material from the ,google ,print project47 ,music transcribed by ,linda ,cantoni4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,obvious printer errors have been corrected4 ,questionable text is marked with a ,transcriber's ,note4 ,a macron over a letter is represented by an equal sign1 e4g41 punctus4 ,a caron over a letter is represented by a v1 e4g41 ,dvovrk4 ,,music3 ,,an ,,art ,,and ,a ,,language ,,by ,,walter ,,raymond ,,spalding ,price #b4ej net ,,the ,,arthur ,p4 ,,schmidt ,,co4 ,,boston #abj ,,boylston ,,street ,,new ,,york #h ,,west #djth ,,street ,copyright1 #aibj1 by ,,the ,,arthur ,p4 ,,schmidt ,,co4 ,international ,copyright ,secured ,a4,p4,s4 #aaghh ,,to ,,my ,,colleagues ,,in ,,the ,,department ,,of ,,music ,,at ,,harvard ,,university ,,william ,,clifford ,,heilman1 ,,edward ,,burlingame ,,hill1 ,,archibald ,,thompson ,,davison1 ,,edward ,,ballantine ,,supplementary ,,illustrations for ,,music3 an ,,art and a ,,language ,vols4 ,i ,,ii now ready 7,schmidt's ,educational ,series ,no4 #beg-;a1 b7 ,price #a4jj each volume ,preface ,although of the making of books there is no end1 this book1 on so human a subject as music1 we believe should justify itself4 ,a twenty-years' experience in teaching the ,appreciation of ,music at ,harvard ,university and ,radcliffe ,college has convinced the author that a knowledge of musical grammar and structure does enable us1 as the saying is1 to get more out of music4 ,this conviction is further strengthened by the statement of numerous students who testify that after analyzing certain standard compositions their attitude towards music has changed and their love for it greatly increased4 ,in the illustrations 7published in a ,supplementary ,volume7 no concessions have been made to so-called popular taste2 people have an instinctive liking for the best when it is fairly put before them4 ,we are not providing a musical digest1 since music requires active coperation by the hearer1 nor are we trying to interpret music in terms of the other arts4 ,music is itself4 ,for those who may be interested in speculating as to the connection between music and art1 numerous books are available--some of them excellent from their point of view4 ,this book concerns itself with music as music4 ,it is assumed that1 if anyone really loves this art1 he is willing and glad to do serious work to quicken his sense of hearing1 to broaden his imagination1 and to strengthen his memory so that he may become intelligent in appreciation rather than merely absorbed in honeyed sounds4 ,music is of such power and glory that we should be ready to devote to its study as much time as to a foreign language4 ,in the creed of the music-lover the first and last article is familiarity4 ,when we thoroughly know a composition so that its themes sing in our memory and we feel at home in the structure1 the music will speak to us directly1 and all books and analytical comments will be of secondary importance--those of the present writer not excepted4 ,special effort has been made to select illustrations of musical worth1 and upon these the real emphasis in study should be laid4 ,the material of the book is based on lectures1 often of an informal nature1 in the ,appreciation ,course at ,harvard ,university and lays no claim to original research4 ,the difficulty in establishing points of approach makes it far more baffling to speak or write about music than about the other arts4 ,music is sufficient unto itself4 ,endowed with the insight of a ,ruskin or a ,pater1 one may say something worth while about painting4 ,but in music the line between mere statistical analysis and sentimental rhapsody must be drawn with exceeding care4 ,if the subject matter be clearly presented and the analyses true--allowance being made for honest difference of opinion--every hope will be realized4 ,the author's gratitude is herewith expressed to ,mr4 ,percy ,lee ,atherton for his critical revision of the text and to ,professor ,william ,c4 ,heilman for valuable assistance in selecting and preparing the musical illustrations4 ,w4,r4,s4 ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts ,june1 #aiai ,contents ,i4 ,,preliminary ,,considerations #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,folk-,,song #ah ,,iii4 ,,polyphonic ,,music2 ,,sebastian ,,bach1 ,,the ,,fugue #cc ,,iv4 ,,the ,,musical ,,sentence #ej ,v4 ,,the ,,two-,,part ,,and ,,three-,,part ,,forms #fi ,,vi4 ,,the ,,classical ,,and ,,the ,,modern ,,suite #gc ,,vii4 ,,the ,,rondo ,,form #ha ,,viii4 ,,the ,,variation ,,form #he ,,ix4 ,,the ,,sonata-,,form ,,and ,,its ,,founders--,,emmanuel ,,bach ,,and ,,haydn #ia ,x4 ,,mozart4 ,,the ,,perfection ,,of ,,classic ,,structure ,,and ,,style #ajh ,,xi4 ,,beethoven1 ,,the ,,tone-,,poet #abb ,,xii4 ,,the ,,romantic ,,composers4 ,,schubert1 ,,weber #afj ,,xiii4 ,,schumann ,,and ,,mendelssohn #agb ,,xiv4 ,,chopin ,,and ,,pianoforte ,,style #ahh ,,xv4 ,,berlioz ,,and ,,liszt4 ,,program ,,music #bjb ,,xvi4 ,,brahms #bbh ,,xvii4 ,c,,sar ,,franck #bee ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,modern ,,french ,,school--,d',,indy ,,and ,,debussy #bhj ,,xix4 ,,national ,,schools--,,russian1 ,,bohemian ,,and ,,scandinavian #cjj ,,xx4 ,,the ,,varied ,,tendencies ,,of ,,modern ,,music #cbf ,music is the universal language of mankind4 --,,longfellow4 ,music can noble hints impart1 ,engender fury1 kindle love2 ,with unsuspected eloquence can move ,and manage all the man with secret art4 --,,addison4 ,music is the sound of the circulation in nature's veins4 ,it is the flux which melts nature4 ,men dance to it1 glasses ring and vibrate1 and the fields seem to undulate4 ,the healthy ear always hears it1 nearer or more remote4 --,,thoreau4 ,to strike all this life dead1 ,run mercury into a mold like lead1 ,and henceforth have the plain result to show-- ,how we ,feel hard and fast1 and what we ,know-- ,this were the prize1 and is the puzzle6--which ,music essays to solve4 --,,browning4 ,all music is what awakes from you when you are reminded by the instruments4 --,,whitman4 ,music3 an ,art and a ,language ,,chapter ,i ,,preliminary ,,considerations ,in approaching the study of any subject we may fairly expect that this subject shall be defined1 although some one has ironically remarked that every definition is a misfortune4 ,music-lovers1 however1 will rejoice that their favorite art is spared such a misfortune1 for it can not be defined4 ,we know the factors of which music is constituted1 rhythm and sound2 and we can trace the historic steps by which methods of presentation and of style have been so perfected that by means of this twofold material the emotions and aspirations of human beings may be expressed and permanently recorded4 ,we realize1 and with our inborn equipment can appreciate1 the moving power of music2 but to define1 in the usual sense of the term definition1 what music really is1 will be forever impossible4 ,the fact indeed that music--like love1 electricity and other elemental forces--cannot be defined is its special glory4 ,it is a peculiar1 mysterious power2#a quite in a class by itself1 although with certain aspects which it shares with the other arts4 ,the writings of all the great poets1 such as ,milton1 ,shakespeare1 ,browning and ,whitman1 abound in eloquent tributes to the power and influence of music1 but it is noticeable that no one attempts to define it4 ,the mystery of music must be approached with reverence and music must be loved for itself with perfect sincerity4 ,footnote #a3 ,for suggestive comments on this point see the essays ,harmonie et ,melodie by ,saint-,sans1 ,chapters ,i and ,,ii4 ,some insight1 however1 may be gained into the nature of music by a clear recognition of what it is not1 and by a comparison with the more definite and familiar arts4 ,music consists of the intangible and elusive factors of rhythm and sound2 in this way differing fundamentally from the concrete static arts such as architecture1 sculpture and painting4 ,furthermore1 instrumental music1 i4e41 music freed from a dependence on words1 is not an exact language like prose and poetry4 ,it speaks to our feelings and imaginations1 as it were by suggestion2 reaching for this very reason depths of our being quite beyond the power of mere words4 ,no one can define rhythm except by saying that rhythm1 in the sense of motion1 is the fundamental fact in the universe and in all life1 both physical and human4 ,everything in the heavens above and in the earth beneath is in ceaseless motion and change2 nothing remains the same for two consecutive seconds4 ,even the component parts of material--such as stone and wood1 which we ordinarily speak of as concrete and stationary--are whirling about with ceaseless energy1 and often in perfect rhythm4 ,thus we see how natural and vital is the art of music1 for it is inseparably connected with life itself4 ,as for the other factor1 sound is one of the most elemental and mysterious of all physical phenomena4#b ,when the air is set in motion by the vibration of certain bodies of wood1 metal and other material1 we know that sound waves1 striking upon the tympanum of the ear1 penetrate to the brain and imagination4 ,sound is a reciprocal phenomenon2 for1 even if there were systematic activity of vibrating bodies1 there could be no sound without some one to hear it4#c ,good musicians are known for their power of keen and discriminating hearing2 and the ear1#d as ,saint-,sans says1 is the sole avenue of approach to the musical sense4 ,the first ambition for one who would appreciate music should be to cultivate this power of hearing4 ,it is quite possible to be stone-deaf outwardly and yet hear most beautiful sounds within the brain4 ,this was approximately the case with ,beethoven after his thirtieth year4 ,on the other hand1 many people have a perfect outward apparatus for hearing but nothing is registered within4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,chapter ,,ii of ,gurney's ,power of ,sound1 a book remarkable for its insight4 ,footnote #c3 ,it is understood that this statement is made in a subjective rather than a purely physical sense4 ,see the ,century ,dictionary under ,sound4 ,footnote #d3 ,il y a donc1 dans l'art des sons1 quelque chose qui traverse l'oreille comme un portique1 la raison comme un vestibule et qui va plus loin4 ,,harmonie ,,et ,,melodie1 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,combarieu1 the ,french aesthetician1 defines music as the art of thinking in tones4#e ,there is food for thought in this statement1 but it seems to leave out one very important factor--namely1 the emotional4 ,every great musical composition reveals a carefully planned and perfect balance between the emotional and intellectual elements4 ,and yet the basic impulse for the creation of music is an emotional one2 and1 of all the arts1 music makes the most direct appeal to the emotions and to those shadowy1 but real portions of our being called the imagination and the soul4 ,emotion is as indispensable to music as love to religion4 ,just as there can be no really great art without passion1 so we can not imagine music without all the emotions of mankind3 their loves1 joys1 sorrows1 hatreds1 ideals and subtle fancies4 ,music1 in fact1 is a presentation of emotional experience1 fashioned and controlled by an overruling intellectual power4 ,footnote #e3 ,la musique1 ses lois1 son evolution1 by ,jules ,combarieu4 ,we can now foresee1 though at first dimly1 what is to be our line of approach to this mystery4 ,one of the peculiar characteristics of music is that it is both the most natural and least artificial of the arts1 and as well the most complicated and subtle4 ,on the one hand it is the most natural and direct1 because the materials of which it is constituted--that is1 sound and rhythm--make an instinctive appeal to every normally equipped human being4#f ,every one likes to listen to beautiful sounds merely for their sensuous effect1 just as everyone likes to look at the blue sky1 the green grass and the changing hues of a sunset2 so the rhythm of music1 akin to the human heart-beat and to the ceaseless change and motion1 which is the basic fact in all life1 appeals at once to our own physical vitality4 ,this fact may be observed at a symphony concert where so many people are wagging their heads1 beating time with their hands or even tapping on the floor with their feet2 a habit which shows a rudimentary love of music but which for obvious reasons is not to be commended4 ,on the other hand1 music is the most complicated of all the arts from the nature of its constituent parts--intangible1 evanescent sounds and rhythms--and from the subtle grammar and structure by which these factors are used as means of personal communication4 ,this grammar of music1 i4e41 its methods of structure and of presentation1 has been worked out through centuries of free experimentation on the part of some of the best minds in the world1 and thus any great musical composition is an intellectual achievement of high rank4 ,behind the sensuous factors1 sound and rhythm1 lies always the personal message of the composer1 and if we are to grasp this and to make it our own1 we must go with him hand in hand so that the music actually lives again in our minds and imaginations4 ,the practical inference from this dual nature of the art we are considering is clear2 everyone can derive a large amount of genuine pleasure and even spiritual exaltation1 can feel himself under the influence of a strong tonic force1 merely by putting himself in contact with music1 by opening his ears and drinking in the sounds and rhythms in their marvellous variety4 ,the all-sufficient reason for the lack of a complete appreciation of music is that so many people stop at this point1 i4e4 for them music is a sensuous art and nothing more4 ,wagner himself1 in fact1 is on record in a letter to ,liszt as saying1 in regard to the appreciation of his operas3 ,i require nothing from the public but healthy senses and a human heart4 ,although this may be particularly true of opera1 which is a composite form of art1 making so varied an appeal to the participant that everyone can get something from its picture of life--historical1 legendary1 even fictitious--as well as from the actors1 the costumes and the story1 the statement is certainly not applicable to what is called absolute music1 where music is disassociated from the guiding help of words1 and expressed by the media of orchestra1 string quartet1 pianoforte1 and various ensemble groups4 ,for in addition to its sensuous appeal1 music is a language used as a means of personal expression2 sometimes in the nature of an intimate soliloquy1 but far more often as a direct means of communication between the mind and soul of the composer and of the listener4 ,to say that we understand the message expressed in this language just because we happen to like beautiful sounds and stimulating rhythms is surely to be our own dupes4 ,we might as well say that because we enjoy hearing ,italians or ,frenchmen speak their own beautiful languages we are understanding what they say4 ,the question1 therefore1 faces us3 how shall we learn this mysterious language so as readily to understand it8 ,and the answer is equally inevitable3 by learning something of the material of which it is composed1 and above all1 the fundamental principles of its structure4 ,footnote #f3 ,just as some people are color-blind there are those who are tone-deaf--to whom1 that is1 music is a disagreeable noise--but they are so few as to be negligible4 ,in attempting to carry out this simple direction1 however1 we are confronted by another of the peculiar characteristics of music4 ,music1 in distinction from the static1 concrete and imitative arts1 is always in motion1 and to follow it requires an intensity of concentration and an accuracy of memory which can be acquired1 but for which1 like most good things1 we have to work4 ,we all know the adage that beauty is in the eye of the beholder and that any work of art must be recreated in the imagination of the participant4 ,the difficulty of this process of recreation1 as applied to music1 is that we have1 derived from our ordinary daily experiences1 so little to help us4 ,anyone can begin1 at least1 to understand a work of architecture2 it must have doors and windows1 and should conform to practical ideas of structure4 ,in like manner1 a painting1 either a portrait or a landscape1 must show some correspondence with nature herself1 and so we have definite standards to help our imagination4 ,but music has worked out its own laws which are those of pure fancy1 having little to do with other forms of thought2 and unless we know something of the constructive principles1 instead of recreating the work before us1 we are simply lost--drowned in a sea of sound--often rudely shaken up by the rhythms1 but far from understanding what the music is really saying4 ,as the well-known critic1 ,santayana1 wittily says1 ,to most people music is a drowsy revery relieved by nervous thrills4 ,notwithstanding1 however1 the peculiar nature of music and the difficulty of gaining logical impressions as the sounds and rhythms flood in upon us1 there is one simple form of coperation which solves most of the difficulties2 that is1 familiarity4 ,it is the duty of the composer so to express himself1 to make his meaning so clear1 that we can receive it with a minimum of mental friction if we can only get to know the music4 ,all really good music corresponds to such a standard2 that is1 if it is needlessly involved1 abstruse1 diffuse1 or turgid1 it is in so far not music of the highest artistic worth4 ,in this connection we must always remember that music does not stay put1 like a picture on the wall4 ,we cannot walk through it1 as is the case with a cathedral2 turn back1 as in a book2 touch it1 as with a statue4 ,it is not the expression of more or less definite ideas1 such as we find in prose and poetry4 ,on the other hand1 it rushes upon us with the impassioned spirit of an eloquent orator1 and what we get from it depends almost entirely upon our own intensity of application and upon our knowledge of the themes and of the general purpose of the work4 ,only with increased familiarity does the architecture stand revealed4 ,beethoven1 it is said1 when once asked the meaning of a sonata of his1 played it over again and replied1 ,it means that4 ,music is itself4 ,the question for every music-lover is3 can ,i equip myself in such a way as to feel at home in this language1 to receive the message as directly as possible1 and finally with perfect ease and satisfaction8 ,this equipment demands a strong1 accurate memory1 a keen power of discrimination and a sympathetic1 open mind4 ,another paradoxical characteristic of music on which it is interesting to reflect is this3 ,music is the oldest as well as the youngest of the arts1 i4e41 it has always#g existed generically1 and all human beings born1 as they are1 with a musical instrument--the voice--are ipso facto musicians2 and yet in boundless scope of possibilities it is just in its infancy4 ,for who can limit the combinations of sound and rhythm1 or forecast the range of the human imagination8 ,the creative fancy of the composer is always in advance of contemporary taste and criticism4 ,hence1 in listening to new music1 we should beware of reckless assertions of personal preference4 ,the first question1 in the presence of an elaborate work of music1 should never be1 ,do ,i like it or not8 but ,do ,i understand it8 ,is the music conveying a logical message to me1 or is it merely a sea of sound8 ,the first and last article in the music-lover's creed1 ,i repeat1 should be familiarity4 ,when we thoroughly know a symphony1 symphonic poem or sonata so that1 for example1 we can sing the themes to ourselves1 the music will reveal itself4 ,the difference between the trained listener and the person of merely general musical tendencies is that the former gains a definite meaning from the music often at a first hearing2 whereas1 to the latter1 many hearings are necessary before he can make head or tail of the composition4 ,since the creative composer of music is a thinker in tones1 our perceptions must be so trained that1 as we listen1 we make sense of the fabric of sounds and rhythms4 ,footnote #g3 ,from earliest times1 mothers have doubtless crooned to their infants in instinctive lullabies4 ,it is evident from the foregoing observations that our approach to the subject is to be on the intellectual side4 ,music1 to be sure1 is an emotional art and so appeals to our emotions1 but these will take care of themselves4 ,we all have a reasonable supply of emotion and practically no human being is entirely deficient in the capacity for being moved by music4 ,we can1 however1 sharpen our wits and strengthen our musical memories2 for it is obvious that if we cannot recognize a theme or remember it whenever it appears1 often in an amplified or even subtly disguised form1 we are in no condition to follow and appreciate the logical growth and development of the themes themselves which1 in a work of music1 are just as real beings as the dramatis personae in a play4 ,the would-be appreciator should early recognize the fact that listening to music is by no means passive1 a means of light amusement or to pass the time1 but demands coperation of an active nature4 ,whether or not we have the emotional capacity of a creator of music may remain an open question2 but by systematic mental application we can1 as we listen to it1 get from the music that sense which the composer meant to convey4 ,music--more than the other arts--demands1 to use a happy expression of ,d4,g4 ,mason1 that we mentally organize our sensations and ideas2 for the language of music has no such fixed grammar as verbal modes of expression1 and the message1 even when received1 is suggestive rather than definite4 ,in this way only can the composition be recreated in our imaginations4 ,for acquiring this habit of mind1 this alertness and concentration1 the start1 as always1 is more than half the battle4 ,schumann's good advice to young composers may be transferred to the listener3 ,be sure that you invent a thoroughly vital theme2 the rest will grow of itself from this4 ,likewise in listening to music1 one should be sure to grasp the opening theme1 the fundamental motive1 in order to follow it intelligently and to enjoy its subsequent growth into the complete work4#h ,footnote #h3 ,in this connection we cannot refrain from suggesting the improvement which should be made in the concert manners of the public4 ,how often1 at the beginning of a concert1 do we see people removing their wraps1 looking at their neighbors1 reading the programme book1 etc41 instead of concentrating on the music itself2 with the result that the composition is often well on its way before such people have found their bearings4 ,every piece of music1 with the exception of intentionally rhapsodic utterances1 begins with some group of notes of distinct rhythmic and melodic interest1 which is the germ--the generative force--of the whole1 and which is comparable to the text of a sermon or the subject of a drama4 ,this introductory group of notes is called1 technically1 a motive or moving force and may be defined as the simplest unit of imaginative life in terms of rhythm and sound1 which instantly impresses itself upon our consciousness and1 when heard several times1 cannot be forgotten or confused with any other motive4 ,a musical theme--a longer sweep of thought 7to be explained later7--may consist of several motives of which the first is generally the most important4 ,just here lies the difference between the ,heaven-born themes of a truly creative composer and the bundle of notes put forth by lesser men4 ,these living themes pierce our imaginations and sing in our memories1 sometimes for years1 whereas the inept and flabby tunes of certain so-called composers make no strong impression and are forgotten almost as soon as heard4 ,motives obviously differ from each other in regard to the intervals of the tones composing them1 i4e41 the up and down relationship in pitch1 the duration of the tones and their grouping into metric schemes4 ,but a real motive is always terse1 concise1 characteristic and pregnant with unrevealed meaning4 ,the chief glory of such creative tone-poets as ,beethoven1 ,wagner1 ,brahms and ,franck is that their imaginations could give birth to musical offspring that live for ever and are loved like life itself4 ,the first step1 then1 in the progress of the appreciator of music is the recognition of the chief motive or motives of a composition and the development of power to follow them in their organic growth4 ,this ability is particularly necessary in modern music3 for frequently all four movements of a symphony or string-quartet are based upon a motive which keeps appearing--often in altered form and in relationships which imply a dramatic or suggestive meaning4 ,a few of such motives are cited herewith1 taken from works with which1 as we proceed1 we shall become familiar4 ,music3 ,c,,sar ,,franck3 ,symphony in ,d minor ,music3 ,,brahms3 ,first ,symphony in ,c minor ,music3 ,,tchaikowsky3 #eth ,symphony ,music3 ,,dvo,,vr,k3 ,symphony ,from the ,new ,world ,it is now necessary for the student to know something about the constructive principles by which large works of music are fashioned2 not so much that he could compose these works himself1 even if he had the inspiration1 but to know enough1 so that the reception of the music is not a haphazard activity but an intellectual achievement1 second only to that of the original creator4 ,every genuine work of art in whatever medium1 stone1 color1 word or tone1 must exhibit unity of general effect with variety of detail4 ,that is1 the material must hold together1 be coherent and convince the participant of the logical design of the artist2 not fall apart as might a bad building1 or be diffuse as a poorly written essay4 ,and yet1 with this coherence1 there must always be stimulating and refreshing variety2 for a too constant insistence on the main material produces intolerable monotony1 such as the damnable iteration of a mediocre prose work or the harping away on one theme by the hack composer4 ,in no art more than music is this dual standard of greater importance1 and in no art more difficult to attain4 ,for the raw material of music1 fleeting rhythms and waves of sound1 is in its very nature most incoherent4 ,here we are not dealing with the concrete1 tangible and definite material which is available for all the other arts1 but with something intangible and elusive4 ,we know from the historical record#i of musical development1 that1 only after centuries of experimentation conducted by some of the best intellects in ,europe1 was sufficient coherence gained so that there could be composed music which would compare with the simplest modern hymn-tune or part-song4 ,and this was long after each of the other arts--architecture1 sculpture1 painting and literature--had reached points of attainment which1 in many respects1 have never since been equalled4 ,footnote #i3 ,compare ,parry's ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 passim and ,d4,g4 ,mason's ,beethoven and his ,forerunners1 ,chapter ,i4 ,before carrying our inquiries further1 something must be said about the two main lines of musical development which led up to music as we know it to-day4 ,these tendencies are designated by the terms ,homophonic and ,polyphonic4 ,by homophonic1#aj from ,greek words signifying a single voice1 is meant music consisting of a single melodic line1 as in the whole field of folk-songs 7which originally were always unaccompanied7 or in the unison chants of the ,greeks and the ,gregorian tones of the early church1 in which there is one melody though many voices may unite in singing it4 ,later we shall see what important principles for the growth of instrumental music were borrowed from the instinctive practise associated with the folk-song and folk-dance4 ,but history makes clear that the fundamental principles of musical coherence were worked out in the field of music known as the ,polyphonic4 ,by this term1 as the derivation implies1 is meant music the fabric of which is made by the interweaving of several independent melodies4 ,for many centuries the most reliable instrument was the human voice and the only art-music1 i4e41 music which was the result of conscious mental and artistic endeavor1 was vocal music for groups of unaccompanied voices in the liturgy of the church4 ,about the tenth century1 musicians tried the crude experiment1#aa called ,organum1 of making two groups of singers move in parallel fifths e4g41 ,music3 ,tu ,patris sempiternus es ,filius4 but during the #acth and #adth centuries a method was worked out by which the introductory tune was made to generate its own subsequent tissue4 ,it was found that a body of singers could announce a melody of a certain type and that1 after they had proceeded so far1 a