! notion ( f\r elem5ts1 :i*1 by ! v>iety ( _! proportions1 compose all ! kn[n sub/ances 9 nature1 is a m]e hypo!sis1 assum$ long be=e ! fir/ pr9ciples ( exp]im5tal philosophy or ( *emi/ry _h any exi/5ce4 ,9 ^? days1 )\t possess+ facts1 !y fram$ sy/ems2 :ile we1 :o h collect$ facts1 seem det]m9$ to reject !m1 :5 !y d n agree ) our prejudices4 ,! au?ority ( ^! fa!rs ( human philosophy /ill c>ry great weight1 & !re is reason to fe> t x w ev5 be> h>d ^u g5]ations yet to come4 ,x is v rem>kable1 t1 not)/&+ ( ! numb] ( philosophical *emi/s :o h support$ ! doctr9e ( ! f\r elem5ts1 !re is n "o :o has n be5 l$ by ! evid5ce ( facts to admit a great] numb] ( elem5ts into _! !ory4 ,! fir/ *emi/s t wrote aft] ! revival ( lett]s1 consid]$ sulphur & salt z elem5t>y sub/ances ent]+ into ! composition ( a great numb] ( sub/ances2 h5ce1 in/ead ( f\r1 !y admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( six elem5ts4 ,bec*] assumes ! exi/5ce ( ?ree k9ds ( e>?1 f ! comb9ation ( :i*1 9 diff]5t proportions1 he suppos$ all ! v>ieties ( metallic sub/ances to be produc$4 ,/ahl gave a new modification to ?is sy/em2 & succe$+ *emi/s h tak5 ! lib]ty to make or to imag9e *anges & additions ( a simil> nature4 ,all ^! *emi/s 7 c>ri$ along by ! influ5ce ( ! g5ius ( ! age 9 :i* !y liv$1 :i* cont5t$ itself ) ass]tions )\t pro(s2 or1 at lea/1 (t5 admitt$ z pro(s ! slight$ degrees ( probability1 unsupport$ by t /rictly rigor\s analysis requir$ by mod]n philosophy4 ,all t c be said ^u ! numb] & nature ( elem5ts is1 9 my op9ion1 conf9$ to discussions entirely ( a metaphysical nature4 ,! subject only furni%es u ) indef9ite problems1 :i* may be solv$ 9 a ?\s& diff]5t ways1 n "o ( :i*1 9 all probability1 is consi/5t ) nature4 ,i %all !re=e only add ^u ?is subject1 t if1 by ! t]m elem5ts1 we mean to express ^? simple & indivisible atoms ( :i* matt] is compos$1 x is extremely probable we "k no?+ at all ab\t !m2 b1 if we apply ! t]m elem5ts1 or pr9ciples ( bodies1 to express our idea ( ! la/ po9t :i* analysis is capable ( rea*+1 we mu/ admit1 z elem5ts1 all ! sub/ances into :i* we are capable1 by any means1 to r$uce bodies by decomposition4 ,n t we are entitl$ to affirm1 t ^! sub/ances we consid] z simple may n be comp\nd$ ( two1 or ev5 ( a great] numb] ( pr9ciples2 b1 s9ce ^! pr9ciples _c be sep>at$1 or r s9ce we h n hi!rto discov]$ ! means ( sep>at+ !m1 !y act ) reg>d to u z simple sub/ances1 & we ought nev] to suppose !m comp\nd$ until exp]im5t & obs]vation has prov$ !m to be s4 ,! =ego+ reflections ^u ! progress ( *emical ideas naturally apply to ! words by :i* ^! ideas are to be express$4 ,guid$ by ! "w :i*1 9 ! ye> #aghg1 ,messrs de ,morveau1 ,b]?ollet1 de ,f\rcroy1 & ,i compos$ ^u ! ,nom5clature ( ,*emi/ry1 ,i h endeav\r$1 z mu* z possible1 to d5om9ate simple bodies by simple t]ms1 & ,i 0 naturally l$ to "n ^! fir/4 ,x w be recollect$1 t we 7 oblig$ to reta9 t "n ( any sub/ance by :i* x _h be5 long kn[n 9 ! _w1 & t 9 two cases only we took ! lib]ty ( mak+ alt]ations2 fir/1 9 ! case ( ^? :i* 7 b newly discov]$1 & _h n yet obta9$ names1 or at lea/ :i* _h be5 kn[n b = a %ort "t1 & ! names ( :i* _h n yet receiv$ ! sanction ( ! public2 &1 secondly1 :5 ! names :i* _h be5 adopt$1 :e!r by ! anci5ts or ! mod]ns1 appe>$ to u to express evid5tly false ideas1 :5 !y conf\nd$ ! sub/ances1 to :i* !y 7 appli$1 ) o!rs possess$ ( diff]5t1 or p]haps opposite qualities4 ,we made no scruple1 9 ?is case1 ( sub/itut+ o!r names 9 _! room1 & ! greate/ numb] ( ^! 7 borr[$ f ! ,greek language4 ,we endeav\r$ to frame !m 9 su* a mann] z to express ! mo/ g5]al & ! mo/ *>act]i/ic quality ( ! sub/ances2 & ?is 0 att5d$ ) ! additional advantage bo? ( assi/+ ! memory ( beg9n]s1 :o f9d x difficult to rememb] a new ^w :i* has no mean+1 & ( accu/om+ !m e>ly to admit no ^w )\t connect+ ) x "s det]m9ate idea4 ,to ^? bodies :i* are =m$ by ! union ( sev]al simple sub/ances we gave new names1 comp\nd$ 9 su* a mann] z ! nature ( ! sub/ances direct$2 b1 z ! numb] ( d\ble comb9ations is already v consid]able1 ! only me?od by :i* we c\ld avoid confusion1 0 to divide !m into classes4 ,9 ! natural ord] ( ideas1 ! "n ( ! class or g5us is t :i* expresses a quality common to a great numb] ( individuals3 ,! "n ( ! species1 on ! contr>y1 expresses a quality peculi> to c]ta9 individuals only4 ,^! di/9ctions are n1 z "s may imag9e1 m]ely metaphysical1 b are e/abli%$ by ,nature4 ,a *ild1 says ! ,abb de ,condillac1 is taught to give ! "n tree to ! fir/ "o :i* is po9t$ out to him4 ,! next "o he sees pres5ts ! same idea1 & he gives x ! same "n4 ,?is he does likewise to a ?ird & a f\r?1 till at la/ ! ^w tree1 :i* he fir/ appli$ to an individual1 comes to be employ$ by him z ! "n ( a class or a g5us1 an ab/ract idea1 :i* compreh5ds all trees 9 g5]al4 ,b1 :5 he le>ns t all trees s]ve n ! same purpose1 t !y d n all produce ! same k9d ( fruit1 he w soon le>n to di/+ui% !m by specific & p>ticul> names4 ,?is is ! logic ( all ! sci5ces1 & is naturally appli$ to *emi/ry4 ,! acids1 = example1 are comp\nd$ ( two sub/ances1 ( ! ord] ( ^? :i* we consid] z simple2 ! "o con/itutes acidity1 & is common to all acids1 &1 f ?is sub/ance1 ! "n ( ! class or ! g5us ought to be tak52 ! o!r is peculi> to ea* acid1 & di/+ui%es x f ! re/1 & f ?is sub/ance is to be tak5 ! "n ( ! species4 ,b1 9 ! greate/ numb] ( acids1 ! two con/itu5t elem5ts1 ! acidify+ pr9ciple1 & t :i* x acidifies1 may exi/ 9 diff]5t proportions1 con/itut+ all ! possible po9ts ( equilibrium or ( saturation4 ,?is is ! case 9 ! sulphuric & ! sulphur\s acids2 & ^! two /ates ( ! same acid we h m>k$ by v>y+ ! t]m9ation ( ! specific "n4 ,metallic sub/ances :i* h be5 expos$ to ! jo9t action ( ! air & ( fire1 lose _! metallic lu/re1 increase 9 weight1 & assume an e>?y appe>ance4 ,9 ?is /ate1 l ! acids1 !y are comp\nd$ ( a pr9ciple :i* is common to all1 & "o :i* is peculi> to ea*4 ,9 ! same way1 !re=e1 we h ?\ght prop] to class !m "u a g5]ic "n1 d]iv$ f ! common pr9ciple2 = :i* purpose1 we adopt$ ! t]m oxyd2 & we di/+ui% !m f ea* o!r by ! p>ticul> "n ( ! metal to :i* ea* belongs4 ,combu/ible sub/ances1 :i* 9 acids & metallic oxyds are a specific & p>ticul> pr9ciple1 are capable ( becom+1 9 _! turn1 common pr9ciples ( a great numb] ( sub/ances4 ,! sulphur\s comb9ations h be5 long ! only kn[n ones 9 ?is k9d4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 we "k1 f ! exp]im5ts ( ,messrs ,v&]monde1 ,monge1 & ,b]?ollet1 t *>coal may be comb9$ ) iron1 & p]haps ) sev]al o!r metals2 & t1 f ?is comb9ation1 accord+ to ! proportions1 may be produc$ /eel1 plumbago1 c4 ,we "k likewise1 f ! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,pelleti]1 t phosphorus may be comb9$ ) a great numb] ( metallic sub/ances4 ,^! diff]5t comb9ations we h class$ "u g5]ic names tak5 f ! common sub/ance1 ) a t]m9ation :i* m>ks ?is analogy1 specify+ !m by ano!r "n tak5 f t sub/ance :i* is prop] to ea*4 ,! nom5clature ( bodies comp\nd$ ( ?ree simple sub/ances 0 att5d$ ) /ill great] difficulty1 n only on acc\nt ( _! numb]1 b1 p>ticul>ly1 because we _c express ! nature ( _! con/itu5t pr9ciples )\t employ+ m comp\nd names4 ,9 ! bodies :i* =m ?is class1 su* z ! neutral salts1 = in/ance1 we _h to consid]1 #a/1 ,! acidify+ pr9ciple1 :i* is common to !m all2 #b;d1 ,! acidifiable pr9ciple :i* con/itutes _! peculi> acid2 #c;d1 ,! sal9e1 e>?y1 or metallic basis1 :i* det]m9es ! p>ticul> species ( salt4 ,"h we d]iv$ ! "n ( ea* class ( salts f ! "n ( ! acidifiable pr9ciple common to all ! individuals ( t class2 & di/+ui%$ ea* species by ! "n ( ! sal9e1 e>?y1 or metallic basis1 :i* is peculi> to x4 ,a salt1 ?\gh comp\nd$ ( ! same ?ree pr9ciples1 may1 nev]!less1 by ! m]e diff]5ce ( _! proportion1 be 9 ?ree diff]5t /ates4 ,! nom5clature we h adopt$ w\ld h be5 defective1 _h x n express$ ^! diff]5t /ates2 & ?is we atta9$ *iefly by *anges ( t]m9ation uni=mly appli$ to ! same /ate ( ! diff]5t salts4 ,9 %ort1 we h advanc$ s f>1 t f ! "n alone may be in/antly f\nd :at ! combu/ible sub/ance is :i* ent]s into any comb9ation2 :e!r t combu/ible sub/ance be comb9$ ) ! acidify+ pr9ciple1 & 9 :at proportion2 :at is ! /ate ( ! acid2 ) :at basis x is unit$2 :e!r ! saturation be exact1 or :e!r ! acid or ! basis be 9 excess4 ,x may be easily suppos$ t x 0 n possible to atta9 all ^! diff]5t objects )\t dep>t+1 9 "s in/ances1 f e/abli%$ cu/om1 & adopt+ t]ms :i* at fir/ sight w appe> unc\? & b>b>\s4 ,b we consid]$ t ! e> is soon habituat$ to new words1 especially :5 !y are connect$ ) a g5]al & rational sy/em4 ,! names1 besides1 :i* 7 =m]ly employ$1 su* z p[d] ( alg>o?1 salt ( alembro?1 pompholix1 phagad5ic wat]1 turbi? m9]al1 colca?>1 & _m o!rs1 7 nei!r less b>b>\s nor less uncommon4 ,x requir$ a great deal ( practice1 & no small degree ( memory1 to recollect ! sub/ances to :i* !y 7 appli$1 mu* m to recollect ! g5us ( comb9ation to :i* !y belong$4 ,! names ( oil ( t>t> p] deliquium1 oil ( vitriol1 butt] ( ars5ic & ( antimony1 fl[]s ( z9c1 c4 7 /ill m improp]1 because !y sugge/$ false ideas3 ,=1 9 ! :ole m9]al k+dom1 & p>ticul>ly 9 ! metallic class1 !re exi/s no su* ?+ z butt]s1 oils1 or fl[]s2 &1 9 %ort1 ! sub/ances to :i* !y give ^! fallaci\s names1 are no?+ less ?an rank poisons4 ,:5 we publi%$ our essay on ! nom5clature ( *emi/ry1 we 7 reproa*$ = hav+ *ang$ ! language :i* 0 spok5 by our ma/]s1 :i* !y di/+ui%$ by _! au?ority1 & h&$ d[n to u4 ,b ^? :o reproa* u on ?is acc\nt1 h =gott5 t x 0 ,b]gman & ,macqu] !mselves :o urg$ u to make ?is re=mation4 ,9 a lett] :i* ! le>n$ ,pr(essor ( ,upsal1 ,m4 ,b]gman1 wrote1 a %ort "t be=e he di$1 to ,m4 de ,morveau1 he bids him sp>e no improp] names2 ^? :o are le>n$1 w always be le>n$1 & ^? :o are ignorant w ?us le>n soon]4 ,!re is an objection to ! "w :i* ,i am go+ to pres5t to ! public1 :i* is p]haps bett] f\nd$1 t ,i h giv5 no acc\nt ( ! op9ion ( ^? :o h gone be=e me2 t ,i h /at$ only my own op9ion1 )\t exam9+ t ( o!rs4 ,by ?is ,i h be5 prev5t$ f do+ t ju/ice to my associates1 & m especially to =eign *emi/s1 :i* ,i wi%$ to r5d] !m4 ,b ,i besee* ! read] to consid]1 t1 if ,i _h fill$ an elem5t>y "w ) a multitude ( quotations2 if ,i _h all[$ myself to ent] into long diss]tations on ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce1 & ! works ( ^? :o h /udi$ x1 ,i mu/ h lo/ sight ( ! true object ,i _h 9 view1 & produc$ a "w1 ! read+ ( :i* mu/ h be5 extremely tiresome to beg9n]s4 ,x is n to ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ce1 or ( ! human m9d1 t we are to att5d 9 an elem5t>y treatise3 ,our only aim ought to be ease & p]spicuity1 & ) ! utmo/ c>e to keep e ?+ out ( view :i* might draw aside ! att5tion ( ! /ud5t2 x is a road :i* we %\ld be cont9ually r5d]+ m smoo?1 & f :i* we %\ld endeav\r to remove e ob/acle :i* c occasion delay4 ,! sci5ces1 f _! own nature1 pres5t a suffici5t numb] ( difficulties1 ?\gh we add n ^? :i* are =eign to !m4 ,b1 besides ?is1 *emi/s w easily p]ceive1 t1 9 ! fir/ "p ( my "w1 ,i make v little use ( any exp]im5ts b ^? :i* 7 made by myself3 ,if at any "t ,i h adopt$1 )\t ackn[l$gm5t1 ! exp]im5ts or ! op9ions ( ,m4 ,b]?ollet1 ,m4 ,f\rcroy1 ,m4 de la ,place1 ,m4 ,monge1 or1 9 g5]al1 ( any ( ^? ^: pr9ciples are ! same ) my own1 x is ow+ to ?is circum/ance1 t frequ5t int]c\rse1 & ! habit ( communicat+ our ideas1 our obs]vations1 & our way ( ?9k+ to ea* o!r1 has e/abli%$ betwe5 u a sort ( community ( op9ions1 9 :i* x is (t5 difficult = e "o to "k 8 own4 ,! rem>ks ,i h made on ! ord] :i* ,i ?\ght myself oblig$ to foll[ 9 ! arrangem5t ( pro(s & ideas1 are to be appli$ only to ! fir/ "p ( ?is "w4 ,x is ! only "o :i* conta9s ! g5]al sum ( ! doctr9e ,i h adopt$1 & to :i* ,i wi%$ to give a =m completely elem5t>y4 ,! second "p is compos$ *iefly ( tables ( ! nom5clature ( ! neutral salts4 ,to ^! ,i h only add$ g5]al explanations1 ! object ( :i* 0 to po9t out ! mo/ simple processes = obta9+ ! diff]5t k9ds ( kn[n acids4 ,?is "p conta9s no?+ :i* ,i c call my own1 & pres5ts only a v %ort abridgm5t ( ! results ( ^! processes1 extract$ f ! works ( diff]5t au?ors4 ,9 ! ?ird "p1 ,i h giv5 a description1 9 detail1 ( all ! op]ations connect$ ) mod]n *emi/ry4 ,i h long ?\ght t a "w ( ?is k9d 0 mu* want$1 & ,i am conv9c$ x w n be )\t use4 ,! me?od ( p]=m+ exp]im5ts1 & p>ticul>ly ^? ( mod]n *emi/ry1 is n s g5]ally kn[n z x ought to be2 & _h ,i1 9 ! diff]5t memoirs :i* ,i h pres5t$ to ! ,academy1 be5 m p>ticul> 9 ! detail ( ! manipulations ( my exp]im5ts1 x is probable ,i %\ld h made myself bett] und]/ood1 & ! sci5ce might h made a m rapid progress4 ,! ord] ( ! diff]5t matt]s conta9$ 9 ?is ?ird "p appe>$ to me to be almo/ arbitr>y2 & ! only "o ,i h obs]v$ 0 to class toge!r1 9 ea* ( ! *apt]s ( :i* x is compos$1 ^? op]ations :i* are mo/ connect$ ) "o ano!r4 ,i ne$ h>dly m5tion t ?is "p c\ld n be borr[$ f any o!r "w1 & t1 9 ! pr9cipal articles x conta9s1 ,i c\ld n d]ive assi/ance f any ?+ b ! exp]im5ts :i* ,i h made myself4 ,i %all conclude ?is preface by transcrib+1 lit]ally1 "s obs]vations ( ! ,abb de ,condillac1 :i* ,i ?9k describe1 ) a good deal ( tru?1 ! /ate ( *emi/ry at a p]iod n f> di/ant f our own4 ,^! obs]vations 7 made on a diff]5t subject2 b !y w n1 on ?is acc\nt1 h less =ce1 if ! application ( !m be ?\ght j4 ',in/ead ( apply+ obs]vation to ! ?+s we wi%$ to "k1 we h *os5 r to imag9e !m4 ,advanc+ f "o ill f\nd$ supposition to ano!r1 we h at la/ bewild]$ ourselves amid/ a multitude ( errors4 ,^! errors becom+ prejudices1 are1 ( c\rse1 adopt$ z pr9ciples1 & we ?us bewild] ourselves m & m4 ,! me?od1 too1 by :i* we conduct our reason+s is z absurd2 we abuse words :i* we d n und]/&1 & call ?is ! art ( reason+4 ,:5 matt]s h be5 br\ght ?is l5g?1 :5 errors h be5 ?us accumulat$1 !re is b "o rem$y by :i* ord] c be re/or$ to ! faculty ( ?9k+2 ?is is1 to =get all t we h le>n$1 to trace back our ideas to _! s\rce1 to foll[ ! tra9 9 :i* !y rise1 &1 z my ,"l ,bacon says1 to frame ! human und]/&+ anew4 ',?is rem$y becomes ! m difficult 9 proportion z we ?9k ourselves m le>n$4 ,might x n be ?\ght t works :i* treat$ ( ! sci5ces ) ! utmo/ p]spicuity1 ) great precision & ord]1 mu/ be und]/ood by e body8 ,! fact is1 ^? :o h nev] /udi$ any ?+ w und]/& !m bett] ?an ^? :o h /udi$ a great deal1 & especially ?an ^? :o h writt5 a great deal4' ,at ! end ( ! fif? *apt]1 ! ,abb de ,condillac adds3 ',b1 aft] all1 ! sci5ces h made progress1 because philosoph]s h appli$ !mselves ) m att5tion to obs]ve1 & h communicat$ to _! language t precision & accuracy :i* !y h employ$ 9 _! obs]vations3 ,9 correct+ _! language !y reason bett]4' ,,cont5ts4 ,,"p ,,fir/4 ,( ! ,=mation & ,decomposition ( ,ari=m ,fluids1--( ! ,combu/ion ( ,simple ,bodies1 & ! ,=mation ( ,acids1 ,page #a ,,*ap4 ,i4--,( ! ,comb9ations ( ,caloric1 & ! ,=mation ( ,ela/ic ,ari=m ,fluids or ,gasses1 ibid4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4--,g5]al ,views relative to ! ,=mation & ,composition ( our ,atmosph]e1 #bf ,,*ap4 ,,iii4--,analysis ( ,atmosph]ic ,air1 & its ,division into two ,ela/ic ,fluids2 "o fit = ,respiration1 ! o!r incapable ( be+ respir$1 #cb ,,*ap4 ,,iv4--,nom5clature ( ! sev]al con/itu5t ,p>ts ( ,atmosph]ic ,air1 #dh ,,*ap4 ,v4--,( ! ,decomposition ( ,oxyg5 ,gas by ,sulphur1 ,phosphorus1 & ,*>coal1 & ( ! ,=mation ( ,acids 9 g5]al1 #ed ,,*ap4 ,,vi4--,( ! ,nom5clature ( ,acids 9 g5]al1 & p>ticul>ly ( ^? drawn f ,nitre & ,sea ,salt1 #ff ,,*ap4 ,,vii4--,( ! ,decomposition ( ,oxyg5 ,gas by means ( ,metals1 & ! ,=mation ( ,metallic ,oxyds1 #gh ,,*ap4 ,,viii4--,( ! ,radical ,pr9ciple ( ,wat]1 & ( its ,decomposition by ,*>coal & ,iron1 #hc ,,*ap4 ,,ix4--,( ! ,quantities ( ,caloric dis5gag$ f diff]5t ,species ( ,combu/ion1 #ig ,combu/ion ( ,phosphorus1 #ajj ,,sect4 ,i4--,combu/ion ( ,*>coal1 #aja ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,combu/ion ( ,hydrog5 ,gas1 #ajb ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,=mation ( ,nitric ,acid1 #ajb ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,combu/ion ( ,wax1 #aje ,,sect4 ,v4--,combu/ion ( ,olive ,oil1 #ajf ,,*ap4 ,x4--,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,combu/ible ,sub/ances ) ea* o!r1 #aji ,,*ap4 ,,xi4--,obs]vations ^u ,oxyds & ,acids ) sev]al ,bases1 & ^u ! ,composition ( ,animal & ,vegetable ,sub/ances1 #aae ,,*ap4 ,,xii4--,( ! ,decomposition ( ,vegetable & ,animal ,sub/ances by ! ,action ( ,fire1 #abc ,,*ap4 ,,xiii4--,( ! ,decomposition ( ,vegetable ,oxyds by ! ,v9\s ,f]m5tation1 #abi ,,*ap4 ,,xiv4--,( ! ,putrefactive ,f]m5tation1 #ada ,,*ap4 ,,xv4--,( ! ,acet\s ,f]m5tation1 #adf ,,*ap4 ,,xvi4--,( ! ,=mation ( ,neutral ,salts1 & ( _! ,bases1 #adi ,,sect4 ,i4--,( ,pota%1 #aea ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,( ,soda1 #aee ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,( ,ammoniac1 #aef ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,( ,lime1 ,magnesia1 ,b>ytes1 & ,argill1 #aeg ,,sect4 ,v4--,( ,metallic ,bodies1 #aei ,,*ap4 ,,xvii4--,cont9uation ( ! ,obs]vations ^u ,salifiable ,bases1 & ! ,=mation ( ,neutral ,salts1 #afa ,,"p ,,ii4 ,( ! ,comb9ations ( ,acids ) ,salifiable ,bases1 & ( ! ,=mation ( ,neutral ,salts1 #age ,,introduction1 ibid4 ,,table ( ,simple ,sub/ances1 #age ,,sect4 ,i4--,obs]vations ^u simple ,sub/ances1 #agf ,,table ( ,comp\nd ,oxydable & ,acidifiable ,bases1 #agi ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,obs]vations ^u ,comp\nd ,radicals1 #ahj ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,comb9ations ( ,light & ,caloric ) diff]5t ,sub/ances1 #ahb ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,oxyg5 ) ! ,simple ,sub/ances1 to face #ahe ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,obs]vations ^u ^! ,comb9ations1 #ahe ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,oxyg5 ) ,comp\nd ,radicals1 #aij ,,sect4 ,v4--,obs]vations ^u ^! ,comb9ations1 #aia ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,azote ) ! ,simple ,sub/ances1 #aid ,,sect ,,vi4--,obs]vations ^u ^! ,comb9ations ( ,azote1 #aie ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,hydrog5 ) ,simple ,sub/ances1 #aih ,,sect4 ,,vii4--,obs]vations ^u ,hydrog51 & its ,comb9ations1 #aii ,,table ( ! ,b9>y ,comb9ations ( ,sulphur ) ! ,simple ,sub/ances1 #bjb ,,sect4 ,,viii4--,obs]vations ^u ,sulphur1 & its ,comb9ations1 #bjc ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,phosphorus ) ,simple ,sub/ances1 #bjd ,,sect4 ,,ix4--,obs]vations ^u ,phosphorus & its ,comb9ations1 #bje ,,table ( ! ,b9>y ,comb9ations ( ,*>coal1 #bjg ,,sect4 ,x4--,obs]vations ^u ,*>coal1 & its ,comb9ations1 #bjh ,,sect4 ,,xi4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,muriatic1 ,fluoric1 & ,boracic ,radicals1 & _! ,comb9ations1 #bji ,,sect4 ,,xii4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,comb9ations ( ,metals ) ea* o!r1 #bai ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,azote1 9 ! ,/ate ( ,nitr\s ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 #bab ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,azote1 9 ! ,/ate ( ,nitric ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 #bac ,,sect4 ,,xiii4--,obs]vations ^u ,nitr\s & ,nitric ,acids1 & _! ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bad ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,sulphuric ,acid ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 #bah ,,sect4 ,,xiv4--,obs]vations ^u ,sulphuric ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations1 #bai ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,sulphur\s ,acid1 #bbb ,,sect4 ,,xv4--,obs]vations ^u ,sulphur\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bbc ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,phosphor\s & ,phosphoric ,acids1 #bbe ,,sect4 ,,xvi4--,obs]vations ^u ,phosphor\s & ,phosphoric ,acids1 & _! ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bbf ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,c>bonic ,acid1 #bbh ,,sect4 ,,xvii4--,obs]vations ^u ,c>bonic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bbi ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,muriatic ,acid1 #bca ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,oxyg5at$ ,muriatic ,acid1 #bcb ,,sect4 ,,xviii4--,obs]vations ^u ,muriatic & ,oxyg5at$ ,muriatic ,acid1 & _! ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bcc ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,nitro-,muriatic ,acid1 #bcf ,,sect4 ,,xix4--,obs]vations ^u ,nitro-muriatic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bcg ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,fluoric ,acid1 #bci ,,sect4 ,,xx4--,obs]vations ^u ,fluoric ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bdj ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,boracic ,acid1 #bdb ,,sect4 ,,xxi4--,obs]vations ^u ,boracic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bdc ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,ars5iac ,acid1 #bdf ,,sect4 ,,xxii4--,obs]vations ^u ,ars5iac ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bdg ,,sect4 ,,xxiii4--,obs]vations ^u ,molibdic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bdi ,,sect4 ,,xxiv4--,obs]vations ^u ,tung/ic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 & a ,table ( ^! 9 ! ord] ( _! ,aff9ity1 #bea ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,t>t>\s ,acid1 #bec ,,sect4 ,,xxv4--,obs]vations ^u ,t>t>\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bed ,,sect4 ,,xxvi4--,obs]vations ^u ,mallic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bef ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,citric ,acid1 #beh ,,sect4 ,,xxvii4--,obs]vations ^u ,citric ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bei ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,pyro-lign\s ,acid1 #bfj ,,sect4 ,,xxviii4--,obs]vations ^u ,pyro-lign\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bfa ,,sect4 ,,xxix4--,obs]vations ^u ,pyro-t>t>\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 ibid4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,pyro-muc\s ,acid1 #bfc ,,sect4 ,,xxx4--,obs]vations ^u ,pyro-muc\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bfd ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,oxalic ,acid1 #bfe ,,sect4 ,,xxxi4--,obs]vations ^u ,oxalic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bff ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,acet\s ,acid1 to face #bfg ,,sect4 ,,xxxii4--,obs]vations ^u ,acet\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 #bfg ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,acetic ,acid1 #bga ,,sect4 ,,xxxiii4--,obs]vations ^u ,acetic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bgb ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,succ9ic ,acid1 #bgc ,,sect4 ,,xxxiv4--,obs]vations ^u ,succ9ic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bgd ,,sect4 ,,xxxv4--,obs]vations ^u ,b5zoic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bge ,,sect4 ,,xxxvi4--,obs]vations ^u ,camphoric ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bgf ,,sect4 ,,xxxvii4--,obs]vations ^u ,gallic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bgg ,,sect4 ,,xxxviii4--,obs]vations ^u ,lactic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bgh ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,sac*olactic ,acid1 #bhj ,,sect4 ,,xxxix4--,obs]vations ^u ,sac*olactic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ation ) ,salifiable ,bases1 #bha ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,=mic ,acid1 #bhb ,,sect4 ,,xl4--,obs]vations ^u ,=mic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 #bhc ,,sect4 ,,xli4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,bombic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 #bhd ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ! ,sebacic ,acid1 #bhe ,,sect4 ,,xlii4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,sebacic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 #bhf ,,sect4 ,,xliii4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,li?ic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 #bhg ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ! ,prussic ,acid1 #bhh ,,sect4 ,,xliv4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,prussic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 #bhi ,,"p ,,iii4 ,description ( ! ,in/rum5ts & ,op]ations ( ,*emi/ry1 #bia ,,introduction1 #bia ,,*ap4 ,i4--,( ! ,in/rum5ts necess>y = det]m9+ ! ,absolute & ,specific ,gravities ( ,solid & ,liquid ,bodies1 #bie ,,*ap4 ,,ii4--,( ,gazometry1 or ! ,measurem5t ( ! ,weight & ,volume ( ,ari=m ,sub/ances1 #cjd ,,sect4 ,i4--,( ! ,pneumato-*emical ,app>atus1 ibid4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,( ! ,gazomet]1 #cjh ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,"s o!r me?ods = ,measur+ ! ,volume ( ,gasses1 #cai ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,( ! me?od ( ,sep>at+ ! diff]5t ,gasses f ea* o!r1 #cbc ,,sect4 ,v4--,( ! necess>y ,corrections ( ! ,volume ( ,gasses1 accord+ to ! ,pressure ( ! ,atmosph]e1 #cbh ,,sect4 ,,vi4--,( ! ,correction relative to ! ,degrees ( ! ,!rmomet]1 #cce ,,sect4 ,,vii4--,example = ,calculat+ ! ,corrections relative to ! ,v>iations ( ,pressure & ,temp]ature1 #ccg ,,sect4 ,,viii4--,me?od ( det]m9+ ! ,weight ( ! diff]5t ,gasses1 #cdj ,,*ap4 ,,iii4--,description ( ! ,calorimet]1 or ,app>atus = measur+ ,caloric1 #cdc ,,*ap4 ,,iv4--,( ! ,me*anical ,op]ations = ,division ( ,bodies1 #ceg ,,sect4 ,i4--,( ,trituration1 ,levigation1 & ,pulv]ization1 ibid4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,( ,sift+ & ,wa%+ ,p[d]$ ,sub/ances1 #cfa ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,( ,filtration1 #cfc ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,( ,decantation1 #cfe ,,*ap4 ,v4--,( ,*emical means = ,sep>at+ ! ,p>ticles ( ,bodies f ea* o!r )\t ,decomposition1 & = ,unit+ !m aga91 #cfg ,,sect4 ,i4--,( ! ,solution ( ,salts1 #cfh ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,( ,lixiviation1 #cgc ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,( ,evaporation1 #cge ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,( ,cri/allization1 #cgi ,,sect4 ,v4--,( ,simple ,di/illation1 #chd ,,sect4 ,,vi4--,( ,sublimation1 #chh ,,*ap4 ,,vi4--,( ,pneumato-*emical ,di/illations1 ,metallic ,dissolutions1 & "s o!r op]ations :i* require v complicat$ in/rum5ts1 #cij ,,sect4 ,i4--,( ,comp\nd & ,pneumato-*emical ,di/illations1 ibid4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,( ,metallic ,dissolutions1 #cih ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,app>atus necess>y 9 ,exp]im5ts ^u ,v9\s & ,putrefactive ,f]m5tations1 #dja ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,app>atus = ! ,decomposition ( ,wat]1 #djd ,,*ap4 ,,vii4--,( ! ,composition & ,use ( ,lutes1 #djg ,,*ap4 ,,viii4--,( ,op]ations ^u ,combu/ion & ,deflagration1 #dad ,,sect4 ,i4--,( ,combu/ion 9 g5]al1 ibid4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,phosphorus1 #dah ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,*>coal1 #dbb ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,oils1 #dbf ,,sect4 ,v4--,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,alkohol1 #dcc ,,sect4 ,,vi4--,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,e!r1 #dce ,,sect4 ,,vii4--,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,hydrog5 ,gas1 & ! ,=mation ( ,wat]1 #dcg ,,sect4 ,,viii4--,( ! ,oxydation ( ,metals1 #dda ,,*ap4 ,,ix4--,( ,deflagration1 #deb ,,*ap4 ,x4--,( ! ,in/rum5ts necess>y = ,op]at+ ^u ,bodies 9 v high ,temp]atures1 #dfj ,,sect4 ,i4--,( ,fusion1 ibid4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,( ,furnaces1 #dfb ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,( increas+ ! ,action ( ,fire1 by us+ ,oxyg5 ,gas in/ead ( ,atmosph]ic ,air1 #dgd ,,app5dix4 ,no4 ,i4--,,table = ,conv]t+ ,l9es1 or ,twelf? ,p>ts ( an ,in*1 & ,fractions ( ,l9es1 into ,decimal ,fractions ( ! ,in*1 #dha ,no4 ,,ii4--,,table = ,conv]t+ ! ,obs]v$ ,heigh? ( ,wat] 9 ! ,j>s ( ! ,pneumato-,*emical ,app>atus1 express$ 9 ,in*es & ,decimals1 into ,correspond+ ,heigh?s ( ,m]cury1 #dhb ,no4 ,,iii4--,,table = ,conv]t+ ! ,ounce ,measures us$ by ,dr ,prie/ley into ,fr5* & ,engli% ,cubical ,in*es1 #dhc ,no4 ,,iv4--,,table = ,r$uc+ ! ,degrees ( ,reaumeur's ,!rmomet] into its correspond+ ,degrees ( ,fahr5heit's ,scale1 #dhd ,no4 ,v4--,,additional4--,,rules = ,conv]t+ ,fr5* ,weights & ,measures into correspond5t ,engli% ,d5om9ations1 #dhe ,no4 ,,vi4--,,table ( ! ,weights ( ! diff]5t ,gasses1 at #bh ,fr5* in*es1 or #bi4hd ,engli% in*es b>ometrical pressure1 & at #aj 7#ed4e7 ( temp]ature1 express$ 9 ,engli% measure & ,engli% ,troy weight1 #dij ,no4 ,,vii4--,,tables ( ! ,specific ,gravities ( diff]5t bodies1 #dia ,no4 ,,viii4--,,additional4--,,rules = ,calculat+ ! ,absolute ,gravity 9 ,engli% ,troy ,weight ( a ,cubic ,foot & ,in*1 ,engli% ,measure1 ( any ,sub/ance ^: ,specific ,gravity is kn[n1 #eje ,no4 ,,ix4--,,tables = ,conv]t+ ,ounces1 ,drams1 & ,gra9s1 ,troy1 into ,decimals ( ! ,troy ,p\nd ( #ab ,ounces1 & = ,conv]t+ ,decimals ( ! ,p\nd ,troy into ,ounces1 c4 #ejh ,no4 ,x4--,,table ( ! ,engli% ,cubical ,in*es & ,decimals correspond+ to a det]m9ate ,troy ,weight ( ,di/ill$ ,wat] at ! ,temp]ature ( #ee1 calculat$ f ,ev]>d's exp]im5t1 #eaa ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,*emi/ry4 ,,"p ,i4 ,( ! ,=mation & ,decomposition ( ,ari=m ,fluids--( ! ,combu/ion ( ,simple ,bodies--& ! ,=mation ( ,acids4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,( ! ,comb9ations ( ,caloric1 & ! ,=mation ( ,ela/ic ,ari=m ,fluids4 ,t e body1 :e!r solid or fluid1 is augm5t$ 9 all its dim5sions by any increase ( its s5sible heat1 0 long ago fully e/abli%$ z a physical axiom1 or univ]sal proposition1 by ! celebrat$ ,bo]haave4 ,su* facts z h be5 adduc$ = controv]t+ ! g5]ality ( ?is pr9ciple (f] only fallaci\s results1 or1 at lea/1 su* z are s complicat$ ) =eign circum/ances z to mislead ! judgm5t3 ,b1 :5 we sep>ately consid] ! effects1 s z to d$uce ea* f ! cause to :i* !y sep>ately belong1 x is easy to p]ceive t ! sep>ation ( p>ticles by heat is a con/ant & g5]al law ( nature4 ,:5 we h heat$ a solid body to a c]ta9 degree1 & h !reby caus$ its p>ticles to sep>ate f ea* o!r1 if we all[ ! body to cool1 its p>ticles aga9 approa* ea* o!r 9 ! same proportion 9 :i* !y 7 sep>at$ by ! increas$ temp]ature2 ! body returns ?r\gh ! same degrees ( expansion :i* x be=e ext5d$ ?r\gh2 &1 if x be br\ght back to ! same temp]ature f :i* we set out at ! comm5cem5t ( ! exp]im5t1 x recov]s exactly ! same dim5sions :i* x =m]ly occupi$4 ,b1 z we are /ill v f> f be+ able to arrive at ! degree ( absolute cold1 or deprivation ( all heat1 be+ unacqua9t$ ) any degree ( coldness :i* we _c suppose capable ( /ill f>!r augm5tation1 x foll[s1 t we are /ill incapable ( caus+ ! ultimate p>ticles ( bodies to approa* ea* o!r z ne> z is possible2 &1 consequ5tly1 t ! p>ticles ( all bodies d n t\* ea* o!r 9 any /ate hi!rto kn[n1 :i*1 ?o' a v s+ul> conclusion1 is yet impossible to be d5i$4 ,x is suppos$1 t1 s9ce ! p>ticles ( bodies are ?us cont9ually impell$ by heat to sep>ate f ea* o!r1 !y w\ld h no connection betwe5 !mselves2 &1 ( consequ5ce1 t !re c\ld be no solidity 9 nature1 unless !y 7 held toge!r by "s o!r p[] :i* t5ds to unite !m1 &1 s to speak1 to *a9 !m toge!r2 :i* p[]1 :atev] be its cause1 or mann] ( op]ation1 we "n ,attraction4 ,?us ! p>ticles ( all bodies may be consid]$ z subject$ to ! action ( two opposite p[]s1 ! "o repulsive1 ! o!r attractive1 betwe5 :i* !y rema9 9 equilibrio4 ,s long z ! attractive =ce rema9s /rong]1 ! body mu/ cont9ue 9 a /ate ( solidity2 b if1 on ! contr>y1 heat has s f> remov$ ^! p>ticles f ea* o!r1 z to place !m beyond ! sph]e ( attraction1 !y lose ! adhesion !y be=e _h ) ea* o!r1 & ! body ceases to be solid4 ,wat] gives u a regul> & con/ant example ( ^! facts2 :il/ bel[ ,z]o#b ( ! ,fr5* !rmomet]1 or #cb ( ,fahr5heit1 x rema9s solid1 & is call$ ice4 ,above t degree ( temp]ature1 its p>ticles be+ no long] held toge!r by reciprocal attraction1 x becomes liquid2 &1 :5 we raise its temp]ature above #hj1 7#bab7 its p>ticles1 giv+ way to ! repulsion caus$ by ! heat1 assume ! /ate ( vap\r or gas1 & ! wat] is *ang$ into an ari=m fluid4 ,! same may be affirm$ ( all bodies 9 nature3 ,!y are ei!r solid or liquid1 or 9 ! /ate ( ela/ic ari=m vap\r1 accord+ to ! proportion :i* takes place betwe5 ! attractive =ce inh]5t 9 _! p>ticles1 & ! repulsive p[] ( ! heat act+ ^u ^!2 or1 :at am\nts to ! same ?+1 9 proportion to ! degree ( heat to :i* !y are expos$4 ,x is difficult to compreh5d ^! ph5om5a1 )\t admitt+ !m z ! effects ( a real & mat]ial sub/ance1 or v subtile fluid1 :i*1 ins9uat+ itself betwe5 ! p>ticles ( bodies1 sep>ates !m f ea* o!r2 &1 ev5 all[+ ! exi/5ce ( ?is fluid to be hypo!tical1 we %all see 9 ! sequel1 t x expla9s ! ph5om5a ( nature 9 a v satisfactory mann]4 ,?is sub/ance1 :atev] x is1 be+ ! cause ( heat1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! s5sation :i* we call w>m? be+ caus$ by ! accumulation ( ?is sub/ance1 we _c1 9 /rict language1 di/+ui% x by ! t]m heat2 because ! same "n w\ld !n v improp]ly express bo? cause & effect4 ,= ?is reason1 9 ! memoir :i* ,i publi%$ 9 #agggc1 ,i gave x ! names ( igne\s fluid & matt] ( heat4 ,&1 s9ce t "t1 9 ! "w#d publi%$ by ,mr de ,morveau1 ,mr ,b]?ollet1 ,mr de ,f\rcroy1 & myself1 ^u ! re=mation ( *emical nom5clature1 we ?\ght x necess>y to bani% all p]iphra/ic expressions1 :i* bo? l5g!n physical language1 & r5d] x m t$i\s & less di/9ct1 & :i* ev5 frequ5tly does n convey suffici5tly j ideas ( ! subject int5d$4 ,:]e=e1 we h di/+ui%$ ! cause ( heat1 or t exquisitely ela/ic fluid :i* produces x1 by ! t]m ( caloric4 ,besides1 t ?is expression fulfils our object 9 ! sy/em :i* we h adopt$1 x possesses ?is f>!r advantage1 t x accords ) e species ( op9ion1 s9ce1 /rictly speak+1 we are n oblig$ to suppose ?is to be a real sub/ance2 x be+ suffici5t1 z w m cle>ly appe> 9 ! sequel ( ?is "w1 t x be consid]$ z ! repulsive cause1 :atev] t may be1 :i* sep>ates ! p>ticles ( matt] f ea* o!r2 s t we are /ill at lib]ty to inve/igate its effects 9 an ab/ract & ma!matical mann]4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 we are unable to det]m9e :e!r light be a modification ( caloric1 or if caloric be1 on ! contr>y1 a modification ( light4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is indisputable1 t1 9 a sy/em :]e only decid$ facts are admissible1 & :]e we avoid1 z f> z possible1 to suppose any ?+ to be t is n really kn[n to exi/1 we ought provisionally to di/+ui%1 by di/9ct t]ms1 su* ?+s z are kn[n to produce diff]5t effects4 ,we !re=e di/+ui% light f caloric2 ?\gh we d n !re=e d5y t ^! h c]ta9 qualities 9 common1 & t1 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 !y comb9e ) o!r bodies almo/ 9 ! same mann]1 & produce1 9 "p1 ! same effects4 ,:at ,i h already said may suffice to det]m9e ! idea affix$ to ! ^w caloric2 b !re rema9s a m difficult attempt1 :i* is1 to give a j conception ( ! mann] 9 :i* caloric acts ^u o!r bodies4 ,s9ce ?is subtile matt] p5etrates ?r\gh ! pores ( all kn[n sub/ances2 s9ce !re are no vessels ?r\gh :i* x _c escape1 &1 consequ5tly1 z !re are none :i* are capable ( reta9+ x1 we c only come at ! k ( its prop]ties by effects :i* are fleet+1 & difficultly asc]ta9able4 ,x is 9 ^! ?+s :i* we nei!r see nor feel1 t x is especially necess>y to gu>d aga9/ ! extravagancy ( our imag9ation1 :i* =ev] incl9es to /ep beyond ! b\nds ( tru?1 & is v difficultly re/ra9$ )9 ! n>r[ l9e ( facts4 ,we h already se51 t ! same body becomes solid1 or fluid1 or ari=m1 accord+ to ! quantity ( caloric by :i* x is p5etrat$2 or1 to speak m /rictly1 accord+ z ! repulsive =ce ex]t$ by ! caloric is equal to1 /rong]1 or weak]1 ?an ! attraction ( ! p>ticles ( ! body x acts ^u4 ,b1 if ^! two p[]s only exi/$1 bodies w\ld become liquid at an indivisible degree ( ! !rmomet]1 & w\ld almo/ in/antane\sly pass f ! solid /ate ( aggregation to t ( ari=m ela/icity4 ,?us wat]1 = in/ance1 at ! v mom5t :5 x ceases to be ice1 w\ld beg9 to boil1 & w\ld be trans=m$ into an ari=m fluid1 hav+ its p>ticles scatt]$ indef9itely ?r\gh ! surr\nd+ space4 ,t ?is does n happ51 mu/ dep5d ^u ! action ( "s ?ird p[]4 ,! pressure ( ! atmosph]e prev5ts ?is sep>ation1 & causes ! wat] to rema9 9 ! liquid /ate till x be rais$ to #hj ( temp]ature 7#bab7 above z]o ( ! ,fr5* !rmomet]1 ! quantity ( caloric :i* x receives 9 ! l[e/ temp]ature be+ insuffici5t to ov]come ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,:5ce x appe>s t1 )\t ?is atmosph]ic pressure1 we %\ld n h any p]man5t liquid1 & %\ld only be able to see bodies 9 t /ate ( exi/5ce 9 ! v in/ant ( melt+1 z ! smalle/ additional caloric w\ld in/antly sep>ate _! p>ticles1 & dissipate !m ?r\gh ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,besides1 )\t ?is atmosph]ic pressure1 we %\ld n ev5 h any ari=m fluids1 /rictly speak+1 because ! mom5t ! =ce ( attraction is ov]come by ! repulsive p[] ( ! caloric1 ! p>ticles w\ld sep>ate !mselves indef9itely1 hav+ no?+ to give limits to _! expansion1 unless _! own gravity might collect !m toge!r1 s z to =m an atmosph]e4 ,simple reflection ^u ! mo/ common exp]im5ts is suffici5t to ev9ce ! tru? ( ^! positions4 ,!y are m p>ticul>ly prov$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5t1 :i* ,i publi%$ 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,fr5* ,academy = #aggg1 p4 #dbf4 ,hav+ fill$ ) sulphuric e!r#e a small n>r[ glass vessel1 ,a1 7,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #ag471 /&+ ^u its /alk ,p1 ! vessel1 :i* is f twelve to fifte5 l9es diamet]1 is to be cov]$ by a wet bladd]1 ti$ r\nd its neck ) sev]al turns ( /rong ?read2 = great] security1 fix a second bladd] ov] ! fir/4 ,! vessel %\ld be fill$ 9 su* a mann] ) ! e!r1 z n to leave ! smalle/ portion ( air betwe5 ! liquor & ! bladd]4 ,x is n[ to be plac$ "u ! recipi5t ,,bcd ( an air-pump1 ( :i* ! upp] "p ,b ought to be fitt$ ) a lea!rn lid1 ?r\gh :i* passes a wire ,,ef1 hav+ its po9t ,f v %>p2 & 9 ! same receiv] !re ought to be plac$ ! b>omet] ,,gh4 ,! :ole be+ ?us dispos$1 let ! recipi5t be exhau/$1 & !n1 by pu%+ d[n ! wire ,,ef1 we make a hole 9 ! bladd]4 ,imm$iately ! e!r beg9s to boil ) great viol5ce1 & is *ang$ into an ela/ic ari=m fluid1 :i* fills ! receiv]4 ,if ! quantity ( e!r be suffici5t to leave a few drops 9 ! phial aft] ! evaporation is f9i%$1 ! ela/ic fluid produc$ w su/a9 ! m]cury 9 ! b>omet] atta*$ to ! air-pump1 at eight or t5 in*es 9 w9t]1 & f tw5ty to tw5ty-five 9 summ]#f4 ,to r5d] ?is exp]im5t m complete1 we may introduce a small !rmomet] into ! phial ,a1 conta9+ ! e!r1 :i* w desc5d consid]ably dur+ ! evaporation4 ,! only effect produc$ 9 ?is exp]im5t is1 ! tak+ away ! weight ( ! atmosph]e1 :i*1 9 its ord9>y /ate1 presses on ! surface ( ! e!r2 & ! effects result+ f ?is removal evid5tly prove1 t1 9 ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ! e>?1 e!r w\ld always exi/ 9 an ari=m /ate1 b = ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 & t ! pass+ ( ! e!r f ! liquid to ! ari=m /ate is accompani$ by a consid]able less5+ ( heat2 because1 dur+ ! evaporation1 a "p ( ! caloric1 :i* 0 be=e 9 a free /ate1 or at lea/ 9 equilibrio 9 ! surr\nd+ bodies1 comb9es ) ! e!r1 & causes x to assume ! ari=m /ate4 ,! same exp]im5t succe$s ) all evaporable fluids1 su* z alkohol1 wat]1 & ev5 m]cury2 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t ! atmosph]e =m$ 9 ! receiv] by alkohol only supports ! atta*$ b>omet] ab\t "o in* 9 w9t]1 & ab\t f\r or five in*es 9 summ]2 t =m$ by wat]1 9 ! same situation1 raises ! m]cury only a few l9es1 & t by quicksilv] b a few fractions ( a l9e4 ,!re is !re=e less fluid evaporat$ f alkohol ?an f e!r1 less f wat] ?an f alkohol1 & /ill less f m]cury ?an f ei!r2 consequ5tly !re is less caloric employ$1 & less cold produc$1 :i* quadrates exactly ) ! results ( ^! exp]im5ts4 ,ano!r species ( exp]im5t proves v evid5tly t ! ari=m /ate is a modification ( bodies dep5d5t on ! degree ( temp]ature1 & on ! pressure :i* ^! bodies und]go4 ,9 a ,memoir read by ,mr de la ,place & me to ! ,academy 9 #aggg1 :i* has n be5 pr9t$1 we h %[n1 t1 :5 e!r is subject$ to a pressure equal to tw5ty-eight in*es ( ! b>omet]1 or ab\t ! m$ium pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 x boils at ! temp]ature ( ab\t #cb 7#ajd71 or #cc 7#ajf4be71 ( ! !rmomet]4 ,mr de ,luc1 :o has made simil> exp]im5ts ) _s ( w9e1 f9ds x boils at #fg 7#ahb4ge74 ,& all ! _w kn[s t wat] boils at #hj 7#bab74 ,n[1 boil+ be+ only ! evaporation ( a liquid1 or ! mom5t ( its pass+ f ! fluid to ! ari=m /ate1 x is evid5t t1 if we keep e!r cont9ually at ! temp]ature ( #cc 7#ajf4be71 & "u ! common pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 we %all h x always 9 an ela/ic ari=m /ate2 & t ! same ?+ w happ5 ) alkohol :5 above #fg 7#ahb4ge71 & ) wat] :5 above #hj 7#bab72 all :i* are p]fectly con=mable to ! foll[+ exp]im5t#g4 ,i fill$ a l>ge vessel ,,abcd 7,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #af47 ) wat]1 at #ce 7#aaj4ge71 or #cf 7#aac72 ,i suppose ! vessel transp>5t1 t we may see :at takes place 9 ! exp]im5t2 & we c easily hold ! h&s 9 wat] at t temp]ature )\t inconv5i5ce4 ,into x ,i plung$ "s n>r[ neck$ bottles ,f1 ,g1 :i* 7 fill$ ) ! wat]1 aft] :i* !y 7 turn$ up1 s z to re/ on _! m\?s on ! bottom ( ! vessel4 ,hav+ next put "s e!r into a v small matrass1 ) its neck a b c1 twice b5t z 9 ! ,plate1 ,i plung$ ?is matrass into ! wat]1 s z to h its neck ins]t$ into ! m\? ( "o ( ! bottles ,f4 ,imm$iately ^u feel+ ! effects ( ! heat communicat$ to x by ! wat] 9 ! vessel ,,abcd x began to boil2 & ! caloric ent]+ into comb9ation ) x1 *ang$ x into ela/ic ari=m fluid1 ) :i* ,i fill$ sev]al bottles successively1 ,f1 ,g1 c4 ,?is is n ! place to ent] ^u ! exam9ation ( ! nature & prop]ties ( ?is ari=m fluid1 :i* is extremely inflammable2 b1 conf9+ myself to ! object at pres5t 9 view1 )\t anticipat+ circum/ances1 :i* ,i am n to suppose ! read] to "k1 ,i %all only obs]ve1 t ! e!r1 f ?is exp]im5t1 is almo/ only capable ( exi/+ 9 ! ari=m /ate 9 our _w2 =1 if ! weight ( our atmosph]e 0 only equal to betwe5 #bj & #bd in*es ( ! b>omet]1 in/ead ( #bh in*es1 we %\ld nev] be able to obta9 e!r 9 ! liquid /ate1 at lea/ 9 summ]2 & ! =mation ( e!r w\ld consequ5tly be impossible ^u m\nta9s ( a mod]ate degree ( elevation1 z x w\ld be conv]t$ into gas imm$iately ^u be+ produc$1 unless we employ$ recipi5ts ( extraord9>y /r5g?1 toge!r ) refrig]ation & compression4 ,&1 la/ly1 ! temp]ature ( ! blood be+ ne>ly t at :i* e!r passes f ! liquid to ! ari=m /ate1 x mu/ evaporate 9 ! primae viae1 & consequ5tly x is v probable ! m$ical prop]ties ( ?is fluid dep5d *iefly ^u its me*anical effect4 ,^! exp]im5ts succe$ bett] ) nitr\s e!r1 because x evaporates 9 a l[] temp]ature ?an sulphuric e!r4 ,x is m difficult to obta9 alkohol 9 ! ari=m /ate2 because1 z x requires #fg 7#ahb4ge7 to r$uce x to vap\r1 ! wat] ( ! ba? mu/ be almo/ boil+1 & consequ5tly x is impossible to plunge ! h&s into x at t temp]ature4 ,x is evid5t t1 if wat] 7 us$ 9 ! =ego+ exp]im5t1 x w\ld be *ang$ into gas1 :5 expos$ to a temp]ature sup]ior to t at :i* x boils4 ,al?\gh ?or\ghly conv9c$ ( ?is1 ,mr de la ,place & myself judg$ x necess>y to confirm x by ! foll[+ direct exp]im5t4 ,we fill$ a glass j> ,a1 7,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #e47 ) m]cury1 & plac$ x ) its m\? d[nw>ds 9 a di% ,b1 likewise fill$ ) m]cury1 & hav+ introduc$ ab\t two gross ( wat] into ! j>1 :i* rose to ! top ( ! m]cury at ,,cd2 we !n plung$ ! :ole app>atus into an iron boil] ,,efgh1 full ( boil+ sea-wat] ( ! temp]ature ( #he 7#abc4be71 plac$ ^u ! furnace ,,ghik4 ,imm$iately ^u ! wat] ov] ! m]cury atta9+ ! temp]ature ( #hj 7#bab71 x began to boil2 &1 in/ead ( only fill+ ! small space ,,acd1 x 0 conv]t$ into an ari=m fluid1 :i* fill$ ! :ole j>2 ! m]cury ev5 desc5d$ bel[ ! surface ( t 9 ! di% ,b2 & ! j> mu/ h be5 ov]turn$1 if x _h n be5 v ?ick & heavy1 & fix$ to ! di% by means ( iron-wire4 ,imm$iately aft] )draw+ ! app>atus f ! boil]1 ! vap\r 9 ! j> began to cond5se1 & ! m]cury rose to its =m] /ation2 b x return$ aga9 to ! ari=m /ate a few seconds aft] replac+ ! app>atus 9 ! boil]4 ,we h ?us a c]ta9 numb] ( sub/ances1 :i* are conv]tible into ela/ic ari=m fluids by degrees ( temp]ature1 n mu* sup]ior to t ( our atmosph]e4 ,we %all aft]w>ds f9d t !re are sev]al o!rs :i* und]go ! same *ange 9 simil> circum/ances1 su* z muriatic or m>9e acid1 ammoniac or volatile alkali1 ! c>bonic acid or fix$ air1 ! sulphur\s acid1 c4 ,all ( ^! are p]man5tly ela/ic 9 or ab\t ! mean temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 & "u its common pressure4 ,all ^! facts1 :i* c\ld be easily multipli$ if necess>y1 give me full "r to assume1 z a g5]al pr9ciple1 t almo/ e body 9 nature is susceptible ( ?ree sev]al /ates ( exi/5ce1 solid1 liquid1 & ari=m1 & t ^! ?ree /ates ( exi/5ce dep5d ^u ! quantity ( caloric comb9$ ) ! body4 ,h5ce=w>ds ,i %all express ^! ela/ic ari=m fluids by ! g5]ic t]m gas2 & 9 ea* species ( gas ,i %all di/+ui% betwe5 ! caloric1 :i* 9 "s measure s]ves ! purpose ( a solv5t1 & ! sub/ance1 :i* 9 comb9ation ) ! caloric1 =ms ! base ( ! gas4 ,to ^! bases ( ! diff]5t gases1 :i* are hi!rto b little kn[n1 we h be5 oblig$ to assign names2 ^! ,i %all po9t out 9 ,*ap4 ,,iv4 ( ?is "w1 :5 ,i h previ\sly giv5 an acc\nt ( ! ph5om5a att5dant ^u ! heat+ & cool+ ( bodies1 & :5 ,i h e/abli%$ precise ideas conc]n+ ! composition ( our atmosph]e4 ,we h already %[n1 t ! p>ticles ( e sub/ance 9 nature exi/ 9 a c]ta9 /ate ( equilibrium1 betwe5 t attraction :i* t5ds to unite & keep ! p>ticles toge!r1 & ! effects ( ! caloric :i* t5ds to sep>ate !m4 ,h5ce ! caloric n only surr\nds ! p>ticles ( all bodies on e side1 b fills up e int]val :i* ! p>ticles ( bodies leave betwe5 ea* o!r4 ,we may =m an idea ( ?is1 by suppos+ a vessel fill$ ) small sph]ical lead5 bullets1 into :i* a quantity ( f9e s& is p\r$1 :i*1 ins9uat+ into ! int]vals betwe5 ! bullets1 w fill up e void4 ,! balls1 9 ?is comp>ison1 are to ! s& :i* surr\nds !m exactly 9 ! same situation z ! p>ticles ( bodies are ) respect to ! caloric2 ) ?is diff]5ce only1 t ! balls are suppos$ to t\* ea* o!r1 :]eas ! p>ticles ( bodies are n 9 contact1 be+ reta9$ at a small di/ance f ea* o!r1 by ! caloric4 ,if1 in/ead ( sph]ical balls1 we sub/itute solid bodies ( a hexah$ral1 octoh$ral1 or any o!r regul> figure1 ! capacity ( ! int]vals betwe5 !m w be less5$1 & consequ5tly w no long] conta9 ! same quantity ( s&4 ,! same ?+ takes place1 ) respect to natural bodies2 ! int]vals left betwe5 _! p>ticles are n ( equal capacity1 b v>y 9 consequ5ce ( ! diff]5t figures & magnitude ( _! p>ticles1 & ( ! di/ance at :i* ^! p>ticles are ma9ta9$1 accord+ to ! exi/+ proportion betwe5 _! inh]5t attraction1 & ! repulsive =ce ex]t$ ^u !m by ! caloric4 ,9 ?is mann] we mu/ und]/& ! foll[+ expression1 introduc$ by ! ,engli% philosoph]s1 :o h giv5 u ! fir/ precise ideas ^u ?is subject2 ! capacity ( bodies = conta9+ ! matt] ( heat4 ,z comp>isons ) s5sible objects are ( great use 9 assi/+ u to =m di/9ct notions ( ab/ract ideas1 we %all endeav\r to illu/rate ?is1 by in/anc+ ! ph5om5a :i* take place betwe5 wat] & bodies :i* are wett$ & p5etrat$ by x1 ) a few reflections4 ,if we imm]ge equal pieces ( diff]5t k9ds ( wood1 suppose cubes ( "o foot ea*1 into wat]1 ! fluid gradually ins9uates itself into _! pores1 & ! pieces ( wood are augm5t$ bo? 9 weight & magnitude3 ,b ea* species ( wood w imbibe a diff]5t quantity ( wat]2 ! light] & m por\s woods w admit a l>g]1 ! compact & clos] gra9$ w admit ( a less] quantity2 = ! proportional quantities ( wat] imbib$ by ! pieces w dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! con/itu5t p>ticles ( ! wood1 & ^u ! great] or less] aff9ity subsi/+ betwe5 !m & wat]4 ,v res9\s wood1 = in/ance1 ?\gh x may be at ! same "t v por\s1 w admit b little wat]4 ,we may !re=e say1 t ! diff]5t k9ds ( wood possess diff]5t capacities = receiv+ wat]2 we may ev5 det]m9e1 by means ( ! augm5tation ( _! weights1 :at quantity ( wat] !y h actually absorb$2 b1 z we are ignorant h[ mu* wat] !y conta9$1 previ\s to imm]sion1 we _c det]m9e ! absolute quantity !y conta91 aft] be+ tak5 out ( ! wat]4 ,! same circum/ances und\bt$ly take place1 ) bodies t are imm]s$ 9 caloric2 tak+ into consid]ation1 h[ev]1 t wat] is an incompressible fluid1 :]eas caloric is1 on ! contr>y1 end[$ ) v great ela/icity2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! p>ticles ( caloric h a great t5d5cy to sep>ate f ea* o!r1 :5 =c$ by any o!r p[] to approa*2 ?is diff]5ce mu/ ( necessity occasion v consid]able div]sities 9 ! results ( exp]im5ts made ^u ^! two sub/ances4 ,hav+ e/abli%$ ^! cle> & simple propositions1 x w be v easy to expla9 ! ideas :i* ought to be affix$ to ! foll[+ expressions1 :i* are by no means synonim\s1 b possess ea* a /rict & det]m9ate mean+1 z 9 ! foll[+ def9itions3 ,free caloric1 is t :i* is n comb9$ 9 any mann] ) any o!r body4 ,b1 z we live 9 a sy/em to :i* caloric has a v /rong adhesion1 x foll[s t we are nev] able to obta9 x 9 ! /ate ( absolute fre$om4 ,comb9$ caloric1 is t :i* is fix$ 9 bodies by aff9ity or elective attraction1 s z to =m "p ( ! sub/ance ( ! body1 ev5 "p ( its solidity4 ,by ! expression specific caloric ( bodies1 we und]/& ! respective quantities ( caloric requisite = rais+ a numb] ( bodies ( ! same weight to an equal degree ( temp]ature4 ,?is proportional quantity ( caloric dep5ds ^u ! di/ance betwe5 ! con/itu5t p>ticles ( bodies1 & _! great] or less] degrees ( cohesion2 & ?is di/ance1 or r ! space or void result+ f x1 is1 z ,i h already obs]v$1 call$ ! capacity ( bodies = conta9+ caloric4 ,heat1 consid]$ z a s5sation1 or1 9 o!r words1 s5sible heat1 is only ! effect produc$ ^u our s5ti5t organs1 by ! motion or passage ( caloric1 dis5gag$ f ! surr\nd+ bodies4 ,9 g5]al1 we receive impressions only 9 consequ5ce ( motion1 & we might e/abli% x z an axiom1 ,t1 ,,)\t ,,motion1 ,,!re ,,is ,,no ,,s5sation4 ,?is g5]al pr9ciple applies v accurately to ! s5sations ( heat & cold3 ,:5 we t\* a cold body1 ! caloric :i* always t5ds to become 9 equilibrio 9 all bodies1 passes f our h& into ! body we t\*1 :i* gives u ! feel+ or s5sation ( cold4 ,! direct contr>y happ5s1 :5 we t\* a w>m body1 ! caloric !n pass+ f ! body into our h&1 produces ! s5sation ( heat4 ,if ! h& & ! body t\*$ be ( ! same temp]ature1 or v ne>ly s1 we receive no impression1 ei!r ( heat or cold1 because !re is no motion or passage ( caloric2 & ?us no s5sation c take place1 )\t "s correspond5t motion to occasion x4 ,:5 ! !rmomet] rises1 x %[s1 t free caloric is ent]+ into ! surr\nd+ bodies3 ,! !rmomet]1 :i* is "o ( ^!1 receives its %>e 9 proportion to its mass1 & to ! capacity :i* x possesses = conta9+ caloric4 ,! *ange !re=e :i* takes place ^u ! !rmomet]1 only ann\nces a *ange ( place ( ! caloric 9 ^? bodies1 ( :i* ! !rmomet] =ms "o "p2 x only indicates ! portion ( caloric receiv$1 )\t be+ a measure ( ! :ole quantity dis5gag$1 displac$1 or absorb$4 ,! mo/ simple & mo/ exact me?od = det]m9+ ?is latt] po9t1 is t describ$ by ,mr de la ,place1 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy1 ,no4 #aghj1 p4 #cfd2 a summ>y explanation ( :i* w be f\nd t[>ds ! conclusion ( ?is "w4 ,?is me?od consi/s 9 plac+ a body1 or a comb9ation ( bodies1 f :i* caloric is dis5gag+1 9 ! mid/ ( a holl[ sph]e ( ice2 & ! quantity ( ice melt$ becomes an exact measure ( ! quantity ( caloric dis5gag$4 ,x is possible1 by means ( ! app>atus :i* we h caus$ to be con/ruct$ ^u ?is plan1 to det]m9e1 n z has be5 pret5d$1 ! capacity ( bodies = conta9+ heat1 b ! ratio ( ! increase or dim9ution ( capacity produc$ by det]m9ate degrees ( temp]ature4 ,x is easy ) ! same app>atus1 by means ( div]s comb9ations ( exp]im5ts1 to det]m9e ! quantity ( caloric requisite = conv]t+ solid sub/ances into liquids1 & liquids into ela/ic ari=m fluids2 &1 vice v]sa1 :at quantity ( caloric escapes f ela/ic vap\rs 9 *ang+ to liquids1 & :at quantity escapes f liquids dur+ _! conv]sion into solids4 ,p]haps1 :5 exp]im5ts h be5 made ) suffici5t accuracy1 we may "o day be able to det]m9e ! proportional quantity ( caloric1 necess>y = produc+ ! sev]al species ( gasses4 ,i %all h]eaft]1 9 a sep>ate *apt]1 give an acc\nt ( ! pr9cipal results ( su* exp]im5ts z h be5 made ^u ?is head4 ,x rema9s1 be=e f9i%+ ?is article1 to say a few words relative to ! cause ( ! ela/icity ( gasses1 & ( fluids 9 ! /ate ( vap\r4 ,x is by no means difficult to p]ceive t ?is ela/icity dep5ds ^u t ( caloric1 :i* seems to be ! mo/ em95tly ela/ic body 9 nature4 ,no?+ is m readily conceiv$1 ?an t "o body %\ld become ela/ic by ent]+ into comb9ation ) ano!r body possess$ ( t quality4 ,we mu/ all[ t ?is is only an explanation ( ela/icity1 by an assumption ( ela/icity1 & t we ?us only remove ! difficulty "o /ep f>!r1 & t ! nature ( ela/icity1 & ! reason = caloric be+ ela/ic1 rema9s /ill unexpla9$4 ,ela/icity 9 ! ab/ract is no?+ m ?an t quality ( ! p>ticles ( bodies by :i* !y rec$e f ea* o!r :5 =c$ toge!r4 ,?is t5d5cy 9 ! p>ticles ( caloric to sep>ate1 takes place ev5 at consid]able di/ances4 ,we %all be satisfi$ ( ?is1 :5 we consid] t air is susceptible ( und]go+ great compression1 :i* supposes t its p>ticles 7 previ\sly v di/ant f ea* o!r2 = ! p[] ( approa*+ toge!r c]ta9ly supposes a previ\s di/ance1 at lea/ equal to ! degree ( approa*4 ,consequ5tly1 ^? p>ticles ( ! air1 :i* are already consid]ably di/ant f ea* o!r1 t5d to sep>ate /ill f>!r4 ,9 fact1 if we produce ,boyle's vacuum 9 a l>ge receiv]1 ! v la/ portion ( air :i* rema9s spreads itself uni=mly ?r\gh ! :ole capacity ( ! vessel1 h[ev] l>ge1 fills x completely ?r\gh\t1 & presses e :]e aga9/ its sides3 ,we _c1 h[ev]1 expla9 ?is effect1 )\t suppos+ t ! p>ticles make an ef=t to sep>ate !mselves on e side1 & we are q ignorant at :at di/ance1 or :at degree ( r>efaction1 ?is ef=t ceases to act4 ,"h1 !re=e1 exi/s a true repulsion betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ela/ic fluids2 at lea/1 circum/ances take place exactly z if su* a repulsion actually exi/$2 & we h v good "r to conclude1 t ! p>ticles ( caloric mutually repel ea* o!r4 ,:5 we are once p]mitt$ to suppose ?is repell+ =ce1 ! rationale ( ! =mation ( gasses1 or ari=m fluids1 becomes p]fectly simple2 ?o' we mu/1 at ! same "t1 all[1 t x is extremely difficult to =m an accurate conception ( ?is repulsive =ce act+ ^u v m9ute p>ticles plac$ at great di/ances f ea* o!r4 ,x is1 p]haps1 m natural to suppose1 t ! p>ticles ( caloric h a /rong] mutual attraction ?an ^? ( any o!r sub/ance1 & t ^! latt] p>ticles are =c$ asund] 9 consequ5ce ( ?is sup]ior attraction betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! caloric1 :i* =ces !m betwe5 ! p>ticles ( o!r bodies1 t !y may be able to reunite ) ea* o!r4 ,we h some:at analog\s to ?is idea 9 ! ph5om5a :i* occur :5 a dry sponge is dipt into wat]3 ,! sponge swells2 its p>ticles sep>ate f ea* o!r2 & all its int]vals are fill$ up by ! wat]4 ,x is evid5t1 t ! sponge1 9 ! act ( swell+1 has acquir$ a great] capacity = conta9+ wat] ?an x _h :5 dry4 ,b we _c c]ta9ly ma9ta91 t ! introduction ( wat] betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! sponge has end[$ !m ) a repulsive p[]1 :i* t5ds to sep>ate !m f ea* o!r2 on ! contr>y1 ! :ole ph5om5a are produc$ by means ( attractive p[]s2 & ^! are1 fir/1 ,! gravity ( ! wat]1 & ! p[] :i* x ex]ts on e side1 9 common ) all o!r fluids2 #b;dly1 ,! =ce ( attraction :i* takes place betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! wat]1 caus+ !m to unite toge!r2 #c;dly1 ,! mutual attraction ( ! p>ticles ( ! sponge ) ea* o!r2 &1 la/ly1 ,! reciprocal attraction :i* exi/s betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! sponge & ^? ( ! wat]4 ,x is easy to und]/&1 t ! explanation ( ?is fact dep5ds ^u prop]ly appreciat+ ! int5sity (1 & connection betwe51 ^! sev]al p[]s4 ,x is probable1 t ! sep>ation ( ! p>ticles ( bodies1 occasion$ by caloric1 dep5ds 9 a simil> mann] ^u a c]ta9 comb9ation ( diff]5t attractive p[]s1 :i*1 9 con=mity ) ! imp]fection ( our k1 we endeav\r to express by say+1 t caloric communicates a p[] ( repulsion to ! p>ticles ( bodies4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,:5ev] ! degree ( heat occurs 9 ?is "w1 x is /at$ by ! au?or accord+ to ,reaumur's scale4 ,! degrees )9 brackets are ! correspond5t degrees ( ,fahr5heit's scale1 add$ by ! translator4 ,e4 #c ,collections ( ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces = t ye>1 p4 #dbj4 #d ,*emical ,nom5clature4 #e ,z ,i %all aft]w>ds give a def9ition1 & expla9 ! prop]ties ( ! liquor call$ e!r1 ,i %all only premise "h1 t x is a v volatile inflammable liquor1 hav+ a consid]ably small] specific gravity ?an wat]1 or ev5 _s ( w9e4--,a4 #f ,x w\ld h be5 m satisfactory if ! ,au?or _h specifi$ ! degrees ( ! !rmomet] at :i* ^! heights ( ! m]cury 9 ! b>omet] are produc$4 #g ,vide ,memoirs ( ! ,fr5* ,academy1 anno #aghj1 p4 #cce4--;,a4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,g5]al ,views relative to ! ,=mation & ,composition ( our ,atmosph]e4 ,^! views :i* ,i h tak5 ( ! =mation ( ela/ic ari=m fluids or gasses1 ?r[ great light ^u ! orig9al =mation ( ! atmosph]es ( ! planets1 & p>ticul>ly t ( our e>?4 ,we readily conceive1 t x mu/ necess>ily consi/ ( a mixture ( ! foll[+ sub/ances3 ,fir/1 ,( all bodies t are susceptible ( evaporation1 or1 m /rictly speak+1 :i* are capable ( reta9+ ! /ate ( ari=m ela/icity 9 ! temp]ature ( our atmosph]e1 & "u a pressure equal to t ( a column ( tw5ty-eight in*es ( quicksilv] 9 ! b>omet]2 &1 secondly1 ,( all sub/ances1 :e!r liquid or solid1 :i* are capable ( be+ dissolv$ by ?is mixture ( diff]5t gasses4 ,! bett] to det]m9e our ideas relat+ to ?is subject1 :i* has n hi!rto be5 suffici5tly consid]$1 let u1 = a mom5t1 conceive :at *ange w\ld take place 9 ! v>i\s sub/ances :i* compose our e>?1 if its temp]ature 7 sudd5ly alt]$4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we 7 sudd5ly transport$ into ! region ( ! planet ,m]cury1 :]e probably ! common temp]ature is mu* sup]ior to t ( boil+ wat]1 ! wat] ( ! e>?1 & all ! o!r fluids :i* are susceptible ( ! gasse\s /ate1 at a temp]ature ne> to t ( boil+ wat]1 ev5 quicksilv] itself1 w\ld become r>ifi$2 & all ^! sub/ances w\ld be *ang$ into p]man5t ari=m fluids or gasses1 :i* w\ld become "p ( ! new atmosph]e4 ,^! new species ( airs or gasses w\ld mix ) ^? already exi/+1 & c]ta9 reciprocal decompositions & new comb9ations w\ld take place1 until su* "t z all ! elective attractions or aff9ities subsi/+ among/ all ^! new & old gasse\s sub/ances _h op]at$ fully2 aft] :i*1 ! elem5t>y pr9ciples compos+ ^! gasses1 be+ saturat$1 w\ld rema9 at re/4 ,we mu/ att5d to ?is1 h[ev]1 t1 ev5 9 ! above hypo!tical situation1 c]ta9 b\nds w\ld occur to ! evaporation ( ^! sub/ances1 produc$ by t v evaporation itself2 = z1 9 proportion to ! increase ( ela/ic fluids1 ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e w\ld be augm5t$1 z e degree ( pressure t5ds1 9 "s measure1 to prev5t evaporation1 & z ev5 ! mo/ evaporable fluids c resi/ ! op]ation ( a v high temp]ature )\t evaporat+1 if prev5t$ by a proportionally /rong] compression1 wat] & all o!r liquids be+ able to su/a9 a r$ heat 9 ,pap9's dige/]2 we mu/ admit1 t ! new atmosph]e w\ld at la/ arrive at su* a degree ( weight1 t ! wat] :i* _h n hi!rto evaporat$ w\ld cease to boil1 &1 ( consequ5ce1 w\ld rema9 liquid2 s t1 ev5 ^u ?is supposition1 z 9 all o!rs ( ! same nature1 ! increas+ gravity ( ! atmosph]e w\ld f9d c]ta9 limits :i* x c\ld n exce$4 ,we might ev5 ext5d ^! reflections greatly f>!r1 & exam9e :at *ange might be produc$ 9 su* situations ^u /ones1 salts1 & ! great] "p ( ! fusible sub/ances :i* compose ! mass ( our e>?4 ,^! w\ld be s(t5$1 fus$1 & *ang$ into fluids1 c43 ,b ^! speculations c>ry me f my object1 to :i* ,i ha/5 to return4 ,by a contr>y supposition to ! "o we h be5 =m+1 if ! e>? 7 sudd5ly transport$ into a v cold region1 ! wat] :i* at pres5t composes our seas1 riv]s1 & spr+s1 & probably ! great] numb] ( ! fluids we are acqua9t$ )1 w\ld be conv]t$ into solid m\nta9s & h>d rocks1 at fir/ diaphan\s & homog5e\s1 l rock cry/al1 b :i*1 9 "t1 becom+ mix$ ) =eign & het]og5e\s sub/ances1 w\ld become opake /ones ( v>i\s col\rs4 ,9 ?is case1 ! air1 or at lea/ "s "p ( ! ari=m fluids :i* n[ compose ! mass ( our atmosph]e1 w\ld d\btless lose its ela/icity = want ( a suffici5t temp]ature to reta9 !m 9 t /ate3 ,!y w\ld return to ! liquid /ate ( exi/5ce1 & new liquids w\ld be =m$1 ( ^: prop]ties we _c1 at pres5t1 =m ! mo/ di/ant idea4 ,^! two opposite suppositions give a di/9ct pro( ( ! foll[+ coroll>ies3 ,fir/1 ,t solidity1 liquidity1 & ari=m ela/icity1 are only ?ree diff]5t /ates ( exi/5ce ( ! same matt]1 or ?ree p>ticul> modifications :i* almo/ all sub/ances are susceptible ( assum+ successively1 & :i* solely dep5d ^u ! degree ( temp]ature to :i* !y are expos$2 or1 9 o!r words1 ^u ! quantity ( caloric ) :i* !y are p5etrat$#h4 #b;dly1 ,t x is extremely probable t air is a fluid naturally exi/+ 9 a /ate ( vap\r2 or1 z we may bett] express x1 t our atmosph]e is a comp\nd ( all ! fluids :i* are susceptible ( ! vapor\s or p]man5tly ela/ic /ate1 9 ! usual temp]ature1 & "u ! common pressure4 #c;dly1 ,t x is n impossible we may discov]1 9 our atmosph]e1 c]ta9 sub/ances naturally v compact1 ev5 metals !mselves2 z a metallic sub/ance1 = in/ance1 only a little m volatile ?an m]cury1 might exi/ 9 t situation4 ,among/ ! fluids ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 "s1 z wat] & alkohol1 are susceptible ( mix+ ) ea* o!r 9 all proportions2 :]eas o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 z quicksilv]1 wat]1 & oil1 c only =m a mom5t>y union2 &1 aft] be+ mix$ toge!r1 sep>ate & arrange !mselves accord+ to _! specific gravities4 ,! same ?+ ought to1 or at lea/ may1 take place 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,x is possible1 & ev5 extremely probable1 t1 bo? at ! fir/ creation1 & e day1 gasses are =m$1 :i* are difficultly miscible ) atmosph]ic air1 & are cont9ually sep>at+ f x4 ,if ^! gasses be specifically light] ?an ! g5]al atmosph]ic mass1 !y mu/1 ( c\rse1 ga!r 9 ! high] regions1 & =m /rata t float ^u ! common air4 ,! ph5om5a :i* accompany igne\s meteors induce me to believe1 t !re exi/s 9 ! upp] p>ts ( our atmosph]e a /ratum ( inflammable fluid 9 contact ) ^? /rata ( air :i* produce ! ph5om5a ( ! aurora borealis & o!r fi]y meteors4--,i mean h]eaft] to pursue ?is subject 9 a sep>ate treatise4 ,,footnotes3 #h ,! degree ( pressure :i* !y und]go mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,e4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,analysis ( ,atmosph]ic ,air1 & its ,division into two ,ela/ic ,fluids2 ! "o fit = ,respiration1 ! o!r incapable ( be+ respir$4 ,f :at has be5 premis$1 x foll[s1 t our atmosph]e is compos$ ( a mixture ( e sub/ance capable ( reta9+ ! gasse\s or ari=m /ate 9 ! common temp]ature1 & "u ! usual pressure :i* x exp]i5ces4 ,^! fluids con/itute a mass1 9 "s measure homog5e\s1 ext5d+ f ! surface ( ! e>? to ! greate/ height hi!rto atta9$1 ( :i* ! d5sity cont9ually decreases 9 ! inv]se ratio ( ! sup]9cumb5t weight4 ,b1 z ,i h be=e obs]v$1 x is possible t ?is fir/ /ratum is surm\nt$ by sev]al o!rs consi/+ ( v diff]5t fluids4 ,our bus9ess1 9 ?is place1 is to endeav\r to det]m9e1 by exp]im5ts1 ! nature ( ! ela/ic fluids :i* compose ! inf]ior /ratum ( air :i* we inhabit4 ,mod]n *emi/ry has made great advances 9 ?is rese>*2 & x w appe> by ! foll[+ details t ! analysis ( atmosph]ical air has be5 m rigor\sly det]m9$ ?an t ( any o!r sub/ance ( ! class4 ,*emi/ry af=ds two g5]al me?ods ( det]m9+ ! con/itu5t pr9ciples ( bodies1 ! me?od ( analysis1 & t ( syn!sis4 ,:51 = in/ance1 by comb9+ wat] ) alkohol1 we =m ! species ( liquor call$1 9 comm]cial language1 br&y or _s ( w9e1 we c]ta9ly h a "r to conclude1 t br&y1 or _s ( w9e1 is compos$ ( alkohol comb9$ ) wat]4 ,we c produce ! same result by ! analytical me?od2 & 9 g5]al x ought to be consid]$ z a pr9ciple 9 *emical sci5ce1 nev] to re/ satisfi$ )\t bo? ^! species ( pro(s4 ,we h ?is advantage 9 ! analysis ( atmosph]ical air1 be+ able bo? to decomp\nd x1 & to =m x a new 9 ! mo/ satisfactory mann]4 ,i %all1 h[ev]1 at pres5t conf9e myself to rec\nt su* exp]im5ts z are mo/ conclusive ^u ?is head2 & ,i may consid] mo/ ( ^! z my own1 hav+ ei!r fir/ inv5t$ !m1 or hav+ repeat$ ^? ( o!rs1 ) ! int5tion ( analys+ atmosph]ical air1 9 p]fectly new po9ts ( view4 ,i took a matrass 7,a1 fig4 #ad4 plate ,,ii47 ( ab\t #cf cubical in*es capacity1 hav+ a long neck ,b ,c ,d ,e1 ( six or sev5 l9es int]nal diamet]1 & hav+ b5t ! neck z 9 ,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #b4 s z to all[ ( its be+ plac$ 9 ! furnace ,m ,m ,n ,n1 9 su* a mann] t ! extremity ( its neck ,e might be ins]t$ "u a bell-glass ,f ,g1 plac$ 9 a tr\gh ( quicksilv] ,r ,r ,s ,s2 ,i introduc$ f\r ounces ( pure m]cury into ! matrass1 &1 by means ( a syphon1 exhau/$ ! air 9 ! receiv] ,f ,g1 s z to raise ! quicksilv] to ,l ,l1 & ,i c>efully m>k$ ! height at :i* x /ood by pa/+ on a slip ( pap]4 ,hav+ accurately not$ ! height ( ! !rmomet] & b>omet]1 ,i light$ a fire 9 ! furnace ,m ,m ,n ,n1 :i* ,i kept up almo/ cont9ually dur+ twelve days1 s z to keep ! quicksilv] always almo/ at its boil+ po9t4 ,no?+ rem>kable took place dur+ ! fir/ day3 ,! ,m]cury1 ?\gh n boil+1 0 cont9ually evaporat+1 & cov]$ ! int]ior surface ( ! vessels ) small drops1 at fir/ v m9ute1 :i* gradually augm5t+ to a suffici5t size1 fell back into ! mass at ! bottom ( ! vessel4 ,on ! second day1 small r$ p>ticles began to appe> on ! surface ( ! m]cury1 :i*1 dur+ ! f\r or five foll[+ days1 gradually increas$ 9 size & numb]2 aft] :i* !y ceas$ to increase 9 ei!r respect4 ,at ! end ( twelve days1 see+ t ! calc9ation ( ! m]cury did n at all increase1 ,i ext+ui%$ ! fire1 & all[$ ! vessels to cool4 ,! bulk ( air 9 ! body & neck ( ! matrass1 & 9 ! bell-glass1 r$uc$ to a m$ium ( #bh in*es ( ! b>omet] & #aj 7#ed4e7 ( ! !rmomet]1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! exp]im5t 0 ab\t #ej cubical in*es4 ,at ! end ( ! exp]im5t ! rema9+ air1 r$uc$ to ! same m$ium pressure & temp]ature1 0 only betwe5 #db & #dc cubical in*es2 consequ5tly x _h lo/ ab\t #a_/f ( its bulk4 ,aft]w>ds1 hav+ collect$ all ! r$ p>ticles1 =m$ dur+ ! exp]im5t1 f ! runn+ m]cury 9 :i* !y float$1 ,i f\nd ^! to am\nt to #de gra9s4 ,i 0 oblig$ to repeat ?is exp]im5t sev]al times1 z x is difficult 9 "o exp]im5t bo? to pres]ve ! :ole air ^u :i* we op]ate1 & to collect ! :ole ( ! r$ p>ticles1 or calx ( m]cury1 :i* is =m$ dur+ ! calc9ation4 ,x w (t5 happ5 9 ! sequel1 t ,i %all1 9 ?is mann]1 give 9 "o detail ! results ( two or ?ree exp]im5ts ( ! same nature4 ,! air :i* rema9$ aft] ! calc9ation ( ! m]cury 9 ?is exp]im5t1 & :i* 0 r$uc$ to #e_/f ( its =m] bulk1 0 no long] fit ei!r = respiration or = combu/ion2 animals be+ introduc$ into x 7 suffocat$ 9 a few seconds1 & :5 a tap] 0 plung$ into x1 x 0 ext+ui%$ z if x _h be5 imm]s$ into wat]4 ,9 ! next place1 ,i took ! #de gra9s ( r$ matt] =m$ dur+ ?is exp]im5t1 :i* ,i put into a small glass retort1 hav+ a prop] app>atus = receiv+ su* liquid1 or gasse\s product1 z might be extract$3 ,hav+ appli$ a fire to ! retort 9 a furnace1 ,i obs]v$ t1 9 proportion z ! r$ matt] became heat$1 ! int5sity ( its col\r augm5t$4 ,:5 ! retort 0 almo/ r$ hot1 ! r$ matt] began gradually to decrease 9 bulk1 & 9 a few m9utes aft] x disappe>$ altoge!r2 at ! same "t #da-a_/b gra9s ( runn+ m]cury 7 collect$ 9 ! recipi5t1 & #g or #h cubical in*es ( ela/ic fluid1 greatly m capable ( support+ bo? respiration & combu/ion ?an atmosph]ical air1 7 collect$ 9 ! bell-glass4 ,a "p ( ?is air be+ put into a glass tube ( ab\t an in* diamet]1 %[$ ! foll[+ prop]ties3 ,a tap] burn$ 9 x ) a dazzl+ spl5d\r1 & *>coal1 in/ead ( consum+ quietly z x does 9 common air1 burnt ) a flame1 att5d$ ) a decrepitat+ noise1 l phosphorus1 & ?rew out su* a brilliant light t ! eyes c\ld h>dly endure x4 ,?is species ( air 0 discov]$ almo/ at ! same "t by ,mr ,prie/ley1 ,mr ,s*eele1 & myself4 ,mr ,prie/ley gave x ! "n ( dephlogi/icat$ air1 ,mr ,s*eele call$ x empyreal air4 ,at fir/ ,i nam$ x highly respirable air1 to :i* has s9ce be5 sub/itut$ ! t]m ( vital air4 ,we %all pres5tly see :at we ought to ?9k ( ^! d5om9ations4 ,9 reflect+ ^u ! circum/ances ( ?is exp]im5t1 we readily p]ceive1 t ! m]cury1 dur+ its calc9ation1 absorbs ! salubri\s & respirable "p ( ! air1 or1 to speak m /rictly1 ! base ( ?is respirable "p2 t ! rema9+ air is a species ( mephitis1 incapable ( support+ combu/ion or respiration2 & consequ5tly t atmosph]ic air is compos$ ( two ela/ic fluids ( diff]5t & opposite qualities4 ,z a pro( ( ?is important tru?1 if we recomb9e ^! two ela/ic fluids1 :i* we h sep>ately obta9$ 9 ! above exp]im5t1 viz4 ! #db cubical in*es ( mephitis1 ) ! #h cubical in*es ( respirable air1 we reproduce an air precisely simil> to t ( ! atmosph]e1 & possess+ ne>ly ! same p[] ( support+ combu/ion & respiration1 & ( contribut+ to ! calc9ation ( metals4 ,al?