,transcribed from the #ahdf ,society for
 ,promoting ,christian ,knowledge       
edition by ,david ,price1 email         
ccx#jgdpglaf4org                        
,,the                                   
,,rain ,,cloud3                         
,,or1                                   
,an ,account                            
,,of                       ,,the        
,,nature1 ,,properties1 ,,dangers1      
,,and ,,uses ,,of ,,rain1               
,,in ,,various ,,parts ,,of ,,the       
,,world4                                
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,published ,,under ,,the ,,direction   
,,of              ,,the ,,committee ,,of
 ,,general ,,literature ,,and           
,,education                             
,,appointed ,,by ,,the ,,society ,,for  
,,promoting                             
,,christian ,,knowledge4                
99 99 99 99 99                          
,,london3                               
,printed for the                        
,,society ,,for ,,promoting ,,christian 

,,knowledge4                            
,,sold ,,at ,,the ,,depository1         
,,great ,,queen ,,street1 ,,lincoln',s  
,,inn ,,fields1                         
,,and #d1 ,,royal ,,exchange4           
#ahdf4                                  
,,london3                     ,r4       
,,clay1 ,,printer1 ,,bread ,,street     
,,hill4                                 
,,contents4                             
,,chapter ,i4                           
p4 #aj4  ,,rains ,,peculiar ,,to ,,each 
,,season--,,spring                      
,,showers--,,midsummer ,,rains--,,rains 
,,of ,,autumn ,,and ,,winter--,,means   
,,of ,,supplying ,,the ,,earth ,,with   
,,rain--,,rain  ,,clouds--,,deceptive   
,,appearances ,,of ,,clouds--,,their    
,,light ,,and  ,,shade--,,effects ,,of  
,,clouds ,,in ,,mountainous             
,,countries--,,ascent ,,of ,,monte      
,,pientio--,,ascent ,,to ,,the ,,peak   
,,of ,,teneriffe--,,grand ,,effects ,,of
 ,,clouds ,,in  ,,the                   
,,pyrenees--,,voyage ,,in ,a ,,balloon  

,,through ,,the ,,clouds4               
,,chapter ,,ii4                         
p4 #cg4  ,,effects ,,of ,,rain ,,in     
,,mountainous ,,districts--,,the        
,,district ,,of ,,moray--,,the  ,,great 
,,floods ,,of #ahbi--;,,commencement    
,,of ,,the ,,rain--,,the ,,swollen      
,,rivers--,,disastrous ,,effects ,,of   
,,the ,,flood--,,means ,,adopted ,,for  
,,the ,,rescue  ,,of ,,cottagers--,,kerr
 ,,and ,,his ,,brave                    
,,deliverers--,,rescue ,,of ,,funns     
,,and ,,his  ,,family--,,floods ,,of    
,,the ,,rhone ,,in #ahdj--,,overflowing 
,,of ,,the ,,mississippi4               
,,chapter ,,iii4                        
p4 #gd4  ,,various ,,forms ,,of         
,,clouds--,,the ,,cirrus1 ,,or          
,,curl-,,cloud--,,the ,,cumulus1 ,,or   
,,stacken-,,cloud--,,the ,,stratus1 ,,or
 ,,fall-,,cloud--,,the                  
,,cirro-,,cumulus1 ,,or                 
,,sonder-,,cloud--,,the                 
,,cirro-,,stratus1 ,,or                 
,,wane-,,cloud--,,the                   

,,cumulo-,,stratus1 ,,or                
,,twain-,,cloud--,,the ,,nimbus1 ,,or   
,,rain-,,cloud--,,arrangement ,,of      
,,rain-,,clouds--,,appearances ,,of ,a  
,,distant ,,shower--,,scud--,,cause ,,of
  ,,rain--,,formation ,,of              
,,clouds--,,mists--,,heights ,,of       
,,clouds--,,appearance ,,of ,,the  ,,sky
 ,,above ,,the ,,clouds4                
,,chapter ,,iv4                         
p4 #ajg4  ,,on ,,hail--,,the            
,,hail-,,storms ,,of ,,france--,,the    
,,disastrous ,,effects ,,of             
,,hail--,,the ,,hail-,,storms ,,of      
,,south ,,america--,,their ,,surprising 
,,effects--,,origin ,,and ,,nature ,,of 
,,hail--,,periodical ,,falls ,,of       
,,hail--,,hail                          
,,clouds--,,hailstones--,,their         
,,various ,,forms--,,extraordinary      
,,size ,,of  ,,hailstones4              
,,chapter ,v4                           
p4 #aag4  ,,method ,,of ,,measuring     
,,the ,,quantity ,,of ,,rain ,,that     
,,falls--,,the ,,rain                   

,,gauge--,,methods ,,of ,,observing     
,,for ,,rain ,,and ,,snow--,,effects    
,,of ,,elevation ,,on  ,,the ,,quantity 
,,of ,,rain--,,difference ,,between     
,,the ,,top ,,of ,a ,,tall ,,building   
,,and ,,the ,,summit ,,of ,a            
,,mountain--,,size ,,of ,,drops ,,of    
,,rain--,,velocity ,,of ,,their         
,,fall--,,quantity ,,of ,,rain ,,in     
,,different ,,latitudes--,,extraordinary
 ,,falls ,,of  ,,rain--,,remarks ,,on   
,,the ,,rain ,,of ,,this                
,,country--,,influence ,,of ,,the       
,,moon--,,absence ,,of                  
,,rain--,,remarkable ,,drought ,,in     
,,south ,,america--,,its  ,,terrible    
,,effects ,,and                         
,,consequences--,,artificial ,,rains4   
,,chapter ,,vi4                         
p4 #acg4  ,,the                         
,,rainbow--,,decomposition ,,of ,,white 
,,light ,,by ,,the ,,prism--,,formation 
,,of  ,,primary ,,and ,,secondary       
,,bows--,,rainbows ,,in ,,mountain      
,,regions--,,the ,,rainbow  ,a ,,sacred 

,,emblem--,,lunar ,,rainbow--,,light    
,,decomposed ,,by ,,clouds--,,their     
,,beautiful ,,colours--,,examples4      
,,chapter ,,vii4                        
p4 #aeg4  ,,remarkable                  
,,showers--,,showers ,,of ,,sand--,,of  
,,mud--,,showers ,,of ,,sulphur1 ,,or   
,,yellow ,,rain--,,luminous             
,,rain--,,red ,,rain1 ,,or ,,showers    
,,of  ,,blood--,,superstitions          
,,connected ,,therewith--,,explanation  
,,of ,,the  ,,cause--,,showers ,,of     
,,fish--,,showers ,,of ,,rats--,,showers
 ,,of ,,frogs--,,insect                 
,,shower--,,showers ,,of ,,vegetable    
,,substances--,,manna--,,wheat--,,shower
s ,,of  ,,stones--,,meteoric ,,stones1  
,,or ,,aerolites--,,meteoric            
,,iron--,,suppositions  ,,respecting    
,,them--,,fossil ,,rain4                
,,chapter ,,viii4                       
p4 #aia4  ,,common ,,sayings            
,,respecting ,,the ,,weather--,,saint   
,,swithin',s-,,day--,,signs ,,of  ,,rain
 ,,or ,,of ,,fair ,,weather ,,derived   

,,from ,,the ,,appearance ,,of ,,the    
,,sun--,,from  ,,that ,,of ,,the        
,,moon--,,from ,,the ,,stars--,,from    
,,the ,,sky--,,from ,,the ,,distinctness
  ,,of ,,sounds--,,from ,,the ,,rising  
,,of ,,smoke--,,from ,,the ,,peculiar   
,,actions ,,of  ,,plants ,,and          
,,animals--,,prognostics ,,noticed ,,by 
,,sir ,,humphrey ,,davy--,,signs ,,of   
,,rain ,,collected ,,by ,,dr4           
,,jenner--,,north ,,american            
,,rain-,,makers--,,incident  ,,related  
,,by ,,catlin--,,rain-,,doctors ,,of    
,,southern ,,africa--,,rain-,,doctors   
,,of  ,,ceylon--,,superstitions ,,giving
 ,,way ,,to ,,the ,,teaching ,,of       
,,missionaries--,,conclusion4           
,picture3 ,clouds among the mountains   
,,chapter ,i3      ,,rains ,,peculiar   
,,to ,,each ,,season--,,spring          
,,showers--,,midsummer ,,rains--,,rains 
,,of  ,,autumn ,,and ,,winter--,,means  
,,of ,,supplying ,,the ,,earth ,,with   
,,rain--,,rain-,,clouds--,,deceptive    
,,appearances ,,of ,,clouds--,,their    

,,light ,,and  ,,shade--,,effects ,,of  
,,clouds ,,in ,,mountainous             
,,countries--,,ascent ,,of ,,monte      
,,pientio--,,ascent ,,to ,,the ,,peak   
,,of ,,teneriffe--,,grand ,,effects ,,of
 ,,clouds ,,in ,,the                    
,,pyrenees--,,voyage ,,in ,a ,,balloon  
,,through ,,the ,,clouds4    ,every     
season has its own peculiar rains4      
,what can be more refreshing or         
invigorating than the showers of spring8
  ,when the snows of ,february have     
disappeared1 and the blustering winds of
 ,march have performed their  office of 
drying up the excess of moisture1 and   
preparing the earth for  fruitfulness1  
and when the young buds and blossoms of 
,april are peeping  forth beneath the   
influence of the sun1 and the trees and 
hedges are  attired in their new robes  
of tender green1 how soon would all this
  beauty languish but for the showers of
 spring6  ,several dry days1  perhaps1  
have passed1 and the wreaths of dust    
which are raised by the  wind show that 

the earth wants moisture2 but before a  
drop falls there is  a general lull     
throughout all nature2 not a leaf is    
heard to rustle2 the  birds are mute and
 the cattle stand in expectation of the 
refreshing  fall4  ,at last the pools   
and rivulets are dimpled by a few soft  
drops1  the forerunners of the general  
shower4  ,and this shower1 unlike the   
heavier rains of summer1 comes stealing 
on so gently1 that the tinkling  sound  
of its fall is heard among the branches 
of the bursting trees long  before it is
 felt by those who walk beneath their   
slight shelter4  ,rapidly does the      
landscape brighten under the influence  
of the welcome  shower2 and as it       
becomes more rich and extensive1 all    
nature seems to  rise up and rejoice4   
,the birds chirp merrily among the      
foliage2 the  flowers raise their       
drooping heads1 and the thirsty ground  
drinks in with  eager haste the         
mellowing rains4  ,all day long1        
perhaps1 does the rain  continue to     

fall1 until the earth is fully moistened
 and enriched with  vegetable life4  ,at
 length1 towards evening1 the sun peeps 
out from  among the broken clouds1 and  
lights up1 by his sudden radiance1 the  
lovely scene4  ,myriads of rain-drops   
sparkle like gems beneath his beams2  a 
soft mist that seems to mingle earth and
 sky gradually rolls away1 and  moist1  
and bright1 and green1 the landscape    
laughs around4  ,now pours  forth the   
evening concert from the woods1 while   
warbling brooks1 and  lowing herds1     
appear to answer to the sound4  ,such   
are some of the  delightful effects of  
spring-showers4    ,in summer1 when the 
heat has been very great1 the rain is   
often ushered  in by a thunder-storm1   
and falls in torrents1 which at an      
earlier season  would do harm to the    
young buds and blossoms of spring2 but  
now the  vegetation is strong enough to 
resist the floods so necessary to       
maintain  moisture in the parched earth4
  ,but when the summer has been         

moderately  warm some gentle rains      
generally fall about midsummer1 which1  
from the  frequency of their occurrence 
about this time1 have obtained the name 
of  ,midsummer rains4  ,these rains are 
popularly associated with ,st4          
,swithin's ,day1 as will be noticed in  
another chapter2 but when they fall     
early1 mildly1 and in moderate quantity1
 they operate to a certain extent  as a 
second spring4  ,many of the birds come 
into song and have second  broods2 and  
it is probable that there is a fresh    
production of  caterpillars for their   
food1 or1 at all events1 a larger       
production of  the late ones than when  
the rains are more violent and          
protracted4  ,many  of the herbaceous   
plants also bloom anew1 and the autumn  
is long and  pleasant1 and has very many
 of the charms of a summer1 though      
without any  very powerful operation on 
the productions of nature1 further than 
a very  excellent preparation for the   
coming year1 whether in buds1 in roots1 

or  in the labours of man4  ,such a     
season is also one of plenty1 or at all 
events of excellent quality in all the  
productions of the soil4  ,the wild     
animals partake in the general          
abundance1 as that food which is left   
for  them in the fields1 after man has  
gathered in his share1 is both more     
abundant and more nourishing4  ,when    
there is much moisture from the         
protracted time and great quantity of   
the rains1 many of those seeds          
germinate1 while in mild seasons they   
are left as food for the wild  animals1 
chiefly the field-mice and the birds1   
which again form part of  the food of   
the predatory ones4    ,there is        
something melancholy and depressing in  
the rains of autumn and  winter1 for    
they bear away the last traces of summer
 by stripping the  trees of the         
many-coloured leaves1 which in mild     
seasons will continue to  adorn the     
landscape even late in ,november4  ,the 
rains of this month1 and  their effects1

 have been skilfully sketched by an     
accurate observer of  nature4  ,he      
says3--        ,now cold rains come     
deluging down1 till the drenched ground1
 the      dripping trees1 the pouring   
eaves1 and the torn1 ragged-skirted     
clouds1 seemingly dragged downward      
slantwise by the threads of dusky       
rain that descend from them1 are all    
mingled together in one blind           
confusion2 while the few cattle that are
 left in open pastures1      forgetful  
of their till now interminable business 
of feeding1 turn      their backs upon  
the besieging storm1 and1 hanging down  
their heads      till their noses almost
 touch the ground1 stand out in the     
middle of      the fields motionless1   
like dead images4        ,now1 too1 a   
single rain-storm1 like the above1      
breaks up all the      paths and ways at
 once1 and makes home no longer 'home'  
to those who      are not obliged to    
leave it2 while it becomes doubly       
endeared to      those who are4  ,what  

sight1 for instance1 is so pleasant to  
the      wearied woodman1 who has been  
out all day long in the drenching rains 
of this month1 as his own distant       
cottage window seen through the         
thickening dusk1 lighted up by the      
blazing fagot that is to greet his      
sure return at the accustomed minute8   
,while we watch the effects of the      
various rains1 and their beneficial     
influence on the earth1 there is also   
much to excite our gratitude and        
admiration2 for among the many beautiful
 contrivances in creation1 none  is more
 remarkable than the means by which the 
earth is watered and  refreshed by rain4
  ,the oceans1 seas1 lakes1 and other   
waters of the  earth supply the air with
 moisture1 which1 rendered elastic and  
invisible  by the heat of the sun and of
 the earth1 rises to various heights in 
the  atmosphere1 where it forms clouds  
in all their wonderful beauty and       
variety4  ,these are borne by the winds 
to places far inland1 to which  water in

 sufficient quantity could not come by  
any other means1 and where  moisture is 
most required2 and here the water is    
poured down1 not in  cataracts and      
water-spouts1 but in the form of drops  
of various sizes4  ,if the rain-clouds  
threw down1 at once and suddenly1 all   
the water  contained in them1 not only  
would vegetation be destroyed by the    
force of  the fall1 but we should be    
constantly liable to floods and other   
inconveniences4  ,clouds also serve to  
screen the earth from the fierce  heat  
of the sun by day2 and1 by night1 they  
serve to maintain the heat  which would 
otherwise escape by radiation1 and      
produce great cold even in  summer4     
,clouds thus have great influence in    
regulating the extremes of  heat and    
cold1 and in forming what is called the 
climate of a country4  ,clouds also     
supply the hidden stores of fountains   
and the fresh water of  rivers2 and1 as 
a pious old divine well remarks1 ,so    
abundant is this  great blessing1 which 

the most indulgent ,creator hath        
afforded us by  means of this           
distribution of the waters ,i am        
speaking of1 that there is  more than a 
scanty1 bare provision1 a mere          
sufficiency2 even a plenty1 a           
surplusage of this useful creature of   
,god1 the fresh waters afforded to  the 
world2 and they so well ordered1 as not 
to drown the nations of the  earth1 nor 
to stagnate1 stink1 and poison1 or annoy
 them2 but to be  gently carried through
 convenient channels back again to their
 grand  fountain the sea2 and many of   
them through such large tracts of land  
and  to such prodigious distances1 that 
it is a great wonder the fountains      
should be high enough1 or the seas low  
enough1 ever to afford so long a        
conveyance4 #ah    ,if rain is not at   
all seasons pleasant and delightful1    
neither are  rain-clouds among the most 
beautiful which diversify the landscape 
of the  sky2 for it has been well       
remarked1 that all the fine-weather     

clouds are  beautiful1 and those        
connected with rain and wind mostly the 
reverse4  ,what1 indeed1 can be more    
striking than the aerial landscapes of  
fine  weather1 in which1 by an easy     
fancy1 we can trace trees and towers1   
magnificent ruins and glaciers1 natural 
bridges and palaces1 all dashed  with   
torrents of light or frowning in shadow1
 glowing like burnished  silver1        
glittering in a golden light1 or melting
 into the most enchanting  hues8  ,but  
with all this beauty the eye is seldom  
capable of judging  correctly of the    
proper size and forms and motions of    
clouds4  ,the same  cloud which to one  
observer may be glowing with light1 to  
another may be  enveloped in shadow4    
,that which appears to be its summit may
 be only a  portion of its outer edge1  
while that which seems to be its lower  
bed may  really be a portion of its     
further border4  ,a spectator1 on the   
summit of  a tall cliff1 may observe    
what he takes to be a single cloud2     

while a  second spectator1 on lower     
ground1 will perceive that there are two
  clouds4  ,the motions of clouds are so
 deceptive1 that they often seem to  be 
moving in a curve over the great concave
 of heaven1 while they are in  fact     
advancing in nearly a right line4       
,suppose1 for example that a cloud  is  
moving from the distant horizon towards 
the place where we stand1 in a  uniform 
horizontal line without changing either 
in size or form4  ,such a  cloud1 when  
first seen1 will appear to be in contact
 with the distant  horizon1 and         
consequently much nearer to us than it  
really is4  ,as it  advances towards us1
 it will seem to rise into the sky1 and 
to become  gradually larger till it is  
almost directly overhead4  ,continuing  
its  progress1 it will then seem again  
to descend and to lessen in size as     
gradually as it had before increased2   
till at length it disappears in the     
distant horizon at a point exactly      
opposite to that at which it was first  

seen4  ,thus the same cloud1 without    
varying its motion in the least from  a 
straight line1 and remaining throughout 
of the same size and form1  would seem  
to be continually varying in magnitude2 
and the line of its  motion1 instead of 
being straight1 would appear to be      
curved4  ,this is  one of the most      
simple cases that can be supposed3 but  
the clouds as they  exist in nature do  
not remain of the same magnitude1 but   
are constantly  changing in form1 in    
size1 in direction1 and in velocity2 so 
that it is  quite impossible to form an 
accurate idea of their shape and size1  
or to  explain their motions4  ,clouds1 
at different elevations1 may often be   
seen to move in different directions    
under the influence of different        
currents of wind4    ,picture3          
,different appearance of the same clouds
 to different observers    ,the         
distribution of light and shade in      
clouds is most striking4  ,the  watery  
particles of which they are composed1   

yielding constantly to  changes in      
temperature and moisture1 are always    
changing2 so that a most  beautiful     
cloud may alter in figure and appearance
 in an instant of time2  the light parts
 may suddenly become dark1 and those    
that were shaded may  all at once glow  
in the rays of the sun4  ,again1 the    
appearance of a  cloud1 with respect to 
the sun1 may entirely alter its         
character4  ,the  same cloud1 to one    
observer1 may appear entirely in shade1 
to another  tipped with silver2 to a    
third it may present brilliant points   
and  various degrees of shade1 or one of
 its edges only may appear  illuminated2
 sometimes the middle parts may appear  
in shadow1 while the  margin may be     
partially luminous1 rendering the middle
 parts all the more  obscure by the     
contrast4    ,a wonderful variety may   
also be produced by the shadow of one   
cloud  falling upon another4  ,the      
accompanying sketch furnishes an example
 of  this4  ,sometimes the whole of a   

cloud projects a shadow through the air 
upon some other far distant cloud1 and  
this again upon another1 until at       
length it reaches the ground4  ,the     
shadows of moving clouds may often be   
traced upon the ground1 and they        
contribute greatly to modify the        
appearance of the landscape4  ,a large  
number of small flickering clouds       
produce broken lights and shades which  
have an unpleasant jarring effect2  but 
when the clouds are massive1 or properly
 distributed1 the shadows  often produce
 a high degree of repose4               
,picture3 ,shadows of clouds    ,clouds 
are often seen to advantage in          
mountainous countries4  ,here the       
aspect of the heavens may be entirely   
different at different elevations4  ,a  
single cloud in the valley may conceal  
the whole of the upper sky from  an     
observer2 but as he ascends he may      
gradually get above this and other      
layers or bands of cloud1 and see a     
beautifully variegated sky above him1   

while the clouds which conceal the      
valley may be rolling at his feet4      
,evelyn1 in his ,memoirs1 notices a     
scene of this kind4  ,he says1--,next   
morning we rode by ,monte ,pientio1 or1 
as vulgarly called1 ,monte  ,mantumiato1
 which is of an excessive height1 ever  
and anon peeping above  airy clouds with
 its snowy head1 till we had climbed to 
the inn at  ,radicofany1 built by       
,ferdinand the greate ,duke for the     
necessary  refreshment of travellers in 
so inhospitable a place4  ,as we        
ascended we  entered a very thick1      
solid1 and dark body of cloudes1 which  
looked like  rocks at a little distance1
 which lasted neare a mile in going up2 
they  were dry1 misty vapours1 hanging  
undissolved for a vast thicknesse1 and  
obscuring both sun and earth1 so that we
 seemed to be in the sea rather  than in
 the cloudes1 till1 having pierced      
through it1 we came into a most  serene 
heaven1 as if we had been above all     
human conversation1 the  mountain       

appearing more like a great island than 
joyn'd to any other  hills1 for we could
 perceive nothing but a sea of very     
thick cloudes  rowling under our feete  
like huge waves1 every now and then     
suffering the  top of some other        
mountain to peepe through1 which we     
could discover many  miles off3 and     
betweene some breaches of the cloudes we
 could see  landskips and villages of   
the subjacent country4  ,this was one of
 the  most pleasant1 newe1 and          
altogether surprising objects that ,i   
had ever  beheld4    ,in the following  
interesting account of the ascent of the
 ,peak of  ,teneriffe by ,captain ,basil
 ,hall1 it will be seen that heavy rain 
clouds  may skirt the mountain1 while   
its summit is in a pure and dry air4    
,on the #bdth of ,august1 he says1 we   
left ,oratava to ascend the      ,peak4 
,the day was the worst possible for our 
purpose1 as it rained      hard2 and was
 so very foggy that we could not see the
 ,peak1 or indeed      any object beyond

 one hundred yards distant4             
,after riding slowly up a rugged path   
for four hours1 it became      extremely
 cold1 and1 as the rain never ceased for
 an instant1 we were      by this time  
drenched to the skin1 and looked with no
 very agreeable      feelings to the    
prospect of passing the night in wet    
clothes4  ,at      length the night     
began to close in1 and the guides talked
 of the      improbability of reaching  
the ,english station before night4  ,it 
was      still raining hard2 but we     
dismounted1 and took our dinner as      
cheerfully as possible1 and hoping for  
clearer weather the next day4      ,on  
remounting1 we soon discovered that the 
road was no longer so      steep as it  
had been heretofore1 and the surface was
 comparatively      smooth3 we          
discovered1 in short1 that we had       
reached a sort of      table-land1 along
 which we rode with ease4  ,presently we
 thought the      fog less dense1 and   
the drops of rain not so large1 and the 

air less      chilling4  ,in about half 
an hour we got an occasional glimpse of 
the      blue sky2 and as we ascended1  
7for our road1 though comparatively     
level1 was still upon the rise17 these  
symptoms became more manifest4      ,the
 moon was at the full1 and her light now
 became distinct1 and we      could see 
the stars in the zenith4  ,by this time 
we had reached the      ,llano de los   
,remenos1 or ,retamos ,plain1 which is  
many thousand feet      above the sea2  
and we could distinctly see that during 
the day we had      merely been in a    
cloud1 above which having now ascended1 
the upper      surface lay beneath us   
like a country covered with snow4  ,it  
was      evident1 on looking round1 that
 no rain had fallen on the pumice       
gravel over which we were travelling4   
,the mules were much fatigued1      and 
we got off to walk4  ,in a few minutes  
our stockings and shoes      were       
completely dried1 and in less than half 
an hour all our clothes      were       

thoroughly dried4  ,the air was sharp   
and clear1 like that of a      cold     
frosty morning in ,england2 and though  
the extreme dryness1 and      the       
consequent rapid evaporation1 caused    
considerable cold1 we were      enabled 
by quick exercise to keep ourselves     
comfortable4  ,i had      various       
instruments with me1 but no regular     
hygrometer3 accident1      however1     
furnished me with one sufficiently      
indicative of the dry      state of the 
air4  ,my gloves1 which ,i kept on while
 mounted1 were      completely soaked   
with the rain2 and ,i took them off     
during this      walk1 and1 without     
considering what was likely to happen1  
rolled them      up1 and carried them in
 my hand4  ,when1 at the end of an hour1
 or      somewhat less1 we came to      
remount our mules1 ,i found the gloves  
as      thoroughly dried and shrivelled 
up as if they had been placed in an     
oven4  ,during all the time we were at  
the ,peak itself1 on the #bfth1      the

 sky was clear1 the air quite dry1 and  
we could distinguish1      several      
thousand feet below us1 the upper and   
level surface of the      stratum of    
clouds through which we had passed the  
day before1 and      into which we again
 entered on going down1 and found       
precisely in the      same state as when
 we started4    ,it is not uncommon to  
observe an effect quite contrary to the 
one given  in the last two examples1 the
 high summits of mountains being        
frequently  concealed by heavy clouds of
 mist1 while at a very short distance   
below  them the air is clear and pure4  
,in ascending to the ,port of ,venasque1
  one of the mountain passes of the     
,pyrenees1 ,mr4 ,murray found the mists 
so  dense that he despaired of getting  
above them1 or of their clearing away4  
,but fortunately the wind freshened1 and
 the mist1 broken by it1 came  sweeping1
 he says1 over our heads1 sometimes     
enveloping us in darkness1  sometimes   
exposing the blue sky1 and a part of the

 mountains4  ,section  after section of 
the bald and towering masses which rose 
above the path  were displayed to us1   
one after another1 as if the whole had  
been a sight  too great for us to look  
upon4  ,sometimes the clouds opened1 and
 the  snows1 sparkling in the sun-beams1
 were before us2 at others1 an enormous 
peak of the mountain would shoot its    
dark head through the mist1 and1        
without visible support1 seem as if it  
were about to fall upon us4  ,again1    
when we imagined ourselves hemmed in on 
all sides by the  mountains1 and within 
a few feet of their rugged sides1 a     
passing breeze  would disclose the dark 
waters of the lakes hundreds of feet    
beneath us4    ,thus the effect of light
 and darkness1 of sunshine and of mist1 
working  upon materials of such grandeur
 as those near the ,port of ,venasque1  
was a  sight well worthy of admiration1 
and one which is rarely to be seen4 99  
99  99 99 ,excepting the intervals of   
light which the gusts of wind1 by       

dispersing the mists1 had bestowed upon 
us1 we had hitherto1  comparatively     
speaking1 been shrouded in darkness1    
particularly for the  ten minutes       
preceding our arrival at the ,port3 my  
astonishment may  therefore be imagined 
when1 the instant that ,i stepped beyond
 the limits  of the ,port1 ,i stood in  
the purest atmosphere--not a particle of
 mist1  not even a cloud1 was           
perceptible4  ,the phenomenon was       
curious1 and its  interest greatly      
heightened from the situation in which  
it took place4  ,the mist rolling up the
 valley through which we had passed1    
was1 the  moment that it could be said  
to reach the ,spanish frontier1--the    
moment  it encircled the edges of the   
high ridges which separated the         
countries1  thrown back1 as it were1    
indignantly1 by a counter current from  
the  ,spanish side4  ,the conflicting   
currents of air1 seemingly of equal     
strength1 and unable to overcome each   
other1 carried the mist  perpendicularly

