file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #cjfgf-;h4htm or #cjfgf-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#cjfgf_/pg#cjfgf-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#cj fgf_/cjfgf-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive_/,american ,libraries4 ,see http3_/_/www4archive4org_/details_/prima ryhandwo#jj;dobbrich ,transcriber's note3 ,text in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics74 ,text in bold face is enclosed by equal signs 7bold74 ,,primary ,,handwork 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,dallas ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,limited ,,london ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,melbourne ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,of ,,canada1 ,,ltd4 ,,toronto 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,house ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,bears ,built by first-grade class4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,see page #eh4 ,,primary ,,handwork by ,,ella ,,victoria ,,dobbs1 ,b4,s41 ,a4,m4 ,assistant ,professor of ,manual ,arts ,university of ,missouri ,new ,york ,the ,macmillan ,company #aibc ,all rights reserved ,copyright1 #aiad1 by ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,june1 #aiad4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,dedicated ,,to ,,the ,,little ,,children ,,of ,,america ,,with ,,the ,,wish ,,that ,,all ,,their ,,school ,,days ,,may ,,be ,,happy ,,days ,,preface ,this book is the outgrowth of long experience as a teacher of primary grades1 followed by special study of handwork as a factor in elementary education4 ,it is written with three objects in view3 ,first1 to gather into a single volume various methods already in use in the more progressive schools1 and for which the best suggestions are scattered through current periodicals3 ,second1 to organize these methods and present them in a simple form for the use of teachers who have had no special training in handwork processes3 ,third1 accepting conditions as they exist in the small town school and the one-room country school1 as a basis of organization1 to offer suggestions which may be easily adapted to the conditions of any school with a view to bringing present practice into closer harmony with the best educational ideals4 ,no claim is laid to originality1 beyond the small details in which one person's interpretation of a large problem will differ from that of another4 ,the projects here outlined have been tested in the ,public ,schools of ,columbia1 ,missouri1 under conditions which are common to towns of about the same size4 ,the point of view has been influenced chiefly by the educational philosophy of ,prof4 ,john ,dewey1 especially as expressed in his essay ,the ,child and the ,curriculum4 ,the author wishes here to make grateful acknowledgement to ,dr4 ,dewey1 not only for the helpfulness of his writings1 but also for the inspiration of his teaching4 ,thanks are also due to ,dr4 ,naomi ,norsworthy of ,teachers ,college1 and to ,dean ,w4 ,w4 ,charters of ,missouri ,university1 for encouragement in planning the book and for criticism of the manuscript4 ,especial acknowledgment is here made to ,prof4 ,r4 ,w4 ,selvidge of ,peabody ,college for ,teachers1 formerly of this ,university1 for hearty coperation and helpful suggestions in working out the problems described in this book1 and to the teachers of the ,columbia ,schools for their most efficient services in testing these problems in their classrooms4 ,e4 ,v4 ,d4 ,,university ,,of ,,missouri1 ,february1 #aiad4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,introduction #a ,,ii4 ,,paper ,,cutting ,,and ,,poster ,,making #f ,,iii4 ,,booklets #ag ,,iv4 ,,criticism ,,and ,,standards ,,of ,,workmanship #bd ,v4 ,,the ,,house ,,problem #bg ,,vi4 ,,the ,,village ,,street #fe ,,vii4 ,,sand ,,tables ,,and ,,what ,,to ,,do ,,with ,,them #gg ,,viii4 ,,animals ,,and ,,toys #ajb ,,ix4 ,,holidays #aab ,x4 ,,general ,,suggestions ,,and ,,summary #aae ,,references #abc ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,page ,house of the ,three ,bears ,frontispiece #a4 ,paper ,cutting4 ,first ,grade #g #b4 ,paper ,cutting4 ,second ,grade #h #c4 ,paper ,cutting4 ,second ,grade #aj #d4 ,paper ,tearing #aa #e4 ,paper ,cutting4 ,third ,grade #ac #f4 ,paper ,cutting4 ,fourth ,grade #ae #g4 ,pamphlet ,sewing #bb #h4 ,japanese ,sewing #bb #i4 ,house arranged on a ,shelf #bh #aj4 ,a ,medieval ,castle #bi #aa4 ,house arranged on a ,table--,front ,view #cb #ab4 ,house arranged on a ,table--,side ,view #cc #ac4 ,house arranged on a ,table--,back ,view #cd #ad4 ,house ,plan #ce #ae4 ,arrangement of ,windows #cf #af4 ,detail of ,hollow ,square #ch #ag4 ,borders #ci #ah4 ,looms and ,samples of ,weaving #da #ai4 ,box ,house by ,second ,grade #dc #bj4 ,detail for ,paper ,weaving #dd #ba4 ,furniture from ,wood ,blocks #dh #bb4 ,furniture from ,wood ,blocks #dh #bc4 ,home of ,white ,cloud1 the ,pueblo ,girl #ea #bd4 ,detail of ,stairway #ed #be4 ,box ,house1 showing ,roof #ee #bf4 ,detail of ,gable #ef #bg4 ,colonial ,kitchen #ef #bh4 ,house of the ,three ,bears #ei #bi4 ,cornstalk ,house #fj #cj4 ,a ,flour ,mill #fb #ca4 ,box ,house and ,stores #ff #cb4 ,a ,village ,street #fh #cc4 ,a ,grocery4 ,fourth ,grade #gj #cd4 ,a ,grocery4 ,third ,grade #gc #ce4 ,a ,dry ,goods ,store #ge #cf4 ,home in a ,hot ,country #gf #cg4 ,home in a ,cold ,country #gf #ch4 ,a ,sand-table ,farm4 ,first ,grade #hj #ci4 ,a ,sand-table ,farm4 ,second ,grade #hj #dj4 ,detail of ,chicken ,fence #ha #da4 ,detail of ,paper ,tree #hd #db4 ,overall ,boys' ,farm #hf #dc4 ,an ,apple ,orchard #hg #dd4 ,robinson ,crusoe #hi #de4 ,pueblo ,indian ,village #ij #df4 ,a ,home in ,switzerland #ib #dg4 ,two ,little ,knights of ,kentucky #id #dh4 ,how ,cedric became a ,knight #id #di4 ,a ,sugar ,camp #ie #ej4 ,a ,western ,cattle ,ranch #if #ea4 ,the ,story of ,three ,little ,pigs #ih #eb4 ,a ,japanese ,tea ,garden #ii #ec4 ,a ,coal ,mine #ii #ed4 ,a ,chariot ,race #ajb #ee4 ,a ,circus ,parade #ajc #ef4 ,three-ply ,wooden ,animals #ajd #eg4 ,detail for ,three-ply ,wooden ,animals with ,movable ,parts #aje #eh4 ,notched ,rest for ,animals #ajf #ei4 ,balancing ,figures #ajg #fj4 ,some ,simple ,toys #ajh #fa4 ,adjusting ,jumping-,jack in ,frame #aji ,,primary ,,handwork ,,primary ,,handwork ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,in setting forth the plan and purpose of this little book the author wishes to lay equal emphasis on its limitations4 ,the outlines and suggestions which follow are designed for the use of grade teachers who have had little or no training in handwork processes but who appreciate the necessity of making worthy use of the child's natural activity and desire to do4 ,the outlines are arranged with reference to schools which are not provided with special equipment and which have scant funds for supplies4 ,the projects require only such materials as empty goods boxes1 and odds and ends of cloth and paper1 which are easily obtainable in any community4 ,no extra time is required for the work1 and it may be successfully carried out by any teacher who is willing to devote a little study to the possibilities of things near at hand4 ,these outlines do not form a course of study to be followed in regular order nor in set lessons coming at a definite time4 ,they are1 rather1 a series of suggestions to be used wherever and whenever they will serve a worthy purpose4 ,they are not to be regarded as a special subject1 having little or no connection with the regular class work1 but rather as an illustrative method of teaching the regular subject matter whenever the teaching can be done more effectively by means of concrete illustrations4 ,it is proposed to make greater use of construction as a medium of expression1 and place making more nearly on a par with talking1 writing1 and drawing4 ,any of the projects outlined may be modified to suit varying conditions1 and the emphasis placed according to the needs of a particular class4 ,all the suggestions are given in very simple form1 chiefly from the standpoint of the first grade1 for the reason that it is easier to add to the details of a simple problem than to simplify one which is complex4 ,it is not the purpose here to emphasize the training of the hand or the development of technique in handwork processes to the extent commonly expected of a course in manual arts1 though considerable dexterity in the use of tools and materials will undoubtedly be developed as the work proceeds4 ,while careless work is never to be tolerated in construction any more than it would be tolerated in writing or drawing1 the standard is to be only such a degree of perfection as is possible through a child's unaided efforts4 ,it is proposed to provide him with things to do of such interest to him that he will wish to do his best1 and things of such a nature that they will please him best when they are well done1 and so stimulate a genuine desire for good work4 ,to this end the suggestions relate to things of immediate value and use to the children themselves1 rather than to things commonly comprehended in a list of articles which are useful from the adult point of view4 ,the work is to be kept on a level with the child's experience and used as a means of broadening his experience and lifting it to a higher level4 ,it must also be kept on the level of his constructive ability in order that he may do things by himself1 and develop independence through feeling himself master of his tools4 ,neither patterns nor definite directions are provided for the details of the projects outlined1 for the reason that it is desired to make every project a spontaneous expression of the child's own ideas4 ,to this end the outline serves only as a framework1 to be filled in as the worker desires4 ,the ready-made pattern implies dictation on the part of the teacher and mechanical imitation and repetition on the part of the pupil1--a process almost fatal to spontaneous effort4 ,while it is possible through a method of dictation to secure results which seem1 at first1 to be much better than the crude constructions which children are able to work out for themselves1 it is only a superficial advantage1 and one gained at the expense of the child's growth in power to think and act independently4 ,it is an advantage closely akin to the parrotlike recitation of the pupil who catches a few glib phrases and gives them back without thought1 as compared with the recitation of the pupil who thinks and expresses his thoughts in his own childish language4 ,these outlines are intended not only to emphasize independence in self-expression1 but also to foster a social spirit through community effort and develop a sense of responsibility through division of labor4 ,a child's shortcomings will be brought home to him much more vividly if he fails to contribute some essential assigned to him in the construction of a coperative project1 and thereby spoils the pleasure of the whole group1 than when his failure affects only his individual effort in a group of duplicate projects4 ,these outlines are intended also to suggest a method of opening up to the children1 in an attractive way1 the great field of industry4 ,their deep interest in playing store leads easily to a study of the source1 use1 and value of various forms of merchandise and the essential features of various trades and occupations4 ,problems of this sort are fascinating to children in all the lower grades1 are rich in valuable subject matter1 and suggest things to do which are both interesting and worth while4 ,without attempting to exhaust any phase of the subject1 they awaken an intelligent interest in the industrial world and tend to stimulate thoughtful observation4 ,they help to give the children correct ideas about industrial processes as far as their knowledge goes1 and to create a desire for further knowledge4 ,this general information lays a good foundation for later and more serious study of the industries and the choice of a vocation4 ,these outlines are offered as a means of bridging the gap between the formal methods and outgrown courses of study still in use and the richer curriculum and more vital methods toward which we are working4 ,much time must be spent in study and experimentation before a satisfactory reorganization of the curriculum can be worked out4 ,without waiting until this work shall be wholly completed1 it is possible at once to vitalize the most formal course of study through the use of freer methods1 which permit and encourage self-directed activity on the part of the pupil4 ,the use of such methods will not only tend to create a deeper interest in school work1 but must also help toward the great problem of reorganization1 by throwing into stronger relief the strength and weakness of our present common practice4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,paper ,,cutting ,,and ,,poster ,,making ,paper and scissors form a fascinating combination to all children1 and offer a very direct means of self-expression4 ,in the language of a small boy who attempted to tell how to do it1 ,you just think about something and then cut out your think4 ,the teacher is concerned chiefly with the think and the way in which it is expressed4 ,the children are interested in paper cutting chiefly from the pleasure of the activity4 ,beyond the immediate pleasure in the process1 the cuttings are valuable only as they indicate the clearness of the child's ideas and measure his ability to express them4 ,the process is educative only in so far as it helps the small worker to see with his mind's eye and to give tangible shape to what he thus sees4 ,it is important1 therefore1 that the work be done in a way that will emphasize the thinking rather than the finished product4 ,the first question arising is1 ,to what extent shall a pattern be used8 ,shall the teacher cut out the object and bid the class follow her example8 ,shall she display a silhouette or outline drawing of the object she desires the children to cut1 or shall they work without any external guide to justify or modify the mental picture8 ,shall they be given a pattern and be allowed to draw around it8 ,all of the above methods are used to a greater or less extent4 ,long experience seems to indicate that the first cutting of any object should be unassisted by any external representation of it whatever1 in order that the attention of each child may be focused upon his own mental picture of the object4 ,when he has put forth his best effort from this standpoint1 he should compare his cutting with the real object or a good picture of it and be led to see the chief defects in his own production and then allowed to try again4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,story of ,jack ,horner on poster and sand table4 ,snowflakes in background4 ,first grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,for example1 after telling the story of ,mother ,hubbard1 the children may be interested in cutting out dogs4 ,no picture or other guide should be used at first1 since every child knows something about dogs4 ,the first cuttings are likely to be very poor1 partly because the children have not sufficient control over the scissors and largely because their ideas are very vague4 ,in a general comparison of work they will help each other with such criticisms as1 ,this dog's head is too big4 ,that dog's legs are too stiff4 ,they are then ready to try again4 ,only when they have reached the limit of their power to see flaws in their work do they need to compare it with the real dog or its picture4 ,only after a child has attempted to express his idea and has become conscious in ever so small a degree of the imperfection of his expression will he really be able to see differences between the real object and his representation of it1 and thereby clarify his mental picture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,paper cutting4 ,second grade1 ,columbia4 ,the child's imagination is so strong that he is apt to see his productions not as they are but as he means them to be1 and he is unable to distinguish between the original and his copy of it4 ,if the picture or silhouette is presented at first1 his work becomes to a large extent mere copying rather than self-expression4 ,if the teacher cuts out a dog and displays it as a sample1 the class will be apt to see that piece of paper only and not a real dog4 ,if the children are permitted to draw the outline either freehand or around a pattern1 still less mental effort is required1 and in cutting they see only the bit of line just ahead of the scissors and not the object as a whole4 ,such methods 7i4e4 the use of outlines1 silhouettes1 etc47 will produce better immediate results4 ,it will be easier to distinguish dogs and cats from cows and horses if a pattern is provided1 but it will not produce stronger children4 ,such methods only defeat the chief purpose of the work1 which is to stimulate the mental effort required to hold the mental image of the object in the focus of attention during the time required to reproduce it in the material form4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,paper cutting4 ,second grade4 ,it is also often asked whether the children shall always cut directly and without modification or whether they shall be permitted to trim off the imperfections of their first attempts4 ,while any rule must always be interpreted in the light of immediate circumstances1 it is generally best to cut directly1 and after noting the defects1 cut again4 ,it is then possible to compare the several attempts and see if improvement has been made4 ,attention should be directed to the most glaring defect only1 and an attempt made to correct it4 ,for example1 if the dog's head is too large1 do not trim down1 but cut another dog and try for better proportions4 ,compare the second attempt with the first1 to measure improvement4 ,even little children can be taught to work in this thoughtful way1 looking for the defects in their own work and making definite attempts to correct them4 ,to this end much cutting from an unlimited supply of newspaper or scratch paper will accomplish more than a few exercises in better paper which must be trimmed and worked over for the sake of economy4 ,if little children are allowed to trim off1 they are apt1 in the pure joy of cutting1 to trim too much and lose the idea with which they started--a process which tends to vagueness rather than clearness4 ,to prevent this it is often helpful to preserve both pieces of paper1 i4e4 the cutting and the hole4 7,see ,fig4 #d47 ,paper ,tearing4--,paper tearing serves many of the same purposes sought in cutting1 and has several strong points in its favor4 ,working directly with