\gh ?is exp]im5t furni%es u ) a v simple means ( obta9+ ! two pr9cipal ela/ic fluids :i* compose our atmosph]e1 sep>ate f ea* o!r1 yet x does n give u an exact idea ( ! proportion 9 :i* ^! two ent] into its composition3 ,= ! attraction ( m]cury to ! respirable "p ( ! air1 or r to its base1 is n suffici5tly /rong to ov]come all ! circum/ances :i* oppose ?is union4 ,^! ob/acles are ! mutual adhesion ( ! two con/itu5t p>ts ( ! atmosph]e = ea* o!r1 & ! elective attraction :i* unites ! base ( vital air ) caloric2 9 consequ5ce ( ^!1 :5 ! calc9ation ends1 or is at lea/ c>ri$ z f> z is possible1 9 a det]m9ate quantity ( atmosph]ic air1 !re /ill rema9s a portion ( respirable air unit$ to ! mephitis1 :i* ! m]cury _c sep>ate4 ,i %all aft]w>ds %[1 t1 at lea/ 9 our climate1 ! atmosph]ic air is compos$ ( respirable & mephitic airs1 9 ! proportion ( #bg & #gc2 & ,i %all !n discuss ! causes ( ! unc]ta9ty :i* /ill exi/s ) respect to ! exactness ( t proportion4 ,s9ce1 dur+ ! calc9ation ( m]cury1 air is decompos$1 & ! base ( its respirable "p is fix$ & comb9$ ) ! m]cury1 x foll[s1 f ! pr9ciples already e/abli%$1 t caloric & light mu/ be dis5gag$ dur+ ! process3 ,b ! two foll[+ causes prev5t u f be+ s5sible ( ?is tak+ place3 ,z ! calc9ation la/s dur+ sev]al days1 ! dis5gagem5t ( caloric & light1 spread out 9 a consid]able space ( "t1 becomes extremely small = ea* p>ticul> mom5t ( t "t1 s z n to be p]ceptible2 &1 9 ! next place1 ! op]ation be+ c>ri$ on by means ( fire 9 a furnace1 ! heat produc$ by ! calc9ation itself becomes conf\nd$ ) t proce$+ f ! furnace4 ,i might add ! respirable "p ( ! air1 or r its base1 9 ent]+ into comb9ation ) ! m]cury1 does n "p ) all ! caloric :i* x conta9$1 b /ill reta9s a "p ( x aft] =m+ ! new comp\nd2 b ! discussion ( ?is po9t1 & its pro(s f exp]im5t1 d n belong to ?is "p ( our subject4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 easy to r5d] ?is dis5gagem5t ( caloric & light evid5t to ! s5ses1 by caus+ ! decomposition ( air to take place 9 a m rapid mann]4 ,& = ?is purpose1 iron is excell5tly adapt$1 z x possesses a mu* /rong] aff9ity = ! base ( respirable air ?an m]cury4 ,! elegant exp]im5t ( ,mr ,+5h\z1 ^u ! combu/ion ( iron1 is well kn[n4 ,take a piece ( f9e iron wire1 twi/$ into a spiral1 7,,bc1 ,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #ag47 fix "o ( its extremities ,b into ! cork ,a1 adapt$ to ! neck ( ! bottle ,,defg1 & fix to ! o!r extremity ( ! wire ,c1 a small morsel ( t9d]4 ,matt]s be+ ?us prep>$1 fill ! bottle ,,defg ) air depriv$ ( its mephitic "p2 !n light ! t9d]1 & introduce x quickly ) ! wire ^u :i* x is fix$1 into ! bottle :i* y /op up ) ! cork ,a1 z is %[n 9 ! figure 7#ag ,plate ,,iv47 ,! in/ant ! t9d] comes into contact ) ! vital air x beg9s to burn ) great int5sity2 &1 communicat+ ! inflammation to ! iron-wire1 x too takes fire1 & burns rapidly1 ?r[+ out brilliant sp>ks1 :i* fall to ! bottom ( ! vessel 9 r\nd$ globules1 :i* become black 9 cool+1 b reta9 a degree ( metallic spl5d\r4 ,! iron ?us burnt is m brittle ev5 ?an glass1 & is easily r$uc$ into p[d]1 & is /ill attractable by ! magnet1 ?\gh n s p[]fully z x 0 be=e combu/ion4 ,z ,mr ,+5h\z has nei!r exam9$ ! *ange produc$ on iron1 nor ^u ! air by ?is op]ation1 ,i h repeat$ ! exp]im5t "u diff]5t circum/ances1 9 an app>atus adapt$ to answ] my p>ticul> views1 z foll[s4 ,hav+ fill$ a bell-glass 7,a1 ,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #c47 ( ab\t six p9ts measure1 ) pure air1 or ! highly respirable "p ( air1 ,i transport$ ?is j> by means ( a v flat vessel1 into a quicksilv] ba? 9 ! bason ,,bc1 & ,i took c>e to r5d] ! surface ( ! m]cury p]fectly dry bo? )9 & )\t ! j> ) blott+ pap]4 ,i !n provid$ a small capsule ( *9a-w>e ,d1 v flat & op51 9 :i* ,i plac$ "s small pieces ( iron1 turn$ spirally1 & arrang$ 9 su* a way z seem$ mo/ fav\rable = ! combu/ion be+ communicat$ to e "p4 ,to ! end ( "o ( ^! pieces ( iron 0 fix$ a small morsel ( t9d]1 to :i* 0 add$ ab\t ! sixte5? "p ( a gra9 ( phosphorus1 &1 by rais+ ! bell-glass a little1 ! *9a capsule1 ) its cont5ts1 7 introduc$ into ! pure air4 ,i "k t1 by ?is means1 "s common air mu/ mix ) ! pure air 9 ! glass2 b ?is1 :5 x is done dext]\sly1 is s v trifl+1 z n to injure ! success ( ! exp]im5t4 ,?is be+ done1 a "p ( ! air is suck$ out f ! bell-glass1 by means ( a syphon ,,ghi1 s z to raise ! m]cury )9 ! glass to ,,ef2 &1 to prev5t ! m]cury f gett+ into ! syphon1 a small piece ( pap] is twi/$ r\nd its extremity4 ,9 suck+ out ! air1 if ! motion ( ! lungs only be us$1 we _c make ! m]cury rise above an in* or an in* & a half2 b1 by prop]ly us+ ! muscles ( ! m\?1 we c1 )\t difficulty1 cause x to rise six or sev5 in*es4 ,i next took an iron wire1 7,,mn1 ,plate ,,iv4 ,fig4 #af47 prop]ly b5t = ! purpose1 & mak+ x r$ hot 9 ! fire1 pass$ x ?r\gh ! m]cury into ! receiv]1 & br\ght x 9 contact ) ! small piece ( phosphorus atta*$ to ! t9d]4 ,! phosphorus in/antly takes fire1 :i* communicates to ! t9d]1 & f t to ! iron4 ,:5 ! pieces h be5 prop]ly arrang$1 ! :ole iron burns1 ev5 to ! la/ p>ticle1 ?r[+ out a :ite brilliant light simil> to t ( ,*9ese fireworks4 ,! great heat produc$ by ?is combu/ion melts ! iron into r\nd globules ( diff]5t sizes1 mo/ ( :i* fall into ! ,*9a cup2 b "s are ?r[n out ( x1 & swim ^u ! surface ( ! m]cury4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! combu/ion1 !re is a slight augm5tation 9 ! volume ( ! air 9 ! bell-glass1 f ! dilatation caus$ by ! heat2 b1 pres5tly aft]w>ds1 a rapid dim9ution ( ! air takes place1 & ! m]cury rises 9 ! glass2 insomu* t1 :5 ! quantity ( iron is suffici5t1 & ! air op]at$ ^u is v pure1 almo/ ! :ole air employ$ is absorb$4 ,x is prop] to rem>k 9 ?is place1 t1 unless 9 mak+ exp]im5ts = ! purpose ( discov]y1 x is bett] to be cont5t$ ) burn+ a mod]ate quantity ( iron2 =1 :5 ?is exp]im5t is pu%$ too f>1 s z to absorb mu* ( ! air1 ! cup ,d1 :i* floats ^u ! quicksilv]1 approa*es too ne> ! bottom ( ! bell-glass2 & ! great heat produc$1 :i* is foll[$ by a v sudd5 cool+1 occasion$ by ! contact ( ! cold m]cury1 is apt to break ! glass4 ,9 :i* case1 ! sudd5 fall ( ! column ( m]cury1 :i* happ5s ! mom5t ! lea/ flaw is produc$ 9 ! glass1 causes su* a wave1 z ?r[s a great "p ( ! quicksilv] f ! bason4 ,to avoid ?is inconv5i5ce1 & to ensure success to ! exp]im5t1 "o gross & a half ( iron is suffici5t to burn 9 a bell-glass1 :i* holds ab\t eight p9ts ( air4 ,! glass ought likewise to be /rong1 t x may be able to be> ! weight ( ! column ( m]cury :i* x has to support4 ,by ?is exp]im5t1 x is n possible to det]m9e1 at "o "t1 bo? ! additional weight acquir$ by ! iron1 & ! *anges :i* h tak5 place 9 ! air4 ,if x is wi%$ to asc]ta9 :at additional weight has be5 ga9$ by ! iron1 & ! proportion betwe5 t & ! air absorb$1 we mu/ c>efully m>k ^u ! bell-glass1 ) a diamond1 ! height ( ! m]cury1 bo? be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t#i4 ,aft] ?is1 ! syphon 7,,gh1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #c47 gu>d$1 z be=e1 ) a bit ( pap]1 to prev5t its fill+ ) m]cury1 is to be introduc$ "u ! bell-glass1 hav+ ! ?umb plac$ ^u ! extremity1 ,g1 ( ! syphon1 to regulate ! passage ( ! air2 & by ?is means ! air is gradually admitt$1 s z to let ! m]cury fall to its level4 ,?is be+ done1 ! bell-glass is to be c>efully remov$1 ! globules ( melt$ iron conta9$ 9 ! cup1 & ^? :i* h be5 scatt]$ ab\t1 & swim ^u ! m]cury1 are to be accurately collect$1 & ! :ole is to be weigh$4 ,! iron w be f\nd 9 t /ate call$ m>tial e?iops by ! old *emi/s1 possess+ a degree ( metallic brilliancy1 v friable1 & readily r$ucible into p[d]1 "u ! hamm]1 or ) a pe/le & mort>4 ,if ! exp]im5t has succe$$ well1 f #ajj gra9s ( iron w be obta9$ #ace or #acf gra9s ( e?iops1 :i* is an augm5tation ( #ce p] c5t4 ,if all ! att5tion has be5 paid to ?is exp]im5t :i* x des]ves1 ! air w be f\nd dim9i%$ 9 weight exactly equal to :at ! iron has ga9$4 ,hav+ !re=e burnt #ajj gra9s ( iron1 :i* has acquir$ an additional weight ( #ce gra9s1 ! dim9ution ( air w be f\nd exactly #gj cubical in*es2 & x w be f\nd1 9 ! sequel1 t ! weight ( vital air is pretty ne>ly half a gra9 = ea* cubical in*2 s t1 9 effect1 ! augm5tation ( weight 9 ! "o exactly co9cides ) ! loss ( x 9 ! o!r4 ,i %all obs]ve "h1 once = all1 t1 9 e exp]im5t ( ?is k9d1 ! pressure & temp]ature ( ! air1 bo? be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t1 mu/ be r$uc$1 by calculation1 to a common /&>d ( #aj 7#ed4e7 ( ! !rmomet]1 & #bh in*es ( ! b>omet]4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ?is "w1 ! mann] ( p]=m+ ?is v necess>y r$uction w be f\nd accurately detail$4 ,if x be requir$ to exam9e ! nature ( ! air :i* rema9s aft] ?is exp]im5t1 we mu/ op]ate 9 a some:at diff]5t mann]4 ,aft] ! combu/ion is f9i%$1 & ! vessels h cool$1 we fir/ take out ! cup1 & ! burnt iron1 by introduc+ ! h& ?r\gh ! quicksilv]1 "u ! bell-glass2 we next introduce "s solution ( pota%1 or cau/ic alkali1 or ( ! sulphuret ( pota%1 or su* o!r sub/ance z is judg$ prop] = exam9+ _! action ^u ! residuum ( air4 ,i %all1 9 ! sequel1 give an acc\nt ( ^! me?ods ( analys+ air1 :5 ,i h expla9$ ! nature ( ^! diff]5t sub/ances1 :i* are only "h 9 a mann] accid5tally m5tion$4 ,aft] ?is exam9ation1 s mu* wat] mu/ be let into ! glass z w displace ! quicksilv]1 & !n1 by means ( a %all[ di% plac$ bel[ ! bell-glass1 x is to be remov$ into ! common wat] pneumato-*emical app>atus1 :]e ! air rema9+ may be exam9$ at l>ge1 & ) great facility4 ,:5 v s(t & v pure iron has be5 employ$ 9 ?is exp]im5t1 &1 if ! combu/ion has be5 p]=m$ 9 ! pure/ respirable or vital air1 free f all admixture ( ! noxi\s or mephitic "p1 ! air :i* rema9s aft] ! combu/ion w be f\nd z pure z x 0 be=e2 b x is difficult to f9d iron entirely free f a small portion ( *>ry matt]1 :i* is *iefly abundant 9 /eel4 ,x is likewise exce$+ly difficult to procure ! pure air p]fectly free f "s admixture ( mephitis1 ) :i* x is almo/ always contam9at$2 b ?is species ( noxi\s air does n1 9 ! smalle/ degree1 di/urb ! result ( ! exp]im5t1 z x is always f\nd at ! end exactly 9 ! same proportion z at ! beg9n+4 ,i m5tion$ be=e1 t we h two ways ( det]m9+ ! con/itu5t p>ts ( atmosph]ic air1 ! me?od ( analysis1 & t by syn!sis4 ,! calc9ation ( m]cury has furni%$ u ) an example ( ea* ( ^! me?ods1 s9ce1 aft] hav+ robb$ ! respirable "p ( its base1 by means ( ! m]cury1 we h re/or$ x1 s z to recompose an air precisely simil> to t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,b we c equally accompli% ?is syn!tic composition ( atmosph]ic air1 by borr[+ ! mat]ials ( :i* x is compos$ f diff]5t k+doms ( nature4 ,we %all see h]eaft] t1 :5 animal sub/ances are dissolv$ 9 ! nitric acid1 a great quantity ( gas is dis5gag$1 :i* ext+ui%es light1 & is unfit = animal respiration1 be+ exactly simil> to ! noxi\s or mephitic "p ( atmosph]ic air4 ,&1 if we take #gc p>ts1 by weight1 ( ?is ela/ic fluid1 & mix x ) #bg p>ts ( highly respirable air1 procur$ f calc9$ m]cury1 we w =m an ela/ic fluid precisely simil> to atmosph]ic air 9 all its prop]ties4 ,!re are _m o!r me?ods ( sep>at+ ! respirable f ! noxi\s "p ( ! atmosph]ic air1 :i* _c be tak5 notice ( 9 ?is "p1 )\t anticipat+ in=mation1 :i* prop]ly belongs to ! subsequ5t *apt]s4 ,! exp]im5ts already adduc$ may suffice = an elem5t>y treatise2 &1 9 matt]s ( ?is nature1 ! *oice ( our evid5ces is ( f> great] consequ5ce ?an _! numb]4 ,i %all close ?is article1 by po9t+ out ! prop]ty :i* atmosph]ic air1 & all ! kn[n gasses1 possess ( dissolv+ wat]1 :i* is ( great consequ5ce to be att5d$ to 9 all exp]im5ts ( ?is nature4 ,mr ,saussure f\nd1 by exp]im5t1 t a cubical foot ( atmosph]ic air is capable ( hold+ #ab gra9s ( wat] 9 solution3 ,o!r gasses1 z ! c>bonic acid1 appe> capable ( dissolv+ a great] quantity2 b exp]im5ts are /ill want+ by :i* to det]m9e _! sev]al proportions4 ,?is wat]1 held 9 solution by gasses1 gives rise to p>ticul> ph5om5a 9 _m exp]im5ts1 :i* require great att5tion1 & :i* has frequ5tly prov$ ! s\rce ( great errors to *emi/s 9 det]m9+ ! results ( _! exp]im5ts4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,x w likewise be necess>y to take c>e t ! air conta9$ 9 ! glass1 bo? be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t1 be r$uc$ to a common temp]ature & pressure1 o!rwise ! results ( ! foll[+ calculations w be fallaci\s4--,e4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,nom5clature ( ! sev]al ,con/itu5t ,p>ts ( ,atmosph]ic ,air4 ,hi!rto ,i h be5 oblig$ to make use ( circumlocution1 to express ! nature ( ! sev]al sub/ances :i* con/itute our atmosph]e1 hav+ provisionally us$ ! t]ms ( respirable & noxi\s1 or non-respirable p>ts ( ! air4 ,b ! inve/igations ,i mean to und]take require a m direct mode ( expression2 &1 hav+ n[ endeav\r$ to give simple & di/9ct ideas ( ! diff]5t sub/ances :i* ent] into ! composition ( ! atmosph]e1 ,i %all h5ce=? express ^! ideas by words equally simple4 ,! temp]ature ( our e>? be+ v ne> to t at :i* wat] becomes solid1 & reciprocally *anges f solid to fluid1 & z ?is ph5om5on takes place frequ5tly "u our obs]vation1 x has v naturally foll[$1 t1 9 ! languages ( at lea/ e climate subject$ to any degree ( w9t]1 a t]m has be5 us$ = signify+ wat] 9 ! /ate ( solidity1 :5 depriv$ ( its caloric4 ,! same1 h[ev]1 has n be5 f\nd necess>y ) respect to wat] r$uc$ to ! /ate ( vap\r by an additional dose ( caloric2 s9ce ^? p]sons :o d n make a p>ticul> /udy ( objects ( ?is k9d1 are /ill ignorant t wat]1 :5 9 a temp]ature only a little above ! boil+ heat1 is *ang$ into an ela/ic ari=m fluid1 susceptible1 l all o!r gasses1 ( be+ receiv$ & conta9$ 9 vessels1 & pres]v+ its gasse\s =m s long z x rema9s at ! temp]ature ( #hj 7#bab71 & "u a pressure n exce$+ #bh in*es ( ! m]curial b>omet]4 ,z ?is ph5om5on has n be5 g5]ally obs]v$1 no language has us$ a p>ticul> t]m = express+ wat] 9 ?is /ate#aj2 & ! same ?+ occurs ) all fluids1 & all sub/ances1 :i* d n evaporate 9 ! common temp]ature1 & "u ! usual pressure ( our atmosph]e4 ,= simil> reasons1 names h n be5 giv5 to ! liquid or concrete /ates ( mo/ ( ! ari=m fluids3 ,^! 7 n kn[n to arise f ! comb9ation ( caloric ) c]ta9 bases2 &1 z !y _h n be5 se5 ei!r 9 ! liquid or solid /ates1 _! exi/5ce1 "u ^! =ms1 0 ev5 unkn[n to natural philosoph]s4 ,we h n pret5d$ to make any alt]ation ^u su* t]ms z are sanctifi$ by anci5t cu/om2 &1 !re=e1 cont9ue to use ! words wat] & ice 9 _! common acceptation3 ,we likewise reta9 ! ^w air1 to express t collection ( ela/ic fluids :i* composes our atmosph]e2 b we h n ?\ght x necess>y to pres]ve ! same respect = mod]n t]ms1 adopt$ by latt] philosoph]s1 hav+ consid]$ ourselves z at lib]ty to reject su* z appe>$ liable to occasion errone\s ideas ( ! sub/ances !y are meant to express1 & ei!r to sub/itute new t]ms1 or to employ ! old ones1 aft] modify+ !m 9 su* a mann] z to convey m det]m9ate ideas4 ,new words h be5 drawn1 *iefly f ! ,greek language1 9 su* a mann] z to make _! etymology convey "s idea ( :at 0 meant to be repres5t$2 & ^! we h always endeav\r$ to make %ort1 & ( su* a nature z to be *angeable into adjectives & v]bs4 ,foll[+ ^! pr9ciples1 we h1 aft] ,mr ,macqu]'s example1 reta9$ ! t]m gas1 employ$ by ,vanhelmont1 hav+ arrang$ ! num]\s class ( ela/ic ari=m fluids "u t "n1 except+ only atmosph]ic air4 ,gas1 !re=e1 9 our nom5clature1 becomes a g5]ic t]m1 express+ ! fulle/ degree ( saturation 9 any body ) caloric2 be+1 9 fact1 a t]m expressive ( a mode ( exi/5ce4 ,to di/+ui% ea* species ( gas1 we employ a second t]m f ! "n ( ! base1 :i*1 saturat$ ) caloric1 =ms ea* p>ticul> gas4 ,?us1 we "n wat] comb9$ to saturation ) caloric1 s z to =m an ela/ic fluid1 aque\s gas2 e!r1 comb9$ 9 ! same mann]1 e!rial gas2 ! comb9ation ( alkohol ) caloric1 becomes alkoholic gas2 &1 foll[+ ! same pr9ciples1 we h muriatic acid gas1 ammoniacal gas1 & s on ( e sub/ance susceptible ( be+ comb9$ ) caloric1 9 su* a mann] z to assume ! gasse\s or ela/ic ari=m /ate4 ,we h already se51 t ! atmosph]ic air is compos$ ( two gasses1 or ari=m fluids1 "o ( :i* is capable1 by respiration1 ( contribut+ to animal life1 & 9 :i* metals are calc9able1 & combu/ible bodies may burn2 ! o!r1 on ! contr>y1 is end[$ ) directly opposite qualities2 x _c be brea!d by animals1 nei!r w x admit ( ! combu/ion ( inflammable bodies1 nor ( ! calc9ation ( metals4 ,we h giv5 to ! base ( ! =m]1 or respirable portion ( ! air1 ! "n ( oxyg51 f ,greek3 oxys acidum1 & ,greek3 ge9omas1 gignor2 because1 9 reality1 "o ( ! mo/ g5]al prop]ties ( ?is base is to =m acids1 by comb9+ ) _m diff]5t sub/ances4 ,! union ( ?is base ) caloric we t]m oxyg5 gas1 :i* is ! same ) :at 0 =m]ly call$ pure1 or vital air4 ,! weight ( ?is gas1 at ! temp]ature ( #aj 7#ed4ej71 & "u a pressure equal to #bh in*es ( ! b>omet]1 is half a gra9 = ea* cubical in*1 or "o ounce & a half to ea* cubical foot4 ,! *emical prop]ties ( ! noxi\s portion ( atmosph]ic air be+ hi!rto b little kn[n1 we h be5 satisfi$ to d]ive ! "n ( its base f its kn[n quality ( kill+ su* animals z are =c$ to brea! x1 giv+ x ! "n ( azote1 f ! ,greek privitive p>ticle ,greek3 a & ,greek3 xa1 vita2 h5ce ! "n ( ! noxi\s "p ( atmosph]ic air is azotic gas2 ! weight ( :i*1 9 ! same temp]ature1 & "u ! same pressure1 is #a oz4 #b gros & #dh grs4 to ! cubical foot1 or #j4dddd ( a gra9 to ! cubical in*4 ,we _c d5y t ?is "n appe>s some:at extraord9>y2 b ?is mu/ be ! case ) all new t]ms1 :i* _c be expect$ to become famili> until !y h be5 "s "t 9 use4 ,we long endeav\r$ to f9d a m prop] designation )\t success2 x 0 at fir/ propos$ to call x alkalig5 gas1 z1 f ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr ,b]?ollet1 x appe>s to ent] into ! composition ( ammoniac1 or volatile alkali2 b !n1 we h z yet no pro( ( its mak+ "o ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( ! o!r alkalies2 beside1 x is prov$ to compose a "p ( ! nitric acid1 :i* gives z good reason to h call$ x nitrig54 ,= ^! reasons1 f9d+ x necess>y to reject any "n ^u sy/ematic pr9ciples1 we h consid]$ t we run no risk ( mi/ake 9 adopt+ ! t]ms ( azote1 & azotic gas1 :i* only express a matt] ( fact1 or t prop]ty :i* x possesses1 ( depriv+ su* animals z brea! x ( _! lives4 ,i %\ld anticipate subjects m prop]ly res]v$ = ! subsequ5t *apt]s1 7 ,i 9 ?is place to ent] ^u ! nom5clature ( ! sev]al species ( gasses3 ,x is suffici5t1 9 ?is "p ( ! "w1 to e/abli% ! pr9ciples ^u :i* _! d5om9ations are f\nd$4 ,! pr9cipal m]it ( ! nom5clature we h adopt$ is1 t1 :5 once ! simple elem5t>y sub/ance is di/+ui%$ by an appropriate t]m1 ! names ( all its comp\nds d]ive readily1 & necess>ily1 f ?is fir/ d5om9ation4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,9 ,engli%1 ! ^w /eam is exclusively appropriat$ to wat] 9 ! /ate ( vap\r4 ,e4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,( ! ,decomposition ( ,oxyg5 ,gas by ,sulphur1 ,phosphorus1 & ,*>coal--& ( ! ,=mation ( ,acids 9 g5]al4 ,9 p]=m+ exp]im5ts1 x is a necess>y pr9ciple1 :i* ought nev] to be deviat$ f1 t !y be simplifi$ z mu* z possible1 & t e circum/ance capable ( r5d]+ _! results complicat$ be c>efully remov$4 ,:]e=e1 9 ! exp]im5ts :i* =m ! object ( ?is *apt]1 we h nev] employ$ atmosph]ic air1 :i* is n a simple sub/ance4 ,x is true1 t ! azotic gas1 :i* =ms a "p ( its mixture1 appe>s to be m]ely passive dur+ combu/ion & calc9ation2 b1 besides t x ret>ds ^! op]ations v consid]ably1 we are n c]ta9 b x may ev5 alt] _! results 9 "s circum/ances2 = :i* reason1 ,i h ?\ght x necess>y to remove ev5 ?is possible cause ( d\bt1 by only mak+ use ( pure oxyg5 gas 9 ! foll[+ exp]im5ts1 :i* %[ ! effects produc$ by combu/ion 9 t gas2 & ,i %all adv]t to su* diff]5ces z take place 9 ! results ( ^!1 :5 ! oxyg5 gas1 or pure vital air1 is mix$1 9 diff]5t proportions1 ) azotic gas4 ,hav+ fill$ a bell-glass 7,a4 ,pl4 iv4 fig4 #c71 ( betwe5 five & six p9ts measure1 ) oxyg5 gas1 ,i remov$ x f ! wat] tr\gh1 :]e x 0 fill$1 into ! quicksilv] ba?1 by means ( a %all[ glass di% slipp$ und]nea?1 & hav+ dri$ ! m]cury1 ,i introduc$ #fa-a_/d gra9s ( ,kunkel's phosphorus 9 two little ,*9a cups1 l t repres5t$ at ,d1 fig4 #c4 "u ! glass ,a2 & t ,i might set fire to ea* ( ! portions ( phosphorus sep>ately1 & to prev5t ! "o f cat*+ fire f ! o!r1 "o ( ! di%es 0 cov]$ ) a piece ( flat glass4 ,i next rais$ ! quicksilv] 9 ! bell-glass up to ,e ,f1 by suck+ out a suffici5t portion ( ! gas by means ( ! syphon ,g ,h ,i4 ,aft] ?is1 by means ( ! crook$ iron wire 7fig4 #af471 made r$ hot1 ,i set fire to ! two portions ( phosphorus successively1 fir/ burn+ t portion :i* 0 n cov]$ ) ! piece ( glass4 ,! combu/ion 0 extremely rapid1 att5d$ ) a v brilliant flame1 & consid]able dis5gagem5t ( light & heat4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! great heat induc$1 ! gas 0 at fir/ mu* dilat$1 b soon aft] ! m]cury return$ to its level1 & a consid]able absorption ( gas took place2 at ! same "t1 ! :ole inside ( ! glass became cov]$ ) :ite light flakes ( concrete phosphoric acid4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! exp]im5t1 ! quantity ( oxyg5 gas1 r$uc$1 z above direct$1 to a common /&>d1 am\nt$ to #afb cubical in*es2 &1 aft] ! combu/ion 0 f9i%$1 only #bc-a_/d cubical in*es1 likewise r$uc$ to ! /&>d1 rema9$2 s t ! quantity ( oxyg5 gas absorb$ dur+ ! combu/ion 0 #ach-c_/d cubical in*es1 equal to #fi4cge gra9s4 ,a "p ( ! phosphorus rema9$ unconsum$ 9 ! bottom ( ! cups1 :i* be+ wa%$ on purpose to sep>ate ! acid1 weigh$ ab\t #af-a_/d gra9s2 s t ab\t #de gra9s ( phosphorus _h be5 burn$3 ,b1 z x is h>dly possible to avoid an error ( "o or two gra9s1 ,i leave ! quantity s f> qualifi$4 ,h5ce1 z ne>ly #de gra9s ( phosphorus _h1 9 ?is exp]im5t1 unit$ ) #fi4cge gra9s ( oxyg51 & z no gravitat+ matt] c\ld h escap$ ?r\gh ! glass1 we h a "r to conclude1 t ! weight ( ! sub/ance result+ f ! combu/ion 9 =m ( :ite flakes1 mu/ equal t ( ! phosphorus & oxyg5 employ$1 :i* am\nts to #aad4cge gra9s4 ,& we %all pres5tly f9d1 t ^! flakes consi/$ entirely ( a solid or concrete acid4 ,:5 we r$uce ^! weights to hundr$? p>ts1 x w be f\nd1 t #ajj p>ts ( phosphorus require #aed p>ts ( oxyg5 = saturation1 & t ?is comb9ation w produce #bed p>ts ( concrete phosphoric acid1 9 =m ( :ite fleecy flakes4 ,?is exp]im5t proves1 9 ! mo/ conv9c+ mann]1 t1 at a c]ta9 degree ( temp]ature1 oxyg5 possesses a /rong] elective attraction1 or aff9ity1 = phosphorus ?an = caloric2 t1 9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 ! phosphorus attracts ! base ( oxyg5 gas f ! caloric1 :i*1 be+ set free1 spreads itself ov] ! surr\nd+ bodies4 ,b1 ?\gh ?is exp]im5t be s f> p]fectly conclusive1 x is n suffici5tly rigor\s1 z1 9 ! app>atus describ$1 x is impossible to asc]ta9 ! weight ( ! flakes ( concrete acid :i* are =m$2 we c !re=e only det]m9e ?is by calculat+ ! weights ( oxyg5 & phosphorus employ$2 b z1 9 physics1 & 9 *emi/ry1 x is n all[able to suppose :at is capable ( be+ asc]ta9$ by direct exp]im5t1 ,i ?\ght x necess>y to rep at ?is exp]im5t1 z foll[s1 ^u a l>g] scale1 & by means ( a diff]5t app>atus4 ,i took a l>ge glass baloon 7,a4 ,pl4 iv4 fig4 #d47 ) an op5+ ?ree in*es diamet]1 to :i* 0 fitt$ a cry/al /opp] gr\nd ) em]y1 & pi]c$ ) two holes = ! tubes yyy1 xxx4 ,be=e %utt+ ! baloon ) its /opp]1 ,i introduc$ ! support ,,bc1 surm\nt$ by ! *9a cup ,d1 conta9+ #aej grs4 ( phosphorus2 ! /opp] 0 !n fitt$ to ! op5+ ( ! baloon1 lut$ ) fat lute1 & cov]$ ) slips ( l95 spread ) quick-lime & :ite ( eggs3 ,:5 ! lute 0 p]fectly dry1 ! weight ( ! :ole app>atus 0 det]m9$ to )9 a gra91 or a gra9 & a half4 ,i next exhau/$ ! baloon1 by means ( an air pump appli$ to ! tube ,,xxx1 & !n introduc$ oxyg5 gas by means ( ! tube yyy1 hav+ a /op cock adapt$ to x4 ,?is k9d ( exp]im5t is mo/ readily & mo/ exactly p]=m$ by means ( ! hydro-pneumatic ma*9e describ$ by ,mr ,meusni] & me 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghb1 pag4 #dff4 & expla9$ 9 ! latt] "p ( ?is "w1 ) sev]al important additions & corrections s9ce made to x by ,mr ,meusni]4 ,) ?is in/rum5t we c readily asc]ta91 9 ! mo/ exact mann]1 bo? ! quantity ( oxyg5 gas introduc$ into ! baloon1 & ! quantity consum$ dur+ ! c\rse ( ! exp]im5t4 ,:5 all ?+s 7 prop]ly dispos$1 ,i set fire to ! phosphorus ) a burn+ glass4 ,! combu/ion 0 extremely rapid1 accompani$ ) a bright flame1 & mu* heat2 z ! op]ation w5t on1 l>ge quantities ( :ite flakes atta*$ !mselves to ! inn] surface ( ! baloon1 s t at la/ x 0 r5d]$ q opake4 ,! quantity ( ^! flakes at la/ became s abundant1 t1 al?\gh fre% oxyg5 gas 0 cont9ually suppli$1 :i* ought to h support$ ! combu/ion1 yet ! phosphorus 0 soon ext+ui%$4 ,hav+ all[$ ! app>atus to cool completely1 ,i fir/ asc]ta9$ ! quantity ( oxyg5 gas employ$1 & weigh$ ! baloon accurately1 be=e x 0 op5$4 ,i next wa%$1 dri$1 & weigh$ ! small quantity ( phosphorus rema9+ 9 ! cup1 on purpose to det]m9e ! :ole quantity ( phosphorus consum$ 9 ! exp]im5t2 ?is residuum ( ! phosphorus 0 ( a yell[ o*rey col\r4 ,x is evid5t1 t by ^! sev]al precautions1 ,i c\ld easily det]m9e1 #a/1 ! weight ( ! phosphorus consum$2 #b;d1 ! weight ( ! flakes produc$ by ! combu/ion2 &1 #c;d1 ! weight ( ! oxyg5 :i* _h comb9$ ) ! phosphorus4 ,?is exp]im5t gave v ne>ly ! same results ) ! =m]1 z x prov$ t ! phosphorus1 dur+ its combu/ion1 _h absorb$ a little m ?an "o & a half its weight ( oxyg52 & ,i le>n$ ) m c]ta9ty1 t ! weight ( ! new sub/ance1 produc$ 9 ! exp]im5t1 exactly equall$ ! sum ( ! weights ( ! phosphorus consum$1 & oxyg5 absorb$1 :i* inde$ 0 easily det]m9able a priori4 ,if ! oxyg5 gas employ$ be pure1 ! residuum aft] combu/ion is z pure z ! gas employ$2 ?is proves t no?+ escapes f ! phosphorus1 capable ( alt]+ ! purity ( ! oxyg5 gas1 & t ! only action ( ! phosphorus is to sep>ate ! oxyg5 f ! caloric1 ) :i* x 0 be=e unit$4 ,i m5tion$ above1 t :5 any combu/ible body is burnt 9 a holl[ sph]e ( ice1 or 9 an app>atus prop]ly con/ruct$ ^u t pr9ciple1 ! quantity ( ice melt$ dur+ ! combu/ion is an exact measure ( ! quantity ( caloric dis5gag$4 ,^u ?is head1 ! memoir giv5 by ,m4 de la ,place & me1 ,a4 #aghj1 p4 #cee1 may be consult$4 ,hav+ submitt$ ! combu/ion ( phosphorus to ?is trial1 we f\nd t "o p\nd ( phosphorus melt$ a little m ?an #ajj p\nds ( ice dur+ its combu/ion4 ,! combu/ion ( phosphorus succe$s equally well 9 atmosph]ic air z 9 oxyg5 gas1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t ! combu/ion is va/ly sl[]1 be+ ret>d$ by ! l>ge proportion ( azotic gas mix$ ) ! oxyg5 gas1 & t only ab\t "o-fif? "p ( ! air employ$ is absorb$1 because z ! oxyg5 gas only is absorb$1 ! proportion ( ! azotic gas becomes s great t[>d ! close ( ! exp]im5t1 z to put an end to ! combu/ion4 ,i h already %[n1 t phosphorus is *ang$ by combu/ion into an extremely light1 :ite1 flakey matt]2 & its prop]ties are entirely alt]$ by ?is trans=mation3 ,f be+ insoluble 9 wat]1 x becomes n only soluble1 b s gre$y ( moi/ure1 z to attract ! humidity ( ! air ) a/oni%+ rapidity2 by ?is means x is conv]t$ into a liquid1 consid]ably m d5se1 & ( m specific gravity ?an wat]4 ,9 ! /ate ( phosphorus be=e combu/ion1 x _h sc>cely any s5sible ta/e1 by its union ) oxyg5 x acquires an extremely %>p & s\r ta/e3 9 a ^w1 f "o ( ! class ( combu/ible bodies1 x is *ang$ into an incombu/ible sub/ance1 & becomes "o ( ^? bodies call$ acids4 ,?is prop]ty ( a combu/ible sub/ance to be conv]t$ into an acid1 by ! addition ( oxyg51 we %all pres5tly f9d belongs to a great numb] ( bodies3 ,:]e=e1 /rict logic requires t we %\ld adopt a common t]m = indicat+ all ^! op]ations :i* produce analog\s results2 ?is is ! true way to simplify ! /udy ( sci5ce1 z x w\ld be q impossible to be> all its specifical details 9 ! memory1 if !y 7 n classically arrang$4 ,= ?is reason1 we %all di/+ui% ?is conv]sion ( phosphorus into an acid1 by its union ) oxyg51 & 9 g5]al e comb9ation ( oxyg5 ) a combu/ible sub/ance1 by ! t]m ( oxyg5ation3 f :i* ,i %all adopt ! v]b to oxyg5ate1 & ( consequ5ce %all say1 t 9 oxyg5at+ phosphorus we conv]t x into an acid4 ,sulphur is likewise a combu/ible body1 or1 9 o!r words1 x is a body :i* possesses ! p[] ( decompos+ oxyg5 gas1 by attract+ ! oxyg5 f ! caloric ) :i* x 0 comb9$4 ,?is c v easily be prov$1 by means ( exp]im5ts q simil> to ^? we h giv5 ) phosphorus2 b x is necess>y to premise1 t 9 ^! op]ations ) sulphur1 ! same accuracy ( result is n to be expect$ z ) phosphorus2 because ! acid :i* is =m$ by ! combu/ion ( sulphur is difficultly cond5sible1 & because sulphur burns ) m difficulty1 & is soluble 9 ! diff]5t gasses4 ,b ,i c safely ass]t1 f my own exp]im5ts1 t sulphur 9 burn+ absorbs oxyg5 gas2 t ! result+ acid is consid]ably heavi] ?an ! sulphur burnt2 t its weight is equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! sulphur :i* has be5 burnt1 & ( ! oxyg5 absorb$2 &1 la/ly t ?is acid is weighty1 incombu/ible1 & miscible ) wat] 9 all proportions3 ,! only unc]ta9ty rema9+ ^u ?is head1 is ) reg>d to ! proportions ( sulphur & ( oxyg5 :i* ent] into ! composition ( ! acid4 ,*>coal1 :i*1 f all our pres5t k reg>d+ x1 mu/ be consid]$ z a simple combu/ible body1 has likewise ! prop]ty ( decompos+ oxyg5 gas1 by absorb+ its base f ! caloric3 ,b ! acid result+ f ?is combu/ion does n cond5se 9 ! common temp]ature2 "u ! pressure ( our atmosph]e1 x rema9s 9 ! /ate ( gas1 & requires a l>ge proportion ( wat] to comb9e ) or be dissolv$ 94 ,?is acid has1 h[ev]1 all ! kn[n prop]ties ( o!r acids1 ?\gh 9 a weak] degree1 & comb9es1 l !m1 ) all ! bases :i* are susceptible ( =m+ neutral salts4 ,! combu/ion ( *>coal 9 oxyg5 gas1 may be effect$ l t ( phosphorus 9 ! bell-glass1 7,a4 ,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #c47 plac$ ov] m]cury3 b1 z ! heat ( r$ hot iron is n suffici5t to set fire to ! *>coal1 we mu/ add a small morsel ( t9d]1 ) a m9ute p>ticle ( phosphorus1 9 ! same mann] z direct$ 9 ! exp]im5t = ! combu/ion ( iron4 ,a detail$ acc\nt ( ?is exp]im5t w be f\nd 9 ! memoirs ( ! academy = #agha1 p4 #ddh4 ,by t exp]im5t x appe>s1 t #bh p>ts by weight ( *>coal require #gb p>ts ( oxyg5 = saturation1 & t ! ari=m acid produc$ is precisely equal 9 weight to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! *>coal & oxyg5 gas employ$4 ,?is ari=m acid 0 call$ fix$ or fixable air by ! *emi/s :o fir/ discov]$ x2 !y did n !n "k :e!r x 0 air resembl+ t ( ! atmosph]e1 or "s o!r ela/ic fluid1 vitiat$ & corrupt$ by combu/ion2 b s9ce x is n[ asc]ta9$ to be an acid1 =m$ l all o!rs by ! oxyg5ation ( its peculi> base1 x is obvi\s t ! "n ( fix$ air is q ineligible#aa4 ,by burn+ *>coal 9 ! app>atus m5tion$ p4 #fj1 ,mr de la ,place & ,i f\nd t "o lib4 ( *>coal melt$ #if libs4 #f oz4 ( ice2 t1 dur+ ! combu/ion1 #b libs4 #i oz4 #a gros4 #aj grs4 ( oxyg5 7 absorb$1 & t #c libs4 #i oz4 #a gros4 #aj grs4 ( acid gas 7 =m$4 ,?is gas weighs #j4fie p>ts ( a gra9 = ea* cubical in*1 9 ! common /&>d temp]ature & pressure m5tion$ above1 s t #cd1bdb cubical in*es ( acid gas are produc$ by ! combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( *>coal4 ,i might multiply ^! exp]im5ts1 & %[ by a num]\s succession ( facts1 t all acids are =m$ by ! combu/ion ( c]ta9 sub/ances2 b ,i am prev5t$ f do+ s 9 place1 by ! plan :i* ,i h laid d[n1 ( proce$+ only f facts already asc]ta9$1 to su* z are unkn[n1 & ( draw+ my examples only f circum/ances already expla9$4 ,9 ! mean "t1 h[ev]1 ! ?ree examples above cit$ may suffice = giv+ a cle> & accurate conception ( ! mann] 9 :i* acids are =m$4 ,by ^! x may be cle>ly se51 t oxyg5 is an elem5t common to !m all1 :i* con/itutes _! acidity2 & t !y diff] f ea* o!r1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! oxyg5at$ or acidifi$ sub/ance4 ,we mu/ !re=e1 9 e acid1 c>efully di/+ui% betwe5 ! acidifiable1 base1 :i* ,mr de ,morveau calls ! radical1 & ! acidifi+ pr9ciple or oxyg54 ,,footnotes3 #aa ,x may be prop] to rem>k1 ?\gh "h omitt$ by ! au?or1 t1 9 con=mity ) ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ! new nom5clature1 ?is acid is by ,mr ,lavoisi] & 8 coleagues call$ ! c>bonic acid1 & :5 9 ! ari=m /ate c>bonic acid gas4 ,e4 ,,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,( ! ,nom5clature ( ,acids 9 g5]al1 & p>ticul>ly ( ^? drawn f ,nitre & ,sea-,salt4 ,x becomes extremely easy1 f ! pr9ciples laid d[n 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 to e/abli% a sy/ematic nom5clature = ! acids3 ,! ^w acid1 be+ us$ z a g5]ic t]m1 ea* acid falls to be di/+ui%$ 9 language1 z 9 nature1 by ! "n ( its base or radical4 ,?us1 we give ! g5]ic "n ( acids to ! products ( ! combu/ion or oxyg5ation ( phosphorus1 ( sulphur1 & ( *>coal2 & ^! products are respectively nam$1 ! phosphoric acid1 ! sulphuric acid1 & ! c>bonic acid4 ,!re is h[ev]1 a rem>kable circum/ance 9 ! oxyg5ation ( combu/ible bodies1 & ( a "p ( su* bodies z are conv]tible into acids1 t !y are susceptible ( diff]5t degrees ( saturation ) oxyg51 & t ! result+ acids1 ?\gh =m$ by ! union ( ! same elem5ts1 are possess$ ( diff]5t prop]ties1 dep5d+ ^u t diff]5ce ( proportion4 ,( ?is1 ! phosphoric acid1 & m especially ! sulphuric1 furni%es u ) examples4 ,:5 sulphur is comb9$ ) a small proportion ( oxyg51 x =ms1 9 ?is fir/ or l[] degree ( oxyg5ation1 a volatile acid1 hav+ a p5etrat+ od\r1 & possess$ ( v p>ticul> qualities4 ,by a l>g] proportion ( oxyg51 x is *ang$ into a fix$1 heavy acid1 )\t any od\r1 & :i*1 by comb9ation ) o!r bodies1 gives products q diff]5t f ^? furni%$ by ! =m]4 ,9 ?is in/ance1 ! pr9ciples ( our nom5clature seem to fail2 & x seems difficult to d]ive su* t]ms f ! "n ( ! acidifiable base1 z %all di/9ctly express ^! two degrees ( saturation1 or oxyg5ation1 )\t circumlocution4 ,by reflection1 h[ev]1 ^u ! subject1 or p]haps r f ! necessity ( ! case1 we h ?\ght x all[able to express ^! v>ieties 9 ! oxyg5ation ( ! acids1 by simply v>y+ ! t]m9ation ( _! specific names4 ,! volatile acid produc$ f sulphur 0 anci5tly kn[n to ,/ahl "u ! "n ( sulphur\s acid#ab4 ,we h pres]v$ t t]m = ?is acid f sulphur "u-saturat$ ) oxyg52 & di/+ui% ! o!r1 or completely saturat$ or oxyg5at$ acid1 by ! "n ( sulphuric acid4 ,we %all !re=e say1 9 ?is new *emical language1 t sulphur1 9 comb9+ ) oxyg51 is susceptible ( two degrees ( saturation2 t ! fir/1 or less] degree1 con/itutes sulphur\s acid1 :i* is volatile & p5etrat+2 :il/ ! second1 or high] degree ( saturation1 produces sulphuric acid1 :i* is fix$ & inodor\s4 ,we %all adopt ?is diff]5ce ( t]m9ation = all ! acids :i* assume sev]al degrees ( saturation4 ,h5ce we h a phosphor\s & a phosphoric acid1 an acet\s & an acetic acid2 & s on1 = o!rs 9 simil> circum/ances4 ,?is "p ( *emical sci5ce w\ld h be5 extremely simple1 & ! nom5clature ( ! acids w\ld n h be5 at all p]plex$1 z x is n[ 9 ! old nom5clature1 if ! base or radical ( ea* acid _h be5 kn[n :5 ! acid itself 0 discov]$4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 phosphorus be+ a kn[n sub/ance be=e ! discov]y ( its acid1 ?is latt] 0 rightly di/+ui%$ by a t]m drawn f ! "n ( its acidifiable base4 ,b :51 on ! contr>y1 an acid happ5$ to be discov]$ be=e its base1 or r1 :5 ! acidifiable base f :i* x 0 =m$ rema9$ unkn[n1 names 7 adopt$ = ! two1 :i* h n ! smalle/ connection2 & ?us1 n only ! memory became bur!n$ ) useless appellations1 b ev5 ! m9ds ( /ud5ts1 nay ev5 ( exp]i5c$ *emi/s1 became fill$ ) false ideas1 :i* "t & reflection alone is capable ( eradicat+4 ,we may give an in/ance ( ?is confusion ) respect to ! acid sulphur3 ,! =m] *emi/s hav+ procur$ ?is acid f ! vitriol ( iron1 gave x ! "n ( ! vitriolic acid f ! "n ( ! sub/ance :i* produc$ x2 & !y 7 !n ignorant t ! acid procur$ f sulphur by combu/ion 0 exactly ! same4 ,! same ?+ happ5$ ) ! ari=m acid =m]ly call$ fix$ air2 x n be+ kn[n t ?is acid 0 ! result ( comb9+ *>coal ) oxyg51 a v>iety ( d5om9ations h be5 giv5 to x1 n "o ( :i* conveys j ideas ( its nature or orig94 ,we h f\nd x extremely easy to correct & modify ! anci5t language ) respect to ^! acids proce$+ f kn[n bases1 hav+ conv]t$ ! "n ( vitriolic acid into t ( sulphuric1 & ! "n ( fix$ air into t ( c>bonic acid2 b x is impossible to foll[ ?is plan ) ! acids ^: bases are /ill unkn[n2 ) ^! we h be5 oblig$ to use a contr>y plan1 &1 in/ead ( =m+ ! "n ( ! acid f t ( its base1 h be5 =c$ to d5om9ate ! unkn[n base f ! "n ( ! kn[n acid1 z happ5s 9 ! case ( ! acid :i* is procur$ f sea salt4 ,to dis5gage ?is acid f ! alkal9e base ) :i* x is comb9$1 we h only to p\r sulphuric acid ^u sea-salt1 imm$iately a brisk eff]vesc5ce takes place1 :ite vap\rs arise1 ( a v p5etrat+ od\r1 &1 by only g5tly heat+ ! mixture1 all ! acid is driv5 (f4 ,z1 9 ! common temp]ature & pressure ( our atmosph]e1 ?is acid is naturally 9 ! /ate ( gas1 we mu/ use p>ticul> precautions = reta9+ x 9 prop] vessels4 ,= small exp]im5ts1 ! mo/ simple & mo/ commodi\s app>atus consi/s ( a small retort ,g1 7,pl4 ,v4 ,fig4 #e471 into :i* ! sea-salt is introduc$1 well dri$#ac1 we !n p\r on "s conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 & imm$iately introduce ! beak ( ! retort "u little j>s or bell-glasses ,a1 7same ,plate & ,fig471 previ\sly fill$ ) quicksilv]4 ,9 proportion z ! acid gas is dis5gag$1 x passes into ! j>1 & gets to ! top ( ! quicksilv]1 :i* x displaces4 ,:5 ! dis5gagem5t ( ! gas slack5s1 a g5tle heat is appli$ to ! retort1 & gradually increas$ till no?+ m passes ov]4 ,?is acid gas has a v /rong aff9ity ) wat]1 :i* absorbs an enorm\s quantity ( x1 z is prov$ by introduc+ a v ?9 lay] ( wat] into ! glass :i* conta9s ! gas2 =1 9 an in/ant1 ! :ole acid gas disappe>s1 & comb9es ) ! wat]4 ,?is latt] circum/ance is tak5 advantage ( 9 laboratories & manufactures1 on purpose to obta9 ! acid ( sea-salt 9 a liquid =m2 & = ?is purpose ! app>atus 7,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a47 is employ$4 ,x consi/s1 #a/1 ( a tubulat$ retort ,a1 into :i* ! sea-salt1 & aft] x ! sulphuric acid1 are introduc$ ?r\gh ! op5+ ,h2 #b;d1 ( ! baloon or recipi5t c1 b1 int5d$ = conta9+ ! small quantity ( liquid :i* passes ov] dur+ ! process2 &1 #c;d1 ( a set ( bottles1 ) two m\?s1 ,l1 ,l1 ,l1 ,l1 half fill$ ) wat]1 int5d$ = absorb+ ! gas dis5gag$ by ! di/illation4 ,?is app>atus w be m amply describ$ 9 ! latt] "p ( ?is "w4 ,al?\gh we h n yet be5 able1 ei!r to compose or to decomp\nd ?is acid ( sea-salt1 we _c h ! smalle/ d\bt t x1 l all o!r acids1 is compos$ by ! union ( oxyg5 ) an acidifiable base4 ,we h !re=e call$ ?is unkn[n sub/ance ! muriatic base1 or muriatic radical1 d]iv+ ?is "n1 aft] ! example ( ,mr ,b]gman & ,mr de ,morveau1 f ! ,lat9 ^w muria1 :i* 0 anci5tly us$ to signify sea-salt4 ,?us1 )\t be+ able exactly to det]m9e ! compon5t p>ts ( muriatic acid1 we design1 by t t]m1 a volatile acid1 :i* reta9s ! =m ( gas 9 ! common temp]ature & pressure ( our atmosph]e1 :i* comb9es ) great facility1 & 9 great quantity1 ) wat]1 & ^: acidifiable base adh]es s v intimately ) oxyg51 t no me?od has hi!rto be5 devis$ = sep>at+ !m4 ,if ev] ?is acidifiable base ( ! muriatic acid is discov]$ to be a kn[n sub/ance1 ?\gh n[ unkn[n 9 t capacity1 x w be requisite to *ange its pres5t d5om9ation = "o analog\s ) t ( its base4 ,9 common ) sulphuric acid1 & sev]al o!r acids1 ! muriatic is capable ( diff]5t degrees ( oxyg5ation2 b ! excess ( oxyg5 produces q contr>y effects ^u x f :at ! same circum/ance produces ^u ! acid ( sulphur4 ,! l[] degree ( oxyg5ation conv]ts sulphur into a volatile gasse\s acid1 :i* only mixes 9 small proportions ) wat]1 :il/ a high] oxyg5ation =ms an acid possess+ mu* /rong] acid prop]ties1 :i* is v fix$ & _c rema9 9 ! /ate ( gas b 9 a v high temp]ature1 :i* has no smell1 & :i* mixes 9 l>ge proportion ) wat]4 ,) muriatic acid1 ! direct rev]se takes place2 an additional saturation ) oxyg5 r5d]s x m volatile1 ( a m p5etrat+ od\r1 less miscible ) wat]1 & dim9i%es its acid prop]ties4 ,we 7 at fir/ incl9$ to h d5om9at$ ^! two degrees ( saturation 9 ! same mann] z we _h done ) ! acid ( sulphur1 call+ ! less oxyg5at$ muriat\s acid1 & t :i* is m saturat$ ) oxyg5 muriatic acid3 ,b1 z ?is latt] gives v p>ticul> results 9 its comb9ations1 & z no?+ analog\s to x is yet kn[n 9 *emi/ry1 we h left ! "n ( muriatic acid to ! less saturat$1 & give ! latt] ! m comp\nd$ appellation ( oxyg5at$ muriatic acid4 ,al?\gh ! base or radical ( ! acid :i* is extract$ f nitre or saltpetre be bett] kn[n1 we h judg$ prop] only to modify its "n 9 ! same mann] ) t ( ! muriatic acid4 ,x is drawn f nitre1 by ! int]v5tion ( sulphuric acid1 by a process simil> to t describ$ = extract+ ! muriatic acid1 & by means ( ! same app>atus 7,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a474 ,9 proportion z ! acid passes ov]1 x is 9 "p cond5s$ 9 ! baloon or recipi5t1 & ! re/ is absorb$ by ! wat] conta9$ 9 ! bottles ,l1,l1,l1,l2 ! wat] becomes fir/ gre51 !n blue1 & at la/ yell[1 9 proportion to ! conc5tration ( ! acid4 ,dur+ ?is op]ation1 a l>ge quantity ( oxyg5 gas1 mix$ ) a small proportion ( azotic gas1 is dis5gag$4 ,?is acid1 l all o!rs1 is compos$ ( oxyg51 unit$ to an acidifiable base1 & is ev5 ! fir/ acid 9 :i* ! exi/5ce ( oxyg5 0 well asc]ta9$4 ,its two con/itu5t elem5ts are b weakly unit$1 & are easily sep>at$1 by pres5t+ any sub/ance ) :i* oxyg5 has a /rong] aff9ity ?an ) ! acidifiable base peculi> to ?is acid4 ,by "s exp]im5ts ( ?is k9d1 x 0 fir/ discov]$ t azote1 or ! base ( mephitis or azotic gas1 con/itut$ its acidifiable base or radical2 & consequ5tly t ! acid ( nitre 0 really an azotic acid1 hav+ azote = its base1 comb9$ ) oxyg54 ,= ^! reasons1 t we might be consi/5t ) our pr9ciples1 x appe>$ necess>y1 ei!r to call ! acid by ! "n ( azotic1 or to "n ! base nitric radical2 b f ei!r ( ^! we 7 dissuad$1 by ! foll[+ consid]ations4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x seem$ difficult to *ange ! "n ( nitre or saltpetre1 :i* has be5 univ]sally adopt$ 9 society1 9 manufactures1 & 9 *emi/ry2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 azote hav+ be5 discov]$ by ,mr ,b]?ollet to be ! base ( volatile alkali1 or ammoniac1 z well z ( ?is acid1 we ?\ght x improp] to call x nitric radical4 ,we h !re=e cont9u$ ! t]m ( azote to ! base ( t "p ( atmosph]ic air :i* is likewise ! nitric & ammoniacal radical2 & we h nam$ ! acid ( nitre1 9 its l[] & high] degrees ( oxyg5ation1 nitr\s acid 9 ! =m]1 & nitric acid 9 ! latt] /ate2 ?us pres]v+ its =m] appellation prop]ly modifi$4 ,sev]al v respectable *emi/s h disapprov$ ( ?is def]5ce = ! old t]ms1 & wi%$ u to h p]sev]$ 9 p]fect+ a new *emical language1 )\t pay+ any respect = anci5t usage2 s t1 by ?us /e]+ a k9d ( middle c\rse1 we h expos$ ourselves to ! c5sures ( "o sect ( *emi/s1 & to ! expo/ulations ( ! opposite p>ty4 ,! acid ( nitre is susceptible ( assum+ a great numb] ( sep>ate /ates1 dep5d+ ^u its degree ( oxyg5ation1 or ^u ! proportions 9 :i* azote & oxyg5 ent] into its composition4 ,by a fir/ or l[e/ degree ( oxyg5ation1 x =ms a p>ticul> species ( gas1 :i* we %all cont9ue to "n nitr\s gas2 ?is is compos$ ne>ly ( two p>ts1 by weight1 ( oxyg5 comb9$ ) "o "p ( azote2 & 9 ?is /ate x is n miscible ) wat]4 ,9 ?is gas1 ! azote is by no means saturat$ ) oxyg51 b1 on ! contr>y1 has /ill a v great aff9ity = t elem5t1 & ev5 attracts x f atmosph]ic air1 imm$iately ^u gett+ into contact ) x4 ,?is comb9ation ( nitr\s gas ) atmosph]ic air has ev5 become "o ( ! me?ods = det]m9+ ! quantity ( oxyg5 conta9$ 9 air1 & consequ5tly = asc]ta9+ its degree ( salubrity4 ,?is addition ( oxyg5 conv]ts ! nitr\s gas into a p[]ful acid1 :i* has a /rong aff9ity ) wat]1 & :i* is itself susceptible ( v>i\s additional degrees ( oxyg5ation4 ,:5 ! proportions ( oxyg5 & azote is bel[ ?ree p>ts1 by weight1 ( ! =m]1 to "o ( ! latt]1 ! acid is r$ col\r$1 & emits copi\s fumes4 ,9 ?is /ate1 by ! application ( a g5tle heat1 x gives out nitr\s gas2 & we t]m x1 9 ?is degree ( oxyg5ation1 nitr\s acid4 ,:5 f\r p>ts1 by weight1 ( oxyg51 are comb9$ ) "o "p ( azote1 ! acid is cle> & col\rless1 m fix$ 9 ! fire ?an ! nitr\s acid1 has less od\r1 & its con/itu5t elem5ts are m firmly unit$4 ,?is species ( acid1 9 con=mity ) our pr9ciples ( nom5clature1 is call$ nitric acid4 ,?us1 nitric acid is ! acid ( nitre1 sur*>g$ ) oxyg52 nitr\s acid is ! acid ( nitre sur*>g$ ) azote2 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 ) nitr\s gas2 & ?is latt] is azote n suffici5tly saturat$ ) oxyg5 to possess ! prop]ties ( an acid4 ,to ?is degree ( oxyg5ation1 we h aft]w>ds1 9 ! c\rse ( ?is "w1 giv5 ! g5]ical "n ( oxyd#ad4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,! t]m =m]ly us$ by ! ,engli% *emi/s = ?is acid 0 writt5 sulphure\s2 b we h ?\ght prop] to spell x z above1 t x may bett] con=m ) ! simil> t]m9ations ( nitr\s1 c>bon\s1 c4 to be us$ h]eaft]4 ,9 g5]al1 we h us$ ! ,engli% t]m9ations ic & ous to translate ! t]ms ( ! ,au?or :i* end ) ique & cux1 ) h>dly any o!r alt]ations4--,e4 #ac ,= ?is purpose1 ! op]ation call$ decrepitation is us$1 :i* consi/s 9 subject+ x to ne>ly a r$ heat1 9 a prop] vessel1 s z to evaporate all its wat] ( cry/allization4--,e4 #ad ,9 /rict con=mity ) ! pr9ciples ( ! new nom5clature1 b :i* ! ,au?or has giv5 8 reasons = deviat+ f 9 ?is in/ance1 ! foll[+ ought to h be5 ! t]ms = azote1 9 its sev]al degrees ( oxyg5ation3 ,azote1 azotic gas1 7azote comb9$ ) caloric71 azotic oxyd gas1 nitr\s acid1 & nitric acid4--,e4 ,,*ap4 ,,vii4 ,( ! ,decomposition ( ,oxyg5 ,gas by means ( ,metals1 & ! ,=mation ( ,metallic ,oxyds4 ,oxyg5 has a /rong] aff9ity ) metals heat$ to a c]ta9 degree ?an ) caloric2 9 consequ5ce ( :i*1 all metallic bodies1 except+ gold1 silv]1 & plat9a1 h ! prop]ty ( decompos+ oxyg5 gas1 by attract+ its base f ! caloric ) :i* x 0 comb9$4 ,we h already %[n 9 :at mann] ?is decomposition takes place1 by means ( m]cury & iron2 hav+ obs]v$1 t1 9 ! case ( ! fir/1 x mu/ be consid]$ z a k9d ( gradual combu/ion1 :il/1 9 ! latt]1 ! combu/ion is extremely rapid1 & att5d$ ) a brilliant flame4 ,! use ( ! heat employ$ 9 ^! op]ations is to sep>ate ! p>ticles ( ! metal f ea* o!r1 & to dim9i% _! attraction ( cohesion or aggregation1 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 _! mutual attraction = ea* o!r4 ,! absolute weight ( metallic sub/ances is augm5t$ 9 proportion to ! quantity ( oxyg5 !y absorb2 !y1 at ! same "t1 lose _! metallic spl5d\r1 & are r$uc$ into an e>?y pulv]ul5t matt]4 ,9 ?is /ate metals mu/ n be consid]$ z entirely saturat$ ) oxyg51 because _! action ^u ?is elem5t is c\nt]balanc$ by ! p[] ( aff9ity betwe5 x & caloric4 ,dur+ ! calc9ation ( metals1 ! oxyg5 is !re=e act$ ^u by two sep>ate & opposite p[]s1 t ( its attraction = caloric1 & t ex]t$ by ! metal1 & only t5ds to unite ) ! latt] 9 consequ5ce ( ! excess ( ! latt] ov] ! =m]1 :i* is1 9 g5]al1 v inconsid]able4 ,:]e=e1 :5 metallic sub/ances are oxyg5at$ 9 atmosph]ic air1 or 9 oxyg5 gas1 !y are n conv]t$ into acids l sulphur1 phosphorus1 & *>coal1 b are only *ang$ into int]m$iate sub/ances1 :i*1 ?\gh approa*+ to ! nature ( salts1 h n acquir$ all ! sal9e prop]ties4 ,! old *emi/s h affix$ ! "n ( calx n only to metals 9 ?is /ate1 b to e body :i* has be5 long expos$ to ! action ( fire )\t be+ melt$4 ,!y h conv]t$ ?is ^w calx into a g5]ical t]m1 "u :i* !y conf\nd calc>e\s e>?1 :i*1 f a neutral salt1 :i* x really 0 be=e calc9ation1 has be5 *ang$ by fire into an e>?y alkali1 by los+ half ( its weight1 ) metals :i*1 by ! same means1 h jo9$ !mselves to a new sub/ance1 ^: quantity (t5 exce$s half _! weight1 & by :i* !y h be5 *ang$ almo/ into ! nature ( acids4 ,?is mode ( classify+ sub/ances ( s v opposite natures1 "u ! same g5]ic "n1 w\ld h be5 q contr>y to our pr9ciples ( nom5clature1 especially z1 by reta9+ ! above t]m = ?is /ate ( metallic sub/ances1 we mu/ h convey$ v false ideas ( its nature4 ,we h1 !re=e1 laid aside ! expression metallic calx altoge!r1 & h sub/itut$ 9 its place ! t]m oxyd1 f ! ,greek ^w ,greek3 oxys4 ,by ?is may be se51 t ! language we h adopt$ is bo? copi\s & expressive4 ,! fir/ or l[e/ degree ( oxyg5ation 9 bodies1 conv]ts !m into oxyds2 a second degree ( additional oxyg5ation con/itutes ! class ( acids1 ( :i* ! specific names1 drawn f _! p>ticul> bases1 t]m9ate 9 ous1 z ! nitr\s & sulphur\s acids2 ! ?ird degree ( oxyg5ation *anges ^! into ! species ( acids di/+ui%$ by ! t]m9ation 9 ic1 z ! nitric & sulphuric acids2 &1 la/ly1 we c express a f\r?1 or highe/ degree ( oxyg5ation1 by add+ ! ^w oxyg5at$ to ! "n ( ! acid1 z has be5 already done ) ! oxyg5at$ muriatic acid4 ,we h n conf9$ ! t]m oxyd to express+ ! comb9ations ( metals ) oxyg51 b h ext5d$ x to signify t fir/ degree ( oxyg5ation 9 all bodies1 :i*1 )\t conv]t+ !m into acids1 causes !m to approa* to ! nature ( salts4 ,?us1 we give ! "n ( oxyd ( sulphur to t s(t sub/ance into :i* sulphur is conv]t$ by incipi5t combu/ion2 & we call ! yell[ matt] left by phosphorus1 aft] combu/ion1 by ! "n ( oxyd ( phosphorus4 ,9 ! same mann]1 nitr\s gas1 :i* is azote 9 its fir/ degree ( oxyg5ation1 is ! oxyd ( azote4 ,we h likewise oxyds 9 great numb]s f ! vegetable & animal k+doms2 & ,i %all %[1 9 ! sequel1 t ?is new language ?r[s great light ^u all ! op]ations ( art & nature4 ,we h already obs]v$1 t almo/ all ! metallic oxyds h peculi> & p]man5t col\rs4 ,^! v>y n only 9 ! diff]5t species ( metals1 b ev5 accord+ to ! v>i\s degrees ( oxyg5ation 9 ! same metal4 ,h5ce we are "u ! necessity ( add+ two epi!ts to ea* oxyd1 "o ( :i* indicates ! metal oxydat$#ae1 :ile ! o!r indicates ! peculi> col\r ( ! oxyd4 ,?us1 we h ! black oxyd ( iron1 ! r$ oxyd ( iron1 & ! yell[ oxyd ( iron2 :i* expressions respectively answ] to ! old unmean+ t]ms ( m>tial e?iops1 colco?>1 & ru/ ( iron1 or o*re4 ,we h likewise ! gray1 yell[1 & r$ oxyds ( lead1 :i* answ] to ! equally false or insignificant t]ms1 a%es ( lead1 massicot1 & m9ium4 ,^! d5om9ations sometimes become r long1 especially :5 we mean to indicate :e!r ! metal has be5 oxydat$ 9 ! air1 by detonation ) nitre1 or by means ( acids2 b !n !y always convey j & accurate ideas ( ! correspond+ object :i* we wi% to express by _! use4 ,all ?is w be r5d]$ p]fectly cle> & di/9ct by means ( ! tables :i* are add$ to ?is "w4 ,,footnotes3 #ae ,"h we see ! ^w oxyd conv]t$ into ! v]b to oxydate1 oxydat$1 oxydat+1 aft] ! same mann] ) ! d]ivation ( ! v]b to oxyg5ate1 oxyg5at$1 oxyg5at+1 f ! ^w oxyg54 ,i am n cle> ( ! absolute necessity ( ?is second v]b "h fir/ introduc$1 b ?9k1 9 a "w ( ?is nature1 t x is ! duty ( ! translator to neglect e o!r consid]ation = ! sake ( /rict fidelity to ! ideas ( 8 au?or4--,e4 ,,*ap4 ,,viii4 ,( ! ,radical ,pr9ciple ( ,wat]1 & ( its ,decomposition by ,*>coal & ,iron4 ,until v lately1 wat] has always be5 ?\ght a simple sub/ance1 insomu* t ! old] *emi/s consid]$ x z an elem5t4 ,su* x und\bt$ly 0 to !m1 z !y 7 unable to decompose x2 or1 at lea/1 s9ce ! decomposition :i* took place daily be=e _! eyes 0 entirely unnotic$4 ,b we mean to prove1 t wat] is by no means a simple or elem5t>y sub/ance4 ,i %all n "h pret5d to give ! hi/ory ( ?is rec5t1 & hi!rto conte/$ discov]y1 :i* is detail$ 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #agha1 b %all only br+ =w>ds ! pr9cipal pro(s ( ! decomposition & composition ( wat]2 &1 ,i may v5ture to say1 t ^! w be conv9c+ to su* z consid] !m imp>tially4 ,exp]im5t ,fir/4 ,hav+ fix$ ! glass tube ,,ef1 7,pl4 vii4 fig4 #aa47 ( f #h to #ab l9es diamet]1 across a furnace1 ) a small incl9ation f ,e to ,f1 lute ! sup]ior extremity ,e to ! glass retort ,a1 conta9+ a det]m9ate quantity ( di/ill$ wat]1 & to ! inf]ior extremity ,f1 ! worm ,,ss fix$ into ! neck ( ! d\bly tubulat$ bottle ,h1 :i* has ! b5t tube ,,kk adapt$ to "o ( its op5+s1 9 su* a mann] z to convey su* ari=m fluids or gasses z may be dis5gag$1 dur+ ! exp]im5t1 into a prop] app>atus = det]m9+ _! quantity & nature4 ,to r5d] ! success ( ?is exp]im5t c]ta91 x is necess>y t ! tube ,,ef be made ( well anneal$ & difficultly fusible glass1 & t x be coat$ ) a lute compos$ ( clay mix$ ) p[d]$ /one-w>e2 besides :i*1 x mu/ be support$ ab\t its middle by means ( an iron b> pass$ ?r\gh ! furnace1 le/ x %\ld s(t5 & b5d dur+ ! exp]im5t4 ,a tube ( ,*9a-w>e1 or porcella91 w\ld answ] bett] ?an "o ( glass = ?is exp]im5t1 7 x n difficult to procure "o s entirely free f pores z to prev5t ! passage ( air or ( vap\rs4 ,:5 ?+s are ?us arrang$1 a fire is light$ 9 ! furnace ,,efcd1 :i* is support$ ( su* a /r5g? z to keep ! tube ,,ef r$ hot1 b n to make x melt2 &1 at ! same "t1 su* a fire is kept up 9 ! furnace ,,vvxx1 z to keep ! wat] 9 ! retort ,a cont9ually boil+4 ,9 proportion z ! wat] 9 ! retort ,a is evaporat$1 x fills ! tube ,,ef1 & drives out ! air x conta9$ by ! tube ,,kk2 ! aque\s gas =m$ by evaporation is cond5s$ by cool+ 9 ! worm ,,ss1 & falls1 drop by drop1 into ! tubulat$ bottle ,h4 ,hav+ cont9u$ ?is op]ation until all ! wat] be evaporat$ f ! retort1 & hav+ c>efully empti$ all ! vessels employ$1 we f9d t a quantity ( wat] has pass$ ov] into ! bottle ,h1 exactly equal to :at 0 be=e conta9$ 9 ! retort ,a1 )\t any dis5gagem5t ( gas :atsoev]3 ,s t ?is exp]im5t turns out to be a simple di/illation2 & ! result w\ld h be5 exactly ! same1 if ! wat] _h be5 run f "o vessel into ! o!r1 ?r\gh ! tube ,,ef1 )\t hav+ und]gone ! int]m$iate inc&esc5ce4 ,exp]im5t ,second4 ,! app>atus be+ dispos$1 z 9 ! =m] exp]im5t1 #bh grs4 ( *>coal1 brok5 into mod]ately small p>ts1 & :i* has previ\sly be5 expos$ = a long "t to a r$ heat 9 close vessels1 are introduc$ into ! tube ,,ef4 ,e ?+ else is manag$ z 9 ! prec$+ exp]im5t4 ,! wat] conta9$ 9 ! retort ,a is di/ill$1 z 9 ! =m] exp]im5t1 &1 be+ cond5s$ 9 ! worm1 falls into ! bottle ,h2 b1 at ! same "t1 a consid]able quantity ( gas is dis5gag$1 :i*1 escap+ by ! tube ,,kk1 is receiv$ 9 a conv5i5t app>atus = t purpose4 ,aft] ! op]ation is f9i%$1 we f9d no?+ b a few atoms ( a%es rema9+ 9 ! tube ,,ef2 ! #bh grs4 ( *>coal hav+ entirely disappe>$4 ,:5 ! dis5gag$ gasses are c>efully exam9$1 !y are s\nd to weigh #aac4g grs4#af2 ^! are ( two k9ds1 viz4 #add cubical in*es ( c>bonic acid gas1 weigh+ #ajj grs4 & #chj cubical in*es ( a v light gas1 weigh+ only #ac4g grs4 :i* takes fire :5 9 contact ) air1 by ! approa* ( a light$ body2 &1 :5 ! wat] :i* has pass$ ov] into ! bottle ,h is c>efully exam9$1 x is f\nd to h lo/ #he4g grs4 ( its weight4 ,?us1 9 ?is exp]im5t1 #he4g grs4 ( wat]1 jo9$ to #bh grs4 ( *>coal1 h comb9$ 9 su* a way z to =m #ajj grs4 ( c>bonic acid1 & #ac4g grs4 ( a p>ticul> gas capable ( be+ burnt4 ,i h already %[n1 t #ajj grs4 ( c>bonic acid gas consi/s ( #gb grs4 ( oxyg51 comb9$ ) #bh grs4 ( *>coal2 h5ce ! #bh grs4 ( *>coal plac$ 9 ! glass tube h acquir$ #gb grs4 ( oxyg5 f ! wat]2 & x foll[s1 t #he4g grs4 ( wat] are compos$ ( #gb grs4 ( oxyg51 comb9$ ) #ac4g grs4 ( a gas susceptible ( combu/ion4 ,we %all see pres5tly t ?is gas _c possibly h be5 dis5gag$ f ! *>coal1 & mu/1 consequ5tly1 h be5 produc$ f ! wat]4 ,i h suppress$ "s circum/ances 9 ! above acc\nt ( ?is exp]im5t1 :i* w\ld only h complicat$ & obscur$ its results 9 ! m9ds ( ! read]4 ,= in/ance1 ! inflammable gas dissolves a v small "p ( ! *>coal1 by :i* means its weight is some:at augm5t$1 & t ( ! c>bonic gas proportionally dim9i%$4 ,al?o' ! alt]ation produc$ by ?is circum/ance is v inconsid]able2 yet ,i h ?\ght x necess>y to det]m9e its effects by rigid calculation1 & to report1 z above1 ! results ( ! exp]im5t 9 its simplifi$ /ate1 z if ?is circum/ance _h n happ5$4 ,at any rate1 %\ld any d\bts rema9 respect+ ! consequ5ces ,i h drawn f ?is exp]im5t1 !y w be fully dissipat$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5ts1 :i* ,i am go+ to adduce 9 support ( my op9ion4 ,exp]im5t ,?ird4 ,! app>atus be+ dispos$ exactly z 9 ! =m] exp]im5t1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t in/ead ( ! #bh grs4 ( *>coal1 ! tube ,,ef is fill$ ) #bgd grs4 ( s(t iron 9 ?9 plates1 roll$ up spirally4 ,! tube is made r$ hot by means ( its furnace1 & ! wat] 9 ! retort ,a is kept con/antly boil+ till x be all evaporat$1 & has pass$ ?r\gh ! tube ,,ef1 s z to be cond5s$ 9 ! bottle ,h4 ,no c>bonic acid gas is dis5gag$ 9 ?is exp]im5t1 in/ead ( :i* we obta9 #daf cubical in*es1 or #ae grs4 ( inflammable gas1 ?irte5 times light] ?an atmosph]ic air4 ,by exam9+ ! wat] :i* has be5 di/ill$1 x is f\nd to h lo/ #ajj grs4 & ! #bgd grs4 ( iron conf9$ 9 ! tube are f\nd to h acquir$ #he grs4 additional weight1 & its magnitude is consid]ably augm5t$4 ,! iron is n[ h>dly at all attractable by ! magnet2 x dissolves 9 acids )\t eff]vesc5ce2 &1 9 %ort1 x is conv]t$ into a black oxyd1 precisely simil> to t :i* has be5 burnt 9 oxyg5 gas4 ,9 ?is exp]im5t we h a true oxydation ( iron1 by means ( wat]1 exactly simil> to t produc$ 9 air by ! assi/ance ( heat4 ,"o hundr$ gra9s ( wat] hav+ be5 decompos$1 #he grs4 ( oxyg5 h comb9$ ) ! iron1 s z to conv]t x into ! /ate ( black oxyd1 & #ae grs4 ( a peculi> inflammable gas are dis5gag$3 ,f all ?is x cle>ly foll[s1 t wat] is compos$ ( oxyg5 comb9$ ) ! base ( an inflammable gas1 9 ! respective proportions ( #he p>ts1 by weight ( ! =m]1 to #ae p>ts ( ! latt]4 ,?us wat]1 besides ! oxyg51 :i* is "o ( its elem5ts 9 common ) _m o!r sub/ances1 conta9s ano!r elem5t z its con/itu5t base or radical1 & = :i* we mu/ f9d an appropriate t]m4 ,none t we c\ld ?9k ( seem$ bett] adapt$ ?an ! ^w hydrog51 :i* signifies ! g5]ative pr9ciple ( wat]1 f ,greek3 ydor aqua1 & ,greek3 ge9omas gignor#ag4 ,we call ! comb9ation ( ?is elem5t ) caloric hydrog5 gas2 & ! t]m hydrog5 expresses ! base ( t gas1 or ! radical ( wat]4 ,?is exp]im5t furni%es u ) a new combu/ible body1 or1 9 o!r words1 a body :i* has s mu* aff9ity ) oxyg5 z to draw x f its connection ) caloric1 & to decompose air or oxyg5 gas4 ,?is combu/ible body has itself s great aff9ity ) caloric1 t1 unless :5 engag$ 9 a comb9ation ) "s o!r body1 x always subsi/s 9 ! ari=m or gasse\s /ate1 9 ! usual temp]ature & pressure ( our atmosph]e4 ,9 ?is /ate ( gas x is ab\t #a_/ac ( ! weight ( an equal bulk ( atmosph]ic air2 x is n absorb$ by wat]1 ?\gh x is capable ( hold+ a small quantity ( t fluid 9 solution1 & x is incapable ( be+ us$ = respiration4 ,z ! prop]ty ?is gas possesses1 9 common ) all o!r combu/ible bodies1 is no?+ m ?an ! p[] ( decompos+ air1 & c>ry+ (f its oxyg5 f ! caloric ) :i* x 0 comb9$1 x is easily und]/ood t x _c burn1 unless 9 contact ) air or oxyg5 gas4 ,h5ce1 :5 we set fire to a bottle full ( ?is gas1 x burns g5tly1 fir/ at ! neck ( ! bottle1 & !n 9 ! inside ( x1 9 proportion z ! ext]nal air gets 93 ,?is combu/ion is sl[ & successive1 & only takes place at ! surface ( contact betwe5 ! two gasses4 ,x is q diff]5t :5 ! two gasses are mix$ be=e !y are set on fire3 ,if1 = in/ance1 aft] hav+ introduc$ "o "p ( oxyg5 gas into a n>r[ m\!d bottle1 we fill x up ) two p>ts ( hydrog5 gas1 & br+ a light$ tap]1 or o!r burn+ body1 to ! m\? ( ! bottle1 ! combu/ion ( ! two gasses takes place in/antane\sly ) a viol5t explosion4 ,?is exp]im5t ought only to be made 9 a bottle ( v /rong gre5 glass1 hold+ n m ?an a p9t1 & wrapp$ r\nd ) tw9e1 o!rwise ! op]ator w be expos$ to great dang] f ! rupture ( ! bottle1 ( :i* ! fragm5ts w be ?r[n ab\t ) great =ce4 ,if all t has be5 relat$ above1 conc]n+ ! decomposition ( wat]1 be exactly con=mable to tru?2--if1 z ,i h endeav\r$ to prove1 t sub/ance be really compos$ ( hydrog51 z its prop] con/itu5t elem5t1 comb9$ ) oxyg51 x ought to foll[1 t1 by reunit+ ^! two elem5ts toge!r1 we %\ld recompose wat]2 & t ?is actually happ5s may be judg$ ( by ! foll[+ exp]im5t4 ,exp]im5t ,f\r?4 ,i took a l>ge cri/al baloon1 ,a1 ,pl4 iv4 fig4 #e4 hold+ ab\t #cj p9ts1 hav+ a l>ge op5+1 to :i* 0 cem5t$ ! plate ( copp] ,,bc1 pi]c$ ) f\r holes1 9 :i* f\r tubes t]m9ate4 ,! fir/ tube1 ,h h1 is int5d$ to be adapt$ to an air pump1 by :i* ! baloon is to be exhau/$ ( its air4 ,! second tube gg1 communicates1 by its extremity ,,mm1 ) a res]voir ( oxyg5 gas1 ) :i* ! baloon is to be fill$4 ,! ?ird tube d ,d d'1 communicates1 by its extremity d ,,nn1 ) a res]voir ( hydrog5 gas4 ,! extremity d' ( ?is tube t]m9ates 9 a capill>y op5+1 ?r\gh :i* ! hydrog5 gas conta9$ 9 ! res]voir is =c$1 ) a mod]ate degree ( quickness1 by ! pressure ( "o or two in*es ( wat]4 ,! f\r? tube conta9s a metallic wire ,,gl1 hav+ a knob at its extremity ,l1 int5d$ = giv+ an electrical sp>k f ,l to d'1 on purpose to set fire to ! hydrog5 gas3 ,?is wire is moveable 9 ! tube1 t we may be able to sep>ate ! knob ,l f ! extremity d' ( ! tube ,d d'4 ,! ?ree tubes d ,d d'1 gg1 & ,h h1 are all provid$ ) /op-cocks4 ,t ! hydrog5 gas & oxyg5 gas may be z mu* z possible depriv$ ( wat]1 !y are made to pass1 9 _! way to ! baloon ,a1 ?r\gh ! tubes ,,mm1 ,,nn1 ( ab\t an in* diamet]1 & fill$ ) salts1 :i*1 f _! deliquesc5t nature1 gre$ily attract ! moi/ure ( ! air3 ,su* are ! acetite ( pota%1 & ! muriat or nitrat ( lime#ah4 ,^! salts mu/ only be r$uc$ to a co>se p[d]1 le/ !y run into lumps1 & prev5t ! gasses f get+ ?r\gh _! int]/ices4 ,we mu/ be provid$ be=e h& ) a suffici5t quantity ( oxyg5 gas1 c>efully purifi$ f all admixture ( c>bonic acid1 by long contact ) a solution ( pota%#ai4 ,we mu/ likewise h a d\ble quantity ( hydrog5 gas1 c>efully purifi$ 9 ! same mann] by long contact ) a solution ( pota% 9 wat]4 ,! be/ way ( obta9+ ?is gas free f mixture is1 by decompos+ wat] ) v pure s(t iron1 z direct$ 9 ,exp4 #c4 ( ?is *apt]4 ,hav+ adju/$ e ?+ prop]ly1 z above direct$1 ! tube ,h h is adapt$ to an air-pump1 & ! baloon ,a is exhau/$ ( its air4 ,we next admit ! oxyg5 gas s z to fill ! baloon1 & !n1 by means ( pressure1 z is be=e m5tion$1 =ce a small /ream ( hydrog5 gas ?r\gh its tube ,d d'1 :i* we imm$iately set on fire by an electric sp>k4 ,by means ( ! above describ$ app>atus1 we c cont9ue ! mutual combu/ion ( ^! two gasses = a long "t1 z we h ! p[] ( supply+ !m to ! baloon f _! res]voirs1 9 proportion z !y are consum$4 ,i h 9 ano!r place#bj giv5 a description ( ! app>atus us$ 9 ?is exp]im5t1 & h expla9$ ! mann] ( asc]ta9+ ! quantities ( ! gasses consum$ ) ! mo/ scrupul\s exactitude4 ,9 proportion to ! advancem5t ( ! combu/ion1 !re is a deposition ( wat] ^u ! inn] surface ( ! baloon or matrass ,a3 ,! wat] gradually increases 9 quantity1 &1 ga!r+ into l>ge drops1 runs d[n to ! bottom ( ! vessel4 ,x is easy to asc]ta9 ! quantity ( wat] collect$1 by weigh+ ! baloon bo? be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t4 ,?us we h a tw(old v]ification ( our exp]im5t1 by asc]ta9+ bo? ! quantities ( ! gasses employ$1 & ( ! wat] =m$ by _! combu/ion3 ,^! two quantities mu/ be equal to ea* o!r4 ,by an op]ation ( ?is k9d1 ,mr ,meusni] & ,i asc]ta9$ t x requir$ #he p>ts1 by weight1 ( oxyg51 unit$ to #ae p>ts ( hydrog51 to compose #ajj p>ts ( wat]4 ,?is exp]im5t1 :i* has n hi!rto be5 publi%$1 0 made 9 pres5ce ( a num]\s committee f ! ,royal ,academy4 ,we ex]t$ ! mo/ scrupul\s att5tion to its accuracy2 & h reason to believe t ! above propositions _c v>y a two hundr$? "p f absolute tru?4 ,f ^! exp]im5ts1 bo? analytical & syn!tic1 we may n[ affirm t we h asc]ta9$1 ) z mu* c]ta9ty z is possible 9 physical or *emical subjects1 t wat] is n a simple elem5t>y sub/ance1 b is compos$ ( two elem5ts1 oxyg5 & hydrog52 :i* elem5ts1 :5 exi/+ sep>ately1 h s /rong aff9ity = caloric1 z only to subsi/ "u ! =m ( gas 9 ! common temp]ature & pressure ( our atmosph]e4 ,?is decomposition & recomposition ( wat] is p]petually op]at+ be=e our eyes1 9 ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 by means ( comp\nd elective attraction4 ,we %all pres5tly see t ! ph5om5a att5dant ^u v9\s f]m5tation1 putrefaction1 & ev5 vegetation1 are produc$1 at lea/ 9 a c]ta9 degree1 by decomposition ( wat]4 ,x is v extraord9>y t ?is fact %\ld h hi!rto be5 ov]look$ by natural philosoph]s & *emi/s3 ,inde$1 x /rongly proves1 t1 9 *emi/ry1 z 9 moral philosophy1 x is extremely difficult to ov]come prejudices imbib$ 9 e>ly education1 & to se>* = tru? 9 any o!r road ?an ! "o we h be5 accu/om$ to foll[4 ,i %all f9i% ?is *apt] by an exp]im5t mu* less demon/rative ?an ^? already relat$1 b :i* has appe>$ to make m impression ?an any o!r ^u ! m9ds ( _m p4 ,:5 #af ounces ( alkohol are burnt 9 an app>atus#ba prop]ly adapt$ = collect+ all ! wat] dis5gag$ dur+ ! combu/ion1 we obta9 f #ag to #ah ounces ( wat]4 ,z no sub/ance c furni% a product l>g] ?an its orig9al bulk1 x foll[s1 t some?