 from the summits of the ridge1 and     
filling up the  crevices and fissures in
 its uneven surface1 formed a wall many 
thousand  feet above it1 of dark and    
7from the appearance of solidity which  
its  massive and perpendicular character
 bestowed upon it7 apparently           
impenetrable matter4    ,undoubtedly the
 various phenomena of clouds may be seen
 to great  advantage in mountain        
regions2 and there is only one other    
method of  seeing them to greater       
perfection1 and that is from the car of 
a balloon4  ,the following description  
of an aerial voyage1 by ,mr4 ,m4 ,mason1
 in  ,october #ahcf1 will convey a      
better idea of the magnificence of a    
cloudy  sky than any terrestrial        
prospect could do4  ,he says1--         
,scarcely had we quitted the earth      
before the clouds1 which had            
previously overhung us1 began to envelop
 us on all sides1 and      gradually to 
exclude the fading prospect from our    
sight4  ,it is      scarcely possible to

 convey an adequate idea of the effect  
produced      by this apparently trivial
 occurrence4  ,unconscious of our own   
motion      from any direct impression  
upon our own feelings1 the whole world  
appeared to be in the act of receding   
from us in the dim vista of             
infinite space2 while the vapoury       
curtain seemed to congregate on all     
sides and cover the retreating masses   
from our view4  ,the trees and          
buildings1 the spectators and their     
crowded equipages1 and finally1      the
 earth itself1 at first distinctly seen1
 gradually became obscured      by the  
thickening mist1 and growing whiter in  
their forms1 and      fainter in their  
outlines1 soon faded away 'like the     
baseless fabric      of a vision1'      
leaving us1 to all appearance1          
stationary in the cloud      that still 
continued to involve us in its watery   
folds4  ,to heighten      the interest  
and maintain the illusion of the scene1 
the shouts and      voices of the       

multitude whom we had left behind us1   
cheering the      ascent1 continued to  
assail us1 7long after the interposing  
clouds      had effectually concealed   
them from our eyes17 in accents which   
every      moment became fainter and    
fainter till they were finally lost in  
the      increasing distance4           
,through this dense body of vapour1     
which may be said to have      commenced
 at an altitude of about #ajjj feet1 we 
were borne upwards to      perhaps an   
equal distance1 when the increasing     
light warned us of our      approach to 
its superior limits1 and shortly after1 
the sun and we      rising together1 a  
scene of splendour and magnificence     
suddenly burst      upon our view1 which
 it would be vain to expect to render   
intelligible by any mode of description 
within our power4  ,pursuing      the   
illusion1 which the previous events had 
been so strongly      calculated to     
create1 the impression upon our senses  
was that of      entering upon a new    

world to which we had hitherto been     
strangers1      and in which not a      
vestige could be perceived to remind us 
of that we      had left1 except the    
last faint echo of the voices which     
still dimly      reached us1 as if out  
of some interminable abyss into which   
they were      fast retreating4         
,above us not a single cloud appeared to
 disfigure the clear blue      sky1 in  
which the sun on one side1 and the moon 
in her first quarter      on the other1 
reigned in undisturbed tranquillity4    
,beneath us1 in      every direction1 as
 far as the eye could trace1 and        
doubtless much      further1 the whole  
plane of vision was one extended ocean  
of foam1      broken into a thousand    
fantastic forms2 here swelling into     
mountains1      there sinking into      
lengthened fosses1 or exhibiting the    
appearance of      vast whirlpools2 with
 such a perfect mimicry of the real     
forms of      nature1 that1 were it not 
for a previous acquaintance with the    

general character of the country below  
us1 we should frequently have      been 
tempted to assert1 without hesitation1  
the existence of      mountainous       
islands penetrating through the clouds1 
and stretching in      protracted ranges
 along the distant verge of our horizon4
        ,in the centre of this          
hemisphere1 and at an elevation of about
 #cjjj      feet above the surface of   
the clouds1 we continued to float in    
solitary magnificence2 attended only at 
first by our counterpart--a      vast   
image of the balloon itself with all its
 paraphernalia      distinctly thrown by
 the sun upon the opposite masses of    
vapour1      until we had risen so high 
that even that1 outreaching the material
      basis of its support1 at length   
deserted us2 nor did we again           
perceive it until1 preparatory to our   
final descent1 we had sunk to a         
proper elevation to admit of its        
re-appearance4        ,not the least    
striking feature of our1 and similar    

situations1 is      the total absence of
 all perceptible motion1 as well as of  
the sound      which1 in ordinary cases1
 is ever found to accompany it4         
,silence and      tranquillity appear to
 hold equal and undisputed sway         
throughout      these airy regions4  ,no
 matter what may be the convulsions to  
which      the atmosphere is subjected1 
nor how violent its effects in sound and
      motion upon the agitated surface  
of the earth1 not the slightest         
sensation of either can be detected by  
the individual who is floating      in  
its currents4  ,the most violent storm1 
the most outrageous      hurricane1 pass
 equally unheeded and unfelt2 and it is 
only by      observing the retreating   
forms of the stable world beneath1 that 
any      certain indication can be      
obtained as to the amount or violence of
      the motion to which the individual
 is actually subjected4  ,this1         
however2 was a resource of which we were
 unable to avail ourselves1      totally

 excluded as we were from all view of   
the earth1 or any fixed      point      
connected with it4        ,once1 and    
only once1 for a few moments preparatory
 to our final      descent1 did we      
obtain a transitory glimpse of the world
 beneath us4      ,upon approaching the 
upper surface of the vapoury strata1    
which we      have described as         
extending in every direction around1 a  
partial      opening in the clouds      
discovered to us for an instant a       
portion of      the earth1 appearing as 
if dimly seen through a vast pictorial  
tube1      rapidly receding behind us1  
variegated with furrows1 and intersected
      with roads running in all         
directions2 the whole reduced to a scale
 of      almost graphic minuteness1 and 
from the fleecy vapour that still       
partially obscured it1 impressing the   
beholder with the idea of a      vision 
of enchantment1 which some kindly genius
 had1 for an instant1      consented to 
disclose4  ,scarcely had we time to     

snatch a hasty      glance1 ere we had  
passed over the spot1 and the clouds    
uniting      gradually concealed it from
 our view4        ,after continuing for 
a short space further1 in the vain hope 
of      being again favoured with a     
similar prospect1 the approach of night 
made it desirable that we should prepare
 for our return to earth1      which we 
proceeded to accomplish accordingly4    
,picture3 ,kerr and his family in the   
middle of the flood          ,,chapter  
,,ii4      ,,effects ,,of ,,rain ,,in   
,,mountainous ,,districts--,,the        
,,district ,,of ,,moray--,,the  ,,great 
,,floods ,,of #ahbi--;,,commencement    
,,of ,,the ,,rain--,,the ,,swollen      
,,rivers--,,disastrous ,,effects ,,of   
,,the ,,flood--,,means ,,adopted ,,for  
,,the ,,rescue ,,of  ,,cottagers--,,kerr
 ,,and ,,his ,,brave                    
,,deliverers--,,rescue ,,of ,,funns     
,,and ,,his  ,,family--,,floods ,,of    
,,the ,,rhone ,,in #ahdj--,,overflowing 
,,of ,,the ,,mississippi4    ,it is well

 known that some years are wetter than  
others2 but to persons  living in       
tolerably flat countries an unusually   
wet season causes no  great             
inconvenience4  ,it interferes1 it is   
true1 with outdoor  employments1 but    
people seldom apprehend any danger from 
the long  continuance of rain4  ,it is  
not so1 however1 in hilly or mountainous
  regions2 an unusual fall of rain      
swells the rivers to such an extent1    
that they often overflow their banks1   
and occasion much damage to the         
surrounding districts2 or1 where the    
river's banks are defended on both      
sides by perpendicular rocks1 the waters
 sometimes rise so fast as to  attain a 
height of forty or fifty feet above     
their natural level1 and  from this     
height they pour with destructive       
violence over the face of the  country4 
,such was the case in the great floods  
of ,moray1 which happened  in the year  
#ahbi1 of which the following is a brief
 abstract1 derived  chiefly from ,sir   

,thomas ,dick ,lauder's interesting     
volume on this subject1  published soon 
after the calamity for the benefit of   
the sufferers4    ,the province of      
,moray1 or ,murray1 is a large district 
in the north-east  of ,scotland1 bounded
 by the ,moray ,frith on the north-east 
and north4  ,the  eastern half of the   
province is lower than the western2 in  
which the  mountains render the whole   
country characteristically highland4    
,on the  north is a long belt of        
lowlands1 about #bdj square miles in    
extent3 this  is greatly diversified    
with ridgy swells and low hilly ranges1 
lying  parallel to the frith1 and       
intersected by the rivers ,ness1 ,nairn1
  ,findhorn1 ,lossie1 and ,spey running 
across it to the sea4  ,the grounds     
behind the lowlands appear1 as seen from
 the coast1 to be only a narrow  ridge  
of bold alpine heights1 rising like a   
rampart to guard the  orchards1 and     
woods1 and fields3 but these really form
 long and broad  mountain masses1       

receding1 in all the wildness and       
intricacy of highland  arrangement1 to a
 distant summit line4  ,some of the     
broad clifts and long  narrow vales of  
these mountains form beautiful and      
romantic pictures2  while many of their 
declivities are practicable to the      
plough or other  instruments of         
cultivation2 so that the bottoms and the
 reclaimed or  reclaimable sides of the 
valleys are estimated to comprehend     
about  one-third of the entire area4    
,the lowlands of ,moray have long been  
celebrated for mildness and             
luxuriousness of climate1 and also for a
  certain dryness of atmosphere1 which  
seems to have some intimate  connexion  
with the mournful calamity about to be  
described4  ,the high  broad range of   
mountains on the south-west shelter the 
lowlands from the  prevailing winds of  
the country1 and exhaust many light     
vapours and  thinly-charged clouds1     
which might otherwise produce gentle    
rains2 but1  for just the same reason1  

they powerfully attract whatever long   
broad  streams of heavy clouds are      
sailing through the sky1 and1 among the 
gullies and the upland glens1 amass     
their discharged contents with  amazing 
rapidity1 and in singular largeness of  
volume4  ,the rivers of the  country    
are1 in consequence1 peculiarly liable  
to become flooded4  ,one  general and   
tremendous outbreak1 in #ahbi1 afforded 
an awful exhibition  of the             
peculiarities of the climate1 and will  
long be remembered1 in  connexion with  
the boasted luxuriousness of ,moray1 as 
an illustration of  how chastisement and
 comfort are blended in a state of      
things which is  benignly adjusted for  
the moral discipline of man1 and the    
correction of  moral evil4    ,the heat 
in the province of ,moray during the    
summer of #ahbi was unusually  great4   
,in ,may the drought was so excessive1  
as to kill many of the  recently planted
 shrubs and trees4  ,as the season      
advanced1 the  variations in the        

barometer became so remarkable1 that    
observers began to  lose all confidence 
in this instrument4    ,the deluge of   
rain1 which produced the flood of the   
#c;d and #dth of ,august1  fell chiefly 
on the ,monadhlradh mountains1 rising   
between the south-east  part of         
,lochness and ,kingussie1 in ,badenoch1 
and on that part of the  ,grampian range
 forming the somewhat independent groups
 of the  ,cairngorums4  ,the westerly   
winds1 which prevailed for some time    
previously1 seem to have produced a     
gradual accumulation of vapour to the   
north of our island1 and the column1    
being suddenly impelled by a strong     
north-easterly blast1 was driven towards
 the south-west1 its right flank  almost
 sweeping the ,caithness and ,sutherland
 coasts1 until rushing up and  across   
the ,moray ,frith it was attracted by   
the lofty mountains just  mentioned1 and
 discharged in fearful torrents4  ,there
 fell at a great  distance from the     
mountains1 within twenty-four hours1    

about one-sixth of  the annual allowance
 of rain2 on the mountains themselves   
the deluge that  descended1 must have   
been so enormous as to occasion surprise
 that a  flood1 even yet more tremendous
 in its magnitude and consequences1 did 
not result from it4    ,the mouth of the
 ,findhorn is described as the most     
important scene of  action4  ,the banks 
of this river are well defended by rocks
 on either  side1 and its whole course  
is distinguished by the most romantic   
scenery4  ,at the part where it is      
crossed by the old military bridge of   
,dulsie1 the  scenery is of the wildest 
character4  ,the flood was most         
tremendous at  this bridge1 for the     
water was so confined that it filled the
 smaller  arch altogether1 and rose in  
the great arch to within three feet of  
the  key-stone1 that is to say1 forty   
feet above the usual level4  ,this fine 
old bridge sustained but little damage1 
while many of the modern  buildings were
 entirely swept away4  ,at another part 

of the river1 it is  stated1 as a       
curious illustration of the height to   
which the stream had  risen1 that a     
gardener waded into the water as it had 
begun to ebb on the  haugh1 and with his
 umbrella drove ashore and captured a   
fine salmon1 at  an elevation of fifty  
feet above the ordinary level of the    
,findhorn4    ,at ,randolph's bridge the
 opening expands as the rocks rise      
upwards1 till  the width is about       
seventy or eighty feet2 yet1 from the   
sudden turn of  the river1 as it enters 
this passage1 the stream was so checked 
in its  progress that the flood actually
 rose over the very top of the rocks1   
forty-six feet above the usual height1  
and inundated the level part that  lies 
over them to the depth of four feet1    
making a total perpendicular  rise at   
this point of not less than fifty feet4 
,the effects of the deluge of the #c;d  
and #dth of ,august1 remain on the      
,dorbach1 in a bank one hundred feet    
high1 which rose with slopes and        

terraces covered with birch and alder   
wood4  ,the soil being naturally  spongy
 imbibed so much rain1 that it became   
overloaded1 and a mass of  about an acre
 in extent1 with all its trees on it1   
gave way at once1  threw itself headlong
 down1 and bounded across the bed of the
 ,dorbach1  blocking up the waters1     
flooded and wide as they were at the    
time4  ,a  farmer1 who witnessed this   
phenomenon1 told ,sir ,thomas ,dick     
,lauder that  it fell wi' a sort o' a   
dumb sound1 while astonished and        
confounded he  remained gazing at it4   
,the bottom of the valley is here some  
two hundred  yards or more wide1 and the
 flood nearly filled it4  ,the stoppage 
was not  so great1 therefore1 as        
altogether to arrest the progress of the
 stream2  but this sudden obstacle      
created an accumulation of water behind 
it1  which went on increasing for nearly
 an hour1 till1 becoming too powerful   
to be longer resisted1 the enormous dam 
began to yield1 and was swept off  at   

once1 and hurled onwards like a floating
 island4  ,while the farmer  stood lost 
in wonder to behold his farm thus       
sailing off to the ocean by  acres at a 
time1 another half acre1 or more1 was   
suddenly rent from its  native hill1 and
 descended at once1 with a whole grove  
of trees on it1 to  the river1 where it 
rested on its natural base4  ,the flood 
immediately  assailed this1 and carried 
off the greater part of it piecemeal4   
,at the  time when ,sir ,thomas was     
writing1 part of it remained with the   
trees  growing on it in the upright     
position1 after having travelled through
 a  horizontal distance of sixty or     
seventy yards1 with a perpendicular     
descent of not less than sixty feet4    
,picture3 ,the flood like--,brig of     
,bannock4  7,the dotted line shows the  
height gained by the flood above the    
usual level of the stream7    ,at       
,dunphail1 the residence of ,mr4 ,bruce 
was threatened by the flood1 and  that  
gentleman prevailed on his wife and     

daughter to quit the house and  seek    
refuge on higher ground4  ,before       
quitting the place1 their anxiety  had  
been extremely excited for the fate of a
 favourite old pony1 then at  pasture in
 a broad green1 and partially-wooded    
island1 of some acres in  extent4  ,as  
the spot had never been flooded in the  
memory of man1 no one  thought of       
removing the pony until the wooden      
bridges having been washed  away        
rendered it impossible to do so4  ,when 
the embankment gave way1 and  the       
patches of green gradually diminished1  
,dobbin1 now in his #bgth year1  and in 
shape something like a #gd-;gun ship cut
 down to a frigate1 was seen  galloping 
about in great alarm as the wreck of    
roots and trees floated  past him1 and  
as the last spot of grass disappeared he
 was given up for  lost4  ,at this      
moment he made a desperate effort to    
cross the stream  under the house2 the  
force of the current turned him head    
over heels1 but  he rose again with his 

head up the river2 he made boldly up    
against it1  but was again borne down   
and turned over3 every one believed him 
lost1  when rising once more and setting
 down the waste of water1 he crossed    
both torrents1 and landed safely on the 
opposite bank4    ,at night ,mr4 ,bruce 
says there was something inexpressibly  
fearful and  sublime in the roar of the 
torrent1 which by this time filled the  
valley1  the ceaseless plash of the     
rain1 and the frequent and fitful gusts 
of the  north wind that groaned among   
the woods4  ,the river had now          
undermined  the bank the house stood on1
 and this bank had already been carried 
away  to within four paces of the       
foundation of the kitchen tower1 and1 as
 mass  after mass fell with a thundering
 noise1 some fine trees1 which had stood
  for more than a century on the terrace
 above it1 disappeared in the  stream4  
,the operations of the flood were only  
dimly discovered by  throwing the faint 
light of lanterns over its waters1 and  

its progress  was judged of by marking  
certain intervals of what remained of   
the  terrace4  ,one by one these fell   
in1 and at about eleven o'clock the     
river  was still rising1 and only a     
space of three yards remained about the 
house1 which was now considered as lost4
  ,the furniture was ordered to be      
removed1 and by means of carts and      
lanterns this was done without any      
loss4  ,about one o'clock in the        
morning1 the partial subsidence of the  
flood awakened a slight hope1 but in an 
hour it rose again higher than  before4 
,the banks which supported the house    
were washed away1 and the  house itself 
seemed to be doomed1 and the people were
 therefore sent out  of it4  ,but       
,providence ordered otherwise2 about    
four o'clock the clouds  appeared       
higher1 the river began again to        
subside2 by degrees a little  sloping   
beach became visible towards the foot of
 the precipice2 the flood  ceased to    
undermine1 and the house was saved4     

,but the ruin and devastation of the    
place were frightful to behold4  ,the   
shrubbery1 all along the river side1    
with its little hill and moss-house1    
had vanished2 two stone and three wooden
 buildings were carried off2 the        
beautiful fringe of wood on both sides  
of the river1 with the ground it  grew  
on1 were washed to the ocean1 together  
with all those sweet and  pastoral      
projections of the fields which gave so 
peaceful and fertile a  character to the
 valley2 whilst the once green island1  
robbed of its  groups of trees and      
furrowed by a dozen channels1 was       
covered with large  stones1 gravel1 and 
torn-up roots4    ,at another part of   
the same river 7the ,divie7 ,sir ,thomas
 describes1 from  his own observations1 
the progress of the flood4  ,the noise  
was a  distinct combination of two kinds
 of sound3 one1 an uniform continued    
roar2 the other1 like rapidly repeated  
discharges of cannon4  ,the first  of   
these proceeded from the violence of the

 water2 the other1 which was  heard     
through it1 and as it were muffled by   
it1 came from the numerous  stones which
 the stream was hurling over its uneven 
bed of rock4  ,above  all this was heard
 the shrieking of the wind4  ,the leaves
 were stripped  off the trees and       
whirled into the air1 and their thick   
boughs and stems  were bending and      
cracking beneath the tempest4  ,the rain
 was descending  in sheets1 not in      
drops3 and a peculiar lurid1 bronze-like
 hue pervaded  the whole face of nature4
  ,and now the magnificent trees were   
overthrown  faster and faster1 offering 
no more resistance than reeds before the
  mower's scythe4  ,numerous as they    
were1 they were all1 individually1      
well-known friends4  ,each1 as it fell1 
gave one enormous plash on the  surface1
 then a plunge1 the root upwards above  
water for a moment2 again  all was      
submerged--and then up rose the stem    
disbranched and peeled2  after which1   
they either toiled round in the         

cauldron1 or darted1 like  arrows1 down 
the stream4  ,a chill ran through our   
hearts as we beheld  how rapidly the    
ruin of our favourite and long-cherished
 spot was going  on4  ,but we remembered
 that the calamity came from the hand of
 ,god2 and  seeing that no human power  
could avail1 we prepared ourselves to   
watch  every circumstance of the        
spectacle4  ,in the morning the place   
was seen  cleared completely of shrubs1 
trees1 and soil2 and the space so lately
  filled with a wilderness of verdure   
was now one vast and powerful           
red-coloured river4    ,on the left bank
 of the ,findhorn the discharge of      
water1 wreck1 and  stones that burst    
over the extensive plain of ,forres1    
spreading  devastation abroad on a rich 
and beautiful country1 was truly        
terrific4  ,on the #c;d of ,august1 ,dr4
 ,brands1 of ,forres1 having occasion to
 go to the  western side of the river1  
forded it on horseback1 but ere he      
crossed the  second branch of the       

stream1 he saw the flood coming         
thundering down4  ,his horse was caught 
by it2 he was compelled to swim2 and he 
had not long  touched dry land ere the  
river had risen six feet4  ,by the time 
he had  reached ,moy the river had      
branched out into numerous streams1 and 
soon  came rolling on in awful grandeur2
 the effect being greatly heightened by 
the contrary direction of the northerly 
wind1 then blowing a gale4  ,many  of   
the cottages occupied a low level1 and  
the inhabitants were urged to  quit     
them4  ,most of them did so2 but some1  
trusting to their apparent  distance    
from the river1 refused to move4        
,about ten o'clock the river had risen  
and washed away several of the          
cottages2 and on every side were heard  
reports of suffering cottagers1  whose  
houses were surrounded by water4  ,one  
of them was ,sandy ,smith1 an  active   
boatman1 commonly called ,whins1 7or    
,funns1 as it is  pronounced17 from his 
residence on a piece of furzy pasture1  

at no great  distance from the river4   
,from the situation of his dwelling he  
was given  up for lost2 but for a long  
time the far-distant gleam of light that
  issued from his window showed that he 
yet lived4    ,the barns on the higher  
grounds accommodated many people2 and   
large  quantities of brose 7broth7 were 
made for the dripping and shivering     
wretches4  ,candles were placed in all  
the windows of the principal house      
7that of ,mr4 ,suter7 that poor ,funns  
might see he was not forgotten4  ,but1  
alas6 his light no longer burns1 and in 
the midst of the tempest and  darkness1 
it was utterly vain to attempt to assist
 the distressed4    ,at daybreak the    
wide waste of waters was only bounded by
 the rising  grounds on the south and   
west3 whilst1 towards the north and     
east1 the  watery world swept off1      
uninterruptedly1 into the expanding     
,frith and the  ,german ,ocean4  ,the   
embankments appeared to have everywhere 
given way2 and  the water that covered  

the fields1 lately so beautiful with    
yellow wheat1  green turnips1 and other 
crops1 rushed with so great impetuosity 
in  certain directions1 as to form      
numerous currents1 setting furiously    
through the quieter parts of the        
inundation1 and elevated several feet   
above it4  ,as far as the eye could     
reach the brownish-yellow moving mass   
of water was covered with trees and     
wreck of every description1 whirled     
along with a force that shivered many of
 them against unseen obstacles4  ,there 
was a sublimity in the mighty power and 
deafening roar of waters1  heightened by
 the livid hue of the clouds1 the       
sheeting rain1 the howling  of the wind1
 the lowing of the cattle1 and the      
screaming and wailing of  the assembled 
people1 that riveted the attention4  ,in
 the distance could  dimly be descried  
the far-off dwelling of poor ,funns1 its
 roof rising  like a speck above the    
flood1 that had evidently made a breach 
in one of  its ends4    ,a family named 

,kerr1 who had refused to quit their    
dwelling1 were the  objects of great    
anxiety4  ,their son1 ,alexander ,kerr1 
had been watching  all night1 and in the
 morning was still gazing towards the   
spot in an  agony of mind1 and weeping  
for the apparently inevitable           
destruction of  his parents4  ,his      
master tried to comfort him2 but even   
whilst he spoke1  the whole gable of    
,kerr's dwelling1 which was the         
uppermost of three  houses composing the
 row1 gave way1 and fell into the raging
 current4  ,dr4 ,brands1 who was looking
 on intently at the time1 with a        
telescope1  observed a hand thrust      
through the thatch of the central house4
  ,it  worked busily1 as if in despair  
of life2 a head soon appeared2 and at   
last ,kerr's whole frame emerged on the 
roof1 and he began to exert  himself in 
drawing out his wife and niece4         
,clinging to one another1 they  crawled 
along the roof towards the northern     
chimney4  ,the sight was  torturing4    