second set of singers could repeat the opening melodic phrase--and so likewise often a third and a fourth set--and that all the voices could be made to blend together in a fairly harmonious whole4#ab ,a piece of music of this systematic structure is called a ,round because the singers take up the melody in rotation and at regular rhythmic periods4#ac ,the earliest specimen of a ,round is the famous one ,sumer is icumen in circa #abbe 7see ,supplement of musical ,examples ,no4 #a71 which shows to what a high point of perfection--considering those early days--musicians had brought their art4 ,for1 at any rate1 by these systematic1 imitative repetitions they had secured the first requisite of all music1 coherence4 ,this principle1 once it was sanctioned by growing musical instinct1 and approved by convention1 was developed into such well-known types of polyphonic music as the ,canon1 the ,invention and the ,fugue2 terms which will be fully explained later on4 ,it is of more than passing interest to realize that these structural principles of music were worked out in the same locality--,northern ,france and the ,netherlands1 and by kindred intellects--as witnessed the growth of ,gothic architecture2 and there is a fundamental affinity between the interweavings of polyphonic or1 as it is often called1 contrapuntal#ad music and the stone traceries in medieval cathedrals4 ,during the #acth and #adth centuries northern ,france1 with ,paris as its centre1 was the most cultivated part of ,europe1 and the ,flemish cities of ,cambrai1 ,tournai1 ,louvain and ,antwerp will always be renowned in the history of art1 as the birthplace of ,gothic architecture1 of modern painting and of polyphonic music4#ae ,a great deal of the impetus towards the systematic repetition of the voice parts must have been caused by practical necessity 7thus justifying the old adage72 for1 before the days of printed music1 or even of a well-established tradition--when everything had to be laboriously written out or transmitted orally--whole compositions could be rendered by the singers through the simple device of remembering the introductory theme and joining in from memory whenever their turn came4 ,compositions in fact were often so recorded4#af ,the following old ,english round 7circa #afji7 shows clearly how the voices entered in rotation4 ,music3 #a ,three blind mice1 three blind mice #b ran around thrice1 ran around thrice2 ,the #c miller and his merry old wife ne'er laugh'd so much in all their life4 ,for a ,round in strict canonic imitation by the famous ,english composer ,william ,byrd 7#aedb-afbc7 see the ,supplement1 ,example ,no4 #b4 ,in due time singers of that period became likewise very proficient in improvising free parts about a given melody or cantus firmus1 a practice indicated by the term musica ficta which was beneficial in stimulating the imagination to a genuine musical activity4 ,footnote #aj3 ,in comparatively recent times the term has been widened to include music in which there is one chief melody to which other portions of the musical texture are subordinate2 e4g41 the homophonic style of ,chopin in whose works the chief melody1 often in the upper voice1 seems to float on underlying waves of sound4 ,footnote #aa3 ,for a complete account of these early attempts which finally led to part-writing see ,chapter ,,iv in the first volume of the ,oxford ,history of ,music4 ,footnote #ab3 ,an historical account of this development as far as it is ascertainable may be found in the fifth chapter of ,pratt's ,history of ,music4 ,footnote #ac3 ,consult the article on the ,round in ,grove's ,dictionary4 ,footnote #ad3 ,a rather crude ,english adaptation of the ,latin term ,punctus contra punctum which refers to the notes as punctus 7plural7 or dots which were pricked with a stylus into the medieval manuscripts4 ,in this phrase the emphasis is on the contra1 signifying a combination of different melodies and rhythms1 and calling attention to that higher importance which1 everywhere in art1 is caused by contrasted elements4 ,footnote #ae3 ,for an interesting account of this tripartite activity see ,naumann's ,history of ,music4 ,footnote #af3 ,see the facsimile of the original manuscript of ,sumer is icumen in cited in the first volume of the ,oxford ,history of ,music1 pp4 #cbf-ccb4 ,we can now begin to realize the importance of polyphonic music4 ,in fact1 it is not too much to assert that systematic repetition in some form or other 7several aspects of which we shall describe in due season7 is the most important constructive principle in music1 necessitated by the very nature of the material4 ,this statement can be corroborated by a glance at almost any page of music considered merely as a pattern1 quite regardless how the notes sound4 ,we observe at once that some portions of the page look much or exactly like other portions4 ,frequently whole movements or long parts of a work are based entirely upon some terse and characteristic motive4 ,famous examples of this practise are the first movement of ,beethoven's ,fifth ,symphony in ,c minor which1 with certain subsidiary themes to afford contrast1 is entirely based on the motive3 ,music the ,finale of ,wagner's opera ,the ,valkyrie 7see ,supplement1 ,example ,no4 #c7 the chief motive of which ,music is presented in every phase of modulatory and rhythmic development1 and the middle portion of the ,reconnaissance from ,schumann's ,carnaval 7see ,supplement1 ,example ,no4 #d47 ,music1 just because its substance is so elusive and requires such alert attention on the part of the listener1 cannot continually present new material#ag without becoming diffuse2 but instead1 must make its impression by varied emphasis upon the main thought4 ,otherwise it would become so discursive that one could not possibly follow it4 ,from these historical facts as to the structure of music certain inferences may be drawn2 the vital importance of which to the listener can hardly be exaggerated4 ,as polyphonic treatment 7the imitation and interweaving of independent melodic lines7 is the foundation of any large work of music1 be it symphony1 symphonic poem or string quartet1 so the listener must acquire what may be called a polyphonic ear4 ,for with the majority of listeners1 the whole difficulty and the cause of their dissatisfaction with so-called classic music is merely lack of equipment4 ,everyone can hear the tune in the soprano or upper voice1 for the intensity of pitch makes it stand out with telling effect2 and1 as a fact1 many of the best tunes in musical literature are so placed4 ,but how about the tune when it is in the bass as is the case so frequently in ,beethoven's ,symphonies or in ,wagner's ,operas8 ,some of the most eloquent parts of the musical message are1 indeed1 often in the bass1 the foundation voice1 and yet these are entirely ignored by the average listener4 ,then what of the inner voices2 and what--most important of all--when there are beautiful melodies in all parts of the musical fabric1 often sounding simultaneously1 as in such well-known works as ,csar ,franck's ,symphony in ,d minor and ,wagner's ,prelude to the ,mastersingers6 ,as we face these questions squarely the need for the listener of special training in alertness and concentration is self-evident4 ,a very small proportion of those who attend a symphony concert begin to get their money's worth--to put the matter on a perfectly practical plane--for at least #ej of the musical structure is presented to ears without capacity for receiving it4 ,in regard to any work of large dimensions the final test is this3 can we sing all the themes and follow them in their polyphonic development8 ,then only are we really acquainted with the work2 then only1 in regard to personal like or dislike1 have we any right to pass judgment upon it4 ,the absurd attitude1 far too common1 of hasty1 ill-considered criticism is illustrated by the fact that while ,brahms is said to have worked for ten years on that ,titanic creation1 his ,first ,symphony1 yet persons will hear it once and have the audacity to say they do not like it4 ,as well stroll through ,chartres ,cathedral and say they did not think much of it6 ,footnote #ag3 ,for a simple1 charming example of persistent use of a motive see ,schumann's pianoforte piece ,kind im ,einschlummern1 ,no4 #ab of the ,kinderscenen4 ,we must now speak of the two other manifestations of the principle of repetition4 ,fundamentally1 to be sure1 they are not connected with polyphonic music2 the third type1 in fact1--restatement after contrast--being instinctively worked out in the ,folk-,song 7as will be made plain later7 and definitely ratified as a structural principle by the ,italian opera composer ,alessandro ,scarlatti in the well-known ,aria da capo4 ,these further applications of the principle of imitation are ,transposition1 i4e41 the repetition of the melodic outline1 and often of the whole harmonic fabric1 by shifting it up or down the scale2 and the ,restatement of the original melody after an intervening part in contrast1 thus making a piece of music1 the formula for which may be indicated by ,a1 ,b1 4 ,anyone at all familiar with musical literature must have observed both of these devices for securing coherence and organic unity2 in fact1 the principle of restatement after contrast is at the foundation of any large work1 and supplies the connecting link between the structure of the ,folk-,song and that of the most elaborate modern music4 ,a convincing illustration of the use of ,transposition may be found in ,schumann's ,arabesque1 ,music and in the opening theme of ,beethoven's ,waldstein ,sonata1 op4 #ec4 ,music ,it was a favorite device of ,beethoven to impress the main theme upon the hearer by definite repetitions on various degrees of the scale4#ah ,for an elaborate example of ,transposition nothing can surpass the opening movement of ,csar ,franck's ,d ,minor ,symphony1 the entire first part of which consists of a literal repetition in ,f minor of what has been previously announced in ,d minor4 ,footnote #ah3 ,another well-known example is the first theme of the first movement of the ,sonata in ,f minor 7,appassionata7 op4 #eg4 ,this the student can look up for himself4 ,pieces of music which embody the principle of ,restatement after ,contrast are so numerous that the question is merely one of selecting the clearest examples4 ,in the ,folk-,songs of every nation1 as soon as they had passed beyond the stage of a monotonous reiteration of some phrase which pleased the fancy1 e4g4 ,music3 ad infinitum6 we find hardly one in which there is not a similarity between the closing measures and something which had gone before4 7,see ,supplement1 ,example ,no4 #e47 ,for the most elementary artistic experience would establish the fact that the only way to avoid a monotonous repetition of the same theme is to change to a different one4 ,and the next step is equally axiomatic--that1 presupposing the first theme gives pleasure on its initial appearance1 it will be heard with heightened pleasure at its reappearance after intervening contrast4 ,a psychological principle is herein involved which cannot be proved but which is self-justified by its own reasonableness and is further exemplified by many experiences in daily life4 ,sweet things taste the sweeter after a contrast with something acid2 we like to revisit old scenes and to return home after a vacation4 ,no delight is keener than the renewal of some aesthetic experience after its temporary effacement through a change of appeal4#ai ,this practice is associated with the inherent demand1 spoken of above1 for ,variety in ,unity4 ,no theme is of sufficient import to bear constant repetition2 in fact1 the more eloquent it is1 the more sated should we become if it were continued overlong4 ,monotony1 furthermore1 is less tolerable in music than in the other arts because music cuts deeper1 because the ear is so sensitive an organ and because we have no way of shutting off sound4 ,if a particular sight or scene displeases1 we can close our eyelids2 but the ear is entirely unprotected and the only way to escape annoying sounds is to take to flight4#bj ,we inevitably crave contrast1 change of sensation2 and nothing gives more organic unity than a return to whatever impressed us at the outset4 ,this cyclic form of musical expression1 early discovered through free experimentation1 has remained the leading principle in all modern works1 and--because derived directly from life and nature--must be permanent4 ,we return whence we came2 everything goes in circles4 ,we can now understand still more the need of a strong and accurate memory2 for if we do not know whether or not we have ever heard a theme1 obviously the keen pleasure of welcoming it anew is lost to us4 ,furthermore1 this principle of ,restatement has in modern music some very subtle uses1 and presupposes the acquisition of a real power of reminiscence4 ,for example1 ,wagner's tone-drama of ,tristan and ,isolde begins with this haunting motive ,music which1 with its dual melodic lines1 typifies the passionate love of the two chief characters in the story4 ,after three hours or more of tragic action and musical development this motive is again introduced in the very closing measures of the drama1 to show that even in the presence of transfiguring death this love is still their guiding power4 ,music ,footnote #ai3 ,for some additional comments on this broad principle see the first ,chapter 7passim7 of ,parry's ,evolution of the ,art of ,music4 ,footnote #bj3 ,everyone has experienced the agony of hearing the beginner practice1 in an adjoining room1 the same piece for hours at a time6 ,for those who can appreciate the significance of such treatment1 this reminiscence is one of the most sublime touches in all musical drama4 ,the fascinating orchestral ,scherzo of ,richard ,strauss's ,till ,eulenspiegel's ,merry ,pranks likewise begins with a characteristic motto1 ,music which says1 in the language of music--,i now have a story to tell you of a certain freakish character2 and then we are regaled with the musical portrayal of a series of ,till's pranks4 ,as an ,epilogue1 ,strauss improvises on this opening theme as much as to say--you have listened to my musical story1 now let us indulge in some reflections as to the fate of poor ,till1 for after all he was a good fellow4 7,see ,supplement1 ,example ,no4 #f47 ,it is evident1 therefore1 from the foregoing examples that the basic principles of musical structure are coherence1 refreshing variety and such unity of general impression as may be gained chiefly by a restatement1 after contrast1 of themes previously heard4 ,our subsequent study will simply illustrate these natural laws of music in their wider application4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,folk-,,song ,in the preceding chapter we made some general inquiries into the nature of music and of those methods by which emotion and thought are expressed4 ,we shall assume therefore that the following facts are established3 that in music1 by reason of the intangibility and elusiveness of the material1 sound and rhythm1 the principle of ,unity in ,variety is of paramount importance2 and that the hearer1 if he would grasp the message expressed by these sounds and rhythms1 must make a conscious effort of coperation and not be content with mere dreamy apathy4 ,furthermore1 that ,unity and ,coherence are gained in music by applying the principle of systematic ,repetition or ,imitation4 7,we shall see1 as we continue1 how ,variety has been secured by contrasting themes1 by episodical passages and by various devices of rhythmic and harmonic development47 ,we may now investigate the growth of musical structure and expression1 as manifested in the fields of the ,folk-,song and of ,polyphonic music1 beginning with the ,folk-,song--historically the older and more elemental in its appeal4 ,we cannot imagine the time when human beings did not use their voices in some form of emotional outpouring2 and1 as far back as there are any historical records1 we find traces of such activity4 ,for many centuries these rude cries of savage races were far removed from anything like artistic design1 but the advance towards coherence and symmetry was always the result of free experimentation--hence vitally connected with the emotions and mental processes of all human effort4 ,one of the most significant of the many sayings attributed to ,daniel ,webster is that ,sovereignty rests with the people2 and it is an interesting inquiry to see what wider application may be made of this statement in the field of art4 ,for it is a fact that there has seldom been an important school of music1 so-called--in any given place and period--which was not founded on the emotional traits1 the aspirations and the ideals of the people4 ,surely one of the distinct by-products of the ,great ,war is to be the emancipation of the art of music1 along with that of all the other arts4 ,such a realization of its nature and powers will result that it shall no longer be a mere exotic amusement of the leisure and wealthy classes1 but shall be brought into direct touch with the rank and file of the people2 even1 if you will1 with the so-called lower classes--that part of humanity from which1 indeed1 it sprung and with which it really belongs--just human beings1 just people4 ,so in music also we may assert that ,sovereignty rests with the people4 ,although all art reflects popular sentiment to a certain extent1 in no one of the arts--as painting1 sculpture and architecture--is there such a vital record of the emotions and artistic instincts of humanity as we find in the realm of folk-song4#ba ,during the early period of ,church music1 while theorists and scholars were struggling with the intricate problems of polyphonic style1 the people in their daily secular life were finding an outlet for their emotions1 for their joys and sorrows1 in song and in dance4 ,this instinct for musical expression is universal1 and just because the products of such activity were unfettered by rules1 they exercised in process of time much influence upon the development of modern style4 ,folk-songs are characterized by a freshness and simplicity1 a directness of utterance1 which are seldom attained by the conscious efforts of genius4 ,listen carefully to all folk-songs1 says ,schumann4 ,they are a storehouse of beautiful melody1 and unfold to the mind the innate character of the different peoples4 ,they are like wild flowers blooming unheeded by the wayside1 the product of the race rather than the individual1 and for centuries were only slightly known to cultivated musicians4 ,it should be understood that words and music were inextricably bound together and that1 with both1 dancing was naturally associated2 the very essence of a people's life being expressed by this tripartite activity4 ,tonal variety is a marked feature in folk-songs1 many of them being in the old ,gregorian modes1 while others show a decided inclination to our modern major and minor scales4 ,great is the historical importance of ,folk-music1 because in it we see a dawning recognition of the principles of instrumental form1 i4e41 the need of balanced phrases1 caused in the songs by the metrical structure of the words1 and in the dances by the symmetrical movements of the body2 a recognition above all1 of the application of a definite system of tonal-centres1 and of repetition after contrast4 ,in fact1 as we look back it is evident that the outlines of our most important design1 that known as the ,sonata ,form are--in a rudimentary state--found in folk-music4 ,folk-melodies and rhythms play a large part in the music of ,haydn1 ,schubert1 ,chopin1 ,liszt1 ,brahms1 ,grieg1 ,tchaikowsky and ,dvovrk4 ,it seems as if modern composers were doing for music what ,luther ,burbank has done for plant life2 for by grafting modern thought and feeling on to the parent stock of popular music1 they have secured a vigor attainable in no other way4 ,thus some of the noblest melodies of ,brahms1 ,grieg1 and ,tchaikowsky are actual folk-tunes with slight variation or original melodies conceived in a folk-song spirit4#bb ,footnote #ba3 ,for an eloquent presentation of the significance of ,folk-music see the article by ,henry ,f4 ,gilbert in the ,musical ,quarterly for ,october1 #aiag4 ,footnote #bb3 ,for an able account of the important role that folk-melodies are taking in modern music see ,chapter ,v of ,la ,chanson ,populaire en ,france by ,julian ,tiersot4 ,as music1 unlike the other arts1 lacks any model in the realm of nature1 it has had to work out its own laws1 and its spontaneity and directness are the result4 ,it has not become imitative1 utilitarian or bound by arbitrary conventions4 ,as ,berlioz says in the ,grotesques de la ,musique3 ,music exists by itself2 it has no need of poetry1 and if every human language were to perish1 it would be none the less the most poetic1 the grandest and the freest of all the arts4 ,when we reach the centuries in which definite records are available1 we find a wealth of folk-songs from the ,continental nations3 ,irish1 ,scotch1 ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 ,italian1 ,spanish1 ,russian1 etc4#bc ,in these we can trace the transition from the old modes to our modern major and minor scales2 the principles of tonality and of rudimentary modulation1 the dividing of the musical thought into periodic lengths by means of cadential endings1 the instinct for contrast and for the unity gained by restatement4 ,no better definition of ,folk-songs can be given than that of ,parry in his ,evolution of the ,art of ,music where he calls them the first essays made by man in distributing his notes so as to express his feelings in terms of design4 ,in folk-tunes this design has been dominated by the metrical phraseology of the poetic stanzas with which they were associated2 for between the structure of melody and that of poetry there is always a close correspondence4 ,in ,folk-songs1 therefore1 we find a growing instinct for balanced musical expression and1 above all1 an application of the principle of ,restatement after ,contrast4 ,the following example drawn from ,irish ,folk-music#bd--which1 for emotional depth1 is justly considered the finest in the world--will make the point clear4 ,music3 ,,the ,,flight ,,of ,,the ,,earls ,footnote #bc3 ,the same statement is true of the ,oriental nations1 the ,arabians1 ,persians and ,greeks1 who are left out of the enumeration only because their development in many respects has been along different lines from ours4 ,for suggestive speculations as to early music among all nations see ,primitive ,music by ,richard ,wallaschek4 ,footnote #bd3 ,for illuminating comments on the ,folk-music of all the ,english-speaking peoples see ,chapter ,,xii of ,ernest ,walker's ,history of ,music in ,england4 ,the famous ,petrie collection of ,irish ,folk-tunes should also be consulted4 ,the statement is sometimes made that the principles of our modern system of tonality and of modulation are derived from ,folk-music4 ,this is only partially true1 for pure ,folk-songs always developed under the influence of the old medieval modes1 long before the establishment of our fixed major and minor scales4 ,furthermore1 as these were single unaccompanied melodies1 they showed slight connection with modulation or change of key in the modern sense of the term--which implies a system of harmonization in several voices4 ,it is true that there was an instinctive and growing recognition of the importance of the three chief tonal centres3 the ,tonic or ,keynote1 the ,dominant 7a perfect fifth above7 and the ,subdominant 7a perfect fifth below7 and at times the relative minor4 ,all these changes are illustrated in the melody just cited2 e4g41 in the fourth measure#be there is an implication of ,e minor1 in measures seven and eight there is a distinct modulation to ,d major1 the ,dominant1 and in the ninth measure to ,c major1 the ,subdominant4 ,this acceptance of other tonal centres--distant a fifth from the main key-note--doubtless arose from their simplicity and naturalness1 and was later sanctioned by acoustical law2 the interval of a perfect fifth having one of the simplest ratios 7#b-c71 and being familiar to people as the first overtone 7after the octave7 struck off by any sounding body--such as a bell or an organ pipe4 ,the ,venetian composers1 notably ,willaert1 had also quite fully developed this principle of ,tonic1 ,dominant and ,subdominant harmony in order to give homogeneity to their antiphonal choruses4 ,even to-day these tonal centres are still used2 for they are elemental1 like the primitive colors of the spectroscope4 ,but modulation1 in the modern sense of a free shifting of the centre of gravity to any one of the twelve semitones of our chromatic scale1 was not developed and accepted until after the acoustical reforms of ,rameau1 and the system of tuning keyed instruments embodied in that work called the ,well-tempered ,clavichord of ,sebastian ,bach4 ,both these men published their discoveries about the year #agbj4 ,footnote #be3 ,in counting the measures of a phrase always consider the first complete measure1--never a partial measure--as one4 ,as we have just used the term modal1 and since many ,folk-songs in the old modes sound peculiar or even wrong 7hence the preposterous emendations of modern editors67 because our ears can listen only in terms of the fixed major and minor scales1 a few words of explanation concerning the nature of the medieval modes should here be given4 ,their essential peculiarity is the freer relationship of tones and semitones than is found in the definite pattern of our modern scales4 ,it is of great importance that the music-lover should train himself to think naturally in these modes2 for there has been a significant return to their freedom and variety on the part of such modern composers as ,brahms1 ,tchaikowsky1 ,dvovrk1 d',indy1 ,debussy and others1 and some of their most individual effects are gained through the introduction of modal types of expression4 ,the following modes are those most commonly employed in the formation of ,folk-songs4 ,music3 ,,dorian ,music3 ,,phrygian ,music3 ,,lydian ,music3 ,,mixolydian ,music3 ,,aeolian ,music3 ,,ionian ,the ,dorian mode1 at the outset1 is identical with our modern minor scale2 its peculiarity lies in the semitone between the #fth and #gth degrees and the whole tone between the #gth and #hth4 ,an excellent example of a modern adaptation of this mode may be found in ,guilmant's ,march for organ 7see ,supplement1 ,example ,no4 #g74 ,the mysterious opening measures of ,debussy's opera ,pellas et ,mlisande also owe their atmosphere to this mode1 e4g4 ,music ,the ,phrygian mode is one of the most individual to our modern ears with its first step a semitone and with the whole tone between the #gth and #hth degrees4 ,under the influence of harmonic development there was worked out a cadence1 known as ,phrygian1 which is often found in modern music1 e4g4 ,music ,the opening measures of the slow movement of ,brahms's ,fourth ,symphony are an excellent example of a melody in the ,phrygian mode1 e4g4 ,music ,the contrast between these measures1 with their archaic flavor1 and the sudden change in measure four to the modern tonality of ,e major1 is very striking4 ,bach's well-known choral1 ,o ,sacred ,head now wounded also begins in the ,phrygian mode1 e4g4 ,music ,for a beautiful modern example of this ,phrygian mode see the introduction to ,f4,s4 ,converse's ,dramatic ,poem ,job1 for voices and orchestra4 ,the ,lydian mode is identical with our major scale except for the semitone between the #dth and #eth degrees4 ,that this change1 however1 gives a very characteristic effect may be seen in the passage by ,beethoven from his ,string-,quartet op4 #acb--,song of ,thanksgiving in the ,lydian mode 7see ,supplement ,ex4 ,no4 #h74 ,the ,mixolydian mode is also identical with our modern major scale except for the whole tone between the #gth and #hth degrees4 ,this mode has had very slight usage in modern music2 because1 with the development of harmony1#bf the instinct became so strong for a leading tone 7the #gth degree7--only a semitone distant from the upper tonic--that the original whole tone has gradually disappeared4 ,the ,aeolian ,mode1 mainly identical with our customary minor scale1 has the characteristic whole tone between the #gth and #hth degrees4 ,examples of this mode abound in modern literature2 two excellent instances being the first theme of the ,finale of ,dvovrk's ,new ,world ,symphony1 e4g41 ,music and the following passage from the ,legend for capella voices of ,tchaikowsky1 e4g4 ,music ,the ,ionian mode corresponds exactly with our modern major scale1 and the common people among all nations early showed a strong predilection for its use4 ,the ,church1 in fact1 because of this popularity with the people1 named it the modus lascivus and prohibited its use in the ecclesiastical liturgy4 ,one of the very