-------------------------------------   
,transcriber's note3                    
,many words in the text are spelled     
with or without a hyphen2 these are     
not corrected as both forms occur       
with almost same frequency and the      
hyphenated form might indicate an       
emphasis in words such as               
re-formation4                           
-------------------------------------   
,,pedagogics   ,,as ,a   ,,system4      
,by ,dr4 ,,karl ,,rosenkranz1    ,doctor
 of ,theology and ,professor of         
,philosophy at the ,university   of     
,knigsberg4    ,,translated ,,from ,,the
 ,,german    ,by ,,anna ,c4 ,,brackett4 
7,reprinted from ,journal of            
,speculative ,philosophy47     ,,st4    
,,louis1 ,,mo43   ,,the ,r4 ,p4         
,,studley ,,company1 ,,printers1        
,,corner ,,main  ,,olive ,,sts4   #ahgb4
    ,entered according to ,act of       
,congress1 in the year #ahgb1 by        
,,william ,t4 ,,harris1   ,in the       
,office of the ,librarian of ,congress  

at ,washington4       ,,analysis4       
,,first ,,part4    ,its ,nature4        
,in its ,general ,its ,form4            
,idea4        ,its ,limits4             
,,second ,,part4   ,physical4      ,in  
its ,special ,intellectual4             
,elements4    ,moral4                   
,family     ,china4                     
,passive4    ,caste      ,india4        
,monkish    ,thibet4                    
,military   ,persia4                    
,national4 ,active      ,priestly       
,egypt4                                 
,industrial ,phoenicia4                 
sthetic    ,greece4   ,e                
,individual4 ,practical   ,rome4   ,d   
,abstract   ,northern4   ,u             
,individual ,barbarians4   ,c           
,a               ,theocratic4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4  ,jews4   ,t                
,i               ,monkish4   ,o  ,,third
 ,,part4     ,n  ,in its                
,particular         ,systems4           
,chivalric4                             
,humanitarian4 ,for ,special  ,jesuitic4

                                        
,callings4   ,pietistic4                
,the                                    
,humanistic4                   ,for     
,civil     ,to achieve                  
,life4        an ,ideal of ,the         
,culture4    ,philanthropic             
,movement4                              
,for ,free ,citizenship4   ,,pedagogics 
,,as ,a ,,system4     ,inquiries from   
teachers in different sections of the   
country as to the sources of information
 on the subject of   ,teaching as a     
,science have led me to believe that a  
translation of ,rosenkranz's ,pedagogics
 may be widely   acceptable and useful4 
,it is very certain that too much of    
our teaching is simply empirical1 and as
 ,germany has1 more   than any other    
country1 endeavored to found it upon    
universal truths1 it is to that country 
that we must at   present look for a    
remedy for this empiricism4    ,based as
 this is upon the profoundest system of 
,german   ,philosophy1 no more          

suggestive treatise on ,education can   
perhaps be found4 ,in his third part1 as
 will be readily   seen1 ,rosenkranz    
follows the classification of ,national 
ideas given in ,hegel's ,philosophy of  
,history4 ,the word   ,pedagogics1      
though it has unfortunately acquired a  
somewhat unpleasant meaning in          
,english--thanks to the   writers who   
have made the word pedagogue so         
odious--deserves to be redeemed for     
future use4 ,i have1   therefore1       
retained it in the translation4    ,in  
order that the reader may see the       
general scope of the   work1 ,i append  
in tabular form the table of contents1  
giving however1 under the first and     
second parts1 only the   main divisions4
 ,the minor heads can1 of course1 as    
they   appear in the translation1 be    
easily located4--,tr4                   
,,introduction4    #a4 ,the science of  
,pedagogics cannot be derived from a    
simple principle with such exactness as 
,logic and ,ethics4 ,it is rather a     

mixed science which has its             
presuppositions in many others4 ,in this
 respect it resembles ,medicine1 with   
which it has this also in common1 that  
it must make a distinction between a    
sound and an unhealthy system of        
education1 and must devise means to     
prevent or to cure the latter4 ,it may  
therefore have1 like ,medicine1 the     
three departments of ,physiology1       
,pathology1 and ,therapeutics4   #b4    
,since ,pedagogics is capable of no such
 exact definitions of its principle and 
no such logical deduction as other      
sciences1 the treatises written upon it 
abound more in shallowness than any     
other literature4 ,short-sightedness and
 arrogance find in it a most congenial  
atmosphere1 and criticism and           
declamatory bombast flourish in         
perfection as nowhere else4 ,the        
literature of religious tracts might be 
considered to rival that of ,pedagogics 
in its superficiality and assurance1 if 
it did not for the most part seem itself

 to belong1 through its ascetic nature1 
to ,pedagogics4 ,but teachers as persons
 should be treated in their weaknesses  
and failures with the utmost            
consideration1 because they are most of 
them sincere in contributing their mite 
for the improvement of education1 and   
all their pedagogic practice inclines   
them towards administering reproof and  
giving advice4   #c4 ,the charlatanism  
of educational literature is also       
fostered by the fact that teaching has  
become one of the most profitable       
employments1 and the competition in it  
tends to increase self-glorification4   
--,when ,boz in his ,nicholas ,nickleby 
exposed the horrible mysteries of an    
,english boarding-school1 many teachers 
of such schools were1 as he assures us1 
so accurately described that they openly
 complained he had aimed his caricatures
 directly at them4--   #d4 ,in the      
system of the sciences1 ,pedagogics     
belongs to the ,philosophy of           
,spirit1--and in this1 to the department

 of ,practical ,philosophy1 the problem 
of which is the comprehension of the    
necessity of freedom2 for education is  
the conscious working of one will on    
another so as to produce itself in it   
according to a determinate aim4 ,the    
idea of subjective spirit1 as well as   
that of ,art1 ,science1 and ,religion1  
forms the essential condition for       
,pedagogics1 but does not contain its   
principle4 ,if one thinks out a complete
 statement of ,practical ,philosophy    
7,ethics71 ,pedagogics may be           
distributed among all its grades4 ,but  
the point at which ,pedagogics itself   
becomes organic is the idea of the      
,family1 because in the family the      
difference between the adults and the   
minors enters directly through the      
naturalness of spirit1 and the right of 
the children to an education and the    
duty of parents towards them in this    
respect is incontestable4 ,all other    
spheres of education1 in order to       
succeed1 must presuppose a true family  

life4 ,they may extend and complement   
the business of teaching1 but cannot be 
its original foundation4  --,in our     
systematic exposition of ,education1 we 
must not allow ourselves to be led into 
error by those theories which do not    
recognize the family1 and which limit   
the relation of husband and wife to the 
producing of children4 ,the ,platonic   
,philosophy is the most worthy          
representative of this class4 ,later    
writers who take great pleasure in      
seeing the world full of children1 but  
who would subtract from the love to a   
wife all truth and from that to children
 all care1 exhibit in their doctrine of 
the anarchy of love only a sickly 7but  
yet how prevalent an7 imitation of the  
,platonic state4--   #e4 ,much confusion
 also arises from the fact that many do 
not clearly enough draw the distinction 
between ,pedagogics as a science and    
,pedagogics as an art4 ,as a science it 
busies itself with developing a priori  
the idea of ,education in the           

universality and necessity of that idea1
 but as an art it is the concrete       
individualizing of this abstract idea in
 any given case4 ,and in any such given 
case1 the peculiarities of the person   
who is to be educated and all the       
previously existing circumstances       
necessitate a modification of the       
universal aims and ends1 which          
modification cannot be provided for     
beforehand1 but must rather test the    
ready tact of the educator who knows how
 to make the existing conditions fulfil 
his desired end4 ,it is exactly in doing
 this that the educator may show himself
 inventive and creative1 and that       
pedagogic talent can distinguish itself4
 ,the word art is here used in the same 
way as it is used when we say1 the art  
of war1 the art of government1 c42 and  
rightly1 for we are talking about the   
possibility of the realization of the   
idea4  --,the educator must adapt       
himself to the pupil1 but not to such a 
degree as to imply that the pupil is    

incapable of change1 and he must also be
 sure that the pupil shall learn through
 his experience the independence of the 
object studied1 which remains           
uninfluenced by his variable personal   
moods1 and the adaptation on the        
teacher's part must never compromise    
this independence4--   #f4 ,if          
conditions which are local1 temporal1   
and individual1 are fixed as constant   
rules1 and carried beyond their proper  
limits1 are systematized as a valuable  
formalistic code1 unavoidable error     
arises4 ,the formul of teaching are     
admirable material for the science1 but 
are not the science itself4   #g4       
,pedagogics as a science must 7#a7      
unfold the general idea of ,education2  
7#b7 must exhibit the particular phases 
into which the general work of          
,education divides itself1 and 7#c7 must
 describe the particular standpoint upon
 which the general idea realizes itself1
 or should become real in its special   
processes at any particular time4   #h4 

,the treatment of the first part offers 
no difficulty4 ,it is logically too     
evident4 ,but it would not do to        
substitute for it the history of        
,pedagogics1 simply because all the     
conceptions of it which appear in       
systematic treatises can be found there4
  --,into this error ,g4 ,thaulow has   
fallen in his pamphlet on ,pedagogics as
 a ,philosophical ,science4--   #i4 ,the
 second division unfolds the subject of 
the physical1 intellectual and practical
 culture of the human race1 and         
constitutes the main part of all books  
on ,pedagogy4 ,here arises the greatest 
difficulty as to the limitations1 partly
 because of the undefined nature of the 
ideas1 partly because of the degree of  
amplification which the details demand4 
,here is the field of the widest        
possible differences4 ,if e4g4 one      
studies out the conception of the school
 with reference to the qualitative      
specialities which one may consider1 it 
is evident that he can extend his       

remarks indefinitely2 he may speak thus 
of technological schools of all kinds1  
to teach mining1 navigation1 war1 art1  
c4   #aj4 ,the third division           
distinguishes between the different     
standpoints which are possible in the   
working out of the conception of        
,education in its special elements1 and 
which therefore produce different       
systems of ,education wherein the       
general and the particular are          
individualized in a special manner4 ,in 
every system the general tendencies of  
the idea of education1 and the          
difference between the physical1        
intellectual and practical culture of   
man1 must be formally recognized1 and   
will appear4 ,the ,how is decided by the
 standpoint which reduces that formalism
 to a special system4 ,thus it becomes  
possible to discover the essential      
contents of the history of ,pedagogics  
from its idea1 since this can furnish   
not an indefinite but a certain number  
of ,pedagogic systems4  --,the lower    

standpoint merges always into the       
higher1 and in so doing first attains   
its full meaning1 e4g43 ,education for  
the sake of the nation is set aside for 
higher standpoints1 e4g41 that of       
,christianity2 but we must not suppose  
that the national phase of ,education   
was counted as nought from the          
,christian standpoint4 ,rather it itself
 had outgrown the limits which1 though  
suitable enough for its early stage1    
could no longer contain its true idea4  
,this is sure to be the case in the fact
 that the national individualities      
become indestructible by being          
incorporated into ,christianity--a fact 
that contradicts the abstract seizing of
 such relations4--   #aa4 ,the last     
system must be that of the present1 and 
since this is certainly on one side the 
result of all the past1 while on the    
other seized in its possibilities it is 
determined by the ,future1 the business 
of ,pedagogics cannot pause till it     
reaches its ideal of the general and    

special determinations1 so that looked  
at in this way the ,science of          
,pedagogics at its end returns to its   
beginning4 ,the first and second        
divisions already contain the idea of   
the system necessary for the ,present4  
,,first ,,part4  ,the ,general ,idea of 
,education4    #ab4 ,the idea of        
,pedagogics in general must distinguish1
    7#a7 ,the nature of ,education in   
general2   7#b7 ,its form2   7#c7 ,its  
limits4   ,i4  ,the ,nature of          
,education4   #ac4 ,the nature of       
,education is determined by the nature  
of mind--that it can develop whatever it
 really is only by its own activity4    
,mind is in itself free2 but if it does 
not actualize this possibility1 it is in
 no true sense free1 either for itself  
or for another4 ,education is the       
influencing of man by man1 and it has   
for its end to lead him to actualize    
himself through his own efforts4 ,the   
attainment of perfect manhood as the    
actualization of the ,freedom necessary 

to mind constitutes the nature of       
,education in general4  --,the          
completely isolated man does not become 
man4 ,solitary human beings who have    
been found in forests1 like the wild    
girl of the forest of ,ardennes1        
sufficiently prove the fact that the    
truly human qualities in man cannot be  
developed without reciprocal action with
 human beings4 ,caspar ,hauser in his   
subterranean prison is an illustration  
of what man would be by himself4 ,the   
first cry of the child expresses in its 
appeals to others this helplessness of  
spirituality on the side of nature4--   
#ad4 ,man1 therefore1 is the only fit   
subject for education4 ,we often speak1 
it is true1 of the education of plants  
and animals2 but even when we do so1 we 
apply1 unconsciously perhaps1 other     
expressions1 as raising and training1 in
 order to distinguish these4 ,breaking  
consists in producing in an animal1     
either by pain or pleasure of the       
senses1 an activity of which1 it is     

true1 he is capable1 but which he never 
would have developed if left to himself4
 ,on the other hand1 it is the nature of
 ,education only to assist in the       
producing of that which the subject     
would strive most earnestly to develop  
for himself if he had a clear idea of   
himself4 ,we speak of raising trees and 
animals1 but not of raising men2 and it 
is only a planter who looks to his      
slaves only for an increase in their    
number4  --,the education of men is     
quite often enough1 unfortunately1 only 
a breaking1 and here and there still may
 be found examples where one tries to   
teach mechanically1 not through the     
understanding power of the creative     
,,word1 but through the powerless and   
fruitless appeal to physical pain4--    
#ae4 ,the idea of ,education may be more
 or less comprehensive4 ,we use it in   
the widest sense when we speak of the   
,education of the race1 for we          
understand by this expression the       
connection which the acts and situations

 of different nations have to each      
other1 as different steps towards       
self-conscious freedom4 ,in this the    
world-spirit is the teacher4   #af4 ,in 
a more restricted sense we mean by      
,education the shaping of the individual
 life by the forces of nature1 the      
rhythmical movement of national customs1
 and the might of destiny in which each 
one finds limits set to his arbitrary   
will4 ,these often mould him into a man 
without his knowledge4 ,for he cannot   
act in opposition to nature1 nor offend 
the ethical sense of the people among   
whom he dwells1 nor despise the leading 
of destiny without discovering through  
experience that before the ,nemesis of  
these substantial elements his          
subjective power can dash itself only to
 be shattered4 ,if he perversely and    
persistently rejects all our            
admonitions1 we leave him1 as a last    
resort1 to destiny1 whose iron rule must
 educate him1 and reveal to him the ,god
 whom he has misunderstood4  --,it is1  

of course1 sometimes not only possible1 
but necessary for one1 moved by the     
highest sense of morality1 to act in    
opposition to the laws of nature1 to    
offend the ethical sense of the people  
that surround him1 and to brave the     
blows of destiny2 but such a one is a   
sublime reformer or martyr1 and we are  
not now speaking of such1 but of the    
perverse1 the frivolous1 and the        
conceited4--   #ag4 ,in the narrowest   
sense1 which however is the usual one1  
we mean by ,education the influence     
which one mind exerts on another in     
order to cultivate the latter in some   
understood and methodical way1 either   
generally or with reference to some     
special aim4 ,the educator must1        
therefore1 be relatively finished in his
 own education1 and the pupil must      
possess unlimited confidence in him4 ,if
 authority be wanting on the one side1  
or respect and obedience on the other1  
this ethical basis of development must  
fail1 and it demands in the very highest

 degree1 talent1 knowledge1 skill1 and  
prudence4  --,education takes on this   
form only under the culture which has   
been developed through the influence of 
city life4 ,up to that time we have the 
nave period of education1 which holds to
 the general powers of nature1 of       
national customs1 and of destiny1 and   
which lasts for a long time among the   
rural populations4 ,but in the city a   
greater complication of events1 an      
uncertainty of the results of           
reflection1 a working out of            
individuality1 and a need of the        
possession of many arts and trades1 make
 their appearance and render it         
impossible for men longer to be ruled by
 mere custom4 ,the ,telemachus of       
,fenelon was educated to rule himself by
 means of reflection2 the actual        
,telemachus in the heroic age lived     
simply according to custom4--   #ah4    
,the general problem of ,education is   
the development of the theoretical and  
practical reason in the individual4 ,if 

we say that to educate one means to     
fashion him into morality1 we do not    
make our definition sufficiently        
comprehensive1 because we say nothing of
 intelligence1 and thus confound        
education and ethics4 ,a man is not     
merely a human being1 but as a          
reasonable being he is a peculiar       
individual1 and different from all      
others of the race4   #ai4 ,education   
must lead the pupil by an interconnected
 series of efforts previously foreseen  
and arranged by the teacher to a        
definite end2 but the particular form   
which this shall take must be determined
 by the peculiar character of the       
pupil's mind and the situation in which 
he is found4 ,hasty and inconsiderate   
work may accomplish much1 but only      
systematic work can advance and fashion 
him in conformity with his nature1 and  
the former does not belong to education1
 for this includes in itself the idea of
 an end1 and that of the technical means
 for its attainment4   #bj4 ,but as     

culture comes to mean more and more1    
there becomes necessary a division of   
the business of teaching among different
 persons1 with reference to capabilities
 and knowledge1 because as the arts and 
sciences are continually increasing in  
number1 one can become learned in any   
one branch only by devoting himself     
exclusively to it1 and hence becoming   
one-sided4 ,a difficulty hence arises   
which is also one for the pupil1 of     
preserving1 in spite of this unavoidable
 one-sidedness1 the unity and wholeness 
which are necessary to humanity4  --,the
 nave dignity of the happy savage1 and  
the agreeable simplicity of country     
people1 appear to very great advantage  
when contrasted on this side with the   
often unlimited narrowness of a special 
trade1 and the endless curtailing of the
 wholeness of man by the pruning        
processes of city life4 ,thus the often 
abused savage has his hut1 his family1  
his cocoa tree1 his weapons1 his        
passions2 he fishes1 hunts1 plays1      

fights1 adorns himself1 and enjoys the  
consciousness that he is the centre of a
 whole1 while a modern citizen is often 
only an abstract expression of          
culture4--   #ba4 ,as it becomes        
necessary to divide the work of         
teaching1 a difference between general  
and special schools arises also1 from   
the needs of growing culture4 ,the      
former present in different compass all 
the sciences and arts which are included
 in the term general education1 and     
which were classified by the ,greeks    
under the general name of ,encyclopdia4 
,the latter are known as special        
schools1 suited to particular needs or  
talents4  --,as those who live in the   
country are relatively isolated1 it is  
often necessary1 or at least desirable1 
that one man should be trained equally  
on many different sides4 ,the poor tutor
 is required not only to instruct in all
 the sciences1 he must also speak       
,french and be able to play the piano4--
   #bb4 ,for any single person1 the     

relation of his actual education to its 
infinite possibilities can only be      
approximately determined1 and it can be 
considered as only relatively finished  
on any one side4 ,education is          
impossible to him who is born an idiot1 
since the want of the power of          
generalizing and of ideality of         
conscious personality leaves to such an 
unfortunate only the possibility of a   
mechanical training4  --,sgert1 the     
teacher of the deaf mutes in ,berlin1   
has made laudable efforts to educate    
idiots1 but the account as given in his 
publication1 ,cure of ,idiots by an     
,intellectual ,method1 ,berlin1 #ahdf1  
shows that the result obtained was only 
external2 and though we do not desire to
 be understood as denying or refusing to
 this class the possession of a mind in 
potentia1 it appears in them to be      
confined to an embryonic state4--       
,,ii4  ,the ,form of ,education4   #bc4 
,the general form of ,education is      
determined by the nature of the mind1   

that it really is nothing but what it   
makes itself to be4 ,the mind is 7#a7   
immediate 7or potential71 but 7#b7 it   
must estrange itself from itself as it  
were1 so that it may place itself over  
against itself as a special object of   
attention2 7#c7 this estrangement is    
finally removed through a further       
acquaintance with the object--it feels  
itself at home in that on which it      
looks1 and returns again enriched to the
 form of immediateness4 ,that which at  
first appeared to be another than itself
 is now seen to be itself4 ,education   
cannot create2 it can only help to      
develop to reality the previously       
existent possibility2 it can only help  
to bring forth to light the hidden life4
   #bd4 ,all culture1 whatever may be   
its special purport1 must pass through  
these two stages--of estrangement1 and  
its removal4 ,culture must hold fast to 
the distinction between the subject and 
the object considered immediately1      
though it has again to absorb this      

distinction into itself1 in order that  
the union of the two may be more        
complete and lasting4 ,the subject      
recognizes then all the more certainly  
that what at first appeared to it as a  
foreign existence1 belongs to it as its 
own property1 and that it holds it as   
its own all the more by means of        
culture4  --,plato1 as is known1 calls  
the feeling with which knowledge must   
begin1 wonder2 but this can serve as a  
beginning only1 for wonder itself can   
only express the tension between the    
subject and the object at their first   
encounter--a tension which would be     
impossible if they were not in          
themselves identical4 ,children have a  
longing for the far-off1 the strange1   
and the wonderful1 as if they hoped to  
find in these an explanation of         
themselves4 ,they want the object to be 
a genuine object4 ,that to which they   
are accustomed1 which they see around   
them every day1 seems to have no longer 
any objective energy for them2 but an   

alarm of fire1 banditti life1 wild      
animals1 gray old ruins1 the robin's    
songs1 and far-off happy islands1       
c4--everything high-colored and         
dazzling--leads them irresistibly on4   
,the necessity of the mind's making     
itself foreign to itself is that which  
makes children prefer to hear of the    
adventurous journeys of ,sinbad than    
news of their own city or the history of
 their nation1 and in youth this same   
necessity manifests itself in their     
desire of travelling4--   #be4 ,this    
activity of the mind in allowing itself 
to be absorbed1 and consciously so1 in  
an object with the purpose of making it 
his own1 or of producing it1 is ,work4  
,but when the mind gives itself up to   
its objects as chance may present them  
or through arbitrariness1 careless as to
 whether they have any result1 such     
activity is ,play4 ,work is laid out for
 the pupil by his teacher by authority1 
but in his play he is left to himself4  
#bf4 ,thus work and play must be sharply

 distinguished from each other4 ,if one 
has not respect for work as an important
 and substantial activity1 he not only  
spoils play for his pupil1 for this     
loses all its charm when deprived of the
 antithesis of an earnest1 set task1 but
 he undermines his respect for real     
existence4 ,on the other hand1 if he    
does not give him space1 time1 and      
opportunity1 for play1 he prevents the  
peculiarities of his pupil from         
developing freely through the exercise  
of his creative ingenuity4 ,play sends  
the pupil back refreshed to his work1   
since in play he forgets himself in his 
own way1 while in work he is required to
 forget himself in a manner prescribed  
for him by another4  --,play is of great
 importance in helping one to discover  
the true individualities of children1   
because in play they may betray         
thoughtlessly their inclinations4 ,this 
antithesis of work and play runs through
 the entire life4 ,children anticipate  
in their play the earnest work of after 

life2 thus the little girl plays with   
her doll1 and the boy pretends he is a  
soldier and in battle4--   #bg4 ,work   
should never be treated as if it were   
play1 nor play as if it were work4 ,in  
general1 the arts1 the sciences1 and    
productions1 stand in this relation to  
each other3 the accumulation of stores  
of knowledge is the recreation of the   
mind which is engaged in independent    
creation1 and the practice of arts fills
 the same office to those whose work is 
to collect knowledge4   #bh4 ,education 
seeks to transform every particular     
condition so that it shall no longer    
seem strange to the mind or in anywise  
foreign to its own nature4 ,this        
identity of consciousness1 and the      
special character of anything done or   
endured by it1 we call ,habit habitual  
conduct or behavior4 ,it conditions     
formally all progress2 for that which is
 not yet become habit1 but which we     
perform with design and an exercise of  
our will1 is not yet a part of          

ourselves4   #bi4 ,as to ,habit1 we have
 to say next that it is at first        
indifferent as to what it relates4 ,but 
that which is to be considered as       
indifferent or neutral cannot be defined
 in the abstract1 but only in the       
concrete1 because anything that is      
indifferent as to whether it shall act  
on these particular men1 or in this     
special situation1 is capable of another
 or even of the opposite meaning for    
another man or men for the same men or  
in other circumstances4 ,here1 then1    
appeal must be made to the individual   
conscience in order to be able from the 
depths of individuality to separate what
 we can permit to ourselves from that   
which we must deny ourselves4 ,the aim  
of ,education must be to arouse in the  
pupil this spiritual and ethical        
sensitiveness which does not recognize  
anything as merely indifferent1 but     
rather knows how to seize in everything1
 even in the seemingly small1 its       
universal human significance4 ,but in   

relation to the highest problems he must
 learn that what concerns his own       
immediate personality is entirely       
indifferent4   #cj4 ,habit lays aside   
its indifference to an external action  
through reflection on the advantage or  
disadvantage of the same4 ,whatever     
tends as a harmonious means to the      
realization of an end is advantageous1  
but that is disadvantageous which1 by   
contradicting its idea1 hinders or      
destroys it4 ,advantage and disadvantage
 being then only relative terms1 a habit
 which is advantageous for one man in   
one case may be disadvantageous for     
another man1 or even for the same man1  
under different circumstances4          
,education must1 therefore1 accustom the
 youth to judge as to the expediency or 
inexpediency of any action in its       
relation to the essential vocation of   
his life1 so that he shall avoid that   
which does not promote its success4     
#ca4 ,but the absolute distinction of   
habit is the moral distinction between  

the good and the bad4 ,for from this    
standpoint alone can we finally decide  
what is allowable and what is forbidden1
 what is advantageous and what is       
disadvantageous4   #cb4 ,as relates to  
form1 habit may be either passive or    
active4 ,the passive is that which      
teaches us to bear the vicissitudes of  
nature as well as of history with such  
composure that we shall hold our ground 
against them1 being always equal to     
ourselves1 and that we shall not allow  
our power of acting to be paralyzed     
through any mutations of fortune4       
,passive habit is not to be confounded  
with obtuseness in receiving            
impressions1 a blank abstraction from   
the affair in hand which at bottom is   
found to be nothing more than a         
selfishness which desires to be left    
undisturbed3 it is simply composure of  
mind in view of changes over which we   
have no control4 ,while we vividly      
experience joy and sorrow1 pain and     
pleasure--inwoven as these are with the 

change of seasons1 of the weather1      
c4--with the alternation of life and    
death1 of happiness and misery1 we ought
 nevertheless to harden ourselves       
against them so that at the same time in
 our consciousness of the supreme worth 
of the mind we shall build up the       
inaccessible stronghold of ,freedom in  
ourselves4--,active habit or behavior is
 found realized in a wide range of      
activity which appears in manifold      
forms1 such as skill1 dexterity1        
readiness of information1 c4 ,it is a   
steeling of the internal for action upon
 the external1 as the ,passive is a     
steeling of the internal against the    
influences of the external4  ,sidenote3 
,formation of ,habits4   #cc4 ,habit is 
the general form which instruction      
takes4 ,for since it reduces a condition
 or an activity within ourselves to an  
instinctive use and wont1 it is         
necessary for any thorough instruction4 
,but as1 according to its content1 it   
may be either proper or improper1       

advantageous or disadvantageous1 good or
 bad1 and according to its form may be  
the assimilation of the external by the 
internal1 or the impress of the internal
 upon the external1 ,education must     
procure for the pupil the power of being
 able to free himself from one habit and
 to adopt another4 ,through his freedom 
he must be able not only to renounce any
 habit formed1 but to form a new one2   
and he must so govern his system of     
habits that it shall exhibit a constant 
progress of development into greater    
freedom4 ,we must discipline ourselves1 
as a means toward the ever-changing     
realization of the ,good in us1         
constantly to form and to break habits4 
--,we must characterize those habits as 
bad which relate only to our convenience
 or our enjoyment4 ,they are often not  
blamable in themselves1 but there lies  
in them a hidden danger that they may   
allure us into luxury or effeminacy4    
,but it is a false and mechanical way of
 looking at the affair if we suppose    

that a habit which has been formed by a 
certain number of repetitions can be    
broken by an equal number of denials4   
,we can never renounce a habit utterly  
except through a clearness of judgment  
which decides it to be undesirable1 and 
through firmness of will4--   #cd4      
,education comprehends also the         
reciprocal action of the opposites1     
authority and obedience1 rationality and
 individuality1 work and play1 habit and
 spontaneity4 ,if we imagine that these 
can be reconciled by rules1 it will be  
in vain that we try to restrain the     
youth in these relations4 ,but a failure
 in education in this particular is very
 possible through the freedom of the    
pupil1 through special circumstances1 or
 through the errors of the educator     
himself4 ,and for this very reason any  
theory of ,education must take into     
account in the beginning this negative  
possibility4 ,it must consider          
beforehand the dangers which threaten   
the pupil in all possible ways even     

before they surround him1 and fortify   
him against them4 ,intentionally to     
expose him to temptation in order to    
prove his strength1 is devilish2 and1 on
 the other hand1 to guard him against   
the chance of dangerous temptation1 to  
wrap him in cotton 7as the proverb      
says71 is womanish1 ridiculous1         
fruitless1 and much more dangerous2 for 
temptation comes not alone from without1
 but quite as often from within1 and    
secret inclination seeks and creates for
 itself the opportunity for its         
gratification1 often perhaps an         
unnatural one4 ,the truly preventive    
activity consists not in an abstract    
seclusion from the world1 all of whose  
elements are innate in each individual1 
but in the activity of knowledge and    
discipline1 modified according to age   
and culture4  ,sidenote3 ,protection    
against ,temptation4  --,if one         
endeavors to deprive the youth of all   
free and individual intercourse with the
 world1 one only falls into a continual 

watching of him1 and the consciousness  
that he is watched destroys in him all  
elasticity of spirit1 all confidence1   
all originality4 ,the police shadow of  
control obscures all independence and   
systematically accustoms him to         
dependence4 ,as the tragi-comic story of
 ,peter ,schlemihl shows1 one cannot    
lose his own shadow without falling into
 the saddest fatalities2 but the shadow 
of a constant companion1 as in the      
pedagogical system of the ,jesuits1     
undermines all naturalness4 ,and if one 
endeavors too strictly to guard against 
that which is evil and forbidden1 the   
intelligence of the pupils reacts in    
deceit against such efforts1 till the   
educators are amazed that such crimes as
 come often to light can have arisen    
under such careful control4--   #ce4 ,if
 there should appear in the youth any   
decided moral deformity which is opposed
 to the ideal of his education1 the     
instructor must at once make inquiry as 
to the history of its origin1 because   

the negative and the positive are very  
closely connected in his being1 so that 
what appears to be negligence1 rudeness1
 immorality1 foolishness1 or oddity1 may
 arise from some real needs of the youth
 which in their development have only   
taken a wrong direction4   #cf4 ,if it  
should appear on such examination that  
the negative action was only a product  
of wilful ignorance1 of caprice1 or of  
arbitrariness on the part of the youth1 
then this calls for a simple prohibition
 on the part of the educator1 no reason 
being assigned4 ,his authority must be  
sufficient to the pupil without any     
reason4 ,only when this has happened    
more than once1 and the youth is old    
enough to understand1 should the        
prohibition1 together with the reason   
therefor1 be given4  --,this should1    
however1 be brief2 the explanation must 
retain its disciplinary character1 and  
must not become extended into a         
doctrinal essay1 for in such a case the 
youth easily forgets that it was his own

 misbehavior which was the occasion of  
the explanation4 ,the statement of the  
reason must be honest1 and it must      
present to the youth the point most easy
 for him to seize4 ,false reasons are   
morally blamable in themselves1 and they
 tend only to confuse4 ,it is a great   
mistake to unfold to the youth the      
broadening consequences which his act   
may bring4 ,these uncertain             
possibilities seem to him too powerless 
to affect him particularly4 ,the severe 
lecture wearies him1 especially if it be
 stereotyped1 as is apt to be the case  
with fault-finding and talkative        
instructors4 ,but more unfortunate is it
 if the painting of the gloomy          
background to which the consequences of 
the wrong-doing of the youth may lead1  
should fill his feelings and imagination
 prematurely with gloomy fancies1       
because then the representation has led 
him one step toward a state of          
wretchedness which in the future man may
 become fearful depression and          

degradation4--  ,sidenote3 ,reproof and 
,punishment4   #cg4 ,if the censure is  
accompanied with a threat of punishment1
 then we have the same kind of reproof  
which in daily life we call scolding2   
but if reproof is given1 the pupil must 
be made to feel that it is in earnest4  
#ch4 ,only when all other efforts have  
failed1 is punishment1 which is the real
 negation of the error1 the             
transgression1 or the vice1 justifiable4
 ,punishment inflicts intentionally pain
 on the pupil1 and its object is1 by    
means of this sensation1 to bring him to
 reason1 a result which neither our     
simple prohibition1 our explanation1 nor
 our threat of punishment1 has been able
 to reach4 ,but the punishment1 as such1
 must not refer to the subjective       
totality of the youth1 or his           
disposition in general1 but only to the 
act which1 as result1 is a manifestation
 of the disposition4 ,it acts mediately 
on the disposition1 but leaves the inner
 being untouched directly2 and this is  

not only demanded by justice1 but on    
account of the sophistry that is        
inherent in human nature1 which desires 
to assign to a deed many motives1 it is 
even necessary4  ,sidenote3 ,correction 
,,versus ,satisfaction of ,justice4     
#ci4 ,punishment as an educational means
 is nevertheless essentially corrective1
 since1 by leading the youth to a proper
 estimation of his fault and a positive 
change in his behavior1 it seeks to     
improve him4 ,at the same time it stands
 as a sad indication of the             
insufficiency of the means previously   
used4 ,on no account should the youth be
 frightened from the commission of a    
misdemeanor1 or from the repetition of  
his negative deed through fear of       
punishment--a system which leads always 
to terrorism3 but1 although it may have 
this effect1 it should1 before all      
things1 impress upon him the recognition
 of the fact that the negative is not   
allowed to act as it will without       
limitation1 but rather that the ,good   

and the ,true have the absolute power in
 the world1 and that they are never     
without the means of overcoming anything
 that contradicts them4  --,in the      
statute-laws1 punishment has the        
opposite office4 ,it must first of all  
satisfy justice1 and only after this is 
done can it attempt to improve the      
guilty4 ,if a government should proceed 
on the same basis as the educator it    
would mistake its task1 because it has  
to deal with adults1 whom it elevates to
 the honorable position of              
responsibility for their own acts4 ,the 
state must not go back to the           
psychological ethical genesis of a      
negative deed4 ,it must assign to a     
secondary rank of importance the        
biographical moment which contains the  
deed in process and the circumstances of
 a mitigating character1 and it must    
consider first of all the deed in       
itself4 ,it is quite otherwise with the 
educator2 for he deals with human beings
 who are relatively undeveloped1 and who

 are only growing toward responsibility4
 ,so long as they are still under the   
care of a teacher1 the responsibility of
 their deed belongs in part to him4 ,if 
we confound the standpoint in which     
punishment is administered in the state 
with that in education1 we work much    
evil4--   #dj4 ,punishment as a negation
 of a negation1 considered as an        
educational means1 cannot be determined 
priori1 but must always be modified by  
the peculiarities of the individual     
offender and by the peculiar            
circumstances4 ,its administration calls
 for the exercise of the ingenuity and  
tact of the educator4  ,sidenote3 ,three
 ,kinds of ,punishment4   #da4          
,generally speaking1 we must make a     
distinction between the sexes1 as well  
as between the different periods of     
youth2 7#a7 some kind of corporal       
punishment is most suitable for         
children1 7#b7 isolation for older boys 
and girls1 and 7#c7 punishment based on 
the sense of honor for young men and    

women4   #db4 7#a7 ,corporal punishment 
is the production of physical pain4 ,the
 youth is generally whipped1 and this   
kind of punishment1 provided always that
 it is not too often administered or    
with undue severity1 is the proper way  
of dealing with wilful defiance1 with   
obstinate carelessness1 or with a really
 perverted will1 so long or so often as 
the higher perception is closed against 
appeal4 ,the imposing of other physical 
punishment1 e4g4 that of depriving the  
pupil of food1 partakes of cruelty4 ,the
 view which sees in the rod the panacea 
for all the teacher's embarrassments is 
censurable1 but equally undesirable is  
the false sentimentality which assumes  
that the dignity of humanity is affected
 by a blow given to a child1 and        
confounds self-conscious humanity with  
child-humanity1 to which a blow is the  
most natural form of reaction1 in which 
all other forms of influence at last    
end4  --,the fully-grown man ought never
 to be whipped1 because this kind of    

punishment reduces him to the level of  
the child1 and1 when it becomes         
barbarous1 to that of a brute animal1   
and so is absolutely degrading to him4  
,in the ,english schools the rod is much
 used4 ,if a pupil of the first class be
 put back into the second at ,eton1 he1 
although before exempt from flogging1   
becomes liable to it4 ,but however      
necessary this system of flogging of the
 ,english aristocracy may be in the     
discipline of their schools1 flogging in
 the ,english army is a shameful thing  
for the free people of ,great           
,britain4--   #dc4 7#b7 ,by ,isolation  
we remove the offender temporarily from 
the society of his fellows4 ,the boy    
left alone1 cut off from all            
companionship1 and left absolutely to   
himself1 suffers from a sense of        
helplessness4 ,the time passes heavily1 
and soon he is very anxious to be       
allowed to return to the company of     
parents1 brothers and sisters1 teachers 
and fellow-pupils4  --,to leave a child 

entirely to himself without any         
supervision1 even if one shuts him up in
 a dark room1 is as mistaken a practice 
as to leave a few together without      
supervision1 as is too often done where 
they are kept after school1 when they   
give the freest rein to their childish  
wantonness and commit the wildest       
pranks4--  ,sidenote3 ,sense of ,honor  
in the ,pupil4   #dd4 7#c7 ,this way of 
isolating a child does not touch his    
sense of honor at all1 and is soon      
forgotten because it relates to only one
 side of his conduct4 ,it is quite      
different from punishment based on the  
sense of honor1 which1 in a formal      
manner1 shuts the youth out from        
companionship because he has attacked   
the principle which holds society       
together1 and for this reason can no    
longer be considered as belonging to it4
 ,honor is the recognition of one       
individual by others as their equal4    
,through his error1 or it may be his    
crime1 he has simply made himself       

unequal to them1 and in so far has      
separated himself from them1 so that his
 banishment from their society is only  
the outward expression of the real      
isolation which he himself has brought  
to pass in his inner nature1 and which  
he by means of his negative act only    
betrayed to the outer world4 ,since the 
punishment founded on the sense of honor
 affects the whole ethical man and makes
 a lasting impression upon his memory1  
extreme caution is necessary in its     
application lest a permanent injury be  
inflicted upon the character4 ,the idea 
of his perpetual continuance in         
disgrace1 destroys in a man all         
aspiration for improvement4  --,within  
the family this feeling of honor cannot 
be so actively developed1 because every 
member of it is bound to every other    
immediately by natural ties1 and hence  
is equal to every other4 ,within its    
sacred circle1 he who has isolated      
himself is still beloved1 though it may 
be through tears4 ,however bad may be   

the deed he has committed1 he is never  
given up1 but the deepest sympathy is   
felt for him because he is still        
brother1 father1 c4 ,but first in the   
contact of one family with another1 and 
still more in the contact of an         
individual with any institution which is
 founded not on natural ties1 but is set
 over against him as a distinct object1 
this feeling of honor appears4 ,in the  
school1 and in the matter of ranks and  
classes in a school1 this is very       
important4--   #de4 ,it is important to 
consider well this gradation of         
punishment 7which1 starting with        
sensuous physical pain1 passes through  
the external teleology of temporary     
isolation up to the idealism of the     
sense of honor71 both in relation to the
 different ages at which they are       
appropriate and to the training which   
they bring with them4 ,every punishment 
must be considered merely as a means to 
some end1 and1 in so far1 as transitory4
 ,the pupil must always be deeply       

conscious that it is very painful to his
 instructor to be obliged to punish him4
 ,this pathos of another's sorrow for   
the sake of his cure which he perceives 
in the mien1 in the tone of the voice1  
in the delay with which the punishment  
is administered1 will become a purifying
 fire for his soul4   ,,iii4  ,the      
,limits of ,education4   #df4 ,the form 
of ,education reaches its limits with   
the idea of punishment1 because this is 
the attempt to subsume the negative     
reality and to make it conformable to   
its positive idea4 ,but the limits of   
,education are found in the idea of its 
nature1 which is to fashion the         
individual into theoretical and         
practical rationality4 ,the authority of
 the ,educator at last becomes          
imperceptible1 and it passes over into  
advice and example1 and obedience       
changes from blind conformity to free   
gratitude and attachment4 ,individuality
 wears off its rough edges1 and is      
transfigured into the universality and  

necessity of ,reason without losing in  
this process its identity4 ,work becomes
 enjoyment1 and he finds his play in a  
change of activity4 ,the youth takes    
possession of himself1 and can be left  
to himself4  --,there are two widely    
differing views with regard to the      
limits of ,education4 ,one lays great   
stress on the weakness of the pupil and 
the power of the teacher4 ,according to 
this view1 ,education has for its       
province the entire formation of the    
youth4 ,the despotism of this view often
 manifests itself where large numbers   
are to be educated together1 and with   
very undesirable results1 because it    
assumes that the individual pupil is    
only a specimen of the whole1 as if the 
school were a great factory where each  
piece of goods is to be stamped exactly 
like all the rest4 ,individuality is    
reduced by the tyranny of such despotism
 to one uniform level till all          
originality is destroyed1 as in         
cloisters1 barracks1 and orphan asylums1

 where only one individual seems to     
exist4 ,there is a kind of ,pedagogy    
also which fancies that one can thrust  
into or out of the individual pupil what
 one will4 ,this may be called a        
superstitious belief in the power of    
,education4--,the opposite extreme      
disbelieves this1 and advances the      
policy which lets alone and does        
nothing1 urging that individuality is   
unconquerable1 and that often the most  
careful and far-sighted education fails 
of reaching its aim in so far as it is  
opposed to the nature of the youth1 and 
that this individuality has made of no  
avail all efforts toward the obtaining  
of any end which was opposed to it4     
,this representation of the             
fruitlessness of all pedagogical efforts
 engenders an indifference towards it   
which would leave1 as a result1 only a  
sort of vegetation of individuality     
growing at hap-hazard4--  ,sidenote3    
,the ,limits of ,individuality4   #dg4  
,the limit of ,education is 7#a7 a      

,subjective one1 a limit made by the    
individuality of the youth4 ,this is a  
definite limit4 ,whatever does not exist
 in this individuality as a possibility 
cannot be developed from it4 ,education 
can only lead and assist2 it cannot     
create4 ,what ,nature has denied to a   
man1 ,education cannot give him any more
 than it is able1 on the other hand1 to 
annihilate entirely his original gifts1 
although it is true that his talents may
 be suppressed1 distorted1 and          
measurably destroyed4 ,but the decision 
of the question in what the real essence
 of any one's individuality consists can
 never be made with certainty till he   
has left behind him his years of        
development1 because it is then only    
that he first arrives at the            
consciousness of his entire self2       
besides1 at this critical time1 in the  
first place1 much knowledge only        
superficially acquired will drop off2   
and again1 talents1 long slumbering and 
unsuspected1 may first make their       

appearance4 ,whatever has been forced   
upon a child in opposition to his       
individuality1 whatever has been only   
driven into him and has lacked          
receptivity on his side1 or a rational  
ground on the side of culture1 remains  
attached to his being only as an        
external ornament1 a foreign outgrowth  
which enfeebles his own proper          
character4  --,we must distinguish from 
that affectation which arises through a 
misunderstanding of the limit of        
individuality1 the way which many       
children and young persons have of      
supposing when they see models finished 
and complete in grown persons1 that they
 themselves are endowed by ,nature with 
the power to develop into the same4     
,when they see a reality which          
corresponds to their own possibility1   
the presentiment of a like or a similar 
attainment moves them to an imitation of
 it as a model personality4 ,this may be
 sometimes carried so far as to be      
disagreeable or ridiculous1 but should  

not be too strongly censured1 because it
 springs from a positive striving after 
culture1 and needs only proper          
direction4--  ,sidenote3 ,limit in the  
,means of ,education4   #dh4 7#b7 ,the  
,objective limit of ,education lies in  
the means which can be appropriated for 
it4 ,that the talent for a certain      
culture shall be present is certainly   
the first thing2 but the cultivation of 
this talent is the second1 and no less  
necessary4 ,but how much cultivation can
 be given to it extensively and         
intensively depends upon the means used1
 and these again are conditioned by the 
material resources of the family to     
which each one belongs4 ,the greater and
 more valuable the means of culture     
which are found in a family are1 the    
greater is the immediate advantage which
 the culture of each one has at the     
start4 ,with regard to many of the arts 
and sciences this limit of education is 
of great significance4 ,but the means   
alone are of no avail4 ,the finest      

educational apparatus will produce no   
fruit where corresponding talent is     
wanting1 while on the other hand talent 
often accomplishes incredible feats with
 very limited means1 and1 if the way is 
only once open1 makes of itself a centre
 of attraction which draws to itself    
with magnetic power the necessary means4
 ,the moral culture of each one is      
however1 fortunately from its very      
nature1 out of the reach of such        
dependence4  --,in considering the limit
 made by individuality we recognize the 
side of truth in that indifference which
 considers ,education entirely          
superfluous1 and in considering the     
means of culture we find the truth in   
the other extreme of pedagogical        
despotism1 which fancies that it can    
command whatever culture it chooses for 
any one without regard to his           
individuality4--   #di4 7#c7 ,the       
,absolute limit of ,education is the    
time when the youth has apprehended the 
problem which he has to solve1 has      

learned to know the means at his        
disposal1 and has acquired a certain    
facility in using them4 ,the end and aim
 of ,education is the emancipation of   
the youth4 ,it strives to make him      
self-dependent1 and as soon as he has   
become so it wishes to retire and to be 
able to leave him to the sole           
responsibility of his actions4 ,to treat
 the youth after he has passed this     
point of time still as a youth1         
contradicts the very idea of ,education1
 which idea finds its fulfilment in the 
attainment of majority by the pupil4    
,since the accomplishment of education  
cancels the original inequality between 
the educator and the pupil1 nothing is  
more oppressing1 nay1 revolting to the  
latter than to be prevented by a        
continued dependence from the enjoyment 
of the freedom which he has earned4     
--,the opposite extreme of the          
protracting of ,education beyond its    
proper time is necessarily the undue    
hastening of the ,emancipation4--,the   

question whether one is prepared for    
freedom has been often opened in        
politics4 ,when any people have gone so 
far as to ask this question themselves1 
it is no longer a question whether that 
people are prepared for it1 for without 
the consciousness of freedom this       
question would never have occurred to   
them4--  ,sidenote3 ,arrival at the age 
of ,majority4   #ej4 ,although educators
 must now leave the youth free1 the     
necessity of further culture for him is 
still imperative4 ,but it will no longer
 come directly through them4 ,their     
pre-arranged1 pattern-making work is now
 supplanted by self-education4 ,each    
sketches for himself an ideal to which  
in his life he seeks to approximate     
every day4  --,in the work of           
self-culture one friend can help another
 by advice and example2 but he cannot   
educate1 for education presupposes      
inequality4--,the necessities of human  
nature produce societies in which equals
 seek to influence each other in a      

pedagogical way1 since they establish by
 certain steps of culture different     
classes4 ,they presuppose ,education in 
the ordinary sense4 ,but they wish to   
bring about ,education in a higher      
sense1 and therefore they veil the last 
form of their ideal in the mystery of   
secrecy4--,to one who lives on contented
 with himself and without the impulse   
toward self-culture1 unless his         
unconcern springs from his belonging to 
a savage state of society1 the ,germans 
give the name of ,philistine1 and he is 
always repulsive to the student who is  
intoxicated with an ideal4--            
,,second ,,part4  ,the ,special         
,elements of ,education4    #ea4        
,education in general consists in the   
development in man of his inborn        
theoretical and practical rationality2  
it takes on the form of labor1 which    
changes that state or condition1 which  
appears at first only as a mere         
conception1 into a fixed habit1 and     
transfigures individuality into a worthy

 humanity4 ,education ends in that      
emancipation of the youth which places  
him on his own feet4 ,the special       
elements which form the concrete content
 of all ,education in general are the   
,life1 ,cognition1 and ,will of man4    
,without life mind has no phenomenal    
reality2 without cognition1 no genuine1 
i4e4 conscious1 will2 and without will1 
no self-assurance of life and of        
cognition4 ,it is true that these three 
elements are in real existence          
inseparable1 and that consequently in   
the dialectic they continually pass over
 into one another4 ,but none the less on
 this account do they themselves        
prescribe their own succession1 and they
 have a relative and periodical         
ascendancy over each other4 ,in         
,infancy1 up to the fifth or sixth year1
 the purely physical development takes  
the precedence2 ,childhood is the time  
of learning1 in a proper sense1 an act  
by which the child gains for himself the
 picture of the world such as mature    

minds1 through experience and insight1  
have painted it2 and1 finally1 ,youth is
 the transition period to practical     
activity1 to which the                  
self-determination of the will must give
 the first impulse4   #eb4 ,the         
classification of the special elements  
of ,pedagogics is hence very simple3    
7#a7 the ,physical1 7#b7 the            
,intellectual1 7#c7 the ,practical4 7,we
 sometimes apply to these the words     
,orthobiotics1 ,didactics1 and          
,pragmatics47  --sthetic training       
constitutes only an element of the      
education of ,intellectual ,education1  
just as social1 moral1 and religious    
training form elements of ,practical    
,education4 ,but because these latter   
elements concern themselves with what is
 external1 the name ,pragmatics is      
appropriate4 ,in this sphere1           
,pedagogics should coincide with        
,politics1 ,ethics1 and ,religion2 but  
it is distinguished from them through   
the aptitude which it brings with it of 

putting into practice the problems of   
the other three4 ,the scientific        
arrangement of these ideas must         
therefore show that the former1 as the  
more abstract1 constitutes the          
conditions1 and the latter1 as the more 
concrete1 the ground of the former1     
which are presupposed2 and in           
consequence of this it is itself their  
principal teleological presupposition1  
just as in man the will presupposes the 
cognition1 and cognition life2 while1 at
 the same time1 life1 in a deeper sense1
 must presuppose cognition1 and         
cognition will4--   ,,first ,,division4 
,,physical ,,education4   #ec4 ,the art 
of living rightly is based upon a       
comprehension of the process of ,life4  
,life is the restless dialectic which   
ceaselessly transforms the inorganic    
into the organic1 but at the same time  
creates out of itself another inorganic1
 in which it separates from itself      
whatever part of the inorganic has not  
been assimilated1 which it took up as a 

stimulant1 and that which has become    
dead and burned out4 ,the organism is   
healthy when its reality corresponds to 
this idea of the dialectic1 of a life   
which moves up and down1 to and fro2 of 
formation and re-formation1 of          
organizing and disorganizing4 ,all the  
rules for ,physical ,education1 or of   
,hygiene1 are derived from this         
conception4   #ed4 ,it follows from this
 that the change of the inorganic to the
 organic is going on not only in the    
organism as a whole1 but also in its    
every organ and in every part of every  
organ2 and that the organic as soon as  
it has attained its highest point of    
energy1 is again degraded to the        
inorganic and thrown out4 ,every cell   
has its history4 ,activity is1          
therefore1 not contradictory to the     
organism1 but favors in it the natural  
progressive and regressive              
metamorphosis4 ,this process can go on  
harmoniously2 that is1 the organism can 
be in health only when not only the     

whole organism1 but each special organ1 
is allowed1 after its productive        
activity1 the corresponding rest and    
recreation necessary for its            
self-renewal4 ,we have this periodicity 
exemplified in waking and sleeping1 also
 in exhalation and inhalation1 excretion
 and taking in of material4 ,when we    
have discovered the relative antagonism 
of the organs and their periodicity1 we 
have found the secret of the perennial  
renewal of life4   #ee4 ,fatigue makes  
its appearance when any organ1 or the   
organism in general1 is denied time for 
the return movement into itself and for 
renovation4 ,it is possible for some one
 organ1 as if isolated1 to exercise a   
great and long-continued activity1 even 
to the point of fatigue1 while the other
 organs rest2 as e4g4 the lungs1 in     
speaking1 while the other parts are     
quiet2 on the other hand1 it is not well
 to speak and run at the same time4 ,the
 idea that one can keep the organism in 
better condition by inactivity1 is an   

error which rests upon a mechanical     
apprehension of life4 ,equally false is 
the idea that health depends upon the   
quantity and excellence of the food2    
without the force to assimilate it1 it  
acts fatally rather than stimulatingly4 
,true strength arises only from         
activity4  --,the later physiologists   
will gradually destroy1 in the system of
 culture of modern people1 the          
preconceived notion which recommended   
for the indolent and lovers of pleasure 
powerful stimulants1 very fat food1 c4  
,excellent works exist on this          
question4--   #ef4 ,physical ,education1
 as it concerns the repairing1 the      
motor1 or the nervous1 activities1 is   
divided into 7#a7 ,dietetics1 7#b7      
,gymnastics1 7#c7 ,sexual ,education4   
,in real life these activities are      
scarcely separable1 but for the sake of 
exposition we must consider them apart4 
,in the regular development of the human
 being1 moreover1 the repairing system  
has a relative precedence to the motor  

system1 and the latter to the sexual    
maturity4 ,but ,pedagogics can treat of 
these ideas only with reference to the  
infant1 the child1 and the youth4       
,,first ,,chapter4  ,dietetics4    #eg4 
,dietetics is the art of sustaining the 
normal repair of the organism4 ,since   
this organism is1 in the concrete1 an   
individual one1 the general principles  
of dietetics must1 in their manner of   
application1 vary with the sex1 the age1
 the temperament1 the occupation1 and   
the other conditions1 of the individual4
 ,pedagogics as a science can only go   
over its general principles1 and these  
can be named briefly4 ,it we attempt to 
speak of details1 we fall easily into   
triviality4 ,so very important to the   
whole life of man is the proper care of 
his physical nature during the first    
stages of its development1 that the     
science of ,pedagogics must not omit to 
consider the different systems which    
different people1 according to their    
time1 locality1 and culture1 have made  

for themselves2 many1 it is true1       
embracing some preposterous ideas1 but  
in general never devoid of justification
 in their time4   #eh4 ,the infant's    
first nourishment must be the milk of   
its mother4 ,the substitution of a nurse
 should be only an exception justified  
alone by the illness of the mother2 as a
 rule1 as happens in ,france1 it is     
simply bad1 because a foreign physical  
and moral element is introduced into the
 family through the nurse4 ,the milk of 
an animal can never be as good for a    
child4   #ei4 ,when the teeth appear1   
the child is first able to eat solid    
food2 but1 until the second teeth come1 
he should be fed principally on light1  
fluid nourishment1 and on vegetable     
diet4   #fj4 ,when the second teeth are 
fully formed1 the human being is ready  
for animal as well as vegetable food4   
,too much meat is not good2 but it is an
 anatomical error to suppose that man1  
by the structure of his stomach1 was    
originally formed to live alone on      

vegetable diet1 and that animal food is 
a sign of his degeneracy4  --,the       
,hindoos1 who subsist principally on    
vegetable diet1 are not1 as has been    
often asserted1 a very gentle race3 a   
glance into their history1 or into their
 erotic poetry1 shows them to be quite  
as passionate as other peoples4--   #fa4
 ,man is omnivorous4 ,children have     
therefore a natural desire to taste of  
everything4 ,for them eating and        
drinking possess a kind of poetry2 there
 is a theoretic ingredient blended with 
the material enjoyment4 ,they have1 on  
this account1 a proneness to indulge1   
which is deserving of punishment only   
when it is combined with disobedience   
and secrecy1 or when it betrays cunning 
and greediness4   #fb4 ,children need   
much sleep1 because they are undergoing 
the most active progressive             
metamorphosis4 ,in after-life sleep and 
waking should be subjected to periodical
 regulation1 but not too exactly4   #fc4
 ,the clothing of children should be    

adapted to them2 i4e4 it should be cut  
according to the shape of the body1 and 
it must be loose enough to allow free   
play to their desire for movement4      
--,with regard to this as well as to the
 sleeping arrangements for children1    
less in regard to food--which is often  
too highly spiced and too liberal in    
tea1 coffee1 c4--our age has become     
accustomed to a very rational system4   
,the clothing of children must be not   
only comfortable1 but it should be made 
of simple and cheap material1 so that   
the free enjoyment of the child may not 
be marred by the constant internal      
anxiety that a rent or a spot may bring 
him a fault-finding or angry word4 ,from
 too great care as to clothing1 may     
arise a meanness of mind which at last  
pays too great respect to it1 or an     
empty frivolity4 ,this last may be      
induced by dressing children too        
conspicuously4--   #fd4 ,cleanliness is 
a virtue to which children should be    
accustomed for the sake of their        

physical well-being1 as well as because1
 in a moral point of view1 it is of the 
greatest significance4 ,cleanliness will
 not endure that things shall be        
deprived of their proper individuality  
through the elemental chaos4 ,it retains
 each as distinguished from every other4
 ,while it makes necessary to man pure  
air1 cleanliness of surroundings1 of    
clothing1 and of his body1 it develops  
in him a sense by which he perceives    
accurately the particular limits of     
being in general4   ,,second ,,chapter4 
,gymnastics4    #fe4 ,gymnastics is the 
art of systematic training of the       
muscular system4 ,the action of the     
voluntary muscles1 which are regulated  
by the nerves of the brain1 in          
distinction from the involuntary        
automatic muscles depending on the      
spinal cord1 while they are the means of
 man's intercourse with the external    
world1 at the same time re-act upon the 
automatic muscles in digestion and      
sensation4 ,since the movement of the   

muscular fibres consists in the change  
of contraction and expansion1 it follows
 that ,gymnastics must bring about a    
change of movement which shall both     
contract and expand the muscles4   #ff4 
,the system of gymnastic exercise of any
 nation corresponds always to its way of
 fighting4 ,so long as this consists in 
the personal struggle of a hand-to-hand 
contest1 ,gymnastics will seek to       
increase as much as possible individual 
strength and adroitness4 ,as soon as the
 far-reaching missiles projected from   
fire-arms become the centre of all the  
operations of war1 the individual is    
lost in a body of men1 out of which he  
emerges only relatively in              
sharp-shooting1 in the charge1 in single
 contests1 and in the retreat4 ,because 
of this incorporation of the individual 
in the one great whole1 and because of  
the resulting unimportance of personal  
bravery1 modern ,gymnastics can never be
 the same as it was in ancient times1   
even putting out of view the fact that  

the subjectiveness of the modern spirit 
is too great to allow it to devote so   
much attention to the care of the body1 
and the admiration of its beauty1 as was
 given by the ,greeks4  --,the ,turners'
 unions and halls in ,germany belong to 
the period of subjective enthusiasm of  
the ,german student population1 and had 
a political significance4 ,at present1  
they have been brought back to their    
proper place as an ,educational means1  
and they are of great value1 especially 
in large cities4 ,among the mountains1  
and even in the country towns1 a special
 institution for bodily exercise is less
 necessary1 for the matter takes care of
 itself4 ,the attractions of the        
situation and the games help to foster  
it4 ,in great cities1 however1 the      
houses are often destitute of halls or  
open places where the children can take 
exercise in their leisure moments4 ,in  
these cities1 therefore1 there must be  
some gymnastic hall where the sense of  
fellowship may be developed4 ,gymnastics

 are not so essential for girls4 ,in its
 place1 dancing is sufficient1 and      
gymnastics should be employed for them  
only where there exists any special     
weakness or deformity1 when they may be 
used as a restorative or preservative4  
,they are not to become ,amazons4 ,the  
boy1 on the contrary1 needs to acquire  
the feeling of good-fellowship4 ,it is  
true that the school develops this in a 
measure1 but not fully1 because it      
determines the standing of the boy      
through his intellectual ambition4 ,the 
academical youth will not take much     
interest in special gymnastics unless he
 can gain preminence therein4 ,running1 
leaping1 climbing1 and lifting1 are too 
meaningless for their more mature       
spirits4 ,they can take a lively        
interest only in the exercises which    
have a warlike character4 ,with the     
,prussians1 and some other ,german      
states1 the art of ,gymnastics          
identifies itself with military         
concerns4--   #fg4 ,the real idea of    