,kerr1 a little a-head of the others1   
was seen tearing off the  thatch1 as if 
trying to force an entrance through the 
roof1 whilst the  miserable women clung 
to the house-top1 the blankets which    
they had used  to shelter them almost   
torn from them by the violence of the   
hurricane2  and the roof they had left  
yielding and tottering1 fell into the   
sweeping  flood4  ,the thatch resisted  
all ,kerr's efforts2 and he was now seen
 to  let himself drop from the eaves on 
a small speck of ground higher than  the
 rest1 close to the foundation of the   
back wall of the buildings1  which was  
next the spectators4  ,there he finally 
succeeded in bringing  down the women2  
and there he and they stood1 without    
even room to move4                      
,picture3 ,perilous situation of ,kerr  
and his family    ,some people went on  
horseback to try to procure boats4      
,they managed to  get on some way by    
keeping the line of road4  ,the water   
was so deep that  the horses were       

frequently swimming2 but at length the  
current became so  strong that they were
 compelled to seek the rising grounds4  
,dr4 ,brands  attempted to reach the    
bridge of ,findhorn1 in hopes of getting
 one of the  fishermen's cobbles4  ,as  
he was approaching the bridge he learned
 that  the last of the three arches had 
fallen the instant before2 and when he  
got to the brink1 the waters were       
sweeping on as if it had never been1    
making the rocks and houses vibrate with
 a distinct and tremulous motion4  ,the 
current was playing principally against 
the southern approach of the  bridge1   
and soon the usually dry arch1 at its   
further end1 burst with a  loud report2 
its fragments1 mixed with water1 being  
blown into the air as  if by gunpowder4 
,the boats had all been swept away1 and 
the fishermen's  houses were already one
 mass of ruin4  ,the centre of the main 
stream was  hurried on at an elevation  
many feet higher than the rest of the   
surrounding sea of waters2 the mighty   

rush of which displayed its power  in   
the ruin it occasioned4  ,magnificent   
trees1 with all their branches1  were   
dashing and rending against the rock1   
and the roaring and crashing  sound that
 prevailed was absolutely deafening4    
,as there was no chance of getting a    
boat the ,doctor returned with          
difficulty to the house1 his mare       
swimming a great part of the way4  ,on  
again looking through the telescope at  
poor ,kerr and his family1 they  were   
seen huddled together on a spot of      
ground a few feet square1 some  forty or
 fifty yards below their inundated      
dwelling4 #ee  ,he was  sometimes       
standing and sometimes sitting on a     
small cask1 and1 as the  beholders      
fancied1 watching with intense anxiety  
the progress of the  flood1 and         
trembling for every large tree that it  
brought sweeping past  them4  ,his wife1
 covered with a blanket1 sat shivering  
on a bit of a log1  one child in her    
lap1 and a girl of about seventeen1 and 

a boy of about  twelve years of age1    
leaning against her side4  ,a bottle and
 a glass on  the ground near the man    
gave the spectators1 as it had doubtless
 given  him1 some degree of comfort4    
,above a score of sheep were standing   
around1 or wading1 or swimming in the   
shallows4  ,three cows and a small      
horse picking at a broken rick of straw 
that seemed to be half afloat1  were    
also grouped with the family4  ,dreading
 that they must all be swept  off1 if   
not soon relieved1 the gentlemen        
hastened to the offices1 and  looked    
anxiously out from the top of the tower 
for a boat4  ,at last they  had the     
satisfaction to see one launched from   
the garden at ,earnhill1  about a mile  
below4  ,the boat had been conveyed by a
 pair of horses1 and  had only just     
arrived4  ,it was nobly manned by three 
volunteers1 and they  proceeded at once 
to the rescue of a family who were in a 
most perilous  situation in the island  
opposite to ,earnhill4  ,the gentlemen  

on the tower  watched the motions of    
this boat with the liveliest interest4  
,they saw  it tugging up till it was hid
 from them by the wood4  ,again it was  
seen  beyond1 and soon it dashed into   
the main stream and disappeared again   
behind the wood1 with a velocity so     
fearful that they concluded it was      
lost4  ,but in a moment it again showed 
itself1 and the brave fellows were  seen
 plying their oars across the submerged 
island of ,earnhill1 making  for ,john  
,smith's cottage2 the thatch and a small
 part of the side walls  of which were  
visible above the water4  ,the poor     
inmates were dragged out  of the windows
 from under the water1 having been      
obliged to duck within  ere they could  
effect their escape4  ,the boat then    
swept down the stream  towards a place  
called ',the ,lakes1' where ,john       
,smith1 his wife1 and her  mother were  
safely landed4    ,the boat was next    
conveyed by the horses to a point from  
which it was  launched for the rescue of

 the ,kerrs4  ,having pulled up as far  
as they  could in the still water1 they 
approached the desperate current1 and   
fearlessly dashed into its tumultuous   
waves4  ,for a moment the spectators    
were in the most anxious doubt as to the
 result2 for1 though none could  pull a 
stronger oar1 yet the boat in crossing a
 distance equal to its own  length was  
swept down #bjj yards4  ,ten yards more 
would have dashed them  to atoms on the 
lower stone wall4  ,but they were now in
 comparatively  quiet water2 and        
availing themselves of this1 they pulled
 up again to the  park1 in the space    
between two currents1 and passed1 with a
 little less  difficulty1 though in the 
same manner1 the second and third       
streams1 and  at length reached the     
houses4  ,the spectators gave them three
 hearty  cheers4  ,by this time the     
,kerrs had been left scarcely three feet
 of  ground to stand on1 under the back 
wall of the houses4  ,a pleasing sight  
it was to see the boat touch that tiny  

strand1 and the despairing family  taken
 on board4  ,how anxiously did the      
spectators watch every motion of  the   
little boat1 that was now so crowded as 
very much to impede the  rowers4  ,they 
crossed the first two streams1 and      
finally drew up for the  last and       
dreadful trial4  ,there the frail bark  
was again whirled down2  and            
notwithstanding all their exertions1 the
 stern just touched the wall4  ,the prow
 however was in stiller water2 one      
desperate pull1--she sprang  forward in 
safety1 and a few more strokes of the   
oar landed the poor  people amongst     
fifty or sixty of their assembled       
friends4  ,after mutual  greetings and  
embraces1 and many tears of gratitude1  
old ,kerr related his  simple story4    
,seeing their retreat cut off by the    
flood1 they attempted  to wade ashore4  
,but the nearer the shore1 the deeper   
and more powerful  was the current4     
,the moment was awful4  ,the torrent    
increased on all  sides1 and night1 dark

 night1 was spread over them4  ,the     
stream began to  be too deep for the    
niece1 a girl of twelve years of        
age1--she lost heart  and began to sink4
  ,at this alarming crisis ,kerr seized 
the trembling  girl1 and placed her on  
his back1 and shoulder to shoulder with 
his wife1  he providentially1 but with  
the greatest difficulty1 regained his   
own  house4  ,between eight and nine    
o'clock he groped his way1 and led his  
wife and niece up into the garret4  ,he 
could not tell how long they  remained  
there1 but supposed it might be till    
about two o'clock next  morning1 when   
the roof began to fail4  ,to avoid being
 crushed to death1  he worked anxiously 
till he drove down the partition        
separating them from  the adjoining     
house4  ,fortunately for him it was     
composed of wood and  clay1 and a       
partial failure he found in it very much
 facilitated his  operations4  ,having  
made their way good1 they remained there
 till about  eight o'clock in the       

morning1 when the strength of the water 
without  became so great that it bent   
inwards the bolt of the lock of the     
house-door1 till it had no greater hold 
of the staple than the  eighth-part of  
an inch4  ,aware1 that if the door      
should give way the back  wall of the   
house would be swept down by the rush of
 the water inwards1  and that they would
 be crushed to atoms1 he rummaged the   
garret and  fortunately found a bit of  
board and a few nails2 and standing on  
the  stairs1 he placed one end of it    
against the door and the other on the   
hatch1 forming the entrance to the      
garret1 and so nailed it firmly down4   
,at last the roof of the second house   
began to crack over their heads1 and    
,kerr forced a way for himself and his  
companions through the thatch as  has   
been already told4    ,poor ,funns and  
his family were not yet rescued from    
their little island2  and the boat was  
declared to be too small and weak for so
 desperate a  voyage4  ,it was therefore

 determined to row to a spot where a    
larger boat  was moored4  ,to effect    
this1 they were compelled to act        
precisely as they  had done in          
proceeding to rescue the ,kerrs4  ,but  
unfortunately1 on  entering the third   
stream1 they permitted the boat to glide
 down with it1  in the hope that it     
would carry them in safety through the  
gate of the  field1 and across the road 
into that beyond it4  ,in this1 however1
 they  were mistaken1 and the boat was  
swamped4  ,fortunately for them1 they   
were  carried into smooth water1 and by 
wading shoulder deep they reached the   
large boat4    ,having secured the small
 boat1 they attempted to drag the large 
one  through the gateway against the    
stream2 but it soon filled with water   
and  swamped1 and1 in spite of all their
 exertions1 they found it impossible  to
 get it up4  ,the small boat was now all
 they had to trust to1 and this  was    
next caught by the strong stream and    
overwhelmed in a moment2 and had  not   

the men1 most providentially1 caught and
 clung to a haycock that  happened to be
 floating past1 they must have been     
lost4  ,they were  carried along till it
 stuck on some young alder trees1 when  
each of them  grasped a bough1 and the  
haycock sailed away1 leaving them among 
the weak  and brittle branches4  ,they  
had been here about two hours1 when one 
of  the men being unable to hold on     
longer by the boughs1 let himself gently
  down into the water with the hope of  
finding bottom2 when1 to his  surprise1 
he found that the small boat had        
actually drifted to the root  of the    
very tree to which they had been        
carried4  ,some salmon nets and  ropes  
had also1 by the strangest accident1    
been lodged there4  ,the man  contrived 
to pull up one of these with his foot1  
and making a noose1 and  slipping it on 
his great toe1 he descended once more1  
and managed to fix  the rope round the  
stern of the boat1 which was then safely
 hauled up1  the oars1 being fixed to   

the side1 being also saved4  ,the boat  
was  returned to ,mr4 ,suter's and fresh
 manned1 when it proceeded to a house   
occupied by a family of the name of     
,cumin1 consisting of an old couple1    
their daughter1 and grandson4  ,by the  
time they reached the cottage1 its      
western side was entirely gone1 and the 
boat was pushed in at the gap4  ,not a  
sound was heard within1 and they        
suspected that all were drowned2  but1  
on looking through a hole in a          
partition1 they discovered the  unhappy 
inmates roosted1 like fowls1 on the     
beams of the roof4  ,they  were1 one by 
one1 transferred safely to the boat1    
half dead with cold2  and melancholy to 
relate1 the old man's mind1 being too   
much enfeebled to  withstand the        
agonizing apprehensions he had suffered1
 was now utterly  deranged4             
,picture3 ,rescuing cottagers    ,the   
poor ,funns' were still the last to be  
relieved4  ,they and their  cattle were 
clustered on their little speck of land2

 and the poor  quadrupeds1 being chilled
 by standing so long in the water1 were 
continually pressing inwards on them4   
,it was between six and seven  o'clock1 
the weather was clearer1 and the waters 
were subsiding4  ,the  task being the   
most difficult of all1 none but the most
 skilful rowers  were allowed to        
undertake it4  ,one wide inundation     
stretched from ,monro's  house to the   
tiny spot where ,funns and his family   
were2 and five  tremendously tumultuous 
streams raged through it with elevated  
waves4  ,the moment they dashed into the
 first of them they were whirled down   
for  a great way2 but having once got   
through it1 they pulled up in the       
quieter water beyond1 to prepare for the
 next2 and in doing so1 ,sergeant       
,grant stood in the prow1 and with a    
long rope1 the end of which was fixed   
to the boat1 and wherever he thought he 
had footing1 he sprang out and  dragged 
them up4  ,the rest followed his        
example1 and in this way they  were     

enabled to start afresh with a          
sufficient advantage1 and they  crossed 
all the outer streams in the same       
manner4  ,the last they  encountered1   
being towards the middle of the flood1  
was fearful1 and  carried them very far 
down4  ,but ,funns himself1 overjoyed to
 behold them1  waded towards them1 and  
gave them his best help to drag up the  
boat  again4  ,glad was he to see his   
wife and children safely set in the     
boat4  ,the perils of their return were 
not few2 but they were at length happily
  landed4    ,these examples will       
suffice to show the nature and extent of
 the great  floods of ,moray4  ,the     
inundation covered a space of something 
more than  twenty miles in the ,plain of
 ,forres1 and1 as it was expressively   
remarked  by one of the sufferers1      
,before these floods was the ,garden of 
,eden and  behind them a desolate       
wilderness4  ,and how often did the     
beautiful  expression of the ,psalmist  
occur to them3 ,the floods have lifted  

up1 ,o  ,lord1 the floods have lifted up
 their voice2 the floods lift up their  
waves4  ,the ,lord on high is mightier  
than the noise of many waters2 yea1     
than the mighty waves of the sea4  ,ps4 
xciii4 #c1 #d4    ,but it is not in     
,scotland alone that the terrors of the 
floods are  experienced4  ,all rivers   
which rise in high and cold regions1 and
 pass  into warm lowlands1 are naturally
 very liable to overflow their bounds4  
,a remarkable example is afforded by the
 river ,rhone1 which rises in the       
glaciers of ,switzerland2 and1 after    
passing through the lake of ,geneva1    
descends into the south-eastern         
departments of ,france1--a very level   
district1 where the climate is mild and 
genial4  ,rapid meltings of the  ice in 
,switzerland1 or heavy falls of rain or 
snow in that country1  greatly affect   
this river2 and never1 perhaps1 were the
 effects more  dreadful than in the     
inundations of #ahdj4  ,at ,lyons1 where
 the ,rhone  joins the ,saone1 the most 

lamentable scenes took place4  ,not only
 were  the whole of the low-lying lands 
in the vicinity of the city completely  
desolated1 hundreds of houses           
overturned1 and many cattle swept away1 
but  the waters reached the city itself1
 bursting into the gas conduits1 and    
thus leaving the people in darkness1 and
 rising to a great height in the        
streets4  ,the destruction of property1 
both in-doors and out-of-doors1  was    
immense1 and the loss of life appalling4
  ,charitable people and  public        
servants went about in boats laden with 
provisions1 which were  sent1 at the    
expense of the magistrates and clergy1  
to the starving  families pent up in    
their several abodes1 where many of them
 remained in  total darkness by night1  
and under hourly expectation that the   
foundations of their houses would give  
way beneath the rushing waters4  ,in    
fact1 numbers of houses1 and even whole 
streets1 were in this way  sapped and   
overturned4  ,some of the people had    

fled to the heights near  the city1 at  
the first rising of the waters1 but     
there they were reduced  to the greatest
 extremities for want of food1 and      
signal shots were heard  from them      
continually4  ,this miserable state of  
things lasted from the  beginning of    
,november until the #bjth or #bast of   
the same month4  ,at the  same time the 
,rhone appeared like a succession of    
immense lakes from  ,lyons to ,avignon1 
and from ,avignon to the sea4  ,a letter
 from ,nismes1 a  little to the west of 
,avignon1 thus described the scene3--   
,as far as the view extends we perceive 
but one sheet of water1 in      the     
midst of which appear the tops of trees 
and houses1 with the      miserable     
inhabitants perched upon them4  ,at     
,valabregue1 an island on      the      
,rhone1 they have hung out a black      
banner from the church-yard1      nearly
 two thousand persons being assembled in
 that spot1 which is on      an         
elevation4  ,steam-boats are attempting 

to carry bread to      ,valabregue1 and 
other similarly situated places1 but can
 scarcely      effect it from the       
inequality of the ground4  ,for ten days
 the rains      have never ceased4  ,the
 space covered by the waters near       
,avignon is      calculated at about    
thirty-six leagues in length and sixty  
leagues in      breadth4  ,human bodies 
are seen passing continually on the     
waters4    ,from the #ajth to the #bjth 
of ,november the ,rhone fell several    
inches each  day1 but always rose again 
somewhat during the night4  ,it began   
permanently to decline on the #bjth1 and
 in a few days the streets were  exposed
 to view1 with about a foot of mud on   
them4  ,the loss of life and  property1 
through this calamity1 are almost       
incalculable4    ,a still grander       
display of the power and extent of      
inundations is  afforded by the         
,american rivers4  ,the mighty waters of
 the ,mississippi1  7a river1 whose     
course extends for several thousand     

miles17 when swelled1  and overflowing  
their banks1 present a wonderful        
spectacle4  ,unlike the                 
mountain-torrents1 and small rivers1 of 
other parts of the world1 the           
,mississippi rises slowly1 continuing   
for several weeks to increase at the    
rate of about an inch in a day4  ,when  
at its height1 it undergoes little      
change for some days1 and after this    
subsides as slowly as it rose4  ,a      
flood generally lasts from four to six  
weeks1 though it sometimes extends  to  
two months4  ,the ,american naturalist1 
,audubon1 has given a striking  account 
of the rush of waters overspreading the 
land when once this  mighty river has   
begun to overflow its banks3--          
,no sooner has the water reached the    
upper part of the banks1 than it        
rushes out1 and overspreads the whole of
 the neighbouring swamps1               
presenting an ocean overgrown with      
stupendous forest trees4  ,so           
sudden is the calamity that every       

individual1 whether man or beast1       
has to exert his utmost ingenuity to    
enable him to escape from the           
dreaded element4  ,the ,indian quickly  
removes to the hills of the             
interior1 the cattle and game swim to   
the different strips of land      that  
remain uncovered in the midst of the    
flood1 or attempt to force      their   
way through the waters until they perish
 from fatigue4  ,along      the banks of
 the river the inhabitants have rafts   
ready-made1 on      which they remove   
themselves1 their cattle1 and their     
provisions1 and      which they then    
fasten with ropes or grape-vines to the 
larger trees1      while they           
contemplate the melancholy spectacle    
presented by the      current1 as it    
carries off their houses and wood-yards 
piece by      piece4  ,some1 who have   
nothing to lose1 and are usually known  
by the      name of ,squatters1 take    
this opportunity of traversing the woods
 in      canoes1 for the purpose of     

procuring game1 and particularly the    
skins      of animals1 such as the deer 
and bear1 which may be converted into   
money4  ,they resort to the low ridges  
surrounded by the waters1 and           
destroy thousands of deer1 merely for   
their skins1 leaving the flesh      to  
putrify4        ,the river itself1      
rolling its swollen waters along1       
presents a      spectacle of the most   
imposing nature4  ,although no large    
vessel1      unless propelled by steam1 
can now make its way against the        
current1      it is seen covered by     
boats laden with produce1 which1 running
 out      from all the smaller streams1 
float silently towards the city of ,new 
,orleans1 their owners1 meanwhile1 not  
very well assured of finding a          
landing-place even there4  ,the water is
 covered with yellow foam and           
pumice1 the latter having floated from  
the rocky mountains of the              
north-west4  ,the eddies are larger and 
more powerful than ever4  ,here      and

 there tracts of forest are observed    
undermined1 the trees      gradually    
giving way1 and falling into the stream4
  ,cattle1 horses1      bears1 and deer 
are seen at times attempting to swim    
across the      impetuous mass of       
foaming and boiling water2 whilst1 here 
and there1      a vulture or an eagle is
 observed perched on a bloated carcass1 
tearing it up in pieces1 as regardless  
of the flood1 as on former              
occasions it would have been of the     
numerous sawyers and planters      with 
which the surface of the river is       
covered when the water is low4          
,even the steamer is frequently         
distressed4  ,the numberless trees and  
logs that float along1 break its        
paddles1 and retard its progress4       
,besides it is on such occasions        
difficult to procure fuel to maintain   
its fires4    ,in certain parts1 the    
shores of the ,mississippi are protected
 by  artificial barriers called ,levees4
  ,in such places1 during a flood1 the  

whole population of the district is     
engaged in strengthening these          
barriers1 each proprietor being in great
 alarm lest a crevasse should  open and 
let in the waters upon his fields4  ,in 
spite of all exertions  this disaster   
generally happens3 the torrent rushes   
impetuously over the  plantations1 and  
lays waste the most luxuriant crops4    
,the mighty changes effected by the     
inundations of the ,mississippi are     
little known until the waters begin to  
subside4  ,large streams are then  found
 to exist where none had formerly been4 
,these are called by  navigators short  
cuts1 and some of them are so           
considerable as to  interfere with the  
navigation of the ,mississippi4  ,large 
sand-banks are  also completely removed 
by the impetuous whirl of the waters1   
and are  deposited in other places4     
,some appear quite new to the navigator1
 who  has to mark their situation and   
bearings in his log-book4  ,trees on the
  margin of the river have either       

disappeared1 or are tottering and       
bending  over the stream preparatory to 
their fall4  ,the earth is everywhere   
covered by a deep deposit of muddy loam1
 which1 in drying1 splits into  deep and
 narrow chasms1 forming a sort of       
network1 from which1 in warm  weather1  
noxious exhalations rise1 filling the   
atmosphere with a dense  fog4  ,the     
,squatter1 shouldering his rifle1 makes 
his way through the  morass in search of
 his lost stock1 to drive the survivors 
home and save  the skins of the drowned4
  ,new fences have everywhere to be     
formed1 and  new houses erected2 to save
 which from a like disaster1 the settler
  places them on a raised platform1     
supported by pillars made of the trunks 
of trees4  ,the lands must be ploughed  
anew2 and if the season is not too  far 
advanced1 a crop of corn and potatoes   
may yet be raised4  ,but the  rich      
prospects of the planter are blasted4   
,the traveller is impeded in  his       
journey1 the creeks and smaller streams 

having broken up their banks  in a      
degree proportionate to their size4  ,a 
bank of sand1 which seems  firm and     
secure1 suddenly gives way beneath the  
traveller's horse1 and  the next moment 
the animal has sunk in the quicksand1   
either to the chest  in front1 or to the
 crupper behind1 leaving its master in a
 situation not  to be envied4           
,picture3 ,mists in the ,valley         
,,chapter ,,iii4      ,,various ,,forms 
,,op ,,clouds--,,the ,,cirrus1 ,,or     
,,curl-,,cloud--,,the ,,cumulus1 ,,or   
,,stacken-,,cloud--,,the ,,stratus1 ,,or
 ,,fall-,,cloud--,,the                  
,,cirro-,,cumulus1 ,,or                 
,,sonder-,,cloud--,,the                 
,,cirro-,,stratus1 ,,or                 
,,wane-,,cloud--,,the                   
,,cumulo-,,stratus1 ,,or                
,,twain-,,cloud--,,the ,,nimbus1 ,,or   
,,rain-,,cloud--,,arrangement ,,of      
,,rain-,,clouds--,,appearances ,,of ,a  
,,distant ,,shower--,,scud--,,cause ,,of
  ,,rain--,,formation ,,of              

,,clouds--,,mists--,,heights ,,of       
,,clouds--,,appearance ,,of ,,the  ,,sky
 ,,above ,,the ,,clouds4    ,many       
persons are apt to suppose that the     
clouds are among the most fitful  and   
irregular appearances in the world2     
fleeting and unstable in their  nature1 
uncertain in their forms1 apparently    
subject to no fixed laws1  and obedient 
neither to times nor seasons4           
,attentive observers1 however1  have    
proved that the beauty and harmony which
 are everywhere found to  prevail in    
nature when rightly understood1 can also
 be traced1 even in  the clouds4        
,although very much still remains to be 
discovered respecting  them1 yet it is  
found that1 like all the other natural  
productions1 they  admit of being       
arranged and classified4  ,so obvious   
was this to persons  whose interest it  
is to observe the weather1 that1 long   
before scientific  men had studied the  
subject1 country people had noticed the 
different  forms of clouds1 and had     

learned to distinguish them by different
 names4    ,the first scientific man who
 made the clouds the object of his      
particular  study1 was ,luke ,howard1   
who1 from an attentive consideration of 
their  forms and appearances1 found that
 they might all be arranged under three 
simple or primary forms1 namely3--      
#a4  ,the ,cirrus--so called from its   
resemblance to a curled lock of  hair4  
7,figures1 #a1 #b2 page #gg47    #b4    
,the ,cumulus1 from the heaped          
appearance presented by the convex      
masses which form this cloud4  7,figure 
#g47    #c4  ,the ,stratus1 from its    
spreading out horizontally in a         
continuous  layer1 and increasing from  
below4  7,figure #aj47    ,these three  
primary forms are subject to four       
modifications3--    ,the first is the   
,cirro-cumulus1 consisting of small     
roundish and  well-defined masses1 in   
close horizontal arrangement4  7,figure 
#c47                        ,picture3   
,various forms of clouds    ,the second 

is the ,cirro-,stratus1 and the masses  
which compose it are  small and rounded1
 but thinned off towards a part1 or     
towards the whole  of their             
circumference4  ,they are sometimes     
separate1 and sometimes in  groups4     
7,figures #d1 #e1 #f47    ,the third is 
the ,cumulo-,stratus1 which is made up  
of the cirro-stratus  blended with the  
cumulus4  7,figure #h47    ,the fourth  
is the ,cumulo-,cirro-,stratus1 or      
,nimbus4  ,this is the true  rain-cloud1
 or system of clouds from which rain is 
falling4  7,figure  #i47    ,the term   
modification applies to the structure or
 manner in which a  given mass of cloud 
is made up1 and not to its precise form 
or size1  which in most clouds varies   
every instant4  ,mr4 ,howard remarks1   
that it  may be at first difficult to   
distinguish one modification from       
another1  or to trace the narrow limits 
which sometimes separate the different  
modifications2 but a moderate           
acquaintance with the subject will soon 

enable any one to point out the various 
forms1 and to a great extent to  judge  
of the state of the weather by them4    
,in order1 therefore1 to  assist the    
reader in gaining a certain amount of   
knowledge on this  interesting subject1 
it may be useful to state more fully the
 various  phenomena of the different    
forms of clouds already enumerated4     
,picture3 ,the ,cirrus1 or curl-cloud   
,the ,cirrus occurs in very great       
variety1 and in some states of the air  
is  constantly changing4  ,it is the    
first cloud that appears in serene      
weather1 and is always at a great       
height4  ,the first traces of the cirrus
  are some fine whitish threads1        
delicately-pencilled on a clear blue    
sky2  and as they increase in length    
others frequently appear at the sides1  
until numerous branches are formed1     
extending in all directions4  ,sometimes
 these lines cross each other and form a
 sort of delicate  net-work4  ,in dry   
weather the cirrus is sharp1 defined1   

and fibrous in  texture1 the lines      
vanishing off in fine points4  ,when the
 air is damp  this cloud may be seen in 
the intervals of rain1 but is not well  
defined1  and the lines are much less   
fibrous4  ,such cirri as these often    
grow into  other varieties of cloud1 and
 are frequently followed by rain4       
,the cirrus may last a few minutes only1
 or continue for hours4  ,its  duration 
is shortest when near other clouds4     
,although it appears to be  stationary1 
it has some connexion with the motions  
of the atmosphere2 for  whenever1 in    
fair weather1 light variable breezes    
prevail1 cirri are  generally present4  
,when they appear in wet weather1 they  
quickly pass  into the cirro-stratus4   
,according to ,dalton1 these clouds are 
from three to five miles above the      
earth's surface4  ,when viewed from the 
summits of the highest mountains  they  
appear as distant as from the plains4   
,another proof of their great  height   
is1 their continuing to be tinged by the

 sun's rays in the evening  twilight    
with the most vivid colours1 while the  
denser clouds are in the  deepest shade4
    ,the cirrus appears to be           
stationary2 but1 on comparison with a   
fixed  object1 it will sometimes be     
found to make considerable progress4    
,,the ,,cumulus1 ,,or ,,stacken-,,cloud4
          ,and now the mists from earth 
are clouds in heaven3      ,clouds1     
slowly castellating in a calm           
,sublimer than a storm2 while brighter  
breathes      ,o'er the whole firmament 
the breadth of blue1      ,because of   
that excessive purity      ,of all those
 hanging snow-white palaces1      ,a    
gentle contrast1 but with power divine4 
,the ,cumulus is a day cloud2 it usually
 has a dense1 compact appearance1  and  
moves with the wind4  ,in the latter    
part of a clear morning a small         
irregular spot appears suddenly at a    
moderate elevation4  ,this is the       
nucleus or commencement of the cloud1   
the upper part of which soon  becomes   

rounded and well defined1 while the     
lower forms an irregular  straight line4
  ,the cloud evidently increases in size
 on the convex  surface1 one heap       
succeeding another1 until a pile of     
cloud is raised or  stacked into one    
large and elevated mass1 or             
stacken-cloud1 of  stupendous magnitude 
and beauty1 disclosing mountain summits 
tipped with  the brightest silver2 the  
whole floating along with its point to  
the sky1  while the lower surface       
continues parallel with the horizon4    
,picture3 ,the ,cumulus1 or             
stacken-cloud    ,when several cumuli   
are present1 they are separated by      
distances  proportioned to their size3  
the smaller cumuli crowding the sky1    
while  the larger ones are further      
apart4  ,but the bases always range in  
the  same line2 and the increase of each
 cloud keeps pace with that of its      
neighbour1 the intervening spaces       
remaining clear4    ,the cumulus often  
attains its greatest size early in the  

afternoon1 when  the heat of the day is 
most felt4  ,as the sun declines1 this  
cloud  gradually decreases1 retaining1  
however1 its characteristic form till   
towards sunset1 when it is1 more or     
less1 hastily broken up and  disappears1
 leaving the sky clear as in the early  
part of the morning4  ,its tints are    
often vivid1 and pass one into the other
 in a most pleasing  manner1 during this
 last hour of its existence4    ,this   
cloud accompanies and foretells fine    
weather4  ,in changeable weather  it    
sometimes evaporates almost as soon as  
it is formed2 or it appears  suddenly1  
and then soon passes off to some other  
modification4    ,in fair weather this  
cloud has a moderate elevation and      
extent1 and a  well-defined rounded     
surface4  ,before rain it increases more
 rapidly than  at other times1 and      
appears lower in the atmosphere1 with   
its surface  full of loose fleeces4     
,the formation of large cumuli to       
leeward1 in a strong wind1 indicates the

  approach of a calm with rain4  ,when  
they do not disappear or subside  about 
sun-set1 but continue to rise1 thunder  
is to be expected in the  night4        
,independently of the beauty and        
magnificence which this description of  
cloud adds to the face of nature1 it    
serves to screen the earth from the     
direct rays of the sun2 by its          
multiplied reflections to diffuse and1  
as  it were1 economise the light2 and   
also to convey immense stores of vapour 
from the place of its origin to a region
 in which moisture may be wanted4       
,,the ,,stratus1 ,,or ,,fall-,,cloud4   
,as the ,cumulus belongs to the day1 so 
does the ,stratus to the night4  ,it  is
 the lowest of all the clouds1 and      
actually rests upon the earth1 or  the  
surface of water4  ,it is of variable   
extent and thickness1 and is  called    
,stratus1 a bed or covering4  ,it is    
generally formed by the  sinking of     
vapour in the atmosphere1 and on this   
account has been  called ,fall-cloud4   