earliest ,folk-tunes extant--,sumer is icumen in 7already referred to7--is in the ,ionian mode and1 according to ,cecil ,sharp1#bg the majority of ,english ,folk-tunes are in this same mode4 ,footnote #bf3 ,the chief reason for this leading tone1 in addition to the natural tendency of singers to raise their voices as near as possible to the upper tonic1 was so that the dominant chord1 the third of which is always the #gth degree1 might invariably be a ,major ,triad4 ,footnote #bg3 ,for many suggestive comments on the whole subject see his book ,english ,folk-,song4 ,we now cite a few typical folk-songs 7taken from national sources7 which1 in their structure1 show a natural instinct for balance of phrase and oftentimes for that organic unity of effect gained by restatement after contrast4 ,music3 ,,the ,,true ,,lovers' ,,farewell ,old ,english ,the pattern of this song1 in the ,aeolian mode1 is ,a1 ,a1 ,a1 ,b4 ,unity is secured by the three-fold appearance of the first phrase2 and a certain balance1 by having the second phrase ,b twice as long 7four measures7 as ,a4 ,music3 ,,the ,,ship ,,in ,,distress ,old ,english ,the formula of this characteristic song in the ,dorian mode is ,a1 ,a1 ,b1 ,a2 merely an extension1 through repetition1 of the simple type ,a1 ,b1 ,a which1 in turn1 is the basis of the fundamental structure known as the three-part form4 ,this will later be studied in detail4 ,it is evident to the musical sense how complete a feeling of coherence is gained by the return to ,a after the intervening contrast of the phrase ,b2 evident1 also1 that this song is a perfect example of the principle of unity combined with variety4 ,we further cite a few examples from ,scottish1 ,irish1 ,french1 ,hungarian and ,russian sources4 ,they all illustrate quaint melodic intervals and an instinct for balance and symmetry4 ,music3 ,,wandering ,,willie ,here awa'1 there awa'1 ,wanderin' ,willie1 ,here awa'1 there awa'1 haud awa' hame4 ,come to my bosom1 my ain only dearie1 ,o tell me thou bring'st me my ,willie the same4 ,this song#bh expresses that note of pathos often found in ,scottish folk-music and is noteworthy also because the lyric poet1 ,robert ,burns1 wrote for it words of which we give the first stanza4 ,footnote #bh3 ,the example quoted1 together with others equally beautiful1 may be found in the collection edited by the ,scottish composer1 ,hamish ,mac,cunn4 ,see1 as well1 the ,cycle of ,old ,scotch ,melodies arranged for four solo voices with pianoforte accompaniment by ,arthur ,whiting4 ,music3 ,,would ,,god ,i ,,were ,,the ,,tender ,,apple ,,blossom ,this ,irish tune#bi is certainly one of the most perfect that can be imagined1 remarkable alike for its organic unity1 gained by the frequent use of the first ascending motive1 and for the manner in which the successive crises are reached4 ,note in particular the intensity of the final climax1 in measure #ac1 attained by a repetition of the preceding phrase4 ,footnote #bi3 ,for ,irish folk-songs the best collections are the one by ,villiers ,stanford and a ,cycle by ,arthur ,whiting1 prepared in the same way as that just cited on ,scottish melodies4 ,music3 ,,en ,,passant ,,par ,,la ,,lorraine ,,avec ,,mes ,,sabots ,this charming song#cj from ,lorraine exemplifies that rhythmic vivacity and lightness of touch so characteristic of the ,french4 ,footnote #cj3 ,taken from an excellent collection of ,chansons ,populaires edited by ,julien ,tiersot4 ,observe the piquant effect1 in the final phrase1 produced by the elision of a measure2 there being in the whole song #ca measures instead of the normal #cb 7#af #af74 ,music3 ,old ,hungarian ,folk-song ,hungarian folk-music#ca is noted for its syncopated rhythm and its peculiar metric groupings4 ,it is also often highly embroidered with chromatic notes2 the ,hungarian scale1 with two augmented intervals1 being an intensification of our minor mode1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #ca3 ,the best popular collection of ,hungarian melodies is that by ,francis ,korbay1 the texts for which were translated and arranged by the ,american novelist1 ,j4,s4 of ,dale4 ,it is well known what artistic use has been made of ,hungarian melodies and rhythms by ,schubert1 ,liszt and ,brahms4 ,russia is fortunate in her musical inheritance2 for not only has she a wealth of folk-songs1 but her famous composers1 ,balakireff1 ,borodin and ,rimsky-,korsakoff--who are men of letters as well--have published remarkable editions of these national melodies4 ,the ,russian folk-songs express1 in general1 a mood of sombreness or even depression--typical of the vast1 bleak expanses of that country1 and of its downtrodden people4 ,these songs are usually in the minor mode--often with sudden changes of rhythm--and based on the old ecclesiastical modes1 the ,russian liturgy being very ancient and having an historical connection with that of the ,greek church4 ,the folk-music of no nation is more endowed with individuality and depth of emotion4 ,five characteristic examples are herewith cited3 ,music3 ,i ,music3 ,,ii ,music3 ,,iii ,harmonized by ,,rimsky-,,korsakoff ,music3 ,,iv ,music3 ,v ,this last melody is of particular significance1 because ,tchaikowsky has used it so prominently in the ,finale of his ,fourth ,symphony4 ,the growing interest in folk-music in ,america is a tendency concerning which the progressive student should inform himself4 ,for a national basis of creative work1 our country has always been at a disadvantage in comparison with nations which1 as their birthright1 have much music in their blood4 ,moreover1 with the exception of the tunes of the aboriginal ,indians and the plantation melodies of the ,negroes1 it has been asserted that ,america could boast no folk-songs4 ,recent investigations have shown1 however1 that this is not entirely true4 ,cecil ,sharp1 ,henry ,gilbert1 ,arthur ,farwell and other musical scholars have proved that there are several regions of our country1 settled by colonists from ,england1 ,ireland and ,scotland1 where folk-songs exist practically in the condition in which they were first brought over4 ,one of the best collections of such material is the set of so-called ,lonesome ,tunes from the ,kentucky ,mountains1 taken down by ,miss ,lorraine ,wyman and ,mr4 ,howard ,brockway directly from the mountaineers and other dwellers in that region4 ,these melodies have great individuality1 directness and no little poetic charm4 ,it is certainly encouraging to feel that1 in this industrial age1 there are still places where people express their emotions and ideals in song2 for a nation that has not learned to sing--or has forgotten how--can never create music that endures4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,polyphonic ,,music2 ,,sebastian ,,bach ,we have traced1 in the preceding chapter1 some of the fundamental principles of design in musical expression1 as they were manifested in the ,folk-music of the different nations4 ,all music of this type was homophonic1 i4e41 a single melodic line1 either entirely unaccompanied or with a slight amount of instrumental support4 ,hence however perfect in itself1 it was necessarily limited in scope and in opportunity for organic development4 ,before music could become an independent art1 set free from reliance on poetry1 and could attain to a breadth of expression commensurate with the growth in other fields of art1 there had to be established some principle of development1 far more extensive than could be found in ,folk-music4 ,this principle#cb of ,thematic ,development--the chief idiom of instrumental music--by which a motive or a theme is expanded into a large symphonic movement1 was worked out in that type of music known as the ,polyphonic or many-voiced2 and ,polyphonic music became1 in turn1 the point of departure for our modern system of harmony1 with its methods of key relationship and of modulation4 ,as we have stated in ,chapter ,i1 the principle of systematic repetition or imitation--first discovered and partially applied by the musicians#cc of the early ,french ,school and by the ,netherland masters--finally culminated in the celebrated vocal works 7 capella or unaccompanied7 composed by ,palestrina and his contemporaries for the ,roman ,catholic ,liturgy4 ,up to this point the whole texture of music had been conceived in connection with voices2 but with the development of the organ1 so admirably suited for polyphonic style1 and the perfection of the family of stringed instruments1 the principles of polyphony were carried over and applied to instrumental treatment4 ,the composer who1 through his constructive genius1 most fully embodied these principles#cd was ,john ,sebastian ,bach 7#afhe-agej74 ,we are now prepared to explain the characteristics of polyphonic music and then to analyze some typical examples from ,bach and other polyphonic composers4 ,the essential difference between homophonic and polyphonic style is implied by the terms themselves4 ,when there is but one melody1 the skill of the composer and the attention of the listener are concentrated upon this single melodic line2 and even if there be an accompaniment1 it is so planned that the chief melody stands out in relief against it4 ,the pre-eminence of this chief melody is seldom usurped1 although the accompaniment often has interesting features of its own4 ,as soon as we have more than one melody 7whether there be two1 three or still others7 all these voice-parts may be of coequal importance1 and the musical fabric becomes an interwoven texture of a number of strands4 ,the genius and skill of the composer is now expended on securing life and interest for each of these voices--soprano1 alto1 tenor1 bass--which seem to be braided together2 and thus a much more comprehensive attention is required of the listener4 ,for instead of the single melody in the soprano1 or upper voice1 of the ,folk-song1 we now must listen consciously to the bass and to both of the inner voices4#ce ,too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the recommendation that1 in appreciating music1 the first task is to train the ear to a wide range of listening4 ,these differences in style are often apparent just as a pattern of design--to be seen from the following examples3 ,music3 ,homophonic ,style4 ,irish ,folk-,song ,music3 ,polyphonic ,style4 ,,bach3 ,fugue in ,c ,minor ,footnote #cb3 ,the statement might be qualified by saying that1 since ,beethoven1 instrumental style has become a happy mixture of homophony for the chief melodies and polyphony for the supporting harmonic basis4 ,stress is laid in the above text on the polyphonic aspect merely to emphasize the matter under discussion4 ,footnote #cc3 ,notable names are ,lonin and ,protin1 both organists of ,ntre ,dame at ,paris4 ,footnote #cd3 ,although this is not the place to set forth all the details of this development1 in the interest of historical justice we should not think of ,bach without gratefully acknowledging the remarkable work of such pioneers as the ,dutchman1 ,sweelinck 7#aefb-afba71 organist at ,amsterdam2 the ,italian1 ,frescobaldi 7#aehc-afdd71 organist at ,rome1 and--greatest of all1 in his stimulating influence upon ,bach--the ,dane1 ,buxtehude 7#afcf-agjg71 organist at ,lbeck4 ,sweelinck and ,frescobaldi may fairly be called the founders of the genuine ,fugue1 and there is a romantic warmth in ,buxtehude's best work which makes it thoroughly modern in sentiment4 ,footnote #ce3 ,in connection with the statement that music has developed according to natural law1 it is worth noting that the four-part chorus early became the standard for both vocal and instrumental groups for the simple reason that there exist two kinds of women's voices--soprano and alto1 and two of men's voices--tenor and bass4 ,originally1 the chief voice in the ecclesiastical chorus was the tenor 7teneo71 because the tenors sustained the melody4 ,below them were the basses 7bassus1 low72 above the tenors came the altos 7altus1 high7 and still higher the sopranos 7sopra1 above74 ,in the latter example it is evident that there is an interweaving of three distinct melodic lines4 ,the polyphonic instrumental works of ,bach and his contemporaries were called by such names as ,preludes1 ,fugues1 ,canons1 ,inventions1 ,toccatas and ,fantasies2 but since a complete account of all these forms would lead too far afield1 we shall confine ourselves to a description of the ,canon1 the ,invention and the ,fugue4 ,a ,canon 7from the ,greek ,greek3 ,kann1 meaning a strict rule or law7 is a composition in which there is a literal systematic imitation1 carried out to the end1 between two or more of the voices 7often with subsidiary voices filling in71 and may be considered a kind of musical dialogue in which the second1 or answering1 part renforces the message previously uttered by the leading voice4 ,this imitation may take place at any degree of separation2 and ,canons are in existence at the interval of the second1 third1 fourth1 fifth1 etc4 ,the most effective ,canons1 however1 are those in which the answering voice is an octave away from the leading one4 ,although the ,canon is not a form employed frequently by modern composers for an entire composition1 ,canonic imitation appears so often in all large works for orchestra1 string quartet or ensemble combinations1 that the music-lover should acquire a certain ease in listening to a structure of this type4 ,the ,canon1 moreover1 is an integral factor in the style of ,csar ,franck1 d',indy and ,brahms2 and illustrations of its use abound in their works4 ,the organ is particularly well suited to the rendition of ,canons2 since1 by its facilities for tone-color1 the two voices may be clearly contrasted4 ,those interested in organ literature should become acquainted with the following excellent examples3 ,the ,canon in ,b-flat major1 op4 #dj1 by ,guilmant2 the #dth movement of the ,fifth ,organ ,symphony by ,widor2 the ,canon in ,b minor1 op4 #ed1 by ,schumann2 the ,canon in ,f-sharp major1 op4 #cj1 by ,merkel1 and the set of ,ten ,canonic studies1 op4 #ab1 by ,g4,w4 ,chadwick4 ,in other fields of composition the following should be cited3 ,the set of ,pianoforte ,pieces in ,canon form1 op4 #ce1 by ,jadassohn2 a like set by ,rheinberger1 op4 #ahj2 the ,canonic ,vocal ,trios1 op4 #aef1 by ,reinecke and the famous ,canon from the first act of ,beethoven's opera ,fidelio4 ,there is also a beautiful bit of ,canonic imitation between two of the upper voices in the introduction of ,berlioz's ,carnaval ,romain ,overture for orchestra4 ,one of the most appealing ,canons in modern literature is the setting for soprano and barytone1 by ,henschel1 of the poem ,oh that we two were ,maying by ,charles ,kingsley4 ,this example alone would sufficiently corroborate the statement that the firmness of structure inherent in the canonic form is perfectly compatible with genuine freedom and poetry of inspiration4 ,in the first movement of ,csar ,frank's ,symphony in ,d minor1 at the recapitulation 7page #ci of the full score7 may be found a magnificent example of the intensity of effect gained by a canonic imitation of the main theme--in this instance between the lower and upper voices4 ,possibly the finest example of canonic writing in all literature is the ,finale of ,csar ,franck's ,sonata in ,a major for ,violin and ,pianoforte in which1 for several pages1 there is an eloquent dialogue between the two contrasting instruments4 ,the movement is too long for citation but it should certainly be procured and studied4 ,in the ,trio of the ,scherzo in ,beethoven's ,seventh ,sonata for ,violin and ,pianoforte there is a free use of canonic imitation which will repay investigation4 ,lastly1 the ,aria with #cj ,variations--the so-called ,goldberg ,variations of ,bach--is a perfect storehouse of every conceivable canonic device4 ,a few standard examples are to be found in the ,supplement4 ,these should be played over and studied until they are thoroughly familiar--not only for the pleasure to be derived1 but for the indispensable training afforded in polyphonic listening4 ,ex4 ,no4 #i ,canon by ,thomas ,tallys 7#aeaj-aehe74 ,ex4 ,no4 #aj ,canonic ,variation by ,schumann from the tudes ,symphoniques4 ,ex4 ,no4 #aa of ,bach's ,goldberg ,variations4 ,ex4 ,no4 #ab ,canon in ,b-flat minor1 op4 #ch1 ,grieg4 ,ex4 ,no4 #ac ,canon in ,f-sharp major1 op4 #ce1 ,jadassohn4 ,one of the most simple and direct types of polyphonic composition is the form known as the ,invention in which1 as the term implies1 the composer--through his inventive genius and by means of the polyphonic devices of imitation and transposition--develops to a logical conclusion some short and characteristic motive4 ,we are fortunate in having from ,bach himself1 that consummate master of polyphony1 two sets of such ,inventions3 fifteen for two voices1 and fifteen for three4 ,these flights of fancy--in which art so subtly conceals art--though originally composed for the clavichord and harpsichord 7the precursors of the pianoforte71 are very effective on our modern instrument and should be in the possession of every music-student4#cf ,a brief analysis is now given of the first one in the set for two voices1 and ,nos4 #d1 #h and #aj in this set are particularly recommended for study2 also ,nos4 #b1 #f and #ad among those for three voices4 ,the opening motive ,music is the foundation of the entire composition and is at once imitated1 canonically1 in the lower voice4 ,then the two voices play about1 with figures clearly derived from the motive1 until we reach1 in measures three and four1 a systematic downward transposition of the material4 ,such transpositions or shiftings up or down in pitch are called ,sequences4 ,they are very frequent in all polyphonic composition1 give a strong sense of unity to melodic progression and are generally carried out in groups of three1 i4e41 the original figure and two repetitions4 ,after the sequence the music naturally works toward the most nearly related key 7the dominant7 and in the seventh measure reaches in that key its first objective4 ,these ,inventions of ,bach1 as well as the ,dance forms soon to be studied1 are almost invariably in what is known as ,two-part form1 i4e41 the music consists of two main divisions1 clearly marked off by cadences#cg2 the first of which modulates to the dominant or some related key while the second part1 starting in this key1 works back to a final close in the home key4 ,in ,inventions it early became customary in the second part to begin with the same motive as the first--but in the opposite voice4 ,thus we see1 in the ,invention now being discussed1 that the seventh measure begins with the original motive in the bass which1 in turn1 is imitated by the ,soprano--a process just the reverse of that in the opening measures4 ,footnote #cf3 ,the best edition is that by ,busoni1 published by ,breitkopf and ,hrtel4 ,footnote #cg3 ,this technical term as well as others will later be more fully explained4 ,music ,in pieces in this ,two-part form the second portion is generally longer than the first2 for the composer1 by the time he has reached this second part1 may consider the material sufficiently familiar to be expanded and varied by excursions into more remote keys1 and by more intricate manipulations of the chief motive4 ,in measure #aa we find a modulation to ,d minor and then1 after some free treatment of the motive1 we reach--in measure #ae--;a cadence in ,a minor4 ,a long sequential passage brings us1 through a modulation to the subdominant key of ,f major 7in measures #ah and #ai71 to a strong closing cadence in the home key4 ,it should be noticed that in this ,invention and in some of the dance forms there is shown a strong leaning towards a tripartite division of the material as is indicated by the three cadences in measures #g1 #ae and #bb4 ,since1 however1 the middle part is lacking in any strong contrast--which is such an essential factor in the fully developed three-part form--it seems better to consider this piece1 and others like it1 as a tendency rather than as a complete embodiment of tripartite arrangement4 ,it is expected that the music lover will take these ,inventions for what they really are and not search in them for those notes of intense subjectivity and dramatic power so prevalent in modern music4 ,they are merely little pieces--a tour de force in polyphonic ingenuity2 music rejoicing in its own inherent vitality4 ,accepted in this spirit they are invigorating and charming4 ,the form in which polyphonic skill reaches its highest possibilities is the ,fugue2 and the immortal examples of this form are the ,fugues of ,john ,sebastian ,bach1 found in his ,well-tempered ,clavichord and in his mighty works for the organ4 ,the fundamental structure of a fugue is implied in the term itself 7from the ,latin fuga--flight72 that is1 in a fugue the main theme or subject is always announced in a single voice1 and the remaining voices1 appearing successively in accordance with definite principles of key-relationship1 seem to chase each other about and to flee from pursuit4 ,the several stratified entrances of the subject are relieved by intermediate passages called ,episodes4 ,an ,episode1 as shown by the derivation 7,greek3 ipi hodos1 by the way71 is something off the beaten path--a digression2 and it is in these episodical portions of a fugue rather than in the formalistic portions that the genius of the composer shines forth4 ,this is especially true of ,bach1 for almost any well-trained musician can invent a subject which will allow of satisfactory fugal treatment according to accepted usage2 but no one save ,bach has ever invented such free and fanciful episodes--so daring in scope and yet so closely connected with the main thought4 ,the general effect of a fugue is cumulative3 a massing and piling up of voices that lead to a carefully designed conclusion which1 in some of ,bach's organ fugues1 is positively overwhelming4 ,a fugue may be called a mighty crescendo1 like the sound of many waters4 ,there is a popular conception1 or rather misconception1 that a fugue is a labored1 dull or even dry form of composition1 meant only as an exhibition of pedantic skill1 and quite beyond the reach of ordinary musical appreciation4 ,nothing is farther from the truth1 as a slight examination of musical literature will show4 ,for we see that the fugal form has been used to express well-nigh every form of human emotion1 the sublime1 the tragic1 the romantic2 very often the humorous and the fantastic4 ,when we recall the irresistible sparkle and dash of ,mozart's ,magic ,flute ,overture1 of the ,overture to the ,bartered ,bride by ,smetana1 of the ,finale of ,mozart's ,jupiter ,symphony1 and of many of the fugues in the ,well-tempered ,clavichord1 it is evident that to call a fugue dry is an utter abuse of language4 ,it is true that there are weak1 artificial and dull fugues1 where the composer--frankly--had nothing to say and merely filled out the form2 but the same may be said of every type of composition1 i4e41 among them all are examples inspired and--less inspired4 ,this1 however1 is no indictment of the fugue per se1 against which the only thing to be said is that it requires on the part of the listener an exceeding concentration4 ,some of the masterpieces of the world being wholly or partially in the fugal form1 it is the duty of those listening to polyphonic music to train their powers to the same seriousness of attention expected and freely given in the appreciation of an oration1 a drama or a cathedral4 ,these latter manifestations of artistic expression1 to be sure1 are less abstract than the fugue and more closely related to daily life4 ,yet no effort is more repaying than the mental and emotional energy expended in listening to the interweavings of a good fugue2 for1 conscious of missing the periodic divisions of the ,folk-song1 we have to listen to more than one melody at a time4 ,a fugue being a composition1 as the ,french say1 of longue haleine1 our attention1 in order to follow its structure1 must be on the qui vive every moment4 ,the fugue1 in fact1 is an example of the intricate and yet organic complexity found in all the higher forms of life itself2 and whenever a composer has wished to dwell with emphasis on a particular theme1 he almost invariably resorts to some form of fugal treatment1 strict or free4 ,the most effective media for rendering fugues are the chorus of mixed voices1 the organ 7by reason of its pedal key-board always making the subject in the bass stand out majestically7 and the stringed orchestra which1 with the bite of the strings1 brings out--with peculiar sharpness--the different entrances of the subject4 ,the student should become familiar with standard examples in each of these classes and should1 above all1 seek opportunity to hear some of the organ fugues of ,bach performed on a really fine instrument4 ,a few well-known fugues are herewith cited in order to stimulate the student to some investigation of his own4 ,in all the ,oratorios of ,handel and in the choral works of ,bach1 such as the ,b minor ,mass1 may be found magnificent fugues--as free and vital in their rhythmic swing as the ocean itself4 ,particular attention should be called to the fugue in the ,messiah ,and by ,his stripes we were healed ,transcriber's ,note3 ,and with ,his stripes we are healed4 ,one of the most impressive fugues in modern literature is the capella chorus ,urbs ,syon ,unica from ,h4,w4 ,parker's ,hora ,novissima4 ,from among the organ works of ,bach everyone should know the ,fugues in ,g minor1 in ,a minor1 in ,d major#ch and the ,toccata and ,fugue in ,d minor4 ,these have all been transcribed for the pianoforte by ,liszt and so are readily available2 they are often played at pianoforte recitals by ,paderewski and other virtuosi4 ,in hearing one of these masterpieces no one can remain unmoved or can fail to reverence the constructive genius which fashioned such cathedrals in tone4 ,for orchestra we have the ,prelude to ,puccini's opera ,madama ,butterfly1 and the beginning of the ,prelude to the third act of ,wagner's ,mastersingers4 ,there are striking fugal passages in ,beethoven's ,symphonies1 e4g41 the first movement of the ,heroic ,symphony and the rollicking ,trio of the ,scherzo in the ,fifth ,symphony4 ,in more modern literature there is the fugal ,finale to ,arthur ,foote's ,suite for ,orchestra and in ,chadwick's ,vagrom ,ballad a humorous quotation of the theme from ,bach's ,g minor ,fugue for organ4 ,one of the most superb fugues in free style is the last movement of ,csar ,franck's ,prelude1 ,choral and ,fugue in ,b minor for ,pianoforte4 ,this movement alone would refute all charges of dullness or dryness brought against the fugue by the unthinking or the unenlightened4 ,a good fugue1 in fact1 is so full of vitality and demands such active comprehension#ci on the part of the listener that it is not difficult to imagine where the dullness and dryness are generally found4 ,footnote #ch3 ,whenever ,percy ,grainger performs this fugue in his own arrangement for pianoforte1 he always electrifies an audience4 ,footnote #ci3 ,it is worthy of observation that1 for those who will listen to them intelligently1 fugues do not merely demand such a state of mind but actually generate it4 ,at this point by an analysis of a fugue from the ,well-tempered ,clavichord1 let us explain some of the technical features in fugal structure4 ,we shall then be in a position to understand the more subtle devices of fugal treatment and to appreciate more enthusiastically some additional comments upon ,bach's style in general4 ,,fugue ,,in ,e-,,flat ,,major1 ,,no4 ,,vii1 ,,in ,,the ,,first ,,book4 ,music3 ,subject ,counter-subject ,answer ,this fugue in three voices begins with a graceful subject1 announced in the upper voice4 ,in the third measure this is answered by an imitation of the subject in the alto2 while the opening voice continues with a contrasting part called the counter-subject4#dj ,as the whole subsequent fabric is organically derived from these two motives1 both subject and counter-subject should be played frequently and so committed to memory4 ,observe also the contrasts in rhythm and melodic outline between the subject and counter-subject4 ,in measures #d and #e we have a short sequential passage leading1 in measure #f1 to the third entry of the subject in the bass4 ,then after another sequential passage1 which includes an emphatic assertion of the subject in the soprano 7measures #aa and #ab71 we enter upon a long episode which leads1 at measure #ag1 to our first objective point of rest--a cadence in ,c minor4 ,with the entry1 in this measure1 of the subject in the alto we have an interesting example of what is termed shifted rhythm2 the subject beginning on the third beat instead of the first1 as at the outset4 ,in the middle portion of the fugue we have two appearances of the subject in the related keys of ,c minor 7measures #ag and #ah7 and ,g minor 7measures #bj and #ba74 ,then1 following two