the finger tips tends to develop a desirable dexterity of manipulation4 ,the nature of the process prevents the expression of small details and tends to emphasize bold outlines and big general proportions4 ,working directly with the fingers tends also to prevent a weak dependence upon certain tools and tends to develop power to express an idea by whatever means is at hand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,paper tearing4 ,posters4--,the term poster as here used includes all mounted pictures made by children1 such as cuttings1 drawings1 paintings1 and scrap pictures4 ,a poster may be the work of one child or of a group4 ,a single poster may tell the whole story1 or a series of posters may be made to show a sequence of events4 ,a series of posters may be bound together in book form4 ,for poster making single sheets of paper1 medium weight and of neutral tone1 are needed4 ,the sheets should be of uniform size for individual use so that they could be bound together if desired4 ,for coperative work and special problems larger sheets will be needed4 ,,suggested ,,problems ,,for ,,paper ,,work ,cutting out ,pictures4--,this serves well for first effort with scissors4 ,the interest in the picture furnishes a motive1 while the outline serves as a guide and allows the attention to be given wholly to the control of the scissors4 ,free cutting of single objects--such as animals1 fruits1 trees1 furniture1 utensils1 etc4--intensifies and clarifies mental pictures and stimulates observation if the child is led to express his own ideas first and then to compare his expression with the original and note his deficiencies4 ,as far as possible choose objects with strong bold outlines for the first attempts4 ,there should be some marked feature1 such as ,bunny's long ears1 which calls for emphasis4 ,to cut a circular piece of paper which might be an apple or a peach1 a walnut or a tomato1 will not aid much in clarifying a mental picture1 while ,bunny's long ears1 even though crudely cut1 will be more deeply impressed on the child's mind4 ,illustrations for ,stories4--,single ,illustration4--,after a story has been read aloud and the characters and events freely discussed by the class1 each child may be encouraged to represent the part which has appealed to him--i4e4 cut what he wants to cut4 ,after the cuttings are mounted they will probably form a series which will tell the whole story4 ,when several children illustrate the same feature1 it offers opportunity for comparison and judgment as to which ones have told the story most effectively4 ,for example1 in the story of the ,three ,bears1 the cuttings may show the three bears in three relative sizes1 the three chairs1 the three beds1 the table1 and the three bowls of porridge4 7,see notes on ,criticism47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,free cutting4 ,third grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,series4--,let each child select the two or three most important events in a story and illustrate these in a single poster or series of posters4 ,community ,poster4--,a long story such as the ,old ,woman and the ,silver ,sixpence may be illustrated by the class as a whole1 each child cutting some one feature4 ,this requires attention to relative proportions so that the parts may be in harmony when assembled4 ,such posters may be used for wall decoration4 ,charts4--,poster making may also include the making of charts containing samples of manufactured articles in various stages of development4 ,for example1 a chart on cotton might show raw cotton1 cord1 thread1 cloth of various sorts1 lace1 paper1 and other materials made from cotton4 ,such a chart might also include pictures of cotton fields1 spinning and weaving machinery1 and other related features4 ,materials4--,too much can scarcely be said in favor of much cutting from an unlimited supply of common wrapping paper1 newspaper1 or other waste paper1 in which the children are entirely unhampered by such injunctions as1 ,be careful and get it just right the first time1 because you can't have another paper if you waste this piece4 ,the possible danger of cultivating wastefulness is less serious and more easily overcome than the very probable danger of dwarfing and cramping the power of expression4 ,here1 if anywhere1 the rule holds good that we learn to do by doing1 and abundant practice is essential to success4 ,black silhouette or poster paper is most effective when mounted1 but is too expensive for general use in large classes4 ,brown kraft paper and tailor's pattern paper serve well for both cuttings and mounts4 ,both of these papers may be had by the roll at a low cost4 ,the tailor's paper comes in several dull colors1 which make good mounts for cuttings from white scratch paper or the fine print of newspaper4 ,bogus paper makes an excellent mount and is very inexpensive4 ,the ,pasting ,process4--,to a large number of teachers the pasting lesson is a time to be dreaded and its results a cause of discouragement4 ,especially is this true if the class is large and the teacher attempts to have all the class pasting at one time4 ,in many phases of school work it is so much easier to control forty or fifty children if they all act in unison that we are prone to use the method too often and apply it to forms of work much better managed by groups4 ,the process of teaching little folks to paste is greatly simplified by the use of the group method4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,free cutting4 ,fourth grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,if the room affords a large table at which a small group may work1 the teacher can easily supervise the work of the entire group4 ,if there is no table1 the teacher can work with one or two rows at a time or have very small groups come to her desk4 ,the secret of the success of the group method lies in having the rest of the class busy with some occupation sufficiently interesting to prevent impatience while waiting for turns4 ,the command to fold hands and sit still till your turn comes is sure to cause trouble1 because children are physically unable to obey it4 ,the most important factor in successful pasting is a liberal supply of waste paper4 ,each child should be supplied with a number of single sheets of newspaper torn to convenient size1 to paste on1 each sheet to be discarded as soon as used4 ,this decreases the danger of untidy work4 ,with the cutting laid upon the waste paper1 the paste may be spread with brush1 thin wood1 or thick paper1 well out over the edges4 ,as soon as the pasted cutting is lifted the waste paper should be folded over to cover all wet paste and lessen the possibility of accidents4 ,after the cutting is placed upon the mount1 a clean piece of waste paper should be laid over it and rubbed until the air is all pressed out and the cutting adheres firmly4 ,the waste paper overlay may be rubbed vigorously without harm1 whereas a light touch of sticky fingers directly upon the cutting will leave a soiled spot1 if it does not tear the moist paper4 ,if children are carefully taught in small groups to follow this method of pasting1 in a fairly short time all but the weakest members of the class will be able to paste neatly without much supervision4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,booklets ,the making of booklets forms a valuable accompaniment to almost every phase of school work4 ,even simple exercises1 when put into book form1 take on a dignity otherwise impossible and seem more worth while4 ,it is impossible to work with much enthusiasm and care on exercises which are destined only for the wastebasket4 ,the chief value in the making of booklets is lost when they are made for display purposes only4 ,many difficulties are sure to arise when the teacher1 for the sake of her own reputation1 sets an arbitrary standard and tries to force every member of the class to meet it4 ,because of these difficulties many teachers dread and avoid work of this sort1 but the trouble lies in our false standards and poor methods rather than in the process itself4 ,when the exhibit idea is uppermost1 each page must be examined with great care1 done over again and again if need be1 until the standard is reached or the patience of both teacher and pupil exhausted4 ,in such a case the work practically ceases to be the child's own4 ,instead of expressing an idea of his own in his own way1 he tries to express the teacher's idea in the teacher's way1 and it is not surprising that he fails so often4 ,the booklet serves its best purpose when it combines both value and need2 that is1 when it is something which seems worth while to the pupil and when he feels responsible for its success4 ,he should feel something akin to the responsibility one feels in writing an important letter2 that is1 that it must be right the first time because there is no opportunity to try again and that he cannot afford to do less than his best because what is done will stand4 ,to express his own idea in his own way does not mean that his work is to be undirected or that poor results are to be accepted4 ,it does mean that when an idea and a means of expressing it have been suggested to him1 he shall be allowed to do the best he can by himself1 and that when he has done his best1 it shall be accepted even though imperfect4 ,under no circumstances should his work be touched up by the teacher4 ,if he is not asked to do things which are too hard for him1 he will not make many serious errors4 ,if these are wisely pointed out1 they will not often be repeated4 ,if his attention is held to one or two important features at a time1 each effort will mean some gain4 ,the making of a booklet in the primary grades should really consist in making a cover to preserve pages already made or to receive pages on certain topics as they are finished4 ,the making of an animal book1 for example1 might be a continuous process4 ,whenever a new animal is studied and a cutting or drawing of it made1 the new page may be added to the book4 ,the first books should be picture books only1 collections of cuttings1 drawings1 and mounted pictures4 ,as the children learn to write they may add first the name and then short descriptions of the pictures1 the development proceeding by easy stages until their composition work takes the form of the illustrated story4 ,books which are a collection of single sheets are1 as a rule1 most satisfactory in the primary school4 ,the single sheet is much more convenient to use1 and there is always an inspiration in beginning with a fresh sheet of paper4 ,it is more difficult to paste cuttings into a book1 and if pages are spoiled1 the book is spoiled4 ,if separate sheets are used1 a poor one may be done over or discarded without affecting the rest4 ,the making of booklets and posters offers an excellent opportunity for developing artistic appreciation4 ,it is not enough for the teacher to provide only good colors from which the children may choose1 and to supervise the spacing of pictures and then flatter herself that because the results are good that the children are developing good taste4 ,unless they really want the good things1 little real gain has been made4 ,unless they see some reason for the arrangement of a page1 other than that the teacher wants it that way1 little has been accomplished4 ,the first attempts will show little or no idea of balance or good spacing4 ,the early color combinations are apt to be crude4 ,if the best things they do are praised and their attention is constantly directed to the good points in things about them1 they will begin to want those things4 ,they will begin gradually to feel a greater pleasure in a well-balanced page than in one on which big and little pictures are stuck indiscriminately4 ,if they are given all possible freedom in matters of choice1 it will be possible to measure their real progress and to know what points need emphasis4 ,the more accustomed the children are to tasteful surroundings1 the easier will be their progress1 but whether they come from tasteful homes or the reverse1 the process is the same4 ,real progress will undoubtedly be slow1 but it should be upon a sure foundation4 ,,suggested ,,topics ,,for ,,booklets ,stories4--,series of illustrations either cut or drawn for any of the stories read by the class4 ,animal ,book4--,cuttings or sketches of animals4 ,the name and short statement of some characteristic may be added by children who are able to write4 ,trees1 flowers1 fruits1 etc41 may be treated in the same way4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,book4--,a page for each letter of the alphabet to be filled with pictures and names of objects having the same initial letter4 ,house ,book4--,a page for each room1 upon which may be mounted pictures of things appropriate to the room4 ,newspaper advertisements and catalogs furnish abundant material for this problem4 ,the work not only helps the children to classify present knowledge1 but offers opportunity for judgment as to arrangement and relative proportions4 ,how ,people ,live4--,a book of pictures of houses in different countries4 ,famous ,houses4--,pictures of famous buildings and homes of famous people4 ,what we ,wear4--,pictures showing materials from which clothing is made1 the methods of production and manufacture4 ,what we ,eat4--,vegetable foods may be grouped as roots1 stalks1 leaves1 seeds1 etc4 ,animal foods may be classified according to the animal from which they are obtained and the part of the animal from which they are cut4 ,suggestions for cooking may be added4 ,how we ,travel4--,pictures showing vehicles and conveyances of all sorts1 classified as ancient and modern1 or according to the countries in which they are used1 or the motive power1 as horses1 electricity1 steam1 etc4 ,in connection with elementary geography and history1 booklets and posters may be made up from pictures cut from discarded papers1 catalogs1 and magazines1 as well as original drawings4 ,a great variety of topics may be profitably illustrated in this way4 ,as1 for example1 land and water forms1 famous mountains1 lakes1 rivers1 etc41 products and processes of cultivation and manufacture1 famous people1 costumes and customs of other times and places1 utensils and weapons of earlier times4 ,fastenings4--,the simplest method of binding single sheets is by means of paper fasteners and eyelets4 ,though these are not expensive1 some schools cannot afford to buy them4 ,cords may be used in several ways and serve as part of the decoration4 ,the ,simple ,tie4--,punch three holes in the margin1 at least one half inch from the edge to prevent tearing out4 ,insert the cord in the middle hole1 carry through one end hole1 then through the other end hole1 then back through the middle and tie4 7,see ,fig4 #g47 ,japanese ,sewing4--,punch holes at regular intervals1 as one inch apart4 ,sew through first hole twice1 making a loop around the back1--repeat the process until a loop has been made for each hole1--carry the cord in and out through the holes back to the starting point1 filling in the blank places and making a continuous line1 and tie ends together with a small knot4 7,see ,fig4 #h47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,pamphlet sewing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,japanese binding4 ,decoration4--,only the simplest decoration should be attempted4 ,a plain cover of good color tied with a cord of harmonious color will have elements of beauty without further decoration4 ,a single border line well placed may be used and offers opportunity for developing a nice sense of proportion by studying the results to see which borders are neither too near the edge nor too far from it4 ,a well-printed1 well-placed title is often the most satisfactory decoration4 ,printing should be introduced early1 and the children encouraged to make good plain letters4 ,in order to get the title in good proportion and well placed1 it is helpful to cut a piece of paper the desired size and lay it on the cover1 moving it about to see where it looks best4 ,until the children have learned to do fairly neat work it is often helpful to print the title on a separate piece and paste it in place4 ,it is discouraging to spoil an otherwise good cover by a bad letter1 and this process lessens that danger4 ,before the children learn to print1 a simple border or band across the cover may take the place of the title4 ,the border may be drawn in crayons or be free-hand cuttings4 ,too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the beauty of simplicity in decoration4 ,children are inclined to think beauty means fanciness and that beauty increases with the quantity of decoration4 ,it is necessary to begin early to develop a taste for good design4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,criticism ,,and ,,standards ,,of ,,workmanship ,criticism4--,an important feature of all self-directed activity is the ability to judge one's efforts and intelligently measure one's success4 ,this ability is a matter of slow growth and must be cultivated4 ,it is not enough for the teacher to pass judgment upon a piece of work and grade its quality4 ,the worker himself must learn to find his own mistakes and how to correct them4 ,class criticism offers the best means of developing this power1 but must be tactfully conducted4 ,little children are brutally frank in expressing their opinions and need to be taught how to be truthful and yet not unkind4 ,they need to be taught what to look for and how to find it1 and how to compare one thing with another and discover why one pleases and another displeases4 ,the first essential in the training is emphasis on the good rather than the bad4 ,it is a gospel of do rather than of don't4 ,the earliest efforts of the class may well be confined to comments upon the features they like and1 if possible1 the reason for the liking4 ,this will forestall any tendency to call undue attention to the poor efforts of weak workers4 ,at first many children will scarcely discriminate between their admiration for a piece of work and their love for the worker and will be apt to praise the work of their special friends4 ,this tendency will gradually disappear through the development of a real basis of appreciation4 ,the second essential concerns the improvement of the things which are not good4 ,criticism which merely points out what is bad is of little value4 ,helpful criticism must point out what is good and why1 and what is weak and how to make it stronger4 ,if1 for example1 the class is considering the success of their efforts to illustrate the story of the ,three ,bears1 they should be encouraged to make such comments as1 ,john's chairs look too small for his table1 ,mary's bowls are all about