,it comprehends all those level1        
creeping mists1  which1 in calm         
evenings1 spread like an inundation from
 the valleys1  lakes1 and rivers1 to the
 higher ground4 #he  ,but on the return 
of the  sun the beautiful level surface 
of this cloud begins to put on the      
appearance of cumulus1 the whole1 at the
 same time1 rising from the  ground like
 a magnificent curtain4  ,as the cloud  
ascends1 it is broken up  and evaporates
 or passes off with the morning breeze4 
,the stratus has  long been regarded as 
the harbinger of fine weather2 and1     
indeed1 there  are few days in the year 
more serene than those whose morning    
breaks out  through a stratus4          
,picture3 ,the ,stratus1 or fall-cloud  
,,the ,,cirro-,,cumulus1 ,,or           
,,sonder-,,cloud4      ,the cirrus      
having continued for some time          
increasing or stationary1  usually      
passes either to the cirro-cumulus or to
 the cirro-stratus1 at  the same time   
descending to a lower station in the    

atmosphere4    ,the ,cirro-cumulus is   
formed from a cirrus1 or a number of    
small separate  cirri1 passing into     
roundish masses1 in which the extent of 
the cirrus is  no longer to be seen4    
,this change takes place either         
throughout the  whole mass at once1 or  
progressively from one extremity to the 
other4  ,in  either case the same effect
 is produced on a number of neighbouring
 cirri  at the same time1 and in the    
same order4  ,it appears1 in some       
instances1  to be hastened by the       
approach of other clouds4               
,picture3 ,the ,cirro-,cumulus1 or      
sonder-cloud    ,the cirro-cumulus forms
 a very beautiful sky1 exhibiting       
sometimes  numerous distinct beds of    
small connected clouds floating at      
different  heights4  ,it is frequent in 
summer1 and accompanies warm1 dry       
weather4  ,on a fine summer's evening   
the small masses which compose this     
cloud1 are  often well defined1 and     
lying quite asunder1 or separate from   

one  another2 and on this account the   
term sonder-cloud has been applied to   
this modification4  ,the whole sky is   
sometimes covered with these small      
masses4  ,they are occasionally1 and    
more sparingly1 seen in the intervals   
of showers1 and in winter4              
,bloomfield1 in the following beautiful 
lines1 has noticed the appearance  of   
the sonder-cloud3--        ,for yet     
above these wafted clouds are seen      
7,in a remoter sky still more serene7   
,others1 detach'd in ranges through the 
air1      ,spotless as snow1 and        
countless as they're fair2              
,scatter'd immensely wide from east to  
west1      ,the beauteous semblance of a
 flock at rest3      ,these1 to the     
raptur'd mind1 aloud proclaim      ,the 
mighty ,shepherd's everlasting name4    
,this cloud may either evaporate or     
disappear1 or it may pass to the        
cirrus1 or sink lower and become a      
cirro-stratus4  ,in stormy weather1     
before thunder1 a cirro-cumulus often   

appears1 composed of very dense and     
compact round bodies1 in very close     
arrangement4  ,when accompanied by the  
cumulo-stratus1 it is a sure indication 
of a coming storm4        ,,the         
,,cirro-,,stratus1 ,,or ,,wane-,,cloud4 
,this cloud appears to be formed from   
the fibres of the cirrus sinking  into a
 horizontal position1 at the same time  
that they approach each  other sideways4
  ,this cloud is to be distinguished by 
its flatness and  great horizontal      
extension1 in proportion to its height2 
a character  which it always retains1   
under all its various forms4  ,as this  
cloud is  generally changing its figure1
 and slowly sinking1 it has been called 
the  wane-cloud4  ,a collection of these
 clouds1 when seen in the distance1     
frequently give the idea of shoals of   
fish4  ,sometimes the whole sky is  so  
mottled with them1 as to obtain for it  
the name of the mackerel-back  sky1 from
 its great resemblance to the back of   
that fish4  ,sometimes  they assume an  

arrangement like discs piled obliquely  
on each other4  ,but  in this1 as in    
other instances1 the structure must be  
attended to rather  than the form1 for  
this varies much1 presenting1 at times1 
the appearance  of parallel bars or     
interwoven streaks1 like the grain of   
polished wood4  ,it is thick in the     
middle and thinned off towards the edge4
                   ,picture3 ,the       
,cirro-,stratus1 or wane-cloud    ,these
 clouds precede wind and rain4  ,the    
near or distant approach of a  storm may
 often be judged of from their greater  
or less abundance and  duration4  ,they 
are almost always to be seen in the     
intervals of storms4  ,sometimes the    
cirro-stratus1 and the cirro-cumulus1   
appear together in  the sky1 and even   
alternate with each other in the same   
cloud1 presenting  many curious changes2
 and a judgment may be formed of the    
weather likely  to ensue1 by observing  
which prevails at last4    ,the         
cirro-stratus most frequently forms the 

solar and lunar halo4  ,hence  the      
reason of the prognostics of bad weather
 commonly drawn from the  appearance of 
halos4        ,,the ,,cumulo-,,stratus1 
,,or ,,twain-,,cloud4                   
,picture3 ,the ,cumulo-,stratus1 or     
twain-cloud    ,this is a blending of   
two kinds of cloud 7hence the name of   
twain-cloud17 and it often presents a   
grand and beautiful appearance1  being a
 collection of large fleecy clouds      
overhanging a flat stratum or  base4    
,when a cumulus increases rapidly a     
cumulo-stratus frequently forms  around 
its summit1 resting thereon as on a     
mountain1 while the former  cloud       
continues to be seen1 in some degree1   
through it4  ,this state of  things does
 not continue long4  ,the cumulo-stratus
 speedily becomes  denser and spreads1  
while the upper part of the cumulus     
extends likewise1  and passes into it1  
the base continuing as it was4  ,a      
large1 lofty1 dense  cloud is thus      
formed which may be compared to a       

mushroom with a very  thick1 short stem4
  ,the cumulo-stratus1 when well formed 
and seen singly1  and in profile1 is    
quite as beautiful an object as the     
cumulus4  ,mr4  ,howard has occasionally
 seen specimens constructed almost as   
finely as a  ,corinthian capital2 the   
summit throwing a well-defined shadow   
upon the  parts beneath4  ,it is        
sometimes built up to a great height4   
,the finest  examples occur between the 
first appearance of the fleecy cumuli   
and the  commencement of rain1 while the
 lower atmosphere is comparatively dry1 
and during the approach of thunder      
storms4  ,the appearance of the         
cumulo-stratus1 among ranges of hills1  
presents some interesting  phenomena4   
,it appears like a curtain dropping     
among them and enveloping  their        
summits2 the hills reminding the        
spectator of the massy ,egyptian        
columns which support the flat-roofed   
temples of ,thebes4  ,but when a  whole 
sky is crowded with these clouds1 and   

the cumulus rises behind  them1 and is  
seen through the interstices1 the whole1
 as it passes off in  the distant       
horizon1 presents to the fancy mountains
 covered with snow1  intersected with   
darker ridges1 lakes of water1 rocks and
 towers4  ,shakspeare seems to have     
referred to this modification in the    
well-known  lines3--        ,sometimes  
we see a cloud that's dragonish2      ,a
 vapour1 sometimes1 like a bear or lion1
      ,a towered citadel1 a pendent     
rock1      ,a forked mountain1 a blue   
promontory1      ,with trees upon 't    
that nod unto the world1      ,and mock 
our eyes with air4--      ,that which is
 now a horse1 even with a thought       
,the rack dislimns1 and makes it        
indistinct      ,as water is in water4  
,the distinct cumulo-stratus is formed  
in the interval between the first       
appearance of the fleecy cumulus and the
 commencement of rain1 while  the lower 
atmosphere is yet dry2 also during the  
approach of thunder  storms when it has 

frequently a reddish appearance4  ,its  
indistinct  appearance is chiefly in the
 longer or shorter intervals of showers 
of  rain1 snow1 or hail4        ,,the   
,,cumulo-,,cirro-,,stratus2 ,,nimbus    
,,or ,,rain-,,cloud4      ,clouds1 in   
any one of the preceding forms1 at the  
same degree of  elevation1 or two or    
more of these forms at different        
elevations1 may  increase and become so 
dense as completely to obscure the sky2 
this1 to  an inexperienced observer1    
would seem to indicate the speedy       
commencement  of rain4  ,but ,mr4       
,howard is of opinion that clouds1 while
 in any of the  states above described1 
never let fall rain4    ,before rain the
 clouds always undergo a change of      
appearance1  sufficiently remarkable to 
give them a distinct character4  ,this  
appearance1 when the rain happens       
overhead1 is but imperfectly seen2 but  
from the observations of aeronauts1 it  
appears that whenever a fall of  rain   
occurs1 and the sky is at the same time 

entirely overcast with  clouds1 there   
will be found to exist another stratum  
of clouds at a  certain elevation above 
the former4  ,so1 also1 when the sky is 
entirely  overcast and rain is          
altogether or generally absent1 the     
aeronaut1 upon  traversing the canopy   
immediately above him1 is sure to enter 
upon an  upper hemisphere either        
perfectly cloudless or nearly so4       
,these remarks  were1 we believe1 first 
made by ,mr4 ,m4 ,mason1 and he states  
that they  have been verified during    
many hundred ascents4    ,in ,october1  
#ahcg1 two ascents were made by ,mr4    
,mason1 which well  illustrate what has 
been said4  ,on the #abth1 the sky was  
completely  overspread with clouds1 and 
torrents of rain fell incessantly during
 the  whole of the day4  ,upon quitting 
the earth1 the balloon was almost       
immediately enveloped in the clouds1    
through which it continued to work  its 
way upwards for a few seconds4  ,upon   
emerging at the other side of  this     

dense canopy1 a vacant space1 of some   
thousand feet in breadth1  intervened1  
above which lay another stratum of a    
similar form and  observing a similar   
character4  ,as the rain1 however1 still
 continued to  pour from this second    
layer of clouds1 to preserve the        
correctness of the  observation1 a third
 layer should1 by right1 have existed at
 a still  further elevation2 which1     
accordingly1 proved to be the case4  ,on
 the  subsequent occasion of the ascent 
of the same balloon1 7,october #agth17  
an  exactly similar condition of the    
atmosphere1 with respect to clouds1     
prevailed2 unaccompanied1 however1 with 
the slightest appearance of rain4  ,no  
sooner had the balloon passed the layer 
of clouds immediately above  the surface
 of the earth1 than1 as was anticipated1
 not a single cloud  was to be found in 
the firmament beyond2 an unbroken       
expanse of clear  blue sky everywhere   
embracing the frothy plain that         
completely  intercepted all view of the 

world beneath4    ,mr4 ,howard had not  
the advantages of a balloon to assist   
his  observations4  ,he has noticed that
 during rain and before the arrival of  
the denser and lower clouds1 or through 
their interstices1 there exists1  at a  
greater height1 a thin light veil or a  
hazy appearance4  ,when this  has       
considerably increased1 the lower clouds
 are seen to spread till they  unite in 
all points and form one uniform sheet4  
,the rain then commences1  and the lower
 clouds arriving from the windward1 move
 under this sheet  and are successively 
lost in it4  ,when the latter cease to  
arrive1 or  when the sheet breaks1      
letting through the sun-beams1 every    
one's  experience teaches him to expect 
that the rain will abate or leave off4  
,but there often follows an immediate   
and great addition to the quantity  of  
cloud4  ,at the same time the darkness  
becomes less1 because the  arrangement1 
which now returns1 gives free passage to
 the rays of light2  the lower broken   

clouds rise into cumuli1 and the upper  
sheets put on the  various forms of the 
cumulo-stratus1 sometimes passing to the
  cirro-cumulus4    ,the various        
phenomena of the rain-cloud are best    
seen in a distant  shower4  ,if the     
cumulus be the only cloud at first      
visible1 its upper  part is seen to     
become tufted with cirri4  ,several     
adjacent clouds also  approach and unite
 at its side4  ,the cirri increase1     
extending upwards  and sideways1 after  
which the shower is seen to commence4   
,at other  times1 the cirro-stratus is  
first formed above the cumulus1 and     
their  sudden union is attended with the
 production of cirri and rain4  ,in     
either case the cirri spring up in      
proportion to the quantity of rain      
falling1 and give the cloud a character 
by which it is easily known at  great   
distances1 and which has long been      
called by the name of nimbus4    ,when  
one of these arrives hastily with the   
wind1 it brings but little  rain1 and   

frequently some hail or driven snow4    
,since rain may be produced and continue
 to fall from the slightest  obscuration
 of the sky by the nimbus1 while a      
cumulus or a  cumulo-stratus1 of a very 
dark and threatening aspect1 passes on  
without  discharging any until some     
change of state takes place2 it would   
seem as  if nature had destined the     
latter as reservoirs1 in which water is 
collected from extensive regions of the 
air for occasionally irrigating         
particular spots in dry seasons2 and by 
means of which it is arrested1 at       
times1 in its descent in wet ones4      
,although the nimbus is one of the least
 beautiful of clouds1 it is1            
nevertheless1 now and then adorned by   
the splendid colouring of the  rainbow1 
which can only be seen in perfection    
when the dark surface of  this cloud    
forms for it a background4    ,the small
 ragged clouds which are sometimes seen 
sailing rapidly through  the air1 are   
called scud4  ,they consist of portions 

of a rain-cloud1  probably broken up by 
the wind1 and are dark or light         
according as the  sun shines upon them4 
,they are the usual harbingers of rain1 
and1 as  such1 are called by various    
names1 such as messengers1 carriers1 and
  water-waggons4                        
99 99 99 99 99    ,in attempting to     
explain the production of clouds and    
rain1 it is  necessary to observe that  
the subject is beset with               
difficulties--the  discussion of which  
does not belong to this little volume2  
but the  following notice of ,dr4       
,hutton's theory may not be out of      
place4    ,it has been already stated1  
that the air supplies itself with       
moisture  from the surface of the waters
 of the earth4  ,this it continues to do
 at  all temperatures1 until it is so   
charged with vapour that it cannot      
contain any more4  ,the air is then said
 to be saturated4  ,now1 the  quantity  
of moisture which a given bulk of air   
can contain1 depends  entirely upon the 

temperature of the air for the time     
being4  ,the higher  the temperature of 
the air the greater will be the quantity
 of vapour  contained in it2 and1       
although it may be perfectly invisible  
to the eye1  on account of the          
elasticity which the heat imparts to it1
 yet it can  easily be made visible by  
subtracting a portion of the heat4  ,if1
 for  example1 a glass of cold water be 
suddenly brought into a warm room1      
moisture from the air will be condensed 
upon the outside of the glass in  the   
form of dew4  ,a similar change is      
supposed to take place when two         
currents of air having different        
temperatures1 but both saturated with   
vapour1 are mingled together2 an excess 
of vapour is set free1 which  forms a   
cloud or falls down as rain4  ,if the   
currents continue to mingle  uniformly1 
the clouds soon spread in all           
directions1 so as to occupy the  whole  
horizon2 while the additional moisture1 
incessantly brought by the  warmer      

current1 keeps up a constant supply for 
condensation1 and produces  a great and 
continued deposition of moisture in the 
form of rain4  ,by  degrees1 the        
currents completely intermingle1 and    
acquire a uniform  temperature2         
condensation then ceases2 the clouds are
 re-dissolved2 and  the whole face of   
nature1 after being cooled and refreshed
 by the  necessary rain1 is again       
enlivened by the sunshine1 thus rendered
 still  more agreeable by its contrast  
with the previous gloom4    ,if the     
cloud1 produced by the mingling of two  
differently heated currents  of moist   
air1 happen to form in the upper regions
 of the sky1 it may be  heavier than its
 own bulk of air1 and will consequently 
begin to sink4  ,should the atmosphere  
near the earth be less dense than the   
cloud1 the  latter will continue to     
descend till it touches the ground1     
where it  forms a mist4  ,if the vapour 
has been condensed rapidly and          
abundantly1  the watery particles will  

form rain1 hail1 or snow1 according to  
the  temperature of the air through     
which they pass4  ,but it may happen    
that  the cloud1 in descending1 arrives 
in a warmer region than that in which   
it was formed3 in this case1 the        
condensed moisture may again become     
vapour1 and ascend again to a region    
where condensation may again take       
place4    ,mr4 ,daniell's explanation of
 the formation of rain differs from the 
above  in some of its particulars1 which
 are not sufficiently elementary to be  
given here2 but it may be instructive to
 give a few of ,mr4 ,howard's           
illustrations respecting the formation  
of the various clouds4  ,if hot  water  
be exposed to cool air1 it steams--that 
is1 the vapour given off  from the      
surface is condensed in mixing with the 
air2 and the water thus  produced       
appears in visible particles1 the heat  
of the vapour passing  into the air4    
,this effect may be seen about sunrise1 
in summer1 on the  surface of ponds     

warmed by the sun of the previous day1  
and also with  water newly pumped from a
 well4  ,but the small cloud formed in  
these  instances usually disappears     
almost as soon as formed1 the air being 
too  dry to allow it to remain4  ,but in
 the wide regions of the atmosphere the 
case is different1 on account of the    
vast supply of vapour1 and the  ascent  
and descent of the cloud to regions     
which allow it to remain  tolerably     
permanent4  ,in the fine evenings of    
autumn1 and occasionally at  other      
seasons1 mists appear suddenly in the   
valleys1 gradually filling  these low   
places1 and even rising to a certain    
height1 forming a foggy  atmosphere for 
the following day4  ,these collections  
of visible vapour  resting on the earth1
 and often cut off so as to form a level
 surface  above1 so nearly resemble a   
sheet of water1 as to have been         
occasionally  mistaken for an           
inundation1 the occurrence of the       
previous night4  ,such  is the origin   

and appearance of the stratus3 it       
constitutes the fog of  the morning1 and
 sometimes1 as at the approach of a long
 frost1 occupies  the lower atmosphere  
for several days4  ,but the sun1 we will
 suppose1 has  broken through and       
dissipated this obscurity1 and cleared  
the lower air4  ,on looking up to the   
blue sky1 we see some few spots showing 
the first  formation of a cloud there3  
these little collections increase in    
number1  and become clouds1 heaped1 as  
it were1 on a level base1 and presenting
  their rounded forms upwards2 in which 
state they are carried along in the     
breeze1 remaining distinct from each    
other in the sky4  ,this is the         
cumulus1 or heap4    ,by and by1 if the 
clouds continue to form1 and enough     
vapour is supplied  from above1 these   
heaps are seen to grow over their base  
like a mushroom  or cauliflower4        
,perhaps a flat top is seen forming     
separately1 and this  afterwards joins  
the simple heap of cloud2 or the flat   

forms and the  heaps become mixed       
irregularly among each other1 occupying 
the spaces  everywhere1 till the sky    
becomes overcast1 and presents the usual
  appearance of dense clouds4  ,this is 
the cumulo-stratus1 or heaped and  flat 
cloud4  ,it is not productive of rain1  
and it forms1 both in summer  and in    
winter1 the common scenery of a full    
sky4    ,on examining minutely the      
higher regions of the air1 especially   
after the  sky has been clear for some  
time1 the spectator will probably see   
the  cirrus descending from above in the
 form of threads or locks and  feathers1
 which go on increasing until they fill 
the sky4  ,they are  more commonly seen 
above the two former kinds1 which float 
upon the clear  air below4  ,on         
continuing to watch the cirri1 they will
 be seen to pass  to the intermediate   
form of cirro-cumulus1 consisting of    
smaller rounded  clouds attached to each
 other1 or simply collected together in 
a flat  aggregate1 and forming the      

mottled or dappled sky4    ,the         
cumulo-stratus is more dense and        
continuous in its structure2 thick  in  
the middle1 and thinned off towards the 
edges4  ,over-head it is a mere  bed of 
haze1 more or less dense4  ,in the      
horizon1 when seen sideways1 it  often  
resembles shoals of fish1 as already    
noticed2 but it is liable to  put on the
 most ragged and patchy appearances1    
making a very ugly sky4    ,the nimbus1 
or rain cloud1 is seen to the greatest  
advantage in profile1  in the horizon1  
and at a great distance1 when it often  
resembles a lofty  tower raised by its  
greater height to a conspicuous place   
among the dark  threatening clouds1 and 
catching the sun's last rays upon its   
broad  summit and sides4  ,in its nearer
 approach1 it may always be known by    
being connected below with an obscurity 
caused by the rain it lets fall1  and   
which reaches down to the horizon4      
,in ascending from the lower valleys to 
the tops of lofty mountains1  clouds may

 be traced through six modifications1   
the cirrus being seen  from the loftiest
 summits1 while the other forms are only
 skirting the  sides of the mountains4  
,mr4 ,mason remarks1 that clouds        
occasionally lie  so low1 that before   
the balloon seems to have entirely      
quitted the earth1  it has been received
 between their limits1 and entirely     
enveloped within  their watery folds4   
,clouds1 on the contrary1 are sometimes 
at such a  height1 that the balloon     
either never comes into contact with    
them at  all1 or1 if it passes through  
one layer1 the aeronaut continues to    
behold  another occupying a still       
remoter region of the skies above4      
,as a general rule1 it is stated that   
the natural region of clouds is a       
stratum of the atmosphere lying between 
the level of the first thousand  feet1  
and that of one removed about ten       
thousand feet above it4  ,of  course it 
is not supposed but that clouds are     
occasionally found on both  sides of the

 bounds here assigned to them2 the mist 
occupies the lowest  valleys1 while1 on 
the other hand1 long after the aeronaut 
has attained  the height of ten thousand
 feet1 some faint indications of clouds 
may  still be seen partially obscuring  
the dark blue vault above him4  ,as he  
continues to ascend1 the blue of the sky
 increases in intensity2 and  should a  
layer of clouds shut out all view of the
 earth1 above and all  around him       
extends a firmament dyed in purple of   
the intensest hue2 and  from the        
apparent regularity of the horizontal   
plane on which it rests1  bearing the   
resemblance of a large inverted bowl of 
dark blue porcelain  standing upon a    
rich ,mosaic floor or tesselated        
pavement4  ,ascending  still higher1 the
 colour of the sky1 especially about the
 zenith1 is to  be compared with the    
deepest shade of ,prussian blue4        
,picture3 ,various forms of hail-stones 
,,chapter ,,iv4      ,,on ,,hail--,,the 
,,hail-,,storms ,,of                    

,,france--,,disastrous ,,effects ,,of   
,,hail--,,the  ,,hail-,,storms ,,of     
,,south ,,america--,,their ,,surprising 
,,effects--,,origin ,,and ,,nature  ,,of
 ,,hail--,,periodical ,,falls ,,of      
,,hail--,,hail                          
,,clouds--,,hailstones--,,their         
,,various  ,,forms--,,extraordinary     
,,size ,,of ,,hailstones4    ,as hail   
seems to be nothing more than frozen    
rain1 it is necessary to  collect a few 
particulars respecting it in this place4
    ,great ,britain is essentially a    
rain country2 but there are some parts  
of  the world which have obtained the   
unhappy distinction of being hail       
countries3 such1 for example1 as some of
 the most beautiful provinces of        
,france1 which are frequently devastated
 by hail-storms4  ,one of the most      
tremendous hail-storms on record is that
 which occurred in that country  in     
,july #aghh4  ,this fearful storm was   
ushered in by a dreadful and almost     
total darkness which suddenly overspread

 the whole country4  ,in a single  hour 
the whole face of nature was so entirely
 changed1 that no person who  had slept 
during the tempest could have believed  
himself in the same part  of the world  
when he awoke4  ,instead of the smiling 
bloom of summer1 and  the rich prospects
 of a forward autumn1 which were just   
before spread  over the face of that    
fertile and beautiful country1 it now   
presented the  dreary aspect of an      
arctic winter4  ,the soil was changed   
into a morass2  the standing corn beaten
 into a quagmire2 the vines were broken 
to  pieces1 and their branches bruised  
in the same manner2 the fruit-trees of  
every kind were demolished1 and the hail
 lay unmelted in heaps like rocks  of   
solid ice4  ,even the robust forest     
trees were incapable of  withstanding   
the fury of the tempest2 and a large    
wood of chesnut trees1  in particular1  
was so much damaged1 that it presented1 
after the storm1  little more than bare 
and naked trunks4  ,the vines were so   

miserably  hacked and battered1 that    
four years were estimated as the        
shortest  period in which they could    
become again in any degree productive4  
,of the  sixty-six parishes included in 
the district of ,pontoise1 forty-three  
were  entirely desolated2 while1 of the 
remaining twenty-three1 some lost       
two-thirds1 and others above half their 
harvest4    ,this storm began in the    
south1 and proceeded in two parallel    
bands from  the south-west to the       
north-east2 the extent of one of them   
being #age  leagues1 and of the other   
#bjj2 thus traversing nearly the whole  
length of  that great kingdom1 and even 
a portion of the ,low countries4  ,the  
mean  breadth of the eastern portion was
 four leagues1 and of the western two3  
and1 what is very remarkable1 the       
interval between the two bands1         
amounting to five leagues1 was deluged  
with heavy rain4  ,the largest of  the  
hail-stones weighed half a pound each4  
,the progress of this storm1 which was  

from south to north1 was at the  rate of
 #af4e leagues an hour2 and the velocity
 of the two bands was  precisely the    
same4  ,the continuance of the hail was 
limited to seven or  eight minutes1 at  
each of the principal stations marked4  
,there are instances1 however1 on       
record1 in which hail has produced even 
more tremendous results than those above
 recorded4  ,in some parts of  ,south   
,america hail-stones are sometimes so   
large and so hard1 and fall  with such  
violence1 that large animals are killed 
by them4  ,mr4 ,darwin1  encamping at   
the foot of the ,sierra ,tapalguen1     
says3--,one of the men had  already     
found thirteen deer lying dead1 and ,i  
saw their fresh hides4  ,another of the 
party1 a few minutes after my arrival1  
brought in seven  more4  ,now ,i well   
know that one man without dogs could    
hardly have killed  seven deer in a     
week4  ,the men believed they had seen  
about fifteen dead  ostriches1 7part of 
one of which we had for dinner27 and    

they said that  several were running    
about evidently blind in one eye4       
,numbers of small  birds1 as ducks1     
hawks1 and partridges1 were killed4  ,i 
saw one of the  latter with a black mark
 on its back1 as if it had been struck  
with a  paving-stone4  ,a fence of      
thistle-stalks round the hovel was      
nearly  broken down2 and my informer1   
putting his head out to see what was the
  matter1 received a severe cut1 and now
 wears a bandage4  ,the storm was  said 
to have been of limited extent3 we      
certainly saw1 from our last  night's   
bivouac1 a dense cloud and lightning in 
this direction4  ,it is  marvellous how 
such strong animals as deer could thus  
have been killed2  but1 ,i have no      
doubt1 from the evidence ,i have given1 
that the story is  not in the least     
exaggerated4  ,dr4 ,malcolmson informed 
,mr4 ,darwin1 that  he witnessed1 in    
#ahca1 in ,india1 a hail-storm1 which   
killed numbers of  large birds1 and much
 injured the cattle4  ,these hail-stones

 were flat2  one was ten inches in      
circumference2 and another weighed two  
ounces4  ,they ploughed up a gravel-walk
 like musket-balls1 and passed through  
glass windows1 making round holes1 but  
not cracking them4    ,there is much in 
the origin and formation of hail that   
cannot well be  explained4  ,volta      
regarded the formation of small flakes  
of ice1 the  kernels of future          
hail-stones1 in the month of ,july1     
during the hottest  hours of the day1 as
 one of the most difficult phenomena in 
nature to  explain4  ,it is difficult to
 account for the comparative scarcity of
  hail-showers in winter2 as also1 for  
the great size which hailstones are     
often known to attain4    ,it appears   
from certain resemblances in the        
descents of rain1 snow1 and  hail1 that 
they have a common origin1 their        
different formations being  explained by
 difference of temperature4  ,howard has
 observed a huge  nimbus affording hard 
snowballs and distinct flakes of snow at

 the same  time4  ,hail and rain are by 
no means uncommon from the same cloud4  
,the  size of a cloud may be such1 or   
clouds may exist in different           
elevations1  which in an upper region   
produce hail1 in a lower region snow1   
and at a  still lower elevation rain4   
,rain may also form in an upper region  
of the  sky1 and descend into a colder  
stratum of the atmosphere1 and be frozen
  into hail4  ,hail generally precedes  
storms of rain4    ,change of wind and  
the action of opposite currents1 so     
necessary for the  production of rain1  
are also frequent during hail-storms4   
,while clouds  are agitated with the    
most rapid motions1 rain generally falls
 in  greatest abundance2 and if the     
agitation be very great it generally    
hails4  ,before the descent of hail a   
noise is heard1 a particular kind of    
crackling1 which has been compared to   
the emptying of a bag of walnuts4       
,the descent of hail in some countries  
appears to occur at particular  periods4

  ,in the central parts of ,france1     
,italy1 and ,spain1 it usually  hails   
most abundantly during the warmest hours
 of the day in spring and  summer1 and  
in ,europe generally it falls           
principally during the day2 but  there  
are examples recorded of great          
hail-storms which have taken place      
during the night4  ,near the equator1 it
 seldom hails in places situated  at a  
lower level than #cej fathoms1 for1     
although the hail may be formed1  the   
warmth of the regions prevents it from  
falling in that state4    ,the          
appearance of hail clouds seems to be   
distinguished from other stormy  clouds 
by a very remarkable shadowing4  ,their 
edges present a multitude  of           
indentations1 and their surfaces        
disclose here and there immense         
irregular projections4  ,arago has seen 
hail-clouds cover with a thick  veil the
 whole extent of a valley1 at a time    
when the neighbouring hills  enjoyed a  
fine sky and an agreeable temperature4  