,gymnastics must always be that the     
spirit shall rule over its naturalness1 
and shall make this an energetic and    
docile servant of its will4 ,strength   
and adroitness must unite and become    
confident skill4 ,strength1 carried to  
its extreme produces the athlete2       
adroitness1 to its extreme1 the acrobat4
 ,pedagogics must avoid both4 ,all      
immense force1 fit only for display1    
must be held as far away as the idea of 
teaching ,gymnastics with the motive of 
utility2 e4g4 that by swimming one may  
save his life when he falls into the    
water1 c4 ,among other things1 this may 
also be a consequence2 but the principle
 in general must always remain3 the     
necessity of the spirit of subjecting   
its organism of the body to the         
condition of a perfect means1 so that it
 may never find itself limited by it4   
#fh4 ,gymnastic exercises form a series 
from simple to compound4 ,there appears 
to be so much arbitrariness in them that
 it is always very agreeable to the mind

 to find1 on nearer inspection1 some    
reason4 ,the movements are 7#a7 of the  
lower1 7#b7 of the upper extremities2   
7#c7 of the whole body1 with relative   
striking out1 now of the upper1 now of  
the lower extremities4 ,we distinguish1 
therefore1 foot1 arm1 and trunk         
movements4   #fi4 7#a7 ,the first series
 of foot-movements is the most          
important1 and conditions the carriage  
of all the rest of the body4 ,they are  
7a7 walking2 7b7 running2 7c7 leaping3  
each of these being capable of          
modifications1 as the high and the low  
leap1 the prolonged and the quick run4  
,sometimes we give to these different   
names1 according to the means used1 as  
walking on stilts2 skating2 leaping with
 a staff1 or by means of the hands1 as  
vaulting4 ,dancing is only the art of   
the graceful mingling of these          
movements2 and balancing1 only one form 
of walking4   #gj4 7#b7 ,the second     
series embraces the arm-movements1 and  
it repeats also the movements of the    

first series4 ,it includes 7a7 lifting2 
7b7 swinging2 7c7 throwing4 ,all pole   
and bar practice comes under lifting1   
also climbing and carrying4 ,under      
throwing1 come quoit and ball-throwing1 
and nine-pin playing4 ,all these        
movements are distinguished from each   
other1 not only quantitatively but also 
qualitatively1 in the position of the   
stretched and bent muscles2 e4g4 running
 is something different from quick      
walking4   #ga4 7#c7 ,the third series1 
or that of movements of the whole body1 
differs from the preceding two1 which   
should precede it1 in this1 that it     
brings the organism into contact with a 
living object1 which it has to overcome 
through its own activity4 ,this object  
is sometimes an element1 sometimes an   
animal1 sometimes a man4 ,our divisions 
then are 7a7 swimming2 7b7 riding2 7c7  
fighting1 or single combat4 ,in         
swimming1 one must conquer the yielding 
liquid material of water by arm and foot
 movements4 ,the resistance met on      

account of currents and waves may be    
very great1 but it is still that of a   
will-less and passive object4 ,but in   
riding man has to deal with a           
self-willed being whose vitality calls  
forth not only his strength but also his
 intelligence and courage4 ,the exercise
 is therefore very complicated1 and the 
rider must be able perpetually to       
individualize it according to the       
necessity2 at the same time1 he must    
give attention not only to the horse1   
but to the nature of the ground and the 
entire surroundings4 ,but it is only in 
the struggle with men that ,gymnastics  
reaches its highest point1 for in this  
man offers himself as a living          
antagonist to man and brings him into   
danger4 ,it is no longer the spontaneous
 activity of an unreasoning existence2  
it is the resistance and attack of      
intelligence itself with which he has to
 deal4 ,fighting1 or single combat1 is  
the truly chivalrous exercise1 and this 
may be combined with horsemanship4      

--,in the single combat there is found  
also a qualitative modification1 whence 
we have three systems3 7a7 boxing and   
wrestling2 7b7 fencing with sticks2 and 
7c7 rapier and broad-sword fencing4 ,in 
the first1 which was cultivated to its  
highest point among the ,greeks1 direct 
immediateness rules4 ,in the boxing of  
the ,english1 a sailor-like propensity  
of this nation1 fist-fighting is still  
retained as a custom4 ,fencing with a   
stick is found among the ,french        
mechanics1 the so-called compagnons4    
,men often use the cane in their        
contests2 it is a sort of refined club4 
,when we use the sword or rapier1 the   
weapon becomes deadly4 ,the ,southern   
,europeans excel in the use of the      
rapier1 the ,germans in that of the     
sword4 ,but the art of single combat is 
much degenerated1 and the pistol-duel1  
through its increasing frequency1 proves
 this degeneration4--   ,,third         
,,chapter4  ,sexual ,education4         
,,note4--,the paragraphs relating to    

,sexual ,education are   designed for   
parents rather than for teachers1 the   
parent   being the natural educator of  
the family and sexual   education       
relating to the preservation and        
continuance of   the family4 ,this      
chapter is accordingly1 for the most    
part1 omitted here4 ,it contains        
judicious reflections1   invaluable to  
parents and guardians4--,tr4   #gb4     
,gymnastic exercises fall naturally into
 a systematic arrangement determined by 
the chronological order of development  
through infancy1 childhood1 and youth4  
,walking1 running1 and leaping belong1  
to the first period2 lifting1 swinging1 
and throwing1 to the second2 swimming1  
riding1 and bodily contests1 to the     
third1 and these last may also be       
continued into manhood4 ,but with the   
arrival at youth1 a new epoch makes its 
appearance in the organism4 ,it prepares
 itself for the propagation of the      
species4 ,it expands the individual     
through the need which he feels of      

uniting himself with another individual 
of the same species1 but who is a polar 
opposite to him1 in order to preserve   
the two in a new individual4 ,the blood 
rushes more vigorously2 the muscular    
strength becomes more easily roused into
 activity2 an indefinable impulse1 a    
sweet melancholy takes possession of the
 being4 ,this period demands a special  
care in the educator4   #gc4 ,the       
general preventive guards must be found 
in a rational system of food and        
exercise4 ,by care in these directions1 
the development of the bones1 and with  
them of the brain and spinal cord at    
this period1 may be led to a proper     
strength1 and that the easily-moulded   
material may not be perverted from its  
normal functions in the development of  
the body to a premature manifestation of
 the sexual instinct4   #gd4 ,special   
forethought is necessary lest the brain 
be too early over-strained1 and lest1 in
 consequence of such precocious and     
excessive action1 the foundation for a  

morbid excitation of the whole nervous  
system be laid1 which may easily lead to
 effeminate and voluptuous reveries1 and
 to brooding over obscene               
representations4 ,the excessive reading 
of novels1 whose exciting pages delight 
in painting the love of the sexes for   
each other and its sensual phases1 may  
lead to this1 and then the mischief is  
done4   ,,second ,,division4            
,,intellectual ,,education4   #hj4 ,mens
 sana in corpore sano is correct as a   
pedagogical maxim1 but false in the     
judgment of individual cases2 because it
 is possible1 on the one hand1 to have a
 healthy mind in an unhealthy body1 and1
 on the other hand1 an unhealthy mind in
 a healthy body4 ,to strive after the   
harmony of soul and body is the material
 condition of all proper activity4 ,the 
development of intelligence presupposes 
physical health4 ,here we are to speak  
of the science of the art of ,teaching4 
,this had its condition on the side of  
nature1 as was before seen1 in physical 

,education1 but in the sphere of mind it
 is related to ,psychology and ,logic4  
,it unites1 in ,teaching1 considerations
 on ,psychology as well as a ,logical   
method4   ,,first ,,chapter4  ,the      
,psychological ,presupposition4    #ha4 
,if we would have a sound condition of  
,philosophy1 it must1 in intellectual   
,education1 refer to the conception of  
mind which has been unfolded in         
,psychology2 and it must appear as a    
defect in scientific method if          
,psychology1 or at least the conception 
of the theoretical mind1 is treated     
again as within ,pedagogics4 ,we must   
take something for granted4 ,psychology1
 then1 will be consulted no further than
 is requisite to place on a sure basis  
the pedagogical function which relates  
to it4   #hb4 ,the conception of        
attention is the most important to      
,pedagogics of all those derived from   
,psychology4 ,mind is essentially       
self-activity4 ,nothing exists for it   
which it does not itself posit as its   

own4 ,we hear it not seldom implied that
 something from outside conditions must 
make an impression on the mind1 but this
 is an error4 ,mind lets nothing act    
upon it unless it has rendered itself   
receptive to it4 ,without this          
preparatory self-excitation the object  
does not really penetrate it1 and it    
passes by the object unconsciously or   
indifferently4 ,the horizon of          
perception changes for each person with 
his peculiarities and culture4          
,attention is the adjusting of the      
observer to the object in order to seize
 it in its unity and diversity4         
,relatively1 the observer allows1 for a 
moment1 his relation to all other       
surroundings to cease1 so that he may   
establish a relation with this one4     
,without this essentially spontaneous   
activity1 nothing exists for the mind4  
,all result in teaching and learning    
depends upon the clearness and strength 
with which distinctions are made1 and   
the saying1 bene qui distinguit bene    

docit1 applies as well to the pupil4    
#hc4 ,attention1 depending as it does on
 the self-determination of the observer1
 can therefore be improved1 and the     
pupil made attentive1 by the educator4  
,education must accustom him to an      
exact1 rapid1 and many-sided attention1 
so that at the first contact with an    
object he may grasp it sufficiently and 
truly1 and that it shall not be         
necessary for him always to be adding to
 his acquisitions concerning it4 ,the   
twilight and partialness of intelligence
 which forces us always to new          
corrections because a pupil at the very 
commencement did not give entire        
attention1 must not be tolerated4       
,sidenote3 ,psychological ,faculties4   
#hd4 ,we learn from ,psychology that    
mind does not consist of distinct       
faculties1 but that what we choose to   
call so are only different activities of
 the same power4 ,each one is just as   
essential as the other1 on which account
 ,education must grant to each faculty  

its claim to the same fostering care4   
,if we would construe correctly the     
axiom a potiori fit denominatio to mean 
that man is distinguished from animals  
by thought1 and that mediated will is   
not the same as thought1 we must not    
forget that feeling and representing are
 not less necessary to a truly complete 
human being4 ,the special direction     
which the activity of apprehending      
intelligence takes are 7#a7 ,perception1
 7#b7 ,conception1 7#c7 ,thinking4      
,dialectically1 they pass over into each
 other2 not that ,perception rises into 
,conception1 and ,conception into       
,thinking1 but that ,thinking goes back 
into ,conception1 and this again into   
,perception4 ,in the development of the 
young1 the ,perceptive faculty is most  
active in the infant1 the ,conceptive in
 the child1 and the ,thinking in the    
youth2 and thus we may distinguish an   
intuitive1 an imaginative1 and a logical
 epoch4  --,great errors arise from the 
misapprehension of these different      

phases and of their dialectic1 since the
 different forms which are suitable to  
the different grades of youth are       
mingled4 ,the infant certainly thinks   
while he perceives1 but this thinking is
 to him unconscious4 ,or1 if he has     
acquired perceptions1 he makes them into
 conceptions1 and demonstrates his      
freedom in playing with them4 ,this play
 must not be taken as mere amusement2 it
 also signifies that he takes care to   
preserve his self-determination1 and his
 power of idealizing1 in opposition to  
the pleasant filling of his             
consciousness with material4 ,herein the
 delight of the child for fairy tales   
finds its reason4 ,the fairy tale       
constantly destroys the limits of common
 actuality4 ,the abstract understanding 
cannot endure this arbitrariness and    
want of fixed conditions1 and thus would
 prefer that children should read1      
instead1 home-made stories of the       
,charitable ,ann1 of the ,heedless      
,frederick1 of the ,inquisitive         

,wilhelmine1 c4 ,above all1 it praises  
,robinson ,crusoe1 which contains much  
heterogeneous matter1 but nothing       
improbable4 ,when the youth and maiden  
of necessity pass over into the         
earnestness of real life1 the drying up 
of the imagination and the domination of
 the understanding presses in4--   ,i4  
,the ,intuitive ,epoch4   #he4          
,perception1 as the beginning of        
intellectual culture1 is the free       
grasping of a content immediately       
present to the spirit4 ,education can do
 nothing directly toward the performance
 of this act2 it can only assist in     
making it easy3--7#a7 it can isolate the
 subject of consideration2 7#b7 it can  
give facility in the transition to      
another2 7#c7 it can promote the        
many-sidedness of the interest1 by which
 means the return to a perception       
already obtained has always a fresh     
charm4   #hf4 ,the immediate perception 
of many things is impossible1 and yet   
the necessity for it is obvious4 ,we    

must then have recourse to a mediated   
perception1 and supply the lack of      
actual seeing by representations4 ,but  
here the difficulty presents itself1    
that there are many objects which we are
 not able to represent of the same size 
as they really are1 and we must have a  
reduced scale2 and there follows a      
difficulty in making the representation1
 as neither too large nor too small4 ,an
 explanation is then also necessary as a
 judicious supplement to the picture4   
#hg4 ,pictures are extremely valuable   
aids to instruction when they are       
correct and characteristic4 ,correctness
 must be demanded in these substitutes  
for natural objects1 historical persons 
and scenes4 ,without this correctness1  
the picture1 if not an impediment1 is1  
to say the least1 useless4  --,it is    
only since the last half of the         
seventeenth century1 i4e4 since the     
disappearance of real painting1 that the
 picture-book has appeared as an        
educational means2 first of all1 coming 

from miniature painting4 ,up to that    
time1 public life had plenty of pictures
 of arms1 furniture1 houses1 and        
churches2 and men1 from their fondness  
for constantly moving about1 were more  
weary of immediate perception4 ,it was  
only afterwards when1 in the excitement 
of the thirty-years' war1 the arts of   
,sculpture and ,painting and ,christian 
and ,pagan ,mythology became extinct1   
that there arose a greater necessity for
 pictured representations4 ,the ,orbis  
,rerum ,sensualium ,pictus1 which was   
also to be janua linguarum reserata1 of 
,amos ,comenius1 appeared first in      
#afeh1 and was reprinted in #ahje4 ,many
 valuable illustrated books followed4   
,since that time innumerable illustrated
 ,bibles and histories have appeared1   
but many of them look only to the       
pecuniary profit of the author or the   
publisher4 ,it is revolting to see the  
daubs that are given to children4 ,they 
are highly colored1 but as to           
correctness1 to say nothing of          

character1 they are good for nothing4   
,with a little conscientiousness and    
scientific knowledge very different     
results could be obtained with the same 
outlay of money and of strength4 ,the   
uniformity which exists in the stock of 
books which ,german book-selling has set
 in circulation is really disgraceful4  
,everywhere we find the same types1 even
 in ethnographical pictures4 ,in natural
 history1 the illustrations were often  
drawn from the imagination or copied    
from miserable models4 ,this has changed
 very much for the better4 ,the same is 
true of architectural drawings and      
landscapes1 for which we have now better
 copies4--   #hh4 ,children have        
naturally a desire to collect things1   
and this may be so guided that they     
shall collect and arrange plants1       
butterflies1 beetles1 shells1 skeletons1
 c41 and thus gain exactness and reality
 in their perception4 ,especially should
 they practise drawing1 which leads them
 to form exact images of objects4 ,but  

drawing1 as children practise it1 does  
not have the educational significance of
 cultivating in them an appreciation of 
art1 but rather that of educating the   
eye1 as this must be exercised in       
estimating distances1 sizes1 and colors4
 ,it is1 moreover1 a great gain in many 
ways1 if1 through a suitable course of  
lessons in drawing1 the child is        
advanced to a knowledge of the          
elementary forms of nature4  --,that    
pictures should affect children as works
 of art is not to be desired4 ,they     
confine themselves at first to          
distinguishing the outlines and colors1 
and do not yet appreciate the execution4
 ,if the children have access to real   
works of art1 we may safely trust in    
their power1 and quietly await their    
moral or sthetic effect4--   #hi4 ,in   
order that looking at pictures shall not
 degenerate into mere diversion1        
explanations should accompany them4     
,only when the thought embodied in the  
illustration is pointed out1 can they be

 useful as a means of instruction4      
,simply looking at them is of as little 
value towards this end as is water for  
baptism without the ,holy ,spirit4 ,our 
age inclines at present to the          
superstition that man is able1 by means 
of simple intuition1 to attain a        
knowledge of the essence of things1 and 
thereby dispense with the trouble of    
thinking4 ,illustrations are the order  
of the day1 and1 in the place of        
enjoyable descriptions1 we find         
miserable pictures4 ,it is in vain to   
try to get behind things1 or to         
comprehend them1 except by thinking4    
#ij4 ,the ear as well as the eye must be
 cultivated4 ,music must be considered  
the first educational means to this end1
 but it should be music inspired by     
ethical purity4 ,hearing is the most    
internal of all the senses1 and should  
on this account be treated with the     
greatest delicacy4 ,especially should   
the child be taught that he is not to   
look upon speech as merely a vehicle for

 communication and for gaining          
information2 it should also give        
pleasure1 and therefore he should be    
taught to speak distinctly and with a   
good style1 and this he can do only when
 he carefully considers what he is going
 to say4  --,among the ,greeks1         
extraordinary care was given to musical 
cultivation1 especially in its ethical  
relation4 ,sufficient proof of this is  
found in the admirable detailed         
statements on this point in the         
,republic of ,plato and in the last book
 of the ,politics of ,aristotle4 ,among 
modern nations1 also1 music holds a high
 place1 and makes its appearance as a   
constant element of education4          
,piano-playing has become general1 and  
singing is also taught4 ,but the ethical
 significance of music is too little    
considered4 ,instruction in music often 
aims only to train pupils for display in
 society1 and the tendency of the       
melodies which are played is restricted 
more and more to orchestral pieces of an

 exciting or bacchanalian character4    
,the railroad-gallop-style only makes   
the nerves of youth vibrate with        
stimulating excitement4 ,oral speech1   
the highest form of the personal        
manifestation of mind1 was also treated 
with great reverence by the ancients4   
,among us1 communication is so generally
 carried on by writing and reading1 that
 the art of speaking distinctly1        
correctly1 and agreeably1 has become    
very much neglected4 ,practice in       
declamation accomplishes1 as a general  
thing1 very little in this direction4   
,but we may expect that the increase of 
public speaking occasioned by our       
political and religious assemblies may  
have a favorable influence in this      
particular4--   ,,ii4 ,the ,imaginative 
,epoch4   #ia4 ,the activity of         
,perception results in the formation of 
an internal picture or image of its     
ideas which intelligence can call up at 
any time without the sensuous1 immediate
 presence of its object1 and thus1      

through abstraction and generalization1 
arises the conception4 ,the mental image
 may 7#a7 be compared with the          
perception from which it sprang1 or 7#b7
 it may be arbitrarily altered and      
combined with other images1 or 7#c7 it  
may be held fast in the form of abstract
 signs or symbols which intelligence    
invents for it4 ,thus originate the     
functions 7#a7 of the verification of   
conceptions1 7#b7 of the creative       
imagination1 and 7#c7 of memory2 but for
 their full development we must refer to
 ,psychology4   #ib4 7#a7 ,the mental   
image which we form of an object may be 
correct2 again1 it may be partly or     
wholly defective1 if we have neglected  
some of the predicates of the perception
 which presented themselves1 or in so   
far as we have added to it other        
predicates which only seemingly belonged
 to it1 and which were attached to it   
only by its accidental empirical        
connection with other existences4       
,education must1 therefore1 foster the  

habit of comparing our conceptions with 
the perceptions from which they arose2  
and these perceptions1 since they are   
liable to change by reason of their     
empirical connection with other objects1
 must be frequently compared with our   
conceptions previously formed by        
abstractions from them4   #ic4 7#b7 ,we 
are thus limited in our conceptions by  
our perceptions1 but we exercise a free 
control over our conceptions4 ,we can   
create out of them1 as simple elements1 
the manifold mental shapes which we do  
not treat as given to us1 but as        
essentially our own work4 ,in           
,pedagogics1 we must not only look upon 
this freedom as if it were only to      
afford gratification1 but as the        
reaction of the absolute ideal native   
mind against the dependence in which the
 empirical reception of impressions from
 without1 and their reproduction in     
conceptions1 place it4 ,in this process1
 it does not only fashion in itself the 
phenomenal world1 but it rather fashions

 out of itself a world which is all its 
own4   #id4 ,the study of ,art comes    
here to the aid of ,pedagogics1         
especially with ,poetry1 the highest and
 at the same time the most easily       
communicated4 ,the imagination of the   
pupil can be led by means of the        
classical works of creative imagination 
to the formation of a good taste both as
 regards ethical value and beauty of    
form4 ,the proper classical works for   
youth are those which nations have      
produced in the earliest stages of their
 culture4 ,these works bring children   
face to face with the picture which mind
 has sketched for itself in one of the  
necessary stages of its development4    
,this is the real reason why our        
children never weary of reading ,homer  
and the stories of the ,old ,testament4 
,polytheism and the heroism which       
belongs to it are just as substantial an
 element of childish conception as      
monotheism with its prophets and        
patriarchs4 ,we stand beyond both1      

because we are mediated by both1 and    
embrace both in our stand-point4  --,the
 purest stories of literature designed  
for the amusement of children from their
 seventh to their fourteenth year1      
consist always of those which were      
honored by nations and the world at     
large4 ,one has only to notice in how   
many thousand forms the stories of      
,ulysses are reproduced by the writers  
of children's tales4 ,becker's ,tales of
 ,ancient ,times1 ,gustav ,schwab's most
 admirable ,sagas of ,antiquity1 ,karl  
,grimm's ,tales of ,olden ,times1 c41   
what were they without the well-talking1
 wily favorite of ,pallas1 and the      
divine swine-herd8 ,and just as         
indestructible are the stories of the   
,old ,testament up to the separation of 
,judah and ,israel4 ,these patriarchs   
with their wives and children1 these    
judges and prophets1 these kings and    
priests1 are by no means ideals of      
virtue in the notion of our modern      
lifeless morality1 which would smooth   

out of its pattern-stories for the dear 
children everything that is hard and    
uncouth4 ,for the very reason that the  
shadow-side is not wanting here1 and    
that we find envy1 vanity1 evil desire1 
ingratitude1 craftiness1 and deceit1    
among these fathers of the race and     
leaders of ,god's chosen people1 have   
these stories so great an educational   
value4 ,adam1 ,cain1 ,abraham1 ,joseph1 
,samson1 and ,david1 have justly become 
as truly world-historical types as      
,achilles and ,patroclus1 ,agamemnon and
 ,iphigenia1 ,hector and ,andromache1   
,ulysses and ,penelope4--   #ie4 ,there 
may be produced also1 out of the        
simplest and most primitive phases of   
different epochs of culture of one and  
the same people1 stories which answer to
 the imagination of children1 and       
represent to them the characteristic    
features of the past of their people4   
--,the ,germans possess such a          
collection of their stories in their    
popular books of the ,horny ,sigfried1  

of the ,heymon ,children1 of ,beautiful 
,magelone1 ,fortunatus1 ,the ,wandering 
,jew1 ,faust1 ,the ,adventurous         
,simplicissimus1 ,the ,schildbrger1 ,the
 ,island of ,felsenburg1 ,lienhard and  
,gertrude1 c4 ,also1 the art works of   
the great masters which possess national
 significance must be spoken of here1 as
 the ,don ,quixote of ,cervantes4--     
#if4 ,the most general form in which the
 childish imagination finds exercise is 
that of fairy-tales2 but ,education must
 take care that it has these in their   
proper shape as national productions1   
and that they are not of the morbid kind
 which poetry so often gives us in this 
species of literature1 and which not    
seldom degenerate to sentimental        
caricatures and silliness4  --,the ,east
 ,indian stories are most excellent     
because they have their origin with a   
childlike people who live wholly in the 
imagination4 ,by means of the ,arabian  
filtration1 which took place in ,cairo  
in the flourishing period of the        

,egyptian caliphs1 all that was too     
characteristically ,indian was excluded1
 and they were made in the ,tales of    
,scheherezade1 a book for all peoples1  
with whose far-reaching power in        
child-literature1 the local stories of a
 race1 as e4g4 ,grimm's admirable ones  
of ,german tradition1 cannot compare4   
,fairy-tales made to order1 as we often 
see them1 with a medival ,catholic      
tendency1 or very moral and dry1 are a  
bane to the youthful imagination in     
their stale sweetness4 ,we must here    
add1 however1 that lately we have had   
some better success in our attempts     
since we have learned to distinguish    
between the nave natural poetry1 which  
is without reflection1 and the poetry of
 art1 which is conditioned by criticism 
and an ideal4 ,this distinction has     
produced good fruits even in the        
picture-books of children4 ,the         
pretensions of the gentlemen who printed
 illustrated books containing nothing   
more solid than the alphabet and the    

multiplication table have become less   
prominent since such men as ,speckter1  
,frhlich1 ,gutsmuths1 ,hofman 7the      
writer of ,slovenly ,peter71 and others1
 have shown that seemingly trivial      
things can be handled with intellectual 
power1 if one is blessed with it1 and   
that nothing is more opposed to the     
child's imagination than the            
childishness with which so many writers 
for children have fallen when they      
attempted to descend with dignity from  
their presumably lofty stand-point4 ,men
 are beginning to understand that       
,christ promised the kingdom of heaven  
to little children on other grounds than
 because they had as it were the        
privilege of being thoughtless and      
foolish4--   #ig4 ,for youth and        
maidens1 especially as they approach    
manhood and womanhood1 the cultivation  
of the imagination must allow the       
earnestness of actuality to manifest    
itself in its undisguised energy4 ,this 
earnestness1 no longer through the      

symbolism of play but in its objective  
reality1 must now thoroughly penetrate  
the conceptions of the youth so that it 
shall prepare him to seize hold of the  
machinery of active life4 ,instead of   
the all-embracing ,epos they should now 
read ,tragedy1 whose purifying process1 
through the alternation of fear and     
pity1 unfolds to the youth the secret of
 all human destiny1 sin and its         
expiation4 ,the works best adapted to   
lead to history on this side are those  
of biography--of ancient times1         
,plutarch2 of modern times1 the         
autobiographies of ,augustine1 ,cellini1
 ,rousseau1 ,goethe1 ,varnhagen1 ,jung  
,stilling1 ,moritz1 ,arndt1 c4 ,these   
autobiographies contain a view of the   
growth of individuality through its     
inter-action with the influences of its 
time1 and1 together with the letters and
 memoirs of great or at least noteworthy
 men1 tend to produce a healthy         
excitement in the youth1 who must learn 
to fight his own battles through a      

knowledge of the battles of others4 ,to 
introduce the youth to a knowledge of   
,nature and ,ethnography no means are   
better than those of books of travel    
which give the charm of first contact1  
the joy of discovery1 instead of the    
general consciousness of the conquests  
of mind4  --,if educative literature on 
the one hand broadens the field of      
knowledge1 on the other it may also     
promote its elaboration into ideal      
forms4 ,this happens1 in a strict sense1
 through philosophical literature4 ,but 
only two different species of this are  
to be recommended to youth3 7#a7        
well-written treatises which endeavor to
 solve a single problem with spirit and 
thoroughness2 or1 7#b7 when the         
intelligence has grown strong enough for
 it1 the classical works of a real      
philosopher4 ,german literature is      
fortunately very rich in treatises of   
this kind in the works of ,lessing1     
,herder1 ,kant1 ,fichte1                
,schleiermacher1 ,humboldt1 and         

,schiller4 ,but nothing does more harm  
to youth than the study of works of     
mediocrity1 or those of a still lower   
rank4 ,they stupefy and narrow the mind 
by their empty1 hollow1 and constrained 
style4 ,it is generally supposed that   
these standard works are too difficult1 
and that one must first seize them in   
this trivial and diluted form in order  
to understand them4 ,this is one of the 
most prevalent and most dangerous       
errors1 for these ,introductions or     
,explanations1 easily-comprehended      
,treatises1 ,summary ,abstracts1 are1   
because of their want of originality and
 of the acuteness which belongs to it1  
much more difficult to understand than  
the standard work itself from which they
 drain their supplies4 ,education must  
train the youth to the courage which    
will attempt standard works1 and it must
 not allow any such miserable           
preconceived opinions to grow up in his 
mind as that his understanding is       
totally unable to comprehend works like 

,fichte's ,science of ,knowledge1 the   
,metaphysics of ,aristotle1 or ,hegel's 
,phenomenology4 ,no science suffers so  
much as ,philosophy from this false     
popular opinion1 which understands      
neither itself nor its authority4 ,the  
youth must learn how to learn to        
understand1 and1 in order to do this1 he
 must know that one cannot immediately  
understand everything in its finest     
subdivisions1 and that on this account  
he must have patience1 and must resolve 
to read over and over again1 and to     
think over what he has read4--   #ih4   
7#c7 ,imagination returns again within  
itself to perception in that it         
replaces1 for conceptions1 perceptions  
themselves1 which are to remind it of   
the previous conception4 ,these         
perceptions may resemble in some way the
 perception which lies at the basis of  
the conception1 and be thus more or less
 symbolical2 or they may be merely      
arbitrary creations of the creative     
imagination1 and are in this case pure  

signs4 ,in common speech and writing1 we
 call the free retaining of these       
perceptions created by imagination1 and 
the recalling of the conceptions denoted
 by them1 ,memory4 ,it is by no means a 
particular faculty of the mind1 which is
 again subdivided into memory of        
persons1 names1 numbers1 c4 ,as to its  
form1 memory is the stage of the        
dissolution of conception2 but as to its
 content1 it arises from the interest   
which we take in a subject-matter4 ,from
 this interest results1 moreover1       
careful attention1 and from this latter1
 facility in the reproductive           
imagination4 ,if these acts have        
preceded1 the fixing of a name1 or of a 
number1 in which the content interesting
 us is as it were summed up1 is not     
difficult4 ,when interest and attention 
animate us1 it seems as if we did not   
need to be at all troubled about        
remembering anything4 ,all the so-called
 mnemonic helps only serve to make more 
difficult the act of memory4 ,this act  

is in itself a double function1         
consisting of1 first1 the fixing of the 
sign1 and second1 the fixing of the     
conception subsumed under it4 ,since the
 mnemonic technique adds to these one   
more conception1 through whose means the
 things with which we have to deal are  
to be fixed in order to be able freely  
to express them in us1 it trebles the   
functions of remembering1 and forgets   
that the mediation of these and their   
relation--wholly arbitrary and highly   
artificial--must also be remembered4    
,the true help of memory consists in not
 helping it at all1 but in simply taking
 up the object into the ideal regions of
 the mind by the force of the infinite  
self-determination which mind possesses4
  --,lists of names1 as e4g4 of the     
,roman emperors1 of the popes1 of the   
caliphs1 of rivers1 mountains1 authors1 
cities1 c42 also numbers1 as e4g4 the   
multiplication table1 the melting points
 of minerals1 the dates of battles1 of  
births and deaths1 c41 must be learned  

without aid4 ,all indirect means only   
serve to do harm here1 and are required 
as self-discovered mediation only in    
case that interest or attention has     
become weakened4--   #ii4 ,the means to 
be used1 which result from the nature of
 memory itself1 are on the one hand the 
pronouncing and writing of the names and
 numbers1 and on the other1 repetition2 
by these we gain distinctness and       
certainty4  --,all artificial           
contrivances for quickening the memory  
vanish in comparison with the art of    
writing1 in so far as this is not looked
 at as a means of relieving the memory4 
,that a name or a number should be this 
or that1 is a mere chance for the       
intelligence1 an entirely meaningless   
accident to which we have               
unconditionally to submit ourselves as  
unalterable4 ,the intelligence must be  
accustomed to put upon itself this      
constraint4 ,in science proper1         
especially in ,philosophy1 our reason   
helps to produce one thought from others

 by means of the context1 and we can    
discover names for the ideas from       
them4--   ,,iii4 ,the ,logical ,epoch4  
#ajj4 ,in ,conception there is attained 
a universality of intellectual action in
 so far as the empirical details are    
referred to a ,schema1 as ,kant called  
it4 ,but the necessity of the connection
 is wanting to it4 ,to produce this is  
the task of the thinking activity1 which
 frees itself from all representations1 
and with its clearly defined            
determinations transcends conceptions4  
,the ,thinking activity frees itself    
from all sensuous representations by    
means of the processes of ,conception   
and ,perception4 ,comprehension1        
,judgment1 and ,syllogism1 develop for  
themselves into forms which1 as such1   
have no power of being perceived by the 
senses4 ,but it does not follow from    
this that he who thinks cannot return   
out of the thinking activity and carry  
it with him into the sphere of          
,conception and ,perception4 ,the true  

thinking activity deprives itself of no 
content4 ,the abstraction affecting a   
logical purism which looks down upon    
,conception and ,perception as forms of 
intelligence quite inferior to itself1  
is a pseudo-thinking1 a morbid and      
scholastic error4 ,education will be the
 better on its guard against this the   
more it has led the pupil by the        
legitimate road of ,perception and      
,conception to ,thinking4 ,memorizing   
especially is an excellent preparatory  
school for the ,thinking activity1      
because it gives practice to the        
intelligence in exercising itself in    
abstract ideas4   #aja4 ,the fostering  
of the ,sense of ,truth from the        
earliest years up1 is the surest way of 
leading the pupil to gain the power of  
thinking4 ,the unprejudiced1            
disinterested yielding to ,truth1 as    
well as the effort to shun all deception
 and false seeming1 are of the greatest 
value in strengthening the power of     
reflection1 as this considers nothing of

 value but the actually existing        
objective circumstances4  --,the        
indulging an illusion as a pleasing     
recreation of the intelligence should be
 allowed1 while lying must not be       
tolerated4 ,children have a natural     
inclination for mystifications1 for     
masquerades1 for raillery1 and for      
theatrical performances1 c4 ,this       
inclination to illusion is perfectly    
normal with them1 and should be         
permitted4 ,the graceful kingdom of ,art
 is developed from it1 as also the      
poetry of conversation in jest and wit4 
,although this sometimes becomes        
stereotyped into very prosaic           
conventional forms of speech1 it is more
 tolerable than the awkward honesty     
which takes everything in its simple    
literal sense4 ,and it is easy to       
discover whether children in such play1 
in the activity of free joyousness1     
incline to the side of mischief by their
 showing a desire of satisfying their   
selfish interest4 ,then they must be    

checked1 for in that case the           
cheerfulness of harmless joking gives   
way to premeditation and                
dissimulation4--   #ajb4 ,an            
acquaintance with logical forms is to be
 recommended as a special educational   
help in the culture of intelligence4    
,the study of ,mathematics does not     
suffice1 because it presupposes ,logic4 
,mathematics is related to ,logic in the
 same way as ,grammar1 the ,physical    
,sciences1 c4 ,the logical forms must be
 known explicitly in their pure         
independent forms1 and not merely in    
their implicit state as immanent in     
objective forms4   ,,second ,,chapter4  
,the ,logical ,presupposition or        
,method4    #ajc4 ,the logical          
presupposition of instruction is the    
order in which the subject-matter       
develops for the consciousness4 ,the    
subject1 the consciousness of the pupil1
 and the activity of the instructor1    
interpenetrate each other in            
instruction1 and constitute in actuality

 one whole4   #ajd4 7#a7 ,first of all1 
the subject which is to be learned has a
 specific determinateness which demands 
in its representation a certain fixed   
order4 ,however arbitrary we may desire 
to be1 the subject has a certain        
self-determination of its own which no  
mistreatment can wholly crush out1 and  
this inherent immortal reason is the    
general foundation of instruction4      
--,to illustrate2 however one may desire
 to manipulate a language in teaching   
it1 he cannot change the words in it1 or
 the inflections of the declensions and 
conjugations4 ,and the same restriction 
is laid upon our inclinations in the    
different divisions of ,natural         
,history1 in the theorems of            
,arithmetic1 ,geometry1 c4 ,the theorem 
of ,pascal remains still the theorem of 
,pascal1 and will always remain so4--   
#aje4 7#b7 ,but the subject must be     
adapted to the consciousness of the     
pupil1 and here the order of procedure  
and the exposition depend upon the stage

 which he has reached intellectually1   
for the special manner of the           
instruction must be conditioned by this4
 ,if he is in the stage of perception1  
we must use the illustrative method2 if 
in the stage of conception1 that of     
combination2 and if in the stage of     
reflection that of demonstration4 ,the  
first exhibits the object directly1 or  
some representation of it2 the second   
considers it according to the different 
possibilities which exist in it1 and    
turns it around on all sides2 the third 
questions the necessity of the          
connection in which it stands either    
with itself or with others4 ,this is the
 natural order from the stand-point of  
the scientific intelligence3 first1 the 
object is presented to the perception2  
then combination presents its different 
phases2 and1 finally1 the thinking      
activity circumscribes the restlessly   
moving reflection by the idea of        
necessity4 ,experiment in the method of 
combination is an excellent means for a 

discovery of relations1 for a sharpening
 of the attention1 for the arousing of a
 many-sided interest2 but it is no true 
dialectic1 though it be often denoted by
 that name4  --,illustration is         
especially necessary in the natural     
sciences and also in sthetics1 because  
in both of these departments the        
sensuous is an essential element of the 
matter dealt with4 ,in this respect we  
have made great progress in charts and  
maps4 ,sydow's hand and wall maps and   
,berghaus's physical atlas are most     
excellent means of illustrative         
instruction2 also ,burmeister's         
zological atlas4--   #ajf4 ,the         
demonstrative method1 in order to bring 
about its proof of necessity1 has a     
choice of many different ways4 ,but we  
must not imagine1 either that there are 
an unlimited number1 and that it is only
 a chance which one we shall take2 or   
that they have no connection among      
themselves1 and run1 as it were1 side by
 side4 ,it is not1 however1 the business

 of ,pedagogics to develop different    
methods of proof2 this belongs to       
,logic4 ,we have only to remember that1 
logically taken1 proof must be analytic1
 synthetic1 or dialectic4 ,analysis     
begins with the single one1 and leads   
out of it by induction to the general   
principle from which its existence      
results4 ,synthesis1 on the contrary1   
begins with a general which is          
presupposed as true1 and leads from this
 through deduction to the special       
determinations which were implicit in   
it4 ,the regressive search of analysis  
for a determining principle is          
,invention2 the forward progress of     
synthesis from the simple elements      
seeking for the multiplicity of the     
single one is ,construction4 ,each1 in  
its result1 passes over into the other2 
but their truth is found in the         
dialectic method1 which in each phase   
allows unity to separate into diversity 
and diversity to return into unity4     
,while in the analytic as well as in the

 synthetic method the mediation of the  
individual with the general1 or of the  
general with the individual1 lets the   
phase of particularity be only          
subjectively connected with it in the   
dialectic method1 we have the going over
 of the general through the particular  
to the individual1 or to the            
self-determination of the idea1 and it  
therefore rightly claims the title of   
the genetic method4 ,we can also say    
that while the inventive method gives us
 the idea 7notion7 and the constructive 
the judgment1 the genetic gives us the  
syllogism which leads the determinations
 of reflection back again into          
substantial identity4   #ajg4 7#c7 ,the 
active mediation of the pupil with the  
content which is to be impressed upon   
his consciousness is the work of the    
teacher1 whose personality creates a    
method adapted to the individual2 for   
however clearly the subject may be      
defined1 however exactly the            
psychological stage of the pupil may be 

regulated1 the teacher cannot dispense  
with the power of his own individuality 
even in the most objective relations4   
,this individuality must penetrate the  
whole with its own exposition1 and that 
peculiarity which we call his manner1   
and which cannot be determined  priori1 
must appear4 ,the teacher must place    
himself on the stand-point of the pupil1
 i4e4 must adapt himself2 he must see   
that the abstract is made clear to him  
in the concrete1 i4e4 must illustrate2  
he must fill up the gaps which will     
certainly appear1 and which may mar the 
thorough seizing of the subject1 i4e4   
must supply4 ,in all these relations the
 pedagogical tact of the teacher may    
prove itself truly ingenious in varying 
the method according to the             
changefulness of the ever-varying needs1
 in contracting or expanding the extent1
 in stating1 or indicating what is to be
 supplied4 ,the true teacher is free    
from any superstitious belief in any one
 procedure as a sure specific which he  

follows always in a monotonous bondage4 
,this can only happen when he is capable
 of the highest method4 ,the teacher has
 arrived at the highest point of ability
 in teaching when he can make use of all
 means1 from the loftiness of solemn    
seriousness1 through smooth statement1  
to the play of jest--yes1 even to the   
incentive of irony1 and to humor4       
--,pedagogics can be in nothing more    
specious than in its method1 and it is  
here that charlatanism can most readily 
intrude itself4 ,every little change1   
every inadequate modification1 is       
proclaimed aloud as a new or an improved
 method2 and even the most foolish and  
superficial changes find at once their  
imitators1 who themselves conceal their 
insolence behind some frivolous         
differences1 and1 with laughable        
conceit1 hail themselves as inventors4--
   ,,third ,,chapter4  ,instruction4    
#ajh4 ,all instruction acts upon the    
supposition that there is an inequality 
between present knowledge and power and 

that knowledge and power which are not  
yet attained4 ,to the pupil belong the  
first1 to the teacher the second4       
,education is the act which gradually   
cancels the original inequality of      
teacher and pupil1 in that it converts  
what was at first the property of the   
former into the property of the latter1 
and this by means of his own activity4  
,i4 ,the ,subjects of ,instruction4     
#aji4 ,the pupil is the apprentice1 the 
teacher the master1 whether in the      
practice of any craft or art1 or in the 
exposition of any systematic knowledge4 
,the pupil passes from the state of the 
apprentice to that of the master through
 that of the journeyman4 ,the apprentice
 has to appropriate to himself the      
elements2 journeymanship begins as he1  
by means of their possession1 becomes   
independent2 the master combines with   
his technical skill the freedom of      
production4 ,his authority over his     
pupil consists only in his knowledge and
 power4 ,if he has not these1 no        

external support1 no trick of false     
appearances which he may put on1 will   
serve to create it for him4   #aaj4     
,these stages--7#a7 apprenticeship1 7#b7
 journeymanship1 7#c7 mastership--are   
fixed limitations in the didactic       
process2 they are relative only in the  
concrete4 ,the standard of special      
excellence varies with the different    
grades of culture1 and must be varied   
that it may have any historical value4  
,the master is complete only in relation
 to the journeyman and apprentice2 to   
them he is superior4 ,but on the other  
hand1 in relation to the infinity of the
 problems of his art or science1 he is  
by no means complete2 to himself he must
 always appear as one who begins ever   
anew1 one who is ever striving1 one to  
whom a new problem ever rises from every
 achieved result4 ,he cannot discharge  
himself from work1 he must never desire 
to rest on his laurels4 ,he is the      
truest master whose finished            
performances only force him on to       

never-resting progress4   #aaa4 ,the    
real possibility of culture is found in 
general1 it is true1 in every human     
being2 nevertheless1 empirically1 there 
are distinguished3 7#a7 ,incapacity1 as 
the want of all gifts2 7#b7 ,mediocrity2
 7#c7 ,talent and ,genius4 ,it is the   
part of ,psychology to give an account  
of all these4 ,mediocrity characterizes 
the great mass of mechanical            
intelligences1 those who wait for       
external impulse as to what direction   
their endeavors shall take4 ,not without
 truth1 perhaps1 may we say1 that       
hypothetically a special talent is given
 to each individual1 but this special   
talent in many men never makes its      
appearance1 because under the           
circumstances in which it finds itself  
placed it fails to find the exciting    
occasion which shall give him the       
knowledge of its existence4 ,the        
majority of mankind are contented with  
the mechanical impulse which makes them 
into something and impresses upon them  

certain determinations4--,talent shows  
itself by means of the confidence in its
 own especial productive possibility1   
which manifests itself as an            
inclination1 as a strong impulse1 to    
occupy itself with the special object   
which constitutes its content4          
,pedagogics has no difficulty in dealing
 with mechanical natures1 because their 
passivity is only too ready to follow   
prescribed patterns4 ,it is more        
difficult to manage talent1 because it  
lies between mediocrity and genius1 and 
is therefore uncertain1 and not only    
unequal to itself1 but also is tossed   
now too low1 now too high1 is by turns  
despondent and over-excited4 ,the       
general maxim for dealing with it is to 
remove no difficulty from the subject to
 which its efforts are                  
directed4--,genius must be treated much 
in the same way as ,talent4 ,the        
difference consists only in this1 that  
,genius1 with a foreknowledge of its    
creative power1 usually manifests its   

confidence with less doubt in a special 
vocation1 and1 with a more intense      
thirst for culture1 subjects itself more
 willingly to the demands of            
instruction4 ,genius is in its nature   
the purest self-determination1 in that  
it lives1 in its own inner existence1   
the necessity which exists in the thing4
 ,but it can assign to the ,new1 which  
is in it already immediately and        
subjectively1 no value if this has not  
united itself to the already existing   
culture as its objective presupposition1
 and on this ground it thankfully       
receives instruction4   #aab4 ,but      
,talent and ,genius offer a special     
difficulty to education in the precocity
 which often accompanies them4 ,but by  
precocity we do not mean that they early
 render themselves perceptible1 since   
the early manifestation of gifts by     
talent and genius1 through their intense
 confidence1 is to be looked at as      
perfectly legitimate4 ,but precocity is 
rather the hastening forward of the     

human being in feeling and moral sense1 
so that where in the ordinary course of 
nature we should have a child1 we have a
 youth1 and a man in the place of a     
youth4 ,we may find precocity among     
those who belong to the class of        
mediocrity1 but it is developed most    
readily among those possessed of talent 
and genius1 because with them the early 
appearance of superior gifts may very   
easily bring in its train a perversion  
of the feelings and the moral nature4   
,education must deal with it in so far  
as it is inharmonious1 so that it shall 
be stronger than the demands made on it 
from without1 so that it shall not      
minister to vanity2 and must take care1 
in order to accomplish this1 that social
 naturalness and lack of affectation be 
preserved in the pupil4  --,our age has 
to combat this precocity much more than 
others4 ,we find e4g4 authors who1 at   
the age of thirty years1 in which they  
publish their collected works or write  
their biography1 are chilly with the    

feelings of old age4 ,music has been the
 sphere in which the earliest           
development of talent has shown itself1 
and here we find the absurdity that the 
cupidity of parents has so forced       
precocious talents that children of four
 or five years of age have been made to 
appear in public4--   #aac4 ,every      
sphere of culture contains a certain    
quantity of knowledge and ready skill   
which may be looked at1 as it were1 as  
the created result of the culture4 ,it  
is to be wished that every one who turns
 his attention to a certain line of     
culture could take up into himself the  
gathered learning which controls it4 ,in
 so far as he does this1 he is          
professional4 ,the consciousness that   
one has in the usual way gone through a 
school of art or science1 and has1 with 
the general inheritance of acquisition1 
been handed over to a special           
department1 creates externally a        
beneficial composure which is very      
favorable to internal progress4 ,we must

 distinguish from the professional the  
amateur and the self-taught man4 ,the   
amateur busies himself with an art1 a   
science1 or a trade1 without having gone
 through any strict training in it4 ,as 
a rule1 he dispenses with elementary    
thoroughness1 and hastens towards the   
pleasure which the joy of production    
gives4 ,the conscious amateur confesses 
this himself1 makes no pretension to    
mastership1 and calls himself--in       
distinction from the professional1 who  
subjects himself to rules--an unlearned 
person4 ,but sometimes the amateur1 on  
the contrary1 covers over his weakness1 
cherishes in himself the self-conceit   
that he is equal to the heroes of his   
art or science1 constitutes himself the 
first admirer of his own performances1  
seeks for their want of recognition in  
external motives1 never in their own    
want of excellence2 and1 if he has      
money1 or edits a paper1 is intoxicated 
with being the patron of talent which   
produces such works as he would         

willingly produce or pretends to        
produce4 ,the self-taught man has often 
true talent1 or even genius1 to whose   
development nevertheless the inherited  
culture has been denied1 and who by good
 fortune has through his own strength   
worked his way into a field of effort4  
,the self-taught man is distinguished   
from the amateur by the thoroughness and
 the industry with which he acts2 he is 
not only equally unfortunate with him in
 the absence of school-training1 but is 
much less endowed4 ,even if the         
self-taught man has for years studied   
and practised much1 he is still haunted 
by a feeling of uncertainty as to       
whether he has yet reached the          
stand-point at which a science1 an art1 
or a trade1 will receive him            
publicly--of so very great consequence  
is it that man should be comprehended   
and recognized by man4 ,the self-taught 
man therefore remains embarrassed1 and  
does not free himself from the          
apprehension that he may expose some    

weak point to a professional1 or he     
falls into the other extreme--he becomes
 presumptuous1 steps forth as a         
reformer1 and1 if he accomplishes       
nothing1 or earns only ridicule1 he sets
 himself down as an unrecognized martyr 
by an unappreciative and unjust world4  
--,it is possible that the amateur may  
transcend the stage of superficiality   
and subject himself to a thorough       
training2 then he ceases to be an       
amateur4 ,it is also possible that the  
self-taught man may be on the right     
track1 and may accomplish as much or    
even more than one trained in the usual 
way4 ,in general1 however1 it is very   
desirable that every one should go      
through the regular course of the       
inherited means of education1 partly    
that he may be thorough in the elements1
 partly to free him from the anxiety    
which he may feel lest he in his        
solitary efforts spend labor on some    
superfluous work--superfluous because   
done long before1 and of which he1      

through the accident of his want of     
culture1 had not heard4 ,we must all    
learn by ourselves1 but we cannot teach 
ourselves4 ,only ,genius can do this1   
for it must be its own leader in the new
 paths which it opens4 ,genius alone    
passes beyond where inherited culture   
ceases4 ,it bears this in itself as of  
the past1 and which it uses as material 
for its new creation2 but the           
self-taught man1 who would very         
willingly be a genius1 puts himself in  
an attitude of opposition to things     
already accomplished1 or sinks into     
oddity1 into secret arts and sciences1  
c4--   #aad4 ,these ideas of the general
 steps of culture1 of special gifts1 and
 of the ways of culture appropriate to  
each1 which we have above distinguished1
 have a manifold connection among       
themselves which cannot be established  
priori4 ,we can however remark that     
,apprenticeship1 the ,mechanical        
,intelligence1 and the ,professional    
life2 secondly1 ,journeymanship1        