the same size4 ,the criticism should direct the thought to its possible remedy4 ,it is generally better to pass over defects for which no immediate remedy can be suggested4 ,standards of ,workmanship4--,the standard of excellence by which acceptable work is measured must always vary according to the ability of the class4 ,the best the child can do1 alone and unaided1 should be the only standard of measurement1 and his best efforts should always be accepted1 no matter how crude4 ,in no other way can real growth be observed and genuine progress made4 ,in schools where arbitrary standards are set either by supervisors or by the rivalry of teachers1 the tendency to help the children by doing part of the work for them for the sake of the apparent results1 offers the teacher's most serious temptation to selfishness4 ,in a few cases it is helpful for the teacher to add a few strokes to a drawing or adjust some detail in construction1 that the child may see the value of certain small changes in the place where they will mean most to him4 ,such work should not be exhibited as an example of the child's accomplishment1 but should be treated as practice work4 ,as a rule the teacher's demonstration should be made on other material and not on that used by the pupil4 ,in no particular are primary schools open to greater criticism than in the too common habit of setting arbitrary standards of excellence and attempting to force all children to reach them4 ,such standards are usually too high for honest attainment and tempt or force the teacher to use methods which cannot be defended by any sound principle of pedagogy4 ,values change with the purpose of the work4 ,a thing is well made when it serves its purpose adequately4 ,toys must be strong enough to permit handling4 ,mechanical toys must work4 ,sewing must be strong as well as neat4 ,in illustrative problems1 in which effect is the chief consideration1 technique needs little emphasis1 and workmanship may be of a temporary character4 ,each thing made should establish its own standard in a way to appeal to the child's common sense4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,house ,,problem ,the making of a playhouse has long been an accepted feature of primary work1 but we have not always made it yield all of which it is capable1 either in the self-directed activity of the children or in correlated subject matter4 ,it has1 in many cases1 been only a bit of recreation from the more serious work of the school4 ,in a house prepared by the janitor or older pupils the children have been allowed to arrange and rearrange ready-made furniture contributed from their playthings at home1 but little creative work has been attempted4 ,in other cases an elaborate house1 carefully planned by the teacher1 has been built and furnished by the children1 but1 because of the detailed planning1 the children's part in it became merely a mechanical following of directions4 ,in some cases relative proportions in rooms and furnishings have received scant attention2 in others1 color harmonies have been all but ignored4 ,these varying methods of carrying out the house-building idea are not without value and may often be justified by local conditions1 but their results are meager compared with the possible richness of the problem4 ,playing at house building and housekeeping appeals to an interest so universal that children of all times and nations yield to its power4 ,it is therefore necessary to take account of its influence in their development and to dignify it with the approval of the school4 ,we must refine and enrich it by our direction and suggestion without robbing it of its simplicity and charm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,box house1 arranged on a shelf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,medieval castle4 ,built by third grade4 ,franklin1 ,indiana4 ,an example of elaborate work which aroused the interest of pupils and patrons and paved the way for freer work later4 ,in the suggestions which follow1 an attempt is made to utilize this natural activity of children in an occupation which appeals to them as worth while4 ,at the same time it may furnish ample opportunity for the general development and effective teaching of various phases of subject matter which are incident to the occupation1 i4e4 number in connection with measurements1 art in the proportions and color combinations1 language through discussions and descriptions4 ,the work is kept on the level of the children's experience by throwing them constantly on their own responsibility in every possible detail1 the teacher never dictating the method of procedure and guiding the work with as few suggestions as possible4 ,the work1 being on the level of their experience1 appeals to the children as very real and worth while4 ,it is1 therefore1 intensely interesting1 and they work without urging4 ,general ,plan4--,a house may be constructed from several empty goods boxes1 each box forming one room of the house4 ,the boxes or rooms are arranged in convenient order1 but are not fastened together4 ,adjoining rooms are connected by doors carefully cut in both boxes so that the holes match4 ,windows are also sawed out where needed4 ,the walls are papered1 careful attention being given to color schemes1 border designs1 and relative proportions in spacing4 ,floors are provided with suitable coverings--woven rugs1 mattings1 linoleums1 tiles1 according to the purpose of the room4 ,each step is discussed and more or less definitely outlined before the actual making is begun1 furnishing opportunity for oral language of a vital sort4 ,completed parts are examined and criticized1 furnishing further opportunity for exercise in oral language while directing attention to strong and weak points in the work4 ,the materials needed are easily obtainable and inexpensive1 consisting chiefly of empty boxes and odds and ends of paper1 cloth1 and yarn1 together with carpenters' scraps4 ,the tools needed are few1 and in some cases may be brought from home by the children for a few days1 as needed4 ,the necessary time is found by making the incidental problems serve as subject matter for regular lessons4 ,making designs for tiling1 linoleum1 and borders for wall paper1 planning relative proportions for doors1 windows1 and furnishings will supply material for very practical lessons in art4 ,the problems incident to the measurement of doors and windows1 tables and chairs1 are number work of a vital sort and may be legitimately used as a regular number lesson4 ,discussions1 descriptions1 and definite statements of plans all form vital language exercises if rightly used4 ,,house ,,plans ,,in ,,detail ,materials4--,empty ,store ,boxes of ,soft ,wood4--,sizes may vary1 but where several are grouped for a house1 they should be near enough the same height to make a fairly level ceiling4 ,about #aj #ab #ah in4 is a convenient size4 ,paper for ,walls4--,scraps of ingrain wall papers may be had from dealers for little or nothing4 ,cover paper in good colors may be purchased by the sheet4 ,tailor's paper and brown wrapping paper serve well1 and are sold by the roll at a low price4 ,pasteboard 7strawboard or juteboard7 may be used for the roof4 ,weaving ,materials4--,rugs may be made from carpet rags1 rug yarns1 rovings1 chenille1 or jute2 towels from crochet cotton2 and hammocks from macram cord or carpet warp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,house arranged on a table4 ,front view4 ,built by first grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,wood for ,furniture4--,bass1 white pine1 poplar1 or other soft wood4 ,box tops1 if of soft wood1 may be made to serve nearly all needs4 ,if possible1 provide thin wood 7about #a_/d in4 thick7 in various widths1 from one inch to six inches1 so that only one dimension need be measured4 ,provide also thick pieces #a-a_/b in4 or #b in4 square for beds and chairs2 #a_/b in4 square for table legs4 ,nails of various sizes1 chiefly inch brads1 are needed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,house arranged on a table4 ,side view4 ,built by second grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,tools4--,the tools actually necessary are few4 ,a class can get along with one saw and still do good work1 though there will be times when several saws will facilitate progress4 ,some tools are needed only for a short time and sometimes may be borrowed from the homes4 ,it is more satisfactory to have the school provided with the essential tools whenever possible4 ,the essential tools include3 ,brace and auger bit1 for boring holes in doors and windows4 ,needed for a short time only4 ,compass saw1 for sawing out doors and windows4 ,crosscut saw1 for sawing off lumber4 ,school should own at least one4 ,miter box1 for holding lumber and guiding saw4 ,an old one1 good enough for children's use1 will frequently be contributed by a carpenter4 ,the miter box should be fastened firmly to a low table or box4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,house arranged on a table4 ,back view4 ,built by second grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,hammers1 several of medium size4 ,try-square1 a very valuable tool for setting right angles1 provided the teacher and pupils know how to use it4 ,arrangement of ,rooms4--,the sort of house a man can build is governed by his resources and his site4 ,considering the number of boxes as resources and the table or shelf on which they are to stand as the site1 the same big factors which enter into any house-building problem control the size and style of the schoolroom playhouse4 ,what sort of house is desired8 ,what sort of house can be built from the materials at hand8 ,what sort of house can be built in the space at our disposal8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,house plan4 ,the boxes may be arranged on a shelf with all the open sides toward the class1 as in ,fig4 #i4 ,this economizes space1 and all of the rooms are visible at once4 ,a two-story house is easily built on this plan4 ,if economy of space is not necessary1 the boxes may be placed on a table with the open sides of the boxes toward the edges of the table1 as in ,figs4 #aa1 #ab1 and #ac4 ,this permits a more artistic grouping of the rooms4 7,see ,fig4 #ad47 ,the responsibility in grouping the boxes should be thrown as fully as possible upon the children1 the teacher merely suggesting where necessary4 ,it should be their house1 not the teacher's4 ,the planning should not be hurried but time allowed to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different plans and reach an agreement4 ,in trying to express individual opinions convincingly their ideas will become clearer--a factor in the development of the children which is much more important than any of the actual details of the house itself4 ,whether the class decides to have one or two bedrooms in the house is a matter of small consequence4 ,whether or not they are growing in power to appreciate conditions and make an intelligent decision is a matter of great consequence4 ,their decisions when made may not always reach the high standard at which the teacher is aiming1 but if they have really made a decision1 not merely followed the teacher's suggestion1 and if their independent selections from time to time show a higher standard of appreciation and greater refinement of taste in ever so small a degree1 it is evidence of genuine growth upon a sure foundation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,arrangement of windows4 ,doors and ,windows4--,the size and arrangement of doors and windows should be freely discussed4 ,various possible arrangements may be sketched upon the blackboard by the children4 ,for example1 see ,fig4 #ae1 a and b4 ,when a plan is adopted1 the doors and windows should be carefully drawn on the outside of each box1 using the try-square to get right angles4 ,bore holes in the corners of the doors and windows and saw out with keyhole or compass saw4 ,in order to avoid mistakes it is well1 after sawing out the opening for a door in one box1 to place the two boxes together and test the measurements before sawing out the second opening4 ,a mistake of this sort1 however1 is not fatal1 but may prove the most effective way of impressing the workers with the necessity of careful measurement4 ,walls4--,the decoration of the walls will furnish material for several art lessons4 ,the discussion should turn first to the suitability of different styles for different purposes1 such as tiling for kitchen and bathroom walls1 light papers for dark rooms1 etc4 ,the division of wall space will be the next point to be settled1 i4e4 the height of the tiling or wainscot1 the width of a border1 or the effect of horizontal and vertical lines in breaking up wall space4 ,these questions may be discussed as far as the immediate circumstances and the development of the class suggest4 ,the question of color combinations demands special attention4 ,unless the children come from refined homes their ideas of color will be very crude1 and if contributions of material have been asked for1 some gaudy impossibilities in flowered paper are apt to be presented4 ,if so1 it may require considerable tact on the part of the teacher to secure a satisfactory selection without casting any reflections on the taste of somebody's mother4 ,this difficulty may be avoided to a degree by providing all the materials necessary4 ,it is not enough1 however1 to cause the children to select good combinations at the teacher's suggestion while in their hearts they are longing for the gaudy thing she has frowned upon4 ,it is better to get an honest expression from them1 even though it is very crude1 and endeavor to educate their taste to a love for better things1 so that each time they choose the choice may be on a higher level of appreciation4 ,immediate results may not be as beautiful by this plan1 and apparent progress may be slow1 but only by some such method can a real appreciation be developed which will prevent the return to the crude expression as soon as the teacher's influence is withdrawn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,detail of hollow square4 ,plain papers generally give the most pleasing effects4 ,attractive borders may be made by cutting simple units and repeating them at intervals4 ,almost any motif may be used for the unit4 ,animals1 birds1 trees1 flowers1 ships1 etc41 serve well4 ,the process of making the border should be a serious lesson in design4 ,a good border is not merely the repetition of a pretty figure4 ,the units must not be too far apart nor too close together4 ,the shape of the figure used must be such that each unit seems to need the next one4 ,little children will usually take greatest pleasure in working from some nature motif1 as flower or animal1 but interesting work can be done with simple geometric figures4 ,take1 for example1 the hollow square4 ,fold a square of paper on both diagonals4 7,see ,fig4 #af47 ,cut on dotted line4 ,let each child cut several and lay them in order for a border or mount them on a paper of different color4 ,let the work of the class be put up for general criticism4 7,see notes on ,criticism47 ,several points which very small children are able to appreciate will be found to enter into the success or failure of their efforts4 ,the hollow square itself may be cut too wide and look clumsy1 or cut too narrow and look frail4 ,in the arrangement they may be too close together and look crowded1 or too far apart and look scattered4 ,a sensitiveness to good proportions comes naturally to only a few people1 but nearly all are capable of a higher degree of appreciation if their attention is directed to the essential elements which make things good or bad4 ,the beginnings of this appreciation lie in simple things which are easily understood by first-grade children4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,borders using hollow square4 ,floors4--,many of the considerations which enter into the selection of wall decorations are of equal importance in choosing floor coverings4 ,what will be suitable to the purpose of each room8 ,why do we use linoleum in the kitchen and warm rugs in the bedroom8 ,shall we use small rugs or a carpet8 ,what colors must we have on the floor to harmonize with the colors on the wall8 ,what designs are possible and desirable for the materials we have to use8 ,rug ,weaving ,materials4--,the market offers a wide variety of materials prepared especially for school use4 ,among them the most satisfactory for use with small workers are cotton rovings1 loose twisted jute1 and cotton chenille4 ,these1 especially the first two1 are coarse and work up rapidly1 and may be had in very desirable colors4 ,even the cheapest of them1 however1 will prove an expensive item for the school with limited funds1 and ordinary carpet rags may be made to serve every purpose4 ,often these will be contributed by members of the class4 ,by a careful selection and combination of colors very artistic results can be produced which are in some respects more satisfactory than any obtained from the so-called weaving materials1 and have the added advantage of costing practically nothing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,looms and samples of weaving4 ,looms4--,the market also offers a great variety of looms for school use1 many of them quite simple in construction and moderate in price4 ,in schools where bench work is taught1 the making of a loom is an excellent problem either for the weavers themselves or for an older class working for them4 ,if the looms are made by the little weavers themselves1 only the simplest possible construction should be used1 that the work may be completed and the loom put to use before the worker loses sight of the fact that the purpose is to provide carpet for the house4 ,children lose interest in long-drawn-out processes1 and for that reason it is better to provide them with the necessary tools as far as possible while interest in the house building is keen4 ,later1 if considerable enthusiasm has been aroused for weaving1 individual looms may be made for home use4 ,for the school with scant funds a very satisfactory loom may be improvised by driving nails one fourth inch apart in the ends of a shallow box of convenient size and stretching the warp threads across the open top4 ,for very small rugs a cardboard loom will serve4 ,this may be made by cutting notches or punching holes along opposite edges of a piece of cardboard into which the warp may be strung4 ,if a knitting needle is inserted at each side1 the cardboard will be stiffened and the edges of the rug kept straight4 ,weaving needles may be purchased from supply houses4 ,wooden needles cost #ej cents per dozen4 ,sack needles serve well for small rugs and may be had at any hardware store for #aj cents per dozen4 ,weaves4--,for first weaving the plain over one1 under one on cotton warp with rags or other coarse woof is generally best4 ,variety may be introduced by weaving a stripe or border of a different tone near each end of the rug4 ,vertical stripes serve well as another easy method of variation and are produced by using two woof threads of different tones and weaving first with one and then with the other4 ,this weave is very attractive as the body of the rug with a plain border at either end4 ,as soon as the children have mastered the plain weave and have a fairly clear idea of the possibilities in design through varying the colors in the woof only1 they may be initiated into the mysteries of the gingham weave and allowed to experiment with the variations in warp as well as in woof4 ,cotton rovings is an excellent material for weaves of this sort4 ,this weave may also be used with raffia to make matting for the dining-room floor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,box house by second grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,paper mats may also be used as carpets with good effect4 ,weaving paper strips is often an easier process to little children than weaving with textiles1 except where very coarse textile materials are used4 ,for paper mats select paper of suitable color and cut to the size desired for the mat4 ,fold on the short diameter4 ,cut slashes from the folded edge1 not less than one half inch apart1 to within one inch of edge of the paper 7,see ,fig4 #bj71 leaving a margin on all four sides of the mat4 ,for weavers1 cut from paper of harmonious tone1 strips equal in width to the slashes in the mat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,detail of paper weaving4 ,variations of the simple over one1 under one weave add interest to the work and also give practice in number combinations such as over one1 under two1 etc4 ,work of this sort is used in many schools as a method of teaching number1 the teacher dictating the combinations while the interest of the children centers in the new pattern which develops under their fingers4 ,while such work has much to be said in its favor1 it is open to criticism1 especially in the matter of dictation4 ,all the children in any one group will not work with equal speed4 ,some will undoubtedly get behind and others will lose time while waiting for the slow ones4 ,accidents are liable to happen in individual cases4 ,many of these undesirable features may be eliminated while still retaining the valuable part of the work by writing the directions on the board instead of dictating them to the children4 ,it then becomes a lesson in reading as well as in number4 ,each child is thrown more completely upon his own responsibility and can proceed as rapidly and as steadily as his capacity permits4 ,his rate of progress will often be a fair measure of his ability for independent thought and action1 which is the real measure for successful teaching4 ,as the hardest feature in this method is in keeping the right line and not repeating or omitting any direction1 a social spirit may be encouraged by allowing the children to work in groups and take turns in keeping the place while the others work4 ,in one first grade where this plan was in vogue the children discovered a book on the teacher's desk which contained numerous designs1 many of them much more intricate than she would have attempted to use as classwork4 ,their instinct for exploration led them to struggle with the directions until they had worked out some designs which would have proved dismal failures had they been attempted as class lessons4 ,in this instance those who belonged to the persevering group were happy in a new-found sense of strength and independence1 while the others had accomplished as much as any would have done under the dictation method4 ,furniture4--,the problem of furniture for the school playhouse has been discussed in numerous publications1 and nearly every writer on the subject of primary handwork offers suggestions on this topic4 ,the suggestions include a range in materials and processes from very simple foldings in paper to quite complex processes in reeds and raffia and methodical construction in wood4 ,among the various materials and styles in common use1 folded paper furniture has the advantage of being quickly made4 ,the process is of sufficient interest to little children to hold their attention1 and in order to secure the desired result they must hear the directions intelligently and obey them promptly4 ,these are desirable habits to form4 ,it is quite possible1 however1 for the work to be done in a very formal1 mechanical way1 in which the children merely follow directions1 often blindly1 without any clear purpose and very little thought4 ,success or failure is due largely to chance2 for1 if by accident even a good worker loses out on a direction1 his work is at a standstill until special help is given4 ,he is unable to proceed because he does not know what to do next4 ,there is very little opportunity in such a process for independent thought or action4 ,it is not self-directed activity4 ,a second objection to paper furniture is its lack of stability4 ,paper which is pliable enough to fold readily will not hold its own weight long when made into furniture1 and very soon becomes wobbly4 ,to overcome this tendency to wobble1 heavier papers are often used and new complications arise4 ,heavy papers do not fold readily without scoring4 ,scoring demands considerable accuracy of measurement--often to a degree beyond the power of a six-year-old4 ,the stiff papers1 being hard pressed1 are harder to paste1 and neat work is often an impossibility1 unless considerable assistance is given4 ,it is possible to make satisfactory furniture in a great variety of styles from stiff paper1 and the processes involve some excellent practice in measurement and design4 ,the processes necessary to obtain these satisfactory results are1 however1 beyond the ability of children in the lower grades4 ,even fairly satisfactory results are impossible unless an undue amount of assistance is given by the teacher4 ,in actual practice1 where stiff paper is used a few of the best workers in the class are helped to make the few pieces needed in the playhouse and the unhappy failures of the rest of the class are promptly consigned to the wastebasket4 ,very pretty furniture may be made from reeds and raffia1 but the processes are too difficult to be successfully performed by small children4 ,the reeds do not lend themselves readily to constructions small enough to suit the average playhouse1 and the larger pieces are out of proportion to the other features of the house4 ,the use of wood overcomes the most serious of the objections to be made to other materials1 besides being the material most commonly used in real furniture4 ,wooden furniture is stable1 and a great variety of processes in construction are possible without introducing complications which prevent independent work on the part of the little people4 ,the processes necessary to the construction of very simple yet satisfactory wooden furniture may be reduced to measuring one dimension1 sawing off1 and nailing on4 ,measuring one dimension is quite within the powers of six-year-olds4 ,sawing off is not difficult if soft lumber is used1 and it becomes very simple by the help of the miter box4 ,nailing on is difficult if the nails must be driven into the edges of thin boards1 but if thin boards are nailed to thick boards1 nails may go crooked without serious consequences1 and the process becomes quite easy4 ,these processes have the advantage of being particularly fascinating to small boys1 in contrast to the girlish character of many forms of primary handwork4 7,see ,figs4 #ba and #bb47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,furniture from wood blocks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,furniture from wood blocks4 ,processes4--,for the sake of convenience and clearness in these directions it will be assumed that the class is provided with pieces of wood two inches square which will be referred to as #b #b4 ,also with thin wood in a variety of widths from #a in4 to #f in4 ,material of other dimensions would serve the purpose equally well1 and for many of the parts odd pieces from the scrap box will answer every purpose4 ,the directions are intended only to suggest how to proceed1 and it is left to the teacher to adapt them to the material and conditions with which she works4 7#a7 ,to make a chair4 ,use #b #b for seat and thin wood #b in4 wide for back4 ,children should measure and decide how much to saw off from strip of #b #b in order to make a square block or cube for the seat4 ,they should estimate the length of the back of the chair1 then measure and saw off the thin wood needed4 ,nail the back piece to the cube and finish with a coat of water-color paint or color with crayon4 ,an armchair may be made by the addition of shorter pieces of thin wood to the sides of the chair4 7#b7 ,to make table with pedestal4 ,use #b #b for pedestal4 ,use thin wood #f in4 wide for top4 ,use thin wood #d in4 wide for base4 ,measure and saw off #c in4 of #b #b for pedestal4 ,measure enough of the #f in4 wood to make a square top and enough of the #d in4 wood to make a square base4 ,do not tell the children what they can discover for themselves4 ,they should decide how high the table ought to be and how large to suit the size of the room4 ,nail the square pieces to the two ends of the pedestal4 ,finish by same method used for chairs4 7#c7 ,for ordinary table4 ,use thin wood for top4 ,use #a_/b #a_/b for legs4 ,measure and saw off pieces needed4 ,measure places for legs about one inch from corner of top in order to allow an overhang4 ,children frequently put the legs flush with the edge of the table1 which gives a clumsy appearance4 ,nail through the top with a comparatively long nail4 7#d7 ,to make a double bed4 ,use wood #a_/b to #a in4 thick for body4 ,use thin wood of corresponding width for head and foot boards4 ,class or individual workers should decide on dimensions for different parts and height of body of bed from the floor4 7#e7 ,for single bed4 ,proceed as for double bed1 using narrow pieces of wood1 or use six or seven inches of #b #b for body of bed and make head and foot boards after the style of chair back4 7#f7 ,dressing table4 ,decide upon dimensions needed4 ,use #b #b for body4 ,use thin wood of equal width for back4 ,use tinfoil for mirror4 ,indicate drawers with pencil lines4 7#g7 ,couch4 ,use piece of #b #b of desired length and make couch cover of appropriate material1 or add back and arms of thin wood to piece of #b #b and finish to match other furniture4 7#h7 ,piano4 ,use wood #c_/d or #a in4 thick for body4 ,nail on piece #a_/b #a_/b for keyboard4 ,draw keys on paper and paste on keyboard4 7#i7 ,kitchen stove4 ,use #b #d or any scrap or empty box of appropriate size and shape4 ,color black with crayon4 ,add chalk marks or bits of tinfoil to indicate doors and lids4 ,make hot-water tank of paper4 ,pieces of reed1 wire1 or twigs covered with tinfoil make good water pipes4 ,macaroni sticks and lemonade straws have served this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,home of ,white ,cloud1 the ,pueblo girl4 ,second grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,clay ,furnishings4--,for such articles as the kitchen sink1 the bathtub1 and other bathroom fittings clay is a satisfactory material4 ,these articles may be modeled by the children1 in as good an imitation of the real fittings as they are able to make4 ,various methods may be used for holding the kitchen sink and the bathroom basin in place1 and it is much better for the children to evolve one of their own than to follow the teacher's dictation from the start4 ,if they meet serious difficulties1 a suggestion from her may help clear the way4 ,two long nails driven into the wall will give a satisfactory bracket on which the sink may rest4 ,two short nails may be driven through the back while the clay is moist and may serve also as a foundation for faucets4 ,the basin1 bathtub1 and stool may each be built solid to the floor4 ,the teakettle and other stove furniture may be modeled in clay4 ,electric light bulbs of clay suspended by cords from the ceiling have a realistic air4 ,paper shades of appropriate color add to the general effect4 ,miscellaneous furnishings4 ,bedding4--,paper or cloth may be used for bedding1 as circumstances suggest4 ,if interest in real things is strong1 the making of the sheets and pillow cases offers an opportunity for some practice with the needle4 ,if time is limited1 paper may be used4 ,curtains4--,curtains also may be made from either paper or regular curtain material4 ,if paper is used1 it should be very soft1 such as plain ,japanese napkins4 ,scraps of plain net or scrim are most desirable4 ,some child is apt to contribute a piece of large-patterned lace curtain1 but the tactful teacher will avoid using it if possible1 and direct the children's thoughts toward a better taste in draperies4 ,portires may be made of cloth1 of knotted cords1 or chenille4 ,couch pillows may be made from cloth or may be woven on a small card4 ,towels for the bathroom may be woven from crochet cotton4 ,the fireplace may be made of cardboard marked off and colored to represent brick4 ,a shallow box may be made to serve the purpose4 ,cut out the opening for the grate and lay real sticks on andirons made from soft wire2 or draw a picture of blazing fire and put inside4 ,the fireplace may also be made of clay4 ,pebbles may be pressed into the clay if a stone fireplace is desired4 ,if clay is used1 several small nails should be driven into the wall before the fireplace is built up1 to hold the clay in place after it dries4 ,bookcases may be made of cardboard1 using a box construction1 and glued to the wall4 ,or a block of wood about one inch thick may be used4 ,in either case mark off the shelves and books with pencil lines1 and color the backs of the books with crayon4 ,the ,stairway4--,in a two-story house the hardest problem will usually be the stairs4 ,some good work in number may be done while finding out how many steps will be needed and where the stairway must begin in order to reach the second floor in comfort4 ,even quite small children can deal with this problem if presented in a simple way4 ,for example1 if the box or room is ten inches high1 how many steps #a in4 wide and #a in4 high will be needed1 and how far out into the room will they come8 ,the children can work out the plan on the blackboard4 ,measurements may be modified to suit the ability of the class and the needs of the room4 ,the variety of possible constructions in building the staircase corresponds to the varying ability of classes4 ,a strip of paper may be folded back and forth and made to serve with least mature classes4 ,this paper stair will sag unless it rests on a board or piece of stiff pasteboard4 ,a substantial stairway may be made by sawing two thin boards for supports1 as in ,fig4 #bd1 and nailing on steps of thin wood or cardboard4 ,there is usually one boy in every first grade who is capable of as difficult a piece of handwork as this4 ,he is apt1 also1 to be the boy who takes least interest in the general work of the class1 and often it is possible to arouse him to special effort through some such problem4 ,the stairway may be made of heavy cardboard with a construction similar to that just described1 but this requires pasting instead of nailing and is much more difficult for little children4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,detail of stairway4 ,the ,roof4--,the making of the roof is another part of the house building which may often be given into the special care of the two or three over-age pupils who need special problems4 ,the plan which they evolve from their study of the needs of the case will usually be of greater value to them1 even though it may not be the best that could be suggested4 ,the roof may be made of wood as a base1 with either wood or cardboard shingles tacked on in proper fashion2 or it may be made of cardboard with the shingles merely indicated by lines made with crayon4 ,if the wood base is used1 wood gables may be made for sides or ends of the house4 ,to these1 long boards may be nailed to form a solid roof4 ,shingles two inches long by about one inch wide may be cut from cardboard or very thin wood and tacked to the boards4 ,the children should be spurred to study the roofs of houses and find out how the shingles are arranged1 and discover for themselves1 if possible1 the secret of successful shingling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,box house1 showing roof4 ,built by summer class1 ,teachers ,college1 ,new ,york4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,detail of gable4 ,a cardboard roof is in many ways easier to build4 ,in a house similar to the one shown in ,fig4 #be two gables are used1 and the roof slopes to front and back4 ,the framework can be very simply made4 ,at the two gable ends place uprights made of two pieces of wood joined in the form of an inverted ,t4 7,see ,fig4 #bf47 ,these should be nailed to the box4 ,a ridgepole may then be nailed to the upper ends of the uprights4 ,if the house is not large1 no other framework will be necessary4 ,if the slope of the roof is long enough to allow the cardboard to sag1 light strips of wood extending from the ridgepole to the outer edge of the box may be added4 ,if a single piece of cardboard of sufficient size is available1 it may be scored#a and bent at the proper place and laid over the ridgepole1 with the edges extending beyond the box to form the eaves4 ,or1 two pieces may be used1 one for each slope of the roof1 each piece being tacked to the ridgepole4 ,chimneys may be made from paper and colored to represent bricks or stone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,colonial kitchen4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,the outside of the house may be treated in several ways4 ,it may be sided after the manner of frame houses by tacking on strips of paper or cardboard lapped in the proper fashion4 ,it may be covered with paper marked in horizontal lines to represent siding1 in irregular spaces to represent stone1 or in regular spaces to represent brick1 and finished in the appropriate color4 ,or1 a coat of paint or stain may be applied directly to the box4 ,,variations ,,in ,,house ,,problem ,a playhouse for its own sake is a justifiable project for primary children and one which may be repeated several times without exhausting its possibilities4 ,each time it