very vigorous sequences1 a modulatory return is made to the subject in the home key1 and with its normal rhythm at measure #bf4 ,a repetition1 in more brilliant form1 of one of the previous episodes1 in measures #ca and #cb1 gives a strong impression of unity2 leading in measures #cd and #ce to a last appearance of the subject1 with a beautiful change in one of the intervals 7,e-flat-,g-flat74 ,the closing measures establish the main tonality of ,e-flat major1 rendered still more expressive by the counterpoint associated with the last chord4 ,as to the general structure of this fugue1 it is evidently tripartite1 the first part ,a presenting the material1 the second part ,b affording variety by modulating into different keys1 and the third part ,a reasserting the material of ,a and bringing the composition to a logical close in the home key4 7,see ,supplement ,ex4 ,no4 #ae47 ,footnote #dj3 ,it is left to the teacher to explain to the student the key-relationship of ,subject and ,answer1 and the difference between fugues1 tonal and real2 for as these points have rather more to do with composition they play but a slight part in listening to a fugue4 ,we should now acquaint ourselves with the more subtle devices of fugal treatment2 although but one of these is employed in the fugue just studied1 which is comparatively simple in structure4 ,i4 ,inversion2 the melodic outline is turned upside down while identity is retained by means of the rhythm1 e4g4 ,music3 ,,bach3 #crd ,english ,suite ,theme ,inversion ,an excellent example from an orchestral work is the theme of the third movement of ,brahms's ,c minor ,symphony1 the second phrase of which is an ,inversion of the opening measures1 e4g4 ,music3 ,inversion ,,ii4 ,augmentation and ,diminution2 the length of the notes is doubled or halved while their metrical relativity is maintained1 e4g4 ,music3 ,,bach3 ,fugue ,no4 #h1 ,book ,i ,theme ,augmentation ,music3 ,,bach3 ,fugue ,no4 ,,ix1 ,book ,,ii ,theme ,diminution ,augmentation is very frequent in modern literature when a composer1 by lengthening out the phraseology of a theme1 wishes to gain for it additional emphasis4 ,excellent examples are the closing measures of ,schumann's ,arabesque1 in which the reminiscence of the original motto is most haunting1 e4g41 ,music3 ,motto ,music3 ,motto augmented the ,finale of ,liszt's ,faust ,symphony1 where the love theme of the ,gretchen movement is carried over and intoned by a solo baritone with impressive effect1 e4g4 ,music ,music3 ,in augmentation ,das ewig ,weibliche ,,iii4 ,shifted ,rhythm2 the position of the subject in the measure is so changed that the accents fall on different beats1 e4g4 ,music3 ,,bach3 ,fugue ,no4 ,v1 ,book ,,ii ,subject ,shifted ,,iv4 ,stretto2 7from the ,italian verb stringere1 to draw close7 that portion of a fugue1 often the climax1 where the entrances are crowded together1 i4e41 the imitating voice enters before the leading voice has finished1 e4g4 ,music3 ,fuga giocosa1 ,j4,k4 ,,paine1 op4 #da ,subject ,the effect is obviously one of great concentration and dramatic intensity--with a sense of impending climax--and its use is by no means limited to fugal composition2 being frequently found in all large symphonic works of the classic and modern school4 ,for a magnificent example of the climactic effect produced by a ,stretto1 witness the last part of ,bach's ,fugue in ,g major 7see ,supplement1 ,ex4 ,no4 #af74 ,although there is considerable complexity in any complete fugue1 and although it requires great concentration on the part of the listener1 we should avoid thinking of the form as mechanical in any derogatory sense1 but rather as a means to a definite artistic end4 ,certainly no greater mistake can be made than that of considering ,bach1 the supreme master of polyphonic writing1 as too austere1 too involved1 for the delight and edification of every-day mortals4 ,bach means brook1 and the name#da is most appropriate2 for ,bach is a never ceasing stream of musical life1 the fountain-head from which spring the leading tendencies of modern music4 ,in these days when stress is laid on the romantic element in music1 on warm emotional appeal1 it is well to consider the quality so prevalent in ,bach of spiritual vitality4 ,exactly because the romantic element represents the human side of music1 it is subject to the whims of fashion and is liable to change and decay4 ,bach carries us into the realm of universal ideas1 inexhaustible and changeless in their power to exalt4 ,schumann says that ,music owes to ,bach what a religion owes to its founder2 and it is true that a knowledge of ,bach is the beginning of musical wisdom4 ,by some1 ,bach is considered dry or too reserved for companionship with ordinary human beings4 ,others carelessly assert that he has no melody4 ,nothing can be further from the truth than these two misconceptions4 ,bach surely is not dry1 because his work abounds in such vitality of rhythm4 ,as ,parry says1 in his biography1 ,no composer ever attained to anything approaching the spontaneity1 freshness1 and winsomeness of his dances1 such as the gavottes1 bourres1 passepieds and gigues in the suites2 while many of his great choruses and instrumental fugues are inspired with a force of rhythmic movement which thrills the hearer with a feeling of being swept into space out of the range of common things4 ,the charge of a lack of melody is the same which used to be brought against ,wagner4 ,instead of there being no melody1 it is all melody1 so that the partially musical1 who lack the power of sustained attention1 are drowned in the flood of melodic outpouring4 ,a strong claim1 in fact1 may be made for ,bach as a popular composer in the best sense of the term4 ,many of his colossal works1 to be sure1 are heard but seldom1 for they require the most highly trained executive ability4 ,but if the average music-lover will become familiar with the ,french and ,english ,suites1 with the ,preludes and ,fugues of the ,well-tempered ,clavichord1 with some of the ,violin ,sonatas1 he will find for his imagination and mental machinery a food which1 once enjoyed1 becomes indispensable4 ,for his music has that greatest of qualities in art as in human relationships--it wears well and lasts4 ,we all know that books which reveal everything at a first reading are soon thrown aside1 and that people whose depth of character and sweetness of disposition we discern but slowly1 often become our life-long friends4 ,music which is too easily heard is identical with that which is immediately forgotten4 ,the first impulse created by any great work of art is our longing to know it better4 ,its next attribute is its power to arouse and hold our steady affection4 ,these observations may be applied literally to ,bach's music1 which can be heard for a lifetime1 never losing its appeal but continually unfolding new beauties4 ,furthermore1 in ,bach1 we feel the force of a great character even more than the artistic skill with which the personality is revealed4 ,in this respect ,bach in music is quite on a par with ,shakespeare in literature and ,michael ,angelo in plastic art4 ,with many musicians1 there is so disconcerting and inexplicable a discrepancy between their deeds as men and the artistic thoughts for which they seem to be the unconscious media1 that it is inspiring to come into touch with one who rings true as a man whatever demands are made upon him2 whose music is free from morbidity or carnal blemish1 as pure as the winter wind1 as elemental as the ocean1 as uplifting as the stars4 ,in ,bach let us always remember the noble human traits2 for the universal regard in which his work is held could never have come merely from profound skill in workmanship1 but is due chiefly to the manly sincerity and emotional depth which are found therein4 ,the revival of his works1 for which the world owes to ,mendelssohn such a debt1 has been the single strongest factor in the development of music during the #aith century2 and their influence#db is by no means yet at an end1 as may be seen from the glowing tributes paid to him by such modern composers as ,franck1 d',indy and ,debussy4#dc ,footnote #da3 ,beethoven1 commenting on the name1 majestically said3 ,he is no brook2 he is the open sea6 ,footnote #db3 ,for a very suggestive article on this point by ,philip ,greeley ,clapp see the ,musical ,quarterly for ,april1 #aiaf4 ,footnote #dc3 ,some eloquent comments on ,bach's style and significance may be found in ,chapter ,,iii of ,the ,appreciation of ,music by ,surette and ,mason4 ,two additional fugues are now given in the ,supplement 7see ,nos4 #ag and #ah7 for the consideration of the student3 the ,cat-,fugue of ,domenico ,scarlatti1 with its fantastic subject 7said to have been suggested by the walking of a favorite cat on the key-board7 and the ,fuga ,giocosa of ,john ,knowles ,paine1 7the subject of which is the well-known street-tune ,rafferty's lost his pig74 ,this latter example is not only a brilliant piece of fugal writing but a typical manifestation of ,american humor4 ,several eulogies of the fugue are to be found in literature2 three of the most famous are herewith appended4 ,hist1 but a word1 fair and soft6 ,forth and be judged1 ,master ,hugues6 ,answer the question ,i've put you so oft3 ,what do you mean by your mountainous fugues8 ,see1 we're alone in the loft4 --,browning1 ,master ,hugues of ,saxe-,gotha4 ,throughout1 a most fantastic description of fugal style4 ,whence the sound ,of instruments1 that made melodious chime1 ,was heard1 of harp and organ2 and who mov'd ,their stops and chords was seen2 his volant touch ,instinct through all proportions1 low and high1 ,fled and pursued transverse the resonant fugue4 --,milton1 ,paradise ,lost1 ,book ,,xi4 ,then rose the agitation1 spreading through the infinite cathedral to its agony2 then was completed the passion of the mighty fugue4 ,the golden tubes of the organ which as yet had but sobbed and muttered at intervals--gleaming amongst clouds and surges of incense--threw up1 as from fountains unfathomable1 columns of heart-shattering music4 ,choir and antichoir were filling fast with unknown voices4 ,thou also1 ,dying ,trumpeter6 with thy love which was victorious1 and thy anguish that was finishing1 didst enter the tumult2 trumpet and echo--farewell love and farewell anguish--rang through the dreadful ,sanctus4 --,from ,de ,quincey's ,dream ,fugue in the ,vision of ,sudden ,death4 ,truly a marvellous picture of the effect of a fugue in a great medieval cathedral6 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,musical ,,sentence ,before passing on to an explanation of the fundamental types of musical structure1 we must give some idea of the constituent parts of the ,period in music4 ,every art has its units of expression3 the straight line1 the curve1 the arch1 the poetic stanza and the prose sentence4 ,just as poetry and prose are a series of stanzas or sentences1 so a musical composition is a succession of definitely organized portions of thought and emotion1 in terms of rhythm and sound4 ,in the heart of a composition1 to be sure1 we often find a great freedom in the phraseology1 comparable to blank verse or to a rhapsodic kind of prose2 but with few exceptions1 such as a ,fantasie1 every composition always begins with one or two periods which1 in regard to subdivision1 balance and directness of statement1 are carefully planned and are complete in themselves4 ,before it is possible to follow intelligently the structure of a musical sentence we must gain a clear idea of what is meant by the frequently used terms ,tonality and ,modulation4 ,since the evolution and acceptance of our three modern scales3#dd the major1 the minor and the chromatic--which gained their sanction chiefly through the investigations and compositions of ,bach and ,rameau--every melody and the accompanying harmony are said to be in a certain tonality 7or key7 which takes its name from the first tone of the scale in question1 e4g41 ,c1 ,e-flat1 ,f sharp1 etc4 ,hence this first tone is called the ,tonic or chief tone and from it ascend the other tones of the scale4 ,that is1 a melody in ,e-flat major will employ only those tones found in the scale of ,e-flat major1 and is said to be in that key1 or tonality4 ,the same would be true of the harmony involved1 i4e41 the chords would consist of combinations of the different tones of this scale4 ,when a melody1 as is often the case1 employs tones not found in the scale in question1 these are called chromatic#de changes1 and may or may not effect a modulation or departure into another key1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #dd3 ,it is assumed that the music-lover has1 as his birthright1 an instinctive knowledge of the grouping of tones and semitones in our modern scales4 ,those who may wish to refresh their knowledge are recommended to the second ,chapter in ,foote and ,spalding's ,harmony1 and to the chapter on ,scales in ,parry's ,evolution of the ,art of ,music4 ,footnote #de3 ,color in music is brought about chiefly through their use4 ,the most important means of gaining unity and coherence in a composition is to have it written in a clearly defined tonality1 especially at the outset4 ,this definite tonality is the centre of gravity1 so to speak1 about which the whole composition revolves4 ,if this tonal centre were uncertain or wandering1 we should have a feeling of vagueness and perplexity which1 except for special dramatic effect1 is never found in works of the great composers4 ,thus we speak of a ,symphony in ,c minor1 of a ,quartet in ,f major and of a ,sonata in ,b-flat minor2#df this foundation key being comparable to the basic color-scheme of a painting4 ,there is also a particular aesthetic effect and color-appeal associated with each key2 and the listener should train himself to be sensitive to the brilliance of such keys as ,d major and ,e major1 the richness of ,b major1 the dignity of ,e-flat major1 the almost cloying sweetness of ,d-flat major and of ,g-flat major and the tragic depth of ,b minor and ,g minor4 ,no piece1 however1 should remain for long in the same key2 for music cuts so deeply into the consciousness that there would result an intolerable monotony4#dg ,even in the simplest folk-songs1 therefore1 we often find manifested an instinct for those changes of tonal centre which are technically called ,modulations4 ,all the keys founded on the twelve semitones of the chromatic scale are related--though in varying degrees of closeness2 and in modern music1 no matter how complex the modulations often sound1 we may be sure that the composer plans them as carefully as the painter adjusts his color-scheme4 ,for definite acoustical#dh and harmonic reasons1 however1 the keys most closely related to a given tonal centre are those situated a perfect fifth above--the ,dominant2 a perfect fifth below--the ,subdominant2 and the ,relative ,minor1 the key-note of which is a minor third below1 e4g41 ,a minor in relation to ,c major1 ,c minor to ,e-flat major4 ,the relative minors of the ,dominant and ,subdominant also bear a close relationship to a given tonic2 and into these five keys is made a large majority of the modulations in any piece of music4#di ,music3 ,subdominant ,tonic ,dominant ,relative ,relative ,relative ,minor ,minor ,minor ,footnote #df3 ,as for example the famous one of ,chopin4 ,footnote #dg3 ,even great composers have at times made this mistake1 e4g41 ,mendelssohn in the first movement of the ,scotch ,symphony1 where the interminable length of the portion in ,a minor 7of all keys67 is simply deadening in its effect4 ,compare also the ,prelude to the ,rheingold2 where1 however--for dramatic purposes--to depict the world as without form and void ,wagner remains in the key of ,e-flat major for some #aej measures6 ,footnote #dh3 ,it is left to the teacher to explain1 by the ratios found in the overtones of the ,harmonic ,series1 the validity of this statement4 ,footnote #di3 ,some modern theorists1 e4g41 ,calvacoressi 7see the ,new ,music ,review for ,september1 #aiji7 have thought that the dominant relationship was overworked4 ,it is true that the great charm of modern music is its freedom and boldness in modulation2 but the dominant keys can never be entirely abandoned1 for the relationship between them and a tonic is as elemental as that between the colors of the spectroscope4 ,beginning with ,beethoven1 a modulation into what are known as the mediant keys became frequent2 and is1 in fact1 a favorite change in all modern music--the mediant keys being those situated half-way between a ,tonic and ,dominant or a ,tonic and ,subdominant1 e4g4 ,music3 ,sub-mediant ,mediant ,anyone at all familiar with ,beethoven's style will remember how often his second theme1 instead of following the more conventional line of dominant relationship1 is in a mediant key4 ,good examples may be found in the first movement of the ,waldstein ,sonata and in the first and last movements of the #hth ,symphony4 ,a little thought will make clear that the relationships just set forth include nearly all the possible ones save those of #bnds and #gths4 ,even into these apparently distant keys1 e4g41 to ,d-flat major or to ,b major from ,c major1 modulations may easily be made by means of the enharmonic#ej relationship found in that frequently used modern chord--the ,augmented ,sixth1 e4g4 ,music3 ,c major ,b major ,c major ,d-flat major ,footnote #ej3 ,two tones are said to be enharmonic when1 although written differently1 they sound the same on an instrument of fixed temperament like the pianoforte1 or organ1 e4g41 ,d-sharp and ,e-flat1 ,e and ,f-flat4 ,a violin1 however1 can make a distinction between such notes and often does4 ,next to rhythm1 modulation is the most stimulating and enchanting element in music4 ,no composition of any scope can be considered truly great unless it abounds in beautiful modulations4 ,certain composers1 to be sure1 have in this respect more genius than others--notably ,schubert1 ,chopin1 ,wagner and ,franck whose music seems to waft us along on a magic carpet of delight4 ,but just as ,unity depends upon a definite basic tonality1 so ,variety is gained by this very freedom of modulation4 ,without it is monotony2 with too much modulation1 an irritating restlessness4 ,by the perfect balance in his works of these two related elements a genius may be definitely recognized4 ,the simplest and on the whole most frequent type of musical sentence or period consists of eight measures1 subdivided into two balancing phrases of four measures#ea each--the component parts plainly indicated by various cadences and endings soon to be explained4 ,these four-measure phrases are often1 though not invariably1 still further subdivided into two sections of two measures each4 ,let us now corroborate these statements by an examination of the opening sentence of the ,scherzo of ,beethoven's ,second ,sonata for ,pianoforte4 ,this concise sentence is an epitome of the chief principles of organic musical expression4 ,at the outset#eb we see the leading motive1 which consists of an ascending broken chord twice repeated4 ,we see also ,music the first phrase of #d measures and the second phrase#ec of similar length1 alike subdivided into two sections of #b measures each4 ,in the third measure we find a modulation into the dominant key 7indicated by the ,d-sharp7 and in the fourth measure a cadence with a feminine ending in this key4 ,the second--or after--phrase corresponds exactly to what has gone before3 we have the same repetition of the motive in a different part of the scale2 and finally1 in the #hth measure1 a cadence in the home key1 also with feminine ending4 ,footnote #ea3 ,this assertion holds for most of our ,western ,european music2 though in ,hungarian and ,scotch music we find a natural fondness for phrases of three measures1 and the ,croatians are known for their phrases of five measures so often used by both ,haydn and ,schubert4 ,but it is true that we tend to think in groups which are some multiple of #b1 i4e41 either #d1 #h1 #ab or #af measures4 ,footnote #eb3 ,always count the first complete measure as one4 ,footnote #ec3 ,the two phrases are often designated ,thesis and ,antithesis4 ,music ,when the sentence is played1 it is evident how unsatisfactory would be the effect if a complete stop were attempted at the #dth measure2 and how symmetrical and convincing is the impression when the eight measures are considered an unbroken sweep of musical thought4#ed ,there are1 in fact1 a few complete compositions in musical literature which contain but a single sentence of eight measures4 ,as an example may be cited the song from ,schumann's ,lieder ,album fr ,jugend1 op4 #gi1 ,no4 #a4 7,see ,supplement ,no4 #ai47 ,for purposes of practical appreciation#ee it is enough to state that a cadence is an accepted combination of chords 7generally the tonic1 dominant and subdominant7 which indicates that some objective1 either temporary or final1 has been reached4 ,when the dominant chord or any dominant harmony is immediately followed by the tonic the cadence is called perfect or final1 and may be compared to a period in punctuation1 e4g4 ,music ,music3 ,c,,sar ,,franck ,footnote #ed3 ,in listening to a clock it is impossible to think of the ticks singly1 or otherwise than in groups of two3 an accented beat and an unaccented2 although the beats are of equal strength and duration4 ,this principle of dual balance is derived from the rhythmic pulsation of the human heart and1 as we shall see1 runs through all music4 ,footnote #ee3 ,whenever this book is used in class1 the teacher can easily explain1 on the pianoforte and by charts1 the different cadential effects4 ,for those who have sufficient harmonic insight ,chapter ,,xiv in ,foote and ,spalding's ,modern ,harmony is worth consulting4 ,a reversal of this order produces what is called the half-cadence1 akin to the semicolon1 e4g4 ,music ,the union of the subdominant and tonic chords is known as the ,plagal ,cadence1 e4g41 ,music and always gives a feeling of religious dignity and impressiveness4 ,magnificent examples may be found in the closing measures of ,wagner's ,overture to the ,mastersingers and of ,brahms' ,first ,symphony in ,c minor4 ,in the final cadence of ,debussy's humorous piece for pianoforte1 ,minstrels1 the effect is burlesqued1 e4g4 ,music ,when dominant harmony is followed by some unexpected chord we have the so-called ,deceptive ,cadence1 which is not unlike the mark of interrogation 787 or even exclamation 767 e4g4 ,music3 ,,wagner3 ,overture to the ,mastersingers ,music3 ,,tchaikowsky3 #eth ,symphony ,this last cadence gives an effect of dramatic surprise--certainly an exclamation of great force4 ,one of the glories of modern music is the daring novelty of cadential effect which has been achieved by such composers as ,franck1 ,debussy and ,ravel2 the student should try to become more and more familiar with such harmonic combinations4 ,a beautiful example#ef is cited from ,csar ,franck's ,sonata for ,violin and ,pianoforte4 ,footnote #ef3 ,see also the strikingly original cadences in ,debussy's ,l',isle joyeuse4 ,music ,the two endings for phrases are classified as ,masculine and ,feminine and they correspond exactly to the same effects in the metre of a poetic stanza4 ,when the second chord of the cadence1 whatever it may be1 coincides with a strong beat1 i4e41 the first beat of the measure1 the ending is ,masculine1 e4g4 ,music ,when the chord is carried over to a weak beat of the measure the ending is ,feminine1 e4g4 ,music ,we now give two more examples of the eight measure ,sentence which clearly exemplify the principles just stated1 e4g4 ,music3 ,,beethoven3 #crd ,sonata ,in this vigorous and clear-cut sentence we find in the #dth measure an effect of surprise and suspense2 for the chord on the first beat is an inverted position of the dominant chord in the dominant key4 ,both the endings are masculine1 i4e41 the chords which end the phrases coincide with the strong beats4 ,music3 ,,beethoven3 #ast ,sonata ,this graceful sentence is noteworthy for the clear division of the first phrase into two contrasting sections2 whereas1 in the second phrase1 a climactic effect is gained by having no marked subdivision4 ,in the fourth measure occurs a good example of a half-cadence4 ,all the endings are feminine1 i4e41 the cadential chord occurs on a weak beat of the measure4#eg ,footnote #eg3 ,another interesting eight-measure sentence may be found at the beginning of the slow movement of ,beethoven's ,eighth ,sonata1 in which every section differs from any one of the others2 in the opening sentence of the first movement of the ,tenth ,sonata--noticeable for the indefiniteness of the cadences until the final close is reached in measure #h1 and in the first sentence of the ,allegretto of the ,sixth ,sonata which is one long sweep1 with only the faintest indications of subdivision4 ,music1 however1 would be very rigid and would seem measured off with a yard-stick if the sentences were equally of eight measures4 ,the sing-song effect of much so-called popular music is due to the stereotyped metrical pattern4 ,you can always tell just where and how you are coming out4 ,in order to gain a free and elastic phraseology1 composers early began to combine three four-measure phrases into a twelve measure sentence4 ,it is obvious that with three phrases there can be more subtle effects of contrast and balance than with two1 as the following chart makes plain3 _/ ,a ,contrast ,b ,contrast ,c _/ 7#d measures7 7#d measures7 7#d measures7 balance _/ ,music3 ,,beethoven3 #fth ,sonata ,in this sentence it is evident that we cannot stop at the #hth measure and that our first definite conclusion is in measure #ab4 ,let the student observe the varied melodic outline in the three phrases1 and question himself as to the types of cadence and ending4 ,,minuetto ,,of ,,beethoven',s ,,first ,,sonata4#eh ,footnote #eh3 ,lack of space will prevent hereafter the citation in actual notes of the examples from ,beethoven4 ,his works are readily accessible1 and it may even be assumed that every music-lover owns the ,pianoforte ,sonatas4 ,in this beautifully constructed twelve-measure sentence we have the main motive of the entire movement set forth in measures #a and #b2 then a contrasting secondary motive in measures #c and #d4 ,the second four-measure phrase1 i4e41 measures #e1 #f1 #g and #h1 repeats the material exactly1 but with a modulation into the relative major4 ,in measures #i and #aj we find the secondary motive appearing in the alto voice 7which should be brought out in performance71 and in measures #aa and #ab a free ending in the relative major4 ,the closing measures1 #ac and #ad1 give an echo-like effect1 which will be explained when we come to extended sentences4 ,such a sentence is not to be considered as one of #ad measures1 although the literal counting gives that number2 for the first complete cadence occurs in the #abth measure at the end of the third four-measure phrase2 the remaining measures being supplementary4#ei ,footnote #ei3 ,another excellent example of a #ab measure sentence with an extended cadence may be found at the beginning of the first movement of the ,third ,beethoven ,sonata4 ,the last type of simple1 normal sentence is that of #af measures1 divided into #d phrases of #d measures each4 ,a clear distinction must be drawn between two successive sentences of #h measures and the long sweep of a genuine #af measure sentence4 ,in the latter case there is no complete and satisfactory stop until we reach the cadence in the #afth measure4 ,,first ,,sentence ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,movement ,,of ,,the ,,twelfth ,,sonata4 ,no difficulty will be found in following the cadences and endings of this sentence1 the long-drawn out lines of which give an impression of repose and tranquillity4 ,two more excellent examples of #af measure sentences may be found in the ,adagio of the ,fifth ,sonata1 and in the ,scherzo of the ,third2 the latter movement is remarkable for the polyphonic treatment of the opening motive4 ,although the three types of sentence just studied1 i4e41 of #h1 #ab and #af measures are the normal ones1 and would include a majority of all sentences--especially in smaller works--in large compositions there would be an unendurable monotony and rigidity were there invariably to be cadential pauses at every #dth measure4 ,we all know the deadening effect of poetry which has too great uniformity of metric pattern2 and verses of ,the boy stood on the burning-deck type are considered thoroughly sing-song4 ,it is obvious that elasticity may be gained1 without disturbing the normal balance1 by expanding a sentence through the addition of extra measures1 or contracting it by the logical omission of certain measures or by the overlapping of phrases4 ,the simplest and most common means of enlarging a sentence is by the extension1 or repetition1 of the final cadence--that effect which is so