,talent1 and ,amateurship2 and1 finally1
 ,mastership1 ,genius1 and ,self        
,education1 have a relationship to each 
other4   ,,ii4 ,the ,act of ,learning4  
#aae4 ,in the process of education the  
interaction between pupil and teacher   
must be so managed that the exposition  
by the teacher shall excite in the pupil
 the impulse to reproduction4 ,the      
teacher must not treat his exposition as
 if it were a work of art which is its  
own end and aim1 but he must always bear
 in mind the need of the pupil4 ,the    
artistic exposition1 as such1 will1 by  
its completeness1 produce admiration2   
but the didactic1 on the contrary1 will1
 through its perfect adaptation1 call   
out the imitative instinct1 the power of
 new creation4  --,from this            
consideration we may justify the        
frequent statement that is made1 that   
teachers who have really an elegant     
diction do not really accomplish so much
 as others who resemble in their        
statements not so much a canal flowing  

smoothly between straight banks1 as a   
river which works its foaming way over  
rocks and between ever-winding banks4   
,the pupil perceives that the first is  
considering himself when he speaks so   
finely1 perhaps not without some        
self-appreciation2 and that the second1 
in the repetitions and the sentences    
which are never finished1 is concerning 
himself solely with him4 ,the pupil     
feels that not want of facility or      
awkwardness1 but the earnest eagerness  
of the teacher1 is the principal thing1 
and that this latter uses rhetoric only 
as a means4--   #aaf4 ,in the act of    
learning there appears 7#a7 a mechanical
 element1 7#b7 a dynamic element1 and   
7#c7 one in which the dynamic again     
mechanically strengthens itself4   #aag4
 ,as to the mechanical element1 the     
right time must be chosen for each      
lesson1 an exact arrangement observed1  
and the suitable apparatus1 which is    
necessary1 procured4 ,it is in the      
arrangement that especially consists the

 educational power of the lesson4 ,the  
spirit of scrupulousness1 of accuracy1  
of neatness1 is developed by the        
external technique1 which is carefully  
arranged in its subordinate parts       
according to its content4 ,the teacher  
must therefore insist upon it that work 
shall cease at the exact time1 that the 
work be well done1 c41 for on these     
little things many greater things       
ethically depend4  --,to choose one's   
time for any work is often difficult    
because of the pressure of a multitude  
of demands1 but in general it should be 
determined that the strongest and       
keenest energy of the thinking activity 
and of memory--this being demanded by   
the work--should have appropriated to it
 the first half of the day4--   #aah4   
,the dynamical element consists of the  
previously developed power of           
,attention1 without which all the       
exposition made by the teacher to the   
pupil remains entirely foreign to him1  
all apparatus is dead1 all arrangement  

of no avail1 all teaching fruitless1 if 
the pupil does not by his free activity 
receive into his inner self what one    
teaches him1 and thus make it his own   
property4   #aai4 ,this appropriation   
must not limit itself1 however1 to the  
first acquisition of any knowledge or   
skill1 but it must give free existence  
to whatever the pupil has learned2 it   
must make it perfectly manageable and   
natural1 so that it shall appear to be a
 part of himself4 ,this must be brought 
about by means of ,repetition4 ,this    
will mechanically secure that which the 
attention first grasped4   #abj4 ,the   
careful1 persistent1 living activity of 
the pupil in these acts we call         
,industry4 ,its negative extreme is     
,laziness1 which is deserving of        
punishment inasmuch as it passes over   
into a want of self-determination4 ,man 
is by nature lazy4 ,but mind1 which is  
only in its act1 must resolve upon      
activity4 ,this connection of ,industry 
with human freedom1 with the very       

essence of mind1 makes laziness appear  
blameworthy4 ,the really civilized man1 
therefore1 no longer knows that absolute
 inaction which is the greatest         
enjoyment to the barbarian1 and he fills
 up his leisure with a variety of easier
 and lighter work4 ,the positive extreme
 of ,industry is the unreasonable       
activity which rushes in breathless     
chase from one action to another1 from  
this to that1 straining the person with 
the immense quantity of his work4 ,such 
an activity1 going beyond itself and    
seldom reaching deliberation1 is        
unworthy of a man4 ,it destroys the     
agreeable quiet which in all industry   
should penetrate and inspire the deed4  
,nothing is more repulsive than the     
beggarly pride of such stupid           
laboriousness4 ,one should not endure   
for a moment to have the pupil1 seeking 
for distinction1 begin to pride himself 
on an extra industry4 ,education must   
accustom him to use a regular assiduity4
 ,the frame of mind suitable for work   

often does not exist at the time when   
work should begin1 but more frequently  
it makes its appearance after we have   
begun4 ,the subject takes its own time  
to awaken us4 ,industry1 inspired by a  
love and regard for work1 has in its    
quiet uniformity a great force1 without 
which no one can accomplish anything    
essential4 ,the world1 therefore1 holds 
,industry worthy of honor2 and to the   
,romans1 a nation of the most persistent
 perseverance1 we owe the inspiring     
words1 ,incepto tantum opus est1 ctera  
res expediet2 and1 ,labor improbus omnia
 vincit4  --,every one may glory in his 
industry6 ,this is a true word from the 
lips of a truly industrious man1 who was
 also one of the most modest4 ,but      
,lessing did not1 however1 mean by them 
to charter ,pharisaical pedantry4 ,the  
necessity sometimes of giving one's self
 to an excess of work injurious to the  
health1 generally arises from the fact  
that he has not at other times made use 
of the requisite attention to the       

necessary industry1 and then attempts   
suddenly and as by a forced march to    
storm his way to his end4 ,the result of
 such over-exertion is naturally entire 
prostration4 ,the pupil is therefore to 
be accustomed to a generally uniform    
industry1 which may extend itself at    
regular intervals without his thereby   
overstraining himself4 ,what is really  
gained by a young man who has hitherto  
neglected time and opportunity1 and who1
 when examination presses1 overworks    
himself1 perhaps standing the test with 
honor1 and then must rest for months    
afterwards from the over-effort8 ,on all
 such occasions attention is not        
objective and dispassionate1 but rather 
becomes1 through anxiety to pass the    
examination1 restless and corrupted by  
egotism2 and the usual evil result of   
such compulsory industry is the         
ephemeral character of the knowledge    
thus gained4 ,lightly come1 lightly go1 
says the proverb4--  --,a special worth 
is always attached to study far into the

 night4 ,the student's midnight lamp    
always claims for itself a certain      
veneration4 ,but this is vanity4 ,in the
 first place1 it is injurious to        
contradict ,nature by working through   
the night1 which she has ordained for   
sleep2 secondly1 the question is not as 
to the number of hours spent in work and
 their position in the twenty-four1 but 
as to the quality of the work4 ,with    
regard to the value of my work1 it is of
 no moment whatsoever whether ,i have   
done it in the morning or in the        
evening1 or how long ,i have labored1   
and it is of no consequence to any one  
except to my own very unimportant self4 
,finally1 the question presents itself  
whether these gentlemen who boast so    
much of their midnight work do not sleep
 in the daytime6--   #aba4 ,but         
,industry has also two other extremes3  
seeming-laziness and seeming-industry4  
,seeming-laziness is the neglecting of  
the usual activity in one department    
because a man is so much more active in 

another4 ,the mind possessed with the   
liveliest interest in one subject buries
 itself in it1 and1 because of this1    
cannot give itself up to another which  
before had engrossed the attention4     
,thus it appears more idle than it is1  
or rather it appears to be idle just    
because it is more industrious4 ,this is
 especially the case in passing from one
 subject of instruction to another4 ,the
 pupil should acquire such a flexibility
 in his intellectual powers that the    
rapid relinquishment of one subject and 
the taking up of another should not be  
too difficult4 ,nothing is more natural 
than that when he is excited he should  
go back to the subject that has just    
been presented to him1 and that he1     
feeling himself restrained1 shall remain
 untouched by the following lesson1     
which may be of an entirely different   
nature4 ,the young soul is brooding over
 what has been said1 and is really      
exercising an intensive activity1 though
 it appears to be idle4 ,but in         

seeming-industry all the external       
motives of activity1 all the mechanism  
of work1 manifest themselves noisily1   
while there is no true energy of        
attention and productivity4 ,one busies 
himself with all the apparatus of work2 
he heaps up instruments and books around
 him2 he sketches plans2 he spends many 
hours staring into vacancy1 biting his  
pen1 gazing at words1 drawings1 numbers1
 c4 ,boys1 under the protection of so   
great a scaffolding for work erected    
around them1 often carry on their own   
amusements4 ,men1 who arrive at no real 
concentration of their force1 no clear  
defining of their vocation1 no firm     
decision as to their action1 dissipate  
their power in what is too often a great
 activity with absolutely no result4    
,they are busy1 very busy2 they have    
hardly time to do this thing because    
they really wish or ought to do that2   
but1 with all their driving1 their      
energy is all dissipated1 and nothing   
comes from their countless labors4      

,,iii4 ,the ,modality of the ,process of
 ,teaching4   #abb4 ,now that we have   
learned something of the relation of the
 teacher to the taught1 and of the      
process of learning itself1 we must     
examine the mode and manner of          
instruction4 ,this may have 7#a7 the    
character of contingency3 the way in    
which our immediate existence in the    
world1 our life1 teaches us2 or it may  
be given 7#b7 by the printed page2 or   
7#c7 it may take the shape of formal    
oral instruction4   #abc4 7#a7 ,for the 
most1 the best1 and the mightiest things
 that we know we are indebted to ,life  
itself4 ,the sum of perceptions which a 
human being absorbs into himself up to  
the fourth or fifth year of his life is 
incalculable2 and after this time we    
involuntarily gain by immediate contact 
with the world countless ideas4 ,but    
especially we understand by the phrase  
the ,school of ,life1 the ethical       
knowledge which we gain by what happens 
in our own lives4  --,if one says1 ,vit 

non schol discendum est1 one can also   
say1 ,vita docet4 ,without the power    
exercised by the immediate world our    
intelligence would remain abstract and  
lifeless4--   #abd4 7#b7 ,what we learn 
through books is the opposite of that   
which we learn through living4 ,life    
forces upon us the knowledge it has to  
give2 the book1 on the contrary1 is     
entirely passive4 ,it is locked up in   
itself2 it cannot be altered2 but it    
waits by us till we wish to use it4 ,we 
can read it rapidly or slowly2 we can   
simply turn over its leaves--what in    
modern times one calls reading2--we can 
read it from beginning to end or from   
end to beginning2 we can stop1 begin    
again1 skip over passages1 or cut them  
short1 as we like4 ,to this extent the  
book is the most convenient means for   
instruction4 ,if we are indebted to     
,life for our perceptions1 we must      
chiefly thank books for our             
understanding of our perceptions4 ,we   
call book-instruction dead when it      

lacks1 for the exposition which it      
gives1 a foundation in our perceptions1 
or when we do not add to the printed    
description the perceptions which it    
implies2 and the two are quite          
different4   #abe4 ,books1 as well as   
life1 teach us many things which we did 
not previously intend to learn directly 
from them4 ,from foreign romances e4g4  
we learn1 first of all1 while we read   
them for entertainment1 the foreign     
language1 history or geography1 c4 ,we  
must distinguish from such books as     
those which bring to us1 as it were     
accidentally1 a knowledge for which we  
were not seeking1 the books which are   
expressly intended to instruct4 ,these  
must 7a7 in their consideration of the  
subject give us the principal results of
 any department of knowledge1 and denote
 the points from which the next advance 
must be made1 because every science     
arises at certain results which are     
themselves again new problems2 7b7 in   
the consideration of the particulars it 

must be exhaustive1 i4e4 no essential   
elements of a science must be omitted4  
,but this exhaustiveness of execution   
has different meanings according to the 
stand-points of those for whom it is    
made4 ,how far we shall pass from the   
universality of the principal           
determinations into the multiplicity of 
the ,particular1 into the fulness of    
detail1 cannot be definitely determined1
 and must vary1 according to the aim of 
the book1 as to whether it is intended  
for the apprentice1 the journeyman1 or  
the master2 7c7 the expression must be  
precise1 i4e4 the maximum of clearness  
must be combined with the maximum of    
brevity4  --,the writing of a text-book 
is on this account one of the most      
difficult tasks1 and it can be          
successfully accomplished only by those 
who are masters in a science or art1 and
 who combine with great culture and     
talent great experience as teachers4    
,unfortunately many dabblers in         
knowledge undervalue the difficulty of  

writing text-books because they think   
that they are called upon to aid in the 
spread of science1 and because the      
writing of compendiums has thus come to 
be an avocation1 so that authors and    
publishers have made out of text-books a
 profitable business and good incomes4  
,in all sciences and arts there exists a
 quantity of material which is common   
property1 which is disposed of now in   
one way1 now in another4 ,the majority  
of compendiums can be distinguished from
 each other only by the kind of paper1  
printing1 the name of the publisher or  
bookseller1 or by arbitrary changes in  
the arrangement and execution4 ,the want
 of principle with which this work is   
carried on is incredible4 ,many         
governments have on this account fixed  
prices for text-books1 and commissioners
 to select them4 ,this in itself is     
right and proper1 but the use of any    
book should be left optional1 so that   
the one-sidedness of a science          
patronized by government as it were     

patented1 may not be created through the
 pressure of such introduction4 ,a state
 may through its censorship oppose poor 
text-books1 and recommend good ones2 but
 it may not establish as it were a      
state-science1 a state-art1 in which    
only the ideas1 laws and forms          
sanctioned by it shall be allowed4 ,the 
,germans are fortunate1 in consequence  
of their philosophical criticism1 in the
 production of better and better        
text-books1 among which may be mentioned
 ,koberstein's1 ,gervinus'1 and         
,vilmar's ,histories of ,literature1    
,ellendt's ,general ,history1           
,blumenbach's and ,burmeister's ,natural
 ,history1 ,marheineke's text-book on   
,religion1 ,schwegler's ,history of     
,philosophy1 c4 ,so much the more       
unaccountable is it that1 with such     
excellent books1 the evil of such       
characterless books1 partly inadequate  
and partly in poor style1 should still  
exist when there is no necessity for it4
 ,the common style of paragraph-writing 

has become obnoxious1 under the name of 
,compendium-style1 as the most stiff and
 affected style of writing4--   #abf4 ,a
 text-book must be differently written  
according as it is intended for a book  
for private study or for purposes of    
general circulation4 ,if the first1 it  
must give more1 and must develop more   
clearly the internal relations2 if the  
second1 it should be shorter1 and       
proceed from axiomatic and clear        
postulates to their signification1 and  
these must have an epigrammatic pureness
 which should leave something to be     
guessed4 ,because for these a commentary
 is needed which it is the teacher's    
duty to supply1 such a sketch is usually
 accompanied by the fuller text-book    
which was arranged for private study4   
--,it is the custom to call the proper  
text-book the small one1 and that which 
explains and illustrates1 the large one4
 ,thus we have the ,small and the ,large
 ,gervinus1 c4--   #abg4 7#c7 ,the      
text-book which presupposes oral        

explanation forms the transition to     
,oral instruction itself4 ,since speech 
is the natural and original form in     
which mind manifests itself1 no book can
 rival it4 ,the living word is the most 
powerful agent of instruction4 ,however 
common and cheap printing may have      
rendered books as the most convenient   
means of education--however possible may
 have become1 through the multiplication
 of facilities for intercourse and the  
rapidity of transportation1 the         
immediate viewing of human life1 the    
most forcible educational means1        
nevertheless the living word still      
asserts its supremacy4 ,in two cases    
especially is it indispensable3 one is  
when some knowledge is to be            
communicated which as yet is found in no
 compendium1 and the other when a living
 language is to be taught1 for in this  
case the printed page is entirely       
inadequate4 ,one can learn from books to
 understand ,spanish1 ,french1 ,english1
 ,danish1 c41 but not to speak them2 to 

do this he must hear them1 partly that  
his ear may become accustomed to the    
sounds1 partly that his vocal organs may
 learn correctly to imitate them4       
#abh4 ,life surprises and overpowers us 
with the knowledge which it gains2 the  
book1 impassive1 waits our convenience2 
the teacher1 superior to us1 perfectly  
prepared in comparison with us1 consults
 our necessity1 and with his living     
speech uses a gentle force to which we  
can yield without losing our freedom4   
,listening is easier than reading4      
--,sovereigns e4g4 seldom read          
themselves1 but have servants who read  
to them4--   #abi4 ,oral instruction may
 7#a7 give the subject1 which is to be  
learned1 in a connected statement1 or   
7#b7 it may unfold it by means of       
question and answer4 ,the first         
decidedly presupposes the theoretical   
inequality of the teacher and the       
taught4 ,because one can speak while    
many can listen1 this is especially     
adapted to the instruction of large     

numbers4 ,the second method is either   
that of the catechism or the dialogue4  
,the catechetical is connected with the 
first kind of oral instruction above    
designated because it makes demand upon 
the memory of the learner only for the  
answer to one question at a time1 and is
 hence very often and very absurdly     
called the ,socratic method4 ,in        
teaching by means of the dialogue1 we   
try1 by means of a reciprocal           
interchange of thought1 to solve in     
common some problem1 proceeding         
according to the necessary forms of     
reason4 ,but in this we can make a      
distinction4 ,one speaker may be        
superior to the rest1 may hold in his   
own hand the thread of the conversation 
and may guide it himself2 or1 those who 
mingle in it may be perfectly equal in  
intellect and culture1 and may each take
 part in the development with equal     
independence4 ,in this latter case1 this
 true reciprocity gives us the proper   
dramatic dialogue1 which contains in    

itself all forms of exposition1 and may 
pass from narration1 description1 and   
analysis1 through satire and irony1 to  
veritable humor4 ,when it does this1 the
 dialogue is the loftiest result of     
intelligence and the means of its purest
 enjoyment4  --,this alternate teaching1
 in which the one who has been taught   
takes the teacher's place1 can be used  
only where there is a content which     
admits of a mechanical treatment4 ,the  
,hindoos made use of it in very ancient 
times4 ,bell and ,lancaster have        
transplanted it for the teaching of poor
 children in ,europe and ,america4 ,for 
the teaching of the                     
conventionalities--reading1 writing1 and
 arithmetic--as well as for the learning
 by heart of names1 sentences1 c41 it   
suffices1 but not for any scientific    
culture4 ,where we have large numbers to
 instruct1 the giving of the fully      
developed statement 7the first form7 is 
necessary1 since the dialogue1 though it
 may be elsewhere suitable1 allows only 

a few to take part in it4 ,and if we    
take the second form1 we must1 if we    
have a large number of pupils1 make use 
of the catechetical method only4 ,what  
is known as the conversational method   
has been sometimes suggested for our    
university instruction4 ,diesterweg in  
,berlin insists upon it4 ,here and there
 the attempt has been made1 but without 
any result4 ,in the university1 the     
lecture of the teacher as a             
self-developing whole is contrasted with
 the scientific discussion of the       
students1 in which they as equals work  
over with perfect freedom what they have
 heard4 ,diesterweg was wrong in        
considering the lecture-system as the   
principal cause of the lack of          
scientific interest which he thought he 
perceived in our universities4 ,kant1   
,fichte1 ,schelling1 ,schleiermacher1   
,wolf1 ,niebuhr1 c41 taught by lectures 
and awakened the liveliest enthusiasm4  
,but ,diesterweg is quite right in      
saying that the students should not be  

degraded to writing-machines4 ,but this 
is generally conceded1 and a pedantic   
amount of copying more and more begins  
to be considered as out of date at our  
universities4 ,nevertheless1 a new      
pedantry1 that of the wholly extempore  
lecture1 should not be introduced2 but a
 brief summary of the extempore         
unfolding of the lecture may be dictated
 and serve a very important purpose1 or 
the lecture may be copied4 ,the great   
efficacy of the oral exposition does not
 so much consist in the fact that it is 
perfectly free1 as that it presents to  
immediate view a person who has made    
himself the bearer of a science or an   
art1 and has found what constitutes its 
essence4 ,its power springs1 above all1 
from the genuineness of the lecture1 the
 originality of its content1 and the    
elegance of its form3 whether it is     
written or extemporized1 is a matter of 
little moment4 ,niebuhr e4g4 read1 word 
for word1 from his manuscript1 and what 
a teacher was he6--,the catechetical way

 of teaching is not demanded at the     
university except in special            
examinations2 it belongs to the private 
work of the student1 who must learn to  
be industrious of his own free impulse4 
,the private tutor can best conduct     
reviews4--,the institution which        
presupposing the lecture-system combines
 in itself original production with     
criticism1 and the connected exposition 
with the conversation1 is the seminary4 
,it pursues a well-defined path1 and    
confines itself to a small circle of    
associates whose grades of culture are  
very nearly the same4 ,here1 therefore1 
can the dialogue be strongly developed  
because it has a fixed foundation1 and  
each one can take part in the           
conversation2 whereas1 from the variety 
of opinions among a great number1 it is 
easily perverted into an aimless talk1  
and the majority of the hearers1 who    
have no chance to speak1 become weary4--
   #acj4 ,as to the way in which the    
lecture is carried out1 it may be so    

arranged as to give the whole stock of  
information acquired1 or1 without being 
so exact and so complete1 it may bring  
to its elucidation only a relatively    
inexact and general information4 ,the   
ancients called the first method the    
esoteric and the second the exoteric1 as
 we give to such lectures now1          
respectively1 the names scholastic and  
popular4 ,the first makes use of terms  
which have become technical in science  
or art1 and proceeds syllogistically to 
combine the isolated ideas2 the second  
endeavors to substitute for             
technicalities generally understood     
signs1 and conceals the exactness of the
 formal conclusion by means of a        
conversational style4 ,it is possible to
 conceive of a perfectly methodical     
treatment of a science which at the same
 time shall be generally comprehensible 
if it strives to attain the transparency
 of real beauty4 ,a scientific work of  
art may be correctly said to be popular1
 as e4g4 has happened to ,herder's      

,ideas on the ,philosophy of the        
,history of ,mankind4  --,beauty is the 
element which is comprehended by all1   
and as we declare our enmity to the     
distorted picture-books1 books of       
amusement1 and to the mischievous       
character of ,compendiums1 so we must   
also oppose the popular publications    
which style themselves ,science made    
,easy1 c41 in order to attract more     
purchasers by this alluring title4 ,kant
 in his ,logic calls the extreme of     
explanation ,pedantry and ,gallantry4   
,this last expression would be very     
characteristic in our times1 since one  
attains the height of popularity now if 
he makes himself easily intelligible to 
ladies--a didactic triumph which one    
attains only by omitting everything that
 is profound or complicated1 and saying 
only what exists already in the         
consciousness of every one1 by depriving
 the subject dealt with of all          
seriousness1 and sparing neither        
pictures1 anecdotes1 jokes1 nor pretty  

formalities of speech4 ,elsewhere ,kant 
says3 ,in the effort to produce in our  
knowledge the completeness of scholarly 
thoroughness1 and at the same time a    
popular character1 without in the effort
 falling into the above-mentioned errors
 of an affected thoroughness or an      
affected popularity1 we must1 first of  
all1 look out for the scholarly         
completeness of our scientific          
knowledge1 the methodical form of       
thoroughness1 and first ask how we can  
make really popular the knowledge       
methodically acquired at school1 i4e4   
how we can make it easy and generally   
communicable1 and yet at the same time  
not supplant thoroughness by popularity4
 ,for scholarly completeness must not be
 sacrificed to popularity to please the 
people1 unless science is to become a   
plaything or trifling4 ,it is perfectly 
plain that all that was said before of  
the psychological and the logical       
methods must be taken into account in   
the manner of the statement4--   #aca4  

,it has been already remarked 7 #ba71 in
 speaking of the nature of education1   
that the office of the instructor must  
necessarily vary with the growing       
culture4 ,but attention must here again 
be called to the fact1 that education1  
in whatever stage of culture1 must      
conform to the law which1 as the        
internal logic of ,being1 determines all
 objective developments of nature and of
 history4 ,the ,family gives the child  
his first instruction2 between this and 
the school comes the teaching of the    
tutor2 the school stands independently  
as the antithesis of the family1 and    
presents three essentially different    
forms according as it imparts a general 
preparatory instruction1 or special     
teaching for different callings1 or a   
universal scientific cultivation4       
,universality passes over through       
particularizing into individuality1     
which contains both the general and the 
particular freely in itself4 ,all       
citizens of a state should have 7#a7 a  

general education which 7a7 makes them  
familiar with reading1 writing1 and     
arithmetic1 these being the means of all
 theoretical culture2 then 7b7 hands    
over to them a picture of the world in  
its principal phases1 so that they as   
citizens of the world can find their    
proper status on our planet2 and1       
finally1 it must 7c7 instruct him in the
 history of his own state1 so that he   
may see that the circumstances in which 
he lives are the result of a determined 
past in its connection with the history 
of the rest of the world1 and so may    
learn rightly to estimate the interests 
of his own country in view of their     
necessary relation to the future4 ,this 
work the elementary schools have to     
perform4 ,from this1 through the        
,realschule 7our scientific ,high       
,school course7 they pass into the      
school where some particular branch of  
science is taught1 and through the      
,gymnasium 7classical course of a ,high 
,school or ,college7 to the ,university4

 ,from its general basis develop 7#b7   
the educational institutions that work  
towards some special education which    
leads over to the exercise of some art4 
,these we call ,technological schools1  
where one may learn farming1 mining1 a  
craft1 a trade1 navigation1 war1 c4     
,this kind of education may be          
specialized indefinitely with the growth
 of culture1 because any one branch is  
capable in its negative aspect of such  
educational separation1 as e4g4 in      
foundling hospitals and orphan asylums1 
in blind and deaf and dumb institutions4
 ,the abstract universality of the      
,elementary school and the one-sided    
particularity of the ,technological     
school1 however1 is subsumed under a    
concrete universality1 which1 without   
aiming directly at utility1 treats      
science and art on all sides as their   
own end and aim4 ,scientia est potentia1
 said ,lord ,bacon4 ,practical utility  
results indirectly through the progress 
which ,scientific ,cognition makes in   

this free attitude1 because it collects 
itself out of the dissipation through   
manifold details into a universal idea  
and attains a profounder insight        
thereby4 ,this organism for the purpose 
of instruction is properly called a     
,university4 ,by it the educational     
organization is perfected4  --,it is    
essentially seen that no more than these
 three types of schools can exist1 and  
that they must all exist in a perfectly 
organized civilization4 ,their titles   
and the plan of their special teaching  
may be very different among different   
nations and at different times1 but this
 need not prevent the recognition in    
them of the ideas which determine them4 
,still less should the imperfect ways in
 which they manifest themselves induce  
us to condemn them4 ,it is the modern   
tendency to undervalue the ,university  
as an institution which we had inherited
 from the middle ages1 and with which we
 could at present dispense4 ,this is an 
error4 ,the university presents just as 

necessary a form of instruction as the  
elementary school or the technological  
school4 ,not the abolition of the       
university1 but a reform which shall    
adapt it to the spirit of the age1 is   
the advance which we have to make4 ,that
 there are to be found outside of the   
university men of the most thorough and 
elegant culture1 who can give the most  
excellent instruction in a science or an
 art1 is most certain4 ,but it is a     
characteristic of the university in its 
teaching to do away with contingency    
which is unavoidable in case of private 
voluntary efforts4 ,the university      
presents an organic1 self-conscious1    
encyclopdic representation of all the   
sciences1 and thus is created to a      
greater or less degree an intellectual  
atmosphere which no other place can     
give4 ,through this1 all sciences and   
their aims are seen as of equal         
authority--a personal stress is laid    
upon the connection of the sciences4    
,the imperfections of a university1     

which arise through the rivalry of      
external ambition1 through the necessity
 of financial success1 through the      
jealousy of different parties1 through  
scholarships1 c41 are finitudes which it
 has in common with all human           
institutions1 and on whose account they 
are not all to be thrown away4--,art    
academies are for ,art what universities
 are for ,science4 ,they are inferior to
 them in so far as they appear more     
under the form of special schools1 as   
schools of architecture1 of painting1   
and conservatories of music2 while      
really it may well be supposed that     
,architecture1 ,sculpture1 ,painting1   
,music1 the ,orchestra1 and the ,drama1 
are1 like the ,sciences1 bound together 
in a ,universitas artium1 and that by   
means of their internal reciprocal      
action new results would                
follow4--,academies1 as isolated        
master-schools1 which follow no         
particular line of teaching1 are        
entirely superfluous1 and serve only as 

a ,prytaneum for meritorious scholars1  
and to reward industry through the      
prizes which they offer4 ,in their idea 
they belong with the university1 this   
appearing externally in the fact that   
most of their members are university    
professors4 ,but as institutions for    
ostentation by which the ambition of the
 learned was flattered1 and to surround 
princes with scientific glory as        
scientific societies attached to a      
court1 they have lost all significance4 
,they ceased to flourish with the       
,ptolemies and the ,egyptian caliphs1   
and with absolute monarchical           
governments4--,in modern times we have  
passed beyond the abstract jealousy of  
the so-called ,humanities and the       
,natural ,sciences1 because we          
comprehend that each part of the        
totality can be realized in a proper    
sense only by its development as        
relatively independent4 ,thus the       
gymnasium has its place as that         
elementary school which through a       

general culture1 by means of the        
knowledge of the language and history of
 the ,greeks and ,romans1 prepares for  
the university2 while1 on the other     
hand1 the ,realschule1 by special       
attention to ,natural ,science and the  
living languages1 constitutes the       
transition to the technological schools4
 ,nevertheless1 because the university  
embraces the ,science of ,nature1 of    
,technology1 of ,trade1 of ,finance1 and
 of ,statistics1 the pupils who have    
graduated from the so-called high       
schools 7hhern ,brgerschulen7 and from  
the ,realschulen will be brought        
together at the university4--   #acb4   
,the technique of the school will be    
determined in its details by the        
peculiarity of its aim4 ,but in general 
every school1 no matter what it teaches1
 ought to have some system of rules and 
regulations by which the relation of the
 pupil to the institution1 of the pupils
 to each other1 their relation to the   
teacher1 and that of the teachers to    

each other as well as to the supervisory
 authority1 the programme of lessons1   
the apparatus1 of the changes of work   
and recreation1 shall be clearly set    
forth4 ,the course of study must be     
arranged so as to avoid two extremes3 on
 the one hand1 it has to keep in view   
the special aim of the school1 and      
according to this it tends to contract  
itself4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it must
 consider the relative dependence of one
 specialty to other specialties and to  
general culture4 ,it must leave the     
transition free1 and in this it tends to
 expand itself4 ,the difficulty is here 
so to assign the limits that the special
 task of the school shall not be        
sacrificed and deprived of the means of 
performance which it 7since it is also  
always only a part of the whole culture7
 receives by means of its reciprocal    
action with other departments4 ,the     
programme must assign the exact amount  
of time which can be appropriated to    
every study4 ,it must prescribe the     

order in which they shall follow each   
other2 it must1 as far as possible1     
unite kindred subjects1 so as to avoid  
the useless repetition which dulls the  
charm of study2 it must1 in determining 
the order1 bear in mind at the same time
 the necessity imposed by the subject   
itself and the psychological progression
 of intelligence from perception1       
through conception1 to the thinking     
activity which grasps all4 ,it must     
periodically be submitted to revision1  
so that all matter which has1 through   
the changed state of general culture1   
become out of date1 may be rejected1 and
 that that which has proved itself      
inimitable may be appropriated2 in      
general1 so that it may be kept up to   
the requirements of the times4 ,and1    
finally1 the school must1 by            
examinations and reports1 aid the pupil 
in the acquirement of a knowledge of his
 real standing4 ,the examination lets   
him know what he has really learned1 and
 what he is able to do3 the report gives

 him an account of his culture1 exhibits
 to him in what he has made improvement 
and in what he has fallen behind1 what  
defects he has shown1 what talents he   
has displayed1 what errors committed1   
and in what relation stands his         
theoretical development to his ethical  
status4  --,the opposition of the       
,gymnasia to the demands of the         
agricultural communities is a very      
interesting phase of educational        
history4 ,they were asked to widen their
 course so as to embrace ,mathematics1  
,physics1 ,natural ,history1 ,geography1
 and the modern languages4 ,at first    
they stoutly resisted2 then they made   
some concessions2 finally1 the more they
 made the more they found themselves in 
contradiction with their true work1 and 
so they produced as an independent      
correlate the ,realschule4 ,after this  
was founded1 the gymnasium returned to  
its old plan1 and is now again able to  
place in the foreground the pursuit of  
classical literature and history4 ,it   

was thus set free from demands made upon
 it which were entirely foreign to its  
nature4--,the examination is1 on one    
side1 so adapted to the pupil as to make
 him conscious of his own condition4 ,as
 to its external side1 it determines    
whether the pupil shall pass from one   
class to another or from one school to  
another1 or it decides whether the      
school as a whole shall give a public   
exhibition--an exhibition which ought to
 have no trace of ostentation1 but which
 in fact is often tinctured with        
pedagogical charlatanism4--   #acc4 ,the
 ,direction of the school on the side of
 science must be held by the school     
itself1 for the process of the intellect
 in acquiring science1 the progress of  
the method1 the determinations of the   
subject matter and the order of its     
development1 have their own laws1 to    
which ,instruction must submit itself if
 it would attain its end4 ,the school is
 only one part of the whole of culture4 
,in itself it divides into manifold     

departments1 together constituting a    
great organism which in manifold ways   
comes into contact with the organism of 
the state4 ,so long as teaching is of a 
private character1 so long as it is the 
reciprocal relation of one individual to
 another1 or so long as it is shut up   
within the circle of the family and     
belongs to it alone1 so long it has no  
objective character4 ,it receives this  
first when it grows to a school4 ,as in 
history1 its first form must have a     
religious character2 but this first     
form1 in time1 disappears4 ,religion is 
the absolute relation of man to ,god    
which subsumes all other relations4 ,in 
so far as ,religion exists in the form  
of a church1 those who are members of   
the same church may have instruction    
given on the nature of religion among   
themselves4 ,instruction on the subject 
is proper1 and it is even enjoined upon 
them as a law--as a duty4 ,but further  
than their own society they may not     
extend their rule4 ,the church may exert

 itself to make a religious spirit felt 
in the school and to make it penetrate  
all the teaching2 but it may not        
presume1 because it has for its subject 
the absolute interest of men1 the       
interest which is superior to all       
others1 to determine also the other     
objects of ,education or the method of  
treating them4 ,the technical           
acquisitions of ,reading1 ,writing and  
,arithmetic1 ,drawing and ,music1 the   
,natural ,sciences1 ,mathematics1       
,logic1 ,anthropology and ,psychology1  
the practical sciences of finance and   
the municipal regulations1 have no      
direct relation to religion4 ,if we     
attempt to establish one1 there         
inevitably appears in them a morbid     
state which destroys them2 not only so1 
but piety itself disappears1 for these  
accomplishments and this knowledge are  
not included in its idea4  --,such      
treatment of ,art and ,science may be   
well-meant1 but it is always an error4  
,it may even make a ludicrous           

impression1 which is a very dangerous   
thing for the authority of religion4 ,if
 a church has established schools1 it   
must see to it that all which is there  
taught outside of the religious         
instruction1 i4e4 all of science and    
art1 shall have no direct connection    
with it as a religious institution4--   
#acd4 ,the ,church1 as the external     
manifestation of religion1 is concerned 
with the absolute relation of man1 the  
relation to ,god1 special in itself as  
opposed to his other relations2 the     
,state1 on the contrary1 seizes the life
 of a nation according to its explicit  
totality4 ,the ,state should conduct the
 education of all its citizens4 ,to it1 
then1 the church can appear only as a   
school1 for the church instructs its own
 people concerning the nature of        
religion1 partly by teaching proper1    
that of the catechism1 partly in quite  
as edifying a way1 by preaching4 ,from  
this point of view1 the ,state can look 
upon the church only as one of those    

schools which prepare for a special     
avocation4 ,the church appears to the   
,state as that school which assumes the 
task of educating the religious element4
 ,just as little as the church should   
the state attempt to exercise any       
influence over ,science and ,art4 ,in   
this they are exactly alike1 and must   
acknowledge the necessity which both    
,science and ,art contain within        
themselves and by which they determine  
themselves4 ,the laws of ,logic1        
,mathematics1 ,astronomy1 ,morals1      
sthetics1 ,physiology1 c41 are entirely 
independent of the state4 ,it can decree
 neither discoveries nor inventions4    
,the state in its relations to science  
occupies the same ground as it should do
 with relation to the freedom of        
self-consciousness4 ,it is true that the
 church teaches man1 but it demands from
 him at the same time belief in the     
truth of its dogmas4 ,it rests1 as the  
real church1 on presupposed authority1  
and sinks finally all contradictions    

which may be found in the absolute      
mystery of the existence of ,god4 ,the  
state1 on the contrary1 elaborates its  
idea into the form of laws1 i4e4 into   
general determinations1 of whose        
necessity it convinces itself4 ,it seeks
 to give to these laws the clearest     
possible form1 so that every one may    
understand them4 ,it concedes validity  
only to that which can be proved1 and   
sentences the individual according to   
the external side of the deed 7overt    
act7 not1 as the church does1 on its    
internal side--that of intention4       
,finally1 it demands in him             
consciousness of his deed1 because it   
makes each one responsible for his own  
deed4 ,it has1 therefore1 the same      
principle with science1 for the proof of
 necessity and the unity of             
consciousness with its object constitute
 the essence of science4 ,since the     
state embraces the school as one of its 
educational organisms1 it is from its   
very nature especially called upon to   

guide its regulation in accordance with 
the manifestation of consciousness4     
,sidenote3 ,the ,modality of the        
,process of ,teaching4  --,the church   
calls this profanation4 ,one might say  
that the church1 with its mystery of    
,faith1 always represents the absolute  
problem of science1 while the state1 as 
to its form1 coincides with science4    
,whenever the state abandons the        
strictness of proof--when it begins to  
measure the individual citizen by his   
intention and not by his deed1 and1 in  
place of the clear insight of the       
comprehending consciousness1 sets up the
 psychological compulsion of a hollow   
mechanical authority1 it destroys       
itself4--   #ace4 ,neither the church   
nor the state should attempt to control 
the school in its internal management4  
,still less can the school constitute   
itself into a state within the state2   
for1 while it is only one of the means  
which are necessary for developing      
citizens1 the state and the church lay  

claim to the whole man his whole life   
long4 ,the independence of the school   
can then only consist in this1 that it  
raises within the state an organ which  
works under its control1 and which as   
school authority endeavors within itself
 to befriend the needs of the school1   
while externally it acts on the church  
and state indirectly by means of ethical
 powers4 ,the emancipation of the school
 can never reasonably mean its abstract 
isolation1 or the absorption of the     
ecclesiastical and political life into  
the school2 it can signify only the free
 reciprocal action of the school with   
state and church4 ,it must never be     
forgotten that what makes the school a  
school is not the total process of      
education1 for this falls also within   
the family1 the state1 and the church2  
but that the proper work of the school  
is the process of instruction1          
knowledge1 and the acquirement1 by      
practice1 of skill4  --,the confusion of
 the idea of ,instruction with that of  

,education in general is a common defect
 in superficial treatises on these      
themes4 ,the ,radicals among those who  
are in favor of so-called ,emancipation1
 often erroneously appeal to free       
,greece which generally for this fond   
ignorance is made to stand as authority 
for a thousand things of which it never 
dreamed4 ,in this fictitious ,hellas of 
free1 beautiful humanity1 they say the  
limits against which we strive to-day   
did not exist4 ,the histories of        
,anaxagoras1 ,protagoras1 ,diagoras1    
,socrates1 ,aristotle1 ,theophrastus1   
and of others1 who were all condemned on
 account of their impiety1 tell quite   
another story4--   #acf4 ,the inspection
 of the school may be carried out in    
different ways1 but it must be required 
that its special institutions shall be  
embraced and cared for as organized and 
related wholes1 framed in accordance    
with the idea of the state1 and that one
 division of the ministry shall occupy  
itself exclusively with it4 ,the        

division of labor will specially affect 
the schools for teaching particular     
avocations4 ,the prescription of the    
subjects to be studied in each school as
 appropriate to it1 of the course of    
study1 and of the object thereof1       
properly falls to this department of    
government1 is its immediate work1 and  
its theory must be changed according to 
the progress and needs of the time4     
,niemeyer1 ,schwarz1 and others1 have   
made out such plans for schools4        
,scheinert has fully painted the        
,volkschule1 ,mager the ,brgerschule1   
,deinhard and ,kapp the ,gymnasium4 ,but
 such delineations1 however correct they
 may be1 depend upon the actual sum of  
culture of a people and a time1 and must
 therefore continually modify their     
fundamental ,ideal4 ,the same is true of
 the methods of instruction in the      
special arts and sciences4 ,niemeyer1   
,schwarz1 ,herbart1 in their sketches of
 ,pedagogics1 ,beneke in his ,doctrine  
of ,education1 and others1 have set     

forth in detail the method of teaching  
,reading1 ,writing and ,arithmetic1     
,languages1 ,natural ,science1          
,geography1 ,history1 c4 ,such          
directions are1 however1 ephemeral in   
value1 and only relatively useful1 and  
must1 in order to be truly practical1 be
 always newly laid out in accordance    
with universal educational principles1  
and with the progress of science and    
art4  --,the idea that the ,state has   
the right to oversee the school lies in 
the very idea of the ,state1 which is   
authorized1 and under obligation1 to    
secure the education of its citizens1   
and cannot leave their fashioning to    
chance4 ,the emancipation of the school 
from the ,state1 the abstracting of it1 
would lead to the destruction of the    
school4 ,there is no difficulty in      
,protestant ,states in the free         
inter-action of school and church1 for  
,protestantism has consciously accepted 
as its peculiar principle individual    
freedom as ,christianity has presented  

it4 ,for ,catholic ,states1 however1 a  
difficulty exists4 ,the ,protestant     
clergyman can with propriety oversee the
 ,volkschule1 for here he works as      
teacher1 not as priest4 ,in the         
,protestant church there are really no  
,laity according to the original meaning
 of the term4 ,on the contrary1         
,catholic clergymen are essentially     
priests1 and as such1 on account of the 
unconditional obedience which1 according
 to their church1 they have to demand1  
they usurp the authority of the ,state4 
,from this circumstance arise1 at       
present1 numberless collisions in the   
department of school supervision4--     
,,third ,,division4  ,,pragmatics       
7,,education ,,of ,,the ,,will74   #acg4
 ,both ,physical and ,intellectual      
,education are in the highest degree    
practical4 ,the first reduces the merely
 natural to a tool which mind shall use 
for its own ends2 the second guides the 
intelligence1 by ways conformable to its
 nature1 to the necessary method of the 

act of teaching and learning1 which     
finally branches out into an objective  
national life1 into a system of mutually
 dependent school organizations4 ,but in
 a narrower sense we mean by practical  
education the methodical development of 
the ,will4 ,this phrase more clearly    
expresses the topic to be considered in 
this division than others sometimes used
 in ,pedagogics ,bestrebungs vermgen1   
conative power4 ,the will is already the
 subject of a science of its own1 i4e4  
of ,ethics2 and if ,pedagogics would    
proceed in anywise scientifically1 it   
must recognize and presuppose the idea  
and the existence of this science4 ,it  
should not restate in full the doctrines
 of freedom of duty1 of virtue1 and of  
conscience1 although we have often seen 
this done in empirical works on         
,pedagogics4 ,pedagogics has to deal    
with the idea of freedom and morality   
only so far as it fixes the technique of
 their process1 and at the same time it 
confesses itself to be weakest just     

here1 where nothing is of any worth     
without a pure self-determination4      
#ach4 ,the pupil must 7#a7 become       
civilized2 i4e4 he must learn to govern1
 as a thing external to him1 his natural
 egotism1 and to make the forms which   
civilized society has adopted his own4  
7#b7 ,he must become imbued with        
morality2 i4e4 he must learn to         
determine his actions1 not only with    
reference to what is agreeable and      
useful1 but according to the principle  
of the ,good2 he must become virtually  
free1 form a character1 and must        
habitually look upon the necessity of   
freedom as the absolute measure of his  
actions4 7#c7 ,he must become religious2
 i4e4 he must discern that the world1   
with all its changes1 himself included1 
is only phenomenal2 the affirmative side
 of this insight into the emptiness of  
the finite and transitory1 which man    
would so willingly make everlasting1 is 
the consciousness of the absolute       
existing in and for itself1 which1 in   

its certainty of its truth1 not torn    
asunder through the process of          
manifestation1 constitutes no part of   
its changes1 but1 while it actually     
presents them1 permeates them all1 and  
freely distinguishes itself from them4  
,in so far as man relates himself to    
,god1 he cancels all finitude and       
transitoriness1 and by this feeling     
frees himself from the externality of   
phenomena4 ,virtue on the side of       
civilization is ,politeness2 on that of 
morality1 ,conscientiousness2 and on    
that of religion1 ,humility4   ,,first  
,,chapter4  ,social ,culture4    #aci4  
,the social development of man makes the
 beginning of practical education4 ,it  
is not necessary to suppose a special   
social instinct4 ,the inclination of man
 to the society of men does not arise   
only from the identity of their nature1 
but is also in certain cases affected by
 particular relations4 ,the natural     
starting-point of social culture is the 
,family4 ,but this educates the child   

for ,society1 and by means of ,society  
the individual passes over into         
relations with the world at large4      
,natural sympathy changes to polite     
behavior1 and this to the dexterous and 
circumspect deportment1 whose truth     
nevertheless is first the ethical purity
 which combines with the wisdom of the  
serpent the harmlessness of the dove4   
#adj4 7#a7 ,the ,family is the natural  
social circle to which man primarily    
belongs4 ,in it all the immediate       
differences which exist are compensated 
by the equally immediate unity of the   
relationship4 ,the subordination of the 
wife to the husband1 of the children to 
their parents1 of the younger children  
to their elder brothers and sisters1    
ceases to be subordination1 through the 
intimacy of love4 ,the child learns     
obedience to authority1 and in this it  
gives free personal satisfaction to its 
parents and enjoys the same4 ,all the   
relations in which he finds himself     
there are penetrated by the warmth of   

implicit confidence1 which can be       
replaced for the child by nothing else4 
,in this sacred circle the tenderest    
emotions of the heart are developed by  
the personal interest of all its members
 in what happens to any one1 and thus   
the foundation is laid of a             
susceptibility to all genuine or real   
friendship4  --,nothing more            
unreasonable or inhuman could exist than
 those modern theories which would      
destroy the family and would leave the  
children1 the offspring of the anarchy  
of free-love1 to grow up in public      
nurseries4 ,this would appear to be very
 humanitarian2 indeed these socialists  
talk of nothing but the interests of    
humanity--they are never weary of       
uttering their insipid jests on the     
institution of the family1 as if it were
 the principle of all narrow-mindedness4
 ,have these fanatics1 who are seeking  
after an abstraction of humanity1 ever  
examined our foundling-hospitals1 orphan
 asylums1 barracks1 and prisons1 to     

discover in some degree to what an      
atomic state of barren cleverness a     
human being grows who has never formed a
 part of a family8 ,the ,family is only 
one phase in the grand order of the     
ethical organization2 but it is the     
substantial phase from which man        
passively proceeds1 but into which1 as  
he founds a family of his own1 he       
actively returns4 ,the child lives in   
the ,family in the common joy and grief 
of sympathy for all1 and1 in the emotion
 with which he sees his parents approach
 death while he is hastening towards the
 full enjoyment of existence1           
experiences the finer feelings which are
 so powerful in creating in him a deeper
 and more tender understanding of       
everything human4--   #ada4 7#b7 ,the   
,family rears the children not for      
itself but for the civil society4 ,in   
this we have a system of morals         
producing externally a social technique1
 a circle of fixed forms of society4    
,this technique endeavors to subdue the 

natural roughness of man1 at least as   
far as it manifests itself externally4  
,because he is spirit1 man is not to    
yield himself to his immediateness2 he  
is to exhibit to man his naturalness as 
under the control of spirit4 ,the       
etiquette of propriety on the one hand  
facilitates the manifestation of        
individuality by means of which the     
individual becomes interesting to       
others1 and on the other hand1 since its
 forms are alike for all1 it makes us   
recognize the likeness of the individual
 to all others and so makes their       
intercourse easier4  --,the conventional
 form is no mere constraint2 but        
essentially a protection not only for   
the freedom of the individual1 but much 
more the protection of the individual   
against the rude impetuosity of his own 
naturalness4 ,savages and peasants for  
this reason are1 in their relations to  
each other1 by no means as unconstrained
 as one often represents them1 but hold 
closely to a ceremonious behavior4      

,there is in one of ,immerman's stories1
 ,the ,village ,justice1 a very         
excellent picture of the conventional   
forms with which the peasant loves to   
surround himself4 ,the scene in which   
the townsman who thinks that he can     
dispense with forms among the peasants  
is very entertainingly taught better1 is
 exceedingly valuable in an educational 
point of view4 ,the feeling of shame    
which man has in regard to his mere     
naturalness is often extended to        
relations where it has no direct        
significance1 since this sense of shame 
is appealed to in children in reference 
to things which are really perfectly    
indifferent externalities4--   #adb4    
,education with regard to social culture
 has two extremes to avoid3 the youth   
may1 in his effort to prove his         
individuality1 become vain and          
conceited1 and fall into an attempt to  
appear interesting2 or he may become    
slavishly dependent on conventional     
forms1 a kind of social pedant4 ,this   

state of nullity which contents itself  
with the mechanical polish of social    
formalism is ethically more dangerous   
than the tendency to a marked           
individuality1 for it betrays emptiness2
 while the effort towards a peculiar    
differentiation from others1 to become  
interesting to others1 indicates power4 
#adc4 ,when we have a harmony of the    
manifestation of the individual with the
 expression of the recognition of the   
equality of others we have what is      
called deportment or politeness1 which  
combines dignity and grace1 self-respect
 and modesty4 ,we call it when fully    
complete1 ,urbanity4 ,it treats the     
conventional forms with irony1 since1 at
 the same time that it yields to them1  
it allows the productivity of spirit to 
shine through them in little deviation  
from them1 as if it were fully able to  
make others in their place4  --,true    
politeness shows that it remains master 
of forms4 ,it is very necessary to      
accustom children to courtesy and to    

bring them up in the etiquette of the   
prevailing social custom2 but they must 
be prevented from falling into an absurd
 formality which makes the triumph of a 
polite behavior to consist in a blind   
following of the dictates of the last   
fashion-journal1 and in the exact       
copying of the phraseology and          
directions of some book on manners4 ,one
 can best teach and practise politeness 
when he does not merely copy the social 
technique1 but comprehends its original 
idea4--   #add4 7#c7 ,but to fully      
initiate the youth into the institutions
 of civilization one must not only call 
out the feelings of his heart in the    
bosom of the family1 not only give to   
him the formal refinement necessary to  
his intercourse with society2 it must   
also perform to him the painful duty of 
making him acquainted with the mysteries
 of the ways of the world4 ,this is a   
painful duty1 for the child naturally   
feels an unlimited confidence in all    
men4 ,this confidence must not be       

destroyed1 but it must be tempered4 ,the
 mystery of the way of the world is the 
deceit which springs from selfishness4  
,we must provide against it by a proper 
degree of distrust4 ,we must teach the  
youth that he may be imposed upon by    
deceit1 dissimulation1 and hypocrisy1   
and that therefore he must not give his 
confidence lightly and credulously4 ,he 
himself must learn how he can1 without  
deceit1 gain his own ends in the midst  
of the throng of opposing interests4    
--,kant in his ,pedagogics calls that   
worldly-wise behavior by which the      
individual is to demean himself in      
opposition to others1 ,impenetrability4 
,by its means man learns how to manage  
men4 ,in ,lord ,chesterfield's letters  
to his son1 we have pointed out the true
 value of egotism in its relation to    
morals4 ,all his words amount to this1  
that we are to consider every man to be 
an egotist1 and to convert his very     
egotism into a means of finding out his 
weak side2 i4e4 to flatter him by       

exciting his vanity1 and by means of    
such flattery to ascertain his limits4  
,in common life1 the expression having  
had experiences means about the same    
thing as having been deceived and       
betrayed4--   ,,second ,,chapter4       
,moral ,culture4    #ade4 ,the truth of 
social culture lies in moral culture4   
,without this latter1 every art of      
behavior remains worthless1 and can     
never attain the clearness of ,humility 
and ,dignity which are possible to it in
 its unity with morality4 ,for the      
better determination of this idea       
,pedagogics must refer to ,ethics       
itself1 and can here give the part of   
its content which relates to ,education 
only in the form of educational maxims4 
,the principal categories of ,ethics in 
the domain of morality are the ideas of 
,duty1 ,virtue1 and ,conscience4        
,education must lay stress on the truth 
that nothing in the world has any       
absolute value except will guided by the
 right4   #adf4 ,thence follows 7#a7 the

 maxim relating to the idea of ,duty1   
that we must accustom the pupil to      
unconditional obedience to it1 so that  
he shall perform it for no other reason 
than that it is duty4 ,it is true that  
the performance of a duty may bring with
 it externally a result agreeable or    
disagreeable1 useful or harmful2 but the
 consideration of such connection ought 
never to determine us4 ,this moral      
demand1 though it may appear to be      
excessive severity1 is the absolute     
foundation of all genuine ethical       
practice4 ,all highest happiness        
theories1 however finely spun they may  
be1 when taken as a guide for life1 lead
 at last to ,sophistry1 and this to     
contradictions which ruin the life4     
#adg4 7#b7 ,virtue must make actual what
 duty commands1 or1 rather1 the         
actualizing of duty is ,virtue4 ,and    
here we must say next1 then1 that the   
principal things to be considered under 
,virtue are 7a7 the dialectic of        
particular virtues1 7b7 renunciation1   

and 7c7 character4   #adh4 7a7 ,from the
 dialectic of particular virtues there  
follows the educational maxim that we   
must practise all virtues with equal    
faithfulness1 for all together          
constitute an ethical system complete in
 itself1 in which no one is indifferent 
to another4  --,morality should         
recognize no distinction of superiority 
among the different virtues4 ,they      
reciprocally determine each other4      
,there is no such thing as one virtue   
which shines out above the others1 and  
still less should we have any special   
gift for virtue4 ,the pupil must be     
taught to recognize no great and no     
small in the virtues1 for that one which
 may at first sight seem small is       
inseparably connected with that which is
 seemingly the greatest4 ,many virtues  
are attractive by reason of their       
external consequences1 as e4g4 industry 
because of success in business1 worthy  
conduct because of the respect paid to  
it1 charity because of the pleasure     

attending it2 but man should not        
practise these virtues because he enjoys
 them3 he must devote the same amount of
 self-sacrifice and of assiduity to     
those virtues which 7as ,christ said7   
are to be performed in secret4--  --,it 
is especially valuable1 in an           
educational respect1 to gain an insight1
 into the transition of which each      
virtue is empirically capable1 into a   
negative as well as into a positive     
extreme4 ,the differences between the   
extremes and the golden mean are        
differences in quality1 although they   
arrive at this difference in quality by 
means of difference in quantity4 ,kant  
has1 as is well known1 attacked the     
,aristotelian doctrine of the ethical   
,greek3 mesotes1 since he was           
considering the qualitative difference  
of the mind as differentiating          
principle2 this was correct for the     
subject with which he dealt1 but in the 
objective development we do arrive on   
the other hand at the determination of a

 quantitative limit2 e4g4 a man1 with   
the most earnest intention of doing     
right1 may be in doubt whether he has   
not1 in any task1 done more or less than
 was fitting for him4--  --,as no virtue
 can cease its demands for us1 no one   
can permit any exceptions or any        
provisional circumstances to come in the
 way of his duties4 ,our moral culture  
will always certainly manifest itself in
 very unequal phases if we1 out of      
narrowness and weakness1 neglect        
entirely one virtue while we diligently 
cultivate another4 ,if we are forced    
into such unequal action1 we are not    
responsible for the result2 but it is   
dangerous and deserves punishment if we 
voluntarily encourage it4 ,the pupil    
must be warned against a certain moral  
negligence which consists in yielding to
 certain weaknesses1 faults1 or crimes1 
a little longer and a little longer1    
because he has fixed a certain time     
after which he intends to do better4 ,up
 to that time he allows himself to be a 

loiterer in ethics4 ,perhaps he will    
assert that his companions1 his         
surroundings1 his position1 c41 must be 
changed before he can alter his internal
 conduct4 ,wherever education or        
temperament favors sentimentality1 we   
shall find birth-days1 new-year's day1  
confirmation day1 c41 selected as these 
turning points4 ,it is not to be denied 
that man proceeds in his internal life  
from epoch to epoch1 and renews himself 
in his most internal nature1 nor can we 
deny that moments like those mentioned  
are especially favorable in man to an   
effort towards self-transformation      
because they invite introspection2 but  
it is not to be endured that the youth1 
while looking forward to such a moment1 
should consciously persist in his       
evil-doing4 ,if he does1 we shall have  
as consequences that when the solemn    
moment which he has set at last arrives1
 at the stirring of the first emotion he
 perceives with terror that he has      
changed nothing in himself1 that the    

same temptations are present to him1 the
 same weakness takes possession of him1 
c4 ,in our business1 in our theoretical 
endeavors1 c41 it may certainly happen  
that1 on account of want of time1 or    
means1 or humor1 we may put off some    
work to another time2 but morality      
stands on a higher plane than these1    
because it1 as the concrete absoluteness
 of the will1 makes unceasing demand on 
the whole and undivided man4 ,in        
morality there are no vacations1 no     
interims4 ,as we in ascending a flight  
of stairs take good care not to make a  
single mis-step1 and give our conscious 
attention to every step1 so we must not 
allow any exceptions in moral affairs1  
must not appoint given times for better 
conduct1 but must await these last as   
natural crises1 and must seek to live in
 time as in ,eternity4--   #adi4 7b7    
,from ,renunciation springs the         
injunction of self-government4 ,the     
action of education on the will to form 
habits in it1 is discipline or training 

in a narrower sense4 ,renunciation      
teaches us to know the relation in which
 we in fact1 as historical persons1     
stand to the idea of the ,good4 ,from   
our empirical knowledge of ourselves we 
derive the idea of our limits2 from the 
absolute knowledge of ourselves on the  
other hand1 which presents to us the    
nature of ,freedom as our own actuality1
 we derive the conception of the        
resistless might of the genuine will for
 the good4 ,but to actualize this       
conception we must have practice4 ,this 
practice is the proper renunciation4    
,every man must devise for himself some 
special set of rules1 which shall be    
determined by his peculiarities and his 
resulting temptations4 ,these rules must
 have as their innermost essence the    
subduing of self1 the vanquishing of his
 negative arbitrariness by means of the 
universality and necessity of the will4 
--,in order to make this easy1 the youth
 may be practised in renouncing for     
himself even the arbitrariness which is 

permitted to him4 ,one often speaks of  
renunciation as if it belonged          
especially to the middle ages and to    
,catholicism2 but this is an error4     
,renunciation in its one-sided form as  
relying on works1 and for the purpose of
 mortification1 is asceticism1 and      
belongs to them2 but ,renunciation in   
general is a necessary determination of 
morals4 ,the keeping of a journal is    
said to assist in the practice of       
virtue1 but its value depends on how it 
is kept4 ,to one it may be a curse1 to  
another a blessing4 ,fichte1 ,gthe1     
,byron1 and others1 have kept journals  
and have been assisted thereby2 while   
others1 as ,lavater1 have been thwarted 
by them4 ,vain people will every evening
 record with pen and ink their          
admiration of the correct course of life
 which they have led in the day devoted 
to their pleasure4--   #aej4 7c7 ,the   
result of the practice in virtue1 or1 as
 it is commonly expressed1 of the       
individual actualization of freedom1 is 

the methodical determinateness of the   
individual will as ,character4 ,this    
conception of character is formal1 for  
it contains only the identity which is  
implied in the ruling of a will on its  
external side as constant4 ,as there are
 good1 strong and beautiful characters1 
so there are also bad1 weak1 and        
detestable ones4 ,when in ,pedagogics1  
therefore1 we speak so much of the      
building up of a character1 we mean the 
making permanent of a direction of the  
individual will towards the             
actualization of the ,good4 ,freedom    
ought to be the character of character4 
,education must therefore observe       
closely the inter-action of the factors 
which go to form character1 viz41       
7,greek3 a7 the temperament1 as the     
natural character of the man2 7,greek3  
b7 external events1 the historical      
element2 7,greek3 g7 the energy of the  
,will1 by which1 in its limits of nature
 and history1 it realizes the idea of   
the ,good in and for itself as the      

proper ethical character4 ,temperament  
determines the ,rhythm of our external  
manifestation of ourselves2 the events  
in which we live assign to us the       
ethical problem1 but the ,will in its   
sovereignty stamps its seal on the form 
given by these potentialities4          
,pedagogics aims at accustoming the     
youth to freedom1 so that he shall      
always measure his deed by the idea of  
the ,good4 ,it does not desire a formal 
independence1 which may also be called  
character1 but a real independence      
resting upon the conception of freedom  
as that which is absolutely necessary4  
,the pedagogical maxim is then3 ,be     
independent1 but be so through doing    
,good4  --,according to preconceived    
opinion1 stubbornness and obstinacy     
claim that they are the foundation of   
character4 ,but they may spring from    
weakness and indeterminateness1 on which
 account one needs to be well on his    
guard4 ,a gentle disposition1 through   
enthusiasm for the ,good1 may attain to 

quite as great a firmness of will4      
,coarseness and meanness are on no      
account to be tolerated4--   #aea4 7#c7 
,we pass from the consideration of the  
culture of character to that of         
conscience4 ,this is the relation which 
the moral agent makes between himself as
 manifestation and himself as idea4 ,it 
compares itself1 in its past or future1 
with its nature1 and judges itself      
accordingly as good or bad4 ,this       
independence of the ethical judgment is 
the soul proper of all morality1 the    
negation of all self-deception and of   
all deception through another4 ,the     
pedagogical maxim is3 ,be conscientious4
 ,be in the last instance dependent only
 upon the conception which thou thyself 
hast of the idea of the ,good6  --,the  
self-criticism prompted by conscience   
hovers over all our historical          
actuality1 and is the ground of all our 
rational progress4 ,fichte's stern words
 remain1 therefore1 eternally true3 ,he 
who has a bad character1 must absolutely

 create for himself a better one4--     
,,third ,,chapter4  ,religious ,culture4
    #aeb4 ,social culture contains the  
formal phase1 moral culture the real    
phase1 of the practical mind4           
,conscience forms the transition to     
religious culture4 ,in its apodeictic   
nature1 it is the absoluteness of       
spirit4 ,the individual discerns in the 
depths of its own consciousness the     
determinations of universality and of   
necessity to which it has to subject    
itself4 ,they appear to it as the voice 
of ,god4 ,religion makes its appearance 
as soon as the individual distinguishes 
the ,absolute from himself as personal1 
as a subject existing for itself and    
therefore for him4 ,the atheist remains 
at the stage of insight into the        
absoluteness of the logical and         
physical1 sthetic and practical         
categories4 ,he may1 therefore1 be      
perfectly moral4 ,he lacks religion1    
though he loves to characterize his     
uprightness by this name1 and to        

transfer the dogmatic determinations of 
positive religion into the ethical      
sphere4 ,it belongs to the province of  
religion that ,i demean myself towards  
the ,absolute not only as toward that   
which is my own substance1 and that in  
relation to it not ,i alone am the      
subject1 but that to me also the        
substance in itself is a personal       
subject for itself4 ,if ,i look upon    
myself as the only absolute1 ,i make    
myself devoid of spiritual essence4 ,i  
am only absolute self-consciousness1 for
 which1 because it as idea relates only 
to itself1 there remains only the       
impulse to a persistent conflict with   
every self-consciousness not identical  
with it4 ,were this the case1 such a    
self-consciousness would be only        
theoretical irony4 ,in religion ,i know 
the ,absolute as essence1 when ,i am    
known by him4 ,everything else1 myself  
included1 is finite and transitory1     
however significant it may be1 however  
relatively and momentarily the ,infinite

 may exist in it4 ,as existence even1 it
 is transitory4 ,the ,absolute1 positing
 itself1 distinguishing itself from     
itself in unity with itself1 is always  
like to itself1 and takes up all the    
unrest of the phenomenal world back     
again into its simple essence4   #aec4  
,this process of the individual spirit1 
in which it rises out of the            
multiplicity of all relations into union
 with the ,absolute as the substantial  
subject1 and in which nature and history
 are united1 we may call1 in a          
restricted sense1 a change of heart     
,gemuth4 ,in a wider sense of the word  
we give this name to a certain          
sentimental cheerfulness                
7light-heartedness71 a sense of         
comfort--of little significance4 ,the   
highest emotions of the heart culminate 
in religion1 whose warmth is inspired by
 practical activity and                 
conscientiousness4   #aed4 ,education   
has to fit man for religion4 7#a7 ,it   
gives him the conception of it2 7#b7 it 

endeavors to have this conception       
actualized in him2 7#c7 it subordinates 
the theoretical and practical process in
 fashioning him to a determinate        
stand-point of religious culture4  --,in
 the working out or detailed treatment  
of ,pedagogics1 the position which the  
conception of religion occupies is very 
uncertain4 ,many writers on ,education  
place it at the beginning1 while others 
reserve it for the end4 ,others navely  
bring it forward in the midst of        
heterogeneous surroundings1 but know how
 to say very little concerning it1 and  
urge teachers to kindle the fire of     
religious feeling in their pupils by    
teaching them to fear ,god4 ,through all
 their writing1 we hear the cry that in 
,education nothing is so important as   
,religion4 ,rightly understood1 this    
saying is quite true4 ,the religious    
spirit1 the consciousness of the        
,absolute1 and the reverence for it1    
should permeate all4 ,not unfrequently1 
however1 we find that what is meant by  

religion is theology1 or the church     
ceremonial1 and these are only one-sided
 phases of the total religious process4 
,the ,anglican ,high-,church presents in
 the colleges and universities of       
,england a sad example of this error4   
,what can be more deadening to the      
spirit1 more foreign to religion1 than  
the morning and evening prayers as they 
are carried on at ,oxford and ,cambridge
 with machine-like regularity6 ,but also
 to ,england belongs the credit of the  
sad fact1 that1 according to ,kohl's    
report1 there live in ,manchester1      
,liverpool1 ,birmingham1 and ,london1   
thousands of men who have never enjoyed 
any teaching in religion1 have never    
been baptized1 who live absolutely      
without religion in brutal stupidity4   
,religion must form the culminating     
point of ,education4 ,it takes up into  
itself the didactical and practical     
elements1 and rises through the force of
 its content to universality4--   ,i4   
,the ,theoretical ,process of ,religious