,hailstones of similar forms are        
produced at similar levels4  ,they are  
smaller on the tops of mountains than in
 the neighbouring plains4  ,if the      
temperature or the wind alter1 the      
figures of the hailstones become        
immediately changed4  ,hailstones of the
 form of a six-sided pyramid have  been 
known to change1 on the wind changing to
 the north-east1 to convex  lenses1 so  
transparent and nicely formed1 that they
 magnified objects  without distorting  
them4  ,some hailstones are globular1   
others elongated1  and others armed with
 different points4    ,in the centres of
 hailstones small flakes of spungy snow 
are frequently  found1 and this usually 
is the only opaque point in them4       
,sometimes the  surface is covered with 
dust1 like fine flour1 and is something 
between  hail and snow4  ,this never    
falls during summer in southerly        
countries4  ,in the ,andes hailstones   
from five to seven lines in diameter are
  sometimes formed of layers of         

different degrees of transparency1 so as
 to  permit rings of ice to be separated
 from them with a very slight blow4  ,in
 ,orkney1 hailstones have fallen as     
finely polished as marbles1 of a        
greyish white colour1 not unlike        
fragments of light-coloured marble4     
,hailstones are often so hard and       
elastic1 that those which fall on the   
stones rebound without breaking to the  
height of several yards2 and they  have 
been known to be projected from a cloud 
almost horizontally1 and  with such     
velocity as to pierce glass windows with
 a clear round hole4    ,on the #gth    
,may1 #ahbb1 some remarkable hailstones 
fell at ,bonn1 on the  ,rhine4  ,their  
general size was about an inch and a    
half in diameter1 and  their weight #cjj
 grains4  ,when picked up whole1 which  
was not always the  case1 their general 
outline was elliptical1 with a white1 or
 nearly  opaque spot in the centre1     
about which were arranged concentric    
layers1  increasing in transparency to  

the outside4  ,some of them exhibited a 
beautiful star-like and fibrous         
arrangement1 the result of rows of air  
bubbles dispersed in different radii4   
,the figures at the head of this        
chapter show the external and internal  
appearances of these hailstones4    ,the
 smaller figures represent pyramidal    
hail1 common in ,france1 and            
occasionally in ,great ,britain4        
,brown hailstones have been noticed4    
,humboldt saw hail fall of the colour   
of blood4    ,on the #aeth ,july1 #ahjh1
 ,howard noticed1 in ,gloucestershire1  
hailstones  from three to nine inches in
 circumference2 appearing like fragments
 of a  vast plate of ice which had been 
broken in its descent to the earth4     
,on the #dth ,june1 #ahad1 ,dr4         
,crookshank noticed1 in ,north ,america1
  hailstones of from thirteen to fifteen
 inches in circumference4  ,they  seemed
 to consist of numerous smaller stones  
fused together4    ,on the #bdth ,july1 
#ahah1 during a storm in ,orkney1 ,mr4  

,neill picked up  hailstones weighing   
from four ounces to nearly half a pound4
                              ,picture3 
,rain gauges          ,,chapter ,v4     
,,method ,,of ,,measuring ,,the         
,,quantity ,,of ,,rain ,,that           
,,falls--,,the ,,rain                   
,,gauge--,,methods ,,of ,,observing     
,,for ,,rain ,,and ,,snow--,,effects    
,,of ,,elevation ,,on  ,,the ,,quantity 
,,of ,,rain--,,difference ,,between     
,,the ,,top ,,of ,a ,,tall ,,building   
,,and  ,,the ,,summit ,,of ,a           
,,mountain--,,size ,,of ,,drops ,,of    
,,rain--,,velocity ,,of ,,their         
,,fall--,,quantity ,,of ,,rain ,,in     
,,different ,,latitudes--,,extraordinary
 ,,falls ,,of  ,,rain--,,remarks ,,on   
,,the ,,rain ,,of ,,this                
,,country--,,influence ,,of ,,the       
,,moon--,,absence  ,,of                 
,,rain--,,remarkable ,,drought ,,in     
,,south ,,america--,,its ,,terrible     
,,effects ,,and                         
,,consequences--,,artificial ,,rains4   

,the quantity of rain which falls at    
different parts of the earth's  surface 
is very variable2 and for the purpose of
 measuring it instruments  called       
,rain-gauges have been contrived4  ,the 
simplest form is a funnel  three or four
 inches high1 and having an area of one 
hundred square  inches4  ,this may be   
placed in the mouth of a large bottle1  
and1 after  each fall of rain1 the      
quantity may be measured by a glass jar 
divided  into inches and parts4  ,this  
simple gauge being placed on the ground 
in  an open spot1 will evidently        
represent a portion of the ground1 and  
will  show the depth of rain which would
 cover it at and about that spot1       
supposing the ground to be horizontal1  
and that the water could neither  flow  
off nor sink into the soil4  ,thus1 by  
taking notice of the quantity  of rain  
which falls day by day1 and year by     
year1 and taking the average  of many   
years1 we get the mean annual quantity  
of rain for the particular  spot in     

question4  ,by an extension of these    
observations1 it is evident  that the   
mean annual fall of rain may be known   
for a district or a  kingdom4    ,a more
 convenient form of rain-gauge than the 
one just noticed1 is made  by placing   
the funnel at the top of a brass or     
copper cylinder1 connected  with which  
at the lower point1 is a glass tube with
 a scale1 measuring  inches and tenths  
of an inch4  ,the water stands at the   
same height in the  glass tube as it    
does in the cylinder1 and being visible 
in the tube the  height can be          
immediately read on the scale4  ,the    
cylinder and the tube  are so           
constructed1 that the sum of the areas  
of their sections is a  given part1 such
 as a tenth of the area of the mouth of 
the funnel2 so  that each inch of water 
in the tube is equal to the tenth of an 
inch of  water which enters the mouth of
 the funnel4  ,a stop-cock is added for 
drawing off the water from the cylinder 
after each observation is noted  down4  

,some rain-gauges are constructed for   
showing the quantity of rain which      
falls from each of the four principal   
quarters4  ,others are made so as to    
register1 themselves1 the quantity of   
rain fallen4  ,one of this kind1 by     
,mr4 ,crosley1 consists of a funnel     
through which the rain passes to a      
vibrating trough2 when1 after a         
sufficient quantity has fallen into its 
higher side1 it sinks down and          
discharges the rain which escapes by a  
tube4  ,the vibrating action of this    
trough moves a train of wheel-work  and 
indices1 which register upon a dial     
plate the quantity of rain  fallen4     
,whatever form of rain-gauge is adopted1
 it must be placed in an exposed        
situation1 at a distance from all       
buildings1 and trees1 and other objects 
likely to interfere with the free       
descent of rain into the funnel4  ,it is
  usual1 in rainy weather1 to observe   
the quantity of water in the gauge      
every morning2 but this does not seem to

 be often enough1 considering how       
freely water evaporates in an exposed   
situation4  ,an error may also arise    
from some of the water adhering to the  
sides of the vessel1 unless an          
allowance is made for the quantity thus 
lost by a contrivance such as the       
following3--,let a sponge be made damp1 
yet so that no water can be  squeezed   
from it1 and with this collect all the  
water which adheres to  the funnel and  
cylinder1 after as much as possible has 
been drawn off2  then1 if the sponge be 
squeezed1 and the water from it be      
received in a  vessel which admits of   
measuring its quantity1 an estimate may 
be made of  the depth due to it2 and    
this being added to the depth given by  
the  instrument1 would probably show    
correctly the required depth of rain4   
,when snow has fallen the rain-gauge may
 not give a correct quantity1 as a      
portion of it may be blown out1 or a    
greater quantity may have fallen  than  
the mouth will contain4  ,in such cases1

 it is recommended to take a            
cylindrical tube and press it           
perpendicularly into the snow1 and it   
will  bring out with it a cylinder equal
 to the depth4  ,this1 when melted1 will
  give the quantity of water which can  
be measured as before4  ,the  proportion
 of snow to water is about seventeen to 
one2 and hail to water1  about eight to 
one4  ,these quantities1 however1 may   
vary according to the  circumstances    
under which the snow or hail has fallen1
 and the time they  have been upon the  
ground4    ,the rain-gauge should be    
placed as near the surface of the ground
 as  possible2 for it is a perplexing   
circumstance1 that the rain-gauge       
indicates very different quantities of  
rain as falling upon the very same      
spot1 according to the different heights
 at which it is placed4  ,thus it  has  
been found1 that the annual depth of    
rain at the top of ,westminster  ,abbey 
was #ab4a inches nearly1 while1 on the  
top of a house sixteen feet  lower1 it  

was rather more than #ah4a inches1 and  
on the ground1 in the  garden of the    
house1 it was #bb4f inches4  ,m4 ,arago 
has also found from  observations made  
during twelve years1 that on the terrace
 of the  ,observatory at ,paris the     
annual depth was about #b4be inches less
 than in  the court thirty yards below4 
,it would naturally be expected from    
these observations1 that less rain      
falls on high ground than at the level  
of the sea4  ,such however is not  the  
case1 except on abrupt elevations2 where
 the elevation is made by the  natural  
and gradual slope of the earth's        
surface1 the quantity of rain is        
greater on the mountain than in the     
plain4  ,thus1 on the coast of          
,lancashire1 there is an annual fall of 
#ci inches2 while at ,easthwaite1  among
 the mountains in the same county1 the  
annual depth of rain amounts  to #hf    
inches4  ,by comparing the registers at 
,geneva and the convent of  the ,great  
,st4 ,bernard1 it appears that at the   

former place1 by a mean of  thirty-two  
years1 the annual fall of rain is about 
#cj4ge inches2 while at  the latter1 by 
a mean of twelve years1 it is a little  
over #fj inches4    ,in order to explain
 these remarkable differences1 it must  
not be supposed  that the clouds extend 
down to the ground1 so as to cause more 
rain at  the foot of ,westminster ,abbey
 than on its roof4  ,there is no doubt  
that  in moist weather the air contains 
more water near the ground than a few   
hundred feet above it2 and probably1 the
 same cause which determined a  fall    
from the cloud1 would also throw down   
the moisture floating at a low          
elevation4  ,much rain also proceeds    
from drifting showers1 of short         
duration1 and the current moves more    
slowly along the surface1 and allows    
the drops to fall as fast as they are   
formed4  ,in hilly countries1 on the    
contrary1 clouds and vapours rest on the
 summits without descending into  the   
plains1 and1 according to some1 the     

hills attract electricity from  the     
clouds1 and thus occasion rain to fall4 
,mr4 ,phillips supposes that  each drop 
of rain continues to increase in size   
from the commencement to  the end of its
 descent1 and as it passes successively 
through the moist  strata of the air1   
obtains its increase from them2 while   
the rain which  falls on the mountain   
may leave these moist strata untouched1 
so that  they may1 in fact1 not form    
rain at all4    ,the drops of rain are  
of unequal size1 as may be seen from the
 marks made  by the first drops of a    
shower upon any smooth surface4  ,they  
vary in  size from perhaps the          
twenty-fifth to a quarter of an inch in 
diameter4  ,it is supposed that in      
parting from the clouds they fall with  
increasing  speed1 until the increasing 
resistance of the air becomes equal to  
their  weight1 when they continue to    
fall with an uniform velocity4  ,a      
thunder-shower pours down much faster   
than a drizzling rain4  ,a flake of     

snow1 being perhaps nine times more     
expanded than water1 descends thrice  as
 slow4  ,but hailstones are often       
several inches in length1 and fall  with
 a velocity of seventy feet in a second1
 or at the rate of about  fifty miles an
 hour1 and hence the destructive power  
of these missiles in  stripping and     
tearing off fruit and foliage4    ,the  
annual quantity of rain decreases from  
the equator to the poles1 as  appears   
from the following table1 which gives   
the name of the station1  its latitude1 
and the average annual number of inches 
of rain3--    ,coast of ,malabar        
lat4 #aa degrees #cj'     #ace4e inches4
                              ,n4  ,at  
,grenada1 ,antilles        #ab degrees  
#abf  ,at ,cape ,francois1 ,st4         
#ai degrees #df'          #abj  ,domingo
  ,at ,calcutta                 #bb     
degrees #bc'          #ha  ,at ,rome    
#da degrees #ed'          #ci  ,in      
,england                  #ej to #ee    
degrees        #ca  ,at ,st4            

,petersburgh          #ei degrees #af'  
#af  ,at ,uleaborg                 #fe  
degrees #cj'          #ac4e    ,the     
number of rainy days1 on the contrary1  
increases from the equator to  the      
poles4    ,from #ab to #dc degrees ,n4  
lat4--the number of rainy days in    #gh
  the year amounts to  ,from #dc to #df 
degrees                                 
#ajc  ,from #df to #ej degrees          
#acd  ,from #ej to #fj degrees          
#afa    ,the greatest depth of rain     
which falls in the ,indian ocean is     
during the  time when the periodical    
winds1 called the monsoons1 change their
  direction4  ,when the winds blow      
directly in-shore the rains are very    
abundant1 so much so that1 after a      
continuance of twenty-four hours1 the   
surface of the sea has been covered with
 a stratum of fresh water1 good  enough 
for drinking1 and ships have actually   
filled their casks from it4  ,colonel   
,sykes observes1 that the deluge-like   
character of a monsoon in  the ,ghats of

 ,western ,india1 is attested by the    
annual amount of #cjb4be  inches1 at    
,malcolmpait1 on the ,mahabuleshwar     
,hills4    ,a great depth of rain in a  
short time has occasionally been        
witnessed in  ,europe4  ,at ,genoa1 on  
the #beth of ,october1 #ahbb1 a depth of
 thirty inches  of rain fell in one day4
  ,at ,joyeuse1 on the #ith of ,october1
 #ahbg1  thirty-one inches of rain fell 
in twenty-two hours4  ,previous to the  
great floods of ,moray1 in #ahbi1 the   
rain is described as being so thick     
that the very air itself seemed to be   
descending in one mass of water  upon   
the earth4  ,nothing could withstand it4
  ,the best finished windows  were      
ineffectual against it1 and every room  
exposed to the north-east was  deluged4 
,the smaller animals1 the birds1 and    
especially game1 of all  kinds1 were    
destroyed in great numbers by the rain  
alone1 and the mother  partridge1 with  
her brood and her mate1 were found      
chilled to death  amidst the drenching  

wet4  ,it was also noticed1 that1 as    
soon as the  flood touched the          
foundation of a dry stone wall1 the sods
 on the top of  it became as it were    
alive with mice1 all forcing their way  
out to escape  from the inundation which
 threatened their citadel2 and in the   
stables1  where the water was three feet
 deep1 rats and moles were swimming     
about  among the buildings4    ,among   
the ,andes it is said to rain           
perpetually2 but in ,peru it never      
rains1 moisture being supplied during a 
part of the year by thick fogs1  called 
garuas4  ,in ,egypt1 and some parts of  
,arabia1 it seldom rains at  all1 but   
the dews are heavy1 and supply with     
moisture the few plants of  the sandy   
regions4    ,there is a great variation 
in the quantity of rain that falls in   
the same  latitude1 on the different    
sides of the same continent1 and        
particularly  of the same island4  ,the 
mean fall of rain at ,edinburgh1 on the 
eastern  coast1 is #bf inches2 while at 

,glasgow1 on the western coast1 in      
nearly  the same latitude1 it is #dj    
inches4  ,at ,north ,shields1 on the    
eastern  coast1 it is #be inches2 while 
at ,coniston1 in ,lancashire1 in nearly 
the  same latitude1 on the western      
coast1 it is #he inches4    ,the amount 
of rain in a district may be changed by 
destroying or forming  forests1 and by  
the inclosure and drainage of land4  ,by
 thinning off the  wood in the          
neighbourhood of ,marseilles1 there has 
been a striking  decrease of rain in    
fifty years4    ,in ,mr4 ,howard's      
observations on the climate of this     
country1 he has  found1 on an average of
 years1 that it rains every other day2  
that more  rain falls in the night than 
in the day2 that the greatest quantity  
of  rain falls in autumn1 and the least 
in winter2 that the quantity which      
falls in autumn is nearly double that in
 spring2 that most rain falls in        
,october and least in ,february1 and    
that ,may comes nearest to the mean3    

that one year in every five1 in this    
country1 may be expected to be          
extremely dry1 and one in ten extremely 
wet4    ,according to ,dalton1 the mean 
annual amount of rain and dew for       
,england  and ,wales is #cf inches4     
,the mean all over the globe is stated  
to be #cd  inches4    ,there seems to be
 some real connexion between the changes
 of the moon and  the weather4  ,mr4    
,daniell says1 ,no observation is more  
general2 and on  no occasion1 perhaps1  
is the almanac so frequently consulted  
as in  forming conjectures upon the     
state of the weather4  ,the common      
remark1  however1 goes no further than  
that changes from wet to dry1 and from  
dry  to wet1 generally happen at the    
changes of the moon4  ,when to this     
result  of universal experience we add  
the philosophical reasons for the       
existence of tides in the aerial ocean1 
we cannot doubt that such a  connexion  
exists4  ,the subject1 however1 is      
involved in much obscurity4  ,at        

,viviers1 it was observed that the      
number of rainy days was greatest at    
the first quarter1 and least at the     
last4  ,mr4 ,howard has observed that1  
in this country1 when the moon has south
 declination1 there falls but a         
moderate quantity of rain1 and that the 
quantity increases till she has         
attained the greatest northern          
declination4  ,he thinks there is       
evidence  of a great tidal wave1 or     
swell in the atmosphere1 caused by the  
moon's  attraction1 preceding her in her
 approach to us1 and following slowly as
  she departs from these latitudes4     
,most dry climates are subject to       
periodical droughts4  ,in ,australia1   
they  return after every ten or twelve  
years1 and are then followed by         
excessive rains1 which gradually become 
less and less till another  drought is  
the consequence4    ,when ,mr4 ,darwin  
was in ,south ,america1 he passed       
through a district which  had long been 
suffering from dry weather4  ,the first 

rain that had fallen  during that year  
was on the #agth of ,may1 when it rained
 lightly for about  five hours4  ,with  
this shower1 he says1 the farmers1 who  
plant corn  near the sea-coast1 where   
the atmosphere is more humid1 would     
break up  the ground2 with a second1 put
 the seed in2 and1 if a third should    
fall1  they would reap in the spring a  
good harvest4  ,it was interesting to   
watch the effect of this trifling amount
 of moisture4  ,twelve hours  afterwards
 the ground appeared as dry as ever2    
yet1 after an interval of  ten days1 all
 the hills were faintly tinged with     
green patches2 the grass  being         
sparingly scattered in hair-like fibres 
a full inch in length4  ,before this    
shower every part of the surface was    
bare as on a high road4    ,a fortnight 
after this shower had fallen1 ,mr4      
,darwin took an excursion to  a part of 
the country to which the shower had not 
extended4  ,we had1  therefore1 he says1
 in the first part of our journey a most

 faint tinge  of green1 which soon faded
 away4  ,even where brightest1 it was   
scarcely  sufficient to remind one of   
the fresh turf and budding flowers      
during the  spring of other countries4  
,while travelling through these deserts1
 one  feels like a prisoner1 shut up in 
a gloomy courtyard1 longing to see      
something green1 and to smell a moist   
atmosphere4    ,the effects of a great  
drought in the ,pampas are thus         
described4  ,the  period included       
between the years #ahbg and #ahcj is    
called the 'gran seco'  or the great    
drought4  ,during this time so little   
rain fell1 that the  vegetation1 even to
 the thistles1 failed2 the brooks were  
dried up1 and  the whole country assumed
 the appearance of a dusty high road4   
,this was  especially the case in the   
northern part of the province of ,buenos
 ,ayres1  and the southern part of ,st4 
,fe4  ,very great numbers of birds1 wild
  animals1 cattle1 and horses1 perished 
from the want of food and water4  ,a    

man told me that the deer used to come  
into his courtyard to the well  which he
 had been obliged to dig to supply his  
own family with water2 and  that the    
partridges had hardly strength to fly   
away when pursued4  ,the  lowest        
estimation of the loss of cattle in the 
province of ,buenos ,ayres  alone1 was  
taken at one million head4  ,a          
proprietor at ,san ,pedro had           
previously to these years #bj1jjj       
cattle2 at the end not one remained4    
,san ,pedro is situated in the midst of 
the finest country1 and even now  again 
abounds with animals2 yet1 during the   
latter part of the 'gran  seco' live    
cattle were brought in vessels for the  
consumption of the  inhabitants4  ,the  
animals roamed from their estancias1 and
 wandering  far to the southward1 were  
mingled together in such multitudes that
 a  government commission was sent from 
,buenos ,ayres to settle the disputes   
of the owners4  ,sir ,woodbine ,parish  
informed me of another and very  curious

 source of dispute2 the ground being so 
long dry1 such quantities  of dust were 
blown about1 that in this open country  
the landmarks became  obliterated1 and  
people could not tell the limits of     
their estates4    ,i was informed by an 
eye-witness1 that the cattle in herds of
 thousands  rushed into the river       
,parana1 and being exhausted by hunger  
they were  unable to crawl up the muddy 
banks1 and thus were drowned4  ,the arm 
which  runs by ,san ,pedro was so full  
of putrid carcasses1 that the master of 
a  vessel told me1 that the smell       
rendered it quite impossible to pass    
that  way4  ,without doubt1 several     
hundred thousand animals thus perished  
in  the river4  ,their bodies1 when     
putrid1 floated down the stream1 and    
many  in all probability were deposited 
in the estuary of the ,plata4  ,all the 
small rivers became highly saline1 and  
this caused the death of vast  numbers  
in particular spots1 for when an animal 
drinks of such water it  does not       

recover4  ,i noticed1 but probably it   
was the effect of a gradual  increase1  
rather than of any one period1 that the 
smaller streams in the  ,pampas were    
paved with bones4  ,subsequently to this
 unusual drought1 a  very rainy season  
commenced1 which caused great floods4   
,hence it is  almost certain1 that some 
thousands of these skeletons were buried
 by the  deposits of the very next year4
  ,what would be the opinion of a       
geologist  viewing such an enormous     
collection of bones1 of all kinds of    
animals and  of all ages1 thus embedded 
in one thick earthy mass8  ,would he not
  attribute it to a flood having crept  
over the surface of the land1 rather    
than to the common order of things8     
,captain ,owen mentions a curious effect
 of a drought on the elephants at       
,benguela on the western coast of       
,africa3--,a number of these animals had
  some time since entered the town in a 
body to possess themselves of the       
wells1 not being able to procure any    

water in the country4  ,the  inhabitants
 mustered1 when a desperate conflict    
ensued1 which terminated  in the        
ultimate discomfiture of the invaders1  
but not until they had  killed one man1 
and wounded several others4  ,the town  
is said to have a  population of nearly 
three thousand4  ,dr4 ,malcolmson       
states1 that during  a great drought in 
,india the wild animals entered the     
tents of some  troops at ,ellore1 and   
that a hare drank out of a vessel held  
by the  adjutant of the regiment4    ,in
 connexion with droughts may be         
mentioned a plan #acc proposed by ,mr4  
,espy of the ,united ,states of         
,america1 for remedying them by means of
  artificial rains4  ,that gentleman    
says1 that if a large body of heated    
air be made to ascend in a column1 a    
large cloud will be generated1 and  that
 such cloud will contain in itself a    
self-sustaining power1 which may  move  
from the place over which it was formed1
 and cause the air over  which it passes

 to rise up into it and thus form more  
cloud and rain1  until the rain may     
become general4    ,it is proposed to   
form this ascending column of air by    
kindling large  fires which1 ,mr4 ,espy 
says1 are known to produce rain4        
,humboldt speaks  of a mysterious       
connexion between volcanoes and rain1   
and says that when  a volcano bursts out
 in ,south ,america in a dry season1 it 
sometimes  changes it to a rainy one4   
,the ,indians of ,paraguay1 when their  
crops are  threatened by drought1 set   
fire to the vast plains with the        
intention of  producing rain4  ,in      
,louisiana1 heavy rains have been known 
from time  immemorial to succeed the    
conflagration of the prairies2 and the  
inhabitants of ,nova ,scotia bear       
testimony to a similar result from the  
burning of their forests4  ,great       
battles are said to produce rain1 and it
  is even stated that the spread of     
manufactures in a particular district   
deteriorates the climate of such        

district1 the ascending current         
occasioned by the tall chimney of every 
manufactory tending to produce  rain4   
,in ,manchester1 for example1 it is said
 to rain six days out of  seven4        
,picture3 ,decorative picture of person 
by pool           ,picture3 ,decorative 
picture of pastoral scene with rainbow  
,,chapter ,,vi4      ,,the              
,,rainbow--,,decomposition ,,of ,,white 
,,light ,,by ,,the ,,prism--,,formation 
,,of  ,,primary ,,and ,,secondary       
,,bows--,,rainbows ,,in ,,mountain      
,,regions--,,the ,,rainbow ,a  ,,sacred 
,,emblem--,,lunar ,,rainbow--,,light    
,,decomposed ,,by ,,clouds--,,their     
,,beautiful  ,,colours--,,examples4     
,by means of rain and rain clouds we get
 that beautiful appearance so well      
known as the rainbow4  ,in order to form
 some idea of the manner in which  the  
rainbow is produced1 it is necessary to 
know something of the manner  in which  
light is composed4  ,sir ,isaac ,newton 
was the first philosopher  who clearly  

explained the composition of light1 as  
derived from the sun4  ,he admitted a   
ray of the sun into a darkened room     
through a small hole in  the window     
shutters2 in front of this hole he      
placed a glass prism1 and  at a         
considerable distance behind the prism  
he placed a white screen4  ,if  there   
had been no prism between the hole and  
the screen1 the ray of light  would have
 proceeded in the direction of the      
dotted lines1 and a bright  spot would  
have fallen upon the floor of the room1 
as shown in the  figure4  ,but the      
effect of the prism is to refract or    
bend the ray out of  its ordinary       
course1 and in doing so it does not     
produce a white spot  upon the screen1  
but a long streak of beautiful colours1 
in the order  marked in the figure1 red 
being at the bottom1 then orange1       
yellow1  green1 blue1 indigo1 and violet
 at the top4                            
,picture3 ,decomposition of white light 
,in order to account for the production 

of these colours from a ray of  light1  
,newton supposed that such a ray is     
actually made up of seven  distinct     
colours1 which being mixed in proper    
proportions neutralize or  destroy each 
other4  ,in order to account for the    
decomposition of the ray  of white light
 by the prism1 and for the lengthened   
form of the  spectrum1 as it is called1 
he supposed that each of the seven      
coloured  rays was capable of being bent
 by the prism in a different manner from
  the rest4  ,thus1 in the figure1 the  
red appears to be less bent out of  the 
direction of the original ray than the  
orange--the orange less than  the       
yellow1 and so on until we arrive at the
 violet1 which is bent most  of all4    
,it is scarcely necessary to remark1    
that these views were found to be       
correct1 except as regards the number of
 colours in the solar spectrum2  for it 
is now ascertained1 with tolerable      
certainty1 that there are only  three   
primitive or pure colours in nature1 and

 these are red1 yellow1  and blue2 and  
it is supposed that by mingling two or  
more of these  colours in various       
proportions1 all the colours in nature  
are produced4    ,now1 to apply this    
explanation to the production of the    
rainbow1 which is  usually seen under   
the following circumstances3--,the      
observer is placed  with his back to the
 sun1 and at some distance before him   
rain is  falling1--the air between the  
sun and the rain being tolerably clear4 
,he  then often sees two circular arcs  
or bows immediately in front of him4    
,the colours of the inner bow are the   
more striking and vivid of the two4     
,each exhibits the same series of       
colours as in the spectrum formed by the
  prism2 namely1 red1 orange1 yellow1   
green1 blue1 indigo1 and  violet2 but   
the arrangement of these colours is     
different in the two  bows1 for while in
 the inner bow the lower edge is violet 
and the upper  red1 in the outer bow the
 lower edge is red and the upper violet4