frequent in the chamber and symphonic music of ,haydn1 and which has its comic manifestation in the so-called crescendo of the ,rossini ,operatic ,overture4#fj ,footnote #fj3 ,for a burlesque of this practise see the closing measures of the ,scherzando movement of ,beethoven's ,eighth ,symphony4 ,music3 ,,haydn3 ,quartet1 op4 #gd1 ,no4 #b ,as ,haydn was an important pioneer in freeing instrumental structure from dependence on the metre of words1 his periods are always clearly organized2 the closing measures of this example seem1 as it were1 to display a flag1 telling the listener that the first breathing-place is reached4 ,very often both the fore-phrase and the after-phrase have cadential prolongations1 an example of which may be found in ,haydn's ,quartet1 op4 #ga1 ,no4 #c4 ,the two following illustrations 7the first movement of ,beethoven's ,fifth ,sonata and the third movement of the ,fourth7 furnish remarkable examples of extended #af measure sentences2 each sentence being normal and symmetrical at the outset and then1 as the fancy of the composer catches fire1 expanding in a most dramatic fashion4 ,sometimes the additional measures1 in an extended sentence1 are found at the start2 a clear example of this is the first sentence 7with its repeated opening measure7 of the ,largo of the ,seventh ,sonata4 ,sentences are also often expanded by the insertion of one or more measures in the middle of the phrase1 e4g41 the beginning of the first movement of the ,seventh ,sonata and the corresponding place in the ,fourth4 ,in the former sentence the first phrase is perfectly regular1 but as we reach our final cadence only in the tenth measure1 we must account for some additional measures4 ,the polyphonic imitation of the descending motive of measure #e makes clear that this measure has two repetitions4 ,in the latter case we reach the end of the sentence in the #agth measure and careful counting1 and consideration of the melodic outline1 will convince us that the #ith measure1 emphasized by the sf mark1 is repeated4 ,when an extra measure is systematically introduced into each phrase of #d measures we have what is known as five-bar rhythm--so prevalent in the works of ,schubert and ,brahms4 ,music3 ,,schubert3 ,sonata in ,eflat major ,music3 ,,brahms3 ,ballade in ,g minor ,as everyone is familiar with the latter composition1 only the melody is cited4 ,this propulsion of the mind forward beyond the accustomed point of rest always produces a stimulating rhythmic effect4#fa ,footnote #fa3 ,other charming examples of five-bar rhythm may be found in ,schubert's ,quartet in ,a minor1 op4 #bi1 and in the opening choral 7,st4 ,anthony7 of ,brahms's ,orchestral ,variations1 op4 #ef;a4 ,the normal phraseology of four and eight measures is altered at times by the omission of certain measures4 ,this often takes place at the beginning of the sentence1 as may be seen from the structure of the so-called ,anglican chant1 familiar to all ,protestants1 e4g4 ,music3 ,,savage ,the beginning of ,mozart's ,overture to ,figaro is also well known1 e4g4 ,music ,the elision of a measure often takes place in the middle of a phrase as may be seen from the theme of ,mendelssohn's familiar ,spring-,song4 ,music ,just as in the case of the systematic insertion of an extra measure1 which produces five-bar rhythm1 so when a measure is omitted in each phrase which would usually consist of four measures1 we have three-bar rhythm4 ,this gives an effect of great concentration and intensity and is a prevalent feature in ,scottish and ,hungarian folk-music1 e4g4 ,music3 ,scotch ,music3 ,hungarian ,additional examples of three-bar rhythm may be found in the ,scherzo of ,beethoven's ,tenth ,sonata and in the ,minuet of ,mozart's ,g minor ,symphony--the latter1 one of the most striking examples in literature4 ,when a measure is systematically omitted from the normal structure of the #h measure sentence we have seven-bar rhythm2 of which beautiful examples may be found in the ,scherzo of ,beethoven's ,sonata in ,b-flat major1 op4 #ajf1 and in ,mozart's ,quartet in ,f major1 ,no4 #bc4 ,as these examples are readily accessible they are not quoted4 ,the humorous effect produced1 in the ,beethoven example1 by the unexpected elision of the #gth measure is very marked4 ,flexibility in the structure of a sentence is often gained by what is known as overlapping#fb of phrases1 i4e41 where the closing measure of a sentence1 the #hth or #abth for example1 is identical with the first measure of the following phrase4 ,a clear example is this passage from the first movement of ,beethoven's ,third ,sonata1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #fb3 ,this effect is clearly brought out in symphonic music where one portion of the orchestra1 with a certain tone color1 may be ending a phrase at the same moment at which another part1 with a contrasting tone color1 begins4 ,an excellent example is the first theme of the ,slow movement of ,schumann's ,second ,symphony 7measures #g-h74 ,as the principles of sentence-formation are closely involved with the general subject of rhythm1 something must be known about the number of beats within the measure itself4 ,while it is true that we ,anglo-,saxons tend to think in terms of #b and #c or their multiples1 i4e41 our customary measures consist of #b or #d beats or of #c1 #f1 #i and #ab1 in modern music--particularly that of other races 7the ,slavs1 ,hungarians1 etc47--we often find measures with #e and #g beats and even phrases containing a mixture of rhythms4 ,three excellent examples of compositions with measures of #e beats each are the ,slow ,movement of ,chopin's ,sonata in ,c minor1 op4 #d1 the ,f-sharp major portion of d',indy's ,symphonic ,variations1 ,istar1 and the second movement of ,tchaikowsky ,sixth ,symphony1 e4g4 ,music ,a delightful example of a melody with #g beats a measure is the ,andante ,grazioso of ,brahms's ,trio in ,c minor1 op4 #aja--the result undoubtedly of his well-known fondness for ,hungarian music1 e4g4 ,music ,the following theme from ,tchaikowsky's ,quartet in ,f major1 notwithstanding the time signature1 certainly gives the effect of a long1 seven-beat measure1 e4g4 ,music ,those who wish to do a little investigating of their own in the field of modern music will find interesting examples of #e_/d and #g_/d metres in ,ravel's ,daphnis and ,chloe1 in d',indy's ,sonata for ,violin and ,pianoforte and in the ,ballet music of ,stravinsky4 ,we even find passages where1 for special effect1 the usual beats are elided or extra beats inserted4 ,schumann was one of the most daring experimenters in this respect and such fantastic effects are frequent in his pianoforte works--notably in the ,carnaval1 op4 #i1 and in the ,phantasiestcke1 op4 #ab1 e4g4 ,music3 ,,schumann3 ,carnaval ,with reference to all the foregoing principles and comments the music-lover is cautioned against the assumption that music1 from the standpoint of the composer or the listener1 is merely a matter of mechanical counting2 or that the swing of music is as regular as that of a sewing-machine4 ,but1 as order is ,heaven's first law1 it is true that music tends to move in definite1 symmetrical groups2 and where departure is made from this practise the effect is one most carefully planned4 ,the matter deserves earnest consideration1 for1 in what is known as the rhythmical sense1 ,americans--as a people1 in comparison with foreign nations--are still woefully deficient4 ,as rhythm is the basic element in all music1 there is nothing in which the listener should more definitely train his faculties than in intelligent coperation with the freedom of the composer4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,two-,,part ,,and ,,three-,,part ,,forms ,now that a clear insight has been gained into the formation of the normal sentence1 we are in a position to understand how sentences may be combined to make complete compositions4 ,the simplest and most primitive structure is that which contains two complete sentences2 dividing itself naturally into two parts and hence known as the ,two-,part ,form4 ,this form by reason of its simplicity and directness is often found in the short pianoforte pieces of ,schumann1 ,tchaikowsky1 ,brahms1 ,grieg and ,debussy4 ,for a long period there was no attempt at differentiation between vocal and instrumental style2 music1 in fact1 during the #aeth and #afth centuries was often entitled buon da cantare ou suonare1 i4e41 equally well suited for voices or instruments4 ,when instrumental players were in search of pieces1 they simply transferred to their instruments the voice-parts of the ,madrigals and ,canzonas which were then so fashionable4#fc ,with the development of instruments--especially of the ,violin family--and with the desire for an instrumental style which should be independent of words1 principles of coherent design had to be evolved2 and they were suggested by the definite metre in the stanzas of the ,folk-song and1 above all1 by the symmetrical phrases of the ,folk-dance1 used to accompany the rhythmical motions of the body4 ,by a utilization of these principles of balanced phrases1 of contrasted keys and of periodic themes1 instrumental music gradually worked out a structure of its own1#fd of which we find examples in ,national dances and in the compositions of such pioneers of instrumental style as the ,italians ,corelli and ,vivaldi1 the ,frenchmen ,lully1 ,couperin and ,rameau1 and the ,englishman ,purcell4 ,footnote #fc3 ,for a complete account of this process see ,parry's ,evolution of the ,art of ,music1 p4 #aae seq4 ,footnote #fd3 ,this book makes no attempt to give an historical account of the development of instrumental form4 ,the subject is set forth comprehensively in the article on ,form in ,grove's ,dictionary 7,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #gc7 and in the ,fifth and ,sixth ,chapters of ,parry's ,evolution of the ,art of ,music4 ,music3 ,viens dans ce bocage belle ,aminte1 ,sans contrainte ,l'on y forme des voeux2 ,viens1 ,viens dans ce bocage belle ,aminte1 ,il est fait pour les plaisirs et les jeux4 ,in this rhythmic and sprightly dance of exactly #h measures 7an old ,french ,tambourin taken from ,weckerlin's ,echos du ,temps ,pass7 we see clearly the influence of the metrical stanza of words and of the balanced phrases in the instrumental part1 necessary to accompany the steps of the dancers4 ,the melody of the accompaniment was played on a flute or some simple kind of pipe1 and the bass on a ,tambour de ,basque--a rude form of drum1 which repeated continually the tonic and dominant of the key2 the same effect which we associate with the ,bagpipe and ,hurdy-gurdy4 ,music3 ,,purcell3 ,jig4 ,in this ,jig1 which was a favorite type with the ,english peasantry--divided into three sentences of exactly #h measures each--the dance rhythm is very sharply defined4 ,from various dance-patterns a structural type was gradually evolved1 of which the chief features will now be indicated4 ,the music was divided into two distinct halves and it became the convention to gain length by repeating each half--in the early days of the form1 literally 7with a double bar and sign of repeat72 later1 as composers gained freedom1 with considerable amplification4 ,each half presented the same material 7it was a one-theme form7 but the two halves were contrasted in tonality1 i4e41 the first part1 beginning in the home-key1 would modulate to some related key--generally the dominant2 the second part1 starting out in this key1 gradually modulated back to a final cadence in the original key1 and often--especially in ,haydn and ,mozart--repeated the entire main sentence of the first part4 ,the general effect of such a form has been wittily described#fe as resembling the actions of the ,king of ,france who1 with twenty thousand men1 marched up the hill and then marched down again--but he surely had no exciting adventures in between6 ,it is evident that this form1 while favorable to coherence and unity1 is lacking in scope and in opportunity for variety and contrast4 ,it did1 however1 emphasize the principle of recapitulation2 in fact it became the convention 7as we shall see in the dances of the ,suite7 for the closing measures of the second part to be an exact duplicate in the home-key of that which had been presented at the end of part one4 ,we shall observe1 as we continue our studies1 that the trend of musical composition gradually swung over to the ,three-part form1 the essential feature of which is restatement after intervening contrast4 ,footnote #fe3 ,see ,the ,appreciation of ,music by ,surette and ,mason1 p4 #cf4 ,for illustrations of the ,two-part ,form see the ,supplement ,nos4 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd4 ,only in such comparatively simple examples as those just cited is found this perfect balance in the length of the two parts4 ,we often observe extended sentences in the first part2 and it became the custom for the second part to be considerably lengthened1 to include modulations into more remote keys and even to display certain developments of the main material4 ,for a striking example of a movement which1 although definitely in ,two-part form1 7i4e41 it is in two clear divisions and has but one theme7 is yet of considerable scope and variety1 see the ,allegretto of ,beethoven's ,fourth ,sonata4 ,it was1 in fact1 this instinct for contrasting variety in the second part#ff which 7as can be shown from historical examples7#fg gradually led to the developing and establishment of the ,three-part form4 ,footnote #ff3 ,as an illustration of this tendency see the ,scherzo of ,beethoven's ,second ,sonata1 the second part of which has a new theme of its own1 although the movement as a whole is clearly in ,two-part form4 ,footnote #fg3 ,see ,the ,sonata ,form by ,w4,h4 ,hadow1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the essentials of this structure1 so frequent in all pianoforte literature1 are the existence of three distinct parts--hence the name3 a clause of assertion in the home-key2 a second clause1 affording a genuine contrast to the first part in regard to key1 melodic outline and general treatment1 and a third clause of reassertion1 which shall repeat--either literally or in varied form--the material of part one4#fh ,in the ,three-part form1 as employed in the classic ,minuet and ,scherzo1 each of the three parts taken by itself is in complete ,two-part form2 and as the third part was generally a literal repetition of part one1 it was not written out1 but at the end of the middle part 7called the ,trio1 because it was originally written in three-voiced harmony7 we find the direction ,minuet or ,scherzo da capo1 meaning a return to the first part4 ,a coda or tail-piece is often added to round out the form4 ,as the student will become thoroughly familiar with the ,three-part form1 in connection with the classic ,symphonies soon to be studied 7each ,minuet1 ,scherzo or ,trio being an example71 our illustrations show the use of this form in independent pieces and are chiefly taken from modern literature2 the object being so to interest the student in the beauty of these compositions as to convince him that in all good music content and design go hand is hand4 ,for examples#fi see ,supplement ,nos4 #be1 #bf1 #bg4 ,footnote #fh3 ,the three-part form is derived partly from the ,italian da ,capo ,aria and partly from the fundamental instinct for restatement which we have seen in the ,folk-song4 ,footnote #fi3 ,additional illustrations1 which will repay study are the following3 the ,allegretto of ,beethoven's ,sixth ,sonata2 the ,schubert ,impromptu1 op4 #ij1 ,no4 #d2 ,brahms's ,intermezzo1 op4 #aag1 ,no4 #a and the ,ballade in ,g minor1 op4 #aah1 ,no4 #c1 and for orchestra--in extended treatment--,debussy's ,prlude l'aprs-midi d'un ,faune4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,classical ,,and ,,the ,,modern ,,suite ,no sooner had the ,two-and ,three-part forms become accepted as definite means of instrumental expression1 than composers were eager to try their skill in combining dance-movements in such forms into larger groups4 ,these compositions--known in ,france as ,ordres1 in ,germany as ,suites and ,partitas and in ,england as ,lessons--though all the movements were in the same key1 yet showed considerable variety by reason of the contrast in the dance rhythms4 ,they were1 moreover1 simple1 direct and easily understood of the people4#gj ,this development was furthered by the perfecting of two groups of instruments3 ,the violins1 by the great ,italian masters2 and those precursors of our modern pianoforte1 the harpsichord1 clavichord and spinet4 ,we find1 consequently1 the ,italians--of whom ,corelli was most prominent--combining these dances into groups called ,sonate da ,ballo3 and the ,french composers ,couperin and ,rameau1 developing the possibilities of keyed stringed instruments in graceful pieces to which fantastic titles1 such as ,la ,poule1 ,le ,rappel des ,oiseaux1 etc41 were often given4 ,the greatest master of instrumental style in these early days was the ,italian1 ,domenico ,scarlatti 7#afhe-ageg74 ,he was famous both as composer and performer--the first1 in fact1 of the long line of key-board virtuosi--and in his compositions in dance form and in those of a more abstract type there is a sparkling fancy and an adjustment of the thought to his instrument1 which will keep them forever immortal4#ga ,footnote #gj3 ,for an interesting and comprehensive account of this development see ,grove's ,dictionary1 ,volume ,,iv1 article on the ,suite4 ,footnote #ga3 ,for extensive comments on ,scarlatti's style see ,the ,history of the ,pianoforte and ,pianoforte ,players by ,oscar ,bie1 pp4 #fh-ij4 ,the grouping together of dance forms reached its highest development through the genius of ,sebastian ,bach in the so-called ,french and ,english ,suites4#gb ,in these compositions--in the ,partitas and in the orchestral ,suite in ,d major1 which contains the well-known ,aria1 often played in transcription for ,violin solo--the dance-forms are not employed literally but are made a vehicle for the expression of varied types of human emotion and sentiment4 ,nor should we overlook the twelve ,harpsichord ,lessons of ,handel--especially the superb ,fugue in ,e minor in the ,fourth ,suite--which are noteworthy for their vigor1 though1 in freshness and delicacy of invention1 not to be compared with ,bach's4 ,footnote #gb3 ,these titles1 according to ,parry 7see his life of ,bach1 ,chapters ,,iv and ,,xii passim71 were not given by ,bach himself but were assigned1 in the case of the ,french ,suites1 to denote the delicacy of treatment found therein1 and in the ,english1 a certain massive style4 ,we now give a tabulated list of the customary dance forms1 both as found in the ,classic and the modern ,suite or used as independent pieces2 and we shall then analyze those which have the most characteristic rhythmic pattern4 ,,list ,,of ,,dances ,,name ,,origin ,,meter ,,form ,,character ,allemande ,suabian #d_/d ,two-part ,moderately quick2 flowing1 with a rather rich harmonic texture4 ,courante ,french #c_/d1 #c_/b ,two-part ,running1 lively2 the #b_/b ,corrente ,italian type always with a change of meter at the cadences4 ,sarabande ,spanish #c_/b1 #c_/d ,two-part ,stately1 dignified2 often noble and even dramatically pathetic4 ,hornpipe ,english #d_/d ,two-part ,rapid1 merry1 energetic4 ,gigue ,italian #f_/h1 ,two-part ,very lively1 rollicking1 ,jig giga1 an #ab_/h1 even jocose4 early violin #d_/h ,gavotte ,french #d_/d1 #b_/b ,two-part ,moderately fast2 well-marked rhythm1 often stately4 ,bourre ,french #d_/d ,two-part ,lively1 vigorous4 ,minuet ,french #c_/d1 #c_/h ,two-part ,moderately fast2 dainty1 graceful1 courtly4 ,passepied ,french #c_/d ,two-part ,light1 delicately animated4 ,loure ,french #f_/d1 #d_/d ,two-part ,rather slow1 stately4 ,pavane ,italian #b_/d ,two-part ,solemn1 impressive4 ,galliard ,italian #c_/b1 #b_/b ,two-part ,lively1 merry4 ,branle ,french #d_/d1 #c_/d ,two-part ,lively1 with great abandon4 ,brawl ,english ,polonaise ,polish #c_/d ,varied ,dignified and courtly1 but with life4 ,mazurka ,polish #c_/d ,varied ,great range of speed and effect2 at times sustained and pathetic1 often bright and lively4 ,polka ,bohemian #b_/d ,generally ,merry1 animated4 three-part ,furiant ,bohemian #c_/d ,varied ,very lively1 even frenzied4 ,waltz ,german #c_/d ,two-part ,graceful2 varied in effect2 or at times lively1 often three-part slow4 ,bolro ,spanish #c_/d ,three-part ,brisk1 well-marked rhythm4 ,tarantella ,italian #f_/h ,varied ,very lively1 impassioned4 ,saltarello ,italian #f_/h1 #c_/d ,varied ,with quick1 jumping rhythm4 ,rigaudon ,french #b_/d1 #d_/d ,varied ,lively1 gay4 ,march ,found in #d_/d ,varied ,stately1 with marked every nation rhythm4 ,csrds ,hungarian #c_/d1 #b_/d ,varied ,impassioned2 with great variety of effect4 ,halling ,scandinavian #b_/d ,varied ,fresh1 vigorous1 out-of-doors atmosphere4 ,tango ,mexican ,varied ,varied ,with reckless abandon4 ,habaera ,spanish #b_/d ,varied ,graceful2 with characteristic rhythm4 ,seguidilla ,spanish #c_/d1 #c_/h ,varied ,fantastic2 sometimes stately1 sometimes gay and lively4 ,jota1 ,spanish #c_/d ,free ,a kind of waltz1 but with often more freedom in the ,jota dancing1 and of a vigorous ,aragonesa and fiery nature4 ,malaguea ,spanish #c_/h ,in couplet ,a dance of moderate form movement1 accompanied by guitar and castanets2 languorous and sensual in mood4 ,siciliano ,sicilian #f_/h1 ,two-part1 ,graceful2 of a ,pastorale #ab_/h three-part1 nature4 often a ,rondo ,the four indispensable movements of the classic or #ahth century ,suite were the ,allemande1 the ,courante1 the ,sarabande and the ,gigue2 and1 between the last two1 it became customary to insert an optional number of other dances--the most usual being the ,gavotte1 ,bourre1 ,minuet and ,passepied4 ,in effect1 the ,suite was a kind of international ,potpourri of the dances most in vogue1 and affords us a vivid reflection of the manners and customs of the period4 ,many of the ,english ,suites begin with an elaborate polyphonic ,prelude4 ,we shall not give a detailed analysis of all these dance movements2 for the main characteristics the tabulated list will suffice1 and in the book of ,supplementary examples 7see ,no4 #ce7 will be found the #fth ,french ,suite complete4 ,it will be more useful to center attention on those dances which1 in rhythmic pattern1 are especially typical and are most frequently employed in modern music2 and we shall select1 as examples drawn from various sources1 those dances which make a direct appeal4 ,the most characteristic of the dances are the ,sarabande1 the ,gavotte1 the ,minuet and the ,gigue2 and with the last1 as exemplifying the same spirit1 may be grouped the ,rigaudon1 ,furiant1 ,tarantella and ,saltarello4 ,the ,sarabande is a slow1 stately dance2 always in triple meter indicated by #c_/b or #c_/d4 ,its striking features are the frequent occurrence of the rhythmic pattern ,music or ,music in which it is evident that there is a strong accent on the weak beats2 and the prevalence of feminine endings in the cadences4 ,the ,sarabande always displays great depth of emotion--often of a tragic and impassioned kind2 and1 in the ,suite1 seems to have served the composer for the same outpouring of feeling which we associate with the slow movement in the later ,sonata or ,symphony4 ,the example cited in the ,supplement 7,see ,no4 #bh7--taken from one of ,bach's ,sonatas for 'cello--is considered one of the most beautiful in existence4 ,other eloquent ,sarabandes may be found in the ,second and ,third ,english ,suites and in ,handel's noble ,air ,lascia ch'io pianga from the opera of ,rinaldo4 ,two fine modern examples of this dance are the second number in ,paderewski's ,humoresques de ,concert1 op4 #ad1 and the second number in the set of pieces by ,debussy1 ,pour le ,piano--,prlude1 ,sarabande1 ,toccata4 ,composers sometimes employ the ,sarabande rhythm for its inherent beauty1 or for dramatic purposes without indication of the fact4 ,examples are the theme for variations in ,beethoven's ,sonata1 op4 #aji1 and the opening measures of the ,egmont ,overture where1 by means of the characteristic ,spanish dance-rhythm1 an atmosphere of oppression and dejection is established1 e4g4 ,music ,the ,gavotte is an energetic yet dignified dance in duple rhythm 7it is almost always played too fast7--the characteristics of which are its beginning on the half-measure and its strongly marked cadences4 ,one of the most stirring examples is that cited from the ,third ,english ,suite 7,see ,supplement ,no4 #bi7 which1 with its subdued middle portion1 ,la ,musette1#gc is an early example of tripartite arrangement4 ,other gavottes#gd are the favorite one from the ,fifth ,french ,suite1 that from ,handel's opera ,ottone 7so often played in organ or pianoforte transcriptions7 and1 from modern literature1 the charming one in d',albert's ,suite for ,pianoforte1 op4 #a4 ,footnote #gc3 ,so-called because it is written on a sustained bass note or pedal point2 a feature of the ,musette 7the ,french name for ,bagpipe7 being its persistent drone bass on the tonic and the dominant4 ,footnote #gd3 ,an interesting example may also be found in ,grieg's ,holberg ,suite for ,pianoforte4 ,the ,minuet is of particular interest1 not alone because of the many beautiful examples of its use but because it is the only dance which1 carried over from the ,suite1 has remained an integral movement of ,symphonic compositions4 ,the ,minuet1 in its older form1 was a stately dance2 the derivation of the term 7,french menu7 referring to the dainty steps of the dancers1 always in #c_/h or #c_/d metre and beginning on the first beat of the measure4 ,by ,haydn the character of the ,minuet was considerably changed2 the tempo becomes much faster1 the music begins on the third beat of the measure instead of the first and the mood is one of playful humor--at times even of downright jollity4 ,in the ,minuets of ,mozart the peculiar characteristics are grace and tenderness rather than rollicking fun1 e4g41 the charming examples in the ,e-flat major and ,g minor ,symphonies4 ,concerning the transformation by ,beethoven of the ,minuet into the ,scherzo1 with its fantastic and freakish atmosphere1 we shall speak more fully in connection with his ,symphonies4 ,of the examples cited in the ,supplement 7see ,nos4 #cj and #ca7 the former1 from the first ,finale of ,mozart's opera ,don ,giovanni1 remains one of the most famous minuets in existence2 and the two from ,rameau's opera1 ,castor and ,pollux1 are of inimitable spontaneity and rhythmic grace4 ,they are grouped in contrasting1 tripartite arrangement4 ,in modern literature every one knows of the melodious example for ,pianoforte by ,paderewski 7,no4 #a of the ,humoresques de ,concert7 and the ,menuet ,italien by ,mrs4 ,beach2 that in the last scene of ,verdi's ,falstaff is also well worth acquaintance4 ,the last of the particularly characteristic dances is the ,gigue with its counterparts mentioned above4 ,this is a rapid1 animated dance in #f_/h1 #c_/h1 #ab_/h1 #ab_/af 7sometimes #d_/d7 with marked rhythm2 the term being derived from giga 7,german1 geige7--an early name for fiddle--on account of the power of accent associated with the violin family4 ,the ,gigue is always the closing number of ,bach's ,suites1 in order to give a final impression of irrepressible vitality and gaiety1 and is treated with considerable polyphonic complexity2 in fact1 his gigues often begin like a complete ,fugue4 ,they are all in clear-cut ,two-part form2 and it became the convention for the second part to treat the motive in inverted form4 ,the example cited from ,bach's ,fifth ,french ,suite 7see ,supplement ,no4 #cb7 is unsurpassed for rhythmic energy2 the closing measures sound as if all the bells of heaven were ringing4 ,the example of ,mozart 7see ,supplement ,no4 #cc7 is noteworthy for its daring use of the dissonant element and for its free modulations4 ,of the counterparts of the gigue the following are excellent examples3 ,the ,rigaudon--the ,finale of ,grieg's ,holberg ,suite1 the vigorous one from ,rameau's opera ,dardanus1 and ,mac,dowell's independent piece in this form1 op4 #di1 ,no4 #b2 the ,furiant--the ,finale of ,dvovrk's ,suite for ,small ,orchestra1 op4 #cj 7accessible in an effective pianoforte arrangement for four hands72 the ,tarantelle--,chopin's independent piece in this rhythm1 op4 #dc1 and the brilliant ,finale of ,rheinberger's ,pianoforte ,sonata for four hands1 op4 #abb2 the ,saltarello--the last movement of ,mendelssohn's ,italian ,symphony and the main portion of ,berlioz's ,carnaval ,romain ,overture4 ,one additional example is cited 7see ,supplement ,no4 #cd71 a ,courante by ,d4 ,scarlatti1 to give an example of his pianoforte style4 ,in connection with these dances1 especially the ,sarabande1 ,gavotte1 ,loure1 ,pavane1 ,polonaise and ,tarantelle1 there should be read the articles treating of