+ else has unit$ ) ! alkohol dur+ its combu/ion2 & ,i h already %[n t ?is mu/ be oxyg51 or ! base ( air4 ,?us alkohol conta9s hydrog51 :i* is "o ( ! elem5ts ( wat]2 & ! atmosph]ic air conta9s oxyg51 :i* is ! o!r elem5t necess>y to ! composition ( wat]4 ,?is exp]im5t is a new pro( t wat] is a comp\nd sub/ance4 ,,footnotes3 #af ,9 ! latt] "p ( ?is "w w be f\nd a p>ticul> acc\nt ( ! processes necess>y = sep>at+ ! diff]5t k9ds ( gasses1 & = det]m9+ _! quantities4--,a4 #ag ,?is expression ,hydrog5 has be5 v sev]ely criticis$ by "s1 :o pret5d t x signifies eng5d]$ by wat]1 & n t :i* eng5d]s wat]4 ,! exp]im5ts relat$ 9 ?is *apt] prove1 t1 :5 wat] is decompos$1 hydrog5 is produc$1 & t1 :5 hydrog5 is comb9$ ) oxyg51 wat] is produc$3 ,s t we may say1 ) equal tru?1 t wat] is produc$ f hydrog51 or hydrog5 is produc$ f wat]4--,a4 #ah ,see ! nature ( ^! salts 9 ! second "p ( ?is book4--,a4 #ai ,by pota% is "h meant1 pure or cau/ic alkali1 depriv$ ( c>bonic acid by means ( quick-lime3 ,9 g5]al1 we may obs]ve "h1 t all ! alkalies & e>?s mu/ inv>iably be consid]$ z 9 _! pure or cau/ic /ate1 unless o!rwise express$4--,e4 ,! me?od ( obta9+ ?is pure alkali ( pota% w be giv5 9 ! sequel4--,a4 #bj ,see ! ?ird "p ( ?is "w4--,a4 #ba ,see an acc\nt ( ?is app>atus 9 ! ?ird "p ( ?is "w4--,a4 ,,*ap4 ,,ix4 ,( ! quantities ( ,caloric dis5gag$ f diff]5t species ( ,combu/ion4 ,we h already m5tion$1 t1 :5 any body is burnt 9 ! c5t] ( a holl[ sph]e ( ice & suppli$ ) air at ! temp]ature ( z]o 7#cb71 ! quantity ( ice melt$ f ! inside ( ! sph]e becomes a measure ( ! relative quantities ( caloric dis5gag$4 ,mr de la ,place & ,i gave a description ( ! app>atus employ$ = ?is k9d ( exp]im5t 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghj1 p4 #cee2 & a description & plate ( ! same app>atus w be f\nd 9 ! ?ird "p ( ?is "w4 ,) ?is app>atus1 phosphorus1 *>coal1 & hydrog5 gas1 gave ! foll[+ results3 ,"o p\nd ( phosphorus melt$ #ajj libs4 ( ice4 ,"o p\nd ( *>coal melt$ #if libs4 #h oz4 ,"o p\nd ( hydrog5 gas melt$ #bie libs4 #i oz4 #c-a_/b gros4 ,z a concrete acid is =m$ by ! combu/ion ( phosphorus1 x is probable t v little caloric rema9s 9 ! acid1 &1 consequ5tly1 t ! above exp]im5t gives u v ne>ly ! :ole quantity ( caloric conta9$ 9 ! oxyg5 gas4 ,ev5 if we suppose ! phosphoric acid to conta9 a good deal ( caloric1 yet1 z ! phosphorus mu/ h conta9$ ne>ly an equal quantity be=e combu/ion1 ! error mu/ be v small1 z x w only consi/ ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 :at 0 conta9$ 9 ! phosphorus be=e1 & 9 ! phosphoric acid aft] combu/ion4 ,i h already %[n 9 ,*ap4 ,v4 t "o p\nd ( phosphorus absorbs "o p\nd eight ounces ( oxyg5 dur+ combu/ion2 & s9ce1 by ! same op]ation1 #ajj lib4 ( ice are melt$1 x foll[s1 t ! quantity ( caloric conta9$ 9 "o p\nd ( oxyg5 gas is capable ( melt+ #ff libs4 #aj oz4 #e gros #bd grs4 ( ice4 ,"o p\nd ( *>coal dur+ combu/ion melts only #if libs4 #h oz4 ( ice1 :il/ x absorbs #b libs4 #i oz4 #a gros #aj grs4 ( oxyg54 ,by ! exp]im5t ) phosphorus1 ?is quantity ( oxyg5 gas ought to dis5gage a quantity ( caloric suffici5t to melt #aga libs4 #f oz4 #e gros ( ice2 consequ5tly1 dur+ ?is exp]im5t1 a quantity ( caloric1 suffici5t to melt #gd libs4 #ad oz4 #e gros ( ice disappe>s4 ,c>bonic acid is n1 l phosphoric acid1 9 a concrete /ate aft] combu/ion b 9 ! /ate ( gas1 & requires to be unit$ ) caloric to enable x to subsi/ 9 t /ate2 ! quantity ( caloric miss+ 9 ! la/ exp]im5t is evid5tly employ$ = t purpose4 ,:5 we divide t quantity by ! weight ( c>bonic acid1 =m$ by ! combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( *>coal1 we f9d t ! quantity ( caloric necess>y = *ang+ "o p\nd ( c>bonic acid f ! concrete to ! gasse\s /ate1 w\ld be capable ( melt+ #bj libs4 #ae oz4 #e gros ( ice4 ,we may make a simil> calculation ) ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas & ! consequ5t =mation ( wat]4 ,dur+ ! combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( hydrog5 gas1 #e libs4 #aj oz4 #e gros #bd grs4 ( oxyg5 gas are absorb$1 & #bie libs4 #i oz4 #c-a_/b gros ( ice are melt$4 ,b #e libs4 #aj oz4 #e gros #bd grs4 ( oxyg5 gas1 9 *ang+ f ! ari=m to ! solid /ate1 loses1 accord+ to ! exp]im5t ) phosphorus1 en\gh ( caloric to h melt$ #cgg libs4 #ab oz4 #c gros ( ice4 ,!re is only dis5gag$1 f ! same quantity ( oxyg51 dur+ its combu/ion ) hydrog5 gas1 z mu* caloric z melts #bie libs4 #b oz4 #c-a_/b gros2 :]e=e !re rema9s 9 ! wat] at ,z]o 7#cb71 =m$1 dur+ ?is exp]im5t1 z mu* caloric z w\ld melt #hb libs4 #i oz4 #g-a_/b gros ( ice4 ,h5ce1 z #f libs4 #aj oz4 #e gros #bd grs4 ( wat] are =m$ f ! combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( hydrog5 gas ) #e libs4 #aj oz4 #e gros #bd grs4 ( oxyg51 x foll[s t1 9 ea* p\nd ( wat]1 at ! temp]ature ( ,z]o1 7#cb71 !re exi/s z mu* caloric z w\ld melt #ab libs4 #e oz4 #b gros #dh grs4 ( ice1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! quantity orig9ally conta9$ 9 ! hydrog5 gas1 :i* we h be5 oblig$ to omit1 = want ( data to calculate its quantity4 ,f ?is x appe>s t wat]1 ev5 9 ! /ate ( ice1 conta9s a consid]able quantity ( caloric1 & t oxyg51 9 ent]+ into t comb9ation1 reta9s likewise a good proportion4 ,f ^! exp]im5ts1 we may assume ! foll[+ results z suffici5tly e/abli%$4 ,combu/ion ( ,phosphorus4 ,f ! combu/ion ( phosphorus1 z relat$ 9 ! =ego+ exp]im5ts1 x appe>s1 t "o p\nd ( phosphorus requires #a lib4 #h oz4 ( oxyg5 gas = its combu/ion1 & t #b libs4 #h oz4 ( concrete phosphoric acid are produc$4 ,! quantity ( caloric dis5gag$ by ! combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( phosphorus1 express$ by ! numb] ( p\nds ( ice melt$ dur+ t op]ation1 is #ajj4jjjjj4 ,! quantity dis5gag$ f ea* p\nd ( oxyg51 dur+ ! combu/ion ( phosphorus1 express$ 9 ! same mann]1 is #ff4ffffg4 ,! quantity dis5gag$ dur+ ! =mation ( "o p\nd ( phosphoric acid1 #dj4jjjjj4 ,! quantity rema9+ 9 ea* p\nd ( phosphoric acid1 #j4jjjjj7;,a74 ,note ,a3 ,we "h suppose ! phosphoric acid n to conta9 any caloric1 :i* is n /rictly true2 b1 z ,i h be=e obs]v$1 ! quantity x really conta9s is probably v small1 & we h n giv5 x a value1 = want ( a suffici5t data to g ^u4--,a4 ,combu/ion ( ,*>coal4 ,9 ! combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( *>coal1 #b libs4 #i oz4 #a gros #aj grs4 ( oxyg5 gas are absorb$1 & #c libs4 #i oz4 #a gros #aj grs4 ( c>bonic acid gas are =m$4 ,caloric1 dis5gag$ d>+ ! combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( *>coal1 #if4ejjjj7;,a74 ,caloric dis5gag$ dur+ ! combu/ion ( *>coal1 f ea* p\nd ( oxyg5 gas absorb$1 #cg4ebhbc4 ,caloric dis5gag$ dur+ ! =mation ( "o p\nd ( c>bonic acid gas1 #bg4jbjbd4 ,caloric reta9$ by ea* p\nd ( oxyg5 aft] ! combu/ion1 #bi4achdd4 ,caloric necess>y = support+ "o p\nd ( c>bonic acid 9 ! /ate ( gas1 #bj4igifj4 ,note ,a3 ,all ^! relative quantities ( caloric are express$ by ! numb] ( p\nds ( ice1 & decimal p>ts1 melt$ dur+ ! sev]al op]ations4--,e4 ,combu/ion ( ,hydrog5 ,gas4 ,9 ! combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( hydrog5 gas1 #e libs4 #aj oz4 #e gros #bd grs4 ( oxyg5 gas are absorb$1 & #f libs4 #aj oz4 #e gros #bd grs4 ( wat] are =m$4 ,caloric f ea* lib4 ( hydrog5 gas1 #bie4ehiej4 ,caloric f ea* lib4 ( oxyg5 gas1 #eb4afbhj4 ,caloric dis5gag$ dur+ ! =mation ( ea* p\nd ( wat]1 #dd4cchdj4 ,caloric reta9$ by ea* lib4 ( oxyg5 aft] combu/ion ) hydrog51 #ad4ejchf4 ,caloric reta9$ by ea* lib4 ( wat] at ! temp]ature ( ,z]o 7#cb71 #ab4cbhbc4 ,( ! ,=mation ( ,nitric ,acid4 ,:5 we comb9e nitr\s gas ) oxyg5 gas1 s z to =m nitric or nitr\s acid a degree ( heat is produc$1 :i* is mu* less consid]able ?an :at is evolv$ dur+ ! o!r comb9ations ( oxyg52 :5ce x foll[s t oxyg51 :5 x becomes fix$ 9 nitric acid1 reta9s a great "p ( ! heat :i* x possess$ 9 ! /ate ( gas4 ,x is c]ta9ly possible to det]m9e ! quantity ( caloric :i* is dis5gag$ dur+ ! comb9ation ( ^! two gasses1 & consequ5tly to det]m9e :at quantity rema9s aft] ! comb9ation takes place4 ,! fir/ ( ^! quantities might be asc]ta9$1 by mak+ ! comb9ation ( ! two gasses 9 an app>atus surr\nd$ by ice2 b1 z ! quantity ( caloric dis5gag$ is v inconsid]able1 x w\ld be necess>y to op]ate ^u a l>ge quantity ( ! two gasses 9 a v tr\blesome & complicat$ app>atus4 ,by ?is consid]ation1 ,mr de la ,place & ,i h hi!rto be5 prev5t$ f mak+ ! attempt4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ! place ( su* an exp]im5t may be suppli$ by calculations1 ! results ( :i* _c be v f> f tru?4 ,mr de la ,place & ,i deflagrat$ a conv5i5t quantity ( nitre & *>coal 9 an ice app>atus1 & f\nd t twelve p\nds ( ice 7 melt$ by ! deflagration ( "o p\nd ( nitre4 ,we %all see1 9 ! sequel1 t "o p\nd ( nitre is compos$1 z "u1 ( ,pota% #g oz4 #f gros #ea4hd grs4 #deae4hd grs4 ,dry acid #h #a #ba4af #dgjj4af4 ,! above quantity ( dry acid is compos$ ( ,oxyg5 #f oz4 #c gros #ff4cd grs4 #cgch4cd grs4 ,azote #a #e #be4hb #ifa4hb4 ,by ?is we f9d t1 dur+ ! above deflagration1 #b gros #a-a_/c gr4 ( *>coal h suff]$ combu/ion1 along/ ) #cgch4cd grs4 or #f oz4 #c gros #ff4cd grs4 ( oxyg54 ,h5ce1 s9ce #ab libs4 ( ice 7 melt$ dur+ ! combu/ion1 x foll[s1 t "o p\nd ( oxyg5 burnt 9 ! same mann] w\ld h melt$ #bi4ehcbj libs4 ( ice4 ,to :i* ! quantity ( caloric1 reta9$ by a p\nd ( oxyg5 aft] comb9+ ) *>coal to =m c>bonic acid gas1 be+ add$1 :i* 0 already asc]ta9$ to be capable ( melt+ #bi4achdd libs4 ( ice1 we h = ! total quantity ( caloric rema9+ 9 a p\nd ( oxyg51 :5 comb9$ ) nitr\s gas 9 ! nitric acid #eh4gbafd2 :i* is ! numb] ( p\nds ( ice ! caloric rema9+ 9 ! oxyg5 9 t /ate is capable ( melt+4 ,we h be=e se5 t1 9 ! /ate ( oxyg5 gas1 x conta9$ at lea/ #ff4ffffg2 :]e=e x foll[s t1 9 comb9+ ) azote to =m nitric acid1 x only loses #g4idejb4 ,f>!r exp]im5ts ^u ?is subject are necess>y to asc]ta9 h[ f> ! results ( ?is calculation may agree ) direct fact4 ,?is enorm\s quantity ( caloric reta9$ by oxyg5 9 its comb9ation into nitric acid1 expla9s ! cause ( ! great dis5gagem5t ( caloric dur+ ! deflagrations ( nitre2 or1 m /rictly speak+1 ^u all occasions ( ! decomposition ( nitric acid4 ,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,wax4 ,hav+ exam9$ sev]al cases ( simple combu/ion1 ,i mean n[ to give a few examples ( a m complex nature4 ,"o p\nd ( wax-tap] be+ all[$ to burn sl[ly 9 an ice app>atus1 melt$ #acc libs4 #b oz4 #e-a_/c gros ( ice4 ,accord+ to my exp]im5ts 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghd1 p4 #fjf1 "o p\nd ( wax-tap] consi/s ( #ac oz4 #a gros #bc grs4 ( *>coal1 & #b oz4 #f gros #di grs4 ( hydrog54 ,by ! =ego+ exp]im5ts1 ! above quantity ( *>coal ought to melt #gi4cicij libs4 ( ice2 & ! hydrog5 %\ld melt #eb4cgfje --------- ,9 all #aca4gfiie libs4 ,?us1 we see ! quantity ( caloric dis5gag$ f a burn+ tap]1 is pretty exactly con=mable to :at 0 obta9$ by burn+ sep>ately a quantity ( *>coal & hydrog5 equal to :at ent]s into its composition4 ,^! exp]im5ts ) ! tap] 7 sev]al times repeat$1 s t ,i h reason to believe !m accurate4 ,combu/ion ( ,olive ,oil4 ,we includ$ a burn+ lamp1 conta9+ a det]m9ate quantity ( olive-oil1 9 ! ord9>y app>atus1 &1 :5 ! exp]im5t 0 f9i%$1 we asc]ta9$ exactly ! quantities ( oil consum$1 & ( ice melt$2 ! result 01 t1 dur+ ! combu/ion ( "o p\nd ( olive-oil1 #adh libs4 #ad oz4 #a gros ( ice 7 melt$4 ,by my exp]im5ts 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghd1 & ( :i* ! foll[+ ,*apt] conta9s an ab/ract1 x appe>s t "o p\nd ( olive-oil consi/s ( #ab oz4 #e gros #e grs4 ( *>coal1 & #c oz4 #b gros #fg grs4 ( hydrog54 ,by ! =ego+ exp]im5ts1 t quantity ( *>coal %\ld melt #gf4ahgbc libs4 ( ice1 & ! quantity ( hydrog5 9 a p\nd ( ! oil %\ld melt #fb4aejec libs4 ,! sum ( ^! two gives #ach4ccggf libs4 ( ice1 :i* ! two con/itu5t elem5ts ( ! oil w\ld h melt$1 _h !y sep>ately suff]$ combu/ion1 :]eas ! oil really melt$ #adh4hhccj libs4 :i* gives an excess ( #aj4edeed 9 ! result ( ! exp]im5t above ! calculat$ result1 f data furni%$ by =m] exp]im5ts4 ,?is diff]5ce1 :i* is by no means v consid]able1 may arise f errors :i* are unavoidable 9 exp]im5ts ( ?is nature1 or x may be ow+ to ! composition ( oil n be+ z yet exactly asc]ta9$4 ,x proves1 h[ev]1 t !re is a great agreem5t betwe5 ! results ( our exp]im5ts1 respect+ ! comb9ation ( caloric1 & ^? :i* reg>d its dis5gagem5t4 ,! foll[+ desid]ata /ill rema9 to be det]m9$1 viz4 ,:at quantity ( caloric is reta9$ by oxyg51 aft] comb9+ ) metals1 s z to conv]t !m into oxyds2 ,:at quantity is conta9$ by hydrog51 9 its diff]5t /ates ( exi/5ce2 & to asc]ta91 ) m precision ?an is hi!rto atta9$1 h[ mu* caloric is dis5gag$ dur+ ! =mation ( wat]1 z !re /ill rema9 consid]able d\bts ) respect to our pres5t det]m9ation ( ?is po9t1 :i* c only be remov$ by f>!r exp]im5ts4 ,we are at pres5t occupi$ ) ?is inquiry2 &1 :5 once ^! sev]al po9ts are well asc]ta9$1 :i* we hope !y w soon be1 we %all probably be "u ! necessity ( mak+ consid]able corrections ^u mo/ ( ! results ( ! exp]im5ts & calculations 9 ?is ,*apt]4 ,i did n1 h[ev]1 consid] ?is z a suffici5t reason = )hold+ s mu* z is already kn[n f su* z may be incl9$ to lab\r ^u ! same subject4 ,x is difficult1 9 our endeav\rs to discov] ! pr9ciples ( a new sci5ce1 to avoid beg9n+ by guess-"w2 & x is r>ely possible to arrive at p]fection f ! fir/ sett+ out4 ,,*ap4 ,x4 ,( ! ,comb9ation ( ,combu/ible ,sub/ances ) ea* o!r4 ,z combu/ible sub/ances 9 g5]al h a great aff9ity = oxyg51 !y ought likewise to attract1 or t5d to comb9e ) ea* o!r2 quae sunt eadem uni t]tio1 sunt eadem int] se2 & ! axiom is f\nd to be true4 ,almo/ all ! metals1 = in/ance1 are capable ( unit+ ) ea* o!r1 & =m+ :at are call$ alloys#bb1 9 common language4 ,mo/ ( ^!1 l all comb9ations1 are susceptible ( sev]al degrees ( saturation2 ! great] numb] ( ^! alloys are m brittle ?an ! pure metals ( :i* !y are compos$1 especially :5 ! metals alloy$ toge!r are consid]ably diff]5t 9 _! degrees ( fusibility4 ,to ?is diff]5ce 9 fusibility1 "p ( ! ph5om5a att5dant ^u alloyage are ow+1 p>ticul>ly ! prop]ty ( iron1 call$ by workm5 hot%ort4 ,?is k9d ( iron mu/ be consid]$ z an alloy1 or mixture ( pure iron1 :i* is almo/ infusible1 ) a small portion ( "s o!r metal :i* fuses 9 a mu* l[] degree ( heat4 ,s long z ?is alloy rema9s cold1 & bo? metals are 9 ! solid /ate1 ! mixture is malleable2 b1 if heat$ to a suffici5t degree to liquify ! m fusible metal1 ! p>ticles ( ! liquid metal1 :i* are int]pos$ betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! metal rema9+ solid1 mu/ de/roy _! cont9uity1 & occasion ! alloy to become brittle4 ,! alloys ( m]cury1 ) ! o!r metals1 h usually be5 call$ amalgams1 & we see no inconv5i5ce f cont9u+ ! use ( t t]m4 ,sulphur1 phosphorus1 & *>coal1 readily unite ) metals4 ,comb9ations ( sulphur ) metals are usually nam$ pyrites4 ,_! comb9ations ) phosphorus & *>coal are ei!r n yet nam$1 or h receiv$ new names only ( late2 s t we h n scrupl$ to *ange !m accord+ to our pr9ciples4 ,! comb9ations ( metal & sulphur we call sulphurets1 ^? ) phosphorus phosphurets1 & ^? =m$ ) *>coal c>burets4 ,^! d5om9ations are ext5d$ to all ! comb9ations into :i* ! above ?ree sub/ances ent]1 )\t be+ previ\sly oxyg5at$4 ,?us1 ! comb9ation ( sulphur ) pota%1 or fix$ vegetable alkali1 is call$ sulphuret ( pota%2 t :i* x =ms ) ammoniac1 or volatile alkali1 is t]m$ sulphuret ( ammoniac4 ,hydrog5 is likewise capable ( comb9+ ) _m combu/ible sub/ances4 ,9 ! /ate ( gas1 x dissolves *>coal1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 & sev]al metals2 we di/+ui% ^! comb9ations by ! t]ms1 c>bonat$ hydrog5 gas1 sulphurat$ hydrog5 gas1 & phosphorat$ hydrog5 gas4 ,! sulphurat$ hydrog5 gas 0 call$ hepatic air by =m] *emi/s1 or foetid air f sulphur1 by ,mr ,s*eele4 ,! virtues ( sev]al m9]al wat]s1 & ! foetid smell ( animal excrem5ts1 *iefly arise f ! pres5ce ( ?is gas4 ,! phosphorat$ hydrog5 gas is rem>kable = ! prop]ty1 discov]$ by ,mr ,g5gembre1 ( tak+ fire spontane\sly ^u gett+ into contact ) atmosph]ic air1 or1 :at is bett]1 ) oxyg5 gas4 ,?is gas has a /rong flav\r1 resembl+ t ( putrid fi%2 & x is v probable t ! phosphoresc5t quality ( fi%1 9 ! /ate ( putrefaction1 arises f ! escape ( ?is species ( gas4 ,:5 hydrog5 & *>coal are comb9$ toge!r1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( caloric1 to br+ ! hydrog5 into ! /ate ( gas1 !y =m oil1 :i* is ei!r fix$ or volatile1 accord+ to ! proportions ( hydrog5 & *>coal 9 its composition4 ,! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 fix$ or fat oils drawn f vegetables by expression1 & volatile or ess5tial oils1 is1 t ! =m] conta9s an excess ( *>coal1 :i* is sep>at$ :5 ! oils are heat$ above ! degree ( boil+ wat]2 :]eas ! volatile oils1 conta9+ a j proportion ( ^! two con/itu5t +r$i5ts1 are n liable to be decompos$ by t heat1 b1 unit+ ) caloric into ! gasse\s /ate1 pass ov] 9 di/illation un*ang$4 ,9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghd1 p4 #eic4 ,i gave an acc\nt ( my exp]im5ts ^u ! composition ( oil & alkohol1 by ! union ( hydrog5 ) *>coal1 & ( _! comb9ation ) oxyg54 ,by ^! exp]im5ts1 x appe>s t fix$ oils comb9e ) oxyg5 dur+ combu/ion1 & are !reby conv]t$ into wat] & c>bonic acid4 ,by means ( calculation appli$ to ! products ( ^! exp]im5ts1 we f9d t fix$ oil is compos$ ( #ba p>ts1 by weight1 ( hydrog5 comb9$ ) #gi p>ts ( *>coal4 ,p]haps ! solid sub/ances ( an oily nature1 su* z wax1 conta9 a proportion ( oxyg51 to :i* !y owe _! /ate ( solidity4 ,i am at pres5t engag$ 9 a s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 :i* ,i hope w ?r[ great light ^u ?is subject4 ,x is wor?y ( be+ exam9$1 :e!r hydrog5 9 its concrete /ate1 uncomb9$ ) caloric1 be susceptible ( comb9ation ) sulphur1 phosphorus1 & ! metals4 ,!re is no?+ t we "k (1 :i*1 a priori1 %\ld r5d] ^! comb9ations impossible2 = combu/ible bodies be+ 9 g5]al susceptible ( comb9ation ) ea* o!r1 !re is no evid5t reason = hydrog5 be+ an exception to ! rule3 ,h[ev]1 no direct exp]im5t z yet e/abli%es ei!r ! possibility or impossibility ( ?is union4 ,iron & z9c are ! mo/ likely1 ( all ! metals1 = ent]+ into comb9ation ) hydrog52 b1 z ^! h ! prop]ty ( decompos+ wat]1 & z x is v difficult to get entirely free f moi/ure 9 *emical exp]im5ts1 x is h>dly possible to det]m9e :e!r ! small portions ( hydrog5 gas1 obta9$ 9 c]ta9 exp]im5ts ) ^! metals1 7 previ\sly comb9$ ) ! metal 9 ! /ate ( solid hydrog51 or if !y 7 produc$ by ! decomposition ( a m9ute quantity ( wat]4 ,! m c>e we take to prev5t ! pres5ce ( wat] 9 ^! exp]im5ts1 ! less is ! quantity ( hydrog5 gas procur$2 &1 :5 v accurate precautions are employ$1 ev5 t quantity becomes h>dly s5sible4 ,h[ev] ?is inquiry may turn out respect+ ! p[] ( combu/ible bodies1 z sulphur1 phosphorus1 & metals1 to absorb hydrog51 we are c]ta9 t !y only absorb a v small portion2 & t ?is comb9ation1 in/ead ( be+ ess5tial to _! con/itution1 c only be consid]$ z a =eign sub/ance1 :i* contam9ates _! purity4 ,x is ! prov9ce ( ! advocates#bc = ?is sy/em to prove1 by decisive exp]im5ts1 ! real exi/5ce ( ?is comb9$ hydrog51 :i* !y h hi!rto only done by conjectures f\nd$ ^u suppositions4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,?is t]m alloy1 :i* we h f ! language ( ! arts1 s]ves exce$+ly well = di/+ui%+ all ! comb9ations or intimate unions ( metals ) ea* o!r1 & is adopt$ 9 our new nom5clature = t purpose4--,a4 #bc ,by ^! are meant ! support]s ( ! phlogi/ic !ory1 :o at pres5t consid] hydrog51 or ! base ( inflammable air1 z ! phlogi/on ( ! celebrat$ ,/ahl4--,e4 ,,*ap4 ,,xi4 ,obs]vations ^u ,oxyds & ,acids ) sev]al ,bases--& ^u ! ,composition ( ,animal & ,vegetable ,sub/ances4 ,we h1 9 ,*ap4 ,v4 & ,,viii4 exam9$ ! products result+ f ! combu/ion ( ! f\r simple combu/ible sub/ances1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 *>coal1 & hydrog53 ,we h %[n1 9 ,*ap4 ,x t ! simple combu/ible sub/ances are capable ( comb9+ ) ea* o!r into comp\nd combu/ible sub/ances1 & h obs]v$ t oils 9 g5]al1 & p>ticul>ly ! fix$ vegetable oils1 belong to ?is class1 be+ compos$ ( hydrog5 & *>coal4 ,x rema9s1 9 ?is *apt]1 to treat ( ! oxyg5ation ( ^! comp\nd combu/ible sub/ances1 & to %[ t !re exi/ acids & oxyds hav+ d\ble & triple bases4 ,nature furni%es u ) num]\s examples ( ?is k9d ( comb9ations1 by means ( :i*1 *iefly1 %e is enabl$ to produce a va/ v>iety ( comp\nds f a v limit$ numb] ( elem5ts1 or simple sub/ances4 ,x 0 long ago well kn[n1 t1 :5 muriatic & nitric acids 7 mix$ toge!r1 a comp\nd acid 0 =m$1 hav+ prop]ties q di/9ct f ^? ( ei!r ( ! acids tak5 sep>ately4 ,?is acid 0 call$ aqua regia1 f its mo/ celebrat$ prop]ty ( dissolv+ gold1 call$ k+ ( metals by ! al*ymi/s4 ,mr ,b]?ollet has di/9ctly prov$ t ! peculi> prop]ties ( ?is acid arise f ! comb9$ action ( its two acidifiable bases2 & = ?is reason we h judg$ x necess>y to di/+ui% x by an appropriate "n3 ,t ( nitro-muriatic acid appe>s extremely applicable1 f its express+ ! nature ( ! two sub/ances :i* ent] into its composition4 ,?is ph5om5on ( a d\ble base 9 "o acid1 :i* _h =m]ly be5 obs]v$ only 9 ! nitro-muriatic acid1 occurs cont9ually 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 9 :i* a simple acid1 or "o possess$ ( a s+le acidifiable base1 is v r>ely f\nd4 ,almo/ all ! acids procurable f ?is k+dom h bases compos$ ( *>coal & hydrog51 or ( *>coal1 hydrog51 & phosphorus1 comb9$ ) m or less oxyg54 ,all ^! bases1 :e!r d\ble or triple1 are likewise =m$ into oxyds1 hav+ less oxyg5 ?an is necess>y to give !m ! prop]ties ( acids4 ,! acids & oxyds f ! animal k+dom are /ill m comp\nd1 z _! bases g5]ally consi/ ( a comb9ation ( *>coal1 phosphorus1 hydrog51 & azote4 ,z x is b ( late t ,i h acquir$ any cle> & di/9ct notions ( ^! sub/ances1 ,i %all n1 9 ?is place1 enl>ge mu* ^u ! subject1 :i* ,i mean to treat ( v fully 9 "s memoirs ,i am prep>+ to lay be=e ! ,academy4 ,mo/ ( my exp]im5ts are already p]=m$2 b1 to be able to give exact reports ( ! result+ quantities1 x is necess>y t !y be c>efully repeat$1 & increas$ 9 numb]3 ,:]e=e1 ,i %all only give a %ort enum]ation ( ! vegetable & animal acids & oxyds1 & t]m9ate ?is article by a few reflections ^u ! composition ( vegetable & animal bodies4 ,sug>1 mucus1 "u :i* t]m we include ! diff]5t k9ds ( gums1 & />*1 are vegetable oxyds1 hav+ hydrog5 & *>coal comb9$1 9 diff]5t proportions1 z _! radicals or bases1 & unit$ ) oxyg51 s z to br+ !m to ! /ate ( oxyds4 ,f ! /ate ( oxyds !y are capable ( be+ *ang$ into acids by ! addition ( a fre% quantity ( oxyg52 &1 accord+ to ! degrees ( oxyg5ation1 & ! proportion ( hydrog5 & *>coal 9 _! bases1 !y =m ! sev]al k9ds ( vegetable acids4 ,x w\ld be easy to apply ! pr9ciples ( our nom5clature to give names to ^! vegetable acids & oxyds1 by us+ ! names ( ! two sub/ances :i* compose _! bases3 ,!y w\ld ?us become hydro-c>bon\s acids & oxyds3 ,9 ?is me?od we might indicate :i* ( _! elem5ts exi/$ 9 excess1 )\t circumlocution1 aft] ! mann] us$ by ,mr ,r\elle = nam+ vegetable extracts3 ,he calls ^! extracto-res9\s :5 ! extractive matt] prevails 9 _! composition1 & res9o-extractive :5 !y conta9 a l>g] proportion ( res9\s matt]4 ,^u t plan1 & by v>y+ ! t]m9ations accord+ to ! =m]ly e/abli%$ rules ( our nom5clature1 we h ! foll[+ d5om9ations3 ,hydro-c>bon\s1 hydro-c>bonic2 c>bono-hydr\s1 & c>bono-hydric oxyds4 ,& = ! acids3 ,hydro-c>bon\s1 hydro c>bonic1 oxyg5at$ hydro-c>bonic2 c>bono-hydr\s1 c>bono-hydric1 & oxyg5at$ c>bono-hydric4 ,x is probable t ! above t]ms w\ld suffice = indicat+ all ! v>ieties 9 nature1 & t1 9 proportion z ! vegetable acids become well und]/ood1 !y w naturally arrange !mselves "u ^! d5om9ations4 ,b1 ?\gh we "k ! elem5ts ( :i* ^! are compos$1 we are z yet ignorant ( ! proportions ( ^! +r$i5ts1 & are /ill f> f be+ able to class !m 9 ! above me?odical mann]2 :]e=e1 we h det]m9$ to reta9 ! anci5t names provisionally4 ,i am some:at f>!r advanc$ 9 ?is inquiry ?an at ! "t ( publi%+ our conjunct essay ^u *emical nom5clature2 yet x w\ld be improp] to draw decid$ consequ5ces f exp]im5ts n yet suffici5tly precise3 ,?\gh ,i ackn[l$ge t ?is "p ( *emi/ry /ill rema9s 9 "s degree obscure1 ,i mu/ express my expectations ( its be+ v soon elucidat$4 ,i am /ill m =cibly necessitat$ to foll[ ! same plan 9 nam+ ! acids1 :i* h ?ree or f\r elem5ts comb9$ 9 _! bases2 ( ^! we h a consid]able numb] f ! animal k+dom1 & "s ev5 f vegetable sub/ances4 ,azote1 = in/ance1 jo9$ to hydrog5 & *>coal1 =m ! base or radical ( ! ,prussic acid2 we h reason to believe t ! same happ5s ) ! base ( ! ,gallic acid2 & almo/ all ! animal acids h _! bases compos$ ( azote1 phosphorus1 hydrog51 & *>coal4 ,7 we to endeav\r to express at once all ^! f\r compon5t p>ts ( ! bases1 our nom5clature w\ld und\bt$ly be me?odical2 x w\ld h ! prop]ty ( be+ cle> & det]m9ate2 b ?is assemblage ( ,greek & ,lat9 sub/antives & adjectives1 :i* are n yet univ]sally admitt$ by *emi/s1 w\ld h ! appe>ance ( a b>b>\s language1 difficult bo? to pron\nce & to be rememb]$4 ,besides1 ?is "p ( *emi/ry be+ /ill f> f t accuracy x mu/ arrive to1 ! p]fection ( ! sci5ce ought c]ta9ly to prec$e t ( its language2 & we mu/ /ill1 = "s "t1 reta9 ! old names = ! animal oxyds & acids4 ,we h only v5tur$ to make a few slight modifications ( ^! names1 by *ang+ ! t]m9ation into ous1 :5 we h reason to suppose ! base to be 9 excess1 & into ic1 :5 we suspect ! oxyg5 pr$om9ates4 ,! foll[+ are all ! vegetable acids hi!rto kn[n3 #a4 ,acet\s acid4 #b4 ,acetic acid4 #c4 ,oxalic acid4 #d4 ,t>t>\s acid4 #e4 ,pyro-t>t>\s acid4 #f4 ,citric acid4 #g4 ,malic acid4 #h4 ,pyro-muc\s acid4 #i4 ,pyro-lign\s acid4 #aj4 ,gallic acid4 #aa4 ,b5zoic acid4 #ab4 ,camphoric acid4 #ac4 ,succ9ic acid4 ,?\gh all ^! acids1 z has be5 already said1 are *iefly1 & almo/ entirely1 compos$ ( hydrog51 *>coal1 & oxyg51 yet1 prop]ly speak+1 !y conta9 nei!r wat] c>bonic acid nor oil1 b only ! elem5ts necess>y = =m+ ^! sub/ances4 ,! p[] ( aff9ity reciprocally ex]t$ by ! hydrog51 *>coal1 & oxyg51 9 ^! acids1 is 9 a /ate ( equilibrium only capable ( exi/+ 9 ! ord9>y temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e2 =1 :5 !y are heat$ b a v little above ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]1 ?is equilibrium is de/roy$1 "p ( ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 unite1 & =m wat]2 "p ( ! *>coal & hydrog5 comb9e into oil2 "p ( ! *>coal & oxyg5 unite to =m c>bonic acid2 &1 la/ly1 !re g5]ally rema9s a small portion ( *>coal1 :i*1 be+ 9 excess ) respect to ! o!r +r$i5ts1 is left free4 ,i mean to expla9 ?is subject some:at f>!r 9 ! succe$+ *apt]4 ,! oxyds ( ! animal k+dom are hi!rto less kn[n ?an ^? f ! vegetable k+dom1 & _! numb] is z yet n at all det]m9$4 ,! r$ "p ( ! blood1 lymph1 & mo/ ( ! secretions1 are true oxyds1 "u :i* po9t ( view x is v important to consid] !m4 ,we are only acqua9t$ ) six animal acids1 sev]al ( :i*1 x is probable1 approa* v ne> ea* o!r 9 _! nature1 or1 at lea/1 diff] only 9 a sc>cely s5sible degree4 ,i d n include ! phosphoric acid among/ ^!1 because x is f\nd 9 all ! k+doms ( nature4 ,!y are1 #a4 ,lactic acid4 #b4 ,sac*olactic acid4 #c4 ,bombic acid4 #d4 ,=mic acid4 #e4 ,sebacic acid4 #f4 ,prussic acid4 ,! connection betwe5 ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( ! animal oxyds & acids is n m p]man5t ?an 9 ^? f ! vegetable k+dom1 z a small increase ( temp]ature is suffici5t to ov]turn x4 ,i hope to r5d] ?is subject m di/9ct ?an has be5 done hi!rto 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,,*ap4 ,,xii4 ,( ! ,decomposition ( ,vegetable & ,animal ,sub/ances by ! ,action ( ,fire4 ,be=e we c ?or\ghly compreh5d :at takes place dur+ ! decomposition ( vegetable sub/ances by fire1 we mu/ take into consid]ation ! nature ( ! elem5ts :i* ent] into _! composition1 & ! diff]5t aff9ities :i* ! p>ticles ( ^! elem5ts ex]t ^u ea* o!r1 & ! aff9ity :i* caloric possesses ) !m4 ,! true con/itu5t elem5ts ( vegetables are hydrog51 oxyg51 & *>coal3 ,^! are common to all vegetables1 & no vegetable c exi/ )\t !m3 ,su* o!r sub/ances z exi/ 9 p>ticul> vegetables are only ess5tial to ! composition ( ^? 9 :i* !y are f\nd1 & d n belong to vegetables 9 g5]al4 ,( ^! elem5ts1 hydrog5 & oxyg5 h a /rong t5d5cy to unite ) caloric1 & be conv]t$ into gas1 :il/ *>coal is a fix$ elem5t1 hav+ b little aff9ity ) caloric4 ,on ! o!r h&1 oxyg51 :i*1 9 ! usual temp]ature1 t5ds ne>ly equally to unite ) hydrog5 & ) *>coal1 has a mu* /rong] aff9ity ) *>coal :5 at ! r$ heat#bd1 & !n unites ) x to =m c>bonic acid4 ,al?\gh we are f> f be+ able to appreciate all ^! p[]s ( aff9ity1 or to express _! proportional en]gy by numb]s1 we are c]ta91 t1 h[ev] v>iable !y may be :5 consid]$ 9 relation to ! quantity ( caloric ) :i* !y are comb9$1 !y are all ne>ly 9 equilibrium 9 ! usual temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e2 h5ce vegetables nei!r conta9 oil#be1 wat]1 nor c>bonic acid1 ?o' !y conta9 all ! elem5ts ( ^! sub/ances4 ,! hydrog5 is nei!r comb9$ ) ! oxyg5 nor ) ! *>coal1 & reciprocally2 ! p>ticles ( ^! ?ree sub/ances =m a triple comb9ation1 :i* rema9s 9 equilibrium :il/ undi/urb$ by caloric b a v slight increase ( temp]ature is suffici5t to ov]turn ?is /ructure ( comb9ation4 ,if ! increas$ temp]ature to :i* ! vegetable is expos$ does n exce$ ! heat ( boil+ wat]1 "o "p ( ! hydrog5 comb9es ) ! oxyg51 & =ms wat]1 ! re/ ( ! hydrog5 comb9es ) a "p ( ! *>coal1 & =ms volatile oil1 :il/ ! rema9d] ( ! *>coal1 be+ set free f its comb9ation ) ! o!r elem5ts1 rema9s fix$ 9 ! bottom ( ! di/ill+ vessel4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 we employ a r$ heat1 no wat] is =m$1 or1 at lea/1 any t may h be5 produc$ by ! fir/ application ( ! heat is decompos$1 ! oxyg5 hav+ a great] aff9ity ) ! *>coal at ?is degree ( heat1 comb9es ) x to =m c>bonic acid1 & ! hydrog5 be+ left free f comb9ation ) ! o!r elem5ts1 unites ) caloric1 & escapes 9 ! /ate ( hydrog5 gas4 ,9 ?is high temp]ature1 ei!r no oil is =m$1 or1 if any 0 produc$ dur+ ! l[] temp]ature at ! beg9n+ ( ! exp]im5t1 x is decompos$ by ! action ( ! r$ heat4 ,?us ! decomposition ( vegetable matt]1 "u a high temp]ature1 is produc$ by ! action ( d\ble & triple aff9ities2 :ile ! *>coal attracts ! oxyg51 on purpose to =m c>bonic acid1 ! caloric attracts ! hydrog51 & conv]ts x into hydrog5 gas4 ,! di/illation ( e species ( vegetable sub/ance confirms ! tru? ( ?is !ory1 if we c give t "n to a simple relation ( facts4 ,:5 sug> is submitt$ to di/illation1 s long z we only employ a heat b a little bel[ t ( boil+ wat]1 x only loses its wat] ( cri/allization1 x /ill rema9s sug>1 & reta9s all its prop]ties2 b1 imm$iately ^u rais+ ! heat only a little above t degree1 x becomes black5$1 a "p ( ! *>coal sep>ates f ! comb9ation1 wat] slightly acidulat$ passes ov] accompani$ by a little oil1 & ! *>coal :i* rema9s 9 ! retort is ne>ly a ?ird "p ( ! orig9al weight ( ! sug>4 ,! op]ation ( aff9ities :i* take place dur+ ! decomposition1 by fire1 ( vegetables :i* conta9 azote1 su* z ! crucif]\s plants1 & ( ^? conta9+ phosphorus1 is m complicat$2 b1 z ^! sub/ances only ent] into ! composition ( vegetables 9 v small quantities1 !y only1 app>5tly1 produce slight *anges ^u ! products ( di/illation2 ! phosphorus seems to comb9e ) ! *>coal1 &1 acquir+ fixity f t union1 rema9s beh9d 9 ! retort1 :ile ! azote1 comb9+ ) a "p ( ! hydrog51 =ms ammoniac1 or volatile alkali4 ,animal sub/ances1 be+ compos$ ne>ly ( ! same elem5ts ) crucif]\s plants1 give ! same products 9 di/illation1 ) ?is diff]5ce1 t1 z !y conta9 a great] quantity ( hydrog5 & azote1 !y produce m oil & m ammoniac4 ,i %all only produce "o fact z a pro( ( ! exactness ) :i* ?is !ory expla9s all ! ph5om5a :i* occur dur+ ! di/illation ( animal sub/ances1 :i* is ! rectification & total decomposition ( volatile animal oil1 commonly kn[n by ! "n ( ,dippel's oil4 ,:5 ^! oils are procur$ by a fir/ di/illation 9 a nak$ fire !y are br[n1 f conta9+ a little *>coal almo/ 9 a free /ate2 b !y become q col\rless by rectification4 ,ev5 9 ?is /ate ! *>coal 9 _! composition has s slight a connection ) ! o!r elem5ts z to sep>ate by m]e exposure to ! air4 ,if we put a quantity ( ?is animal oil1 well rectifi$1 & consequ5tly cle>1 limpid1 & transp>5t1 into a bell-glass fill$ ) oxyg5 gas ov] m]cury1 9 a %ort "t ! gas is mu* dim9i%$1 be+ absorb$ by ! oil1 ! oxyg5 comb9+ ) ! hydrog5 ( ! oil =ms wat]1 :i* s9ks to ! bottom1 at ! same "t ! *>coal :i* 0 comb9$ ) ! hydrog5 be+ set free1 manife/s itself by r5d]+ ! oil black4 ,h5ce ! only way ( pres]v+ ^! oils col\rless & transp>5t1 is by keep+ !m 9 bottles p]fectly full & accurately cork$1 to h9d] ! contact ( air1 :i* always discol\rs !m4 ,successive rectifications ( ?is oil furni% ano!r ph5om5on confirm+ our !ory4 ,9 ea* di/illation a small quantity ( *>coal rema9s 9 ! retort1 & a little wat] is =m$ by ! union ( ! oxyg5 conta9$ 9 ! air ( ! di/ill+ vessels ) ! hydrog5 ( ! oil4 ,z ?is takes place 9 ea* successive di/illation1 if we make use ( l>ge vessels & a consid]able degree ( heat1 we at la/ decompose ! :ole ( ! oil1 & *ange x entirely into wat] & *>coal4 ,:5 we use small vessels1 & especially :5 we employ a sl[ fire1 or degree ( heat little above t ( boil+ wat]1 ! total decomposition ( ^! oils1 by repeat$ di/illation1 is greatly m t$i\s1 & m difficultly accompli%$4 ,i %all give a p>ticul> detail to ! ,academy1 9 a sep>ate memoir1 ( all my exp]im5ts ^u ! decomposition ( oil2 b :at ,i h relat$ above may suffice to give j ideas ( ! composition ( animal & vegetable sub/ances1 & ( _! decomposition by ! action ( fire4 ,,footnotes3 #bd ,?\gh ?is t]m1 r$ heat1 does n indicate any absolutely det]m9ate degree ( temp]ature1 ,i %all use x sometimes to express a temp]ature consid]ably above t ( boil+ wat]4--,a4 #be ,i mu/ be und]/ood "h to speak ( vegetables r$uc$ to a p]fectly dry /ate2 &1 ) respect to oil1 ,i d n mean t :i* is procur$ by expression ei!r 9 ! cold1 or 9 a temp]ature n exce$+ t ( boil+ wat]2 ,i only allude to ! empyreumatic oil procur$ by di/illation ) a nak$ fire1 9 a heat sup]ior to ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]2 :i* is ! only oil decl>$ to be produc$ by ! op]ation ( fire4 ,:at ,i h publi%$ ^u ?is subject 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghf may be consult$4--,a4 ,,*ap4 ,,xiii4 ,( ! ,decomposition ( ,vegetable ,oxyds by ! ,v9\s ,f]m5tation4 ,! mann] 9 :i* w9e1 cyd]1 mead1 & all ! liquors =m$ by ! spirit\s f]m5tation1 are produc$1 is well kn[n to e "o4 ,! juice ( grapes or ( apples be+ express$1 & ! latt] be+ dilut$ ) wat]1 !y are put into l>ge vats1 :i* are kept 9 a temp]ature ( at lea/ #aj 7#ed4e7 ( ! !rmomet]4 ,a rapid inte/9e motion1 or f]m5tation1 v soon takes place1 num]\s globules ( gas =m 9 ! liquid & bur/ at ! surface2 :5 ! f]m5tation is at its height1 ! quantity ( gas dis5gag$ is s great z to make ! liquor appe> z if boil+ viol5tly ov] a fire4 ,:5 ?is gas is c>efully ga!r$1 x is f\nd to be c>bonic acid p]fectly pure1 & free f admixture ) any o!r species ( air or gas :atev]4 ,:5 ! f]m5tation is complet$1 ! juice ( grapes is *ang$ f be+ sweet1 & full ( sug>1 into a v9\s liquor :i* no long] conta9s any sug>1 & f :i* we procure1 by di/illation1 an inflammable liquor1 kn[n 9 comm]ce "u ! "n ( ,_s ( ,w9e4 ,z ?is liquor is produc$ by ! f]m5tation ( any sac*>9e matt] :atev] dilut$ ) wat]1 x mu/ h be5 contr>y to ! pr9ciples ( our nom5clature to call x _s ( w9e r ?an _s ( cyd]1 or ( f]m5t$ sug>2 :]e=e1 we h adopt$ a m g5]al t]m1 & ! ,arabic ^w alkohol seems extremely prop] = ! purpose4 ,?is op]ation is "o ( ! mo/ extraord9>y 9 *emi/ry3 ,we mu/ exam9e :5ce proce$ ! dis5gag$ c>bonic acid & ! inflammable liquor produc$1 & 9 :at mann] a sweet vegetable oxyd becomes ?us conv]t$ into two su* opposite sub/ances1 :]e( "o is combu/ible1 & ! o!r em95tly ! contr>y4 ,to solve ^! two que/ions1 x is necess>y to be previ\sly acqua9t$ ) ! analysis ( ! f]m5table sub/ance1 & ( ! products ( ! f]m5tation4 ,we may lay x d[n z an inconte/ible axiom1 t1 9 all ! op]ations ( art & nature1 no?+ is creat$2 an equal quantity ( matt] exi/s bo? be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t2 ! quality & quantity ( ! elem5ts rema9 precisely ! same2 & no?+ takes place beyond *anges & modifications 9 ! comb9ation ( ^! elem5ts4 ,^u ?is pr9ciple ! :ole art ( p]=m+ *emical exp]im5ts dep5ds3 ,we mu/ always suppose an exact equality betwe5 ! elem5ts ( ! body exam9$ & ^? ( ! products ( its analysis4 ,h5ce1 s9ce f mu/ ( grapes we procure alkohol & c>bonic acid1 ,i h an und\bt$ "r to suppose t mu/ consi/s ( c>bonic acid & alkohol4 ,f ^! premises1 we h two me?ods ( asc]ta9+ :at passes dur+ v9\s f]m5tation1 by det]m9+ ! nature (1 & ! elem5ts :i* compose1 ! f]m5table sub/ances1 or by accurately exam9+ ! produces result+ f f]m5tation2 & x is evid5t t ! k ( ei!r ( ^! mu/ lead to accurate conclusions conc]n+ ! nature & composition ( ! o!r4 ,f ^! consid]ations1 x became necess>y accurately to det]m9e ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( ! f]m5table sub/ances2 &1 = ?is purpose1 ,i did n make use ( ! comp\nd juices ( fruits1 ! rigor\s analysis ( :i* is p]haps impossible1 b made *oice ( sug>1 :i* is easily analys$1 & ! nature ( :i* ,i h already expla9$4 ,?is sub/ance is a true vegetable oxyd ) two bases1 compos$ ( hydrog5 & *>coal br\ght to ! /ate ( an oxyd1 by a c]ta9 proportion ( oxyg52 & ^! ?ree elem5ts are comb9$ 9 su* a way1 t a v slight =ce is suffici5t to de/roy ! equilibrium ( _! connection4 ,by a long tra9 ( exp]im5ts1 made 9 v>i\s ways1 & (t5 repeat$1 ,i asc]ta9$ t ! proportion 9 :i* ^! +r$i5ts exi/ 9 sug>1 are ne>ly eight p>ts ( hydrog51 #fd p>ts ( oxyg51 & #bh p>ts ( *>coal1 all by weight1 =m+ #ajj p>ts ( sug>4 ,sug> mu/ be mix$ ) ab\t f\r times its weight ( wat]1 to r5d] x susceptible ( f]m5tation2 & ev5 !n ! equilibrium ( its elem5ts w\ld rema9 undi/urb$1 )\t ! assi/ance ( "s sub/ance1 to give a comm5cem5t to ! f]m5tation4 ,?is is accompli%$ by means ( a little yea/ f be]2 &1 :5 ! f]m5tation is once excit$1 x cont9ues ( itself until complet$4 ,i %all1 9 ano!r place1 give an acc\nt ( ! effects ( yea/1 & o!r f]m5ts1 ^u f]m5table sub/ances4 ,i h usually employ$ #aj libs4 ( yea/1 9 ! /ate ( pa/e1 = ea* #ajj libs4 ( sug>1 ) z mu* wat] z is f\r times ! weight ( ! sug>4 ,i %all give ! results ( my exp]im5ts exactly z !y 7 obta9$1 pres]v+ ev5 ! fractions produc$ by calculation4 ,,table ,i4 ,mat]ials ( ,f]m5tation4 libs4 oz4 gros grs4 ,wat] #djj #j #j #j ,sug> #ajj #j #j #j ,yea/ 9 pa/e1 #aj libs4 ,wat] #g #c #f #dd compos$ ( ,dry yea/ #b #ab #a #bh ---------------------- ,total #eaj ,,table ,,ii4 ,con/itu5t ,elem5ts ( ! ,mat]ials ( ,f]m5tation4 libs4 oz4 gros grs4 #djg libs4 #c oz4 #f gros #dd grs4 ,hydrog5 #fa #a #b #ga4dj ( wat]1 compos$ ( ,oxyg5 #cdf #b #c #dd4fj ,hydrog5 #h #j #j #j #ajj libs4 sug>1 compos$ ( ,oxyg5 #fd #j #j #j ,*>coal #bh #j #j #j ,hydrog5 #j #d #e #i4cj #b libs4 #ab oz4 #a gros #bh grs4 ( ,oxyg5 #a #aj #b #bh4gf dry yea/1 compos$ ( ,*>coal #j #ab #d #ei ,azote #j #j #e #b4id ----------------------- ,total weight #eaj #j #j #j ,,table ,,iii4 ,recapitulation ( ^! ,elem5ts4 libs4 oz4 gros grs4 ,oxyg53 ( ! wat] #cdj #j #j #j ( ! wat] libs4 oz4 gros grs4 9 ! yea/ #f #b #c #dd4fj #daa #ab #f #a4cf ( ! sug> #fd #j #j #j ( ! dry yea/ #a #aj #b #bh4gf ,hydrog53 ( ! wat] #fj #j #j #j ( ! wat] 9 ! yea/ #a #a #b #ga4dj #fi #f #j #h4gj ( ! sug> #h #j #j #j ( ! dry yea/ #j #d #e #i4cj ,*>coal3 ( ! sug> #bh #j #j #j ( ! yea/ #j #ab #d #ei4jj #bh #ab #d #ei4jj ,azote ( ! yea/ - - - - #j #j #e #b4id -------------------------- ,9 all #eaj #j #j #j ,hav+ ?us accurately det]m9$ ! nature & quantity ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( ! mat]ials submitt$ to f]m5tation1 we h next to exam9e ! products result+ f t process4 ,= ?is purpose1 ,i plac$ ! above #eaj libs4 ( f]m5table liquor 9 a prop]#bf app>atus1 by means ( :i* ,i c\ld accurately det]m9e ! quantity & quality ( gas dis5gag$ dur+ ! f]m5tation1 & c\ld ev5 weigh e "o ( ! products sep>ately1 at any p]iod ( ! process ,i judg$ prop]4 ,an h\r or two aft] ! sub/ances are mix$ toge!r1 especially if !y are kept 9 a temp]ature ( f #ae 7#fe4ge7 to #ah 7#gb4e7 ( ! !rmomet]1 ! fir/ m>ks ( f]m5tation comm5ce2 ! liquor turns ?ick & fro?y1 little globules ( air are dis5gag$1 :i* rise & bur/ at ! surface2 ! quantity ( ^! globules quickly increases1 & !re is a rapid & abundant production ( v pure c>bonic acid1 accompani$ ) a scum1 :i* is ! yea/ sep>at+ f ! mixture4 ,aft] "s days1 less or m accord+ to ! degree ( heat1 ! inte/9e motion & dis5gagem5t ( gas dim9i%2 b ^! d n cease entirely1 nor is ! f]m5tation complet$ = a consid]able "t4 ,dur+ ! process1 #ce libs4 #e oz4 #d gros #ai grs4 ( dry c>bonic acid are dis5gag$1 :i* c>ry along/ ) !m #ac libs4 #ad oz4 #e gros ( wat]4 ,!re rema9s 9 ! vessel #dfj libs4 #aa oz4 #f gros #ec grs4 ( v9\s liquor1 slightly acidul\s4 ,?is is at fir/ muddy1 b cle>s ( itself1 & deposits a portion ( yea/4 ,:5 we sep>ately analise all ^! sub/ances1 :i* is effect$ by v tr\blesome processes1 we h ! results z giv5 9 ! foll[+ ,tables4 ,?is process1 ) all ! subord9ate calculations & analyses1 w be detail$ at l>ge 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy4 ,,table ,,iv4 ,product ( ,f]m5tation4 libs4 oz4 gros grs4 #ce libs4 #e oz4 #d gros #ai grs4 ,oxyg5 #be #g #a #cd ( c>bonic acid1 compos$ ( ,*>coal #i #ad #b #eg #djh libs4 #ae oz4 #e gros #ad grs4 ,oxyg5 #cdg #aj #j #ei ( wat]1 compos$ ( ,hydrog5 #fa #e #d #bg ,oxyg51 comb9$ ) hydrog5 #ca #f #a #fd ,hydrog51 comb9$ #eg libs4 #aa oz4 #a gros #eh grs4 ) oxyg5 #e #h #e #c ( dry alkohol1 compos$ ( ,hydrog51 comb9$ ) *>coal #d #j #e #j ,*>coal1 comb9$ ) hydrog5 #af #aa #e #fc #b libs4 #h oz4 ( dry acet\s ,hydrog5 #j #b #d #j acid1 compos$ ( ,oxyg5 #a #aa #d #j ,*>coal #j #aj #j #j #d libs4 #a oz4 #d gros #c grs4 ,hydrog5 #j #e #a #fg ( residuum ( sug>1 ,oxyg5 #b #i #g #bg compos$ ( ,*>coal #a #b #b #ec ,hydrog5 #j #b #b #da #a lib4 #f oz4 #j gros #e grs4 ,oxyg5 #j #ac #a #ad ( dry yea/1 compos$ ( ,*>coal #j #f #b #cj ,azote #j #j #b #cg --- ----------------- #eaj libs4 ,total #eaj #j #j #j ,,table ,v4 ,recapitulation ( ! ,products4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ libs4 oz4 gros grs4 #dji libs4 #aj oz4 #j gros #ed grs4 ,wat] #cdg #aj #j #ei ( oxyg5 conta9$ 9 ! ,c>bonic acid #be #g #a #cd ,alkohol #ca #f #a #fd ,acet\s acid #a #aa #d #j ,residuum ( sug> #b #i #g #bg ,yea/ #j #ac #a #ad #bh libs4 #ab oz4 #e gros #ei grs4 ,c>bonic acid #i #ad #b #eg ( *>coal conta9$ ,alkohol #af #aa #e #fc 9 ! ,acet\s acid #j #aj #j #j ,residuum ( sug> #a #b #b #ec ,yea/ #j #f #b #cj ,wat] #fa #e #d #bg #ga libs4 #h oz4 #f gros #ff grs4 ,wat] ( ! alkohol #e #h #e #c ( hydrog5 conta9$ ,comb9$ ) ! 9 ! *>coal ( ! alko4 #d #j #e #j ,acet\s acid #j #b #d #j ,residuum ( sug> #j #e #a #fg ,yea/ #j #b #b #da #b gros #cg grs4 ( azote 9 ! yea/ #j #j #b #cg --- --------------- #eaj libs4 ,total #eaj #j #j #j ,9 ^! results1 ,i h be5 exact1 ev5 to gra9s2 n t x is possible1 9 exp]im5ts ( ?is nature1 to c>ry our accuracy s f>1 b z ! exp]im5ts 7 made only ) a few p\nds ( sug>1 & z1 = ! sake ( comp>ison1 ,i r$uc$ ! results ( ! actual exp]im5ts to ! qu9tal or imag9>y hundr$ p\nds1 ,i ?\ght x necess>y to leave ! fractional p>ts precisely z produc$ by calculation4 ,:5 we consid] ! results pres5t$ by ^! tables ) att5tion1 x is easy to discov] exactly :at occurs dur+ f]m5tation4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 out ( ! #ajj libs4 ( sug> employ$1 #d libs4 #a oz4 #d gros #c grs4 rema91 )\t hav+ suff]$ decomposition2 s t1 9 reality1 we h only op]at$ ^u #ie libs4 #ad oz4 #c gros #fi grs4 ( sug>2 t is to say1 ^u #fa libs4 #f oz4 #de grs4 ( oxyg51 #g libs4 #aj oz4 #f gros #f grs4 ( hydrog51 & #bf libs4 #ac oz4 #e gros #ai grs4 ( *>coal4 ,by comp>+ ^! quantities1 we f9d t !y are fully suffici5t = =m+ ! :ole ( ! alkohol1 c>bonic acid & acet\s acid produc$ by ! f]m5tation4 ,x is n1 !re=e1 necess>y to suppose t any wat] has be5 decompos$ dur+ ! exp]im5t1 unless x be pret5d$ t ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 exi/ 9 ! sug> 9 t /ate4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,i h already made x evid5t t hydrog51 oxyg5 & *>coal1 ! ?ree con/itu5t elem5ts ( vegetables1 rema9 9 a /ate ( equilibrium or mutual union ) ea* o!r :i* subsi/s s long z ?is union rema9s undi/urb$ by increas$ temp]ature1 or by "s new comp\nd attraction2 & t !n only ^! elem5ts comb9e1 two & two toge!r1 to =m wat] & c>bonic acid4 ,! effects ( ! v9\s f]m5tation ^u sug> is ?us r$uc$ to ! m]e sep>ation ( its elem5ts into two portions2 "o "p is oxyg5at$ at ! exp5ce ( ! o!r1 s z to =m c>bonic acid1 :il/ ! o!r "p1 be+ deoxyg5at$ 9 fav\r ( ! =m]1 is conv]t$ into ! combu/ible sub/ance alkohol2 !re=e1 if x 7 possible to reunite alkohol & c>bonic acid toge!r1 we ought to =m sug>4 ,x is evid5t t ! *>coal & hydrog5 9 ! alkohol d n exi/ 9 ! /ate ( oil1 !y are comb9$ ) a portion ( oxyg51 :i* r5d]s !m miscible ) wat]2 :]e=e ^! ?ree sub/ances1 oxyg51 hydrog51 & *>coal1 exi/ "h likewise 9 a species ( equilibrium or reciprocal comb9ation2 & 9 fact1 :5 !y are made to pass ?r\gh a r$ hot tube ( glass or porcela91 ?is union or equilibrium is de/roy$1 ! elem5ts become comb9$1 two & two1 & wat] & c>bonic acid are =m$4 ,i _h =mally advanc$1 9 my fir/ ,memoirs ^u ! =mation ( wat]1 t x 0 decompos$ 9 a great numb] ( *emical exp]im5ts1 & p>ticul>ly dur+ ! v9\s f]m5tation4 ,i !n suppos$ t wat] exi/$ ready =m$ 9 sug>1 ?\gh ,i am n[ conv9c$ t sug> only conta9s ! elem5ts prop] = compos+ x4 ,x may be readily conceiv$1 t x mu/ h co/ me a good deal to ab&on my fir/ notions1 b by sev]al ye>s reflection1 & aft] a great numb] ( exp]im5ts & obs]vations ^u vegetable sub/ances1 ,i h fix$ my ideas z above4 ,i %all f9i% :at ,i h to say ^u v9\s f]m5tation1 by obs]v+1 t x furni%es u ) ! means ( analys+ sug> & e vegetable f]m5table matt]4 ,we may consid] ! sub/ances submitt$ to f]m5tation1 & ! products result+ f t op]ation1 z =m+ an algebraic equation2 &1 by successively suppos+ ea* ( ! elem5ts 9 ?is equation unkn[n1 we c calculate _! values 9 succession1 & ?us v]ify our exp]im5ts by calculation1 & our calculation by exp]im5t reciprocally4 ,i h (t5 successfully employ$ ?is me?od = correct+ ! fir/ results ( my exp]im5ts1 & to direct me 9 ! prop] road = repeat+ !m to advantage4 ,i h expla9$ myself at l>ge ^u ?is subject1 9 a ,memoir ^u v9\s f]m5tation already pres5t$ to ! ,academy1 & :i* w spe$ily be publi%$4 ,,footnotes3 #bf ,! above app>atus is describ$ 9 ! ,?ird ,"p4--,a4 ,,*ap4 ,,xiv4 ,( ! ,putrefactive ,f]m5tation4 ,! ph5om5a ( putrefaction are caus$1 l ^? ( v9\s f]m5tation1 by ! op]ation ( v complicat$ aff9ities4 ,! con/itu5t elem5ts ( ! bodies submitt$ to ?is process cease to cont9ue 9 equilibrium 9 ! ?reefold comb9ation1 & =m !mselves anew into b9>y comb9ations#bg1 or comp\nds1 consi/+ ( two elem5ts only2 b ^! are entirely diff]5t f ! results produc$ by ! v9\s f]m5tation4 ,in/ead ( "o "p ( ! hydrog5 rema9+ unit$ ) "p ( ! wat] & *>coal to =m alkohol1 z 9 ! v9\s f]m5tation1 ! :ole ( ! hydrog5 is dissipat$1 dur+ putrefaction1 9 ! =m ( hydrog5 gas1 :il/1 at ! same "t1 ! oxyg5 & *>coal1 unit+ ) caloric1 escape 9 ! =m ( c>bonic acid gas2 s t1 :5 ! :ole process is f9i%$1 especially if ! mat]ials h be5 mix$ ) a suffici5t quantity ( wat]1 no?+ rema9s b ! e>? ( ! vegetable mix$ ) a small portion ( *>coal & iron4 ,?us putrefaction is no?+ m ?an a complete analysis ( vegetable sub/ance1 dur+ :i* ! :ole ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts is dis5gag$ 9 =m ( gas1 except ! e>?1 :i* rema9s 9 ! /ate ( m\ld#bh4 ,su* is ! result ( putrefaction :5 ! sub/ances submitt$ to x conta9 only oxyg51 hydrog51 *>coal & a little e>?4 ,b ?is case is r>e1 & ^! sub/ances putrify imp]fectly & ) difficulty1 & require a consid]able "t to complete _! putrefaction4 ,x is o!rwise ) sub/ances conta9+ azote1 :i* inde$ exi/s 9 all animal matt]s1 & ev5 9 a consid]able numb] ( vegetable sub/ances4 ,?is additional elem5t is rem>kably fav\rable to putrefaction2 & = ?is reason animal matt] is mix$ ) vegetable1 :5 ! putrefaction ( ^! is wi%$ to be ha/5$4 ,! :ole art ( =m+ compo/s & dunghills1 = ! purposes ( agriculture1 consi/s 9 ! prop] application ( ?is admixture4 ,! addition ( azote to ! mat]ials ( putrefaction n only accel]ates ! process1 t elem5t likewise comb9es ) "p ( ! hydrog51 & =ms a new sub/ance call$ volatile alkali or ammoniac4 ,! results obta9$ by analys+ animal matt]s1 by diff]5t processes1 leave no room = d\bt ) reg>d to ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( ammoniac2 :5ev] ! azote has be5 previ\sly sep>at$ f ^! sub/ances1 no ammoniac is produc$2 & 9 all cases !y furni% ammoniac only 9 proportion to ! azote !y conta94 ,?is composition ( ammoniac is likewise fully prov$ by ,mr ,b]?ollet1 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghe1 p4 #caf4 :]e he gives a v>iety ( analytical processes by :i* ammoniac is decompos$1 & its two elem5ts1 azote & hydrog51 procur$ sep>ately4 ,i already m5tion$ 9 ,*ap4 ,x4 t almo/ all combu/ible bodies 7 capable ( comb9+ ) ea* o!r2 hydrog5 gas possesses ?is quality 9 an em95t degree1 x dissolves *>coal1 sulphur1 & phosphorus1 produc+ ! comp\nds nam$ c>bonat$ hydrog5 gas1 sulphurat$ hydrog5 gas1 & phosphorat$ hydrog5 gas4 ,! two latt] ( ^! gasses h a peculi>ly disagreeable flav\r2 ! sulphurat$ hydrog5 gas has a /rong resemblance to ! smell ( rott5 eggs1 & ! phosphorat$ smells exactly l putrid fi%4 ,ammoniac has likewise a peculi> od\r1 n less p5etrat+1 or less disagreeable1 ?an ^! o!r gasses4 ,f ! mixture ( ^! diff]5t flav\rs proce$s ! fetor :i* accompanies ! putrefaction ( animal sub/ances4 ,sometimes ammoniac pr$om9ates1 :i* is easily p]ceiv$ by its %>pness ^u ! eyes2 sometimes1 z 9 fecul5t matt]s1 ! sulphurat$ gas is mo/ preval5t2 & sometimes1 z 9 putrid h]r+s1 ! phosphorat$ hydrog5 gas is mo/ abundant4 ,i long suppos$ t no?+ c\ld d]ange or int]rupt ! c\rse ( putrefaction2 b ,mr ,f\rcroy & ,mr ,?\ret h obs]v$ "s peculi> ph5om5a 9 dead bodies1 buri$ at a c]ta9 dep?1 & pres]v$ to a c]ta9 degree1 f contact ) air2 hav+ f\nd ! muscul> fle% frequ5tly conv]t$ into true animal fat4 ,?is mu/ h aris5 f ! dis5gagem5t ( ! azote1 naturally conta9$ 9 ! animal sub/ance1 by "s unkn[n cause1 leav+ only ! hydrog5 & *>coal rema9+1 :i* are ! elem5ts prop] = produc+ fat or oil4 ,?is obs]vation ^u ! possibility ( conv]t+ animal sub/ances into fat may "s "t or o!r lead to discov]ies ( great importance to society4 ,! faeces ( animals1 & o!r excrem5titi\s matt]s1 are *iefly compos$ ( *>coal & hydrog51 & approa* consid]ably to ! nature ( oil1 ( :i* !y furni% a consid]able quantity by di/illation ) a nak$ fire2 b ! intol]able foetor :i* accompanies all ! products ( ^! sub/ances prev5ts our expect+ t1 at lea/ = a long "t1 !y c be r5d]$ useful 9 any o!r way ?an z manures4 ,i h only giv5 conjectural approximations 9 ?is ,*apt] ^u ! composition ( animal sub/ances1 :i* is hi!rto b imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,we "k t !y are compos$ ( hydrog51 *>coal1 azote1 phosphorus1 & sulphur1 all ( :i*1 9 a /ate ( qu9tuple comb9ation1 are br\ght to ! /ate ( oxyd by a l>g] or small] quantity ( oxyg54 ,we are1 h[ev]1 /ill unacqua9t$ ) ! proportions 9 :i* ^! sub/ances are comb9$1 & mu/ leave x to "t to complete ?is "p ( *emical analysis1 z x has already done ) sev]al o!rs4 ,,footnotes3 #bg ,b9>y comb9ations are su* z consi/ ( two simple elem5ts comb9$ toge!r4 ,t]n>y1 & quat]n>y1 consi/ ( ?ree & f\r elem5ts4--,e4 #bh ,9 ! ,?ird ,"p w be giv5 ! description ( an app>atus prop] = be+ us$ 9 exp]im5ts ( ?is k9d4--,a4 ,,*ap4 ,,xv4 ,( ! ,acet\s ,f]m5tation4 ,! acet\s f]m5tation is no?+ m ?an ! acidification or oxyg5ation ( w9e#bi1 produc$ 9 ! op5 air by means ( ! absorption ( oxyg54 ,! result+ acid is ! acet\s acid1 commonly call$ ,v9eg>1 :i* is compos$ ( hydrog5 & *>coal unit$ toge!r 9 proportions n yet asc]ta9$1 & *ang$ into ! acid /ate by oxyg54 ,z v9eg> is an acid1 we might conclude f analogy t x conta9s oxyg51 b ?is is put beyond d\bt by direct exp]im5ts3 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we _c *ange w9e into v9eg> )\t ! contact ( air conta9+ oxyg52 secondly1 ?is process is accompani$ by a dim9ution ( ! volume ( ! air 9 :i* x is c>ri$ on f ! absorption ( its oxyg52 &1 ?irdly1 w9e may be *ang$ into v9eg> by any o!r means ( oxyg5ation4 ,indep5d5t ( ! pro(s :i* ^! facts furni% ( ! acet\s acid be+ produc$ by ! oxyg5ation ( w9e1 an exp]im5t made by ,mr ,*aptal1 ,pr(essor ( ,*emi/ry at ,montpelli]1 gives u a di/9ct view ( :at takes place 9 ?is process4 ,he impregnat$ wat] ) ab\t its own bulk ( c>bonic acid f f]m5t+ be]1 & plac$ ?is wat] 9 a cell> 9 vessels communicat+ ) ! air1 & 9 a %ort "t ! :ole 0 conv]t$ into acet\s acid4 ,! c>bonic acid gas procur$ f be] vats 9 f]m5tation is n p]fectly pure1 b conta9s a small quantity ( alkohol 9 solution1 :]e=e wat] impregnat$ ) x conta9s all ! mat]ials necess>y = =m+ ! acet\s acid4 ,! alkohol furni%es hydrog5 & "o portion ( *>coal1 ! c>bonic acid furni%es oxyg5 & ! re/ ( ! *>coal1 & ! air ( ! atmosph]e furni%es ! re/ ( ! oxyg5 necess>y = *ang+ ! mixture into acet\s acid4 ,f ?is obs]vation x foll[s1 t no?+ b hydrog5 is want+ to conv]t c>bonic acid into acet\s acid2 or m g5]ally1 t1 by means ( hydrog51 & accord+ to ! degree ( oxyg5ation1 c>bonic acid may be *ang$ into all ! vegetable acids2 &1 on ! contr>y1 t1 by depriv+ any ( ! vegetable acids ( _! hydrog51 !y may be conv]t$ into c>bonic acid4 ,al?\gh ! pr9cipal facts relat+ to ! acet\s acid are well kn[n1 yet num]ical exactitude is /ill want+1 till furni%$ by m exact exp]im5ts ?an any hi!rto p]=m$2 :]e=e ,i %all n enl>ge any f>!r ^u ! subject4 ,x is suffici5tly %[n by :at has be5 said1 t ! con/itution ( all ! vegetable acids & oxyds is exactly con=mable to ! =mation ( v9eg>2 b f>!r exp]im5ts are necess>y to tea* u ! proportion ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts 9 all ^! acids & oxyds4 ,we may easily p]ceive1 h[ev]1 t ?is "p ( *emi/ry1 l all ! re/ ( its divisions1 makes rapid progress t[>ds p]fection1 & t x is already r5d]$ greatly m simple ?an 0 =m]ly believ$4 ,,footnotes3 #bi ,! ^w ,w9e1 9 ?is *apt]1 is us$ to signify ! liquor produc$ by ! v9\s f]m5tation1 :atev] vegetable sub/ance may h be5 us$ = obta9+ x4--,e4 ,,*ap4 ,,xvi4 ,( ! ,=mation ( ,neutral ,salts1 & ( _! diff]5t ,bases4 ,we h j se5 t all ! oxyds & acids f ! animal & vegetable k+doms are =m$ by means ( a small numb] ( simple elem5ts1 or at lea/ ( su* z h n hi!rto be5 susceptible ( decomposition1 by means ( comb9ation ) oxyg52 ^! are azote1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 *>coal1 hydrog51 & ! muriatic radical#cj4 ,we may ju/ly admire ! simplicity ( ! means employ$ by nature to multiply qualities & =ms1 :e!r by comb9+ ?ree or f\r acidifiable bases 9 diff]5t proportions1 or by alt]+ ! dose ( oxyg5 employ$ = oxydat+ or acidify+ !m4 ,we %all f9d ! means no less simple & div]sifi$1 & z abundantly productive ( =ms & qualities1 9 ! ord] ( bodies we are n[ ab\t to treat (4 ,acidifiable sub/ances1 by comb9+ ) oxyg51 & _! consequ5t conv]sion into acids1 acquire great susceptibility ( f>!r comb9ation2 !y become capable ( unit+ ) e>?y & metallic bodies1 by :i* means neutral salts are =m$4 ,acids may !re=e be consid]$ z true salify+ pr9ciples1 & ! sub/ances ) :i* !y unite to =m neutral salts may be call$ salifiable bases3 ,! nature ( ! union :i* ^! two pr9ciples =m ) ea* o!r is meant z ! subject ( ! pres5t *apt]4 ,?is view ( ! acids prev5ts me f consid]+ !m z salts1 ?\gh !y are possess$ ( _m ( ! pr9cipal prop]ties ( sal9e bodies1 z solubility 9 wat]1 c4 ,i h already obs]v$ t !y are ! result ( a fir/ ord] ( comb9ation1 be+ compos$ ( two simple elem5ts1 or at lea/ ( elem5ts :i* act z if !y 7 simple1 & we may !re=e rank !m1 to use ! language ( ,/ahl1 9 ! ord] ( mixts4 ,! neutral salts1 on ! contr>y1 are ( a second>y ord] ( comb9ation1 be+ =m$ by ! union ( two mixts ) ea* o!r1 & may !re=e be t]m$ comp\nds4 ,h5ce ,i %all n arrange ! alkalies#ca or e>?s 9 ! class ( salts1 to :i* ,i allot only su* z are compos$ ( an oxyg5at$ sub/ance unit$ to a base4 ,i h already enl>g$ suffici5tly ^u ! =mation ( acids 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 & %all n add any ?+ f>!r ^u t subject2 b hav+ z yet giv5 no acc\nt ( ! salifiable bases :i* are capable ( unit+ ) !m to =m neutral salts1 ,i mean1 9 ?is *apt]1 to give an acc\nt ( ! nature & orig9 ( ea* ( ^! bases4 ,^! are pota%1 soda1 ammoniac1 lime1 magnesia1 b>ytes1 argill#cb1 & all ! metallic bodies4 #a4 ,( ,pota%4 ,we h already %[n1 t1 :5 a vegetable sub/ance is submitt$ to ! action ( fire 9 di/ill+ vessels1 its compon5t elem5ts1 oxyg51 hydrog51 & *>coal1 :i* =m$ a ?reefold comb9ation 9 a /ate ( equilibrium1 unite1 two & two1 9 ob$i5ce to aff9ities :i* act con=mable to ! degree ( heat employ$4 ,?us1 at ! fir/ application ( ! fire1 :5ev] ! heat produc$ exce$s ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]1 "p ( ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 unite to =m wat]2 soon aft] ! re/ ( ! hydrog51 & "p ( ! *>coal1 comb9e into oil2 &1 la/ly1 :5 ! fire is pu%$ to ! r$ heat1 ! oil & wat]1 :i* _h be5 =m$ 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! process1 become aga9 decompos$1 ! oxyg5 & *>coal unite to =m c>bonic acid1 a l>ge quantity ( hydrog5 gas is set free1 & no?+ b *>coal rema9s 9 ! retort4 ,a great "p ( ^! ph5om5a occur dur+ ! combu/ion ( vegetables 9 ! op5 air2 b1 9 ?is case1 ! pres5ce ( ! air introduces ?ree new sub/ances1 ! oxyg5 & azote ( ! air & caloric1 ( :i* two at lea/ produce consid]able *anges 9 ! results ( ! op]ation4 ,9 proportion z ! hydrog5 ( ! vegetable1 or t :i* results f ! decomposition ( ! wat]1 is =c$ out 9 ! =m ( hydrog5 gas by ! progress ( ! fire1 x is set on fire imm$iately ^u gett+ 9 contact ) ! air1 wat] is aga9 =m$1 & ! great] "p ( ! caloric ( ! two gasses becom+ free produces flame4 ,:5 all ! hydrog5 gas is driv5 out1 burnt1 & aga9 r$uc$ to wat]1 ! rema9+ *>coal cont9ues to burn1 b )\t flame2 x is =m$ into c>bonic acid1 :i* c>ries (f a portion ( caloric suffici5t to give x ! gasse\s =m2 ! re/ ( ! caloric1 f ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 be+ set free1 produces ! heat & light obs]v$ dur+ ! combu/ion ( *>coal4 ,! :ole vegetable is ?us r$uc$ into wat] & c>bonic acid1 & no?+ rema9s b a small portion ( gray e>?y matt] call$ a%es1 be+ ! only really fix$ pr9ciples :i* ent] into ! con/itution ( vegetables4 ,! e>?1 or r a%es1 :i* seldom exce$s a tw5tie? "p ( ! weight ( ! vegetable1 conta9s a sub/ance ( a p>ticul> nature1 kn[n "u ! "n ( fix$ vegetable alkali1 or pota%4 ,to obta9 x1 wat] is p\r$ ^u ! a%es1 :i* dissolves ! pota%1 & leaves ! a%es :i* are insoluble2 by aft]w>ds evaporat+ ! wat]1 we obta9 ! pota% 9 a :ite concrete =m3 ,x is v fix$ ev5 9 a v high degree ( heat4 ,i d n mean "h to describe ! art ( prep>+ pota%1 or ! me?od ( procur+ x 9 a /ate ( purity1 b h ent]$ ^u ! above detail t ,i might n use any ^w n previ\sly expla9$4 ,! pota% obta9$ by ?is process is always less or m saturat$ ) c>bonic acid1 :i* is easily acc\nt$ =3 ,z ! pota% does n =m1 or at lea/ is n set free1 b 9 proportion z ! *>coal ( ! vegetable is conv]t$ into c>bonic acid by ! addition ( oxyg51 ei!r f ! air or ! wat]1 x foll[s1 t ea* p>ticle ( pota%1 at ! in/ant ( its =mation1 or at lea/ ( its lib]ation1 is 9 contact ) a p>ticle ( c>bonic acid1 &1 z !re is a consid]able aff9ity betwe5 ^! two sub/ances1 !y naturally comb9e toge!r4 ,al?\gh ! c>bonic acid has less aff9ity ) pota% ?an any o!r acid1 yet x is difficult to sep>ate ! la/ portions f x4 ,! mo/ usual me?od ( accompli%+ ?is is to dissolve ! pota% 9 wat]2 to ?is solution add two or ?ree times its weight ( quick-lime1 !n filtrate ! liquor & evaporate x 9 close vessels2 ! sal9e sub/ance left by ! evaporation is pota% almo/ entirely depriv$ ( c>bonic acid4 ,9 ?is /ate x is soluble 9 an equal weight ( wat]1 & ev5 attracts ! moi/ure ( ! air ) great avidity2 by ?is prop]ty x furni%es u ) an excell5t means ( r5d]+ air or gas dry by expos+ !m to its action4 ,9 ?is /ate x is soluble 9 alkohol1 ?\gh n :5 comb9$ ) c>bonic acid2 & ,mr ,b]?ollet employs ?is prop]ty z a me?od ( procur+ pota% 9 ! /ate ( p]fect purity4 ,all vegetables yield less or m ( pota% 9 consequ5ce ( combu/ion1 b x is furni%$ 9 v>i\s degrees ( purity by diff]5t vegetables2 usually1 inde$1 f all ( !m x is mix$ ) diff]5t salts f :i* x is easily sep>able4 ,we c h>dly ent]ta9 a d\bt t ! a%es1 or e>? :i* is left by vegetables 9 combu/ion1 pre-exi/$ 9 !m be=e !y 7 burnt1 =m+ :at may be call$ ! skeleton1 or osse\s "p ( ! vegetable4 ,b x is q o!rwise ) pota%2 ?is sub/ance has nev] yet be5 procur$ f vegetables b by means ( processes or int]m$ia capable ( furni%+ oxyg5 & azote1 su* z combu/ion1 or by means ( nitric acid2 s t x is n yet demon/rat$ t pota% may n be a produce f ^! op]ations4 ,i h begun a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ^u ?is object1 & hope soon to be able to give an acc\nt ( _! results4 #b4 ,( ,soda4 ,soda1 l pota%1 is an alkali procur$ by lixiviation f ! a%es ( burnt plants1 b only f ^? :i* gr[ ^u ! sea-side1 & especially f ! h]b kali1 :5ce is d]iv$ ! "n alkali1 giv5 to ?is sub/ance by ! ,arabians4 ,x has "s prop]ties 9 common ) pota%1 & o!rs :i* are entirely diff]5t3 ,9 g5]al1 ^! two sub/ances h peculi> *>act]s 9 _! sal9e comb9ations :i* are prop] to ea*1 & consequ5tly di/+ui% !m f ea* o!r2 ?us soda1 :i*1 z obta9$ f m>9e plants1 is usually entirely saturat$ ) c>bonic acid1 does n attract ! humidity ( ! atmosph]e l pota%1 b1 on ! contr>y1 desiccates1 its cri/als effloresce1 & are conv]t$ into a :ite p[d] hav+ all ! prop]ties ( soda1 :i* x really is1 hav+ only lo/ its wat] ( cri/allization4 ,hi!rto we are n bett] acqua9t$ ) ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( soda ?an ) ^? ( pota%1 be+ equally unc]ta9 :e!r x previ\sly exi/$ ready =m$ 9 ! vegetable or is a comb9ation ( elem5ts effect$ by combu/ion4 ,analogy leads u to suspect t azote is a con/itu5t elem5t ( all ! alkalies1 z is ! case ) ammoniac2 b we h only slight presumptions1 unconfirm$ by any decisive exp]im5ts1 respect+ ! composition ( pota% & soda4 #c4 ,( ,ammoniac4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 v accurate k ( ! composition ( ammoniac1 or volatile alkali1 z x is call$ by ! old *emi/s4 ,mr ,b]?ollet1 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghd1 p4 #caf4 has prov$ by analysis1 t #ajjj p>ts ( ?is sub/ance consi/ ( ab\t #hjg p>ts ( azote comb9$ ) #aic p>ts ( hydrog54 ,ammoniac is *iefly procurable f animal sub/ances by di/illation1 dur+ :i* process ! azote & hydrog5 necess>y to its =mation unite 9 prop] proportions2 x is n1 h[ev]1 procur$ pure by ?is process1 be+ mix$ ) oil & wat]1 & mo/ly saturat$ ) c>bonic acid4 ,to sep>ate ^! sub/ances x is fir/ comb9$ ) an acid1 ! muriatic = in/ance1 & !n dis5gag$ f t comb9ation by ! addition ( lime or pota%4 ,:5 ammoniac is ?us produc$ 9 its greate/ degree ( purity x c only exi/ "u ! gasse\s =m1 at lea/ 9 ! usual temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 x has an excessively p5etrat+ smell1 is absorb$ 9 l>ge quantities by wat]1 especially if cold & assi/$ by compression4 ,wat] ?us saturat$ ) ammoniac has usually be5 t]m$ volatile alkal9e fluor2 we %all call x ei!r simply ammoniac1 or liquid ammoniac1 & ammoniacal gas :5 x exi/s 9 ! ari=m /ate4 #d4 ,( ,lime1 ,magnesia1 ,b>ytes1 & ,argill4 ,! composition ( ^! f\r e>?s is totally unkn[n1 &1 until by new discov]ies _! con/itu5t elem5ts are asc]ta9$1 we are c]ta9ly au?oris$ to consid] !m z simple bodies4 ,art has no %>e 9 ! production ( ^! e>?s1 z !y are all procur$ ready =m$ f nature2 b1 z !y h all1 especially ! ?ree fir/1 great t5d5cy to comb9ation1 !y are nev] f\nd pure4 ,lime is usually saturat$ ) c>bonic acid 9 ! /ate ( *alk1 calc>i\s sp>s1 mo/ ( ! m>bles1 c42 sometimes ) sulphuric acid1 z 9 gypsum & pla/] /ones2 at o!r times ) fluoric acid =m+ vitre\s or fluor sp>s2 &1 la/ly1 x is f\nd 9 ! wat]s ( ! sea1 & ( sal9e spr+s1 comb9$ ) muriatic acid4 ,( all ! salifiable bases x is ! mo/ univ]sally spread ?r\gh nature4 ,magnesia is f\nd 9 m9]al wat]s1 = ! mo/ "p comb9$ ) sulphuric acid2 x is likewise abundant 9 sea-wat]1 unit$ ) muriatic acid2 & x exi/s 9 a great numb] ( /ones ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,b>ytes is mu* less common ?an ! ?ree prec$+ e>?s2 x is f\nd 9 ! m9]al k+dom1 comb9$ ) sulphuric acid1 =m+ heavy sp>s1 & sometimes1 ?\gh r>ely1 unit$ to c>bonic acid4 ,argill1 or ! base ( alum1 hav+ less t5d5cy to comb9ation ?an ! o!r e>?s1 is (t5 f\nd 9 ! /ate ( argill1 uncomb9$ ) any acid4 ,x is *iefly procurable f clays1 ( :i*1 prop]ly speak+1 x is ! base1 or *ief +r$i5t4 #e4 ,( ,metallic ,bodies4 ,! metals1 except gold1 & sometimes silv]1 are r>ely f\nd 9 ! m9]al k+dom 9 _! metallic /ate1 be+ usually less or m saturat$ ) oxyg51 or comb9$ ) sulphur1 ars5ic1 sulphuric acid1 muriatic acid1 c>bonic acid1 or phosphoric acid4 ,metallurgy1 or ! docima/ic art1 tea*es ! means ( sep>at+ !m f ^! =eign matt]s2 & = ?is purpose we ref] to su* *emical books z treat ^u ^! op]ations4 ,we are probably only acqua9t$ z yet ) a "p ( ! metallic sub/ances exi/+ 9 nature1 z all ^? :i* h a /rong] aff9ity to oxyg51 ?an *>coal possesses1 are incapable ( be+ r$uc$ to ! metallic /ate1 &1 consequ5tly1 be+ only pres5t$ to our obs]vation "u ! =m ( oxyds1 are conf\nd$ ) e>?s4 ,x is extremely probable t b>ytes1 :i* we h j n[ arrang$ ) e>?s1 is 9 ?is situation2 = 9 _m exp]im5ts x exhibits prop]ties ne>ly approa*+ to ^? ( metallic bodies4 ,x is ev5 possible t all ! sub/ances we call e>?s may be only metallic oxyds1 irr$ucible by any hi!rto kn[n process4 ,^? metallic bodies we are at pres5t acqua9t$ )1 & :i* we c r$uce to ! metallic or regul9e /ate1 are ! foll[+ sev5te53 #a4 ,ars5ic4 #b4 ,molybd5a4 #c4 ,tung/e94 #d4 ,manganese4 #e4 ,nickel4 #f4 ,cobalt4 #g4 ,bismu?4 #h4 ,antimony4 #i4 ,z9c4 #aj4 ,iron4 #aa4 ,t94 #ab4 ,lead4 #ac4 ,copp]4 #ad4 ,m]cury4 #ae4 ,silv]4 #af4 ,plat9a4 #ag4 ,gold4 ,i only mean to consid] ^! z salifiable bases1 )\t ent]+ at all ^u ! consid]ation ( _! prop]ties 9 ! arts1 & = ! uses ( society4 ,9 ^! po9ts ( view ea* metal w\ld require a complete treatise1 :i* w\ld lead me f> beyond ! b\nds ,i h prescrib$ = ?is "w4 ,,footnotes3 #cj ,i h n v5tur$ to omit ?is elem5t1 z "h enum]at$ ) ! o!r pr9ciples ( animal & vegetable sub/ances1 ?\gh x is n at all tak5 notice ( 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s z ent]+ into ! composition ( ^! bodies4--,e4 #ca ,p]haps my ?us reject+ ! alkalies f ! class ( salts may be consid]$ z a capital defect 9 ! me?od ,i h adopt$1 & ,i am ready to admit ! *>ge2 b ?is inconv5i5ce is comp5sat$ by s _m advantages1 t ,i c\ld n ?9k x ( suffici5t consequ5ce to make me alt] my plan4--,a4 #cb ,call$ ,alum9e by ,mr ,lavoisi]2 b z ,argill has be5 9 a mann] naturaliz$ to ! language = ?is sub/ance by ,mr ,kirwan1 ,i h v5tur$ to use x 9 pref]5ce4--,e4 ,,*ap4 ,,xvii4 ,cont9uation ( ! ,obs]vations ^u ,salifiable ,bases1 & ! ,=mation ( ,neutral ,salts4 ,x is necess>y to rem>k1 t e>?s & alkalies unite ) acids to =m neutral salts )\t ! int]v5tion ( any m$ium1 :]eas metallic sub/ances are incapable ( =m+ ?is comb9ation )\t be+ previ\sly less or m oxyg5at$2 /rictly speak+1 !re=e1 metals are n soluble 9 acids1 b only metallic oxyds4 ,h5ce1 :5 we put a metal into an acid = solution1 x is necess>y1 9 ! fir/ place1 t x become oxyg5at$1 ei!r by attract+ oxyg5 f ! acid or f ! wat]2 or1 9 o!r words1 t a metal _c be dissolv$ 9 an acid unless ! oxyg51 ei!r ( ! acid1 or ( ! wat] mix$ ) x1 has a /rong] aff9ity to ! metal ?an to ! hydrog5 or ! acidifiable base2 or1 :at am\nts to ! same ?+1 t no metallic solution c take place )\t a previ\s decomposition ( ! wat]1 or ! acid 9 :i* x is made4 ,! explanation ( ! pr9cipal ph5om5a ( metallic solution dep5ds entirely ^u ?is simple obs]vation1 :i* 0 ov]look$ ev5 by ! illu/ri\s ,b]gman4 ,! fir/ & mo/ /rik+ ( ^! is ! eff]vesc5ce1 or1 to speak less equivocally1 ! dis5gagem5t ( gas :i* takes place dur+ ! solution2 9 ! solutions made 9 nitric acid ?is eff]vesc5ce is produc$ by ! dis5gagem5t ( nitr\s gas2 9 solutions ) sulphuric acid x is ei!r sulphur\s acid gas or hydrog5 gas1 accord+ z ! oxydation ( ! metal happ5s to be made at ! exp5ce ( ! sulphuric acid or ( ! wat]4 ,z bo? nitric acid & wat] are compos$ ( elem5ts :i*1 :5 sep>ate1 c only exi/ 9 ! gasse\s =m1 at lea/ 9 ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 x is evid5t t1 :5ev] ei!r ( ^! is depriv$ ( its oxyg51 ! rema9+ elem5t mu/ in/antly exp& & assume ! /ate ( gas2 ! eff]vesc5ce is occasion$ by ?is sudd5 conv]sion f ! liquid to ! gasse\s /ate4 ,! same decomposition1 & consequ5t =mation ( gas1 takes place :5 solutions ( metals are made 9 sulphuric acid3 ,9 g5]al1 especially by ! humid way1 metals d n attract all ! oxyg5 x conta9s2 !y !re=e r$uce x1 n into sulphur1 b into sulphur\s acid1 & z ?is acid c only exi/ z gas 9 ! usual temp]ature1 x is dis5gag$1 & occasions eff]vesc5ce4 ,! second ph5om5on is1 t1 :5 ! metals h be5 previ\sly oxydat$1 !y all dissolve 9 acids )\t eff]vesc5ce3 ,?is is easily expla9$2 because1 n hav+ n[ any occasion = comb9+ ) oxyg51 !y nei!r decompose ! acid nor ! wat] by :i*1 9 ! =m] case1 ! eff]vesc5ce is occasion$4 ,a ?ird ph5om5on1 :i* requires p>ticul> consid]ation1 is1 t none ( ! metals produce eff]vesc5ce by solution 9 oxyg5at$ muriatic acid4 ,dur+ ?is process ! metal1 9 ! fir/ place1 c>ries (f ! excess ( oxyg5 f ! oxyg5at$ muriatic acid1 by :i* x becomes oxydat$1 & r$uces ! acid to ! /ate ( ord9>y muriatic acid4 ,9 ?is case !re is no production ( gas1 n t ! muriatic acid does n t5d to exi/ 9 ! gasse\s /ate 9 ! common temp]ature1 :i* x does equally ) ! acids =m]ly m5tion$1 b because ?is acid1 :i* o!rwise w\ld exp& into gas1 f9ds m wat] comb9$ ) ! oxyg5at$ muriatic acid ?an is necess>y to reta9 x 9 ! liquid =m2 h5ce x does n dis5gage l ! sulphur\s acid1 b rema9s1 & quietly dissolves & comb9es ) ! metallic oxyd previ\sly =m$ f its sup]abundant oxyg54 ,! f\r? ph5om5on is1 t metals are absolutely insoluble 9 su* acids z h _! bases jo9$ to oxyg5 by a /rong] aff9ity ?an ^! metals are capable ( ex]t+ ^u t acidify+ pr9ciple4 ,h5ce silv]1 m]cury1 & lead1 9 _! metallic /ates1 are insoluble 9 muriatic acid1 b1 :5 previ\sly oxydat$1 !y become readily soluble )\t eff]vesc5ce4 ,f ^! ph5om5a x appe>s t oxyg5 is ! bond ( union betwe5 metals & acids2 & f ?is we are l$ to suppose t oxyg5 is conta9$ 9 all sub/ances :i* h a /rong aff9ity ) acids3 ,h5ce x is v probable ! f\r em95tly salifiable e>?s conta9 oxyg51 & _! capability ( unit+ ) acids is produc$ by ! int]m$iation ( t elem5t4 ,:at ,i h =m]ly notic$ relative to ^! e>?s is consid]ably /r5g!n$ by ! above consid]ations1 viz4 t !y may v possibly be metallic oxyds1 ) :i* oxyg5 has a /rong] aff9ity ?an ) *>coal1 & consequ5tly n r$ucible by any kn[n means4 ,all ! acids hi!rto kn[n are enum]at$ 9 ! foll[+ table1 ! fir/ column ( :i* conta9s ! names ( ! acids accord+ to ! new nom5clature1 & 9 ! second column are plac$ ! bases or radicals ( ^! acids1 ) obs]vations4 ,names ( ! ,acids4 ,names ( ! ,bases1 ) ,obs]vations4 #a4 ,sulphur\s ,sulphur4 #b4 ,sulphuric #c4 ,phosphor\s ,phosphorus4 #d4 ,phosphoric #e4 ,muriatic ,muriatic radical or base1 hi!rto unkn[n4 #f4 ,oxyg5at$ muriatic #g4 ,nitr\s #h4 ,nitric ,azote4 #i4 ,oxyg5at$ nitric #aj4 ,c>bonic ,*>coal ,! bases or radicals ( all ^! acids #aa4 ,acet\s seem to be =m$ by a comb9ation #ab4 ,acetic ( *>coal & hydrog52 #ac4 ,oxalic & ! only diff]5ce seems to be #ad4 ,t>t>\s ow+ to ! diff]5t proportions 9 #ae4 ,pyro-t>t>\s :i* ^! elem5ts comb9e to =m #af4 ,citric _! bases1 & to ! diff]5t doses #ag4 ,malic ( oxyg5 9 _! acidification4 ,a #ah4 ,pyro-lign\s connect$ s]ies ( accurate exp]im5ts #ai4 ,pyro-muc\s is /ill want$ ^u ?is subject4 #bj4 ,gallic ,our k ( ! bases ( #ba4 ,prussic ^! acids is hi!rto imp]fect2 we #bb4 ,b5zoic only "k t !y conta9 hydrog5 #bc4 ,succ9ic & *>coal z pr9cipal elem5ts1 #bd4 ,camphoric & t ! prussic acid conta9s #be4 ,lactic azote4 #bf4 ,sac*olactic #bg4 ,bombic ,! base ( ^! & all acids #bh4 ,=mic procur$ f animal sub/ances seems #bi4 ,sebacic to consi/ ( *>coal1 hydrog51 phosphor\s1 & azote4 #cj4 ,boracic ,! bases ( ^! two are hi!rto #ca4 ,fluoric entirely unkn[n4 #cb4 ,antimonic ,antimony4 #cc4 ,arg5tic ,silv]4 #cd4 ,ars5iac7,a7 ,ars5ic4 #ce4 ,bismu?ic ,bismu?4 #cf4 ,cobaltic ,cobalt4 #cg4 ,cupric ,copp]4 #ch4 ,/annic ,t94 #ci4 ,f]ric ,iron4 #dj4 ,manganic ,manganese4 #da4 ,m]curic7,b7 ,m]cury4 #db4 ,molybdic ,molybd5a4 #dc4 ,nickolic ,nickel4 #dd4 ,auric ,gold4 #de4 ,plat9ic ,plat9a4 #df4 ,plumbic ,lead4 #dg4 ,tung/ic ,tung/e94 #dh4 ,z9cic ,z9c4 ,note ,a3 ,?is t]m sw]ves a little f ! rule 9 mak+ ! "n ( ?is acid t]m9ate 9 ac in/ead ( ic4 ,! base & acid are di/+ui%$ 9 ,fr5* by ars5ic & ars5ique2 b1 hav+ *os5 ! ,engli% t]m9ation ic to translate ! ,fr5* ique1 ,i 0 oblig$ to use ?is small deviation4--,e4 ,note ,b3 ,mr ,lavoisi] has hydr>girique2 b m]curius be+ us$ = ! base or metal1 ! "n ( ! acid1 z above1 is equally regul>1 & less h>%4--,e4 ,9 ?is li/1 :i* conta9s #dh acids1 ,i h enum]at$ #ag metallic acids hi!rto v imp]fectly kn[n1 b ^u :i* ,mr ,b]?ollet is ab\t to publi% a v important "w4 ,x _c be pret5d$ t all ! acids :i* exi/ 9 nature1 or r all ! acidifiable bases1 are yet discov]$2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 !re are consid]able gr\nds = suppos+ t a m accurate inve/igation ?an has hi!rto be5 attempt$ w dim9i% ! numb] ( ! vegetable acids1 by %[+ t sev]al ( ^!1 at pres5t consid]$ z di/9ct acids1 are only modifications ( o!rs4 ,all t c be done 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k is1 to give a view ( *emi/ry z x really is1 & to e/abli% fundam5tal pr9ciples1 by :i* su* bodies z may be discov]$ 9 future may receive names1 9 con=mity ) "o uni=m sy/em4 ,! kn[n salifiable bases1 or sub/ances capable ( be+ conv]t$ into neutral salts by union ) acids1 am\nt to #bd2 viz4 #c alkalies1 #d e>?s1 & #ag metallic sub/ances2 s t1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( *emical k1 ! :ole possible numb] ( neutral salts am\nts to #aaebcc4 ,?is numb] is ^u ! supposition t ! metallic acids are capable ( dissolv+ o!r metals1 :i* is a new bran* ( *emi/ry n hi!rto inve/igat$1 ^u :i* dep5ds all ! metallic comb9ations nam$ vitre\s4 ,!re is reason to believe t _m ( ^! supposable sal9e comb9ations are n capable ( be+ =m$1 :i* mu/ greatly r$uce ! real numb] ( neutral salts producible by nature & art4 ,ev5 if we suppose ! real numb] to am\nt only to five or six hundr$ species ( possible neutral salts1 x is evid5t t1 7 we to di/+ui% !m1 aft] ! mann] ( ! anci5ts1 ei!r by ! names ( _! fir/ discov]]s1 or by t]ms d]iv$ f ! sub/ances f :i* !y are procur$1 we %\ld at la/ h su* a confusion ( arbitr>y designations1 z no memory c\ld possibly reta94 ,?is me?od might be tol]able 9 ! e>ly ages ( *emi/ry1 or ev5 till )9 ^! tw5ty ye>s1 :5 only ab\t ?irty species ( salts 7 kn[n2 b1 9 ! pres5t times1 :5 ! numb] is augm5t+ daily1 :5 e new acid gives u #bd or #dh new salts1 accord+ z x is capable ( "o or two degrees ( oxyg5ation1 a new me?od is c]ta9ly necess>y4 ,! me?od we h adopt$1 drawn f ! nom5clature ( ! acids1 is p]fectly analogical1 &1 foll[+ nature 9 ! simplicity ( h] op]ations1 gives a natural & easy nom5clature applicable to e possible neutral salt4 ,9 giv+ names to ! diff]5t acids1 we express ! common prop]ty by ! g5]ical t]m acid1 & di/+ui% ea* species by ! "n ( its peculi> acidifiable base4 ,h5ce ! acids =m$ by ! oxyg5ation ( sulphur1 phosphorus1 *>coal1 c4 are call$ sulphuric acid1 phosphoric acid1 c>bonic acid1 c4 ,we ?