is repeated the emphasis will fall on some new feature1 and the children will wish to do more accurate work4 ,in the lowest grades very simple houses of one or two rooms may be built for story-book friends1 such as the ,three ,bears or ,little ,red ,riding ,hood1 with only such furniture as the story suggests4 ,in intermediate grades the house may have an historical motive and illustrate home life in primitive times or in foreign countries1 such as a colonial kitchen in ,new ,england1 a pioneer cabin on the ,western prairies1 a ,dutch home1 a ,japanese home1 etc4 ,in upper grades it may become a serious study in house decoration4 ,as the motive for making the house changes1 the character and quality of its furnishings will change4 ,the block furniture described above will give way to more accurate models in either wood or paper4 ,some excellent suggestions for paper furniture for advanced work may be found in the ,manual ,training ,magazine4 ,as skill in construction increases1 a wish for something more realistic than the box construction will arise1 and the elements of house framing will be studied with great eagerness4 ,the ,house of the ,three ,bears4 7,see ,fig4 #bh47--,this house was made early in the year by a class of first-grade children4 ,the walls were papered in plain brown paper4 ,the carpets were woven mats of paper4 ,the chairs1 table1 and beds were made according to the methods already described in the playhouse outline4 ,the stove and the doll were contributed4 ,the bears were modeled in clay4 ,the children played with the house and its contents throughout the year4 ,the bears were broken and made over many times--a process which not only afforded great pleasure1 but also developed considerable skill in modeling4 ,another ,bears' ,house4--,this house1 shown in ,frontispiece1 was made in the spring1 near the end of the school year1 by a class of first-grade children all of whom were under seven and many of whom were very immature4 ,the story of the ,three ,bears was taken up after ,christmas1 told and retold1 read1 and dramatized by the children4 ,teddy bears were brought to school4 ,many bears were modeled in clay1 each child making the set of three many times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,house for the ,three ,bears4 ,first grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,the children laid off spaces on the table for individual ,bears' houses and made furniture for these as their fancy prompted4 ,the furniture was made of wood after the general style described above4 ,later1 carpets were woven for these individual playhouses4 ,each carpet was woven to a given dimension1 making it necessary to use the rule4 ,this was their introduction to the rule as a tool for measuring4 ,every child in a class of forty made one or more pieces of furniture and wove one or more small carpets from rags4 ,nearly all made some bedding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,cornstalk house4 ,built by second-grade class4 ,franklin1 ,indiana4 ,later1 four boxes were secured and arranged as a house4 ,the openings for doors were marked off during school time1 but were sawed out by a few children who remained during the noon intermission4 ,this is the only part of the work which was not done during regular class time4 ,the papering was done by two or three of the most capable children1 while the rest were deeply absorbed in weaving4 ,all made borders4 ,certain borders were selected for the house1 and several children worked together to make enough of the same pattern for one room4 ,selections were then made from the carpets and furniture already made by the children4 ,the roof was made chiefly by one boy who knew a good way to make it4 ,the porches were also individual projects by pupils who had ideas on the subject and were allowed to work them out4 ,the children became very familiar with every phase of the story and attacked any expression of it with the feeling1 ,that's easy4 ,they wrote stories1 i4e4 sentences about bears4 ,each child at the close of the year could write on the blackboard a story of two or more sentences4 ,they made pictures of bears in all sorts of postures with colored crayon and from free-hand cuttings4 ,they modeled the bears in clay over and over again1 keeping up a large family in spite of many accidents4 ,coperative ,building4--,figures #aa1 #ab1 and #ac show three rooms of a four-room house built by the first and second grades working together4 ,the living room and bedroom were furnished by first-grade children4 ,the dining room1 kitchen1 and bath were furnished by the second grade4 ,four boxes were used4 7,see diagram1 page #ce1 ,fig4 #ad47 ,each room1 except the bath1 was a separate box4 ,after a general plan had been agreed upon by the teachers1 the boxes were carried to the several rooms and each class worked quite independently4 ,when the rooms were finished1 they were assembled on a table in the hall and the roof put on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,a flour mill4 ,built by fourth grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,the ,flour ,mill4--,the flour mill1 shown in ,fig4 #cj1 was built in connection with a study of the general subject of milling by a fourth-grade class4 ,the class visited a flour mill4 ,they were shown the various machines1 and the function of each was explained to them4 ,they made hasty sketches of the machines and a rough diagram of their arrangement on the floors4 ,they got the dimensions of the floors and height of the ceiling4 ,an empty box was remodeled to approximate the dimensions of the building4 ,small representations of the machines were made and placed in the proper relation to each other4 ,no attempt was made to show more than the external proportions in the small representation4 ,the work served its best purpose in keeping the children thinking definitely about what they had seen4 ,the attempt to express their thoughts in tangible form deepened the mental impression1 even though the tangible results were crude and lacked many details4 ,the conveyer being of special interest1 two boys worked out a larger model which illustrated the band-bucket process4 ,this is shown in ,fig4 #cj1 at the right of the mill4 ,small cups were made of soft tin and fastened to a leather strap4 ,the strap was fastened around two rods1 placed one above the other4 ,the lower rod was turned by a crank fastened on the outside of the box4 ,two or three brads driven into the lower rod caught into holes in the strap and prevented slipping4 ,the machine successfully hoisted grain from the lower box to one fastened higher up1 but not shown in the picture4 ,the model was very crude in its workmanship1 but it showed the ability of fourth-grade boys to successfully apply an important principle in mechanics1 and it gave opportunity for their ingenuity to express itself4 ,the work was done with such tools and materials as the boys could provide for themselves1 and without assistance other than encouraging suggestions from the teacher4 ,this bit of construction accompanied a broad study of the subject of milling1 including the source and character of the raw materials1 the processes involved1 the finished products and their value4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,village ,,street ,playing store is a game of universal interest4 ,making a play store is a fascinating occupation4 ,these are factors which cannot be overlooked in any scheme of education which seeks to make use of the natural activities of children4 ,the downtown store stands to the children as the source of all good things which are to be bought with pennies4 ,it is usually the first place outside the home with which they become familiar1 and its processes are sure to be imitated in their play4 ,in their play they not only repeat the processes of buying and selling1 but try to reproduce in miniature what they regard as the essential features of the real store4 ,if they are allowed to play this fascinating game in school1 it may1 by the teacher's help1 become at once more interesting and more worth while4 ,curiosity may be aroused through questions concerning what is in the store1 where it came from1 how it got there1 what was done to make it usable1 how it is measured1 and what it is worth4 ,in seeking answers to these questions1 the fields of geography1 history1 and arithmetic may be explored as extensively as circumstances warrant and a whole curriculum is built up in a natural way4 ,after such study1 stores cease to be the source of the good things they offer for sale4 ,the various kinds of merchandise take on a new interest when the purchaser knows something of their history1 and a new value when he knows something of the labor which has gone into their manufacture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,box house and stores4 ,grades one1 three1 and two4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,being a subject of universal interest1 it may be adapted to the conditions of the various grades4 ,it being also impossible to exhaust the possibilities of the subject in any single presentation1 it may profitably be repeated with a change of emphasis to suit the development of the class4 ,for example1 in the second grade1 the study of the street is chiefly a classification of the various commodities which are essential to our daily life1 and a few of the main facts of interest concerning their origin4 ,those a little older are interested in the processes of manufacture and the geography of their sources4 ,in playing store1 weights and measures1 the changing of money1 and the making of bills take on an interest impossible in the old-fashioned method of presenting these phases of arithmetic4 ,discussions and narratives supply oral language work1 and descriptions1 letters1 and notes provide material for written exercises4 ,the class may be divided into groups1 each group contributing one store to the street1 or the attention of the whole class may be centered on one store at a time1 as the immediate conditions suggest4 ,if the former method is used1 as each store is finished it may be used as subject matter for the entire class1 while the important facts concerning it are considered4 ,the first permits a broader scope2 the second a more exhaustive study4 ,in either case visits to the real stores studied are important supplements to the work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,a village street4 ,third grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,general ,directions4--,discuss the stores on a village street4 ,which are most important8 ,why8 ,decide how many stores the class can build1 and choose those most necessary to a community4 ,if self-organized groups#b are allowed to choose the part they are to work out1 both interest and harmony are promoted and leadership stimulated4 ,use a box for each store4 ,each group is usually able to provide its own box4 ,paper inside of box with clean paper1 or put on a coat of fresh paint4 ,make appropriate shelving and counters of thin wood4 ,stock the store with samples of appropriate merchandise as far as possible4 ,supplement with the best representations the children can make4 ,they should be left to work out the problem for themselves to a large extent1 the teacher giving a suggestion only when they show a lack of ideas4 ,suggestions for ,details of ,representation4--,clay ,modeling4--,clay may be used to model fruits and vegetables1 bottles and jugs for the grocery2 bread1 cake1 and pies for the bakery2 different cuts of meat for the butcher shop2 horses for the blacksmith shop and for delivery wagons4 ,clay representations may be made very realistic by coloring with crayon4 ,canned ,goods4--,paper cylinders on which labels are drawn before pasting serve well for canned goods4 ,cylindrical blocks may be cut from broom sticks or dowel rods and wrapped in appropriately labeled covers4 ,cloth4--,rolls of various kinds of cloth should be collected for the dry goods store4 ,figures may be cut from fashion plates and mounted for the ,ready to ,wear department4 ,hats4--,hats may be made for the millinery store from any of the materials commonly used4 ,this is a good way for girls to develop their ingenuity and resourcefulness4 ,the ,store ,front4--,the front of each store may be made of either wood or cardboard1 the spaces for doors and windows being left open that the merchandise may be conveniently handled4 ,brick or stone fronts1 second-story windows1 offices1 etc41 may all be indicated as artistically as the capacity of the class permits by the use of colored crayons4 ,the sign is an important feature and should stimulate an interest in well-made lettering4 ,additional ,projects4--,in addition to representations of retail shops1 various industries1 such as the carpenter shop1 blacksmith shop1 flour mill1 ice plant1 and other familiar industries1 may be represented4 ,coperative institutions1 such as the post office and fire department1 should be included in the study4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,a grocery4 ,fourth grade4 ,excursions4--,wherever possible1 the plant should be visited by the class4 ,before making the visit1 the class should discuss what they expect to see1 and go prepared to find out definite things4 ,each child should have at least one question which he is to ask1 or one item of information for which he is to be responsible to the class on the return4 ,often the visit is more worth while to the class after they have tried to make a representation from what they already know and from what they can read on the subject4 ,they are then more conscious of their needs and more alive to the important elements than when they are merely seeing a new thing which is to a great extent foreign to their experience4 ,if they make the visit first1 they are apt to feel the need of another when they attempt to work out their representation4 ,if they make a representation first1 they are quite sure to be dissatisfied with it and want to make another after they have made the visit4 ,in either case their consciousness of need is a measure of growth4 ,correlation4--,while the building of a store is in progress the study of the sources and processes of manufacture of the various articles of merchandise will supply valuable subject matter in several fields4 ,english4--,books containing information on the subject will be read with a definite purpose and more than ordinary interest4 ,especially if the group method is used1 will the members of a group be proud to bring to the class interesting items concerning their particular part of the work4 ,these narratives and descriptions may be made excellent practice in either oral or written ,english and will be of the sort ,dewey characterizes as having something to say rather than having to say something4 ,geography4--,this study may also enter as deeply into the field of geography as the development of the class warrants4 ,it will be geography of a vital sort4 ,how these things are brought to us touches the field of transportation1 creating an interest in ships and railroad trains1 pack mules and express wagons4 ,history4--,the study of the process of manufacture opens up the field of industrial history1 and in this1 as in the geography1 the study is limited only by the capacity of the class4 ,number4--,in the field of number the possibilities are also unlimited1 in studying the weights and measures used for different commodities1 the actual prices paid for these things1 and the usual quantities purchased4 ,playing store will involve the making of bills1 the changing of money1 and the measuring of merchandise4 ,different pupils may take turns acting as salesmen or cashier4 ,the common practices of business life should be followed as closely as possible1 only in this case each purchaser should make out his own bills4 ,actual purchase slips may be brought from home and used in number lessons4 ,an inventory of the stock may be taken and will supply excellent practice in addition and multiplication4 ,after the example of real stores1 a stock-taking sale at reduced rates may be advertised4 ,the writer answered such an advertisement by a third grade and asked how much could be purchased for one dollar4 ,pencils were busy at once1 and a variety of combinations suggested4 ,one pupil was quickly called to account by his mates for offering only ninety-five cents' worth of merchandise for the dollar4 ,by these and numerous other exercises which will suggest themselves to lively children and wide-awake teachers a vast amount of vital subject matter may be dealt with in a natural way1 quite on the level of the child's experience and interest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,a grocery4 ,third grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,art4--,the art side also may receive due attention in the general proportioning and arrangement of the stores1 in the modeling of certain features from clay1 as enumerated above1 in the making of labels for boxes and cans1 in the writing of signs and advertisements1 and in the color combinations4 ,these features are to a great extent incidental to other problems just as the use of good taste is incidental to all the affairs of life and should receive corresponding emphasis4 ,,illustrations ,figure #cb shows about half the stores built by one third-grade class4 ,some of the subject matter drawn from the various stories was as follows3 in connection with the grocery1 a study of the source of various articles of food with oral and written descriptions of processes of manufacture2 the common measures used in the grocery1 and ordinary amounts purchased4 ,in connection with the meat market1 the names of various kinds of meat1 the animals from which they are obtained1 and the part of the animal which furnishes certain cuts2 as1 for example1 ham1 bacon1 chops4 ,the current prices and approximate quantity needed for a meal made practical number work4 ,the bakery called for an investigation of the processes of bread making and a study of the material used4 ,in all of the processes the teacher had opportunity to stress the necessity for proper sanitation4 ,in connection with the dry goods store1 the distinguishing characteristics of cotton1 wool1 linen1 and silk were emphasized and illustrated by the samples collected for the store and by the clothing worn by the children4 ,common problems in measuring cloth enlivened the number lessons4 ,the millinery store disclosed considerable ingenuity in the field of hat manufacture1 and a lively business in doll hats was carried on for some time4 ,in connection with the post office1 registered letters1 dead letters1 money orders1 rural free delivery1 etc41 were discussed1 and the advantages of coperation