 ,culture4   #aee4 ,religion1 in common 
with every content of the spirit1 must  
pass through three stages of feeling1   
conception1 and comprehension4 ,whatever
 may be the special character of any    
religion it cannot avoid this           
psychological necessity1 either in its  
general history or in the history of the
 individual consciousness4 ,the teacher 
must understand this process1 partly in 
order that he may make it easier to the 
youth1 partly that he may guard against 
the malformation of the religious       
feeling which may arise through the fact
 of the youth's remaining in one stage  
after he is ready for another and needs 
it4 ,pedagogics must therefore lay out  
beforehand the philosophy of religion1  
on which alone can be found the complete
 discussion of this idea4   #aef4 7#a7  
,religion exists first as religious     
feeling4 ,the person is still           
immediately identical with the ,divine1 
does not yet distinguish himself from   
the absoluteness of his being1 and is in

 so far determined by it4 ,in so far as 
he feels the divine1 he is a mystery to 
himself4 ,this beginning is necessary4  
,religion cannot be produced in men from
 the external side2 its genesis belongs 
rather to the primitive depths in which 
,god himself and the individual soul are
 essentially one4  --,the educator must 
not allow himself to suppose that he is 
able to make a religion4 ,religion      
dwells originally in every individual   
soul1 for every one is born of ,god4    
,education can only aid the religious   
feeling in its development4 ,as far as  
regards the psychological form1 it was  
quite correct for ,schleiermacher and   
his followers to characterize the       
absoluteness of the religious feeling as
 the feeling of dependence1 for feeling 
is determined by that which it feels2 it
 depends upon its content4 ,but in so   
far as ,god constitutes the content of  
the feeling1 there appears the opposite 
of all dependence or absolute           
emancipation4 ,i maintain this in       

opposition to ,schleiermacher4 ,religion
 lifts man above the finite1 temporal   
and transitory1 and frees him from the  
control of the phenomenal world4 ,even  
the lowest form of religion does this2  
and when it is said that ,schleiermacher
 has been unjustly criticized for this  
expression of dependence1 this          
distinction is overlooked4--   #aeg4    
,but religious feeling as such rises    
into something higher when the spirit   
distinguishes the content of this       
religious feeling from any other content
 which it also feels1 represents it     
clearly to itself1 and places itself    
over against it formally as a free      
individual4  --,but we must not         
understand that the religious feeling is
 destroyed in this process2 in rising to
 the form of distinct representation1 it
 remains at the same time as a necessary
 form of the ,intelligence4--   #aeh4   
,if the spirit is held back and         
prevented from passing out of the       
simplicity of feeling into the act of   

distinguishing the perception from what 
it becomes1 the conception--if its      
efforts towards the forming of this     
conception are continually re-dissolved 
into feeling1 then feeling1 which was as
 the first step perfectly healthy and   
correct1 will become morbid and         
degenerate into a wretched mysticism4   
,education must1 therefore1 make sure   
that this feeling is not destroyed by   
the progress of its content into        
perception and conception on the side of
 psychological form1 but rather that it 
attains truth thereby4   #aei4 7#b7     
,conception as the ideally transformed  
perception dissects the religious       
content on its different sides1 and     
follows each of these to its            
consequence4 ,imagination controls the  
individual conceptions1 but by no means 
with that absoluteness which is often   
supposed2 for each picture has in itself
 its logical consequence to which       
imagination must yield2 e4g4 if a       
religion represents ,god as an animal1  

or as half animal and half man1 or as   
man1 each of these conceptions has in   
its development its consequences for the
 imagination4   #afj4 ,we rise out of   
the stage of ,conception when the spirit
 tries to determine the universality of 
its content according to its necessity1 
i4e4 when it begins to think4 ,the      
necessity of its pictures is a mere     
presupposition for the imagination4 ,the
 thinking activity1 however1 recognizes 
not only the contradiction which exists 
between the sensuous1 limited form of   
the individual conception1 and the      
absolute nature of its content1 but also
 the contradiction in which the         
conceptions find themselves with respect
 to each other4   #afa4 ,if the spirit  
is prevented from passing out of the    
varied pictures of conception to the    
supersensuous clearness and simplicity  
of the thinking activity--if the content
 which it already begins to seize as    
idea is again dissolved into the        
confusion of the picture-world1 then the

 religion of imagination1 which was a   
perfectly proper form as the second     
step1 becomes perverted into some form  
of idolatry1 either coarse or refined4  
,education must therefore not oppose the
 thinking activity if the latter        
undertakes to criticize religious       
conceptions2 on the contrary1 it must   
guide this so that the discovery of the 
contradictions which unavoidably adhere 
to sensuous form shall not mislead the  
youth into the folly of throwing away1  
with the relative untruth of the form1  
also the religious content in general4  
--,it is an error for educators to      
desire to keep the imagination apart    
from religious feeling1 but it is also  
an error to detain the mind1 which is on
 its formal side the activity of        
knowing1 in the stage of imagination1   
and to desire to condemn it thence into 
the service of canonical allegories4    
,the more1 in opposition to this1 it is 
possessed with the charm of thinking1   
the more is it in danger of condemning  

the content of religion itself as a mere
 fictitious conception4 ,as a           
transition-stage the religion of        
imagination is perfectly normal1 and it 
does not in the least impair freedom if1
 for example1 one has personified evil  
as a living ,devil4 ,the error does not 
lie in this1 but in the making absolute 
these determinate1 sthetic forms of     
religion4 ,the reaction of the thinking 
activity against such sthetic absolutism
 then undertakes in its negative        
absolutism to despise the content also1 
as if it were a mere conception4--      
#afb4 7#c7 ,in the thinking activity the
 spirit attains that form of the        
religious content which is identical    
with that of its simple consciousness1  
and above which there is no other for   
the intelligence as theoretical4 ,but we
 distinguish three varieties in this    
thinking activity3 the abstract1 the    
reflective1 and the speculative4 ,the   
,abstract gives us the religious content
 of consciousness in the form of        

abstractions or dogmas1 i4e4            
propositions which set up a definition  
as a universal1 and add to it another as
 the reason for its necessity4 ,the     
,reflective stage busies itself with the
 relation of dogmas to each other1 and  
with the search for the grounds on which
 their necessity must rest4 ,it is      
essentially critical1 and hence         
skeptical4 ,the explanation of the      
dogmas1 which is carried on in this     
process of reasoning and skeptical      
investigation1 is completed alone in    
speculative thinking1 which recognizes  
the free unity of the content and its   
form as its own proper                  
self-determination of the content1      
creating its own differences4 ,education
 must know this stage of the            
intelligence1 partly that it may in     
advance preserve1 in the midst of its   
changes1 that repose which it brings    
into the consciousness2 partly that it  
may be able to lead to the process of   
change itself1 in accordance with the   

organic connection of its phases4 ,we   
should prevent the criticism of the     
abstract understanding by the reflective
 stage as little as we should that of   
the imagination by the thinking         
activity4 ,but the stage of reflection  
is not the last possibility of the      
thinking activity1 although1 in the     
variety of its skepticism it often takes
 itself for such1 and1 with the         
emptiness of mere negation to which it  
holds1 often brings itself forward into 
undesirable prominence4 ,it becomes     
evident1 in this view1 how very         
necessary for man1 with respect to      
religion1 is a genuine philosophical    
culture1 so that he may not lose the    
certainty of the existence of the       
,absolute in the midst of the obstinacy 
of dogmas and the changes of opinions4  
#afc4 ,education must then not fear the 
descent into dogmatic abstraction1 since
 this is an indispensable means for     
theoretical culture in its totality1 and
 the consciousness cannot dispense with 

it in its history4 ,but ,education has1 
in the concrete1 carefully to discern in
 which of these stages of culture any   
particular consciousness may be4 ,for if
 for mankind as a race the fostering of 
philosophy is absolutely necessary1 it  
by no means follows that this necessity 
exists for each individual4 ,to         
children1 to women1 e4g4 for all kinds  
of simple and limited lives1 the form of
 the religion of the imagination is well
 suited1 and the form of comprehension  
can come only relatively to them4       
,education must not1 then1 desire       
powerfully and prematurely to develop   
the thinking activity before the        
intelligence is really fully grown4     
--,the superficial thinking which many  
teachers demand in the sphere of        
religion is no less impractical than the
 want of all guidance into rightly      
ordered meditations on religious        
subjects4 ,it is natural that the lower 
form of intelligence should1 in contrast
 with the higher1 appear to be          

frivolous1 because it has no need of    
change of form as the higher has1 and on
 this account it looks upon the         
destruction of the form of a picture or 
a dogma as the destruction of religion  
itself4 ,in our time the idea is very   
prevalent that the content itself must  
change with the changing of the         
psychological form1 and that therefore a
 religion in the stage of feeling1 of   
conception1 and of comprehension1 can no
 longer be the same in its essence4     
,these suppositions1 which are so       
popular1 and are considered to be high  
philosophy1 spring from the             
superficiality of psychological         
inquiry4--   #afd4 ,the theoretical     
culture of the religious feeling        
endeavors therefore with the freedom of 
philosophical criticism to elevate the  
presupposition of ,reason in the        
religious content to self-assured       
insight by means of the proof of the    
necessity of its determinations4 ,this  
is the only reasonable pedagogical way  

not only to prevent the degeneration of 
the religious consciousness into a      
miserable mysticism or into frivolity1  
but also to remove these if they are    
already existent4  --,external seclusion
 avails nothing4 ,the crises of the     
world-historical changes in the         
religious consciousness find their way  
through the thickest cloister walls2 the
 philosopher ,reinhold was a pupil of   
the ,jesuits1 the philosopher ,schad of 
the ,benedictines4--   ,,ii4 ,the       
,practical ,process of ,religious       
,culture4   #afe4 ,the theoretical      
culture is truly practical1 for it gives
 man definite conceptions and thoughts  
of the ,divine and his relation to him4 
,but in a narrower sense that culture is
 practical which relates to the ,will as
 such4 ,education has in this respect to
 distinguish 7#a7                       
consecration--religious feeling in      
general1--7#b7 the induction of the     
youth into the forms of a positive      
religion1 and 7#c7 his reconciliation   

with his lot4   #aff4 7#a7 ,religious   
feeling presupposes morality as an      
indispensable condition without which it
 cannot inculcate its ideas4 ,but if man
 from a merely moral stand-point places 
himself in relation to the idea of ,duty
 as such1 the ethical religious         
stand-point differs from it in this1    
that it places the necessity of the     
,good as the self-determination of the  
divine ,will and thus makes of practice 
a personal relation to ,god1 changing   
the ,good to the ,holy and the ,evil to 
,sin4 ,education must therefore first   
accustom the youth to the idea1 that in 
doing the ,good he unites himself with  
,god as with the absolute ,person1 but  
that in doing ,evil he separates himself
 from him4 ,the feeling that he through 
his deed comes into contact with ,god   
himself1 positively or negatively1      
deepens the moral conduct to an intense 
sensibility of the heart4   #afg4 7#b7  
,the religious sense which grows in the 
child that he has an uninterrupted      

personal relation to the ,absolute as a 
person1 constitutes the beginning of the
 practical forming of religion4 ,the    
second step is the induction of the     
child into the objective forms of       
worship established in some positive    
religion4 ,through religious training   
the child learns to renounce his        
egotism2 through attendance on religious
 services he learns to give expression  
to his religious feeling in prayer1 in  
the use of symbols1 and in church       
festivals4 ,education must1 however1    
endeavor to retain freedom with regard  
to these forms1 so that they shall not  
be confounded with ,religion itself4    
,religion displays itself in these      
ceremonies1 but they as mere forms are  
of value only in so far as they1 while  
externalities1 are manifestations of the
 spirit which produces them4  --,if the 
mechanism of ceremonial forms is taken  
as religion itself1 the service of ,god 
degenerates into the false service of   
religion1 as ,kant has designated it in 

,religion within the ,limits of ,pure   
,reason4 ,nothing is more destructive to
 the sensibility to all real religious  
culture than the want of earnestness    
with which prayers1 readings from the   
,bible1 attendance on church1 the       
communion1 c41 are often practised by   
teachers4 ,but one must not conclude    
from this extreme that an ignorance of  
all sacred forms in general would be    
more desirable for the child4--   #afh4 
7#c7 ,it is possible that a man on the  
stand-point of ecclesiastical religious 
observances may be fully contented2 he  
may be fully occupied in them1 and      
perfect his life thereby in perfect     
content4 ,but by far the greater number 
of men will see themselves forced to    
experience the truth of religion in the 
hard vicissitudes of their lot1 since   
they carry on some business1 and with   
that business create for themselves a   
past whose consequences condition their 
future4 ,they limit themselves through  
their deeds1 whose involuntary-voluntary

 authors they become2 involuntary in so 
far as they are challenged to the deeds 
from the totality of events1 voluntary  
in so far as they undertake them and    
bring about an actual change in the     
world4 ,the history of the individual   
man appears therefore on the one hand1  
if we consider its material1 as the work
 of circumstances2 but on the other     
hand1 if we reflect on the form1 as the 
act of a self-determining actor4 ,want  
of freedom 7the being determined through
 the given situation7 and freedom 7the  
determination to the act7 are united in 
actual life as something which is       
exactly so1 and cannot become anything  
else as final4 ,the essence of the      
spiritual being stands always over      
against this unavoidable limitation as  
that which is in itself infinite1 which 
is beyond all history1 because the      
absolute spirit1 in and for itself1 has 
no history4 ,that which one calls his   
history is only the manifesting of      
himself1 and his everlasting return out 

of this manifestation into himself an   
act which in absolute spirit coincides  
with the transcending of all            
manifestation4 ,from the nature which   
belongs to him there arises for the     
individual spirit the impulse towards a 
holy life1 i4e4 the being freed from his
 history even in the midst of its       
process4 ,he gratifies this impulse     
negatively through the considering of   
what has happened as past and gone1 as  
that which lives now only ideally in the
 recollection2 and positively through   
the positing of a new actual existence  
in which he strives to realize the idea 
of freedom which constitutes his        
necessity1 as purer and higher than     
before4 ,this constant new-birth out of 
the grave of the past to the life of a  
more beautiful future is the genuine    
reconciliation with destiny4 ,the false 
reconciliation may assume different     
forms4 ,it may abstain from all action  
because man through this limits himself 
and becomes responsible4 ,this is to    

despair of freedom1 which condemns the  
spirit to the loss of itself since its  
nature demands activity4 ,the abstract  
quietism of the ,indian penitents1 of   
the ,buddhists1 of the fanatical        
ascetics1 of the ,protestant recluses1  
c41 is an error of this kind4 ,the man  
may become indifferent about the ethical
 determinateness of his deeds4 ,in this 
case he acts2 but because he has no     
faith in the necessary connection of his
 deeds through the means of freedom1 a  
connection which he would willingly     
ascribe to mere chance1 he loses his    
spiritual essence4 ,this is the error of
 indifference and of its frivolity1     
which denies the open mystery of the    
ruling of destiny4 ,education must      
therefore imbue man with respect for    
external movements of history and with  
confidence in the inexhaustibleness of  
the progressive human spirit1 since only
 by producing better things can he      
affirmatively elevate himself above his 
past4 ,this active acknowledgment of the

 necessity of freedom as the determining
 principle of destiny gives the highest 
satisfaction to which practical         
religious feeling may arrive1 for       
blessedness develops itself in it--that 
blessedness which does not know that it 
is circumscribed by finitude and        
transitoriness1 and which possesses the 
immortal courage to strive always anew  
for perfection with free resignation at 
its non-realization1 so that happiness  
and misery1 pleasure and pain1 are      
conquered by the power of disinterested 
self-sacrifice4  --,the escape from     
action in an artificial absence of all  
events in life1 which often sinks to a  
veritable brutalizing of man1 is the    
distinguishing feature of all monkish   
pedagogics4 ,in our time there is       
especial need of a reconciliation       
between man and destiny1 for all the    
world is discontented4 ,the worst form  
of discontent is when one is1 as the    
,french say1 blas2 though the word is   
not1 as many fancy1 derived originally  

from the ,french1 but from the ,greek   
,greek3 blazein1 to wither4 ,it is true 
that all culture passes through phases1 
each of which becomes momentarily and   
relatively wearisome1 and that in so far
 one may be blas in any age4 ,but in    
modern times this state of feeling has  
increased to that of thorough           
disgust--disgust which nevertheless at  
the same time demands enjoyment4 ,the   
one who is blas has enjoyed everything1 
felt everything1 mocked at everything4  
,he has passed from the enjoyment of    
pleasure to sentimentality1 i4e4 to     
rioting in feeling2 from sentimentality 
to irony with regard to feeling1 and    
from this to the torment of feeling his 
entire weakness and emptiness as opposed
 to these4 ,he ridicules this also1 as  
if it were a consolation to him to fling
 away the universe like a squeezed      
lemon1 and to be able to assert that in 
pure nothingness lies the truth of all  
things4 ,and yet nevertheless this irony
 furnishes the point on which ,education

 can fasten1 in order to kindle anew in 
him the religious feeling1 and to lead  
him back to a loving recognition of     
actuality1 to a respect for his own     
history4 ,the greatest difficulty which 
,education has to encounter here is the 
coquetry1 the miserable eminence and    
self-satisfaction which have undermined 
the man and made him incapable of all   
simple and natural enjoyment4 ,it is not
 too much to assert that many pupils of 
our ,gymnasia are affected with this    
malady4 ,our literature is full of its  
products4 ,it inveighs against its      
dissipation1 and nevertheless at the    
same time cannot resist a certain kind  
of pleasure in it4 ,diabolical          
sentimentality6--   ,,iii4 ,the         
,absolute ,process of ,religious        
,culture4   #afi4 ,in comparing the     
stages of the theoretical and practical 
culture of the religious feeling their  
internal correspondence appears4        
,feeling1 as immediate knowledge1 and   
the consecration of the sense by means  

of piety2 imagination with all its      
images1 and the church services with    
their ceremonial observances2 finally1  
the comprehending of religion as the    
reconciliation with destiny1 as the     
internal emancipation from the dominion 
of external events--all these correspond
 to each other4 ,if we seize this       
parallelism all together1 we have the   
progress which religion must make in its
 historical process1 in which it 7#a7   
begins as natural2 7#b7 goes on to      
historical precision1 and 7#c7 elevates 
this to a rational faith4 ,these stages 
await every man in as far as he lives   
through a complete religious culture1   
but this may be for the individual a    
question of chance4   #agj4 7#a7 ,a     
child has as yet no definite religious  
feeling4 ,he is still only a possibility
 capable of manifold determinations4    
,but1 since he is a spirit1 the essence 
of religion is active in him1 though as 
yet in an unconscious form4 ,the        
substance of spirit attests its presence

 in every individual1 through his       
mysterious impulse toward the absolute  
and towards intercourse with ,god4 ,this
 is the initiatory stage of natural     
religion1 which must not be confounded  
with the religion which makes nature the
 object of worship 7fetichism1 c47      
#aga4 7#b7 ,but while the child lives   
into this in his internal life1 he comes
 in contact with definite forms of      
religion1 and will naturally1 through   
the mediation of the family1 be         
introduced to some one of them4 ,his    
religious feeling takes now a particular
 direction1 and he accepts religion in  
one of its historical forms4 ,this      
positive religion meets the precise want
 of the child1 because it brings into   
his consciousness1 by means of teaching 
and sacred rites1 the principal elements
 which are found in the nature of       
religion4   #agb4 7#c7 ,in              
contradistinction to the natural basis  
of religious feeling1 all historical    
religions rest on the authoritative     

basis of revelation from ,god to man4   
,they address themselves to the         
imagination1 and offer a system of      
objective forms of worship and          
ceremonies4 ,but spirit1 as eternal1 as 
self-identical1 cannot forbear as       
thinking activity to subject the        
traditional religion to criticism and to
 compare it as a phenomenal existence4  
,from this criticism arises a religion  
which satisfies the demands of the      
reason1 and which1 by means of insight  
into the necessity of the historical    
process1 leads to the exercise of a     
genuine toleration towards its          
many-sided forms4 ,this religion        
mediates between the unity of the       
thinking consciousness and the religious
 content1 while this content1 in the    
history of religious feeling1 appears   
theoretically as dogma1 and practically 
as the command of an absolute and       
incomprehensible authority4 ,it is just 
as simple as the unsophisticated natural
 religious feeling1 but its simplicity  

is at the same time master of itself4   
,it is just as specific in its          
determinations as the historical        
religion1 but its determinateness is at 
the same time universal1 since it is    
worked out by the thinking reason4      
#agc4 ,education must superintend the   
development of the religious            
consciousness towards an insight into   
the necessary consequence of its        
different stages4 ,nothing is more      
absurd than for the educator to desire  
to avoid the introduction of a positive 
religion1 or a definite creed1 as a     
middle stage between the natural        
beginning of religious feeling and its  
end in philosophical culture4 ,only when
 a man has lived through the entire     
range of one-sided phases--through the  
crudeness of such a concrete            
individualizing of religion1 and has    
come to recognize the universal nature  
of religion in a special form of it     
which excludes other forms--only when   
the spirit of a congregation has taken  

him into its number1 is he ripe to      
criticize religion in a conciliatory    
spirit1 because he has then gained a    
religious character through that        
historical experience4 ,the             
self-comprehending universality must    
have such a solid basis as this in the  
life of the man2 it can never form the  
beginning of one's culture1 but it may  
constitute the end which turns back     
again to the beginning4 ,most men remain
 at the historical stand-point4 ,the    
religion of reason1 as that of the      
minority1 constitutes in the different  
religions the invisible church1 which   
seeks by progressive reform to purify   
these religions from superstition and   
unbelief4 ,it is the duty of the state1 
by making all churches equal in the     
sight of the law1 to guard religion from
 the temptation of impure motives1 and1 
through the granting of such freedom to 
religious individuality1 to help forward
 the unity of a rational insight into   
religion which is distinct from the     

religious feeling only in its form1 not 
in its content4 ,not a philosopher1 but 
,jesus of ,nazareth freed the world from
 all selfishness and all bondage4       
#agd4 ,with this highest theoretical and
 practical emancipation1 the general    
work of education ends4 ,it remains now 
to be shown how the general idea of     
,education shapes its special elements  
into their appropriate forms4 ,from the 
nature of ,pedagogics1 which concerns   
itself with man in his entirety1 this   
exposition belongs partly to the history
 of culture in general1 partly to the   
history of religion1 partly to the      
philosophy of history4 ,the pedagogical 
element in it always lies in the ideal  
which the spirit of a nation or of an   
age creates out of itself1 and which it 
seeks to realize in its youth4          
,,third ,,part4  ,particular ,systems of
 ,education4    #age4 ,the definite     
actuality of ,education originates in   
the fact that its general idea is       
individualized1 according to its special

 elements1 in a specific statement which
 we call a pedagogical principle4 ,the  
number of these principles is not       
unlimited1 but from the idea of         
,education contains only a certain      
number4 ,if we derive them therefore1 we
 derive at the same time the history of 
,pedagogics1 which can from its very    
nature do nothing else than make actual 
in itself the possibilities involved in 
the idea of ,education4 ,such a         
derivation may be called an  priori     
construction of history1 but it is      
different from what is generally denoted
 by this term in not pretending to      
deduce single events and characters4    
,all empirical details are confirmation 
or illustration for it1 but it does not 
attempt to seek this empirical element  
priori4  --,the history of ,pedagogics  
is still in the stage of infancy4 ,at   
one time it is taken up into the sphere 
of ,politics2 at another1 into that of  
the history of ,culture4 ,the           
productions of some of the most         

distinguished writers on the subject are
 now antiquated4 ,cramer of ,stralsund  
made1 in #ahcb1 an excellent beginning  
in a comprehensive and thorough history 
of ,pedagogy2 but in the beginning of   
his second part he dwelt too long upon  
the ,greeks1 and lost himself in too    
wide an exposition of practical         
,philosophy in general4 ,alexander ,kapp
 has given us excellent treatises on the
 ,pedagogics of ,aristotle and ,plato4  
,but with regard to modern ,pedagogics  
we have relatively very little4 ,karl v4
 ,raumer1 in #ahdc1 began to publish a  
history of ,pedagogics since the time of
 the revival of classical studies1 and  
has accomplished much of value on the   
biographical side4 ,but the idea of the 
general connection and dependence of the
 several manifestations has not received
 much attention1 and since the time of  
,pestalozzi books have assumed the      
character of biographical confessions4  
,strmpell1 in #ahdc1 developed the      
,pedagogics of ,kant1 ,fichte1 and      

,herbart4--  ,sidenote3 ,particular     
,systems of ,education4   #agf4 ,man is 
educated by man for humanity4 ,this is  
the fundamental idea of all ,pedagogics4
 ,but in the shaping of ,pedagogics we  
cannot begin with the idea of humanity  
as such1 but only with the natural form 
in which it primarily manifests         
itself--that of the nation4 ,but the    
naturalness of this principle disappears
 in its development1 since nations      
appear in interaction on each other and 
begin dimly to perceive their unity of  
species4 ,the freedom of spirit over    
nature makes its appearance1 but to the 
spirit explicitly in the transcendent   
form of abstract theistic religion1 in  
which ,god appears as the ruler over    
,nature as merely dependent2 and ,his   
chosen people plant the root of their   
nationality no longer in the earth1 but 
in this belief4 ,the unity of the       
abstractly natural and abstractly       
spiritual determinateness is the        
concrete unity of the spirit with       

nature1 in which it recognizes nature as
 its necessary organ1 and itself as in  
its nature divine4 ,spirit in this      
stage1 as the internal presupposition of
 the two previously named1 takes up into
 itself on one hand the phase of        
nationality1 since this is the form of  
its immediate individualization2 but it 
no longer distinguishes between nations 
as if they were abstractly severed the  
one from the other1 as the ,greeks shut 
out all other nations under the name of 
barbarians4 ,it also takes up into      
itself the phase of spirituality1 since 
it knows itself as spirit1 and knows    
itself to be free from nature1 and yet  
it does not estrange itself as the ,jews
 did in their representation of pure    
spirit1 in reference to which nature    
seems to be only the work of its        
caprice4 ,humanity knows nature as its  
own1 because it knows the ,divine spirit
 and its creative energy manifesting    
itself in nature and history1 as also   
the essence of its own spirit4          

,education can be complete only with    
,christianity as the religion of        
humanity4   #agg4 ,we have thus three   
different systems of religion--7#a7 the 
,national2 7#b7 the ,theocratic2 and    
7#c7 the ,humanitarian4 ,the first works
 in harmony with nature since it        
educates the individual as a type of his
 species4 ,the original nationality     
endeavors sharply to distinguish itself 
from others1 and to impress on each     
person the stamp of its uniform type4   
,one individual is like every other1 or 
at least should be so4 ,the second      
system in its manner of manifestation is
 identical with the first4 ,it even     
marks the national difference more      
emphatically2 but the ground of the     
uniformity of the individuals is with it
 not merely the natural common interest1
 but it is the consequence of the       
spiritual unity1 which abstracts from   
nature1 and as history1 satisfied with  
no present1 hovers continually outside  
of itself between past and future4 ,the 

theocratic system educates the          
individual as the servant of ,god4 ,he  
is the true ,jew only in so far as he is
 this2 the genealogical identity with   
the father ,abraham is a condition but  
not the principle of the nationality4   
,the third system liberates the         
individual to the enjoyment of freedom  
as his essence1 and educates the human  
being within national limits which no   
longer separate but unite1 and1 in the  
consciousness that each individual1     
without any kind of mediation1 has a    
direct relation to ,god1 makes of him a 
man who knows himself to be a member of 
the spiritual world of humanity4 ,we can
 have no fourth system beyond this4     
,from the side of the ,state-,pedagogics
 we might characterize these systems as 
that of the nation-,state1 the          
,god-,state1 and the humanity-,state4   
,from the time of the establishment of  
the last1 no one nation can attain to   
any sovereignty over the others4 ,by    
means of the world-religion of          

,christianity1 the education of nations 
has come to the point of taking for its 
ideal1 man as determining himself       
according to the demands of reason4     
,,first ,,division4  ,,the ,,system ,,of
 ,,national ,,education4   #agh4 ,the   
,national is the primitive system of    
education1 since the family is the      
organic starting-point of all education1
 and is in its enlargement the basis of 
nationality4  --,education is always    
education of the mind4 ,even unorganized
 nations1 those in a state of nature1   
the so-called savage nations1 are       
possessed of something more than a mere 
education of the body2 for1 though they 
set much value upon gymnastic and       
warlike practice and give much time to  
them1 they inculcate also respect for   
parents1 for the aged1 and for the      
decrees of the community4 ,education    
with them is essentially family         
training1 and its content is natural    
love and reverence4 ,we cannot deny that
 the finer forms of those to which we   

are accustomed are wanting4 ,besides1   
education among all these people of     
nature is very simple and much the same1
 though great differences in its        
management may exist arising from       
differences of situation or from        
temperament of race4--   #agi4 ,national
 ,education is divided into three       
special systems3 7#a7 ,passive1 7#b7    
,active1 7#c7 ,individual4 ,it begins   
with the humility of an abstract        
subjection to nature1 and ends with the 
arrogance of an abstract rejection of   
nature4   #ahj4 ,man yields at first to 
the natural authority of the family2 he 
obeys unconditionally its behests4 ,then
 he substitutes for the family1 as he   
goes on his culture1 the artificial     
family of his caste1 to whose rules he  
again unconditionally yields4 ,to       
dispense with this artificialty and this
 tyranny1 at last he abstracts himself  
from the family and from culture4 ,he   
flees from both1 and becoming a monk he 
again subjects himself to the tyranny of

 his order4 ,the monks presents to us   
the mere type of his species4   #aha4   
,this absolute abstraction from nature  
and from culture1 this quietism of      
spiritual isolation1 is the ultimate    
result of the ,passive system4 ,in      
opposition to this1 the ,active system  
seeks the positive vanquishing of       
naturalness4 ,its people are courageous4
 ,they attack other nations in order to 
rule over them as conquerors4 ,they live
 for the continuation of their life     
after death1 and build for themselves on
 this account tombs of granite4 ,they   
brave the dangers of the sea4 ,the      
abstract prose of the patriarchal-state1
 the fantastic chimeras of the          
caste-state1 the ascetic                
self-renunciation of the cloister-state1
 yield gradually to the recognition of  
actuality2 and the fundamental principle
 of ,persian education consisted in the 
inculcation of veracity4   #ahb4 ,but   
the nationality which is occupied with  
simple1 natural elements--other nations1

 death1 the mystery of the ocean--may   
revert to the abstractions of the       
previous stage1 which in education often
 take on cruel forms--nay1 often truly  
horrible4 ,first1 when the spirit begins
 not only to suspect its true nature1   
but rather to recognize itself as the   
true essence2 and when the ,god of      
,light places as the motto on his temple
 the command to self-knowledge1 the     
natural individuality becomes free4     
,neither the passive nor the active     
system understands the free             
self-distinction of the individual from 
the rest4 ,in them1 to be an            
individuality is a betrayal of the very 
idea of their existence1 and even the   
suspicion of such a charge suffices     
utterly and mercilessly to destroy the  
one to whom it refers4 ,even the        
solitary individuality of the despot is 
not the one-ness of free individuality3 
he is only an example of his kind2 only 
in his kind is he singular4 ,nationality
 rises to individuality through the free

 dialectic of its race1 wherein it      
dissolves its own presupposition4       
#ahc4 ,nevertheless individuality must  
always proceed from naturalness4        
,esthetically it seeks nature1 but the  
nature of the activity itself1 in order1
 by penetrating it with mind1 to make of
 it a work of art2 practically it seeks 
it1 partly to disdain it in gloomy      
resignation1 partly to enjoy it in      
excessive sensual ecstasy1 demoniacally 
to heighten the extravagance of its own 
internal feeling in wild revels4  --,the
 ,germans were not savage in the common 
signification of this term4 ,they were  
men each one of whom constituted himself
 willingly a centre for others1 or1 if  
this was not the case1 renounced them in
 proud self-sufficiency4 ,all the glory 
and all the disgrace of our race lies in
 the power of individualizing which is  
divinely breathed into our veins4 ,as a 
natural element1 if this be not         
controlled1 it degenerates easily into  
intractableness1 into violence4 ,the    

,germans need therefore1 in order to be 
educated1 severe service1 the imposition
 of difficult tasks2 and for this reason
 they appropriate to themselves1 now the
 ,roman law1 now the ,greek philology1  
now ,gallic usages1 c41 in order to work
 off their superfluous strength in such 
opposition4 ,the natural reserve of the 
,german found its solvent in            
,christianity4 ,by itself1 as the       
history of the ,german race shows1 it   
would have been destroyed in vain       
distraction4 ,first of all1 the ,german 
race1 in the confidence of its immediate
 consciousness1 ventured forth upon the 
sea1 and managed the ship upon its waves
 as if they rode a charger4--   ,,first 
,,group4  ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,passive 
,,education4   #ahd4 ,all education     
desires to free man from his finitude1  
to make him ethical1 to unite him with  
,god4 ,it begins therefore with a       
negative relation to naturalness1 but at
 once falls into a contradiction of its 
aim1 which is to convert the opposition 

to nature into a natural necessity4     
,spirit subjects the individual 7#a7 to 
the rule of the family as naturally     
spiritual2 7#b7 to the rule of the caste
 as to a principle in itself spiritual1 
mediated through the division of labor1 
which it nevertheless1 through its power
 of being inherited1 joins again to the 
family2 7#c7 to the abstract            
self-determination of the monkish       
quietism1 which turns itself away as    
well from the family as from work1 and  
constitutes this flight from nature and 
history1 this absolute passivity1 into  
an educational ideal4  --,we shall not  
here enter into the details of this     
system1 but simply endeavor to remove   
from their differences the want of      
clearness which is generally found      
involved in any mention of them1 so that
 the phrases of hierarchical and        
theocratical education are used without 
any historical accuracy4--   ,i4 ,family
 ,education4   #ahe4 ,the ,family1 as   
the organic starting-point of all       

education1 makes the beginning4 ,the    
nation looks upon itself as a family4   
,among all unorganized people education 
is family-education1 though they are not
 conscious of its necessity4 ,identical 
in principle with these people1 but     
distinguished from them in its          
consciousness of it1 the ,chinese       
nation1 in their laws1 regulations1 and 
customs1 have constituted the family the
 absolute basis of their life and the   
only principle of their education4      
#ahf4 ,the natural element of the family
 is found in marriage and relationship2 
the spiritual1 in love4 ,we may call the
 nature of family feeling which is the  
immediate unity of both elements1 by the
 name of ,piety4 ,in so far as this     
appears not merely as a substantial     
feeling but at the same time as law1    
there arises from it the subordination  
of the abstract obedience of the woman  
as wife to the husband1 of children to  
the parents1 of the younger children to 
the elder4 ,in this obedience man first 

renounces his self-will and his natural 
roughness2 he learns to master his      
passions1 and to conduct himself with   
deferential gentleness4  --,when the    
principle ruling the family is          
transferred to political relations1     
there arises the tyranny of the ,chinese
 state1 which cannot be fully treated   
here4 ,we find everywhere in it an      
analogical relation to that of parents  
and children4 ,in ,china the ruler is   
the father and mother of the country2   
the civil officers are representatives  
of a paternal authority1 c4 ,it follows 
that in school the children will be     
ranked according to their age4 ,the     
authority of parents over children is   
according to the principle entirely     
unconditional1 but in actuality very    
mild4 ,the abandonment of daughters by  
the poorest classes in the great cities 
is not objected to1 for the government  
rears the children in orphan asylums1   
where they are cared for by nurses      
appointed by the state4--   #ahg4 ,the  

distinction of these relations which are
 conditioned by nature takes on the     
external shape of a definite ceremonial1
 the learning of which is a chief       
element of education4 ,in conformity    
with the naturalness of the whole       
principle all crimes against it are     
punished by whipping1 which does not    
necessarily entail dishonor4 ,in order  
to lead man to the mastery of himself   
and to obedience to those who are       
naturally set over him1 education       
develops an endless number of           
fragmentary maxims to keep attention    
ever watchful over himself1 and his     
behavior always fenced in by a code of  
prescriptions4  --,we find in such moral
 sentences the substance of what is     
called1 in ,china1 ,philosophy4--       
#ahh4 ,the theoretical education        
includes ,heading1 ,writing--i4e4       
painting the letters with a             
brush--,arithmetic1 and the making of   
verses4 ,but the ability to do these    
things is not looked at as means of     

culture but as ends in themselves1 and  
to fit one therefore for the undertaking
 of state offices4 ,the ,chinese possess
 formally all the means for literary    
culture--printing1 libraries1 schools1  
and academies2 but the worth of these is
 not great4 ,their value has been often 
over-rated because of their external    
resemblance to those found among us4    
,,ii4 ,caste ,education4   #ahi4 ,the   
members of the ,family are certainly    
immediately distinguished among each    
other as to sex and age1 but this       
difference is entirely immaterial as far
 as the nature of their employment goes4
 ,in ,china1 therefore1 every man can   
attain any position2 he who is of       
humblest birth in the great state-family
 can climb to the highest honor4 ,but   
the progress of spirit now becomes so   
mediated that the division of labor     
shall be made the principle on which a  
new distinction shall arise in the      
family3 each one shall perfect himself  
only in that labor which was allotted to

 him as his own through his birth into a
 particular family4 ,this fatalism      
7caste-distinction7 breaks up the life1 
but increases its tension1 for spirit   
works on the one hand towards the       
deepening of its distinctions2 on the   
other1 towards leading them back into   
the unity which the natural determining 
directly opposes4   #aij4 ,the chief    
work of education thus consists in      
teaching each one the rights and duties 
of his caste so that he shall act only  
exactly within their limits1 and not    
pollute himself by passing beyond them4 
,as the family-state concerns itself    
with fortifying the natural distinction 
by a far-reaching and vigorous          
ceremonial1 so the caste-state must do  
the same with the distinction of class4 
,a painful etiquette becomes more and   
more endless in its requisitions the    
higher the caste1 in order to make the  
isolation more sharply defined and more 
perceptible4  --,this feature penetrates
 all exclusively caste-education4 ,the  

aristocracy exiles itself on this       
account from its native country1 speaks 
a foreign language1 loves its           
literature1 adopts foreign customs1     
lives in foreign countries--in ,italy1  
,paris1 c4 ,in this way man becomes     
distinguished from others4 ,but that man
 should strive thus to distinguish      
himself has its justification in the    
mystery of his birth1 and this is       
assuredly always the principle of the   
caste-state in which it exists4 ,the    
castes lead to genealogical records1    
which are of the greatest importance in 
determining the destiny of the          
individual4 ,the ,brahmin may strike    
down one of a lower caste who has       
defiled him by contact1 without becoming
 thereby liable to punishment2 rather   
would he be to blame if he did not      
commit the murder4 ,thus formerly was it
 with the officer who did not           
immediately kill the citizen or the     
common soldier who struck him a blow1   
c4--   #aia4 ,the ,east ,indian culture 

is far deeper and richer than the       
,chinese4 ,the theoretical culture      
includes ,reading1 ,writing1 and        
,arithmetic2 but these are subordinate1 
as mere means for the higher activities 
of ,poetry1 ,speculation1 ,science1 and 
,art4 ,the practical education limits   
itself strictly by the lines of caste1  
and since the caste system constitutes a
 whole in itself1 and each for its      
permanence needs the others1 it cannot  
forbear giving utterance suggestively to
 what is universally human in the free  
soul1 in a multitude of fables          
7,hitopadesa7 and apothegms 7sentences  
of ,bartrihari74 ,especially for the    
education of princes is a minor of the  
world sketched out4  --,xenophon's      
,cyropedia is of ,greek origin1 but it  
is ,indian in its thought4--   ,,iii4   
,monkish ,education4   #aib4 ,family    
,education demands unconditional        
obedience towards parents and towards   
all who stand in an analogous position4 
,caste ,education demands unconditional 

obedience to the duties of the caste4   
,the family punishes by whipping2 the   
caste1 by excommunication1 by loss of   
honor4 ,the opposition to nature appears
 in both systems in the form of a rigid 
ceremonial1 distinguishing between the  
differences arising from nature4 ,the   
family as well as the caste has within  
it a manifold fountain of activity1 but 
it has also just as manifold a          
limitation of the individual4 ,spirit is
 forced1 therefore1 to turn against     
nature in general4 ,it must become      
indifferent to the family4 ,but it must 
also oppose history1 and the fixed      
distinctions of division of labor as    
necessitated by nature4 ,it must become 
indifferent to work and the pleasure    
derived from it4 ,that it may not be    
conditioned either by nature or by      
history1 it denies both1 and makes its  
action to consist in producing an       
abstinence from all activity4   #aic4   
,such an indifference towards nature and
 history produces the education which we

 have called monkish4 ,those who support
 this sect care for food1 clothing1 and 
shelter1 and for these material         
contributions1 as the laity1 receive in 
return from those who live this         
contemplative life the spiritual        
contribution of confidence in the       
blessings which wait upon ascetic       
contemplation4 ,the family institution  
as well as the institution of human     
labor is subordinated to abstract       
isolation1 in which the individual lives
 only for the purification of his soul4 
,all things are justified by this end4  
,castes are found no more2 only those   
are bound to the observance of a special
 ceremonial who as nuns or monks subject
 themselves to the unconditional        
obedience to the rules of the cloister1 
these rules solemnly enjoining on the   
negative side celibacy and cessation    
from business1 and on the positive side 
prayer and perfection4  ,sidenote3      
,buddhistic ,education--,system of      
,active ,education4   #aid4 ,in the     

school of the ,chinese ,tao-tse1 and in 
the command to the ,brahmin after he has
 established a family to become a       
recluse1 we find the transition as it   
actually exists to the ,buddhistic      
,quietism which has covered the rocky   
heights of ,thibet with countless       
cloisters1 and reared the people who are
 dependent upon it into a childlike     
amiability1 into a contented repose4    
,art and ,science have here no value in 
themselves1 and are regarded only as    
ministering to religion4 ,to be able to 
read in order to mutter over the prayers
 is desirable4 ,with the premeditated   
effort in the state of a monk to reduce 
self to nothing as the highest good1 the
 system of passive education attains its
 highest point4 ,but the spirit cannot  
content itself in this abstract and     
dreamy absence of all action1 though it 
demands a high stage of culture1 and it 
has recourse therefore to action1 partly
 on the positive side to conquer nature1
 partly to double its own existence in  

making history4 ,inspired with          
affirmative courage1 it descends        
triumphantly from the mountain heights1 
and fears secularization no more4       
,,second ,,group4  ,,the ,,system ,,of  
,,active ,,education4   #aie4 ,active   
,education elevates man from his        
abstract subjection to the family1 the  
caste1 asceticism1 into a concrete      
activity with a definite aim which      
subjects those elements as phases of its
 mediation1 and grants to each          
individual independence on the condition
 of his identity with it4 ,these aims   
are the military state1 the future after
 death1 and industry4 ,there is always  
an element of nature present from which 
the activity proceeds2 but this no      
longer appears1 like the family1 the    
caste1 the sensuous egotism1 as         
immediately belonging to the individual1
 but as something outside of himself    
which limits him1 and1 as his future    
life1 has an internal relation to him1  
yet is essential to him and assigns to  

him the object of his activity4 ,the    
,persian has as an object of conquest1  
other nations2 the ,egyptian1 death2 the
 ,phoenician1 the sea4   ,i4 ,military  
,education4   #aif4 ,that education     
which would emancipate a nation from the
 passivity of abstraction must throw it 
into the midst of an historical         
activity4 ,a nation finds not its actual
 limits in its locality3 it can forsake 
this and wander far away from it4 ,its  
true limit is made by another nation4   
,the nation which knows itself to be    
actual1 turns itself therefore against  
other nations in order to subject them  
and to reduce them to the condition of  
mere accidents of itself4 ,it begins a  
system of conquest which has in itself  
no limitations1 but goes from one nation
 to another1 and extends its evil course
 indefinitely4 ,the final result of this
 attack is that it finds itself attacked
 and conquered4  --,the early history of
 the ,persian is twofold3 the           
patriarchal in the high valleys of      

,iran1 and the religio-hierarchical     
among the ,medes4 ,we find under these  
circumstances a repetition of the       
principal characteristics of the        
,chinese1 ,indian1 and ,buddhist        
educations4 ,in ancient ,zend there were
 also castes4 ,among the ,persians      
themselves1 as they descended from their
 mountains to the conquest of other     
nations1 there was properly only a      
military nobility4 ,the priesthood was  
subjected to the royal power which      
represented the absolute power of       
actuality4 ,of the ,persian kings1      
,cyrus attacked ,western ,asia2         
,cambyses1 ,africa2 ,darius and ,xerxes1
 ,europe2 until the reaction of the     
spiritually higher nationality did not  
content itself with self-preservation1  
but under the ,macedonian ,alexander    
made the attack on ,persia itself4--    
#aig4 ,education enjoined upon the      
,persians 7#a7 to speak the truth2 7#b7 
to learn to ride and to use the bow and 
arrow4 ,there is implied in the first   

command a recognition of actuality1 the 
negation of all dreamy absorption1 of   
all fantastical indetermination2 and in 
this light the ,persian1 in distinction 
from the ,hindoo1 appears to be         
considerate and reasonable4 ,in the     
second command is implied warlike       
practice1 but not that of the nomadic   
tribes4 ,the ,persian fights on         
horseback1 and thus appears in          
distinction from the ,indian hermit     
seclusion and the quietism of the ,lamas
 as restless and in constant motion4    
--,the ,family increases in value as it 
rears a large number of warriors4 ,many 
children were a blessing4 ,the king of  
,persia gave a premium for all children 
over a certain number4 ,nations were    
drawn in as nations by war2 hence the   
immense multitude of a ,persian army4   
,everything--family1 business1          
possessions--must be regardlessly       
sacrificed to the one aim of war4       
,education1 therefore1 cultivated an    
unconditional1 all-embracing obedience  

to the king1 and the slightest          
inclination to assert an individual     
independence was high treason and was   
punished with death4 ,in ,china1 on the 
contrary1 duty to the family is         
paramount to duty to the state1 or      
rather is itself duty to the state4 ,the
 civil officer who mourns the loss of   
one of his family is released during the
 period of mourning from the duties of  
his function4--   #aih4 ,the theoretical
 education1 which was limited to        
reading1 writing1 and to instruction1   
was1 in the usages of culture1 in the   
hands of the ,magians1 the number of    
whom was estimated at eighty thousand1  
and who themselves had enjoyed the      
advantages of a careful education1 as is
 shown by their gradation into ,herbeds1
 ,moheds1 and ,destur-,moheds2 i4e4 into
 apprentices1 journeymen1 and masters4  
,the very fundamental idea of their     
religion was military2 it demanded of   
men to fight on the side of the king of 
light1 and guard against the prince of  

darkness and evil4 ,it gave to him thus 
the honor of a free position between the
 world-moving powers and the possibility
 of a self-creative destiny1 by which   
means vigor and chivalrous feeling were 
developed4 ,religion trained the        
activity of man into actualization on   
this planet1 increasing by its means the
 dominion of the good1 by purifying the 
water1 by planting trees1 by extirpating
 troublesome wild beasts4 ,thus it      
increased bodily comfort1 and no longer1
 like the monk1 treated this as a mere  
negative4   ,,ii4 ,priestly ,education4 
#aii4 ,war has in death its force4 ,it  
produces this1 and by its means decides 
who shall serve and who obey4 ,but the  
nation that finds its activity in war1  
though it makes death its absolute      
means1 yet finds its own limit in death4
 ,other nations are only its boundaries1
 which it can overpass in fighting with 
and conquering them4 ,but death itself  
it can never escape1 whether it come in 
the sands of the desert--which buried   

for ,cambyses an army which he sent to  
the oracle of the ,libyan ,ammon--or in 
the sea1 that scorns the rod of the     
angry despot1 or by the sword of the    
freeman who guards his household gods4  
,on this account1 that people stands    
higher that in the midst of life        
reflects on death1 or rather lives for  
it4 ,the education of such a nation must
 be priestly because death is the means 
of the transition to the future life1   
and consequently equivalent to a new    
birth1 and becomes a religious act4     
,neither the family-state1 nor the      
caste-state1 nor the monkish nor        
military-state1 are hierarchies in the  
sense that the leading of the national  
life by a priesthood produces4 ,but in  
,egypt this was actually the case1      
because the chief educational tribunal  
was the death-court which concerned only
 the dead1 in awarding to them or       
denying them the honor of burial as the 
result of their whole life1 but in its  
award affected also the honor of the    

surviving family4   #bjj4 ,general      
education here limited itself to        
imparting the ability to read1 write1   
and calculate4 ,special education       
consisted properly only in an habitual  
living into a definite business within  
the circle of the ,family4 ,in this     
fruitful and warm land the expense of   
supporting children was very small4 ,the
 division into classes was without the  
cruel features of the ,indian           
civilization1 and life itself in the    
narrow ,nile valley was very social1    
very rich1 very full of eating and      
drinking1 while the familiarity with    
death heightened the force of enjoyment4
 ,in a stricter sense only1 the         
warriors1 the priests1 and the kings1   
had1 properly speaking1 an education4   
,the aim of life1 which was to determine
 in death its eternal future1 to secure 
for itself a passage into the still     
kingdom of ,amenth1 manifested itself   
externally in the care which they       
expended on the preservation of the dead

 shell of the immortal soul1 and on this
 account worked itself out in building  
tombs which should last for ever4 ,the  
,chinese builds a wall to secure his    
family-state from attack2 the ,hindoo   
builds pagodas for his gods2 the        
,buddhist erects for himself monastic   
cells2 the ,persian constructs in       
,persepolis the tomb of his kings1 where
 they may retire in the evening of their
 lives after they have rioted in        
,ecbatana1 ,babylon1 and ,susa2 but the 
,egyptian builds his own tomb1 and      
carries on war only to protect it4      
,,iii4 ,industrial ,education4   #bja4  
,the system of active education was to  
find its solution in a nation which     
wandered from the coast of the ,red ,sea
 to the foot of the ,lebanon mountains  
on the ,mediterranean1 and ventured     
forth upon the sea which before that    
time all nations had avoided as a       
dangerous and destructive element4 ,the 
,phoenician was industrial1 and needed  
markets where he could dispose of the   

products of his skill4 ,but while he    
sought for them he disdained neither    
force nor deceit2 he planted colonies2  
he stipulated that he should have in the
 cities of other nations a portion for  
himself2 he urged the nations to adopt  
his pleasures1 and insensibly introduced
 among them his culture and even his    
religion4 ,the education of such a      
nation must have seemed profane1 because
 it fostered indifference towards family
 and one's native land1 and made the    
restless and passionate activity        
subservient to gain4 ,the understanding 
and usefulness rose to a higher dignity4
   #bjb4 ,of the education of the       
,phoenicians we know only so much as to 
enable us to conclude that it was       
certainly various and extensive3 among  
the ,carthaginians1 at least1 that their
 children were practised in reading1    
writing1 and arithmetic1 in religious   
duties2 secondly1 in a trade2 and1      
finally1 in the use of arms1 is not     
improbable4 ,commerce became with the   