\ght x likewise prop] to indicate ! diff]5t degrees ( saturation ) oxyg51 by diff]5t t]m9ations ( ! same specific names4 ,h5ce we di/+ui% betwe5 sulphur\s & sulphuric1 & betwe5 phosphor\s & phosphoric acids1 c4 ,by apply+ ^! pr9ciples to ! nom5clature ( neutral salts1 we give a common t]m to all ! neutral salts aris+ f ! comb9ation ( "o acid1 & di/+ui% ! species by add+ ! "n ( ! salifiable base4 ,?us1 all ! neutral salts hav+ sulphuric acid 9 _! composition are nam$ sulphats2 ^? =m$ by ! phosphoric acid1 phosphats1 c4 ,! species be+ di/+ui%$ by ! names ( ! salifiable bases gives u sulphat ( pota%1 sulphat ( soda1 sulphat ( ammoniac1 sulphat ( lime1 sulphat ( iron1 c4 ,z we are acqua9t$ ) #bd salifiable bases1 alkal9e1 e>?y1 & metallic1 we h consequ5tly #bd sulphats1 z _m phosphats1 & s on ?r\gh all ! acids4 ,sulphur is1 h[ev]1 susceptible ( two degrees ( oxyg5ation1 ! fir/ ( :i* produces sulphur\s1 & ! second1 sulphuric acid2 &1 z ! neutral salts produc$ by ^! two acids1 h diff]5t prop]ties1 & are 9 fact diff]5t salts1 x becomes necess>y to di/+ui% ^! by peculi> t]m9ations2 we h !re=e di/+ui%$ ! neutral salts =m$ by ! acids 9 ! fir/ or less] degree ( oxyg5ation1 by *ang+ ! t]m9ation at into ite1 z sulphites1 phosphites#cd1 c4 ,?us1 oxyg5at$ or acidifi$ sulphur1 9 its two degrees ( oxyg5ation is capable ( =m+ #dh neutral salts1 #bd ( :i* are sulphites1 & z _m sulphats2 :i* is likewise ! case ) all ! acids capable ( two degrees ( oxyg5ation#ce4 ,x 7 bo? tiresome & unnecess>y to foll[ ^! d5om9ations ?r\gh all ! v>ieties ( _! possible application2 x is en\gh to h giv5 ! me?od ( nam+ ! v>i\s salts1 :i*1 :5 once well und]/ood1 is easily appli$ to e possible comb9ation4 ,! "n ( ! combu/ible & acidifiable body be+ once kn[n1 ! names ( ! acid x is capable ( =m+1 & ( all ! neutral comb9ations ! acid is susceptible ( ent]+ into1 are mo/ readily rememb]$4 ,su* z require a m complete illu/ration ( ! me?ods 9 :i* ! new nom5clature is appli$ w1 9 ! ,second ,"p ( ?is book1 f9d ,tables :i* conta9 a full enum]ation ( all ! neutral salts1 &1 9 g5]al1 all ! possible *emical comb9ations1 s f> z is consi/5t ) ! pres5t /ate ( our k4 ,to ^! ,i %all subjo9 %ort explanations1 conta9+ ! be/ & mo/ simple means ( procur+ ! diff]5t species ( acids1 & "s acc\nt ( ! g5]al prop]ties ( ! neutral salts !y produce4 ,i %all n d5y1 t1 to r5d] ?is "w m complete1 x w\ld h be5 necess>y to add p>ticul> obs]vations ^u ea* species ( salt1 its solubility 9 wat] & alkohol1 ! proportions ( acid & ( salifiable base 9 its composition1 ! quantity ( its wat] ( cri/allization1 ! diff]5t degrees ( saturation x is susceptible (1 &1 f9ally1 ! degree ( =ce or aff9ity ) :i* ! acid adh]es to ! base4 ,?is imm5se "w has be5 already begun by ,messrs ,b]gman1 ,morveau1 ,kirwan1 & o!r celebrat$ *emi/s1 b is hi!rto only 9 a mod]ate /ate ( advancem5t1 ev5 ! pr9ciples ^u :i* x is f\nd$ are n p]haps suffici5tly accurate4 ,^! num]\s details w\ld h swell$ ?is elem5t>y treatise to mu* too great a size2 besides t1 to h ga!r$ ! necess>y mat]ials1 & to h complet$ all ! s]ies ( exp]im5ts requisite1 mu/ h ret>d$ ! publication ( ?is book = _m ye>s4 ,?is is a va/ field = employ+ ! zeal & abilities ( "y *emi/s1 :om ,i w\ld advise to endeav\r r to d well ?an to d mu*1 & to asc]ta91 9 ! fir/ place1 ! composition ( ! acids1 be=e ent]+ ^u t ( ! neutral salts4 ,e edifice :i* is int5d$ to resi/ ! ravages ( "t %\ld be built ^u a sure f\ndation2 &1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( *emi/ry1 to attempt discov]ies by exp]im5ts1 ei!r n p]fectly exact1 or n suffici5tly rigor\s1 w s]ve only to int]rupt its progress1 in/ead ( contribut+ to its advancem5t4 ,,footnotes3 #cc ,?is numb] excludes all triple salts1 or su* z conta9 m ?an "o salifiable base1 all ! salts ^: bases are ov] or "u saturat$ ) acid1 & ^? =m$ by ! nitro-muriatic acid4--,e4 #cd ,z all ! specific names ( ! acids 9 ! new nom5clature are adjectives1 !y w\ld h appli$ sev]ally to ! v>i\s salifiable bases1 )\t ! inv5tion ( o!r t]ms1 ) p]fect di/9ctness4 ,?us1 sulphur\s pota%1 & sulphuric pota%1 are equally di/9ct z sulphite ( pota%1 & sulphat ( pota%2 & h ! advantage ( be+ m easily reta9$ 9 ! memory1 because m naturally aris+ f ! acids !mselves1 ?an ! arbitr>y t]m9ations adopt$ by ,mr ,lavoisi]4--,e4 #ce ,!re is yet a ?ird degree ( oxyg5ation ( acids1 z ! oxyg5at$ muriatic & oxyg5at$ nitric acids4 ,! t]ms applicable to ! neutral salts result+ f ! union ( ^! acids ) salifiable bases is suppli$ by ! ,au?or 9 ! ,second ,"p ( ?is ,"w4 ,^! are =m$ by prefix+ ! ^w oxyg5at$ to ! "n ( ! salt produc$ by ! second degree ( oxyg5ation4 ,?us1 oxyg5at$ muriat ( pota%1 oxyg5at$ nitrat ( soda1 c4--,e4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,( ! ,comb9ation ( ,acids ) ,salifiable ,bases1 & ( ! ,=mation ( ,neutral ,salts4 ,,introduction4 ,if ,i _h /rictly foll[$ ! plan ,i at fir/ laid d[n = ! conduct ( ?is "w1 ,i w\ld h conf9$ myself1 9 ! ,tables & accompany+ obs]vations :i* compose ?is ,second ,"p1 to %ort def9itions ( ! sev]al kn[n acids1 & abridg$ acc\nts ( ! processes by :i* !y are obta9able1 ) a m]e nom5clature or enum]ation ( ! neutral salts :i* result f ! comb9ation ( ^! acids ) ! v>i\s salifiable bases4 ,b ,i aft]w>ds f\nd t ! addition ( simil> ,tables ( all ! simple sub/ances :i* ent] into ! composition ( ! acids & oxyds1 toge!r ) ! v>i\s possible comb9ations ( ^! elem5ts1 w\ld add greatly to ! utility ( ?is "w1 )\t be+ any great increase to its size4 ,^! additions1 :i* are all conta9$ 9 ! twelve fir/ sections ( ?is ,"p1 & ! ,tables annex$ to ^!1 =m a k9d ( recapitulation ( ! fir/ fifte5 ,*apt]s ( ! ,fir/ ,"p3 ,! re/ ( ! ,tables & ,sections conta9 all ! sal9e comb9ations4 ,x mu/ be v app>5t t1 9 ?is ,"p ( ! ,"w1 ,i h borr[$ greatly f :at has be5 already publi%$ by ,mr de ,morveau 9 ! ,fir/ ,volume ( ! ,encyclop$ie p> ordre des ,matires4 ,i c\ld h>dly h discov]$ a bett] s\rce ( in=mation1 especially :5 ! difficulty ( consult+ books 9 =eign languages is consid]$4 ,i make ?is g5]al ackn[l$gm5t on purpose to save ! tr\ble ( ref]5ces to ,mr de ,morveau's "w 9 ! c\rse ( ! foll[+ "p ( m9e4 ,,table ,,( ,,simple ,,sub/ances4 ,simple sub/ances belong+ to all ! k+doms ( nature1 :i* may be consid]$ z ! elem5ts ( bodies4 ,new ,names4 ,correspond5t old ,names4 ,light ,light4 ,caloric ,heat4 ,pr9ciple or elem5t ( heat4 ,fire4 ,igne\s fluid4 ,matt] ( fire & ( heat4 ,oxyg5 ,dephlogi/icat$ air4 ,empyreal air4 ,vital air1 or ,base ( vital air4 ,azote ,phlogi/icat$ air or gas4 ,mephitis1 or its base4 ,hydrog5 ,inflammable air or gas1 or ! base ( inflammable air4 ,oxydable & ,acidifiable simple ,sub/ance n ,metallic4 ,new ,names4 ,correspond5t old names4 ,sulphur ,phosphor\s ,! same names4 ,*>coal ,muriatic radical ,fluoric radical ,/ill unkn[n4 ,boracic radical ,oxydable & ,acidifiable simple ,metallic ,bodies ,new ,names4 ,correspond5t ,old ,names4 ,antimony ,antimony4 ,ars5ic ,ars5ic4 ,bismu? ,bismu?4 ,cobalt ,cobalt4 ,copp] ,copp]4 ,gold ,gold4 ,iron ,iron4 ,lead ,regulus ( ,lead4 ,manganese ,manganese4 ,m]cury ,m]cury4 ,molybd5a ,molybd5a4 ,nickel ,nickel4 ,plat9a ,plat9a4 ,silv] ,silv]4 ,t9 ,t94 ,tung/e9 ,tung/e94 ,z9c ,z9c4 ,salifiable simple ,e>?y ,sub/ances4 ,new ,names4 ,correspond5t old ,names4 ,lime ,*alk1 calc>e\s e>?4 ,quicklime4 ,magnesia ,magnesia1 base ( ,epsom salt4 ,calc9$ or cau/ic magnesia4 ,b>ytes ,b>ytes1 or heavy e>?4 ,argill ,clay1 e>? ( alum4 ,silex ,silice\s or vitrifiable e>?4 ,,sect4 ,i4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,table ( ,simple ,sub/ances4 ,! pr9ciple object ( *emical exp]im5ts is to decompose natural bodies1 s z sep>ately to exam9e ! diff]5t sub/ances :i* ent] into _! composition4 ,by consult+ *emical sy/ems1 x w be f\nd t ?is sci5ce ( *emical analysis has made rapid progress 9 our own times4 ,=m]ly oil & salt 7 consid]$ z elem5ts ( bodies1 :]eas lat] obs]vation & exp]im5t h %[n t all salts1 in/ead ( be+ simple1 are compos$ ( an acid unit$ to a base4 ,! b\nds ( analysis h be5 greatly enl>g$ by mod]n discov]ies#cf2 ! acids are %[n to be compos$ ( oxyg51 z an acidify+ pr9ciple common to all1 unit$ 9 ea* to a p>ticul> base4 ,i h prov$ :at ,mr ,haff5fratz _h be=e advanc$1 t ^! radicals ( ! acids are n all simple elem5ts1 _m ( !m be+1 l ! oily pr9ciple1 compos$ ( hydrog5 & *>coal4 ,ev5 ! bases ( neutral salts h be5 prov$ by ,mr ,b]?ollet to be comp\nds1 z he has %[n t ammoniac is compos$ ( azote & hydrog54 ,?us1 z *emi/ry advances t[>ds p]fection1 by divid+ & subdivid+1 x is impossible to say :]e x is to end2 & ^! ?+s we at pres5t suppose simple may soon be f\nd q o!rwise4 ,all we d>e v5ture to affirm ( any sub/ance is1 t x mu/ be consid]$ z simple 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 & s f> z *emical analysis has hi!rto be5 able to %[4 ,we may ev5 presume t ! e>?s mu/ soon cease to be consid]$ z simple bodies2 !y are ! only bodies ( ! salifiable class :i* h no t5d5cy to unite ) oxyg52 & ,i am mu* incl9$ to believe t ?is proce$s f _! be+ already saturat$ ) t elem5t4 ,if s1 !y w fall to be consid]$ z comp\nds consi/+ ( simple sub/ances1 p]haps metallic1 oxydat$ to a c]ta9 degree4 ,?is is only haz>d$ z a conjecture2 & ,i tru/ ! read] w take c>e n to conf\nd :at ,i h relat$ z tru?s1 fix$ on ! firm basis ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 ) m]e hypo!tical conjectures4 ,! fix$ alkalies1 pota%1 & soda1 are omitt$ 9 ! =ego+ ,table1 because !y are evid5tly comp\nd sub/ances1 ?\gh we are ignorant z yet :at are ! elem5ts !y are compos$ (4 ,,table ( comp\nd oxydable & acidifiable bases4 ,names ( ! radicals4 ,oxydable or acidifiable ,nitro-muriatic radical or base1 f ! m9]al base ( ! acid =m]ly k+dom4 call$ aqua regia4 ,t>t>\s radical or base4 ,malic4 ,citric4 ,pyro-lign\s4 ,oxydable or acidifiable ,pyro-muc\s4 hydro-c>bon\s or ,pyro-t>t>\s4 c>bono-hydr\s radicals ,oxalic4 f ! vegetable ,acet\s4 k+dom4 ,succ9ic4 ,radicals ,b5zoic4 ,camphoric4 ,gallic4 ,oxydable or acidifiable ,lactic4 radicals f ! animal ,sac*olactic4 k+dom1 :i* ,=mic4 mo/ly conta9 azote1 ,bombic4 & frequ5tly phosphorus4 ,sebacic4 ,li?ic4 ,prussic4 ,note4--,! radicals f ! vegetable k+dom are conv]t$ by a fir/ degree ( oxyg5ation into vegetable oxyds1 su* z sug>1 />*1 & gum or mucus3 ,^? ( ! animal k+dom by ! same means =m animal oxyds1 z lymph1 c4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,table ( ,comp\nd ,radicals4 ,! old] *emi/s be+ unacqua9t$ ) ! composition ( acids1 & n suspect+ !m to be =m$ by a peculi> radical or base = ea*1 unit$ to an acidify+ pr9ciple or elem5t common to all1 c\ld n consequ5tly give any "n to sub/ances ( :i* !y _h n ! mo/ di/ant idea4 ,we _h !re=e to inv5t a new nom5clature = ?is subject1 ?\gh we 7 at ! same "t s5sible t ?is nom5clature mu/ be susceptible ( great modification :5 ! nature ( ! comp\nd radicals %all be bett] und]/ood#cg4 ,! comp\nd oxydable & acidifiable radicals f ! vegetable & animal k+doms1 enum]at$ 9 ! =ego+ table1 are n hi!rto r$ucible to sy/ematic nom5clature1 because _! exact analysis is z yet unkn[n4 ,we only "k 9 g5]al1 by "s exp]im5ts ( my own1 & "s made by ,mr ,hass5fratz1 t mo/ ( ! vegetable acids1 su* z ! t>t>\s1 oxalic1 citric1 malic1 acet\s1 pyro-t>t>\s1 & pyromuc\s1 h radicals compos$ ( hydrog5 & *>coal1 comb9$ 9 su* a way z to =m s+le bases1 & t ^! acids only diff] f ea* o!r by ! proportions 9 :i* ^! two sub/ances ent] into ! composition ( _! bases1 & by ! degree ( oxyg5ation :i* ^! bases h receiv$4 ,we "k f>!r1 *iefly f ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr ,b]?ollet1 t ! radicals f ! animal k+dom1 & ev5 "s ( ^? f vegetables1 are ( a m comp\nd nature1 &1 besides hydrog5 & *>coal1 t !y (t5 conta9 azote1 & sometimes phosphorus2 b we are n hi!rto possess$ ( suffici5tly accurate exp]im5ts = calculat+ ! proportions ( ^! sev]al sub/ances4 ,we are !re=e =c$1 9 ! mann] ( ! old] *emi/s1 /ill to "n ^! acids aft] ! sub/ances f :i* !y are procur$4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ^! names w be laid aside :5 our k ( ^! sub/ances becomes m accurate & ext5sive2 ! t]ms hydro-c>bon\s1 hydro-c>bonic1 c>bono-hydr\s1 & c>bono hydric#ch1 w !n become sub/itut$ = ^? we n[ employ1 :i* w !n only rema9 z te/imonies ( ! imp]fect /ate 9 :i* ?is "p ( *emi/ry 0 transmitt$ to u by our pr$ecessors4 ,x is evid5t t ! oils1 be+ compos$ ( hydrog5 & *>coal comb9$1 are true c>bono-hydr\s or hydro-c>bon\s radicals2 &1 inde$1 by add+ oxyg51 !y are conv]tible into vegetable oxyds & acids1 accord+ to _! degrees ( oxyg5ation4 ,we _c1 h[ev]1 affirm t oils ent] 9 _! entire /ate into ! composition ( vegetable oxyds & acids2 x is possible t !y previ\sly lose a "p ei!r ( _! hydrog5 or *>coal1 & t ! rema9+ +r$i5ts no long] exi/ 9 ! proportions necess>y to con/itute oils4 ,we /ill require f>!r exp]im5ts to elucidate ^! po9ts4 ,prop]ly speak+1 we are only acqua9t$ ) "o comp\nd radical f ! m9]al k+dom1 ! nitro-muriatic1 :i* is =m$ by ! comb9ation ( azote ) ! muriatic radical4 ,! o!r comp\nd m9]al acids h be5 mu* less att5d$ to1 f _! produc+ less /rik+ ph5om5a4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,comb9ations ( ,light & ,caloric ) diff]5t ,sub/ances4 ,i h n con/ruct$ any table ( ! comb9ations ( light & caloric ) ! v>i\s simple & comp\nd sub/ances1 because our conceptions ( ! nature ( ^! comb9ations are n hi!rto suffici5tly accurate4 ,we "k1 9 g5]al1 t all bodies 9 nature are imbu$1 surr\nd$1 & p5etrat$ 9 e way ) caloric1 :i* fills up e int]val left betwe5 _! p>ticles2 t1 9 c]ta9 cases1 caloric becomes fix$ 9 bodies1 s z to con/itute a "p ev5 ( _! solid sub/ance1 ?\gh x m frequ5tly acts ^u !m ) a repulsive =ce1 f :i*1 or f its accumulation 9 bodies to a great] or less] degree1 ! trans=mation ( solids into fluids1 & ( fluids to ari=m ela/icity1 is entirely ow+4 ,we h employ$ ! g5]ic "n gas to indicate ?is ari=m /ate ( bodies produc$ by a suffici5t accumulation ( caloric2 s t1 :5 we wi% to express ! ari=m /ate ( muriatic acid1 c>bonic acid1 hydrog51 wat]1 alkohol1 c4 we d x by add+ ! ^w gas to _! names2 ?us muriatic acid gas1 c>bonic acid gas1 hydrog5 gas1 aque\s gas1 alkoholic gas1 c4 ,! comb9ations ( light1 & its mode ( act+ ^u diff]5t bodies1 is /ill less kn[n4 ,by ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr ,b]?ollet1 x appe>s to h great aff9ity ) oxyg51 is susceptible ( comb9+ ) x1 & contributes along/ ) caloric to *ange x into ! /ate ( gas4 ,exp]im5ts ^u vegetation give reason to believe t light comb9es ) c]ta9 p>ts ( vegetables1 & t ! gre5 ( _! leaves1 & ! v>i\s col\rs ( _! fl[]s1 is *iefly ow+ to ?is comb9ation4 ,?is mu* is c]ta91 t plants :i* gr[ 9 d>kness are p]fectly :ite1 languid1 & unheal?y1 & t to make !m recov] vig\r1 & to acquire _! natural col\rs1 ! direct influ5ce ( light is absolutely necess>y4 ,some:at simil> takes place ev5 ^u animals3 ,mank9d deg5]ate to a c]ta9 degree :5 employ$ 9 s$5t>y manufactures1 or f liv+ 9 cr[d$ h\ses1 or 9 ! n>r[ lanes ( l>ge cities2 :]eas !y improve 9 _! nature & con/itution 9 mo/ ( ! c\ntry lab\rs :i* are c>ri$ on 9 ! op5 air4 ,organization1 s5sation1 spontane\s motion1 & all ! op]ations ( life1 only exi/ at ! surface ( ! e>?1 & 9 places expos$ to ! influ5ce ( light4 ,)\t x nature itself w\ld be lifeless & inanimate4 ,by means ( light1 ! b5evol5ce ( ! ,deity ha? fill$ ! surface ( ! e>? ) organization1 s5sation1 & intellig5ce4 ,! fable ( ,promo!us might p]haps be consid]$ z giv+ a h9t ( ?is philosophical tru?1 :i* _h ev5 pres5t$ itself to ! k ( ! anci5ts4 ,i h int5tionally avoid$ any disquisitions relative to organiz$ bodies 9 ?is "w1 = :i* reason ! ph5om5a ( respiration1 sanguification1 & animal heat1 are n consid]$2 b ,i hope1 at "s future "t1 to be able to elucidate ^! curi\s subjects4 ,trancrib]'s note3 ,! foll[+ table is pres5t$ 9 f\r sections to comply ) #ge "* l9e limitation4 ,,table ( ! b9>y ,comb9ations ( ,oxyg5 ) simple ,sub/ances ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,names ( ,fir/ degree ( oxyg5ation4 ! simple ---------------------------------------- sub/ances4 ,new ,names4 ,anci5t ,names4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,caloric ,oxyg5 gas ,vital or dephlogi/icat$ air ,hydrog54 ,wat]7,a74 ,azote ,nitr\s oxyd1 or ,nitr\s gas or air base ( nitr\s gas ,*>coal ,oxyd ( *>coal1 or,unkn[n ,comb9ations c>bonic oxyd ( oxyg5 ) ,sulphur ,oxyd ( sulphur ,s(t sulphur simple non-metallic,phosphorus ,oxyd ( phosphorus ,residuum f ! sub/ances4 combu/ion ( phosphorus ,muriatic radical,muriatic oxyd ,unkn[n ,fluoric radical ,fluoric oxyd ,unkn[n ,boracic radical ,boracic oxyd ,unkn[n ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,antimony ,grey oxyd ( ,grey calx ( antimony antimony ,silv] ,oxyd ( silv] ,calx ( silv] ,ars5ic ,grey oxyd ( ars5ic,grey calx ( ars5ic ,bismu? ,grey oxyd ( bismu?,grey calx ( bismu? ,cobalt ,grey oxyd ( cobalt ,grey calx ( cobalt ,copp] ,br[n oxyd ( copp],br[n calx ( copp] ,t9 ,grey oxyd ( t9 ,grey calx ( t9 ,iron ,black oxyd ( iron ,m>tial e?iops ,comb9ations ( oxyg5 ,manganese ,black oxyd ( ,black calx ( ) ! manganese manganese simple metallic ,m]cury ,black oxyd ( ,e?iops m9]al7,b7 sub/ances4 m]cury ,molybd5a ,oxyd ( molybd5a ,calx ( molybd5a ,nickel ,oxyd ( nickel ,calx ( nickel ,gold ,yell[ oxyd ( gold ,yell[ calx ( gold ,plat9a ,yell[ oxyd ( ,yell[ calx ( plat9a plat9a ,lead ,grey oxyd ( lead ,grey calx ( lead ,tung/e9 ,oxyd ( ,tung/e9 ,calx ( ,tung/e9 ,z9c ,grey oxyd ( z9c ,grey calx ( z9c ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,names ( ,second degree ( oxyg5ation4 ! simple ---------------------------------------- sub/ances4 ,new ,names4 ,anci5t ,names4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,caloric ,hydrog54 ,azote ,nitr\s acid ,smoak+ nitr\s acid ,*>coal ,c>bon\s acid ,unkn[n ,comb9ations ( oxyg5 ,sulphur ,sulphur\s acid ,sulphure\s acid ) simple non-metallic,phosphorus ,phosphor\s acid ,volatile acid ( sub/ances4 phosphorus ,muriatic radical,muriat\s acid ,unkn[n ,fluoric radical ,fluor\s acid ,unkn[n ,boracic radical ,borac\s acid ,unkn[n ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,antimony ,:ite oxyd ( ,:ite calx ( antimony antimony diaphoretic antimony ,silv] ,ars5ic ,:ite oxyd ( ,:ite calx ( ars5ic ars5ic ,bismu? ,:ite oxyd ( ,:ite calx ( bismu? bismu? ,cobalt ,copp] ,blue & gre5 oxyds,blue & gre5 ( copp] calces ( copp] ,t9 ,:ite oxyd ( t9 ,:ite calx ( t91 or putty ( t9 ,iron ,yell[ & r$ oxyds,o*re & ru/ ( ( iron iron ,comb9ations ( oxyg5 ,manganese ,:ite oxyd ( ,:ite calx ( ) ! manganese manganese simple metallic ,m]cury ,yell[ & r$ oxyds,turbi? m9]al1 sub/ances4 ( m]cury r$ precipitate1 calc9at$ m]cury1 precipitate p] se ,molybd5a ,nickel ,gold ,r$ oxyd ( gold ,r$ calx ( gold1 purple precipitate ( cassius ,plat9a ,lead ,yell[ & r$ oxyds,massicot & m9ium ( lead ,tung/e9 ,z9c ,:ite oxyd ( z9c ,:ite calx ( z9c1 pompholix ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,names ( ,?ird degree ( oxyg5ation4 ! simple ---------------------------------------- sub/ances4 ,new ,names4 ,anci5t ,names4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,caloric ,hydrog54 ,azote ,nitric acid ,pale1 or n smoak+ nitr\s acid ,comb9ations,*>coal ,c>bonic acid ,fix$ air ( oxyg5 ) ,sulphur ,sulphuric acid ,vitriolic acid simple non-metallic,phosphorus ,phosphoric acid ,phosphoric acid sub/ances4 ,muriatic radical,muriatic acid ,m>9e acid ,fluoric radical ,fluoric acid ,unkn[n till lately ,boracic radical ,boracic acid ,homb]g's s$ative salt ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,antimony ,antimonic acid ,silv] ,arg5tic acid ,ars5ic ,ars5iac acid ,acid ( ars5ic ,bismu? ,bismu?ic acid ,cobalt ,cobaltic acid ,copp] ,cupric acid ,t9 ,/annic acid ,iron ,f]ric acid ,comb9ations ( oxyg5 ,manganese ,manganesic acid ) ! simple metallic ,m]cury ,m]curic acid sub/ances4 ,molybd5a ,molybdic acid ,acid ( molybd5a ,nickel ,nickelic acid ,gold ,auric acid ,plat9a ,plat9ic acid ,lead ,plumbic acid ,tung/e9 ,tung/ic acid ,acid ( ,tung/e9 ,z9c ,z9cic acid ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,names ( ,f\r? degree ( oxyg5ation4 ! simple ---------------------------------------- - sub/ances4 ,new ,names4 ,anci5t ,names4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,caloric ,hydrog54 ,azote ,oxyg5at$ nitric ,unkn[n acid ,*>coal ,oxyg5at$ c>bonic ,unkn[n ,comb9ations acid ( oxyg5 ) ,sulphur ,oxyg5at$ sulphuric ,unkn[n simple acid non-metallic,phosphorus ,oxyg5at$ phosphoric,unkn[n sub/ances4 acid ,muriatic radical,oxyg5at$ muriatic ,dephlogi/icat$ acid m>9e acid ,fluoric radical ,boracic radical ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,antimony ,silv] ,ars5ic ,oxyg5at$ ars5iac ,unkn[n acid ,bismu? ,cobalt ,copp] ,t9 ,iron ,comb9ations ( oxyg5 ,manganese ) ! simple metallic ,m]cury sub/ances4 ,molybd5a ,oxyg5at$ molybdic ,unkn[n acid ,nickel ,gold ,plat9a ,lead ,tung/e9 ,oxyg5at$ ,tung/ic ,unkn[n acid ,z9c ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,note ,a3 ,only "o degree ( oxyg5ation ( hydrog5 is hi!rto kn[n4--,a4 ,note ,b3 ,e?iops m9]al is ! sulphuret ( m]cury2 ?is %\ld h be5 call$ black precipitate ( m]cury4--,e4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,comb9ations ( ,oxyg5 ) ! simple ,sub/ances4 ,oxyg5 =ms almo/ a ?ird ( ! mass ( our atmosph]e1 & is consequ5tly "o ( ! mo/ pl5tiful sub/ances 9 nature4 ,all ! animals & vegetables live & gr[ 9 ?is imm5se magaz9e ( oxyg5 gas1 & f x we procure ! greate/ "p ( :at we employ 9 exp]im5ts4 ,s great is ! reciprocal aff9ity betwe5 ?is elem5t & o!r sub/ances1 t we _c procure x dis5gag$ f all comb9ation4 ,9 ! atmosph]e x is unit$ ) caloric1 9 ! /ate ( oxyg5 gas1 & ?is aga9 is mix$ ) ab\t two ?irds ( its weight ( azotic gas4 ,sev]al conditions are requisite to enable a body to become oxyg5at$1 or to p]mit oxyg5 to ent] into comb9ation ) x4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is necess>y t ! p>ticles ( ! body to be oxyg5at$ %all h less reciprocal attraction ) ea* o!r ?an !y h = ! oxyg51 :i* o!rwise _c possibly comb9e ) !m4 ,nature1 9 ?is case1 may be assi/$ by art1 z we h x 9 our p[] to dim9i% ! attraction ( ! p>ticles ( bodies almo/ at w by heat+ !m1 or1 9 o!r words1 by introduc+ caloric into ! int]/ices betwe5 _! p>ticles2 &1 z ! attraction ( ^! p>ticles = ea* o!r is dim9i%$ 9 ! inv]se ratio ( _! di/ance1 x is evid5t t !re mu/ be a c]ta9 po9t ( di/ance ( p>ticles :5 ! aff9ity !y possess ) ea* o!r becomes less ?an t !y h = oxyg51 & at :i* oxyg5ation mu/ necess>ily take place if oxyg5 be pres5t4 ,we c readily conceive t ! degree ( heat at :i* ?is ph5om5on beg9s mu/ be diff]5t 9 diff]5t bodies4 ,h5ce1 on purpose to oxyg5ate mo/ bodies1 especially ! great] "p ( ! simple sub/ances1 x is only necess>y to expose !m to ! influ5ce ( ! air ( ! atmosph]e 9 a conv5i5t degree ( temp]ature4 ,) respect to lead1 m]cury1 & t91 ?is ne$s be b little high] ?an ! m$ium temp]ature ( ! e>?2 b x requires a m consid]able degree ( heat to oxyg5ate iron1 copp]1 c4 by ! dry way1 or :5 ?is op]ation is n assi/$ by moi/ure4 ,sometimes oxyg5ation takes place ) great rapidity1 & is accompani$ by great s5sible heat1 light1 & flame2 su* is ! combu/ion ( phosphorus 9 atmosph]ic air1 & ( iron 9 oxyg5 gas4 ,t ( sulphur is less rapid2 & ! oxyg5ation ( lead1 t91 & mo/ ( ! metals1 takes place va/ly sl[]1 & consequ5tly ! dis5gagem5t ( caloric1 & m especially ( light1 is h>dly s5sible4 ,"s sub/ances h s /rong an aff9ity ) oxyg51 & comb9e ) x 9 su* l[ degrees ( temp]ature1 t we _c procure !m 9 _! unoxyg5at$ /ate2 su* is ! muriatic acid1 :i* has n hi!rto be5 decompos$ by art1 p]haps ev5 n by nature1 & :i* consequ5tly has only be5 f\nd 9 ! /ate ( acid4 ,x is probable t _m o!r sub/ances ( ! m9]al k+dom are necess>ily oxyg5at$ 9 ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 & t be+ already saturat$ ) oxyg51 prev5ts _! f>!r action ^u t elem5t4 ,!re are o!r means ( oxyg5at+ simple sub/ances besides exposure to air 9 a c]ta9 degree ( temp]ature1 su* z by plac+ !m 9 contact ) metals comb9$ ) oxyg51 & :i* h little aff9ity ) t elem5t4 ,! r$ oxyd ( m]cury is "o ( ! be/ sub/ances = ?is purpose1 especially ) bodies :i* d n comb9e ) t metal4 ,9 ?is oxyd ! oxyg5 is unit$ ) v little =ce to ! metal1 & c be driv5 out by a degree ( heat only suffici5t to make glass r$ hot2 :]e=e su* bodies z are capable ( unit+ ) oxyg5 are readily oxyg5at$1 by means ( be+ mix$ ) r$ oxyd ( m]cury1 & mod]ately heat$4 ,! same effect may be1 to a c]ta9 degree1 produc$ by means ( ! black oxyd ( manganese1 ! r$ oxyd ( lead1 ! oxyds ( silv]1 & by mo/ ( ! metallic oxyds1 if we only take c>e to *oose su* z h less aff9ity ) oxyg5 ?an ! bodies !y are meant to oxyg5ate4 ,all ! metallic r$uctions & revivifications belong to ?is class ( op]ations1 be+ no?+ m ?an oxyg5ations ( *>coal1 by means ( ! sev]al metallic oxyds4 ,! *>coal comb9es ) ! oxyg5 & ) caloric1 & escapes 9 =m ( c>bonic acid gas1 :ile ! metal rema9s pure & revivifi$1 or depriv$ ( ! oxyg5 :i* be=e comb9$ ) x 9 ! =m ( oxyd4 ,all combu/ible sub/ances may likewise be oxyg5at$ by means ( mix+ !m ) nitrat ( pota% or ( soda1 or ) oxyg5at$ muriat ( pota%1 & subject+ ! mixture to a c]ta9 degree ( heat2 ! oxyg51 9 ?is case1 quits ! nitrat or ! muriat1 & comb9es ) ! combu/ible body4 ,?is species ( oxyg5ation requires to be p]=m$ ) extreme caution1 & only ) v small quantities2 because1 z ! oxyg5 ent]s into ! composition ( nitrats1 & m especially ( oxyg5at$ muriats1 comb9$ ) almo/ z mu* caloric z is necess>y = conv]t+ x into oxyg5 gas1 ?is imm5se quantity ( caloric becomes sudd5ly free ! in/ant ( ! comb9ation ( ! oxyg5 ) ! combu/ible body1 & produces su* viol5t explosions z are p]fectly irresi/ible4 ,by ! humid way we c oxyg5ate mo/ combu/ible bodies1 & conv]t mo/ ( ! oxyds ( ! ?ree k+doms ( nature into acids4 ,= ?is purpose we *iefly employ ! nitric acid1 :i* has a v slight hold ( oxyg51 & quits x readily to a great numb] ( bodies by ! assi/ance ( a g5tle heat4 ,! oxyg5at$ muriatic acid may be us$ = sev]al op]ations ( ?is k9d1 b n 9 !m all4 ,i give ! "n ( b9>y to ! comb9ations ( oxyg5 ) ! simple sub/ances1 because 9 ^! only two elem5ts are comb9$4 ,:5 ?ree sub/ances are unit$ 9 "o comb9ation ,i call x t]n>y1 & quat]n>y :5 ! comb9ation consi/s ( f\r sub/ances unit$4 ,,table ( ! comb9ations ( ,oxyg5 ) ! comp\nd radicals4 ,names ( ! radicals4 ,names ( ! result+ acids4 ,new nom5clature4 ,old nom5clature4 ,nitro muriatic ,nitro muriatic acid ,aqua regia4 radical 7,a7 ,t>t>ic ,t>t>\s acid ,unkn[n till lately4 ,malic ,malic acid ,ditto4 ,citric ,citric acid ,acid ( lemons4 ,pyro-lign\s ,pyro-lign\s acid ,empyreumatic acid ( wood4 ,pyro-muc\s ,pyro-muc\s acid ,empyr4 acid ( sug>4 ,pyro-t>t>\s ,pyro-t>t>\s acid ,empyr4 acid ( t>t>4 ,oxalic ,oxalic acid ,acid ( sorel4 ,acetic ,acet\s acid ,v9eg>1 or acid ( v9eg>4 ,acetic acid ,radical v9eg>4 ,succ9ic ,succ9ic acid ,volatile salt ( amb]4 ,b5zoic ,b5zotic acid ,fl[]s ( b5zo94 ,camphoric ,camphoric acid ,unkn[n till lately4 ,gallic ,gallic acid ,! a/r+5t pr9ciple ( vegetables4 7,b7 ,lactic ,lactic acid ,acid ( s\r :ey4 ,sac*olactic ,sac*olactic acid ,unkn[n till lately4 ,=mic ,=mic acid ,acid ( ants4 ,bombic ,bombic acid ,unkn[n till lately4 ,sebacic ,sebacic acid ,ditto4 ,li?ic ,li?ic acid ,ur9>y calculus4 ,prussic ,prussic acid ,col\r+ matt] ( ,prussian blue4 ,note ,a3 ,^! radicals by a fir/ degree ( oxyg5ation =m vegetable oxyds1 z sug>1 />*1 mucus1 c4--,a4 ,note ,b3 ,^! radicals by a fir/ degree ( oxyg5ation =m ! animal oxyds1 z lymph1 r$ "p ( ! blood1 animal secretions1 c4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,v4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,comb9ations ( ,oxyg5 ) ! ,comp\nd ,radicals4 ,i publi%$ a new !ory ( ! nature & =mation ( acids 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aggf1 p4 #fga4 & #aggh1 p4 #ece4 9 :i* ,i conclud$1 t ! numb] ( acids mu/ be greatly l>g] ?an 0 till !n suppos$4 ,s9ce t "t1 a new field ( inquiry has be5 op5$ to *emi/s2 &1 in/ead ( five or six acids :i* 7 !n kn[n1 ne> ?irty new acids h be5 discov]$1 by :i* means ! numb] ( kn[n neutral salts h be5 increas$ 9 ! same proportion4 ,! nature ( ! acidifiable bases1 or radicals ( ! acids1 & ! degrees ( oxyg5ation !y are susceptible (1 /ill rema9 to be inquir$ into4 ,i h already %[n1 t almo/ all ! oxydable & acidifiable radicals f ! m9]al k+dom are simple1 & t1 on ! contr>y1 !re h>dly exi/s any radical 9 ! vegetable1 & m especially 9 ! animal k+dom1 b is compos$ ( at lea/ two sub/ances1 hydrog5 & *>coal1 & t azote & phosphorus are frequ5tly unit$ to ^!1 by :i* we h comp\nd radicals ( two1 ?ree1 & f\r bases or simple elem5ts unit$4 ,f ^! obs]vations1 x appe>s t ! vegetable & animal oxyds & acids may diff] f ea* o!r 9 ?ree sev]al ways3 #a/1 ,accord+ to ! numb] ( simple acidifiable elem5ts ( :i* _! radicals are compos$3 #b;dly1 ,accord+ to ! proportions 9 :i* ^! are comb9$ toge!r3 ,&1 #c;dly1 ,accord+ to _! diff]5t degrees ( oxyg5ation3 ,:i* circum/ances are m ?an suffici5t to expla9 ! great v>iety :i* nature produces 9 ^! sub/ances4 ,x is n at all surpris+1 aft] ?is1 t mo/ ( ! vegetable acids are conv]tible into ea* o!r1 no?+ m be+ requisite ?an to *ange ! proportions ( ! hydrog5 & *>coal 9 _! composition1 & to oxyg5ate !m 9 a great] or less] degree4 ,?is has be5 done by ,mr ,crell 9 "s v +5i\s exp]im5ts1 :i* h be5 v]ifi$ & ext5d$ by ,mr ,hass5fratz4 ,f ^! x appe>s1 t *>coal & hydrog51 by a fir/ oxyg5ation1 produce t>t>\s acid1 oxalic acid by a second degree1 & acet\s or acetic acid by a ?ird1 or high] oxyg5ation2 only1 t *>coal seems to exi/ 9 a r small] proportion 9 ! acet\s & acetic acids4 ,! citric & malic acids diff] little f ! prec$+ acids4 ,ought we !n to conclude t ! oils are ! radicals ( ! vegetable & animal acids8 ,i h already express$ my d\bts ^u ?is subject3 #a/1 ,al?\gh ! oils appe> to be =m$ ( no?+ b hydrog5 & *>coal1 we d n "k if ^! are 9 ! precise proportion necess>y = con/itut+ ! radicals ( ! acids3 #b;dly1 ,s9ce oxyg5 ent]s into ! composition ( ^! acids equally ) hydrog5 & *>coal1 !re is no m reason = suppos+ !m to be compos$ ( oil r ?an ( wat] or ( c>bonic acid4 ,x is true t !y conta9 ! mat]ials necess>y = all ^! comb9ations1 b !n ^! d n take place 9 ! common temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e2 all ! ?ree elem5ts rema9 comb9$ 9 a /ate ( equilibrium1 :i* is readily de/roy$ by a temp]ature only a little above t ( boil+ wat]#ci4 ,,table ( ! ,b9>y ,comb9ations ( ,azote ) ! ,simple ,sub/ances4 ,simple ,sub/ances4 ,results ( ! ,comb9ations4 ,new ,nom5clature4 ,old ,nom5clature4 ,caloric ,azotic gas ,phlogi/icat$ air1 or ,mephitis4 ,hydrog5 ,ammoniac ,volatile alkali4 ,nitr\s oxyd ,base ( ,nitr\s gas4 ,nitr\s acid ,smoak+ nitr\s acid4 ,oxyg5 ,nitric acid ,pale nitr\s acid4 ,oxyg5at$ nitric acid ,unkn[n4 ,?is comb9ation is hi!rto unkn[n2 %\ld x ev] be discov]$1 x w be call$1 accord+ to ,*>coal ! pr9ciples ( our nom5clature1 ,azuret ( ,*>coal4 ,*>coal dissolves 9 azotic gas1 & =ms c>bonat$ azotic gas4 ,phosphorus4 ,azuret ( phosphorus4 ,/ill unkn[n4 ,azuret ( sulphur4 ,/ill unkn[n4 ,we "k ,sulphur t sulphur dissolves 9 azotic gas1 =m+ sulphurat$ azotic gas4 ,azote comb9es ) *>coal & hydrog51 & ,comp\nd sometimes ) phosphorus1 9 ! comp\nd radicals oxydable & acidifiable bases1 & is g5]ally conta9$ 9 ! radicals ( ! animal acids4 ,su* comb9ations are hi!rto unkn[n2 if ev] ,metallic discov]$1 !y w =m metallic azurets1 z sub/ances azuret ( gold1 ( silv]1 c4 ,lime ,magnesia ,b>ytes ,entirely unkn[n4 ,if ev] discov]$1 !y w ,argill =m azuret ( lime1 azuret ( magnesia1 c4 ,pota% ,soda ,,sect4 ,,vi4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,comb9ations ( ,azote ) ! ,simple ,sub/ances4 ,azote is "o ( ! mo/ abundant elem5ts2 comb9$ ) caloric x =ms azotic gas1 or mephitis1 :i* composes ne>ly two ?irds ( ! atmosph]e4 ,?is elem5t is always 9 ! /ate ( gas 9 ! ord9>y pressure & temp]ature1 & no degree ( compression or ( cold has be5 hi!rto capable ( r$uc+ x ei!r to a solid or liquid =m4 ,?is is likewise "o ( ! ess5tial con/itu5t elem5ts ( animal bodies1 9 :i* x is comb9$ ) *>coal & hydrog51 & sometimes ) phosphorus2 ^! are unit$ toge!r by a c]ta9 portion ( oxyg51 by :i* !y are =m$ into oxyds or acids accord+ to ! degree ( oxyg5ation4 ,h5ce ! animal sub/ances may be v>i$1 9 ! same way ) vegetables1 9 ?ree diff]5t mann]s3 #a/1 ,accord+ to ! numb] ( elem5ts :i* ent] into ! composition ( ! base or radical3 #b;dly1 ,accord+ to ! proportions ( ^! elem5ts3 #c;dly1 ,accord+ to ! degree ( oxyg5ation4 ,:5 comb9$ ) oxyg51 azote =ms ! nitr\s & nitric oxyds & acids2 :5 ) hydrog51 ammoniac is produc$4 ,its comb9ations ) ! o!r simple elem5ts are v little kn[n2 to ^! we give ! "n ( ,azurets1 pres]v+ ! t]m9ation 9 uret = all nonoxyg5at$ comp\nds4 ,x is extremely probable t all ! alkal9e sub/ances may h]eaft] be f\nd to belong to ?is g5us ( azurets4 ,! azotic gas may be procur$ f atmosph]ic air1 by absorb+ ! oxyg5 gas :i* is mix$ ) x by means ( a solution ( sulphuret ( pota%1 or sulphuret ( lime4 ,x requires twelve or fifte5 days to complete ?is process1 dur+ :i* "t ! surface 9 contact mu/ be frequ5tly r5ew$ by agitation1 & by break+ ! pellicle :i* =ms on ! top ( ! solution4 ,x may likewise be procur$ by dissolv+ animal sub/ances 9 dilute nitric acid v little heat$4 ,9 ?is op]ation1 ! azote is dis5gag$ 9 =m ( gas1 :i* we receive "u bell glasses fill$ ) wat] 9 ! pneumato-*emical app>atus4 ,we may procure ?is gas by deflagrat+ nitre ) *>coal1 or any o!r combu/ible sub/ance2 :5 ) *>coal1 ! azotic gas is mix$ ) c>bonic acid gas1 :i* may be absorb$ by a solution ( cau/ic alkali1 or by lime wat]1 aft] :i* ! azotic gas rema9s pure4 ,we c procure x 9 a f\r? mann] f comb9ations ( ammoniac ) metallic oxyds1 z po9t$ out by ,mr de ,f\rcroy3 ,! hydrog5 ( ! ammoniac comb9es ) ! oxyg5 ( ! oxyd1 & =ms wat]1 :il/ ! azote be+ left free escapes 9 =m ( gas4 ,! comb9ations ( azote 7 b lately discov]$3 ,mr ,cav5di% fir/ obs]v$ x 9 nitr\s gas & acid1 & ,mr ,b]?ollet 9 ammoniac & ! prussic acid4 ,z no evid5ce ( its decomposition has hi!rto appe>$1 we are fully entitl$ to consid] azote z a simple elem5t>y sub/ance4 ,,table ( ! ,b9>y ,comb9ations ( ,hydrog5 ) ,simple ,sub/ances4 ,simple ,result+ ,comp\nds4 ,sub/ances4 ,new ,nom5clature4 ,old ,names4 ,caloric ,hydrog5 gas ,inflammable air4 ,azote ,ammoniac ,volatile ,alkali4 ,oxyg5 ,wat] ,wat]4 ,sulphur ,hydruret ( sulphur1 or sulphuret ( hydrog5 ,hi!rto unkn[n 7,a74 ,phosphorus ,hydruret ( phosphorus1 or phosphuret ( hydrog5 ,*>coal ,hydro-c>bon\s1 or ,n kn[n till lately4 c>bono-hydr\s radicals7,b7 ,metallic ,metallic hydrurets7,c71 z ,hi!rto unkn[n4 sub/ances1 hydruret ( iron1 c4 z iron1 c4 ,note ,a3 ,^! comb9ations take place 9 ! /ate ( gas1 & =m1 respectively1 sulphurat$ & phosphorat$ oxyg5 gas--,a4 ,note ,b3 ,?is comb9ation ( hydrog5 ) *>coal includes ! fix$ & volatile oils1 & =ms ! radicals ( a consid]able "p ( ! vegetable & animal oxyds & acids4 ,:5 x takes place 9 ! /ate ( gas x =ms c>bonat$ hydrog5 gas4--,a4 ,note ,c3 ,none ( ^! comb9ations are kn[n1 & x is probable t !y _c exi/1 at lea/ 9 ! usual temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e1 ow+ to ! great aff9ity ( hydrog5 = caloric4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,vii4--,obs]vations ^u ,hydrog51 & its ,comb9ations ) ,simple ,sub/ances4 ,hydrog51 z its "n expresses1 is "o ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( wat]1 ( :i* x =ms fifte5 hundr$? p>ts by weight1 comb9$ ) eighty-five hundr$? p>ts ( oxyg54 ,?is sub/ance1 ! prop]ties & ev5 exi/5ce ( :i* 0 unkn[n till lately1 is v pl5tifully di/ribut$ 9 nature1 & acts a v consid]able "p 9 ! processes ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms4 ,z x possesses s great aff9ity ) caloric z only to exi/ 9 ! /ate ( gas1 x is consequ5tly impossible to procure x 9 ! concrete or liquid /ate1 indep5d5t ( comb9ation4 ,to procure hydrog51 or r hydrog5 gas1 we h only to subject wat] to ! action ( a sub/ance ) :i* oxyg5 has great] aff9ity ?an x has to hydrog52 by ?is means ! hydrog5 is set free1 &1 by unit+ ) caloric1 assumes ! =m ( hydrog5 gas4 ,r$ hot iron is usually employ$ = ?is purpose3 ,! iron1 dur+ ! process1 becomes oxydat$1 & is *ang$ into a sub/ance resembl+ ! iron ore f ! isl& ( ,elba4 ,9 ?is /ate ( oxyd x is mu* less attractible by ! magnet1 & dissolves 9 acids )\t eff]vesc5ce4 ,*>coal1 9 a r$ heat1 has ! same p[] ( decompos+ wat]1 by attract+ ! oxyg5 f its comb9ation ) hydrog54 ,9 ?is process c>bonic acid gas is =m$1 & mixes ) ! hydrog5 gas1 b is easily sep>at$ by means ( wat] or alkalies1 :i* absorb ! c>bonic acid1 & leave ! hydrog5 gas pure4 ,we may likewise obta9 hydrog5 gas by dissolv+ iron or z9c 9 dilute sulphuric acid4 ,^! two metals decompose wat] v sl[ly1 & ) great difficulty1 :5 alone1 b d x ) great ease & rapidity :5 assi/$ by sulphuric acid2 ! hydrog5 unites ) caloric dur+ ! process1 & is dis5gag$ 9 =m ( hydrog5 gas1 :ile ! oxyg5 ( ! wat] unites ) ! metal 9 ! =m ( oxyd1 :i* is imm$iately dissolv$ 9 ! acid1 =m+ a sulphat ( iron or ( z9c4 ,"s v di/+ui%$ *emi/s consid] hydrog5 z ! phlogi/on ( ,/ahl2 & z t celebrat$ *emi/ admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( phlogi/on 9 sulphur1 *>coal1 metals1 c4 !y are ( c\rse oblig$ to suppose t hydrog5 exi/s 9 all ^! sub/ances1 ?\gh !y _c prove _! supposition2 ev5 if !y c\ld1 x w\ld n avail mu*1 s9ce ?is dis5gagem5t ( hydrog5 is q insuffici5t to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( calc9ation & combu/ion4 ,we mu/ always recur to ! exam9ation ( ?is "q1 ,are ! heat & light1 :i* are dis5gag$ dur+ ! diff]5t species ( combu/ion1 furni%$ by ! burn+ body1 or by ! oxyg5 :i* comb9es 9 all ^! op]ations8 ,& c]ta9ly ! supposition ( hydrog5 be+ dis5gag$ ?r[s no light :atev] ^u ?is "q4 ,besides1 x belongs to ^? :o make suppositions to prove !m2 &1 d\btless1 a doctr9e :i* )\t any supposition expla9s ! ph5om5a z well1 & z naturally1 z !irs does by supposition1 has at lea/ ! advantage ( great] simplicity#dj4 ,,table ( ! ,b9>y ,comb9ations ( ,sulphur ) ,simple ,sub/ances4 ,simple ,result+ ,comp\nds4 ,sub/ances4 ,new ,nom5clature4 ,old ,nom5clature4 ,caloric ,sulphuric gas ,oxyd ( sulphur ,s(t sulphur4 ,oxyg5 ,sulphur\s acid ,sulphure\s acid4 ,sulphuric acid ,vitriolic acid4 ,hydrog5 ,sulphuret ( hydrog5 ,azote azote ,unkn[n ,comb9ations4 ,phosphorus phosphorus ,*>coal *>coal ,antimony antimony ,crude antimony4 ,silv] silv] ,ars5ic ars5ic ,orpim5t1 realg>4 ,bismu? bismu? ,cobalt cobalt ,copp] copp] ,copp] pyrites4 ,t9 t9 ,iron iron ,iron pyrites4 ,manganese manganese ,m]cury m]cury ,e?iops m9]al1 c9nab>4 ,molybd5a molybd5a ,nickel nickel ,gold gold ,plat9a plat9a ,lead lead ,gal5a4 ,tung/e9 tung/e9 ,z9c z9c ,bl5de4 ,alkal9e liv] ( sulphur ,pota% pota% ) fix$ vegetable alkali4 ,alkal9e liv] ( sulphur ,soda soda ) fix$ m9]al alkali4 ,volatile liv] ( sulphur1 ,ammoniac ammoniac smoak+ liquor ( ,boyle4 ,lime lime ,calc>e\s liv] ( sulphur4 ,magnesia magnesia ,magnesian liv] ( sulphur4 ,b>ytes b>ytes ,b>ytic liv] ( sulphur4 ,argill argill ,yet unkn[n4 ,,sect4 ,,viii4--,obs]vations on ,sulphur1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,sulphur is a combu/ible sub/ance1 hav+ a v great t5d5cy to comb9ation2 x is naturally 9 a solid /ate 9 ! ord9>y temp]ature1 & requires a heat some:at high] ?an boil+ wat] to make x liquify4 ,sulphur is =m$ by nature 9 a consid]able degree ( purity 9 ! neighb\rhood ( volcanos2 we f9d x likewise1 *iefly 9 ! /ate ( sulphuric acid1 comb9$ ) argill 9 alum9\s s*i/us1 ) lime 9 gypsum1 c4 ,f ^! comb9ations x may be procur$ 9 ! /ate ( sulphur1 by c>ry+ (f its oxyg5 by means ( *>coal 9 a r$ heat2 c>bonic acid is =m$1 & escapes 9 ! /ate ( gas2 ! sulphur rema9s comb9$ ) ! clay1 lime1 c4 9 ! /ate ( sulphuret1 :i* is decompos$ by acids2 ! acid unites ) ! e>? into a neutral salt1 & ! sulphur is precipitat$4 ,,table ( ! ,b9>y ,comb9ations ( ,phosphorus ) ! ,simple ,sub/ances4 ,simple ,sub/ances4 ,result+ ,comp\nds4 ,caloric ,phosphoric gas4 ,oxyd ( phosphorus4 ,oxyg5 ,phosphor\s acid4 ,phosphoric acid4 ,hydrog5 ,phosphuret ( hydrog54 ,azote ,phosphuret ( azote4 ,sulphur ,phosphuret ( ,sulphur4 ,*>coal ,phosphuret ( *>coal4 ,metallic sub/ances ,phosphuret ( metals7,a74 ,pota% ,soda ,ammoniac ,phosphuret ( ,pota%1 ,lime ,soda1 c47,b7 ,b>ytes ,magnesia ,argill ,note ,a3 ,( all ^! comb9ations ( phosphorus ) metals1 t ) iron only is hi!rto kn[n1 =m+ ! sub/ance =m]ly call$ ,sid]ite2 nei!r is x yet asc]ta9$ :e!r1 9 ?is comb9ation1 ! phosphorus be oxyg5at$ or n4--,a4 ,note ,b3 ,^! comb9ations ( phosphorus ) ! alkalies & e>?s are n yet kn[n2 &1 f ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr ,g5gembre1 !y appe> to be impossible--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,ix4--,obs]vations ^u ,phosphorus1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,phosphorus is a simple combu/ible sub/ance1 :i* 0 unkn[n to *emi/s till #affg1 :5 x 0 discov]$ by ,br&t1 :o kept ! process secret2 soon aft] ,kunkel f\nd out ,br&t's me?od ( prep>ation1 & made x public4 ,x has be5 ev] s9ce kn[n by ! "n ( ,kunkel's phosphorus4 ,x 0 = a long "t procur$ only f ur9e2 &1 ?\gh ,homb]g gave an acc\nt ( ! process 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #afib1 all ! philosoph]s ( ,europe 7 suppli$ ) x f ,engl&4 ,x 0 fir/ made 9 ,france 9 #agcg1 be=e a committee ( ! ,academy at ! ,royal ,g>d54 ,at pres5t x is procur$ 9 a m commodi\s & m oeconomical mann] f animal bones1 :i* are real calc>e\s phosphats1 accord+ to ! process ( ,messrs ,gahn1 ,s*eele1 ,r\elle1 c4 ,! bones ( adult animals be+ calc9$ to :it5ess1 are p\nd$1 & pass$ ?r\gh a f9e silk sieve2 p\r ^u ! f9e p[d] a quantity ( dilute sulphuric acid1 less ?an is suffici5t = dissolv+ ! :ole4 ,?is acid unites ) ! calc>e\s e>? ( ! bones into a sulphat ( lime1 & ! phosphoric acid rema9s free 9 ! liquor4 ,! liquid is decant$ (f1 & ! residuum wa%$ ) boil+ wat]2 ?is wat] :i* has be5 us$ to wa% out ! adh]+ acid is jo9$ ) :at 0 be=e decant$ (f1 & ! :ole is gradually evaporat$2 ! dissolv$ sulphat ( lime cri/allizes 9 =m ( silky ?reads1 :i* are remov$1 & by cont9u+ ! evaporation we procure ! phosphoric acid "u ! appe>ance ( a :ite pellucid glass4 ,:5 ?is is p[d]$1 & mix$ ) "o ?ird its weight ( *>coal1 we procure v pure phosphorus by sublimation4 ,! phosphoric acid1 z procur$ by ! above process1 is nev] s pure z t obta9$ by oxyg5at+ pure phosphorus ei!r by combu/ion or by means ( nitric acid2 :]e=e ?is latt] %\ld always be employ$ 9 exp]im5ts ( rese>*4 ,phosphorus is f\nd 9 almo/ all animal sub/ances1 & 9 "s plants :i* give a k9d ( animal analysis4 ,9 all ^! x is usually comb9$ ) *>coal1 hydrog51 & azote1 =m+ v comp\nd radicals1 :i* are1 = ! mo/ "p1 9 ! /ate ( oxyds by a fir/ degree ( union ) oxyg54 ,! discov]y ( ,mr ,hass5fratz1 ( phosphorus be+ conta9$ 9 *>coal1 gives reason to suspect t x is m common 9 ! vegetable k+dom ?an has g5]ally be5 suppos$3 ,x is c]ta91 t1 by prop] processes1 x may be procur$ f e individual ( "s ( ! families ( plants4 ,z no exp]im5t has hi!rto giv5 reason to suspect t phosphorus is a comp\nd body1 ,i h arrang$ x ) ! simple or elem5t>y sub/ances4 ,x takes fire at ! temp]ature ( #cb 7#ajd7 ( ! !rmomet]4 ,,table ( ! ,b9>y ,comb9ations ( ,*>coal4 ,simple ,sub/ances4 ,result+ ,comp\nds4 ,oxyd ( *>coal ,unkn[n4 ,oxyg5 ,c>bonic acid ,fix$ air1 *alky acid4 ,sulphur ,c>buret ( sulphur ,phosphorus ,c>buret ( phosphorus ,unkn[n4 ,azote ,c>buret ( azote ,c>bono-hydr\s radical ,hydrog5 ,fix$ & volatile oils ,( ^! only ! c>burets ( ,metallic sub/ances ,c>burets ( metals iron & z9c are kn[n1 & 7 =m]ly call$ ,plumbago4 ,alkalies & e>?s ,c>buret ( pota%1 c4 ,unkn[n4 ,,sect4 ,x4--,obs]vations ^u ,*>coal1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,simple ,sub/ances4 ,z *>coal has n be5 hi!rto decompos$1 x mu/1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 be consid]$ z a simple sub/ance4 ,by mod]n exp]im5ts x appe>s to exi/ ready =m$ 9 vegetables2 & ,i h already rem>k$1 t1 9 ^!1 x is comb9$ ) hydrog51 sometimes ) azote & phosphorus1 =m+ comp\nd radicals1 :i* may be *ang$ into oxyds or acids accord+ to _! degree ( oxyg5ation4 ,to obta9 ! *>coal conta9$ 9 vegetable or animal sub/ances1 we subject !m to ! action ( fire1 at fir/ mod]ate1 & aft]w>ds v /rong1 on purpose to drive (f ! la/ portions ( wat]1 :i* adh]e v ob/9ately to ! *>coal4 ,= *emical purposes1 ?is is usually done 9 retorts ( /one-w>e or porcella91 into :i* ! wood1 or o!r matt]1 is introduc$1 & !n plac$ 9 a rev]b]atory furnace1 rais$ gradually to its greate/ heat3 ,! heat volatilizes1 or *anges into gas1 all ! p>ts ( ! body susceptible ( comb9+ ) caloric into t =m1 & ! *>coal1 be+ m fix$ 9 its nature1 rema9s 9 ! retort comb9$ ) a little e>? & "s fix$ salts4 ,9 ! bus9ess ( *>r+ wood1 ?is is done by a less exp5sive process4 ,! wood is dispos$ 9 heaps1 & cov]$ ) e>?1 s z to prev5t ! access ( any m air ?an is absolutely necess>y = support+ ! fire1 :i* is kept up till all ! wat] & oil is driv5 (f1 aft] :i* ! fire is ext+ui%$ by %utt+ up all ! air-holes4 ,we may analyse *>coal ei!r by combu/ion 9 air1 or r 9 oxyg5 gas1 or by means ( nitric acid4 ,9 ei!r case we conv]t x into c>bonic acid1 & sometimes a little pota% & "s neutral salts rema94 ,?is analysis has hi!rto be5 b little att5d$ to by *emi/s2 & we are n ev5 c]ta9 if pota% exi/s 9 *>coal be=e combu/ion1 or :e!r x be =m$ by means ( "s unkn[n comb9ation dur+ t process4 ,,sect4 ,,xi4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,muriatic1 ,fluoric1 & ,boracic ,radicals1 & _! ,comb9ations4 ,z ! comb9ations ( ^! sub/ances1 ei!r ) ea* o!r1 or ) ! o!r combu/ible bodies1 are hi!rto entirely unkn[n1 we h n attempt$ to =m any table = _! nom5clature4 ,we only "k t ^! radicals are susceptible ( oxyg5ation1 & ( =m+ ! muriatic1 fluoric1 & boracic acids1 & t 9 ! acid /ate !y ent] into a numb] ( comb9ations1 to be aft]w>ds detail$4 ,*emi/ry has hi!rto be5 unable to disoxyg5ate any ( !m1 s z to produce !m 9 a simple /ate4 ,= ?is purpose1 "s sub/ance mu/ be employ$ to :i* oxyg5 has a /rong] aff9ity ?an to _! radicals1 ei!r by means ( s+le aff9ity1 or by d\ble elective attraction4 ,all t is kn[n relative to ! orig9 ( ! radicals ( ^! acids w be m5tion$ 9 ! sections set ap>t = consid]+ _! comb9ations ) ! salifiable bases4 ,,sect4 ,,xii4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,comb9ations ( ,metals ) ea* o!r4 ,be=e clos+ our acc\nt ( ! simple or elem5t>y sub/ances1 x might be suppos$ necess>y to give a table ( alloys or comb9ations ( metals ) ea* o!r2 b1 z su* a table w\ld be bo? exce$+ly volum9\s & v unsatisfactory1 )\t go+ into a s]ies ( exp]im5ts n yet attempt$1 ,i h ?\ght x adviseable to omit x altoge!r4 ,all t is necess>y to be m5tion$ is1 t ^! alloys %\ld be nam$ accord+ to ! metal 9 l>ge/ proportion 9 ! mixture or comb9ation2 ?us ! t]m alloy ( gold & silv]1 or gold alloy$ ) silv]1 indicates t gold is ! pr$om9at+ metal4 ,metallic alloys1 l all o!r comb9ations1 h a po9t ( saturation4 ,x w\ld ev5 appe>1 f ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr de la ,bri*e1 t !y h two p]fectly di/9ct degrees ( saturation4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,azote 9 ! /ate ( ,nitr\s ,acid ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 arrang$ accord+ to ! aff9ities ( ^! ,bases ) ! ,acid4 ,names ( ! bases4 ,names ( ! neutral salts4 ,new nom5clature4 ,notes4 ,b>ytes ,nitrite ( b>ytes4 ,pota% pota%4 ,^! salts are only ,soda soda4 kn[n ( late1 & ,lime lime4 h receiv$ no p>ticul> ,magnesia magnesia4 "n 9 ! old ,ammoniac ammoniac4 nom5clature4 ,argill argill4 ,z metals dissolve bo? 9 nitr\s & ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 nitric acids1 metallic salts mu/ ( iron iron4 consequ5ce be =m$ hav+ manganese manganese4 diff]5t degrees ( oxyg5ation4 cobalt cobalt4 ,^? :]e9 ! metal is nickel nickel4 lea/ oxyg5at$ mu/ be lead lead4 call$ ,nitrites1 :5 m s1 t9 t94 ,nitrats2 b ! limits ( ?is copp] copp]4 di/9ction are difficultly bismu? bismu?4 asc]ta9able4 ,! old] antimony antimony4 *emi/s 7 n acqua9t$ ars5ic ars5ic4 ) any ( ^! salts4 m]cury m]cury4 silv] ,x is extremely probable t gold1 silv] gold & plat9a only =m nitrats1 & _c subsi/ plat9a 9 ! /ate ( nitrites4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,azote1 completely saturat$ ) ,oxyg51 9 ! /ate ( ,nitric ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ord] ( ! aff9ity ) ! ,acid4 ,bases4 ,names ( ! result+ neutral salts4 ,new nom5clature4 ,old nom5clature4 ,b>ytes ,nitrat ( b>ytes ,nitre1 ) a base ( heavy e>?4 ,pota% pota% ,nitre1 saltpetre4 ,nitre ) base ( pota%4 ,soda soda ,quadrangul> nitre4 ,nitre ) base ( m9]al alkali4 ,calc>e\s nitre4 ,nitre ) ,lime lime calc>e\s base4 ,"m wat] ( nitre1 or saltpetre4 ,magnesia magnesia ,magnesian nitre4 ,nitre ) base ( magnesia4 ,ammoniac ammoniac ,ammoniacal nitre4 ,nitr\s alum4 ,argillace\s nitre4 ,nitre ,argill argill ) base ( e>? ( alum4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c ,nitre ( z9c4 iron iron ,nitre ( iron4 ,m>tial nitre4 ,nitrat$ iron4 manganese manganese ,nitre ( manganese4 cobalt cobalt ,nitre ( cobalt4 nickel nickel ,nitre ( nickel4 lead lead ,saturn9e nitre4 ,nitre ( lead4 t9 t9 ,nitre ( t94 copp] copp] ,nitre ( copp] or ( ,v5us4 bismu? bismu? ,nitre ( bismu?4 antimony antimony ,nitre ( antimony4 ars5ic ars5ic ,ars5ical nitre4 m]cury m]cury ,m]curial nitre4 silv] silv] ,nitre ( silv] or luna4 ,lun> cau/ic4 gold gold ,nitre ( gold4 plat9a plat9a ,nitre ( plat9a4 ,,sect4 ,,xiii4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,nitr\s & ,nitric ,acids1 & _! ,comb9ations4 ,! nitr\s & nitric acids are procur$ f a neutral salt long kn[n 9 ! arts "u ! "n ( saltpetre4 ,?is salt is extract$ by lixiviation f ! rubbi% ( old build+s1 f ! e>? ( cell>s1 /ables1 or b>ns1 & 9 g5]al ( all inhabit$ places4 ,9 ^! e>?s ! nitric acid is usually comb9$ ) lime & magnesia1 sometimes ) pota%1 & r>ely ) argill4 ,z all ^! salts1 except+ ! nitrat ( pota%1 attract ! moi/ure ( ! air1 & consequ5tly w\ld be difficultly pres]v$1 advantage is tak51 9 ! manufactures ( saltpetre & ! royal ref9+ h\se1 ( ! great] aff9ity ( ! nitric acid to pota% ?an ^! o!r bases1 by :i* means ! lime1 magnesia1 & argill1 are precipitat$1 & all ^! nitrats are r$uc$ to ! nitrat ( pota% or saltpetre#da4 ,! nitric acid is procur$ f ?is salt by di/illation1 f ?ree p>ts ( pure saltpetre decompos$ by "o "p ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 9 a retort ) ,w\lfe's app>atus1 7,pl4 ,,iv4 fig4 #a47 hav+ its bottles half fill$ ) wat]1 & all its jo9ts c>efully lut$4 ,! nitr\s acid passes ov] 9 =m ( r$ vap\rs sur*>g$ ) nitr\s gas1 or1 9 o!r words1 n saturat$ ) oxyg54 ,"p ( ! acid cond5ses 9 ! recipi5t 9 =m ( a d>k orange r$ liquid1 :ile ! re/ comb9es ) ! wat] 9 ! bottles4 ,dur+ ! di/illation1 a l>ge quantity ( oxyg5 gas escapes1 ow+ to ! great] aff9ity ( oxyg5 to caloric1 9 a high temp]ature1 ?an to nitr\s acid1 ?\gh 9 ! usual temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e ?is aff9ity is rev]s$4 ,x is f ! dis5gagem5t ( oxyg5 t ! nitric acid ( ! neutral salt is 9 ?is op]ation conv]t$ into nitr\s acid4 ,x is br\ght back to ! /ate ( nitric acid by heat+ ov] a g5tle fire1 :i* drives (f ! sup]abundant nitr\s gas1 & leaves ! nitric acid mu* dilut$ ) wat]4 ,nitric acid is procurable 9 a m conc5trat$ /ate1 & ) mu* less loss1 by mix+ v dry clay ) saltpetre4 ,?is mixture is put into an e>!rn retort1 & di/ill$ ) a /rong fire4 ,! clay comb9es ) ! pota%1 = :i* x has great aff9ity1 & ! nitric acid passes ov]1 slightly impregnat$ ) nitr\s gas4 ,?is is easily dis5gag$ by heat+ ! acid g5tly 9 a retort1 a small quantity ( nitr\s gas passes ov] into ! recipi5t1 & v pure conc5trat$ nitric acid rema9s 9 ! retort4 ,we h already se5 t azote is ! nitric radical4 ,if to #bj-a_/b p>ts1 by weight1 ( azote #dc-a_/b p>ts ( oxyg5 be add$1 #fd p>ts ( nitr\s gas are =m$2 &1 if to ?is we jo9 #cf additional p>ts ( oxyg51 #ajj p>ts ( nitric acid result f ! comb9ation4 ,int]m$iate quantities ( oxyg5 betwe5 ^! two extremes ( oxyg5ation produce diff]5t species ( nitr\s acid1 or1 9 o!r words1 nitric acid less or m impregnat$ ) nitr\s gas4 ,i asc]ta9$ ! above proportions by means ( decomposition2 &1 ?\gh ,i _c answ] = _! absolute accuracy1 !y _c be f> remov$ f tru?4 ,mr ,cav5di%1 :o fir/ %[$ by syn!tic exp]im5ts t azote is ! base ( nitric acid1 gives ! proportions ( azote a little l>g] ?an ,i h done2 b1 z x is n improbable t he produc$ ! nitr\s acid & n ! nitric1 t circum/ance expla9s 9 "s degree ! diff]5ce 9 ! results ( our exp]im5ts4 ,z1 9 all exp]im5ts ( a philosophical nature1 ! utmo/ possible degree ( accuracy is requir$1 we mu/ procure ! nitric acid = exp]im5tal purposes1 f nitre :i* has be5 previ\sly purifi$ f all =eign matt]4 ,if1 aft] di/illation1 any sulphuric acid is suspect$ 9 ! nitric acid1 x is easily sep>at$ by dropp+ 9 a little nitrat ( b>ytes1 s long z any precipitation takes place2 ! sulphuric acid1 f its great] aff9ity1 attracts ! b>ytes1 & =ms ) x an insoluble neutral salt1 :i* falls to ! bottom4 ,x may be purifi$ 9 ! same mann] f muriatic acid1 by dropp+ 9 a little nitrat ( silv] s long z any precipitation ( muriat ( silv] is produc$4 ,:5 ^! two precipitations are f9i%$1 di/ill (f ab\t sev5-eigh?s ( ! acid by a g5tle heat1 & :at comes ov] is 9 ! mo/ p]fect degree ( purity4 ,! nitric acid is "o ( ! mo/ prone to comb9ation1 & is at ! same "t v easily decompos$4 ,almo/ all ! simple sub/ances1 ) ! exception ( gold1 silv]1 & plat9a1 rob x less or m ( its oxyg52 "s ( !m ev5 decompose x altoge!r4 ,x 0 v anci5tly kn[n1 & its comb9ations h be5 m /udi$ by *emi/s ?an ^? ( any o!r acid4 ,^! comb9ations 7 nam$ nitres by ,messrs ,macqu] & ,beaum2 b we h *ang$ _! names to nitrats & nitrites1 accord+ z !y are =m$ by nitric or by nitr\s acid1 & h add$ ! specific "n ( ea* p>ticul> base1 to di/+ui% ! sev]al comb9ations f ea* o!r4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,sulphuric ,acid ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ord] ( aff9ity4 ,names ( ! bases4 ,result+ comp\nds4 ,new nom5clature4 ,old nom5clature4 ,b>ytes ,sulphat ( b>ytes ,heavy sp>4 ,vitriol ( heavy e>?4 ,pota% pota% ,vitriolat$ t>t>4 ,sal de duobus4 ,arcanum duplicatam4 ,soda soda ,glaub]'s salt4 ,lime lime ,sel5ite1 gypsum1 calc>e\s vitriol4 ,magnesia magnesia ,epsom salt1 s$litz salt1 magnesian vitriol4 ,ammoniac ammoniac ,glaub]'s secret sal ammoniac4 ,argill argill ,alum4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c ,:ite vitriol1 gosl> vitriol1 :ite cop]as1 vitriol ( z9c4 iron iron ,gre5 cop]as1 gre5 vitriol1 m>tial vitriol1 vitriol ( iron4 manganese manganese ,vitriol ( manganese4 cobalt cobalt ,vitriol ( cobalt4 nickel nickel ,vitriol ( nickel4 lead lead ,vitriol ( lead4 t9 t9 ,vitriol ( t94 copp] copp] ,blue cop]as1 blue vitriol1 ,roman vitriol1 vitriol ( copp]4 bismu? bismu? ,vitriol ( bismu?4 antimony antimony ,vitriol ( antimony4 ars5ic ars5ic ,vitriol ( ars5ic4 m]cury m]cury ,vitriol ( m]cury4 silv] silv] ,vitriol ( silv]4 gold gold ,vitriol ( gold4 plat9a plat9a ,vitriol ( plat9a4 ,,sect4 ,,xiv4--,obs]vations ^u ,sulphuric ,acid & its ,comb9ations4 ,= a long "t ?is acid 0 procur$ by di/illation f sulphat ( iron1 9 :i* sulphuric acid & oxyd ( iron are comb9$1 accord+ to ! process describ$ by ,basil ,val5t9e 9 ! fifte5? c5tury2 b1 9 mod]n times1 x is procur$ m oeconomically by ! combu/ion ( sulphur 9 prop] vessels4 ,bo? to facilitate ! combu/ion1 & to assi/ ! oxyg5ation ( ! sulphur1 a little p[d]$ saltpetre1 nitrat ( pota%1 is mix$ ) x2 ! nitre is decompos$1 & gives out its oxyg5 to ! sulphur1 :i* contributes to its conv]sion into acid4 ,not)/&+ ?is addition1 ! sulphur w only cont9ue to burn 9 close vessels = a limit$ "t2 ! comb9ation ceases1 because ! oxyg5 is exhau/$1 & ! air ( ! vessels r$uc$ almo/ to pure azotic gas1 & because ! acid itself rema9s long 9 ! /ate ( vap\r1 & h9d]s ! progress ( combu/ion4 ,9 ! manufactories = mak+ sulphuric acid 9 ! l>ge way1 ! mixture ( nitre & sulphur is burnt 9 l>ge close built *amb]s l9$ ) lead1 hav+ a little wat] at ! bottom = facilitat+ ! cond5sation ( ! vap\rs4 ,aft]w>ds1 by di/illation 9 l>ge retorts ) a g5tle heat1 ! wat] passes ov]1 slightly impregnat$ ) acid1 & ! sulphuric acid rema9s beh9d 9 a conc5trat$ /ate4 ,x is !n pellucid1 )\t any flav\r1 & ne>ly d\ble ! weight ( an equal bulk ( wat]4 ,?is process w\ld be greatly facilitat$1 & ! combu/ion mu* prolong$1 by introduc+ fre% air into ! *amb]s1 by means ( sev]al pairs ( bell[s direct$ t[>ds ! flame ( ! sulphur1 & by all[+ ! nitr\s gas to escape ?r\gh long s]p5t9e canals1 9 contact ) wat]1 to absorb any sulphuric or sulphur\s acid gas x might conta94 ,by "o exp]im5t1 ,mr ,b]?ollet f\nd t #fi p>ts ( sulphur 9 combu/ion1 unit$ ) #ca p>ts ( oxyg51 to =m #ajj p>ts ( sulphuric acid2 &1 by ano!r exp]im5t1 made 9 a diff]5t mann]1 he calculates t #ajj p>ts ( sulphuric acid consi/s ( #gb p>ts sulphur1 comb9$ ) #bh p>ts ( oxyg51 all by weight4 ,?is acid1 9 common ) e o!r1 c only dissolve metals :5 !y h be5 previ\sly oxydat$2 b mo/ ( ! metals are capable ( decompos+ a "p ( ! acid1 s z to c>ry (f a suffici5t quantity ( oxyg51 to r5d] !mselves soluble 9 ! "p ( ! acid :i* rema9s undecompos$4 ,?is happ5s ) silv]1 m]cury1 iron1 & z9c1 9 boil+ conc5trat$ sulphuric acid2 !y become fir/ oxydat$ by decompos+ "p ( ! acid1 & !n dissolve 9 ! o!r "p2 b !y d n suffici5tly disoxyg5ate ! decompos$ "p ( ! acid to reconv]t x into sulphur2 x is only r$uc$ to ! /ate ( sulphur\s acid1 :i*1 be+ volatilis$ by ! heat1 flies (f 9 =m ( sulphur\s acid gas4 ,silv]1 m]cury1 & all ! o!r metals except iron & z9c1 are insoluble 9 dilut$ sulphuric acid1 because !y h n suffici5t aff9ity ) oxyg5 to draw x (f f its comb9ation ei!r ) ! sulphur1 ! sulphur\s acid1 or ! hydrog52 b iron & z9c1 be+ assi/$ by ! action ( ! acid1 decompose ! wat]1 & become oxydat$ at its exp5ce1 )\t ! help ( heat4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ! ,sulphur\s ,acid ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ord] ( aff9ity4 ,names ( ! ,bases4 ,names ( ! ,neutral ,salts4 ,b>ytes ,sulphite ( b>ytes4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,lime lime4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,argill argill4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 iron iron4 manganese manganese4 cobalt cobalt4 nickel nickel4 lead lead4 t9 t94 copp] copp]4 bismu? bismu?4 antimony antimony4 ars5ic ars5ic4 m]cury m]cury4 silv] silv]4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 ,note4--,! only "o ( ^! salts kn[n to ! old *emi/s 0 ! sulphite ( pota%1 "u ! "n ( ,/ahl's sulphure\s salt4 ,s t1 be=e our new nom5clature1 ^! comp\nds mu/ h be5 nam$ ,/ahl's sulphure\s salt1 hav+ base ( fix$ vegetable alkali1 & s ( ! re/4 ,9 ?is ,table we h foll[$ ,b]gman's ord] ( aff9ity ( ! sulphuric acid1 :i* is ! same 9 reg>d to ! e>?s & alkalies1 b x is n c]ta9 if ! ord] be ! same = ! metallic oxyds4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xv4--,obs]vations ^u ,sulphur\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,! sulphur\s acid is =m$ by ! union ( oxyg5 ) sulphur by a less] degree ( oxyg5ation ?an ! sulphuric acid4 ,x is procurable ei!r by burn+ sulphur sl[ly1 or by di/ill+ sulphuric acid f silv]1 antimony1 lead1 m]cury1 or *>coal2 by :i* op]ation a "p ( ! oxyg5 quits ! acid1 & unites to ^! oxydable bases1 & ! acid passes ov] 9 ! sulphur\s /ate ( oxyg5ation4 ,?is acid1 9 ! common pressure & temp]ature ( ! air1 c only exi/ 9 =m ( gas2 b x appe>s1 f ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr ,cl\et1 t1 9 a v l[ temp]ature1 x cond5ses1 & becomes fluid4 ,wat] absorbs a great deal m ( ?is gas ?an ( c>bonic acid gas1 b mu* less ?an x does ( muriatic acid gas4 ,t ! metals _c be dissolv$ 9 acids )\t be+ previ\sly oxydat$1 or by procur+ oxyg51 = t purpose1 f ! acids dur+ solution1 is a g5]al & well e/abli%$ fact1 :i* ,i h p]haps repeat$ too (t54 ,h5ce1 z sulphur\s acid is already depriv$ ( great "p ( ! oxyg5 necess>y = =m+ ! sulphuric acid1 x is m dispos$ to recov] oxyg51 ?an to furni% x to ! greate/ "p ( ! metals2 &1 = ?is reason1 x _c dissolve !m1 unless previ\sly oxydat$ by o!r means4 ,f ! same pr9ciple x is t ! metallic oxyds dissolve )\t eff]vesc5ce1 & ) great facility1 9 sulphur\s acid4 ,?is acid1 l ! muriatic1 has ev5 ! prop]ty ( dissolv+ metallic oxyds sur*>g$ ) oxyg51 & consequ5tly insoluble 9 sulphuric acid1 & 9 ?is way =ms true sulphats4 ,h5ce we might be l$ to conclude t !re are no metallic sulphites1 7 x n t ! ph5om5a :i* accompany ! solution ( iron1 m]cury1 & "s o!r metals1 conv9ce u t ^! metallic sub/ances are susceptible ( two degrees ( oxydation1 dur+ _! solution 9 acids4 ,h5ce ! neutral salt 9 :i* ! metal is lea/ oxydat$ mu/ be nam$ sulphite1 & t 9 :i* x is fully oxydat$ mu/ be call$ sulphat4 ,x is yet unkn[n :e!r ?is di/9ction is applicable to any ( ! metallic sulphats1 except ^? ( iron & m]cury4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,phosphor\s & ,phosphoric ,acids1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,names ( ! ,names ( ! ,neutral ,salts =m$ by ,bases4 ,phosphor\s ,acid1 ,phosphoric ,acid4 ,phosphites (7,b7 ,phosphats (7,c7 ,lime lime lime4 ,b>ytes b>ytes b>ytes4 ,magnesia magnesia magnesia4 ,pota% pota% pota%4 ,soda soda soda4 ,ammoniac ammoniac ammoniac4 ,argill argill argill4 ,oxyds (7,a7 z9c z9c z9c4 iron iron iron4 manganese manganese manganese4 cobalt cobalt cobalt4 nickel nickel nickel4 lead lead lead4 t9 t9 t94 copp] copp] copp]4 bismu? bismu? bismu?4 antimony antimony antimony4 ars5ic ars5ic ars5ic4 m]cury m]cury m]cury4 silv] silv] silv]4 gold gold gold4 plat9a plat9a plat9a4 ,note ,a3 ,! exi/5ce ( metallic phosphites supposes t metals are susceptible ( solution 9 phosphoric acid at diff]5t degrees ( oxyg5ation1 :i* is n yet asc]ta9$4--,a4 ,note ,b3 ,all ! phosphites 7 unkn[n till lately1 & consequ5tly h n hi!rto receiv$ names4--,a4 ,note ,c3 ,! great] "p ( ! phosphats 7 only discov]$ ( late1 & h n yet be5 nam$4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xvi4--,obs]vations ^u ,phosphor\s & ,phosphoric ,acids1 & _! ,comb9ations4 ,"u ! article ,phosphorus1 ,"p ,,ii4 ,sect4 ,x4 we h already giv5 a hi/ory ( ! discov]y ( t s+ul> sub/ance1 ) "s obs]vations ^u ! mode ( its exi/5ce 9 vegetable & animal bodies4 ,! be/ me?od ( obta9+ ?is acid 9 a /ate ( purity is by burn+ well purifi$ phosphorus "u bell-glasses1 moi/5$ on ! inside ) di/ill$ wat]2 dur+ combu/ion x absorbs twice & a half its weight ( oxyg52 s t #ajj p>ts ( phosphoric acid is compos$ ( #bh-a_/b p>ts ( phosphorus unit$ to #ga-a_/b p>ts ( oxyg54 ,?is acid may be obta9$ concrete1 9 =m ( :ite flakes1 :i* gre$ily attract ! moi/ure ( ! air1 by burn+ phosphorus 9 a dry glass ov] m]cury4 ,to obta9 phosphor\s acid1 :i* is phosphorus less oxyg5at$ ?an 9 ! /ate ( phosphoric acid1 ! phosphorus mu/ be burnt by a v sl[ spontane\s combu/ion ov] a glass-funnel lead+ into a cry/al phial2 aft] a few days1 ! phosphorus is f\nd oxyg5at$1 & ! phosphor\s acid1 9 proportion z x =ms1 has attract$ moi/ure f ! air1 & dropp$ into ! phial4 ,! phosphor\s acid is readily *ang$ into phosphoric acid by exposure = a long "t to ! free air2 x absorbs oxyg5 f ! air1 & becomes fully oxyg5at$4 ,z phosphorus has a suffici5t aff9ity = oxyg5 to attract x f ! nitric & muriatic acids1 we may =m phosphoric acid1 by means ( ^! acids1 9 a v simple & *eap mann]4 ,fill a tubulat$ receiv]1 half full ( conc5trat$ nitric acid1 & heat x g5tly1 !n ?r[ 9 small pieces ( phosphorus ?r\gh ! tube1 ^! are dissolv$ ) eff]vesc5ce & r$ fumes ( nitr\s gas fly (f2 add phosphorus s long z x w dissolve1 & !n increase ! fire "u ! retort to drive (f ! la/ p>ticles ( nitric acid2 phosphoric acid1 p>tly fluid & p>tly concrete1 rema9s 9 ! retort4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,c>bonic ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,names ( ,result+ ,neutral ,salts4 ,bases ,new ,nom5clature4 ,old ,nom5clature4 ,b>ytes ,c>bonates ( b>ytes7,a7 ,arat$ or eff]vesc5t heavy e>?4 ,lime lime ,*alk1 calc>e\s sp>1 ,arat$ calc>e\s e>?4 ,pota% pota% ,eff]vesc+ or arat$ fixe vegetable alkali1 mephitis ( pota%4 ,soda soda ,arat$ or eff]vesc+ fix$ m9]al alkali1 mephitic soda4 ,magnesia magnesia ,arat$1 eff]vesc+1 mild1 or mephitic magnesia4 ,ammoniac ammoniac ,arat$1 eff]vesc+1 mild1 or mephitic volatile alkali4 ,argill argill ,arat$ or eff]vesc+ argillace\s e>?1 or e>? ( alum4 ,oxyds ( z9c z9c ,z9c sp>1 mephitic or arat$ z9c4 iron iron ,sp>ry iron-ore1 mephitic or arat$ iron4 manganese manganese ,arat$ manganese4 cobalt cobalt ,arat$ cobalt4 nickel nickel ,arat$ nickel4 lead lead ,sp>ry lead-ore1 or arat$ lead4 t9 t9 ,arat$ t94 copp] copp] ,arat$ copp]4 bismu? bismu? ,arat$ bismu?4 antimony antimony ,arat$ antimony4 ars5ic ars5ic ,arat$ ars5ic4 m]cury m]cury ,arat$ m]cury4 silv] silv] ,arat$ silv]4 gold gold ,arat$ gold4 plat9a plat9a ,arat$ plat9a4 ,note ,a3 ,z ^! salts h only be5 und]/ood ( late1 !y h n1 prop]ly speak+1 any old names4 ,mr ,morveau1 9 ! ,fir/ ,volume ( ! ,encyclop$ia1 calls !m ,mephites2 ,mr ,b]gman gives !m ! "n ( arat$2 & ,mr de ,f\rcroy1 :o calls ! c>bonic acid *alky acid1 gives !m ! "n ( *alks4--,a ,,sect4 ,,xvii4--,obs]vations ^u ,c>bonic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,( all ! kn[n acids1 ! c>bonic is ! mo/ abundant 9 nature2 x exi/s ready =m$ 9 *alk1 m>ble1 & all ! calc>e\s /ones1 9 :i* x is neutraliz$ by a p>ticul> e>? call$ lime4 ,to dis5gage x f ?is comb9ation1 no?