touched upon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,a dry goods store4 ,third grade4 ,the other stores of the village street offer further opportunity for becoming better acquainted with the common things which lie close at hand and touch our daily lives4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,home in a hot country4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,home in a cold country4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,sand ,,tables ,,and ,,what ,,to ,,do ,,with ,,them ,a sand table should be considered one of the indispensable furnishings of every schoolroom4 ,its possibilities are many and varied4 ,it may be used merely as a means of recreation and the children allowed to play in the sand1 digging and building as fancy suggests4 ,or it may be used as the foundation for elaborate representations1 carefully planned by the teacher1 laboriously worked out by the children1 and extravagantly admired by the parents on visitors' day4 ,while both of these uses may serve worthy ends on certain occasions1 the most valuable function of the sand table strikes a happy medium between the two1 as means of illustrating and emphasizing various features of the daily lessons4 ,in this capacity the laborious efforts of the show problem on the one hand and purposeless play of the other are both avoided4 ,in this capacity the work on the sand table goes along hand in hand with the regular work in geography1 history1 language1 or any subject in which it is possible through an illustration to teach more effectively4 ,the purpose of this work is not so much to produce fine representations as to help the children to clarify and strengthen their ideas through the effort to express them in concrete form4 ,the value lies in the development which comes to the children while they work4 ,the technique of processes of construction is of secondary importance1 though careless work ought never to be permitted4 ,the completed project has little value after it has served its purpose as an illustration and may be quickly destroyed to make way for the next project4 ,for this reason emphasis is laid on the general effect rather than the detail of construction4 ,the work should be done well enough to serve the purpose1 but time should not be spent on unnecessary details which do not add to the value as an illustration4 ,in most cases speed is an important element4 ,the project should be completed while the subject it illustrates is under discussion1 if it is to be of most service4 ,the first essential is that the work shall be done wholly by the children4 ,the teacher may by skillful questions help them to build up in imagination the project they intend to work out1 so that they may work with a definite purpose4 ,she may sometimes suggest improved methods of working out various features when the improvements will add to the value of the illustration1 but she should seldom1 if ever1 plan a project definitely or dictate the method of procedure4 ,not least among the possible benefits to be derived from work of this kind is the development of resourcefulness4 ,the necessity for expressing an idea in concrete form with whatever materials are at hand often calls for considerable ingenuity4 ,ability of this sort will show itself only when the children are expressing their ideas with utmost freedom and feel the responsibility for the success of their work4 ,the more earnestly the children try to express their ideas1 the greater will be their development4 ,the teacher should feel that she is hindering the growth of the children and defrauding them of their legitimate opportunity for development when she allows an over-anxiety for tangible and showy results to make her take the responsibility upon herself4 ,the details of method are best presented through a detailed description of typical illustrations actually worked out in the classroom4 ,a ,,sand-,,table ,,farm--,,home ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,country ,the study of home life as a general subject will include our home and the homes of other people who live under different conditions4 ,to the town child the country will often be somewhat familiar and hold the second place in his interest4 ,in the country school the farm may often be the best place to begin4 ,various questions will arise as soon as it is decided to make a sand-table farm1 the answers to which will be governed by the habits of the locality4 ,what sort of farm shall we have8 ,shall we raise stock1 fruit1 corn1 wheat1 vegetables1 or a little of everything8 ,what shall we need to plant in each case1 and in what proportion8 ,how much pasture land shall we need8 ,what buildings8 ,what machinery8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,a sand-table farm4 ,first grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,a sand-table farm4 ,second grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,fences4--,as soon as the question of crops and the division of the table into fields is settled1 the problem of fencing presents itself4 ,what sort of fence is needed1 wire1 boards1 pickets1 rails1 or hedge8 ,how far apart shall the posts be set1 how tall should they be1 and how many will be needed8 ,how many boards8 ,how wide8 ,how long8 ,how many wires8 ,the making of the fencing will supply material for one or more number lessons4 ,various materials may be used4 ,twigs may be cut to given lengths and set in concrete 7clay7 posts4 ,for wire fence1 cut posts from small wooden sticks4 ,drive small tacks in each post--one for each wire4 ,use fine spool wire or wire raveled from fly screen4 ,twist wires once around each tack1 or drive the tacks in firmly so that the wire is held by the head of the tack4 ,this is not an easy fence for very little children to make4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,detail of chicken fence4 ,to make board fence4 ,cut posts required length1 and decide upon distance between posts4 ,make boards of thin strips of wood or of pasteboard4 ,nail boards to posts with tacks or small brads4 ,this is a very easy fence to make and gives some good exercise in measuring4 ,rail fences may be made from toothpicks or burnt matches4 ,picket fence for the dooryard may be made on wooden foundation with cardboard pickets4 ,hedge fence should be made from some fine-leafed plant4 ,cedar twigs serve well4 ,chicken fence may be cut from paper as per illustration4 ,fold paper several times1 lengthwise4 ,cut across the fold as indicated by arrows4 ,stretch lengthwise as shown in ,fig4 #dj1 a and b4 ,buildings4--,the class should decide on the buildings needed4 ,each building should be assigned to a group of two or three workers4 ,each group should be held responsible for its contribution and should work out its problem with as little help as possible4 ,if the children are able to plan a barn and make it1 even though it is a very crude affair1 more has been accomplished than if a very cunning structure had been made after plans1 dictated and closely supervised by the teacher4 ,wood is the best building material for general use4 ,pasteboard serves well1 but it is less substantial4 ,it is also harder to cut and paste heavy cardboard than it is to saw and nail thin wood4 ,clay may be used for all buildings which are commonly made of concrete4 ,stock4--,the different kinds of animals needed on the farm and the number of each will furnish profitable subject matter for class discussion4 ,the animals may be modeled from clay4 ,while the animals will of necessity be very large in proportion to the acreage of the farm1 attention should be directed to the relative proportions between horses and hogs1 cattle and sheep4 ,differences of this sort do not trouble little people1 as their work is sure to show4 ,the point should be stressed only sufficiently to help them to see a little more clearly and express their ideas a little more adequately each time they try4 ,the accuracy of the result is important only as an index that the children are steadily developing in power to see and do1 and gaining self-reliance4 ,the ,modeling ,process4--,the best method seems to be simply to begin1 and1 for example1 model as good a horse as possible2 then discuss the results1 note a few serious defects1 and try again1 endeavoring to correct them4 ,encourage rapid work which gives the general proportions of the animal in the rough4 ,beginners are apt to waste time in a purposeless smoothing of the clay1 in mere tactual enjoyment4 ,discourage the tendency to finish the details of a horse's head1 for example1 before the body has been modeled4 ,repeat the process as often as time and the interest of the children warrant1 but be satisfied if the children are doing the best they can1 even though the results are crude and not so good as some other class has produced4 ,the children should always feel that the work is their own4 ,for this reason the teacher's help in clay modeling should be through demonstration rather than by finishing touches to the child's work4 ,imitation is a strong instinct in little children1 and watching the teacher model a better horse than he can make will help a child to improve his own4 ,one thing to be especially avoided is the attempt to bring every class to a uniform degree of excellence according to adult standards4 ,such an ideal encourages the giving of help in a way which hinders real development though it may produce immediate results4 ,trees4--,this topic will call out a discussion of the uses of trees2 which trees are shade trees1 which are cultivated for their fruit1 the distinguishing characteristics of the different varieties1 and the ones best suited to this particular farm4 ,twigs from the real tree should be used wherever possible4 ,in other cases the trees may be cut from paper4 ,if a good green paper is not at hand1 use drawing paper and color with crayons4 ,a realistic effect is gained by cutting the tree from folded paper4 7,see ,fig4 #da47 ,cut three pieces for each tree and paste together at the fold1 then open out4 ,make the trunk long enough to be driven an inch or more into the sand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,detail of paper tree4 ,the making of the trees will furnish material for both art and nature study lessons4 ,as far as circumstances permit the real trees should be studied1 giving the children first-hand experience whether it be much or little4 ,they should test the trees they cut by comparing them with real trees of the same variety4 ,if this is impossible1 the best pictures available should be used4 7,see notes on paper cutting47 ,crops4--,when the various parts of the farm are about ready1 the fields may be sown4 ,the sand should be made very wet before the seed is put in and sprinkled frequently 7twice a day71 as the top dries off very quickly4 ,after the seeds have germinated little sprinkling need be done1 as the roots will find enough moisture in the wet sand underneath1 and it is desirable to retard rather than hasten growth4 ,if carefully managed1 a table can be kept green for several weeks4 ,for corn1 check holes well into the sand and drop one grain into each hole4 ,see that rows are straight and holes evenly spaced4 ,sow wheat1 oats1 barley1 etc41 very thickly1 cover lightly with dry sand1 and sprinkle4 ,timothy serves well for meadow and lawn1 as it puts up a fine blade4 ,blue grass sends up a fine blade1 but is very slow in germination4 ,clover does not make a velvety lawn1 but a little in the pasture will make an interesting contrast4 ,vegetables may be planted in the garden4 ,they will not develop to any great extent1 but will serve to emphasize different habits in germination2 as1 for example1 the contrast between beans and corn4 ,correlation4--,the opportunity for nature study afforded by the farm problem will prove one of its most interesting and valuable features as the progress in plant growth is noted from day to day4 ,the farm problem combines well with both language and art work in supplying vital material for both4 ,in addition to the interesting discussions which naturally arise concerning the building and planting1 a diary may be kept by each child4 ,keeping a ,diary4--,the date of planting may be noted and the date when each variety of seed first appears above ground4 ,with the larger seeds1 as corn and beans1 a seed may be dug up each day and examined1 so that the children may appreciate what is going on below ground4 ,drawings may be made of the seeds1 showing the changes in appearance from day to day4 ,after the seed leaves appear the daily growth may be measured and noted in the diary4 ,after a few days seeds may be dug up again that the roots may be examined4 ,at various stages of growth different varieties of seeds may be dug up1 laid upon a paper1 and sketched by the children4 ,the facts they note may be stated in simple1 well-formed sentences1 either oral or written or both4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,an ,eskimo village and ,the ,overall ,boys' ,farm4 ,first grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,art4--,the sketching will serve well as the day's art lesson1 though its chief value is in helping the children to see clearly4 ,their efforts will be crude but the teacher should constantly keep in mind that the chief aim is not to obtain fine sketches4 ,its purpose is to help the children to a better appreciation of the plant through the effort put forth in making the sketch4 ,the technique of the drawing should be emphasized only so far as it will help them express better what they see1 and not to the point where they attempt to copy the teacher's strokes4 ,the teacher should be satisfied if every child is doing his best and making steady progress1 even though that best may be crude and not up to the standard reached by the teacher who struggles for fine results4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,an apple orchard4 ,first grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,english4--,for children who are able to write the diary offers a natural means of gaining experience in the use of common forms of punctuation2 as1 for example1 the writing of dates and the use of a comma in a series1 as well as the punctuation of simple statements1 in such entries as the following3 ,april #ae1 #aiab4 ,we planted the seeds on our farm to-day4 ,we planted corn1 wheat1 oats1 and beans4 ,in all work of this sort it is difficult to overestimate the advantage of separate sheets of paper over a notebook with sewed leaves1 in the hands of the children4 ,with the fresh sheet always comes an inspiration1 no matter what failures have gone before4 ,poor pages can be done over when necessary1 but do not haunt the workers with their discouraging suggestions1 as in the use of a notebook4 ,the leaves may be gathered together into a binding of some sort4 ,even covers of plain brown wrapping paper can be made artistic with a simple border line well placed or a design cut from a paper of a different tone4 ,written work which culminates in an attractive booklet1 however simple1 seems more worth while than exercises written into a commonplace notebook or on scratch paper which goes to the wastebasket soon after the mistakes have been commented on4 ,number4--,the farm problem also supplies abundant opportunity for gaining experience with number4 ,in addition to the actual measurement of the materials used for fences and buildings1 the scope may be widened1 where conditions warrant1 to include estimates and calculations of the amount of the material used4 ,for example1 how many inches or feet of wire will be needed to make a three-wire fence of given length8 ,how large a piece of cardboard will be needed to cut boards one fourth or one half inch wide for a four-board fence fifteen inches long8 ,these estimates may be translated1 as far as the children are able to appreciate the connection1 into quantities and values of the same material in real problems connected with real farms4 ,it is important1 however1 to be careful not to carry work of this sort so far beyond the experience of the children that it becomes wholly foreign and abstract to them4 ,we are too apt to forget that it is experience and not objects1 which is the vital factor in concreteness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,robinson ,crusoe4 ,third grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,in connection with the nature study a variety of number exercises grow out of the questions which the situation prompts4 ,as1 for example1 in connection with the corn crop3 ,how many seeds were planted8 ,in how many rows8 ,how many seeds in a row8 ,how many came up8 ,how many failed to germinate8 ,how many more came up than failed8 ,if each good seed should produce two ears of corn1 how many would we have8 ,what would they be worth at a given price8 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,pueblo ,indian village4 ,second grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,in an ungraded school1 while the younger children might confine their efforts to counting as above1 the older children might answer the same questions in terms of percentage and in the probable quantities on a real farm4 ,the stock farm may be treated in the same way4 ,how many cows8 ,how much milk will they give8 ,what will it be worth8 ,how much butter would it make8 ,what will it cost to keep the cows8 ,what is the farmer's profit8 ,these and many other questions will suggest themselves to both teacher and pupils1 once the subject is opened up4 ,they will be practical questions in so far as they touch the experience of the children in such a way as to appeal to them as real questions4 ,each individual teacher must decide how far and into what field it is worth while to lead any particular class4 ,the ,sand ,table4--,the various types of sand tables range all the way from the hardwood1 zinc-lined article1 provided with a drainpipe1 down to the homemade structure evolved from a goods box4 ,the quality of the table does not greatly affect the quality of the work to be done on it1 but there are several points which affect the convenience of the workers4 ,the height of the table should allow the children to work comfortably when standing beside it4 ,a long1 narrow table is seldom as satisfactory as one more nearly square1 but it should never be too wide for the children to reach the center easily4 ,any table with tight joints in the top and four- or five-inch boards fitted tightly around the edge will serve the purpose4 ,the inside of the box should be painted to prevent warping and leaking4 ,an ocean blue is a good color1 as it makes a good background for islands4 ,if no table is available1 a goods box may be turned on its side1 the top covered with oilcloth1 and a