,phoenicians a trade1 the egotism of    
which makes men dare to plough the      
inhospitable sea1 and to penetrate      
eagerly the horror of its vast          
distances1 but yet to conceal from other
 nations their discoveries and to wrap  
them in a veil of fable4  --,it is a    
beautiful testimony to the disposition  
of the ,greeks1 that ,plato and others  
assign as a cause of the low state of   
,arithmetic and ,mathematics among the  
,phoenicians and ,egyptians the want of 
a free and disinterested seizing of     
them4--   ,,third ,,group4  ,,the       
,,system ,,of ,,individual ,,education4 
#bjc4 ,one-sided passivity as well as   
one-sided activity is subsumed under    
,individuality1 which makes itself into 
its own end and aim4 ,the ,phoenician   
made gain his aim2 his activity was of a
 utilistic character4 ,individuality as 
a pedagogical principle is indeed       
egotistic in so far as it endeavors to  
achieve its own peculiarity1 but it is  
at the same time noble4 ,it desires not 

to have but to be4 ,individuality also  
begins as natural1 but it elevates      
nature by means of art to ideality4 ,the
 solution of beauty is found in culture1
 since this renounces the charm of      
appearance for the knowledge of the     
,true4 ,the sthetic individuality is    
followed by the practical1 which has    
indeed no natural basis1 but proceeds   
from an artificial basis as a state     
formed for a place of refuge4 ,in order 
internally to create a unity in this1 is
 framed a definite code of laws2 in     
order externally to assure it1 the      
invincible warrior is demanded4         
,education is therefore1 more exactly   
speaking1 juristic and military         
practice4 ,the morality of the state is 
loosened as it reduces into its         
mechanism one nation after another1     
until the individuality1 become dmonic1 
makes its war-hardened legions tremble  
with weakness4 ,we characterize this    
individuality as dmonic because it      
desires recognition simply for its own  

sake4 ,not for its beauty and culture1  
not for its knowledge of business and   
its bravery1 only for its peculiarity as
 such does it claim value1 and in the   
effort to secure this it is ready to    
hazard life itself4 ,in its             
naturally-growing existence this        
individuality is deep1 but at the same  
time without self-limit4 ,the nations   
educate themselves to this individuality
 when they destroy the world of ,roman  
world--that of self-limit and           
balance--which they find4   ,i4 sthetic 
,education4   #bjd4 ,the system of      
individual education begins with the    
transfiguration of the immediate        
individuality into beauty4 ,on the side 
of nature this system is passion1 for   
individuality is given through nature2  
but on the side of spirit it is active1 
for spirit must determine itself to     
restrain its measure as the essence of  
beauty4   #bje4 ,here the individual is 
of value only in so far as he is        
beautiful4 ,at first beauty is          

apprehended as natural1 but then it is  
carried over into the realm of spirit1  
and the ,good is posited as identical   
with the ,beautiful4 ,the ideal of      
sthetic education remains always that   
there shall be also an external unity of
 the ,good with the ,beautiful1 of      
,spirit with ,nature4  --,we cannot here
 give in detail the history of ,greek   
,education4 ,it is the best known among 
us1 and the literature in which it is   
worked out is very widely spread4 ,among
 the common abridged accounts we mention
 here only the works of ,jacobs1 of     
,cramer  ,bekker's ,charinomos4 ,we must
 content ourselves with mentioning the  
turning-points which follow from the    
nature of the principle4--   #bjf4      
,culture was in ,greece thoroughly      
national4 ,education gave to the        
individual the consciousness that he was
 a ,greek and no barbarian1 a free man  
and so subject only to the laws of the  
state1 and not to the caprice of any one
 person4 ,thus the nationality was freed

 at once from the abstract unity of the 
family and from the abstract distinction
 of caste1 while it appeared with the   
manifold talents of individuals of      
different races4 ,thus the ,dorian race 
held as essential1 gymnastics2 the      
olians1 music2 the ,ionics1 poetry4 ,the
 olian individuality was subsumed in the
 history of the two others1 so that     
these had to proceed in their           
development with an internal antagonism4
 ,the education of the ,dorian race was 
national education in the fullest sense 
of the word2 in it the education of all 
was the same1 and was open to all1 even 
including the young women2 among the    
,ionic race it was also in its content  
truly national1 but in its form it was  
varied and unlike1 and1 for those       
belonging to various great families1    
private4 ,the former1 reproducing the   
,oriental phase of abstract unity1      
educated all in one mould2 the latter   
was the nursery of particular           
individualities4   #bjg4 7#a7 ,education

 in the heroic age1 without any         
systematic arrangement on the subject1  
left each one perfectly free4 ,the      
people related the histories of the     
adventures of others1 and through their 
own gave material to others again to    
relate stories of them4  --,the ,greeks 
began where the last stage of the active
 system of education ended--with piracy 
and the seizure of women4 ,swimming was 
a universal practice among the          
sea-dwelling ,greeks1 just as in        
,england--the mistress of the           
ocean--rowing is the most prominent     
exercise among the young men1 and public
 regattas are held4--   #bjh4 7#b7 ,in  
the period of state-culture proper1     
education developed itself              
systematically2 and gymnastics1 music1  
and grammatics1 or literary culture1    
constituted the general pedagogical     
elements4   #bji4 ,gymnastics aimed not 
alone to render the body strong and     
agile1 but1 far more1 to produce in it a
 noble carriage1 a dignified and        

graceful manner of appearance4 ,each one
 fashioned his body into a living1      
divine statue1 and in the public games  
the nation crowned the victor4  --,their
 love of beautiful boys is explicable   
not merely by their interest in         
beautiful forms1 but especially by their
 interest in individuality4 ,the low    
condition of the women could not lie at 
the foundation of it1 for among the     
,spartans they were educated as nearly  
as possible like the men1 and yet among 
them and the ,cretans the love of boys  
was recognized in their legislation4 ,to
 be without a beloved 7,greek3 aits71 or
 a lover 7,greek3 eispnlas71 was among  
them considered as disgraceful as the   
degradation of the love by unchastity   
was contemptible4 ,what charm was there1
 then1 in love8 ,manifestly only beauty 
and culture4 ,but that a person should  
be attracted by one and not by another  
can be accounted for only by the        
peculiar character1 and in so far the   
boy-love and the man-friendship which   

sprang from it1 among the ,greeks1 are  
very characteristic and noteworthy      
phenomena4--   #baj4 ,it was the task of
 ,music1 by its rhythm and measure1 to  
fill the soul with well-proportioned    
harmony4 ,so highly did the ,greeks     
prize music1 and so variously did they  
practise it1 that to be a musical man   
meant the same with them as to be a     
cultivated man with us4 ,education in   
this respect was very painstaking1      
inasmuch as music exercises a very      
powerful influence in developing        
discreet behavior and self-possession   
into a graceful naturalness4  --,among  
the ,greeks we find an unrestricted     
delight in nature--a listening to her   
manifestations1 the tone of which       
betrays the subjectivity of things as   
subjectivity4 ,in comparison with this  
tender sympathy with nature of the      
,greeks--who heard in the murmur of the 
fountains1 in the dashing of the waves1 
in the rustling of the trees1 and in the
 cry of animals1 the voice of divine    

personality--the sight and hearing of   
the ,eastern nations for nature is      
dull4--   #baa4 ,the stringed           
instrument1 the cithern1 was preferred  
by the ,greeks to all wind instruments  
because it was not exciting1 and allowed
 the accompaniment of recitation or     
song1 i4e4 the contemporaneous activity 
of the spirit in poetry4 ,flute-playing 
was first brought from ,asia ,minor     
after the victorious progress of the    
,persian war1 and was especially        
cultivated in ,thebes4 ,they sought in  
vain afterwards to oppose the wild      
excitement raised by its influence4     
#bab4 ,grammar comprehended ,letters    
7,greek3 grammata71 i4e4 the elements of
 literary culture1 reading and writing4 
,much attention was given to correct    
expression4 ,the ,fables of sop1 the    
,iliad1 and the ,odyssey1 and later the 
tragic poets1 were read1 and partly     
learned by heart4 ,the orators borrowed 
from them often the ornament of their   
commonplace remarks4   #bac4 7#c7 ,the  

internal growth of what was peculiar to 
the ,grecian ,state came to an end with 
the war for the ,hegemony4 ,its         
dissolution began1 and the philosophical
 period followed the political4 ,the    
beautiful ethical life was resolved into
 thoughts of the ,true1 ,good1 and      
,beautiful4 ,individuality turned more  
towards the internal1 and undertook to  
subject freedom1 the existing           
regulations1 laws and customs1 to the   
criticism of reason as to whether these 
were in and for themselves universal and
 necessary4 ,the ,sophists1 as teachers 
of ,grammar1 ,rhetoric1 and ,philosophy1
 undertook to extend the cultivation of 
,reflection2 and this introduced        
instability in the place of the         
immediate fixed state of moral customs4 
,among the women1 the ,hetr undertook   
the same revolution2 in the place of the
 ,greek3 potnia mtr appeared the beauty1
 who isolated herself in the            
consciousness of her charms and in the  
perfection of her varied culture1 and   

exhibited herself to the public         
admiration4 ,the tendency to            
idiosyncrasy often approached           
wilfulness1 caprice and whimsicality1   
and opposition to the national moral    
sense4 ,a ,diogenes in a tub became     
possible2 the soulless but graceful     
frivolity of an ,alcibiades charmed1    
even though it was externally condemned2
 a ,socrates completed the break in     
consciousness1 and urged upon the system
 of the old morality the pregnant       
question1 whether ,virtue could be      
taught8 ,socrates worked as a           
philosopher who was to educate4         
,pythagoras had imposed upon his pupils 
the abstraction of a common1            
exactly-defined manner of living4       
,socrates1 on the contrary1 freed his   
disciples--in general1 those who had    
intercourse with him--leading them to   
the consciousness of their own          
individuality4 ,he revolutionized the   
youth in that he taught them1 instead of
 a thoughtless obedience to moral       

customs1 to seek to comprehend their    
purpose in the world1 and to rule their 
actions according to it4 ,outwardly he  
conformed in politics1 and in war as at 
,marathon2 but in the direction of his  
teaching he was subjective and modern4  
#bad4 ,this idea1 that ,virtue could be 
taught1 was realized especially by      
,plato and ,aristotle2 the former       
inclining to ,dorianism1 the latter     
holding to the principle of             
individuality in nearly the modern      
sense4 ,as regards the pedagogical      
means--,gymnastics1 ,music1 and         
,grammar--both philosophers entirely    
agreed4 ,but1 in the seizing of the     
pedagogical development in general1     
,plato asserted that the education of   
the individual belonged to the state    
alone1 because the individual was to act
 wholly in the state4 ,on the other     
hand1 ,aristotle also holds that the    
state should conduct the education of   
its citizens1 and that the individual   
should be trained for the interest of   

the state2 but he recognizes also the   
family1 and the peculiarity of the      
individual1 as positive powers1 to which
 the state must accord relative freedom4
 ,plato sacrificed the family to the    
state1 and must therefore have sacred   
marriages1 nurseries1 and common and    
public educational institutions4 ,each  
one shall do only that which he is      
fitted to do1 and shall work at this    
only for the sake of perfecting it3 to  
what he shall direct his energies1 and  
in what he shall be instructed1 shall be
 determined by the government1 and the  
individuality consequently is not left  
free4 ,aristotle also will have for all 
the citizens the same education1 which  
shall be common and public2 but he      
allows1 at the same time1 an            
independence to the family and          
self-determination to the individual1 so
 that a sphere of private life presents 
itself within the state3 a difference by
 means of which a much broader sway of  
individuality is possible4  --,these two

 philosophers have come to represent two
 very different directions in           
,pedagogics1 which at intervals1 in     
certain stages of culture1 reappear--the
 tyrannical guardianship of the state   
which assumes the work of education1    
tyrannical to the individual1 and the   
free development of the liberal         
state-education1 in opposition to       
idiosyncrasy and fate4--   #bae4 ,the   
principle of sthetic individuality      
reaches its highest manifestation when  
the individual1 in the decay of public  
life1 in the disappearance of all       
beautiful morality1 isolates himself1   
and seeks to gain in his isolation such 
strength that he can bear the changes of
 external history around him with       
composure--ataraxy4 ,the ,stoics sought 
to attain this end by turning their     
attention inward into pure internality1 
and thus1 by preserving the             
self-determination of abstract thinking 
and willing1 maintaining an identity    
with themselves3 the ,epicureans        

endeavored to do the same1 with this    
difference however1 that they strove    
after a positive satisfaction of the    
senses by filling them with concrete    
pleasurable sensations4 ,as a           
consequence of this1 the ,stoics        
isolated themselves in order to maintain
 themselves in the exclusiveness of     
their internal unconditioned relation to
 themselves1 while the ,epicureans lived
 in companies1 because they achieved the
 reality of their pleasure-seeking      
principle through harmony of feeling and
 through the sweetness of friendship4   
,in so far the ,epicureans were ,greeks 
and the ,stoics ,romans4 ,with both1    
however1 the beauty of manifestation was
 secondary to the immobility of the     
inner feeling4 ,the plastic attainment  
of the ,good and the ,beautiful was     
cancelled in the abstraction of thinking
 and feeling4 ,this was the advent of   
the ,roman principle among the ,greeks4 
#baf4 ,the pedagogical significance of  
,stoicism and ,epicureanism consists in 

this1 that1 after the moral life in     
public and in private were sundered from
 each other1 the individual began to    
educate himself1 through philosophical  
culture1 into stability of character1   
for which reason the ,roman emperors    
particularly disliked the ,stoics4 ,at  
many times1 a resignation to the ,stoic 
philosophy was sufficient to make one   
suspected4 ,but1 at last1 the noble     
emperor1 in order to win himself a hold 
in the chaos of things1 was forced      
himself to become a ,stoic and to flee  
to the inaccessible stillness of the    
self-thinking activity and the          
self-moving will4 ,stoics and           
,epicureans had both what we call an    
ideal4 ,the ,stoics used the expression 
kingdom2 as ,horace says1 sarcastically1
 ,sapiens rex est nisi--pituita molesta 
est4   ,,ii4 ,practical ,education4     
#bag4 ,the truth of the solution of the 
beautiful individuality is the promise  
of the activity conformable to its      
purpose i4e4 teleological activity1     

which on the one hand considers         
carefully end and means1 and on the     
other hand seeks to realize the end     
through the corresponding means1 and in 
this deed subjects mere beauty of form4 
,the practical individuality is         
therefore externally conditioned1 since 
it is not its own end like the          
,beautiful1 whether ,stoical or         
,epicurean1 but has an end1 and finds   
its satisfaction not so much in this    
after it is attained as in the striving 
for its attainment4   #bah4 ,the        
education of this system begins with    
very great simplicity4 ,but after it has
 attained its object1 it abandons itself
 to using the results of sthetic culture
 as a recreation without any specific   
object4 ,what was to the ,greeks a real 
delight in the ,beautiful became        
therefore with the ,romans simply an    
sthetic amusement1 and as such must     
finally be wearisome4 ,the earnestness  
of individuality made itself in         
mysticism into a new aim1 which was     

distinguished from the original one in  
that it concealed in itself a mystery   
and exacted a theoretically sthetic     
practice4   #bai4 7#a7 ,the first epoch 
of ,roman education1 as properly ,roman1
 was the juristic-military education of 
the republic4 ,the end and aim of the   
,roman was ,rome2 and ,rome1 as from the
 beginning an eclectic state1 could     
endure only while its laws and external 
politics were conformable to some end4  
,it bore the same contradiction within  
itself as in its external attitude4     
,this forced it into robbery1 and the   
plebeians were related to the patricians
 in the same way1 for they robbed them  
gradually of all their privileges4 ,on  
this account education directed itself  
partly to giving a knowledge of the     
,law1 partly to communicating a capacity
 for war4 ,the boys were obliged to     
commit to memory and recite the laws of 
the twelve tables1 and all the youths   
were subject to military service4 ,the  
,roman possessed no individuality of    

native growth1 but one mediated through 
the intermingling of various fugitives1 
which developed a very great energy4    
,hence from the first he was attentive  
to himself1 he watched jealously over   
the limits of his rights and the rights 
of others1 measured his strength1       
moderated himself1 and constantly       
guarded himself4 ,in contrast with the  
careless cheerfulness of the ,greeks1 he
 therefore appears gloomy4  --,the      
,latin tongue is crowded with           
expressions which paint presence of     
mind1 effort at reflection1 a critical  
attitude of mind1 the importance of     
personal control3 as gravitas morum1 sui
 compos esse1 sibi constare1 austeritas1
 vir strenuus1 vir probus1 vitam        
honestam gerere1 sibimet ipse imperare1 
c4 ,the ,etruscan element imparted to   
this earnestness an especially solemn   
character4 ,the ,roman was no more1 like
 the ,greek1 unembarrassed at           
naturalness4 ,he was ashamed of         
nakedness2 verecundia1 pudor1 were      

genuinely ,roman4 ,vitam prferre pudori 
was shameful4 ,on the contrary1 the     
,greek gave to ,greeks a festival in    
exhibiting the splendor of his naked    
body1 and the inhabitants of ,crotona   
erected a statue to ,philip only because
 he was so perfectly beautiful4 ,simply 
to be beautiful1 only beautiful1 was    
enough for the ,greek4 ,but a ,roman1 in
 order to be recognized1 must have done 
something for ,rome3 se bene de         
republica mereri4--   #bbj4 ,in the     
first education of children the agency  
of the mother is especially influential1
 so that woman with the ,romans took    
generally a more moral1 a higher1 and a 
freer position4 ,it is worthy of remark 
that while1 as the beautiful1 she set   
the ,greeks at variance1 among the      
,romans1 through her ethical authority1 
she acted as reconciler4   #bba4 ,the   
mother of the ,roman helped to form his 
character2 the father undertook the work
 of instruction4 ,when in his fifteenth 
year the boy exchanged the toga         

prtextata for the toga virilis1 he was  
usually sent to some relative1 or to    
some jurist1 as his guardian1 to learn  
thoroughly1 under his guidance1 of the  
laws and of the state2 with the         
seventeenth began military service4 ,all
 education was for a long time entirely 
a private affair4 ,on account of the    
necessity of a mechanical unity in work 
which war demands1 the greatest stress  
was laid upon obedience4 ,in its        
restricted sense education comprised    
,reading1 ,writing1 and ,arithmetic2 the
 last being1 on account of its          
usefulness1 more esteemed by the ,romans
 than by the ,greeks1 who gave more time
 to ,geometry4 ,the schools1 very       
characteristically1 were called ,ludi1  
because their work was1 in distinction  
from other practice1 regarded simply as 
a recreation1 as play4  --,the ,roman   
recognized with pride this distinction  
between the ,greek and himself2         
,cicero's ,introduction to his ,essay on
 ,oratory expresses it4 ,to be practical

 was always the effort of the reflective
 character of the ,romans1 which was    
always placing new ends and seeking the 
means for their attainment2 which loved 
moderation1 not to secure beauty        
thereby1 but respected it as a means for
 a happy success 7medium tenuere beati72
 which did not possess serene           
self-limitation1 or ,greek3 sphrosyn1   
but calculation quid valeant humeri1    
quid ferre recusent2 but which1 in      
general1 went far beyond the ,greeks in 
persistency of will1 in constantia      
animi4 ,the schools were at first held  
publicly in shops2 hence the name       
trivium4 ,very significant for the      
,roman is the predicate which he        
conferred upon theoretical subjects when
 he called them artes bon1 optim1       
liberales1 ingenu1 c41 and brought forth
 the practical element in them4--       
#bbb4 7#b7 ,but the practical education 
could no longer keep its ground after it
 had become acquainted with the sthetic4
 ,the conquest of ,greece1 ,asia ,minor1

 and ,egypt1 made necessary1 in a       
practical point of view1 the acquisition
 of the ,grecian tongue1 so that these  
lands1 so permeated with ,grecian       
culture1 might be thoroughly ruled4 ,the
 ,roman of family and property1         
therefore1 took into his service ,greek 
nurses and teachers who should give to  
his children1 from their earliest years1
 ,greek culture4 ,it is1 in the history 
of education1 a great evil when a nation
 undertakes to teach a foreign tongue to
 its youth4 ,then the necessity of trade
 with the ,greeks caused the study of   
,rhetoric1 so that not only in the      
deliberations of the senate and people1 
but in law1 the ends might be better    
attained4 ,whatever effort the ,roman   
government made to prevent the invasion 
of the ,greek rhetorician was all in    
vain4 ,the ,roman youth sought for this 
knowledge1 which was so necessary to    
them in foreign lands1 e4g4 in the      
flourishing school of rhetoric on the   
island of ,rhodes4 ,at last1 even the   

study of ,philosophy commended itself to
 the practical ,roman1 in order that he 
might recover for himself confidence    
amid the disappointments of life4 ,when 
his practical life did not bring him any
 result1 he devoted himself in his      
poverty to abstract contemplation4 ,the 
,greeks would have ,philosophy for its  
own sake2 the ataraxy of the ,stoics1   
,epicureans1 and ,skeptics even1 desired
 the result of a necessary principle2   
but the ,roman1 on the contrary1 wished 
to lift himself by philosophemes above  
trouble and misfortune4  --,this        
direction which ,philosophy took is     
noteworthy1 not alone in ,cicero and    
,seneca1 but at the fall of the ,roman  
empire1 when ,boethius wrote in his     
prison his immortal work on the         
consolations of ,philosophy4--   #bbc4  
,the earnestness which sought a definite
 end degenerated in the very opposite of
 activity with him who had no definite  
aim4 ,the idleness of the wealthy       
,roman1 who felt himself to be the lord 

of a limitless world1 devoted itself to 
dissipation and desire for enjoyment1   
which1 in its entire want of moderation1
 abused nature4 ,the finest form of the 
extant education was that in            
belles-lettres1 which also for the first
 time came to belong to the sphere of   
,pedagogics4 ,there had been a          
degeneration of art in ,india and       
,greece1 and also an artistic trifling4 
,but in ,rome there arose a pursuit of  
art in order to win a certain           
consideration in social position1 and to
 create for one's self a recreation in  
the emptiness of a soul satiated with   
sensual debauchery4 ,such a seizing of  
art is frivolous1 for it no longer      
recognizes its absoluteness1 and        
subordinates it as a means to subjective
 egotism4 ,literary salons then appear4 
--,in the introduction to his ,cataline1
 ,sallust has painted excellently this  
complete revolution in the ,roman       
education4 ,the younger ,pliny in his   
letters furnishes ample material to     

illustrate to us this pursuit of        
belles-lettres4 ,in ,nero it became     
idiotic4 ,we should transgress our      
prescribed limits did we enter here into
 particulars4 ,an analysis would show   
the perversion of the sthetic into the  
practical1 the sthetic losing thereby   
its proper nature4 ,but the ,roman could
 not avoid this perversion1 because1    
according to his original aim1 he could 
not move except towards the utile et    
honestum4--   #bbd4 7#c7 ,but this      
pursuit of fine art1 this aimless       
parade1 must at last weary the ,roman4  
,he sought for himself again an object  
to which he could vigorously devote     
himself4 ,his sovereignty was assured1  
and conquest as an object could no more 
charm him4 ,the national religion had   
fallen with the destruction of the      
national individuality4 ,the soul looked
 out over its historical life into an   
empty void4 ,it sought to establish a   
relation between itself and the next    
world by means of dmonic forces1 and in 

place of the depreciated nationality and
 its religion we find the eclecticism of
 the mystic society4 ,there were1 it is 
true1 in national religions certain     
secret signs1 rites1 words1 and         
meanings2 but now1 for the first time in
 the history of the world1 there        
appeared mysteries as pedagogical       
societies1 which concerned themselves   
only with private things and were       
indifferent to nationality4 ,everything 
was profaned by the roughness of        
violence4 ,man believed no longer in the
 old gods1 and the superstitious faith  
in ghosts became only a thing fit to    
frighten children with4 ,thus man took  
refuge in secrecy1 which had for his    
satiety a piquant charm4   #bbe4 ,the   
education of the mysteries was twofold1 
theoretical and practical4 ,in the      
theoretical we find a regular gradation 
of symbols and symbolical acts through  
which one seemed gradually to attain to 
the revelation of the secret2 the       
practical contained a regular gradation 

of ascetic actions alternating with an  
abandonment to wild orgies4 ,both raised
 one from the rank of the novice to that
 of the initiated4 ,in the higher orders
 they formed an ethical code of laws1   
and this form ,pedagogics has retained  
in all such secret culture1 mutatis     
mutandis1 down to the ,illuminati4      
--,in the ,roman empire1 its ,persian   
element was the worship of ,mithras2 its
 ,egyptian1 that of ,isis2 its ,grecian1
 the ,pythagorean doctrines4 ,all these 
three1 however1 were much mingled with  
each other4 ,the ,roman legions1 who    
really no longer had any native country1
 bore these artificial religions        
throughout the whole world4 ,the        
confusion of excitement led often to    
,somnambulism1 which was not yet        
understood1 and to belief in miracles4  
,apollonius of ,tyana1 the messiah of   
,ethnicism1 is the principal figure in  
this group2 and1 in comparison with him1
 ,jamblichus appears only as an         
enthusiast and ,alexander of            

,abonoteichos as an impostor4--   ,,iii4
 ,abstract ,individual ,education4      
#bbf4 ,what the despair of the declining
 nations sought for in these mysteries  
was ,individuality1 which in its        
singularity is conscious of the         
universality of the rational spirit1 as 
its own essence4 ,this individuality    
existed more immediately in the         
,germanic race1 which nevertheless1 on  
account of its nature1 formed first in  
,christianity its true actualization4   
,it can be here only pointed out that   
they most thoroughly1 in opposition to  
nature1 to men1 and to the gods1 felt   
themselves to be independent2 as        
,tacitus says1 ,securi adversus homines1
 securi adversus ,deos4 ,this           
individuality1 which had only itself for
 an end1 must necessarily be destroyed1 
and was saved only by ,christianity1    
which overcame and enlightened its      
dmonic and defiant spirit4 ,we cannot   
speak here of a system of ,education4   
,respect for personality1 the free      

acknowledgment of the claims of woman1  
the loyalty to the leader chosen by     
themselves1 loyalty to their friends    
7the idea of fellowship71--these        
features should all be well-noted1      
because from them arose the feudalism of
 the middle ages4 ,what ,csar and       
,tacitus tell us of the education of the
 ,germans expresses only the            
emancipation of individuality1 which in 
its immediate crudeness had no other    
form in which to manifest itself than   
wars of conquest4  --,to the ,roman     
there was something dmonic in the       
,german4 ,he perceived dimly in him his 
future1 his master4 ,when the ,romans   
were to meet the ,cimbri and ,teutons in
 the field1 their commander had first to
 accustom them for a whole day to the   
fearful sight of the wild1 giant-like   
forms4--   ,,second ,,division4  ,,the  
,,system ,,of ,,theocratic ,,education4 
#bbg4 ,the system of ,national          
,education founded its first stage on   
the substantial basis of the            

family-spirit2 its second stage on the  
division of the nation by means of      
division of labor which it makes        
permanent in castes2 its third stage    
presents the free opposition of the     
laity and clergy2 in its next phase it  
makes war1 immortality1 and trade1 by   
turns1 its end2 thirdly1 it posits      
beauty1 patriotic youth1 and the        
immediateness of individuality1 as the  
essence of mankind1 and at last         
dissolves the unity of nationality in   
the consciousness that all nations are  
really one since they are all human     
beings4 ,in the intermixture of races in
 the ,roman world arises the conception 
of the human race1 the genus humanum4   
,education had become eclectic3 the     
,roman legions levelled the national    
distinctions4 ,in the wavering of all   
objective morality1 the necessity of    
self-education in order to the formation
 of character appeared ever more and    
more clearly2 but the conception1 which 
lay at the foundation1 was always1      

nevertheless1 that of ,roman1 ,greek1 or
 ,german education4 ,but in the midst of
 these nations another system had       
striven for development1 and this did   
not base itself on the natural          
connection of nationality1 but made     
this1 for the first time1 only a        
secondary thing1 and made the direct    
relation of man to ,god its chief idea4 
,in this system ,god himself is the     
teacher4 ,he manifests to man ,his will 
as law1 to which he must unconditionally
 conform for no other reason than that  
,he is the ,lord1 and man ,his servant1 
who can have no other will than ,his4   
,the obedience of man is therefore1 in  
this system1 abstract until through     
experience he gradually attains to the  
knowledge that the will of ,god has in  
it the very essence of his own will4    
,descent1 ,talent1 ,events1 ,work1      
,beauty1 ,courage1--all these are       
indifferent things compared with the    
subjection of the human to the divine   
will4 ,to be well-pleasing to ,god is   

almost the same as belief in ,him4      
,without this identity1 what is natural 
in national descent is of no value4     
,according to its form of manifestation1
 ,judaism is below the ,greek spirit4   
,it is not beautiful1 but rather        
grotesque4 ,but in its essence1 as the  
religion of the contradiction between   
the idea and its existence1 it goes     
beyond nature1 which it perceives to be 
established by an absolute1 conscious1  
and reasonable ,will2 while the ,greek  
concealed from himself only mythically  
his dependence on nature1 on his        
mother-earth4 ,the ,jews have been      
preserved in the midst of all other     
culture by the elastic power of the     
thought of ,god as ,one who was free    
from the control of nature4 ,the ,jews  
have a patriotism in common with the    
,romans4 ,the ,maccabees1 for example1  
were not inferior to the ,romans in     
greatness4  --,abraham is the genuine   
,jew because he is the genuinely        
faithful man4 ,he does not hesitate to  

obey the horrible and inhuman command of
 his ,god4 ,circumcision was made the   
token of the national unity1 but the    
nation may assimilate members to itself 
from other nations through this rite4   
,the condition always lies in belief in 
a spiritual relation to which the       
relation of nationality is secondary4   
,the ,jewish nation makes proselytes1   
and these are widely different from the 
,socii of the ,romans or the ,metoeci of
 the ,athenians4--   #bbh4 ,to the man  
who knows ,nature to be the work of a   
single1 incomparable1 rational ,creator1
 she loses independence4 ,he is         
negatively freed from her control1 and  
sees in her only an absolute means4 ,as 
opposed to the fanciful sensuous        
intuitions of ,ethnicism1 this seems to 
be a backward step1 but for the         
emancipation of man it is a progress4   
,he no longer fears ,nature but her     
,lord1 and admires ,him so much that    
prose rises to the dignity of poetry in 
his telological contemplation4 ,since   

man stands over and beyond nature1      
education is directed to morality as    
such1 and spreads itself out in         
innumerable limitations1 by means of    
which the distinction of man from nature
 is expressly asserted as a difference4 
,the ceremonial law appears often       
arbitrary1 but in its prescriptions it  
gives man the satisfaction of placing   
himself as will in relation to will4    
,for example1 if he is forbidden to eat 
any specified part of an animal1 the    
ground of this command is not merely    
natural--it is the will of the ,deity4  
,man learns therefore1 in his obedience 
to such directions1 to free himself from
 his self-will1 from his natural        
desires4 ,this exact outward conformity 
to subjectivity is the beginning of     
wisdom1 the purification of the will    
from all individual egotism4  --,the    
rational substance of the ,law is found 
always in the ,decalogue4 ,many of our  
modern much-admired authors exhibit a   
superficiality bordering on shallowness 

when they comment alone on the absurdity
 of the miracles1 and abstract from the 
profound depth of the moral struggle1   
and from the practical rationality of   
the ten commandments4--   #bbi4         
,education in this theocratical system  
is on one side patriarchal4 ,the ,family
 is very prominent1 because it is       
considered to be a great happiness for  
the individual to belong from his very  
earliest life to the company of those   
who believe in the true ,god4 ,on its   
other side it is hierarchical1 as its   
ceremonial law develops a special       
office1 which is to see that obedience  
is paid to its multifarious regulations4
 ,and1 because these are often perfectly
 arbitrary1 ,education must1 above all1 
practise the memory in learning them    
all1 so that they may always be         
remembered4 ,the ,jewish monotheism     
shares this necessity with the          
superstition of ethnicism4   #bcj4 ,but 
the technique proper of the mechanism is
 not the most important pedagogical     

element of the theocracy4 ,we find this 
in its historical significance1 since   
its history throughout has a pedagogical
 character4 ,for the people of ,god show
 us always1 in their changing           
intercourse with their ,god1 a progress 
from the external to the internal1 from 
the lower to the higher1 from the past  
to the future4 ,its history1 therefore1 
abounds in situations very interesting  
in a pedagogical point of view1 and in  
characters which are eternal models4    
#bca4 7#a7 ,the will of ,god as the     
absolute authority is at first to them1 
as law1 external4 ,but soon ,god adds to
 the command to obedience1 on one hand1 
the inducement of a promise of material 
prosperity1 and on the other hand the   
threat of material punishment4 ,the     
fulfilment of the law is also encouraged
 by reflection on the profit which it   
brings4 ,but1 since these motives are   
all external1 they rise finally into the
 insight that the law is to be          
fulfilled1 not on their account1 but    

because it is the will of the ,lord2 not
 alone because it is conducive to our   
happiness1 but also because it is in    
itself holy1 and written in our hearts3 
in other words1 man proceeds from the   
abstract legality1 through the          
reflection of eudmonism1 to the         
internality of moral sentiment--the     
course of all education4  --,this last  
stand-point is especially represented in
 the excellent ,gnomic of ,jesus        
,sirach--a book so rich in pedagogical  
insight1 which paints with              
master-strokes the relations of husband 
and wife1 parents and children1 master  
and servants1 friend and friend1 enemy  
and enemy1 and the dignity of labor as  
well as the necessity of its division4  
,this priceless book forms a side-piece 
from the theocratic stand-point to the  
,republic of ,plato and his laws on     
ethical government4--   #bcb4 7#b7 ,the 
progress from the lower to the higher   
appeared in the conquering of the       
natural individuality4 ,man1 as the     

servant of ,jehovah1 must have no will  
of his own2 but selfish naturalness     
arrayed itself so much the more         
vigorously against the abstract ,thou   
shalt1 allowed itself to descend into an
 abstraction from the ,law1 and often   
reached the most unbridled extravagance4
 ,but since the ,law in inexorable might
 always remained the same1 always       
persistent1 in distinction from the     
inequalities of the deed of man1 it     
forced him to come back to it1 and to   
conform himself to its demands4 ,thus he
 learned criticism1 thus he rose from   
naturalness into spirit4 ,this progress 
is at the same time a progress from     
necessity to freedom1 because criticism 
always gradually opens a way for man    
into insight1 so that he finds the will 
of ,god to be the truth of his own      
self-determination4 ,because ,god is one
 and absolute1 there arises the         
expectation that ,his ,will will become 
the basis for the will of all nations   
and men4 ,the criticism of the          

understanding must recognize a          
contradiction in the fact that the will 
of the true ,god is the law of only one 
nation2 feared by other nations1        
moreover1 by reason of their very       
worship of ,god as a gloomy mystery1 and
 detested as odium generis humani4 ,and 
thus is developed the thought that the  
isolation of the believers will come to 
an end as soon as the other nations     
recognize their faith as the true one1  
and are received into it4 ,thus here1   
out of the deepest penetration of the   
soul into itself1 as among the ,romans  
out of the fusion of nations1 we see    
appear the idea of the human race4      
#bcc4 7#c7 ,the progress from the past  
to the future unfolded the ideal servant
 of ,god who fulfils all the ,law1 and  
so blots out the empirical contradiction
 that the ,thou shalt of the ,law       
attains no adequate actuality4 ,this    
,prince of ,peace1 who shall gather all 
nations under his banner1 can therefore 
have no other thing predicated of him   

than ,holiness4 ,he is not beautiful as 
the ,greeks represented their ideal1 not
 brave and practical as was the         
venerated ,virtus of the ,romans2 he    
does not place an infinite value on his 
individuality as the ,german does3 but  
he is represented as insignificant in   
appearance1 as patient1 as humble1 as he
 who1 in order to reconcile the world1  
takes upon himself the infirmities and  
disgrace of all others4 ,the ethnical   
nations have only a lost ,paradise      
behind them2 the ,jews have one also    
before them4 ,from this belief in the   
,messiah who is to come1 from the       
certainty which they have of conquering 
with him1 from the power of esteeming   
all things of small importance in view  
of such a future1 springs the           
indestructible nature of the ,jews4     
,they ignore the fact that ,christianity
 is the necessary result of their own   
history4 ,as the nation that is to be   
7des ,seinsollens71 they are merely a   
historical nation1 the nation among     

nations1 whose education--whenever the  
,jew has not changed and corrupted its  
nature through modern culture--is still 
always patriarchal1 hierarchal1 and     
mnemonic4   ,,third ,,division4  ,,the  
,,system ,,of ,,humanitarian ,,education
   #bcd4 ,the systems of national and   
theocratic education came to the same   
result1 though by different ways1 and   
this result is the conception of a human
 race in the unity of which the         
distinctions of different nations find  
their ,truth4 ,but with them this result
 is only a conception1 being a thing    
external to their actuality4 ,they      
arrive at the painting of an ideal of   
the way in which the ,messiah shall     
come4 ,but these ideals exist only in   
the mind1 and the actual condition of   
the people sometimes does not correspond
 to them at all1 and sometimes only very
 relatively4 ,the idea of spirit had in 
these presuppositions the possibility of
 its concrete actualization2 one        
individual man must become conscious of 

the universality and necessity of the   
will as being the very essence of his   
own freedom1 so that all heteronomy     
should be cancelled in the autonomy of  
spirit4 ,natural individuality appearing
 as national determinateness was still  
acknowledged1 but was deprived of its   
abstract isolation4 ,the divine         
authority of the truth of the individual
 will is to be recognized1 but at the   
same time freed from its estrangement   
towards itself4 ,while ,christ was a    
,jew and obedient to the divine ,law1 he
 knew himself as the universal man who  
determines himself to his own destiny2  
and while only distinguishing ,god1 as  
subject1 from himself1 yet holds fast to
 the unity of man and ,god4 ,the system 
of humanitarian education began to      
unfold from this principle1 which no    
longer accords the highest place to the 
natural unity of national individuality1
 nor to the abstract obedience of the   
command of ,god1 but to that freedom of 
the soul which knows itself to be       

absolute necessity4 ,christ is not a    
mere ideal of the thought1 but is known 
as a living member of actual history1   
whose life1 sufferings and death for    
freedom form the security as to its     
absolute justification and truth4 ,the  
sthetic1 philosophical1 and political   
ideal are all found in the universal    
nature of the ,christian ideal1 on which
 account no one of them appears         
one-sided in the life of ,christ4 ,the  
principle of ,human ,freedom excludes   
neither art1 nor science1 nor political 
feeling4   #bce4 ,in its conception of  
man the humanitarian education includes 
both the national divisions and the     
subjection of all men to the divine law1
 but it will no longer endure that one  
should grow into an isolating           
exclusiveness1 and another into a       
despotism which includes in it somewhat 
of the accidental4 ,but this principle  
of humanity and human nature took root  
so slowly that its presuppositions were 
repeated within itself and were really  

conquered in this reproduction4 ,these  
stages of culture were the ,greek1 the  
,roman1 and the ,protestant churches1   
and education was metamorphosed to suit 
the formation of each of these4  --,for 
the sake of brevity we would wish to    
close with these general definitions2   
the unfolding of their details is       
intimately bound up with the history of 
politics and of civilization4 ,we shall 
be contented if we give correctly the   
general whole4--   #bcf4 ,within        
education we can distinguish three      
epochs3 the monkish1 the chivalric1 and 
that education which is to fit one for  
civil life4 ,each of these endeavored to
 express all that belonged to humanity  
as such2 but it was only after the      
recognition of the moral nature of the  
,family1 of ,labor1 of ,culture1 and of 
the conscious equal title of all men to 
their rights1 that this became really   
possible4   ,i4 ,the ,epoch of ,monkish 
,education4   #bcg4 ,the ,greek ,church 
seized the ,christian principle still   

abstractly as deliverance from the      
world1 and therefore1 in the education  
proceeding from it1 it arrived only at  
the negative form1 positing the         
universality of the individual man as   
the renunciation of self4 ,in the       
dogmatism of its teaching1 as well as in
 the ascetic severity of its practical  
conduct1 it was a reproduction of the   
theocratic principle4 ,but when this had
 assumed the form of national           
centralization1 the ,greek ,church      
dispensed with this1 and1 as far as     
regards its form1 it returned again to  
the quietism of the ,orient4   #bch4    
,the monkish education is in general    
identical in all religions1 in that1    
through the egotism of its way of living
 and the stoicism of its way of         
thinking1 through the separation of its 
external existence and the mechanism of 
a thoughtless subjection to a general   
rule as well as to the special command  
of superiors1 it fosters a spiritual and
 bodily dulness4 ,the ,christian        

monachism1 therefore1 as the fulfilment 
of monachism in general1 is at the same 
time its absolute dissolution1 because1 
in its merely abstracting itself from   
the world instead of affirmatively      
conquering it1 it contradicts the very  
principle of ,christianity4   #bci4 ,we 
must notice as the fundamental error of 
this whole system1 that it does not in  
free individuality seek to produce the  
ideal of divine-humanity1 but to copy in
 external reproduction its historical   
manifestation4 ,each human being must   
individually offer up as sacrifice his  
own individuality4 ,each biography has  
its ,bethlehem1 its ,tabor1 and its     
,golgotha4   #bdj4 ,monachism looks upon
 freedom from one's self and from the   
world which ,christianity demands only  
as an abstract renunciation of self1    
which it seeks to compass1 like         
,buddhism1 by the vow of poverty1       
chastity1 and obedience1 which must be  
taken by each individual for all time4  
--,this rejection of property1 of       

marriage1 and of self-will1 is at the   
same time the negation of work1 of the  
family1 and of responsibility for one's 
actions4 ,in order to avoid the danger  
of avarice and covetousness1 of         
sensuality and of nepotism1 of error and
 of guilt1 monachism seizes the         
convenient way of abstract severance    
from all the objective world without    
being able fully to carry out this      
negation4 ,monkish ,pedagogics must1 in 
consequence1 be very particular about an
 external separation of their disciples 
from the world1 so as to make the work  
of abstraction from the world easier and
 more decided4 ,it therefore builds     
cloisters in the solitude of deserts1 in
 the depth of forests1 on the summits of
 mountains1 and surrounds them with high
 walls having no apertures2 and then1 so
 as to carry the isolation of the       
individual to its farthest possible     
extreme it constructs1 within these     
cloisters1 cells1 in imitation of the   
ancient hermits--a seclusion the        

immediate consequence of which is the   
most limitless and most paltry          
curiosity4--   #bda4 ,theoretically the 
monkish ,pedagogics seeks1 by means of  
the greatest possible silence1 to place 
the soul in a state of spiritual        
immobility1 which at last1 through the  
want of all variety of thought1 goes    
over into entire apathy1 and antipathy  
towards all intellectual culture4 ,the  
principal feature of the practical      
culture consists in the misapprehension 
that one should ignore ,nature1 instead 
of morally freeing himself from her     
control4 ,as she1 again and again       
asserts herself1 the monkish discipline 
proceeds to misuse her1 and strives     
through fasting1 through sleeplessness1 
through voluntary self-inflicted pain   
and martyrdom1 not only to subdue the   
wantonness of the flesh1 but to destroy 
the love of life till it shall become a 
positive loathing of existence4 ,in and 
for itself the object of the monkish    
vow--property1 the family1 and will--is 

not immoral4 ,the vow is1 on this       
account1 very easy to violate4 ,in order
 to prevent all temptation to this1     
monkish ,pedagogics invents a system of 
supervision1 partly open1 partly secret1
 which deprives one of all freedom of   
action1 all freshness of thinking and of
 willing1 and all poetry of feeling1 by 
means of the perpetual shadow of spies  
and informers4 ,the monks are well      
versed in all police-arts1 and the      
regular succession of the hierarchy     
spurs them on always to distinguish     
themselves in them4   #bdb4 ,the gloomy 
breath of this education penetrated all 
the relations of the ,byzantine ,state4 
,even the education of the emperor was  
infected by it2 and in the strife for   
freedom waged by the modern ,greeks     
against the ,turks1 the ,igumeni of the 
cloisters were the real leaders of the  
insurrection4 ,the independence of      
individuality1 as opposed to monkish    
abstraction1 more or less degenerates   
into the crude form of soldier and      

pirate life4 ,and thus it happened that 
this principle was not left to appear   
merely as an exception1 but to be built 
up positively into humanity2 and this   
the ,german world1 under the guidance of
 the ,roman ,church1 undertook to       
accomplish4   ,,ii4 ,the ,epoch of      
,chivalric ,education4   #bdc4 ,the     
,romish ,church negated the abstract    
substantiality of the ,greeks through   
the practical aim which she in her      
sanctity in works founded1 and by means 
of which she raised up ,german          
individuality to the idealism of        
chivalry1 i4e4 a free military service  
in behalf of ,christendom4   #bdd4 ,it  
is evident that the system of monkish   
education was taken up into this epoch  
as one of its elements1 being modified  
to conform to it3 e4g4 the ,benedictines
 were accustomed to labor in agriculture
 and in the transcribing of books1 and  
this contradicted the idea of monachism1
 since that in and for itself tends to  
an absolute forgetfulness of the world  

and a perfect absence of all activity in
 the individual4 ,the begging orders    
were public preachers1 and made popular 
the idea of love and unselfish devotion 
to others4 ,they labored toward         
self-education1 especially by means of  
the ideal of the life of ,christ2 e4g4  
in ,tauler's classical book on the      
,imitation of ,jesus1 and in the work of
 ,thomas--,kempis which resembles it4   
,through a fixed contemplative communion
 with the conception of the ,christ who 
suffered and died for ,love1 they sought
 to find content in divine rest and     
self-abandonment4   #bde4 ,german       
chivalry sprang from ,feudalism4 ,the   
education of those pledged to military  
duty had become confined to practice in 
the use of arms4 ,the education of the  
chivalric vassals pursued the same      
course1 refining it gradually through   
the influence of court society and      
through poetry1 which devoted itself    
either to the relating of graceful tales
 which were really works of art1 or to  

the glorification of woman4 ,girls were 
brought up without especial care4 ,the  
boy until he was seven years old        
remained in the hands of women2 then he 
became a lad 7a young gentleman71 and   
learned the manner of offensive and     
defensive warfare1 on foot and on       
horseback2 between his sixteenth and    
eighteenth year1 through a formal       
ceremony 7the laying on of the sword71  
he was duly authorized to bear arms4    
,but whatever besides this he might wish
 to learn was left to his own caprice4  
#bdf4 ,in contradistinction to the      
monkish education1 ,chivalry placed an  
infinite value on individuality1 and    
this it expressed in its extreme        
sensibility to the feeling of honor4    
,education1 on this account1 endeavored 
to foster this reflection of the self   
upon itself by means of the social      
isolation in which it placed knighthood4
 ,the knight did not delight himself    
with common possessions1 but he sought  
for him who had been wronged1 since with

 him he could find enjoyment as a       
conqueror4 ,he did not live in simple   
marriage1 but strove for the piquant    
pleasure of making the wife of another  
the lady of his heart1 and this often   
led to moral and physical infidelity4   
,and1 finally1 the knight did not obey  
alone the general laws of knightly      
honor1 but he strove1 besides1 to       
discover for himself strange things1    
which he should undertake with his      
sword1 in defiance of all criticism1    
simply because it pleased his caprice so
 to do4 ,he sought adventures4   #bdg4  
,the reaction against the innumerable   
number of fantastic extravagancies      
arising from chivalry was the idea of   
the spiritual chivalry which was to     
unite the cloister and the town1        
abstract self-denial and military life1 
separation from the world and the       
sovereignty of the world--an undeniable 
advance1 but an untenable synthesis     
which could not prevent the dissolution 
of chivalry--this chivalry1 which1 as   

the rule of the stronger1 induced for a 
long time the destruction of all regular
 culture founded on principles1 and     
brought a period of absence of all      
education4 ,in this perversion of       
chivalry to a grand vagabondism1 and    
even to robbery1 noble souls often      
rushed into ridiculous excesses4 ,this  
decline of chivalry found its truth in  
,citizenship1 whose education1 however1 
did not1 like the ,greek3 polis and the 
civitas of the ancients1 limit itself to
 itself1 but1 through the presence of   
the principle of ,christianity1 accepted
 the whole circle of humanity as the aim
 of its culture4   ,,iii4 ,the ,epoch of
 ,education fitting one for ,civil      
,life4   #bdh4 ,the idea of the ,state  
had gradually worked itself up to a     
higher plane with trade and industry1   
and found in ,protestantism its         
spiritual confirmation4 ,protestantism1 
as the self assurance of the individual 
that he was directly related to ,god    
without any dependence on the mediation 

of any man1 rose to the truth in the    
autonomy of the soul1 and began out of  
the abstract phantasmagoria of monachism
 and chivalry to develope ,christianity1
 as the principle of humanitarian       
education1 into concrete actuality4 ,the
 cities were not merely1 in comparison  
with the clergy and the nobility1 the   
third estate2 but the citizen who       
himself managed his commonwealth1 and   
defended its interests with arms1       
developed into the citizen of a state   
which absorbed the clergy and nobility1 
and the state-citizen found his ultimate
 ideal in pure ,humanity as cognized    
through reason4   #bdi4 ,the phases of  
this development are 7#a7 ,civil        
education as such1 in which we find     
chivalric education metamorphosed into  
the so-called noble1 both however being 
controlled as to education1 within      
,catholicism by ,jesuitism1 within      
,protestantism by ,pietism4 7#b7        
,against this tendency to the church1 we
 find reacting on the one hand the      

devotion to a study of antiquity1 and on
 the other the friendly alliance to     
immediate actuality1 i4e4 with ,nature4 
,we can name these periods of           
,pedagogics those of its ideals of      
culture4 7#c7 ,but the truth of all     
culture must forever remain moral       
freedom4 ,after ,education had arrived  
at a knowledge of the meaning of        
,idealism and ,realism1 it must seize as
 its absolute aim the moral emancipation
 of man into ,humanity2 and it must     
conform its culture by this aim1 since  
technical dexterity1 friendly           
adroitness1 proficiency in the arts1 and
 scientific insight1 can attain to their
 proper rank only through moral purity4 
#a4 ,civil ,education as such4   #bej4  
,the one-sidedness of monkish and       
chivalric education was cancelled by    
civil education inasmuch as it destroyed
 the celibacy of the monk and the       
estrangement of the knight from his     
family1 doing this by means of the inner
 life of the family2 for it substituted1

 in the place of the negative emptiness 
of the duty of holiness of the celibate1
 the positive morality of marriage and  
the family2 while1 instead of the       
abstract poverty and the idleness of the
 monkish piety and of knighthood1 it    
asserted that property was the object of
 labor1 i4e4 it asserted the            
self-governed morality of civil society 
and of commerce2 and1 finally1 instead  
of the servitude of the conscience in   
unquestioning obedience to the command  
of others1 and instead of the freakish  
self-sufficiency of the caprice of the  
knights1 it demanded obedience to the   
laws of the commonwealth as representing
 his own self-conscious1 actualized1    
practical ,reason1 in which laws the    
individual can recognize and acknowledge
 himself4  --,as this civil education   
left free the sensuous enjoyment1       
freedom in this was without bounds for a
 time1 until1 after men became          
accustomed to labor and to their freedom
 of action1 the possibility of enjoyment

 created from within outward a          
moderation which sumptuary laws and     
prohibitions of gluttony1 drunkenness1  
c41 could never create from the external
 side4 ,what the monk inconsistently    
enjoyed with a bad conscience1 the      
citizen and the clergyman could take    
possession of as a gift of ,god4 ,after 
the first millennium of ,christianity1  
when the earth had not1 according to the
 current prophecies1 been destroyed1 and
 after the great plague in the          
fourteenth century1 there was felt an   
immense pleasure in living1 which       
manifested itself externally in the     
fifteenth century in delicate wines1    
dainty food1 great eating of meat1      
drinking of beer1 and1 in the domain of 
dress1 in peaked shoes1 plumes1 golden  
chains1 bells1 c4 ,there was much       
venison1 but1 as yet1 no potatoes1 tea  
and coffee1 c4 ,the feeling of men was  
quarrelsome4 ,for a more exact painting 
of the ,education of this time1 very    
valuable authors are ,sebastian ,brant1 

,th4 ,murner1 ,ulrich von ,hutten1      
,fischart1 and ,hans ,sachs4 ,gervinus  
is almost the only one who has          
understood how to make this material    
useful in its relation to spirit4--     
#bea4 ,in contrast with the             
heaven-seeking of the monks and the     
sentimental love-making of the knight1  
civil education established1 as its     
principle1 ,usefulness1 which traced out
 in things their conformity to a        
proposed end in order to gain as great a
 mastery over them as possible4 ,the    
understanding was trained with all      
exactness that it might clearly seize   
all the circumstances4 ,but since       
family-life did not allow the egotism of
 the individual ever to become as great 
as was the case with the monk and the   
knight1 and since the cheer of a        
sensuous enjoyment in cellar and        
kitchen1 in clothing and furniture1 in  
common games and in picturesque parades1
 penetrated the whole being with soft   
pleasure1 there was developed with all  

propriety and sobriety a house-morality1
 and1 with all the prose of labor1 a    
warm and kindly disposition1 which left 
room for innocent merriment and roguery1
 and found1 in conformity to religious  
services1 its serious transfiguration4  
,beautiful burgher-state1 thou wast     
weakened by the thirty years' war1 and  
hast been only accidentally preserved   
sporadically in ,old ,england and in    
some places in ,germany1 only to be at  
last swept away by the flood of modern  
world-pain1 political sophistry1 and    
anxiety for the future6   #beb4 ,the    
citizen paid special attention to public
 education1 heretofore wholly dependent 
upon the church and the cloister2 he    
organized city schools1 whose teachers1 
it is true1 for a long time compassed   
only accidental culture1 and were often 
employed only for tumultuous and short  
terms4 ,the society of the brotherhood  
of the ,hieronymites introduced a better
 system of instruction before the close 
of the fourteenth century1 but education

 had often to be obtained from the      
so-called travelling scholars 7vagantes1
 bacchantes1 scholastici1 goliardi74    
,the teachers of the so-called schol    
exteriores1 in distinction from the     
schools of the cathedral and cloister1  
were called now locati1 then            
stampuales--in ,german1                 
,kinder-,meister4 ,the institution of   
,german schools soon followed the ,latin
 city schools4 ,in order to remove the  
anarchy in school matters1 the citizens 
aided the rise of universities by       
donations and well-invested funds1 and  
sustained the street-singing of the city
 scholars 7currende71 an institution    
which was well-meant1 but which often   
failed of its end because on the one    
hand it was often misused as a mere     
means of subsistence1 and on the other  
hand the sense of honor of those to whom
 it was devoted not unfrequently became1
 through their manner of living1 lowered
 to humiliation4 ,the defect of the     
monkish method of instruction became    

ever more apparent1 e4g4 the silly      
tricks of their mnemotechnique1 the     
utter lack of anything which deserved   
the name of any practical knowledge1 c4 
,the necessity of instruction in the use
 of arms led to democratic forms4       
,printing favored the same4 ,men began  
to concern themselves about good        
text-books4 ,melanchthon was the hero of
 the ,protestant world1 and as a pattern
 was beyond his time4 ,his ,dialectics1 
,rhetoric1 ,physics1 and ,ethics1 were  
reprinted innumerable times1 commented  
upon1 and imitated4 ,after him ,amos    
,comenius1 in the seventeenth century1  
had the greatest influence through his  
,didactica ,magna and his ,janua        
,reserta4 ,in a narrower sphere1        
treating of the foundation of ,gymnasial
 ,philology1 the most noticeable is     
,sturm of ,strasburg4 ,the universities 
in ,catholic countries limited          
themselves to the ,scholastic           
,philosophy and ,theology1 together with
 which we find slowly struggling up the 