each dance in ,grove's ,dictionary2 for these dances are so closely connected with human activity that a knowledge of their development broadens our horizon in many matters pertaining to social life and civilization in general4 ,as to specific examples of the less usual dances1 many of the quaintest are found in the works of the early ,english composers3 ,byrd1 ,bull1 etc41 in the ,fitzwilliam ,virginal ,book1 e4g41 ,the ,lord of ,salisbury his ,pavan4 ,an excellent example of the ,loure is the well-known arrangement from ,bach's third ',cello sonata4 ,chopin1 in his works1 has glorified both the ,polonaise and the ,mazurka2 ,bizet1 in his opera ,carmen1 has used the ,habaera and the ,seguidilla1 and there is a wonderful use of the ,habaera rhythm in ,debussy's descriptive piece ,soire dans ,grenade4 ,the ,french composer ,ravel in his pianoforte piece ,pavane pour un enfant defunt has used with remarkable effect the stately rhythm of that dance4 ,the ,spanish composers1 ,albeniz and ,granados1 frequently employ national dance rhythms in their pieces4 ,the ,french composer ,chabrier's ,bourre ,fantasque is a dazzling modernization of the old form2 and his ,espaa for full orchestra fairly intoxicates us with its dashing rhythms based upon the ,jota and the ,malaguea4#ge ,debussy's well-known piece ,hommage ,rameau is in the style of the ,sarabande4 ,the allusions in literature to these dances are so frequent that only a few can be cited4 ,the very spirit of the ,jig is given in ,pope's line ,make the soul dance upon a jig to ,heaven4 ,in speaking of the antics of ,sir ,andrew ,aguecheek in ,twelfth ,night1 ,shakespeare remarks--,i did think by the excellent constitution of thy leg that it was formed under the star of a ,galliard4 ,one of the most remarkable works of the ,english composer ,john ,dowland 7born #aefb7 is entitled ,lachrymae1 or ,seven ,teares1 figured in seven passionate ,pavans4 ,footnote #ge3 ,for a vivid description of these dances see ,chabrier's ,lettres ,nanette1 ,paris1 #aiaj4 ,the ,suite1 by reason of its freedom in combining different rhythms and moods1 has appealed vividly to modern composers2 and the literature of our times contains a number of ,suites which should be known to the music-lover4 ,in these modern ,suites no attempt is made to conform to the old conventional grouping of dances4 ,the movements are in different keys1 are often based on rhythms of an exotic or ultra-nationalistic type--as in ,tchaikowsky and ,dvovrk1 or may employ any material suggested by the fantastic imagination of the composer--as in ,debussy and ,ravel4 ,among the most attractive modern ,suites may be cited3 ,the ,peer ,gynt 7put together from incidental music to ,ibsen's play7 and the ,holberg by ,grieg2 the two ,l',arlsienne ,suites by ,bizet 7written to illustrate ,daudet's romantic story7--the first1 with its dainty ,minuet and brilliant ,carillons 7,peal of bells72 ,dvovrk's ,suite for ,small ,orchestra1 op4 #ci1 with its sprightly ,polka and impassioned ,furiant2 ,tchaikowsky's five ,orchestral ,suites of which the best known are the ,casse-,noisette with its exotic rhythms and novel orchestral effects1 the ,mozartiana and the third which closes with a brilliant ,polonaise2 ,brahms's ,serenades for orchestra2 ,charpentier's ,impressions of ,italy in which there is an effective use of ,italian rhythm and color2 ,mac,dowell's ,indian ,suite1 with several of the themes based on native tunes2 the fascinating orchestral ,suite ,adventures in a ,perambulator by ,john ,alden ,carpenter2 ,arthur ,whiting's ,suite ,moderne for pianoforte2 ,stevensoniana1 7based on stanzas from ,stevenson's ,child's ,garden of ,verses7 an orchestral ,suite in four movements by ,edward ,b4 ,hill2 ,debussy's ,suite ,bergamasque in which is found the oft-played ,clair de ,lune2 ,ravel's#gf ,mother ,goose1 a delightful work--and by the same composer the ,daphnis and ,chloe ,suite1 the material drawn from an opera of the same name4 ,in modern literature easily the most celebrated and brilliant example of this type is the ,scheherazade ,suite 7based on the ,arabian ,nights7 for full orchestra by ,rimsky-,korsakoff4 ,this work in the genuine poetic quality of its themes1 in its marvellous descriptive power and in the boldness of its orchestral effect remains unsurpassed4 ,footnote #gf3 ,see also ,le ,tombeau de ,couperin in which is a very novel ,rigaudon4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,older ,,rondo ,,form ,one of the earliest instrumental forms to be worked out#gg was the ,rondo1 which is merely an extension of the three-part principle of restatement after contrast and which1 by reason of its logical appeal1 has retained its place to this day4 ,originally the ,rondo was a combination of dance and song2 that is1 the performers sang and danced in a circle--holding one another's hands4 ,the music would begin with a chorus in which all joined1 one of the dancers would then sing a solo1 after which all would dance about and repeat the chorus2 other solos would follow1 the chorus being repeated after each4 ,the characteristic feature1 then1 of this structure is the continual recurrence to a principal motive after intervening contrasts--hence the name ,rondo 7,french1 ,rondeau72 exemplifying a principle found not only in primitive folk-songs and dances but in literature1 e4g41 many of the songs of ,burns and the ,rondeaux of ,austin ,dobson4 ,for it is obvious that the form answers to the simplest requirements of unity and contrast4 ,frequent examples of the ,rondo are found in all early instrumental composers3 ,bach1 e4g41 the charming one in ,c minor in his third ,partita2 ,couperin1 ,rameau1 ,haydn and ,mozart4 ,it is found also in vocal works1 e4g41 ,purcell's well-known song ,i ,attempt from ,love's ,sickness to ,fly4 ,from the standpoint of modern taste1 however1 ,beethoven was--with few exceptions--the first to treat the form with real genius2 and so our illustrations are taken chiefly from his works and from those of his successors4 ,although there need be no arbitrary limit to the alternation of the chief part with the subsidiary portions--in fact1 ,beethoven's humorous ,rondo ,capriccio1 ,on a ,lost ,farthing has as many as eleven sections--it gradually became conventional for the form to consist of five parts3 a first presentation and two repetitions of the main theme together with two contrasting portions called ,episodes1 to which a free ,coda was often added4 ,the form would then be ,a1 b1 ,a1 c1 ,a1 ,coda--,a and ,a indicating that the repetition need not be literal1 but often varied rhythmically and harmonically2 not1 however1 so as to obliterate the original outline4 ,for in a well-constructed ,rondo the main theme must be one of such direct appeal that we look forward to hearing it again2 and the successive repetitions must be so planned that we can easily enjoy this pleasure of reminiscence4 ,it also became customary not to block off the sections with rigid cadences but often to insert modulatory passages1 thus securing a continuous flow of thought4 ,this practise we see particularly in ,beethoven and ,schumann4 ,the form which we are discussing is the so-called ,older ,rondo ,form1 clearly derived from the dance described above4 ,beginning#gh with ,beethoven1 however1 we find numerous examples of a different kind of rondo treatment which developed in connection with the ,sonata ,form--to be explained later4 ,the ,rondo-,sonata ,form1 as it is generally called1 is in fact a hybrid type1 with certain features derived from rondo structure and certain from the pure sonata form4 ,the ,finales to ,beethoven's ,sonatas1 when entitled ,rondos1 are--with few exceptions--of this ,rondo-,sonata type4 ,an excellent example1 which should be well known1 is the ,finale of the ,sonata ,pathtique4 ,although there are many cases of free treatment of the rondo principle1 they are all based on one or the other of these two fundamental types4 ,schumann was extremely fond of this ,older ,rondo ,form1 as may be seen from his frequent practice of writing two ,trios to the ,scherzos of his ,symphonies4 ,a moment's thought will make clear that a ,scherzo with two ,trios and the customary repetitions will conform exactly to the pattern given above1 i4e41 ,a1 b1 ,a1 c1 ,a ,coda1 e4g41 ,scherzo1 ,first ,trio ,first ,episode1 ,first return1 ,second ,trio ,second ,episode1 ,final return and ,coda--five portions in all1 or six when there is a ,coda4 ,for convincing examples see the ,scherzos of the ,first and ,second ,symphonies4 ,schumann's well-known ,arabesque for pianoforte1 op4 #ah1 is a beautiful1 clear-cut example of the form2 with an interpolated modulatory passage between the first episode and first return1 and a poetic ,coda which has1 for its closing measures1 the chief motive in augmentation 7already referred to on p4 #de74 ,to show ,schumann's partiality for this form the student may be referred to ,nos4 #b and #h of the ,kreisleriana 7op4 #af7 and to ,nos4 #a1 #b and #c of the ,nachtstcke 7op4 #bc74 ,the third of the ,romances 7op4 #bh7--;a remarkably free example in the grouping of the material and in the key-relationship--is cited in the ,supplement 7,no4 #cg74 ,an excellent example 7readily accessible71 popular by reason of its freedom of treatment1 as well as for its inherent sparkle and dash1 is the ,finale of ,weber's ,sonata in ,c major1 op4 #bd--the so-called ,moto ,perpetuo4 ,the most famous example of this form in classical literature is undoubtedly the ,finale of ,beethoven's ,waldstein ,sonata1 op4 #ec1 with its melodious and easily remembered first subject1 e4g4 ,music ,music its two episodes in ,a minor and ,c minor 7which afford most dramatic contrasts to the lyric quality of the main subject7 and its glorious1 long-extended ,coda of about three pages4#gi ,footnote #gg3 ,for a complete account of the historical development see the article on ,form in ,grove's ,dictionary ,vol4 ,,ii and ,hadow's ,sonata ,form1 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,footnote #gh3 ,there is an early example in the ,rondo of ,mozart's ,sonata for ,pianoforte in ,b-flat major4 ,footnote #gi3 ,for a complete detailed analysis of the movement see ,prout1 ,applied ,forms1 pp4 #abj-aba4 ,as stated above1 the ,older ,rondo-,form has not become obsolete2 indeed1 by reason of its possibilities for emphasis and contrast it has commended itself to modern composers4 ,striking examples may be found in the ,finale of ,brahms's ,pianoforte ,sonata in ,f minor1 in the ,finale of ,tchaikowsky's ,fourth ,symphony and1 above all1 in the ,symphonic ,poems of ,strauss1 ,don ,juan and ,till ,eulenspiegel1 in which the form is admirably adapted to the dramatic needs of these descriptive works4 ,additional examples1 which can be readily procured1 are the ,slow ,movement of the ,sonata ,pathtique1 op4 #ac1 ,beethoven's well-known ,andante in ,f major--remarkable for its brilliant ,coda--and his ,rondo1 already cited1 ,on the ,lost ,farthing4 7,see ,supplement ,no4 #ch74 ,although there is a certain stiffness in this form these examples afford the student excellent rudimentary practise in ease of listening4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,variation ,,form ,monotony1 as previously suggested1 is more unendurable in music than in any of the other arts4 ,we should therefore expect to find musicians inventing new devices to vary their thoughts so that the interest of the hearer might be continually sustained and refreshed4 ,thus there gradually grew up the form known as the ,varied ,air--a term meaning the presentation of the same musical material under different aspects4 ,as far back as we can trace the development of instrumental structure1 there appears this instinct for varying a simple tune by embellishments of a rhythmical and melodic nature4 ,examples abound in the works of the early ,italian masters1 in the harpsichord pieces of the ,english composers ,byrd and ,bull#hj and in the music of ,couperin and ,rameau4 ,but all these ,variations1 however interesting from a historical point#ha of view1 are very labored and lack any real poetic growth4 ,they are1 moreover1 often prolonged to an interminable length--one example1 as late as ,handel1 consisting of an ,air with sixty-two ,variations2 prolixity or damnable iteration being as bad a blemish in music as in any of the other arts4 ,in the early days of instrumental composition1 about all that composers could do was to put the theme through its paces4 ,that is1 there was no unfolding of the poetic possibilities of the melody4 ,the successive variations were all in the same key2 the harmonic basis was practically unchanged and the treatment consisted of dressing up the theme with stereotyped embellishment-figures and of systematic rhythmic animation--produced by the addition of more and more notes to each time unit4 ,a standard illustration of this type of ,variations is the so-called ,harmonious ,blacksmith of ,handel from his ,suite in ,e ,major4 ,this piece owes whatever popularity it may have preserved to the sturdy swing of the main theme and to the fact that it makes no demand on the attention of the most untrained listener4 ,in fairness we should state that on the harpsichord--with its contrasting stops and key-boards--for which the piece was composed1 there is possible more variety of effect than on the modern pianoforte4 ,footnote #hj3 ,we would cite the piece entitled ,les ,buffons by ,bull1 and ,byrd's variations to the popular tune the ,carman's ,whistle1 which latter have considerable archaic charm and distinction2 for ,byrd was a real genius4 ,these are readily accessible in popular editions4 ,footnote #ha3 ,consult the comprehensive article on ,variations in ,grove's ,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,v4 ,three collateral early forms deserve a passing mention because1 notwithstanding a certain rigidity of structure1 they have been used by the great masters for the expression of sublime thoughts4 ,these are the ,ground ,bass 7or1 as it is sometimes called1 the ,basso ,ostinato71 the ,chaconne and the ,passacaglia#hb which1 in modern literature1 is well represented by the magnificent tour de force that serves as the ,finale to ,brahms's ,fourth ,symphony4 ,by a ,ground ,bass is meant a theme1 continually repeated1 in the lowest voice1 each time with varied upper parts4 ,an excellent example 7see ,supplement ,no4 #ci7 is the ,aria ,when ,i am laid in earth from ,purcell's ,opera ,dido and ,aeneas4 ,it is evident that the persistent iteration of a striking phrase in the bass gives an effect of dramatic intensity1 as may be seen in the sublime ,crucifixion of ,bach's ,mass in ,b minor4#hc ,the ,chaconne and ,passacaglia are old dance forms 7examples of the former being found in ,gluck's ,ballet ,music7 and are closely related to the ,ground ,bass2 since1 in the majority of cases1 we find the same procedure in the announcement of the theme and in its subsequent treatment4 ,two examples of the ,chaconne from standard literature are the famous one of ,bach in ,d minor for solo violin and ,beethoven's thirty-two ,variations in ,c minor for ,pianoforte4 ,the ,passacaglia is of importance as shown by the striking example for organ in ,c minor by ,bach on the following theme3 ,music ,whoever has heard this majestic theme1 which seems to bear the sorrows of the world on its shoulders1 announced on the deep-sounding pedals will gain a lasting impression of the grandeur of ,bach's style4 ,footnote #hb3 ,for the derivation of the term consult the interesting article in ,grove's ,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,footnote #hc3 ,a work before which ,schumann said every musician should prostrate himself in adoration4 ,by the time of ,haydn1 the technical skill of composers had improved sufficiently so that we find in his works some genuinely interesting examples of the ,variation form1 e4g41 the set on the well-known ,austrian hymn from the ,kaiser ,quartet in ,c major--in which each of the five variations has a real individuality--and the ,variations in ,f minor for ,pianoforte3 remarkable as an early example of the varied treatment of two themes4 ,most of ,mozart's ,variations are based upon popular themes and1 in general1 may be considered as virtuoso pieces to show off the agility of the performer4 ,we find occasional examples1 as in the ,clarinet ,quintette and in the ,sonata in ,d major1 which are of more intrinsic worth4 ,the genius of ,beethoven first revealed the full possibilities of the form4 ,in fact1 so remarkable was his work that such creative composers as ,csar ,franck and d',indy consider the basic principles for our modern development of music to be found in the ,fugue of ,bach and the ,varied ,air of ,beethoven4 ,for1 deadly dull as is the ,variation form when treated in a stereotyped manner1 by very reason of its freedom from arbitrary rules it may be a most elastic medium for the expression of poetic genius4 ,the composer has but to invent a striking characteristic theme1 rich in potential development1 and then to let it develop for as long as he can retain the interest of his hearers4 ,likewise for a great orator the simple rule is to state a theme on which something worth while may be said and then by presenting it in new lights and with copious illustrations to drive the truth home4 ,the principal and significant changes which we owe to ,beethoven are the following3 complete freedom in variety of key1 so that at times 7as in his op4 #cd7 each variation is in a new key2 a frequent omission of the rigid stops at the end of each variation1 e4g41 the ,slow movement of the ,fifth ,symphony and the third movement of the ,trio1 op4 #if1 so that a continuous flow of thought is preserved2 the practice1 so often followed in modern literature1 of founding variations on a double theme--of which the ,finale of the ,heroic ,symphony is a striking example4 ,but the chief advance in ,beethoven is the entirely new conception of what variations should be2 not1 according to him1 mere mechanical manipulations of the subject matter1 but vital products of the imagination1 as varied as the members of a human family having the same mother4 ,beethoven's variations1 in fact1 often seem like a series of character-pieces1 each with its own individuality and yet retaining an organic relationship to the main thought4 ,his fondness for the form and his mastery over it is seen by the frequency of its use in the last ,sonatas and ,string-,quartets4 ,every composer since ,beethoven has written one or more works in the ,variation form2 but we can mention only the most beautiful examples and then pass on to the daring conceptions of the modern school4 ,the ,variations by ,schubert in his ,string-,quartet in ,d minor on the ,song1 ,death and the ,maiden1 will amply repay study1 and so will the ,variations ,srieuses1 op4 #ed1 for the pianoforte by ,mendelssohn4 ,as for ,schumann1 he was very happy in the use of this form1 and his ,symphonic tudes1 op4 #ac--;in wealth of fancy and freedom of treatment--are quite unparalleled4 ,his ,variations for two pianofortes1 op4 #df1 deserve also to be known4 ,among the finest examples since ,beethoven are the numerous sets by ,brahms1 remarkable alike for emotional power1 for free and yet logical treatment of the material and for solidity of workmanship4 ,they include the ,variations on a theme from ,handel for pianoforte1 op4 #bd2 the set for orchestra1 op4 #ef;a1 on the ,st4 ,anthony ,choral of ,haydn2 and the two sets1 op4 #ce1 on themes from ,paganini--universally conceded to be the most brilliant examples for the pianoforte in recent literature4 ,to speak now particularly of the modern school1 there are five compositions in this form which1 for their daring novelty and sustained eloquence1 should be familiar to every music-lover and heard as often as possible4 ,for they are elaborate works which must be thoroughly known to be understood and loved4 7#a71 ,there is the set in ,tchaikowsky's ,pianoforte ,trio in ,a minor1 op4 #ej2 noteworthy for freedom of modulation and for the striking individuality given to the different transformations of the theme--two of the changes being to a ,waltz and a ,mazurka4 7#b71 ,the ,symphonic ,variations for ,pianoforte and ,orchestra of ,csar ,franck1 based on two contrasting themes1 one in the minor mode and one with modulations to the major4 ,the variations are not numbered and there are no rigid stops2 throughout the work ,franck's marvellous power of modulation and rich harmonic texture are eloquently manifested4 7#c71 ,the ,istar ,variations for orchestra by d',indy is one of the most original works in the whole field2 in that1 for dramatic reasons connected with the subject1 the usual order is reversed and the variations come first1 gradually becoming more and more simple until we reach the theme itself1 pure and unadorned4 7#d71 ,the ,symphonic ,poem1 ,don ,quixote1 of ,r4 ,strauss1 a complex set of ,variations on three themes which typify respectively the characters of ,cervantes' story2 the ,knight1 his attendant1 ,sancho ,panza and ,dulcinea4 ,the variations are not confined to a merely abstract or formal treatment of the material but set before us a picture of the attributes of the characters and a description of some of their spectacular adventures4 7#e71 ,lastly the ,enigma ,variations for orchestra by ,elgar1 so-called because the identity of the basic theme is not revealed4 ,the variations are character-pieces which for individuality and charm are a lasting glory to the genius of the composer4#hd ,footnote #hd3 ,for a detailed account see the third volume of ,d4,g4 ,mason's ,appreciation of ,music series4 ,we shall now analyze1 with suggestive comments1 two#he of the well-known sets of ,beethoven3 the first movement of the ,sonata1 op4 #bf1 and the ,six ,variations on an original theme1 op4 #cd4 ,the variations from the ,sonata are an early work2 but1 although definitely sectionalized and with only one change of tonality1 they clearly reveal ,beethoven's freedom of conception and his aversion to stereotyped treatment4 ,the theme itself is a suave1 appealing melody1 already cited as an example of a sixteen-measure sentence1 and admirably suited for variation purposes1 since it arouses at once the expectation of the listener4#hf ,the first variation is a kind of shadowy1 mysterious outline of the theme just presented1 as if the composer were musing upon the latent possibilities of his material4 ,there is a quickening of interest in the second variation which1 with the theme in the bass1 may be likened to a 'cello solo of a mildly bravura nature4 7,note the fantastic accents on weak beats in measures #ah1 #bb1 #bc1 and #bd47 ,in the third variation comes a complete contrast in mood2 the key is changed to ,a-flat minor and the theme is transformed into an elegy1 all its joy crushed out4 ,the movement abounds in impassioned dissonances1 always emphasized by sf marks1 and the throbbing pulsations of the bass--in the second phrase--give a tragic intensity of feeling4 ,with the fourth variation there enters that spirit of playfulness so characteristic of ,beethoven--the movement being1 in fact1 a miniature ,scherzo4 ,the fifth and last variation is an idyllic revery in which the composer reviews and amplifies the many beautiful fancies which his imagination has conceived1 and closes with a coda1 based on the motive of the main theme1 of tranquillity and satisfaction4 ,footnote #he3 ,these compositions are not printed in the ,supplement1 as it may be assumed that the student can readily procure them4 ,they are published in a number of editions4 ,footnote #hf3 ,for some illuminating comments on the whole ,sonata see ,baxter ,perry's ,descriptive ,analysis of ,pianoforte ,works4 7,the ,theodore ,presser ,co47 ,the set in ,f major1 op4 #cd1 is a striking illustration of ,beethoven's fondness for mediant relationship1 since no two variations are in the same key2 the tonic of each being a third below that of the preceding4 ,the ,key-scheme is ,f1 ,d1 ,b-flat1 ,g1 ,e-flat1 ,c minor2 and then1 through the descent of a fifth1 back to the home-key1 or in actual notes3 ,music ,the first variation is a highly embellished treatment of the opening theme2 the melodic outline being merely hinted at in unimportant parts of the phraseology1 e4g4 ,music3 original theme ,music3 #ast ,variation ,written in the old ornate style1 it is of interest chiefly for the pianistic effect4 ,in the second ,variation we have a change both of time and key2 the impression being that of a distant march for men's voices or for soft trombones4 ,the third ,variation1 again with change of time and key1 illustrates ,beethoven's fondness for a subtle outlining of the theme4 ,in the fourth ,variation the theme is transformed into a ,minuet of graceful swing2 and in the next ,variation a strong contrast is afforded by the ,funeral ,march1 the minor mode being used for the first time4 ,the last ,variation--in the home-key--gives a brilliant summing up of the characteristic features of the theme4 ,note especially the reminiscent effect of the closing measures4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,sonata-,,form ,,and ,,its ,,founders1 ,,emmanuel ,,bach ,,and ,,haydn ,we have now set forth1 with representative illustrations1 all the fundamental forms of instrumental music1 i4e41 the ,canon1 ,fugue and ,invention1 the ,two and ,three-part forms1 the ,rondo and the ,varied ,air4 ,through the perfecting of these means of expression music became a living language of communication1 ready for that development which1 through the genius of the ,classic and ,romantic masters1 it was destined to show4 ,the essential feature of all the above forms is the emphasis laid on one theme4 ,this is strictly true of the polyphonic forms1 the ,canon1 ,fugue#hg and ,invention and of the ,two-part form2 and although in the ,three-part form we have a second theme1 this is merely for contrast and is often of rather slight import4 ,the same comment holds true of the ,rondo where1 notwithstanding the new contrasting themes of the episodes1 the centre of attraction is the single main theme1 to which constant recurrence is made4 ,obviously the ,varied ,air is the expansion of a single theme4 ,but the principal characteristic of the ,sonata-,form1 now to be studied1 is that we find therein two themes of coequal importance1 which may well be compared to the hero and heroine of a novel or the two leading characters in a drama4 ,it is true that a composer will often in the creations of his imagination show a marked preference for one theme over the other2 just as1 in the family group to which the child owes its life1 either the man or the woman is likely to be the stronger character4 ,but as there can be no child without two parents1 so the organism of the ,sonata-,form derives its vitality from the presence and interaction of two living musical personalities1 the first and second themes4 ,the first theme is so called because it is the one first presented and because it generally furnishes the prevailing rhythmic pulse of the movement4 ,yet the second theme1--exactly as important in its own way1 is often of a greater beauty2 its title of second theme implying nothing of a secondary nature1 but merely its position in order of appearance4 ,no greater step was ever taken in the growth of musical structure than this introduction of a second coequal theme2 for the principle of duality1 of action and reaction between two forces1 runs throughout nature both human and physical1 as is seen from the import of the terms3 man and woman1 active and passive1 positive and negative1 heat and cold1 light and darkness4 ,the first theme1 in fact1 often resembles1 in its vigor and directness1 a masculine personality2 while the second theme1 in grace and tenderness1 resembles the feminine4 ,as long as music confined itself to the presentation of but one main theme it was hampered by the same limitations which beset the early ,greek tragedians1 in whose primitive plays#hh we find but one chief actor4 ,the introduction of a second theme can not be attributed to any single man2 indeed it resulted from a tendency of the times1 the demand of which was for more homophonic melodies rather than for an elaborate polyphonic treatment of a single one4 ,embryonic traces of a second theme we find in ,d4 ,scarlatti 7see ,supplement ,no4 #dj7 and in ,sebastian ,bach himself4#hi ,scarlatti1#ij in fact1 was often hovering close to the ,sonata-,form and in the example just cited actually achieved it4 ,the systematic employment of the second-theme principle1 however1 is commonly attributed to ,emmanuel ,bach 7#agad-aghh71 although an undue amount of praise1 by certain ,german scholars1 has been given his achievements to the exclusion of musicians from other nations who were working along the same lines4 ,any fair historical account of the development of the ,sonata-,form should recognize the ,italians1 ,sammartini and ,galuppi2 the gifted ,belgian ,gossec1 who exercised