frame1 made from the cover of the box1 fitted around the edge4 ,the inside of the box may be used as a closet in which to store tools and materials1 and a neat appearance given to the whole by a curtain of denim or other plain1 heavy material4 ,,illustrative ,,problems ,one of the most valuable uses of the sand table is in making illustrations for stories1 historical events1 and similar topics in which the relations between people and places is important4 ,no definite rules can be laid down for working out such illustrations4 ,the conditions under which they are made1 the time to be devoted to the work1 the importance of the subject1 all affect both the nature and the quality of the work4 ,any material which lends itself to the purpose should be called into service4 ,the method of procedure is best set forth by describing several problems as actually worked out by children4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,a home in ,switzerland4 ,second grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 7#a7 ,story of ,columbus--,first ,grade4 ,materials ,used4--,paper for cutting and folding1 twigs for forests1 acorns for tents1 large piece of glass for ocean4 ,details of ,illustration4--,the piece of glass was imbedded in sand in the middle of the table2 one end of the table represented ,spain1 the other1 ,america4 ,the representation of ,spain included3 ,castles in ,spain being large houses with many windows in which the king and queen lived4 ,they were cut from paper4 ,many people1 cut from paper1 including kings and queens and the friends of ,mr4 ,columbus who came to tell him good-by4 ,the kings and queens were distinguished by royal purple robes and golden crowns and necklaces1 produced by the use of colored crayon4 ,the three ships made from folded paper4 ,in one of them sat ,mr4 ,columbus4 ,fishes1 of paper1 inhabited the hollow space underneath the glass4 ,the forest primeval was shown on the ,american side by green twigs of trees set very close together4 ,on pulling apart the leaves and peering into the depths of this forest1 one found it inhabited by bears and other wild beasts1 also cut from paper4 ,the ,indians lived in a village of acorn tents set up in a little clearing on the shore4 ,flags4--,the ,spanish region was identified by a ,spanish flag1 while the stars and stripes waved above the ,indian village4 ,values4--,the project being on the level of the children's experience1 they worked freely and with intense interest4 ,the characters in the story were all very real to them4 ,they literally swarmed about the table whenever opportunity was given1 moving the figures about as they told the story over and over again4 ,mr4 ,columbus sailed across the sea many times4 ,many boats were made and named for one of the three1 according to the preference of the maker4 ,they peeped into the forest and shuddered in delightful fear lest a bear get me4 ,they made and remade the scene as new ideas suggested themselves during several days of ,columbus week4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,two little knights of ,kentucky4 ,fourth grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,how ,cedric became a knight4 ,fourth grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,a sugar camp4 ,built late in the spring by a third-grade class4 ,they enjoyed the green grass1 though it suggests an overlate season4 ,several discrepancies existed which are mentioned here because they troubled some overconscientious visitors4 ,the stars and stripes did not come into existence until centuries after ,columbus died and therefore never waved over the ,indian village which he found4 ,but chronology does not trouble the first grader very much1 while my country and my flag are ideas which are developing together4 ,and when he is singing1 ,columbus sailed across the sea1 ,to find a land for you and me1 the red1 white1 and blue forms the most fitting symbol in his representation of that land4 ,the wild animals which infested the sand-table forest are not all mentioned in the histories as found on ,san ,salvador1 but they did exist in the child's idea of the wild country which the white men found on this side of the ,atlantic4 ,the children having truthfully expressed their ideas1 the teacher had a basis from which to develop1 correct1 and emphasize such points as were of real importance1 while the unimportant features would fade out for lack of emphasis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,a western cattle ranch4 ,on the occasion of the supervisor's visit the members of the class vied with each other in telling the story and explaining the significance of the various illustrations4 ,the supervisor expressed a wish to own some of the cuttings1 whereupon1 at a hint from the teacher1 the class which had gathered about the sand table scampered joyfully 7but quietly7 back to their seats4 ,scissors and paper were quickly distributed1 and in about five minutes an empty shoe box was required to hold the collection of ,mr4 ,columbuses1 kings and queens in royal purple1 gold crowns1 and necklaces1 ships1 fishes1 etc41 that were showered upon the guest4 ,needless to say many scraps of paper had fallen to the floor4 ,the teacher remarked that it was time for the brownies to come4 ,down went all the heads for a sleepy time4 ,the teacher slipped about1 tapping here and there a child1 who quickly began gathering up the scraps as joyously as he had helped to make them4 ,the supervisor bade them good-by1 with a wish that all children might begin their school life under such happy and wholesome influences4 7#b7 ,story of ,jack ,horner#c--;,first ,grade4--,as the story was read the different characters were subjects for free paper-cutting exercises4 ,an abundance of paper 7scratch paper and newspaper7 was supplied1 and each child allowed to cut each figure many times1 very quickly4 ,the story was also dramatized and acted out over and over again4 ,figure #a shows the result of an hour's work in assembling the various characters and telling the whole story on the sand table and in a poster4 ,the different figures to be cut were assigned to or chosen by the different children1 the teacher taking care that no characters were omitted4 ,having cut figures of the various characters as they were met in the story1 all were eager to reproduce the part called for1 and in a few minutes more than enough cuttings were made to supply both sand table and poster with ample material4 ,two groups of children1 one for the poster and one for the sand table1 were assigned the work of placing the figures4 ,the teacher superintended both projects1 giving a few suggestions as needed1 but throwing the responsibility upon the children as much as possible4 ,this problem was worked out by the same class which made the ,columbus illustration just described4 ,the ,jack ,horner story was illustrated in the spring1 after much work of this sort had been done4 ,the quality of the cuttings showed an interesting improvement over the cuttings made for the ,columbus story1 which came during the third week of the school year4 7#c7 ,story of ,three ,little ,pigs4--,this is a long story1 and three weeks were occupied in reading it and dramatizing it4 ,during this time there were frequent discussions about how it was to be worked out on the sand table4 ,contributions in great variety were brought in3 straw for the straw house1 twigs for the house of sticks1 bags of brick dust to make a roadway different from the sand1 rose hips to be tied to a small branch to represent the apple tree1 and various other articles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,the story of ,three ,little ,pigs4 ,first grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,a ,japanese tea garden4 ,third grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,a coal mine4 ,fourth grade4 ,columbia1 ,missouri4 ,the houses were built as suggested by the pictures in the reader4 ,the pig and wolf were modeled in clay1 each being shown in the several different positions described in the story4 ,over and over a little clay pig rolled down the hill in a paper churn and frightened a clay wolf4 ,one group1 not having wherewithal to build a brick house1 used a wooden one made by another group4 ,another class made the brick house out of blocks1 and built in a fireplace with its kettle ready to hold the hot water whenever the wolf should start for the chimney4 7,see ,fig4 #ea47 7#d7 ,japanese ,tea ,garden4--,a third-grade class used the sand table to illustrate what they had gleaned from reading several stories and descriptions of life in ,japan1 in connection with elementary geography4 ,the sand-table representation included a tiny bridge across a small stream of real water4 ,the real river was secured by ingenious use of a leaking tin can which was hidden behind a clump of trees 7twigs74 ,a thin layer of cement in the bed of the river kept the water from sinking into the sand4 ,a shallow pan imbedded in the sand formed a lake into which the river poured its waters4 7,see ,fig4 #eb47 7#e7 ,a ,coal ,mine4--,the sand table shown in ,fig4 #ec was worked out by a fourth-grade class in connection with the geography of the western states4 ,descriptions and pictures were studied with great earnestness to find out how to fix it1 and the children made it as they thought it ought to be4 ,the actual making occupied very little time1 the various parts being contributed by different pupils4 ,problems of this sort develop leadership4 ,there is usually one whose ideas take definite shape promptly and whose suggestions are willingly followed by his group4 ,if there is one pupil in the class whose ability to lead is so strong that the others are overshadowed1 it is sometimes well to let the work be done by small groups who use the table turn about4 ,this plan stimulates a wholesome rivalry and discourages dawdling4 7#f7 ,stories4--,illustrations for two stories are shown on page #id4 ,in the first 7,fig4 #dg7 part of the class made a representation on the sand table while the rest prepared a poster from paper cuttings4 ,in the second 7,fig4 #dh7 empty shoe boxes were used in making the castle4 ,very little time was spent on either project4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,a chariot race4 ,second grade4 ,pasadena1 ,california4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,animals ,,and ,,toys ,the circus and the zological garden are always centers of interest to little children and may be used to great advantage to furnish the point of departure in the study of animal life4 ,making the animals in some form crystallizes the interest in the animals represented1 and awakens interest in their habits and home4 ,the handwork may be used as an illustrative factor connected with geography and nature study1 or the making of the circus may be the starting point1 and incidentally furnish subject matter in several fields4 ,for example1 geography and nature study grow out of the search for facts concerning the animals themselves1 i4e4 size1 color1 food1 home1 value1 etc4 ,the desire for such information gives purpose to reading4 ,oral and written descriptions supply subject matter for practice in ,english4 ,reducing the actual proportions of animals to a definite scale and problems relating to their commercial value make practical use of the knowledge of number4 ,art enters into the making of free-hand sketches1 cuttings1 and patterns for wooden models4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,a circus parade4 ,a good circus or zoo may be worked out in a variety of materials4 ,paper1 cardboard1 clay1 and wood all serve well4 ,to get the best value from the problem it should be as free as possible from copy work4 ,the children should consult the best sources of information at their disposal1 which may range all the way from ordinary picture books to natural history and encyclopedia descriptions4 ,they should find out1 unaided1 as much as possible concerning the animal in question3 his size1 color1 food1 home1 values1 etc41--the teacher supplementing with interesting and necessary items not at the disposal of the class4 ,free-hand cuttings and pencil sketches should be compared with the best pictures obtainable and the real animal whenever possible4 ,such patterns as are needed should be made by the children themselves4 ,ready-made patterns will produce better proportioned animals1 but more dependent1 less observant children also4 ,,methods ,,in ,,detail ,realistic ,animals in ,three-ply ,wood4--,secure necessary items of measurement and decide upon scale4 ,one inch for each foot is best for younger children4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,three-ply wooden animals4 ,draw rectangle proportioned to the extreme length and height of the animal4 ,draw into the rectangle a profile sketch of the animal1 being careful that it comes to the line on each side4 ,all four feet must touch the base line4 ,considerable practice may be needed before a good sketch can be drawn4 ,the animal may be represented as standing1 walking1 or running1 but must be drawn in profile4 ,cut out the sketch and make by it three patterns3 one of the head1 body1 and tail2 one of the body and right legs2 one of the body and left legs4 ,care must be taken to get good lines at shoulder and rump4 7,see ,fig4 #ef47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,detail of three-ply animals with movable parts4 ,lay the pattern on the wood so that the grain runs lengthwise of the legs and other frail parts and draw outline carefully4 ,use basswood one fourth inch thick1 or other soft wood4 ,saw out the parts with a coping saw4 ,be careful in sawing to keep the blade in a vertical position in order that the edges may be true4 ,nail or glue the parts together4 ,if the animal does not stand perfectly1 rub the feet on a piece of sandpaper4 ,use water color or crayon to give proper color4 ,three-ply ,animals with ,movable ,parts4--,to make the head movable1 saw the part from the body on a curved line1 as shown in ,fig4 #eg4 ,fasten with a single nail through the shoulder4 ,the curved line must be a part of a circle and the nail must be at the center4 ,the edges should be smooth to allow easy action4 ,the tail may be adjusted by a similar plan4 ,the parts may be made to move automatically by suspending a weight on cords which are attached to the movable parts1 as shown in ,fig4 #eg4 ,if the weight is to be used1 cut off the body part on the double dotted line to allow room for the cords to swing4 ,a figure of this sort must be fastened on a pedestal or platform which will extend over the edge of the table4 ,a slot must be cut in the pedestal wide enough to allow the cords to swing freely4 7,see ,fig4 #ef47 ,the pedestal may be a long board or piece of heavy cardboard which can be tacked to the table or held firm by a clamp1 or it may be a thin board fastened to a ,u-shaped block which is held firm on the edge of the table by a wedge4 ,cardboard and ,paper ,animals that ,stand4--,for younger children who cannot handle the saw easily cardboard or stiff paper may be used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,notched rest for animals4 ,to make the animal stand the feet may be tacked to a small piece of wood about one inch square on the end and as long as needed1 or a cardboard brace1 such as is used on easels1 may be glued to the back4 ,a realistic effect is given if the animal is cut with two legs and the brace made to represent the other two1 or a piece of cardboard cut as in ,fig4 #eh may be used as a brace1 the body of the animal fitting into the notch4 ,clay makes an excellent medium1 but it requires more skill in clay than in wood to get an equally good effect4 ,clay animals should be modeled with a pedestal1 and the separations between the two forelegs and the two hind legs merely indicated4 ,if each leg is modeled separately1 the figure is likely to be frail4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,balancing figures4 ,balancing ,figures4--,design such figures as a prancing horse or dancing bear and saw from a single piece of wood4 ,a little below the center of the figure insert a curved wire1 on the other end of which is a ball of clay or other weight4 ,the wire must be fastened firmly so that it cannot turn4 ,adjust so that the figure balances4 ,figures of people in foreign costumes1 children running and jumping1 as well as all sorts of animals1 are very fascinating problems of this sort4 7,see ,fig4 #ei47 ,seesaw ,figures4--,such groups as two boys chopping wood1 two chickens drinking1 two dogs tugging at a string1 wrestling boys1 and similar groups are interesting problems of the seesaw type4 7,see ,fig4 #fj47 ,detail4--,cut the figures from cardboard4 ,make with a long pedestal4 ,color with crayon or water color4 ,use two light sticks for the seesaw1 to which tack one figure in a vertical position and the other on a slant4 ,fasten to each stick with one tack4 ,if a central figure is used1 tack firmly to lower stick4 ,work the figure by moving the upper stick while the lower one is held firm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,some simple toys4 ,toys4--,a box of carpenter's scraps of soft wood will supply material for a variety of toys which may be made by the children themselves1 thereby more than doubling the fun4 ,a few suggestions are given in detail4 ,the making of these will suggest others4 7,see ,fig4 #fj47 ,doll's ,swing4--,a heavy block for a base1 two tall uprights1 and a crosspiece will make the frame4 ,make a seat from cardboard or use the end of a small box and suspend from crossbar4 ,doll's ,teeter4--,use a heavy block for a base4 ,two uprights with double-pointed tacks or notches in the top4 ,drive two double-pointed tacks in lower side of teeter board at center4 ,slip a small rod through the tacks and rest in the notches on the uprights4 ,suspend a weight by cords from the lower side of the board1 adjust until the board balances4 ,the ends of the board should be provided with box seats for the doll's comfort4 ,railroad ,train4--,for cars1 saw pieces from a square stick4 ,for engine1 use pieces of broomstick or other cylinder4 ,soft wood is better if obtainable4 ,for wheels1 use pieces of small broomstick or dowel rod4 7,see ,fig4 #ef47 ,let the children study real trains and make the best imitation they can work out4 ,jumping ,jacks4--,cut the figure from light weight cardboard4 ,make head and body in one piece4 ,cut two arms long enough to reach well above the head4 ,make the hands very large4 ,cut two legs either with or without a joint at the knee4 ,color with crayon or water color4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,adjusting jumping jack in frame4 ,fasten the legs and arms to the body