,roman ,law and the system of ,medicine 
from ,bologna and ,salerno4 ,but        
,protestantism first raised the         
university to any real universality4    
,tbingen1 ,knigsberg1 ,wittenberg1      
,jena1 ,leipzic1 ,halle1 ,gttingen1 c41 
were the first schools for the study of 
all sciences1 and for their free and    
productive pursuit4   #bec4 ,the        
,commons1 which at first appeared with  
the clergy and the nobility as the      
,third ,estate1 formed an alliance with 
monarchy1 and both together produced a  
transformation of the chivalric         
education4 ,absolutism reduced the      
knights to mere nobles1 to whom it truly
 conceded the prerogative of appointment
 as spiritual prelates as well as       
officers and counsellors of state1 but  
only on the condition of the most       
complete submission2 and then1 to       
satisfy them1 it invented the artificial
 drinking festivals1 of a splendid life 
at court1 and a temptingly-impressive   
sovereignty of beauty4 ,in this         

condition1 the education of the nobles  
was essentially changed in so far as to 
cease to be alone military4 ,to the art 
of war1 which moreover was made so very 
much milder by the invention of         
fire-arms1 must be now added an activity
 of the mind which could no longer      
dispense with some knowledge of         
,history1 ,heraldry1 ,genealogy1        
,literature1 and ,mythology4 ,since the 
,french nation soon enough gave tone to 
the style of conversation1 and after the
 time of ,louis ,,xiv4 controlled the   
politics of the continent1 the ,french  
language1 as conventional and           
diplomatic1 became a constant element in
 the education of the nobility in all   
the other countries of ,europe4         
--,practically the education of the     
noble endeavored to make the individual 
quite independent1 so that he should1 by
 means of the important quality of an   
advantageous personal appearance and the
 prudence of his agreeable behavior1    
make himself into a ruler of all other  

men1 capable of enjoying his own        
position1 i4e4 he should copy in        
miniature the manners of an absolute    
sovereign4 ,to this was added an        
empirical knowledge of men by means of  
ethical maxims1 so that they might      
discover the weak side of every man1 and
 so be able to outwit him4 ,mundus vult 
decipi1 ergo decipiatur4 ,according to  
this1 every man had his price4 ,they did
 not believe in the ,nemesis of a divine
 destiny2 on the contrary1 disbelief in 
the higher justice was taught4 ,one must
 be so elastic as to suit himself to all
 situations1 and1 as a caricature of the
 ancient ataraxy1 he must acquire as a  
second nature a manner perfectly        
indifferent to all changes1 the         
impassibility of an aristocratic repose1
 the amphibious sang-froid of the       
gentleman4 ,the man in the world as the 
man of the world sought his ideal in    
endless dissimulation1 and in this1 as  
the flowering of his culture1 he took   
the highest interest4 ,intrigue1 in love

 as well as in politics1 was the soul of
 the nobleman's existence4--  --,they   
endeavored to complete the refinement of
 manners by sending the young man away  
with a travelling tutor4 ,this was very 
good1 but degenerated at last into the  
mechanism of the foolish travelling of  
the tourist4 ,the noble was made a      
foreigner1 a stranger to his own        
country1 by means of his abode at ,paris
 or ,venice1 while the citizen gradually
 outstripped him in genuine culture4--  
#bed4 ,the education of the citizen as  
well as that of the noble was taken     
possession of1 in ,catholic countries by
 the ,jesuits1 in ,protestant countries 
by the ,pietists3 by the first1 with a  
military strictness2 by the second1 in a
 social and effeminate form4 ,both1     
however1 agreed in destroying           
individuality1 inasmuch as the one      
degraded man into a will-less machine   
for executing the commands of others1   
and the other deadened him in           
cultivating the feeling of his sinful   

worthlessness4   7a7 ,jesuitic          
,education4   #bee4 ,jesuitism combined 
the maximum of worldly freedom with an  
appearance of the greatest piety4       
,proceeding from this stand-point1 it   
devoted itself in education to elegance 
and showy knowledge1 to diplomacy and   
what was suitable and convenient in     
morals4 ,to bring the future more into  
its power1 it adapted itself not only to
 youth in general1 but especially to the
 youth of the nobler classes4 ,to please
 these1 the ,jesuits laid great stress  
upon a fine deportment4 ,in their       
colleges dancing and fencing were       
well-taught4 ,they knew how well they   
should by this course content the noble1
 who had by preference usurped the name 
of ,education for this technical way of 
giving formal expression to personality4
  --,in instruction they developed so   
exact a mechanism that they gained the  
reputation of having model school       
regulations1 and even ,protestants sent 
their children to them4 ,from the close 

of the sixteenth century to the present 
time they have based their teaching upon
 the ratio et institutio ,studiorum     
,societatis ,jesu of ,claudius          
,aquaviva1 and1 following that1 they    
distinguish two courses of teaching1 a  
higher and a lower4 ,the lower included 
nothing but an external knowledge of the
 ,latin language1 and some fortuitous   
knowledge of ,history1 of ,antiquities1 
and of ,mythology4 ,the memory was      
cultivated as a means of keeping down   
free activity of thought and clearness  
of judgment4 ,the higher course         
comprehended ,dialectics1 ,rhetoric1    
,physics1 and ,morals4 ,dialectics      
appeared in the form of ,sophistry4 ,in 
,rhetoric1 they favored the             
polemical-emphatic style of the ,african
 fathers of the ,church and their       
pompous phraseology2 in ,physics1 they  
stopped with ,aristotle1 and especially 
advised the reading of the books ,de    
,generatione et ,corruptione1 and ,de   
,coelo1 on which they commented after   

their fashion2 finally1 in ,morals      
casuistic skepticism was their central  
point4 ,they made much of ,rhetoric on  
account of their sermons1 giving to it  
much attention1 and introduced          
especially ,declamation4 ,contriving    
showy public examinations under the     
guise of ,latin ,school ,comedies1 they 
thus amused the public1 disposed them to
 approval1 and at the same time quite   
innocently practised the pupil in       
dissimulation4--  --,diplomacy in       
behavior was made necessary to the      
,jesuits as well by their strict        
military discipline as by their system  
of reciprocal mistrust1 espionage1 and  
informing4 ,abstract obedience was a    
reason for any act of the pupils1 and   
they were freed from all responsibility 
as to its moral justification4 ,this    
empirical exact following out of all    
commands1 and refraining from any       
criticism as to principles1 created a   
moral indifference1 and1 from the       
necessity of having consideration for   

the peculiarities and caprices of the   
superior on whom all others were        
dependent1 arose eye-service1 and the   
coldness of isolation sprang from the   
necessity which each felt of being on   
his guard against every other as against
 a tale-bearer4 ,the most deliberate    
hypocrisy and pleasure in intrigue      
merely for the sake of intrigue--this   
most refined poison of moral            
corruption--were the result4 ,jesuitism 
had not only an interest in the material
 profit1 which1 when it had corrupted   
souls1 fell to its share1 but it also   
had an interest in the process of       
corruption4 ,with absolute indifference 
as to the idea of morality1 and absolute
 indifference as to the moral quality of
 the means used to attain its end1 it   
rejoiced in the superiority of secrecy1 
of the accomplished and calculating     
understanding1 and in deceiving the     
credulous by means of its graceful1     
seemingly-perfect1 moral language4--    
--,it is not necessary to speak here of 

the morality of the ,order4 ,it is      
sufficiently recognized as the          
contradiction1 that the idea of morality
 insists upon the eternal necessity of  
every deed1 but that in the realizing of
 the action all determinations should be
 made relative and should vary with the 
circumstances4 ,as to discipline1 they  
were always guided by their fundamental 
principle1 that body and soul1 as in and
 for themselves one1 could vicariously  
suffer for each other4 ,thus penitence  
and contrition were transformed into a  
perfect materialism of outward actions1 
and hence arose the punishments of the  
,order1 in which fasting1 scourging1    
imprisonment1 mortification1 and death1 
were formed into a mechanical artificial
 system4--   7b7 ,pietistic ,education4 
#bef4 ,jesuitism would make machines of 
man1 ,pietism would dissolve him in the 
feeling of his sinfulness3 either would 
destroy his individuality4 ,pietism     
proceeded from the principle of         
,protestantism1 as1 in the place of the 

,catholic ,pelagianism with its         
sanctification by works1 it offered     
justication by faith alone4 ,in its     
tendency to internality was its just    
claim4 ,it would have even the letters  
of the ,bible translated into the       
vivacity of sentiment4 ,but in its      
execution it fell into the error of     
one-sidedness in that it placed1 instead
 of the actuality of the spirit and its 
freedom1 the confusion of a limited     
personality1 placing in its stead the   
personality of ,christ in an external   
manner1 and thus brought back into the  
very midst of ,protestantism the        
principle of monachism--an abstract     
renunciation of the world4 ,since       
,protestantism has destroyed the idea of
 the cloister1 it could produce         
estrangement from the world only by     
exciting public opinion against such    
elements of society and culture which it
 stigmatized as worldly for its members1
 e4g4 card-playing1 dancing1 the        
theatre1 c4 ,thus it became negatively  

dependent upon works2 for since its     
followers remained in reciprocal action 
with the world1 so that the temptation  
to backsliding was a permanent one1 it  
must watch over them1 exercise an       
indispensable moral-police control over 
them1 and thus1 by the suspicion of each
 other which was involved1 take up into 
itself the ,jesuitical practice1        
although in a very mild and affectionate
 way4 ,instead of the forbidden secrecy 
of the cloister1 it organized a separate
 company1 which we1 in its regularly    
constituted assembly1 call a            
conventicle4 ,instead of the cowl1 it   
put on its youth a dress like that of   
the world1 but scant and ashen-colored2 
it substituted for the tonsure          
closely-cut hair and shaven beard1 and  
it often went beyond the obedience of   
the monks in its expression of pining   
humility and prudish composure4         
,education within such a circle could   
not well recognize nature and history as
 manifestations of ,god1 but it must    

consider them to be limitations to their
 union with ,god1 from which death can  
first then completely release them4 ,the
 soul which knew that its home could be 
found only in the future world1 must    
feel itself to be a stranger upon the   
earth1 and from such an opinion there   
must arise an indifference and even a   
contempt for science and art1 as well as
 an aversion for a life of active labor1
 though an unwilling and forced tribute 
might be paid to it4 ,philosophy        
especially was to be shunned as         
dangerous4 ,bible lectures1 the         
catechism and the hymn-book1 were the   
one thing needful to the poor in spirit4
 ,religious poetry and music were1 of   
all the arts1 the only ones deserving of
 any cultivation4 ,the education of     
,pietism endeavored1 by means of a      
carefully arranged series of            
representations1 to create in its       
disciples the feeling of their absolute 
nothingness1 vileness1 godlessness1 and 
abandonment by ,god1 in order to        

displace the torment of despair as to   
themselves and the world by a warm1     
dramatic1 and living relation to        
,christ--a relation in which all the    
,eroticism of the mystical passion of   
the begging-friars was renewed in a     
somewhat milder form and with a strong  
tendency to a sentimental sweetishness4 
#b4 ,the ,ideal of ,culture4   #beg4    
,civil ,education arose from the        
recognition of marriage and the family1 
of labor and enjoyment1 of the equality 
of all before the ,law1 and of the duty 
of self-determination4 ,jesuitism in the
 ,catholic world and ,pietism in the    
,protestant were the reaction against   
this recognition--a return into the     
abstract asceticism of the middle ages1 
not however in its purity1 but mixed    
with some regard for worldly            
possessions4 ,in opposition to this     
reaction the commonwealth produced      
another1 in which it undertook to       
deliver individuality by means of a     
reversed alienation4 ,on the one hand1  

it absorbed itself in the conception of 
the ,greek-,roman world4 ,in the        
practical interests of the present1 it  
externalized man in a past which held to
 the present no immediate relation1 or  
it externalized him in the affairs which
 were to serve him as means of his      
comfort and enjoyment2 it created an    
abstract idealism--a reproduction of the
 old view of the world--or an abstract  
,realism in a high appreciation of      
things which should be considered of    
value only as a means4 ,in one          
direction1 ,individuality proceeded     
towards a dead nationality2 in the      
other1 towards an unlimited             
world-commonwealth4 ,in one case1 the   
ideal was the sthetic republicanism of  
the ,greeks2 in the other1 the          
utilitarian cosmopolitanism of the      
,romans4 ,but1 in considering the given 
circumstances1 both united in the       
feeling of humanity1 with its           
reconciliatory and pitying gentleness   
toward the beggar or the criminal4   7a7

 ,the ,humanitarian ,ideal4   #beh4 ,the
 ,oriental-theocratic education is      
immanent in ,christian education through
 the ,bible4 ,through the mediation of  
the ,greek and ,roman churches the views
 of the ancient world were subsumed but 
not entirely subdued4 ,to accomplish    
this was the problem of humanitarian    
education4 ,it aimed to teach the ,latin
 and ,greek languages1 expecting thus to
 secure the action of a purely humane   
disposition4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans   
being sharply marked nationalities1 how 
could one cherish such expectations8 ,it
 was possible only relatively in        
contradiction1 partly to a provincial   
population from whom all genuine        
political sense had departed1 partly to 
a church limited by a confessional1 to  
which the idea of humanity as such had  
become almost lost in dogmatic          
fault-findings4 ,the spirit was         
refreshed in the first by the           
contemplation of the pure patriotism of 
the ancients1 and in the second by the  

discovery of ,reason among the heathen4 
,in contrast to formlessness distracted 
by the want of all ideal of culture of  
provincialism and dogmatic confusions1  
we find the power of representation of  
ancient art4 ,the so-called uselessness 
of learning dead languages imparted to  
the mind1 it knew not how1 an ideal     
drift4 ,the very fact that it could not 
find immediate profit in its knowledge  
gave it the consciousness of a higher   
value than material profit4 ,the ideal  
of the ,humanities was the truth to     
,nature which was found in the          
thought-painters of the ancient world4  
,the study of language merely with      
regard to its form1 must lead one       
involuntarily to the actual seizing of  
its content4 ,the ,latin schools were   
fashioned into ,gymnasia1 and the       
universities contained not merely       
professors of ,eloquence1 but also      
teachers of ,philology4   7b7 ,the      
,philanthropic ,ideal4   #bei4 ,the     
humanitarian tendency reached its       

extreme in the abstract forgetting of   
the present1 and the omitting to notice 
its just claim4 ,man discovered at last 
that he was not at home with himself in 
,rome and ,athens4 ,he spoke and wrote  
,latin1 if not like ,cicero1 at least   
like ,muretius1 but he often found      
himself awkward in expressing his       
meaning in his mother-tongue4 ,he was   
often very learned1 but he lacked       
judgment4 ,he was filled with enthusiasm
 for the republicanism of ,greece and   
,rome1 and yet at the same time was     
himself exceedingly servile to his      
excellent and august lords4 ,against    
this gradual deadening of active        
individuality1 the result of a perverted
 study of the classics1 we find now     
reacting the education of enlightenment1
 which we generally call the            
philanthropic4 ,it sought to make men   
friendly to the immediate course of the 
world4 ,it placed over against the      
learning of the ancient languages for   
their own sake1 the acquisition of the  

more needful branches of ,mathematics1  
,physics1 ,geography1 ,history1 and the 
modern languages1 calling these the real
 studies4 ,nevertheless it often        
retained the instruction in the ,latin  
language because the ,romance languages 
have sprung from it1 and because1       
through its long domination1 the        
universal terminology of ,science1 ,art1
 and ,law1 is rooted in it4             
,philanthropy desired to develope the   
social side of its disciple through an  
abstract of practical knowledge and     
personal accomplishments1 and to lead   
him again1 in opposition to the         
hermit-like sedentary life of the       
book-pedant1 out into the fields and the
 woods4 ,it desired to imitate life even
 in its method1 and to instruct         
pleasantly in the way of play or by     
dialogue4 ,it would add to the simple   
letters and names the contemplation of  
the object itself1 or at least of its   
representation by pictures2 and in this 
direction1 in the                       

conversation-literature which it        
prepared for children1 it sometimes fell
 into childishness4 ,it performed a     
great service when it gave to the body  
its due1 and introduced simple1 natural 
dress1 bathing1 gymnastics1 pedestrian  
excursions1 and a hardening against the 
influences of wind and weather4 ,as this
 ,pedagogics1 so friendly to children1  
deemed that it could not soon enough    
begin to honor them as citizens of the  
world1 it was guilty in general of the  
error of presupposing as already        
finished in its children much that it   
itself should have gradually developed2 
and as it wished to educate the         
,european as such1 or rather man as     
such1 it came into an indifference      
concerning the concrete distinctions of 
nationality and religion4 ,it coincided 
with the philologists in placing1 in a  
concealed way1 ,socrates above ,christ1 
because he had worked no miracles1 and  
taught only morality4 ,in such a dead   
cosmopolitanism1 individuality          

disappeared in the indeterminateness of 
a general humanity1 and saw itself      
forced to agree with the humanistic     
education in proclaiming the truth of   
,nature as the pedagogical ideal1 with  
the distinction1 that while ,humanism   
believed this ideal realized in the     
,greeks and ,romans1 ,philanthropism    
found itself compelled to presuppose an 
abstract notion1 and often manifested a 
not unjustifiable pleasure in           
recognizing in the ,indians of ,north   
,america1 or of ,otaheite1 the genuine  
man of nature4 ,philosophy first raised 
these conceptions to the idea of the    
,state1 which fashioned the cognition of
 ,reason and of the reform which follows
 from its idea1 into an organic element 
in itself4  --,the course which the     
developing of the philanthropic ideal   
has taken is as follows3 7#a7 ,rousseau 
in his writings1 ,emile and the         
,nouvelle ,heloise1 first preached the  
evangel of ,natural ,education1 the     
abstraction from ,history1 the negation 

of existing culture1 and the return to  
the simplicity and innocence of nature4 
,although he often himself testified in 
his experience his own proneness to evil
 in a very discouraging way1 he fixed as
 an almost unlimited axiom in ,french   
and ,german ,pedagogics his principal   
maxim1 that man is by nature good4 7#b7 
,the reformatory ideas of ,rousseau met 
with only a very infrequent and sporadic
 introduction among the ,romanic        
nations1 because among them education   
was too dependent on the church1 and    
retained its cloister-like seclusion in 
seminaries1 colleges1 c4 ,in ,germany1  
on the contrary1 it was actualized1 and 
the ,philanthropia1 established by      
,basedow in ,dessau1 ,brunswick1 and    
,schnepfenthal1 made experiments1 which 
nevertheless very soon departed somewhat
 from the ultraism of ,basedow and had  
very excellent results4 7#c7 ,humanity  
existed in concreto only in the form of 
nations4 ,the ,french nation1 in their  
revolution1 tried the experiment of     

abstracting from their history1 of      
levelling all distinctions of culture1  
of enthroning a despotism of ,reason1   
and of organizing itself as humanity1   
pure and simple4 ,the event showed the  
impossibility of such a beginning4 ,the 
national energy1 the historical impulse1
 the love of art and science1 came forth
 from the midst of the revolutionary    
abstraction1 which was opposed to them1 
only the more vigorously4 ,the grande   
nation1 their grande arme1 and          
gloire--that is to say1 for             
,france--absorbed all the humanitarian  
phases4 ,in ,germany the philanthropic  
circle of education was limited to the  
higher ranks4 ,there was no             
exclusiveness in the ,philanthropia1 for
 there nobles and citizens1 ,catholics  
and ,protestants1 ,russians and ,swiss1 
were mingled2 but these were always the 
children of wealthy families1 and to    
these the plan of education was adapted4
 ,then appeared ,pestalozzi and directed
 education also to the lower classes of 

society--those which are called1 not    
without something approaching to a      
derogatory meaning1 the people4 ,from   
this time dates popular education1 the  
effort for the intellectual and moral   
elevation of the hitherto neglected     
atomistic human being of the            
non-property-holding multitude4 ,there  
shall in future be no dirty1 hungry1    
ignorant1 awkward1 thankless1 and       
will-less mass1 devoted alone to an     
animal existence4 ,we can never rid     
ourselves of the lower classes by having
 the wealthy give something1 or even    
their all1 to the poor1 so as to have no
 property themselves2 but we can rid    
ourselves of it in the sense that the   
possibility of culture and independent  
self-support shall be open to every one1
 because he is a human being and a      
citizen of the commonwealth4 ,ignorance 
and rudeness and the vice which springs 
from them1 and the malevolent frame of  
mind against the human race1 which are  
bound up with crime--these shall        

disappear4 ,education shall train man to
 self-conscious obedience to law1 as    
well as to kindly feeling towards the   
erring1 and to an effort not merely for 
their removal but for their improvement4
 ,but the more ,pestalozzi endeavored to
 realize his ideal of human dignity1 the
 more he comprehended that the isolated 
power of a private man could not attain 
it1 but that the nation itself must make
 their own education their first        
business4 ,fichte by his lectures first 
made the ,german nation fully accept    
these thoughts1 and ,prussia was the    
first state which1 by her public schools
 and her conscious preparation for      
defence1 broke the path for ,national   
,education2 while among the ,romanic    
nations1 in spite of their more         
elaborate political formalism1 it still 
depends partly upon the church and      
partly upon the accident of private     
enterprise4 ,pestalozzi also laid a     
foundation for a national pedagogical   
literature by his story of ,leonard and 

,gertrude4 ,this book appeared at first 
in #aghd1 i4e4 in the same year in which
 ,schiller's ,robbers and ,kant's       
,critique of ,pure ,reason announced a  
new phase in the ,drama and in          
,philosophy4--  --,the incarnation of   
,god1 which was1 up to the time of the  
,reformation1 an esoteric mystery of the
 ,church1 has since then become         
continually more and more an exoteric   
problem of the ,state4--   #c4 ,free    
,education4   #bfj4 ,the ideal of       
culture of the humanitarian and the     
philanthropic education was taken up    
into the conception of an education     
which recognizes the ,family1 social    
caste1 the ,nation1 and ,religion1 as   
positive elements of the practical      
spirit1 but which will know each of     
these as determined from within through 
the idea of humanity1 and laid open for 
reciprocal dialectic with the rest4     
,physical development shall become the  
subject of a national system of         
gymnastics fashioned for use1 and       

including in itself the knowledge of the
 use of arms4 ,instruction shall1 in    
respect to the general encyclopdic      
culture1 be the same for all1 and       
parallel to this shall run a system of  
special schools to prepare for the      
special avocations of life4 ,the method 
of instruction shall be the simple      
representation of the special idea of   
the subject1 and no longer the formal   
breadth of an acquaintance with many    
subjects which may find outside the     
school its opportunity1 but within it   
has no meaning except as the history of 
a science or an art4 ,moral culture must
 be combined with family affection and  
the knowledge of the laws of the        
commonwealth1 so that the dissension    
between individual morality and         
objective legality may ever more and    
more disappear4 ,education shall1       
without estranging the individual from  
the internality of the family1 accustom 
him more and more to public life1       
because criticism of this is the only   

thing which can prevent the cynicism of 
private life1 the half-ness of knowledge
 and will1 and the spirit of caste1     
which has so extensively prevailed4 ,the
 individual shall be educated into a    
self-consciousness of the essential     
equality and freedom of all men1 so that
 he shall recognize and acknowledge     
himself in each one and in all4 ,but    
this essential and solid unity of all   
men shall not evaporate into the        
insipidity of a humanity without        
distinctions1 but instead it shall      
realize the form of a determinate       
individuality and nationality1 and shall
 enlighten the idiosyncrasy of its      
nation into a broad humanity4 ,the      
unrestricted striving after ,beauty1    
,truth1 and ,freedom1 actually through  
its own strength and immediately1 not   
merely mediately through ecclesiastical 
consecration1 will become ,religion4    
,the ,education of the ,state must rise 
to a preparation for the unfettered     
activity of self-conscious ,humanity4   

,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education4    ,a 
,,paraphrase ,,of ,,dr4 ,,karl          
,,rosenkranz',s   ,,paedagogik ,,als    
,,system4    ,,by ,,anna ,c4 ,,brackett4
    ,,st4 ,,louis3   ,g4 ,i4 ,,jones    
,,and ,,company4   #ahgh4     ,entered  
according to ,act of ,congress1 in the  
year #ahgh1 by   ,,william ,t4 ,,harris1
   ,in the office of the ,librarian of  
,congress1 at ,washington4   ,,preface4 
,the translation of ,pedagogics as a    
,system was prepared and published five 
years ago4 ,the wide demand for it that 
has made itself known since that time1  
especially in normal schools1 has proved
 the value of such works in the domain  
of education4 ,at the same time1 the    
difficulty the students have always     
found in its use--a difficulty          
inseparable from any translation of a   
,german metaphysical treatise--has led  
us to the conviction that a paraphrase  
into a more easily understood form is a 
necessity1 if the thought of ,rosenkranz
 is to be appropriated by the very class

 who are most in need of it4 ,as was    
remarked in the preface to the          
translation1 we have in ,english no     
other work of similar size which        
contains so much that is valuable to    
those engaged in the work of education4 
,it is no compendium of rules or        
formulas1 but rather a systematic1      
logical treatment of the subject1 in    
which the attention is1 as it were1     
concentrated upon the whole problem of  
education1 while that problem is allowed
 to work itself out before us4 ,to      
paraphrase the text--or1 rather1 to     
translate it from the metaphysical      
language in which it at present appears 
into a language more easy of            
comprehension--without losing the real  
significance of the statements1 is the  
task which is here undertaken4 ,free    
illustrations and suggestions have been 
interwoven to give point and application
 to the thoughts and principles stated4 
,this translation1 or paraphrase1       
follows the paragraphs of the original  

and of the first translation4 ,the      
analysis of the whole work1 as it       
appeared in the original translation1 is
 appended at the end of the             
,introduction1 as a guide to the        
student4     ,,the ,,science ,,of       
,,education4   ,,introduction4   #a4    
,the science of ,pedagogics may be      
called a secondary science1 inasmuch as 
it derives its principles from others4  
,in this respect it differs from        
,mathematics1 which is independent4 ,as 
it concerns the development of the human
 intelligence1 it must wait upon        
,psychology for an understanding of that
 upon which it is to operate1 and1 as   
its means are to be sciences and arts1  
it must wait upon them for a knowledge  
of its materials4 ,the science of       
,medicine1 in like manner1 is dependent 
on the sciences of ,biology1 ,chemistry1
 ,physics1 etc4 ,moreover1 as ,medicine 
may have to deal with a healthy or      
unhealthy body1 and may have it for its 
province to preserve or restore health1 

to assist a natural process 7as in the  
case of a broken bone71 or to destroy an
 unnatural one 7as in the case of the   
removal of a tumor71 the same variety of
 work is imposed upon ,education4#a     
#b4 ,since the rules of ,pedagogics must
 be extremely flexible1 so that they may
 be adapted to the great variety of     
minds1 and since an infinite variety of 
circumstances may arise in their        
application1 we find1 as we should      
expect1 in all educational literature   
room for widely differing opinions and  
the wildest theories2 these numerous    
theories1 each of which may have a      
strong influence for a season1 only to  
be overthrown and replaced by others4#b 
,it must be acknowledged that           
educational literature1 as such1 is not 
of a high order4 ,it has its cant like  
religious literature4 ,many of its      
faults1 however1 are the result of      
honest effort1 on the part of teachers1 
to remedy existing defects1 and the     
authors are1 therefore1 not harshly to  

be blamed4 ,it is also to be remembered 
that the habit of giving reproof and    
advice is one fastened in them by the   
daily necessity of their professional   
work4#c   #c4 ,as the position of the   
teacher has ceased to be undervalued1   
there has been an additional impetus    
given to self-glorification on his part1
 and this also--in connection with the  
fact that schools are no longer isolated
 as of old1 but subject to constant     
comparison and competition--leads to    
much careless theorizing among its      
teachers1 especially in the literary    
field4   #d4 ,pedagogics1 because it    
deals with the human spirit1 belongs1 in
 a general classification of the        
sciences1 to the philosophy of spirit1  
and in the philosophy of spirit it must 
be classified under the practical1 and  
not the merely theoretical1 division4   
,for its problem is not merely to       
comprehend the nature of that with which
 it has to deal1 the human spirit--its  
problem is not merely to influence one  

mind 7that of the pupil7 by another     
7that of the teacher7--but to influence 
it in such a way as to produce the      
mental freedom of the pupil4 ,the       
problem is1 therefore1 not so much to   
obtain performed works as to excite     
mental activity4 ,a creative process is 
required4 ,the pupil is to be forced to 
go in certain beaten tracks1 and yet he 
is to be so forced to go in these that  
he shall go of his own freewill4 ,all   
teaching which does not leave the mind  
of the pupil free is unworthy of the    
name4 ,it is true that the teacher must 
understand the nature of mind1 as he is 
to deal with mind1 but when he has done 
this he has still his main principle of 
action unsolved2 for the question is1   
knowing the nature of the mind1 ,how    
shall he incite it to action1 already   
predetermined in his own mind1 without  
depriving the mind of the pupil of its  
own free action8 ,how shall he restrain 
and guide1 and yet not enslave8  ,if1 in
 classifying all sciences1 as suggested 

at the beginning of this section1 we    
should subdivide the practical division 
of the ,philosophy of ,spirit1 which    
might be called ,ethics1 one could find 
a place for ,pedagogics under some one  
of the grades of ,ethics4 ,the education
 which the child receives through the   
influence of family life lies at the    
basis of all other teaching1 and what   
the child learns of life1 its duties1   
and possibilities1 in its own home1     
forms the foundation for all after-work4
 ,on the life of the family1 then1 as a 
presupposition1 all systems of          
,education must be built4 ,in other     
words1 the school must not attempt to   
initiate the child into the knowledge of
 the world--it must not assume the care 
of its first training2 that it must     
leave to the family4#d ,but the science 
of ,pedagogics does not1 as a science1  
properly concern itself with the family 
education1 or with that point of the    
child's life which is dominated by the  
family influence4 ,that is education1 in

 a certain sense1 without doubt1 but it 
does not properly belong to a science of
 ,pedagogics4 ,but1 on the other hand1  
it must be remembered that this science1
 as here expounded1 presupposes a       
previous family life in the human being 
with whom it has to deal4   #e4         
,education as a science will present the
 necessary and universal principles on  
which it is based2 ,education as an art 
will consist in the practical           
realization of these in the teacher's   
work in special places1 under special   
circumstances1 and with special pupils4 
,in the skillful application of the     
principles of the science to the actual 
demands of the art lies the opportunity 
for the educator to prove himself a     
creative artist2 and it is in the       
difficulty involved in this practical   
work that the interest and charm of the 
educator's work consists4  ,the teacher 
must thus adapt himself to the pupil4   
,but1 in doing so1 he must have a care  
that he do not carry this adaptation to 

such a degree as to imply that the pupil
 is not to change2 and he must see to   
it1 also1 that the pupil shall always be
 worked upon by the matter which he is  
considering1 and not too much by the    
personal influence of the teacher       
through whom he receives it4#e   #f4    
,the utmost care is necessary lest      
experiments which have proved successful
 in certain cases should be generalized 
into rules1 and a formal1 dead creed1 so
 to speak1 should be adopted4 ,all      
professional experiences are valuable as
 material on which to base new          
conclusions and to make new plans1 but  
only for that use4 ,unless the day's    
work is1 every day1 a new creation1 a   
fatal error has been made4   #g4        
,pedagogics as a science must consider  
,education--    7#a7 ,in its general    
idea2    7#b7 ,in its different phases2 
7#c7 ,in the special systems arising    
from this general idea1   acting under  
special circumstances at special        
times4#f   #h4 ,with regard to the      

,first ,part1 we remark that by         
,education1 in its general idea1 we do  
not mean any mere history of            
,pedagogics1 nor can any history of     
,pedagogics be substituted for a        
systematic exposition of the underlying 
idea4   #i4 ,the second division        
considers ,education under three        
heads--as physical1 intellectual1 and   
moral--and forms1 generally1 the        
principal part of all pedagogical       
treatises4  ,in this part lies the      
greatest difficulty as to exact         
limitation4 ,the ideas on these         
divisions are often undefined and apt to
 be confounded1 and the detail of which 
they are capable is almost unlimited1   
for we might1 under this head1 speak of 
all kinds of special schools1 such as   
those for war1 art1 mining1 etc4   #aj4 
,in the ,third ,part we consider the    
different realizations of the one       
general idea of ,pedagogics as it has   
developed itself under different        
circumstances and in different ages of  

the world4  ,the general idea is forced 
into different phases by the varying    
physical1 intellectual1 and moral       
conditions of men4 ,the result is the   
different systems1 as shown in the      
analysis4 ,the general idea is one4 ,the
 view of the end to be obtained         
determines in each case the             
actualization of this idea4 ,hence the  
different systems of ,education are each
 determined by the stand-point from     
which the general ideal is viewed4      
,proceeding in this manner1 it might be 
possible to construct a history of      
,pedagogics1  priori1 without reference 
to actual history1 since all the        
possible systems might be inferred from 
the possible definite number of points  
of view4  ,each lower stand-point will  
lead to a higher1 but it will not be    
lost in it4 ,thus1 where ,education1 for
 the sake of the nation1#g merges into  
the ,education based on ,christianity1  
the form is not thereby destroyed1 but1 
rather1 in the transition first attains 

its full realization4 ,the systems of   
,education which were based on the idea 
of the nation had1 in the fullness of   
time1 outgrown their own limits1 and    
needed a new form in order to contain   
their own true idea4 ,the idea of the   
nation1 as the highest principle1 gives 
way for that of ,christianity4 ,a new   
life came to the old idea in what at    
first seemed to be its destruction4 ,the
 idea of the nation was born again1 and 
not destroyed1 in ,christianity4   #aa4 
,the final system1 so far1 is that of   
the present time1 which thus is itself  
the fruit of all the past systems1 as   
well as the seed of all systems that are
 to be4 ,the science of ,pedagogics1 in 
the consideration of the system of the  
present1 thus again finds embodied the  
general idea of education1 and thus     
returns upon itself to the point from   
whence it set out4 ,in the ,first and   
,second ,parts there is already given   
the idea which dominates the system     
found thus necessarily existing in the  

present4        ,,first ,,part4    ,its 
,nature4      ,in its ,general ,its     
,form4        ,idea4        ,its        
,limits4            ,,second ,,part4    
,physical4      ,in its ,special        
,intellectual4        ,elements4        
,moral4                                 
,family     ,china4                     
,passive4    ,caste      ,india4        
,monkish    ,thibet4                    
,military   ,persia4                    
,national4 ,active      ,priestly       
,egypt4                                 
,industrial ,phoenicia4                 
sthetic    ,greece4   ,e                
,individual4 ,practical   ,rome4   ,d   
,abstract   ,northern4   ,u             
,individual ,barbarians4   ,c           
,a               ,theocratic4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4  ,jews4   ,t                
,i               ,monkish4   ,o  ,,third
 ,,part4     ,n  ,in its                
,particular         ,systems4           
,chivalric4                             
,humanitarian4 ,for ,special  ,jesuitic4

                                        
,callings4   ,pietistic4                
,the                                    
,humanistic4                   ,for     
,civil     ,to achieve                  
,life4        an ,ideal of ,the         
,culture4    ,philanthropic             
,movement4                              
,for ,free ,citizenship4     ,,first    
,,part4  ,the ,general ,idea of         
,education4    #ab4 ,a full treatment of
 ,pedagogics must distinguish--    7#a7 
,the nature of ,education2    7#b7 ,the 
form of ,education2    7#c7 ,the limits 
of ,education4   ,i4--,the ,nature of   
,education4   #ac4 ,the nature of       
,education is determined by the nature  
of mind1 the distinguishing mark of     
which is that it can be developed only  
from within1 and by its own activity4   
,mind is essentially free--i4e41 it has 
the capacity for freedom--but it cannot 
be said to possess freedom till it has  
obtained it by its own voluntary effort4
 ,till then it cannot be truly said to  

be free4 ,education consists in enabling
 a human being to take possession of1   
and to develop himself by1 his own      
efforts1 and the work of the educator   
cannot be said to be done in any sense  
where this is not accomplished4 ,in     
general1 we may say that the work of    
education consists in leading to a full 
development of all the inherent powers  
of the mind1 and that its work is done  
when1 in this way1 the mind has attained
 perfect freedom1 or the state in which 
alone it can be said to be truly        
itself4#h  ,the isolated human being can
 never become truly man4 ,if such human 
beings 7like the wild girl of the forest
 of ,ardennes7 have been found1 they    
have only proved to us that reciprocal  
action with our fellow beings is        
necessary for the development of our    
powers4 ,caspar ,hauser1 in his         
subterranean prison1 will serve as an   
example of what man would be without    
men4 ,one might say that this fact is   
typified by the first cry of the        

newly-born child4 ,it is as if the first
 expression of its seemingly independent
 life were a cry for help from others4  
,on the side of nature the human being  
is at first quite helpless4   #ad4 ,man 
is1 therefore1 the only proper object of
 education4 ,it is true that we speak of
 the education of plants and of animals1
 but we instinctively apply other terms 
when we do so1 for we say raising       
plants1 and training animals4 ,when we  
train or break an animal1 it is true    
that we do1 by pain or pleasure1 lead   
him into an exercise of a new activity4 
,but the difference between this and    
,education consists in the fact that1   
though he possessed capacity1 yet by no 
amount of association with his kind     
would he ever have acquired this new    
development4 ,it is as if we impress    
upon his plastic nature the imprint of  
our loftier nature1 which imprint he    
takes mechanically1 and does not himself
 recognize it as his own internal       
nature4 ,we train him for our           

recognition1 not for his own4 ,but1 on  
the contrary1 when we educate a human   
being1 we only excite him to create for 
himself1 and out of himself1 that for   
which he would most earnestly strive had
 he any appreciation of it beforehand1  
and in proportion as he does appreciate 
it he recognizes it joyfully as a part  
of himself1 as his own inheritance1     
which he appropriates with a knowledge  
that it is his1 or1 rather1 is a part of
 his own nature4 ,he who speaks of      
raising human beings uses language which
 belongs only to the slave-dealer1 to   
whom human beings are only cattle for   
labor1 and whose property increases in  
value with the number4  ,are there no   
school-rooms where ,education has ceased
 to have any meaning1 and where physical
 pain is made to produce its only       
possible result--a mechanical1 external 
repetition8 ,the school-rooms where the 
creative word--the only thing which can 
influence the mind--has ceased to be    
used as the means are only plantations1 

where human beings are degraded to the  
position of lower animals4   #ae4 ,when 
we speak of the ,education of the human 
race1 we mean the gradual growth of the 
nations of the earth1 as a whole1       
towards the realization of              
self-conscious freedom4 ,divine         
,providence is the teacher here4 ,the   
means by which the development is       
effected are the various circumstances  
and actions of the different races of   
men1 and the pupils are the nations4    
,the unfolding of this great ,education 
is generally treated of under the head  
of ,philosophy of ,history4   #af4      
,education1 however1 in a more          
restricted sense1 has to do with the    
shaping of the individual4 ,each one of 
us is to be educated by the laws of     
physical nature--by the relations into  
which we come with the national life1 in
 its laws1 customs1 etc41 and by the    
circumstances which daily surround us4  
,by the force of these we find our      
arbitrary will hemmed in1 modified1 and 

forced to take new channels and forms4  
,we are too often unmindful of the power
 with which these forces are daily and  
hourly educating us--i4e41 calling out  
our possibilities into real existence4  
,if we set up our will in opposition to 
either of these2 if we act in opposition
 to the laws of nature2 if we seriously 
offend the laws1 or even the customs1 of
 the people among whom we live2 or if we
 despise our individual lot1 we do so   
only to find ourselves crushed in the   
encounter4 ,we only learn the impotence 
of the individual against these mighty  
powers2 and that discovery is1 of       
itself1 a part of our education4 ,it is 
sometimes only by such severe means that
 ,god is revealed to the man who        
persistently misunderstands and defies  
,his creation4 ,all suffering brought on
 ourselves by our own violation of laws1
 whether natural1 ethical1 or divine1   
must be1 however1 thus recognized as the
 richest blessing4 ,we do not mean to   
say that it is never allowable for a    

man1 in obedience to the highest laws of
 his spiritual being1 to break away from
 the fetters of nature--to offend the   
ethical sense of his own people1 or to  
struggle against the might of destiny4  
,reformers and martyrs would be examples
 of such1 and our remarks above do not  
apply to them1 but to the perverse1 the 
frivolous1 and the conceited2 to those  
who are seeking in their action1 not the
 undoubted will of ,god1 but their own  
individual will or caprice4   #ag4 ,but 
we generally use the word ,education in 
a still narrower sense than either of   
these1 for we mean by it the working of 
one individual mind upon or within      
another in some definite and            
premeditated way1 so as to fit the pupil
 for life generally1 or for some special
 pursuit4 ,for this end the educator    
must be relatively finished in his own  
education1 and the pupil must possess   
confidence in him1 or docility4 ,he must
 be teachable4 ,that the work be        
successful1 demands the very highest    

degree of talent1 knowledge1 skill1 and 
prudence2 and any development is        
impossible if a well-founded authority  
be wanting in the educator1 or docility 
on the part of the pupil4  ,education1  
in this narrowest and technical sense1  
is an outgrowth of city or urban life4  
,as long as men do not congregate in    
large cities1 the three forces spoken of
 in  #af--;i4e41 the forces of nature1  
national customs1 and                   
circumstances--will be left to perform  
most of the work of ,education2 but1 in 
modern city life1 the great complication
 of events1 the uncertainty in the      
results--though careful forethought has 
been used--the immense development of   
individuality1 and the pressing need of 
various information1 break the power of 
custom1 and render a different method   
necessary4 ,the larger the city is1 the 
more free is the individual in it from  
the restraints of customs1 the less     
subjected to curious criticism1 and the 
more able is he to give play to his own 

idiosyncrasies4 ,this1 however1 is a    
freedom which needs the counterpoise of 
a more exact training in                
conventionalities1 if we would not have 
it dangerous4 ,hence the rapid          
multiplication of educational           
institutions and systems in modern times
 7one chief characteristic of which is  
the development of urban life74 ,the    
ideal ,telemachus of ,fenelon differs   
very much from the real ,telemachus of  
history4 ,fenelon proposed an education 
which trained a youth to reflect1 and to
 guide himself by reason4 ,the          
,telemachus of the heroic age followed  
the customs 7use and wont7 of his times 
with nave obedience4 ,the systems of    
,education once sufficient do not serve 
the needs of modern life1 any more than 
the defenses once sufficient against    
hostile armies are sufficient against   
the new weapons adopted by modern       
warfare4   #ah4 ,the problem with which 
modern ,education has to deal may be    
said1 in general terms1 to be the       

development in the individual soul of   
the indwelling ,reason1 both practical  
7as will7 and theoretical 7as           
intellect74 ,to make a child good is    
only a part of ,education2 we have also 
to develop his intelligence4 ,the       
sciences of ,ethics and ,education are  
not the same4 ,again1 we must not forget
 that no pupil is simply a human being1 
like every other human being2 he is also
 an individual1 and thus differs from   
every other one of the race4 ,this is a 
point which must never be lost sight of 
by the educator4 ,human beings may      
be--nay1 must be--educated in company1  
but they cannot be educated simply in   
the mass4   #ai4 ,education is to lead  
the pupil by a graded series of         
exercises1 previously arranged and      
prescribed by the educator1 to a        
definite end4 ,but these exercises must 
take on a peculiar form for each        
particular pupil under the special      
circumstances present4 ,hasty and       
inconsiderate work may1 by chance1      

accomplish much2 but no work which is   
not systematic can advance and fashion  
him in conformity with his tenure1 and  
such alone is to be called ,education2  
for ,education implies both a           
comprehension of the end to be attained 
and of the means necessary to compass   
that end4   #bj4 ,culture1 however1     
means more and more every year2 and1 as 
the sum total of knowledge increases for
 mankind1 it becomes necessary1 in order
 to be a master in any one line1 to     
devote one's self almost exclusively to 
that4 ,hence arises1 for the teacher1   
the difficulty of preserving the unity  
and wholeness which are essential to a  
complete man4 ,the principle of division
 of labor comes in4 ,he who is a teacher
 by profession becomes one-sided in his 
views2 and1 as teaching divides and     
subdivides into specialities1 this      
abnormal one-sideness tends more and    
more to appear4 ,here we find a         
parallelism in the profession of        
,medicine1 with a corresponding danger  

of narrowness2 for that1 too1 is in a   
process of constant specialization1 and 
the physician who treats nervous        
diseases is likely to be of the opinion 
that all trouble arises from that part  
of the organism1 or1 at least1 that all 
remedies should be applied there4 ,this 
tendency to one-sideness is inseparable 
from the progress of civilization and   
that of science and arts4 ,it contains1 
nevertheless1 a danger of which no      
teacher should be unwarned4 ,an         
illustration is furnished by the        
microscope or telescope2 a higher power 
of the instrument implies a narrower    
field of view4 ,to concentrate our      
observation upon one point implies the  
shutting out of others4 ,this difficulty
 with the teacher creates one for the   
pupil4  ,in this view one might be      
inclined to judge that the life of the  
savage as compared with that of         
civilized man1 or that of a member of a 
rural community as compared with that of
 an inhabitant of a city1 were the more 

to be desired4 ,the savage has his hut1 
his family1 his cocoa-palm1 his weapons1
 his passions2 he fishes1 hunts1 amuses 
himself1 adorns himself1 and enjoys the 
consciousness that he is the center of a
 little world2 while the denizen of a   
city must often acknowledge that he is1 
so to speak1 only one wheel of a        
gigantic machine4 ,is the life of the   
savage1 therefore1 more favorable to    
human development8 ,the characteristic  
idea of modern civilization is3 ,the    
development of the individual as the end
 for which the ,state exists4 ,the great
 empires of ,persia1 ,egypt1 and ,india1
 wherein the individual was of value    
only as he ministered to the strength of
 the ,state1 have given way to the      
modern nations1 where individual freedom
 is pushed so far that the ,state seems 
only an instrument for the good of the  
individual4 ,from being the supreme end 
of the individual1 the ,state has become
 the means for his advancement into     
freedom2 and with this very exaltation  

of the value of the mere individual over
 the ,state1 as such1 there is          
inseparably connected the seeming       
destruction of the wholeness of the     
individual man4 ,but the union of ,state
 and individual1 which was in ancient   
times merely mechanical1 has now become 
a living process1 in which constant     
interaction gives rise to all the       
intellectual life of modern             
civilization4   #ba4 ,the work of       
,education being thus necessarily split 
up1 we have the distinction between     
general and special schools4 ,the work  
of the former is to give general        
development--what is considered         
essential for all men2 that of the      
latter1 to prepare for special callings4
 ,the former should furnish a basis for 
the latter--i4e41 the ,college should   
precede the ,medical ,school1 etc41 and 
the ,high ,school the ,normal4 ,in the  
,united ,states1 owing to many causes1  
this is unfortunately not the case4     
,the difference between city and country

 life is important here4 ,the teacher in
 a country school1 and1 still more1 the 
private tutor or governess1 must be able
 to teach many more things than the     
teacher in a graded school in the city1 
or the professor in a college or        
university4 ,the danger on the one side 
is of superficiality1 on the other of   
narrowness4   #bb4 ,the ,education of   
any individual can be only relatively   
finished4 ,his possibilities are        
infinite4 ,his actual realization of    
those possibilities must always remain  
far behind4 ,the latter can only        
approximate to the former4 ,it can never
 reach them4 ,the term finishing an     
education needs1 therefore1 some        
definition2 for1 as a technical term1 it
 has undoubtedly a meaning4 ,an immortal
 soul can never complete its            
development2 for1 in so doing1 it would 
give the lie to its own nature4 ,we     
cannot speak properly1 however1 of      
educating an idiot4 ,such an unfortunate
 has no power of generalization1 and no 

conscious personality4 ,we can train him
 mechanically1 but we cannot educate    
him4 ,this will help to illustrate the  
difference1 spoken of in  #ad1 between  
,education and ,mechanical training4    
,we obtain astonishing results1 it is   
true1 in our schools for idiots1 and yet
 we cannot fail to perceive that1 after 
all1 we have only an external result4   
,we produce a mechanical performance of 
duties1 and yet there seems to be no    
actual mental growth4 ,it is an         
exogenous1 and not an endogenous1       
growth1 to use the language of          
,botany4#i ,continual repetition1 under 
the most gentle patience1 renders the   
movements easy1 but1 after all1 they are
 only automatic1 or what the physicians 
call reflex4  ,we have the same result  
produced in a less degree when we       
attempt to teach an intelligent child   
something which is beyond his active    
comprehension4 ,a child may be taught to
 do or say almost anything by patient   
training1 but1 if what he is to say is  

beyond the power of his mental          
comprehension1 and hence of his active  
assimilation1 we are only training him  
as we train an animal 7 #ad71 and not   
educating him4 ,we call such recitations
 parrot recitations1 and1 by our use of 
the word1 express exactly in what       
position the pupils are placed4 ,an     
idiot is only a case of permanently     
arrested development4 ,what in the      
intelligent child is a passing phase is 
for the idiot a fixed state4 ,we have   
idiots of all grades1 as we have        
children of all ages4  ,the above       
observations must not be taken to mean  
that children should never be taught to 
perform operations in arithmetic which  
they do not1 in cant phrase1 perfectly  
understand1 or to learn poetry whose    
whole meaning they cannot fathom4 ,into 
this error many teachers have fallen4   
,there can be no more profitable study  
for a teacher than to visit one of these
 numerous idiot schools4 ,he finds the  
alphabet of his professional work there4

 ,as the philologist learns of the      
formation and growth of language by     
examining1 not the perfectly formed     
languages1 but the dialects of savage   
tribes1 so with the teacher4 ,in like   
manner more insight into the philosophy 
of teaching and of the nature of the    
mind can be acquired by teaching a class
 of children to read than in any other  
grade of work4   ,,ii4--,the ,form of   
,education4   #bc4 ,the general form of 
,education follows from the nature of   
mind4 ,mind is nothing but what it      
itself creates out of its own activity4 
,it is1 at first1 mind as undeveloped or
 unconscious 7in the main72 but1        
secondly1 it acquires the power of      
examining its own action1 of considering
 itself as an object of attention1 as if
 it were a quite foreign thing--i4e41 it
 reflects 7in this stage it is really   
ignorant that it is studying its own    
nature72 and1 finally1 it becomes       
conscious that this1 which it had been  
examining1 and of whose existence it is 

conscious1 is its own self3 ,it attains 
self-consciousness4 ,it is through this 
estrangement from itself1 given back to 
itself again and restored to unity1 but 
it is no longer a simple1 unconscious   
unity4 ,in this third state only can it 
be said to be free--i4e41 to possess    
itself4 ,education cannot create2 it can
 only help to develop into reality the  
previously-existent possibility2 it can 
only help to bring forth to light the   
hidden life4   #bd4 ,all culture1 in    
whatever line1 must pass through these  
two stages of estrangement and of       
reunion2 the reunion being not of two   
different things1 but the recognition of
 itself by thought1 and its acceptance  
of itself as itself4 ,and the more      
complete is the estrangement--i4e41 the 
more perfectly can the thought be made  
to view itself as a somewhat entirely   
foreign to itself1 to look upon it as a 
different and independent somewhat--the 
more complete and perfect will be its   
union with and acceptance of its object 

as one with itself when the recognition 
does finally take place4 ,through       
culture we are led to this conscious    
possession of our own thought4 ,plato   
gives to the feeling1 with which        
knowledge must necessarily begin1 the   
name of wonder4 ,but wonder is not      
knowledge2 it is only the first step    
towards it4 ,it is the half-terrified   
attention which the mind fixes on an    
object1 and the half-terror would be    
impossible did it not dimly forebode    
that it was something of its own nature 
at which it was looking4 ,the child     
delights in stories of the far-off1 the 
strange1 and the wonderful4 ,it is as if
 they hoped to find in these some       
solution to themselves--a solution which
 they have1 as it were1 asked in vain of
 familiar scenes and objects4 ,their    
craving for such is the proof of how far
 their nature transcends all its known  
conditions4 ,they are like adventurous  
explorers who push out to unknown       
regions in hopes of finding the freedom 

and wealth which lies only within       
themselves4 ,they want to be told about 
things which they never saw1 such as    
terrible conflagrations1 banditti life1 
wild animals1 gray old ruins1 ,robinson 
,crusoes on far-off1 happy islands4     
,they are irresistibly attracted by     
whatever is highly colored and          
dazzlingly lighted4 ,the child prefers  
the story of ,sinbad the ,sailor to any 
tales of his own home and nation1       
because mind has this necessity of      
getting1 as it were1 outside of itself  
so as to obtain a view of itself4 ,as   
the child grows to youth he is1 from the
 same reasons1 desirous of traveling4   
#be4 ,work may be defined as the        
activity of the mind in a conscious     
concentration on1 and absorption in1    
some object1 with the purpose of        
acquiring or producing it4 ,play is the 
activity of the mind which gives itself 
up to surrounding objects according to  
its own caprice1 without any thought as 
to results4 ,the ,educator gives out    

work to the pupil1 but he leaves him to 
himself in his play4   #bf4 ,it is      
necessary to draw a sharp line between  
work and play4 ,if the ,educator has not
 respect for work as an activity of     
great weight and importance1 he not only
 spoils the relish of the pupil for     
play1 which loses all its charm of      
freedom when not set off by its         
antithesis of earnest labor1 but he     
undermines in the pupil's mind all      
respect for any real existence4 ,on the 
other hand1 he who does not give to the 
child space1 time1 and opportunity for  
play prevents the originality of his    
pupil from free development through the 
exercise of his creative ingenuity4     
,play sends the child back to his work  
refreshed1 because in it he loses       
himself without constraint and according
 to his own fancy1 while in work he is  
required to yield himself up in a manner
 prescribed for him by another4  ,let   
the teacher watch his pupils while at   
play if he would discover their         

individual peculiarities1 for it is then
 that they unconsciously betray their   
real propensities4 ,this antithesis of  
work and play runs through the entire   
life1 the form only of play varying with
 years and occupations4 ,to do what we  
please1 as we please1 and when we       
please1 not for any reason1 but just    
because we please1 remains play always4 
,children in their sports like nothing  
better than to counterfeit what is to be
 the earnest work of their after-lives4 
,the little girl plays with her dolls1  
and the boy plays he is a soldier and   
goes to mimic wars4  ,it is1 of course1 
an error to suppose that the play of a  
child is simply muscular4 ,the lamb and 
the colt find their full enjoyment in   
capering aimlessly about the field4 ,but
 to the child play would be incomplete  
which did not bring the mind into       
action4 ,children derive little         
enjoyment from purely muscular exercise4
 ,they must at the same time have an    
object requiring mental action to attain

 it4 ,a number of children set simply to
 run up and down a field would tire of  
the exercise in five minutes2 but put a 
ball amongst them and set them to a game
 and they will be amused by it for      
hours4  ,exceptional mental development 
is always preceded1 and is1 indeed1     
produced by1 an exceptional amount of   
exercise in the form of play on the part
 of the special faculties concerned4    
,the peculiar tendencies exhibited in   
play are due to the large development of
 particular faculties1 and the ultimate 
giant strength of a faculty is brought  
about by play4 ,the genius is no doubt  
born1 not made2 but1 although born1 it  
would dwindle away in infancy were it   
not for the constant exercise taken in  
play1 which is as necessary for         
development as food for the maintenance 
of life4   #bg4 ,work should never be   
treated as if it were play1 nor play as 
if it were work4 ,those whose work is   
creative activity of the mind may find  
recreation in the details of science2   

and those1 again1 whose vocation is     
scientific research can find recreation 
in the practice of art in its different 
departments4 ,what is work to one may   
thus be play to another4 ,this does not1
 however1 contradict the first          
statement4   #bh4 ,it is the province of
 education so to accustom us to         
different conditions or ways of thinking
 and acting that they shall no longer   
seem strange or foreign to us4 ,when    
these have become1 as we say1 natural to
 us--when we find the acquired mode of  
thinking or acting just what our        
inclination leads us to adopt           
unconsciously1 a ,habit has been formed4
 ,a habit is1 then1 the identity of     
natural inclination with the special    
demands of any particular doing or      
suffering1 and it is thus the external  
condition of all progress4 ,as long as  
we require the conscious act of our will
 to the performance of a deed1 that deed
 is a somewhat foreign to ourselves1 and
 not yet a part of ourselves4 ,the      

practical work of the educator may thus 
be said to consist in leading the mind  
of the pupil over certain lines of      
thought till it becomes natural or      
spontaneous for him to go by that road4 
,much time is wasted in schools where   
the pupil's mind is not led aright at   
first1 for then he has to unlearn habits
 of thought which are already formed4   
,the work of the teacher is to impress  
good methods of studying and thinking   
upon the minds of his pupils1 rather    
than to communicate knowledge4   #bi4   
,it is1 at first sight1 entirely        
indifferent what a ,habit shall relate  
to--i4e41 the point is to get the pupil 
into the way of forming habits1 and it  
is not at first of so much moment what  
habit is formed as that a habit is      
formed4 ,but we cannot consider that    
there is anything morally neutral in the
 abstract1 but only in the concrete1 or 
in particular examples4 ,an action may  
be of no moral significance to one man1 
and under certain circumstances1 while  

to another man1 or to the same man under
 different circumstances1 it may have   
quite a different significance1 or may  
possess an entirely opposite character4 
,appeal must be made1 then1 to the      
individual conscience of each one to    
decide what is and what is not          
permissible to that individual under the
 given circumstances4 ,education must   
make it its first aim to awaken in the  
pupil a sensitiveness to spiritual and  
ethical distinctions which knows that   
nothing is in its own nature morally    
insignificant or indifferent1 but shall 
recognize1 even in things seemingly     
small1 a universal human significance4  
,but1 yet1 in relation to the highest   
interests of morality or the well-being 
of society1 the pupil must be taught to 
subordinate without hesitation all that 
relates exclusively to his own personal 
comfort or welfare for the well-being of
 his fellow-men1 or for moral rectitude4
  ,when we reflect upon habit1 it at    
once assumes for us the character of    

useful or injurious4 ,the consequences  
of a habit are not indifferent4         
,whatever action tends as a harmonious  
means to the realization of our purpose 
is desirable or advantageous1 and       
whatever either partially contradicts or
 wholly destroys it is disadvantageous4 
,advantage and disadvantage being1 then1
 only relative terms1 dependent upon the
 aim or purpose which we happen to have 
in view1 a habit which may be           
advantageous to one man under certain   
circumstances may be disadvantageous to 
another man1 or even to the same man1   
under other circumstances4 ,education   
must1 then1 accustom the youth to       
consider for himself the expediency or  
inexpediency of any action in relation  
to his own vocation in life4 ,he must   
not form habits which will be           
inexpedient with regard to that4   #ca4 
,there is1 however1 an absolute         
distinction of habits as morally good   
and bad4 ,from this absolute stand-point
 we must1 after all1 decide what is for 

us allowable or forbidden1 what is      
expedient and what inexpedient4   #cb4  
,as to its form1 habit may be either    
passive or active4 ,by passive habit is 
meant a habit of composure which surveys
 undisturbed whatever vicissitudes1     
either external or internal1 may fall to
 our lot1 and maintains itself superior 
to them all1 never allowing its power of
 acting to be paralyzed by them4 ,it is 
not1 however1 merely a stoical          
indifference1 nor is it the composure   
which comes from inability to receive   
impressions--a sort of impassivity4 ,it 
is that composure which is the highest  
result of power4 ,nor is it a selfish   
love of ease which intentionally        
withdraws itself from annoyances in     
order to remain undisturbed4 ,it is not 
manifested because of a desire to be out
 of these vicissitudes4 ,it is1 while in
 them1 to be not of them4 ,it is the    
composure which does not fret itself    
over what it cannot change4 ,the soul   
that has built for itself this          

stronghold of freedom within itself may 
vividly experience joy and sorrow1 pain 
and pleasure1 and yet serenely know that
 it is intrenched in walls which are    
inaccessible to their attacks1 because  
it knows that it is infinitely superior 
to all that may chance or change4 ,what 
is meant by active habit in distinction 
from passive habit is found in our      
external activity1 as skill1 facility1  
readiness of information1 etc4 ,it might
 be considered as the equipping of our  
inner selves for active contest with the
 external world2 while passive habit is 
the fortifying of our inner selves      
against the attack of the external      
world4 ,the man who possesses habit in  
both these forms impresses himself in   
many different ways on the outer world1 
while at the same time1 and all the     
time1 he preserves intact his           
personality from the constant assaults  
of the outer world4 ,he handles both    
spear and shield4   #cc4 ,all education1
 in whatever line1 must work by forming 

habits physical1 mental1 or moral4 ,it  
might be said to consist in a conversion
 of actions which are at first          
voluntary1 by means of repetition1 into 
instructive actions which are performed1
 as we say1 naturally--i4e41 without any
 conscious volition4 ,we teach a child  
to walk1 or he teaches himself to walk  
by a constant repetition of the action  
of the will upon the necessary muscles2 
and1 when the thinking brain hands over 
the mechanism to the trained spinal     
cord1 the anxious1 watchful look        
disappears from the face1 and the child 
talks or laughs as he runs3 then that   
part of his education is completed4     
,henceforth the attention that had been 
necessary to manage the body in walking 
is freed for other work4 ,this is only  
an illustration1 easily understood1 of  
what takes place in all education4      
,mental and moral acts1 thoughts1 and   
feelings in the same way are1 by        
repetition1 converted into habits and   
become our nature2 and character1 good  

or bad1 is only the aggregate of our    
habits4 ,when we say a person has no    
character1 we mean exactly this3 that he
 has no fixed habits4 ,but1 as the great
 end of human life is freedom1 he must  
be above even habit4 ,he must not be    
wholly a machine of habits1 and         
education must enable him to attain the 
power of breaking as well as of forming 
habits1 so that he may1 when desirable1 
substitute one habit for another4 ,for  
habits may be 7 #bi71 according to their
 nature1 proper or improper1            
advantageous or disadvantageous1 good or
 bad2 and1 according to their form1 may 
be 7 #cb7 either the acceptance of the  
external by the internal or the reaction
 of the internal upon the external4     
,through our freedom we must be able1   
not only to renounce any habit formed1  
but to form a new and better one4 ,man  
should be supreme above all habits1     
wearing them as garments which the soul 
puts on and off at will4 ,it must so    
order them all as to secure for itself a

 constant progress of development into  
still greater freedom4 ,in this higher  
view habits become thus to our sight    
only necessary accompaniments of        
imperfect freedom4 ,can we conceive of  
,god1 who is perfect ,freedom1 as having
 any habits8 ,we might say that1 as a   
means toward the ever-more decided      
realization of the ,good1 we must form a
 habit of voluntarily making and        
breaking off habits4 ,we must           
characterize as bad those habits which  
relate only to our personal convenience 
or enjoyment4 ,they are often not       
essentially blameworthy1 but there lies 
in them a hidden danger that they may   
allure us into luxury or effeminacy4 ,it
 is a false and mechanical way of       
looking at the affair to suppose that a 
habit which had been formed by a certain
 number of repetitions can be broken off
 by an equal number of refusals4 ,we can
 never utterly renounce a habit which we
 decide to be undesirable for us except 
through decision and firmness4   #cd4   