+ m is requisite ?an to add "s sulphuric acid1 or any o!r :i* has a /rong] aff9ity = lime2 a brisk eff]vesc5ce ensues1 :i* is produc$ by ! dis5gagem5t ( ! c>bonic acid :i* assumes ! /ate ( gas imm$iately ^u be+ set free4 ,?is gas1 incapable ( be+ cond5s$ into ! solid or liquid =m by any degree ( cold or ( pressure hi!rto kn[n1 unites to ab\t its own bulk ( wat]1 & !reby =ms a v weak acid4 ,x may likewise be obta9$ 9 great abundance f sac*>9e matt] 9 f]m5tation1 b is !n contam9at$ by a small portion ( alkohol :i* x holds 9 solution4 ,z *>coal is ! radical ( ?is acid1 we may =m x artificially1 by burn+ *>coal 9 oxyg5 gas1 or by comb9+ *>coal & metallic oxyds 9 prop] proportions2 ! oxyg5 ( ! oxyd comb9es ) ! *>coal1 =m+ c>bonic acid gas1 & ! metal be+ left free1 recov]s its metallic or regul9e =m4 ,we are indebt$ = our fir/ k ( ?is acid to ,dr ,black1 be=e ^: "t its prop]ty ( rema9+ always 9 ! /ate ( gas _h made x to elude ! rese>*es ( *emi/ry4 ,x w\ld be a mo/ valuable discov]y to society1 if we c\ld decompose ?is gas by any *eap process1 z by t means we might obta91 = economical purposes1 ! imm5se /ore ( *>coal conta9$ 9 calc>e\s e>?s1 m>bles1 lime/ones1 c4 ,?is _c be effect$ by s+le aff9ity1 because1 to decompose ! c>bonic acid1 x requires a sub/ance z combu/ible z *>coal itself1 s t we %\ld only make an ex*ange ( "o combu/ible body = ano!r n m valuable2 b x may possibly be accompli%$ by d\ble aff9ity1 s9ce ?is process is s readily p]=m$ by ,nature1 dur+ vegetation1 f ! mo/ common mat]ials4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,muriatic ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,names ( ! ,result+ ,neutral ,salts4 bases4 ,new nom5clature4 ,old nom5clature4 ,b>ytes4 ,muriat ( ,sea-salt1 hav+ base ( b>ytes heavy e>?4 ,pota% pota% ,febrifuge salt ( ,sylvius3 ,muriat$ vegetable fix$ alkali4 ,soda soda ,sea-salt4 ,lime lime ,muriat$ lime4 ,oil ( lime4 ,magnesia magnesia ,m>9e ,epsom salt4 ,muriat$ magnesia4 ,ammoniac ammoniac ,sal ammoniac4 ,argill argill ,muriat$ alum1 sea-salt ) base ( e>? ( alum4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c ,sea-salt (1 or muriatic z9c4 iron iron ,salt ( iron1 ,m>tial sea-salt4 manganese manganese ,sea-salt ( manganese4 cobalt cobalt ,sea-salt ( cobalt4 nickel nickel ,sea-salt ( nickel4 lead lead ,horny-lead4 ,plumbum corneum4 t9 smoak+ ( t9 ,smoak+ liquor ( ,libavius4 solid ( t9 ,solid butt] ( t94 copp] copp] ,sea-salt ( copp]4 bismu? bismu? ,sea-salt ( bismu?4 antimony antimony ,sea-salt ( antimony4 ars5ic ars5ic ,sea-salt ( ars5ic4 sweet ( m]cury ,sweet sublimate ( m]cury1 calomel1 aquila alba4 m]cury corrosive ( ,corrosive sublimate ( m]cury m]cury4 silv] silv] ,horny silv]1 arg5tum corneum1 luna cornea4 gold gold ,sea-salt ( gold4 plat9a plat9a ,sea-salt ( plat9a4 ,,table ,( ! ,comb9ations ( ,oxyg5at$ ,muriatic ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,names ( ! ,neutral ,salts by ,names ( ! ,bases4 ! new ,nom5clature4 ,oxyg5at$ muriat ( ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,lime lime4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,argill argill4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 iron iron4 manganese manganese4 cobalt cobalt4 nickel nickel4 lead lead4 t9 t94 copp] copp]4 bismu? bismu?4 antimony antimony4 ars5ic ars5ic4 m]cury m]cury4 silv] silv]4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 ,?is ord] ( salts1 entirely unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s1 0 discov]$ 9 #aghf by ,mr ,b]?ollet4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xix4--,obs]vations ^u ,muriatic & ,oxyg5at$ ,muriatic ,acids1 & _! ,comb9ations4 ,muriatic acid is v abundant 9 ! m9]al k+dom naturally comb9$ ) diff]5t salifiable bases1 especially ) soda1 lime1 & magnesia4 ,9 sea-wat]1 & ! wat] ( sev]al lakes1 x is comb9$ ) ^! ?ree bases1 & 9 m9es ( rock-salt x is *iefly unit$ to soda4 ,?is acid does n appe> to h be5 hi!rto decompos$ 9 any *emical exp]im5t2 s t we h no idea :atev] ( ! nature ( its radical1 & only conclude1 f analogy ) ! o!r acids1 t x conta9s oxyg5 z its acidify+ pr9ciple4 ,mr ,b]?ollet suspects ! radical to be ( a metallic nature2 b1 z ,nature appe>s to =m ?is acid daily1 9 inhabit$ places1 by comb9+ miasmata ) ari=m fluids1 ?is mu/ necess>ily suppose a metallic gas to exi/ 9 ! atmosph]e1 :i* is c]ta9ly n impossible1 b _c be admitt$ )\t pro(4 ,! muriatic acid has only a mod]ate adh]5ce to ! salifiable bases1 & c readily be driv5 f its comb9ation ) ^! by sulphuric acid4 ,o!r acids1 z ! nitric1 = in/ance1 may answ] ! same purpose2 b nitric acid be+ volatile1 w\ld mix1 dur+ di/illation1 ) ! muriatic4 ,ab\t "o "p ( sulphuric acid is suffici5t to decompose two p>ts ( decrepitat$ sea-salt4 ,?is op]ation is p]=m$ 9 a tubulat$ retort1 hav+ ,w\lfe's app>atus1 7,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a471 adapt$ to x4 ,:5 all ! junctures are prop]ly lur$1 ! sea-salt is put into ! retort ?r\gh ! tube1 ! sulphuric acid is p\r$ on1 & ! op5+ imm$iately clos$ ) its gr\nd cry/al /opp]4 ,z ! muriatic acid c only subsi/ 9 ! gase\s =m 9 ! ord9>y temp]ature1 we c\ld n cond5se x )\t ! pres5ce ( wat]4 ,h5ce ! use ( ! wat] ) :i* ! bottles 9 ,w\lfe's app>atus are half fill$2 ! muriatic acid gas1 driv5 (f f ! sea-salt 9 ! retort1 comb9es ) ! wat]1 & =ms :at ! old *emi/s call$ smoak+ _s ( salt1 or ,glaub]'s _s ( sea-salt1 :i* we n[ "n muriatic acid4 ,! acid obta9$ by ! above process is /ill capable ( comb9+ ) a f>!r dose ( oxyg51 by be+ di/ill$ f ! oxyds ( manganese1 lead1 or m]cury1 & ! result+ acid1 :i* we "n oxyg5at$ muriatic acid1 c only1 l ! =m]1 exi/ 9 ! gasse\s =m1 & is absorb$1 9 a mu* small] quantity by wat]4 ,:5 ! impregnation ( wat] ) ?is gas is pu%$ beyond a c]ta9 po9t1 ! sup]abundant acid precipitates to ! bottom ( ! vessels 9 a concrete =m4 ,mr ,b]?ollet has %[n t ?is acid is capable ( comb9+ ) a great numb] ( ! salifiable bases2 ! neutral salts :i* result f ?is union are susceptible ( deflagrat+ ) *>coal1 & _m ( ! metallic sub/ances2 ^! deflagrations are v viol5t & dang]\s1 ow+ to ! great quantity ( caloric :i* ! oxyg5 c>ries along/ ) x into ! composition ( oxyg5at$ muriatic acid4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,nitro-muriatic ,acid ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity1 s f> z is kn[n4 ,names ( ! ,bases4 ,names ( ! ,neutral ,salts4 ,argill ,nitro-muriat ( argill4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,oxyd ( antimony antimony4 silv] silv]4 ars5ic ars5ic4 ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,oxyd ( bismu? bismu?4 ,lime lime4 ,oxyd ( cobalt cobalt4 copp] copp]4 t9 t94 iron iron4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,oxyd ( manganese manganese4 m]cury m]cury4 molybd5a molybd5a4 nickel nickel4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 lead lead4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,oxyd ( tung/e9 tung/e94 z9c z9c4 ,note4--,mo/ ( ^! comb9ations1 especially ^? ) ! e>?s & alkalies1 h be5 little exam9$1 & we are yet to le>n :e!r !y =m a mix$ salt 9 :i* ! comp\nd radical rema9s comb9$1 or if ! two acids sep>ate1 to =m two di/9ct neutral salts4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xx4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,nitro-,muriatic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,! nitro-muriatic acid1 =m]ly call$ aqua regia1 is =m$ by a mixture ( nitric & muriatic acids2 ! radicals ( ^! two acids comb9e toge!r1 & =m a comp\nd base1 f :i* an acid is produc$1 hav+ prop]ties peculi> to itself1 & di/9ct f ^? ( all o!r acids1 especially ! prop]ty ( dissolv+ gold & plat9a4 ,9 dissolutions ( metals 9 ?is acid1 z 9 all o!r acids1 ! metals are fir/ oxydat$ by attract+ a "p ( ! oxyg5 f ! comp\nd radical4 ,?is occasions a dis5gagem5t ( a p>ticul> species ( gas n hi!rto describ$1 :i* may be call$ nitro-muriatic gas2 x has a v disagreeable smell1 & is fatal to animal life :5 respir$2 x attacks iron1 & causes x to ru/2 x is absorb$ 9 consid]able quantity by wat]1 :i* !reby acquires "s slight *>act]s ( acidity4 ,i _h occasion to make ^! rem>ks dur+ a c\rse ( exp]im5ts ^u plat9a1 9 :i* ,i dissolv$ a consid]able quantity ( t metal 9 nitro-muriatic acid4 ,i at fir/ suspect$ t1 9 ! mixture ( nitric & muriatic acids1 ! latt] attract$ a "p ( ! oxyg5 f ! =m]1 & became conv]t$ into oxyg5at$ muriatic acid1 :i* gave x ! prop]ty ( dissolv+ gold2 b sev]al facts rema9 inexplicable ^u ?is supposition4 ,7 x s1 we mu/ be able to dis5gage nitr\s gas by heat+ ?is acid1 :i* h[ev] does n s5sibly happ54 ,f ^! consid]ations1 ,i am l$ to adopt ! op9ion ( ,mr ,b]?ollet1 & to consid] nitro-muriatic acid z a s+le acid1 ) a comp\nd base or radical4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,fluoric ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,names ( ! ,bases4 ,names ( ! ,neutral ,salts4 ,lime ,fluat ( lime4 ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 manganese manganese4 iron iron4 lead lead4 t9 t94 cobalt cobalt4 copp] copp]4 nickel nickel4 ars5ic ars5ic4 bismu? bismu?4 m]cury m]cury4 silv] silv]4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 ,& by ! dry way1 ,argill ,fluat ( argill4 ,note4--,^! comb9ations 7 entirely unkn[n to ! old *emi/s1 & consequ5tly h no names 9 ! old nom5clature4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xxi4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,fluoric ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,fluoric exi/s ready =m$ by ,nature 9 ! fluoric sp>s#db1 comb9$ ) calc>e\s e>?1 s z to =m an insoluble neutral salt4 ,to obta9 x dis5gag$ f t comb9ation1 fluor sp>1 or fluat ( lime1 is put into a lead5 retort1 ) a prop] quantity ( sulphuric acid1 a recipi5t likewise ( lead1 half full ( wat]1 is adapt$1 & fire is appli$ to ! retort4 ,! sulphuric acid1 f its great] aff9ity1 expels ! fluoric acid :i* passes ov] & is absorb$ by ! wat] 9 ! receiv]4 ,z fluoric acid is naturally 9 ! gasse\s =m 9 ! ord9>y temp]ature1 we c receive x 9 a pneumato-*emical app>atus ov] m]cury4 ,we are oblig$ to employ metallic vessels 9 ?is process1 because fluoric acid dissolves glass & silici\s e>?1 & ev5 r5d]s ^! bodies volatile1 c>ry+ !m ov] ) itself 9 di/illation 9 ! gasse\s =m4 ,we are indebt$ to ,mr ,m>graff = our fir/ acqua9tance ) ?is acid1 ?\gh1 z he c\ld nev] procure x free f comb9ation ) a consid]able quantity ( silici\s e>?1 he 0 ignorant ( its be+ an acid sui g5]is4 ,! ,duke de ,lianc\rt1 "u ! "n ( ,mr ,b\lang]1 consid]ably increas$ our k ( its prop]ties2 & ,mr ,s*eele seems to h exhau/$ ! subject4 ,! only ?+ rema9+ is to endeav\r to discov] ! nature ( ! fluoric radical1 ( :i* we _c hi!rto =m any ideas1 z ! acid does n appe> to h be5 decompos$ 9 any exp]im5t4 ,x is only by means ( comp\nd aff9ity t exp]im5ts ought to be made ) ?is view1 ) any probability ( success4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,boracic ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,lime ,borat ( lime4 ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 iron iron4 lead lead4 t9 t94 cobalt cobalt4 copp] copp]4 nickel nickel4 m]cury m]cury4 ,argill argill4 ,note4--,mo/ ( ^! comb9ations 7 nei!r kn[n nor nam$ by ! old *emi/s4 ,! boracic acid 0 =m]ly call$ s$ative salt1 & its comp\nds borax1 ) base ( fix$ vegetable alkali1 c4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xxii4--,obs]vations ^u ,boracic ,add & its ,comb9ations4 ,?is is a concrete acid1 extract$ f a salt procur$ f ,india call$ borax or t9call4 ,al?\gh borax has be5 v long employ$ 9 ! arts1 we h z yet v imp]fect k ( its orig91 & ( ! me?ods by :i* x is extract$ & purifi$2 !re is reason to believe x to be a native salt1 f\nd 9 ! e>? 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ea/1 & 9 ! wat] ( "s lakes4 ,! :ole trade ( borax is 9 ! h&s ( ! ,dut*1 :o h be5 exclusively possess$ ( ! art ( purify+ x till v lately1 t ,messrs ,l',eguilli] ( ,p>is h rivall$ !m 9 ! manufacture2 b ! process /ill rema9s a secret to ! _w4 ,by *emical analysis we le>n t borax is a neutral salt ) excess ( base1 consi/+ ( soda1 p>tly saturat$ ) a peculi> acid long call$ ,homb]g's s$ative salt1 n[ ! boracic acid4 ,?is acid is f\nd 9 an uncomb9$ /ate 9 ! wat]s ( c]ta9 lakes4 ,t ( ,*]*iais 9 ,italy conta9s #id-a_/b gra9s 9 ea* p9t ( wat]4 ,to obta9 boracic acid1 dissolve "s borax 9 boil+ wat]1 filtrate ! solution1 & add sulphuric acid1 or any o!r hav+ great] aff9ity to soda ?an ! boracic acid2 ?is latt] acid is sep>at$1 & is procur$ 9 a cry/all9e =m by cool+4 ,?is acid 0 long consid]$ z be+ =m$ dur+ ! process by :i* x is obta9$1 & 0 consequ5tly suppos$ to diff] accord+ to ! nature ( ! acid employ$ 9 sep>at+ x f ! soda2 b x is n[ univ]sally ackn[l$g$ t x is id5tically ! same acid1 9 :atev] way procur$1 provid$ x be prop]ly purifi$ f mixture ( o!r acids1 by w>n+1 & by repeat$ solution & cri/allization4 ,x is soluble bo? 9 wat] & alkohol1 & has ! prop]ty ( communicat+ a gre5 col\r to ! flame ( t _s4 ,?is circum/ance l$ to a suspicion ( its conta9+ copp]1 :i* is n confirm$ by any decisive exp]im5t4 ,on ! contr>y1 if x conta9 any ( t metal1 x mu/ only be consid]$ z an accid5tal mixture4 ,x comb9es ) ! salifiable bases 9 ! humid way2 & ?\gh1 9 ?is mann]1 x is incapable ( dissolv+ any ( ! metals directly1 ?is comb9ation is readily affect$ by comp\nd aff9ity4 ,! ,table pres5ts its comb9ations 9 ! ord] ( aff9ity 9 ! humid way2 b !re is a consid]able *ange 9 ! ord] :5 we op]ate via sicca2 =1 9 t case1 argill1 ?\gh ! la/ 9 our li/1 mu/ be plac$ imm$iately aft] soda4 ,! boracic radical is hi!rto unkn[n2 no exp]im5ts hav+ z yet be5 able to decompose ! acid2 ,we conclude1 f analogy ) ! o!r acids1 t oxyg5 exi/s 9 its composition z ! acidify+ pr9ciple4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,ars5iac ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,lime ,ars5iat ( lime4 ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 manganese manganese4 iron iron4 lead lead4 t9 t94 cobalt cobalt4 copp] copp]4 nickel nickel4 bismu? bismu?4 m]cury m]cury4 antimony antimony4 silv] silv]4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 ,argill argill4 ,note4--,?is ord] ( salts 0 entirely unkn[n to ! anti5t *emi/s4 ,mr ,macqu]1 9 #agdf1 discov]$ ! comb9ations ( ars5iac acid ) pota% & soda1 to :i* he gave ! "n ( ars5ical neutral salts4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xxiii4--,obs]vations ^u ,ars5iac ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,9 ! ,collections ( ! ,academy = #agdf1 ,mr ,macqu] %[s t1 :5 a mixture ( :ite oxyd ( ars5ic & nitre are subject$ to ! action ( a /rong fire1 a neutral salt is obta9$1 :i* he calls neutral salt ( ars5ic4 ,at t "t1 ! cause ( ?is s+ul> ph5om5on1 9 :i* a metal acts ! "p ( an acid1 0 q unkn[n2 b m mod]n exp]im5ts tea* t1 dur+ ?is process1 ! ars5ic becomes oxyg5at$1 by c>ry+ (f ! oxyg5 ( ! nitric acid2 x is ?us conv]t$ into a real acid1 & comb9es ) ! pota%4 ,!re are o!r me?ods n[ kn[n = oxyg5at+ ars5ic1 & obta9+ its acid free f comb9ation4 ,! mo/ simple & mo/ effectual ( ^! is z foll[s3 ,dissolve :ite oxyd ( ars5ic 9 ?ree p>ts1 by weight1 ( muriatic acid2 to ?is solution1 9 a boil+ /ate1 add two p>ts ( nitric acid1 & evaporate to dryness4 ,9 ?is process ! nitric acid is decompos$1 its oxyg5 unites ) ! oxyd ( ars5ic1 & conv]ts x into an acid1 & ! nitr\s radical flies (f 9 ! /ate ( nitr\s gas2 :il/ ! muriatic acid is conv]t$ by ! heat into muriatic acid gas1 & may be collect$ 9 prop] vessels4 ,! ars5iac acid is entirely fre$ f ! o!r acids employ$ dur+ ! process by heat+ x 9 a crucible till x beg9s to gr[ r$2 :at rema9s is pure concrete ars5iac acid4 ,mr ,s*eele's process1 :i* 0 repeat$ ) great success by ,mr ,morveau1 9 ! laboratory at ,dijon1 is z foll[s3 ,di/il muriatic acid f ! black oxyd ( manganese1 ?is conv]ts x into oxyg5at$ muriatic acid1 by c>ry+ (f ! oxyg5 f ! manganese1 receive ?is 9 a recipi5t conta9+ :ite oxyd ( ars5ic1 cov]$ by a little di/ill$ wat]2 ! ars5ic decomposes ! oxyg5at$ muriatic acid1 by c>ry+ (f its sup]saturation ( oxyg51 ! ars5ic is conv]t$ into ars5iac acid1 & ! oxyg5at$ muriatic acid is br\ght back to ! /ate ( common muriatic acid4 ,! two acids are sep>at$ by di/illation1 ) a g5tle heat increas$ t[>ds ! end ( ! op]ation1 ! muriatic acid passes ov]1 & ! ars5iac acid rema9s beh9d 9 a :ite concrete =m4 ,! ars5iac acid is consid]ably less volatile ?an :ite oxyd ( ars5ic2 x (t5 conta9s :ite oxyd ( ars5ic 9 solution1 ow+ to its n be+ suffici5tly oxyg5at$2 ?is is prev5t$ by cont9u+ to add nitr\s acid1 z 9 ! =m] process1 till no m nitr\s gas is produc$4 ,f all ^! obs]vations ,i w\ld give ! foll[+ def9ition ( ars5iac acid4 ,x is a :ite concrete metallic acid1 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( ars5ic ) oxyg51 fix$ 9 a r$ heat1 soluble 9 wat]1 & capable ( comb9+ ) _m ( ! salifiable bases4 ,,sect4 ,,xxiv4--,obs]vations ^u ,molybdic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,acidifiable ,bases#dc4 ,molybd5a is a p>ticul> metallic body1 capable ( be+ oxyg5at$1 s f> z to become a true concrete acid#dd4 ,= ?is purpose1 "o "p ore ( molybd5a1 :i* is a natural sulphuret ( t metal1 is put into a retort1 ) five or six p>ts nitric acid1 dilut$ ) a qu>t] ( its weight ( wat]1 & heat is appli$ to ! retort2 ! oxyg5 ( ! nitric acid acts bo? ^u ! molybd5a & ! sulphur1 conv]t+ ! "o into molybdic1 & ! o!r into sulphuric acid2 p\r on fre% quantities ( nitric acid s long z any r$ fumes ( nitr\s gas escape2 ! molydb5a is !n oxyg5at$ z f> z is possible1 & is f\nd at ! bottom ( ! retort 9 a pulv]ul5t =m1 resembl+ *alk4 ,x mu/ be wa%$ 9 w>m wat]1 to sep>ate any adh]+ p>ticles ( sulphuric acid2 &1 z x is h>dly soluble1 we lose v little ( x 9 ?is op]ation4 ,all its comb9ations ) salifiable bases 7 unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,tung/ic ,acid ) ! ,salifiable ,bases4 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,lime ,tung/at ( lime4 ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,argill argill4 ,oxyd ( antimony7,a71 c4 antimony7,b71 c4 ,note ,a3 ,! comb9ations ) metallic oxyds 7 set d[n by ,mr ,lavoisi] 9 alphabetical ord]2 _! ord] ( aff9ity be+ unkn[n1 ,i h omitt$ !m1 z s]v+ no purpose4--,e4 ,note ,b3 ,all ^! salts 7 unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xxv4--,obs]vations ^u ,tung/ic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,tung/e9 is a p>ticul> metal1 ! ore ( :i* has frequ5tly be5 conf\nd$ ) t ( t94 ,! specific gravity ( ?is ore is to wat] z #f to #a2 9 its =m ( cri/allization x resembles ! g>net1 & v>ies 9 col\r f a pe>l-:ite to yell[ & r$di%2 x is f\nd 9 sev]al p>ts ( ,saxony & ,bohemia4 ,! m9]al call$ ,wolfram1 :i* is frequ5t 9 ! m9es ( ,cornwal1 is likewise an ore ( ?is metal4 ,9 all ^! ores ! metal is oxydat$2 &1 9 "s ( !m1 x appe>s ev5 to be oxyg5at$ to ! /ate ( acid1 be+ comb9$ ) lime into a true tung/at ( lime4 ,to obta9 ! acid free1 mix "o "p ( ore ( tung/e9 ) f\r p>ts ( c>bonat ( pota%1 & melt ! mixture 9 a crucible1 !n p[d] & p\r on twelve p>ts ( boil+ wat]1 add nitric acid1 & ! tung/ic acid precipitates 9 a concrete =m4 ,aft]w>ds1 to insure ! complete oxyg5ation ( ! metal1 add m nitric acid1 & evaporate to dryness1 repeat+ ?is op]ation s long z r$ fumes ( nitr\s gas are produc$4 ,to procure tung/ic acid p]fectly pure1 ! fusion ( ! ore ) c>bonat ( pota% mu/ be made 9 a crucible ( plat9a1 o!rwise ! e>? ( ! common crucibles w mix ) ! products1 & adult]ate ! acid4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,t>t>\s ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,lime ,t>t>ite ( lime4 ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,argill argill4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 iron iron4 manganese manganese4 cobalt cobalt4 nickel nickel4 lead lead4 t9 t94 copp] copp]4 bismu? bismu?4 antimony antimony4 ars5ic ars5ic4 silv] silv]4 m]cury m]cury4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 ,,sect4 ,,xxvi4--,obs]vations ^u ,t>t>\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,t>t>1 or ! concretion :i* fixes to ! inside ( vessels 9 :i* ! f]m5tation ( w9e is complet$1 is a well kn[n salt1 compos$ ( a peculi> acid1 unit$ 9 consid]able excess to pota%4 ,mr ,s*eele fir/ po9t$ out ! me?od ( obta9+ ?is acid pure4 ,hav+ obs]v$ t x has a great] aff9ity to lime ?an to pota%1 he directs u to proce$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,dissolve purifi$ t>t> 9 boil+ wat]1 & add a suffici5t quantity ( lime till ! acid be completely saturat$4 ,! t>t>ite ( lime :i* is =m$1 be+ almo/ insoluble 9 cold wat]1 falls to ! bottom1 & is sep>at$ f ! solution ( pota% by decantation2 x is aft]w>ds wa%$ 9 cold wat]1 & dri$2 !n p\r on "s sulphuric acid1 dilut$ ) eight or n9e p>ts ( wat]1 dige/ = twelve h\rs 9 a g5tle heat1 frequ5tly /irr+ ! mixture2 ! sulphuric acid comb9es ) ! lime1 & ! t>t>\s acid is left free4 ,a small quantity ( gas1 n hi!rto exam9$1 is dis5gag$ dur+ ?is process4 ,at ! end ( twelve h\rs1 hav+ decant$ (f ! cle> liquor1 wa% ! sulphat ( lime 9 cold wat]1 :i* add to ! decant$ liquor1 !n evaporate ! :ole1 & ! t>t>\s acid is obta9$ 9 a concrete =m4 ,two p\nds ( purifi$ t>t>1 by means ( f eight to t5 ounces ( sulphuric acid1 yield ab\t elev5 ounces ( t>t>\s acid4 ,z ! combu/ible radical exi/s 9 excess1 or z ! acid f t>t> is n fully saturat$ ) oxyg51 we call x t>t>\s acid1 & ! neutral salts =m$ by its comb9ations ) salifiable bases t>t>ites4 ,! base ( ! t>t>\s acid is a c>bono-hydr\s or hydro-c>bon\s radical1 less oxyg5at$ ?an 9 ! oxalic acid2 & x w\ld appe>1 f ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr ,hass5fratz1 t azote ent]s into ! composition ( ! t>t>\s radical1 ev5 9 consid]able quantity4 ,by oxyg5at+ ! t>t>\s acid1 x is conv]tible into oxalic1 malic1 & acet\s acids2 b x is probable ! proportions ( hydrog5 & *>coal 9 ! radical are *ang$ dur+ ^! conv]sions1 & t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! acids does n alone consi/ 9 ! diff]5t degrees ( oxyg5ation4 ,! t>t>\s acid is susceptible ( two degrees ( saturation 9 its comb9ations ) ! fix$ alkalies2 by "o ( ^! a salt is =m$ ) excess ( acid1 improp]ly call$ cream ( t>t>1 :i* 9 our new nom5clature is nam$ acidul\s t>t>ite ( pota%2 by a second or equal degree ( saturation a p]fectly neutral salt is =m$1 =m]ly call$ vegetable salt1 :i* we "n t>t>ite ( pota%4 ,) soda ?is acid =ms t>t>ite ( soda1 =m]ly call$ sal de ,seignette1 or sal poly*re/ ( ,ro*ell4 ,,sect4 ,,xxvii4--,obs]vations ^u ,malic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ! ,salifiable ,bases#de4 ,! malic acid exi/s ready =m$ 9 ! s\r juice ( ripe & unripe apples1 & _m o!r fruits1 & is obta9$ z foll[s3 ,saturate ! juice ( apples ) pota% or soda1 & add a prop] proportion ( acetite ( lead dissolv$ 9 wat]2 a d\ble decomposition takes place1 ! malic acid comb9es ) ! oxyd ( lead & precipitates1 be+ almo/ insoluble1 & ! acetite ( pota% or soda rema9s 9 ! liquor4 ,! malat ( lead be+ sep>at$ by decantation1 is wa%$ ) cold wat]1 & "s dilute sulphuric acid is add$2 ?is unites ) ! lead into an insoluble sulphat1 & ! malic acid rema9s free 9 ! liquor4 ,?is acid1 :i* is f\nd mix$ ) citric & t>t>\s acid 9 a great numb] ( fruits1 is a k9d ( m$ium betwe5 oxalic & acet\s acids be+ m oxyg5at$ ?an ! =m]1 & less s ?an ! latt]4 ,f ?is circum/ance1 ,mr ,h]mb/adt calls x imp]fect v9eg>2 b x diff]s likewise f acet\s acid1 by hav+ r m *>coal1 & less hydrog51 9 ! composition ( its radical4 ,:5 an acid mu* dilut$ has be5 us$ 9 ! =ego+ process1 ! liquor conta9s oxalic z well z malic acid1 & probably a little t>t>\s1 ^! are sep>at$ by mix+ lime-wat] ) ! acids1 oxalat1 t>t>ite1 & malat ( lime are produc$2 ! two =m]1 be+ insoluble1 are precipitat$1 & ! malat ( lime rema9s dissolv$2 f ?is ! pure malic acid is sep>at$ by ! acetite ( lead1 & aft]w>ds by sulphuric acid1 z direct$ above4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,citric ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity7,a74 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,b>ytes ,citrat ( b>ytes4 ,lime lime4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 manganese manganese4 iron iron4 lead lead4 cobalt cobalt4 copp] copp]4 ars5ic ars5ic4 m]cury m]cury4 antimony antimony4 silv] silv]4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 ,argill argill4 ,note ,a3 ,^! comb9ations 7 unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s4 ,! ord] ( aff9ity ( ! salifiable bases ) ?is acid 0 det]m9$ by ,mr ,b]gman & by ,mr de ,br5ey ( ! ,dijon ,academy4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xxviii4--,obs]vations ^u ,citric ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,! citric acid is procur$ by expression f lemons1 & is f\nd 9 ! juices ( _m o!r fruits mix$ ) malic acid4 ,to obta9 x pure & conc5trat$1 x is fir/ all[$ to depurate f ! muc\s "p ( ! fruit by long re/ 9 a cool cell>1 & is aft]w>ds conc5trat$ by expos+ x to ! temp]ature ( #d or #e degrees bel[ ,z]o1 f #ba to #bc ( ,fahr5heit1 ! wat] is froz51 & ! acid rema9s liquid1 r$uc$ to ab\t an eigh? "p ( its orig9al bulk4 ,a l[] degree ( cold w\ld occasion ! acid to be engag$ among/ ! ice1 & r5d] x difficultly sep>able4 ,?is process 0 po9t$ out by ,mr ,georgius4 ,x is m easily obta9$ by saturat+ ! lemon-juice ) lime1 s z to =m a citrat ( lime1 :i* is insoluble 9 wat]2 wa% ?is salt1 & p\r on a prop] quantity ( sulphuric acid2 ?is =ms a sulphat ( lime1 :i* precipitates & leaves ! citric acid free 9 ! liquor4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,pyro-lign\s ,acid ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity7,a74 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,lime ,pyro-mucite ( lime4 ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 manganese manganese4 iron iron4 lead lead4 t9 t94 cobalt cobalt4 copp] copp]4 nickel nickel4 ars5ic ars5ic4 bismu? bismu?4 m]cury m]cury4 antimony antimony4 silv] silv]4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 ,argill argill4 ,note ,a3 ,! above aff9ities 7 det]m9$ by ,messrs de ,morveau & ,elo,i ,b\rsi] de ,cl]vaux4 ,^! comb9ations 7 entirely unkn[n till lately4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xxix4--,obs]vations ^u ,pyro-lign\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,! anci5t *emi/s obs]v$ t mo/ ( ! woods1 especially ! m heavy & compact ones1 gave out a p>ticul> acid _s1 by di/illation1 9 a nak$ fire2 b1 be=e ,mr ,goetl+1 :o gives an acc\nt ( 8 exp]im5ts ^u ?is subject 9 ,crell's ,*emical ,j\rnal = #aggi1 no "o _h ev] made any inquiry into its nature & prop]ties4 ,?is acid appe>s to be ! same1 :atev] be ! wood x is procur$ f4 ,:5 fir/ di/ill$1 x is ( a br[n col\r1 & consid]ably impregnat$ ) *>coal & oil2 x is purifi$ f ^! by a second di/illation4 ,! pyro-lign\s radical is *iefly compos$ ( hydrog5 & *>coal4 ,,sect4 ,,xxx4--,obs]vations ^u ,pyro-t>t>\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ! ,salifiable ,bases#df4 ,! "n ( ,pyro-t>t>\s acid is giv5 to a dilute empyreumatic acid obta9$ f purifi$ acidul\s t>t>ite ( pota% by di/illation 9 a nak$ fire4 ,to obta9 x1 let a retort be half fill$ ) p[d]$ t>t>1 adapt a tubulat$ recipi5t1 hav+ a b5t tube communicat+ ) a bell-glass 9 a pneumato-*emical app>atus2 by gradually rais+ ! fire "u ! retort1 we obta9 ! pyro-t>t>\s acid mix$ ) oil1 :i* is sep>at$ by means ( a funnel4 ,a va/ quantity ( c>bonic acid gas is dis5gag$ dur+ ! di/illation4 ,! acid obta9$ by ! above process is mu* contam9at$ ) oil1 :i* ought to be sep>at$ f x4 ,"s au?ors advise to d ?is by a second di/illation2 b ! ,dijon academicians in=m u1 t ?is is att5d$ ) great dang] f explosions :i* take place dur+ ! process4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,pyro-muc\s ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity7,a74 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,pota% ,pyro-mucite ( pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,lime lime4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,argill argill4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 manganese manganese4 iron iron4 lead lead4 t9 t94 cobalt cobalt4 copp] copp]4 nickel nickel4 ars5ic ars5ic4 bismu? bismu?4 antimony antimony4 ,note ,a3 ,all ^! comb9ations 7 unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xxxi4--,obs]vations ^u ,pyro-muc\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,?is acid is obta9$ by di/illation 9 a nak$ fire f sug>1 & all ! sac*>9e bodies2 &1 z ^! sub/ances swell greatly 9 ! fire1 x is necess>y to leave sev5-eigh?s ( ! retort empty4 ,x is ( a yell[ col\r1 v]g+ to r$1 & leaves a m>k ^u ! sk91 :i* w n remove b along/ ) ! epid]mis4 ,x may be procur$ less col\r$1 by means ( a second di/illation1 & is conc5trat$ by freez+1 z is direct$ = ! citric acid4 ,x is *iefly compos$ ( wat] & oil slightly oxyg5at$1 & is conv]tible into oxalic & malic acids by f>!r oxyg5ation ) ! nitric acid4 ,x has be5 pret5d$ t a l>ge quantity ( gas is dis5gag$ dur+ ! di/illation ( ?is acid1 :i* is n ! case if x be conduct$ sl[ly1 by means ( mod]ate heat4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ! ,oxalic ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity7,a74 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,lime ,oxalat ( lime4 ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,argill argill4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 iron iron4 manganese manganese4 cobalt cobalt4 nickel nickel4 lead lead4 copp] copp]4 bismu? bismu?4 antimony antimony4 ars5ic ars5ic4 m]cury m]cury4 silv] silv]4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 ,note ,a3 ,all unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xxxii4--,obs]vations ^u ,oxalic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,! oxalic acid is mo/ly prep>$ 9 ,switz]l& & ,g]many f ! express$ juice ( sorrel1 f :i* x cri/allizes by be+ left long at re/2 9 ?is /ate x is p>tly saturat$ ) pota%1 =m+ a true acidul\s oxalat ( pota%1 or salt ) excess ( acid4 ,to obta9 x pure1 x mu/ be =m$ artificially by oxyg5at+ sug>1 :i* seems to be ! true oxalic radical4 ,^u "o "p ( sug> p\r six or eight p>ts ( nitric acid1 & apply a g5tle heat2 a consid]able eff]vesc5ce takes place1 & a great quantity ( nitr\s gas is dis5gag$2 ! nitric acid is decompos$1 & its oxyg5 unites to ! sug>3 ,by all[+ ! liquor to /& at re/1 cri/als ( pure oxalic acid are =m$1 :i* mu/ be dri$ ^u blott+ pap]1 to sep>ate any rema9+ portions ( nitric acid2 &1 to ensure ! purity ( ! acid1 dissolve ! cri/als 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & cri/allize !m afre%4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,bases4 ,neutral salts4 ,names ( ! result+ neutral salts accord+ to ! old nom5clature4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,b>ytes ,acetite ( b>ytes,unkn[n to ! anci5ts4 ,discov]$ by ,mr de ,morveau1 :o calls x b>otic acte4 ,pota% ---- pota% ,secret t]ra foliata t>t>i ( ,mull]4 ,arcanum t>t>i ( ,basil ,val5t9 & ,p>acelsus4 ,purgative magi/]y ( t>t> ( ,s*rod]4 ,ess5tial salt ( w9e ( ,zwelf]4 ,reg5]at$ t>t> ( ,ta*5ius4 ,diuretic salt ( ,sylvius & ,wilson4 ,soda ---- soda ,foliat$ e>? ) base ( m9]al alkali4 ,m9]al or cry/allisable foliat$ e>?4 ,m9]al acet\s salt4 ,lime ---- lime ,salt ( *alk1 coral1 or crabs eyes2 m5tion$ by ,h>tman4 ,magnesia ---- magnesia ,fir/ m5tion$ by ,mr ,w5zel4 ,ammoniac ---- ammoniac ,spiritus ,m9d]]i4 ,ammoniacal acet\s salt4 ,oxyd ( z9c ---- z9c ,kn[n to ,glaub]1 ,s*w$emb]g1 ,resp\r1 ,pott1 de ,lassone1 & ,w5zel1 b n nam$4 ---- manganese ---- manganese ,unkn[n to ! anci5ts4 ---- iron ---- iron ,m>tial v9eg>4 ,describ$ by ,monnet1 ,w5zel1 & ! ,duke d',ay54 ---- lead ---- lead ,sug>1 v9eg>1 & salt ( lead or ,saturn4 ---- t9 ---- t9 ,kn[n to ,lem]y1 ,m>graff1 ,monnet1 ,wesl5dorf1 & ,w5zel1 b n nam$4 ---- cobalt ---- cobalt ,sympa!tic ink ( ,mr ,cadet4 ---- copp] ---- copp] ,v]digris1 cry/als ( v]dit]1 v]dit]1 di/ill$ v]digris1 cry/als ( ,v5us or ( copp]4 ---- nickel ---- nickel ,unkn[n to ! anci5ts4 ---- ars5ic ---- ars5ic ,ars5ico-acet\s fum+ liquor1 liquid phosphorus ( ,mr ,cadet4 ---- bismu? ---- bismu? ,sug> ( bismu? ( ,mr ,ge(froi4 ,kn[n to ,gell]t1 ,pott1 ,wesl5dorf1 ,b]gman1 & de ,morveau4 ---- m]cury ---- m]cury ,m]curial foliat$ e>?1 ,keys]'s fam\s antiv5]eal rem$y4 ,m5tion$ by ,gebav] 9 #agdh2 kn[n to ,helot1 ,m>graff1 ,baum1 ,b]gman1 & de ,morveau4 ---- antimony ---- antimony ,unkn[n4 ---- silv] ---- silv] ,describ$ by ,m>graff1 ,monnet1 & ,w5zel2 unkn[n to ! anci5ts4 ---- gold ---- gold ,little kn[n1 m5tion$ by ,s*rod] & ,junck]4 ---- plat9a ---- plat9a ,unkn[n4 ,argill ---- argill ,accord+ to ,mr ,w5zel1 v9eg> dissolves only a v small proportion ( argill4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,f ! liquor rema9+ aft] ! fir/ cri/allization ( ! oxalic acid we may obta9 malic acid by refrig]ation3 ,?is acid is m oxyg5at$ ?an ! oxalic2 &1 by a fur!r oxyg5ation1 ! sug> is conv]tible into acet\s acid1 or v9eg>4 ,! oxalic acid1 comb9$ ) a small quantity ( soda or pota%1 has ! prop]ty1 l ! t>t>\s acid1 ( ent]+ into a numb] ( comb9ations )\t suff]+ decomposition3 ,^! comb9ations =m triple salts1 or neutral salts ) d\ble bases1 :i* ought to h prop] names4 ,! salt ( sorrel1 :i* is pota% hav+ oxalic acid comb9$ 9 excess1 is nam$ acidul\s oxalat ( pota% 9 our new nom5clature4 ,! acid procur$ f sorrel has be5 kn[n to *emi/s = m ?an a c5tury1 be+ m5tion$ by ,mr ,duclos 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #afhh1 & 0 pretty accurately describ$ by ,bo]haave2 b ,mr ,s*eele fir/ %[$ t x conta9$ pota%1 & demon/rat$ its id5tity ) ! acid =m$ by ! oxyg5ation ( sug>4 ,,sect4 ,,xxxiii4--,obs]vations ^u ,acet\s ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,?is acid is compos$ ( *>coal & hydrog5 unit$ toge!r1 & br\ght to ! /ate ( an acid by ! addition ( oxyg52 x is consequ5tly =m$ by ! same elem5ts ) ! t>t>\s oxalic1 citric1 malic acids1 & o!rs1 b ! elem5ts exi/ 9 diff]5t proportions 9 ea* ( ^!2 & x w\ld appe> t ! acet\s acid is 9 a high] /ate ( oxyg5ation ?an ^! o!r acids4 ,i h "s reason to believe t ! acet\s radical conta9s a small portion ( azote2 &1 z ?is elem5t is n conta9$ 9 ! radicals ( any vegetable acid except ! t>t>\s1 ?is circum/ance is "o ( ! causes ( diff]5ce4 ,! acet\s acid1 or v9eg>1 is produc$ by expos+ w9e to a g5tle heat1 ) ! addition ( "s f]m5t3 ,?is is usually ! ley1 or "m1 :i* has sep>at$ f o!r v9eg> dur+ f]m5tation1 or "s simil> matt]4 ,! spirit\s "p ( ! w9e1 :i* consi/s ( *>coal & hydrog51 is oxyg5at$1 & conv]t$ into v9eg>3 ,?is op]ation c only take place ) free access ( air1 & is always att5d$ by a dim9ution ( ! air employ$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! absorption ( oxyg52 :]e=e1 x ought always to be c>ri$ on 9 vessels only half fill$ ) ! v9\s liquor submitt$ to ! acet\s f]m5tation4 ,! acid =m$ dur+ ?is process is v volatile1 is mix$ ) a l>ge proportion ( wat]1 & ) _m =eign sub/ances2 &1 to obta9 x pure1 x is di/ill$ 9 /one or glass vessels by a g5tle fire4 ,! acid :i* passes ov] 9 di/illation is some:at *ang$ by ! process1 & is n exactly ( ! same nature ) :at rema9s 9 ! alembic1 b seems less oxyg5at$3 ,?is circum/ance has n be5 =m]ly obs]v$ by *emi/s4 ,di/illation is n suffici5t = depriv+ ?is acid ( all its unnecess>y wat]2 &1 = ?is purpose1 ! be/ way is by expos+ x to a degree ( cold f #d to #f bel[ ! freez+ po9t1 f #ai to #bc ( ,fahr5heit2 by ?is means ! aque\s "p becomes froz51 & leaves ! acid 9 a liquid /ate1 & consid]ably conc5trat$4 ,9 ! usual temp]ature ( ! air1 ?is acid c only exi/ 9 ! gasse\s =m1 & c only be reta9$ by comb9ation ) a l>ge proportion ( wat]4 ,!re are o!r *emical processes = obta9+ ! acet\s acid1 :i* consi/ 9 oxyg5at+ ! t>t>\s1 oxalic1 or malic acids1 by means ( nitric acid2 b !re is reason to believe ! proportions ( ! elem5ts ( ! radical are *ang$ dur+ ?is process4 ,mr ,hass5fratz is at pres5t engag$ 9 repeat+ ! exp]im5ts by :i* ^! conv]sions are said to be produc$4 ,! comb9ations ( acet\s acid ) ! v>i\s salifiable bases are v readily =m$2 b mo/ ( ! result+ neutral salts are n cri/allizable1 :]eas ^? produc$ by ! t>t>\s & oxalic acids are1 9 g5]al1 h>dly soluble4 ,t>t>ite & oxalat ( lime are n soluble 9 any s5sible degree3 ,! malats are a m$ium betwe5 ! oxalats & acetites1 ) respect to solubility1 & ! malic acid is 9 ! middle degree ( saturation betwe5 ! oxalic & acet\s acids4 ,) ?is1 z ) all ! acids1 ! metals require to be oxydat$ previ\s to solution4 ,! anci5t *emi/s knew h>dly any ( ! salts =m$ by ! comb9ations ( acet\s acid ) ! salifiable bases1 except ! acetites ( pota%1 soda1 ammoniac1 copp]1 & lead4 ,mr ,cadet discov]$ ! acetite ( ars5ic#dg2 ,mr ,w5zel1 ! ,dijon academicians ,mr de ,lassone1 & ,mr ,pr\/1 made u acqua9t$ ) ! prop]ties ( ! o!r acetites4 ,f ! prop]ty :i* acetite ( pota% possesses1 ( giv+ out ammoniac 9 di/illation1 !re is "s reason to suppose1 t1 besides *>coal & hydrog51 ! acet\s radical conta9s a small proportion ( azote1 ?\gh x is n impossible b ! above production ( ammoniac may be occasion$ by ! decomposition ( ! pota%4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,acetic ,acid ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ord] ( aff9ity4 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,b>ytes ,acetat ( b>ytes4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,lime lime4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 manganese manganese4 iron iron4 lead lead4 t9 t94 cobalt cobalt4 copp] copp]4 nickel nickel4 ars5ic ars5ic4 bismu? bismu?4 m]cury m]cury4 antimony antimony4 silv] silv]4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 ,argill argill4 ,note4--,all ^! salts 7 unkn[n to ! anci5ts2 & ev5 ^? *emi/s :o are mo/ v]sant 9 mod]n discov]ies1 are yet at a lose :e!r ! great] "p ( ! salts produc$ by ! oxyg5at$ acetic radical belong prop]ly to ! class ( acetites1 or to t ( acetats4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xxxiv4--,obs]vations ^u ,acetic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,we h giv5 to radical v9eg> ! "n ( acetic acid1 f suppos+ t x consi/s ( ! same radical ) t ( ! acet\s acid1 b m highly saturat$ ) oxyg54 ,accord+ to ?is idea1 acetic acid is ! highe/ degree ( oxyg5ation ( :i* ! hydro-c>bon\s radical is susceptible2 b1 al?\gh ?is circum/ance be extremely probable1 x requires to be confirm$ by f>!r1 & m decisive exp]im5ts1 be=e x be adopt$ z an absolute *emical tru?4 ,we procure ?is acid z foll[s3 ,^u ?ree p>ts acetite ( pota% or ( copp]1 p\r "o "p ( conc5trat$ sulphuric acid1 &1 by di/illation1 a v highly conc5trat$ v9eg> is obta9$1 :i* we call acetic acid1 =m]ly nam$ radical v9eg>4 ,x is n hi!rto rigor\sly prov$ t ?is acid is m highly oxyg5at$ ?an ! acet\s acid1 nor t ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m may n consi/ 9 a diff]5t proportion betwe5 ! elem5ts ( ! radical or base4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,succ9ic ,acid ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,b>ytes ,succ9at ( b>ytes4 ,lime lime4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,argill argill4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 iron iron4 manganese manganese4 cobalt cobalt4 nickel nickel4 lead lead4 t9 t94 copp] copp]4 bismu? bismu?4 antimony antimony4 ars5ic ars5ic4 m]cury m]cury4 silv] silv]4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 ,note4--,all ! succ9ats 7 unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xxxv4--,obs]vations ^u ,succ9ic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,! succ9ic acid is drawn f amb] by sublimation 9 a g5tle heat1 & rises 9 a concrete =m into ! neck ( ! sublim+ vessel4 ,! op]ation mu/ n be pu%$ too f>1 or by too /rong a fire1 o!rwise ! oil ( ! amb] rises along/ ) ! acid4 ,! salt is dri$ ^u blott+ pap]1 & purifi$ by repeat$ solution & cry/allization4 ,?is acid is soluble 9 tw5ty-f\r times its weight ( cold wat]1 & 9 a mu* small] quantity ( hot wat]4 ,x possesses ! qualities ( an acid 9 a v small degree1 & only affects ! blue vegetable col\rs v slightly4 ,! aff9ities ( ?is acid1 ) ! salifiable bases1 are tak5 f ,mr de ,morveau1 :o is ! fir/ *emi/ t has endeav\r$ to asc]ta9 !m4 ,,sect4 ,,xxxvi4--,obs]vations ^u ,b5zoic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases#dh4 ,?is acid 0 kn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s "u ! "n ( ,fl[]s ( ,b5jam91 or ( ,b5zo91 & 0 procur$1 by sublimation1 f ! gum or res9 call$ ,b5zo93 ,! means ( procur+ x1 via humida1 0 discov]$ by ,mr ,ge(froy1 & p]fect$ by ,mr ,s*eele4 ,^u b5zo91 r$uc$ to p[d]1 p\r /rong lime-wat]1 hav+ r an excess ( lime2 keep ! mixture cont9ually /irr+1 &1 aft] half an h\r's dige/ion1 p\r (f ! liquor1 & use fre% portions ( lime-wat] 9 ! same mann]1 s long z !re is any appe>ance ( neutralization4 ,jo9 all ! decant$ liquors1 & evaporate1 z f> z possible1 )\t occasion+ cri/allization1 &1 :5 ! liquor is cold1 drop 9 muriatic acid till no m precipitate is =m$4 ,by ! =m] "p ( ! process a b5zoat ( lime is =m$1 &1 by ! latt]1 ! muriatic acid comb9es ) ! lime1 =m+ muriat ( lime1 :i* rema9s dissolv$1 :ile ! b5zoic acid1 be+ insoluble1 precipitates 9 a concrete /ate4 ,,sect4 ,,xxxvii4--,obs]vations ^u ,camphoric ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases#di4 ,camphor is a concrete ess5tial oil1 obta9$1 by sublimation1 f a species ( laurus :i* gr[s 9 ,*9a & ,japan4 ,by di/ill+ nitric acid eight times f camphor1 ,mr ,koseg>t5 conv]t$ x into an acid analog\s to ! oxalic2 b1 z x diff]s f t acid 9 "s circum/ances1 we h ?\ght necess>y to give x a p>ticul> "n1 till its nature be m completely asc]ta9$ by f>!r exp]im5t4 ,z camphor is a c>bono-hydr\s or hydro-c>bon\s radical1 x is easily conceiv$1 t1 by oxyg5ation1 x %\ld =m oxalic1 malic1 & sev]al o!r vegetable acids3 ,?is conjecture is r5d]$ n improbable by ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr ,koseg>t52 & ! pr9cipal ph5om5a exhibit$ 9 ! comb9ations ( camphoric acid ) ! salifiable bases1 be+ v simil> to ^? ( ! oxalic & malic acids1 lead me to believe t x consi/s ( a mixture ( ^! two acids4 ,,sect4 ,,xxxviii4--,obs]vations ^u ,gallic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases#ej4 ,! ,gallic acid1 =m]ly call$ ,pr9ciple ( ,a/r+5cy1 is obta9$ f gall nuts1 ei!r by infusion or decoction ) wat]1 or by di/illation ) a v g5tle heat4 ,?is acid has only be5 att5d$ to )9 ^! few ye>s4 ,! ,committee ( ! ,dijon ,academy h foll[$ x ?r\gh all its comb9ations1 & give ! be/ acc\nt ( x hi!rto produc$4 ,its acid prop]ties are v weak2 x r$d5s ! t9cture ( turnsol1 decomposes sulphurets1 & unites to all ! metals :5 !y h be5 previ\sly dissolv$ 9 "s o!r acid4 ,iron1 by ?is comb9ation1 is precipitat$ ( a v deep blue or violet col\r4 ,! radical ( ?is acid1 if x des]ves ! "n ( "o1 is hi!rto entirely unkn[n2 x is conta9$ 9 oak will[1 m>% iris1 ! /rawb]ry1 nymphea1 ,p]uvian b>k1 ! fl[]s & b>k ( pomgranate1 & 9 _m o!r woods & b>ks4 ,,sect4 ,,xxxix4--,obs]vations ^u ,lactic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,salifiable ,bases#ea4 ,! only accurate k we h ( ?is acid is f ! works ( ,mr ,s*eele4 ,x is conta9$ 9 :ey1 unit$ to a small quantity ( e>?1 & is obta9$ z foll[s3 ,r$uce :ey to "o eigh? "p ( its bulk by evaporation1 & filtrate1 to sep>ate all its *eesy matt]2 !n add z mu* lime z is necess>y to comb9e ) ! acid2 ! lime is aft]w>ds dis5gag$ by ! addition ( oxalic acid1 :i* comb9es ) x into an insoluble neutral salt4 ,:5 ! oxalat ( lime has be5 sep>at$ by decantation1 evaporate ! rema9+ liquor to ! consi/5ce ( honey2 ! lactic acid is dissolv$ by alkohol1 :i* does n unite ) ! sug> ( milk & o!r =eign matt]s2 ^! are sep>at$ by filtration f ! alkohol & acid2 & ! alkohol be+ evaporat$1 or di/ill$ (f1 leaves ! lactic acid beh9d4 ,?is acid unites ) all ! salifiable bases =m+ salts :i* d n cri/allize2 & x seems consid]ably to resemble ! acet\s acid4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,sac*olactic ,acid ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,lime ,sac*olat ( lime4 ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,argill argill4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 manganese manganese4 iron iron4 lead lead4 t9 t94 cobalt cobalt4 copp] copp]4 nickel nickel4 ars5ic ars5ic4 bismu? bismu?4 m]cury m]cury4 antimony antimony4 silv] silv]4 ,note4--,all ^! 7 unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xl4--,obs]vations ^u ,sac*olactic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,a species ( sug> may be extract$1 by evaporation1 f :ey1 :i* has long be5 kn[n 9 ph>macy1 & :i* has a consid]able resemblance to t procur$ f sug> canes4 ,?is sac*>9e matt]1 l ord9>y sug>1 may be oxyg5at$ by means ( nitric acid3 ,= ?is purpose1 sev]al portions ( nitric acid are di/ill$ f x2 ! rema9+ liquid is evaporat$1 & set to cri/allize1 by :i* means cri/als ( oxalic acid are procur$2 at ! same "t a v f9e :ite p[d] precipitates1 :i* is ! sac*olactic acid discov]$ by ,s*eele4 ,x is susceptible ( comb9+ ) ! alkalies1 ammoniac1 ! e>?s1 & ev5 ) ! metals3 ,its action ^u ! latt] is hi!rto b little kn[n1 except t1 ) !m1 x =ms difficultly soluble salts4 ,! ord] ( aff9ity 9 ! table is tak5 f ,b]gman4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,=mic ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,b>ytes ,=miat ( b>ytes4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,lime lime4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 manganese manganese4 iron iron4 lead lead4 t9 t94 cobalt cobalt4 copp] copp]4 nickel nickel4 bismu? bismu?4 silv] silv]4 ,argill argill4 ,note4--,all unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xli4--,obs]vations ^u ,=mic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,?is acid 0 fir/ obta9$ by di/illation f ants1 9 ! la/ c5tury1 by ,samuel ,fi%]4 ,! subject 0 treat$ ( by ,m>graff 9 #agdi1 & by ,messrs ,ardwisson & ,o*rn ( ,leipsic 9 #aggg4 ,! =mic acid is drawn f a l>ge species ( r$ ants1 =mica rufa1 ,l94 :i* =m l>ge ant hills 9 woody places4 ,x is procur$1 ei!r by di/ill+ ! ants ) a g5tle heat 9 a glass retort or an alembic2 or1 aft] hav+ wa%$ ! ants 9 cold wat]1 & dri$ !m ^u a clo?1 by p\r+ on boil+ wat]1 :i* dissolves ! acid2 or ! acid may be procur$ by g5tle expression f ! insects1 9 :i* case x is /rong] ?an 9 any ( ! =m] ways4 ,to obta9 x pure1 we mu/ rectify1 by means ( di/illation1 :i* sep>ates x f ! uncomb9$ oily & *>ry matt]2 & x may be conc5trat$ by freez+1 9 ! mann] recomm5d$ = treat+ ! acet\s acid4 ,,sect4 ,,xlii4--,obs]vations ^u ,bombic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ,acidifiable ,bases#eb4 ,! juices ( ! silk worm seem to assume an acid quality :5 t insect *anges f a l>va to a *rysalis4 ,at ! mom5t ( its escape f ! latt] to ! butt]fly =m1 x emits a r$di% liquor :i* r$d5s blue pap]1 & :i* 0 fir/ att5tively obs]v$ by ,mr ,*aussi] ( ! ,dijon academy1 :o obta9s ! acid by infus+ silk worm *rysalids 9 alkohol1 :i* dissolves _! acid )\t be+ *>g$ ) any ( ! gummy p>ts ( ! insect2 &1 by evaporat+ ! alkohol1 ! acid rema9s toll]ably pure4 ,! prop]ties & aff9ities ( ?is acid are n hi!rto asc]ta9$ ) any precision2 & we h reason to believe t analog\s acids may be procur$ f o!r insects4 ,! radical ( ?is acid is probably1 l t ( ! o!r acids f ! animal k+dom1 compos$ ( *>coal1 hydrog51 & azote1 ) ! addition1 p]haps1 ( phosphorus4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ,sebacic ,acid1 ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ,ord] ( ,aff9ity4 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,b>ytes ,sebat ( b>ytes4 ,pota% pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,lime lime4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,argill argill4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 manganese manganese4 iron iron4 lead lead4 t9 t94 cobalt cobalt4 copp] copp]4 nickel nickel4 ars5ic ars5ic4 bismu? bismu?4 m]cury m]cury4 antimony antimony4 silv] silv]4 ,note4--,all ^! 7 unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s4--,a4 ,,sect4 ,,xliii4--,obs]vations ^u ,sebacid ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,to obta9 ! sebacic acid1 let "s suet be melt$ 9 a skillet ov] ! fire1 along/ ) "s quick-lime 9 f9e p[d]1 & con/antly /irr$1 rais+ ! fire t[>ds ! end ( ! op]ation1 & tak+ c>e to avoid ! vap\rs1 :i* are v (f5sive4 ,by ?is process ! sebacic acid unites ) ! lime into a sebat ( lime1 :i* is difficultly soluble 9 wat]2 x is1 h[ev]1 sep>at$ f ! fatty matt]s ) :i* x is mix$ by solution 9 a l>ge quantity ( boil+ wat]4 ,f ?is ! neutral salt is sep>at$ by evaporation2 &1 to r5d] x pure1 is calc9$1 r$issolv$1 & aga9 cri/alliz$4 ,aft] ?is we p\r on a prop] quantity ( sulphuric acid1 & ! sebacic acid passes ov] by di/illation4 ,,sect4 ,,xliv4--,obs]vations ^u ! ,li?ic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations ) ! ,salifiable ,bases#ec4 ,f ! lat] exp]im5ts ( ,b]gman & ,s*eele1 ! ur9>y calculus appe>s to be a species ( salt ) an e>?y basis2 x is slightly acidul\s1 & requires a l>ge quantity ( wat] = solution1 ?ree gra9s be+ sc>cely soluble 9 a ?\s& gra9s ( boil+ wat]1 & ! great] "p aga9 cri/allizes :5 cold4 ,to ?is concrete acid1 :i* ,mr de ,morveau calls ,li?iasic ,acid1 we give ! "n ( ,li?ic ,acid1 ! nature & prop]ties ( :i* are hi!rto v little kn[n4 ,!re is "s appe>ance t x is an acidul\s neutral salt1 or acid comb9$ 9 excess ) a salifiable base2 & ,i h reason to believe t x really is an acidul\s phosphat ( lime2 if s1 x mu/ be exclud$ f ! class ( peculi> acids4 ,,table ( ! ,comb9ations ( ! ,prussic ,acid ) ! ,salifiable ,bases1 9 ! ord] ( aff9ity4 ,bases4 ,neutral ,salts4 ,pota% ,prussiat ( pota%4 ,soda soda4 ,ammoniac ammoniac4 ,lime lime4 ,b>ytes b>ytes4 ,magnesia magnesia4 ,oxyd ( z9c z9c4 iron iron4 manganese manganese4 cobalt cobalt4 nickel nickel4 lead lead4 t9 t94 copp] copp]4 bismu? bismu?4 antimony antimony4 ars5ic ars5ic4 silv] silv]4 m]cury m]cury4 gold gold4 plat9a plat9a4 ,note4---,all ^! 7 unkn[n to =m] *emi/s4--,a4 ,obs]vations ^u ! ,prussic ,acid1 & its ,comb9ations4 ,z ! exp]im5ts :i* h be5 made hi!rto ^u ?is acid seem /ill to leave a consid]able degree ( unc]ta9ty ) reg>d to its nature1 ,i %all n enl>ge ^u its prop]ties1 & ! means ( procur+ x pure & diss5gag$ f comb9ation4 ,x comb9es ) iron1 to :i* x communicates a blue col\r1 & is equally susceptible ( ent]+ into comb9ation ) mo/ ( ! o!r metals1 :i* are precipitat$ f x by ! alkalies1 ammoniac1 & lime1 9 consequ5ce ( great] aff9ity4 ,! ,prussic radical1 f ! exp]im5ts ( ,s*eele1 & especially f ^? ( ,mr ,b]?ollet1 seems compos$ ( *>coal & azote2 h5ce x is an acid ) a d\ble base4 ,! phosphorus :i* has be5 f\nd comb9$ ) x appe>s1 f ! exp]im5ts ( ,mr ,hass5fratz1 to be only accid5tal4 ,al?\gh ?is acid comb9es ) alkalies1 e>?s1 & metals1 9 ! same way ) o!r acids1 x possesses only "s ( ! prop]ties we h be5 9 use to attribute to acids1 & x may consequ5tly be improp]ly rank$ "h 9 ! class ( acids2 b1 z ,i h already obs]v$1 x is difficult to =m a decid$ op9ion ^u ! nature ( ?is sub/ance until ! subject has be5 f>!r elucidat$ by a great] numb] ( exp]im5ts4 ,,footnotes3 #cf ,see ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aggf1 p4 #fga4 & = #aggh1 p4 #ece1--;,a4 #cg ,see ,"p ,i4 ,*ap4 ,,xi4 ^u ?is subject4--,a4 #ch ,see ,"p ,i4 ,*ap4 ,,xi4 ^u ! application ( ^! names accord+ to ! proportions ( ! two +r$i5ts4--,a #ci ,see ,"p ,i4 ,*ap4 ,,xii4 ^u ?is subject4--,a4 #dj ,^? :o wi% to see :at has be5 said ^u ?is great *emical "q by ,messrs de ,morveau1 ,b]?ollet1 ,de ,f\rcroy1 & myself1 may consult our translation ( ,mr ,kirwan's ,essay ^u ,phlogi/on4--,a4 #da ,saltpetre is likewise procur$ 9 l>ge quantities by lixiviat+ ! natural soil 9 "s p>ts ( ,b5gal1 & ( ! ,russian ,ukra94--,e4 #db ,commonly call$ ,d]by%ire sp>s4--,e4 #dc ,i h n add$ ! ,table ( ^! comb9ations1 z ! ord] ( _! aff9ity is entirely unkn[n2 !y are call$ molybdats ( argil1 antimony1 pota%1 c4--,e4 #dd ,?is acid 0 discov]$ by ,mr ,s*eele1 to :om *emi/ry is indebt$ = ! discov]y ( sev]al o!r acids4--,a4 #de ,i h omitt$ ! ,table1 z ! ord] ( aff9ity is unkn[n1 & is giv5 by ,mr ,lavoisi] only 9 alphabetical ord]4 ,all ! comb9ations ( malic acid ) salifiable bases1 :i* are nam$ malats1 7 unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s4--,e4 #df ,! ord] ( aff9ity ( ! salifiable bases ) ?is acid is hi!rto unkn[n4 ,mr ,lavoisi]1 f its simil>ity to pyro-lign\s acid1 supposes ! ord] to be ! same 9 bo?2 b1 z ?is is n asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t1 ! table is omitt$4 ,all ^! comb9ations1 call$ ,pyro-t>t>ites1 7 unkn[n till lately--,e4 #dg ,savans ,etrang]s1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 #dh ,^! comb9ations are call$ ,b5zoats ( ,lime1 ,pota%1 ,z9c1 c42 b1 z ! ord] ( aff9ity is unkn[n1 ! alphabetical table is omitt$1 z unnecess>y4--,e4 #di ,^! comb9ations1 :i* 7 all unkn[n to ! anci5ts1 are call$ ,camphorats4 ,! table is omitt$1 z be+ only 9 alphabetical ord]4--,e4 #ej ,^! comb9ations1 :i* are call$ ,gallats1 7 all unkn[n to ! anci5ts2 & ! ord] ( _! aff9ity is n hi!rto e/abli%$4--,a4 #ea ,^! comb9ations are call$ ,lactats2 !y 7 all unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s1 & _! aff9ities h n yet be5 asc]ta9$4--,a4 #eb ,^! comb9ations nam$ ,bombats 7 unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s2 & ! aff9ities ( ! salifiable bases ) ! bombic acid are hi!rto undet]m9$4--,a4 #ec ,all ! comb9ations ( ?is acid1 %\ld x f9ally turn out to be "o1 7 unkn[n to ! anci5t *emi/s1 & its aff9ities ) ! salifiable bases h n be5 hi!rto det]m9$4--,a4 ,,"p ,,iii4 ,description ( ! ,in/rum5ts & ,op]ations ( ,*emi/ry4 ,,introduction4 ,9 ! two =m] p>ts ( ?is "w ,i design$ly avoid$ be+ p>ticul> 9 describ+ ! manual op]ations ( *emi/ry1 because ,i _h f\nd f exp]i5ce1 t1 9 a "w appropriat$ to reason+1 m9ute descriptions ( processes & ( plates int]rupt ! *a9 ( ideas1 & r5d] ! att5tion necess>y bo? difficult & t$i\s to ! read]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ,i _h conf9$ myself to ! summ>y descriptions hi!rto giv51 beg9n]s c\ld h only acquir$ v vague conceptions ( practical *emi/ry f my "w1 & mu/ h want$ bo? confid5ce & int]e/ 9 op]ations !y c\ld nei!r repeat nor ?or\ghly compreh5d4 ,?is want c\ld n h be5 suppli$ f books2 =1 besides t !re are n any :i* describe ! mod]n in/rum5ts & exp]im5ts suffici5tly at l>ge1 any "w t c\ld h be5 consult$ w\ld h pres5t$ ^! ?+s "u a v diff]5t ord] ( arrangem5t1 & 9 a diff]5t *emical language1 :i* mu/ greatly t5d to injure ! ma9 object ( my p]=mance4 ,influ5c$ by ^! motives1 ,i det]m9$ to res]ve1 = a ?ird "p ( my "w1 a summ>y description ( all ! in/rum5ts & manipulations relative to elem5t>y *emi/ry4 ,i consid]$ x z bett] plac$ at ! end1 r ?an at ! beg9n+ ( ! book1 because ,i mu/ h be5 oblig$ to suppose ! read] acqua9t$ ) circum/ances :i* a beg9n] _c "k1 & mu/ !re=e h read ! elem5t>y "p to become acqua9t$ )4 ,! :ole ( ?is ?ird "p may !re=e be consid]$ z resembl+ ! explanations ( plates :i* are usually plac$ at ! end ( academic memoirs1 t !y may n int]rupt ! connection ( ! text by l5g!n$ description4 ,?\gh ,i h tak5 great pa9s to r5d] ?is "p cle> & me?odical1 & h n omitt$ any ess5tial in/rum5t or app>atus1 ,i am f> f pret5d+ by x to set aside ! necessity ( att5dance ^u lectures & laboratories1 = su* z wi% to acquire accurate k ( ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry4 ,^! %\ld famili>ise !mselves to ! employm5t ( app>atus1 & to ! p]=mance ( exp]im5ts by actual exp]i5ce4 ,nihil e/ 9 intellectu quod non prius fu]it 9 s5su1 ! motto :i* ! celebrat$ ,r\elle caus$ to be pa9t$ 9 l>ge *>act]s 9 a conspicu\s "p ( 8 laboratory1 is an important tru? nev] to be lo/ sight ( ei!r by tea*]s or /ud5ts ( *emi/ry4 ,*emical op]ations may be naturally divid$ into sev]al classes1 accord+ to ! purposes !y are int5d$ = p]=m+4 ,"s may be consid]$ z purely me*anical1 su* z ! det]m9ation ( ! weight & bulk ( bodies1 trituration1 levigation1 se>*+1 wa%+1 filtration1 c4 ,o!rs may be consid]$ z real *emical op]ations1 because !y are p]=m$ by means ( *emical p[]s & ag5ts2 su* are solution1 fusion1 c4 ,"s ( ^! are int5d$ = sep>at+ ! elem5ts ( bodies f ea* o!r1 "s = reunit+ ^! elem5ts toge!r2 & "s1 z combu/ion1 produce bo? ^! effects dur+ ! same process4 ,)\t rigor\sly endeav\r+ to foll[ ! above me?od1 ,i mean to give a detail ( ! *emical op]ations 9 su* ord] ( arrangem5t z seem$ be/ calculat$ = convey+ in/ruction4 ,i %all be m p>ticul> 9 describ+ ! app>atus connect$ ) mod]n *emi/ry1 because ^! are hi!rto little kn[n by m5 :o h devot$ mu* ( _! "t to *emi/ry1 & ev5 by _m pr(essors ( ! sci5ce4 ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,( ! ,in/rum5ts necess>y = det]m9+ ! ,absolute & ,specific ,gravities ( ,solid & ,liquid ,bodies4 ,! be/ me?od hi!rto kn[n = det]m9+ ! quantities ( sub/ances submitt$ to *emical exp]im5t1 or result+ f !m1 is by means ( an accurately con/ruct$ beam & scales1 ) prop]ly regulat$ weights1 :i* well kn[n op]ation is call$ weigh+4 ,! d5om9ation & quantity ( ! weights us$ z an unit or /&>d = ?is purpose are extremely arbitr>y1 & v>y n only 9 diff]5t k+doms1 b ev5 9 diff]5t prov9ces ( ! same k+dom1 & 9 diff]5t cities ( ! same prov9ce4 ,?is v>iation is ( inf9ite consequ5ce to be well und]/ood 9 comm]ce & 9 ! arts2 b1 9 *emi/ry1 x is ( no mom5t :at p>ticul> d5om9ation ( weight be employ$1 provid$ ! results ( exp]im5ts be express$ 9 conv5i5t fractions ( ! same d5om9ation4 ,= ?is purpose1 until all ! weights us$ 9 society be r$uc$ to ! same /&>d1 x w be suffici5t = *emi/s 9 diff]5t p>ts to use ! common p\nd ( _! own c\ntry z ! unit or /&>d1 & to express all its fractional p>ts 9 decimals1 in/ead ( ! arbitr>y divisions n[ 9 use4 ,by ?is means ! *emi/s ( all c\ntries w be ?or\ghly und]/ood by ea* o!r1 z1 al?\gh ! absolute weights ( ! +r$i5ts & products _c be kn[n1 !y w readily1 & )\t calculation1 be able to det]m9e ! relative proportions ( ^! to ea* o!r ) ! utmo/ accuracy2 s t 9 ?is way we %all be possess$ ( an univ]sal language = ?is "p ( *emi/ry4 ,) ?is view ,i h long project$ to h ! p\nd divid$ into decimal fractions1 & ,i h ( late succe$$ ?r\gh ! assi/ance ( ,mr ,f\r*e balance-mak] at ,p>is1 :o has execut$ x = me ) great accuracy & judgm5t4 ,i recomm5d to all :o c>ry on exp]im5ts to procure simil> divisions ( ! p\nd1 :i* !y w f9d bo? easy & simple 9 its application1 ) a v small k ( decimal fractions#ed4 ,z ! usefulness & accuracy ( *emi/ry dep5ds entirely ^u ! det]m9ation ( ! weights ( ! +r$i5ts & products bo? be=e & aft] exp]im5ts1 too mu* precision _c be employ$ 9 ?is "p ( ! subject2 &1 = ?is purpose1 we mu/ be provid$ ) good in/rum5ts4 ,z we are (t5 oblig$1 9 *emical processes1 to asc]ta91 )9 a gra9 or less1 ! t>e or weight ( l>ge & heavy in/rum5ts1 we mu/ h beams made ) peculi> nic5ess by accurate workm51 & ^! mu/ always be kept ap>t f ! laboratory 9 "s place :]e ! vap\rs ( acids1 or o!r corrosive liquors1 _c h access1 o!rwise ! /eel w ru/1 & ! accuracy ( ! balance be de/roy$4 ,i h ?ree sets1 ( diff]5t sizes1 made by ,mr ,font9 ) ! utmo/ nicety1 &1 except+ ^? made by ,mr ,ramsd5 ( ,london1 ,i d n ?9k any c comp>e ) !m = precision & s5sibility4 ,! l>ge/ ( ^! is ab\t ?ree feet long 9 ! beam = l>ge weights1 up to fifte5 or tw5ty p\nds2 ! second1 = weights ( eighte5 or tw5ty ounces1 is exact to a t5? "p ( a gra92 & ! smalle/1 calculat$ only = weigh+ ab\t "o gros1 is s5sibly affect$ by ! five hundr$? "p ( a gra94 ,besides ^! nic] balances1 :i* are only us$ = exp]im5ts ( rese>*1 we mu/ h o!rs ( less value = ! ord9>y purposes ( ! laboratory4 ,a l>ge iron balance1 capable ( weigh+ =ty or fifty p\nds )9 half a dram1 "o ( a middle size1 :i* may asc]ta9 eight or t5 p\nds1 )9 t5 or twelve gra9s1 & a small "o1 by :i* ab\t a p\nd may be det]m9$1 )9 "o gra94 ,we mu/ likewise be provid$ ) weights divid$ into _! sev]al fractions1 bo? vulg> & decimal1 ) ! utmo/ nicety1 & v]ifi$ by means ( repeat$ & accurate trials 9 ! nice/ scales2 & x requires "s exp]i5ce1 & to be accurately acqua9t$ ) ! diff]5t weights1 to be able to use !m prop]ly4 ,! be/ way ( precisely asc]ta9+ ! weight ( any p>ticul> sub/ance is to weigh x twice1 once ) ! decimal divisions ( ! p\nd1 & ano!r "t ) ! common subdivisions or vulg> fractions1 &1 by comp>+ ^!1 we atta9 ! utmo/ accuracy4 ,by ! specific gravity ( any sub/ance is und]/ood ! quoti5t ( its absolute weight divid$ by its magnitude1 or1 :at is ! same1 ! weight ( a det]m9ate bulk ( any body4 ,! weight ( a det]m9ate magnitude ( wat] has be5 g5]ally assum$ z unity = ?is purpose2 & we express ! specific gravity ( gold1 sulphuric acid1 c4 by say+1 t gold is n9ete5 times1 & sulphuric acid twice ! weight ( wat]1 & s ( o!r bodies4 ,x is ! m conv5i5t to assume wat] z unity 9 specific gravities1 t ^? sub/ances ^: specific gravity we wi% to det]m9e1 are mo/ commonly weigh$ 9 wat] = t purpose4 ,?us1 if we wi% to det]m9e ! specific gravity ( gold flatt5$ "u ! hamm]1 & suppos+ ! piece ( gold to weigh #h oz4 #d gros #b-a_/b grs4 9 ! air#ee1 x is susp5d$ by means ( a f9e metallic wire "u ! scale ( a hydro/atic balance1 s z to be entirely imm]s$ 9 wat]1 & aga9 weigh$4 ,! piece ( gold 9 ,mr ,brisson's exp]im5t lo/ by ?is means #c gros #cg grs42 &1 z x is evid5t t ! weight lo/ by a body weigh$ 9 wat] is precisely equal to ! weight ( ! wat] displac$1 or to t ( an equal volume ( wat]1 we may conclude1 t1 9 equal magnitudes1 gold weighs #dhic-a_/b grs4 & wat] #bec grs4 :i*1 r$uc$ to unity1 gives #a4jjjj z ! specific gravity ( wat]1 & #ai4cfag = t ( gold4 ,we may op]ate 9 ! same mann] ) all solid sub/ances4 ,we h r>ely any occasion1 9 *emi/ry1 to det]m9e ! specific gravity ( solid bodies1 unless :5 op]at+ ^u alloys or metallic glasses2 b we h v frequ5t necessity to asc]ta9 t ( fluids1 z x is (t5 ! only means ( judg+ ( _! purity or degree ( conc5tration4 ,?is object may be v fully accompli%$ ) ! hydro/atic balance1 by weigh+ a solid body2 su*1 = example1 z a little ball ( rock cri/al susp5d$ by a v f9e gold wire1 fir/ 9 ! air1 & aft]w>ds 9 ! fluid ^: specific gravity we wi% to discov]4 ,! weight lo/ by ! cri/al1 :5 weigh$ 9 ! liquor1 is equal to t ( an equal bulk ( ! liquid4 ,by repeat+ ?is op]ation successively 9 wat] & diff]5t fluids1 we c v readily asc]ta91 by a simple & easy calculation1 ! relative specific gravities ( ^! fluids1 ei!r ) respect to ea* o!r or to wat]4 ,?is me?od is n1 h[ev]1 suffici5tly exact1 or1 at lea/1 is r tr\blesome1 f its extreme delicacy1 :5 us$ = liquids diff]+ b little 9 specific gravity f wat]2 su*1 = in/ance1 z m9]al wat]s1 or any o!r wat] conta9+ v small portions ( salt 9 solution4 ,9 "s op]ations ( ?is nature1 :i* h n hi!rto be5 made public1 ,i employ$ an in/rum5t ( great s5sibility = ?is purpose ) great advantage4 ,x consi/s ( a holl[ cyl9d]1 ,a b c f1 ,pl4 vii4 fig4 #f4 ( brass1 or r ( silv]1 load$ at its bottom1 b c f1 ) t91 z repres5t$ swimm+ 9 a jug ( wat]1 l m n o4 ,to ! upp] "p ( ! cyl9d] is atta*$ a /alk ( silv] wire1 n m ?an ?ree f\r?s ( a l9e diamet]1 surm\nt$ by a little cup d1 int5d$ = conta9+ weights2 ^u ! /alk a m>k is made at g1 ! use ( :i* we %all pres5tly expla94 ,?is cyl9d] may be made ( any size2 b1 to be accurate1 ought at lea/ to displace f\r p\nds ( wat]4 ,! weight ( t9 ) :i* ?is in/rum5t is load$ ought to be su* z w make x rema9 almo/ 9 equilibrium 9 di/ill$ wat]1 & %\ld n require m ?an half a dram1 or a dram at mo/1 to make x s9k to g4 ,we mu/ fir/ det]m9e1 ) great precision1 ! exact weight ( ! in/rum5t1 & ! numb] ( additional gra9s requisite = mak+ x s9k1 9 di/ill$ wat] ( a det]m9ate temp]ature1 to ! m>k3 ,we !n p]=m ! same exp]im5t ^u all ! fluids ( :i* we wi% to asc]ta9 ! specific gravity1 &1 by means ( calculation1 r$uce ! obs]v$ diff]5ces to a common /&>d ( cubic feet1 p9ts or p\nds1 or ( decimal fractions1 comp>+ !m ) wat]4 ,?is me?od1 jo9$ to exp]im5ts ) c]ta9 reag5ts#ef1 is "o ( ! be/ = det]m9+ ! quality ( wat]s1 & is ev5 capable ( po9t+ out diff]5ces :i* escape ! mo/ accurate *emical analysis4 ,i %all1 at "s future p]iod1 give an acc\nt ( a v ext5sive set ( exp]im5ts :i* ,i h made ^u ?is subject4 ,^! metallic hydromet]s are only to be us$ = det]m9+ ! specific gravities ( su* wat]s z conta9 only neutral salts or alkal9e sub/ances2 & !y may be con/ruct$ ) diff]5t degrees ( balla/ = alkohol & o!r spirit\s liquors4 ,:5 ! specific gravities ( acid liquors are to be asc]ta9$1 we mu/ use a glass hydromet]1 z repres5t$ ,pl4 vii4 fig4 #adeg4 ,?is consi/s ( a holl[ cyl9d] ( glass1 a b c f1 h]metically seal$ at its l[] end1 & drawn out at ! upp] into a capill>y tube a1 end+ 9 ! little cup or bason d4 ,?is in/rum5t is balla/$ ) m or less m]cury1 at ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] introduc$ ?r\gh ! tube1 9 proportion to ! weight ( ! liquor int5d$ to be exam9$3 ,we may introduce a small graduat$ slip ( pap] into ! tube a d2 &1 ?\gh ^! degrees d n exactly correspond to ! fractions ( gra9s 9 ! diff]5t liquors1 !y may be r5d]$ v useful 9 calculation4 ,:at is said 9 ?is *apt] may suffice1 )\t f>!r enl>gem5t1 = indicat+ ! means ( asc]ta9+ ! absolute & specific gravities ( solids & fluids1 z ! necess>y in/rum5ts are g5]ally kn[n1 & may easily be procur$3 ,b1 z ! in/rum5ts ,i h us$ = measur+ ! gasses are n any :]e describ$1 ,i %all give a m detail$ acc\nt ( ^! 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,,footnotes3 #ed ,mr ,lavoisi] gives1 9 ?is "p ( 8 "w1 v accurate directions = r$uc+ ! common subdivisions ( ! ,fr5* p\nd into decimal fractions1 & vice v]sa1 by means ( tables subjo9$ to ?is #c;d "p4 ,z ^! in/ructions1 & ! table1 w\ld be useless to ! ,briti% *emi/1 f ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! subdivisions ( ! ,fr5* & ,troy p\nds1 ,i h omitt$ !m1 b h subjo9$ 9 ! app5dix accurate rules = conv]t+ ! "o into ! o!r4--,e4 #ee ,vide ,mr ,brisson's ,essay ^u ,specific ,gravity1 p4 #e4--;,a4 #ef ,= ! use ( ^! reag5ts see ,b]gman's excell5t treatise ^u ! analysis ( m9]al wat]s1 9 8 ,*emical & ,physical ,essays4--,e4 #eg ,?ree or f\r ye>s ago1 ,i h se5 simil> glass hydromet]s1 made = ,dr ,black by ,b4 ,knie1 a v +5i\s arti/ ( ?is city4--,e4 ,,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,( ,gazometry1 or ! ,measurem5t ( ! ,weight & ,volume ( ,ari=m ,sub/ances4 ,,sect4 ,i4 ,description ( ! ,pneumato-*emical ,app>atus4 ,! ,fr5* *emi/s h ( late appli$ ! "n ( pneumato-*emical app>atus to ! v simple & +5i\s contrivance1 inv5t$ by ,dr ,prie/ley1 :i* is n[ indisp5sibly necess>y to e laboratory4 ,?is consi/s ( a wood5 tr\gh1 ( l>g] or small] dim5sions z is ?\ght conv5i5t1 l9$ ) plate-lead or t9n$ copp]1 z repres5t$ 9 p]spective1 ,pl4 ,v4 ,9 ,fig4 #a4 ! same tr\gh or ci/]n is suppos$ to h two ( its sides cut away1 to %[ its int]ior con/ruction m di/9ctly4 ,9 ?is app>atus1 we di/+ui% betwe5 ! %elf ,,abcd ,fig4 #a4 & #b4 & ! bottom or body ( ! ci/]n ,,fghi ,fig4 #b4 ,! j>s or bell-glasses are fill$ ) wat] 9 ?is deep "p1 &1 be+ turn$ ) _! m\?s d[nw>ds1 are aft]w>ds set ^u ! %elf ,,abcd1 z %[n ,plate ,x4 ,fig4 #a4 ,f4 ,! upp] p>ts ( ! sides ( ! ci/]n above ! level ( ! %elf are call$ ! rim or bord]s4 ,! ci/]n ought to be fill$ ) wat]1 s z to /& at lea/ an in* & a half deep ^u ! %elf1 & x %\ld be ( su* dim5sions z to admit ( at lea/ "o foot ( wat] 9 e direction 9 ! well4 ,?is size is suffici5t = ord9>y occasions2 b x is (t5 conv5i5t1 & ev5 necess>y1 to h m room2 ,i w\ld !re=e advise su* z int5d to employ !mselves usefully 9 *emical exp]im5ts1 to h ?is app>atus made ( consid]able magnitude1 :]e _! place ( op]at+ w all[4 ,! well ( my pr9cipal ci/]n holds f\r cubical feet ( wat]1 & its %elf has a surface ( f\rte5 squ>e feet2 yet1 9 spite ( ?is size1 :i* ,i at fir/ ?\ght immod]ate1 ,i am (t5 /rait5$ = room4 ,9 laboratories1 :]e a consid]able numb] ( exp]im5ts are p]=m$1 x is necess>y to h sev]al less] ci/]ns1 besides ! l>ge "o1 :i* may be call$ ! g5]al magaz9e2 & ev5 "s portable ones1 :i* may be mov$ :5 necess>y1 ne> a furnace1 or :]ev] !y may be want$4 ,!re are likewise "s op]ations :i* dirty ! wat] ( ! app>atus1 & !re=e require to be c>ri$ on 9 ci/]ns by !mselves4 ,x 7 d\btless consid]ably *eap] to use ci/]ns1 or iron-b\nd tubs1 ( wood simply dove-tail$1 in/ead ( be+ l9$ ) lead or copp]2 & 9 my fir/ exp]im5ts ,i us$ !m made 9 t way2 b ,i soon discov]$ _! inconv5i5ce4 ,if ! wat] be n always kept at ! same level1 su* ( ! dovetails z are left dry %r9k1 &1 :5 m wat] is add$1 x escapes ?r\gh ! jo9ts1 & runs out4 ,we employ cri/al j>s or bell glasses1 ,pl4 ,v4 ,fig4 #i4 ,a4 = conta9+ ! gasses 9 ?is app>atus2 &1 = transport+ ^!1 :5 full ( gas1 f "o ci/]n to ano!r1 or = keep+ !m 9 res]ve :5 ! ci/]n is too full1 we make use ( a flat di% ,,bc1 surr\nd$ by a /&+ up rim or bord]1 ) two h&les ,,de = c>ry+ x by4 ,aft] sev]al trials ( diff]5t mat]ials1 ,i h f\nd m>ble ! be/ sub/ance = con/ruct+ ! m]curial pneumato-*emical app>atus1 z x is p]fectly imp5etrable by m]cury1 & is n liable1 l wood1 to sep>ate at ! junctures1 or to all[ ! m]cury to escape ?r\gh *9ks2 nei!r does x run ! risk ( break+1 l glass1 /one-w>e1 or porcela94 ,take a block ( m>ble ,,bcde1 ,plate ,v4 ,fig4 #c4 & #d4 ab\t two feet long1 #ae or #ah in*es broad1 & t5 in*es ?ick1 & cause x to be holl[$ out z at m n ,fig4 #e4 ab\t f\r in*es deep1 z a res]voir = ! m]cury2 &1 to be able m conv5i5tly to fill ! j>s1 cut ! gutt] ,t ,v1 ,fig4 #c4 #d4 & #e4 at lea/ f\r in*es deep]2 &1 z ?is tr5* may sometimes prove tr\blesome1 x is made capable ( be+ cov]$ at pleasure by ?9 bo>ds1 :i* slip into ! grooves x y1 ,fig4 #e4 ,i h two m>ble ci/]ns ^u ?is con/ruction1 ( diff]5t sizes1 by :i* ,i c always employ "o ( !m z a res]voir ( m]cury1 :i* x pres]ves ) m safety ?an any o!r vessel1 be+ nei!r subject to ov]turn1 nor to any o!r accid5t4 ,we op]ate ) m]cury 9 ?is app>atus exactly z ) wat] 9 ! "o be=e describ$2 b ! bell-glasses mu/ be ( small] diamet]1 & mu* /rong]2 or we may use glass tubes1 hav+ _! m\?s wid5$1 z 9 ,fig4 #g42 ^! are call$ eudiomet]s by ! glass-m5 :o sell !m4 ,"o ( ! bell-glasses is repres5t$ ,fig4 #e4 ,a4 /&+ 9 its place1 & :at is call$ a j> is engrav$ ,fig4 #f4 ,! m]curial pneumato-*emical app>atus is necess>y 9 all exp]im5ts :]e9 ! dis5gag$ gasses are capable ( be+ absorb$ by wat]1 z is frequ5tly ! case1 especially 9 all comb9ations1 except+ ^? ( metals1 9 f]m5tation1 c4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 ,( ! ,gazomet]4 ,i give ! "n ( gazomet] to an in/rum5t :i* ,i inv5t$1 & caus$ con/ruct1 = ! purpose ( a k9d ( bell[s1 :i* might furni% an uni=m & cont9u$ /ream ( oxyg5 gas 9 exp]im5ts ( fusion4 ,mr ,meusni] & ,i h s9ce made v consid]able corrections & additions1 hav+ conv]t$ x into :at may be call$ an univ]sal in/rum5t1 )\t :i* x is h>dly possible to p]=m mo/ ( ! v exact exp]im5ts4 ,! "n we h giv5 ! in/rum5t indicates its int5tion = measur+ ! volume or quantity ( gas submitt$ to x = exam9ation4 ,x consi/s ( a /rong iron beam1 ,,de1 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 ?ree feet long1 hav+ at ea* end1 ,d & ,e1 a segm5t ( a circle1 likewise /rongly con/ruct$ ( iron1 & v firmly jo9$4 ,in/ead ( be+ pois$ z 9 ord9>y balances1 ?is beam re/s1 by means ( a cyl9drical axis ( poli%$ /eel1 ,f1 ,fig4 #i4 ^u two l>ge moveable brass friction-:eels1 by :i* ! resi/ance to its motion f friction is consid]ably dim9i%$1 be+ conv]t$ into friction ( ! second ord]4 ,z an additional precaution1 ! p>ts ( ^! :eels :i* support ! axis ( ! beam are cov]$ ) plates ( poli%$ rock-cri/al4 ,! :ole ( ?is ma*9]y is fix$ to ! top ( ! solid column ( wood ,,bc1 ,fig4 #a4 ,to "o extremity ,d ( ! beam1 a scale ,p = hold+ weights is susp5d$ by a flat *a91 :i* applies to ! curvature ( ! arc n,do1 9 a groove made = ! purpose4 ,to ! o!r extremity ,e ( ! beam is appli$ ano!r flat *a91 i k m1 s con/ruct$1 z to be incapable ( l5g!n+ or %ort5+1 by be+ less or m *>g$ ) weight2 to ?is *a91 an iron trivet1 ) ?ree bran*es1 a i1 c i1 & h i1 is /rongly fix$ at i1 & ^! bran*es support a l>ge inv]t$ j> ,a1 ( hamm]$ copp]1 ( ab\t #ah in*es diamet]1 & #bj in*es deep4 ,! :ole ( ?is ma*9e is repres5t$ 9 p]spective1 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 & ,pl4 ,,ix4 ,fig4 #b4 & #d4 give p]p5dicul> sections1 :i* %[ its int]ior /ructure4 ,r\nd ! bottom ( ! j>1 on its outside1 is fix$ 7,pl4 ,,ix4 ,fig4 #b47 a bord] divid$ into comp>tm5ts #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 c4 int5d$ to receive lead5 weights sep>ately repres5t$ #a1 #b1 #c1 ,fig4 #c4 ,^! are int5d$ = increas+ ! weight ( ! j> :5 a consid]able pressure is requisite1 z w be aft]w>ds expla9$1 ?