such a marked influence in ,paris1 and above all1 the ,bohemian ,johann ,stamitz 7#agag-ageg71 the leader of the famous ,mannheim ,orchestra1 of whom we shall speak further when we come to the orchestra as a medium4 ,in many of ,stamitz's ,symphonies we find the essential first-movement structure 7i4e41 tripartite grouping with a clear second theme7 and1 as ,riemann says in his ,handbuch der ,musikgeschichte1 ,their sincere phraseology1 their boldness of conception and the masterly thematic development give ,stamitz's works lasting value4 ,haydn and ,mozart rest absolutely upon his shoulders4#ia ,footnote #hg3 ,except in the comparatively rare cases where we have a ,fugue on two subjects4 ,footnote #hh3 ,illuminating comments on this point will be found in ,outlines of ,musical ,form from ,w4,h4 ,hadow's ,studies in ,modern ,music 7#bnd ,series74 ,footnote #hi3 ,see the prelude in ,d major of the second book of the ,well-tempered ,clavichord4 ,footnote #ij3 ,for further information consult the first chapter of ,j4,s4 ,shedlock's ,the ,pianoforte ,sonata4 ,footnote #ia3 ,for an extended account of this development see the second chapter1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 of ,the ,art of ,music 7,the ,national ,society of ,music1 ,n4,y474 ,see also ,chapter ,,xix of ,pratt's ,history of ,music4 ,the other marked characteristic of the ,sonata-,form is the second part which is known as the ,development ,section2 for1 as we shall soon explain1 the structure as a whole is tripartite4 ,in this portion of the movement the composer has an opportunity to improvise1 as it were1 with his material1 using one theme or both as already presented4 ,dry and labored development sections may1 of course1 be found in certain ,sonatas and ,symphonies1 but in the great works of such masters as ,beethoven1 ,brahms1 ,tchaikowsky and d',indy the development is the most exciting part of the movement4 ,the hearer is conducted through a musical excursion2 every device of rhythmic variety1 of modulatory change and polyphonic imitation being employed to enhance the beauty of the themes and to reveal their latent possibilities4 ,before going further1 it is well to point out a confusion which often arises between the terms ,sonata and ,sonata-,form4 ,when we speak of ,sonata-,form we mean invariably the structural treatment as to number of themes1 key-relationship1 etc41 of any single movement within a series4#ib ,by the term ,sonata is meant a composition generally in three or four movements1 e4g41 ,first ,movement1 ,slow ,movement1 ,minuet or ,scherzo and ,finale2 of which1 in most examples of the classic school1 the ,first ,movement--and often the last--were in ,sonata-,form4 ,an alternative name1 indeed1 for ,sonata-,form is ,first ,movement ,form4 ,beginning with ,beethoven1 however1 composers began to exhibit great freedom in the application of the ,sonata-,form4 ,we find ,sonatas of ,beethoven1 notably the set op4 #ca1 in which every movement 7even the ,scherzo7 is in ,sonata ,form or a modification thereof2 on the other hand1 there are compositions1 entitled ,sonatas1 in which not a single movement is in pure ,sonata-,form1 e4g41 ,beethoven's ,twelfth ,sonata1 op4 #bf4 ,these comments apply equally to many other large instrumental works4 ,for a symphony is merely a ,sonata for ,orchestra1 a ,string-,quartet a composition--of the same general type--for four solo instruments#ic and there is1 furthermore1 a large group of ensemble compositions3 ,sonatas for ,violin 7or any solo-instrument7 and ,pianoforte2 ,trios1 often for unusual combinations1 e4g41 ,brahms's ,trio for ,violin1 ,horn and ,pianoforte2 ,quintets and even ,septets--in all of which the distinction must be made between the terms ,sonata and ,sonata-,form4 ,nor is there any rigid rule in regard to number of movements or the moods expressed therein4 ,the classic ,sonata1 ,symphony or ,quartet1 as we have stated above1 generally contained three or four movements1 of which the first would be direct and vigorous in nature--a summons to attention--cast in sonata-form1 with a wealth of material organically treated1 and requiring from the listener concentrated attention4 ,the second movement was generally much simpler in form1 affording relief after the tension of the preceding movement--its themes of a lyric nature1 often with great depth of emotion1 sometimes even of tragic import4 ,the third movement1 ,minuet or ,scherzo1 would portray the light1 humorous side of life2 and the ,finale1 joyful and optimistic--its themes often bearing strongly the sense of finality--would close the work with a general feeling of satisfaction4 ,it was ,beethoven who first modified these principles to suit his own poetic needs4 ,thus we find some of his ,sonatas with only two movements2 some have three1 some have four4 ,one of ,schumann's ,symphonies contains five movements and ,rubinstein's ,ocean ,symphony seven6 ,when we reach the modern school1 we shall see further freedom as to number1 order and type of movements4 ,footnote #ib3 ,the form is also sometimes used independently1 as in ,brahms's ,rhapsody in ,g minor and often1 of course1 in the ,overture4 ,footnote #ic3 ,i4e41 #ast ,violin1 #b;d ,violin1 ,viola and ,violoncello4 ,we are now prepared to sum up the essential characteristics of the ,sonata-,form2 for there is no structure in which it is more important for the music-lover to acquire the art of listening easily1 naturally and with a minimum of friction4 ,the ,sonata-,form is the instrumental form par excellence--the ,gothic ,cathedral#id of music--and has retained its place1 not because of any slavish regard for form as such1 but because it has been worked out1 perfected and utilized by the greatest of the composers4 ,any form with a beginning1 a middle and an ending1 i4e41 presenting material worthy of consideration1 which allows this material to grow and realize its inherent possibilities and then sums the matter up in a convincing1 objective close2 which1 furthermore1 exemplifies the great principle of ,duality1 i4e41 reveals two musical personalities1 has as little need for argumentative sanction as a tree or a human being4 ,the ,sonata-,form--often1 to be sure1 with free modifications--predominates in all the large instrumental compositions of the ,classic1 ,romantic and ,modern ,composers1 notably of such men as ,beethoven1 ,schumann1 ,brahms1 ,csar ,franck1 ,tchaikowsky1 d',indy and ,sibelius4 ,anyone unable readily to follow movements in this form1 if he thinks he is receiving the complete message of the music1 is his own dupe4 ,it would be as logical to expect to enjoy the beauties of architecture without perceiving the difference between a nave and a bowling-alley4 ,the obvious way to understand the meaning of a language is to know something of the principles of structure and expression in that language4 ,music is in very truth a language2 and far too many people get from it nothing save the appeal which comes from its emotional power4 ,this exciting experience is important1 we may frankly acknowledge1 but there are no reasons1 save apathy and indifference1 why the hearer should not have all this and more too4 ,there is no conflict between warm emotions and an intelligent1 well-trained mind4 ,they should go hand in hand2 and in any complete artistic appreciation each is indispensable4#ie ,footnote #id3 ,see the eloquent comments on this analogy by d',indy in his ,course in ,composition1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chap4 #e4 ,footnote #ie3 ,art is not more a riot of the passions than it is a debauch of the senses2 it contains1 no doubt1 sensuous and emotional elements1 the importance of which there is no need to undervalue1 but it is only artistic if it subordinate them to the paramount claims of reason4 ,w4,h4 ,hadow1 ,studies in ,modern ,music 7second series71 preface4 ,the three main divisions of the ,sonata-,form1 with their essential features1 are the following3 7#a7 the ,exposition1 in which two themes in different tonalities are announced for the consideration--and1 as the composer hopes1 the pleasure--of the hearer4 ,in the works of ,haydn and ,mozart this contrast of key was invariably that of ,tonic and ,dominant1 e4g41 ,c major and ,g major1 or of major and relative minor1 e4g41 ,a-flat major and ,f minor4 ,beginning1 however1 with ,beethoven great emphasis has been laid on mediant relationship1 e4g41 ,c major and ,e major or ,c major and ,a-flat major2 and in modern composers#if this more stimulating change has largely superseded the former tonic and dominant grouping1 e4g41 ,brahms's ,third ,symphony4 ,we thus see that the harmonic feature of the ,exposition is ,duality of ,key-relationship4 ,between these two main themes there is always a modulatory connection or ,bridge ,passage which1 in the time of ,haydn1 was generally of a very perfunctory1 stereotyped character4 ,wagner once sarcastically remarked that ,haydn's transitions reminded him of the clatter of dishes between courses at a royal feast4 ,in ,mozart we find the bridge-passage more deftly planned1 more organically connected with what precedes and follows2 but it was ,beethoven who1 in this portion of the movement1 first revealed its possibilities4 ,throughout his works the bridge-passage is never a mere mechanical modulation or a floundering about until the introduction of the second theme1 but is so conceived that the interest of the hearer is increasingly aroused until1 at the entrance of the second theme1 he is in the highest state of expectancy4#ig ,a bridge-passage of this kind often has a subsidiary theme of its own1 or even several melodic phrases1 and is planned as carefully as the action by which a dramatist leads up to the entrance of his heroine4 ,after the second theme we generally find a closing theme to round out the ,exposition as a whole4 ,this practice dates from ,haydn and has been much expanded by modern composers4 ,witness the glorious climactic effect in ,csar ,franck's ,symphony and in ,brahms's ,d major ,symphony of the closing themes in the ,expositions of the first movements4 ,for many years it was the invariable custom to repeat the ,exposition1 and in ,classic ,symphonies we always find a double bar with marks of repeat and two endings4 ,this practice was not an integral part of the form but was adopted so that the hearer1 by going over the themes of the ,exposition twice1 might follow more intelligently their growth in the ,development4 ,with the advance in public appreciation this repeating of the ,exposition has been largely abandoned2 for there is no doubt that to begin all over again1 when a certain objective point has been reached1 breaks the continuous flow of the movement4#ih ,footnote #if3 ,some composers have also experimented with still freer key-relationships4 ,footnote #ig3 ,for striking examples see the ,expositions of the first movements of ,beethoven's ,third ,symphony and of ,tchaikowsky's ,sixth ,symphony4 ,footnote #ih3 ,the ultra-conservative attitude of ,brahms is shown by his retention of the double bar and repeat1 although this is often ignored by modern conductors4 7#b7 ,the ,development1 for which the ,germans have the happy name of ,freie ,phantasie1 or free phantasy2 the composer thus giving rein to his imagination and doing whatever he pleases1 so long as he holds the interest of his hearers and neither becomes verbose nor indulges in mere mechanical manipulation4 ,there are1 alas6 developments in which the composer exhausts his themes and his hearers too2#ii but on work of this kind1 since it is not real development but labored jugglery1 no powder need be wasted4 ,beethoven began the practice1 in his ,developments1 of not confining himself to the themes of the ,exposition but of introducing an entirely new theme1 whenever the main material had fulfilled its purpose4 ,the single most exciting factor in a good development is the freedom and wealth of modulation revealed by the daring genius of the creator2 the effect being ,plurality of ,key-relationship1 in distinction from the two closely related keys of the ,exposition4 ,it would often seem as if we were taken up into high mountains or borne away to distant seas4 ,for illustrations of this free phantasy note the end of the ,development in the first movement of ,beethoven's ,second ,symphony where1 after great stress has been laid in the ,exposition on the two basic keys of ,d major and ,a major1 we are left in the distant tonality of ,c-sharp major and are then whirled back1 by a dramatic change1 into the home-key of the third part4 ,one of the most interesting studies in the workings of a great mind is to observe how ,beethoven1 in his developments1 allows the excitement to subside and yet never entirely die out1 and how deftly he leads the hearer onward to the summing up of the main themes of the exposition4 ,footnote #ii3 ,it was probably a development of this kind which called forth the characteristic comment from ,debussy who once remarked to a friend at a concert1 ,let us flee6 he is going to develop4 7#c7 ,the ,recapitulation or ,rsum1 in which both the themes of the ,exposition are reasserted1 each in the home key--a strong final emphasis thus being laid on ,unity of ,tonality4 ,the bridge-passage has to be correspondingly changed1 for now the modulation is between two themes both in the same key4 ,to achieve such a modulation is quite a tour de force as every musician knows1 and often taxed the ingenuity even of the great ,beethoven4 ,the skill by which he always made the second theme sound fresh and vital is astounding4 ,for a case of academic fumbling--mere treading of water--in this adjustment of key relationship1 see the ,recapitulation of the first movement of ,brahms's ,second ,symphony4 ,to secure unbroken continuity and to avoid vain repetitions#ajj there is no portion of the ,sonata-,form which has been more modified by the inventive genius of modern composers and by the tendency exemplified in the ,symphonic ,poem 7to be explained in due season74 ,the general validity of ,restatement1 as shown in the ,recapitulation of the ,sonata-,form1 cannot be questioned2 for that depends1 as so often pointed out1 upon the human craving to enjoy once more1 after intervening contrast1 something which has originally given pleasure4 ,furthermore this sound psychological principle finds an analogy in our own life3 with its early years of striving1 its middle period of development and its closing years of climactic retrospect and satisfaction4 ,there is a corresponding structural treatment in the dnoment of a drama4 ,in the classic composers1 the ,recapitulation is almost always a literal repetition of the ,exposition1 although ,beethoven began to be freer1 e4g41 in the climax of the ,coriolanus overture1 where he modifies the form to meet the dramatic needs of the subject4#aja ,modern composers1 however1 have felt that much of this repetition was superfluous2 and when they do repeat both themes1 one or the other is freely varied and made still more eloquent4 ,for examples1 see the rsum of the first movements of ,franck's ,symphony1 of ,brahms's ,first ,symphony and of ,tchaikowsky's ,sixth4 ,the ,recapitulation is often abridged by omitting the first theme altogether and dwelling exclusively on the second2 as for example1 in the ,finale of ,schumann's ,fourth ,symphony and in ,sinigaglia's ,overture1 ,le ,baruffe ,chiozzotte4#ajb ,footnote #ajj3 ,see ,grtry's amusing comments on the ,sonata-,form cited by ,romain ,rolland in the essays ,musicians of ,former ,days4 ,footnote #aja3 ,see also ,wagner's comments on the ,third ,leonora ,overture1 cited by ,ernest ,newman in his ,musical ,studies1 pp4 #acd-ace4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,additional illustrations of this treatment may be found in ,chabrier's ,overture to ,gwendoline and in the first movement of ,f4,s4 ,converse's ,string ,quartet4 ,it remains to speak of the beginning and end of the ,sonata-,form4 ,with ,haydn it became the custom1 not necessarily invariable1 to introduce the body of the movement by a ,prelude which1 in early days1 was of slight texture and import--often a mere preliminary flourish of trumpets1 a presenting of arms4 ,in ,mozart we find some examples of more artistic treatment1 notably in the ,overture to the ,magic ,flute and in the prelude to the ,c major ,quartet with its stimulating dissonances4 ,but in this case1 as in so many others1 it was ,beethoven who first showed what a ,prelude should be3 a subtle means of arousing the interest and expectancy of the hearer2 the effect as carefully planned as the portico leading to a temple4 ,to usher in the theme of the ,exposition in a truly exciting manner every means of modulation and rhythm is employed2 famous illustrations being the introductions to the first movements of the ,second1 ,fourth and ,seventh symphonies2 and1 in modern literature1 those of the first movements of ,brahms's ,first ,symphony and of ,tchaikowsky's ,fifth4 ,it also became customary to prolong the end of the movement by what is termed a ,coda2 the same tendency being operative that is found in the peroration to a speech or in the spire of a cathedral1 i4e41 the human instinct to end whatever we attempt as impressively and completely as possible4 ,this ,coda1 which1 in ,haydn and ,mozart1 was often a mere iteration of trite chords--a ceasing to go--was so expanded by ,beethoven that it was the real glory of the whole movement4 ,in fact so many eloquent treatments of the main material were reserved for the ,coda that it often became a second development2 and such was its scope that the form may be considered to have four parts instead of three1 i4e41 #a1 ,exposition1 #b1 ,development1 #c1 ,recapitulation1 #d1 ,coda2 parts #d and #b balancing each other in the same way as #c and #a4 ,for two of the most famous examples in all ,beethoven literature see the ,codas to the ,first movement of the ,third ,symphony and to the ,finale of the ,eighth4 ,we now present a tabular view of the ,sonata-,form summing up the features just commented upon4 ,,the ,,sonata-,,form ,,or ,,first-,,movement ,,form ,a ,b ,a ,exposition ,development ,recapitulation ,introduction 7optional7 ,free treatment and ,first ,theme1 ,first ,theme expansion1 especially connecting passage ,modulatory bridge-passage modulatory and rhythmic1 leading to ,second ,theme of the themes already ,second ,theme 7often ,closing ,theme presented in home-key1 but 7,duality of ,sometimes new material not always7 ,key-relationship7 introduced ,closing ,theme 7,plurality of ,key7 ,coda 7,special stress laid on the main tonality4 ,unity of ,key7 ,for actual musical examples it seems best to begin with the works of ,haydn4 ,this exclusion of ,philip ,emmanuel ,bach is not meant to minimize what we owe him for his preliminary efforts in formulating the tripartite ,sonata structure1 with its two themes and its ,development portion4 ,haydn is on record as saying that it was his study of six ,sonatas of ,emmanuel ,bach which laid the foundations for his own instrumental style4 ,but on the whole1 the compositions of ,emmanuel ,bach are of interest rather from a historical point of view than from one purely artistic4 ,the object of this book1 furthermore1 is not to give a complete account of the evolution#ajc of the ,sonata-,form2 but1 accepting the existence of standard works which employ this form1 to enable the student to gain a more complete appreciation of those works4 ,p4,e4 ,bach wrote in the so-called galant style#ajd of the period which has1 for our modern ears1 too much embellishment and too many meaningless1 rhapsodic passages4 ,he made a sincere effort to invent pure instrumental melody1 i4e41 musical expression suited to various instruments that should be unhampered by the too definite balance of the dance forms1 by polyphonic complexities or by the conventional artifices of operatic style4 ,but though he wrote skilfully for his instrument and though his style has a certain quaint charm1 on the whole it is lacking in genuine melodic warmth and feeling4 ,these qualities alone keep works immortal4#aje ,footnote #ajc3 ,those interested in this development should consult ,the ,pianoforte ,sonata by ,j4,s4 ,shedlock1 and above all1 d',indy's ,course of ,musical ,composition1 ,part ,,iii4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,this1 according to d',indy1 was so-called because pleasing to the ladies who played an important part in the elaborate court ceremonial of that day4 ,footnote #aje3 ,six of ,p4,e4 ,bach's ,sonatas edited by von ,blow are readily accessible and some excellent comments upon the most significant ones may be found in ,shedlock 7see above74 ,in ,josef ,haydn 7#aghb-ahji7 we are face to face with a musician of a different type4 ,haydn is popularly known as the father of the ,sonata1 the ,symphony and the ,string-,quartet2 but1 according to ,edward ,dickinson1#ajf this estimate is something of an exaggeration1 for it overlooks the fact that a large number of composers were struggling with the same problem and working along similar lines4 ,haydn was simply the greatest in genius of the instrumental writers of his day4 ,his works have lived by virtue of the superiority1 i4e41 the greater spontaneity and vitality1 of their contents4 ,he should be called the 'foster-father1' rather than the father of the symphony and quartet for he raised them from feebleness to strength and authority4 ,to him must be given the honor of establishing the types of instrumental composition which became the foundations of modern music4 ,haydn1 moreover1 was the first musician since ,sebastian ,bach who had a real personality which may be felt in his works4 ,to speak of a piece of music as ,haydnish conveys as distinct a meaning as to refer to a poetic stanza as ,miltonic4 ,when ,haydn arrived on the scene1 music--through the labors of many earnest workers--had become a language of definite expression1 with a logical grammar and with principles of structure4 ,the time was ripe for the use of this language in a more artistic way1 i4e41 for a more intense personal expression and for more subtle treatment of the material4 ,the composer could count upon the public following his points2 and with ,haydn1 whose heart beat in sympathy with the common people1 music begins to be a truly popular art4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,see his ,study of the ,history of ,music1 p4 #aed4 ,the striking features in ,haydn's works are three3 7#a7 ,the wealth of spontaneous and sparkling melodies1 for he was born with this lyric gift and never had to cudgel his wits for a tune4 ,that instrumental melody could make such sudden progress as we find between the dryness of ,emmanuel ,bach and the freshness of ,haydn1 was long a puzzle to scholars1 and only recently has the proof been submitted that ,haydn was largely of ,croatian ancestry4 ,now the ,croatians of ,southern ,austria are one of the most musical races in the world1 with a wealth of folk-songs and dances4 ,haydn therefore did not have to invent melodies in the ordinary sense of the term2 they were his birthright4 ,many of his melodies are adaptations of actual folk-songs#ajg or original melodies coming from an imagination saturated with the folk-song spirit4#ajh ,for this reason they seem like wild flowers in their perennial freshness and charm4 7#b7 ,the precision and clarity with which his ideas are presented4 ,these qualities were due to his well-balanced and logical intellect that impressed everyone with whom he came in contact4 ,his style1 moreover1 was the result of indefatigable labor1 for he was largely self-taught4 ,if the balance of his phrases and the general symmetry of his style seem to our modern taste a bit excessive1 we must remember that he was a pioneer and could run no risks in the way of non-acceptance of his message through puzzling complexities4 ,everything must be so clear that the ordinary mind could at once accept it4 ,nor is the sing-song1 square-toed element so prevalent in ,haydn as is commonly supposed4 ,in his melody a distinct feature--no doubt of racial origin--is his fondness for odd rhythms of three1 five and seven measures1 of which examples abound in the ,quartets4 ,in his ,minuets and ,finales there is a rollicking effect of high spirits which could never have been attained by mere labored pedantry4 ,in his mature works we find a pervading spontaneity which is one of the outstanding examples in all literature of art concealing art4 ,never do these works smell of the lamp1 and let us remember it is far easier to criticize them than to create them4#aji ,footnote #ajg3 ,see for example the ,salomon ,symphony in ,e-flat1 every movement of which is founded on a ,croatian folk-song4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,for a comprehensive account of this whole subject consult the ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,chapter ,,viii1 and ,mason's ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners1 essay on ,haydn4 ,footnote #aji3 ,witness for example1 the attitude taken by ,wallace in his ,threshold of ,music1 pp4 #adh-aec4 7#c7 ,the skillful and eloquent manner in which ,haydn adapted his ideas to his favorite media of expression3 the orchestra and the string-quartet4 ,although he wrote a number of pianoforte sonatas1 these works1 on the whole1 do not represent his best thought4 ,for they were composed in the transitional period between the waning influence of the harpsichord and the advent of the pianoforte1 not yet come to its own4 ,but as for the orchestra1 ,haydn established#aaj the grouping of the three so-called choirs of strings1 wood-wind and brass2 to which were gradually added the instruments of percussion4 ,in his works we begin to enjoy orchestral effect for its own sake3 the dashing vivacity of the strings1 the mellowness of the wood-wind1 the sonority and grandeur of the brass4 ,instrumental works had formerly been composed in black and white1 but now we have the interplay of orchestral colors4 ,no less paramount was ,haydn's influence in the handling of the four solo instruments known as the ,string ,quartet4 ,in his ,quartets the voices are so highly individualized that it seems as if four intelligent and witty persons were holding a musical conversation4 ,such melodic and rhythmic freedom were hitherto unknown and his style became the point of departure for modern practice4#aaa ,both ,mozart and ,beethoven1 those great masters of the ,string-,quartet1 acknowledged their debt of gratitude to ,haydn4 ,his success in establishing the formation of the orchestra and the string-quartet was chiefly due to the inestimable advantage he enjoyed of being1 for so many years1 chapel-master to those celebrated patrons of music the ,princes ,paul and ,nicholas ,esterhazy1 at whose country-seat of ,esterhaz he had at his disposal1 for free experimentation1 a fine body of players4#aab ,here ,haydn worked from #agfb until #agij2 and1 to quote his own words1 could1 as conductor of an orchestra1 make experiments1 observe what produced an effect and be as bold as ,i pleased4 ,i was cut off from the world1 there was no one to confuse or torment me and ,i was forced to become original4#aac ,footnote #aaj3 ,for the early and significant achievements in orchestral effect of the ,mannheim ,orchestra under its famous leader ,stamitz1 see ,the ,art of ,music1 ,vol4 #h1 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,for interesting comments on the ,string ,quartets see ,hadden's ,life of ,haydn1 pp4 #agd-age4 ,footnote #aab3 ,the ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,v1 ,chapter ,i1 and ,the ,present ,state of ,music in ,germany by ,burney present a vivid picture of the times and of the results of #ahth century patronage4 ,footnote #aac3 ,for an entertaining account of the two ,london visits1 which took place during the latter part of his career1 see the essay ,haydn in ,london by ,krehbiel in his ,music and ,manners4 ,as to the formal side of ,haydn's work1 he is responsible for several distinct improvements4 ,the different divisions of the movement are more clearly defined--sometimes perhaps1 as we look back1 a bit rigidly--but no more so than was necessary for a public just beginning to follow easily the main outlines of the form4 ,haydn leads up to his objective points in a clear-cut1 logical way and there is little of running off into the sand or of those otherwise aimless passages so prevalent in ,emmanuel ,bach4 ,in his best works1 notably in many of the ,quartets1 there is also more individuality secured for the second theme2#aad although for highly personified and moving second themes we have to await the greater genius of ,mozart and ,beethoven4 ,whenever we are inclined to call ,haydn's style old-fashioned we must remember that he wrote before the note of intense personal expression--the so-called subjective element1 prominent in ,beethoven--had come to the fore4 ,the time just prior to ,haydn had been called the ,pig-tail period 7,zopf-,periode7 