,education1 then1 must consider the     
preparation for authority and obedience 
7 #ag72 for a rational ordering of one's
 actions according to universal         
principles1 and1 at the same time1 a    
preservation of individuality 7 #ah72   
for work and play 7 #be72 for habits of 
spontaneity or originality 7 #bh74 ,to  
endeavor by any set rules to harmonize  
in the pupil these opposites will be a  
vain endeavor1 and failure in the       
solution of the problem is quite        
possible by reason of the freedom of the
 pupil1 of surrounding circumstances1 or
 of mistakes on the part of the teacher1
 and the possibility of this negative   
result must1 therefore1 enter as an     
element of calculation into the work    
itself4 ,all the dangers which may in   
any way threaten the youth must be      
considered in advance1 and he must be   
fortified against them4 ,while we should
 not intentionally expose the youth to  
temptation in order to prove his        
strength of resistance1 neither should  

we1 on the other hand1 endeavor to      
seclude him from all chance of dangerous
 temptation4 ,to do the former would be 
satanic2 while to do the latter would be
 ridiculous1 useless1 and in fact       
dangerous in the highest degree1 for    
temptation comes more from within than  
from without1 and any secret inclination
 will in some way seek1 or even create1 
its own opportunity for gratification4  
,the real safety from sin lies1 not in  
seclusion of one's self from the        
world#aj--;for all the elements of      
worldliness are innate in each          
individual--but in an occupying of the  
restless activity in other ways1 in     
learning and discipline2 these being    
varied as time goes on1 according to the
 age and degree of proficiency4 ,not to 
crush out1 but to direct1 the child's   
activity1 whether physical or mental1 is
 the key to all real success in         
education4 ,the sentimentalism which    
has1 during the last few years1 in this 
country 7the ,united ,states71 tended to

 diminish to so great an extent the     
actual work to be performed by our boys 
and girls1 has set free a dangerous     
amount of energy whose new direction    
gives cause for grave alarm4 ,to        
endeavor to prevent the youth from all  
free and individual relations with the  
real world1 implies a never-ending watch
 kept over him4 ,the consciousness of   
being thus shadowed destroys in the     
youth all elasticity of spirit1 all     
confidence1 and all originality4 ,a     
constant feeling of1 as it were1 a      
detective police at his side obscures   
all sense of independent action1        
systematically accustoming him to       
dependence4 ,though1 as the tragic-comic
 story of ,peter ,schlemihl shows1 the  
loss of a man's own shadow may involve  
him in a series of fatalities1#aa yet to
 be shadowed constantly by a companion1 
us in the pedagogical system of the     
,jesuits1 undermines all naturalness4   
,and1 if we endeavor to guard too       
strictly against what is evil and wrong1

 the pupil reacts1 bringing all his     
intelligence into the service of his    
craft and cunning1 till the would-be    
educator stands aghast at the discovery 
of such evil-doing as he had supposed   
impossible under his strict supervision4
 ,within the circle of whatever rules it
 may be found necessary to draw around  
the young there must always be left     
space for freedom4 ,pupils should always
 be led to see that all rules against   
which they fret are only of their own   
creation2 and that as grave-stones mark 
the place where some one has fallen1 so 
every law is only a record of some      
previous wrong-doing4 ,the law ,thou    
shalt not kill was not given till murder
 had been committed4 ,in other words1   
the wrong deed preceded the law against 
it1 and perfect obedience is the same as
 perfect freedom4 ,no obedience except  
that which we gain from the pupil's own 
convictions has real educational        
significance4   #ce4 ,if there appears  
in the youth any decided deformity      

opposed to the ideal which we would     
create in him1 we should at once inquire
 into its history and origin4 ,the      
negative and positive are so closely    
related1 and depend so intimately on    
each other1 in our being that what      
appears to us to be negligence1         
rudeness1 immorality1 foolishness1 or   
oddity may arise from some real         
necessity of the pupil which in its     
process of development has only taken a 
wrong direction4   #cf4 ,if it should   
appear1 on such examination1 that the   
wrong action was the result of avoidable
 ignorance1 of caprice1 or willfulness  
on the part of the pupil1 this calls for
 a simple prohibition on the part of the
 teacher1 no reason being assigned4 ,his
 authority must be sufficient for the   
pupil without any reason4 ,when the     
fault is repeated1 and the pupil is old 
enough to understand1 then only should  
the grounds of the prohibition be stated
 with it4 ,this should1 however1 be done
 in few words1 and the educator must    

never allow himself to lose1 in a       
doctrinal lecture1 the idea of          
discipline4 ,if he do1 the pupil will   
soon forget that it was his own         
misbehavior which was the cause of all  
the remarks4 ,the statement of the      
reason must be honest1 and must be      
presented to the youth on the side most 
easy for him to appreciate4 ,false      
reasons are not only morally wrong1 but 
they lead the mind astray4 ,we also     
commit a grave error when we try to     
unfold to the youth all the possible    
consequences of his wrong act1 for those
 possible consequences are too far off  
to affect his mind4 ,the long lecture   
wearies him1 especially if it be in a   
stereotyped form2 and with teachers who 
are fault-finding1 and who like to hear 
themselves talk1 this is apt to be the  
case4 ,still more unfortunate would it  
be if we really should affect the lively
 imagination of a sensitive youth by our
 description of the wretchedness to     
which his wrong-doing1 if persisted in1 

might lead him1 for then the conviction 
that he has already taken one step in   
that direction may produce in him a fear
 which in the future man may become     
terrible depression and lead to         
degradation4   #cg4 ,if to censure we   
add the threat of punishment1 we have   
then what in common language is called  
scolding4  ,if threats are made1 the    
pupil must be made to feel that they    
will be faithfully executed according to
 the word4  ,the threat of punishment   
is1 however1 to be avoided2 for         
circumstances may arise which will      
render its fulfillment not only         
objectionable1 but wrong1 and the       
teacher will then find himself in the   
position of ,herod and bound for his    
oath's sake to a course of action which 
no longer seems the best4 ,even the law 
in affixing a penalty to definite crimes
 allows a certain latitude in a maximum 
and minimum of awarded punishment4      
#ch4 ,it is only after other means of   
reformation have been tried1 and have   

failed1 that punishment is justifiable  
for error1 transgression1 or vice4 ,when
 our simple prohibition 7 #cf71 the     
statement of our reason for the         
prohibiting 7 #cf71 and threat of       
punishment 7 #cg7 have all failed1 then 
punishment comes and intentionally      
inflicts pain on the youth in order to  
force him by this last means to a       
realization of his wrong-doing4 ,and    
here the punishment must not be given   
for general bad conduct or for a        
perverse disposition--those being vague 
generalities--but for a special act of  
wrong-doing at that time4 ,he should not
 be punished because he is naturally bad
 or because he is generally naughty1 but
 for this one special and particular act
 which he has committed4 ,thus the      
punishment will act on the general      
disposition1 not directly1 but through  
this particular act1 as a manifestation 
of the disposition4 ,then it will not   
accuse the innermost nature of the      
culprit4 ,this way of punishment is not 

only demanded by justice1 but it is     
absolutely necessary in view of the fact
 of the sophistry inherent in human     
nature which is always busy in assigning
 various motives for its actions4 ,if   
the child understands1 then1 that he is 
punished for that particular act which  
he knows himself to have committed1 he  
cannot feel the bitter sense of         
injustice and misunderstanding which a  
punishment inflicted for general        
reasons1 and which attributes to him a  
depravity of motives and intentions1 so 
often engenders4   #ci4 ,punishment as  
an educational means must1 nevertheless1
 be always essentially corrective1 since
 it seeks always to bring the youth to a
 comprehension of his wrong-doing and to
 a positive alteration in his behavior1 
and1 hence1 has for its aim to improve  
him4 ,at the same time it is a sad      
testimony of the insufficiency of the   
means which have been previously tried4 
,we should on no account aim to terrify 
the youth by physical force1 so that to 

avoid that he will refrain from doing   
the wrong or from repeating a wrong act 
already done4 ,this would lead only to  
terrorism1 and his growing strength     
would soon put him beyond its power and 
leave him without motive for refraining 
from evil4 ,punishment may have this    
effect in some degree1 but it should1   
above all1 be made to impress deeply    
upon his mind the eternal truth that the
 evil deed is never allowed in ,god's   
universe to act unrestrained and        
according to its own will1 but that the 
good and true is the only absolute power
 in the world1 and that it is never at a
 loss to avenge any contradiction of its
 will and design4  ,it may be questioned
 whether the moral teaching in our      
schools be not too negative in its      
measures2 whether it do not confine     
itself too much to forbidding the       
commission of the wrong deed1 and spend 
too little force in securing the        
performance of the right deed4 ,not a   
simple refraining from the wrong1 but an

 active doing of the right would be the 
better lesson to inculcate4  ,in the    
laws of the state the office of         
punishment is first to satisfy          
justice1#ab and only after this is done 
can the improvement of the criminal be  
considered4 ,if government should       
proceed on the same basis as the        
educator1 it would make a grave mistake1
 for it has to deal1 not with children1 
but with adults1 to whom it concedes the
 dignity of full responsibility for all 
their acts4 ,it has not to consider the 
reasons1 either psychological or        
ethical1 which prompted the deed4 ,the  
actual deed is what it has first of all 
to deal with1 and only after that is    
considered and settled can it take into 
view any mitigating circumstances       
connected therewith1 or any peculiarity 
of the individual4 ,the educator1 on the
 other hand1 has to deal with those who 
are immature and only growing toward    
responsibility4 ,as long as they are    
under the care of a teacher1 he is at   

any rate partially accountable for what 
they do4 ,we must never confound the    
nature of punishment in the ,state with 
that of punishment as an educational    
means4   #dj4 ,as to punishment1 as with
 all other work in education1 it can    
never be abstractly determined          
beforehand1 but it must be regulated    
with a view to the individual pupil and 
his peculiar circumstances4 ,what it    
shall be1 and how and when administered1
 are problems which call for great      
ingenuity and tact on the part of the   
educator4 ,it must never be forgotten   
that punishments vary in intensity at   
the will of the educator4 ,he fixes the 
standard by which they are measured in  
the child's mind4 ,whipping is actual   
physical pain1 and an evil in itself to 
the child4 ,but there are many other    
punishments which involve no physical   
pain1 and the intensity of which1 as    
felt by the child1 varies according to  
an artificial standard in different     
schools4 ,to sit under the clock was a  

great punishment in one of our public   
schools--not that the seat was not      
perfectly comfortable1 but that one was 
never sent there to sit unless for some 
grave misdemeanor4 ,the teacher has the 
matter in his own hands1 and it is well 
to remember this and to grade his       
punishments with much caution1 so as to 
make all pass for their full value4 ,in 
some schools even suspension is so      
common that it does not seem to the     
pupil a very terrible thing4            
,familiarity breeds contempt1 and       
frequency implies familiarity4 ,a       
punishment seldom resorted to will      
always seem to the pupil to be severe4  
,as we weaken1 and in fact bankrupt1    
language by an inordinate use of        
superlatives1 so1 also1 do we weaken any
 punishment by its frequent repetition4 
,economy of resources should be always  
practiced4   #da4 ,in general1 we might 
say that1 for very young children1      
corporal punishment is most appropriate2
 for boys and girls1 isolation2 and for 

older youth1 something which appeals to 
the sense of honor4   #db4 7#a7         
,corporal punishment implies physical   
pain4 ,generally it consists of a       
whipping1 and this is perfectly         
justifiable in case of persistent       
defiance of authority1 of obstinate     
carelessness1 or of malicious           
evil-doing1 so long or so often as the  
higher perceptions of the offender are  
closed against appeal4 ,but it must not 
be administered too often1 or with undue
 severity4 ,to resort to deprivation of 
food is cruel4 ,but1 while we condemn   
the false view of seeing in the rod the 
only panacea for all embarrassing       
questions of discipline on the teacher's
 part1 we can have no sympathy for the  
sentimentality which assumes that the   
dignity of humanity is affected by a    
blow given to a child4 ,it is wrong thus
 to confound self-conscious humanity    
with child-humanity1 for to the average 
child himself a blow is the most natural
 form of retribution1 and that in which 

all other efforts at influence at last  
end4 ,the fully grown man ought1        
certainly1 not to be flogged1 for this  
kind of punishment places him on a level
 with the child2 or1 where it is        
barbarously inflicted1 reduces him to   
the level of the brute1 and thus        
absolutely does degrade him4 ,in        
,english schools the rod is said to be  
often used2 if a pupil of the first     
class1 who is never flogged1 is put back
 into the second1 he becomes again      
subject to flogging4 ,but1 even if this 
be necessary in the schools1 it         
certainly has no proper place in the    
army and navy4   #dc4 7#b7 ,to punish a 
pupil by isolation is to remove him     
temporarily from the society of his     
fellows4 ,the boy or girl thus cut off  
from companionship1 and forced to think 
only of himself1 begins to understand   
how helpless he is in such a position4  
,time passes wearily1 and he is soon    
eager to return to the companionship of 
parents1 brothers and sisters1 teachers 

and fellow-students4  ,but to leave a   
child entirely by himself without any   
supervision1 and perhaps in a dark room1
 is as wrong as to leave two or three   
together without supervision4 ,it often 
happens when they are kept after school 
by themselves that they give the freest 
rein to their childish wantonness1 and  
commit the wildest pranks4   #dd4 7#c7  
,shutting children up in this way does  
not touch their sense of honor1 and the 
punishment is soon forgotten1 because it
 relates only to certain particular     
phases of their behavior4 ,but it is    
quite different when the pupil is       
isolated from his fellows on the ground 
that by his conduct he has violated the 
very principles which make civilized    
society possible1 and is1 therefore1 no 
longer a proper member of it4 ,this is a
 punishment which touches his sense of  
honor1 for honor is the recognition of  
the individual by others as their equal1
 and by his error1 or by his crime1 he  
had forfeited his right to be their     

equal1 their peer1 and has thus severed 
himself from them4  ,the separation from
 them is thus only the external form of 
the real separation which he himself has
 brought to pass within his soul1 and   
which his wrong-doing has only made     
clearly visible4 ,this kind of          
punishment1 thus touching the whole     
character of the youth and not easily   
forgotten1 should be administered with  
the greatest caution lest a permanent   
loss of self-respect follow4 ,when we   
think our wrong-doing to be eternal in  
its effects1 we lose all power of effort
 for our own improvement4  ,this sense  
of honor cannot be developed so well in 
family life1 because in the family the  
ties of blood make all in a certain     
sense equal1 no matter what may be their
 conduct4 ,he who has by wrong-doing    
severed himself from society is still a 
member of the family1 and within its    
sacred circle is still beloved1 though  
it may be with bitter tears4 ,no matter 
how wrong he may have been1 he still can

 find there the deepest sympathy1 for he
 is still father1 brother1 etc4 ,it is  
in the contact of one family with       
another that the feeling of honor is    
first developed1 and still more in the  
contact of the individual with an       
institution which is not bound to him by
 any natural ties1 but is an organism   
entirely external to him4 ,thus1 to the 
child1 the school and the school-classes
 offer a means of development which can 
never be found in the family4  ,this    
fact is often overlooked by those who   
have the charge of the education of     
children4 ,no home education1 no private
 tutorship1 can take the place of the   
school as an educational influence4 ,for
 the first time in his life the child1  
on being sent to school1 finds himself  
in a community where he is responsible  
for his own deeds1 and where he has no  
one to shield him4 ,the rights of others
 for whom he has no special affection   
are to be respected by him1 and his own 
are to be defended4 ,the knowledge      

gained at the school is by no means the 
most valuable acquisition there         
obtained4 ,it must never be forgotten by
 the teacher that the school is an      
institution on an entirely different    
basis from the family1 and that personal
 attachment is not the principle on     
which its rule can be rightly based4    
#de4 ,this gradation of punishment from 
physical pain1 up through occasional    
isolation1 to the touching of the       
innermost sense of honor is very        
carefully to be considered1 both with   
regard to the different ages at which   
they are severally appropriate and to   
the different discipline which they     
necessarily produce4 ,every punishment  
must1 however1 be always looked at as a 
means to some end1 and is thus          
transitory in its nature4 ,the pupil    
should always be conscious that it is   
painful to the teacher to punish him4   
,nothing can be more effectual as a     
means of cure for the wrong-doer than to
 perceive in the manner and tone of the 

voice1 in the very delay with which the 
necessary punishment is administered1   
that he who punishes also suffers in    
order that the wrong-doer may be cured  
of his fault4 ,the principle of         
vicarious suffering lies at the root of 
all spiritual healing4   ,,iii4--,the   
,limits of ,education4   #df4 ,as far as
 the external form of education is      
concerned1 its limit is reached in the  
instrumentality of punishment in which  
we seek to turn the activity which has  
been employed in a wrong direction into 
its proper channel1 to make the deed    
positive instead of negative1 to        
substitute for the destructive deed one 
which shall be in harmony with the      
constructive forces of society4 ,but    
education implies its real limits in its
 definition1 which is to build up the   
individual into theoretical and         
practical ,reason4 ,when this work goes 
properly on1 the authority of the       
educator1 as authority1 necessarily     
loses1 every day1 some of its force1 as 

the guiding principles come to form a   
part of the pupil's own character1      
instead of being super-imposed on him   
from without through the mediation of   
the educator4 ,what was authority       
becomes now advice and example2         
unreasoning and implicit obedience      
passes into gratitude and affection4    
,the pupil wears off the rough edges of 
his crude individuality1 which is       
transfigured1 so to speak1 into the     
universality and necessity of ,reason1  
but without losing his identity in the  
process4 ,work becomes enjoyment1 and   
,play is found only in a change of      
activity4 ,the youth takes possession of
 himself1 and may now be left to        
himself4 ,there are two widely differing
 views with regard to the limits of     
education2 one lays great stress on the 
powerlessness of the pupil and the great
 power of the teacher1 and asserts that 
the teacher must create something out of
 the pupil4  ,this view is often seen to
 have undesirable results1 where large  

numbers are to be educated together4 ,it
 assumes that each pupil is only a      
sample of the lot on whom the teacher is
 to affix his stamp1 as if they were    
different pieces of goods from some     
factory4 ,thus individuality is         
destroyed1 and all reduced to one level1
 as in cloisters1 barracks1 and orphan  
asylums1 where only one individual seems
 to exist4 ,sometimes it takes the form 
of a theory which holds that one can at 
will flog anything into or out of a     
pupil4 ,this may be called a            
superstitious belief in the power of    
education4 ,the opposite extreme may be 
found in that system which advocates a  
severe letting alone1 asserting that    
individuality is unconquerable1 and that
 often the most careful and circumspect 
education fails of reaching its aim     
because the inherent nature of the youth
 has fought against it with such force  
as to render abortive all opposing      
efforts4 ,this idea of ,pedagogy        
produces a sort of indifference about   

means and ends which would leave each   
individuality to grow as its own        
instinct and the chance influences of   
the world might direct4 ,the latter view
 would1 of course1 preclude the         
possibility of any science of education1
 and make the youth only the sport of   
blind fate4 ,the comparative power of   
inherited tendencies and of educational 
appliances is1 however1 one which every 
educator should carefully study4 ,much  
careless generalization has been made on
 this topic1 and opinion is too often   
based upon some one instance where      
accurate observation of methods and     
influences have been wanting4   #dg4    
,education has necessarily a definite   
subjective limit in the individuality of
 the youth1 for it can develop in him   
only that which exists in him as a      
possibility4 ,it can lead and assist1   
but it has no power to create4 ,what    
nature has denied to a man education    
cannot give him1 any more than it can on
 the other hand annihilate his original 

gifts1 though it may suppress1 distort1 
and measurably destroy them4 ,and yet it
 is impossible to decide what is the    
real essence of a man's individuality   
until he has left behind him the years  
of growth1 because it is not till then  
that he fully attains conscious         
possession of himself4 ,moreover1 at    
this critical time many traits which    
were supposed to be characteristic may  
prove themselves not to be so by        
disappearing1 while long-slumbering and 
unsuspected talents may crop out4       
,whatever has been forced upon a child1 
though not in harmony with his          
individuality1 whatever has been driven 
into him without having been actively   
accepted by him1 or having had a        
definite relation to his culture--will  
remain perhaps1 but only as an external 
foreign ornament1 only as a parasitic   
growth which weakens the force of his   
real nature4 ,but we must distinguish   
from these little affectations which    
arise from a misconception of the limits

 of individuality that effort of        
imitation which children and young      
people often exhibit in trying to copy  
in their own actions those peculiarities
 which they observe and admire in       
perfectly-developed persons with whom   
they may come in contact4 ,they see a   
reality which corresponds to their own  
possibility1 and the presentiment of a  
like or a similar attainment stirs them 
to imitation1 although this external    
imitation may be sometimes disagreeable 
or ridiculous to the lookers-on4 ,we    
ought not to censure it too severely1   
remembering that it springs from a      
positive striving towards true culture1 
and needs only to be properly directed1 
and never to be roughly put down4   #dh4
 ,the objective limit of education      
consists in the means which can be      
applied for it4 ,that the capacity for  
culture should exist is the first       
condition of success1 but it is none the
 less necessary that it be cultivated4  
,but how much cultivation shall be given

 to it must depend in very great degree 
on the means which are practicable1 and 
this will undoubtedly again depend on   
the worldly possessions and character of
 the family to which the pupil belongs4 
,if he comes of a cultivated and refined
 family1 he will have a great advantage 
at the start over his less favored      
comrades2 and1 with regard to many of   
the arts and sciences1 this limitation  
of education is of great significance4  
,but the means alone will not answer4   
,without natural capacity1 all the      
educational apparatus possible is of no 
avail4 ,on the other hand1 real talent  
often accomplishes incredible feats with
 very limited means2 and1 if the way is 
only once open1 makes of itself a center
 of attraction which draws to itself as 
with magnetic power the necessary means4
 ,moral culture is1 however1 from its   
very nature1 raised above such          
dependence4  ,if we fix our thought on  
the subjective limit--that of           
individuality 7 #dg7--we detect the     

ground for that indifference which lays 
little stress on education 7 #df1 end74 
,if1 on the other hand1 we concentrate  
our attention on the means of culture1  
we shall perceive the reason of the     
other extreme spoken of--of that        
pedagogical despotism 7 #df7 which      
fancies that it is able to prescribe and
 enforce at will upon the pupil any     
culture whatever1 without regard to his 
special characteristics4   #di4         
,education comes to its absolute limit  
when the pupil has apprehended the      
problem which he is to solve1 has       
comprehended the means which are at his 
disposal1 and has acquired the necessary
 skill in using them4 ,the true educator
 seeks to render himself unnecessary by 
the complete emancipation of the youth4 
,he works always towards the            
independence of the pupil1 and always   
with the design of withdrawing so soon  
as he shall have reached this           
stand-point1 and of leaving him to the  
full responsibility for his own deeds4  

,to endeavor to hold him in the position
 of a pupil after this time has been    
reached would be to contradict the very 
essence of education1 which must find   
its result in the independent maturity  
of the youth4 ,the inequality which     
formerly existed between pupil and      
teacher is now removed1 and nothing     
becomes more oppressive to the former   
than any endeavor to force upon him the 
authority from which1 in reality1 his   
own efforts have freed him4 ,but the    
undue hastening of this emancipation is 
as bad an error as an effort after      
delay4 ,the question as to whether a    
person is really ready for independent  
action--as to whether his education is  
finished--may be settled in much the    
same way in education as in politics4   
,when any people has progressed so far  
as to put the question whether they are 
ready for freedom1 it ceases to be a    
question2 for1 without the inner        
consciousness of freedom itself1 the    
question would never have occurred to   

them4   #ej4 ,but1 although the pupil   
may rightly now be freed from the hands 
of instructors1 and no longer obtain his
 culture through them1 it is by no means
 to be understood that he is not to go  
on with the work himself4 ,he is now to 
educate himself4 ,each must plan out for
 himself the ideal toward which he must 
daily strive4 ,in this process of       
self-transformation a friend may aid by 
advice and example1 but he cannot       
educate1 for the act of educating       
necessarily implies inequality between  
teacher and pupil4 ,the human necessity 
for companionship gives rise to         
societies of different kinds1 in which  
we may1 perhaps1 say that there is some 
approach to educating their members1 the
 necessary inequality being supplied by 
various grades and orders4 ,they        
presuppose education in the usual sense 
of the word1 but they wish to bring     
about an education in a higher sense1   
and1 therefore1 they veil the last form 
of their ideal in mystery and secrecy4  

,by the term ,philister the ,germans    
indicate the man of a civilized state   
who lives on1 contented with himself and
 devoid of any impulse towards further  
self-culture4 ,to one who is always     
aspiring after an ,ideal1 such a one    
cannot but be repulsive4 ,but how many  
are they who do not1 sooner or later1 in
 mature life1 crystallize1 as it were1  
so that any active life1 any new        
progress1 is to them impossible8        
,,analysis ,,and ,,commentary4   #a4    
,pedagogics is not a complete1          
independent science by itself4 ,it      
borrows the results of other sciences   
e4g41 it presupposes the science of     
,rights1 treating of the institutions of
 the family and civil society1 as well  
as of the ,state2 it presupposes the    
science of anthropology1 in which is    
treated the relations of the human mind 
to nature4 ,nature conditions the       
development of the individual human     
being4 ,but the history of the          
individual and the history of the race  

presents a continual emancipation from  
nature1 and a continual growth into     
freedom1 i4e41 into ability to know     
himself and to realize himself in the   
world by making the matter and forces of
 the world his instruments and tools4   
,anthropology shows us how man as a     
natural being--i4e41 as having a        
body--is limited4 ,there is climate1    
involving heat and cold and moisture1   
the seasons of the year1 etc42 there is 
organic growth1 involving birth1 growth1
 reproduction1 and decay2 there is race1
 involving the limitations of heredity2 
there is the telluric life of the planet
 and the circulation of the forces of   
the solar system1 whence arise the      
processes of sleeping1 waking1 dreaming1
 and kindred phenomena2 there is the    
emotional nature of man1 involving his  
feelings1 passions1 instincts1 and      
desires2 then there are the five senses1
 and their conditions4 ,then1 there is  
the science of phenomenology1 treating  
of the steps by which mind rises from   

the stage of mere feeling and           
sense-perception to that of             
self-consciousness1 i4e41 to a          
recognition of mind as true substance1  
and of matter as mere phenomenon created
 by ,mind 7,god74 ,then1 there is       
psychology1 including the treatment of  
the stages of activity of mind1 as      
so-called faculties of the mind1 e4g41  
attention1 sense-perception1            
imagination1 conception1 understanding1 
judgment1 reason1 and the like4         
,psychology is generally made 7by       
,english writers7 to include1 also1 what
 is here called anthropology and        
phenomenology4 ,after psychology1 there 
is the science of ethics1 or of morals  
and customs2 then1 the ,science of      
,rights1 already mentioned2 then1       
,theology1 or the ,science of ,religion1
 and1 after all these1 there is         
,philosophy1 or the ,science of         
,science4 ,now1 it is clear that the    
,science of ,education treats of the    
process of development1 by and through  

which man1 as a merely natural being1   
becomes spirit1 or self-conscious mind2 
hence1 it presupposes all the sciences  
named1 and will be defective if it      
ignores nature1 or mind1 or any stage or
 process of either1 especially          
,anthropology1 ,phenomenology1          
,psychology1 ,ethics1 ,rights1 sthetics1
 or ,science of ,art and ,literature1   
,religion1 or ,philosophy4   #b4 ,the   
scope of pedagogics being so broad1 and 
its presuppositions so vast1 its limits 
are not well defined1 and its treatises 
are very apt to lack logical sequence   
and conclusion2 and1 indeed1 frequently 
to be mere collections of unjustified   
and unexplained assumptions1            
dogmatically set forth4 ,hence the low  
repute of pedagogical literature as a   
whole4   #c4 ,moreover1 education       
furnishes a special vocation1 that of   
teaching4 7,all vocations are           
specializing--being cut off1 as it were1
 from the total life of man4 ,the       
division of labor requires that each    

individual shall concentrate his        
endeavors and be a part of the whole74  
#d4 ,pedagogics1 as a special science1  
belongs to the collection of sciences   
7already described1 in commenting on    
#a7 included under the philosophy of    
,spirit or ,mind1 and more particularly 
to that part of it which relates to the 
will 7ethics and science of rights1     
rather than to the part relating to the 
intellect and feeling1 as anthropology1 
phenomenology1 psychology1 sthetics1 and
 religion4 ,theoretical relates to the  
intellect1 practical relates to the     
will1 in this philosophy74 ,the province
 of practical philosophy is the         
investigation of the nature of freedom1 
and the process of securing it by       
self-emancipation from nature4          
,pedagogics involves the conscious      
exertion of influence on the part of the
 will of the teacher upon the will of   
the pupil1 with a purpose in view--that 
of inducing the pupil to form certain   
prescribed habits1 and adopt prescribed 

views and inclinations4 ,the entire     
science of mind 7as above shown71 is    
presupposed by the science of education1
 and must be kept constantly in view as 
a guiding light4 ,the institution of the
 family 7treated in practical           
philosophy7 is the starting-point of    
education1 and without this institution 
properly realized1 education would find 
no solid foundation4 ,the right to be   
educated on the part of children1 and   
the duty to educate on the part of      
parents1 are reciprocal2 and there is no
 family life so poor and rudimentary    
that it does not furnish the most       
important elements of education--no     
matter what the subsequent influence of 
the school1 the vocation1 and the state4
   #e4 ,pedagogics as science1          
distinguished from the same as an art3  
the former containing the abstract      
general treatment1 and the latter taking
 into consideration all the conditions  
of concrete individuality1 e4g41 the    
peculiarities of the teacher and the    

pupil1 and all the local circumstances1 
and the power of adaptation known as    
tact4   #f4 ,the special conditions and 
peculiarities1 considered in education  
as an art1 may be formulated and reduced
 to system1 but they should not be      
introduced as a part of the science of  
education4   #g4 ,pedagogics has three  
parts3 first1 it considers the idea and 
nature of education1 and arrives at its 
true definition2 second1 it presents and
 describes the special provinces into   
which the entire field of education is  
divided2 third1 it considers the        
historical evolution of education by the
 human race1 and the individual systems 
of education that have arisen1          
flourished1 and decayed1 and their      
special functions in the life of man4   
#h4 ,the scope of the first part is easy
 to define4 ,the history of pedagogics1 
of course1 contains all the ideas or    
definitions of the nature of education2 
but it must not for that reason be      
substituted for the scientific          

investigation of the nature of          
education1 which alone should constitute
 this first part 7and the history of    
education be reserved for the third     
part74   #i4 ,the second part includes a
 discussion of the threefold nature of  
man as body1 intellect1 and will4 ,the  
difficulty in this part of the science  
is very great1 because of its dependence
 upon other sciences 7e4g41 upon        
physiology1 anthropology1 etc471 and    
because of the temptation to go into    
details 7e4g41 in the practical         
department1 to consider the endless     
varieties of schools for arts and       
trades74   #aj4 ,the third part contains
 the exposition of the various national 
standpoints furnished 7in the history of
 the world7 for the bases of particular 
systems of education4 ,in each of these 
systems will be found the general idea  
underlying all education1 but it will be
 found existing under special           
modifications1 which have arisen through
 its application to the physical1       

intellectual1 and ethical conditions of 
the people4 ,but we can deduce the      
essential features of the different     
systems that may appear in history1 for 
there are only a limited number of      
systems possible4 ,each lower form finds
 itself complemented in some higher     
form1 and its function and purpose then 
become manifest4 ,the systems of        
national education 7i4e41 ,asiatic      
systems1 in which the individuality of  
each person is swallowed up in the      
substantiality of the national          
idea--just as the individual waves get  
lost in the ocean on whose surface they 
arise7 find their complete explanation  
in the systems of education that arise  
in ,christianity 7the preservation of   
human life being the object of the      
nation1 it follows that when realized   
abstractly or exclusively1 it absorbs   
and annuls the mental independence of   
its subjects1 and thus contradicts      
itself by destroying the essence of what
 it undertakes to preserve1 i4e41 life  

7soul1 mind72 but within ,christianity  
the principle of the state is found so  
modified that it is consistent with the 
infinite1 untrammelled development of   
the individual1 intellectually and      
morally1 and thus not only life is      
saved1 but spiritual1 free life is      
attainable for each and for all74   #aa4
 ,the history of pedagogy ends with the 
present system as the latest one4 ,as   
science sees the future ideally         
contained in the present1 it is bound to
 comprehend the latest system as a      
realization 7though imperfect7 of the   
ideal system of education4 ,hence1 the  
system1 as scientifically treated in the
 first part of our work1 is the system  
with which the third part of our work   
ends4   #ab4 ,the nature of education1  
its form1 its limits1 are now to be     
investigated4 7 #ac-ej47   #ac4 ,the    
nature of education determined by the   
nature of ,mind or ,spirit1 whose       
activity is always devoted to realizing 
for itself what it is potentially--to   

becoming conscious of its possibilities1
 and to getting them under the control  
of its will4 ,mind is potentially free4 
,education is the means by which man    
seeks to realize in man his             
possibilities 7to develop the           
possibilities of the race in each       
individual74 ,hence1 education has      
freedom for its object4   #ad4 ,man is  
the only being capable of education1 in 
the sense above defined1 because the    
only conscious being4 ,he must know     
himself ideally1 and then realize his   
ideal self1 in order to become actually 
free4 ,the animals not the plants may be
 trained1 or cultivated1 but1 as devoid 
of self-consciousness 7even the highest 
animals not getting above impressions1  
not reaching ideas1 not seizing general 
or abstract thoughts71 they are not     
realized for themselves1 but only for   
us4 7,that is1 they do not know their   
ideal as we do47   #ae4 ,education1     
taken in its widest compass1 is the     
education of the human race by ,divine  

,providence4   #af4 ,in a narrower      
sense1 education is applied to the      
shaping of the individual1 so that his  
caprice and arbitrariness shall give    
place to rational habits and views1 in  
harmony with nature and ethical customs4
 ,he must not abuse nature1 nor slight  
the ethical code of his people1 nor     
despise the gifts of ,providence        
7whether for weal or woe71 unless he is 
willing to be crushed in the collision  
with these more substantial elements4   
#ag4 ,in the narrowest1 but most usual  
application of the term1 we understand  
by education the influence of the       
individual upon the individual1 exerted 
with the object of developing his powers
 in a conscious and methodical manner1  
either generally or in special          
directions1 the educator being          
relatively mature1 and exercising       
authority over the relatively immature  
pupil4 ,without authority on the one    
hand and obedience on the other1        
education would lack its ethical        

basis--a neglect of the will-training   
could not be compensated for by any     
amount of knowledge or smartness4   #ah4
 ,the general province of education     
includes the development of the         
individual into the theoretical and     
practical reason immanent in him4 ,the  
definition which limits education to the
 development of the individual into     
ethical customs 7obedience to morality1 
social conventionalities1 and the laws  
of the state--,hegel's definition is    
here referred to3 ,the object of        
education is to make men ethical7 is not
 comprehensive enough1 because it       
ignores the side of the intellect1 and  
takes note only of the will4 ,the       
individual should not only be man in    
general 7as he is through the adoption  
of moral and ethical forms--which are   
general forms1 customs1 or laws1 and    
thus the forms imposed by the will of   
the race71 but he should also be a      
self-conscious subject1 a particular    
individual 7man1 through his intellect1 

exists for himself as an individual1    
while through his general habits and    
customs he loses his individuality and  
spontaneity74   #ai4 ,education has a   
definite object in view and it proceeds 
by grades of progress toward it4 ,the   
systematic tendency is essential to all 
education1 properly so called4   #bj4   
,division of labor has become requisite 
in the higher spheres of teaching4 ,the 
growing multiplicity of branches of     
knowledge creates the necessity for the 
specialist as teacher4 ,with this       
tendency to specialties it becomes more 
and more difficult to preserve what is  
so essential to the pupil--his rounded  
human culture and symmetry of           
development4 ,the citizen of modern     
civilization sometimes appears to be an 
artificial product by the side of the   
versatility of the savage man4   #ba4   
,from this necessity of the division of 
labor in modern times there arises the  
demand for two kinds of educational     
institutions--those devoted to general  

education 7common schools1 colleges1    
etc471 and special schools 7for         
agriculture1 medicine1 mechanic arts1   
etc74   #bb4 ,the infinite possibility  
of culture for the individual leaves1 of
 course1 his actual accomplishment a    
mere approximation to a complete        
education4 ,born idiots are excluded    
from the possibility of education1      
because the lack of universal ideas in  
their consciousness precludes to that   
class of unfortunates anything beyond a 
mere mechanical training4   #bc4        
,spirit1 or mind1 makes its own nature2 
it is what it produces--a self-result4  
,from this follows the form of          
education4 ,it commences with 7#a7      
undeveloped mind--that of the           
infant--wherein nearly all is potential1
 and but little is actualized2 7#b7 its 
first stage of development is           
self-estrangement--it is absorbed in the
 observation of objects around it2 7#c7 
but it discovers laws and principles    
7universality7 in external nature1 and  

finally identifies them with reason--it 
comes to recognize itself in nature--to 
recognize conscious mind as the creator 
and preserver of the external world--and
 thus becomes at home in nature4        
,education does not create1 but it      
emancipates4   #bd4 ,this process of    
self-estrangement and its removal       
belongs to all culture4 ,the mind must  
fix its attention upon what is foreign  
to it1 and penetrate its disguise4 ,it  
will discover its own substance under   
the seeming alien being4 ,wonder is the 
accompaniment of this stage of          
estrangement4 ,the love of travel and   
adventure arises from this basis4   #be4
 ,labor is distinguished from play3 ,the
 former concentrates its energies on    
some object1 with the purpose of making 
it conform to its will and purpose2 play
 occupies itself with its object        
according to its caprice and            
arbitrariness1 and has no care for the  
results or products of its activity2    
work is prescribed by authority1 while  

play is necessarily spontaneous4   #bf4 
,work and ,play3 the distinction between
 them4 ,in play the child feels that he 
has entire control over the object with 
which he is dealing1 both in respect to 
its existence and the object for which  
it exists4 ,his arbitrary will may      
change both with perfect impunity1 since
 all depends upon his caprice2 he       
exercises his powers in play according  
to his natural proclivities1 and therein
 finds scope to develope his own        
individuality4 ,in work1 on the         
contrary1 he must have respect for the  
object with which he deals4 ,it must be 
held sacred against his caprice1 must   
not be destroyed nor injured in any way1
 and its object must likewise be        
respected4 ,his own personal            
inclinations must be entirely           
subordinated1 and the business that he  
is at work upon must be carried forward 
in accordance with its own ends and     
aims1 and without reference to his own  
feelings in the matter4  ,thus work     

teaches the pupil the lesson of         
self-sacrifice 7the right of superiority
 which the general interest possesses   
over the particular71 while play        
develops his personal idiosyncrasy4     
#bg4 ,without play1 the child would     
become more and more a machine1 and lose
 all freshness and spontaneity--all     
originality4 ,without work1 he would    
develop into a monster of caprice and   
arbitrariness4  ,from the fact that man 
must learn to combine with man1 in order
 that the individual may avail himself  
of the experience and labors of his     
fellow-men1 self-sacrifice for the sake 
of combination is the great lesson of   
life4 ,but as this should be voluntary  
self-sacrifice1 education must train the
 child equally in the two directions of 
spontaneity and obedience4 ,the educated
 man finds recreation in change of work4
   #bh4 ,education seeks to assimilate  
its object--to make what was alien and  
strange to the pupil into something     
familiar and habitual to him4 ,the pupil

 is to attack1 one after the other1 the 
foreign realms in the world of nature   
and man1 and conquer them for his own1  
so that he can be at home in them4 ,it  
is the necessary condition of all       
growth1 all culture1 that one widens his
 own individuality by this conquest of  
new provinces alien to him4 ,by this the
 individual transcends the narrow limits
 of particularity and becomes           
generic--the individual becomes the     
species4 ,a good definition of education
 is this3 it is the process by which the
 individual man elevates himself to the 
species4   #bi4 7#a7 ,therefore1 the    
first requirement in education is that  
the pupil shall acquire the habit of    
subordinating his likes and dislikes to 
the attainment of a rational object4    
,it is necessary that he shall acquire  
this indifference to his own pleasure1  
even by employing his powers on that    
which does not appeal to his interest in
 the remotest degree4   #cj4 ,habit soon
 makes us familiar with those subjects  

which seemed so remote from our personal
 interest1 and they become agreeable to 
us4 ,the objects1 too1 assume a new     
interest upon nearer approach1 as being 
useful or injurious to us4 ,that is     
useful which serves us as a means for   
the realization of a rational purpose2  
injurious1 if it hinders such           
realization4 ,it happens that objects   
are useful in one sense and injurious in
 another1 and vice versa4 ,education    
must make the pupil capable of deciding 
on the usefulness of an object1 by      
reference to its effect on his permanent
 vocation in life4   #ca4 ,but good and 
evil are the ethical distinctions which 
furnish the absolute standard to which  
to refer the question of the usefulness 
of objects and actions4   #cb4 7#b7     
,habit is 7a7 passive1 or 7b7 active4   
,the passive habit is that which gives  
us the power to retain our equipoise of 
mind in the midst of a world of changes 
7pleasure and pain1 grief and joy1 etc74
 ,the active habit gives us skill1      

presence of mind1 tact in emergencies1  
etc4   #cc4 7#c7 ,education deals       
altogether with the formation of habits4
 ,for it aims to make some condition or 
form of activity into a second nature   
for the pupil4 ,but this involves1 also1
 the breaking up of previous habits4    
,this power to break up habits1 as well 
as to form them1 is necessary to the    
freedom of the individual4   #cd4       
,education deals with these             
complementary relations 7antitheses73   
7a7 authority and obedience2 7b7        
rationality 7general forms7 and         
individuality2 7c7 work and play2 7d7   
habit 7general custom7 and spontaneity4 
,the development and reconciliation of  
these opposite sides in the pupil's     
character1 so that they become his      
second nature1 removes the phase of     
constraint which at first accompanies   
the formal inculcation of rules1 and the
 performance of prescribed tasks4 ,the  
freedom of the pupil is the ultimate    
object to be kept in view1 but a too    

early use of freedom may work injury to 
the pupil4 ,to remove a pupil from all  
temptation would be to remove           
possibilities of growth in strength to  
resist it2 on the other hand1 to expose 
him needlessly to temptation is         
fiendish4   #ce4 ,deformities of        
character in the pupil should be        
carefully traced back to their origin1  
so that they may be explained by their  
history4 ,only by comprehending the     
historic growth of an organic defect are
 we able to prescribe the best remedies4
   #cf4 ,if the negative behavior of the
 pupil 7his bad behavior7 results from  
ignorance due to his own neglect1 or to 
his wilfulness1 it should be met        
directly by an act of authority on the  
part of the teacher 7and without an     
appeal to reason74 ,an appeal should be 
made to the understanding of the pupil  
only when he is somewhat mature1 or     
shows by his repetition of the offence  
that his proclivity is deep-seated1 and 
requires an array of all good influences

 to reinforce his feeble resolutions to 
amend4   #cg4 ,reproof1 accompanied by  
threats of punishment1 is apt to        
degenerate into scolding4   #ch4 ,after 
the failure of other means1 punishment  
should be resorted to4 ,inasmuch as the 
punishment should be for the purpose of 
making the pupil realize that it is the 
consequence of his deed returning on    
himself1 it should always be            
administered for some particular act of 
his1 and this should be specified4 ,the 
overt act is the only thing which a man 
can be held accountable for in a court  
of justice2 although it is true that the
 harboring of evil thoughts or          
intentions is a sin1 yet it is not a    
crime until realized in an overt act4   
#dj4 ,punishment should be regulated1   
not by abstract rules1 but in view of   
the particular case and its attending   
circumstances4   #da4 ,sex and age of   
pupil should be regarded in prescribing 
the mode and degree of punishment4      
,corporal punishment is best for pupils 

who are very immature in mind2 when they
 are more developed they may be punished
 by any imposed restraint upon their    
free wills which will isolate them from 
the ordinary routine followed by their  
fellow-pupils4 7,deprivation of the     
right to do as others do is a wholesome 
species of punishment for those old or  
mature enough to feel its effects1 for  
it tends to secure respect for the      
regular tasks by elevating them to the  
rank of rights and privileges47 ,for    
young men and women1 the punishment     
should be of a kind that is based on a  
sense of honor4   #db4 7#a7 ,corporal   
punishment should be properly           
administered by means of the rod1       
subduing wilful defiance by the         
application of force4   #dh4 7#b7       
,isolation makes the pupil realize a    
sense of his dependence upon human      
society1 and upon the expression of this
 dependence by coperation in the common 
tasks4 ,pupils should not be shut up in 
a dark room1 nor removed from the       

personal supervision of the teacher4    
7,to shut up two or more in a room      
without supervision is not isolation1   
but association2 only it is association 
for mischief1 and not for study47   #dd4
 7#c7 ,punishment based on the sense of 
honor may or may not be based on        
isolation4 ,it implies a state of       
maturity on the part of the pupil4      
,through his offence the pupil has      
destroyed his equality with his fellows1
 and has in reality1 in his inmost      
nature1 isolated himself from them4     
,corporal punishment is external1 but it
 may be accompanied with a keen sense of
 dishonor4 ,isolation1 also1 may1 to a  
pupil1 who is sensitive to honor1 be a  
severe blow to self-respect4 ,but a     
punishment founded entirely on the sense
 of honor would be wholly internal1 and 
have no external discomfort attached to 
it4   #de4 ,the necessity of carefully  
adapting the punishment to the age and  
maturity of the pupil1 renders it the   
most difficult part of the teacher's    

duties4 ,it is essential that the air   
and manner of the teacher who punishes  
should be that of one who acts from a   
sense of painful duty1 and not from any 
delight in being the cause of suffering4
 ,not personal likes and dislikes1 but  
the rational necessity which is over    
teacher and pupil alike1 causes the     
infliction of pain on the pupil4   #df4 
,punishment is the final topic to be    
considered under the head of ,form of   
,education4  ,in the act of punishment  
the teacher abandons the legitimate     
province of education1 which seeks to   
make the pupil rational or obedient to  
what is reasonable1 as a habit1 and from
 his own free will4 ,the pupil is       
punished in order that he may be made to
 conform to the rational1 by the        
application of constraint4 ,another will
 is substituted for the pupil's1 and    
good behavior is produced1 but not by   
the pupil's free act4 ,while education  
finds a negative limit in punishment1 it
 finds a positive limit in the          

accomplishment of its legitimate object1
 which is the emancipation of the pupil 
from the state of imbecility1 as regards
 mental and moral self-control1 into the
 ability to direct himself rationally4  
,when the pupil has acquired the        
discipline which enables him to direct  
his studies properly1 and to control his
 inclinations in such a manner as to    
pursue his work regularly1 the teacher  
is no longer needed for him--he becomes 
his own teacher4  ,there may be two     
extreme views on this subject--the one  
tending towards the negative extreme of 
requiring the teacher to do everything  
for the pupil1 substituting his will for
 that of the pupil1 and the other view  
tending to the positive extreme1 and    
leaving everything to the pupil1 even   
before his will is trained into habits  
of self-control1 or his mind provided   
with the necessary elementary branches  
requisite for the prosecution of further
 study4   #dg4 7#a7 ,the subjective     
limit of education 7on the negative     

side7 is to be found in the             
individuality of the pupil--the limit to
 his natural capacity4   #dh4 7#b7 ,the 
objective limit to education lies in the
 amount of time that the person may     
devote to his training4 ,it1 therefore1 
depends largely upon wealth1 or other   
fortunate circumstances4   #di4 7#c7    
,the absolute limit of education is the 
positive limit 7see  #df71 beyond which 
the youth passes into freedom from the  
school1 as a necessary instrumentality  
for further culture4   #ej4 ,the        
pre-arranged pattern-making work of the 
school is now done1 but self-education  
may and should go on indefinitely1 and  
will go on if the education of the      
school has really arrived at its        
absolute limit--i4e41 has fitted the    
pupil for self-education4 ,emancipation 
from the school does not emancipate one 
from learning through his fellow-men4   
,man's spiritual life is one depending  
upon coperation with his fellow-men4    
,each must avail himself of the         

experience of his fellow-men1 and in    
turn communicate his own experience to  
the common fund of the race4 ,thus each 
lives the life of the whole1 and all    
live for each4 ,school-education gives  
the pupil the instrumentalities with    
which to enable him to participate in   
this fund of experience--this common    
life of the race4 ,after                
school-education comes the still more   
valuable education1 which1 however1     
without the school1 would be in a great 
measure impossible4     ,,errata4       
#bf4 ,last two paragraphs should be     
within quotation marks1 being from an   
,english author4   #bi4 ,the second and 
third paragraphs belong to  #cj4--the   
numbering being omitted4   #cc4 ,line   
four--instructive should be intuitive4  
,,second ,,part4  ,the ,special         
,elements of ,education4    #ea4        
,education is the development of the    
theoretical and practical ,reason which 
is inborn in the human being4 ,its end  
is to be accomplished by the labor which

 transforms a condition1 existent at    
first only as an ideal1 into a fixed    
habit1 and changes the natural          
individuality into a glorified humanity4
 ,when the youth stands1 so to speak1 on
 his own feet1 he is emancipated from   
education1 and education then finds its 
limit4 ,the special elements which may  
be said to make up education are the    
life1 the cognition1 and the will of    
man4 ,without the first1 the real nature
 of the soul can never be made really to
 appear2 without cognition1 he can have 
no genuine will--i4e41 one of which he  
is conscious2 and without will1 no      
self-assurance1 either of life or of    
cognition4 ,it must not be forgotten    
that these three so-called elements are 
not to be held apart in the active work 
of education2 for they are inseparable  
and continually interwoven the one with 
the other4 ,but none the less do they   
determine their respective consequences1
 and sometimes one1 sometimes another   
has the supremacy4 ,in infancy1 up to   

the fifth or sixth year1 the physical   
development1 or mere living1 is the main
 consideration2 the next period1 that of
 childhood1 is the time of acquiring    
knowledge1 in which the child takes     
possession of the theory of the world as
 it is handed down--a tradition of the  
past1 such as man has made it through   
his experience and insight2 and finally1
 the period of youth must pave the way  
to a practical activity1 the character  
of which the self-determination of the  
will must decide4   #eb4 ,we may1 then1 
divide the elements of ,pedagogics into 
three sections3 7#a7 the physical1 7#b7 
the intellectual1 7#c7 the practical4   
7,the words orthobiotics1 didactics1 and
 pragmatics might be used to            
characterize them47  sthetic training is
 only an element of the intellectual1 as
 social1 moral1 and religious training  
are elements of the practical4 ,but     
because these latter elements relate to 
external things 7affairs of the world71 
the name pragmatics1 is appropriate4 ,in

 so far as education touches on the     
principles which underlie ethics1       
politics1 and religion1 it concurs with 
those sciences1 but it is distinguished 
from them in the capacity which it      
imparts for solving the problems        
presented by the others4  ,the          
scientific order of topics must be      
established through the fact that the   
earlier1 as the more abstract1          
constitute the condition of their       
presupposed end and aim1 and the later  
because the more concrete constitute the
 ground of the former1 and consequently 
their final cause1 or the end for which 
they exist2 just as in human beings1    
life in the order of time comes before  
cognition1 and cognition before will1   
although life really presupposes        
cognition1 and cognition will4   ,,first
 ,,division4  ,,physical ,,education1   
,,or ,,orthobiotics4    #ec4 ,only when 
we rightly comprehend the process of    
life may we know how to live aright4    
,life1 the circle of eternal change1 is 

constantly transforming the inorganic   
into the organic1 and after using it1   
returning it again to the realm of the  
inorganic4 ,whatever it does not        
assimilate of that which it has taken in
 simply as a stimulant1 and whatever has
 become dead1 it separates from itself  
and rejects4 ,the organism is in perfect
 health when it accomplishes this double
 task of organizing and disorganizing4  
,on the comprehension of this single    
fact all laws of physical health or of  
hygiene are based4 ,this idea of the    
essence of life is expressed by ,goethe 
in his ,faust1 where he sees the golden 
buckets perpetually rising and          
sinking4#ac ,when the equilibrium of the
 upward and downward motion is          
disturbed1 we have disease4 ,when the   
motion ceases we have death1 in which   
the whole organism becomes inorganic1   
and the dust returns to dust4   #ed4 ,it
 follows from this that not only in the 
organism as a whole1 but in every organ1
 and every part of every organ1 this    