with a string tied loosely to allow free movements4 ,make a frame of two light stiff sticks and a crosspiece fastened between them near the lower end of the sticks4 ,fasten with a single nail at either end of the crosspiece4 ,cut notches near the upper ends of the sticks4 ,fasten the figure to the frame by a stout thread4 ,use a coarse needle and carry the thread through the hands twice1 leaving a loop on each side to slip over the ends of the sticks into the notches4 ,a small block or folded bit of cardboard between the hands to keep them apart will improve the movement of the toy4 ,adjust the figure so that the threads are parallel when the figure hangs below the inverted frame4 7,see ,fig4 #fa47 ,when the frame is held upright1 the figure will hang between the sticks and the threads will be crossed4 ,press the lower ends of the frame together to make the jumping jack perform4 ,merry-go-round4--,use a heavy block for a base4 ,bore a hole in the center and insert a square stick1 about #aj in4 long4 ,for arms1 use two pieces about #c_/h in4 thick and #aj in4 long4 ,fasten these together in the form of a cross and nail to the top of the upright with a single nail4 ,an awl may be used to make the hole a little larger than the nail so that the arms will revolve easily4 ,suspend a box seat of wood or cardboard from each arm to complete the toy4 7,see ,fig4 #ei47 ,games4--,ring ,toss4--,use two square pieces of board at least #a_/b in4 thick1 one piece larger than the other4 ,bore a hole in the center of the smaller piece with a #a_/b-;in4 auger bit4 ,for the upright use a stick #a_/b in4 square and about #ab in4 long4 ,whittle the corners of the stick until it fits firmly into the hole in the small board4 ,nail the small board to the large one4 ,for the rings use reeds1 venetian iron1 or hoops from small buckets or cart wheels4 ,wrap the rings with raffia or yarn4 ,make at least three rings of varying sizes4 7,see ,fig4 #fj47 ,playing ring toss and keeping tally makes an excellent number game4 ,ten ,pins4--,from bogus or other heavy paper roll and paste cylinders about three inches in diameter and about twelve inches long4 ,these may be set on end1 and any of the common ten pin games played with the help of a soft rubber ball4 ,keeping tally gives excellent practice in number4 ,bean ,bag ,game4--,draw three circles of different sizes on a large sheet of heavy cardboard4 ,carefully cut out the circles with a sharp-pointed knife4 ,mount a picture of some animal on each piece cut out4 ,fasten the pieces back in place by a single cloth hinge pasted on the back1 and at the lowest part of the circle4 ,tack the sheet of cardboard to a light wooden frame to keep it from bending4 ,let the frame rest against the wall at a slight angle4 ,bean bags thrown at the animals will knock them down as they go through the holes4 ,the bean bags should be made by the children4 ,various number games may be played with bean bags4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,holidays ,the various holidays which come during the year mean so much to little children that they should receive special notice and should suggest the form of handwork to be done at the time4 ,thanksgiving suggests attention to harvest products1 to be modeled in clay1 cut from paper1 or drawn with crayon2 the making of sand-table scenes showing early ,new ,england life in various phases2 the making of various utensils and commodities of the primitive home which differ from our own2 as1 for example1 the making of candles1 the hour glass1 and the sundial4 ,christmas suggests the making of toys and all sorts of things suitable for gifts4 ,if the work centers around the ,christmas tree1 it offers opportunity for coperation in making trimming such as paper chains1 pop-corn strings1 etc41 as well as individual gifts4 ,if a tree is not obtainable1 a box may be dressed up in imitation of ,santa's sleigh drawn by cardboard reindeer4 ,whatever else is done in honor of the visit of ,st4 ,nicholas1 the spirit of giving should be cultivated by making gifts to some younger or less fortunate groups4 ,picture books may be made for sick children1 doll furniture and other toys for the orphans' home or some family of unfortunates4 ,a sack might arrive a week or two before ,christmas accompanied by a telegram from ,santa requesting contributions to help him out in some specific way and stating that it would be called for at a certain time4 ,when a real ,santa calls for the sack1 he may leave in its place another containing some unexpected treat for the children themselves4 ,the gifts which the children contribute should be of their own making1 that they may have a full sense of real giving and not merely the pleasure of delivering the parcels mother has provided4 ,valentine's ,day offers an opportunity for developing appreciation of a higher form of art than the shop windows frequently offer1 and also investing with pure1 sweet sentiment a day which means1 in some quarters1 only vulgar sentimentality and coarse jests4 ,easter offers a similar opportunity for emphasis on the fine things in color and subjects for greeting cards4 ,the season also suggests emphasis on study of budding plants and young animal life by means of cutting1 painting1 and modeling4 ,hero days suggest a variety of forms of handwork1 such as picture making with crayons or cuttings1 or pictures in three dimensions on the sand table1 for intensifying important phases of the hero's life2 illustrated stories in booklet form2 and the making of properties for dramatic representations4 ,these things offer a welcome change from the stereotyped ,speaking day1 and stimulate originality and self-reliance4 ,so much has been written and so many suggestions are constantly being offered in school journals that specific suggestions for things to make seem superfluous here4 ,individual ,problems4--,while community problems must form a large part of the handwork in the lower grades1 it is desirable to have1 from time to time1 projects which seek a definite result from each pupil4 ,in the community problem it is possible for the strong pupil to monopolize the values of the work by imposing his ideas upon his fellows and by doing all the work while the slower pupils are getting ready to begin4 ,in the same way it is possible for the lazy pupil to shirk much of his responsibility through the eagerness of his companions4 ,it is therefore necessary to maintain a balance by the use of individual problems of a more definite type4 ,these may often be specific parts of the community problem1 but this will not meet all the needs of the case4 ,the special days offer excellent occasion for work of this sort in addition to the coperative problems which are undertaken by the class as a whole4 ,,chapter ,x ,,general ,,suggestions ,,and ,,summary ,modification of ,outlines4--,all the projects outlined in the foregoing pages are capable of modification and adaptation to the needs of several grades4 ,for this reason1 in nearly every problem1 many more suggestions are offered than will often be applicable in any one instance of its development4 ,the directions are1 for the most part1 given from the standpoint of the first grade1 on the principle that it is easier to add to the detail of a problem than to simplify it4 ,on the other hand1 the directions are not generally specific in detail1 in order to prevent as far as possible a mechanical copying of any project4 ,emphasis on ,self-expression4--,it is desired to place special emphasis upon the point that each project undertaken1 if it is to reach its highest value1 must come as fully as possible from the children themselves and be to the very fullest extent their self-expression4 ,not any house described in this book1 nor any house seen in another schoolroom1 nor even the house which ,i1 as teacher1 plan in detail1 will be most valuable to my class2 but rather our house1 which we1 teacher and pupils working together1 evolve to suit our own needs and fancies1 using suggestions gathered from every available source1 but adapting them to our own needs4 ,self-directed ,activity and ,discipline4--,the terms self-directed activity and self-expression must not be confounded with the idea of letting the children do as they please in any random and purposeless fashion4 ,if one were to start out to escort a group of children to a certain hilltop1 it is quite probable that some of them would run part of the way4 ,others would walk in twos and threes1 and these would change about4 ,they would halt to look at things that attracted their attention4 ,the leader would halt them to observe some interesting point which they might otherwise miss4 ,should any of them wander from the right path the leader would call them back1 and any frail child would be helped over the hard places4 ,yet with all this freedom the group might move steadily forward and reach the hilltop in due time4 ,all progress up the hill of knowledge should follow a similar plan4 ,the teacher should have a very definite idea of the end to be attained4 ,the children should work with a purpose1 and that purpose should be of such immediate interest to them that they would be anxious to attain it4 ,they would then work earnestly1 and discipline would settle itself4 ,handwork projects should be sufficiently simple to allow each worker to see his way through1 or at least find his way without waiting for directions at each step4 ,instead of a blind following of such directions the worker should at all times feel himself the master of his tools and materials and be able to make them obey his impulse and express his idea4 ,this attitude toward work can be secured only when the work is kept quite down to the level of the child's ability and appreciation4 ,only by this means can we hope to establish the inspiring and strengthening habit of success4 ,introduction of ,new ,methods4--,the question arises1 ,how shall work of this sort be adapted to a course of study which is already full and does not provide time for handwork8 ,handwork takes more time than bookwork1 and children evolve plans but slowly4 ,if the teacher waits for the children to evolve plans and then carry them out on their own responsibility1 the quantity of work produced will be small and the quality poor compared with the results gained by other methods4 ,the freer method must be justified1 not by its tangible results1 but by its value as a means of individual development4 ,if it is true that ,one good idea known to be thine own ,is worth a thousand gleaned from fields by others sown1 then it follows that a small quantity of crude work may often represent greater genuine growth than a larger quantity of nicely finished work1 if the latter has been accomplished by such careful dictation that individual thought on the part of the pupils was unnecessary4 ,common sense is the best guide in introducing a new method of work4 ,any sudden transition is likely to be disastrous4 ,responsibility in new fields should be shifted from teacher to pupils as rapidly as they are able to carry it1 but it should never be transferred in wholesale fashion4 ,this is especially true of a class that is accustomed to wait for the teacher's permission or command in all the small details of schoolroom life1 such as speaking1 moving about the room1 etc4 ,the freer methods may be introduced by either of two plans4 ,in carrying through the first sand-table project1 for example1 the teacher may plan the details quite as definitely as is her custom in general work1 assign each part to a particular pupil1 and guide his execution of it as far as necessary4 ,with each succeeding project more and more freedom may be granted1 as the children become accustomed to community work and learn how to use the materials involved4 ,or1 the work may be introduced by allowing two or three very trustworthy pupils to work out1 quite alone1 some simple project which will appeal to the entire class as very desirable4 ,other projects may be worked out by other pupils as they show themselves worthy of trust4 ,such a plan sets a premium upon independence and ability to direct one's own actions1 and has a beneficial effect upon general discipline4 ,each individual teacher must follow the plan which best accords with her individual habits and the conditions under which she works4 ,no rule can be rated as best under any and all circumstances4 ,new and ,different ,projects4--,teachers frequently spend time and nerve force seeking new projects supposedly to stimulate the interest of the children4 ,often a careful examination into the true motives back of the search would prove that it is not so much to stimulate the interest of the children as to call forth the admiration of other teachers4 ,because a house was built last year does not hinder the building of another this year4 ,if the children are allowed ample freedom1 the houses will not be alike4 ,if the teacher is centering her interest in the development of the children and not in the things the children make1 the projects will always be new because worked out in a new way by a different group of children4 ,monotony comes about through the teacher's attempt to plan out details and impose them upon the children1 a process quite similar to the use of predigested foods4 ,quality of ,work4--,methods such as outlined above are sometimes criticized because of the crudity of the results4 ,it is sometimes argued that the crude work establishes low standards and that better finished work of a more useful type is more desirable in school projects4 ,certainly everything which is done in school should be useful4 ,school years are too precious to be wasted1 in any degree1 on a thing which is useless4 ,but it is important to have a right standard for measuring the usefulness of a project4 ,since it is the child's interest and effort which are to be stimulated1 his work must be useful from his point of view4 ,the things that he works upon must be valuable to him personally4 ,it is not enough for the teacher to be satisfied with the value of the subject matter4 ,it must1 as far as possible1 be self-evident to the child himself4 ,in the growing period a child is always anxious to excel himself and attain a higher level1 nearer the adult standards4 ,he measures his growth1 not only in inches1 but in ability to run faster1 jump farther1 count higher1 and so on4 ,so long as he is stimulated by an interesting motive he puts forth his best effort4 ,it is only when we set him tasks and demand blind obedience that he lags4 ,if his crude work represents his best effort1 honestly put forth1 he will1 and he does1 desire to do something better each time he tries4 ,if he is permitted to work freely upon projects of immediate interest to him1 he not only becomes familiar with various materials and the purposes they may serve1 but he also begins to realize his inability to make them always obey his impulse4 ,as soon as he discovers that there are better and easier ways of working which bring about more satisfactory results1 he is anxious to learn the tricks of the trade2 and he comes to the later1 more technical courses in handwork1 not only with more intelligence1 but also with an appreciation of their value which is reflected in the quality of his work4 ,summary4--,the last word1 as the first in this little book1 would stress the fact that it is always possible to improve present conditions4 ,activity is an essential factor in a child's development in school as well as out4 ,handwork is an important phase of this necessary activity4 ,neither lack of time1 scarcity of material1 nor lack of training on the part of the teacher is a sufficient excuse for failure to use some handwork in every school4 ,much can be accomplished with materials which are to be found anywhere1 without using more time than is ordinarily devoted to the subject1 and with better results1 if we will but realize that educative handwork is not confined to the making of a few books1 boxes1 mats1 or baskets after a prescribed pattern1 however good in themselves these may be1 but is also a means through which we may teach other subject matter4 ,we not only learn to do by doing1 but we come to know through trying to do4 ,and we often learn more through our failures than through our successes4 ,we defraud the children if we deprive them of this important factor in their development4 ,any teacher who is willing to begin with what she has and let the children do the best they can with it1 will find unexpected resources and greater opportunities at every hand4 ,let us not allow ourselves to grow disheartened through vain wishes for the impossible or for the advantages of some other field1 but attack our own with vigor and determination2 for ,the common problem1 yours1 mine1 every one's ,is--not to fancy what were fair in life ,provided it could be--but1 finding first ,what may be1 then find how to make it fair ,up to our means4 ,,references ,,dewey--,the ,school and the ,child2 ,school and ,society2 ,the ,child and the ,curriculum4 ,o',,shea--,dynamic ,factors in ,education4 ,,scott--,social ,education4 ,,dopp--,the ,place of ,industries in ,elementary ,education4 ,,bone--,the ,service of the ,hand in the ,school4 ,,sargent--,fine and ,industrial ,arts4 ,,row--,the ,educational ,meaning of ,manual ,arts and ,industries4 ,,charters--,methods of ,teaching4 ,,bagley--,the ,educative ,process4 ,,russell--,the ,school and ,industrial ,life4 ,educational ,review1 ,dec4 #aiji4 ,,sykes ,,and ,,bonser--,industrial ,education4 ,teachers ,college ,record1 ,sept4 #aiaa4 ,,bennett--,the ,place of ,manual ,arts in ,education4 ,educational ,review1 ,oct4 #aiaa4 ,,richards--,handwork in the ,primary ,school4 ,manual ,training ,magazine1 ,oct4 #aija4 ,,references ,,for ,,classroom ,,use ,coping ,saw ,work ,,johnston ,school ,drawing ,,daniels ,little ,folks ,handy ,book ,,beard ,world at ,work ,series ,,dutton ,big ,people and ,little ,people of ,other ,lands ,,shaw ,how ,we ,are ,fed ,,chamberlain ,how ,we ,are ,clothed ,,chamberlain ,how ,we ,are ,sheltered ,,chamberlain ,continents and their ,people ,,chamberlain ,how the ,world is ,fed ,,carpenter ,how the ,world is ,clothed ,,carpenter ,how the ,world is ,housed ,,carpenter ,around the ,world ,series ,,tolman ,youth's ,companion ,series ,,lane ,the ,bird ,woman ,,chandler ,the ,tree ,dwellers ,,dopp ,the ,early ,cave ,men ,,dopp ,the ,later ,cave ,men ,,dopp ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,footnotes3 #a ,in scoring cardboard cut about halfway through the board on the outside of the fold4 #b ,see ,scott's ,social ,education4 #c ,see ,riverside ,primer4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as presented in the original text4 ,printer's inconsistencies in hyphenation have been retained4