  ,the  production of both bows is due  
to the refraction and reflexion of      
light1  the drops of rain forming1 in   
fact1 the prism which decomposes the    
white  light of the sun4  ,the colours  
in the rainbow have the same            
proportional  breadth as the spaces in  
the prismatic spectrum4  ,the bow is1   
therefore1 as ,sir ,d4 ,brewster        
remarks1 only an infinite number of     
prismatic spectra1 arranged in the      
circumference of a circle2 and it  would
 be easy1 by a circular arrangement of  
prisms1 or by covering up all  the      
central part of a large lens1 to produce
 a small arch of exactly the  same      
colours4  ,all we require1 therefore1 to
 form a rainbow1 is a great  number of  
transparent bodies capable of forming a 
great number of  prismatic spectra from 
the light of the sun4    ,the manner in 
which the drops of rain act as prisms1  
may1 perhaps1 be  better understood with
 the assistance of the following        
diagram4  ,suppose  the two lower       

circles to represent drops of rain which
 assist in forming  the primary bow1 and
 the two upper circles similar drops    
which help to  produce the secondary    
bow2 and let ,s represent rays of the   
sun falling  upon them4  ,the rays of   
the sun fall upon every part of the     
drop2 but1 as  those which pass through 
or near the centre come out on the      
opposite side  and form a focus1 they   
need not be taken into account4  ,those 
rays1  however1 which fall on the upper 
side of the drops1 will be bent or      
refracted1 the red rays least1 and the  
violet most2 and will fall upon  the    
back of the drop in such a manner as to 
be reflected to the under  part of the  
drop2 on quitting which they will be    
again refracted1 so as  to be seen at   
,e1 where there will appear to the      
observer a prismatic  spectrum with the 
red uppermost1 and the violet undermost4
  ,these remarks  apply to those drops  
only which form the upper part of the   
bow1 but it is  obvious that a similar  

reasoning applied to the drops to the   
right and  left of the observer1 will   
complete the bow4  ,the inclination of  
the red  ray and the violet ray to the  
sun's rays1 is #db degrees #b' for the  
red1  and #dj degrees #ag' for the      
violet1 so that the breadth of the      
primary bow  is #a degrees #de'4        
,thus it will be seen1 that the primary 
bow is produced by two  refractions1 and
 one intermediate reflection of the rays
 that fall on the  upper sides of the   
drops of rain4  ,it is different with   
the rays which  enter the drops below4  
,the red and violet rays will be bent or
 refracted  in different directions2    
and1 after being twice reflected1 will  
be again  bent towards the eye of the   
observer at ,e2 but in this case the    
violet  forms the upper part1 and the   
red the under part of the spectrum4     
,the  inclination of these rays to the  
sun's rays at ,s1 is #ej degrees #eh'   
for  the red ray1 and #ed degrees #aj'  
for the violet ray2 so that the breadth 

of the bow is #c degrees #aj'1 and the  
distance between the primary and        
secondary bows is #h degrees #ae'4      
,hence the secondary is formed in the   
outside of the primary bow1 with its    
colours reversed1 in consequence of     
their being produced by two reflexions  
and two refractions4  ,the colours  of  
the secondary bow are much fainter than 
those of the primary1 because  they     
undergo two reflexions instead of one4  
,there is something very wonderful in   
the rapidity and perfection with  which 
these natural prisms1 the falling drops 
of rain1 produce these  effects4  ,in   
the inconceivably short space of time   
occupied by a drop  falling through     
those parts of the sky which form the   
proper angles with  the sun's rays and  
the eye of the observer1 the light      
enters the surface  of the drop1        
undergoes within it one or two          
reflexions1 two refractions  and        
decompositions1 and has reached the eye2
 and all this is done in a  portion of  

time too small for the drop to have     
fallen through a space  which we have   
the means of measuring4    ,it will be  
understood1 that since the eyes of      
different observers cannot  be in       
precisely the same place at the same    
time1 no two observers can see  the same
 rainbow2 that is to say1 the bow       
produced by one set of drops  to the eye
 of one observer is produced by another 
set of drops to the eye  of another     
observer4    ,a rainbow can never be    
greater than a semicircle1 unless the   
spectator is  on elevated ground2 for if
 it were greater than a semicircle the  
centre  of the bow would be above the   
horizon1 while the sun1 which must be in
 a  line drawn through that centre and  
the eye of the observer1 would be  below
 the horizon3 but in such a case1 the   
sun could not shine on the  drops of    
rain1 and consequently there could be no
 rainbow4    ,when the rain cloud is of 
small extent only a portion of a bow is 
visible2 when the cloud overspreads a   

large part of the sky a perfect bow     
appears4  ,sometimes the bow may be     
traced across a portion of blue sky1  or
 it may appear to rest on the ground4   
,in the former case1 there are  vapours 
in the air too thin to be seen1 but     
sufficient to refract and  reflect the  
rays of light2 in the latter1 the drops 
of rain1 adhering to  the grass and     
foliage1 produce the same effect4  ,a   
coloured bow1 similar  to that produced 
by rain1 is sometimes seen in the spray 
of a fountain or  of a water-fall1 and  
also in mists that lie low upon the     
ground4    ,in mountainous and stormy   
regions rainbows are often seen to great
  advantage4  ,in the islands off the   
,irish coast the author of ,letters     
from the ,irish ,islands1 describes the 
rainbow of winter as gradually          
advancing before the lowering clouds1   
sweeping with majestic stride  across   
the troubled ocean1 then1 as it gained  
the beach1 and seemed  almost within    
one's grasp1 vanishing amid the storm of

 which it had been  the lovely but      
treacherous forerunner4  ,it is1 ,i     
suppose1 a consequence  of our          
situation1 and the close connexion      
between sea and mountain1 that  the     
rainbows here are so frequent and so    
peculiarly beautiful4  ,of an  amazing  
breadth1 and of colours vivid beyond    
description1 ,i know not  whether most  
to admire this aerial phenomenon1 when  
suspended in the  western sky1 one end  
of the bow sinks behind the ,island of  
,boffin1 while  at the distance of      
several leagues the other rests upon the
 misty hills  of ,ennis ,turc2 or when1 
at a later hour of the day1 it has      
appeared  stretched across the ample    
sides of ,mulbrea1 penetrating far into 
the  deep blue waters that flow at its  
base4  ,with feelings of grateful       
recollection1 too1 we may hail the      
repeated visits of this heavenly        
messenger1 occasionally as often as five
 or six times in the course of  the same
 day1 in a country exposed to such      

astonishing1 and1 at times1  almost     
incessant floods of rain4    ,the beauty
 of the rainbow is not the only reason  
why we should regard it  with interest4 
,the rainbow was appointed by ,god      
himself as a sign of the  covenant of   
mercy1 made with ,noah and with all     
mankind1 after the flood4  ,the words in
 which this declaration was made to     
mankind1 are recorded in  the ,book of  
,genesis1 chap4 ix4 ver4 #aa to #af4    
,burnet1 in his ,sacred ,theory of the  
,earth1 has some remarks on the  first  
appearance of the rainbow to the        
inhabitants of the earth after the      
deluge4  ,he says1 ,how proper and how  
apposite a sign would this be for       
,providence to pitch upon1 to confirm   
the promise made to ,noah and his       
posterity1 that the world should be no  
more destroyed by water6  ,it had a     
secret connexion with the effect itself1
 and was so far a natural sign2  but1   
however1 appearing first after the      
deluge1 and in a watery cloud1  there   

was1 methinks1 a great easiness and     
propriety of application for  such a    
purpose4  ,and if we suppose1 that while
 ,god ,almighty was declaring  his      
promise to ,noah1 and the sign of it1   
there appeared at the same time  in the 
clouds a fair rainbow1 that marvellous  
and beautiful meteor which  ,noah had   
never seen before2 it could not but make
 a most lively  impression upon him1    
quickening his faith1 and giving him    
comfort and  assurance that ,god would  
be stedfast to his promise4    ,a       
rainbow is sometimes formed by the rays 
of the moon falling upon drops  of rain1
 in the same manner as the solar rays1  
and refracted and  reflected by the     
drops2 but the colours are faint in     
consequence of the  feeble light of the 
moon compared with that of the sun4  ,a 
lunar rainbow  has been thus described  
by an observer3--,the moon was truly    
'walking in  brightness1' brilliant as  
she could be1 not a cloud was to be seen
 near  her2 and over against her1 toward

 the north-west1 or perhaps rather more 
to the north1 was a rainbow1 a vast     
arch1 perfect in all its parts1 not     
interrupted or broken as rainbows       
frequently are1 but unremittedly        
visible from one horizon to the other4  
,in order to give some idea of its      
extent1 it is necessary to say1 that1 as
 ,i stood toward the western  extremity 
of the parish of ,stoke ,newington1 it  
seemed to take its rise  from the west  
of ,hampstead1 and to end perhaps in the
 river ,lea1 the  eastern boundary of   
,tottenham4  ,its colour was white1     
cloudy1 or greyish1  but a part of its  
western limb seemed to exhibit tints of 
a faint sickly  green4  ,after some time
 the moon became darkened by clouds1 and
 the  rainbow of course vanished4       
,picture3 ,lunar ,rainbow    ,the       
brilliant colours of the solar rainbow  
are frequently produced by the  clouds  
without any prismatic arrangement4  ,the
 light of the sun is  decomposed by a   
process called absorption3 for example1 

white light is  composed of red1 yellow1
 and blue rays1 in certain proportions2 
now1 if  in passing through1 or falling 
upon any substance whatever1 the red    
rays  are stifled or absorbed1 while the
 yellow and blue are allowed to pass or 
to be reflected1 it is obvious that such
 a substance cannot appear white1       
because one of the elements of white    
light1 namely1 the red1 is wanting2  it 
must therefore appear of such a colour  
as results from the combination  of     
yellow and blue2 the substance will     
therefore appear green4  ,so1 also1     
when white light falls upon what we call
 a red surface1 the yellow and  blue    
rays are stifled or absorbed1 leaving   
the red only to be reflected4  ,now1    
when we consider the various ways in    
which this absorption may take  place2  
one or two1 or all of the coloured rays 
being absorbed in every  possible       
proportion1 it is easy to form some idea
 of the manner by which  the innumerable
 tints of the sky are produced4    ,it  

has been calculated1 that1 of the       
horizontal sunbeams which pass  through 
two hundred miles of air1 scarcely a two
 thousandth part reaches  the earth4  ,a
 densely formed cloud must therefore    
detain a much larger  share2 and those  
dark and sombre forms1 which sometimes  
make the sky so  gloomy1 can only result
 from the abundant absorption of the    
solar light4  ,the brilliant whiteness  
which their edges occasionally exhibit1 
must  result from the more copious      
transmission of light1 so that the      
depths of  shade in a cloud may be      
regarded as comparative measures of the 
varied  thickness of its mass4          
,sometimes the clouds absorb equally all
 the solar rays1 in which case the  sun 
and moon appear through them perfectly  
white4  ,instances are recorded  in     
which the sun appeared of a pale blue4  
,it has also been observed to  be orange
 at its upper part1 while the lower was 
of a brilliant red4    ,the position    
from which clouds are seen1 has much to 

do with their  colours2 and it seems    
difficult sometimes to believe that the 
clouds1  which in the evening are seen  
drenched with crimson and gold1 are the 
same we beheld absolutely colourless in 
the middle of the day4    ,in the       
immediate neighbourhood of the sun the  
most brilliant colours may  be          
disclosed2 and their vividness and      
intensity diminish1 and at last         
disappear at some distance from it4     
,parry noticed some white fleecy        
clouds1 which1 at the distance of       
fifteen or twenty degrees from the sun1 
reflected from their edges the most soft
 and tender tints of yellow1  bluish    
green1 and lake2 and as the clouds      
advanced the colours increased          
gradually1 until they reached a sort of 
limit two degrees below the solar  orb4 
,as the current continued to transport  
them1 the vividness of colour  became   
weakened by almost insensible degrees   
until the whole assemblage  of tints    
vanished4    ,who can venture to        

imitate1 by the pencil1 the endless     
varieties of red  and orange and yellow 
which the setting sun discloses1 and the
 magical  illusions which all the day   
diversify the vast and varied space the 
eye  travels over in rising gradually   
from the horizon to the upper sky8      
,those who have paid any attention to   
colours1 must be aware of the           
difficulty of describing the various    
tints and shades that appear1 and  which
 are known to amount to many thousands4 
,the rapid changes of colour which the  
clouds undergo1 seem to depend on       
something more than change of position  
either in the cloud or in the sun4      
,forster mentions an instance of some   
detached cirro-cumuli being of a  fine  
golden yellow1 but in a single minute   
becoming deep red4  ,on another         
occasion he saw the exact counterpart in
 a cirro-stratus1 by its  instantly     
changing from a beautiful red to a      
bright golden yellow4  ,what1 indeed1   
can be more interesting1 than when by   

the breaking out of  the sun in gleams1 
a cloud which a moment before seemed    
only an  unshapened mass devoid of all  
interest and beauty1 is suddenly pierced
 by  cataracts of light1 and imbued with
 the most splendid colours1 varying     
every instant in intensity8  ,numerous  
examples occur of this beautiful  play  
of colour1 which cannot but remind us of
 the phenomena displayed by  the        
pigeon's neck and the peacock's tail1 by
 opal and pearl4    ,after the sun is   
set1 the mild glow of his rays is still 
diffused over  every part2 and it has   
been remarked1 that the clouds assume   
their  brightest and most splendid      
colours a few minutes after it is below 
the  horizon4  ,it is in the finest     
weather that the colouring of the sky   
presents the most perfect examples of   
harmony1 in tempestuous weather it      
being almost always inharmonious4  ,at  
the time of a warm sun-setting1 the     
whole hemisphere is influenced by the   
prevailing colour of the light4  ,the   

snowy summits of the ,alps appear about 
sunset of a most beautiful  violet      
colour1 approaching to light crimson or 
pink4  ,it is remarkable1  also1 as an  
example of that general harmony which   
prevails in the  material world1 that   
the most glowing and magnificent skies  
occur when  terrestrial objects put on  
their deepest and most splendid hues4   
,it has  also been observed1 that it is 
not the change of vegetation only1 which
  gives to the decaying charms of autumn
 their finest and most golden hues1  but
 also the atmosphere and the peculiar   
lights and shadows which then  prevail2 
and there can be no doubt1 on the other 
hand1 that our  perception of beauty in 
the sky is very much influenced by the  
surrounding scenery4  ,in autumn all is 
matured2 and the rich hues of the       
ripened fruits and the changing foliage 
are rendered still more lovely by  the  
warm haze which a fine day at that      
season presents4  ,so1 also1 the        
earlier hues of spring have a           

transparency1 and a thousand quivering  
lights1 which in their turn harmonize   
with the light and flitting clouds  and 
uncertain shadows which then prevail4   
#aee                  ,picture3         
,decorative picture of lady by river    
,picture3 ,foot-print of a bird1 and    
impression of rain-drops sand-stone     
,,chapter ,,vii4      ,,remarkable      
,,showers--,,showers ,,of ,,sand--,,of  
,,mud--,,showers ,,of ,,sulphur1 ,,or   
,,yellow ,,rain--,,luminous             
,,rain--,,red ,,rain1 ,,or ,,showers    
,,of ,,blood--,,superstitions           
,,connected ,,therewith--,,explanation  
,,of ,,the ,,cause--,,showers ,,of      
,,fish--,,showers  ,,of                 
,,rats--,,showers ,,of ,,frogs--,,insect
 ,,shower--,,showers ,,of ,,vegetable   
,,substances--,,manna--,,wheat--,,shower
s ,,of ,,stones--,,meteoric ,,stones1   
,,or  ,,aerolites--,,meteoric           
,,iron--,,suppositions ,,respecting     
,,them--,,fossil ,,rain4    ,water1 in  
the state of rain1 hail1 snow1 or dew1  

is generally the only  substance which  
falls from the atmosphere upon the      
earth4  ,there are1  however1 many well 
authenticated instances of various      
substances being  showered down upon the
 land1 to the great alarm of persons who
 were  ignorant that the powerful action
 of the wind was1 perhaps1 the chief    
cause of the strange visitations to     
which we allude4    ,we read of showers 
of sand1 mud1 sulphur1 blood1 fishes1   
frogs1 insects1  and stones2 and it may 
be useful1 as well as interesting1 to   
quote a few  examples of each           
description of shower4    ,on the west  
coast of ,africa1 between ,cape ,bojador
 and ,cape ,verd1 and  thence outwards1 
the land1 during the dry season1        
consists of little else  but dust or    
sand1 which1 on account of its extreme  
fineness1 is raised  into the atmosphere
 by the slightest current of air2 while 
a moderate  wind will convey it to so   
considerable a distance as even to annoy
 ships  crossing the ,atlantic4  ,on the

 #adth and #aeth ,january1 #ahci1 the   
,prussian  ship1 ,princess ,louisa1     
being in ,n4 lat4 #bd degrees #bj'1 and 
,w4 long4 #bf  degrees #db'1 had her    
sails made quite yellow by the fine sand
 which  covered them4  ,this effect was 
produced when the distance from land was
  as much as from #ab to #bj degrees4   
,about a fortnight after the time when  
this ship crossed these parts of the    
,atlantic1 a similar effect was         
produced on board the ,english ship     
,roxburgh4  ,one of the passengers1  the
 ,rev4 ,w4 ,b4 ,clarke1 says3--,the sky 
was overcast1 and the weather  thick and
 insufferably oppressive1 though the    
thermometer was only #gb  degrees4  ,at 
#c ,p4,m4 ,feb4 #d1 the wind suddenly   
lulled into a calm2 then  rose from the 
,,sw4 accompanied by rain1 and the air  
appeared to be filled  with dust1 which 
affected the eyes of the passengers and 
crew4  ,the  weather was clear and fine1
 and the powder which covered the sails 
was of  a reddish-brown colour1         

resembling the ashes ejected from       
,vesuvius2 and  ,mr4 ,clarke thinks that
 this dust may have proceeded from the  
volcanic  island of ,fogo1 one of the   
,cape de ,verds1 about forty-five miles 
from the  place where the ship then was4
    ,in countries which are subject to  
long-continued droughts the soil is     
frequently converted into dust1 which1  
being carried away by the winds1  leaves
 the land barren4  ,the climate of      
,buenos ,ayres1 in ,south ,america1  has
 of late years been subject to such     
droughts1 as to disappoint the  hopes of
 the husbandman and the breeder of      
cattle4  ,in the early part of  #ahcb1  
the drought had reached to such a height
 as to convert the whole  province into 
one continued bleak and dreary desert4  
,the clouds of dust  raised by the winds
 were so dense as completely to obscure 
the sun at  mid-day1 and envelope the   
inhabitants in almost total darkness4   
,when the  rains at length commenced1 in
 ,march1 the water1 in its passage      

through  the air1 intermingled so       
completely with the dust suspended in   
it1 as to  descend in the form of       
showers of mud2 and1 on some occasions1 
gave to  the whole exterior of the      
houses the appearance of having been    
plastered  over with earth4  ,many      
flocks of sheep were smothered on these 
occasions1  in a similar manner as in   
the snow-storms which occur in the      
mountainous  districts of ,scotland4    
,showers of sulphur1 or yellow rain1    
have fallen at different times in       
various parts of ,europe2 and sometimes1
 when falling by night1 they have       
appeared luminous1 to the great alarm of
 the observers4  ,yellow rain has  been 
accounted for in the following          
way3--,the pollen1 or impregnating      
seed-dust of the flowers of the fir1    
birch1 juniper1 and other trees1 is  of 
a yellow colour1 and this pollen1 by the
 action of the wind1 is  carried to a   
considerable distance1 and descends with
 falling rain4  ,this  yellow rain has  

also been found impregnated with        
sulphur2 and during a  shower of this   
kind which once fell in ,germany1       
matches were made by  being dipped in   
it4    ,many examples of luminous rain  
are recorded on good authority4  ,one of
  the latest instances is mentioned by  
,dr4 ,morel ,deville1 of ,paris1 who on 
the #ast of ,november1 #ahdd1 at        
half-past eight o'clock in the evening1 
during a heavy fall of rain1 noticed1 as
 he was crossing the court of the       
,college ,louis-le-,grand1 that the     
drops1 on coming in contact with the    
ground1 emitted sparks and tufts        
7aigrettes7 of light1 accompanied by a  
rustling and crackling noise2 a smell of
 phosphorus having been  immediately    
after perceptible4  ,the phenomenon was 
seen three times4  ,at  the same hour a 
remarkable brightness was seen in the   
northern sky4    ,an officer of the     
,algerian army states1 that during a    
violent storm on  the #bjth ,september1 
#ahdj1 the drops of rain that fell on   

the beards and  mustachios of the men   
were luminous4  ,when the hair was wiped
 the  appearance ceased2 but was renewed
 the moment any fresh drops fell on it4 
,but of all these remarkable showers1   
the greatest alarm has been  occasioned 
by red rain1 or showers of blood as they
 have been  ignorantly called4  ,in the 
year #afjh1 considerable alarm was      
excited in  the city of ,aix and its    
vicinity by the appearance of large red 
drops  upon the walls of the cemetery of
 the greater church1 which is near the  
walls of the city1 upon the walls of the
 city itself1 and also upon the  walls  
of villas1 hamlets1 and towns1 for some 
miles round the city4  ,the  husbandmen 
are said to have been so alarmed1 that  
they left their labour  in the fields   
and fled for safety into the            
neighbouring houses2 and a  report was  
set on foot1 that the appearance was    
produced by demons or  witches shedding 
the blood of innocent babes4  ,m4       
,peiresc1 thinking this  story of a     

bloody shower to be scarcely            
reconcileable with the goodness  and    
providence of ,god1 accidentally        
discovered1 as he thought1 the true     
cause of the phenomenon4  ,he had found1
 some months before1 a chrysalis  of    
remarkable size and form1 which he had  
enclosed in a box2 he thought  no more  
of it1 until hearing a buzz within the  
box1 he opened it1 and  perceived that  
the chrysalis had been changed into a   
beautiful butterfly1  which immediately 
flew away1 leaving at the bottom of the 
box a red drop  of the size of a        
shilling4  ,as this happened about the  
time when the  shower was supposed to   
have fallen1 and when multitudes of     
those insects  were observed fluttering 
through the air in every direction1 he  
concluded  that the drops in question   
were emitted by them when they alighted 
upon  the walls4  ,he1 therefore1       
examined the drops again1 and remarked  
that  they were not upon the upper      
surfaces of stones and buildings1 as    

they  would have been if a shower of    
blood had fallen from the sky1 but      
rather  in cavities and holes where     
insects might nestle4  ,he also noticed 
that  they were to be seen upon the     
walls of those houses only which were   
near  the fields2 and not upon the more 
elevated parts of them1 but only up to  
the same moderate height at which       
butterflies were accustomed to flutter4 
,this was1 no doubt1 the correct        
explanation of the phenomenon in        
question2 for it is a curious and       
well-ascertained fact1 that when        
insects are evolved from the pupa state1
 they always discharge some  substance1 
which1 in many butterflies1 is of a red 
colour1 resembling  blood1 while in     
several moths it is orange or whitish4  
,it appears1 however1 from the          
researches of ,m4 ,ehrenberg1 a         
distinguished  microscopic observer1    
that the appearances of blood which have
 at  different times been observed in   
,arabia1 ,siberia1 and other places1 are

  not to be attributed to one1 but to   
various causes4  ,from his account1 it  
appears that rivers have flowed suddenly
 with red or bloody water1  without any 
previous rain of that colour having     
fallen2 that lakes or  stagnant-waters  
were suddenly or gradually coloured     
without previous  blood-rain2 that dew1 
rain1 snow1 hail1 and shot-stars1       
occasionally fall  from the air         
red-coloured1 as blood-dew1 blood-rain1 
and clotted blood2  and1 lastly1 that   
the atmosphere is occasionally loaded   
with red dust1 by  which the rain       
accidentally assumes the appearance of  
blood-rain1 in  consequence of which    
rivers and stagnant waters assume a red 
colour4    ,the blood-red colour        
sometimes exhibited by pools1 was first 
satisfactorily explained at the close of
 the last century4  ,girod  ,chantran1  
observing the water of a pond to be of a
 brilliant red colour1  examined it with
 the microscope1 and found that the     
sanguine hue resulted  from the presence

 of innumerable animalculae1 not visible
 to the naked  eye4  ,but1 before this  
investigation1 ,linnaeus and other      
naturalists had  shown that red         
infusoria were capable of giving that   
colour to water  which1 in early times1 
and still1 we fear1 in remote districts1
 was  supposed to forebode great        
calamities4  ,in the year #ahae an      
instance of  this superstitious dread   
occurred in the south of ,prussia4  ,a  
number of  red1 violet1 or grass-green  
spots were observed in a lake near      
,lubotin1  about the end of harvest4    
,in winter the ice was coloured in the  
same  manner at the surface1 while      
beneath it was colourless4  ,the        
inhabitants1  in great dismay1          
anticipated a variety of disasters from 
the appearance2  but it fortunately     
happened that the celebrated chemist    
,klaproth1 hearing  of the circumstance1
 undertook an examination of the waters 
of the lake4  ,he found them to contain 
an albuminous vegetable matter1 with a  

particular colouring matter similar to  
indigo1 produced1 probably1 by the      
decomposition of vegetables in harvest2 
while the change of colour from  green  
to violet and red1 he explained by the  
absorption of more or less  oxygen4  ,a 
few years ago the blood-red waters of a 
,siberian lake were  carefully examined 
by ,m4 ,ehrenberg1 and found to contain 
multitudes of  infusoria1 by the        
presence of which this remarkable       
appearance was  accounted for4  ,thus it
 appears that both animals and          
vegetables are  concerned in giving a   
peculiar tint to water4  ,it has also   
been  ascertained that red snow is      
chiefly occasioned by the presence of   
red  animalculae4    ,showers of fish   
and frogs are by no means uncommon1     
especially in ,india4  ,one of these    
showers1 which fell about twenty miles  
south of ,calcutta1 is  thus noticed by 
an observer3--,about two o'clock1       
,p4,m41 of the #bjth  inst41 7,sept4    
#ahci17 we had a very smart shower of   

rain1 and with it  descended a quantity 
of live fish1 about three inches in     
length1 and all  of one kind only4      
,they fell in a straight line on the    
road from my house  to the tank which is
 about forty or fifty yards distant4    
,those which  fell on the hard ground   
were1 as a matter of course1 killed from
 the  fall1 but those which fell where  
there was grass sustained no injury2 and
  ,i picked up a large quantity of them1
 'alive and kicking1' and let them  go  
into my tank4  ,the most strange thing  
that ever struck me in connexion  with  
this event1 was1 that the fish did not  
fall helter skelter1  everywhere1 or    
'here and there2' but they fell in a    
straight line1 not  more than a cubit in
 breadth4  ,another shower is said to   
have taken  place at a village near     
,allahabad1 in the month of ,may4       
,about noon1 the  wind being in the     
west1 and a few distant clouds visible1 
a blast of high  wind came on1          
accompanied with so much dust as to     

change the tint of the  atmosphere to a 
reddish hue4  ,the blast appeared to    
extend in breadth  four hundred yards1  
and was so violent that many large trees
 were blown  down4  ,when the storm had 
passed over1 the ground1 south of the   
village1  was found to be covered with  
fish1 not less than three or four       
thousand  in number4  ,they all belonged
 to a species well known in ,india1 and 
were  about a span in length4  ,they    
were all dead and dry4    ,it would be  
easy to multiply these examples to      
almost any extent1  although they are   
not so frequent in ,great ,britain4  ,it
 is related in  ,hasted's ,history of   
,kent1 that about ,easter1 #afff1 in the
 parish of  ,stanstead1 which is a      
considerable distance from the sea1 and 
a place  where there are no fishponds1  
and rather a scarcity of water1 a       
pasture  field was scattered all over   
with small fish1 supposed to have been  
rained down during a thunder-storm4     
,several of these fish were sold        

publicly at ,maidstone and ,dartford4   
,in the year #ahcj1 the inhabitants of  
the island of ,ula1 in ,argyleshire1    
after a day of very hard rain1 which    
occurred on the #ith ,march1 were       
surprised to find numbers of small      
herrings strewed over the fields1       
perfectly fresh and some of them alive4 
,some years ago1 during a strong gale1  
herrings and other fish were  carried   
from the ,frith of ,forth so far as     
,loch-,leven4    ,in some countries rats
 migrate in vast numbers from the high  
to the low  countries2 and it is        
recorded in the history of ,norway1 that
 a shower of  these1 transported by the 
wind1 fell in an adjacent valley4       
,several notices have1 from time to     
time1 been brought before the ,french   
,academy1 of showers of frogs having    
fallen in different parts of ,france4   
,professor ,pontus1 of ,cahors1 states1 
that in ,august1 #ahjd1 while distant   
three leagues from ,toulouse1 the sky   
being clear1 suddenly a very thick      