restless change of the inorganic to the 
organic is going on4 ,every cell has its
 own history1 and this history is only  
the same as that of the whole of which  
it forms a part4 ,activity is then not  
inimical to the organism1 but is the    
appointed means by which the progressive
 and retrogressive metamorphoses must be
 carried out4 ,in order that the process
 may go on harmoniously1 or1 in other   
words1 that the body may be healthy1 the
 whole organism1 and every part of it in
 its own way1 must have its period of   
productive activity and then also its   
period of rest in which it finds renewal
 of strength for another period of      
activity4 ,thus we have waking and      
sleep1 inspiration and expiration of    
air4 ,periodicity is the law of life4   
,when we understand the relative        
antagonism 7their stage of tension7 of  
the different organs1 and their cycles  
of activity1 we shall hold the secret of
 the constant self-renewal of life4     
,this thought finds expression in the   

old fairy stories of ,the ,search after 
the ,fountain of ,youth4 ,and the figure
 of the fountain1 with its rising and   
falling waters1 doubtless finds its     
origin in the dim comprehension of the  
endless double movement1 or periodicity 
of life4   #ee4 ,when to any organ1 or  
to the whole organism1 not sufficient   
time is allowed for it to withdraw into 
itself and to repair waste1 we are      
conscious of fatigue4 ,while the other  
organs all rest1 however1 one special   
organ may1 as if separated from them1   
sustain a long-continued effort of      
activity even to the point of fatigue1  
without injury--as1 e4g41 the lungs in  
talking while all the other members are 
at rest4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it is 
not well to talk and run at the same    
time4  ,the idea that the body may be   
preserved in a healthy state longer by  
sparing it--i4e41 by inactivity--is an  
error which springs from a false and    
mechanical conception of life4 ,it is   
just as foolish to imagine that health  

depends on the abundance and excellence 
of food1 for without the power of       
assimilating the food taken1 nourishment
 of whatever kind does more harm than   
good2 all real strength develops from   
activity alone4   #ef4 ,physical        
education1 according as it relates to   
the repairing1 the muscular1 or the     
emotional activities1 is divided into   
7#a7 diatetics1 7#b7 gymnastics1 7#c7   
sexual education4 ,in the direct        
activity of life these all interact with
 each other1 but for our purposes we are
 obliged to speak of them as if they    
worked independently4 ,moreover1 in the 
development of the human being1 they    
come into maturity of development in a  
certain order3 nutrition1 muscular      
growth1 sexual maturity4 ,but           
,pedagogics can treat of these only as  
they are found in the infant1 the child1
 and the youth2 for with the arrival of 
mature life1 education is over4         
,,first ,,chapter4  ,diatetics4    #eg4 
,by diatetics we mean the art of        

repairing the constant waste of the     
system1 and1 in childhood1 of also      
building it up to its full form and     
size4 ,since in reality each organism   
has its own way of doing this1 the      
diatetical practice must vary somewhat  
with sex1 age1 temperament1 occupation1 
and circumstances4 ,the science of      
,pedagogics has then1 in this           
department1 only to enunciate general   
principles4 ,if we go into details1 we  
fall into triviality4 ,nothing can be of
 more importance for the whole life than
 the way in which the physical education
 is managed in the very first stages of 
development4 ,so generally is this fact 
accepted1 that almost every nation has  
its own distinct system1 which has been 
carefully elaborated4 ,many of these    
systems1 no doubt1 are characterized by 
gross errors1 and widely differ as to   
time1 place1 and character1 and yet they
 all have a justification for their     
peculiar form4   #eh4 ,the best food for
 the infant in the first months of its  

life is its mother's milk4 ,the         
employment of another nurse1 if a       
general custom1 as in ,france1 is highly
 objectionable1 since with the milk the 
child is likely to imbibe to some extent
 his physical and ethical nature4 ,the  
milk of an animal can never supply the  
place to a child of that of its own     
mother4 ,in ,walter ,scott's story of   
,the ,fair ,maid of ,perth1 ,eachim is  
represented as timorous by nature1      
having been nourished by a white doe    
after the death of his mother4   #ei4   
,when the teeth make their appearance1  
it is a sign that the child is ready for
 solid food2 and yet1 till the second   
teeth appear1 light1 half-solid food and
 vegetables should constitute the       
principal part of the diet4   #fj4 ,when
 the second teeth have come1 then the   
organism demands both vegetable and     
animal food4 ,too much meat is1         
doubtless1 harmful4 ,but it is an error 
to suppose that man was intended to eat 
vegetables alone1 and that1 as some have

 said1 the adoption of animal food is a 
sign of his degeneracy4  ,the ,hindoos1 
who live principally on a vegetable     
diet1 are not at all1 as has been       
asserted1 a mild and gentle race4 ,a    
glance into their stories1 especially   
their erotic poetry1 proves them to be  
quite as passionate as any other people4
   #fa4 ,man is an omnivorous being4    
,children have1 therefore1 a natural    
desire to taste of every thing4 ,with   
them1 eating and drinking have still a  
poetic side1 and there is a pleasure in 
them which is not wholly the mere       
pleasure of taste4 ,their proclivity to 
taste of every thing should not1        
therefore1 be harshly censured1 unless  
it is associated with disobedience1 or  
pursued in a clandestine manner1 or when
 it betrays cunning and greediness4     
#fb4 ,children need much sleep1 because 
they are growing and changing so fast4  
,in later years1 waking and sleeping    
must be regulated1 and yet not too      
exactly4   #fc4 ,the clothing of        

children should follow the form of the  
body1 and should be large enough to give
 them free room for the unfettered      
movement of every limb in play4  ,the   
,germans do more rationally for children
 in the matter of sleep and of dress    
than in that of food1 which they often  
make too rich1 and accompany with       
coffee1 tea1 etc4 ,the clothing should  
be not only suitable in shape and size1 
it must also be made of simple and      
inexpensive material1 so that the child 
may not be hampered in his play by the  
constant anxiety that a spot or a rent  
may cause fault to be found with him4   
,if we foster in the child's mind too   
much thought about his clothes1 we tend 
to produce either a narrow-mindedness1  
which treats affairs of the moment with 
too much respect and concerns itself    
with little things1 or an empty vanity4 
,vanity is often produced by dressing   
children in a manner that attracts      
attention4 7,no one can fail to remark  
the peculiar healthful gayety of ,german

 children1 and to contrast it with the  
different appearance of ,american       
children4 ,it is undoubtedly true that  
the climate has much to do with this    
result1 but it is also true that we may 
learn much from that nation in our way  
of treating children4 ,already we import
 their children's story-books1 to the   
infinite delight of the little ones1 and
 copies of their children's pictures are
 appropriated constantly by our         
children's magazines and picture-books4 
,it is to be greatly desired that we    
should adopt the very sensible custom   
which prevails in ,germany1 of giving to
 each child its own little bed to sleep 
in1 no matter how many may be required2 
and1 in general1 we shall not go far    
astray if we follow the ,germans in     
their treatment of their happy          
children47   #fd4 ,cleanliness is a     
virtue to which children should be      
trained1 not only for the sake of their 
physical health1 but also because it has
 a decided moral influence4 ,cleanliness

 will not have things deprived of their 
distinctive and individual character1   
and become again a part of original     
chaos4 ,it is only a form of order which
 remands all things1 dirt included1 to  
their own places1 and will not endure to
 have things mixed and confused4 ,all   
adaptation in dress comes from this same
 principle4 ,when every thing is in its 
proper place1 all dressing will be      
suitable to the occasion and to the     
wearer1 and the era of good taste in    
dress will have come4 ,dirt itself1 as  
,lord ,palmerston so wittily said1 is   
nothing but matter out of place4        
,cleanliness would hold every individual
 thing strictly to its differences from 
other things1 and for the reason that it
 makes pure air1 cleanliness of his own 
body1 of his clothing1 and of all his   
surroundings really necessary to man1 it
 develops in him the feeling for the    
proper limitations of all existent      
things4 7,emerson says3 ,therefore is   
space and therefore is time1 that men   

may know that things are not huddled and
 lumped1 but sundered and divisible4 ,he
 might have said1 ,therefore is         
cleanliness47   ,,second ,,chapter4     
,gymnastics4    #fe4 ,gymnastics is the 
art of cultivating in a rational manner 
the muscular system4 ,the activity of   
the voluntary muscles1 which are under  
the control of the brain1 in distinction
 from the involuntary1 which are under  
the control of the spinal cord1 renders 
possible the connection of man with the 
external world1 and acts in a reflex    
manner back upon the involuntary or     
automatic muscles for the purposes of   
repair and sensation4 ,because the      
activity of muscle-fibre consists in the
 change from contraction to expansion1  
and the reverse1 gymnastics must use a  
constant change of movements which shall
 not only make tense1 but relax the     
muscles that are to be exercised4   #ff4
 ,the gymnastic art among any people    
will always bear a certain relation to  
its art of war4 ,so long as fighting    

consists mainly of personal1            
hand-to-hand encounters of two          
combatants1 so long will gymnastics turn
 its chief effort towards the           
development of the greatest possible    
amount of individual strength and       
dexterity4 ,but after the invention of  
fire-arms of long range has changed the 
whole idea of war1 the individual       
becomes only one member of a body1 the  
army1 the division1 or the regiment1 and
 emerges from this position into his    
individuality again only occasionally1  
as in sharpshooting1 in the onset1 or in
 the retreat4 ,modern gymnastics1 as an 
art1 can never be the same as the       
ancient art1 for this very reason3 that 
because of the loss of the individual   
man in the general mass of combatants1  
the matter of personal bravery is not of
 so much importance as formerly4 ,the   
same essential difference between       
ancient and modern gymnastics1 would    
result from the subjective1 or internal 
character of the modern spirit4 ,it is  

impossible for us1 in modern times1 to  
devote so much thought to the care of   
the body and to the reverential         
admiration of its beauty as did the     
,greeks4  ,the ,turners' ,unions and    
,turners' ,halls in ,germany belonged to
 the period of intense political        
enthusiasm in the ,german youth1 and had
 a political significance4 ,now they    
have come back again to their place as  
an instrument of education1 and seem in 
great cities to be of much importance4  
,in mountainous countries1 and in       
country life generally1 a definite      
gymnastic drill is of much less         
importance1 for much and varied exercise
 is of necessity a constant part of the 
daily life of every one4  ,the constant 
opportunity and the impulse to          
recreation helps in the same direction4 
,in cities1 on the contrary1 there is   
not free space enough either in houses  
or yards for children to romp to their  
heart's and body's content4 ,for this   
reason a gymnasium is here useful1 so   

that they may have companionship in     
their plays4 ,for girls this exercise is
 less necessary4 ,dancing may take its  
place1 and systematic exercise should be
 used only where there is a tendency to 
some weakness or deformity4 ,they are   
not to become ,amazons4 ,on the other   
hand1 boys need the feeling of          
comradeship4 ,it is true they find this 
in some measure in school1 but they are 
not there perfectly on an equality1     
because the standing is determined to   
some extent by his intellectual ability4
 ,the academic youth cannot hope to win 
any great preminence in the gymnastic   
hall1 and running1 climbing1 leaping1   
and lifting do not interest him very    
much as he grows older4 ,he takes a far 
more lively interest in exercises which 
have a military character4 ,in ,germany 
the gymnastic art is very closely united
 with the art of war4  7,the ,german    
idea of a woman's whole duty--to knit1  
to sew1 and to obey implicitly--is      
perhaps accountable for what ,rosenkranz

 here says of exercise as regards girls4
 ,we1 however1 who know that the most   
frequent direct cause of debility and   
suffering in our young women is simply  
and solely a want of muscular strength1 
may be pardoned for dissenting from his 
opinion1 and for suggesting that dancing
 is not a sufficient equivalent for the 
more violent games of their brothers4   
,we do not fear to render them ,amazons 
by giving them more genuine and         
systematic exercise1 both physically and
 intellectually47   #fg4 ,the main idea 
of gymnastics1 and indeed of all        
exercise1 is to give the mind control   
over its natural impulses1 to make it   
master of the body which it inhabits1   
and of itself4 ,strength and dexterity  
must combine to give us a sense of      
mastership4 ,strength by itself produces
 the athlete1 dexterity by itself the   
acrobat4 ,pedagogics must avoid both    
these extremes4 ,neither must it base   
its teaching of gymnastics on the idea  
of utility--as1 e4g41 that man might    

save his life by swimming1 should he    
fall into the water1 and hence swimming 
should be taught1 etc4  ,the main       
thought must be always to enable the    
soul to take full and perfect possession
 of the organism1 so as not to have the 
body form a limit or fetter to its      
action in its dealings with the external
 world4 ,we are to give it a perfect    
instrument in the body1 in so far as our
 care may do so4 ,then we are to teach  
it to use that instrument1 and exercise 
it in that use till it is complete      
master thereof4  7,what is said about   
the impropriety of making athletes and  
acrobats may with justice be also       
applied to what is called vocal         
gymnastics2 whence it comes that we have
 too often vocal athletes and acrobats  
in our graduates1 and few readers who   
can read at sight1 without difficulty or
 hesitation1 and with appreciation or   
enjoyment1 one page of good ,english47  
#fh4 ,there are all grades of gymnastic 
exercises1 from the simple to the most  

complex1 constituting a system4 ,at     
first sight1 there seems to be so much  
arbitrariness in these things that it is
 always very satisfactory to the mind to
 detect some rational system in them4   
,thus we have movements 7a7 of the lower
 extremities1 7b7 of the upper1 7c7 of  
the whole body1 with corresponding      
movements1 alternately1 of the upper and
 of the lower extremities4 ,we thus have
 leg1 arm1 and trunk movements4   #fi4  
7#a7 ,the first set of movements1 those 
of the legs and feet1 are of prime      
importance1 because upon them depends   
the carriage of the whole body4 ,they   
are 7a7 walking1 7b7 running1 7c7       
leaping2 and each of these1 also1 may   
have varieties4 ,we may have high and   
low leaping1 and running may be         
distinguished as to whether it is to be 
a short and rapid1 or a slow and        
long-continued movement4 ,we may also   
walk on stilts1 or run on skates4 ,we   
may leap with a pole1 or without one4   
,dancing is only an artistic and        

graceful combination of these movements4
   #gj4 7#b7 ,the second set comprises  
the arm movements1 which are about the  
same as the preceding1 being 7a7        
lifting1 7b7 swinging2 7c7 throwing4    
,the use of horizontal poles and bars1  
as well as climbing and dragging1 belong
 to lifting4 ,under throwing1 come quoit
 and ball-playing and bowling4 ,these   
movements are distinguished from each   
other not only quantitatively1 but      
qualitatively2 as1 for instance1 running
 is not merely rapid walking2 it is a   
different kind of movement from walking1
 as the position of the extended and    
contracted muscles is different4   #ga4 
7#c7 ,the third set of exercises1 those 
of the trunk1 differ from the other two1
 which should precede it1 in that they  
bring the body into contact with an     
object in itself capable of active      
resistance1 which it has to subdue4     
,this object may be an element 7water71 
an animal1 or a human being2 and thus we
 have 7a7 swimming1 7b7 riding1 7c7     

fighting in single combat4 ,in swimming 
we have the elastic fluid1 water1 to    
overcome by means of arm and leg        
movements4 ,this may be made very       
difficult by a strong current1 or by    
rough water1 and yet we always have here
 to strive against an inanimate object4 
,on the contrary1 in horseback riding we
 have to deal with something that has a 
self of its own1 and the contest        
challenges not our strength alone1 but  
also our skill and courage4 ,the motion 
is therefore very complex1 and the rider
 must be able to exercise either or all 
of these qualities at need4 ,but his    
attention must not be wholly given to   
his horse1 for he has to observe also   
the road1 and indeed every thing around 
him4 ,one of the greatest advantages of 
horseback riding to the overworked      
student or the business man lies        
doubtlessly in the mental effort4 ,it is
 impossible for him to go on revolving  
in his mind the problems or the thoughts
 which have so wearied or perplexed him4

 ,his whole attention is incessantly    
demanded for the management of his      
horse1 for the observation of the road1 
which changes its character with every  
step1 and with the objects1 far or near1
 which are likely to attract the        
attention of the animal he rides4 ,much 
good1 doubtless1 results from the       
exercise of the muscles of the trunk1   
which are not in any other motion called
 into such active play1 but much also   
from the unavoidable distraction of the 
mind from the ordinary routine of       
thought1 which is the thing most needed4
 ,when the object which we are to       
subdue1 instead of being an animal1 is a
 man like ourselves1 as in single       
combat1 we have exercise both of body   
and mind pushed to its highest power4   
,we have then to oppose an intelligence 
which is equal to our own1 and no longer
 the intelligence of an unreasoning     
animal4 ,single combat is the truly     
chivalrous exercise2 and this also1 as  
in the old chivalry time1 may be        

combined with horsemanship4  ,in single 
combat we find also a qualitative       
distinction1 and this of three kinds3   
7a7 boxing and wrestling1 7b7 fighting  
with canes or clubs1 and 7c7 rapier and 
sword fencing4 ,the ,greeks carried     
wrestling to its highest pitch of       
excellence4 ,among the ,british1 a      
nation of sailors1 boxing is still      
retained as a national custom4 ,fencing 
with a cane or stick is much in use     
among the ,french artisan class4 ,the   
cane is a sort of refined club4 ,when   
the sword or rapier makes its           
appearance1 we come to mortal combat4   
,the southern ,european excels in the   
use of the rapier2 the ,germans in that 
of the sword4 ,the appearance of the    
pistol marks the degeneracy of the art  
of single combat1 as it makes the weak  
man equal to the strong1 and there is   
therefore no more incentive to train the
 body to strength in order to overcome  
an enemy4 7,the trained intelligence1   
the quick eye1 the steady hand1 the wary

 thought to perceive and to take        
advantage of an opportunity--these are  
the qualities which the invention of    
gunpowder set up above strength and     
brute force4 ,the ,greek nation1 and we 
may say ,greek mythology and art1 would 
have been impossible with gunpowder2 the
 ,american nation impossible without    
it47   ,,third ,,chapter4  ,sexual      
,education4   ,this chapter is designed 
for parents rather than for teachers1   
and is hence not paraphrased here4 ,a   
few observations are1 however1 in place4
 ,great care is necessary at the period 
of youth that a rational system of food 
and exercise be maintained4 ,but the    
general fault is in the omission of this
 care in preceding years4 ,one cannot   
neglect due precautions for many years1 
and then hope to repair the damage      
caused1 by extreme care for one or two  
years4  ,special care is necessary that 
the brain be not overworked in early    
years1 and a morbid excitation of the   
whole nervous system thereby induced4   

,we desire to repress any tendency to   
the rapid development of the nervous    
system4 ,above all1 is the reading of   
the child to be carefully watched and   
guarded4 ,nothing can be worse food for 
a child than what are called sensational
 romances4 ,that the reading of such    
tends to enfeeble and enervate the whole
 thinking power is a fact which properly
 belongs to the intellectual side of our
 question not yet reached1 and may be   
here merely mentioned4 ,but the effect  
on the physical condition of the youth1 
of such carelessly written sensational  
stories1 mostly of the ,french type1 and
 full of sensuous1 if not sensual       
suggestions1 is a point not often enough
 considered4 ,the teacher cannot1       
perhaps1 except indirectly1 prevent the 
reading of such trash at home4 ,but     
every influence which he can bring to   
bear towards the formation of a purer   
and more correct taste1 he should never 
omit4 ,where there is a public library  
in the town1 he should make himself     

acquainted with its contents1 and give  
the children direct help in their       
selection of books4  ,this is an        
external means4 ,but he should never    
forget that every influence which he can
 bring to bear in his daily work to make
 science pleasant and attractive1 and   
every lesson which he gives in the use  
of pure1 correct ,english1 free from    
exaggeration1 from slang1 and from      
mannerism1 goes far to render such      
miserable and pernicious trash          
distasteful even to the child himself4  
,every example of thorough work1 every  
pleasure that comes from the solving of 
a problem or the acquisition of a new   
fact1 is so much fortification against  
the advances of the enemy2 while all    
shallow half work1 all pretence or show 
tend to create an appetite in the       
child's mind which shall demand such    
food4  ,the true teacher should always  
have in his mind these far-away and     
subtle effects of his teaching2 not     
present good or pleasure either for     

himself or his pupil1 but the far-off   
good--the distant development4 ,that    
idea would free him from the notion1 too
 common in our day1 that the success or 
failure of his efforts is to be tested  
by any adroitly contrived system of     
examinations2 or still worse1           
exhibitions4 ,his success can alone be  
tested by the future lives of his       
pupils--by their love for1 or dislike   
of1 new knowledge4 ,his success will be 
marked by their active growth through   
all their lives2 his failure1 by their  
early arrested development4     ,,an    
,,outline ,,of ,,educational            
,,psychology4  ,,by ,,wm4 ,t4 ,,harris4 
,,to ,,be ,,used ,,as ,,an              
,,introduction ,,to ,,paragraphs #ha    
,,to #ajb ,,of ,,rosenkranz',s          
,,pedagogics4   ,i4    ,what beings can 
be educated2 the plant has reaction     
against its surroundings in the form of 
nutrition2 the   animal has reaction in 
the form of nutrition and feeling2      
,aristotle calls the life of the plant  

the nutritive   soul1 and the life of   
the animal the sensitive soul4    ,the  
life of the plant is a continual        
reproduction of new   individuals--a    
process of going out of one individual  
into   another--so that the particular  
individual loses its   identity1        
although the identity of the species is 
preserved4  ,that which is dependent    
upon external circumstances1 and is only
 a circumstance itself1 is not capable  
of education4 ,only a self can be       
educated2 and a self is a conscious     
unity--a self-activity1 a being which is
 through itself1 and not one that is    
made by surrounding conditions4  ,again1
 in order that a being possess a        
capacity for education1 it must have the
 ability to realize within itself what  
belongs to its species or race4  ,if an 
acorn could develop itself so that it   
could realize1 not only its own         
possibility as an oak1 but its entire   
species1 and all the varieties of oaks  
within itself1 and without losing its   

particular individuality1 it would      
possess the capacity for education4 ,but
 an acorn1 in reality1 cannot develop   
its possibility without the destruction 
of its own individuality4 ,the acorn    
vanishes in the oak tree1 and the crop  
of acorns which succeeds is not again   
the same acorn1 except in kind or       
species4 ,the species lives1 but the    
individual dies1 in the vegetable world4
  ,so it is in the animal world4 ,the   
brute lives his particular life1 unable 
to develop within himself the form of   
his entire species1 and still less the  
form of all animal life4 ,and yet the   
animal possesses self-activity in the   
powers of locomotion1 sense-perception1 
feeling1 emotion1 and other elementary  
shapes4 ,both animal and plant react    
against surroundings1 and possess more  
or less power to assimilate what is     
foreign to them4 ,the plant takes       
moisture and elementary inorganic       
substances1 and converts them into      
nutrition wherewith to build its        

cellular growth4 ,the animal has not    
only this power of nutrition1 which     
assimilates its surroundings1 but also  
the power of feeling1 which is a        
wonderful faculty4 ,feeling reproduces  
within the organism of the animal the   
external condition2 it is an ideal      
reproduction of the surroundings4 ,the  
environment of the plant may be seized  
upon and appropriated in the form of    
sap1 or in the form of carbonic acid1   
for the nourishment of that plant2 but  
there is no ideal reproduction of the   
environment in the form of feeling1 as  
in the animal4  ,in the activity of     
feeling1 the animal transcends his      
material1 corporeal limits--lives beyond
 his mere body1 and participates in the 
existence of all nature4 ,he reproduces 
within himself the external4 ,such being
 the nature of the activity of feeling1 
which forms the distinguishing attribute
 that divides animals from plants1 the  
question meets us at the outset1 ,why is
 not the animal capable of education8   

,why can he not realize within himself  
his entire species or race1 as man can8 
,in order to settle this fundamental    
question1 we must study carefully the   
scope and limits of this activity1 which
 we have termed ,feeling1 and which is  
known under many names--as1 sensation1  
sensibility1 sensitivity1               
sense-perception1 intuition1 and others4
  ,education aims to develop the mind as
 intellect and will4 ,it must know what 
it is to develop1 and learn to          
distinguish higher or more complete     
stages of intellect and will from those 
which are rudimentary4  ,again1 the     
discussion of mind begins properly with 
the first or most undeveloped           
manifestation--at the stage where it is 
common to brutes and human beings4      
,hence we may begin our study of        
educational psychology at this point    
where the distinction between animal and
 plant appears1 and where the question  
of the capacity for education arises4   
,when we understand the relation of     

feeling or sensibility to the higher    
manifestations of mind1 we shall see in 
what consists a capacity for education1 
and we shall learn many essentials in   
regard to the matter and method1 the    
what and the how of education4  ,a      
general survey of the world discovers   
that there is inter-action among its    
parts4 ,this is the verdict of science1 
as the systematic form of human         
experience4 ,in the form of gravitation 
we understand that each body depends    
upon every other body1 and the          
annihilation of a particle of matter in 
a body would cause a change in that body
 which would affect every other body in 
the physical universe4 ,even            
gravitation1 therefore1 is a            
manifestation of the whole universe in  
each part of it1 although it is not a   
manifestation which exists for that     
part1 because the part does not know it4
  ,there are other forms wherein the    
whole manifests itself in each part of  
it--as1 for example1 in the phenomena of

 light1 heat1 and possibly in magnetism 
and electricity4 ,these forms of        
manifestation of the external world upon
 an individual object are destructive to
 the individuality of the object4 ,if   
the nature of a thing is stamped upon it
 from without1 it is an element only1   
and not a self2 it is dependent1 and    
belongs to that on which it depends4 ,it
 does not possess itself1 but belongs to
 that which makes it1 and which gives   
evidence of ownership by continually    
modifying it4  ,but the plant1 as we    
just now said1 has some degree of       
self-activity1 and is not altogether    
made by the totality of external        
conditions4 ,the growth of the plant is 
through assimilation of external        
substances4 ,it reacts against its      
surroundings and digests them1 and grows
 through the nutrition thus formed4     
,all beings that cannot react against   
surroundings and modify them1 lack      
individuality4 ,individuality begins    
with this power of reaction and         

modification of external surroundings4  
,even the power of cohesion is a        
rudimentary form of reaction and of     
special individuality4  ,in the case of 
the plant1 the reaction is real1 but not
 also ideal4 ,the plant acts upon its   
food1 and digests it1 or assimilates it1
 and imposes its form on that which it  
draws within its organism4 ,it does not1
 however1 reproduce within itself the   
externality as that external exists for 
itself4 ,it does not form within itself 
an idea1 or even a feeling of that which
 is external to it4 ,its participation  
in the external world is only that of   
real modification of it or through it2  
either the plant digests the external1  
or the external limits it1 and prevents 
its growth1 so that where one begins the
 other ceases4 ,hence it is that the    
elements--the matter of which the plant 
is composed1 that which it has          
assimilated even--still retain a large  
degree of foreign power or force--a     
large degree of externality which the   

plant has not been able to annul or to  
digest4 ,the plant-activity subdues its 
food1 changes its shape and its place1  
subordinates it to its use2 but what the
 matter brings with it1 and still       
retains of the world beyond the plant1  
does not exist for the plant2 the plant 
cannot read or interpret the rest of the
 universe from that small portion of it 
which it has taken up within its own    
organism4 ,and yet the history of the   
universe is impressed on each particle  
of matter1 as well within the plant as  
outside of it1 and it could be          
understood were there capacities for    
recognizing it4  ,the reaction of the   
life of the plant upon the external     
world is not sufficient to constitute a 
fixed1 abiding individuality4 ,with each
 accretion there is some change of      
particular individuality4 ,every growth 
to a plant is by the sprouting out of   
new individuals--new plants--a ceaseless
 multiplication of individuals1 and not 
the preservation of the same individual4

 ,the species is preserved1 but not the 
particular individual4 ,each limb1 each 
twig1 even each leaf is a new           
individual1 which grows out from the    
previous growth as the first sprout grew
 from the seed4 ,each part furnishes a  
soil for the next4 ,when a plant no     
longer sends out new individuals1 we say
 it is dead4 ,the life of the plant is  
only a life of nutrition4  ,aristotle   
called vegetable life the nutritive     
soul1 and the life of the animal the    
feeling1 or sensitive soul4 ,nutrition  
is only an activity of preservation of  
the general form in new individuals1 it 
is only the life of the species1 and not
 the life of the permanent individual4  
,therefore we see that in the vegetable 
world we do not possess a being that can
 be educated--for no individual of it   
can realize within itself the species2  
its realization of the species is a     
continual process of going out of itself
 in new individuals1 but no activity of 
return to itself1 so as to preserve the 

identity of an individual4   ,,ii4      
,feeling is a unity of the parts of an  
organism everywhere   present in it2    
feeling is also an ideal reproduction of
   the external surroundings2 feeling is
 therefore a   synthesis of the internal
 and external4 ,aristotle joins         
locomotion and desire to feeling1 as    
correlates2 how   desire is a more      
explicit recognition of the unity of the
   external and internal than the first 
form of feeling is2   feeling reproduces
 the external without destroying its    
externality1 while nutrition receives   
the external only   after it has        
destroyed its individuality and         
assimilated   it2 desire is the side of 
feeling that unfolds into will4  ,with  
feeling or sensibility we come to a     
being that reacts on the external world 
in a far higher manner1 and realizes a  
more wonderful form of individuality4   
,the animal possesses1 in common with   
the plant1 a process of assimilation and
 nutrition4 ,moreover1 he possesses a   

capacity to feel4 ,through feeling1 or  
sensation1 all of the parts of his      
extended organism are united in one     
centre4 ,he is one individual1 and not a
 bundle of separate individuals1 as a   
plant is4 ,with feeling1 likewise1 are  
joined locomotion and desire4 ,for these
 are counterparts of feeling4 ,he       
feels--i4e41 lives as one indivisible   
unity throughout his organism and       
controls it1 and moves the parts of his 
body4 ,desire is more than mere feeling4
 ,mere feeling alone is the perception  
of the external within the being1 hence 
an ideal reproduction of the external   
world4 ,in feeling1 the animal exists   
not only within himself1 but also passes
 over his limit1 and has for object the 
reality of the external world that      
limits him4 ,hence it is the perception 
of his finiteness--his limits are his   
defects1 his needs1 wants1              
inadequateness--his separation from the 
world as a whole4 ,in feeling1 the      
animal perceives his separation from the

 rest of the world1 and also his union  
with it4 ,feeling expands into desire   
when the external world1 or some portion
 of it1 is seen as ideally belonging to 
the limited unity of the animal being4  
,it is beyond the limit1 and ought to be
 assimilated within the limited         
individuality of the animal4  ,mere     
feeling1 when attentively considered1 is
 found to contain these wonderful       
features of self-activity3 it reproduces
 for itself the external world that     
limits it2 it makes for itself an ideal 
object1 which includes its own self and 
its not-self at the same time4 ,it is a 
higher form than mere nutrition2 for    
nutrition destroys the nature of such   
externality as it receives into itself1 
while feeling preserves the external in 
its foreign individuality4  ,but through
 feeling the animal ascends to desire1  
and sees the independent externality as 
an object for its acquisition1 and      
through locomotion it is enabled to     
seize and appropriate it in a degree    

which the plant did not possess4        
,,iii4    ,the various forms of         
feeling--its specialization3 7a7        
touch1 the feeling of mere limits1 the  
indifferent   external independence of  
the organism and its   surroundings2 7b7
 taste1 feeling of the external object  
when it is undergoing dissolution by    
assimilation2 7c7   smell1 the feeling  
of chemical dissolution in general2     
7d7 hearing1 the feeling of the         
resistance of bodies   against attacks3 
sound being vibration caused by elastic 
reaction against attacks on cohesion2   
7e7 seeing1 the   feeling of objects in 
their independence1 without             
dissolution or attack2 plant life1      
nutrition1 a process in   which the     
individuality is not preserved either in
 time or   in space2 animal life1 as    
feeling1 preserves its   individuality  
as regards space1 but not as regards    
time4  ,having noted these important    
characteristics of the lower orders of  
life1 and found that reaction from the  

part against the whole--from the        
internal against the external--belongs  
to plant life and animal life1 we may   
now briefly mention the ways in which   
feeling is particularized4 ,in the lower
 animals it is only the feeling of      
touch2 in higher organisms it becomes   
also localized as seeing1 hearing1      
taste1 and smell4 ,these forms of       
sense-perception constitute a scale 7as 
it were7 of feeling4 ,with touch1 there 
is reproduction of externality1 but the 
ideality of the reproduction is not so  
complete as in the other forms4 ,with   
taste1 the feeling cognizes the external
 object as undergoing dissolution1 and  
assimilation within its own organism4   
,we taste only what we are beginning to 
destroy by the first process of         
assimilation--that of eating4 ,in smell1
 we perceive chemical dissolution of    
bodies4 ,in seeing and hearing1 we have 
the forms of ideal sensibility4 ,hearing
 perceives the attack made on the       
individuality of an external thing1 and 

its reaction in vibrations1 which reveal
 to us its internal nature--its         
cohesion1 etc4 ,in seeing1 we have the  
highest form of sense-perception as the 
perception of things in their external  
independence--not as being destroyed    
chemically1 like the objects of taste   
and smell2 not as being attacked and    
resisting1 like the objects which are   
known through the ear2 not as mere      
limits to our organism1 as in the sense 
of touch4  ,sense-perception1 as the    
developed realization of the activity of
 feeling1 belongs to the animal         
creation1 including man as an animal4   
,we have not yet1 therefore1 answered   
the question of capacity for education1 
so far as it concerns a discrimination  
between man and the brute4 ,we have only
 arrived at the conclusion that the     
vegetable world does not possess the    
capacity for education1 because its     
individual specimens are no complete    
individuals1 but only transitory phases 
manifesting the species by continual    

reproduction of new individuals which   
are as incomplete as the old ones4      
,plant life does not possess that       
self-activity which returns into itself 
in the same individual--if we may so    
express it2 it goes out of one          
individual into another perpetually4    
,its identity is that of the species1   
but not of the individual4  ,how is it  
with the animal--with the being which   
possesses sensibility1 or feeling8 ,this
 question recurs4 ,in feeling there is a
 reaction1 just as in the plant4 ,this  
reaction is1 however1 in an ideal       
form--the reproduction of the external  
without assimilation of it--and         
especially is this the case in the sense
 of sight1 though it is true of all     
forms of sensation to a less degree4    
,but all forms of sensibility are       
limited and special2 they refer only to 
the present1 in its forms of here and   
now4 ,the animal cannot feel what is not
 here and now4 ,even seeing is limited  
to what is present before it4 ,when we  

reflect upon the significance of this   
limitation of sense-perception1 we shall
 find that we need some higher form of  
self-activity still before we can       
realize the species in the individual1  
i4e41 before we can obtain the true     
individual--the permanent individuality4
  ,the defect in plant life was1 that   
there was neither identity of           
individuality in space nor identify in  
time4 ,the growth of the plant destroyed
 the individuality of the seed with     
which we began1 so that it was          
evanescent in time2 it served only as   
the starting-point for new              
individualities1 which likewise1 in     
turn1 served again the same purpose2 and
 so its growth in space was a departure 
from itself as individual4  ,the animal 
is a preservation of individuality as   
regards space4 ,he returns into himself 
in the form of feeling or sensibility2  
but as regards time1 it is not          
so--feeling being limited to the        
present4 ,without a higher activity than

 feeling1 there is no continuity of     
individuality in the animal any more    
than in the plant4 ,each new moment is a
 new beginning to a being that has      
feeling1 but not memory4  ,thus the     
individuality of mere feeling1 although 
a far more perfect realization of       
individuality than that found in plant  
life1 is yet1 after all1 not a          
continuous individuality for itself1 but
 only for the species4  ,in spite of the
 ideal self-activity which appertains to
 feeling1 even in sense-perception1 only
 the species lives in the animal and the
 individual dies1 unless there be higher
 forms of activity4   ,,iv4             
,representation is the next form above  
sense-perception4   ,the lowest phase of
 representation is recollection1 which  
simply repeats for itself a former      
sense-perception or   series of         
sense-perceptions2 in representation the
 mind is   free as regards external     
impressions2 it does not require   the  
presence of the object1 but recalls it  

without its own   time and place2 fancy 
and imagination are next higher than    
recollection1 because the mind not only 
recalls images1   but makes new         
combinations of them1 or creates them   
altogether2 attention is the appearance 
of the will in the   intellect2 with    
attention begins the separation of the  
transient from the variable in          
perception2 memory is the   highest form
 of representation2 memory deals with   
general   forms--not mere images of     
experience1 but general types of        
objects of perception2 memory1 in this  
sense1 is   productive as well as       
reproductive2 with memory arises        
language4  ,here we pass over to the    
consideration of higher forms of        
intellect and will4  ,while mere        
sensation1 as such1 acts only in the    
presence of the object--reproducing     
7ideally71 it is true1 the external     
object1 the faculty of representation is
 a higher form of self-activity 7or of  
reaction against surrounding            

conditions71 because it can recall1 at  
its own pleasure1 the ideal object4     
,here is the beginning of emancipation  
from the limitations of time4  ,the     
self-activity of representation can     
summon before it the object that is no  
longer present to it4 ,hence its        
activity is now a double one1 for it can
 seize not only what is now and here    
immediately before it1 but it can       
compare this present object with the    
past1 and identify or distinguish       
between the two4 ,thus recollection or  
representation may become memory4  ,as  
memory1 the mind achieves a form of     
activity far above that of              
sense-perception or mere recollection4  
,it must be noted carefully that mere   
recollection or representation1 although
 it holds fast the perception in time   
7making it permanent71 does not         
necessarily constitute an activity      
completely emancipated from time1 nor   
indeed very far advanced towards it4 ,it
 is only the beginning of such          

emancipation4 ,for mere recollection    
stands in the presence of the special   
object of sense-perception2 although the
 object is no longer present to the     
senses 7or to mere feeling71 yet the    
image is present to the representative  
perception1 and is just as much a       
particular here and now as the object of
 sense-perception4 ,there intervenes a  
new activity on the part of the soul    
before it arrives at memory4            
,recollection is not memory1 but it is  
the activity which grows into it by the 
aid of the activity of attention4  ,the 
special characteristics of objects of   
the senses are allowed to drop away1 in 
so far as they are unessential and      
merely circumstantial1 and gradually    
there arises in the mind the type--the  
general form--of the object perceived4  
,this general form is the object of     
memory4 ,memory deals therefore with    
what is general1 and a type1 rather than
 with what is directly recollected or   
perceived4  ,the activity by which the  

mind ascends from sense-perception to   
memory is the activity of attention4    
,here we have the appearance of the will
 in intellectual activity4 ,attention is
 the control of perception by means of  
the will4 ,the senses shall no longer   
passively receive and report what is    
before them1 but they shall choose some 
definite point of observation1 and      
neglect all the rest4  ,here1 in the act
 of attention we find abstraction1 and  
the greater attainment of freedom by the
 mind4 ,the mind abstracts its view from
 the many things before it1 and         
concentrates on one point4  ,educators  
have for many ages noted that the habit 
of attention is the first step in       
intellectual education4 ,with it we have
 found the point of separation between  
the animal intellect and the human4 ,not
 attention simply--like that with which 
the cat watches by the hole of a        
mouse--but attention which arrives at   
results of abstraction1 is the          
distinguishing characteristic of        

educative beings4  ,attention abstracts 
from some things before it and          
concentrates on others4 ,through        
attention grows the capacity to         
discriminate between the special1       
particular object and its general type4 
,generalization arises1 but not what is 
usually called generalization--only a   
more elementary form of it4 ,memory1 as 
the highest form of                     
representation--distinguishing it from  
mere recollection1 which reproduces only
 what has been perceived--such memory   
deals with the general forms of objects1
 their continuity in time4 ,such        
activity of memory1 therefore1 does not 
reproduce mere images1 but only the     
concepts or general ideas of things1 and
 therefore it belongs to the stage of   
mind that uses language4   ,v4          
,language marks the arrival at the stage
 of thought--at the   stage of the      
perception of universals--hence at the  
possibility of education2 language fixes
 the general types   which the          

productive memory forms2 each one of    
these   types1 indicated by a word1     
stands for a possible infinite   of     
sense-perceptions or recollections2 the 
word tree   stands for all the trees    
that exist1 and for all that have       
existed or will exist4 ,animals do not  
create for   themselves a new world of  
general types1 but deal only   with the 
first world of particular objects2 hence
 they are   lost in the variety and     
multiplicity of continuous   succession 
and difference4 ,man's sense-perception 
is with   memory2 hence always a        
recognition of the object as not        
wholly new1 but only as an example of   
what he is mostly   familiar with4      
,intellectual education has for its     
object   the cultivation of reflection2 
reflection is the ,platonic             
,reminiscence1 which retraces the       
unconscious processes   of thought      
,language is the means of distinguishing
 between the brute and the              
human--between the animal soul1 which   

has continuity only in the species      
7which pervades its being in the form of
 instinct71 and the human1 soul1 which  
is immortal1 and possessed of a capacity
 to be educated4  ,there is no language 
until the mind can perceive general     
types of existence2 mere proper names   
nor mere exclamations or cries do not   
constitute language4 ,all words that    
belong to language are                  
significative--they express or mean     
something--hence they are conventional  
symbols1 and not mere individual        
designations4 ,language arises only     
through common consent1 and is not an   
invention of one individual4 ,it is a   
product of individuals acting together  
as a community1 and hence implies the   
ascent of the individual into the       
species4 ,unless an individual could    
ascend into the species he could not    
understand language4 ,to know words and 
their meaning is an activity of divine  
significance2 it denotes the formation  
of universals in the mind--the ascent   

above the here and now of the senses1   
and above the representation of mere    
images1 to the activity which grasps    
together the general conception of      
objects1 and thus reaches beyond what is
 transient and variable4  ,doubtless the
 nobler species of animals possess not  
only sense-perception1 but a            
considerable degree of the power of     
representation4 ,they are not only able 
to recollect1 but to imagine or fancy to
 some extent1 as is evidenced by their  
dreams4 ,but that animals do not        
generalize sufficiently to form for     
themselves a new objective world of     
types and general concepts1 we have a   
sufficient evidence in the fact that    
they do not use words1 or invent        
conventional symbols4 ,with the activity
 of the symbol-making form of           
representation1 which we have named     
,memory1 and whose evidence is the      
invention and use of language1 the true 
form of individuality is attained1 and  
each individual human being1 as mind1   

may be said to be the entire species4   
,inasmuch as he can form universals in  
his mind1 he can realize the most       
abstract thought2 and he is conscious4  
,consciousness begins when one can seize
 the pure universal in the presence of  
immediate objects here and now4  ,the   
sense-perception of the mere animal1    
therefore1 differs from that of the     
human being in this3--  ,the human being
 knows himself as subject that sees the 
object1 while the animal sees the       
object1 but does not separate himself1  
as universal1 from the special act of   
seeing4 ,to know that ,i am ,i1 is to   
know the most general of objects1 and to
 carry out abstraction to its very last 
degree2 and yet this is what all human  
beings do1 young or old1 savage or      
civilized4 ,the savage invents and uses 
language--an act of the species1 but    
which the species cannot do without the 
participation of the individual4  ,it   
should be carefully noted that this     
activity of generalization which        

produces language1 and characterizes the
 human from the brute1 is not the       
generalization of the activity of       
thought1 so-called4  ,it is the         
preparation for thought4 ,these general 
types of things are the things which    
thought deals with4 ,thought does not   
deal with mere immediate objects of the 
senses2 it deals rather with the objects
 which are indicated by words--i4e41    
general objects4  ,some writers would   
have us suppose that we do not arrive at
 general notions except by the process  
of classification and abstraction1 in   
the mechanical manner that they lay down
 for this purpose4 ,the fact is that the
 mind has arrived at these general ideas
 in the process of learning language4   
,in infancy1 most children have learned 
such words as is1 existence1 being1     
nothing1 motion1 cause1 change1 ,i1 you1
 he1 etc41 etc4  ,but the point is not  
the mere arrival at these ideas4        
,education does not concern itself with 
that2 it does not concern itself with   

children who have not yet learned to    
talk--that is left for the nursery4  ,it
 is the process of becoming conscious of
 these ideas by reflection1 with which  
we have to concern ourselves in         
education4 ,reflection is everywhere the
 object of education4 ,even when the    
school undertakes to teach pupils the   
correct method of observation--how to   
use the senses1 as in object-lessons--it
 all means reflective observation1      
conscious use of the senses2 it would   
put this in the place of the nave       
spontaneity which characterizes the     
first stages of sense-perception4  ,we  
must not underrate these precepts of    
pedagogy because we find that they are  
not what it claims for them--i4e41 they 
are not methods of first discovery1 and 
of arrival at principles1 but only      
methods of reflection1 and of           
recognizing what we have already        
learned4 ,we see that ,plato's          
,reminiscence was a true form of        
statement for the perception of truths  

of reflection4 ,the first knowing is    
utterly unconscious of its own method2  
the second or scientific form of        
knowing1 which education develops1 is a 
knowing in which the mind knows its     
method4 ,hence it is a knowing which    
knows its own necessity and             
universality4   ,,vi4    ,education     
presupposes the stage of mind reached in
   productive memory2 it deals with     
reflection2 four stages   of reflection3
 7a7 sensuous ideas perceive things2 7b7
   abstract ideas perceive forces or    
elements of a process2   7c7 concrete   
idea perceives one process1 a           
pantheistic   first principle1          
persistent force2 7d7 absolute idea     
perceives a conscious first principle1  
absolute person4  ,we have considered in
 our psychological study thus far the   
forms of life and cognition1 contrasting
 the phase of nutrition with that of    
feeling1 or sensibility4 ,we have seen  
the various forms of feeling in         
sense-perception1 and the various forms 

of representation as the second phase of
 intellectual activity--the forms of    
recollection1 fancy1 imagination1       
attention1 and memory4 ,we draw the line
 between the animals capable of         
education and those not capable of it1  
at the point of memory defined--not as  
recollection1 but as the faculty of     
general ideas or conceptions1 to which  
the significant words of language       
correspond4  ,with the arrival at       
language1 we arrive at education in the 
human sense of the term2 with the       
arrival at language1 we arrive at the   
view of the world at which thought as a 
mental process begins4 ,as              
sense-perception has before it a world  
of present objects1 so thought has      
before it a world of general concepts1  
which language has defined and fixed4   
,it is true that few persons are aware  
that language stands for a world of     
general ideas1 and that reflection has  
to do with this world of universals4    
,hence it is1 too1 that so much of the  

so-called science of education is very  
crude and impractical4 ,much of it is   
materialistic1 and does not recognize   
the self-activity of mind2 but makes it 
out to be a correlation of physical     
energies--derived from the transmutation
 of food by the process of digestion1   
and then by the brain converted into    
thought4  ,let us consider now the      
psychology of thinking1 or reflection1  
and at first in its most inadequate     
forms4 ,as a human process1 the knowing 
is always a knowing by universals--a    
re-cognition1 and not simple            
apprehension1 such as the animals1 or   
such as beings have that do not use     
language4 ,the process of development of
 stages of thought begins with sensuous 
ideas1 which perceive mere individual1  
concrete1 real objects1 as it supposes4 
,in conceiving these1 it uses language  
and thinks general ideas1 but it does   
not know it1 nor is it conscious of the 
relations involved in such objects4     
,this is the first stage of reflection4 

,the world exists for it as an          
innumerable congeries of things1 each   
one independent of the other1 and       
possessing self-existence4 ,it is the   
stand-point from which atomism would be 
adopted as the philosophic system4 ,ask 
it what the ultimate principle of       
existence is1 and it would reply1       
,atoms4  ,but this view of the world is 
a very unstable one1 and requires very  
little reflection to overturn it1 and   
bring one to the next basis--that of    
abstract ideas4 ,when the mind looks    
carefully at the world of things1 it    
finds that there is dependence and      
interdependence4 ,each object is related
 to something else1 and changes when    
that changes4 ,each object is a part of 
a process that is going on4 ,the process
 produced it1 and the process will      
destroy it--nay1 it is destroying it    
now1 while we look at it4 ,we find1     
therefore1 that things are not the true 
beings which we thought them to be1 but 
processes are the reality4 ,science     

takes this attitude1 and studies out the
 history of each thing in its rise and  
its disappearance1 and it calls this    
history the truth4 ,this stage of       
thinking does not believe in atoms or in
 things2 it believes in forces and      
processes--abstract ideas--because they 
are negative1 and cannot be seen by the 
senses4 ,this is the dynamic stand-point
 in philosophy4  ,reflection knows that 
these abstract ideas possess more truth1
 more reality1 than the things of       
sense-perception2 the force is more real
 than the thing1 because it outlasts a  
thing1--it causes things to originate1  
and to change1 and disappear4  ,this    
stage of abstract ideas or of negative  
powers or forces finally becomes        
convinced of the essential unity of all 
processes and of all forces2 it sets up 
the doctrine of the correlation of      
forces1 and believes that persistent    
force is the ultimate truth1 the        
fundamental reality of the world4 ,this 
we may call a concrete idea1 for it sets

 up a principle which is the origin of  
all things and forces1 and also the     
destroyer of all things1 and hence more 
real than the world of things and       
forces2 and because this idea1 when     
carefully thought out1 proves to be the 
idea of                                 
self-determination--self-activity4      
,persistent force1 as taught us by the  
scientific men of our day1 is the sole  
ultimate principle1 and as such it gives
 rise to all existence by its           
self-activity1 for there is nothing else
 for it to act upon4 ,it causes all     
origins1 all changes1 and all           
evanescence4 ,it gives rise to the      
particular forces--heat1 light1         
electricity1 magnetism1 etc4--which in  
their turn cause the evanescent forms   
which sense-perception sees as things4  
,we have described three phases3--      
,i4 ,sensuous ,ideas perceive things4   
,,ii4 ,abstract ,ideas perceive forces4 
,,iii4 ,concrete ,idea perceives        
persistent force4  ,in this progress    

from one phase of reflection to another1
 the intellect advances to a deeper and 
truer reality#ad at each step4          
,sense-ideas which look upon the world  
as a world of independent objects1 do   
not cognize the world truly4 ,the next  
step1 abstract ideas1 cognizes the world
 as a process of forces1 and things are 
seen to be mere temporary equilibria in 
the interaction of forces2 each thing is
 a bundle of forces4 ,but the concrete  
idea of the ,persistent force sees a    
deeper and more permanent reality       
underlying particular forces4 ,it is one
 ultimate force4 ,in it all multiplicity
 of existences has vanished1 and yet it 
is the source of all particular         
existence4  ,this view of the world1 on 
the stand-point of concrete idea1 is    
pantheistic4 ,it makes out a one supreme
 principle which originates and destroys
 all particular existences1 all finite  
beings4 ,it is the stand-point of       
,orientalism1 or of the ,asiatic        
thought4 ,buddhism and ,brahminism have 

reached it1 and not transcended it4 ,it 
is a necessary stage of reflection in   
the mind1 just as much as the           
stand-point of the first stage of       
reflection1 which regards the world as  
composed of a multiplicity of           
independent things2 or the stand-point  
of the second stage of reflection1 which
 looks upon the world as a collection of
 relative existences in a state of      
process4  ,the final stand-point of the 
intellect is that in which it perceives 
the highest principle to be a           
self-determining or self-active ,being1 
self-conscious1 and creator of a world  
which manifests him4 ,a logical         
investigation of the principle of       
persistent force would prove that this  
principle of ,personal ,being is        
presupposed as its true form4 ,since the
 persistent force is the sole and       
ultimate reality1 it originates all     
other reality only by self-activity1 and
 thus is self-determined4               
,self-determination implies             

self-consciousness as the true form of  
its existence4  ,these four forms of    
thinking1 which we have arbitrarily     
called sensuous1 abstract1 concrete1 and
 absolute ideas1 correspond to four     
views of the world3 7#a7 as a congeries 
of independent things2 7#b7 as a play of
 forces2 7#c7 as the evanescent         
appearance of a negative essential      
power2 7#d7 as the creation of a        
,personal ,creator1 who makes it the    
theatre of the development of conscious 
beings in his image4 ,each step upward  
in ideas arrives at a more adequate idea
 of the true reality4 ,force is more    
real than thing2 persistent force than  
particular forces2 ,absolute ,person is 
more real than the force or forces which
 he creates4  ,this final form of       
thinking is the only form which is      
consistent with the theory of education4
 ,each individual should ascend by      
education into participation--conscious 
participation--in the life of the       
species4 ,institutions--family1 society1

 state1 church--all are                 
instrumentalities by which the humble   
individual may avail himself of the help
 of the race1 and live over in himself  
its life4 ,the highest stage of thinking
 is the stage of insight4 ,it sees the  
world as explained by the principle of  
,absolute ,person4 ,it finds the world  
of institutions a world in harmony with 
such a principle4     #a ,the           
parallelism between these two sciences1 
,medicine   and ,education1 is an       
obvious point1 which every student      
will do well to consider4    #b ,this   
will again remind the student of the    
theories of   treatment in medicine in  
diseases which1 in the   seventeenth    
century1 were treated only by bleeding  
and   emetics1 are now treated by       
nourishing food1 and no   medicines1    
etc4    #c ,the teacher will do well to 
consider the probable   result of the   
constant association with mental        
inferiors   entailed by his work1 and   
also to consider what   counter-irritant

 is to be applied to balance1 in his    
character1 this unavoidable tendency4   
#d ,the age at which the child should be
 subject to the   training of school    
life1 or ,education1 properly so-called1
   must vary with different races1      
nations1 and different   children4    #e
 ,the best educator is he who makes his 
pupils   independent of himself4 ,this  
implies on the teacher's part   an      
ability to lose himself in his work1 and
 a desire for   the real growth of the  
pupil1 independent of any personal      
fame of his own--a disinterestedness    
which places   education on a level with
 the noblest occupations of man4    #f  
,see analysis4    #g ,asiatic systems of
 ,education have this basis 7see    #agh
 of the original74    #h ,the definition
 of freedom here implied is this3 ,mind 
is free when it knows itself and wills  
its own laws4    #i ,perhaps1 however   
slow the growth1 there is real          
progress in liberating the imprisoned   
soul 787    #aj ,when me they fly1 ,i am

 the wings4--,emerson4    #aa ,the story
 of ,peter ,schlemihl1 by ,chamisso1 may
 be   read in the ,english translation  
published in ,hedge's   ,german ,prose  
,writers4    #ab ,that is1 punishment is
 retributive and not   corrective4      
,justice requires that each man shall   
have the   fruits of his own deeds2 in  
this it assumes that each and   every   
man is free and self-determined4 ,it    
proposes to   treat each man as free1   
and as the rightful owner of his   deed 
and its consequences4 ,if he does a deed
 which is   destructive to human rights1
 it shall destroy his rights   and      
deprive him of property1 personal       
freedom1 or even of   life4 ,but        
corrective punishment assumes immaturity
 of   development and consequent lack of
 freedom4 ,it belongs to   the period of
 nurture1 and not to the period of      
maturity4   ,the tendency in our schools
 is1 however1 to displace the   forms of
 mere corrective punishment 7corporal   
chastisement71 and to substitute for    

them forms founded on                   
retribution--e4g41 deprivation of       
privileges4 ,see secs4   #db and #dc4   
#ac ,faust2 ,part ,i41 ,scene ,i4 ,how  
all weaves itself into   the ,whole6    
,each works and lives in the other6 ,how
 the   heavenly influences ascend and   
descend1 and reach each   other the     
golden buckets6    #ad ,hume1 in his    
famous sketch of the ,human             
,understanding1 makes all the           
perceptions of the human mind   resolve 
themselves into two distinct kinds3     
impressions   and ideas4 ,the difference
 between them consists in the   degrees 
of force and liveliness with which they 
strike   upon the mind1 and make their  
way into our thought and                
consciousness4 ,those perceptions which 
enter with the most   force and violence
 we may name impressions1 and under     
this name include all our sensations1   
passions1 and   emotions1 as they make  
their first appearance in the soul4     
,by ideas1 ,i mean the faint images of  

these in thinking   and reasoning4 ,the 
identity which we ascribe to the mind   
of man is only a fictitious one4        
,from this we see that his stand-point  
is that of sensuous   ideas1 the first  
stage of reflection4 ,the second or     
third   stage of reflection1 if         
consistent1 would not admit the         
reality to be the object of             
sense-impressions1 and the   abstract   
ideas to be only faint images4 ,one who 
holds1   like ,herbert ,spencer1 that   
persistent force is the   ultimate      
reality--the sole truth1 which          
transcends   experience by underlying   
it--ought to hold that the              
generalization which reaches the idea of
 unity of force is   the truest and most
 adequate of thoughts4 ,and yet ,herbert
   ,spencer holds substantially the     
doctrine of ,hume1 in the   words3 ,we  
must predicate nothing of objects too   
great or   too multitudinous to be      
mentally represented1 or we must   make 
our predications by means of extremely  

inadequate   representations of such    
objects--mere symbols of them4   7,page 
#bg of ,first ,principles47