\gh su* necessity seldom occurs4 ,! cyl9drical j> ,a is entirely op5 bel[1 de1 ,pl4 ,,ix4 ,fig4 #d42 b is clos$ above ) a copp] lid1 a b c1 op5 at b f1 & capable ( be+ %ut by ! cock g4 ,?is lid1 z may be se5 by inspect+ ! figures1 is plac$ a few in*es )9 ! top ( ! j> to prev5t ! j> f be+ ev] entirely imm]s$ 9 ! wat]1 & cov]$ ov]4 ,7 ,i to h ?is in/rum5t made ov] aga91 ,i %\ld cause ! lid to be consid]ably m flatt5$1 s z to be almo/ level4 ,?is j> or res]voir ( air is conta9$ 9 ! cyl9drical copp] vessel1 ,,lmno1 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 fill$ ) wat]4 ,9 ! middle ( ! cyl9drical vessel ,,lmno1 ,pl4 ,,ix4 ,fig4 #d4 are plac$ two tubes /1 xy1 :i* are made to approa* ea* o!r at _! upp] extremities t y2 ^! are made ( su* a l5g? z to rise a little above ! upp] edge ,,lm ( ! vessel ,,lmno1 & :5 ! j> abcde t\*es ! bottom ,,no1 _! upp] ends ent] ab\t half an in* into ! conical holl[ b1 lead+ to ! /op-cock g4 ,! bottom ( ! vessel ,,lmno is repres5t$ ,pl4 ,,ix4 ,fig4 #c4 9 ! middle ( :i* a small holl[ semisph]ical cap is sold]$1 :i* may be consid]$ z ! broad end ( a funnel rev]s$2 ! two tubes /1 xy1 ,fig4 #d4 are adapt$ to ?is cap at s & x1 & by ?is means communicate ) ! tubes mm1 nn1 oo1 pp1 ,fig4 #c4 :i* are fix$ horizontally ^u ! bottom ( ! vessel1 & all ( :i* t]m9ate 91 & are unit$ by1 ! sph]ical cap sx4 ,?ree ( ^! tubes are cont9u$ out ( ! vessel1 z 9 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,! fir/ m>k$ 9 t figure #a1 #b1 #c1 is ins]t$ at its extremity #c1 by means ( an int]m$iate /op-cock #d1 to ! j> ,v4 :i* /&s ^u ! %elf ( a small pneumato-*emical app>atus ,,ghik1 ! inside ( :i* is %[n ,pl4 ,,ix4 ,fig4 #a4 ,! second tube is appli$ aga9/ ! outside ( ! vessel ,,lmno f #f to #g1 is cont9u$ at #h1 #i1 #aj1 & at #aa is engag$ bel[ ! j> ,v4 ,! =m] ( ^! tubes is int5d$ = convey+ gas into ! ma*9e1 & ! latt] = conduct+ small quantities = trials "u j>s4 ,! gas is made ei!r to fl[ into or out ( ! ma*9e1 accord+ to ! degree ( pressure x receives2 & ?is pressure is v>i$ at pleasure1 by load+ ! scale ,p less or m1 by means ( weights4 ,:5 gas is to be introduc$ into ! ma*9e1 ! pressure is tak5 (f1 or ev5 r5d]$ negative2 b1 :5 gas is to be expell$1 a pressure is made ) su* degree ( =ce z is f\nd necess>y4 ,! ?ird tube #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 is int5d$ = convey+ air or gas to any necess>y place or app>atus = combu/ions1 comb9ations1 or any o!r exp]im5t 9 :i* x is requir$4 ,to expla9 ! use ( ! f\r? tube1 ,i mu/ ent] into "s discussions4 ,suppose ! vessel ,,lmno1 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 full ( wat]1 & ! j> ,a p>tly fill$ ) gas1 & p>tly ) wat]2 x is evid5t t ! weights 9 ! bason ,p may be s adju/$1 z to occasion an exact equilibrium betwe5 ! weight ( ! bason & ( ! j>1 s t ! ext]nal air %all n t5d to ent] into ! j>1 nor ! gas to escape f x2 & 9 ?is case ! wat] w /& exactly at ! same level bo? )9 & )\t ! j>4 ,on ! contr>y1 if ! weight 9 ! bason ,p be dim9i%$1 ! j> w !n press d[nw>ds f its own gravity1 & ! wat] w /& l[] )9 ! j> ?an x does )\t2 9 ?is case1 ! includ$ air or gas w suff] a degree ( compression above t exp]i5c$ by ! ext]nal air1 exactly proportion$ to ! weight ( a column ( wat]1 equal to ! diff]5ce ( ! ext]nal & int]nal surfaces ( ! wat]4 ,f ^! reflections1 ,mr ,meusni] contriv$ a me?od ( det]m9+ ! exact degree ( pressure to :i* ! gas conta9$ 9 ! j> is at any "t expos$4 ,= ?is purpose1 he employs a d\ble glass syphon #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 firmly cem5t$ at #ai & #bc4 ,! extremity #ai ( ?is syphon communicates freely ) ! wat] 9 ! ext]nal vessel ( ! ma*9e1 & ! extremity #bc communicates ) ! f\r? tube at ! bottom ( ! cyl9drical vessel1 & consequ5tly1 by means ( ! p]p5dicul> tube /1 ,pl4 ,,ix4 ,fig4 #d4 ) ! air conta9$ 9 ! j>4 ,he likewise cem5ts1 at #af1 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 ano!r glass tube #af1 #ag1 #ah1 :i* communicates at #af ) ! wat] 9 ! ext]ior vessel ,,lmno1 &1 at its upp] end #ah1 is op5 to ! ext]nal air4 ,by ^! sev]al contrivances1 x is evid5t t ! wat] mu/ /& 9 ! tube #af1 #ag1 #ah1 at ! same level ) t 9 ! ci/]n ,,lmno2 &1 on ! contr>y1 t1 9 ! bran* #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 x mu/ /& high] or l[]1 accord+ z ! air 9 ! j> is subject$ to a great] or less] pressure ?an ! ext]nal air4 ,to asc]ta9 ^! diff]5ces1 a brass scale divid$ into in*es & l9es is fix$ betwe5 ^! two tubes4 ,x is readily conceiv$ t1 z air1 & all o!r ela/ic fluids1 mu/ increase 9 weight by compression1 x is necess>y to "k _! degree ( cond5sation to be enabl$ to calculate _! quantities1 & to conv]t ! measure ( _! volumes into correspond5t weights2 & ?is object is int5d$ to be fulfill$ by ! contrivance n[ describ$4 ,b1 to det]m9e ! specific gravity ( air or ( gasses1 & to asc]ta9 _! weight 9 a kn[n volume1 x is necess>y to "k _! temp]ature1 z well z ! degree ( pressure "u :i* !y subsi/2 & ?is is accompli%$ by means ( a small !rmomet]1 /rongly cem5t$ into a brass collet1 :i* screws into ! lid ( ! j> ,a4 ,?is !rmomet] is repres5t$ sep>ately1 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,fig4 #aj4 & 9 its place #bd1 #be1 ,fig4 #a4 & ,pl4 ,,ix4 ,fig4 #d4 ,! bulb is 9 ! inside ( ! j> ,a1 & its graduat$ /alk rises on ! outside ( ! lid4 ,! practice ( gazometry w\ld /ill h lab\r$ "u great difficulties1 )\t f>!r precautions ?an ^? above describ$4 ,:5 ! j> ,a s9ks 9 ! wat] ( ! ci/]n ,,lmno1 x mu/ lose a weight equal to t ( ! wat] :i* x displaces2 & consequ5tly ! compression :i* x makes ^u ! conta9$ air or gas mu/ be proportionally dim9i%$4 ,h5ce ! gas furni%$1 dur+ exp]im5ts f ! ma*9e1 w n h ! same d5sity t[>ds ! end t x _h at ! beg9n+1 z its specific gravity is cont9ually dim9i%+4 ,?is diff]5ce may1 x is true1 be det]m9$ by calculation2 b ?is w\ld h occasion$ su* ma!matical inve/igations z mu/ h r5d]$ ! use ( ?is app>atus bo? tr\blesome & difficult4 ,mr ,meusni] has rem$i$ ?is inconv5i5ce by ! foll[+ contrivance4 ,a squ>e rod ( iron1 #bf1 #bg1 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 is rais$ p]p5dicul> to ! middle ( ! beam ,,de4 ,?is rod passes ?r\gh a holl[ box ( brass #bh1 :i* op5s1 & may be fill$ ) lead2 & ?is box is made to slide along/ ! rod1 by means ( a too!d p9ion play+ 9 a rack1 s z to raise or l[] ! box1 & to fix x at su* places z is judg$ prop]4 ,:5 ! lev] or beam ,,de /&s horizontal1 ?is box gravitates to nei!r side2 b1 :5 ! j> ,a s9ks into ! ci/]n ,,lmno1 s z to make ! beam incl9e to t side1 x is evid5t ! load$ box #bh1 :i* !n passes beyond ! c5t] ( susp5sion1 mu/ gravitate to ! side ( ! j>1 & augm5t its pressure ^u ! includ$ air4 ,?is is increas$ 9 proportion z ! box is rais$ t[>ds #bg1 because ! same weight ex]ts a great] p[] 9 proportion to ! l5g? ( ! lev] by :i* x acts4 ,h5ce1 by mov+ ! box #bh along/ ! rod #bf1 #bg1 we c augm5t or dim9i% ! correction x is int5d$ to make ^u ! pressure ( ! j>2 & bo? exp]i5ce & calculation %[ t ?is may be made to comp5sate v exactly = ! loss ( weight 9 ! j> at all degrees ( pressure4 ,i h n hi!rto expla9$ ! mo/ important "p ( ! use ( ?is ma*9e1 :i* is ! mann] ( employ+ x = asc]ta9+ ! quantities ( ! air or gas furni%$ dur+ exp]im5ts4 ,to det]m9e ?is ) ! mo/ rigor\s precision1 & likewise ! quantity suppli$ to ! ma*9e f exp]im5ts1 we fix$ to ! arc :i* t]m9ates ! arm ( ! beam ,e1 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 ! brass sector l m1 divid$ into degrees & half degrees1 :i* consequ5tly moves 9 common ) ! beam2 & ! l[]+ ( ?is end ( ! beam is measur$ by ! fix$ index #bi1 #cj1 :i* has a ,nonius giv+ hundr$? p>ts ( a degree at its extremity #cj4 ,! :ole p>ticul>s ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! above describ$ ma*9e are repres5t$ 9 ,plate ,,viii4 z foll[4 ,fig4 #b4 ,is ! flat *a9 inv5t$ by ,mr ,vaucanson1 & employ$ = susp5d+ ! scale or bason ,p1 ,fig4 #a2 b1 z ?is l5g!ns or %ort5s accord+ z x is m or less load$1 x w\ld n h answ]$ = susp5d+ ! j> ,a1 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #e4 ,is ! *a9 i k m1 :i* 9 ,fig4 #a4 su/a9s ! j> ,a4 ,?is is entirely =m$ ( plates ( poli%$ iron int]lac$ into ea* o!r1 & held toge!r by iron p9s4 ,?is *a9 does n l5g!n 9 any s5sible degree1 by any weight x is capable ( support+4 ,fig4 #f4 ,! trivet1 or ?ree bran*$ /irrup1 by :i* ! j> ,a is hung to ! balance1 ) ! screw by :i* x is fix$ 9 an accurately v]tical position4 ,fig4 #c4 ,! iron rod #bf1 #bg1 :i* is fix$ p]p5dicul> to ! c5t] ( ! beam1 ) its box #bh4 ,fig4 #g4 #h4 ,! friction-:eels1 ) ! plates ( rock-cri/al ,z1 z po9ts ( contact by :i* ! friction ( ! axis ( ! lev] ( ! balance is avoid$4 ,fig4 #d4 ,! piece ( metal :i* supports ! axis ( ! friction-:eels4 ,fig4 #i4 ,! middle ( ! lev] or beam1 ) ! axis ^u :i* x moves4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,! !rmomet] = det]m9+ ! temp]ature ( ! air or gas conta9$ 9 ! j>4 ,:5 ?is gazomet] is to be us$1 ! ci/]n or ext]nal vessel1 ,,lmno1 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 is to be fill$ ) wat] to a det]m9ate height1 :i* %\ld be ! same 9 all exp]im5ts4 ,! level ( ! wat] %\ld be tak5 :5 ! beam ( ! balance /&s horizontal2 ?is level1 :5 ! j> is at ! bottom ( ! ci/]n1 is increas$ by all ! wat] :i* x displaces1 & is dim9i%$ 9 proportion z ! j> rises to its highe/ elevation4 ,we next endeav\r1 by repeat$ trials1 to discov] at :at elevation ! box #bh mu/ be fix$1 to r5d] ! pressure equal 9 all situations ( ! beam4 ,i %\ld h said ne>ly1 because ?is correction is n absolutely rigor\s2 & diff]5ces ( a qu>t]1 or ev5 ( half a l9e1 are n ( any consequ5ce4 ,?is height ( ! box #bh is n ! same = e degree ( pressure1 b v>ies accord+ z ?is is ( "o1 two1 ?ree1 or m in*es4 ,all ^! %\ld be regi/]$ ) great ord] & precision4 ,we next take a bottle :i* holds eight or t5 p9ts1 ! capacity ( :i* is v accurately det]m9$ by weigh+ ! wat] x is capable ( conta9+4 ,?is bottle is turn$ bottom upw>ds1 full ( wat]1 9 ! ci/]n ( ! pneumato *emical app>atus ,,ghik1 ,fig4 #a4 & is set on its m\? ^u ! %elf ( ! app>atus1 in/ead ( ! glass j> ,v1 hav+ ! extremity #aa ( ! tube #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 ins]t$ into its m\?4 ,! ma*9e is fix$ at z]o ( pressure1 & ! degree m>k$ by ! index #cj ^u ! sector m l is accurately obs]v$2 !n1 by op5+ ! /op-cock #h1 & press+ a little ^u ! j> ,a1 z mu* air is =c$ into ! bottle z fills x entirely4 ,! degree m>k$ by ! index ^u ! sector is n[ obs]v$1 & we calculate :at numb] ( cubical in*es correspond to ea* degree4 ,we !n fill a second & ?ird bottle1 & s on1 9 ! same mann]1 ) ! same precautions1 & ev5 repeat ! op]ation sev]al times ) bottles ( diff]5t sizes1 till at la/1 by accurate att5tion1 we asc]ta9 ! exact gage or capacity ( ! j> ,a1 9 all its p>ts2 b x is bett] to h x =m$ at fir/ accurately cyl9drical1 by :i* we avoid ^! calculations & e/imates4 ,! in/rum5t ,i h be5 describ+ 0 con/ruct$ ) great accuracy & uncommon skill by ,mr ,meignie junior1 eng9e] & physical in/rum5t-mak]4 ,x is a mo/ valuable in/rum5t1 f ! great numb] ( purposes to :i* x is applicable2 &1 inde$1 !re are _m exp]im5ts :i* are almo/ impossible to be p]=m$ )\t x4 ,x becomes exp5sive1 because1 9 _m exp]im5ts1 su* z ! =mation ( wat] & ( nitric acid1 x is absolutely necess>y to employ two ( ! same ma*9es4 ,9 ! pres5t advanc$ /ate ( *emi/ry1 v exp5sive & complicat$ in/rum5ts are become indisp5sibly necess>y = asc]ta9+ ! analysis & syn!sis ( bodies ) ! requisite precision z to quantity & proportion2 x is c]ta9ly prop] to endeav\r to simplify ^!1 & to r5d] !m less co/ly2 b ?is ought by no means to be attempt$ at ! exp5ce ( _! conv5i5cy ( application1 & mu* less ( _! accuracy4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 ,"s o!r me?ods ( measur+ ! volume ( ,gasses4 ,! gazomet] describ$ 9 ! =ego+ section is too co/ly & too complicat$ = be+ g5]ally us$ 9 laboratories = measur+ ! gasses1 & is n ev5 applicable to e circum/ance ( ?is k9d4 ,9 num]\s s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 m simple & m readily applicable me?ods mu/ be employ$4 ,= ?is purpose ,i %all describe ! means ,i us$ be=e ,i 0 9 possession ( a gazomet]1 & :i* ,i /ill use 9 pref]5ce to x 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( my exp]im5ts4 ,suppose t1 aft] an exp]im5t1 !re is a residuum ( gas1 nei!r absorbable by alkali nor wat]1 conta9$ 9 ! upp] "p ( ! j> ,,aef1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #c4 /&+ on ! %elf ( a pneumato-*emical app>atus1 ( :i* we wi% to asc]ta9 ! quantity1 we mu/ fir/ m>k ! height to :i* ! m]cury or wat] rises 9 ! j> ) great exactness1 by means ( slips ( pap] pa/$ 9 sev]al p>ts r\nd ! j>4 ,if we h be5 op]at+ 9 m]cury1 we beg9 by displac+ ! m]cury f ! j>1 by introduc+ wat] 9 its /ead4 ,?is is readily done by fill+ a bottle q full ( wat]2 hav+ /opp$ x ) y\r f+]1 turn x up1 & introduce its m\? bel[ ! edge ( ! j>2 !n1 turn+ d[n its body aga91 ! m]cury1 by its gravity1 falls into ! bottle1 & ! wat] rises 9 ! j>1 & takes ! place occupi$ by ! m]cury4 ,:5 ?is is accompli%$1 p\r s mu* wat] into ! ci/]n ,,abcd z w /& ab\t an in* ov] ! surface ( ! m]cury2 !n pass ! di% ,,bc1 ,pl4 ,v4 ,fig4 #i4 "u ! j>1 & c>ry x to ! wat] ci/]n1 ,fig4 #a4 & #b4 ,we "h ex*ange ! gas into ano!r j>1 :i* has be5 previ\sly graduat$ 9 ! mann] to be aft]w>ds describ$2 & we ?us judge ( ! quantity or volume ( ! gas by means ( ! degrees :i* x occupies 9 ! graduat$ j>4 ,!re is ano!r me?od ( det]m9+ ! volume ( gas1 :i* may ei!r be sub/itut$ 9 place ( ! "o above describ$1 or may be usefully employ$ z a correction or pro( ( t me?od4 ,aft] ! air or gas is ex*ang$ f ! fir/ j>1 m>k$ ) slips ( pap]1 into ! graduat$ j>1 turn up ! m\? ( ! m>k$ j>1 & fill x ) wat] exactly to ! m>ks ,,ef1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #c4 & by weigh+ ! wat] we det]m9e ! volume ( ! air or gas x conta9$1 all[+ "o cubical foot1 or #agbh cubical in*es1 ( wat] = ea* #gj p\nds1 ,fr5* weight4 ,! mann] ( graduat+ j>s = ?is purpose is v easy1 & we ought to be provid$ ) sev]al ( diff]5t sizes1 & ev5 sev]al ( ea* size1 9 case ( accid5ts4 ,take a tall1 n>r[1 & /rong glass j>1 &1 hav+ fill$ x ) wat] 9 ! ci/]n1 ,pl4 ,v4 ,fig4 #a4 place x ^u ! %elf ,,abcd2 we ought always to use ! same place = ?is op]ation1 t ! level ( ! %elf may be always exactly simil>1 by :i* almo/ ! only error to :i* ?is process is liable w be avoid$4 ,!n take a n>r[ m\!d phial :i* holds exactly #f oz4 #c gros #fa grs4 ( wat]1 :i* corresponds to #aj cubical in*es4 ,if y h n "o exactly ( ?is dim5sion1 *oose "o a little l>g]1 & dim9i% its capacity to ! size requisite1 by dropp+ 9 a little melt$ wax & ros94 ,?is bottle s]ves ! purpose ( a /&>d = gag+ ! j>s4 ,make ! air conta9$ 9 ?is bottle pass into ! j>1 & m>k exactly ! place to :i* ! wat] has desc5d$2 add ano!r measure ( air1 & aga9 m>k ! place ( ! wat]1 & s on1 till all ! wat] be displac$4 ,x is ( great consequ5ce t1 dur+ ! c\rse ( ?is op]ation1 ! bottle & j> be kept at ! same temp]ature ) ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n2 &1 = ?is reason1 we mu/ avoid keep+ ! h&s ^u ei!r z mu* z possible2 or1 if we suspect !y h be5 heat$1 we mu/ cool !m by means ( ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n4 ,! height ( ! b>omet] & !rmomet] dur+ ?is exp]im5t is ( no consequ5ce4 ,:5 ! m>ks h be5 ?us asc]ta9$ ^u ! j> = e t5 cubical in*es1 we engrave a scale ^u "o ( its sides1 by means ( a diamond p5cil4 ,glass tubes are graduat$ 9 ! same mann] = us+ 9 ! m]curial app>atus1 only !y mu/ be divid$ into cubical in*es1 & t5?s ( a cubical in*4 ,! bottle us$ = gag+ ^! mu/ hold #h oz4 #f gros #be grs4 ( m]cury1 :i* exactly corresponds to a cubical in* ( t metal4 ,! me?od ( det]m9+ ! volume ( air or gas1 by means ( a graduat$ j>1 has ! advantage ( n requir+ any correction = ! diff]5ce ( height betwe5 ! surface ( ! wat] )9 ! j>1 & 9 ! ci/]n2 b x requires corrections ) respect to ! height ( ! b>omet] & !rmomet]4 ,b1 :5 we asc]ta9 ! volume ( air by weigh+ ! wat] :i* ! j> is capable ( conta9+1 up to ! m>ks ,,ef1 x is necess>y to make a f>!r correction1 = ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n1 & ! height to :i* x rises )9 ! j>4 ,?is w be expla9$ 9 ! fif? section ( ?is *apt]4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4 ,( ! me?od ( ,sep>at+ ! diff]5t ,gasses f ea* o!r4 ,z exp]im5ts (t5 produce two1 ?ree1 or m species ( gas1 x is necess>y to be able to sep>ate ^! f ea* o!r1 t we may asc]ta9 ! quantity & species ( ea*4 ,suppose t "u ! j> ,a1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #c4 is conta9$ a quantity ( diff]5t gasses mix$ toge!r1 & /&+ ov] m]cury1 we beg9 by m>k+ ) slips ( pap]1 z be=e direct$1 ! height at :i* ! m]cury /&s )9 ! glass2 !n introduce ab\t a cubical in* ( wat] into ! j>1 :i* w swim ov] ! surface ( ! m]cury3 ,if ! mixture ( gas conta9s any muriatic or sulphur\s acid gas1 a rapid & consid]able absorption w in/antly take place1 f ! /rong t5d5cy ^! two gasses h1 especially ! =m]1 to comb9e )1 or be absorb$ by wat]4 ,if ! wat] only produces a slight absorption ( gas h>dly equal to its own bulk1 we conclude1 t ! mixture nei!r conta9s muriatic acid1 sulphuric acid1 or ammoniacal gas1 b t x conta9s c>bonic acid gas1 ( :i* wat] only absorbs ab\t its own bulk4 ,to asc]ta9 ?is conjecture1 introduce "s solution ( cau/ic alkali1 & ! c>bonic acid gas w be gradually absorb$ 9 ! c\rse ( a few h\rs2 x comb9es ) ! cau/ic alkali or pota%1 & ! rema9+ gas is left almo/ p]fectly free f any s5sible residuum ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,aft] ea* exp]im5t ( ?is k9d1 we mu/ c>efully m>k ! height at :i* ! m]cury /&s )9 ! j>1 by slips ( pap] pa/$ on1 & v>ni%$ ov] :5 dry1 t !y may n be wa%$ (f :5 plac$ 9 ! wat] app>atus4 ,x is likewise necess>y to regi/] ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! surface ( ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n & t 9 ! j>1 & ! height ( ! b>omet] & !rmomet]1 at ! end ( ea* exp]im5t4 ,:5 all ! gas or gasses absorbable by wat] & pota% are absorb$1 wat] is admitt$ into ! j> to displace ! m]cury2 &1 z is describ$ 9 ! prec$+ section1 ! m]cury 9 ! ci/]n is to be cov]$ by "o or two in*es ( wat]4 ,aft] ?is1 ! j> is to be transport$ by means ( ! flat di% ,,bc1 ,pl4 ,v4 ,fig4 #i4 into ! wat] app>atus2 & ! quantity ( gas rema9+ is to be asc]ta9$ by *ang+ x into a graduat$ j>4 ,aft] ?is1 small trials ( x are to be made by exp]im5ts 9 little j>s1 to asc]ta9 ne>ly ! nature ( ! gas 9 "q4 ,= in/ance1 into a small j> full ( ! gas1 ,fig4 #h4 ,pl4 ,v4 a light$ tap] is introduc$2 if ! tap] is n imm$iately ext+ui%$1 we conclude ! gas to conta9 oxyg5 gas2 &1 9 proportion to ! brightness ( ! flame1 we may judge if x conta9 less or m oxyg5 gas ?an atmosph]ic air conta9s4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! tap] be in/antly ext+ui%$1 we h /rong reason to presume t ! residuum is *iefly compos$ ( azotic gas4 ,if1 ^u ! approa* ( ! tap]1 ! gas takes fire & burns quietly at ! surface ) a :ite flame1 we conclude x to be pure hydrog5 gas2 if ?is flame is blue1 we judge x consi/s ( c>bonat$ hydrog5 gas2 &1 if x takes fire ) a sudd5 deflagration1 t x is a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 gas4 ,if1 aga91 ^u mix+ a portion ( ! residuum ) oxyg5 gas1 r$ fumes are produc$1 we conclude t x conta9s nitr\s gas4 ,^! prelim9>y trials give "s g5]al k ( ! prop]ties ( ! gas1 & nature ( ! mixture1 b are n suffici5t to det]m9e ! proportions & quantities ( ! sev]al gasses ( :i* x is compos$4 ,= ?is purpose all ! me?ods ( analysis mu/ be employ$2 &1 to direct ^! prop]ly1 x is ( great use to h a previ\s approximation by ! above me?ods4 ,suppose1 = in/ance1 we "k t ! residuum consi/s ( oxyg5 & azotic gas mix$ toge!r1 put a det]m9ate quantity1 #ajj p>ts1 into a graduat$ tube ( t5 or twelve l9es diamet]1 introduce a solution ( sulphuret ( pota% 9 contact ) ! gas1 & leave !m toge!r = "s days2 ! sulphuret absorbs ! :ole oxyg5 gas1 & leaves ! azotic gas pure4 ,if x is kn[n to conta9 hydrog5 gas1 a det]m9ate quantity is introduc$ into ,volta's eudiomet] along/ ) a kn[n proportion ( hydrog5 gas2 ^! are deflagrat$ toge!r by means ( ! electrical sp>k2 fre% portions ( oxyg5 gas are successively add$1 till no f>!r deflagration takes place1 & till ! greate/ possible dim9ution is produc$4 ,by ?is process wat] is =m$1 :i* is imm$iately absorb$ by ! wat] ( ! app>atus2 b1 if ! hydrog5 gas conta9 *>coal1 c>bonic acid is =m$ at ! same "t1 :i* is n absorb$ s quickly2 ! quantity ( ?is is readily asc]ta9$ by assi/+ its absorption1 by means ( agitation4 ,if ! residuum conta9s nitr\s gas1 by add+ oxyg5 gas1 ) :i* x comb9es into nitric acid1 we c v ne>ly asc]ta9 its quantity1 f ! dim9ution produc$ by ?is mixture4 ,i conf9e myself to ^! g5]al examples1 :i* are suffici5t to give an idea ( ?is k9d ( op]ations2 a :ole volume w\ld n s]ve to expla9 e possible case4 ,x is necess>y to become famili> ) ! analysis ( gasses by long exp]i5ce2 we mu/ ev5 ackn[l$ge t !y mo/ly possess su* p[]ful aff9ities to ea* o!r1 t we are n always c]ta9 ( hav+ sep>at$ !m completely4 ,9 ^! cases1 we mu/ v>y our exp]im5ts 9 e possible po9t ( view1 add new ag5ts to ! comb9ation1 & keep out o!rs1 & cont9ue our trials1 till we are c]ta9 ( ! tru? & exactitude ( our conclusions4 ,,sect4 ,v4 ,( ! necess>y corrections ^u ! volume ( ! ,gasses1 accord+ to ! pressure ( ! ,atmosph]e4 ,all ela/ic fluids are compressible or cond5sible 9 proportion to ! weight ) :i* !y are load$4 ,p]haps ?is law1 :i* is asc]ta9$ by g5]al exp]i5ce1 may suff] "s irregul>ity :5 ^! fluids are "u a degree ( cond5sation almo/ suffici5t to r$uce !m to ! liquid /ate1 or :5 ei!r 9 a /ate ( extreme r>efaction or cond5sation2 b we seldom approa* ei!r ( ^! limits ) mo/ ( ! gasses :i* we submit to our exp]im5ts4 ,i und]/& ?is proposition ( gasses be+ compressible1 9 proportion to _! sup]9cumb5t weights1 z foll[s3 ,a b>omet]1 :i* is an in/rum5t g5]ally kn[n1 is1 prop]ly speak+1 a species ( syphon1 ,,abcd1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #af4 ^: leg ,,ab is fill$ ) m]cury1 :il/ ! leg ,,cd is full ( air4 ,if we suppose ! bran* ,,cd indef9itely cont9u$ till x equals ! height ( our atmosph]e1 we c readily conceive t ! b>omet] is1 9 reality1 a sort ( balance1 9 :i* a column ( m]cury /&s 9 equilibrium ) a column ( air ( ! same weight4 ,b x is unnecess>y to prolongate ! bran* ,,cd to su* a height1 z x is evid5t t ! b>omet] be+ imm]s$ 9 air1 ! column ( m]cury ,,ab w be equally 9 equilibrium ) a column ( air ( ! same diamet]1 ?\gh ! leg ,,cd be cut (f at ,c1 & ! "p ,,cd be tak5 away altoge!r4 ,! m$ium height ( m]cury 9 equilibrium ) ! weight ( a column ( air1 f ! highe/ "p ( ! atmosph]e to ! surface ( ! e>? is ab\t tw5ty-eight ,fr5* in*es 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! city ( ,p>is2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! air at ! surface ( ! e>? at ,p>is is usually press$ ^u by a weight equal to t ( a column ( m]cury tw5ty-eight in*es 9 height4 ,i mu/ be und]/ood 9 ?is way 9 ! sev]al p>ts ( ?is publication :5 talk+ ( ! diff]5t gasses1 z1 = in/ance1 :5 ! cubical foot ( oxyg5 gas is said to weigh #a oz4 #d gros1 "u #bh in*es pressure4 ,! height ( ?is column ( m]cury1 support$ by ! pressure ( ! air1 dim9i%es 9 proportion z we are elevat$ above ! surface ( ! e>?1 or r above ! level ( ! sea1 because ! m]cury c only =m an equilibrium ) ! column ( air :i* is above x1 & is n 9 ! smalle/ degree affect$ by ! air :i* is bel[ its level4 ,9 :at ratio does ! m]cury 9 ! b>omet] desc5d 9 proportion to its elevation8 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 accord+ to :at law or ratio d ! sev]al /rata ( ! atmosph]e decrease 9 d5sity8 ,?is "q1 :i* has ex]cis$ ! +5uity ( natural philosoph]s dur+ la/ c5tury1 is consid]ably elucidat$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5t4 ,if we take ! glass syphon ,,abcde1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #ag4 %ut at ,e1 & op5 at ,a1 & introduce a few drops ( m]cury1 s z to int]cept ! communication ( air betwe5 ! leg ,,ab & ! leg ,,be1 x is evid5t t ! air conta9$ 9 ,,bcde is press$ ^u1 9 common ) ! :ole surr\nd+ air1 by a weight or column ( air equal to #bh in*es ( m]cury4 ,b1 if we p\r #bh in*es ( m]cury into ! leg ,,ab1 x is pla9 ! air 9 ! bran* ,,bcde w n[ be press$ ^u by a weight equal to twice #bh in*es ( m]cury1 or twice ! weight ( ! atmosph]e2 & exp]i5ce %[s1 t1 9 ?is case1 ! includ$ air1 in/ead ( fill+ ! tube f ,b to ,e1 only occupies f ,c to ,e1 or exactly "o half ( ! space x fill$ be=e4 ,if to ?is fir/ column ( m]cury we add two o!r portions ( #bh in*es ea*1 9 ! bran* ,,ab1 ! air 9 ! bran* ,,bcde w be press$ ^u by f\r times ! weight ( ! atmosph]e1 or f\r times ! weight ( #bh in*es ( m]cury1 & x w !n only fill ! space f ,d to ,e1 or exactly "o qu>t] ( ! space x occupi$ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! exp]im5t4 ,f ^! exp]im5ts1 :i* may be inf9itely v>i$1 has be5 d$uc$ z a g5]al law ( nature1 :i* seems applicable to all p]man5tly ela/ic fluids1 t !y dim9i% 9 volume 9 proportion to ! weights ) :i* !y are press$ ^u2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! volume ( all ela/ic fluids is 9 ! inv]se ratio ( ! weight by :i* !y are compress$4 ,! exp]im5ts :i* h be5 made = measur+ ! heights ( m\nta9s by means ( ! b>omet]1 confirm ! tru? ( ^! d$uctions2 &1 ev5 suppos+ !m 9 "s degree inaccurate1 ^! diff]5ces are s extremely small1 t !y may be reckon$ z nullities 9 *emical exp]im5ts4 ,:5 ?is law ( ! compression ( ela/ic fluids is once well und]/ood1 x becomes easily applicable to ! corrections necess>y 9 pneumato *emical exp]im5ts ^u ! volume ( gas1 9 relation to its pressure4 ,^! corrections are ( two k9ds1 ! "o relative to ! v>iations ( ! b>omet]1 & ! o!r = ! column ( wat] or m]cury conta9$ 9 ! j>s4 ,i %all endeav\r to expla9 ^! by examples1 beg9n+ ) ! mo/ simple case4 ,suppose t #ajj cubical in*es ( oxyg5 gas are obta9$ at #aj 7#ed4e7 ( ! !rmomet]1 & at #bh in*es #f l9es ( ! b>omet]1 x is requir$ to "k :at volume ! #ajj cubical in*es ( gas w\ld occupy1 "u ! pressure ( #bh in*es#eh1 & :at is ! exact weight ( ! #ajj in*es ( oxyg5 gas8 ,let ! unkn[n volume1 or ! numb] ( in*es ?is gas w\ld occupy at #bh in*es ( ! b>omet]1 be express$ by x2 &1 s9ce ! volumes are 9 ! inv]se ratio ( _! sup]9cumb5t weights1 we h ! foll[+ /atem5t3 #ajj cubical in*es is to x inv]sely z #bh4e in*es ( pressure is to #bh4j in*es2 or directly #bh 3 #bh4e 33 #ajj 3 x #aja4ghf--;cubical in*es1 at #bh in*es b>ometrical pressure2 t is to say1 ! same gas or air :i* at #bh4e in*es ( ! b>omet] occupies #ajj cubical in*es ( volume1 w occupy #aja4ghf cubical in*es :5 ! b>omet] is at #bh in*es4 ,x is equally easy to calculate ! weight ( ?is gas1 occupy+ #ajj cubical in*es1 "u #bh4e in*es ( b>ometrical pressure2 =1 z x corresponds to #aja4ghf cubical in*es at ! pressure ( #bh1 & z1 at ?is pressure1 & at #aj 7#ed4e7 ( temp]ature1 ea* cubical in* ( oxyg5 gas weighs half a gra91 x foll[s1 t #ajj cubical in*es1 "u #bh4e b>ometrical pressure1 mu/ weigh #ej4hic gra9s4 ,?is conclusion might h be5 =m$ m directly1 z1 s9ce ! volume ( ela/ic fluids is 9 ! inv]se ratio ( _! compression1 _! weights mu/ be 9 ! direct ratio ( ! same compression3 ,h5ce1 s9ce #ajj cubical in*es weigh #ej gra9s1 "u ! pressure ( #bh in*es1 we h ! foll[+ /atem5t to det]m9e ! weight ( #ajj cubical in*es ( ! same gas z #bh4e b>ometrical pressure1 #bh 3 #ej 33 #bh4e 3 x1 ! unkn[n quantity1 #ej4hic4 ,! foll[+ case is m complicat$3 ,suppose ! j> ,a1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #ah4 to conta9 a quantity ( gas 9 its upp] "p ,,acd1 ! re/ ( ! j> bel[ ,,cd be+ full ( m]cury1 & ! :ole /&+ 9 ! m]curial bason or res]voir ,,ghik1 fill$ ) m]cury up to ,,ef1 & t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! surface ,,cd ( ! m]cury 9 ! j>1 & ,,ef1 t 9 ! ci/]n1 is six in*es1 :ile ! b>omet] /&s at #bg4e in*es4 ,x is evid5t f ^! data1 t ! air conta9$ 9 ,,acd is press$ ^u by ! weight ( ! atmosph]e1 dim9i%$ by ! weight ( ! column ( m]cury ,,ce1 or by #bg4e - #f #ba4e in*es ( b>ometrical pressure4 ,?is air is !re=e less compress$ ?an ! atmosph]e at ! mean height ( ! b>omet]1 & consequ5tly occupies m space ?an x w\ld occupy at ! mean pressure1 ! diff]5ce be+ exactly proportional to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! compress+ weights4 ,if1 !n1 ^u measur+ ! space ,,acd1 x is f\nd to be #abj cubical in*es1 x mu/ be r$uc$ to ! volume :i* x w\ld occupy "u ! mean pressure ( #bh in*es4 ,?is is done by ! foll[+ /atem5t3 #abj 3 x1 ! unkn[n volume1 33 #ba4e 3 #bh inv]sely2 ?is gives x #abj #ba4e _/ #bh #ib4adc cubical in*es4 ,9 ^! calculations we may ei!r r$uce ! height ( ! m]cury 9 ! b>omet]1 & ! diff]5ce ( level 9 ! j> & bason1 into l9es or decimal fractions ( ! in*2 b ,i pref] ! latt]1 z x is m readily calculat$4 ,z1 9 ^! op]ations1 :i* frequ5tly recur1 x is ( great use to h means ( abbreviation1 ,i h giv5 a table 9 ! app5dix = r$uc+ l9es & fractions ( l9es into decimal fractions ( ! in*4 ,9 exp]im5ts p]=m$ 9 ! wat]-app>atus1 we mu/ make simil> corrections to procure rigor\sly exact results1 by tak+ into acc\nt1 & mak+ all[ances = ! diff]5ce ( height ( ! wat] )9 ! j> above ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n4 ,b1 z ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e is express$ 9 in*es & l9es ( ! m]curial b>omet]1 &1 z homog5e\s quantities only c be calculat$ toge!r1 we mu/ r$uce ! obs]v$ in*es & l9es ( wat] into correspond5t heights ( ! m]cury4 ,i h giv5 a table 9 ! app5dix = ?is conv]sion1 ^u ! supposition t m]cury is #ac4efha times heavi] ?an wat]4 ,,sect4 ,,vi4 ,( ,corrections relative to ! ,degrees ( ! ,!rmomet]4 ,9 asc]ta9+ ! weight ( gasses1 besides r$uc+ !m to a mean ( b>ometrical pressure1 z direct$ 9 ! prec$+ section1 we mu/ likewise r$uce !m to a /&>d !rmometrical temp]ature2 because1 all ela/ic fluids be+ exp&$ by heat1 & cond5s$ by cold1 _! weight 9 any det]m9ate volume is !reby liable to consid]able alt]ations4 ,z ! temp]ature ( #aj 7#ed4e7 is a m$ium betwe5 ! heat ( summ] & ! cold ( w9t]1 be+ ! temp]ature ( subt]rane\s places1 & t :i* is mo/ easily approa*$ to at all seasons1 ,i h *os5 t degree z a mean to :i* ,i r$uce air or gas 9 ?is species ( calculation4 ,mr de ,luc f\nd t atmosph]ic air 0 increas$ #a_/bae "p ( its bulk1 by ea* degree ( a m]curial !rmomet]1 divid$ into #ha degrees1 betwe5 ! freez+ & boil+ po9ts2 ?is gives #a_/baa "p = ea* degree ( ,reaumur's !rmomet]1 :i* is divid$ into #hj degrees betwe5 ^! two po9ts4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,mr ,monge seem to make ?is dilatation less = hydrog5 gas1 :i* he ?9ks is only dilat$ #a_/ahj4 ,we h n any exact exp]im5ts hi!rto publi%$ respect+ ! ratio ( dilatation ( ! o!r gasses2 b1 f ! trials :i* h be5 made1 _! dilatation seems to diff] little f t ( atmosph]ic air4 ,h5ce ,i may take = grant$1 till f>!r exp]im5ts give u bett] in=mation ^u ?is subject1 t atmosph]ical air is dilat$ #a_/baj "p1 & hydrog5 gas #a_/aij "p = ea* degree ( ! !rmomet]2 b1 z !re is /ill great unc]ta9ty ^u ?is po9t1 we ought always to op]ate 9 a temp]ature z ne> z possible to ! /&>d ( #aj1 7#ed4e7 by ?is means any errors 9 correct+ ! weight or volume ( gasses by r$uc+ !m to ! common /&>d1 w become ( little mom5t4 ,! calculation = ?is correction is extremely easy4 ,divide ! obs]v$ volume ( air by #baj1 & multiply ! quoti5t by ! degrees ( temp]ature above or bel[ #aj 7#ed4e74 ,?is correction is negative :5 ! actual temp]ature is above ! /&>d1 & positive :5 bel[4 ,by ! use ( log>i?mical tables ?is calculation is mu* facilitat$#ei4 ,,sect4 ,,vii4 ,example = calculat+ ! ,corrections relative to ! ,v>iations ( ,pressure & ,temp]ature4 ,,case4 ,9 ! j> ,a1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #c4 /&+ 9 a wat] app>atus1 is conta9$ #cec cubical in*es ( air2 ! surface ( ! wat] )9 ! j> at ,,ef is #d-a_/b in*es above ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n1 ! b>omet] is at #bg in*es #i-a_/b l9es1 & ! !rmomet] at #ae 7#fe4ge74 ,hav+ burnt a quantity ( phosphorus 9 ! air1 by :i* concrete phosphoric acid is produc$1 ! air aft] ! combu/ion occupies #bie cubical in*es1 ! wat] )9 ! j> /&s #g in*es above t 9 ! ci/]n1 ! b>omet] is at #bg in*es #i-a_/d l9es1 & ! !rmomet] at #af 7#fh74 ,x is requir$ f ^! data to det]m9e ! actual volume ( air be=e & aft] combu/ion1 & ! quantity absorb$ dur+ ! process4 ,calculation be=e ,combu/ion4 ,! air 9 ! j> be=e combu/ion 0 #cec cubical in*es1 b x 0 only "u a b>ometrical pressure ( #bg in*es #i-a_/b l9es2 :i*1 r$uc$ to decimal fractions by ,tab4 ,i4 ( ! ,app5dix1 gives #bg4giafg in*es2 & f ?is we mu/ d$uct ! diff]5ce ( #d-a_/b in*es ( wat]1 :i*1 by ,tab4 ,,ii4 corresponds to #j4ccaff in*es ( ! b>omet]2 h5ce ! real pressure ( ! air 9 ! j> is #bg4dfjja4 ,z ! volume ( ela/ic fluids dim9i% 9 ! inv]se ratio ( ! compress+ weights1 we h ! foll[+ /atem5t to r$uce ! #cec in*es to ! volume ! air w\ld occupy at #bh in*es b>ometrical pressure4 #cec 3 x1 ! unkn[n volume1 33 #bg4dfjja 3 #bh4 ,h5ce1 x #cec #bg4dfjja _/ #bh #cdf4aib cubical in*es1 :i* is ! volume ! same quantity ( air w\ld h occupi$ at #bh in*es ( ! b>omet]4 ,! #baj? "p ( ?is correct$ volume is #a4fe1 :i*1 = ! five degrees ( temp]ature above ! /&>d gives #h4bee cubical in*es2 &1 z ?is correction is subtractive1 ! real correct$ volume ( ! air be=e combu/ion is #ccg4idb in*es4 ,calculation aft] ,combu/ion4 ,by a simil> calculation ^u ! volume ( air aft] combu/ion1 we f9d its b>ometrical pressure #bg4ggjhc - #j4eaeic #bg4bedij4 ,h5ce1 to h ! volume ( air "u ! pressure ( #bh in*es1 #bie 3 x 33 #bg4ggjhc 3 #bh inv]sely2 or1 x #bie x #bg4bedij _/ #bh #bhg4aej4 ,! #baj? "p ( ?is correct$ volume is #a4cfh1 :i*1 multipli$ by #f degrees ( !rmometrical diff]5ce1 gives ! subtractive correction = temp]ature #h4bjh1 leav+ ! actual correct$ volume ( air aft] combu/ion #bgh4idb in*es4 ,result4 ,! correct$ volume be=e combu/ion #ccg4idb ,ditto rema9+ aft] combu/ion #bgh4idb -------- ,volume absorb$ dur+ combu/ion #ei4jjj4 ,,sect4 ,,viii4 ,me?od ( det]m9+ ! ,absolute ,gravity ( ! diff]5t ,gasses4 ,take a l>ge balloon ,a1 ,pl4 ,v4 ,fig4 #aj4 capable ( hold+ #ag or #ah p9ts1 or ab\t half a cubical foot1 hav+ ! brass cap bcde /rongly cem5t$ to its neck1 & to :i* ! tube & /op-cock f g is fix$ by a tight screw4 ,?is app>atus is connect$ by ! d\ble screw repres5t$ sep>ately at ,fig4 #ab4 to ! j> ,,bcd1 ,fig4 #aj4 :i* mu/ be "s p9ts l>g] 9 dim5sions ?an ! balloon4 ,?is j> is op5 at top1 & is furni%$ ) ! brass cap h i1 & /op-cock l m4 ,"o ( ^! slop-cocks is repres5t$ sep>ately at ,fig4 #aa4 ,we fir/ det]m9e ! exact capacity ( ! balloon by fill+ x ) wat]1 & weigh+ x bo? full & empty4 ,:5 empti$ ( wat]1 x is dri$ ) a clo? introduc$ ?r\gh its neck d e1 & ! la/ rema9s ( moi/ure are remov$ by exhau/+ x once or twice 9 an air-pump4 ,:5 ! weight ( any gas is to be asc]ta9$1 ?is app>atus is us$ z foll[s3 ,fix ! balloon ,a to ! plate ( an air-pump by means ( ! screw ( ! /op-cock f g1 :i* is left op52 ! balloon is to be exhau/$ z completely z possible1 obs]v+ c>efully ! degree ( exhau/ion by means ( ! b>omet] atta*$ to ! air-pump4 ,:5 ! vacuum is =m$1 ! /op-cock f g is %ut1 & ! weight ( ! balloon det]m9$ ) ! mo/ scrupul\s exactitude4 ,x is !n fix$ to ! j> ,,bcd1 :i* we suppose plac$ 9 wat] 9 ! %elf ( ! pneumato *emical app>atus ,fig4 #a42 ! j> is to be fill$ ) ! gas we mean to weigh1 & !n1 by op5+ ! /op-cocks f g & l m1 ! gas asc5ds into ! balloon1 :il/ ! wat] ( ! ci/]n rises at ! same "t into ! j>4 ,to avoid v tr\blesome corrections1 x is necess>y1 dur+ ?is fir/ "p ( ! op]ation1 to s9k ! j> 9 ! ci/]n till ! surfaces ( ! wat] )9 ! j> & )\t exactly correspond4 ,! /op-cocks are aga9 %ut1 & ! balloon be+ unscrew$ f its connection ) ! j>1 is to be c>efully weigh$2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ?is weight & t ( ! exhau/$ balloon is ! precise weight ( ! air or gas conta9$ 9 ! balloon4 ,multiply ?is weight by #agbh1 ! numb] ( cubical in*es 9 a cubical foot1 & divide ! product by ! numb] ( cubical in*es conta9$ 9 ! balloon1 ! quoti5t is ! weight ( a cubical foot ( ! gas or air submitt$ to exp]im5t4 ,exact acc\nt mu/ be kept ( ! b>ometrical height & temp]ature ( ! !rmomet] dur+ ! above exp]im5t2 & f ^! ! result+ weight ( a cubical foot is easily correct$ to ! /&>d ( #bh in*es & #aj1 z direct$ 9 ! prec$+ section4 ,! small portion ( air rema9+ 9 ! balloon aft] =m+ ! vacuum mu/ likewise be att5d$ to1 :i* is easily det]m9$ by ! b>omet] atta*$ to ! air-pump4 ,if t b>omet]1 = in/ance1 rema9s at ! hundr$? "p ( ! height x /ood at be=e ! vacuum 0 =m$1 we conclude t "o hundr$? "p ( ! air orig9ally conta9$ rema9$ 9 ! balloon1 & consequ5tly t only #ii_/ajj ( gas 0 introduc$ f ! j> into ! balloon4 ,,footnotes3 #eh ,accord+ to ! proportion ( #aad to #ajg1 giv5 betwe5 ! ,fr5* & ,engli% foot1 #bh in*es ( ! ,fr5* b>omet] are equal to #bi4hc in*es ( ! ,engli%4 ,directions w be f\nd 9 ! app5dix = conv]t+ all ! ,fr5* weights & measures us$ 9 ?is "w into correspond+ ,engli% d5om9ations4--,e4 #ei ,:5 ,fahr5heit's !rmomet] is employ$1 ! dilatation by ea* degree mu/ be small]1 9 ! proportion ( #a to #b4be1 because ea* degree ( ,reaumur's scale conta9s #b4be degrees ( ,fahr5heit2 h5ce we mu/ divide by #dgb4e1 & f9i% ! re/ ( ! calculation z above4--,e4 ,,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,description ( ! ,calorimet]1 or ,app>atus = measur+ ,caloric4 ,! calorimet]1 or app>atus = measur+ ! relative quantities ( heat conta9$ 9 bodies1 0 describ$ by ,mr de la ,place & me 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghj1 p4 #cee4 & f t ,essay ! mat]ials ( ?is *apt] are extract$4 ,if1 aft] hav+ cool$ any body to ! freez+ po9t1 x be expos$ 9 an atmosph]e ( #be 7#hh4be71 ! body w gradually become heat$1 f ! surface inw>ds1 till at la/ x acquire ! same temp]ature ) ! surr\nd+ air4 ,b1 if a piece ( ice be plac$ 9 ! same situation1 ! circum/ances are q diff]5t2 x does n approa* 9 ! smalle/ degree t[>ds ! temp]ature ( ! circumambi5t air1 b rema9s con/antly at ,z]o 7#cb71 or ! temp]ature ( melt+ ice1 till ! la/ portion ( ice be completely melt$4 ,?is ph5om5on is readily expla9$2 z1 to melt ice1 or r$uce x to wat]1 x requires to be comb9$ ) a c]ta9 portion ( caloric2 ! :ole caloric attract$ f ! surr\nd+ bodies1 is arre/$ or fix$ at ! surface or ext]nal lay] ( ice :i* x is employ$ to dissolve1 & comb9es ) x to =m wat]2 ! next quantity ( caloric comb9es ) ! second lay] to dissolve x into wat]1 & s on successively till ! :ole ice be dissolv$ or conv]t$ into wat] by comb9ation ) caloric1 ! v la/ atom /ill rema9+ at its =m] temp]ature1 because ! caloric has nev] p5etrat$ s f> z long z any int]m$iate ice rema9$ to melt4 ,^u ^! pr9ciples1 if we conceive a holl[ sph]e ( ice at ! temp]ature ( ,z]o 7#cb7 plac$ 9 an atmosph]e #aj 7#ed4e71 & conta9+ a sub/ance at any degree ( temp]ature above freez+1 x foll[s1 #a/1 ,t ! heat ( ! ext]nal atmosph]e _c p5etrate into ! int]nal holl[ ( ! sph]e ( ice2 #b;dly1 ,t ! heat ( ! body plac$ 9 ! holl[ ( ! sph]e _c p5etrate outw>ds beyond x1 b w be /opp$ at ! int]nal surface1 & cont9ually employ$ to melt successive lay]s ( ice1 until ! temp]ature ( ! body be r$uc$ to ,z]o 7#cb71 by hav+ all its sup]abundant caloric above t temp]ature c>ri$ (f by ! ice4 ,if ! :ole wat]1 =m$ )9 ! sph]e ( ice dur+ ! r$uction ( ! temp]ature ( ! includ$ body to ,z]o1 be c>efully collect$1 ! weight ( ! wat] w be exactly proportional to ! quantity ( caloric lo/ by ! body 9 pass+ f its orig9al temp]ature to t ( melt+ ice2 = x is evid5t t a d\ble quantity ( caloric w\ld h melt$ twice ! quantity ( ice2 h5ce ! quantity ( ice melt$ is a v exact measure ( ! quantity ( caloric employ$ to produce t effect1 & consequ5tly ( ! quantity lo/ by ! only sub/ance t c\ld possibly h suppli$ x4 ,i h made ?is supposition ( :at w\ld take place 9 a holl[ sph]e ( ice1 = ! purpose ( m readily expla9+ ! me?od us$ 9 ?is species ( exp]im5t1 :i* 0 fir/ conceiv$ by ,mr de la ,place4 ,x w\ld be difficult to procure su* sph]es ( ices & inconv5i5t to make use ( !m :5 got2 b1 by means ( ! foll[+ app>atus1 we h rem$i$ t defect4 ,i ackn[l$ge ! "n ( ,calorimet]1 :i* ,i h giv5 x1 z d]iv$ p>tly f ,greek & p>tly f ,lat91 is 9 "s degree op5 to criticism2 b1 9 matt]s ( sci5ce1 a slight deviation f /rict etymology1 = ! sake ( giv+ di/9ctness ( idea1 is excusable2 & ,i c\ld n d]ive ! "n entirely f ,greek )\t approa*+ too ne> to ! names ( kn[n in/rum5ts employ$ = o!r purposes4 ,! calorimet] is repres5t$ 9 ,pl4 ,,vi4 ,x is %[n 9 p]spective at ,fig4 #a4 & its int]ior /ructure is engrav$ 9 ,fig4 #b4 & #c42 ! =m] be+ a horizontal1 & ! latt] a p]p5dicul> section4 ,its capacity or cavity is divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 :i*1 = bett] di/9ction1 ,i %all "n ! int]ior1 middle1 & ext]nal cavities4 ,! int]ior cavity f f f f1 ,fig4 #d4 into :i* ! sub/ances submitt$ to exp]im5t are put1 is compos$ ( a grat+ or cage ( iron wire1 support$ by sev]al iron b>s2 its op5+ or m\? ,,lm1 is cov]$ by ! lid ,,hg1 ( ! same mat]ials4 ,! middle cavity b b b b1 ,fig4 #b4 & #c4 is int5d$ to conta9 ! ice :i* surr\nds ! int]ior cavity1 & :i* is to be melt$ by ! caloric ( ! sub/ance employ$ 9 ! exp]im5t4 ,! ice is support$ by ! grate m m at ! bottom ( ! cavity1 "u :i* is plac$ ! sieve n n4 ,^! two are repres5t$ sep>ately 9 ,fig4 #e4 & #f4 ,9 proportion z ! ice conta9$ 9 ! middle cavity is melt$1 by ! caloric dis5gag$ f ! body plac$ 9 ! int]ior cavity1 ! wat] runs ?r\gh ! grate & sieve1 & falls ?r\gh ! conical funnel c c d1 ,fig4 #c4 & tube x y1 into ! receiv] ,f1 ,fig4 #a4 ,?is wat] may be reta9$ or let out at pleasure1 by means ( ! /op-cock u4 ,! ext]nal cavity a a a a1 ,fig4 #b4 & #c4 is fill$ ) ice1 to prev5t any effect ^u ! ice 9 ! middle cavity f ! heat ( ! surr\nd+ air1 & ! wat] produc$ f x is c>ri$ (f ?r\gh ! pipe ,,/1 :i* %uts by means ( ! /op-cock r4 ,! :ole ma*9e is cov]$ by ! lid ,,ff1 ,fig4 #g4 made ( t9 pa9t$ ) oil col\r1 to prev5t ru/4 ,:5 ?is ma*9e is to be employ$1 ! middle cavity b b b b1 ,fig4 #b4 & #c41 ! lid ,,gh1 ,fig4 #d4 ( ! int]ior cavity1 ! ext]nal cavity a a a a1 ,fig4 #b4 & #c4 & ! g5]al lid ,,ff1 ,fig4 #g4 are all fill$ ) p\nd$ ice1 well ramm$1 s t no void spaces rema91 & ! ice ( ! middle cavity is all[$ to dra94 ,! ma*9e is !n op5$1 & ! sub/ance submitt$ to exp]im5t be+ plac$ 9 ! int]ior cavity1 x is in/antly clos$4 ,aft] wait+ till ! includ$ body is completely cool$ to ! freez+ po9t1 & ! :ole melt$ ice has dra9$ f ! middle cavity1 ! wat] collect$ 9 ! vessel ,f1 ,fig4 #a4 is accurately weigh$4 ,! weight ( ! wat] produc$ dur+ ! exp]im5t is an exact measure ( ! caloric dis5gag$ dur+ ! cool+ ( ! includ$ body1 z ?is sub/ance is evid5tly 9 a simil> situation ) ! "o =m]ly m5tion$ z includ$ 9 a holl[ sph]e ( ice2 ! :ole caloric dis5gag$ is /opp$ by ! ice 9 ! middle cavity1 & t ice is pres]v$ f be+ affect$ by any o!r heat by means ( ! ice conta9$ 9 ! g5]al lid1 ,fig4 #g4 & 9 ! ext]nal cavity4 ,exp]im5ts ( ?is k9d la/ f fifte5 to tw5ty h\rs2 !y are sometimes accel]at$ by cov]+ up ! sub/ance 9 ! int]ior cavity ) well dra9$ ice1 :i* ha/5s its cool+4 ,! sub/ances to be op]at$ ^u are plac$ 9 ! ?9 iron bucket1 ,fig4 #h4 ! cov] ( :i* has an op5+ fitt$ ) a cork1 into :i* a small !rmomet] is fix$4 ,:5 we use acids1 or o!r fluids capable ( injur+ ! metal ( ! in/rum5ts1 !y are conta9$ 9 ! matras1 ,fig4 #aj4 :i* has a simil> !rmomet] 9 a cork fitt$ to its m\?1 & :i* /&s 9 ! int]ior cavity ^u ! small cyl9drical support ,,rs1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,x is absolutely requisite t !re be no communication betwe5 ! ext]nal & middle cavities ( ! calorimet]1 o!rwise ! ice melt$ by ! influ5ce ( ! surr\nd+ air1 9 ! ext]nal cavity1 w\ld mix ) ! wat] produc$ f ! ice ( ! middle cavity1 :i* w\ld no long] be a measure ( ! caloric lo/ by ! sub/ance submitt$ to exp]im5t4 ,:5 ! temp]ature ( ! atmosph]e is only a few degrees above ! freez+ po9t1 its heat c h>dly rea* ! middle cavity1 be+ arre/$ by ! ice ( ! cov]1 ,fig4 #g4 & ( ! ext]nal cavity2 b1 if ! temp]ature ( ! air be "u ! degree ( freez+1 x might cool ! ice conta9$ 9 ! middle cavity1 by caus+ ! ice 9 ! ext]nal cavity to fall1 9 ! fir/ place1 bel[ z]o 7#cb74 ,x is !re=e ess5tial t ?is exp]im5t be c>ri$ on 9 a temp]ature some:at above freez+3 ,h5ce1 9 "t ( fro/1 ! calorimet] mu/ be kept 9 an ap>tm5t c>efully heat$4 ,x is likewise necess>y t ! ice employ$ be n "u z]o 7#cb72 = :i* purpose x mu/ be p\nd$1 & spread out ?9 = "s "t1 9 a place ( a high] temp]ature4 ,! ice ( ! int]ior cavity always reta9s a c]ta9 quantity ( wat] adh]+ to its surface1 :i* may be suppos$ to belong to ! result ( ! exp]im5t2 b z1 at ! beg9n+ ( ea* exp]im5t1 ! ice is already saturat$ ) z mu* wat] z x c conta91 if any ( ! wat] produc$ by ! caloric %\ld rema9 atta*$ to ! ice1 x is evid5t1 t v ne>ly an equal quantity ( :at adh]$ to x be=e ! exp]im5t mu/ h run d[n into ! vessel ,f 9 its /ead2 = ! inn] surface ( ! ice 9 ! middle cavity is v little *ang$ dur+ ! exp]im5t4 ,by any contrivance t c\ld be devis$1 we c\ld n prev5t ! access ( ! ext]nal air into ! int]ior cavity :5 ! atmosph]e 0 #i or #aj 7#eb or #ed7 above z]o4 ,! air conf9$ 9 ! cavity be+ 9 t case specifically heavi] ?an ! ext]nal air1 escapes d[nw>ds ?r\gh ! pipe x y1 ,fig4 #c1 & is replac$ by ! w>m] ext]nal air1 :i*1 giv+ out its caloric to ! ice1 becomes heavi]1 & s9ks 9 its turn2 ?us a curr5t ( air is =m$ ?r\gh ! ma*9e1 :i* is ! m rapid 9 proportion z ! ext]nal air exce$s ! int]nal 9 temp]ature4 ,?is curr5t ( w>m air mu/ melt a "p ( ! ice1 & injure ! accuracy ( ! exp]im5t3 ,we may1 9 a great degree1 gu>d aga9/ ?is s\rce ( error by keep+ ! /op-cock u cont9ually %ut2 b x is bett] to op]ate only :5 ! temp]ature ( ! ext]nal air does n exce$ #c1 or at mo/ #d1 7#ci to #da72 = we h obs]v$1 t1 9 ?is case1 ! melt+ ( ! int]ior ice by ! atmosph]ic air is p]fectly ins5sible2 s t we may answ] = ! accuracy ( our exp]im5ts ^u ! specific heat ( bodies to a =tie? "p4 ,we h caus$ make two ( ! above describ$ ma*9es2 "o1 :i* is int5d$ = su* exp]im5ts z d n require ! int]ior air to be r5ew$1 is precisely =m$ accord+ to ! description "h giv52 ! o!r1 :i* answ]s = exp]im5ts ^u combu/ion1 respiration1 c4 9 :i* fre% quantities ( air are indisp5sibly necess>y1 diff]s f ! =m] 9 hav+ two small tubes 9 ! two lids1 by :i* a curr5t ( atmosph]ic air may be bl[n into ! int]ior cavity ( ! ma*9e4 ,x is extremely easy1 ) ?is app>atus1 to det]m9e ! ph5om5a :i* occur 9 op]ations :]e caloric is ei!r dis5gag$ or absorb$4 ,if we wi%1 = in/ance1 to asc]ta9 ! quantity ( caloric :i* is dis5gag$ f a solid body 9 cool+ a c]ta9 numb] ( degrees1 let its temp]ature be rais$ to #hj 7#bab72 x is !n plac$ 9 ! int]ior cavity f f f f1 ,fig4 #b4 & #c4 ( ! calorimet]1 & all[$ to rema9 till we are c]ta9 t its temp]ature is r$uc$ to z]o 7#cb72 ! wat] produc$ by melt+ ! ice dur+ its cool+ is collect$1 & c>efully weigh$2 & ?is weight1 divid$ by ! volume ( ! body submitt$ to exp]im5t1 multipli$ into ! degrees ( temp]ature :i* x _h above z]o at ! comm5cem5t ( ! exp]im5t1 gives ! proportion ( :at ! ,engli% philosoph]s call specific heat4 ,fluids are conta9$ 9 prop] vessels1 ^: specific heat has be5 previ\sly asc]ta9$1 & op]at$ ^u 9 ! ma*9e 9 ! same mann] z direct$ = solids1 tak+ c>e to d$uct1 f ! quantity ( wat] melt$ dur+ ! exp]im5t1 ! proportion :i* belongs to ! conta9+ vessel4 ,if ! quantity ( caloric dis5gag$ dur+ ! comb9ation ( diff]5t sub/ances is to be det]m9$1 ^! sub/ances are to be previ\sly r$uc$ to ! freez+ degree by keep+ !m a suffici5t "t surr\nd$ ) p\nd$ ice2 ! mixture is !n to be made 9 ! inn] cavity ( ! calorimet]1 9 a prop] vessel likewise r$uc$ to z]o 7#cb72 & !y are kept inclos$ till ! temp]ature ( ! comb9ation has return$ to ! same degree3 ,! quantity ( wat] produc$ is a measure ( ! caloric dis5gag$ dur+ ! comb9ation4 ,to det]m9e ! quantity ( caloric dis5gag$ dur+ combu/ion1 & dur+ animal respiration1 ! combu/ible bodies are burnt1 or ! animals are made to brea! 9 ! int]ior cavity1 & ! wat] produc$ is c>efully collect$4 ,gu9ea pigs1 :i* resi/ ! effects ( cold extremely well1 are well adapt$ = ?is exp]im5t4 ,z ! cont9ual r5ewal ( air is absolutely necess>y 9 su* exp]im5ts1 we bl[ fre% air into ! int]ior cavity ( ! calorimet] by means ( a pipe de/9$ = t purpose1 & all[ x to escape ?r\gh ano!r pipe ( ! same k9d2 & t ! heat ( ?is air may n produce errors 9 ! results ( ! exp]im5ts1 ! tube :i* conveys x into ! ma*9e is made to pass ?r\gh p\nd$ ice1 t x may be r$uc$ to z]o 7#cb7 be=e x arrives at ! calorimet]4 ,! air :i* escapes mu/ likewise be made to pass ?r\gh a tube surr\nd$ ) ice1 includ$ 9 ! int]ior cavity ( ! ma*9e1 & ! wat] :i* is produc$ mu/ make a "p ( :at is collect$1 because ! caloric dis5gag$ f ?is air is "p ( ! product ( ! exp]im5t4 ,x is some:at m difficult to det]m9e ! specific caloric conta9$ 9 ! diff]5t gasses1 on acc\nt ( _! small degree ( d5sity2 =1 if !y are only plac$ 9 ! calorimet] 9 vessels l o!r fluids1 ! quantity ( ice melt$ is s small1 t ! result ( ! exp]im5t becomes at be/ v unc]ta94 ,= ?is species ( exp]im5t we h contriv$ to make ! air pass ?r\gh two metallic worms1 or spiral tubes2 "o ( ^!1 ?r\gh :i* ! air passes1 & becomes heat$ 9 its way to ! calorimet]1 is conta9$ 9 a vessel full ( boil+ wat]1 & ! o!r1 ?r\gh :i* ! air circulates )9 ! calorimet] to dis5gage its caloric1 is plac$ 9 ! int]ior cavity1 f f f f1 ( t ma*9e4 ,by means ( a small !rmomet] plac$ at "o end ( ! second worm1 ! temp]ature ( ! air1 z x ent]s ! calorimet]1 is det]m9$1 & its temp]ature 9 gett+ out ( ! int]ior cavity is f\nd by ano!r !rmomet] plac$ at ! o!r end ( ! worm4 ,by ?is contrivance we are enabl$ to asc]ta9 ! quantity ( ice melt$ by det]m9ate quantities ( air or gas1 :ile los+ a c]ta9 numb] ( degrees ( temp]ature1 &1 consequ5tly1 to det]m9e _! sev]al degrees ( specific caloric4 ,! same app>atus1 ) "s p>ticul> precautions1 may be employ$ to asc]ta9 ! quantity ( caloric dis5gag$ by ! cond5sation ( ! vap\rs ( diff]5t liquids4 ,! v>i\s exp]im5ts :i* may be made ) ! calorimet] d n af=d absolute conclusions1 b only give u ! measure ( relative quantities2 we h !re=e to fix a unit1 or /&>d po9t1 f :5ce to =m a scale ( ! sev]al results4 ,! quantity ( caloric necess>y to melt a p\nd ( ice has be5 *os5 z ?is unit2 &1 z x requires a p\nd ( wat] ( ! temp]ature ( #fj 7#afg7 to melt a p\nd ( ice1 ! quantity ( caloric express$ by our unit or /&>d po9t is :at raises a p\nd ( wat] f z]o 7#cb7 to #fj 7#afg74 ,:5 ?is unit is once det]m9$1 we h only to express ! quantities ( caloric dis5gag$ f diff]5t bodies by cool+ a c]ta9 numb] ( degrees1 9 analog\s values3 ,! foll[+ is an easy mode ( calculation = ?is purpose1 appli$ to "o ( our e>lie/ exp]im5ts4 ,we took #g lib4 #aa oz4 #b gros #cf grs4 ( plate-iron1 cut into n>r[ slips1 & roll$ up1 or express+ ! quantity 9 decimals1 #g4gjgjcai4 ,^!1 be+ heat$ 9 a ba? ( boil+ wat] to ab\t #gh 7#bjg4e71 7 quickly introduc$ into ! int]ior cavity ( ! calorimet]3 ,at ! end ( elev5 h\rs1 :5 ! :ole quantity ( wat] melt$ f ! ice _h ?or\ghly dra9$ (f1 we f\nd t #a4ajigie p\nds ( ice 7 melt$4 ,h5ce1 ! caloric dis5gag$ f ! iron by cool+ #gh 7#age4e7 hav+ melt$ #a4ajigie p\nds ( ice1 h[ mu* w\ld h be5 melt$ by cool+ #fj 7#ace78 ,?is "q gives ! foll[+ /atem5t 9 direct proportion1 #gh 3 #a4ajigie 33 #fj 3 x #j4hecfi4 ,divid+ ?is quantity by ! weight ( ! :ole iron employ$1 viz4 #g4gjgjcai1 ! quoti5t #j4aajggj is ! quantity ( ice :i* w\ld h be5 melt$ by "o p\nd ( iron :il/ cool+ ?r\gh #fj 7#ace7 ( temp]ature4 ,fluid sub/ances1 su* z sulphuric & nitric acids1 c4 are conta9$ 9 a matras1 ,pl4 ,,vi4 ,fig4 #i4 hav+ a !rmomet] adapt$ to ! cork1 ) its bulb imm]s$ 9 ! liquid4 ,! matras is plac$ 9 a ba? ( boil+ wat]1 & :51 f ! !rmomet]1 we judge ! liquid is rais$ to a prop] temp]ature1 ! matras is plac$ 9 ! calorimet]4 ,! calculation ( ! products1 to det]m9e ! specific caloric ( ^! fluids1 is made z above direct$1 tak+ c>e to d$uct f ! wat] obta9$ ! quantity :i* w\ld h be5 produc$ by ! matras alone1 :i* mu/ be asc]ta9$ by a previ\s exp]im5t4 ,! table ( ! results obta9$ by ^! exp]im5ts is omitt$1 because n yet suffici5tly complete1 diff]5t circum/ances hav+ occasion$ ! s]ies to be int]rupt$2 x is n1 h[ev]1 lo/ sight (2 & we are less or m employ$ ^u ! subject e w9t]4 ,,*ap4 ,,iv4 ,( ,me*anical ,op]ations = ,division ( ,bodies4 ,,sect4 ,i4 ,( ,trituration1 ,levigation1 & ,pulv]ization4 ,^! are1 prop]ly speak+1 only prelim9>y me*anical op]ations = divid+ & sep>at+ ! p>ticles ( bodies1 & r$uc+ !m into v f9e p[d]4 ,^! op]ations c nev] r$uce sub/ances into _! prim>y1 or elem5t>y & ultimate p>ticles2 !y d n ev5 de/roy ! aggregation ( bodies2 = e p>ticle1 aft] ! mo/ accurate trituration1 =ms a small :ole1 resembl+ ! orig9al mass f :i* x 0 divid$4 ,! real *emical op]ations1 on ! contr>y1 su* z solution1 de/roy ! aggregation ( bodies1 & sep>ate _! con/itu5t & integrant p>ticles f ea* o!r4 ,brittle sub/ances are r$uc$ to p[d] by means ( pe/les & mort>s4 ,^! are ( brass or iron1 ,pl4 ,i4 ,fig4 #a42 ( m>ble or granite1 ,fig4 #b42 ( lignum vitae1 ,fig4 #c42 ( glass1 ,fig4 #d42 ( agate1 ,fig4 #e42 or ( porcella91 ,fig4 #f4 ,! pe/les = ea* ( ^! are repres5t$ 9 ! plate1 imm$iately bel[ ! mort>s to :i* !y respectively belong1 & are made ( hamm]$ iron or brass1 ( wood1 glass1 porcella91 m>ble1 granite1 or agate1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! sub/ances !y are int5d$ to triturate4 ,9 e laboratory1 x is requisite to h an assortm5t ( ^! ut5sils1 ( v>i\s sizes & k9ds3 ,^? ( porcella9 & glass c only be us$ = rubb+ sub/ances to p[d]1 by a dext]\s use ( ! pe/le r\nd ! sides ( ! mort>1 z x w\ld be easily brok5 by reit]at$ bl[s ( ! pe/le4 ,! bottom ( mort>s ought to be 9 ! =m ( a holl[ sph]e1 & _! sides %\ld h su* a degree ( incl9ation z to make ! sub/ances !y conta9 fall back to ! bottom :5 ! pe/le is lift$1 b n s p]p5dicul> z to collect !m too mu* toge!r1 o!rwise too l>ge a quantity w\ld get bel[ ! pe/le1 & prev5t its op]ation4 ,= ?is reason1 likewise1 too l>ge a quantity ( ! sub/ance to be p[d]$ ought n to be put into ! mort> at "o "t2 & we mu/ f "t to "t get rid ( ! p>ticles already r$uc$ to p[d]1 by means ( sieves to be aft]w>ds describ$4 ,! mo/ usual me?od ( levigation is by means ( a flat table ,,abcd1 ,pl4 #a4 ,fig4 #g4 ( porphyry1 or o!r /one ( simil> h>dness1 ^u :i* ! sub/ance to be r$uc$ to p[d] is spread1 & is !n bruis$ & rubb$ by a mull] ,m1 ( ! same h>d mat]ials1 ! bottom ( :i* is made a small portion ( a l>ge sph]e2 &1 z ! mull] t5ds cont9ually to drive ! sub/ances t[>ds ! sides ( ! table1 a ?9 flexible knife1 or spatula ( iron1 horn1 wood1 or ivory1 is us$ = br++ !m back to ! middle ( ! /one4 ,9 l>ge works1 ?is op]ation is p]=m$ by means ( l>ge roll]s ( h>d /one1 :i* turn ^u ea* o!r1 ei!r horizontally1 9 ! way ( corn-mills1 or by "o v]tical roll] turn+ ^u a flat /one4 ,9 ! above op]ations1 x is (t5 requisite to moi/5 ! sub/ances a little1 to prev5t ! f9e p[d] f fly+ (f4 ,!re are _m bodies :i* _c be r$uc$ to p[d] by any ( ! =ego+ me?ods2 su* are fibr\s sub/ances1 z woods2 su* z are t\gh & ela/ic1 z ! horns ( animals1 ela/ic gum1 c4 & ! malleable metals :i* flatt5 "u ! pe/le1 in/ead ( be+ r$uc$ to p[d]4 ,= r$uc+ ! woods to p[d]1 rasps1 z ,pl4 ,i4 ,fig4 #h4 are employ$2 files ( a f9] k9d are us$ = horn1 & /ill f9]1 ,pl4 #a4 ,fig4 #i4 & #aj4 = metals4 ,"s ( ! metals1 ?\gh n brittle en\gh to p[d] "u ! pe/le1 are too s(t to be fil$1 z !y clog ! file1 & prev5t its op]ation4 ,z9c is "o ( ^!1 b x may be p[d]$ :5 hot 9 a heat$ iron mort>1 or x may be r5d]$ brittle1 by alloy+ x ) a small quantity ( m]cury4 ,"o or o!r ( ^! me?ods is us$ by fire-"w mak]s = produc+ a blue flame by means ( z9c4 ,metals may be r$uc$ into gra9s1 by p\r+ !m :5 melt$ into wat]1 :i* s]ves v well :5 !y are n want$ 9 f9e p[d]4 ,fruits1 potatoes1 c4 ( a pulpy & fibr\s nature may be r$uc$ to pulp by means ( ! grat]1 ,pl4 #a4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,! *oice ( ! diff]5t sub/ances ( :i* ^! in/rum5ts are made is a matt] ( importance2 brass or copp] are unfit = op]ations ^u sub/ances to be us$ z food or 9 ph>macy2 & m>ble or metallic in/rum5ts mu/ n be us$ = acid sub/ances2 h5ce mort>s ( v h>d wood1 & ^? ( porcela91 granite1 or glass1 are ( great utility 9 _m op]ations4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 ,( ,sift+ & ,wa%+ ,p[d]$ ,sub/ances4 ,none ( ! me*anical op]ations employ$ = r$uc+ bodies to p[d] is capable ( produc+ x ( an equal degree ( f95ess ?r\gh\t2 ! p[d] obta9$ by ! longe/ & mo/ accurate trituration be+ /ill an assemblage ( p>ticles ( v>i\s sizes4 ,! co>s] ( ^! are remov$1 s z only to leave ! f9] & m homog5e\s p>ticles by means ( sieves1 ,pl4 ,i4 ,fig4 #ab4 #ac4 #ad4 #ae4 ( diff]5t f95esses1 adapt$ to ! p>ticul> purposes !y are int5d$ =2 all ! p[d]$ matt] :i* is l>g] ?an ! inte/ices ( ! sieve rema9s beh9d1 & is aga9 submitt$ to ! pe/le1 :ile ! f9] pass ?r\gh4 ,! sieve ,fig4 #ab4 is made ( hair-clo?1 or ( silk gauze2 & ! "o repres5t$ ,fig4 #ac4 is ( p>*m5t pi]c$ ) r\nd holes ( a prop] size2 ?is latt] is employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( gun-p[d]4 ,:5 v subtile or valuable mat]ials are to be sift$1 :i* are easily disp]s$1 or :5 ! f9] p>ts ( ! p[d] may be hurtful1 a comp\nd sieve1 ,fig4 #ae4 is made use (1 :i* consi/s ( ! sieve ,,abcd1 ) a lid ,,ef1 & receiv] ,,gh2 ^! ?ree p>ts are repres5t$ z jo9$ toge!r = use1 ,fig4 #ad4 ,!re is a me?od ( procur+ p[d]s ( an uni=m f95ess1 consid]ably m accurate ?an ! sieve2 b x c only be us$ ) su* sub/ances z are n act$ ^u by wat]4 ,! p[d]$ sub/ance is mix$ & agitat$ ) wat]1 or o!r conv5i5t fluid2 ! liquor is all[$ to settle = a few mom5ts1 & is !n decant$ (f2 ! co>se/ p[d] rema9s at ! bottom ( ! vessel1 & ! f9] passes ov] ) ! liquid4 ,by repeat$ decantations 9 ?is mann]1 v>i\s s$im5ts are obta9$ ( diff]5t degrees ( f95ess2 ! la/ s$im5t1 or t :i* rema9s long$ susp5d$ 9 ! liquor1 be+ ! f9e/4 ,?is process may likewise be us$ ) advantage = sep>at+ sub/ances ( diff]5t degrees ( specific gravity1 ?\gh ( ! same f95ess2 ?is la/ is *iefly employ$ 9 m9+1 = sep>at+ ! heavi] metallic ores f ! light] e>?y matt]s ) :i* !y are mix$4 ,9 *emical laboratories1 pans & jugs ( glass or e>!n w>e are employ$ = ?is op]ation2 sometimes1 = decant+ ! liquor )\t di/urb+ ! s$im5t1 ! glass syphon ,,ab*i1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #aa4 is us$1 :i* may be support$ by means ( ! p]=at$ bo>d ,,de1 at ! prop] dep? 9 ! vessel ,,fg1 to draw (f all ! liquor requir$ into ! receiv] ,,lm4 ,! pr9ciples & application ( ?is useful in/rum5t are s well kn[n z to ne$ no explanation4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 ,( ,filtration4 ,a filtre is a species ( v f9e sieve1 :i* is p]meable to ! p>ticles ( fluids1 b ?r\gh :i* ! p>ticles ( ! f9e/ p[d]$ solids are incapable ( pass+2 h5ce its use 9 sep>at+ f9e p[d]s f susp5sion 9 fluids4 ,9 ph>macy1 v close & f9e wooll5 clo?s are *iefly us$ = ?is op]ation2 ^! are commonly =m$ 9 a conical %ape1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #b4 :i* has ! advantage ( unit+ all ! liquor :i* dra9s ?r\gh into a po9t ,a1 :]e x may be readily collect$ 9 a n>r[ m\!d vessel4 ,9 l>ge ph>maceutical laboratories1 ?is filtr+ bag is /rea*$ ^u a wood5 /&1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,= ! purposes ( *emi/ry1 z x is requisite to h ! filtres p]fectly clean1 unsiz$ pap] is sub/itut$ in/ead ( clo? or flannel2 ?r\gh ?is sub/ance1 no solid body1 h[ev] f9ely x be p[d]$1 c p5etrate1 & fluids p]colate ?r\gh x ) ! greate/ read9ess4 ,z pap] breaks easily :5 wet1 v>i\s me?ods ( support+ x are us$ accord+ to circum/ances4 ,:5 a l>ge quantity ( fluid is to be filtrat$1 ! pap] is support$ by ! frame ( wood1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #c4 ,,abcd1 hav+ a piece ( co>se clo? /ret*$ ov] x1 by means ( iron-hooks4 ,?is clo? mu/ be well clean$ ea* "t x is us$1 or ev5 new clo? mu/ be employ$1 if !re is reason to suspect its be+ impregnat$ ) any ?+ :i* c injure ! subsequ5t op]ations4 ,9 ord9>y op]ations1 :]e mod]ate quantities ( fluid are to be filtrat$1 diff]5t k9ds ( glass funnels are us$ = support+ ! pap]1 z repres5t$ ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #e4 #f4 & #g4 ,:5 sev]al filtrations mu/ be c>ri$ on at once1 ! bo>d or %elf ,,ab1 ,fig4 #i4 support$ ^u /&s ,c & ,d1 & pi]c$ ) r\nd holes1 is v conv5i5t = conta9+ ! funnels4 ,"s liquors are s ?ick & clammy1 z n to be able to p5etrate ?r\gh pap] )\t "s previ\s prep>ation1 su* z cl>ification by means ( :ite ( eggs1 :i* be+ mix$ ) ! liquor1 coagulates :5 br\ght to boil1 &1 entangl+ ! great] "p ( ! impurities ( ! liquor1 rises ) !m to ! surface 9 ! /ate ( scum4 ,spirit\s liquors may be cl>ifi$ 9 ! same mann] by means ( is+lass dissolv$ 9 wat]1 :i* coagulates by ! action ( ! alkohol )\t ! assi/ance ( heat4 ,z mo/ ( ! acids are produc$ by di/illation1 & are consequ5tly cle>1 we h r>ely any occasion to filtrate !m2 b if1 at any "t1 conc5trat$ acids require ?is op]ation1 x is impossible to employ pap]1 :i* w\ld be corrod$ & de/roy$ by ! acid4 ,= ?is purpose1 p\nd$ glass1 or r qu>tz or rock-cri/al1 broke 9 pieces & grossly p[d]$1 answ]s v well2 a few ( ! l>g] pieces are put 9 ! neck ( ! funnel2 ^! are cov]$ ) ! small] pieces1 ! f9] p[d] is plac$ ov] all1 & ! acid is p\r$ on at top4 ,= ! ord9>y purposes ( society1 riv]-wat] is frequ5tly filtrat$ by means ( clean wa%$ s&1 to sep>ate its impurities4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4 ,( ,decantation4 ,?is op]ation is (t5 sub/itut$ in/ead ( filtration = sep>at+ solid p>ticles :i* are diffus$ ?r\gh liquors4 ,^! are all[$ to settle 9 conical vessels1 ,,abcde1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #aj4 ! diffus$ matt]s gradually subside1 & ! cle> fluid is g5tly p\r$ (f4 ,if ! s$im5t be extremely light1 & apt to mix aga9 ) ! fluid by ! slighte/ motion1 ! syphon1 ,fig4 #aa4 is us$1 in/ead ( decantation1 = draw+ (f ! cle> fluid4 ,9 exp]im5ts1 :]e ! weight ( ! precipitate mu/ be rigor\sly asc]ta9$1 decantation is pref]able to filtration1 provid+ ! precipitate be sev]al times wa%$ 9 a consid]able proportion ( wat]4 ,! weight ( ! precipitate may inde$ be asc]ta9$1 by c>efully weigh+ ! filtre be=e & aft] ! op]ation2 b1 :5 ! quantity ( precipitate is small1 ! diff]5t proportions ( moi/ure reta9$ by ! pap]1 9 a great] or less] degree ( exsiccation1 may prove a mat]ial s\rce ( error1 :i* ought c>efully to be gu>d$ aga9/4 ,,*ap4 ,v4 ,( ,*emical ,means = sep>at+ ! ,p>ticles ( ,bodies f ea* o!r2 )\t ,decomposition1 & = unit+ !m aga94 ,i h already %[n t !re are two me?ods ( divid+ ! p>ticles ( bodies1 ! me*anical & *emical4 ,! =m] only sep>ates a solid mass into a great numb] ( small] masses2 & = ^! purposes v>i\s species ( =ces are employ$1 accord+ to circum/ances1 su* z ! /r5g? ( man or ( animals1 ! weight ( wat] appli$ ?r\gh ! means ( hydraulic eng9es1 ! expansive p[] ( /eam1 ! =ce ( ! w9d1 c4 ,by all ^! me*anical p[]s1 we c nev] r$uce sub/ances into p[d] beyond a c]ta9 degree ( f95ess2 & ! smalle/ p>ticle produc$ 9 ?is way1 ?\gh x seems v m9ute to our organs1 is /ill 9 fact a m\nta91 :5 comp>$ ) ! ultimate elem5t>y p>ticles ( ! pulv]iz$ sub/ance4 ,! *emical ag5ts1 on ! contr>y1 divide bodies into _! primitive p>ticles4 ,if1 = in/ance1 a neutral salt be act$ ^u by ^!1 x is divid$1 z f> z is possible1 )\t ceas+ to be a neutral salt4 ,9 ?is ,*apt]1 ,i mean to give examples ( ?is k9d ( division ( bodies1 to :i* ,i %all add "s acc\nt ( ! relative op]ations4 ,,sect4 ,i4 ,( ! ,solution ( ,salts4 ,9 *emical language1 ! t]ms ( solution & dissolution h long be5 conf\nd$1 & h v improp]ly be5 indiscrim9ately employ$ = express+ bo? ! division ( ! p>ticles ( a salt 9 a fluid1 su* z wat]1 & ! division ( a metal 9 an acid4 ,a few reflections ^u ! effects ( ^! two op]ations w suffice to %[ t !y ought n to be conf\nd$ toge!r4 ,9 ! solution ( salts1 ! sal9e p>ticles are only sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 :il/ nei!r ! salt nor ! wat] are at all decompos$2 we are able to recov] bo? ! "o & ! o!r 9 ! same quantity z be=e ! op]ation4 ,! same ?+ takes place 9 ! solution ( res9s 9 alkohol4 ,dur+ metallic dissolutions1 on ! contr>y1 a decomposition1 ei!r ( ! acid1 or ( ! wat] :i* dilutes x1 always takes place2 ! metal comb9es ) oxyg51 & is *ang$ into an oxyd1 & a gasse\s sub/ance is dis5gag$2 s t 9 reality none ( ! sub/ances employ$ rema91 aft] ! op]ation1 9 ! same /ate !y 7 9 be=e4 ,?is article is entirely conf9$ to ! consid]ation ( solution4 ,to und]/& prop]ly :at takes place dur+ ! solution ( salts1 x is necess>y to "k1 t1 9 mo/ ( ^! op]ations1 two di/9ct effects are complicat$ toge!r1 viz4 solution by wat]1 & solution by caloric2 &1 z ! explanation ( mo/ ( ! ph5om5a ( solution dep5ds ^u ! di/9ction ( ^! two circum/ances1 ,i %all enl>ge a little ^u _! nature4 ,nitrat ( pota%1 usually call$ nitre or saltpetre1 conta9s v little wat] ( cri/allization1 p]haps ev5 none at all2 yet ?is salt liquifies 9 a degree ( heat v little sup]ior to t ( boil+ wat]4 ,?is liquifaction _c !re=e be produc$ by means ( ! wat] ( cri/allization1 b 9 consequ5ce ( ! salt be+ v fusible 9 its nature1 & f its pass+ f ! solid to ! liquid /ate ( aggregation1 :5 b a little rais$ above ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]4 ,all salts are 9 ?is mann] susceptible ( be+ liquifi$ by caloric1 b 9 high] or l[] degrees ( temp]ature4 ,"s ( ^!1 z ! acetites ( pota% & soda1 liquify ) a v mod]ate heat1 :il/ o!rs1 z sulphat ( pota%1 lime1 c4 require ! /ronge/ fires we are capable ( produc+4 ,?is liquifaction ( salts by caloric produces exactly ! same ph5om5a ) ! melt+ ( ice2 x is accompli%$ 9 ea* salt by a det]m9ate degree ( heat1 :i* rema9s inv>iably ! same dur+ ! :ole "t ( ! liquifaction4 ,caloric is employ$1 & becomes fix$ dur+ ! melt+ ( ! salt1 & is1 on ! contr>y1 dis5gag$ :5 ! salt coagulates4 ,^! are g5]al ph5om5a :i* univ]sally occur dur+ ! passage ( e species ( sub/ance f ! solid to ! fluid /ate ( aggregation1 & f fluid to solid4 ,^! ph5om5a aris+ f solution by caloric are always less or m conjo9$ ) ^? :i* take place dur+ solutions 9 wat]4 ,we _c p\r wat] ^u a salt1 on purpose to dissolve x1 )\t employ+ a comp\nd solv5t1 bo? wat] & caloric2 h5ce we may di/+ui% sev]al diff]5t cases ( solution1 accord+ to ! nature & mode ( exi/5ce ( ea* salt4 ,if1 = in/ance1 a salt be difficultly soluble 9 wat]1 & readily s by caloric1 x evid5tly foll[s1 t ?is salt w be difficultly soluble 9 cold wat]1 & consid]ably 9 hot wat]2 su* is nitrat ( pota%1 & m especially oxyg5at$ muriat ( pota%4 ,if ano!r salt be little soluble bo? 9 wat] & caloric1 ! diff]5ce ( its solubility 9 cold & w>m wat] w be v inconsid]able2 sulphat ( lime is ( ?is k9d4 ,f ^! consid]ations1 x foll[s1 t !re is a necess>y relation betwe5 ! foll[+ circum/ances2 ! solubility ( a salt 9 cold wat]1 its solubility 9 boil+ wat]1 & ! degree ( temp]ature at :i* ! same salt liquifies by caloric1 unassi/$ by wat]2 & t ! diff]5ce ( solubility 9 hot & cold wat] is s mu* great] 9 proportion to its ready solution 9 caloric1 or 9 proportion to its susceptibility ( liquify+ 9 a l[ degree ( temp]ature4 ,! above is a g5]al view ( solution2 b1 = want ( p>ticul> facts1 & suffici5tly exact exp]im5ts1 x is /ill no?