cloud covered the horizon1 and thunder  
and lightning came on4  ,the cloud      
burst over the road about sixty toises  
7#chc feet7 from the place where ,m4    
,pontus was4  ,two gentlemen1 returning 
from ,toulouse1 were surprised by  being
 exposed not only to a storm1 but to a  
shower of frogs4  ,pontus  states that  
he saw the young frogs on their cloaks4 
,when the diligence  in which he was    
travelling1 arrived at the place where  
the storm burst1  the road1 and the     
fields alongside of it1 were observed   
full of frogs1 in  three or four layers 
placed one above the other4  ,the feet  
of the horses  and the wheels of the    
carriage killed thousands4  ,the        
diligence travelled  for a quarter of an
 hour1 at least1 along this living road1
 the horses  being at a trot4    ,in the
 ,journal de ,st4 ,petersburg1 is given 
an account of the fall of a  shower of  
insects during a snow-storm in ,russia4 
,on the #agth ,october1  #ahbg1 there   
fell in the district of ,rjev1 in the   

government of ,tver1 a  heavy shower of 
snow1 in the space of about ten versts  
7nearly seven  ,english miles71 which   
contained the village of ,pakroff and   
its environs4  ,it was accompanied in   
its fall by a prodigious quantity of    
worms of a  black colour1 ringed1 and in
 length about an inch and a quarter4    
,the  head of these insects was flat and
 shining1 furnished with antennae1 and  
the hair in the form of whiskers2 while 
the body1 from the head to about        
one-third of their length1 resembled a  
band of black velvet4  ,they had on     
each side three feet1 by means of which 
they appeared to crawl very fast  upon  
the snow1 and assembled in groups about 
the plants and the holes in  trees and  
buildings4  ,several having been exposed
 to the air in a vessel  filled with    
snow1 lived there till the #bfth        
,october2 although1 in that  interval1  
the thermometer had fallen to eight     
degrees below zero4  ,some  others which
 had been frozen continued alive equally

 long2 for they were  not found exactly 
encrusted with the ice1 but they had    
formed round their  bodies a space      
similar to the hollow of a tree4  ,when 
they were plunged  into water they swam 
about as if they had received no injury2
 but those  which were carried into a   
warm place perished in a few minutes4   
,all these remarkable showers may be    
accounted for1 when we consider the     
mighty power of the wind2 especially    
that form of it which is popularly      
called the whirlwind4  ,it is now pretty
 well ascertained1 that in all1 or  most
 of the great storms which agitate the  
atmosphere1 the wind has a  circular or 
rotatory movement2 and the same is      
probably the case in many  of the lesser
 storms1 in which the air is whirled    
upwards in a spiral  curve with great   
velocity1 carrying up any small bodies  
which may come  within the circuit4     
,when such a storm happens at sea1 the  
water-spout is  produced4  ,in the      
deserts of ,arabia1 pillars of sand are 

formed2 and1 in  other places various   
light bodies are caught up2 fishponds   
have been  entirely emptied in an       
instant1 and the moving column1 whether 
of water1  sand1 or air1 travels with   
the wind with great swiftness4  ,when1  
however1  the storm has subsided1 the   
various substances thus caught up and   
sustained in the air1 are deposited at  
great distances from the place  where   
they were first found1 and thus produce 
these remarkable showers4  ,in some     
cases1 however1 the direct force of the 
wind has actually blown  small fish out 
of the water1 and conveyed them several 
miles inland4    ,showers of nutritious 
substances have been recorded on good   
authority4  ,we do not here refer to the
 manna which fell in such abundance     
about the  ,hebrew camp1 for that was a 
miracle specially wrought by the        
,almighty for  the preservation of his  
chosen people2 but1 it may be noticed   
here1 that  in ,arabia1 a substance1    
called manna1 is found in great         

abundance on  the leaves of many trees  
and herbs1 and may be gathered and      
removed by  the wind to a distance4  ,a 
shower of this kind occurred in #ahbd4  
,in  #ahbh1 a substance was exhibited at
 the ,french ,academy1 which fell in the
  plains of ,persia4  ,it was eaten1 and
 afforded nourishment to cattle1 and    
many other animals2 and1 on examination1
 proved to be a vegetable1--the  ,lichen
 esculentus1--which had been conveyed   
thither by the winds4    ,in the        
,minutes of the proceedings of the      
,royal ,society1 #bfth ,june1 #affa1  we
 find the following curious narration3--
        ,col4 ,tuke brought1 in writing1
 the following brief account of the     
supposed rain of wheat1 which was       
registered3--        ,on the #cjth of   
,may1 #affa1 ,mr4 ,henry ,puckering1 son
 to ,sir ,henry      ,puckering1 of     
,warwick1 brought some papers of seeds1 
resembling      wheat1 to the king1 with
 a letter written by ,mr4 ,william      
,halyburton1      dated the #bgth ,may1 

from ,warwick2 out of which letter ,i   
have made      this extract3            
',instead of news ,i send you some      
papers of wonders4  ,on ,saturday       
last1 it was rumoured in this town1 that
 it rained wheat at      ,tuchbrooke1 a 
village about two miles from ,warwick4  
,whereupon some      of the inhabitants 
of this town went thither2 where they   
saw great      quantities on the way1 in
 the fields1 and on the leads of the    
church1      castle1 and priory1 and    
upon the hearths of the chimneys in the 
chambers4  ,and ,arthur ,mason1 coming  
out of ,shropshire1 reports1 that       
it hath rained the like in many places  
of that county4  ,god make us           
thankful for this miraculous blessing1  
4'        ,i brought some papers of     
these seeds1 with this letter1 to the   
,society of ,gresham ,college2 who would
 not enter into any      consideration  
of it1 till they were better informed of
 the matter of      fact4  ,hereupon1 ,i
 entreated ,mr4 ,henry ,puckering to    

write to the      bailiff of the town of
 ,warwick1 to the ministers and         
physicians1 to      send us an account  
of the matter of fact1 and their        
opinions of it4      ,in the bailiff's  
letter1 dated the #crd of ,june1 ,i find
 this report      verified2 affirming   
that himself1 with the inhabitants of   
the town1      were in a great          
astonishment at this wonder4  ,but1     
before the next      day of our meeting1
 ,i sent for some ivy-berries1 and      
brought them to      ,gresham ,college  
with some of these seeds resembling     
wheat2 and taking      off the outward  
pulp of the ivy-berries1 we found in    
each of the      berries four seeds2    
which were generally concluded by the   
,society to      be the same with those 
that were supposed and believed by the  
common      people to have been wheat   
that had been rained2 and1 that they    
were      brought to those places1 where
 they were found1 by starlings2 who1 of 
all the birds that we know1 do assemble 

in the greatest numbers2 and      do1 at
 this time of the year1 feed upon these 
berries2 and digesting      the outward 
pulp1 they render these seeds by        
casting1 as hawks do      feathers and  
bones4    ,the remarkable showers       
already noticed1 have excited much      
interest and  inquiry among learned men1
 and many superstitious fears among the 
ignorant2 but1 there is another         
description of shower which affords a   
singular instance of popular            
observation1 being greatly in advance of
  scientific knowledge4  ,we allude to  
the showers of stones1 called           
aerolites1 7from two ,greek words1      
signifying the atmosphere1 and a        
stone72 they are also called            
,meteorolites1 or ,meteoric stones4     
,writers in all ages have mentioned     
instances of stony bodies having been   
seen to fall from the sky4  ,the        
,chinese and ,japanese carefully note   
down  the most striking and remarkable  
phenomena of nature1 believing them to  

have some connexion with public affairs2
 and the chronicles of these  people are
 said to contain many notices of the    
fall of stony bodies from  the sky4     
,until within the last fifty years1     
however1 these accounts have  been      
treated in ,europe as idle              
superstitions2 scientific men denying   
even  the probability of such an        
occurrence4  ,the first scientific man  
who was  bold enough to support the     
popular opinion1 that stones actually do
 fall  from the sky1 was ,chladni1 a    
,german philosopher1 who published a    
pamphlet  on the subject in #agid4      
,this did not excite much attention1    
until1 two  years afterwards1 a stone   
weighing fifty-six pounds was exhibited 
in  ,london1 which was said to have     
fallen in ,yorkshire in the ,december of
 the  preceding year2 but1 although the 
fact was attested by several            
respectable persons1 the possibility of 
such an occurrence was still  doubted4  
,it was remarked1 however1 by ,sir      

,joseph ,banks1 that this stone  was    
very similar in appearance to one which 
had been sent to him from  ,italy1 with 
an account of its having fallen from the
 clouds4  ,in the year  #agii1 a number 
of stones were received by the ,royal   
,society1 from  ,benares1 in the ,east  
,indies1 which were also said to have   
fallen from the  atmosphere1 with a     
minute account of the circumstances     
attending the  fall1 which will be      
presently noticed2 and1 as these stones 
appeared to  be precisely similar to the
 ,yorkshire stone already noticed1      
attention  was fairly drawn to the      
subject4  ,in #ahjb1 ,mr4 ,howard       
published an  analysis of a variety of  
these stones collected from different   
places2  and his researches led to the  
important conclusion1 that they are all 
composed of the same substances1 and in 
nearly the same proportions4  ,in       
#ahjc1 a notice was received at ,paris1 
of a shower of stones at ,l',aigle in   
,normandy2 and the ,institute of ,france

 deputed ,m4 ,biot1 a well-known and    
excellent natural philosopher1 to       
examine1 on the spot1 all the           
circumstances attending this remarkable 
event4  ,his account will be  noticed   
presently2 but it may here be stated1   
that the stones he  collected1 on being 
analysed1 gave results similar to those 
obtained by  ,mr4 ,howard4    ,the      
circumstances attending the fall of     
stones at ,krakhut1 a village  about    
fourteen miles from the city of         
,benares1 are briefly as follow3--,on   
the #aith ,december1 #agih1 a very      
luminous meteor was observed in the     
heavens1 about eight o'clock in the     
evening1 in the form of a large ball  of
 fire2 it was accompanied by a loud     
noise1 resembling that of thunder1      
which was immediately followed by the   
sound of the fall of heavy bodies4  ,on 
examining the ground1 it was observed to
 have been newly torn up in  many       
places2 and in these were found stones  
of a peculiar appearance1  most of which

 had buried themselves to the depth of  
six inches4  ,at the  time the meteor   
appeared1 the sky was perfectly serene1 
not the smallest  vestige of a cloud had
 been seen since the #aath of the month2
 nor were  any observed for many days   
after4  ,it was seen in the western part
 of the  hemisphere1 and was visible    
only a short time4  ,the light from it  
was so  great1 as to cast a strong      
shadow from the bars of a window upon a 
dark  carpet4  ,mr4 ,davis1 the judge   
and magistrate of the district1         
affirmed1  that in brilliancy it        
equalled the brightest moonlight4  ,both
 he and ,mr4  ,erskine were induced to  
send persons in whom they could confide 
to the  spot where this shower of stones
 is reported to have taken place1 and   
thus obtained additional evidence of the
 phenomena1 together with several  of   
the stones which had penetrated about   
six inches into fields recently         
watered4  ,mr4 ,maclane1 a gentleman who
 resided near ,krakhut1 presented  ,mr4 

,howard with a portion of a stone which 
had been brought to him the  morning    
after its fall by the person who was on 
duty at his house1 and  through the roof
 of whose hut it had passed1 and buried 
itself several  inches in the floor1    
which was of consolidated earth4        
,before it was  broken it must have     
weighed upwards of two pounds4    ,m4   
,biot's summary of the evidence         
collected by him respecting the great   
shower of stones which fell at ,aigle1  
in ,normandy1 is as follows3--          
,on ,tuesday1 #bfth ,april1 #ahjc1 about
 one o'clock1 ,p4,m41 the weather       
being serene1 there was observed from   
,caen1 ,pont d',audemer1 and the        
environs of ,alencon1 ,falaise1 and     
,verneuil1 a fiery globe1 of a very     
brilliant splendour1 and which moved in 
the atmosphere with great      rapidity4
  ,some moments after1 there was heard  
at ,aigle1 and in the      environs of  
that town1 in the extent of more than   
thirty leagues in      every direction1 

a violent explosion1 which lasted five  
or six      minutes4  ,at first there   
were three or four reports like those of
 a      cannon1 followed by a kind of   
discharge which resembled the firing of 
musketry2 after which1 there was heard a
 dreadful rumbling1 like the            
beating of a drum4  ,the air was calm   
and the sky serene1 except a few        
clouds1 such as are frequently observed4
  ,this noise proceeded from a          
small cloud which had a rectangular     
form2 the largest side being in a       
direction from east to west4  ,it       
appeared motionless all the time        
that the phenomenon lasted2 but the     
vapours of which it was composed1       
were projected momentarily from         
different sides1 by the effect of       
successive explosions4  ,this cloud was 
about half a league to the              
north-north-west of the town of ,aigle4 
,it was at a great elevation      in the
 atmosphere2 for1 the inhabitants of two
 hamlets1 a league      distant from    

each other1 saw it at the same time     
above their heads4      ,in the whole   
canton over which this cloud was        
suspended1 there was a      hissing     
noise1 like that of a stone discharged  
from a sling2 and a      great many     
mineral masses1 exactly similar to those
 distinguished by      the name of      
'meteor-stones1' were seen to fall4     
,the district in      which these masses
 were projected1 forms an elliptical    
extent of      about two leagues and a  
half in length1 and nearly one in       
breadth1      the greatest dimension    
being in a direction from south-east to 
north-west2 forming a declination of    
about #bb degrees4  ,this               
direction1 which the meteor must have   
followed1 is exactly that of      the   
magnetic meridian1 which is a remarkable
 result4  ,the greatest of      these   
stones fell at the south-eastern        
extremity of the large axis of      the 
ellipse1 the middle-sized in the centre1
 and the smaller at the      other      

extremity4  ,hence it appears1 that the 
largest fell first1 as      might       
naturally be supposed4  ,the largest of 
all those that fell1      weighs        
seventeen pounds and a half4  ,the      
smallest which ,i have seen1      weighs
 about two gros1 7a thousandth part of  
the last47  ,the number      of all     
those which fell1 is certainly above two
 or three thousand4    ,meteoric stones 
have been known to commit great injury  
in their fall4  ,in  ,july1 #agij1 a    
very bright fire-ball1 luminous as the  
sun1 of the size of  an ordinary        
balloon1 appeared near ,bourdeaux1      
which1 after filling the  inhabitants   
with alarm1 burst1 and disappeared4  ,a 
few days after1 some  peasants brought  
stones into the town1 which they said   
had fallen from  the meteor2 but1 the   
philosophers to whom they offered them  
laughed at  their statements4  ,one of  
these stones1 fifteen inches in         
diameter1 broke  through the roof of a  
cottage1 and killed a herdsman and a    

bullock4  ,in  #ahaj1 a great stone fell
 at ,shahabad1 in ,india4  ,it burnt a  
village1 and  killed several people4    
,the fall of meteoric stones is more    
frequent than would be supposed4        
,chaldni has compiled a ,catalogue of   
all recorded instances from the         
earliest times4  ,of these1 twenty-seven
 are previous to the ,christian  era2   
thirty-five from the beginning of the   
first to the end of the  fourteenth     
century2 eighty-nine from the beginning 
of the fifteenth to  the beginning of   
the present century2 from which time1   
since the  attention of scientific men  
has been directed to the subject1 above 
sixty  cases have been recorded4  ,these
 are1 doubtless1 but a small proportion 
of the whole amount of meteoric showers 
which have fallen1 when the small       
extent of surface occupied by those     
capable of recording the event is       
compared with the wide expanse of the   
ocean1 the vast uninhabited  deserts1   
mountains1 and forests1 and the         

countries occupied by savage  nations4  
,meteoric stones have generally a       
broken1 irregular surface1 coated with a
  thin black crust1 like varnish4  ,when
 broken1 they appear to have been  made 
up of a number of small spherical bodies
 of a grey colour1 imbedded  in a gritty
 substance1 and often interspersed with 
yellow spots4  ,a  considerable         
proportion of iron is found in all of   
them1 partly in a  malleable state1     
partly in that of an oxide1 and always  
in combination  with a rather scarce    
metal called nickel2 #aha the earths    
silica1 and  magnesia1 and sulphur1 form
 the other chief ingredients2 but1 the  
earths  alumina and lime1 the metals    
manganese1 chrome1 and cobalt1 together 
with  carbon1 soda1 and water1 have also
 been found in small quantities1 but    
not in the same specimens4  ,no         
substance with which chemists were      
previously unacquainted1 has ever been  
found in them2 but no combination1      
similar to that in meteoric stones1 has 

ever been met with in geological        
formations1 or among the products of any
 volcano4  ,they are sometimes  very    
friable1 sometimes very hard2 and some  
that are friable when they  first fall1 
become hard afterwards4  ,when taken up 
soon after their fall  they are         
extremely hot4  ,they vary in weight    
from two drams to several  hundred      
pounds4  ,meteoric stones have fallen in
 all climates1 in every  part of the    
earth1 at all seasons1 in the night and 
in the day4    ,the meteoric stones     
already noticed1 are not the only       
metallic bodies  which are supposed to  
fall from the sky4  ,in many parts of   
the earth  masses of malleable iron1    
often of vast size1 have been found4    
,an  immense mass seen by ,pallas1 in   
,siberia1 was discovered at a great     
height  on a mountain of slate1 near the
 river ,jenesei4  ,the ,tartars held it 
in  great veneration1 as having fallen  
from heaven4  ,it was removed in the    
year #agdi1 to the town of ,krasnojarsk1

 by the inspector of iron mines4  ,the  
mass1 which weighed about #a1djj pounds1
 was irregular in form1 and  cellular1  
like a sponge4  ,the iron was tough and 
malleable1 and was found  to contain    
nickel1 silica1 magnesia1 sulphur1 and  
chrome4  ,another  enormous mass of     
meteoric iron was found in ,south       
,america1 about the year  #aghh4  ,it   
lay in a vast plain1 half sunk in the   
ground1 and was supposed1  from its size
 and the known weight of iron1 to       
contain upwards of  thirteen tons4      
,specimens of this mass are now in the  
,british ,museum1 and  have been found  
to contain #ij per cent4 of iron and #aj
 of nickel4  ,many  other masses of iron
 might be mentioned1 which1 from the    
places in which  they are found1 and    
from their composition1 leave no doubt  
as to their  being of meteoric origin4  
,the only instance1 on record1 of iron  
having  been actually seen to fall from 
the atmosphere1 is that which took place
  at ,agram in ,croatia1 on the #bfth   

,may1 #agea4  ,about six o'clock in the 
evening1 the sky being quite clear1 a   
ball of fire was seen1 which shot       
along1 with a hollow noise1 from west to
 east1 and1 after a loud  explosion     
accompanied by a great smoke1 two masses
 of iron fell from it  in the form of   
chains welded together4    ,it is1      
perhaps1 impossible1 in the present     
state of our knowledge1 to  account for 
the origin of these remarkable bodies4  
,some have supposed  them to have been  
shot out from volcanoes belonging to our
 earth2 but  this theory is opposed by  
the fact that no substance1 resembling  
aerolites1 has ever been found in or    
near any volcano2 and they fall from  a 
height to which no volcano can be       
supposed to have projected them1 and    
still less to have given them the       
horizontal direction in which they      
usually move4  ,another supposition is1 
that these masses are formed in  the    
atmosphere2 but it is almost ridiculous 
to imagine a body1 weighing  many tons1 

to be produced by any chemical or       
electrical forces in the  upper regions 
of the air4  ,a third explanation is1   
that they are bodies  thrown out by the 
volcanoes1 which are known to exist in  
the moon1 with  such force as to bring  
them within the sphere of the earth's   
attraction4  ,this notion was supported 
by the celebrated astronomer and        
mathematician  ,la ,place4  ,he         
calculated that a body projected from   
the moon with the  velocity of #ggga    
feet in the first second1 would reach   
our earth in about  two days and a half4
  ,but other astronomers are of opinion1
 that the  known velocity of some       
meteors is too great to admit of the    
possibility  of their having come from  
the moon4  ,the theory which agrees best
 with  known facts and the laws of      
nature1 is that proposed by ,chladni1   
namely1  that the meteors are bodies    
moving in space1 either masses of matter
 as  originally created1 or fragments   
separated from a larger mass of a       

similar nature4  ,this view has also    
been supported by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 
who says1 ,the luminous appearances of  
shooting-stars and meteors cannot  be   
owing to any inflammation of elastic    
fluids1 but must depend upon the        
ignition of solid bodies4  ,dr4 ,halley 
calculated the height of a meteor  at   
ninety miles2 and the great ,american   
meteor1 which threw down showers  of    
stones1 was estimated at seventeen miles
 high4  ,the velocity of motion  of     
these bodies must1 in all cases1 be     
immensely great1 and the heat  produced 
by the compression of the most rarefied 
air from the velocity of  motion1 must  
be1 probably1 sufficient to ignite the  
mass2 and all the  phenomena may be     
explained1 if falling stars be supposed 
to be small  bodies moving round the    
earth in very eccentric orbits1 which   
become  ignited only when they pass with
 immense velocity through the upper     
region of the atmosphere2 and if the    
meteoric bodies which throw down  stones

 with explosions1 be supposed to be     
similar bodies which contain  either    
combustible or elastic matter4    ,this 
chapter ought not to be concluded       
without a short notice of that          
remarkable rain known to geologists as  
fossil rain4  ,in the new  red-sandstone
 of the ,storeton quarries1 impressions 
of the foot-prints of  ancient animals  
have been discovered2 and in examining  
some of the slabs  of stone extracted at
 the depth of above thirty feet1 ,mr4   
,cunningham  observed that their under  
surface was thickly covered with minute 
hemispherical projections1 or casts in  
relief of circular pits1 in the         
immediately subjacent layers of clay4   
,the origin of these marks1 he is  of   
opinion1 must be ascribed to showers of 
rain which fell upon an  argillaceous   
beach exposed by the retiring tide1 and 
their preservation  to the filling up of
 the indentations by sand4  ,on the same
 slabs are  impressions of the feet of  
small reptiles1 which appear to have    

passed  over the clay previously to the 
shower1 since the foot-marks are also   
indented with circular pits1 but to a   
less degree2 and the difference ,mr4    
,cunningham explains by the pressure of 
the animal having rendered these        
portions less easily acted upon4  ,the  
preservation of these marks has  been   
explained by supposing dry sand1 drifted
 by the wind1 to have swept  over and   
filled up the footprints1 rain-pits1 and
 hollows of every kind1  which the soft 
argillaceous surface had received4      
,the frontispiece to the present chapter
 7p4 #aef71 represents a slab of        
sandstone containing impressions of the 
foot of a bird and of rain drops4  ,this
 slab is from a sandstone basin near    
,turner's ,falls1 a fine cataract  of   
the ,connecticut river in the ,state of 
,massachusetts1 and is described  by    
,dr4 ,deane in a recent number of the   
,american ,journal of ,science4  ,it  is
 rare1 says that gentleman1 to find a   
stratum containing these  footprints    

exactly as they were made by the animal1
 without having  suffered change4  ,they
 are usually more or less disturbed or  
obliterated  by the too soft nature of  
the mud1 the coarseness of the          
materials1 and  by many other           
circumstances which we may easily see   
would deface them1 so  that although the
 general form of the foot may be        
apparent1 the minute  traces of its     
appendages are almost invariably lost4  
,in general1 except  in thick-toed      
species1 we cannot discover the distinct
 evidences of the  structure of the     
toes1 each toe appearing to be formed of
 a single joint1  and seldom terminated 
by a claw4  ,but1 a few specimens       
hitherto  discovered at this locality   
completely developed the true characters
 of  the foot1 its ranks of joints1 its 
claws and integuments4  ,so far as ,i   
have seen1 the faultless impressions are
 upon shales of the finest  texture with
 a smooth glossy surface1 such as would 
retain the beautiful  impressions of    

rain drops4  ,this kind of surface      
containing footmarks is  exceedingly    
rare3 ,i have seen but few detached     
examples2 recently it has  been my good 
fortune to recover a stratum1 containing
 in all more than  one hundred most     
beautiful impressions of the feet of    
four or five  varieties of birds1 the   
entire surface being also pitted by a   
shower of  fossil rain-drops4  ,the     
slabs are perfectly smooth on the       
inferior  surface1 and are about two    
inches in thickness4    ,the impression 
of a medallion is not more sharp and    
clear than are most  of these imprints1 
and it may be proper to observe1 that   
this remarkable  preservation may be    
ascribed to the circumstance1 that the  
entire surface  of the stratum was      
incrusted with a layer of micaceous     
sandstone1  adhering so firmly that it  
would not cleave off1 thereby requiring 
the  laborious and skilful application  
of the chisel4  ,the appearance of this 
shining layer which is of a gray colour1

 while the fossil slab is a dark  red1  
seems to carry the probability that it  
was washed or blown over the  latter    
while in a state of loose sand1 thus    
filling up the foot-prints  and         
rain-drops1 and preserving them         
unchanged until the present             
day--unchanged in the smallest          
particular1 so far as relates merely to 
configuration1 nothing being            
obliterated2 the precise form of the    
nails1  or claws1 and joints1 and in the
 deep impressions of the heel bone1     
being  exquisitely preserved4    ,the   
small slab figured at p4 #aef is        
described as being an incomparable      
specimen4  ,for purity of impression it 
is unsurpassed1 and the living  reality 
of the rain-drops1 the beautiful colour 
of the stone1 its sound  texture and    
lightness1 renders it a fit member for  
any collection of  organic remains4     
,picture3 ,mandan rain-makers           
,,chapter ,,viii4      ,,common         
,,sayings ,,respecting ,,the            

,,weather--,,saint                      
,,swithin',s-,,day--,,signs ,,of ,,rain 
,,or ,,of ,,fair ,,weather ,,derived    
,,from ,,the ,,appearance ,,of ,,the    
,,sun--,,from ,,that ,,of  ,,the        
,,moon--,,from ,,the ,,stars--,,from    
,,the ,,sky--,,from ,,the ,,distinctness
 ,,of  ,,sounds--,,from ,,the ,,rising  
,,of ,,smoke--,,from ,,the ,,peculiar   
,,actions ,,of ,,plants ,,and           
,,animals--,,prognostics ,,noticed ,,by 
,,sir ,,humphrey ,,davy--,,signs ,,of   
,,rain  ,,collected ,,by ,,dr4          
,,jenner--,,north ,,american            
,,rain-,,makers--,,incident ,,related   
,,by  ,,catlin--,,rain-,,doctors ,,of   
,,southern ,,africa--,,rain-,,doctors   
,,of  ,,ceylon--,,superstitions ,,giving
 ,,way ,,to ,,the ,,teaching ,,of       
,,missionaries--,,conclusion4    ,there 
are many proverbial sayings among       
country people concerning the  state of 
the weather1 which1 having been derived 
from long observation1  have become     
axioms1 and were designated by ,bacon   

the philosophy of the  people4  ,these  
prognostics are being set aside by the  
more certain  lights of science1 but    
there is no doubt that many natural     
objects may  indicate symptoms of change
 in the atmosphere before any actually  
takes  place in it to such an extent as 
to affect our senses4  ,some of these   
prognostics are of a general character  
applying to all seasons1 and there  are 
others which apply only to a particular 
season2 but they may all be  derived    
from appearances of the heavenly bodies 
and of the sky1 the state  of           
meteorological instruments1 and the     
notions and habits of certain  plants   
and animals4  ,the author of the        
,journal of a ,naturalist has some  good
 observations on this subject4  ,he     
says3--        ,old simplicities1 tokens
 of winds and weather1 and the plain    
observances of human life1 are          
everywhere waning fast to decay4  ,some 
of them may have been fond conceits2 but
 they accorded with the      ordinary   

manners of the common people1 and marked
 times1 seasons1 and      things1 with  
sufficient truth for those who had faith
 in them4      ,little as we retain of  
these obsolete fancies1 we have not     
quite      abandoned them all2 and there
 are yet found among our peasants a few1
      who mark the blooming of the large
 water-lily 7lilium candidum71      and 
think that the number of its blossoms on
 a stem will indicate the      price of 
wheat by the bushel for the ensuing     
year1 each blossom      equivalent to a 
shilling4  ,we expect a sunny day too1  
when the      pimpernel 7anagallis      
arvensis7 fully expands its blossoms2 a 
dubious1 or a moist one1 when they are  
closed4  ,in this belief1      however1 
we have the sanction of some antiquity  
to support us4  ,sir      ,f4 ,bacon    
records it2 ,gerarde notes it as a      
common opinion entertained      by      
country people above two centuries ago2 
and ,i must not withhold my      own    
faith in its veracity1 but say that ,i  

believe this pretty little      flower  
to afford more certain indication of    
dryness or moisture in      the air than
 any of our hygrometers do4  ,but if    
these be fallible      criterions1 we   
will notice another that seldom deceives
 us4  ,the      approach of a sleety    
snow-storm1 following a deceitful gleam 
in      spring1 is always announced to  
us by the loud untuneful voice of the   
missel-thrush 7turdus viscivorus7 as it 
takes its stand on some      tall tree1 
like an enchanter calling up the gale4  
,it seems to have      no song1 no      
voice1 but this harsh predictive note2  
and it in great      measure ceases with
 the storms of spring4  ,we hear it     
occasionally in      autumn1 but its    
voice is not then prognostic of any     
change of      weather4  ,the           
missel-thrush is a wild and wary bird1  
keeping      generally in open fields   
and commons1 heaths and unfrequented    
places1      feeding upon worms and     
insects4  ,in severe weather it         

approaches our      plantations and     
shrubberies1 to feed on the berry of the
 mistletoe1      the ivy1 or the scarlet
 fruit of the holly or the yew2 and1    
should      the redwing or the fieldfare
 presume to partake of these with it1 we
      are sure to hear its voice in     
clattering and contention with the      
intruders1 until it drives them from the
 place1 though it watches and           
attends1 notwithstanding1 to its own    
safety4    ,but before we notice more in
 detail the natural prognostics of the  
weather1 it is desirable to speak of a  
superstition which is widely  spread    
among all classes1 in the town as well  
as in the country4  ,the  superstition  
referred to1 is that connected with ,st4
 ,swithin's-day1 and  is well expressed 
in a ,scotch proverb3--       ,saint    
,swithin's-day1 gif ye do rain1     ,for
 forty days it will remain2     ,saint  
,swithin's-day1 an ye be fair1     ,for 
forty days 'twill rain nae mair4        
,this superstition originated with      