+ m ?an an approximation t[>ds a p>ticul> !ory4 ,! means ( compleat+ ?is "p ( *emical sci5ce is extremely simple2 we h only to asc]ta9 h[ mu* ( ea* salt is dissolv$ by a c]ta9 quantity ( wat] at diff]5t degrees ( temp]ature2 & z1 by ! exp]im5ts publi%$ by ,mr de la ,place & me1 ! quantity ( caloric conta9$ 9 a p\nd ( wat] at ea* degree ( ! !rmomet] is accurately kn[n1 x w be v easy to det]m9e1 by simple exp]im5ts1 ! proportion ( wat] & caloric requir$ = solution by ea* salt1 :at quantity ( caloric is absorb$ by ea* at ! mom5t ( liquifaction1 & h[ mu* is dis5gag$ at ! mom5t ( cri/allization4 ,h5ce ! reason :y salts are m rapidly soluble 9 hot ?an 9 cold wat] is p]fectly evid5t4 ,9 all solutions ( salts caloric is employ$2 :5 t is furni%$ int]m$iately f ! surr\nd+ bodies1 x c only arrive sl[ly to ! salt2 :]eas ?is is greatly accel]at$ :5 ! requisite caloric exi/s ready comb9$ ) ! wat] ( solution4 ,9 g5]al1 ! specific gravity ( wat] is augm5t$ by hold+ salts 9 solution2 b !re are "s exceptions to ! rule4 ,"s "t h5ce1 ! quantities ( radical1 ( oxyg51 & ( base1 :i* con/itute ea* neutral salt1 ! quantity ( wat] & caloric necess>y = solution1 ! increas$ specific gravity communicat$ to wat]1 & ! figure ( ! elem5t>y p>ticles ( ! cri/als1 w all be accurately kn[n4 ,f ^! all ! circum/ances & ph5om5a ( cri/allization w be expla9$1 & by ^! means ?is "p ( *emi/ry w be compleat$4 ,mr ,segu9 has =m$ ! plan ( a ?or\gh inve/igation ( ?is k9d1 :i* he is extremely capable ( execut+4 ,! solution ( salts 9 wat] requires no p>ticul> app>atus2 small glass phials ( diff]5t sizes1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #af4 & #ag4 pans ( e>!rn w>e1 ,a1 ,fig4 #a4 & #b4 long-neck$ matrasses1 ,fig4 #ad4 & pans or basons ( copp] or ( silv]1 ,fig4 #ac4 & #ae4 answ] v well = ^! op]ations4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 ,( ,lixiviation4 ,?is is an op]ation us$ 9 *emi/ry & manufactures = sep>at+ sub/ances :i* are soluble 9 wat] f su* z are insoluble4 ,! l>ge vat or tub1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #ab4 hav+ a hole ,d ne> its bottom1 conta9+ a wood5 spiget & fosset or metallic /op-cock ,,de1 is g5]ally us$ = ?is purpose4 ,a ?9 /ratum ( /raw is plac$ at ! bottom ( ! tub2 ov] ?is1 ! sub/ance to be lixiviat$ is laid & cov]$ by a clo?1 !n hot or cold wat]1 accord+ to ! degree ( solubility ( ! sal9e matt]1 is p\r$ on4 ,:5 ! wat] is suppos$ to h dissolv$ all ! sal9e p>ts1 x is let (f by ! /op-cock2 &1 z "s ( ! wat] *>g$ ) salt necess>ily adh]es to ! /raw & insoluble matt]s1 sev]al fre% quantities ( wat] are p\r$ on4 ,! /raw s]ves to secure a prop] passage = ! wat]1 & may be comp>$ to ! /raws or glass rods us$ 9 filtrat+1 to keep ! pap] f t\*+ ! sides ( ! funnel4 ,! clo? :i* is laid ov] ! matt]s "u lixiviation prev5ts ! wat] f mak+ a holl[ 9 ^! sub/ances :]e x is p\r$ on1 ?r\gh :i* x might escape )\t act+ ^u ! :ole mass4 ,?is op]ation is less or m imitat$ 9 *emical exp]im5ts2 b z 9 ^!1 especially ) analytical views1 great] exactness is requir$1 p>ticul> precautions mu/ be employ$1 s z n to leave any sal9e or soluble "p 9 ! residuum4 ,m wat] mu/ be employ$ ?an 9 ord9>y lixiviations1 & ! sub/ances ought to be previ\sly /irr$ up 9 ! wat] be=e ! cle> liquor is drawn (f1 o!rwise ! :ole mass might n be equally lixiviat$1 & "s p>ts might ev5 escape altoge!r f ! action ( ! wat]4 ,we mu/ likewise employ fre% portions ( wat] 9 consid]able quantity1 until x comes (f entirely free f salt1 :i* we may asc]ta9 by means ( ! hydromet] =m]ly describ$4 ,9 exp]im5ts ) small quantities1 ?is op]ation is conv5i5tly p]=m$ 9 jugs or matrasses ( glass1 & by filtrat+ ! liquor ?r\gh pap] 9 a glass funnel4 ,:5 ! sub/ance is 9 l>g] quantity1 x may be lixiviat$ 9 a kettle ( boil+ wat]1 & filtrat$ ?r\gh pap] support$ by clo? 9 ! wood5 frame1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #c4 & #d42 & 9 op]ations 9 ! l>ge way1 ! tub already m5tion$ mu/ be us$4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 ,( ,evaporation4 ,?is op]ation is us$ = sep>at+ two sub/ances f ea* o!r1 ( :i* "o at lea/ mu/ be fluid1 & ^: degrees ( volatility are consid]ably diff]5t4 ,by ?is means we obta9 a salt1 :i* has be5 dissolv$ 9 wat]1 9 its concrete =m2 ! wat]1 by heat+1 becomes comb9$ ) caloric1 :i* r5d]s x volatile1 :ile ! p>ticles ( ! salt be+ br\ght ne>] to ea* o!r1 & )9 ! sph]e ( _! mutual attraction1 unite into ! solid /ate4 ,z x 0 long ?\ght t ! air _h great influ5ce ^u ! quantity ( fluid evaporat$1 x w be prop] to po9t out ! errors :i* ?is op9ion has produc$4 ,!re c]ta9ly is a con/ant sl[ evaporation f fluids expos$ to ! free air2 &1 ?\gh ?is species ( evaporation may be consid]$ 9 "s degree z a solution 9 air1 yet caloric has consid]able influ5ce 9 produc+ x1 z is evid5t f ! refrig]ation :i* always accompanies ?is process2 h5ce we may consid] ?is gradual evaporation z a comp\nd solution made p>tly 9 air1 & p>tly 9 caloric4 ,b ! evaporation :i* takes place f a fluid kept cont9ually boil+1 is q diff]5t 9 its nature1 & 9 x ! evaporation produc$ by ! action ( ! air is exce$+ly inconsid]able 9 comp>ison ) t :i* is occasion$ by caloric4 ,?is latt] species may be t]m$ vaporization r ?an evaporation4 ,?is process is n accel]at$ 9 proportion to ! ext5t ( evaporat+ surface1 b 9 proportion to ! quantities ( caloric :i* comb9e ) ! fluid4 ,too free a curr5t ( cold air is (t5 hurtful to ?is process1 z x t5ds to c>ry (f caloric f ! wat]1 & consequ5tly ret>ds its conv]sion into vap\r4 ,h5ce !re is no inconv5i5ce produc$ by cov]+1 9 a c]ta9 degree1 ! vessels 9 :i* liquids are evaporat$ by cont9ual boil+1 provid$ ! cov]+ body be ( su* a nature z does n /rongly draw (f ! caloric1 or1 to use an expression ( ,dr ,frankl9's1 provid$ x be a bad conductor ( heat4 ,9 ?is case1 ! vap\rs escape ?r\gh su* op5+ z is left1 & at lea/ z mu* is evaporat$1 frequ5tly m ?an :5 free access is all[$ to ! ext]nal air4 ,z dur+ evaporation ! fluid c>ri$ (f by caloric is entirely lo/1 be+ sacrific$ = ! sake ( ! fix$ sub/ances ) :i* x 0 comb9$1 ?is process is only employ$ :]e ! fluid is ( small value1 z wat]1 = in/ance4 ,b1 :5 ! fluid is ( m consequ5ce1 we h rec\rse to di/illation1 9 :i* process we pres]ve bo? ! fix$ sub/ance & ! volatile fluid4 ,! vessels employ$ = evaporation are basons or pans ( copp]1 silv]1 or lead1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #ac4 & #ae4 or capsules ( glass1 porcella91 or /one w>e1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,a1 ,fig4 #a4 & #b4 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #c & #d4 ,! be/ ut5sils = ?is purpose are made ( ! bottoms ( glass retorts & matrasses1 z _! equal ?9ness r5d]s !m m fit ?an any o!r k9d ( glass vessel = be>+ a brisk fire & sudd5 alt]ations ( heat & cold )\t break+4 ,z ! me?od ( cutt+ ^! glass vessels is no :]e describ$ 9 books1 ,i %all "h give a description ( x1 t !y may be made by *emi/s = !mselves out ( spoil$ retorts1 matrasses1 & recipi5ts1 at a mu* *eap] rate ?an any :i* c be procur$ f glass manufactur]s4 ,! in/rum5t1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #e4 consi/+ ( an iron r+ ,,ac1 fix$ to ! rod ,,ab1 hav+ a wood5 h&le ,d1 is employ$ z foll[s3 ,make ! r+ r$ hot 9 ! fire1 & put x ^u ! matrass ,g1 ,fig4 #f4 :i* is to be cut2 :5 ! glass is suffici5tly heat$1 ?r[ on a little cold wat]1 & x w g5]ally break exactly at ! circul> l9e heat$ by ! r+4 ,small flasks or phials ( ?9 glass are exce$+ good vessels = evaporat+ small quantities ( fluid2 !y are v *eap1 & /& ! fire rem>kably4 ,"o or m ( ^! may be plac$ ^u a second grate above ! furnace1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #b4 :]e !y w only exp]i5ce a g5tle heat4 ,by ?is means a great numb] ( exp]im5ts may be c>ri$ on at "o "t4 ,a glass retort1 plac$ 9 a s& ba?1 & cov]$ ) a dome ( bak$ e>?1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #a4 answ]s pretty well = evaporations2 b 9 ?is way x is always consid]ably sl[]1 & is ev5 liable to accid5ts2 z ! s& heats unequally1 & ! glass _c dilate 9 ! same unequal mann]1 ! retort is v liable to break4 ,sometimes ! s& s]ves exactly ! (fice ( ! iron r+ =m]ly m5tion$2 =1 if a s+le drop ( vap\r1 cond5s$ into liquid1 happ5s to fall ^u ! heat$ "p ( ! vessel1 x breaks circul>ly at t place4 ,:5 a v int5se fire is necess>y1 e>!n crucibles may be us$2 b we g5]ally use ! ^w evaporation to express :at is produc$ by ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]1 or n mu* high]4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4 ,( ,cri/allization4 ,9 ?is process ! integrant p>ts ( a solid body1 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by ! int]v5tion ( a fluid1 are made to ex]t ! mutual attraction ( aggregation1 s z to coalesce & reproduce a solid mass4 ,:5 ! p>ticles ( a body are only sep>at$ by caloric1 & ! sub/ance is !reby reta9$ 9 ! liquid /ate1 all t is necess>y = mak+ x cri/allize1 is to remove a "p ( ! caloric :i* is lodg$ betwe5 its p>ticles1 or1 9 o!r words1 to cool x4 ,if ?is refrig]ation be sl[1 & ! body be at ! same "t left at re/1 its p>ticles assume a regul> arrangem5t1 & cri/allization1 prop]ly s call$1 takes place2 b1 if ! refrig]ation is made rapidly1 or if ! liquor be agitat$ at ! mom5t ( its passage to ! concrete /ate1 ! cri/allization is irregul> & confus$4 ,! same ph5om5a occur ) wat]y solutions1 or r 9 ^? made p>tly 9 wat]1 & p>tly by caloric4 ,s long z !re rema9s a suffici5cy ( wat] & caloric to keep ! p>ticles ( ! body asund] beyond ! sph]e ( _! mutual attraction1 ! salt rema9s 9 ! fluid /ate2 b1 :5ev] ei!r caloric or wat] is n pres5t 9 suffici5t quantity1 & ! attraction ( ! p>ticles = ea* o!r becomes sup]ior to ! p[] :i* keeps !m asund]1 ! salt recov]s its concrete =m1 & ! cri/als produc$ are ! m regul> 9 proportion z ! evaporation has be5 sl[] & m tranquilly p]=m$4 ,all ! ph5om5a we =m]ly m5tion$ z tak+ place dur+ ! solution ( salts1 occur 9 a contr>y s5se dur+ _! cri/allization4 ,caloric is dis5gag$ at ! in/ant ( _! assum+ ! solid /ate1 :i* furni%es an additional pro( ( salt be+ held 9 solution by ! comp\nd action ( wat] & caloric4 ,h5ce1 to cause salts to cri/allize :i* readily liquify by means ( caloric1 x is n suffici5t to c>ry (f ! wat] :i* held !m 9 solution1 b ! caloric unit$ to !m mu/ likewise be remov$4 ,nitrat ( pota%1 oxyg5at$ muriat ( pota%1 alum1 sulphat ( soda1 c4 are examples ( ?is circum/ance1 z1 to make ^! salts cri/allize1 refrig]ation mu/ be add$ to evaporation4 ,su* salts1 on ! contr>y1 z require little caloric = be+ kept 9 solution1 & :i*1 f t circum/ance1 are ne>ly equally soluble 9 cold & w>m wat]1 are cri/allizable by simply c>ry+ (f ! wat] :i* holds !m 9 solution1 & ev5 recov] _! solid /ate 9 boil+ wat]2 su* are sulphat ( lime1 muriat ( pota% & ( soda1 & sev]al o!rs4 ,! art ( ref9+ saltpetre dep5ds ^u ^! prop]ties ( salts1 & ^u _! diff]5t degrees ( solubility 9 hot & cold wat]4 ,?is salt1 z produc$ 9 ! manufactories by ! fir/ op]ation1 is compos$ ( _m diff]5t salts2 "s are deliquesc5t1 & n susceptible ( be+ cri/alliz$1 su* z ! nitrat & muriat ( lime2 o!rs are almo/ equally soluble 9 hot & cold wat]1 z ! muriats ( pota% & ( soda2 &1 la/ly1 ! saltpetre1 or nitrat ( pota%1 is greatly m soluble 9 hot ?an x is 9 cold wat]4 ,! op]ation is begun1 by p\r+ ^u ?is mixture ( salts z mu* wat] z w hold ev5 ! lea/ soluble1 ! muriats ( soda & ( pota%1 9 solution2 s long z x is hot1 ?is quantity readily dissolves all ! saltpetre1 b1 ^u cool+1 ! great] "p ( ?is salt cri/allizes1 leav+ ab\t a six? "p rema9+ dissolv$1 & mix$ ) ! nitrat ( lime & ! two muriats4 ,! nitre obta9$ by ?is process is /ill some:at impregnat$ ) o!r salts1 because x has be5 cri/alliz$ f wat] 9 :i* ^! ab\nd3 ,x is completely purifi$ f ^! by a second solution 9 a small quantity ( boil+ wat]1 & second cri/allization4 ,! wat] rema9+ aft] ^! cri/allizations ( nitre is /ill load$ ) a mixture ( saltpetre1 & o!r salts2 by f>!r evaporation1 crude saltpetre1 or r\gh-petre1 z ! workm5 call x1 is procur$ f x1 & ?is is purifi$ by two fre% solutions & cri/allizations4 ,! deliquesc5t e>?y salts :i* d n conta9 ! nitric acid are reject$ 9 ?is manufacture2 b ^? :i* consi/ ( t acid neutraliz$ by an e>?y base are dissolv$ 9 wat]1 ! e>? is precipitat$ by means ( pota%1 & all[$ to subside2 ! cle> liquor is !n decant$1 evaporat$1 & all[$ to cri/allize4 ,! above managem5t = ref9+ saltpetre may s]ve z a g5]al rule = sep>at+ salts f ea* o!r :i* happ5 to be mix$ toge!r4 ,! nature ( ea* mu/ be consid]$1 ! proportion 9 :i* ea* dissolves 9 giv5 quantities ( wat]1 & ! diff]5t solubility ( ea* 9 hot & cold wat]4 ,if to ^! we add ! prop]ty :i* "s salts possess1 ( be+ soluble 9 alkohol1 or 9 a mixture ( alkohol & wat]1 we h _m res\rces = sep>at+ salts f ea* o!r by means ( cri/allization1 ?\gh x mu/ be all[$ t x is extremely difficult to r5d] ?is sep>ation p]fectly complete4 ,! vessels us$ = cri/allization are pans ( e>!n w>e1 ,a1 ,pl4 ,,ii4 ,fig4 #a4 & #b4 & l>ge flat di%es1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #g4 ,:5 a sal9e solution is to be expos$ to a sl[ evaporation 9 ! heat ( ! atmosph]e1 ) free access ( air1 vessels ( "s dep?1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #c4 mu/ be employ$1 t !re may be a consid]able body ( liquid2 by ?is means ! cri/als produc$ are ( consid]able size1 & rem>kably regul> 9 _! figure4 ,e species ( salt cri/allizes 9 a peculi> =m1 & ev5 ea* salt v>ies 9 ! =m ( its cri/als accord+ to circum/ances1 :i* take place dur+ cri/allization4 ,we mu/ n f !nce conclude t ! sal9e p>ticles ( ea* species are indet]m9ate 9 _! figures3 ,! primative p>ticles ( all bodies1 especially ( salts1 are p]fectly con/ant 9 _! specific =ms2 b ! cri/als :i* =m 9 our exp]im5ts are compos$ ( cong]ies ( m9ute p>ticles1 :i*1 ?\gh p]fectly equal 9 size & %ape1 may assume v dissimil> arrangem5ts1 & consequ5tly produce a va/ v>iety ( regul> =ms1 :i* h n ! smalle/ app>5t resemblance to ea* o!r1 nor to ! orig9al cri/al4 ,?is subject has be5 v ably treat$ by ! ,abb ,hay1 9 sev]al memoirs pres5t$ to ! ,academy1 & 9 8 "w ^u ! /ructure ( cri/als3 ,x is only necess>y to ext5d g5]ally to ! class ( salts ! pr9ciples he has p>ticul>ly appli$ to "s cri/aliz$ /ones4 ,,sect4 ,v4 ,( ,simple ,di/illation4 ,z di/illation has two di/9ct objects to accompli%1 x is divisible into simple & comp\nd2 &1 9 ?is section1 ,i mean to conf9e myself entirely to ! =m]4 ,:5 two bodies1 ( :i* "o is m volatile ?an ! o!r1 or has m aff9ity to caloric1 are submitt$ to di/illation1 our int5tion is to sep>ate !m f ea* o!r3 ,! m volatile sub/ance assumes ! =m ( gas1 & is aft]w>ds cond5s$ by refrig]ation 9 prop] vessels4 ,9 ?is case di/illation1 l evaporation1 becomes a species ( me*anical op]ation1 :i* sep>ates two sub/ances f ea* o!r )\t decompos+ or alt]+ ! nature ( ei!r4 ,9 evaporation1 our only object is to pres]ve ! fix$ body1 )\t pay+ any reg>d to ! volatile matt]2 :]eas1 9 di/illation1 our pr9cipal att5tion is g5]ally paid to ! volatile sub/ance1 unless :5 we int5d to pres]ve bo? ! "o & ! o!r4 ,h5ce1 simple di/illation is no?+ m ?an evaporation produc$ 9 close vessels4 ,! mo/ simple di/ill+ vessel is a species ( bottle or matrass1 ,a1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #h4 :i* has be5 b5t f its orig9al =m ,,bc to ,,bd1 & :i* is !n call$ a retort2 :5 us$1 x is plac$ ei!r 9 a rev]b]atory furnace1 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #b4 or 9 a s& ba? "u a dome ( bak$ e>?1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,to receive & cond5se ! products1 we adapt a recipi5t1 ,e1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #i4 :i* is lut$ to ! retort4 ,sometimes1 m especially 9 ph>maceutical op]ations1 ! glass or /one w>e cucurbit1 ,a1 ) its capital ,b1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #ab1 or ! glass alembic & capital1 ,fig4 #ac4 ( "o piece1 is employ$4 ,?is latt] is manag$ by means ( a tubulat$ op5+ ,t1 fitt$ ) a gr\nd /opp] ( cri/al2 ! capital1 bo? ( ! cucurbit & alembic1 has a furr[ or tr5*1 r r1 int5d$ = convey+ ! cond5s$ liquor into ! beak ,,rs1 by :i* x runs out4 ,z1 9 almo/ all di/illations1 expansive vap\rs are produc$1 :i* might bur/ ! vessels employ$1 we are "u ! necessity ( hav+ a small hole1 ,t1 ,fig4 #i4 9 ! balloon or recipi5t1 ?r\gh :i* ^! may f9d v5t2 h5ce1 9 ?is way ( di/ill+1 all ! products :i* are p]man5tly ari=m are entirely lo/1 & ev5 su* z difficultly lose t /ate h n suffici5t space to cond5se 9 ! balloon3 ,?is app>atus is n1 !re=e1 prop] = exp]im5ts ( inve/igation1 & c only be admitt$ 9 ! ord9>y op]ations ( ! laboratory or 9 ph>macy4 ,9 ! article appropriat$ = comp\nd di/illation1 ,i %all expla9 ! v>i\s me?ods :i* h be5 contriv$ = pres]v+ ! :ole products f bodies 9 ?is process4 ,z glass or e>!n vessels are v brittle1 & d n readily be> sudd5 alt]ations ( heat & cold1 e well regulat$ laboratory ought to h "o or m alembics ( metal = di/ill+ wat]1 spirit\s liquors1 ess5tial oils1 c4 ,?is app>atus consi/s ( a cucurbit & capital ( t9n$ copp] or brass1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #ae4 & #af4 :i*1 :5 judg$ prop]1 may be plac$ 9 ! wat] ba?1 ,d1 ,fig4 #ag4 ,9 di/illations1 especially ( spirit\s liquors1 ! capital mu/ be furni%$ ) a refrigetory1 ,,ss1 ,fig4 #af4 kept cont9ually fill$ ) cold wat]2 :5 ! wat] becomes heat$1 x is let (f by ! /op-cock1 ,r1 & r5ew$ ) a fre% supply ( cold wat]4 ,z ! fluid di/ill$ is conv]t$ into gas by means ( caloric furni%$ by ! fire ( ! furnace1 x is evid5t t x c\ld n cond5se1 &1 consequ5tly1 t no di/illation1 prop]ly speak+1 c\ld take place1 unless x is made to deposit 9 ! capital all ! caloric x receiv$ 9 ! cucurbit2 ) ?is view1 ! sides ( ! capital mu/ always be pres]v$ at a l[] temp]ature ?an is necess>y = keep+ ! di/ill+ sub/ance 9 ! /ate ( gas1 & ! wat] 9 ! refrigetory is int5d$ = ?is purpose4 ,wat] is conv]t$ into gas by ! temp]ature ( #hj 7#bab71 alkohol by #fg 7#ahb4ge71 e!r by #cb 7#ajd72 h5ce ^! sub/ances _c be di/ill$1 or1 r1 !y w fly (f 9 ! /ate ( gas1 unless ! temp]ature ( ! refrigetory be kept "u ^! respective degrees4 ,9 ! di/illation ( spirit\s1 & o!r expansive liquors1 ! above describ$ refrigetory is n suffici5t = cond5s+ all ! vap\rs :i* arise2 9 ?is case1 !re=e1 in/ead ( receiv+ ! di/ill$ liquor imm$iately f ! beak1 ,,tu1 ( ! capital into a recipi5t1 a worm is int]pos$ betwe5 !m4 ,?is in/rum5t is repres5t$ ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #ah4 conta9$ 9 a worm tub ( t9n$ copp]1 x consi/s ( a metallic tube b5t into a consid]able numb] ( spiral revolutions4 ,! vessel :i* conta9s ! worm is kept full ( cold wat]1 :i* is r5ew$ z x gr[s w>m4 ,?is contrivance is employ$ 9 all di/ill]ies ( spirits1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( a capital & refrigetory1 prop]ly s call$4 ,! "o repres5t$ 9 ! plate is furni%$ ) two worms1 "o ( !m be+ p>ticul>ly appropriat$ to di/illations ( odorif]\s sub/ances4 ,9 "s simple di/illations x is necess>y to int]pose an adopt] betwe5 ! retort & receiv]1 z %[n ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig1 #aa4 ,?is may s]ve two diff]5t purposes1 ei!r to sep>ate two products ( diff]5t degrees ( volatility1 or to remove ! receiv] to a great] di/ance f ! furnace1 t x may be less heat$4 ,b ^!1 & sev]al o!r m complicat$ in/rum5ts ( anci5t contrivance1 are f> f produc+ ! accuracy requisite 9 mod]n *emi/ry1 z w be readily p]ceiv$ :5 ,i come to treat ( comp\nd di/illation4 ,,sect4 ,,vi4 ,( ,sublimation4 ,?is t]m is appli$ to ! di/illation ( sub/ances :i* cond5se 9 a concrete or solid =m1 su* z ! sublimation ( sulphur1 & ( muriat ( ammoniac1 or sal ammoniac4 ,^! op]ations may be conv5i5tly p]=m$ 9 ! ord9>y di/ill+ vessels already describ$1 ?\gh1 9 ! sublimation ( sulphur1 a species ( vessels1 nam$ ,alludels1 h be5 usually employ$4 ,^! are vessels ( /one or porcela9 w>e1 :i* adju/ to ea* o!r ov] a cucurbit conta9+ ! sulphur to be sublim$4 ,"o ( ! be/ sublim+ vessels1 = sub/ances :i* are n v volatile1 is a flask1 or phial ( glass1 sunk ab\t two ?irds into a s& ba?2 b 9 ?is way we are apt to lose a "p ( ! products4 ,:5 ^! are wi%$ to be entirely pres]v$1 we mu/ h rec\rse to ! pneumato-*emical di/ill+ app>atus1 to be describ$ 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,,*ap4 ,,vi4 ,( ,pneumato-*emical ,di/illations1 ,metallic ,dissolutions1 & "s o!r op]ations :i* require v complicat$ in/rum5ts4 ,,sect4 ,i4 ,( ,comp\nd & ,pneumato-*emical ,di/illations4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 ,i h only treat$ ( di/illation z a simple op]ation1 by :i* two sub/ances1 diff]+ 9 degrees ( volatility1 may be sep>at$ f ea* o!r2 b di/illation (t5 actually decomposes ! sub/ances submitt$ to its action1 & becomes "o ( ! mo/ complicat$ op]ations 9 *emi/ry4 ,9 e di/illation1 ! sub/ance di/ill$ mu/ be br\ght to ! /ate ( gas1 9 ! cucurbit or retort1 by comb9ation ) caloric3 ,9 simple di/illation1 ?is caloric is giv5 out 9 ! refrig]atory or 9 ! worm1 & ! sub/ance aga9 recov]s its liquid or solid =m1 b ! sub/ances submitt$ to comp\nd di/illation are absolutely decomp\nd$2 "o "p1 z = in/ance ! *>coal !y conta91 rema9s fix$ 9 ! retort1 & all ! re/ ( ! elem5ts are r$uc$ to gasses ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,"s ( ^! are susceptible ( be+ cond5s$1 & ( recov]+ _! solid or liquid =ms1 :il/ o!rs are p]man5tly ari=m2 "o "p ( ^! are absorbable by wat]1 "s by ! alkalies1 & o!rs are n susceptible ( be+ absorb$ at all4 ,an ord9>y di/ill+ app>atus1 su* z has be5 describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 is q insuffici5t = reta9+ or = sep>at+ ^! div]sifi$ products1 & we are oblig$ to h rec\rse1 = ?is purpose1 to me?ods ( a m complicat$ nature4 ,! app>atus ,i am ab\t to describe is calculat$ = ! mo/ complicat$ di/illations1 & may be simplifi$ accord+ to circum/ances4 ,x consi/s ( a tubulat$ glass retort ,a1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a4 hav+ its beak fitt$ to a tubulat$ balloon or recipi5t ,,bc2 to ! upp] orifice ,d ( ! balloon a b5t tube ,d,efg is adju/$1 :i*1 at its o!r extremity g1 is plung$ into ! liquor conta9$ 9 ! bottle ,l1 ) ?ree necks xxx4 ,?ree o!r simil> bottles are connect$ ) ?is fir/ "o1 by means ( ?ree simil> b5t tubes dispos$ 9 ! same mann]2 & ! f>!/ neck ( ! la/ bottle is connect$ ) a j> 9 a pneumato-*emical app>atus1 by means ( a b5t tube#fj4 ,a det]m9ate weight ( di/ill$ wat] is usually put into ! fir/ bottle1 & ! o!r ?ree h ea* a solution ( cau/ic pota% 9 wat]4 ,! weight ( all ^! bottles1 & ( ! wat] & alkal9e solution !y conta91 mu/ be accurately asc]ta9$4 ,e ?+ be+ ?us dispos$1 ! junctures betwe5 ! retort & recipi5t1 & ( ! tube ,d ( ! latt]1 mu/ be lut$ ) fat lute1 cov]$ ov] ) slips ( l951 spread ) lime & :ite ( egg2 all ! o!r junctures are to be secur$ by a lute made ( wax & ros9 melt$ toge!r4 ,:5 all ^! dispositions are complet$1 & :51 by means ( heat appli$ to ! retort ,a1 ! sub/ance x conta9s becomes decompos$1 x is evid5t t ! lea/ volatile products mu/ cond5se or sublime 9 ! beak or neck ( ! retort itself1 :]e mo/ ( ! concrete sub/ances w fix !mselves4 ,! m volatile sub/ances1 z ! light] oils1 ammoniac1 & sev]al o!rs1 w cond5se 9 ! recipi5t ,,gc1 :il/ ! gasses1 :i* are n susceptible ( cond5sation by cold1 w pass on by ! tubes1 & boil up ?r\gh ! liquors 9 ! sev]al bottles4 ,su* z are absorbable by wat] w rema9 9 ! fir/ bottle1 & ^? :i* cau/ic alkali c absorb w rema9 9 ! o!rs2 :il/ su* gasses z are n susceptible ( absorption1 ei!r by wat] or alkalies1 w escape by ! tube ,,rm1 at ! end ( :i* !y may be receiv$ into j>s 9 a pneumato-*emical app>atus4 ,! *>coal & fix$ e>?1 c4 :i* =m ! sub/ance or residuum1 anci5tly call$ caput mortuum1 rema9 beh9d 9 ! retort4 ,9 ?is mann] ( op]at+1 we h always a v mat]ial pro( ( ! accuracy ( ! analysis1 z ! :ole weights ( ! products tak5 toge!r1 aft] ! process is f9i%$1 mu/ be exactly equal to ! weight ( ! orig9al sub/ance submitt$ to di/illation4 ,h5ce1 = in/ance1 if we h op]at$ ^u eight ounces ( />* or gum arabic1 ! weight ( ! *>ry residuum 9 ! retort1 toge!r ) t ( all ! products ga!r$ 9 its neck & ! balloon1 & ( all ! gas receiv$ into ! j>s by ! tube ,,rm add$ to ! additional weight acquir$ by ! bottles1 mu/1 :5 tak5 toge!r1 be exactly eight ounces4 ,if ! product be less or m1 x proce$s f error1 & ! exp]im5t mu/ be repeat$ until a satisfactory result be procur$1 :i* ought n to diff] m ?an six or eight gra9s 9 ! p\nd f ! weight ( ! sub/ance submitt$ to exp]im5t4 ,9 exp]im5ts ( ?is k9d1 ,i = a long "t met ) an almo/ insurm\ntable difficulty1 :i* mu/ at la/ h oblig$ me to desi/ altoge!r1 b = a v simple me?od ( avoid+ x1 po9t$ out to me by ,mr ,hass5fratz4 ,! smalle/ dim9ution 9 ! heat ( ! furnace1 & _m o!r circum/ances insep>able f ?is k9d ( exp]im5ts1 cause frequ5t reabsorptions ( gas2 ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n ( ! pneumato-*emical app>atus ru%es into ! la/ bottle ?r\gh ! tube ,,rm1 ! same circum/ance happ5s f "o bottle into ano!r1 & ! fluid is (t5 =c$ ev5 into ! recipi5t ,c4 ,?is accid5t is prev5t$ by us+ bottles hav+ ?ree necks1 z repres5t$ 9 ! plate1 into "o ( :i*1 9 ea* bottle1 a capill>y glass-tube ,/1 /1 /1 /1 is adapt$1 s z to h its l[] extremity t imm]s$ 9 ! liquor4 ,if any absorption takes place1 ei!r 9 ! retort1 or 9 any ( ! bottles1 a suffici5t quantity ( ext]nal air ent]s1 by means ( ^! tubes1 to fill up ! void2 & we get rid ( ! inconv5i5ce at ! price ( hav+ a small mixture ( common air ) ! products ( ! exp]im5t1 :i* is !reby prev5t$ f fail+ altoge!r4 ,?\gh ^! tubes admit ! ext]nal air1 !y _c p]mit any ( ! gasse\s sub/ances to escape1 z !y are always %ut bel[ by ! wat] ( ! bottles4 ,x is evid5t t1 9 ! c\rse ( exp]im5ts ) ?is app>atus1 ! liquor ( ! bottles mu/ rise 9 ^! tubes 9 proportion to ! pressure su/a9$ by ! gas or air conta9$ 9 ! bottles2 & ?is pressure is det]m9$ by ! height & gravity ( ! column ( fluid conta9$ 9 all ! subsequ5t bottles4 ,if we suppose t ea* bottle conta9s ?ree in*es ( fluid1 & t !re are ?ree in*es ( wat] 9 ! ci/]n ( ! connect$ app>atus above ! orifice ( ! tube ,,rm1 & all[+ ! gravity ( ! fluids to be only equal to t ( wat]1 x foll[s t ! air 9 ! fir/ bottle mu/ su/a9 a pressure equal to twelve in*es ( wat]2 ! wat] mu/ !re=e rise twelve in*es 9 ! tube ,s1 connect$ ) ! fir/ bottle1 n9e in*es 9 t belong+ to ! second1 six in*es 9 ! ?ird1 & ?ree 9 ! la/2 :]e=e ^! tubes mu/ be made some:at m ?an twelve1 n9e1 six1 & ?ree in*es long respectively1 all[ance be+ made = oscillatory motions1 :i* (t5 take place 9 ! liquids4 ,x is sometimes necess>y to introduce a simil> tube betwe5 ! retort & recipi5t2 &1 z ! tube is n imm]s$ 9 fluid at its l[] extremity1 until "s has collect$ 9 ! progress ( ! di/illation1 its upp] end mu/ be %ut at fir/ ) a little lute1 s z to be op5$ accord+ to necessity1 or aft] !re is suffici5t liquid 9 ! recipi5t to secure its l[] extremity4 ,?is app>atus _c be us$ 9 v accurate exp]im5ts1 :5 ! sub/ances int5d$ to be op]at$ ^u h a v rapid action ^u ea* o!r1 or :5 "o ( !m c only be introduc$ 9 small successive portions1 z 9 su* z produce viol5t eff]vesc5ce :5 mix$ toge!r4 ,9 su* cases1 we employ a tubulat$ retort ,a1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 ,fig4 #a4 into :i* "o ( ! sub/ances is introduc$1 pref]r+ always ! solid body1 if any su* is to be treat$1 we !n lute to ! op5+ ( ! retort a b5t tube ,,bcda1 t]m9at+ at its upp] extremity ,b 9 a funnel1 & at its o!r end ,a 9 a capill>y op5+4 ,! fluid mat]ial ( ! exp]im5t is p\r$ into ! retort by means ( ?is funnel1 :i* mu/ be made ( su* a l5g?1 f ,b to ,c1 t ! column ( liquid introduc$ may c\nt]balance ! resi/ance produc$ by ! liquors conta9$ 9 all ! bottles1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a4 ,^? :o h n be5 accu/om$ to use ! above describ$ di/ill+ app>atus may p]haps be />tl$ at ! great numb] ( op5+s :i* require lut+1 & ! "t necess>y = mak+ all ! previ\s prep>ations 9 exp]im5ts ( ?is k9d4 ,x is v true t1 if we take into acc\nt all ! necess>y weigh+s ( mat]ials & products1 bo? be=e & aft] ! exp]im5ts1 ^! prep>atory & succe$+ /eps require mu* m "t & att5tion ?an ! exp]im5t itself4 ,b1 :5 ! exp]im5t succe$s prop]ly1 we are well rew>d$ = all ! "t & tr\ble be/[$1 z by "o process c>ri$ on 9 ?is accurate mann] mu* m j & ext5sive k is acquir$ ( ! nature ( ! vegetable or animal sub/ance ?us submitt$ to inve/igation1 ?an by _m weeks assidu\s lab\r 9 ! ord9>y me?od ( proce$+4 ,:5 9 want ( bottles ) ?ree orifices1 ^? ) two may be us$2 x is ev5 possible to introduce all ! ?ree tubes at "o op5+1 s z to employ ord9>y wide-m\!d bottles1 provid$ ! op5+ be suffici5tly l>ge4 ,9 ?is case we mu/ c>efully fit ! bottles ) corks v accurately cut1 & boil$ 9 a mixture ( oil1 wax1 & turp5t9e4 ,^! corks are pi]c$ ) ! necess>y holes = receiv+ ! tubes by means ( a r\nd file1 z 9 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #h4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 ,( ,metallic ,dissolutions4 ,i h already po9t$ out ! diff]5ce betwe5 solution ( salts 9 wat] & metallic dissolutions4 ,! =m] requires no p>ticul> vessels1 :]eas ! latt] requires v complicat$ vessels ( late inv5tion1 t we may n lose any ( ! products ( ! exp]im5t1 & may !reby procure truly conclusive results ( ! ph5om5a :i* occur4 ,! metals1 9 g5]al1 dissolve 9 acids ) eff]vesc5ce1 :i* is only a motion excit$ 9 ! solv5t by ! dis5gagem5t ( a great numb] ( bubbles ( air or ari=m fluid1 :i* proce$ f ! surface ( ! metal1 & break at ! surface ( ! liquid4 ,mr ,cav5di% & ,dr ,prie/ley 7 ! fir/ inv5tors ( a prop] app>atus = collect+ ^! ela/ic fluids4 ,t ( ,dr ,prie/ley is extremely simple1 & consi/s ( a bottle ,a1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 ,fig4 #b4 ) its cork ,b1 ?r\gh :i* passes ! b5t glass tube ,,bc1 :i* is engag$ "u a j> fill$ ) wat] 9 ! pneumato-*emical app>atus1 or simply 9 a bason full ( wat]4 ,! metal is fir/ introduc$ into ! bottle1 ! acid is !n p\r$ ov] x1 & ! bottle is in/antly clos$ ) its cork & tube1 z repres5t$ 9 ! plate4 ,b ?is app>atus has its inconv5i5cies4 ,:5 ! acid is mu* conc5trat$1 or ! metal mu* divid$1 ! eff]vesc5ce beg9s be=e we h "t to cork ! bottle prop]ly1 & "s gas escapes1 by :i* we are prev5t$ f asc]ta9+ ! quantity dis5gag$ ) rigor\s exactness4 ,9 ! next place1 :5 we are oblig$ to employ heat1 or :5 heat is produc$ by ! process1 a "p ( ! acid di/ills1 & mixes ) ! wat] ( ! pneumato-*emical app>atus1 by :i* means we are deceiv$ 9 our calculation ( ! quantity ( acid decompos$4 ,besides ^!1 ! wat] 9 ! ci/]n ( ! app>atus absorbs all ! gas produc$ :i* is susceptible ( absorption1 & r5d]s x impossible to collect ^! )\t loss4 ,to rem$y ^! inconv5i5cies1 ,i at fir/ us$ a bottle ) two necks1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 ,fig4 #c4 into "o ( :i* ! glass funnel ,,bc is lut$ s z to prev5t any air escap+2 a glass rod ,,de is fitt$ ) em]y to ! funnel1 s z to s]ve ! purpose ( a /opp]4 ,:5 x is us$1 ! matt] to be dissolv$ is fir/ introduc$ into ! bottle1 & ! acid is !n p]mitt$ to pass 9 z sl[ly z we please1 by rais+ ! glass rod g5tly z (t5 z is necess>y until saturation is produc$4 ,ano!r me?od has be5 s9ce employ$1 :i* s]ves ! same purpose1 & is pref]able to ! la/ describ$ 9 "s in/ances4 ,?is consi/s 9 adapt+ to "o ( ! m\?s ( ! bottle ,a1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 ,fig4 #d4 a b5t tube ,,defg1 hav+ a capill>y op5+ at ,d1 & end+ 9 a funnel at ,g4 ,?is tube is securely lut$ to ! m\? ,c ( ! bottle4 ,:5 any liquid is p\r$ into ! funnel1 x falls d[n to ,f2 &1 if a suffici5t quantity be add$1 x passes by ! curvature ,e1 & falls sl[ly into ! bottle1 s long z fre% liquor is suppli$ at ! funnel4 ,! liquor c nev] be =c$ out ( ! tube1 & no gas c escape ?r\gh x1 because ! weight ( ! liquid s]ves ! purpose ( an accurate cork4 ,to prev5t any di/illation ( acid1 especially 9 dissolutions accompani$ ) heat1 ?is tube is adapt$ to ! retort ,a1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 ,fig4 #a4 & a small tubulat$ recipi5t1 ,m1 is appli$1 9 :i* any liquor :i* may di/ill is cond5s$4 ,on purpose to sep>ate any gas t is absorbable by wat]1 we add ! d\ble neck$ bottle ,l1 half fill$ ) a solution ( cau/ic pota%2 ! alkali absorbs any c>bonic acid gas1 & usually only "o or two o!r gasses pass into ! j> ( ! connect$ pneumato-*emical app>atus ?r\gh ! tube ,,no4 ,9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ?is ?ird "p we h direct$ h[ ^! are to be sep>at$ & exam9$4 ,if "o bottle ( alkal9e solution be n ?\ght suffici5t1 two1 ?ree1 or m1 may be add$4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 ,app>atus necess>y 9 ,exp]im5ts ^u ,v9\s & ,putrefactive ,f]m5tations4 ,= ^! op]ations a peculi> app>atus1 especially int5d$ = ?is k9d ( exp]im5t1 is requisite4 ,! "o ,i am ab\t to describe is f9ally adopt$1 z ! be/ calculat$ = ! purpose1 aft] num]\s corrections & improvem5ts4 ,x consi/s ( a l>ge matrass1 ,a1 ,pl4 ,x4 fig4 #a4 hold+ ab\t twelve p9ts1 ) a cap ( brass a b1 /rongly cem5t$ to its m\?1 & into :i* is screw$ a b5t tube c d1 furni%$ ) a /op-cock e4 ,to ?is tube is jo9$ ! glass recipi5t ,b1 hav+ ?ree op5+s1 "o ( :i* communicates ) ! bottle ,c1 plac$ bel[ x4 ,to ! po/]ior op5+ ( ?is recipi5t is fitt$ a glass tube g h i1 cem5t$ at g & i to collets ( brass1 & int5d$ to conta9 a v deliquesc5t concrete neutral salt1 su* z nitrat or muriat ( lime1 acetite ( pota%1 c4 ,?is tube communicates ) two bottles ,d & ,e1 fill$ to x & y ) a solution ( cau/ic pota%4 ,all ! p>ts ( ?is ma*9e are jo9$ toge!r by accurate screws1 & ! t\*+ p>ts h greas$ lea!r int]pos$1 to prev5t any passage ( air4 ,ea* piece is likewise furni%$ ) two /op-cocks1 by :i* its two extremities may be clos$1 s t we c weigh ea* sep>ately at any p]iod ( ! op]ation4 ,! f]m5table matt]1 su* z sug>1 ) a prop] quantity ( yea/1 & dilut$ ) wat]1 is put into ! matrass4 ,sometimes1 :5 ! f]m5tation is too rapid1 a consid]able quantity ( fro? is produc$1 :i* n only fills ! neck ( ! matrass1 b passes into ! recipi5t1 & f !nce runs d[n into ! bottle ,c4 ,on purpose to collect ?is scum & mu/1 & to prev5t x f rea*+ ! tube fill$ ) deliquesc5t salts1 ! recipi5t & connect$ bottle are made ( consid]able capacity4 ,9 ! v9\s f]m5tation1 only c>bonic acid gas is dis5gag$1 c>ry+ ) x a small proportion ( wat] 9 solution4 ,a great "p ( ?is wat] is deposit$ 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! tube g h i1 :i* is fill$ ) a deliquesc5t salt 9 gross p[d]1 & ! quantity is asc]ta9$ by ! augm5tation ( ! weight ( ! salt4 ,! c>bonic acid gas bubbles up ?r\gh ! alkal9e solution 9 ! bottle ,d1 to :i* x is convey$ by ! tube k l m4 ,any small portion :i* may n be absorb$ by ?is fir/ bottle is secur$ by ! solution 9 ! second bottle ,e1 s t no?+1 9 g5]al1 passes into ! j> ,f1 except ! common air conta9$ 9 ! vessels at ! comm5cem5t ( ! exp]im5t4 ,! same app>atus answ]s extremely well = exp]im5ts ^u ! putrefactive f]m5tation2 b1 9 ?is case1 a consid]able quantity ( hydrog5 gas is dis5gag$ ?r\gh ! tube q r s t u1 by :i* x is convey$ into ! j> ,f2 &1 z ?is dis5gagem5t is v rapid1 especially 9 summ]1 ! j> mu/ be frequ5tly *ang$4 ,^! putrefactive f]m5tations require con/ant att5dance f ! above circum/ance1 :]eas ! v9\s f]m5tation h>dly ne$s any4 ,by means ( ?is app>atus we c asc]ta91 ) great precision1 ! weights ( ! sub/ances submitt$ to f]m5tation1 & ( ! liquid & ari=m products :i* are dis5gag$4 ,:at has be5 already said 9 ,"p ,i4 ,*ap4 ,,xiii4 ^u ! products ( ! v9\s f]m5tation1 may be consult$4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4 ,app>atus = ! ,decomposition ( ,wat]4 ,hav+ already giv5 an acc\nt1 9 ! fir/ "p ( ?is "w1 ( ! exp]im5ts relative to ! decomposition ( wat]1 ,i %all avoid any unnecess>y repetitions1 & only give a few summ>y obs]vations ^u ! subject 9 ?is section4 ,! pr9cipal sub/ances :i* h ! p[] ( decompos+ wat] are iron & *>coal2 = :i* purpose1 !y require to be made r$ hot1 o!rwise ! wat] is only r$uc$ into vap\rs1 & cond5ses aft]w>ds by refrig]ation1 )\t su/a9+ ! smalle/ alt]ation4 ,9 a r$ heat1 on ! contr>y1 iron or *>coal c>ry (f ! oxyg5 f its union ) hydrog52 9 ! fir/ case1 black oxyd ( iron is produc$1 & ! hydrog5 is dis5gag$ pure 9 =m ( gas2 9 ! o!r case1 c>bonic acid gas is =m$1 :i* dis5gages1 mix$ ) ! hydrog5 gas2 & ?is latt] is commonly c>bonat$1 or holds *>coal 9 solution4 ,a musket b>rel1 )\t its brea* p91 answ]s exce$+ly well = ! decomposition ( wat]1 by means ( iron1 & "o %\ld be *os5 ( consid]able l5g?1 & pretty /rong4 ,:5 too %ort1 s z to run ! risk ( heat+ ! lute too mu*1 a tube ( copp] is to be /rongly sold]$ to "o end4 ,! b>rel is plac$ 9 a long furnace1 ,,cdef1 ,pl4 ,,vii4 ,fig4 #aa4 s z to h a few degrees ( incl9ation f ,e to ,f2 a glass retort ,a1 is lut$ to ! upp] extremity ,e1 :i* conta9s wat]1 & is plac$ ^u ! furnace ,,vvxx4 ,! l[] extremity ,f is lut$ to a worm ,,ss1 :i* is connect$ ) ! tubulat$ bottle ,h1 9 :i* any wat] di/ill$ )\t decomposition1 dur+ ! op]ation1 collects1 & ! dis5gag$ gas is c>ri$ by ! tube ,,kk to j>s 9 a pneumato-*emical app>atus4 ,in/ead ( ! retort a funnel may be employ$1 hav+ its l[] "p %ut by a /op-cock1 ?r\gh :i* ! wat] is all[$ to drop gradually into ! gun-b>rel4 ,imm$iately ^u gett+ into contact ) ! heat$ "p ( ! iron1 ! wat] is conv]t$ into /eam1 & ! exp]im5t proce$s 9 ! same mann] z if x 7 furni%$ 9 vap\rs f ! retort4 ,9 ! exp]im5t made by ,mr ,meusni] & me be=e a committee ( ! ,academy1 we us$ e precaution to obta9 ! greate/ possible precision 9 ! result ( our exp]im5t1 hav+ ev5 exhau/$ all ! vessels employ$ be=e we began1 s t ! hydrog5 gas obta9$ might be free f any mixture ( azotic gas4 ,! results ( t exp]im5t w h]eaft] be giv5 at l>ge 9 a p>ticul> memoir4 ,9 num]\s exp]im5ts1 we are oblig$ to use tubes ( glass1 porcela91 or copp]1 in/ead ( gun-b>rels2 b glass has ! disadvantage ( be+ easily melt$ & flatt5$1 if ! heat be 9 ! smalle/ degree rais$ too high2 & porcela9 is mo/ly full ( small m9ute pores1 ?r\gh :i* ! gas escapes1 especially :5 compress$ by a column ( wat]4 ,= ^! reasons ,i procur$ a tube ( brass1 :i* ,mr de la ,bri*e got ca/ & bor$ out ( ! solid = me at ,/rasburg1 "u 8 own inspection4 ,?is tube is extremely conv5i5t = decompos+ alkohol1 :i* resolves into *>coal1 c>bonic acid gas1 & hydrog5 gas2 x may likewise be us$ ) ! same advantage = decompos+ wat] by means ( *>coal1 & 9 a great numb] ( exp]im5ts ( ?is nature4 ,,footnotes3 #fj ,! repres5tation ( ?is app>atus1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a4 w convey a mu* bett] idea ( its disposition ?an c possibly be giv5 by ! mo/ lab\r$ description4--,e4 ,,*ap4 ,,vii4 ,( ! ,composition & ,application ( ,lutes4 ,! necessity ( prop]ly secur+ ! junctures ( *emical vessels to prev5t ! escape ( any ( ! products ( exp]im5ts1 mu/ be suffici5tly app>5t2 = ?is purpose lutes are employ$1 :i* ought to be ( su* a nature z to be equally imp5etrable to ! mo/ subtile sub/ances1 z glass itself1 ?r\gh :i* only caloric c escape4 ,?is fir/ object ( lutes is v well accompli%$ by bees wax1 melt$ ) ab\t an eigh? "p ( turp5t9e4 ,?is lute is v easily manag$1 /icks v closely to glass1 & is v difficultly p5etrable2 x may be r5d]$ m consi/5t1 & less or m h>d or pliable1 by add+ diff]5t k9ds ( res9\s matt]s4 ,?\gh ?is species ( lute answ]s extremely well = reta9+ gasses & vap\rs1 !re are _m *emical exp]im5ts :i* produce consid]able heat1 by :i* ?is lute becomes liquifi$1 & consequ5tly ! expansive vap\rs mu/ v readily =ce ?r\gh & escape4 ,= su* cases1 ! foll[+ fat lute is ! be/ hi!rto discov]$1 ?\gh n )\t its disadvantages1 :i* %all be po9t$ out4 ,take v pure & dry unbak$ clay1 r$uc$ to a v f9e p[d]1 put ?is into a brass mort>1 & beat x = sev]al h\rs ) a heavy iron pe/le1 dropp+ 9 sl[ly "s boil$ l9tse$ oil2 ?is is oil :i* has be5 oxyg5at$1 & has acquir$ a dry+ quality1 by be+ boil$ ) li?>ge4 ,?is lute is m t5aci\s1 & applies bett]1 if amb] v>ni% be us$ in/ead ( ! above oil4 ,to make ?is v>ni%1 melt "s yell[ amb] 9 an iron laddle1 by :i* op]ation x loses a "p ( its succ9ic acid1 & ess5tial oil1 & mix x ) l9tse$ oil4 ,?\gh ! lute prep>$ ) ?is v>ni% is bett] ?an t made ) boil$ oil1 yet1 z its additional exp5ce is h>dly comp5sat$ by its sup]ior quality1 x is seldom us$4 ,! above fat lute is capable ( su/a9+ a v viol5t degree ( heat1 is imp5etrable by acids & spirit\s liquors1 & adh]es exce$+ly well to metals1 /one w>e1 or glass1 provid+ !y h be5 previ\sly r5d]$ p]fectly dry4 ,b if1 un=tunately1 any ( ! liquor 9 ! c\rse ( an exp]im5t gets ?r\gh1 ei!r betwe5 ! glass & ! lute1 or betwe5 ! lay]s ( ! lute itself1 s z to moi/5 ! "p1 x is extremely difficult to close ! op5+4 ,?is is ! *ief inconv5i5ce :i* att5ds ! use ( fat lute1 & p]haps ! only "o x is subject to4 ,z x is apt to s(t5 by heat1 we mu/ surr\nd all ! junctures ) slips ( wet bladd] appli$ ov] ! lut+1 & fix$ on by pack-?read ti$ r\nd bo? above & bel[ ! jo9t2 ! bladd]1 & consequ5tly ! lute bel[1 mu/ be f>!r secur$ by a numb] ( turns ( pack-?read all ov] x4 ,by ^! precautions1 we are free f e dang] ( accid5t2 & ! junctures secur$ 9 ?is mann] may be consid]$1 9 exp]im5ts1 z h]metically seal$4 ,x frequ5tly happ5s t ! figure ( ! junctures prev5ts ! application ( ligatures1 :i* is ! case ) ! ?ree-neck$ bottles =m]ly describ$2 & x ev5 requires great address to apply ! tw9e )\t %ak+ ! app>atus2 s t1 :]e a numb] ( junctures require lut+1 we are apt to displace sev]al :ile secur+ "o4 ,9 ^! cases1 we may sub/itute slips ( l951 spread ) :ite ( egg & lime mix$ toge!r1 in/ead ( ! wet bladd]4 ,^! are appli$ :ile /ill moi/1 & v spe$ily dry & acquire consid]able h>dness4 ,/rong glue dissolv$ 9 wat] may answ] in/ead ( :ite ( egg4 ,^! fillets are usefully appli$ likewise ov] junctures lut$ toge!r ) wax & ros94 ,be=e apply+ a lute1 all ! junctures ( ! vessels mu/ be accurately & firmly fitt$ to ea* o!r1 s z n to admit ( be+ mov$4 ,if ! beak ( a retort is to be lut$ to ! neck ( a recipi5t1 !y ought to fit pretty accurately2 o!rwise we mu/ fix !m1 by introduc+ %ort pieces ( s(t wood or ( cork4 ,if ! disproportion betwe5 ! two be v consid]able1 we mu/ employ a cork :i* fits ! neck ( ! recipi5t1 hav+ a circul> hole ( prop] dim5sions to admit ! beak ( ! retort4 ,! same precaution is necess>y 9 adapt+ b5t tubes to ! necks ( bottles 9 ! app>atus repres5t$ ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a4 & o!rs ( a simil> nature4 ,ea* m\? ( ea* bottle mu/ be fitt$ ) a cork1 hav+ a hole made ) a r\nd file ( a prop] size = conta9+ ! tube4 ,&1 :5 "o m\? is int5d$ to admit two or m tubes1 :i* frequ5tly happ5s :5 we h n a suffici5t numb] ( bottles ) two or ?ree necks1 we mu/ use a cork ) two or ?ree holes1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #h4 ,:5 ! :ole app>atus is ?us solidly jo9$1 s t no "p c play ^u ano!r1 we beg9 to lute4 ,! lute is s(t5$ by knead+ & roll+ x betwe5 ! f+]s1 ) ! assi/ance ( heat1 if necess>y4 ,x is roll$ into little cyl9drical pieces1 & appli$ to ! junctures1 tak+ great c>e to make x apply close1 & adh]e firmly1 9 e "p2 a second roll is appli$ ov] ! fir/1 s z to pass x on ea* side1 & s on till ea* juncture be suffici5tly cov]$2 aft] ?is1 ! slips ( bladd]1 or ( l951 z above direct$1 mu/ be c>efully appli$ ov] all4 ,?\gh ?is op]ation may appe> extremely simple1 yet x requires peculi> delicacy & managem5t2 great c>e mu/ be tak5 n to di/urb "o juncture :il/ lut+ ano!r1 & m especially :5 apply+ ! fillets & ligatures4 ,be=e beg9n+ any exp]im5t1 ! clos5ess ( ! lut+ ought always to be previ\sly tri$1 ei!r by slightly heat+ ! retort ,a1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #a1 or by bl[+ 9 a little air by "s ( ! p]p5dicul> tubes ,s s s s2 ! alt]ation ( pressure causes a *ange 9 ! level ( ! liquid 9 ^! tubes4 ,if ! app>atus be accurately lut$1 ?is alt]ation ( level w be p]man5t2 :]eas1 if !re be ! smalle/1 op5+ 9 any ( ! junctures1 ! liquid w v soon recov] its =m] level4 ,x mu/ always be rememb]$1 t ! :ole success ( exp]im5ts 9 mod]n *emi/ry dep5ds ^u ! exactness ( ?is op]ation1 :i* !re=e requires ! utmo/ pati5ce1 & mo/ att5tive accuracy4 ,x w\ld be ( inf9ite s]vice to enable *emi/s1 especially ^? :o are engag$ 9 pneumatic processes1 to disp5se ) ! use ( lutes1 or at lea/ to dim9i% ! numb] necess>y 9 complicat$ in/rum5ts4 ,i once ?\ght ( hav+ my app>atus con/ruct$ s z to unite 9 all its p>ts by fitt+ ) em]y1 9 ! way ( bottles ) cri/al /opp]s2 b ! execution ( ?is plan 0 extremely difficult4 ,i h s9ce ?\ght x pref]able to sub/itute columns ( a few l9es ( m]cury 9 place ( lutes1 & h got an app>atus con/ruct$ ^u ?is pr9ciple1 :i* appe>s capable ( v conv5i5t application 9 a great numb] ( circum/ances4 ,x consi/s ( a d\ble neck$ bottle ,a1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #ab42 ! int]ior neck bc communicates ) ! inside ( ! bottle1 & ! ext]ior neck or rim de leaves an int]val betwe5 ! two necks1 =m+ a deep gutt] int5d$ to conta9 ! m]cury4 ,! cap or lid ( glass ,b ent]s ?is gutt]1 & is prop]ly fitt$ to x1 hav+ not*es 9 its l[] edge = ! passage ( ! tubes :i* convey ! gas4 ,^! tubes1 in/ead ( ent]+ directly into ! bottles z 9 ! ord9>y app>atus1 h a d\ble b5d = mak+ !m ent] ! gutt]1 z repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #ac4 & = mak+ !m fit ! not*es ( ! cap ,b2 !y rise aga9 f ! gutt] to ent] ! inside ( ! bottle ov] ! bord] ( ! inn] m\?4 ,:5 ! tubes are dispos$ 9 _! prop] places1 & ! cap firmly fitt$ on1 ! gutt] is fill$ ) m]cury1 by :i* means ! bottle is completely exclud$ f any communication1 except+ ?r\gh ! tubes4 ,?is app>atus may be v conv5i5t 9 _m op]ations 9 :i* ! sub/ances employ$ h no action ^u ,m]cury4 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #ad4 repres5ts an app>atus ^u ?is pr9ciple prop]ly fitt$ toge!r4 ,mr ,segu91 to ^: active & intellig5t assi/ance ,i h be5 v frequ5tly mu* indebt$1 has bespok5 = me1 at ! glass-h\ses1 "s retorts h]metically unit$ to _! recipi5ts1 by :i* lut+ w be altoge!r unnecess>y4 ,,*ap4 ,,viii4 ,( ,op]ations ^u ,combu/ion & ,deflagration4 ,,sect4 ,i4 ,( ,combu/ion 9 g5]al4 ,combu/ion1 accord+ to :at has be5 already said 9 ! ,fir/ ,"p ( ?is ,"w1 is ! decomposition ( oxyg5 gas produc$ by a combu/ible body4 ,! oxyg5 :i* =ms ! base ( ?is gas is absorb$ by1 & ent]s into1 comb9ation ) ! burn+ body1 :ile ! caloric & light are set free4 ,e combu/ion1 !re=e1 necess>ily supposes oxyg5ation2 :]eas1 on ! contr>y1 e oxyg5ation does n necess>ily imply concomitant combu/ion2 because combu/ion1 prop]ly s call$1 _c take place )\t dis5gagem5t ( caloric & light4 ,be=e combu/ion c take place1 x is necess>y t ! base ( oxyg5 gas %\ld h great] aff9ity to ! combu/ible body ?an x has to caloric2 & ?is elective attraction1 to use ,b]gman's expression1 c only take place at a c]ta9 degree ( temp]ature1 :i* is diff]5t = ea* combu/ible sub/ance2 h5ce ! necessity ( giv+ a fir/ motion or beg9n+ to e combu/ion by ! approa* ( a heat$ body4 ,?is necessity ( heat+ any body we mean to burn dep5ds ^u c]ta9 consid]ations1 :i* h n hi!rto be5 att5d$ to by any natural philosoph]1 = :i* reason ,i %all enl>ge a little ^u ! subject 9 ?is place4 ,nature is at pres5t 9 a /ate ( equilibrium1 :i* _c h be5 atta9$ until all ! spontane\s combu/ions or oxyg5ations possible 9 ! ord9>y degrees ( temp]ature _h tak5 place4 ,h5ce1 no new combu/ions or oxyg5ations c happ5 )\t de/roy+ ?is equilibrium1 & rais+ ! combu/ible sub/ances to a sup]ior degree ( temp]ature4 ,to illu/rate ?is ab/ract view ( ! matt] by example3 ,let u suppose ! usual temp]ature ( ! e>? a little *ang$1 & t x is rais$ only to ! degree ( boil+ wat]2 x is evid5t1 t1 9 ?is case1 phosphorus1 :i* is combu/ible 9 a consid]ably l[] degree ( temp]ature1 w\ld no long] exi/ 9 nature 9 its pure & simple /ate1 b w\ld always be procur$ 9 its acid or oxyg5at$ /ate1 & its radical w\ld become "o ( ! sub/ances unkn[n to *emi/ry4 ,by gradually increas+ ! temp]ature ( ! e>? ! same circum/ance w\ld successively happ5 to all ! bodies capable ( combu/ion2 &1 at la/1 e possible combu/ion hav+ tak5 place1 !re w\ld no long] exi/ any combu/ible body :atev]1 z e sub/ance susceptible ( t op]ation w\ld be oxyg5at$1 & consequ5tly incombu/ible4 ,!re _c !re=e exi/1 s f> z relates to u1 any combu/ible body1 except su* z are incombu/ible 9 ! ord9>y temp]atures ( ! e>?2 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 9 o!r words1 t x is ess5tial to ! nature ( e combu/ible body n to possess ! prop]ty ( combu/ion1 unless heat$1 or rais$ to ! degree ( temp]ature at :i* its combu/ion naturally takes place4 ,:5 ?is degree is once produc$1 combu/ion comm5ces1 & ! caloric :i* is dis5gag$ by ! decomposition ( ! oxyg5 gas keeps up ! temp]ature necess>y = cont9u+ combu/ion4 ,:5 ?is is n ! case1 t is1 :5 ! dis5gag$ caloric is insuffici5t = keep+ up ! necess>y temp]ature1 ! combu/ion ceases3 ,?is circum/ance is express$ 9 common language by say+1 t a body burns ill1 or ) difficulty4 ,al?\gh combu/ion possesses "s circum/ances 9 common ) di/illation1 especially ) ! comp\nd k9d ( t op]ation1 !y diff] 9 a v mat]ial po9t4 ,9 di/illation !re is a sep>ation ( "o "p ( ! elem5ts ( ! sub/ance f ea* o!r1 & a comb9ation ( ^!1 9 a new ord]1 occasion$ by ! aff9ities :i* take place 9 ! increas$ temp]ature produc$ dur+ di/illation3 ,?is likewise happ5s 9 combu/ion1 b ) ?is f>!r circum/ance1 t a new elem5t1 n orig9ally 9 ! body1 is br\ght into action2 oxyg5 is add$ to ! sub/ance submitt$ to ! op]ation1 & caloric is dis5gag$4 ,! necessity ( employ+ oxyg5 9 ! /ate ( gas 9 all exp]im5ts ) combu/ion1 & ! rigor\s det]m9ation ( ! quantities employ$1 r5d] ?is k9d ( op]ations peculi>ly tr\blesome4 ,z almo/ all ! products ( combu/ion are dis5gag$ 9 ! /ate ( gas1 x is /ill m difficult to reta9 !m ?an ev5 ^? furni%$ dur+ comp\nd di/illation2 h5ce ?is precaution 0 entirely neglect$ by ! anci5t *emi/s2 & ?is set ( exp]im5ts exclusively belong to mod]n *emi/ry4 ,hav+ ?us po9t$ out1 9 a g5]al way1 ! objects to be _h 9 view 9 exp]im5ts ^u combu/ion1 ,i proce$1 9 ! foll[+ sections ( ?is *apt]1 to describe ! diff]5t in/rum5ts ,i h us$ ) ?is view4 ,! foll[+ arrangem5t is =m$1 n ^u ! nature ( ! combu/ible bodies1 b ^u t ( ! in/rum5ts necess>y = combu/ion4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 ,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,phosphorus4 ,9 ^! combu/ions we beg9 by fill+ a j>1 capable at lea/ ( hold+ six p9ts1 ) oxyg5 gas 9 ! wat] app>atus1 ,pl4 ,v4 ,fig4 #a42 :5 x is p]fectly full1 s t ! gas beg9s to fl[ out bel[1 ! j>1 ,a1 is c>ri$ to ! m]cury app>atus1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #c4 ,we !n dry ! surface ( ! m]cury1 bo? )9 & )\t ! j>1 by means ( blott+-pap]1 tak+ c>e to keep ! pap] = "s "t entirely imm]s$ 9 ! m]cury be=e x is introduc$ "u ! j>1 le/ we let 9 any common air1 :i* /icks v ob/9ately to ! surface ( ! pap]4 ,! body to be submitt$ to combu/ion1 be+ fir/ v accurately weigh$ 9 nice scales1 is plac$ 9 a small flat %all[ di%1 ,d1 ( iron or porcela92 ?is is cov]$ by ! l>g] cup ,p1 :i* s]ves ! (fice ( a div+ bell1 & ! :ole is pass$ ?r\gh ! m]cury into ! j>1 aft] :i* ! l>g] cup is retir$4 ,! difficulty ( pass+ ! mat]ials ( combu/ion 9 ?is mann] ?r\gh ! m]cury may be avoid$ by rais+ "o ( ! sides ( ! j>1 ,a1 = a mom5t1 & slipp+ 9 ! little cup1 ,d1 ) ! combu/ible body z quickly z possible4 ,9 ?is mann] ( op]at+1 a small quantity ( common air gets into ! j>1 b x is s v inconsid]able z n to injure ei!r ! progress or accuracy ( ! exp]im5t 9 any s5sible degree4 ,:5 ! cup1 ,d1 is introduc$ "u ! j>1 we suck out a "p ( ! oxyg5 gas1 s z to raise ! m]cury to ,,ef1 z =m]ly direct$1 ,"p ,i4 ,*ap4 ,v4 o!rwise1 :5 ! combu/ible body is set on fire1 ! gas becom+ dilat$ w\ld be 9 "p =c$ out1 & we %\ld no long] be able to make any accurate calculation ( ! quantities be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t4 ,a v conv5i5t mode ( draw+ out ! air is by means ( an air-pump syr+e adapt$ to ! syphon1 ,,ghi1 by :i* ! m]cury may be rais$ to any degree "u tw5ty-eight in*es4 ,v inflammable bodies1 z phosphorus1 are set on fire by means ( ! crook$ iron wire1 ,,mn1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #af4 made r$ hot1 & pass$ quickly ?r\gh ! m]cury4 ,su* z are less easily set on fire h a small portion ( t9d]1 ^u :i* a m9ute p>ticle ( phosphorus is fix$1 laid ^u !m be=e us+ ! r$ hot iron4 ,9 ! fir/ mom5t ( combu/ion ! air1 be+ heat$1 r>ifies1 & ! m]cury desc5ds2 b :51 z 9 combu/ions ( phosphorus & iron1 no ela/ic fluid is =m$1 absorption becomes pres5tly v s5sible1 & ! m]cury rises high into ! j>4 ,great att5tion mu/ be us$ n to burn too l>ge a quantity ( any sub/ance 9 a giv5 quantity ( gas1 o!rwise1 t[>ds ! end ( ! exp]im5t1 ! cup w\ld approa* s ne> ! top ( ! j> z to endang] break+ x by ! great heat produc$1 & ! sudd5 refrig]ation f ! cold m]cury4 ,= ! me?ods ( measur+ ! volume ( ! gasses1 & = correct+ ! measures accord+ to ! heigh? ( ! b>omet] & !rmomet]1 c4 see ,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,sect4 ,v4 & ,,vi4 ( ?is "p4 ,! above process answ]s v well = burn+ all ! concrete sub/ances1 & ev5 = ! fix$ oils3 ,^! la/ are burnt 9 lamps "u ! j>1 & are readily set on fire by means ( t9d]1 phosphorus1 & hot iron4 ,b x is dang]\s = sub/ances susceptible ( evaporat+ 9 a mod]ate heat1 su* z e!r1 alkohol1 & ! ess5tial oils2 ^! sub/ances dissolve 9 consid]able quantity 9 oxyg5 gas2 &1 :5 set on fire1 a dang]\s & sudd5 explosion takes place1 :i* c>ries up ! j> to a great height1 & da%es x 9 a ?\s& pieces4 ,f two su* explosions "s ( ! memb]s ( ! ,academy & myself escap$ v n>r[ly4 ,besides1 ?\gh ?is mann] ( op]at+ is suffici5t = det]m9+ pretty accurately ! quantity ( oxyg5 gas absorb$1 & ( c>bonic acid produc$1 z wat] is likewise =m$ 9 all exp]im5ts ^u vegetable & animal matt]s :i* conta9 an excess ( hydrog51 ?is app>atus c nei!r collect x nor det]m9e its quantity4 ,! exp]im5t ) phosphorus is ev5 incomplete 9 ?is way1 z x is impossible to demon/rate t ! weight ( ! phosphoric acid produc$ is equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! phosphorus burnt & oxyg5 gas absorb$ dur+ ! process4 ,i h be5 !re=e oblig$ to v>y ! in/rum5ts accord+ to circum/ances1 & to employ sev]al ( diff]5t k9ds1 :i* ,i %all describe 9 _! ord]1 beg9n+ ) t us$ = burn+ phosphorus4 ,take a l>ge balloon1 ,a1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #d4 ( cri/al or :ite glass1 ) an op5+1 ,,ef1 ab\t two in*es & a half1 or ?ree in*es1 diamet]1 to :i* a cap ( brass is accurately fitt$ ) em]y1 & :i* has two holes = ! passage ( ! tubes xxx1 yyy4 ,be=e %utt+ ! balloon ) its cov]1 place )9 x ! /&1 ,,bc1 support+ ! cup ( porcela91 ,d1 :i* conta9s ! phosphorus4 ,!n lute on ! cap ) fat lute1 & all[ x to dry = "s days1 & weigh ! :ole accurately2 aft] ?is exhau/ ! balloon by means ( an air-pump connect$ ) ! tube xxx1 & fill x ) oxyg5 gas by ! tube yyy1 f ! gazomet]1 ,pl4 ,,viii4 ,fig4 #a4 describ$ ,*ap4 ,,ii4 ,sect ,,ii4 ( ?is "p4 ,! phosphorus is !n set on fire by means ( a burn+-glass1 & is all[$ to burn till ! cl\d ( concrete phosphoric acid /ops ! combu/ion1 oxyg5 gas be+ cont9ually suppli$ f ! gazomet]4 ,:5 ! app>atus has cool$1 x is weigh$ & unlut$2 ! t>e ( ! in/rum5t be+ all[$1 ! weight is t ( ! phosphoric acid conta9$4 ,x is prop]1 = great] accuracy1 to exam9e ! air or gas conta9$ 9 ! balloon aft] combu/ion1 z x may happ5 to be some:at heavi] or light] ?an common air2 & ?is diff]5ce ( weight mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! calculations ^u ! results ( ! exp]im5t4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 ,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,*>coal4 ,! app>atus ,i h employ$ = ?is process consi/s ( a small conical furnace ( hamm]$ copp]1 repres5t$ 9 p]spective1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #i4 & int]nally display$ ,fig4 #aa4 ,x is divid$ into ! furnace1 ,,abc1 :]e ! *>coal is burnt1 ! grate1 d e1 & ! a%-hole1 ,f2 ! tube1 ,,gh1 9 ! middle ( ! dome ( ! furnace s]ves to introduce ! *>coal1 & z a *imney = c>ry+ (f ! air :i* has s]v$ = combu/ion4 ,?r\gh ! tube1 l m n1 :i* communicates ) ! gazomet]1 ! hydrog5 gas1 or air1 int5d$ = support+ ! combu/ion1 is convey$ into ! a%-hole1 ,f1 :5ce x is =c$1 by ! application ( pressure to ! gazomet]1 to pass ?r\gh ! grate1 d e1 & to bl[ ^u ! burn+ *>coal plac$ imm$iately above4 ,oxyg5 gas1 :i* =ms #bh_/ajj ( atmosph]ic air1 is *ang$ into c>bonic acid gas dur+ combu/ion ) *>coal1 :il/ ! azotic gas ( ! air is n alt]$ at all4 ,h5ce1 aft] ! combu/ion ( *>coal 9 atmosph]ic air1 a mixture ( c>bonic acid gas & azotic gas mu/ rema92 to all[ ?is mixture to pass (f1 ! tube1 o p1 is adapt$ to ! *imney1 ,,gh1 by means ( a screw at ,g1 & conveys ! gas into bottles half fill$ ) solution ( cau/ic pota%4 ,! c>bonic acid gas is absorb$ by ! alkali1 & ! azotic gas is convey$ into a second gazomet]1 :]e its quantity is asc]ta9$4 ,! weight ( ! furnace1 ,,abc1 is fir/ accurately det]m9$1 !n introduce ! tube ,,rs1 ( kn[n weight1 by ! *imney1 ,,gh1 till its l[] end ,s1 re/s ^u ! grate1 d e1 :i* x occupies entirely2 9 ! next place1 fill ! furnace ) *>coal1 & weigh ! :ole aga91 to "k ! exact quantity ( *>coal submitt$ to exp]im5t4 ,! furnace is n[ put 9 its place1 ! tube1 l m n1 is screw$ to t :i* communicates ) ! gazomet]1 & ! tube1 o p1 to t :i* communicates ) ! bottles ( alkal9e solution4 ,e ?+ be+ 9 read9ess1 ! /op-cock ( ! gazomet] is op5$1 a small piece ( burn+ *>coal is ?r[n into ! tube1 ,,rs1 :i* is in/antly )drawn1 & ! tube1 o p1 is screw$ to ! *imney1 ,,gh4 ,! little piece ( *>coal falls ^u ! grate1 & 9 ?is mann] gets bel[ ! :ole *>coal1 & is kept on fire by ! /ream ( air f ! gazomet]4 ,to be c]ta9 t ! combu/ion is begun1 & goes on prop]ly1 ! tube1 q r s1 is fix$ to ! furnace1 hav+ a piece ( glass cem5t$ to its upp] extremity1 s1 ?r\gh :i* we c see if ! *>coal be on fire4 ,i neglect$ to obs]ve above1 t ! furnace1 & its app5dages1 are plung$ 9 wat] 9 ! ci/]n1 ,,tvxy1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,pl4 ,,xii4 to :i* ice may be add$ to mod]ate ! heat1 if necess>y2 ?\gh ! heat is by no means v consid]able1 z !re is no air b :at comes f ! gazomet]1 & no m ( ! *>coal burns at "o "t ?an :at is imm$iately ov] ! grate4 ,z "o piece ( *>coal is consum$ ano!r falls d[n into its place1 9 consequ5ce ( ! declivity ( ! sides ( ! furnace2 ?is gets into ! /ream ( air f ! grate1 d e1 & is burnt2 & s on1 successively1 till ! :ole *>coal is consum$4 ,! air :i* has s]v$ ! purpose ( ! combu/ion passes ?r\gh ! mass ( *>coal1 & is =c$ by ! pressure ( ! gazomet] to escape ?r\gh ! tube1 o p1 & to pass ?r\gh ! bottles ( alkal9e solution4 ,?is exp]im5t furni%es all ! necess>y data = a complete analysis ( atmosph]ic air & ( *>coal4 ,we "k ! weight ( *>coal consum$2 ! gazomet] gives u ! measure ( ! air employ$2 ! quantity & quality ( gas rema9+ aft] combu/ion may be det]m9$1 z x is receiv$1 ei!r 9 ano!r gazomet]1 or 9 j>s1 9 a pneumato-*emical app>atus2 ! weight ( a%es rema9+ 9 ! a%-hole is readily asc]ta9$2 &1 f9ally1 ! additional weight acquir$ by ! bottles ( alkal9e solution gives ! exact quantity ( c>bonic acid =m$ dur+ ! process4 ,by ?is exp]im5t we may likewise det]m9e1 ) suffici5t accuracy1 ! proportions 9 :i* *>coal & oxyg5 ent] into ! composition ( c>bonic acid4 ,9 a future memoir ,i %all give an acc\nt to ! ,academy ( a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ,i h und]tak51 ) ?is in/rum5t1 ^u all ! vegetable & animal *>coals4 ,by "s v slight alt]ations1 ?is ma*9e may be made to answ] = obs]v+ ! pr9cipal ph5om5a ( respiration4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4 ,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,oils4 ,oils are m comp\nd 9 _! nature ?an *>coal1 be+ =m$ by ! comb9ation ( at lea/ two elem5ts1 *>coal & hydrog52 ( c\rse1 aft] _! combu/ion 9 common air1 wat]1 c>bonic acid gas1 & azotic gas1 rema94 ,h5ce ! app>atus employ$ = _! combu/ion requires to be adapt$ = collect+ ^! ?ree products1 & is consequ5tly m complicat$ ?an ! *>coal furnace4 ,! app>atus ,i employ = ?is purpose is compos$ ( a l>ge j> or pit*] ,a1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #d4 surr\nd$ at its upp] edge by a rim ( iron prop]ly cem5t$ at ,,de1 & rec$+ f ! j> at ,,bc1 s z to leave a furr[ or gutt] xx1 betwe5 x & ! outside ( ! j>1 some:at m ?an two in*es deep4 ,! cov] or lid ( ! j>1 ,fig4 #e4 is likewise surr\nd$ by an iron rim f g1 :i* adju/s into ! gutt] xx1 ,fig4 #d4 :i* be+ fill$ ) m]cury1 has ! effect ( clos+ ! j> h]metically 9 an in/ant1 )\t us+ any lute2 &1 z ! gutt] w hold ab\t two in*es ( m]cury1 ! air 9 ! j> may be made to su/a9 ! pressure ( m ?an two feet ( wat]1 )\t dang] ( its escap+4 ,! lid has f\r holes1 ,t h i k1 = ! passage ( an equal numb] ( tubes4 ,! op5+ ,t is furni%$ ) a lea!r box1 ?r\gh :i* passes ! rod1 ,fig4 #c4 int5d$ = rais+ & l[]+ ! wick ( ! lamp1 z w be aft]w>ds direct$4 ,! ?ree o!r holes are int5d$ = ! passage ( ?ree sev]al tubes1 "o ( :i* conveys ! oil to ! lamp1 a second conveys air = keep+ up ! combu/ion1 & ! ?ird c>ries (f ! air1 aft] x has s]v$ = combu/ion4 ,! lamp 9 :i* ! oil is burnt is repres5t$ ,fig4 #b2 a is ! res]voir ( oil1 hav+ a funnel by :i* x is fill$2 b c d e f g h is a syphon :i* conveys ! oil to ! lamp #aa2 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 is ! tube :i* conveys ! air = combu/ion f ! gazomet] to ! same lamp4 ,! tube b c is =m$ ext]nally1 at its l[] end b1 into a male screw1 :i* turns 9 a female screw 9 ! lid ( ! res]voir ( oil a2 s t1 by turn+ ! res]voir "o way or ! o!r1 x is made to rise or fall1 by :i* ! oil is kept at ! necess>y level4 ,:5 ! syphon is to be fill$1 & ! communication =m$ betwe5 ! res]voir ( oil & ! lamp1 ! /op-cock c is %ut1 & t at e op5$1 oil is p\r$ 9 by ! op5+ f at ! top ( ! syphon1 till x rises )9 ?ree or f\r l9es ( ! upp] edge ( ! lamp1 ! /op-cock k is !n %ut1 & t at c op5$2 ! oil is !n p\r$ 9 at f1 till ! bran* b c d ( ! syphon is fill$1 & !n ! /op-cock e is clos$4 ,! two bran*es ( ! syphon be+ n[ completely fill$1 a communication is fully e/abli%$ betwe5 ! res]voir & ! lamp4 ,9 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #a4 all ! p>ts ( ! lamp #aa1 ,fig4 #b4 are repres5t$ magnifi$1 to %[ !m di/9ctly4 ,! tube i k c>ries ! oil f ! res]voir to ! cavity a a a a1 :i* conta9s ! wick2 ! tube #i1 #aj1 br+s ! air f ! gazomet] = keep+ up ! combu/ion2 ?is air spreads ?r\gh ! cavity d d d d1 &1 by means ( ! passages c c c c & b b b b1 is di/ribut$ on ea* side ( ! wick1 aft] ! pr9ciples ( ! lamps con/ruct$ by ,arg&1 ,qu9quet1 & ,lange4 ,to r5d] ! :ole ( ?is complicat$ app>atus m easily und]/ood1 & t its description may make all o!rs ( ! same k9d m readily foll[$1 x is repres5t$1 completely connect$ toge!r = use1 9 ,pl4 ,,xi4 ,! gazomet] ,p furni%es air = ! combu/ion by ! tube & /op-cock #a1 #b2 ! tube #b1 #c1 communicates ) a second gazomet]1 :i* is fill$ :il/ ! fir/ "o is empty+ dur+ ! process1 t !re may be no int]ruption to ! combu/ion2 #d1 #e1 is a tube ( glass fill$ ) deliquesc5t salts1 = dry+ ! air z mu* z possible 9 its passage2 & ! weight ( ?is tube & its conta9$ salts1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! exp]im5t1 be+ kn[n1 x is easy to det]m9e ! quantity ( wat] absorb$ by !m f ! air4 ,f ?is deliquesc5t tube ! air is conduct$ ?r\gh ! pipe #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 to ! lamp #aa1 :]e x spreads on bo? sides ( ! wick1 z be=e describ$1 & fe$s ! flame4 ,"o "p ( ?is air1 :i* s]ves to keep up ! combu/ion ( ! oil1 =ms c>bonic acid gas & wat]1 by oxyg5at+ its elem5ts4 ,"p ( ?is wat] cond5ses ^u ! sides ( ! pit*] ,a1 & ano!r "p is held 9 solution 9 ! air by means ( caloric furni%$ by ! combu/ion4 ,?is air is =c$ by ! compression ( ! gazomet] to pass ?r\gh ! tube #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 into ! bottle #af1 & ! worm #ag1 #ah1 :]e ! wat] is fully cond5s$ f ! refrig]ation ( ! air2 &1 if any wat] /ill rema9s 9 solution1 x is absorb$ by deliquesc5t salts conta9$ 9 ! tube #ai1 #bj4 ,all ^! precautions are solely int5d$ = collect+ & det]m9+ ! quantity ( wat] =m$ dur+ ! exp]im5t2 ! c>bonic acid & azotic gas rema9s to be asc]ta9$4 ,! =m] is absorb$ by cau/ic alkal9e solution 9 ! bottles #bb & #be4 ,i h only repres5t$ two ( ^! 9 ! figure1 b n9e at lea/ are requisite2 & ! la/ ( ! s]ies may be half fill$ ) lime-wat]1 :i* is ! mo/ c]ta9 reag5t = indicat+ ! pres5ce ( c>bonic acid2 if ! lime-wat] is n r5d]$ turbid1 we may be c]ta9 t no s5sible quantity ( t acid rema9s 9 ! air4 ,! re/ ( ! air :i* has s]v$ = combu/ion1 & :i* *iefly consi/s ( azotic gas1 ?\gh /ill mix$ ) a consid]able portion ( oxyg5 gas1 :i* has escap$ un*ang$ f ! combu/ion1 is c>ri$ ?r\gh a ?ird tube #bh1 #bi1 ( deliquesc5t salts1 to deprive x ( any moi/ure x may h acquir$ 9 ! bottles ( alkal9e solution & lime-wat]1 & f !nce by ! tube #bi1 #cj1 into a gazomet]1 :]e its quantity is asc]ta9$4 ,small essays are !n tak5 f x1 :i* are expos$ to a solution ( sulphuret ( pota%1 to asc]ta9 ! proportions ( oxyg5 & azotic gas x conta9s4 ,9 ! combu/ion ( oils ! wick becomes *>r$ at la/1 & ob/ructs ! rise ( ! oil2 besides1 if we raise ! wick above a c]ta9 height1 m oil rises ?r\gh its capill>y tubes ?an ! /ream ( air is capable ( consum+1 & smoke is produc$4 ,h5ce x is necess>y to be able to l5g!n or %ort5 ! wick )\t op5+ ! app>atus2 ?is is accompli%$ by means ( ! rod #ca1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 :i* passes ?r\gh a lea!r-box1 & is connect$ ) ! support ( ! wick2 & t ! motion ( ?is rod1 & consequ5tly ( ! wick1 may be regulat$ ) ! utmo/ smoo?ness & facility2 x is mov$ at pleasure by a p9nion :i* plays 9 a too!d rack4 ,! rod1 ) its app5dages1 are repres5t$ ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #c4 ,x appe>$ to me1 t ! combu/ion w\ld be assi/$ by surr\nd+ ! flame ( ! lamp ) a small glass j> op5 at bo? ends1 z repres5t$ 9 its place 9 ,pl4 ,,xi4 ,i %all n ent] into a m detail$ description ( ! con/ruction ( ?is app>atus1 :i* is /ill capable ( be+ alt]$ & modifi$ 9 _m respects1 b %all only add1 t :5 x is to be us$ 9 exp]im5t1 ! lamp & res]voir ) ! conta9$ oil mu/ be accurately weigh$1 aft] :i* x is plac$ z be=e direct$1 & light$2 hav+ !n =m$ ! connection betwe5 ! air 9 ! gazomet] & ! lamp1 ! ext]nal j> ,a1 ,pl4 ,,xi4 is fix$ ov] all1 & secur$ by means ( ! bo>d ,,bc & two rods ( iron :i* connect ?is bo>d ) ! lid1 & are screw$ to x4 ,a small quantity ( oil is burnt :ile ! j> is adju/+ to ! lid1 & ! product ( t combu/ion is lo/2 !re is likewise a small portion ( air f ! gazomet] lo/ at ! same "t4 ,bo? ( ^! are ( v inconsid]able consequ5ce 9 ext5sive exp]im5ts1 & !y are ev5 capable ( be+ valu$ 9 our calculation ( ! results4 ,9 a p>ticul> memoir1 ,i %all give an acc\nt to ! ,academy ( ! difficulties insep>able f ?is k9d ( exp]im5ts3 ,^! are s insurm\ntable & tr\blesome1 t ,i h n hi!rto be5 able to obta9 any rigor\s det]m9ation ( ! quantities ( ! products4 ,i h suffici5t pro(1 h[ev]1 t ! fix$ oils are entirely resolv$ dur+ combu/ion into wat] & c>bonic acid gas1 & consequ5tly t !y are compos$ ( hydrog5 & *>coal2 b ,i h no c]ta9 k respect+ ! proportions ( ^! +r$i5ts4 ,,sect4 ,v4 ,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,alkohol4 ,! combu/ion ( alkohol may be v readily p]=m$ 9 ! app>atus already describ$ = ! combu/ion ( *>coal & phosphorus4 ,a lamp fill$ ) alkohol is plac$ "u ! j> ,a1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #c4 a small morsel ( phosphorus is plac$ ^u ! wick ( ! lamp1 :i* is set on fire by means ( ! hot iron1 z be=e direct$4 ,?is process is1 h[ev]1 liable to consid]able inconv5i5cy2 x is dang]\s to make use ( oxyg5 gas at ! beg9n+ ( ! exp]im5t = fe> ( deflagration1 :i* is ev5 liable to happ5 :5 common air is employ$4 ,an in/ance ( ?is _h v ne> prov$ fatal to myself1 9 pres5ce ( "s memb]s ( ! ,academy4 ,in/ead ( prep>+ ! exp]im5t1 z usual1 at ! "t x 0 to be p]=m$1 ,i _h dispos$ e ?+ 9 ord] ! ev5+ be=e2 ! atmosph]ic air ( ! j> _h !reby suffici5t "t to dissolve a good deal ( ! alkohol2 & ?is evaporation _h ev5 be5 consid]ably promot$ by ! height ( ! column ( m]cury1 :i* ,i _h rais$ to ,,ef1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #c4 ,! mom5t ,i attempt$ to set ! little morsel ( phosphorus on fire by means ( ! r$ hot iron1 a viol5t explosion took place1 :i* ?rew ! j> ) great viol5ce aga9/ ! floor ( ! laboratory1 & da%$ x 9 a ?\s& pieces4 ,h5ce we c only op]ate ^u v small quantities1 su* z t5 or twelve gra9s ( alkohol1 9 ?is mann]2 & ! errors :i* may be committ$ 9 exp]im5ts ^u su* small quantities prev5ts our plac+ any confid5ce 9 _! results4 ,i endeav\r$ to prolong ! combu/ion1 9 ! exp]im5ts conta9$ 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghd1 p4 #eic4 by light+ ! alkohol fir/ 9 common air1 & furni%+ oxyg5 gas aft]w>ds to ! j>1 9 proportion z x consum$2 b ! c>bonic acid gas produc$ by ! process became a great h9d]ance to ! combu/ion1 ! m s t alkohol is b difficultly combu/ible1 especially 9 worse ?an common air2 s t ev5 9 ?is way v small quantities only c\ld be burnt4 ,p]haps ?is combu/ion might succe$ bett] 9 ! oil app>atus1 ,pl4 ,,xi42 b ,i h n hi!rto v5tur$ to try x4 ,! j> ,a 9 :i* ! combu/ion is p]=m$ is ne> #adjj cubical in*es 9 dim5sion2 &1 7 an explosion to take place 9 su* a vessel1 its consequ5ces w\ld be v t]rible1 & v difficult to gu>d aga9/4 ,i h n1 h[ev]1 despair$ ( mak+ ! attempt4 ,f all ^! difficulties1 ,i h be5 hi!rto oblig$ to conf9e myself to exp]im5ts ^u v small quantities ( alkohol1 or at lea/ to combu/ions made 9 op5 vessels1 su* z t repres5t$ 9 ,pl4 ,,ix4 ,fig4 #e4 :i* w be describ$ 9 ,section ,,vii4 ( ?is *apt]4 ,if ,i am ev] able to remove ^! difficulties1 ,i %all resume ?is inve/igation4 ,,sect4 ,,vi4 ,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,e!r4 ,?o' ! combu/ion ( e!r 9 close vessels does n pres5t ! same difficulties z t ( alkohol1 yet x involves "s ( a diff]5t k9d1 n m easily ov]come1 & :i* /ill prev5t ! progress ( my exp]im5ts4 ,i endeav\r$ to pr(it by ! prop]ty :i* e!r possesses ( dissolv+ 9 atmosph]ic air1 & r5d]+ x inflammable )\t explosion4 ,= ?is purpose1 ,i con/ruct$ ! res]voir ( e!r a b c d1 ,plate ,,xii4 ,fig4 #h4 to :i* air is br\ght f ! gazomet] by ! tube #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,?is air spreads1 9 ! fir/ place1 9 ! d\ble lid ac ( ! res]voir1 f :i* x passes ?r\gh sev5 tubes ef1 gh1 ik1 c4 :i* desc5d to ! bottom ( ! e!r1 & x is =c$ by ! pressure ( ! gazomet] to boil up ?r\gh ! e!r 9 ! res]voir4 ,we may replace ! e!r 9 ?is fir/ res]voir1 9 proportion z x is dissolv$ & c>ri$ (f by ! air1 by means ( ! supplem5t>y res]voir ,e1 connect$ by a brass tube fifte5 or eighte5 in*es long1 & %ut by a /op-cock4 ,?is l5g? ( ! connect+ tube is to enable ! desc5d+ e!r to ov]come ! resi/ance occasion$ by ! pressure ( ! air f ! gazomet]4 ,! air1 ?us load$ ) vap\rs ( e!r1 is conduct$ by ! tube #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 to ! j> ,a1 into :i* x is all[$ to escape ?r\gh a capill>y op5+1 at ! extremity ( :i* x is set on fire4 ,! air1 :5 x has s]v$ ! purpose ( combu/ion1 passes ?r\gh ! bottle #af1 ,pl4 ,,xi4 ! worm #ag1 #ah1 & ! deliquesc5t tube #ai1 #bj1 aft] :i* x passes ?r\gh ! alkal9e bottles2 9 ^! its c>bonic acid gas is absorb$1 ! wat] =m$ dur+ ! exp]im5t hav+ be5 previ\sly deposit$ 9 ! =m] p>ts ( ! app>atus4 ,:5 ,i caus$ con/ruct ?is app>atus1 ,i suppos$ t ! comb9ation ( atmosph]ic air & e!r =m$ 9 ! res]voir a b c d1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #h4 0 9 prop] proportion = support+ combu/ion2 b 9 ?is ,i 0 mi/ak52 = !re is a v consid]able quantity ( excess ( e!r2 s t an additional quantity ( atmosph]ic air is necess>y to enable x to burn fully4 ,h5ce a lamp con/ruct$ ^u ^! pr9ciples w burn 9 common air1 :i* furni%es ! quantity ( oxyg5 necess>y = combu/ion1 b w n burn 9 close vessels 9 :i* ! air is n r5ew$4 ,f ?is circum/ance1 my e!r lamp w5t out soon aft] be+ light$ & %ut up 9 ! j> ,a1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #h4 ,to rem$y ?is defect1 ,i endeav\r$ to br+ atmosph]ic air to ! lamp by ! lat]al tube #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 :i* ,i di/ribut$ circul>ly r\nd ! flame2 b ! flame is s exce$+ly r>e1 t x is bl[n out by ! g5tle/ possible /ream ( air1 s t ,i h n hi!rto succe$$ 9 burn+ e!r4 ,i d n1 h[ev]1 despair ( be+ able to accompli% x by means ( "s *anges ,i am ab\t to h made ^u ?is app>atus4 ,,sect4 ,,vii4 ,( ! ,combu/ion ( ,hydrog5 ,gas1 & ! ,=mation ( ,wat]4 ,9 ! =mation ( wat]1 two sub/ances1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 :i* are bo? 9 ! ari=m /ate be=e combu/ion1 are trans=m$ into liquid or wat] by ! op]ation4 ,?is exp]im5t w\ld be v easy1 & w\ld require v simple in/rum5ts1 if x 7 possible to procure ! two gasses p]fectly pure1 s t !y might burn )\t any residuum4 ,we might1 9 t case1 op]ate 9 v small vessels1 &1 by cont9ually furni%+ ! two gasses 9 prop] proportions1 might cont9ue ! combu/ion indef9itely4 ,b1 hi!rto1 *emi/s h only employ$ oxyg5 gas1 mix$ ) azotic gas2 f :i* circum/ance1 !y h only be5 able to keep up ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas = a v limit$ "t 9 close vessels1 because1 z ! residuum ( azotic gas is cont9ually increas+1 ! air becomes at la/ s mu* contam9at$1 t ! flame weak5s & goes out4 ,?is inconv5i5ce is s mu* ! great] 9 proportion z ! oxyg5 gas employ$ is less pure4 ,f ?is circum/ance1 we mu/ ei!r be satisfi$ ) op]at+ ^u small quantities1 or mu/ exhau/ ! vessels at int]vals1 to get rid ( ! residuum ( azotic gas2 b1 9 ?is case1 a portion ( ! wat] =m$ dur+ ! exp]im5t is evaporat$ by ! exhau/ion2 & ! result+ error is ! m dang]\s to ! accuracy ( ! process1 t we h no c]ta9 means ( valu+ x4 ,^! consid]ations make me desir\s to repeat ! pr9cipal exp]im5ts ( pneumatic *emi/ry ) oxyg5 gas entirely free f any admixture ( azotic gas2 & ?is may be procur$ f oxyg5at$ muriat ( pota%4 ,! oxyg5 gas extract$ f ?is salt does n appe> to conta9 azote1 unless accid5tally1 s t1 by prop] precautions1 x may be obta9$ p]fectly pure4 ,9 ! mean "t1 ! app>atus employ$ by ,mr ,meusni] & me = ! combu/ion ( hydrog5 gas1 :i* is describ$ 9 ! exp]im5t = recomposition ( wat]1 ,"p ,i4 ,*ap4 ,,viii4 & ne$ n be "h repeat$1 w answ] ! purpose2 :5 pure gasses are procur$1 ?is app>atus w require no alt]ations1 except t ! capacity ( ! vessels may !n be dim9i%$4 ,see ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #e4 ,! combu/ion1 :5 once begun1 cont9ues = a consid]able "t1 b weak5s gradually1 9 proportion z ! quantity ( azotic gas rema9+ f ! combu/ion increases1 till at la/ ! azotic gas is 9 su* ov] proportion t ! combu/ion c no long] be support$1 & ! flame goes out4 ,?is spontane\s ext9ction mu/ be prev5t$1 because1 z ! hydrog5 gas is press$ ^u 9 its res]voir1 by an in* & a half ( wat]1 :il/ ! oxyg5 gas suff]s a pressure only ( ?ree l9es1 a mixture ( ! two w\ld take place 9 ! balloon1 :i* w\ld at la/ be =c$ by ! sup]ior pressure into ! res]voir ( oxyg5 gas4 ,:]e=e ! combu/ion mu/ be /opp$1 by %utt+ ! /op-cock ( ! tube d,dd :5ev] ! flame gr[s v feeble2 = :i* purpose x mu/ be att5tively wat*$4 ,!re is ano!r app>atus = combu/ion1 :i*1 ?\gh we _c ) x p]=m exp]im5ts ) ! same scrupul\s exactness z ) ! prec$+ in/rum5ts1 gives v /rik+ results t are extremely prop] to be %ewn 9 c\rses ( philosophical *emi/ry4 ,x consi/s ( a worm ,,ef1 ,pl4 ,,ix4 ,fig4 #e4 conta9$ 9 a metallic cooll] ,,abcd4 ,to ! upp] "p ( ?is worm ,e1 ! *imney ,,gh is fix$1 :i* is compos$ ( two tubes1 ! inn] ( :i* is a cont9uation ( ! worm1 & ! out] "o is a case ( t9-plate1 :i* surr\nds x at ab\t an in* di/ance1 & ! int]val is fill$ up ) s&4 ,at ! inf]ior extremity ,k ( ! inn] tube1 a glass tube is fix$1 to :i* we adopt ! ,arg& lamp ,,lm = burn+ alkohol1 c4 ,?+s be+ ?us dispos$1 & ! lamp be+ fill$ ) a det]m9ate quantity ( alkohol1 x is set on fire2 ! wat] :i* is =m$ dur+ ! combu/ion rises 9 ! *imney ,,ke1 & be+ cond5s$ 9 ! worm1 runs out at its extremity ,f into ! bottle ,p4 ,! d\ble tube ( ! *imney1 fill$ ) s& 9 ! int]/ice1 is to prev5t ! tube f cool+ 9 its upp] "p1 & cond5s+ ! wat]2 o!rwise1 x w\ld fall back 9 ! tube1 & we %\ld n be able to asc]ta9 its quantity1 & besides x might fall 9 drops ^u ! wick1 & ext+ui% ! flame4 ,! int5tion ( ?is con/ruction1 is to keep ! *imney always hot1 & ! worm always cool1 t ! wat] may be pres]v$ 9 ! /ate ( vap\r :il/ ris+1 & may be cond5s$ imm$iately ^u gett+ into ! desc5d+ "p ( ! app>atus4 ,by ?is in/rum5t1 :i* 0 contriv$ by ,mr ,meusni]1 & :i* is describ$ by me 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghd1 p4 #eic4 we may1 ) att5tion to keep ! worm always cold1 collect ne>ly sev5te5 ounces ( wat] f ! combu/ion ( sixte5 ounces ( alkohol4 ,,sect4 ,,viii4 ,( ! ,oxydation ( ,metals4 ,! t]m oxydation or calc9ation is *iefly us$ to signify ! process by :i* metals expos$ to a c]ta9 degree ( heat are conv]t$ into oxyds1 by absorb+ oxyg5 f ! air4 ,?is comb9ation takes place 9 consequ5ce ( oxyg5 possess+ a great] aff9ity to metals1 at a c]ta9 temp]ature1 ?an to caloric1 :i* becomes dis5gag$ 9 its free /ate2 b1 z ?is dis5gagem5t1 :5 made 9 common air1 is sl[ & progressive1 x is sc>cely evid5t to ! s5ses4 ,x is q o!rwise1 h[ev]1 :5 oxydation takes place 9 oxyg5 gas2 =1 be+ produc$ ) mu* great] rapidity1 x is g5]ally accompani$ ) heat & light1 s z evid5tly to %[ t metallic sub/ances are real combu/ible bodies4 ,all ! metals h n ! same degree ( aff9ity to oxyg54 ,gold1 silv]1 & plat9a1 = in/ance1 are incapable ( tak+ x away f its comb9ation ) caloric1 ev5 9 ! greate/ kn[n heat2 :]eas ! o!r metals absorb x 9 a l>g] or small] quantity1 until ! aff9ities ( ! metal to oxyg51 & ( ! latt] to caloric1 are 9 exact equilibrium4 ,inde$1 ?is /ate ( equilibrium ( aff9ities may be assum$ z a g5]al law ( nature 9 all comb9ations4 ,9 all op]ations ( ?is nature1 ! oxydation ( metals is accel]at$ by giv+ free access to ! air2 x is sometimes mu* assi/$ by jo9+ ! action ( a bell[s1 :i* directs a /ream ( air ov] ! surface ( ! metal4 ,?is process becomes greatly m rapid if a /ream ( oxyg5 gas be us$1 :i* is readily done by means ( ! gazomet] =m]ly describ$4 ,! metal1 9 ?is case1 ?r[s out a brilliant flame1 & ! oxydation is v quickly accompli%$2 b ?is me?od c only be us$ 9 v conf9$ exp]im5ts1 on acc\nt ( ! exp5ce ( procur+ oxyg5 gas4 ,9 ! essay ( ores1 & 9 all ! common op]ations ( ! laboratory1 ! calc9ation or oxydation ( metals is usually p]=m$ 9 a di% ( bak$ clay1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #f4 commonly call$ a roa/+ te/1 plac$ 9 a /rong furnace4 ,! sub/ances to be oxydat$ are frequ5tly /irr$1 on purpose to pres5t fre% surfaces to ! air4 ,:5ev] ?is op]ation is p]=m$ ^u a metal :i* is n volatile1 & f :i* no?+ flies (f into ! surr\nd+ air dur+ ! process1 ! metal acquires additional weight2 b ! cause ( ?is increas$ weight dur+ oxydation c\ld nev] h be5 discov]$ by means ( exp]im5ts p]=m$ 9 free air2 & x is only s9ce ^! op]ations h be5 p]=m$ 9 close vessels1 & 9 det]m9ate quantities ( air1 t any j conjectures h be5 =m$ conc]n+ ! cause ( ?is ph5om5on4 ,! fir/ me?od = ?is purpose is due to ,dr ,prie/ley1 :o exposes ! metal to be calc9$ 9 a porcela9 cup ,n1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #aa4 plac$ ^u ! /& ,,ik1 "u a j> ,a1 9 ! bason ,,bcde1 full ( wat]2 ! wat] is made to rise up to ,,gh1 by suck+ out ! air ) a syphon1 & ! focus ( a burn+ glass is made to fall ^u ! metal4 ,9 a few m9utes ! oxydation takes place1 a "p ( ! oxyg5 conta9$ 9 ! air comb9es ) ! metal1 & a proportional dim9ution ( ! volume ( air is produc$2 :at rema9s is no?+ m ?an azotic gas1 /ill h[ev] mix$ ) a small quantity ( oxyg5 gas4 ,i h giv5 an acc\nt ( a s]ies ( exp]im5ts made ) ?is app>atus 9 my ,physical & ,*emical ,essays1 fir/ publi%$ 9 #aggc4 ,m]cury may be us$ in/ead ( wat] 9 ?is exp]im5t1 :]eby ! results are r5d]$ /ill m conclusive4 ,ano!r process = ?is purpose 0 inv5t$ by ,mr ,boyle1 & ( :i* ,i gave an acc\nt 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aggd1 p4 #cea4 ,! metal is introduc$ into a retort1 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #bj4 ! beak ( :i* is h]metically seal$2 ! metal is !n oxydat$ by means ( heat appli$ ) great precaution4 ,! weight ( ! vessel1 & its conta9$ sub/ances1 is n at all *ang$ by ?is process1 until ! extremity ( ! neck ( ! retort is brok52 b1 :5 t is done1 ! ext]nal air ru%es 9 ) a hiss+ noise4 ,?is op]ation is att5d$ ) dang]1 unless a "p ( ! air is driv5 out ( ! retort1 by means ( heat1 be=e x is h]metically seal$1 z o!rwise ! retort w\ld be apt to bur/ by ! dilation ( ! air :5 plac$ 9 ! furnace4 ,! quantity ( air driv5 out may be receiv$ "u a j> 9 ! pneumato-*emical app>atus1 by :i* its quantity1 & t ( ! air rema9+ 9 ! retort1 is asc]ta9$4 ,i h n multipli$ my exp]im5ts ^u oxydation ( metals s mu* z ,i c\ld h wi%$2 nei!r h ,i obta9$ satisfactory results ) any metal except t94 ,x is mu* to be wi%$ t "s p]son w\ld und]take a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ^u oxydation ( metals 9 ! sev]al gasses2 ! subject is important1 & w\ld fully repay any tr\ble :i* ?is k9d ( exp]im5t might occasion4 ,z all ! oxyds ( m]cury are capable ( revivify+ )\t addition1 & re/ore ! oxyg5 gas !y _h be=e absorb$1 ?is seem$ to be ! mo/ prop] metal = becom+ ! subject ( conclusive exp]im5ts ^u oxydation4 ,i =m]ly endeav\r$ to accompli% ! oxydation ( m]cury 9 close vessels1 by fill+ a retort1 conta9+ a small quantity ( m]cury1 ) oxyg5 gas1 & adapt+ a bladd] half full ( ! same gas to its beak2 ,see ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,aft]w>ds1 by heat+ ! m]cury 9 ! retort = a v long "t1 ,i succe$$ 9 oxydat+ a v small portion1 s z to =m a little r$ oxyd float+ ^u ! surface ( ! runn+ m]cury2 b ! quantity 0 s small1 t ! smalle/ error committ$ 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! quantities ( oxyg5 gas be=e & aft] ! op]ation mu/ h ?r[n v great unc]ta9ty ^u ! results ( ! exp]im5t4 ,i 01 besides1 dissatisfi$ ) ?is process1 & n )\t cause1 le/ any air might h escap$ ?r\gh ! pores ( ! bladd]1 m especially z x becomes %rivell$ by ! heat ( ! furnace1 unless cov]$ ov] ) clo?s kept con/antly wet4 ,?is exp]im5t is p]=m$ ) m c]ta9ty 9 ! app>atus describ$ 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #agge1 p4 #ehj4 ,?is consi/s ( a retort1 ,a1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #b4 hav+ a crook$ glass tube ,,bcde ( t5 or twelve l9es int]nal diamet]1 melt$ on to its beak1 & :i* is engag$ "u ! bell glass ,,fg1 /&+ ) its m\? d[nw>ds1 9 a bason fill$ ) wat] or m]cury4 ,! retort is plac$ ^u ! b>s ( ! furnace ,,mmnn1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #b4 or 9 a s& ba?1 & by means ( ?is app>atus we may1 9 ! c\rse ( sev]al days1 oxydate a small quantity ( m]cury 9 common air2 ! r$ oxyd floats ^u ! surface1 f :i* x may be collect$ & revivifi$1 s z to comp>e ! quantity ( oxyg5 gas obta9$ 9 revivification ) ! absorption :i* took place dur+ oxydation4 ,?is k9d ( exp]im5t c only be p]=m$ ^u a small scale1 s t no v c]ta9 conclusions c be drawn f !m#fa4 ,! combu/ion ( iron 9 oxyg5 gas be+ a true oxydation ( t metal1 ought to be m5tion$ 9 ?is place4 ,! app>atus employ$ by ,mr ,+5h\sz = ?is op]ation is repres5t$ 9 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #ag42 b1 hav+ already describ$ x suffici5tly 9 ,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,i %all ref] ! read] to :at is said ( x 9 t place4 ,iron may likewise be oxydat$ by combu/ion 9 vessels fill$ ) oxyg5 gas1 9 ! way already direct$ = phosphorus & *>coal4 ,?is app>atus is repres5t$ ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 #c4 & describ$ 9 ! fif? *apt] ( ! fir/ "p ( ?is "w4 ,we le>n f ,mr ,+5h\sz1 t all ! metals1 except gold1 silv]1 & m]cury1 may be burnt or oxydat$ 9 ! same mann]1 by r$uc+ !m into v f9e wire1 or v ?9 plates cut into n>r[ slips2 ^! are twi/$ r\nd ) iron-wire1 :i* communicates ! prop]ty ( burn+ to ! o!r metals4 ,m]cury is ev5 difficultly oxydat$ 9 free air4 ,9 *emical laboratories1 ?is process is usually c>ri$ on 9 a matrass ,a1 ,pl4 ,,iv4 ,fig4 hav+ a v flat body1 & a v long neck ,,bc1 :i* vessel is commonly call$ ,boyle's bell4 ,a quantity ( m]cury is introduc$ suffici5t to cov] ! bottom1 & x is plac$ 9 a s&-ba?1 :i* keeps up a con/ant heat approa*+ to t ( boil+ m]cury4 ,by cont9u+ ?is op]ation ) five or six simil> matrasses dur+ sev]al mon?s1 & r5ew+ ! m]cury f "t to "t1 a few ounces ( r$ oxyd are at la/ obta9$4 ,! great sl[ness & inconv5i5ce ( ?is app>atus arises f ! air n be+ suffici5tly r5ew$2 b if1 on ! o!r h&1 too free a circulation 7 giv5 to ! ext]nal air1 x w\ld c>ry (f ! m]cury 9 solution 9 ! /ate ( vap\r1 s t 9 a few days none w\ld rema9 9 ! vessel4 ,z1 ( all ! exp]im5ts ^u ! oxydation ( metals1 ^? ) m]cury are ! mo/ conclusive1 x 7 mu* to be wi%$ t a simple app>atus c\ld be contriv$ by :i* ?is oxydation & its results might be demon/rat$ 9 public c\rses ( *emi/ry4 ,?is might1 9 my op9ion1 be accompli%$ by me?ods simil> to ^? ,i h already describ$ = ! combu/ion ( *>coal & ! oils2 b1 f o!r pursuits1 ,i h n be5 able hi!rto to resume ?is k9d ( exp]im5t4 ,! oxyd ( m]cury revives )\t addition1 by be+ heat$ to a slightly r$ heat4 ,9 ?is degree ( temp]ature1 oxyg5 has great] aff9ity to caloric ?an to m]cury1 & =ms oxyg5 gas4 ,?is is always mix$ ) a small portion ( azotic gas1 :i* indicates t ! m]cury absorbs a small portion ( ?is latt] gas dur+ oxydation4 ,x almo/ always conta9s a little c>bonic acid gas1 :i* mu/ und\bt$ly be attribut$ to ! f\lnesses ( ! oxyd2 ^! are *>r$ by ! heat1 & conv]t a "p ( ! oxyg5 gas into c>bonic acid4 ,if *emi/s 7 r$uc$ to ! necessity ( procur+ all ! oxyg5 gas employ$ 9 _! exp]im5ts f m]cury oxydat$ by heat )\t addition1 or1 z x is call$1 calc9$ or precipitat$ p] se1 ! excessive de>ness ( t prep>ation w\ld r5d] exp]im5ts1 ev5 ^u a mod]ate scale1 q impracticable4 ,b m]cury may likewise be oxydat$ by means ( nitric acid2 & 9 ?is way we procure a r$ oxyd1 ev5 m pure ?an t produc$ by calc9ation4 ,i h sometimes prep>$ ?is oxyd by dissolv+ m]cury 9 nitric acid1 evaporat+ to dryness1 & calc9+ ! salt1 ei!r 9 a retort1 or 9 capsules =m$ ( pieces ( brok5 matrasses & retorts1 9 ! mann] =m]ly describ$2 b ,i h nev] succe$$ 9 mak+ x equally beautiful ) :at is sold by ! druggi/s1 & :i* is1 ,i believe1 br\ght f ,holl&4 ,9 *oos+ ?is1 we ought to pref] :at is 9 solid lumps compos$ ( s(t adh]+ scales1 z :5 9 p[d] x is sometimes adult]at$ ) r$ oxyd ( lead4 ,to obta9 oxyg5 gas f ! r$ oxyd ( m]cury1 ,i usually employ a porcela9 retort1 hav+ a long glass tube adapt$ to its beak1 :i* is engag$ "u j>s 9 ! wat] pneumato-*emical app>atus1 & ,i place a bottle 9 ! wat]1 at ! end ( ! tube1 = receiv+ ! m]cury1 9 proportion z x revives & di/ils ov]4 ,z ! oxyg5 gas nev] appe>s till ! retort becomes r$1 x seems to prove ! pr9ciple e/abli%$ by ,mr ,b]?ollet1 t an obscure heat c nev] =m oxyg5 gas1 & t light is "o ( its con/itu5t elem5ts4 ,we mu/ reject ! fir/ portion ( gas :i* comes ov]1 z be+ mix$ ) common air1 f :at 0 conta9$ 9 ! retort at ! beg9n+ ( ! exp]im5t2 b1 ev5 ) ?is precaution1 ! oxyg5 gas procur$ is usually contam9at$ ) a t5? "p ( azotic gas1 & ) a v small portion ( c>bonic acid gas4 ,?is latt] is readily got rid (1 by mak+ ! gas pass ?r\gh a solution ( cau/ic alkali2 b we "k ( no me?od = sep>at+ ! azotic gas2 its proportions may h[ev] be asc]ta9$1 by leav+ a kn[n quantity ( ! oxyg5 gas contam9at$ ) x = a =tnight1 9 contact ) sulphuret ( soda or pota%1 :i* absorbs ! oxyg5 gas s z to conv]t ! sulphur into sulphuric acid1 & leaves ! azotic gas rema9+ pure4 ,we may likewise procure oxyg5 gas f black oxyd ( manganese or nitrat ( pota%1 by expos+ !m to a r$ heat 9 ! app>atus already describ$ = op]at+ ^u r$ oxyd ( m]cury2 only1 z x requires su* a heat z is at lea/ capable ( s(t5+ glass1 we mu/ employ retorts ( /one or ( porcela94 ,b ! pure/ & be/ oxyg5 gas is :at is dis5gag$ f oxyg5at$ muriat ( pota% by simple heat4 ,?is op]ation is p]=m$ 9 a glass retort1 & ! gas obta9$ is p]fectly pure1 provid$ t ! fir/ portions1 :i* are mix$ ) ! common air ( ! vessels1 be reject$4 ,,footnotes3 #fa ,see an acc\nt ( ?is exp]im5t1 ,"p4 ,i4 ,*ap4 iii4--,a4 ,,*ap4 ,,ix4 ,( ,deflagration4 ,i h already %[n1 ,"p ,i4 ,*ap4 ,,ix4 t oxyg5 does n always "p ) ! :ole ( ! caloric x conta9$ 9 ! /ate ( gas :5 x ent]s into comb9ation ) o!r bodies4 ,x c>ries almo/ ! :ole ( its caloric along/ ) x 9 ent]+ into ! comb9ations :i* =m nitric acid & oxyg5at$ muriatic acid2 s t 9 nitrats1 & m especially 9 oxyg5at$ muriats1 ! oxyg5 is1 9 a c]ta9 degree1 9 ! /ate ( oxyg5 gas1 cond5s$1 & r$uc$ to ! smalle/ volume x is capable ( occupy+4 ,9 ^! comb9ations1 ! caloric ex]ts a con/ant action ^u ! oxyg5 to br+ x back to ! /ate ( gas2 h5ce ! oxyg5 adh]es b v slightly1 & ! smalle/ additional =ce is capable ( sett+ x free2 &1 :5 su* =ce is appli$1 x (t5 recov]s ! /ate ( gas in/antane\sly4 ,?is rapid passage f ! solid to ! ari=m /ate is call$ detonation1 or fulm9ation1 because x is usually accompani$ ) noise & explosion4 ,deflagrations are commonly produc$ by means ( comb9ations ( *>coal ei!r ) nitre or oxyg5at$ muriat ( pota%2 sometimes1 to assi/ ! inflammation1 sulphur is add$2 &1 ^u ! j proportion ( ^! +r$i5ts1 & ! prop] manipulation ( ! mixture1 dep5ds ! art ( mak+ gun-p[d]4 ,z oxyg5 is *ang$1 by deflagration ) *>coal1 into c>bonic acid1 in/ead ( oxyg5 gas1 c>bonic acid gas is dis5gag$1 at lea/ :5 ! mixture has be5 made 9 j proportions4 ,9 deflagration ) nitre1 azotic gas is likewise dis5gag$1 because azote is "o ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( nitric acid4 ,! sudd5 & in/antane\s dis5gagem5t & expansion ( ^! gasses is n1 h[ev]1 suffici5t = expla9+ all ! ph5om5a ( deflagration2 because1 if ?is 7 ! sole op]at+ p[]1 gun p[d] w\ld always be s mu* ! /rong] 9 proportion z ! quantity ( gas dis5gag$ 9 a giv5 "t 0 ! m consid]able1 :i* does n always accord ) exp]im5t4 ,i h tri$ "s k9ds :i* produc$ almo/ d\ble ! effect ( ord9>y gun p[d]1 al?\gh !y gave out a six? "p less ( gas dur+ deflagration4 ,x w\ld appe> t ! quantity ( caloric dis5gag$ at ! mom5t ( detonation contributes consid]ably to ! expansive effects produc$2 =1 al?\gh caloric p5etrates freely ?r\gh ! pores ( e body 9 nature1 x c only d s progressively1 & 9 a giv5 "t2 h5ce1 :5 ! quantity dis5gag$ at once is too l>ge to get ?r\gh ! pores ( ! surr\nd+ bodies1 x mu/ necess>ily act 9 ! same way ) ord9>y ela/ic fluids1 & ov]turn e ?+ t opposes its passage4 ,?is mu/1 at lea/ 9 "p1 take place :5 gun-p[d] is set on fire 9 a cannon2 z1 al?\gh ! metal is p]meable to caloric1 ! quantity dis5gag$ at once is too l>ge to f9d its way ?r\gh ! pores ( ! metal1 x mu/ !re=e make an ef=t to escape on e side2 &1 z ! resi/ance all ar\nd1 except+ t[>ds ! muzzle1 is too great to be ov]come1 ?is ef=t is employ$ = expell+ ! bullet4 ,! caloric produces a second effect1 by means ( ! repulsive =ce ex]t$ betwe5 its p>ticles2 x causes ! gasses1 dis5gag$ at ! mom5t ( deflagration1 to exp& ) a degree ( =ce proportion$ to ! temp]ature produc$4 ,x is v probable t wat] is decompos$ dur+ ! deflagration ( gun-p[d]1 & t "p ( ! oxyg5 furni%$ to ! nasc5t c>bonic acid gas is produc$ f x4 ,if s1 a consid]able quantity ( hydrog5 gas mu/ be dis5gag$ 9 ! in/ant ( deflagration1 :i* exp&s1 & contributes to ! =ce ( ! explosion4 ,x may readily be conceiv$ h[ greatly ?is circum/ance mu/ increase ! effect ( p[d]1 if we consid] t a p9t ( hydrog5 gas weighs only "o gra9 & two ?irds2 h5ce a v small quantity 9 weight mu/ occupy a v l>ge space1 & x mu/ ex]t a prodigi\s expansive =ce 9 pass+ f ! liquid to ! ari=m /ate ( exi/5ce4 ,9 ! la/ place1 z a portion ( undecompos$ wat] is r$uc$ to vap\r dur+ ! deflagration ( gun-p[d]1 & z wat]1 9 ! /ate ( gas1 occupies sev5te5 or eighte5 hundr$ times m space ?an 9 its liquid /ate1 ?is circum/ance mu/ likewise contribute l>gely to ! explosive =ce ( ! p[d]4 ,i h already made a consid]able s]ies ( exp]im5ts ^u ! nature ( ! ela/ic fluids dis5gag$ dur+ ! deflagration ( nitre ) *>coal & sulphur2 & h made "s1 likewise1 ) ! oxyg5at$ muriat ( pota%4 ,?is me?od ( inve/igation leads to toll]ably accurate conclusions ) respect to ! con/itu5t elem5ts ( ^! salts4 ,"s ( ! pr9cipal results ( ^! exp]im5ts1 & ( ! consequ5ces drawn f !m respect+ ! analysis ( nitric acid1 are report$ 9 ! collection ( memoirs pres5t$ to ! ,academy by =eign philosoph]s1 vol4 xi4 p4 #fbe4 ,s9ce !n ,i h procur$ m conv5i5t in/rum5ts1 & ,i int5d to repeat ^! exp]im5ts ^u a l>g] scale1 by :i* ,i %all procure m accurate precision 9 _! results2 ! foll[+1 h[ev]1 is ! process ,i h hi!rto employ$4 ,i w\ld v e>ne/ly advise su* z int5d to repeat "s ( ^! exp]im5ts1 to be v mu* ^u _! gu>d 9 op]at+ ^u any mixture :i* conta9s nitre1 *>coal1 & sulphur1 & m especially ) ^? 9 :i* oxyg5at$ muriat ( pota% is mix$ ) ^! two mat]ials4 ,i make use ( pi/ol b>rels1 ab\t six in*es long1 & ( five or six l9es diamet]1 hav+ ! t\*-hole spik$ up ) an iron nail /rongly driv5 91 & brok5 9 ! hole1 & a little t9-smi?'s sold] run 9 to prev5t any possible issue = ! air4 ,^! are *>g$ ) a mixture ( kn[n quantities ( nitre & *>coal1 or any o!r mixture capable ( deflagration1 r$uc$ to an impalpable p[d]1 & =m$ into a pa/e ) a mod]ate quantity ( wat]4 ,e portion ( ! mat]ials introduc$ mu/ be ramm$ d[n ) a ramm] ne>ly ( ! same calib] ) ! b>rel1 f\r or five l9es at ! muzzle mu/ be left empty1 & ab\t two in*es ( quick mat* are add$ at ! end ( ! *>ge4 ,! only difficulty 9 ?is exp]im5t1 especially :5 sulphur is conta9$ 9 ! mixture1 is to discov] ! prop] degree ( moi/5+2 =1 if ! pa/e be too mu* wett$1 x w n take fire1 & if too dry1 ! deflagration is apt to become too rapid1 & ev5 dang]\s4 ,:5 ! exp]im5t is n int5d$ to be rigor\sly exact1 we set fire to ! mat*1 &1 :5 x is j ab\t to communicate ) ! *>ge1 we plunge ! pi/ol bel[ a l>ge bell-glass full ( wat]1 9 ! pneumato *emical app>atus4 ,! deflagration beg9s1 & cont9ues 9 ! wat]1 & gas is dis5gag$ ) less or m rapidity1 9 proportion z ! mixture is m or less dry4 ,s long z ! deflagration cont9ues1 ! muzzle ( ! pi/ol mu/ be kept some:at incl9$ d[nw>ds1 to prev5t ! wat] f gett+ into its b>rel4 ,9 ?is mann] ,i h sometimes collect$ ! gas produc$ f ! deflagration ( an ounce & half1 or two ounces1 ( nitre4 ,9 ?is mann] ( op]at+ x is impossible to det]m9e ! quantity ( c>bonic acid gas dis5gag$1 because a "p ( x is absorb$ by ! wat] :ile pass+ ?r\gh x2 b1 :5 ! c>bonic acid is absorb$1 ! azotic gas rema9s2 &1 if x be agitat$ = a few m9utes 9 cau/ic alkal9e solution1 we obta9 x pure1 & c easily det]m9e its volume & weight4 ,we may ev51 9 ?is way1 acquire a toll]ably exact k ( ! quantity ( c>bonic acid by repeat+ ! exp]im5t a great _m times1 & v>y+ ! proportions ( *>coal1 till we f9d ! exact quantity requisite to deflagrate ! :ole nitre employ$4 ,h5ce1 by means ( ! weight ( *>coal employ$1 we det]m9e ! weight ( oxyg5 necess>y = saturation1 & d$uce ! quantity ( oxyg5 conta9$ 9 a giv5 weight ( nitre4 ,i h us$ ano!r process1 by :i* ! results ( ?is exp]im5t are consid]ably m accurate1 :i* consi/s 9 receiv+ ! dis5gag$ gasses 9 bell-glasses fill$ ) m]cury4 ,! m]curial app>atus ,i employ is l>ge en\gh to conta9 j>s ( f twelve to fifte5 p9ts 9 capacity1 :i* are n v readily manag$ :5 full ( m]cury1 & ev5 require to be fill$ by a p>ticul> me?od4 ,:5 ! j> is plac$ 9 ! ci/]n ( m]cury1 a glass syphon is introduc$1 connect$ ) a small air-pump1 by means ( :i* ! air is exhau/$1 & ! m]cury rises s z to fill ! j>4 ,aft] ?is1 ! gas ( ! deflagration is made to pass into ! j> 9 ! same mann] z direct$ :5 wat] is employ$4 ,i mu/ aga9 repeat1 t ?is species ( exp]im5t requires to be p]=m$ ) ! greate/ possible precautions4 ,i h sometimes se51 :5 ! dis5gagem5t ( gas proce$$ ) too great rapidity1 j>s fill$ ) m ?an an hundr$ & fifty p\nds ( m]cury driv5 (f by ! =ce ( ! explosion1 & brok5 to pieces1 :ile ! m]cury 0 scatt]$ ab\t 9 great quantities4 ,:5 ! exp]im5t has succe$$1 & ! gas is collect$ "u ! j>1 its quantity 9 g5]al1 & ! nature & quantities ( ! sev]al species ( gasses ( :i* ! mixture is compos$1 are accurately asc]ta9$ by ! me?ods already po9t$ out 9 ! second *apt] ( ?is "p ( my "w4 ,i h be5 prev5t$ f putt+ ! la/ h& to ! exp]im5ts ,i _h begun ^u deflagration1 f _! connection ) ! objects ,i am at pres5t engag$ 92 & ,i am 9 hopes !y w ?r[ consid]able light ^u ! op]ations belong+ to ! manufacture ( gun-p[d]4 ,,*ap4 ,x4 ,( ! ,in/rum5ts necess>y = ,op]at+ ^u ,bodies 9 v high ,temp]atures4 ,,sect4 ,i4 ,( ,fusion4 ,we h already se51 t1 by aque\s solution1 9 :i* ! p>ticles ( bodies are sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 nei!r ! solv5t nor ! body held 9 solution are at all decompos$2 s t1 :5ev] ! cause ( sep>ation ceases1 ! p>ticles reunite1 & ! sal9e sub/ance recov]s precisely ! same appe>ance & prop]ties x possess$ be=e solution4 ,real solutions are produc$ by fire1 or by introduc+ & accumulat+ a great quantity ( caloric betwe5 ! p>ticles ( bodies2 & ?is species ( solution 9 caloric is usually call$ fusion4 ,?is op]ation is commonly p]=m$ 9 vessels call$ crucibles1 :i* mu/ necess>ily be less fusible ?an ! bodies !y are int5d$ to conta94 ,h5ce1 9 all ages1 *emi/s h be5 extremely solicit\s to procure crucibles ( v refractory mat]ials1 or su* z are capable ( resi/+ a v high degree ( heat4 ,! be/ are made ( v pure clay or ( porcela9 e>?2 :]eas su* z are made ( clay mix$ ) calc>e\s or silici\s e>? are v fusible4 ,all ! crucibles made 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is are ( ?is k9d1 & consequ5tly unfit = mo/ *emical exp]im5ts4 ,! ,hessian crucibles are tol]ably good2 b ! be/ are made ( ,limoges e>?1 :i* seems absolutely infusible4 ,we h1 9 ,france1 a great _m clays v fit = mak+ crucibles2 su*1 = in/ance1 is ! k9d us$ = mak+ melt+ pots at ! glass-manufactory ( ,/ ,gob94 ,crucibles are made ( v>i\s =ms1 accord+ to ! op]ations !y are int5d$ to p]=m4 ,sev]al ( ! mo/ common k9ds are repres5t$ ,pl4 ,,vii4 ,fig4 #g4 #h4 #i4 & #aj4 ! "o repres5t$ at ,fig4 #i4 is almo/ %ut at its m\?4 ,?\gh fusion may (t5 take place )\t *ang+ ! nature ( ! fus$ body1 ?is op]ation is frequ5tly employ$ z a *emical means ( decompos+ & recomp\nd+ bodies4 ,9 ?is way all ! metals are extract$ f _! ores2 &1 by ?is process1 !y are revivifi$1 m\ld$1 & alloy$ ) ea* o!r4 ,by ?is process s& & alkali are comb9$ to =m glass1 & by x likewise pa/es1 or col\r$ /ones1 enamels1 c4 are =m$4 ,! action ( viol5t fire 0 mu* m frequ5tly employ$ by ! anci5t *emi/s ?an x is 9 mod]n exp]im5ts4 ,s9ce great] precision has be5 employ$ 9 philosophical rese>*es1 ! humid has be5 pref]r$ to ! dry me?od ( process1 & fusion is seldom _h rec\rse to until all ! o!r means ( analysis h fail$4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 ,( ,furnaces4 ,^! are in/rum5ts ( mo/ univ]sal use 9 *emi/ry2 &1 z ! success ( a great numb] ( exp]im5ts dep5ds ^u _! be+ well or ill con/ruct$1 x is ( great importance t a laboratory be well provid$ 9 ?is respect4 ,a furnace is a k9d ( holl[ cyl9drical t[]1 sometimes wid5$ above1 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,,abcd1 :i* mu/ h at lea/ two lat]al op5+s2 "o 9 its upp] "p ,f1 :i* is ! door ( ! fire-place1 & "o bel[1 ,g1 lead+ to ! a%-hole4 ,betwe5 ^! ! furnace is divid$ by a horizontal grate1 int5d$ = support+ ! fewel1 ! situation ( :i* is m>k$ 9 ! figure by ! l9e ,,hi4 ,?\gh ?is be ! lea/ complicat$ ( all ! *emical furnaces1 yet x is applicable to a great numb] ( purposes4 ,by x lead1 t91 bismu?1 &1 9 g5]al1 e sub/ance :i* does n require a v /rong fire1 may be melt$ 9 crucibles2 x w s]ve = metallic oxydations1 = evaporatory vessels1 & = s&-ba?s1 z 9 ,pl4 ,,iii4 ,fig4 #a4 & #b4 ,to r5d] x prop] = ^! purposes1 sev]al not*es1 m m m m1 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #a4 are made 9 its upp] edge1 z o!rwise any pan :i* might be plac$ ov] ! fire w\ld /op ! passage ( ! air1 & prev5t ! fewel f burn+4 ,?is furnace c only produce a mod]ate degree ( heat1 because ! quantity ( *>coal x is capable ( consum+ is limit$ by ! quantity ( air :i* is all[$ to pass ?r\gh ! op5+ ,g ( ! a%-hole4 ,its p[] might be consid]ably augm5t$ by enl>g+ ?is op5+1 b !n ! great /ream ( air :i* is conv5i5t = "s op]ations might be hurtful 9 o!rs2 :]e=e we mu/ h furnaces ( diff]5t =ms1 con/ruct$ = diff]5t purposes1 9 our laboratories3 ,!re ought especially to be sev]al ( ! k9d n[ describ$ ( diff]5t sizes4 ,! rev]b]atory furnace1 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #b4 is p]haps m necess>y4 ,?is1 l ! common furnace1 is compos$ ( ! a%-hole ,,hikl1 ! fire-place ,,klmn1 ! laboratory ,,mnop1 & ! dome ,,rrss1 ) its funnel or *imney ,,ttvv2 & to ?is la/ sev]al additional tubes may be adapt$1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! diff]5t exp]im5ts4 ,! retort ,a is plac$ 9 ! division call$ ! laboratory1 & support$ by two b>s ( iron :i* run across ! furnace1 & its beak comes out at a r\nd hole 9 ! side ( ! furnace1 "o half ( :i* is cut 9 ! piece call$ ! laboratory1 & ! o!r 9 ! dome4 ,9 mo/ ( ! ready made rev]b]atory furnaces :i* are sold by ! pott]s at ,p>is1 ! op5+s bo? above & bel[ are too small3 ,^! d n all[ a suffici5t volume ( air to pass ?r\gh2 h5ce1 z ! quantity ( *>coal consum$1 or1 :at is mu* ! same ?+1 ! quantity ( caloric dis5gag$1 is ne>ly 9 proportion to ! quantity ( air :i* passes ?r\gh ! furnace1 ^! furnaces d n produce a suffici5t effect 9 a great numb] ( exp]im5ts4 ,to rem$y ?is defect1 !re ought to be two op5+s ,,gg to ! a%-hole2 "o ( ^! is %ut up :5 only a mod]ate fire is requir$2 & bo? are kept op5 :5 ! /ronge/ p[] ( ! furnace is to be ex]t$4 ,! op5+ ( ! dome ,,ss ought likewise to be consid]ably l>g] ?an is usually made4 ,x is ( great importance n to employ retorts ( too l>ge size 9 proportion to ! furnace1 z a suffici5t space ought always to be all[$ = ! passage ( ! air betwe5 ! sides ( ! furnace & ! vessel4 ,! retort ,a 9 ! figure is too small = ! size ( ! furnace1 yet ,i f9d x m easy to po9t out ! error ?an to correct x4 ,! int5tion ( ! dome is to oblige ! flame & heat to surr\nd & /rike back or rev]b]ate ^u e "p ( ! retort1 :5ce ! furnace gets ! "n ( rev]b]atory4 ,)\t ?is circum/ance ! retort w\ld only be heat$ 9 its bottom1 ! vap\rs rais$ f ! conta9$ sub/ance w\ld cond5se 9 ! upp] "p1 & a cont9ual cohabitation w\ld take place )\t any ?+ pass+ ov] into ! receiv]1 b1 by means ( ! dome1 ! retort is equally heat$ 9 e "p1 & ! vap\rs be+ =c$ out1 c only cond5se 9 ! neck ( ! retort1 or 9 ! recipi5t4 ,to prev5t ! bottom ( ! retort f be+ ei!r heat$ or cooll$ too sudd5ly1 x is sometimes plac$ 9 a small s&-ba? ( bak$ clay1 /&+ ^u ! cross b>s ( ! furnace4 ,likewise1 9 _m op]ations1 ! retorts are coat$ ov] ) lutes1 "s ( :i* are int5d$ to pres]ve !m f ! too sudd5 influ5ce ( heat or ( cold1 :ile o!rs are = su/a9+ ! glass1 or =m+ a k9d ( second retort1 :i* supports ! glass "o dur+ op]ations :]e9 ! /r5g? ( ! fire might s(t5 x4 ,! =m] is made ( brick-clay ) a little c['s hair beat up along/ ) x1 into a pa/e or mort>1 & spread ov] ! glass or /one retorts4 ,! latt] is made ( pure clay & p\nd$ /one-w>e mix$ toge!r1 & us$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,?is dries & h>d5s by ! fire1 s z to =m a true supplem5t>y retort capable ( reta9+ ! mat]ials1 if ! glass retort bel[ %\ld crack or s(t54 ,b1 9 exp]im5ts :i* are int5d$ = collect+ gasses1 ?is lute1 be+ por\s1 is ( no mann] ( use4 ,9 a great _m exp]im5ts :]e9 v viol5t fire is n requir$1 ! rev]b]atory furnace may be us$ z a melt+ "o1 by leav+ out ! piece call$ ! laboratory1 & plac+ ! dome imm$iately ^u ! fire-place1 z repres5t$ ,pl4 ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #c4 ,! furnace repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #d4 is v conv5i5t = fusions2 x is compos$ ( ! fire-place & a%-hole ,,abd1 )\t a door1 & hav+ a hole ,e1 :i* receives ! muzzle ( a pair ( bell[s /rongly lut$ on1 & ! dome ,,abgh1 :i* ought to be r l[] ?an is repres5t$ 9 ! figure4 ,?is furnace is n capable ( produc+ a v /rong heat1 b is suffici5t = ord9>y op]ations1 & may be readily mov$ to any "p ( ! laboratory :]e x is want$4 ,?\gh ^! p>ticul> furnaces are v conv5i5t1 e laboratory mu/ be provid$ ) a =ge furnace1 hav+ a good pair ( bell[s1 or1 :at is m necess>y1 a p[]ful melt+ furnace4 ,i %all describe ! "o ,i use1 ) ! pr9ciples ^u :i* x is con/ruct$4 ,! air circulates 9 a furnace 9 consequ5ce ( be+ heat$ 9 its passage ?r\gh ! burn+ coals2 x dilates1 &1 becom+ light] ?an ! surr\nd+ air1 is =c$ to rise upw>ds by ! pressure ( ! lat]al columns ( air1 & is replac$ by fre% air f all sides1 especially f bel[4 ,?is circulation ( air ev5 takes place :5 coals are burnt 9 a common *aff+ di%2 b we c readily conceive1 t1 9 a furnace op5 on all sides1 ! mass ( air :i* passes1 all o!r circum/ances be+ equal1 _c be s great z :5 x is oblig$ to pass ?r\gh a furnace 9 ! %ape ( a holl[ t[]1 l mo/ ( ! *emical furnaces1 & consequ5tly1 t ! combu/ion mu/ be m rapid 9 a furnace ( ?is latt] con/ruction4 ,suppose1 = in/ance1 ! furnace ,,abcdef op5 above1 & fill$ ) burn+ coals1 ! =ce ) :i* ! air passes ?r\gh ! coals w be 9 proportion to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! specific gravity ( two columns equal to ,,ac1 ! "o ( cold air )\t1 & ! o!r ( heat$ air )9 ! furnace4 ,!re mu/ be "s heat$ air above ! op5+ ,,ab1 & ! sup]ior levity ( ?is ought likewise to be tak5 into consid]ation2 b1 z ?is portion is cont9ually cooll$ & c>ri$ (f by ! ext]nal air1 x _c produce any great effect4 ,b1 if we add to ?is furnace a l>ge holl[ tube ,,ghab ( ! same diamet]1 :i* pres]ves ! air :i* has be5 heat$ by ! burn+ coals f be+ cooll$ & disp]s$ by ! surr\nd+ air1 ! diff]5ce ( specific gravity :i* causes ! circulation w !n be betwe5 two columns equal to ,,gc4 ,h5ce1 if ,,gc be ?ree times ! l5g? ( ,,ac1 ! circulation w h treble =ce4 ,?is is ^u ! supposition t ! air 9 ,,ghcd is z mu* heat$ z :at is conta9$ 9 ,,abcd1 :i* is n /rictly ! case1 because ! heat mu/ decrease betwe5 ,,ab & ,,gh2 b1 z ! air 9 ,,ghab is mu* w>m] ?an ! ext]nal air1 x foll[s1 t ! addition ( ! tube mu/ increase ! rapidity ( ! /ream ( air1 t a l>g] quantity mu/ pass ?r\gh ! coals1 & consequ5tly t a great] degree ( combu/ion mu/ take place4 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 conclude f ^! pr9ciples1 t ! l5g? ( ?is tube ought to be indef9itely prolong$2 =1 s9ce ! heat ( ! air gradually dim9i%es 9 pass+ f ,,ab to ,,gh1 ev5 f ! contact ( ! sides ( ! tube1 if ! tube 7 prolong$ to a c]ta9 degree1 we w\ld at la/ come to a po9t :]e ! specific gravity ( ! includ$ air w\ld be equal to ! air )\t2 &1 9 ?is case1 z ! cool air w\ld no long] t5d to rise upw>ds1 x w\ld become a gravitat+ mass1 resi/+ ! asc5sion ( ! air bel[4 ,besides1 z ?is air1 :i* has s]v$ = combu/ion1 is necess>ily mix$ ) c>bonic acid gas1 :i* is consid]ably heavi] ?an common air1 if ! tube 7 made long en\gh1 ! air might at la/ approa* s ne> to ! temp]ature ( ! ext]nal air z ev5 to gravitate d[nw>ds2 h5ce we mu/ conclude1 t ! l5g? ( ! tube add$ to a furnace mu/ h "s limit beyond :i* x weak5s1 in/ead ( /r5g!n+ ! =ce ( ! fire4 ,f ^! reflections x foll[s1 t ! fir/ foot ( tube add$ to a furnace produces m effect ?an ! six?1 & ! six? m ?an ! t5?2 b we h no data to asc]ta9 at :at height we ought to /op4 ,?is limit ( useful addition is s mu* ! f>!r 9 proportion z ! mat]ials ( ! tube are weak] conductors ( heat1 because ! air w !reby be s mu* less cooll$2 h5ce bak$ e>? is mu* to be pref]r$ to plate iron4 ,x w\ld be ev5 ( consequ5ce to make ! tube d\ble1 & to fill ! int]val ) ramm$ *>coal1 :i* is "o ( ! wor/ conductors ( heat kn[n2 by ?is ! refrig]ation ( ! air w be ret>d$1 & ! rapidity ( ! /ream ( air consequ5tly increas$2 &1 by ?is means1 ! tube may be made s mu* ! long]4 ,z ! fire-place is ! hotte/ "p ( a furnace1 & ! "p :]e ! air is mo/ dilat$ 9 its passage1 ?is "p ought to be made ) a consid]able wid5+ or belly4 ,?is is ! m necess>y1 z x is int5d$ to conta9 ! *>coal & crucible1 z well z = ! passage ( ! air :i* supports1 or r produces ! combu/ion2 h5ce we only all[ ! int]/ices betwe5 ! coals = ! passage ( ! air4 ,f ^! pr9ciples my melt+ furnace is con/ruct$1 :i* ,i believe is at lea/ equal 9 p[] to any hi!rto made1 ?\gh ,i by no means pret5d t x possesses ! greate/ possible int5sity t c be produc$ 9 *emical furnaces4 ,! augm5tation ( ! volume ( air produc$ dur+ its passage ?r\gh a melt+ furnace n be+ hi!rto asc]ta9$ f exp]im5t1 we are /ill unacqua9t$ ) ! proportions :i* %\ld exi/ betwe5 ! inf]ior & sup]ior ap]tures1 & ! absolute size ( :i* ^! op5+s %\ld be made is /ill less und]/ood2 h5ce data are want+ by :i* to proce$ ^u pr9ciple1 & we c only accompli% ! end 9 view by repeat$ trials4 ,?is furnace1 :i*1 accord+ to ! above /at$ rules1 is 9 =m ( an eliptical sph]oid1 is repres5t$ ,pl4 ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #f4 ,,abcd2 x is cut (f at ! two ends by two pla9s1 :i* pass1 p]p5dicul> to ! axis1 ?r\gh ! foci ( ! elipse4 ,f ?is %ape x is capable ( conta9+ a consid]able quantity ( *>coal1 :ile x leaves suffici5t space 9 ! int]vals = ! passage ( ! air4 ,t no ob/acle may oppose ! free access ( ext]nal air1 x is p]fectly op5 bel[1 aft] ! model ( ,mr ,macqu]'s melt+ furnace1 & /&s ^u an iron tripod4 ,! grate is made ( flat b>s set on edge1 & ) consid]able int]/ices4 ,to ! upp] "p is add$ a *imney1 or tube1 ( bak$ e>?1 ,,abfg1 ab\t eighte5 feet long1 & almo/ half ! diamet] ( ! furnace4 ,?\gh ?is furnace produces a great] heat ?an any hi!rto employ$ by *emi/s1 x is /ill susceptible ( be+ consid]ably increas$ 9 p[] by ! means already m5tion$1 ! pr9cipal ( :i* is to r5d] ! tube z bad a conductor ( heat z possible1 by mak+ x d\ble1 & fill+ ! int]val ) ramm$ *>coal4 ,:5 x is requir$ to "k if lead conta9s any mixture ( gold or silv]1 x is heat$ 9 a /rong fire 9 capsules ( calc9$ bones1 :i* are call$ cuppels4 ,! lead is oxydat$1 becomes vitrifi$1 & s9ks into ! sub/ance ( ! cuppel1 :ile ! gold or silv]1 be+ incapable ( oxydation1 rema9 pure4 ,z lead w n oxydate )\t free access ( air1 ?is op]ation _c be p]=m$ 9 a crucible plac$ 9 ! middle ( ! burn+ coals ( a furnace1 because ! int]nal air1 be+ mo/ly already r$uc$ by ! combu/ion into azotic & c>bonic acid gas1 is no long] fit = ! oxydation ( metals4 ,x 0 !re=e necess>y to contrive a p>ticul> app>atus1 9 :i* ! metal %\ld be at ! same "t expos$ to ! influ5ce ( viol5t heat1 & def5d$ f contact ) air r5d]$ incombu/ible by its passage ?r\gh burn+ coals4 ,! furnace int5d$ = answ]+ ?is d\ble purpose is call$ ! cuppell+ or essay furnace4 ,x is usually made ( a squ>e =m1 z repres5t$ ,pl4 ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #h4 & #aj4 hav+ an a%-hole ,,aabb1 a fire-place ,,bbcc1 a laboratory ,,ccdd1 & a dome ,,ddee4 ,! muffle or small ov5 ( bak$ e>? ,,gh1 ,fig4 #i4 be+ plac$ 9 ! laboratory ( ! furnace ^u cross b>s ( iron1 is adju/$ to ! op5+ ,,gg1 & lut$ ) clay s(t5$ 9 wat]4 ,! cuppels are plac$ 9 ?is ov5 or muffle1 & *>coal is convey$ into ! furnace ?r\gh ! op5+s ( ! dome & fire-place4 ,! ext]nal air ent]s ?r\gh ! op5+s ( ! a%-hole = support+ ! combu/ion1 & escapes by ! sup]ior op5+ or *imney at ,,ee2 & air is admitt$ ?r\gh ! door ( ! muffle ,,gg = oxydat+ ! conta9$ metal4 ,v little reflection is suffici5t to discov] ! errone\s pr9ciples ^u :i* ?is furnace is con/ruct$4 ,:5 ! op5+ ,,gg is %ut1 ! oxydation is produc$ sl[ly1 & ) difficulty1 = want ( air to c>ry x on2 &1 :5 ?is hole is op51 ! /ream ( cold air :i* is !n admitt$ fixes ! metal1 & ob/ructs ! process4 ,^! inconv5i5cies may be easily rem$i$1 by con/ruct+ ! muffle & furnace 9 su* a mann] t a /ream ( fre% ext]nal air %\ld always play ^u ! surface ( ! metal1 & ?is air %\ld be made to pass ?r\gh a pipe ( clay kept cont9ually r$ hot by ! fire ( ! furnace4 ,by ?is means ! inside ( ! muffle w nev] be cooll$1 & processes w be f9i%$ 9 a few m9utes1 :i* at pres5t require a consid]able space ( "t4 ,mr ,sage rem$ies ^! inconv5i5cies 9 a diff]5t mann]2 he places ! cuppel conta9+ lead1 alloy$ ) gold or silv]1 among/ ! *>coal ( an ord9>y furnace1 & cov]$ by a small porcela9 muffle2 :5 ! :ole is suffici5tly heat$1 he directs ! bla/ ( a common pair ( h&-bell[s ^u ! surface ( ! metal1 & completes ! cuppellation 9 ?is way ) great ease & exactness4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 ,( increas+ ! ,action ( ,fire1 by us+ ,oxyg5 ,gas in/ead ( ,atmosph]ic ,air4 ,by means ( l>ge burn+ glasses1 su* z ^? ( ,t*irnaus5 & ,mr de ,truda9e1 a degree ( heat is obta9$ some:at great] ?an has hi!rto be5 produc$ 9 *emical furnaces1 or ev5 9 ! ov5s ( furnaces us$ = bak+ h>d porcela94 ,b ^! in/rum5ts are extremely exp5sive1 & d n ev5 produce heat suffici5t to melt crude plat9a2 s t _! advantages are by no means suffici5t to comp5sate = ! difficulty ( procur+1 & ev5 ( us+ !m4 ,concave mirrors produce some:at m effect ?an burn+ glasses ( ! same diamet]1 z is prov$ by ! exp]im5ts ( ,messrs ,macqu] & ,beaum ) ! speculum ( ! ,abb ,b\riot2 b1 z ! direction ( ! reflect$ rays is necess>ily f bel[ upw>ds1 ! sub/ance to be op]at$ ^u mu/ be plac$ 9 ! air )\t any support1 :i* r5d]s mo/ *emical exp]im5ts impossible to be p]=m$ ) ?is in/rum5t4 ,= ^! reasons1 ,i fir/ endeav\r$ to employ oxyg5 gas = combu/ion1 by fill+ l>ge bladd]s ) x1 & mak+ x pass ?r\gh a tube capable ( be+ %ut by a /op-cock2 & 9 ?is way ,i succe$$ 9 caus+ x to support ! combu/ion ( light$ *>coal4 ,! int5sity ( ! heat produc$1 ev5 9 my fir/ attempt1 0 s great z readily to melt a small quantity ( crude plat9a4 ,to ! success ( ?is attempt is ow+ ! idea ( ! gazomet]1 describ$ p4 #cjh4 et seq4 :i* ,i sub/itut$ in/ead ( ! bladd]s2 &1 z we c give ! oxyg5 gas any necess>y degree ( pressure1 we c ) ?is in/rum5t keep up a cont9u$ /ream1 & give x ev5 a v consid]able =ce4 ,! only app>atus necess>y = exp]im5ts ( ?is k9d consi/s ( a small table ,,abcd1 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,fig4 #ae1 ) a hole ,f1 ?r\gh :i* passes a tube ( copp] or silv]1 end+ 9 a v small op5+ at ,g1 & capable ( be+ op5$ or %ut by ! /op-cock ,h4 ,?is tube is cont9u$ bel[ ! table at l m n o1 & is connect$ ) ! int]ior cavity ( ! gazomet]4 ,:5 we mean to op]ate1 a hole ( a few l9es deep mu/ be made ) a *izel 9 a piece ( *>coal1 into :i* ! sub/ance to be treat$ is laid2 ! *>coal is set on fire by means ( a c&le & bl[-pipe1 aft] :i* x is expos$ to a rapid /ream ( oxyg5 gas f ! extremity ,g ( ! tube ,,fg4 ,?is mann] ( op]at+ c only be us$ ) su* bodies z c be plac$1 )\t inconv5i5ce1 9 contact ) *>coal1 su* z metals1 simple e>?s1 c4 ,b1 = bodies ^: elem5ts h aff9ity to *>coal1 & :i* are consequ5tly decompos$ by t sub/ance1 su* z sulphats1 phosphats1 & mo/ ( ! neutral salts1 metallic glasses1 enamels1 c4 we mu/ use a lamp1 & make ! /ream ( oxyg5 gas pass ?r\gh its flame4 ,= ?is purpose1 we use ! elb[$ bl[-pipe ,,/1 in/ead ( ! b5t "o ,,fg1 employ$ ) *>coal4 ,! heat produc$ 9 ?is second mann] is by no means s int5se z 9 ! =m] way1 & is v difficultly made to melt plat9a4 ,9 ?is mann] ( op]at+ ) ! lamp1 ! sub/ances are plac$ 9 cuppels ( calc9$ bones1 or little cups ( porcela91 or ev5 9 metallic di%es4 ,if ^! la/ are suffici5tly l>ge1 !y d n melt1 because1 metals be+ good conductors ( heat1 ! caloric spreads rapidly ?r\gh ! :ole mass1 s t none ( its p>ts are v mu* heat$4 ,9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,academy = #aghb1 p4 #dgf4 & = #aghc1 p4 #egc4 ! s]ies ( exp]im5ts ,i h made ) ?is app>atus may be se5 at l>ge4 ,! foll[+ are "s ( ! pr9cipal results4 #a4 ,rock cri/al1 or pure silici\s e>?1 is infusible1 b becomes capable ( be+ s(t5$ or fus$ :5 mix$ ) o!r sub/ances4 #b4 ,lime1 magnesia1 & b>ytes1 are infusible1 ei!r :5 alone1 or :5 comb9$ toge!r2 b1 especially lime1 !y assi/ ! fusion ( e o!r body4 #c4 ,argill1 or pure base ( alum1 is completely fusible p] se into a v h>d opake vitre\s sub/ance1 :i* scrat*es glass l ! preci\s /ones4 #d4 ,all ! comp\nd e>?s & /ones are readily fus$ into a br[ni% glass4 #e4 ,all ! sal9e sub/ances1 ev5 fix$ alkali1 are volatiliz$ 9 a few seconds4 #f4 ,gold1 silv]1 & probably plat9a1 are sl[ly volatiliz$ )\t any p>ticul> ph5om5on4 #g4 ,all o!r metallic sub/ances1 except m]cury1 become oxydat$1 ?\gh plac$ ^u *>coal1 & burn ) diff]5t col\r$ flames1 & at la/ dissipate altoge!r4 #h4 ,! metallic oxyds likewise all burn ) flames4 ,?is seems to =m a di/9ctive "* = ^! sub/ances1 & ev5 leads me to believe1 z 0 suspect$ by ,b]gman1 t b>ytes is a metallic oxyd1 ?\gh we h n hi!rto be5 able to obta9 ! metal 9 its pure or regul9e /ate4 #i4 ,"s ( ! preci\s /ones1 z rubies1 are capable ( be+ s(t5$ & sold]$ toge!r1 )\t injur+ _! col\r1 or ev5 dim9i%+ _! weights4 ,! hyac9?1 ?o' almo/ equally fix$ ) ! ruby1 loses its col\r v readily4 ,! ,saxon & ,brasilian topaz1 & ! ,brasilian ruby1 lose _! col\r v quickly1 & lose ab\t a fif? ( _! weight1 leav+ a :ite e>?1 resembl+ :ite qu>tz1 or unglaz$ *9a4 ,! em]ald1 *rysolite1 & g>net1 are almo/ in/antly melt$ into an opake & col\r$ glass4 #aj4 ,! diamond pres5ts a prop]ty peculi> to itself2 x burns 9 ! same mann] ) combu/ible bodies1 & is entirely dissipat$4 ,!re is yet ano!r mann] ( employ+ oxyg5 gas = consid]ably increas+ ! =ce ( fire1 by us+ x to bl[ a furnace4 ,mr ,a*>d fir/ conceiv$ ?is idea2 b ! process he employ$1 by :i* he ?\ght to dephlogi/icate1 z x is call$1 atmosph]ic air1 or to deprive x ( azotic gas1 is absolutely unsatisfactory4 ,i propose to con/ruct a v simple furnace1 = ?is purpose1 ( v refractory e>?1 simil> to ! "o repres5t$ ,pl4 ,,xiii4 ,fig4 #d4 b small] 9 all its dim5sions4 ,x is to h two op5+s1 z at ,e1 ?r\gh "o ( :i* ! nozle ( a pair ( bell[s is to pass1 by :i* ! heat is to be rais$ z high z possible ) common air2 aft] :i*1 ! /ream ( common air f ! bell[s be+ sudd5ly /opt1 oxyg5 gas is to be admitt$ by a tube1 at ! o!r op5+1 communicat+ ) a gazomet] hav+ ! pressure ( f\r or five in*es ( wat]4 ,i c 9 ?is mann] unite ! oxyg5 gas f sev]al gazomet]s1 s z to make eight or n9e cubical feet ( gas pass ?r\gh ! furnace2 & 9 ?is way ,i expect to produce a heat greatly m int5se ?an any hi!rto kn[n4 ,! upp] orifice ( ! furnace mu/ be c>efully made ( consid]able dim5sions1 t ! caloric produc$ may h free issue1 le/ ! too sudd5 expansion ( t highly ela/ic fluid %\ld produce a dang]\s explosion4 ,,f9is4 ,,app5dix4 ,no4 ,i4 ,,table = ,conv]t+ ,l9es1 or ,twelf? ,p>ts ( an ,in*1 & ,fractions ( ,l9es1 into ,decimal ,fractions ( ! ,in*4 ,twelf? ,p>ts ,decimal ,decimal ( a ,l9e4 ,fractions4 ,l9es4 ,fractions4 #a #j4jjfid #a #j4jhccc #b #j4jachi #b #j4afffg #c #j4jbjhc #c #j4bejjj #d #j4jbggh #d #j4ccccc #e #j4jcdgb #e #j4daffg #f #j4jdafg #f #j4ejjjj #g #j4jdhfa #g #j4ehccc #h #j4jeeef #h #j4ffffg #i #j4jfbej #i #j4gejjj #aj #j4jfidd #aj #j4hcccc #aa #j4jgfci #aa #j4iaffg #ab #j4jhccc #ab #a4jjjjj ,no4 ,,ii4 ,,table = ,conv]t+ ! ,obs]v$ ,heigh?s ( ,wat] 9 ! ,j>s ( ! ,pneumato-,*emical ,app>atus1 express$ 9 ,in*es & ,decimals1 into ,correspond+ ,heigh?s ( ,m]cury4 ,wat]4 ,m]cury4 ,wat]4 ,m]cury4 4#a 4#jjgcg #d4 4#bidhj 4#b 4#jadgd #e4 4#cfhea 4#c 4#jbbja #f4 4#ddbba 4#d 4#jbidh #g4 4#eaeia 4#e 4#jcfhe #h4 4#ehifa 4#f 4#jddbb #i4 4#ffccb 4#g 4#jeaei #aj4 4#gcgjb 4#h 4#jehif #aa4 4#hajgb 4#i 4#jffcc #ab4 4#hhddb #a4 4#jgcgj #ac4 4#ifhab #b4 4#adgdj #ad4 #a4jdahb #c4 4#bbjaj #ae4 #a4aaebe ,no4 ,,iii4 ,,table = ,conv]t+ ! ,ounce ,measures us$ by ,dr ,prie/ly into ,fr5* & ,engli% ,cubical ,in*es4 ,ounce ,fr5* cubical ,engli% cubical measures4 in*es4 in*es4 #a #a4efg #a4hih #b #c4acd #c4gif #c #d4gja #e4fid #d #f4bfh #g4eib #e #g4hce #i4dij #f #i4djb #aa4chh #g #aj4ifi #ac4bhf #h #ab4ecf #ae4ahd #i #ad4ajc #ag4jhb #aj #ae4fgj #ah4ihj #bj #ca4cdj #cg4ifj #cj #dg4jaj #ef4idj #dj #fb4fhj #ge4ibj #ej #gh4cej #id4ijj #fj #id4jbj #aac4hhj #gj #aji4fij #acb4hfj #hj #abe4cfj #aea4hdj #ij #ada4jcj #agj4hbj #ajj #aef4gjj #ahi4hjj #ajjj #aefg4jjj #ahih4jjj ,no4 ,,iv4 ,,additional4 ,,table = ,r$uc+ ! ,degrees ( ,reaumeur's ,!rmomet] into its correspond+ ,degrees ( ,fahr5heit's ,scale4 ,r4 ,f4 ,r4 ,f4 ,r4 ,f4 ,r4 ,f4 #j #cb #ba #gi4be #da #abd4be #fa #afi4be #a #cd4be #bb #ha4e #db #abf4e #fb #aga4e #b #cf4e #bc #hc4ge #dc #abh4ge #fc #agc4ge #c #ch4ge #bd #hf #dd #aca #fd #agf4 #d #da #be #hh4be #de #acc4be #fe #agh4be #e #dc4be #bf #ij4e #df #ace4e #ff #ahj4e #f #de4e #bg #ib4ge #dg #acg4ge #fg #ahb4ge #g #dg4ge #bh #ie #dh #adj #fh #ahe #h #ej #bi #ig4be #di #adb4be #fi #ahg4be #i #eb4be #cj #ii4e #ej #add4e #gj #ahi4e #aj #ed4e #ca #aja4ge #ea #adf4ge #ga #aia4ge #aa #ef4ge #cb #ajd #eb #adi #gb #aid4 #ab #ei #cc #ajf4be #ec #aea4be #gc #aif4be #ac #fa4be #cd #ajh4e #ed #aec4e #gd #aih4e #ad #fc4e #ce #aaj4ge #ee #aee4ge #ge #bjj4ge #ae #fe4ge #cf #aac #ef #aeh #gf #bjc #af #fh #cg #aae4be #eg #afj4be #gg #bje4be #ag #gj4be #ch #aag4e #eh #afb4e #gh #bjg4e #ah #gb4e #ci #aai4ge #ei #afd4ge #gi #bji4ge #ai #gd4ge #dj #abb #fj #afg #hj #bab #bj #gg ,note--,any degree1 ei!r high] or l[]1 ?an :at is conta9$ 9 ! above ,table1 may be at any "t conv]t$1 by rememb]+ t "o degree ( ,reaumeur's scale is equal to #b4be ( ,fahr5heit2 or x may be done )\t ! ,table by ! foll[+ =mula1 ,r #i _/ #d #cb ,f2 t is1 multiply ! degree ( ,reaumeur by #i1 divide ! product by #d1 to ! quoti5t add #cb1 & ! sum is ! degree ( ,fahr5heit4--,e4 ,no4 ,v4 ,,additional4 ,,rules = conv]t+ ,fr5* ,weights & ,measures into correspond5t ,engli% ,d5om9ations#fb4 #a4 ,weights4 ,! ,p>is p\nd1 poids de m>k ( ,*>lemagne1 conta9s #ibaf ,p>is gra9s2 x is divid$ into #af ounces1 ea* ounce into #h gros1 & ea* gros into #gb gra9s4 ,x is equal to #gefa ,engli% ,troy gra9s4 ,! ,engli% ,troy p\nd ( #ab ounces conta9s #egfj ,engli% ,troy gra9s1 & is equal to #gjba ,p>is gra9s4 ,! ,engli% av]dupois p\nd ( #af ounces conta9s #gjjj ,engli% ,troy gra9s1 & is equal to #hech ,p>is gra9s4 ,to r$uce ,p>is grs4 to ,engli% ,troy grs4 divide by #a4bahi ,to r$uce ,engli% ,troy grs4 to ,p>is grs4 multiply by ,to r$uce ,p>is ounces to ,engli% ,troy1 divide by ,to r$uce ,engli% ,troy ounces to #a4jaegcd ,p>is1 multiply by ,or ! conv]sion may be made by means ( ! foll[+ ,tables4 ,i4 ,to r$uce ,fr5* to ,engli% ,troy ,weight4 ,! ,p>is p\nd #gefa ,! ounce #dgb4efbe ,engli%4 ,! gros #ei4jgjc ,troy4 ,! gra9 4#haid ,gra9s4 ,,ii4 ,to ,r$uce ,engli% ,troy to ,p>is ,weight4 ,! ,engli% ,troy p\nd #gjba4 ( #ab ounces ,! ,troy ounce #ehe4jhcj ,! dram ( #fj grs4 #gc4acec ,p>is ,! p5ny weight1 or #bi4bedj gra9s4 d5i]1 ( #bd grs4 ,! scruple1 ( #bj grs4 #bd4cghd ,,iii4 ,to ,r$uce ,engli% ,av]dupois to ,p>is ,weight4 ,! av]dupois p\nd ( #af ounces1 or #gjjj #hech4 ,p>is ,troy gra9s4 gra9s4 ,! ounce #ecc4fbej #b4 ,long & ,cubical ,measures4 ,to r$uce ,p>is feet or in*es into ,engli%1 multiply by #a4jfeigg ,engli% feet or in*es into ,p>is1 divide by ,to r$uce ,p>is cubic feet or in*es to ,engli%1 multiply by ,engli% cubic feet or in*es to ,p>is1 #a4baabgh divide by ,or by means ( ! foll[+ tables3 ,,iv4 ,to ,r$uce ,p>is ,long ,measure to ,engli%4 ,! ,p>is royal foot ( #ab in*es #ab4gigg ,engli% ,! in* #a4jfei ,! l9e1 or #a_/ab ( an in* 4#jhhh in*es4 ,! #a_/ab ( a l9e 4#jjgd ,v4 ,to ,r$uce ,engli% ,long ,measure to ,fr5*4 ,! ,engli% foot #aa4beif ,! in* 4#ichc ,! #a_/h ( an in* 4#aagc ,p>is in*es4 ,! #a_/aj 4#jich ,! l9e1 or #a_/ab 4#jghb ,,vi4 ,to ,r$uce ,fr5* ,cube ,measure to ,engli%4 ,! ,p>is ,engli% cube foot #a4baabgh cubical #bjic4jhhchd ,! cubic feet1 in*es4 in* 4#jjjgjj or #a4baabgh ,,vii4 ,to ,r$uce ,engli% ,cube ,measure to ,fr5*4 ,! ,engli% cube foot1 or #agbh cubical in*es #adbg4dhfd ,fr5* ,! cubical in* 4#hbfj cubical ,! cube t5? 4#jjjh in*es4 #c4 ,measure ( ,capacity4 ,! ,p>is p9t conta9s #eh4adefc ,engli% cubical in*es1 & ! ,engli% w9e p9t conta9s #bh4he cubical in*es2 or1 ! ,p>is p9t conta9s #b4jaejh ,engli% p9ts1 & ! ,engli% p9t conta9s 4#difag ,p>is p9ts2 h5ce1 ,to r$uce ! ,p>is p9t to ! ,engli%1 multiply by #b4jaejh4 ,to r$uce ! ,engli% p9t to ! ,p>is1 divide by ,no4 ,,vi4 ,,table ( ! ,weights ( ! diff]5t ,gasses1 at #bh ,fr5* in*es1 or #bi4hd ,engli% in*es b>ometrical pressure1 & at #aj 7#ed4e7 ( temp]ature1 express$ 9 ,engli% measure & ,engli% ,troy weight4 ,names ( ! ,gasses4 ,weight ( a ,weight ( a cubical in*4 cubical foot4 7,a7 qrs4 oz4 dr4 qrs4 ,atmosph]ic air 4#cbaab #a #a #ae ,azotic gas 4#cjjfd #a #j #ci4e ,oxyg5 gas 4#cdbaa #a #a #ea ,hydrog5 gas 4#jbcid #j #j #da4bf ,c>bonic acid gas 4#ddajh #a #d #da 7,b7 ,nitr\s gas 4#cgjjj #a #b #ci ,ammoniacal gas 4#aheae #j #e #ai4gc ,sulphur\s acid gas 4#gaehj #b #d #ch ,note ,a3 ,^! five 7 asc]ta9$ by ,mr ,lavoisi] himself4--,e4 ,note ,b3 ,! la/ ?ree are ins]t$ by ,mr ,lavoisi] ^u ! au?ority ( ,mr ,kirwan4--,e4 ,no4 ,,vii4 ,tables ( ! ,specific ,gravities ( diff]5t bodies4 #a4 ,metallic ,sub/ances4 ,,gold4 ,pure gold ( #bd c>ats melt$ b n hamm]$ #ai4beha ,! same hamm]$ #ai4cfag ,gold ( ! ,p>isian /&>d1 #bb c>ats f9e1 n hamm]$7,a7 #ag4dhfc ,! same hamm]$ #ag4ehid ,gold ( ! /&>d ( ,fr5* co91 #ba-bb_/cb c>ats f9e1 n hamm]$ #ag4djbb ,! same co9$ #ag4fdgd ,gold ( ! ,fr5* tr9ket /&>d1 #bj c>ats f9e1 n hamm]$ #ae4gjij ,! same hamm]$ #ae4ggdf ,note ,a3 ,! same ) ,/]l+4 ,,silv]4 ,pure or virg9 silv]1 #bd d5i]s1 n hamm]$ #aj4dgdc ,! same hamm]$ #aj4eajg ,silv] ( ! ,p>is /&>d1 #aa d5i]s #aj gra9s f9e1 n hamm]$7,b7 #aj4ageb ,! same hamm]$ #aj4cgfe ,silv]1 /&>d ( ,fr5* co91 #aj d5i]s #ba gra9s f9e1 n hamm]$ #aj4jdgf ,! same co9$ #aj4djgg ,note ,b3 ,?is is #aj grs4 f9] ?an ,/]l+4 ,,plat9a4 ,crude plat9a 9 gra9s #ae4fjag ,! same1 aft] be+ treat$ ) muriatic acid #af4geba ,purifi$ plat9a1 n hamm]$ #ai4ejjj ,! same hamm]$ #bj4ccff ,! same drawn into wire #ba4jdag ,! same pass$ ?r\gh roll]s #bb4jfij ,,copp] ,,& ,,brass4 ,copp]1 n hamm]$ #g4ghhj ,! same wire drawn #h4hghe ,brass1 n hamm]$ #h4cieh ,! same wire drawn #h4edda ,,iron ,,& ,,/eel4 ,ca/ iron #g4bjgj ,b> iron1 ei!r screw$ or n #g4ghhj ,/eel nei!r temp]$ nor screw$ #g4hcca ,/eel screw$ b n temp]$ #g4hdjd ,/eel temp]$ & screw$ #g4hahj ,/eel temp]$ & n screw$ #g4hafc ,,t94 ,pure t9 f ,cornwall melt$ & n screw$ #g4biad ,! same screw$ #g4biid ,malacca t91 n screw$ #g4bifc ,! same screw$ #g4cjfe ,molt5 lead #aa4cebc ,molt5 z9c #g4aijh ,molt5 bismu? #i4hbbg ,molt5 cobalt #g4haai ,molt5 ars5ic #e4gfcc ,molt5 nickel #g4hjgj ,molt5 antimony #f4gjba ,crude antimony #d4jfdc ,glass ( antimony #d4idfd ,molybd5a #d4gche ,tung/e9 #f4jffe ,m]cury #ac4efha #b4 ,preci\s ,/ones4 ,:ite ,ori5tal diamond #c4ebab ,rose-col\r$ ,ori5tal ditto #c4ecaj ,ori5tal ruby #d4bhcc ,sp9ell ditto #c4gfjj ,ballas ditto #c4fdeh ,brasillian ditto #c4ecaa ,ori5tal topas #d4jajf ,ditto ,pi/a*io ditto #d4jfae ,brasillian ditto #c4ecfe ,saxon topas #c4efdj ,ditto :ite ditto #c4eece ,ori5tal saphir #c4iida ,ditto :ite ditto #c4iiaa ,saphir ( ,puy #d4jgfi ,ditto ( ,brasil #c4acjg ,girasol #d4jjjj ,ceylon j>gon #d4dafa ,hyac9? #c4fhgc ,v]million #d4bbii ,bohemian g>net #d4ahhh ,dodecah$ral ditto #d4jfbg ,syrian ditto #d4jjjj ,volcanic ditto1 ) #bd sides #b4dfhd ,p]uvian em]ald #b4ggee ,crysolite ( ! jewell]s #b4ghba ,ditto ( ,brasil #b4fibc ,b]yl1 or ,ori5tal aqua m>9e #c4edhi ,occid5tal aqua m>9e #b4gbbg #c4 ,silici\s ,/ones4 ,pure rock cri/al ( ,madagasc> #b4fecj ,ditto ( ,brasil #b4febf ,ditto ( ,europe1 or gelat9\s #b4fedh ,cri/alliz$ qu>tz #b4fedf ,amorph\s ditto #b4fdga ,ori5tal agate #b4eija ,agate onyx #b4fcge ,transp>5t calc$ony #b4ffdj ,c>nelian #b4facg ,s>donyx #b4fjbe ,prase #b4ehje ,onyx pebble #b4ffdd ,pebble ( ,r5nes #b4fech ,:ite jade #b4iejb ,gre5 jade #b4iffj ,r$ jasp] #b4ffab ,br[n ditto #b4fiaa ,yell[ ditto #b4gaja ,violet ditto #b4gaaa ,gray ditto #b4gfdj ,jasponyx #b4hafj ,black prismatic hexah$ral s*orl #c4cheb ,black sp>y ditto #c4cheb ,black amorph\s s*orl1 call$ antique basaltes #b4ibbe ,pav+ /one #b4daeh ,gr9d /one #b4adbi ,cutl]'s /one #b4aaac ,f\nta9bleau /one #b4efaf ,scy? /one ( ,auv]gne #b4efch ,ditto ( ,lorra9 #b4ebih ,mill /one #b4dhce ,:ite fl9t #b4eida ,blacki% ditto #b4ehag #d4 ,v>i\s ,/ones1 c4 ,opake gre5 ,italian s]p5t9e1 or gabro ( ! ,flor5t9es #b4dbie ,co>se ,briancon *alk #b4gbgd ,spani% *alk #b4gijb ,foliat$ lapis oll>is ( ,dauph9y #b4gfhg ,ditto ditto f ,sw$5 #b4heca ,muscovy talc #b4giag ,black mica #b4ijjd ,common s*i/us or slate #b4fgah ,new slate #b4hece ,:ite rasor hone #b4hgfc ,black & :ite hone #c4acaa ,rhombic or ,icel& cri/al #b4gaea ,pyramidal calc>e\s sp> #b4gada ,ori5tal or :ite antique alaba/] #b4gcjb ,gre5 ,campan m>ble #b4gdag ,r$ ,campan m>ble #b4gbdb ,:ite ,c>>a m>ble #b4gafh ,:ite ,p>ian m>ble #b4hcgf ,v>i\s k9ds ( calc>e\s /ones f #a4chfd us$ 9 ,france = build+4 to #b4cijb ,heavy sp> #d4dcjj ,:ite fluor #c4aeee ,r$ ditto #c4aiaa ,gre5 ditto #c4ahag ,blue ditto #c4afhh ,violet ditto #c4ageg ,r$ sc9tilant zeolite f ,edel=s #b4dhfh ,:ite sc9tilant zeolite #b4jgci ,cri/alliz$ zeolite #b4jhcc ,black pit* /one #b4jdii ,yell[ pit* /one #b4jhfj ,r$ ditto #b4ffie ,blacki% ditto #b4caia ,r$ porphyry #b4gfea ,ditto ( ,dauph9y #b4gjcc ,gre5 s]p5t9e #b4hifj ,black ditto ( ,dauph9y1 call$ v>iolite #b4icci ,gre5 ditto f ,dauph9y #b4ihhc ,ophites #b4igbb ,granitello #c4jfbf ,r$ ,egyptian granite #b4feda ,beautiful r$ granite #b4gfji ,granite ( ,gir>dmas #b4gafc ,pumice /one 4#iade ,lapis obsidianus #b4cdhj ,pi]re de ,volvic #b4cbje ,t\* /one #b4daec ,basaltes f ,giants ,causeway #b4hfdb ,ditto prismatic f ,auv]gne #b4daec ,glass gall #b4hedh ,bottle glass #b4gcbe ,gre5 glass #b4fdbc ,:ite glass #b4hibb ,/ ,gob9 cri/al #b4dhhb ,fl9t glass #c4cbic ,borax glass #b4fjgj ,seves porcela9 #b4adeg ,limoges ditto #b4cdaj ,*9a ditto #b4chdg ,native sulphur #b4jccb ,melt$ sulphur #a4iijg ,h>d peat #a4cbij ,amb]grease 4#ibfc ,yell[ transp>5t amb] #a4jghj #e4 ,liquids4 ,di/ill$ wat] #a4jjjj ,ra9 wat] #a4jjjj ,filt]$ wat] ( ! ,se9e #a4jjjae ,arcueil wat] #a4jjjdf ,avray wat] #a4jjjdc ,sea wat] #a4jbfc ,wat] ( ! ,dead ,sea #a4bdjc ,burgundy w9e 4#iiae ,b\rdeaux ditto 4#iici ,malmsey ,madeira #a4jchb ,r$ be] #a4jcch ,:ite ditto #a4jbca ,cyd] #a4jaha ,highly rectifi$ alkohol 4#hbic ,common spirits ( w9e 4#hcga ,alkohol #ae pts4 wat] #a "p4 4#hebg #ad #b 4#hfgd #ac #c 4#hhae #ab #d 4#hidg #aa #e 4#ijge #aj #f 4#iaii #i #g 4#icag #h #h 4#idbg #g #i 4#ieai #f #aj 4#ieid #e #aa 4#ifgd #d #ab 4#igcc #c #ac 4#igia #b #ad 4#iheb #a #ae 4#iiai ,sulphuric e!r 4#gcid ,nitric e!r 4#ijhh ,muriatic e!r 4#gbih ,acetic e!r 4#hffd ,sulphuric acid #a4hdji ,nitric ditto #a4bgae ,muriatic ditto #a4aidj ,r$ acet\s ditto #a4jbea ,:ite acet\s ditto #a4jace ,di/ill$ ditto ditto #a4jjie ,acetic ditto #a4jfbf ,=mic ditto 4#iidb ,solution ( cau/ic ammoniac1 or volatil alkali fluor 4#higj ,ess5tial or volatile oil ( turp5t9e 4#hfig ,liquid turp5t9e 4#iiaj ,volatile oil ( lav5d] 4#hich ,volatile oil ( cloves #a4jcfc ,volatile oil ( c9namon #a4jdci ,oil ( olives 4#iaec ,oil ( sweet almonds 4#iagj ,l9tse$ oil 4#idjc ,oil ( poppy se$ 4#ibhh ,oil ( bee* ma/ 4#iagf ,:ale oil 4#ibcc ,womans milk #a4jbjc ,m>es milk #a4jcdf ,ass milk #a4jcee ,goats milk #a4jcda ,ewe milk #a4jdji ,c[s milk #a4jcbd ,c[ :ey #a4jaic ,human ur9e #a4jajf #f4 ,res9s & ,gums ,common yell[ or :ite ros9 #a4jgbg ,arcanson #a4jheg ,galipot7,a7 #a4jhai ,b>as7,a7 #a4jdda ,s&>ac #a4jibj ,ma/ic #a4jgdb ,/orax #a4ajih ,opake copal #a4acih ,transp>5t ditto #a4jdeb ,madagasc> ditto #a4jfjj ,*9ese ditto #a4jfbh ,elemi #a4jahb ,ori5tal anime #a4jbhd ,occid5tal ditto #a4jdbf ,labdanum #a4ahfb ,ditto 9 tortis #b4dicc ,res9 ( guaiac #a4bbhi ,ditto ( jallap #a4bahe ,dragons blood #a4bjde ,gum lac #a4acij ,tacamahaca #a4jdfc ,b5zo9 #a4jibd ,al\*i7,b7 #a4jfjd ,c>agna7,c7 #a4abdd ,ela/ic gum 4#icce ,camphor 4#ihhg ,gum ammoniac #a4bjga ,sagap5um #a4bjjh ,ivy gum7,d7 #a4bidh ,gamboge #a4bbaf ,euphorbium #a4abdd ,olibanum #a4agcb ,myrrh #a4cfjj ,bdellium #a4cgag ,aleppo ,scamony #a4bced ,smyrna ditto #a4bgdc ,galbanum #a4babj ,assafoetida #a4cbge ,s>cocolla #a4bfhd ,opoponax #a4fbbf ,*]ry tree gum #a4dhag ,gum ,arabic #a4debc ,tragacan? #a4cafa ,basora gum #a4dcdf ,acaj\ gum7,e7 #a4ddef ,monba9 gum7,f7 #a4dbjf ,inspissat$ juice ( liquorice #a4gbbh ---- ,acacia #a4eaec ---- ,areca #a4degc ,t]ra ,japonica #a4cihj ,hepatic aloes #a4cehf ,socotr9e aloes #a4cgie ,inspissat$ juice ( ,/ ,john's wort #a4ebfc ,opium #a4ccff ,indigo 4#gfij ,arnotto 4#eief ,yell[ wax 4#ifdh ,:ite ditto 4#ifhf ,ou>\*i ditto7,g7 4#higj ,cacao butt] 4#hiaf ,sp]maceti 4#idcc ,beef fat 4#ibcb ,veal fat 4#icdb ,mutton fat 4#ibce ,tall[ 4#idai ,hoggs fat 4#icfh ,l>d 4#idgh ,butt] 4#idbc ,note ,a3 ,res9\s juices extract$ 9 ,france f ! ,p9e4 ,vide ,bom>e's ,dict4 ,note ,b3 ,odorif]\s gum f ! tree :i* produces ! ,cortex ,w9t]anus4 ,bom>e4 ,note ,c3 ,res9 ( ! tree call$ 9 ,mexico ,c>agna1 or ,tree ( ,madness4 ,ibid4 ,note ,d3 ,extract$ 9 ,p]sia & ! w>m c\ntries f ,h$]a t]re/ris4--,bom>e4 ,note ,e3 ,f a ,brasilian tree ( ?is "n4--,ibid4 ,note ,f3 ,f a tree ( ?is "n4--,ibid4 ,note ,g3 ,! produce ( ! ,tall[ ,tree ( ,guayana4 ,vide ,bom>e's ,dict4 #g4 ,woods4 ,he>t ( oak #fj ye>s old #a4agjj ,cork 4#bdjj ,elm trunk 4#fgaj ,a% ditto 4#hdej ,bee* 4#hebj ,ald] 4#hjjj ,maple 4#geej ,walnut 4#fgaj ,will[ 4#ehej ,l9d5 4#fjdj ,male fir 4#eejj ,female ditto 4#dihj ,popl> 4#chcj ,:ite ,spani% ditto 4#ebid ,apple tree 4#gicj ,pe> tree 4#ffaj ,qu9ce tree 4#gjej ,m$l> 4#iddj ,plumb tree 4#ghej ,olive wood 4#ibgj ,*]ry tree 4#gaej ,filb]t tree 4#fjjj ,fr5* box 4#iabj ,dut* ditto #a4cbhj ,dut* yew 4#ghhj ,spani% ditto 4#hjgj ,spani% cypress 4#fddj ,am]ican c$> 4#efjh ,pomgranate tree #a4cedj ,spani% mulb]ry tree 4#higj ,lignum vitae #a4cccj ,orange tree 4#gjej ,note--,! numb]s 9 ! above ,table1 if ! ,decimal po9t be c>ri$ ?ree figures f>!r to ! "r h&1 ne>ly express ! absolute weight ( an ,engli% cube foot ( ea* sub/ance 9 av]dupois ounces4 ,see ,no4 ,,viii4 ( ! ,app5dix4--,e4 ,no4 ,,viii4 ,,additional4 ,,rules = ,calculat+ ! ,absolute ,gravity 9 ,engli% ,troy ,weight ( a ,cubic ,foot & ,in*1 ,engli% ,measure1 ( any ,sub/ance ^: ,specific ,gravity is kn[n#fd4 ,9 #afif1 ,mr ,ev]>d1 balance-mak] to ! ,ex*equ]1 weigh$ be=e ! ,commission]s ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons #bade4f cubical in*es1 by ! ,ex*equ] /&>d foot1 ( di/ill$ wat]1 at ! temp]ature ( #ee ( ,fahr5heit1 & f\nd x to weigh #aaca oz4 #ad dts4 ,troy1 ( ! ,ex*equ] /&>d4 ,! beam turn$ ) #f grs4 :5 load$ ) #cj p\nds 9 ea* scale4 ,h5ce1 suppos+ ! p\nd av]dupois to weigh #gjjj grs4 ,troy1 a cubic foot ( wat] weighs #fb-a_/b p\nds av]dupois1 or #ajjj ounces av]dupois1 want+ #ajf gra9s ,troy4 ,& h5ce1 if ! specific gravity ( wat] be call$ #ajjj1 ! proportional specific gravities ( all o!r bodies w ne>ly express ! numb] ( av]dupois ounces 9 a cubic foot4 ,or m accurately1 suppos+ ! specific gravity ( wat] express$ by #a4 & ( all o!r bodies 9 proportional numb]s1 z ! cubic foot ( wat] weighs1 at ! above temp]ature1 exactly #dcgdhi4d gra9s ,troy1 & ! cubic in* ( wat] #bec4age gra9s1 ! absolute weight ( a cubical foot or in* ( any body 9 ,troy gra9s may be f\nd by multiply+ _! specific gravity by ei!r ( ! above numb]s respectively4 ,by ,ev]>d's exp]im5t1 & ! proportions ( ! ,engli% & ,fr5* foot1 z e/abli%$ by ! ,royal ,society & ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces1 ! foll[+ numb]s are asc]ta9$4 ,p>is gra9s 9 a ,p>is cube foot ( wat] #fdeeaa ,engli% gra9s 9 a ,p>is cube foot ( wat] #ebiibb ,p>is gra9s 9 an ,engli% cube foot ( wat] #eccbdg ,engli% gra9s 9 an ,engli% cube foot ( wat] #dcgdhi4d ,engli% gra9s 9 an ,engli% cube in* ( wat] #bec4age ,by an exp]im5t ( ,pic>d ) ! measure & weight ( ! ,*atelet1 ! ,p>is cube foot ( wat] conta9s ( ,p>is gra9s #fdacbf ,by "o ( ,du ,hamel1 made ) great c>e #fdacgf ,by ,homb]g #fdafff ,^! %[ "s unc]ta9ty 9 measures or 9 weights2 b ! above computation f ,ev]>d's exp]im5t may be reli$ on1 because ! comp>ison ( ! foot ( ,engl& ) t ( ,france 0 made by ! jo9t lab\rs ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,london & ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces3 ,x agrees likewise v ne>ly ) ! weight assign$ by ,mr ,lavoisi]1 #gj ,p>is p\nds to ! cubical foot ( wat]4 ,no4 ,,ix4 ,,tables = ,conv]t+ ,ounces1 ,drams1 & ,gra9s1 ,troy1 into ,decimals ( ! ,troy ,p\nd ( #ab ,ounces1 & = ,conv]t+ ,decimals ( ! ,p\nd ,troy into ,ounces1 c4 ,i4 ,= ,gra9s4 ,gra9s ,p\nd4 #a 4#jjjagcf #b 4#jjjcdgb #c 4#jjjebjh #d 4#jjjfidd #e 4#jjjhfha #f 4#jjajdag #g 4#jjabaec #h 4#jjachhi #i 4#jjaefbe #aj 4#jjagcfa #bj 4#jjcdgbb #cj 4#jjebjhc #dj 4#jjfiddd #ej 4#jjhfhjf #fj 4#jajdafg #gj 4#jabaebh #hj 4#jachhhi #ij 4#jaefbej #ajj 4#jagcfaa #bjj 4#jcgdbbb #cjj 4#jebjhcc #djj 4#jfidddd #ejj 4#jhfhjee #fjj 4#ajdafff #gjj 4#abaebgg #hjj 4#achhhhh #ijj 4#aefbdii #ajjj 4#agcfaaj #bjjj 4#cdgbbbj #cjjj 4#ebjhccj #djjj 4#fiddddj #ejjj 4#hfhjeej #fjjj #a4jdahffj #gjjj #a4baebggj #hjjj #a4chhhhhj #ijjj #a4efbdiij ,,ii4 ,= ,drams4 ,drams ,p\nd4 #a 4#jajdafg #b 4#jbjhccc #c 4#jcabejj #d 4#jdafffg #e 4#jebjhcc #f 4#jfbejjj #g 4#jgbiafg #h 4#jhccccc ,,iii4 ,= ,ounces4 ,ounces ,p\nds4 #a 4#jhccccc #b 4#afffffg #c 4#bejjjjj #d 4#ccccccc #e 4#daffffg #f 4#ejjjjjj #g 4#ehccccc #h 4#ffffffg #i 4#gejjjjj #aj 4#hcccccc #aa 4#iaffffg #ab #a4jjjjjjj ,,iv4 ,decimals ( ! ,p\nd into ,ounces1 c4 ,t5? p>ts4 lib4 oz4 dr4 gr4 #j4a #a #a #cf #j4b #b #c #ab #j4c #c #d #dh #j4d #d #f #bd #j4e #f #j #j #j4f #g #a #cf #j4g #h #c #ab #j4h #i #d #dh #j4i #aj #f #bd ,hundr$? p>ts4 #j4ja #j #j #eg4f #j4jb #j #a #ee4b #j4jc #j #b #eb4h #j4jd #j #c #ej4d #j4je #j #d #dh4j #j4jf #j #e #de4f #j4jg #j #f #dc4b #j4jh #j #g #dj4h #j4ji #j #c #ch4d ,?\s&?s4 #j4jja #j #j #e4gf #j4jjb #j #j #aa4eb #j4jjc #j #j #ag4bh #j4jjd #j #j #bc4jd #j4jje #j #j #bh4hj lib4 grs4 #j4jjf #cd4ef #j4jjg #dj4cb #j4jjh #df4jh #j4jji #ea4hd ,t5 ?\s&? p>ts4 #j4jjja #j4egf #j4jjjb #a4aeb #j4jjjc #a4gbh #j4jjjd #b4cjd #j4jjje #b4hhj #j4jjjf #c4def #j4jjjg #d4jcb #j4jjjh #d4fjh #j4jjji #e4ahd ,hundr$ ?\s&? p>ts4 #j4jjjja #j4jeb #j4jjjjb #j4aae #j4jjjjc #j4agc #j4jjjjd #j4bcj #j4jjjje #j4bhh #j4jjjjf #j4cdf #j4jjjjg #j4djc #j4jjjjh #j4dfa #j4jjjji #j4eah ,no4 ,x4 ,,table ( ! ,engli% ,cubical ,in*es & ,decimals correspond+ to a det]m9ate ,troy ,weight ( ,di/ill$ ,wat] at ! ,temp]ature ( #ee1 calculat$ f ,ev]>d's exp]im5t4 ,= ,gra9s4 ,grs4 ,cubical in*es4 #a 4#jjci #b 4#jjgh #c 4#jaah #d 4#jaeg #e 4#jaig #f 4#jbcf #g 4#jbge #h 4#jcae #i 4#jced #aj 4#jcid #bj 4#jghh #cj 4#aahb #dj 4#aegg #ej 4#aiga ,= ,drams4 ,drams4 ,cubical in*es4 #a 4#bcfe #b 4#dgca #c 4#gjid #d 4#idfc #e #a4ahbi #f #a4daie #g #a4fefa ,= ,ounces4 ,oz4 ,cubical in*es4 #a #a4hibg #b #c4ghee #c #e4fghb #d #g4egaj #e #i4dfca #f #aa4cefe #g #ac4bdic #h #ae4adbj #i #ag4jgdh #aj #ah4ibgf #aa #bj4hbjd ,= ,p\nds4 ,libs4 ,cubical in*es4 #a #bb4gaca #b #de4dbfc #c #fh4acid #d #ij4hebe #e #aac4efeg #f #acf4bghh #g #aeh4iiai #h #aha4gjea #i #bjd4dahc #aj #bbg4acad #ej #aace4fegd #ajj #bbga4cadh #ajjj #bbgac4adhh ,,footnotes3 #fb ,= ! mat]ials ( ?is ,article ! ,translator is indebt$ to ,pr(essor ,rob]tson4 #fc ,x is said1 ,belidor ,ar*it4 ,hydrog4 to conta9 #ca oz4 #fd grs4 ( wat]1 :i* makes x #eh4jge ,engli% in*es2 b1 z !re is consid]able unc]ta9ty 9 ! det]m9ations ( ! weight ( ! ,fr5* cubical measure ( wat]1 ow+ to ! unc]ta9ty ( ! /&>ds made use (1 x is bett] to abide by ,mr ,ev]>d's measure1 :i* 0 ) ! ,ex*equ] /&>ds1 & by ! proportions ( ! ,engli% & ,fr5* foot1 z e/abli%$ by ! ,fr5* ,academy & ,royal ,society4 #fd ,! :ole ( ?is & ! foll[+ article 0 communicat$ to ! ,translator by ,pr(essor ,rob9son4--,e4 ,,! ,,plates ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,i ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,i 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,ii ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,ii 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,iii ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,iii 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,iv ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,iv 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,v ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,v 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,vi ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,vi 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,vii ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,vii 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,viii ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,viii 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,ix ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,ix 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,x ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,x 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xi ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xi 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xii ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xii 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xii 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xii 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xii 7cont9u$7 ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xiii ,illu/ration3 ,plate ,,xiii 7cont9u$7 ,,! ,,end4