,swithin1 or ,swithum1 bishop of        
,winchester1 who died in the year #hfh4 
,he desired that he might be buried  in 
the open churchyard1 where the drops of 
rain might wet his grave2  thinking1    
says ,bishop ,hall1 that no vault was so
 good to cover his  grave as that of    
heaven4  ,but when ,swithin was         
canonized the monks  resolved to remove 
his body into the choir of the church4  
,according to  tradition1 this was to   
have been done on the #aeth of ,july2   
but it rained  so violently for forty   
days that the design was abandoned4     
,mr4 ,howard  remarks1 that the         
tradition is so far valuable1 as it     
proves that the  summers in the southern
 part of our island were subject1 a     
thousand years  ago1 to occasional heavy
 rains1 in the same way as at present4  
,this  accurate observer has endeavoured
 to ascertain how far the popular notion
  is borne out by the fact4  ,in #ahjg  
and #ahjh1 it rained on ,st4            
,swithin's-day1 and a dry season        

followed4  ,in #ahah and #ahai1 it was  
dry  on the #aeth1 and a very dry season
 followed4  ,the other summers1         
occurring between #ahjg and #ahai1 seem 
to show1 that in a majority of our      
summers1 a showery period which1 with   
some latitude as to time and local      
circumstances1 may be admitted to       
constitute daily rain for forty days1   
does come on about the time indicated by
 the tradition of ,st4 ,swithin4    ,but
 in these calculations1 it is necessary 
to bear in mind that the  change of     
style has very much interfered with ,st4
 ,swithin4  ,with the day  allowed in   
the closing year of the last century1   
,st4 ,swithin's day is how  thirteen    
days earlier in the calendar than it    
would have been by the old  style4      
,thus the true ,st4 ,swithin's-day1     
according to the tradition1 is  about   
the #bhth of ,july1 and not the #aeth1  
as set down in the present  calendar4   
,there must1 therefore1 be a            
considerable difference as to the  rains

 and this day4    ,we now proceed to    
collect a number of prognostics         
connected with the  appearances of the  
heavenly bodies and of the sky2 they are
 the result of  long experience1 but at 
the same time it is necessary to caution
 our  readers against attaching much    
importance to them4    ,when the sun    
rises red1 wind and rain may be expected
 during the day2 but  when he rises     
unclouded1 attended by a scorching heat1
 cloudiness and  perhaps rain will ensue
 before mid-day4  ,when he rises        
clouded1 with a  few grey clouds1 they  
will soon dissipate1 and a fine day will
 follow4  ,when his light is dim1 vapour
 exists in the upper regions of the air1
 and  may be expected to descend shortly
 after in the form of dense clouds4     
,when his light1 after rain1 is of a    
transparent watery hue1 rain will  soon 
fall again4  ,when his direct rays have 
a scorching and weakening  effect on the
 body throughout the greater part of the
 day1 the next day  will be cloudy1 and 

perhaps rainy4  ,when the sun is more or
 less obscured  by a thicker or thinner 
cirro-stratus cloud1 and when he is said
 to be  wading in the cloud1 rain may   
come--if the cloud indicates rain it    
will  come4  ,a halo surrounding the    
disc of the sun is almost always sure to
  precede rain4  ,a red sunset without  
clouds indicates a doubt of fair        
weather2 but a fine day may be expected 
after a red sunset in clouds4  ,a       
watery sunset1 diverging rays of light1 
either direct from the sun or  from     
behind a cloud1 is indicative of rain4  
,after a dull black sunset  rain may be 
expected4    ,it is a common saying     
among country people1--       ,an       
evening red1 or a morning grey1         
,doth betoken a bonnie day2     ,in an  
evening grey and a morning red1     ,put
 on your hat1 or yell weet your head4   
,there are not many prognostics         
connected with the appearances of the   
moon4  ,the changes of the moon produce 
greater effects than at any other       

period4  ,with a clear silvery aspect   
fair weather may be expected4  ,a  pale 
moon always indicates rain1 and a red   
one wind4  ,seeing the old  moon in the 
new one's arms1 is a sign of stormy     
weather4  ,seeing the new  moon very    
young1 like the paring of a nail1 also  
indicates wet2 but  when the horns of   
the new moon are blunt1 they indicate   
rain1 and fair  weather when sharp4  ,it
 is truly said3       ,in the wane of   
the moon1     ,a cloudy morning bodes a 
fair afternoon4    ,and also       ',new
 moon's mist     ,never dies of thirst4'
    ,halos and coronae are oftener seen 
about the moon than the sun1 and they   
indicate rain4    ,the stars appearing  
dim indicate rain4  ,very few stars seen
 at one time1  when there is no frost1  
indicate a similar result4    ,when the 
sky is of deeply-coloured blue1 it      
indicates rain4  ,if distant  objects   
appear very distinct and near through   
the air1 it indicates rain4  ,when the  
air feels oppressive to walk in1 rain   

will follow2 when it feels  light and   
pleasant1 fair weather will continue4   
,when distant sounds are distinctly     
heard through the air in a calm day1    
such as the tolling of bells1 barking of
 dogs1 talking of people1  waterfalls1  
or rapids over mill-dams1 the air is    
loaded with vapour1 and  rain may be    
expected4  ,the sea is often heard to   
roar1 and loudest at  night1 as also the
 noise of a city1 when a cloud is seen  
suspended a very  short way above head4 
,if smoke rise perpendicularly upwards  
from chimneys in calm weather1 fair     
weather may be expected to continue2 but
 if it fall toward and roll along  the  
ground1 not being easily dispersed1 rain
 will ensue4    ,many of the above      
prognostics1 as well as some of those   
relating to  animals1 are thus noticed  
by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 in his         
,salmonia1 or ,days  of ,fly-fishing4   
,the conversation is between ,halieus1 a
 fly-fisher2  ,poietes1 a poet2         
,physicus1 a man of science2 and        

,ornither1 a sportsman4        ,poiet4  
,i hope we shall have another good day  
to-morrow1 for the      clouds are red  
in the west4        ,phys4  ,i have no  
doubt of it2 for the red has a tint of  
purple4        ,hal4  ,do you know why  
this tint portends fine weather8        
,phys4  ,the air1 when dry1 ,i believe1 
refracts more red or heating      rays2 
and as dry air is not perfectly         
transparent1 they are again             
reflected in the horizon4  ,i have      
generally observed a coppery or         
yellow sun-set to foretell rain2 but1 as
 an indication of wet weather           
approaching1 nothing is more certain    
than a halo round the moon1      which  
is produced by the precipitated water2  
and the larger the      circle1 the     
nearer the clouds1 and consequently the 
more ready to      fall4        ,hal4   
,i have often observed that the old     
proverb is correct--        ',a rainbow 
in the morning is the shepherd's        
warning2      ,a rainbow at night is the

 shepherd's delight'        ,can you    
explain this omen8        ,phys4  ,a    
rainbow can only occur when the clouds  
containing or      depositing the rain  
are opposite the sun1--and in the       
evening the      rainbow is in the east1
 and in the morning in the west4  ,as1  
therefore1 our heavy rains in this      
climate are usually brought by the      
westerly wind1 a rainbow in the west    
indicates that the bad weather      is  
on the road1 by the wind1 to us2        
whereas1 the rainbow in the east        
proves that the rain in these clouds is 
passing from us4        ,poiet4  ,i have
 often observed that when the swallows  
fly high1 fine      weather is to be    
expected or continued2 but when they fly
 low1 and      close to the ground1 rain
 is almost surely approaching4  ,can you
      account for this8        ,hal4    
,swallows follow the flies and gnats1   
and flies and gnats      usually delight
 in warm strata of air2 and as warm air 
is lighter1      and usually moister    

than cold air1 when the warm strata of  
air are      high1 there is less chance 
of moisture being thrown down from them 
by      the mixture with cold air2 but  
when the warm and moist air is close    
to the surface1 it is almost certain    
that1 as the cold air flows down        
into it1 a deposition of water will take
 place4        ,poiet4  ,i have often   
seen sea-gulls assemble on the land1 and
 have      almost always observed that  
very stormy and rainy weather was       
approaching4  ,i conclude that these    
animals1 sensible of a current of       
air approaching from the ocean1 retire  
to the land to shelter      themselves  
from the storm4        ,orn4  ,no such  
thing4  ,the storm is their element1 and
 the little      petrel enjoys the      
heaviest gale2 because1 living on the   
smaller      sea-insects1 he is sure to 
find his food in the spray of a heavy   
wave2 and you may see him flitting above
 the edge of the highest      surge4  ,i
 believe that the reason of this        

migration of sea-gulls1 and      other  
sea-birds1 to the land1 is their        
security of finding food2 and      they 
may be observed1 at this time1 feeding  
greedily on the      earth-worms and    
larvae driven out of the ground by      
severe floods2 and      the fish on     
which they prey in fine weather in the  
sea1 leave the      surface1 and go     
deeper in storms4  ,the search after    
food1 as we have      agreed on a former
 occasion1 is the principal cause why   
animals      change their places4  ,the 
different tribes of the wading birds    
always      migrate when rain is about  
to take place2 and ,i remember once1 in 
,italy1 having been long waiting1 in the
 end of ,march1 for the arrival      of 
the double snipe in the ,campagna of    
,rome1 a great flight appeared      on  
the #crd of ,april1 and the day after   
heavy rain set in1 which      greatly   
interfered with my sport4  ,the vulture1
 upon the same      principle1 follows  
armies2 and ,i have no doubt that the   

augury of the      ancients was a good  
deal founded upon the observation of the
      instincts of birds4  ,there are   
many superstitions of the vulgar owing  
to the same source4  ,for anglers1 in   
spring1 it is always unlucky to      see
 single magpies1--but two may always be 
regarded as a favourable      omen2 and 
the reason is1 that in cold and stormy  
weather one magpie      alone leaves the
 nest in search of food1 the other      
remaining sitting      upon the eggs or 
the young ones2 but when two go out     
together1 it is      only when the      
weather is warm and mild1 and favourable
 for fishing4        ,poiet4  ,the      
singular connexions of causes and       
effects to which you      have just     
referred1 makes superstition less to be 
wondered at1      particularly amongst  
the vulgar2 and when two facts1         
naturally      unconnected1 have been   
accidentally coincident1 it is not      
singular      that this coincidence     
should have been observed and           

registered1 and      that omens of the  
most absurd kind should be trusted in4  
,in the west      of ,england1 half a   
century ago1 a particular hollow noise  
on the      sea-coast was referred to a 
spirit or goblin1 called ,bucca1 and was
      supposed to foretell a shipwreck4 
,the philosopher knows that sound       
travels much faster than currents in the
 air2 and the sound always      foretold
 the approach of a very heavy storm1    
which seldom takes place      on that   
wild and rocky coast without a shipwreck
 on some part of its      extensive     
shores1 surrounded by the ,atlantic4    
,dr4 ,jenner has collected in the       
following amusing lines a large number  
of  the natural prognostics of rain4    
,they are said to have been addressed to
  a lady1 who asked the ,doctor if he   
thought it would rain to-morrow4        
,the hollow winds begin to blow1        
,the clouds look black1 the glass is    
low2     ,the soot falls down1 the      
spaniels sleep1     ,and spiders from   

their cobwebs peep3     ,last night the 
sun went pale to bed1     ,the moon in  
halos hid her head3     ,the boding     
shepherd heaves a sigh1     ,for1 see6 a
 rainbow spans the sky3     ,the walls  
are damp1 the ditches smell1     ,closed
 is the pink-eyed pimpernel2     ,hark6 
how the chairs and tables crack2        
,old ,betty's joints are on the rack2   
,loud quack the ducks1 the peacocks cry1
     ,the distant hills are seeming     
nigh4     ,how restless are the snorting
 swine1--     ,the busy flies disturb   
the kine4     ,low o'er the grass the   
swallow wings2     ,the cricket1 too1   
how loud it sings3     ,puss on the     
hearth with velvet paws1     ,sits      
smoothing o'er her whisker'd jaws4      
,through the clear stream the fishes    
rise1     ,and nimbly catch the         
incautious flies3     ,the sheep were   
seen at early light     ,cropping the   
meads with eager bite4     ,though      
,june1 the air is cold and chill2       
,the mellow blackbird's voice is still4 

,the glow-worms1 numerous and bright1   
,illum'd the dewy dell last night4      
,at dusk the squalid toad was seen1     
,hopping1 and crawling o'er the green4  
,the frog has lost his yellow vest1     
,and in a dingy suit is dressed4        
,the leech1 disturb'd1 is newly risen1  
,quite to the summit of his prison4     
,the whirling winds the dust obeys1     
,and in the rapid eddy plays2     ,my   
dog1 so alter'd in his taste1     ,quits
 mutton-bones on grass to feast2        
,and see yon rooks1 how odd their       
flight6     ,they imitate the gliding   
kite1     ,or seem precipitate to fall1 
,as if they felt the piercing ball3--   
',twill surely rain1--,i see with       
sorrow1     ,our jaunt must be put off  
to-morrow4    ,uncivilized nations often
 entertain the absurd notion that       
certain  individuals can command the    
rain whenever they please4  ,much honour
 is  shown to persons supposed to       
possess this power1 for they are        
considered  as having some mysterious   

intercourse with heaven4  ,catlin gives 
a  striking instance of this            
superstition as it exists among the     
,mandans of  ,north ,america4  ,these   
people raise a great deal of corn2 but  
their  harvests are sometimes destroyed 
by long-continued drought4  ,when       
threatened with this calamity1 the women
 7who have the care of the  patches of  
corn7 implore their lords to intercede  
for rain2 and  accordingly the chiefs   
and doctors assemble to deliberate on   
the case4  ,when they have decided that 
it is necessary to produce rain1 they   
wisely  delay the matter for as many    
days as possible2 and it is not until   
further urged by the complaints and     
entreaties of the women1 that they      
begin to take the usual steps for       
accomplishing their purpose4  ,at length
  they assemble in the council-house    
with all their apparatus about          
them--with abundance of wild sage and   
aromatic herbs1 to burn before the      
,great ,spirit4  ,on these occasions the

 lodge is closed to all except the      
doctors and some ten or fifteen young   
men1 the latter being the persons  to   
whom the honour of making it rain1 or   
the disgrace of having failed in  the   
attempt1 is to belong4    ,after having 
witnessed the conjurations of the       
doctors inside the lodge1  these young  
men are called up by lot1 one at a time1
 to spend a day on  the top of the      
lodge1 and to see how far their efforts 
will avail in  producing rain2 at the   
same time the smoke of the burning herbs
 ascends  through a hole in the roof4   
,on one of these occasions1 when all the
  charms were in operation1 and when    
three young men had spent each his day  
on the lodge in ineffectual efforts to  
bring rain1 and the fourth was  engaged 
alternately addressing the crowd of     
villagers and the spirits of  the air1  
but in vain1 it so happened that the    
steam-boat ,yellow ,stone1  made her    
first trip up the ,missouri river1 and  
about noon approached the  village of   

the ,mandans4  ,catlin was a passenger  
on this boat2 and helped  to fire a     
salute of twenty guns of twelve pounds  
calibre1 when they first  came in sight 
of the village1 which was at some three 
or four miles  distance4  ,these guns   
introduced a new sound into the country1
 which the  ,mandans naturally enough   
supposed to be thunder4  ,the young man 
upon the  lodge1 who turned it to good  
account1 was gathering fame in rounds of
  applause1 which were repeated and     
echoed through the whole village2 all   
eyes were centred upon him--chiefs      
envied him--mothers' hearts were        
beating high1 whilst they were          
decorating and leading up their fair    
daughters to offer him in marriage on   
his signal success4  ,the  medicine-men 
had left the lodge1 and came out to     
bestow upon him the  envied title of    
'medicine-man1' or 'doctor1' which he   
had so deservedly  won--wreaths were    
prepared to decorate his brows1 and     
eagle's plumes and  calumets were in    

readiness for him--his enemies wore on  
their faces a  silent gloom and hatred2 
and his old sweethearts who had cast him
 off1  gazed intensely upon him1 as they
 glowed with the burning fever of       
repentance4  ,during all this           
excitement1 ,wak-a-dah-ha-hee 7or the   
white  buffalo's hair7 kept his         
position1 assuming the most commanding  
and  threatening attitudes2 brandishing 
his shield in the direction of the      
thunder1 although there was not a cloud 
to be seen1 until he 7poor  fellow7     
being elevated above the rest of the    
village1 espied1 to his  inexpressible  
amazement1 the steamboat ploughing its  
way up the windings  of the river below1
 puffing her steam from her pipes1 and  
sending forth  the thunder from a       
twelve-pounder on her deck4  ',the white
 ,buffalo's  hair' stood motionless1 and
 turned pale2 he looked awhile1 and     
turned to  the chief and to the         
multitude1 and addressed them with a    
trembling  lip--',my friends1 we will   

get no rain6--there are1 you see1 no    
clouds2  but my medicine is great--,i   
have brought a thunder-boat6 look and   
see  it6 the thunder you hear is out of 
her mouth1 and the lightning which you  
see is on the waters6'    ,at this      
intelligence1 the whole village flew to 
the tops of their  wigwams1 or to the   
bank of the river1 from whence the      
steamer was in full  view1 and ploughing
 along to their utter dismay and        
confusion4  ,in this  promiscuous       
throng1 chiefs1 doctors1 women1         
children1 and dogs1 were  mingled1      
,wak-a-dah-ha-hee having descended from 
his high place to mingle  with the      
frightened throng4  ,dismayed at the    
approach of so strange and              
unaccountable an object1 the ,mandans   
stood their ground but a few  moments2  
when1 by an order of the chiefs1 all    
hands were ensconced within  the piquets
 of their village1 and all the warriors 
armed for desperate  self-defence4  ,a  
few moments brought the boat in front of

 the village1  and all was still and    
quiet as death2 not a ,mandan was to be 
seen upon  the banks4  ,the steamer was 
moored1 and three or four of the chiefs 
soon  after walked boldly down the bank1
 and on to her deck1 with a spear in    
one hand1 and a calumet1 or pipe of     
peace in the other4  ,the moment they   
stepped on board1 they met 7to their    
great surprise and joy7 their old       
friend ,major ,sanford1 their agent1    
which circumstance put an instant end   
to all their fears4    ,it was long1    
however1 before the rain-maker could be 
persuaded to come  forward1 or to listen
 to the assurance that his medicine had 
nothing  whatever to do with the arrival
 of the ship4  ,unwilling to lose the   
fame  of having produced such a         
phenomenon1 he continued to assert that 
he knew  of its coming1 and by his magic
 had caused it to approach4  ,but he was
  little regarded in the universal      
bustle and gossip which was going on    
respecting the mysteries of the         

thunder-boat4    ,meanwhile the day     
passed on1 and towards evening a cloud  
began to rise  above the horizon4       
,wak-a-dah-ha-hee no sooner observed    
this1 than1 with  shield on his arm and 
bow in hand1 he was again upon the      
lodge4  ,stiffened and braced to the    
last sinew1 he stood with his face and  
his  shield presented to the cloud1 and 
his bow drawn4  ,he drew the eyes of    
the whole village upon him1 as he       
vaunted forth his superhuman powers2    
and at the same time commanded the cloud
 to come nearer1 that he might  draw    
down its contents upon their heads and  
the corn-fields of the  ,mandans4  ,in  
this wise he stood1 waving his shield   
over his head1  stamping his foot1 and  
frowning as he drew his bow and         
threatened the  heavens1 commanding it  
to rain--his bow was bent1 and the arrow
 drawn to  its head1 was sent to the    
cloud1 #baj and he exclaimed1 ',my      
friends1 it  is done6                   
,wak-a-dah-ha-hee's arrow has entered   

that black cloud1 and the  ,mandans will
 be wet with the water of the skies6'   
,his predictions were  true--in a few   
moments the cloud was over the village1 
and the rain fell  in torrents4  ,he    
stood for some time wielding his        
weapons1 and boasting  of the efficacy  
of his medicine to those who had been   
about him1 but  were now driven to the  
shelter of their wigwams2 and descended 
from his  high place 7in which he had   
been perfectly drenched7 prepared to    
receive  the honours and homage that    
were due to one so potent in his        
mysteries2  and to receive the style and
 title of medicine-man4  ,catlin further
  informs us1 that when the ,mandans    
undertake to make it rain1 they always  
succeed1 for their ceremonies never stop
 until rain begins to fall3 and  also1  
that he who has once made it rain never 
attempts it again2 his  medicine is     
undoubted--and on future occasions of   
the kind he stands  aloof1 giving an    
opportunity to other young men who are  

ambitious to  signalize themselves in   
the same way4    ,a superstition similar
 to that of the ,mandans prevails also  
among the  ,caffers of ,southern        
,africa1 and among the natives of       
,ceylon4  ,the ,caffer  chiefs1 attended
 by their warriors1 proceed with much   
ceremony1 and laden  with presents1 to  
the dwelling of the rain-doctor1 where a
 grand feast is  held while certain     
charms are in process4  ,the impostor at
 length  dismisses his guests with a    
variety of instructions1 on the due     
observance of which the success of their
 application is to depend4  ,these      
instructions are generally of the most  
trifling kind3 they are to travel  home 
in perfect silence2 or they are not to  
look back2 or they are to  compel every 
one they meet to turn back and go home  
with them4  ,should  rain happen to     
fall1 the credit is given to the        
rain-doctor2 but should  the drought    
continue1 the fault is laid upon the    
failure of the  applicants to fulfil    

these instructions with sufficient      
exactness4    ,major ,forbes gives an   
account of an old rain-doctor in        
,ceylon1 who had  plied a lucrative     
trade for many years1 and at length     
wished to retire  from business4  ,but  
the people were highly incensed at the  
idea of losing  his services1 especially
 as a most distressing drought was at   
that time  the scourge of the land4  ,so
 persuaded were they of his powers1 that
 they  all agreed1 that when required to
 do so by a whole village1 he should be 
compelled to furnish rain in sufficient 
quantities2 and that if he was          
insensible to rewards1 he should be     
tormented with thorns or beaten into    
compliance4  ,in vain did the poor old  
impostor at length declare the  truth1  
and assure the people that he had no    
power whatever to make it  rain4  ,they 
treated his words with disdain1 and     
dragged their victim from  village to   
village1 inflicting stripes at every    
halt4  ,even the chief of  the district 

had determined on having rain by force1 
if fair means should  fail1 and ordered 
the rain-doctor to be taken to the      
village where rain  was most required4  
,on his way thither he was so fortunate 
as to meet  with ,major ,forbes1 who    
took him under his protection1 and      
probably saved  his life1 though not    
without some difficulty1 for it so      
happened that a  few slight showers fell
 near his own village1 while all the    
rest of the  neighbourhood was suffering
 the extremity of drought4              
,melancholy indeed is the condition of  
these poor people2 in utter  ignorance  
of the source of all the providential   
mercies bestowed upon  them1 and1       
therefore1 made the dupes and credulous 
followers of knaves  and impostors of   
every kind6    ,in some cases1 however1 
the missionaries have happily succeeded 
in  opening the eyes of the deluded     
people to the cheat which is practised  
on  them4  ,one of the most intelligent 
of the ,caffers of ,southern ,africa1   

having been led to suspect the integrity
 of the rain-maker1 visited ,mr4  ,shaw1
 and told him of his determination to   
have the question set at rest1  whether 
or no the rain-maker could produce rain4
  ,he had summoned the  rain-maker to   
meet ,mr4 ,shaw in an open plain1 when  
all the ,caffers of the  surrounding    
kraals were to be present to decide the 
affair4  ,accordingly1  at the appointed
 time and place1 thousands of ,caffers  
from the  neighbouring country assembled
 in their war-dresses4  ,mr4 ,shaw1     
being  confronted with a celebrated     
rain-maker1 declared publicly that ,god 
alone  gave rain2 and then offered to   
present the rain-maker with a team of   
oxen  if he should succeed in making it 
rain within a certain specified time4   
,this was agreed to2 the rain-maker     
began his ceremonies1 which are said  to
 have been well calculated to impose    
upon an ignorant and superstitious      
people4  ,the time having expired       
without any signs of rain1 the chief who

  had called together the meeting asked 
the rain-maker why he had so long       
imposed upon them8  ,the rain-maker     
complained that he had not been paid    
well enough for his rain2 and appealed  
to all present1 whether rain had  not   
always been produced when he had been   
properly paid4  ,mr4 ,shaw then  pointed
 out some half-famished cattle belonging
 to the rain-maker1 which  were seen on 
a neighbouring hill starving for want of
 pasturage1 and  remarked1 that if he   
really possessed his boasted skill1 he  
would not  have neglected his own       
interests4  ,to this the rain-maker     
cleverly  replied1 ,i never found a     
difficulty in making rain until he      
7pointing  to ,mr4 ,shaw7 came among us2
 but now1 no sooner do ,i collect the   
clouds1  and the rain is about to fall1 
than immediately there begins a sound of
  ting1 ting1 ting1 7alluding to the    
chapel-bell17 which puts the  clouds to 
flight1 and prevents the rain from      
descending on your land4  ,mr4 ,shaw was

 not able to tell what effect this      
ingenious excuse had upon  the majority 
of the ,caffers1 but he had the         
satisfaction of knowing that  the       
intelligent chief1 who consulted him on 
the subject1 never bought  any more     
rain4          ,already ,published in   
this ,series4      ,i4--,,the ,,snow    
,,storm4  ,,ii4--,,the ,,frozen         
,,stream4  ,,iii4--,,the ,,rain ,,cloud4
          ,shortly will be ,published4  
,,iv4--,,the ,,dew ,,drop4  ,v4--,,the  
,,thunder ,,storm4  ,,vi4--,,the        
,,tempest4          ,footnotes3      #ah
  ,physico-,theology by the ,rev4 ,wm4  
,derham4    #ee  ,see ,frontispiece to  
this ,chapter1 p4 #cf4    #he  ,see     
,frontispiece to this ,chapter1 p4 #gd4 
#acc  ,this plan was brought before the 
notice of the ,british ,association  for
 the advancement of ,science in the year
 #ahdj4    #aee  ,harvey's ,meteorology1
 in the ,encyclopaedia ,metropolitana4  
#aha  ,one of the stones which fell at  
,l',aigle1 on being analysed by         

,thenard1 gave--    ,silica         #df 
per cent4  ,magnesia       #aj  ,iron   
#de  ,nickel         #b  ,sulphur       
#e    #baj  ,see ,frontispiece to this  
,chapter1 p4 #aij4