in reference to the stiff and precise dress and manners which had their counterpart in formality of artistic expression4 ,only towards the end of his career do we feel that breath of freedom in life and art which was generated by the ,french ,revolution 7beginning in #agia7 and by the many political and social changes of that stirring period4 ,from ,haydn on1 much more attention should be paid to the content and meaning of the music than to the formal handling of the material4 ,in all worthy music1 in fact1 the chief point of interest is the music itself which speaks to us in its own language of sound and rhythm4 ,a knowledge of form is but a means to an end3 for the composer1 that he may express himself clearly and convincingly1 and for the listener1 that he may readily receive the message set forth4 ,in ,haydn's music we find the expression of a real personality--though of an artless1 child-like type1 without great depth of emotion or the tragic intensity of a ,beethoven4 ,haydn was not a philosopher1 or a man of broad vision4 ,during his epoch1 artists hardly dared to be introspective4 ,his imagination gave birth to music1 simple though it was1 as freely as the earth puts forth flowers2 but1 although he wore a wig1 he had a heart which was in good working operation even in his sixty-fourth year when1 during his ,london visit1 he fell in love with a charming widow1 ,madame ,schroeter1 whom he would have married had not his wife been still alive4 ,footnote #aad3 ,in many cases ,haydn's second theme is merely a varied version of the first4 ,we should acquire the catholic taste to enjoy every composer for what he really was and not criticise him for what he was not--a state which would imply necessarily different conditions4 ,in criticism there is no worse error1 or one more often made1 than that of blaming ,haydn because he was not ,beethoven2 or1 in our times1 ,tchaikowsky because his music does not resemble that of ,brahms4 ,blas pedants often call ,haydn's music tame2 we might as well apply that adjective to the antics of a sportive kitten4 ,as for the amiable prattle of his style we do not speak in a derogatory way of the fresh1 innocent voices of children1 though we need not listen to them continually4 ,haydn1 in short1 is ,haydn1#aae and the vitality and sincerity of his works will always keep them immortal4 ,in these feverish days we may dwell upon the simplicity of ,papa ,haydn1 as he was affectionately called2 who would kneel down before beginning work1 and who inscribed his scores ,in nomine ,domini4 ,his modest estimate of his own powers cannot fail to touch our hearts4 ,i know1 he said1 that ,god has bestowed a talent upon me1 and ,i thank him for it4 ,i think ,i have done my duty1 and been of use in my generation by my works2 let others do the same4 ,footnote #aae3 ,haydn's life is of great interest in showing the traits which are reflected in his music4 ,everyone should read the biography in ,grove's ,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cdh1 and the excellent life by ,m4 ,brenet in ,les ,matres de la ,musique4 ,we shall now make a few comments on the illustrations in the ,supplement 7see ,exs4 ,no4 #da and #db73 the ,finale of the ,sonata for ,pianoforte in ,e-flat major and the first movement of the so-called ,surprise ,symphony in ,g major4 ,haydn1 of all composers1 needs little verbal elucidation2 his music speaks for itself and everyone must be sensitive to its vitality and charm4 ,we regret that it is not practical to give examples from the ,quartets which1 in many respects--especially in the ,minuets with their inexhaustible invention#aaf and their bubbling spirits--represent ,haydn at his best4 ,but the real effect of his ,quartets is so bound up with idiomatic treatment of the strings that in any transcription for pianoforte the music suffers grievously4 ,it is through the score1 however1 that everyone should become familiar1 with the contents of the ,quartets in ,c major1 op4 #gf1 and ,d major1 op4 #fd2 the ,finale of the latter being one of the supreme examples in all chamber literature#aag of rhythmic vitality4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,haydn himself used to speak of his melodic invention as a stream which bursts forth from an overflowing reservoir4 ,footnote #aag3 ,in every large city there are1 of course1 frequent opportunities to hear the ,quartets of ,haydn played by such famous organizations as the ,flonzaley ,quartet etc4 ,the student is urged to take advantage of these occasions4 ,the ,finale of the ,e-flat sonata1 in strict ,sonata-form1 begins with a lively eight-measure phrase which is at once repeated a tone higher4 ,the extension of the sentence shows ,haydn's freedom in phraseology2 for1 beginning with measure #ag1 we should have to count the measures #a1 #b1 #c1 #c;a1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #f;a1 #g1 #g;a1 #h1 #h;a4 ,in the second theme1 which begins in the #ddth measure1 note the piquant dissonances#aah coupled with sforzando accents4 ,haydn surely liked spice as well as anyone6 ,the rest of the ,exposition is taken up with closing passages which accentuate the tonality of the second theme--,b-flat major4 ,the ,development needs no comment1 as the correspondence between the original material and ,haydn's treatment is perfectly clear4 ,the ,recapitulation is a literal repetition of the ,exposition1 with the two themes as usual in the tonic key4 ,the movement may be considered an example of ,sonata-form in its clearest manifestation1 hence an excellent one for preliminary analytical study4 ,footnote #aah3 ,those who erroneously think that there is nothing of the dissonant element in ,haydn should examine the ,prelude to ,the ,creation--a real anticipation1 in its use of the chromatic element1 of ,tristan and ,isolde4 ,in the first movement of the ,surprise ,symphony1 before the body of the work begins1 we have an early example of the ,prelude4 ,this slow ,prelude1 short though it be1 is most carefully planned2 with its crescendo from pp to a sf forte and its free modulation it arouses a genuine feeling of expectancy4 ,the first theme of the ,exposition 7,vivace ,assai7 is a happy illustration of ,haydn's sparkling rhythm1 and as tossed off by the violins is of irresistible gaiety4 ,the reader is asked to remember that the comments on this symphony--and on all subsequent symphonic works--are based upon the orchestral score2 also that the composition1 when separated from its orchestral dress1 necessarily loses much of its real eloquence4 ,thus the first theme1 of a folk-dance character1 is a typical violin melody2 only strings--with their incisiveness and power of subtle phrasing--can fully express its piquancy4 ,for private study or for class-room work1 a practical version is that for four hands2 or better still1 when possible1 the arrangement for two pianofortes4#aai ,the second phrase of the first theme is considerably expanded by repetition1 as if unable to stop from sheer exuberance1 but finally reaches a cadence in the dominant key in the #cbnd measure4 ,we are at once taken back1 however1 to the home-key of ,g major2 and1 in measure #dj1 the first theme is repeated1 this time delicately embellished with phrases on the flute4 ,from now on1 by reason of the emphasis laid on the key of ,d major1 it is evident that we are in the transitional passage and are heading towards the announcement of the second theme4 ,it must be said that ,haydn does not drive very straight at his mark2 though it is a pleasant touch of variety in measures #ee-eg to introduce the main theme in the minor mode1 and though the fiery violin passages in the following measures give an air of considerable excitement4 ,what stands for the second theme begins in measure #fg4 ,this portion of the movement has no theme with genuine individuality1 but consists of running passages--based exclusively on tonic and dominant harmonies in the new key1 and of little import save one of general vivacity4 ,it is1 however1 decidedly alive--not stagnant or flabby--and in the orchestra it all comes off4 ,we are rewarded1 finally1 by a clear-cut closing theme of jaunty rhythm1 e4g41 ,music which ,haydn liked so much that it is presented twice1 the second time slightly embellished4 ,the ,exposition closes with the conventional insistence upon a strong cadence in the key of the second theme4 ,the ,development begins with some rather fragmentary treatment of the first theme2 then1 after some fugitive modulation into flat keys1 contents itself with running passages and a series of iterated notes4 ,of organic and sustained development1 such as ,haydn indeed sometimes attained1 there is little trace4 ,even so we must be chary of sweeping condemnation2 for there are well-planned dynamic contrasts and the instruments are used in such a natural way--especially the figure in the double basses 7measures #adi-aec7--that the scene is one of animation1 though perhaps no more than one of aimless gambols4 ,there is sufficient modulation1 so that the principle of ,plurality of key is carried out4 ,we are suddenly but gracefully led back1 in measure #aee1 to the repetition of the first theme1 thus beginning the ,recapitulation4 ,this portion1 with certain abbreviations1 is an almost exact duplication of the first part and emphasizes the main tonality of ,g major4 ,that ,haydn was not forced to this literal repetition through any lack of fancy is shown by the skilful amplification of the first theme1 in measures #agg-ahd4 ,the whole movement sparkles with sunshine2 and those ponderous heavy-weights who criticise it because it is not deep or soulful are looking for qualities which the music does not pretend to contain4 ,it is the work of a wholesome1 cheerful-hearted man expressing through his favorite language his joy in life4 ,in listening to the music we have the same delight as in wandering by the side of a rippling brook4 ,the three remaining movements of the ,symphony require little comment2 being readily accessible they are not given in the ,supplement4 ,the second movement1 a set of stereotyped variations1 contains the explosive chord which gave to the work its descriptive title4 ,needless to say that this chord does not surprise our modern ears to any great extent4 ,the ,minuet is one of ,haydn's best--full of queer antics in rhythm and modulation4 ,the ,finale 7,allegro di molto71 in the ,rondo ,sonata form1 is the acme of ,haydn's vivacity and is a tour de force of brilliant writing for the strings4 ,in many passages they seem fairly to burn4 ,footnote #aai3 ,all symphonic scores give a much better effect when performed on two pianofortes than in a four-hand arrangement for a single instrument4 ,the freedom in control of both pedals possessed by each player secures a greater richness and sonority of tone and it is much easier to make prominent voices stand out in relief4 ,haydn's position in the development of music is of the first importance4 ,whatever his works may mean1 they contain a rhythmic vitality which will keep them alive for ever1 and their child-like cheerfulness and drollery will charm away care and sorrow as long as the world shall last4 ,,chapter ,x ,,mozart4 ,,the ,,perfection ,,of ,,classic ,,structure ,,and ,,style ,although ,mozart1 ,wolfgang ,amadeus#abj 7#agef-agia71 was1 in regard to art problems1 no more of a broad thinker than ,haydn 7,mozart and ,schubert being pre-eminently men whose whole nature centered in music71 yet on hearing his works we are aware that aspects of form and content have certainly changed for the better4 ,in the first place he was more highly gifted than ,haydn2 he had from his infancy the advantage of a broad cosmopolitan experience1 and he was dimly conscious of the expanding possibilities of musical expression4 ,it is a perfectly fair distinction to consider ,haydn an able1 even brilliant prose-writer1 and ,mozart a poet4 ,haydn we can account for1 but ,mozart is the genius born1 not made--defying classification--and his inspired works seem to fall straight from the blue of ,heaven4 ,whereas ,haydn1 ,beethoven and ,schubert were all of very lowly parentage#aba 7their mothers being cooks--a blessing on their heads671 ,mozart's father and mother were people of considerable general cultivation1 and in particular the father1 ,leopold ,mozart1 was an educated man and somewhat of a composer himself1 who since #agdc had been in the service of the ,archbishop of ,salzburg1 as director of his private orchestra4 ,an excellent violinist1 he had written and published a treatise on violin playing1 which for many years was the standard work on the subject4 ,both parents were noted for their good looks1 were1 moreover1 of strong character and highly respectable in every way4 ,among their several children two early exhibited unusual precocity--,maria ,anna1 born in #agea1 and ,wolfgang1 still more highly gifted4 ,the stories of the boy's skill and general delicacy of perception may be exaggerated1 but we have sufficient valid evidence to convince us that he was a phenomenon absolutely sui generis4 ,thus1 he began to improvise between three and four1 actually to compose little pieces 7which we have71 when he was five1 and to perform in public when he was six6 ,in that very year and continuing for nineteen years 7until ,mozart had reached the age of twenty-five7 began the memorable series of concert tours--eleven in all--comprising ,vienna1 all the chief cities of ,italy and ,germany1 even ,paris and ,london4 ,these tours the father planned and carried through with the utmost solicitude and self-sacrifice--not to exploit the talented children1 but to give them a comprehensive education and artistic experience1 and eventually to secure for his son some distinguished post worthy his abilities4 ,it is quite impossible to rehearse all the details of these trips4 ,for one who wishes to investigate for himself they truly make fascinating reading4 ,a single incident1 however1 will show how clearly defined were the two personalities which made up the complete ,mozart2 and of which one or the other was in the ascendant throughout his life4 ,as a man1 ,mozart was light-hearted1 witty--even volatile--fond of society1 dancing1 and a good time generally2 not of the strongest intellectual power1 judged by modern standards1 but1 as shown by his marvellous dramatic insight1 by no means the debonair light-weight he is often represented4 ,yet whenever music was under consideration he was a changed being2 he became instantly serious1 and would suffer no disrespect to himself or to his art4 ,during the last sad years of his career in ,vienna1 when he was in actual want for the bare necessities of life1 a publisher once said to him1 ,write in a more popular style1 or ,i will not print a note of your music or give you a kreutzer4 ,then1 my good sir1 replied ,mozart1 ,i have only to resign myself and die of hunger4 ,footnote #abj3 ,amadeus 7the beloved of ,god74 ,footnote #aba3 ,we may appropriately state that in regard to ancestry and environment all four of the so-called ,viennese masters1 ,haydn1 ,mozart1 ,beethoven and ,schubert are distinct refutations of the claims so persistently made by ,german scholars that everything good in music we owe to the ,teutons4 ,haydn was largely ,croatian2 ,mozart was strongly influenced by non-,teutonic folk-music 7,tyrolese melodies frequently peep out in his works72 ,schubert's forebears came from ,moravia and ,silesia2 and ,beethoven was partly ,dutch4 ,if there be any single race to which the world owes the art of music it is the ,italians1 for they invented most of the instruments and hinted at all the vocal and instrumental forms4 ,we may be grateful to the ,germans for their persevering appropriation of what others had begun2 only let them not claim all the credit4 ,in ,mozart's works1 in distinction from the unconscious1 nave folk-song type of ,haydn1 we find highly wrought instrumental melodies2 although such was his inborn spontaneity of expression that we are never aware of the labor expended4 ,his works are quite as clear as those of ,haydn1 but they show a more conscious individuality of style4 ,they are not so artless1 and the phraseology is more elastic--less cut and dried4 ,there is a higher imaginative vitality2 trite1 mechanical repetitions are in general avoided1 climaxes are led up to in a more subtle manner1 and a great gain is made in real organic development4 ,for ,mozart1 as a master of polyphonic treatment1 is second only to ,bach4 ,the most striking single feature in his work is the ceaseless flow of expressive melody1 notably those wondrous tunes found in his operas1 such as ,voi che sapete1 ,batti1 batti and numerous others4 ,he had travelled so widely1 so keen was his power of assimilation that his melodic style embodied and enhanced the best qualities of contemporary ,italian1 ,french and ,german practice4 ,and yet his innate genius was of sufficient strength to achieve this result without lapsing into formal eclecticism4 ,whatever suggestions he took he made wholly his own2 and his music is nothing if not individual in its inimitable charm and freshness4 ,whereas ,haydn's music often smacks too prominently of the soil1 with ,mozart we have the fine flower of a broad artistic culture4 ,in his best symphonies and string quartets the art of music made a distinct advance and began to be capable of expressing the universal emotions and aspirations of mankind4 ,the reactive influence--each upon the other--of ,haydn 7#agcb-ahji7 and ,mozart 7#agef-agia7 is a most interesting feature of the period4#abb ,by the time ,mozart was ripe for his best work ,haydn had formulated and exemplified the main lines of instrumental structure4 ,from this preparatory work ,mozart reaped such an advantage that in his last compositions there is a spontaneous flowering of genius--a union of individual content with perfect clarity of style--which has kept them alive to this day4 ,haydn's last symphonies1 the two ,salomon sets composed for his ,london tours1 show in their turn abundant signs of the stimulating influence of the younger man4 ,the perennial importance of form and style cannot be better understood than by recognizing the fact that both ,tchaikowsky and ,richard ,strauss1 two of the most fearlessly independent of modern composers1 have considered ,mozart as their ideal4 ,but even if in ,mozart's best works we are not beyond the preponderating influence of form over substance1 they must be judged on their own intrinsic merits and not with reference to progress made since--of which1 nevertheless1 they were an important foundation4 ,his technique was quite sufficient to express what he had to say4 ,we seldom feel that the contents are bursting through the form1 that the spirit is too great for the body4 ,purity of conception and faultlessness of workmanship were still the desiderata of music4 ,the world had to wait for a ,beethoven before the hearer should be shaken out of himself by a spiritual power1 of which the music at best was often an inadequate expression4 ,this statement is meant to contain no disparagement4 ,because ,beethoven was more elemental we must never belittle the genius of his predecessor4 ,any familiarity with ,mozart's works will convince us of the gratitude we owe him for his original harmonies1 for the stimulating contrapuntal texture and for the perfect finish and care for detail found therein4 ,could we be forever content with abstract music--that which justifies itself by a fulfilment of its own inherent laws--,mozart's music would remain the acme of the art4 ,his fame to-day rests upon his string quartets1 his three principal symphonies1 and--above all--the operas1 of which ,don ,giovanni and the ,marriage of ,figaro are noted examples4 ,for consummate character-drawing 7so that1 as ,rubinstein remarks1 ,each acting personage has become an immortal type71 for interest sustained by unflagging musical vitality1 for a combination of humor and seriousness and for ingenious and characteristic handling of the orchestral forces1 these works were unequalled until the advent of ,wagner and even to-day in their own field remain unsurpassed4 ,the real charm of ,mozart--that sunny radiance1 at times shot through with a haunting pathos--eludes verbal description4 ,as well attempt to put into words the fragrance and charm of a violet4 ,hazlitt's fine phrase1 apropos of performance1 says much in a few words4 ,mozart's music seems to come from the air and should return to it1 and the ecstatic eulogy of ,goethe1 to whom genius meant ,mozart1 should be familiar to all4 ,what else is genius than that productive power through which deeds arise1 worthy of standing in the presence of ,god and of ,nature1 and which1 for this reason1 bear results and are lasting8 ,all the creations of ,mozart are of this class2 within them there is a generative force which is transplanted from age to age1 and is not likely soon to be exhausted or devoured4 ,footnote #abb3 ,for extended comment1 see the ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #bdf1 seq4 ,in studying ,mozart's works the special points to be noticed are these3 the wider sweep and freer rhythmic variety of the melodic curve2 the more organic fusion of the different portions of a movement--,mozart's lines of demarcation being perfectly clear but not so rigid as in ,haydn2 the much greater richness of the whole musical fabric1 due to ,mozart's marvellous skill in polyphony4 ,the time had not yet come when the composer could pique the fancy of the hearer by unexpected structural devices or even lead him off on a false trail as was so often done by ,beethoven4 ,both ,haydn and ,mozart are homophonic composers1 i4e41 the outpouring of individual melodies is the chief factor in their works2 but whereas in ,haydn the tune is almost invariably in the upper voice1 in ,mozart we find the melody appearing in any one of the voices and often accompanied with fascinating imitations4 ,see1 in corroboration1 any of the first three movements of the ,g minor ,symphony or the slow movement of the ,e-flat major ,symphony4 ,in the structure of music ,mozart made slight changes2 the forms were still fresh--having just been established by ,haydn--and ,mozart with his genius filled them to overflowing4 ,his one important contribution to the development of instrumental form was the ,pianoforte ,concerto2 but1 as a consideration of this would lead us too far afield1 the student is referred to the life of ,mozart in ,grove's ,dictionary and to the ,oxford ,history1 ,vol4 ,v4 ,the literature#abc about ,mozart and his works is voluminous4 ,our chief attention nevertheless should be centered on the works themselves rather than on what anyone else writes about them4 ,certain of these criticisms1 however1 are so suggestive and illuminating that the student should become familiar with them4 ,footnote #abc3 ,we recommend especially the refreshing essay by ,philip ,hale in ,famous ,composers and ,their ,works2 the chapter on ,mozart in ,beethoven and ,his ,forerunners by ,d4,g4 ,mason2 and1 as throwing light on aspects of his personality which are little known1 ,mozart ,revealed in his ,own ,words by ,kerst-,krehbiel 7see especially the chapter on ,mozart's religious nature1 p4 #adb and passim72 the fascinating ,reminiscences of ,michael ,kelly1 a personal friend of the composer2 and1 above all1 the monumental life of ,mozart1 unhappily as yet incomplete1 by ,wyzewa and ,st4 ,foix4 ,the third chapter of ,vol4 ,,ii of ,the ,art of ,music is also well worth reading2 and in ,mozart's ,operas1 a ,critical ,study by ,e4,j4 ,dent are found valuable comments on his dramatic style1 so prominent a feature in many of his instrumental works4 ,as illustrations#abd for comment we select the ,f major ,sonata for ,pianoforte1 the ,g minor ,symphony1 the ,magic ,flute ,overture for ,orchestra and the little known but most characteristic ,adagio in ,b minor for ,pianoforte4 ,here again1 as in the case of ,haydn1 we must regret that it is impracticable to give examples from the chamber music3 the ,string ,quartets1 the ,quintet in ,g minor or from the entrancing ,clarinet ,quintet4 ,any familiarity with ,mozart's genius is very incomplete which does not comprise the ,c major ,quartet1 especially its heavenly ,andante ,cantabile2 likewise the ,e-flat major ,quartet in the slow movement of which are the following poignant dissonances--a striking anticipation of ,tristan and ,isolde4 ,music ,footnote #abd3 ,the first three compositions are not given in the ,supplement1 because readily available in several standard editions4 ,the same recommendations1 as given in connection with ,haydn1 apply to the performance of the ,g minor ,symphony4 ,the ,f major ,sonata is selected to illustrate ,mozart's pianoforte style because it bubbles over with typical ,mozartian melody and because the ,sonata-form is the basis of all three movements2 in the first and last strictly employed and in the slow movement somewhat modified4 ,the structure1 while just as clear and easy to follow as that of ,haydn1 represents an advance in the sustained interest of the transitional passages and in the organic treatment of the ,development--this being particularly true of the ,finale--the middle portion of the first movement being not so significant4 ,the ,sonata1 without prelude1 begins with a soaring1 lyric melody in which the customary eight measure formation is expanded to twelve measures4 ,this expansion is brought about by an imitative treatment of the fifth measure and is a convincing example of the flexible phraseology so prominent a feature in ,mozart's style4 ,a balancing sentence of eight measures1 with an extended cadence1 brings us to the transition which is to introduce the second theme4 ,observe the increasing animation of the rhythm and how the fresh entry of the second theme 7in ,c major7 is enhanced by the insistence on the contrasting tonality of ,c minor4 ,in measure #da there begins the second theme1 a graceful melody that is repeated with heightened fervour and then expanded by means of various modulatory and rhythmic devices--the interest1 for a number of measures1 being in the bass4 ,in measure #ga we have a piquant closing theme which ends in the good old way with some rather formal groups of cadential chords4 ,the ,development is short and1 save for the dynamic contrasts in the middle part1 not of particular import4 ,but though a bit nave it is neither labored nor dull4 ,the ,recapitulation with the necessary adjustments of key 7both themes appearing in ,f major7 corresponds exactly to the ,exposition4 ,in the opening melody of the ,slow movement--a dreamy1 sustained ,adagio--we see the beautiful use ,mozart made of the turn1 e4g41 ,music employing it not as meaningless embroidery or to cover up deficiencies in the instrument but as an integral factor in the melodic line1 thus anticipating ,chopin and ,wagner with his essential turn4 ,the movement is in abridged#abe ,sonata-form1 i4e41 there is a regular ,exposition with two themes in the tonic and dominant and a corresponding ,recapitulation1 but the ,development is entirely omitted and in its place we find merely two modulatory measures which take us back to the third part4 ,such a form arose from the feeling that the ,slow ,movement should be one of direct melodic and emotional appeal and should not concern itself with protracted discussion of the material4 ,the two closing measures are of a wondrous serenity1 peculiar to ,mozart4 ,the ,finale1 ,allegro assai1 in complete and elaborate ,sonata-form1 is one of superb vigor and dash1 the happiest example possible of ,mozart's joie de vivre4 ,it begins with a brilliant running theme in free phraseology1 and then1 after a cadence in measure #ad1 is at once followed by an out and out ,waltz tune of a very seductive swing4#abf ,this is developed to a brilliant climax and then closes pp in a delicate1 wistful manner4 ,the transition1 with some canonic imitations and stimulating sequences1 leads us to the second theme at measure #ej4 ,this--one of ,mozart's loveliest melodies--is rather exceptionally in the dominant minor 7i4e41 ,c minor7 and with its mood of pathetic revery affords a wonderful contrast to the headlong dash of the first theme4 ,this melody alone would prove that ,mozart had his moments of deep emotion4 ,in measure #fe begins a long closing portion which resumes the exuberant mood characteristic of the ,exposition as a whole4 ,the ,development at first is based upon modulatory changes in the first theme2 and then1 towards the middle1 occurs a passage which seems to be a counterpart of the second theme1 save that it is in the major mode4 ,we are now carried onward through a series of passages1 with pungent dissonances and imitative phrases1 to a fortissimo dominant chord2 thence through a descending cadenza-like passage we are whirled back to the ,recapitulation4 ,in material and treatment this corresponds exactly to the ,exposition and has the same pianissimo ending4 ,such an effect was a touch of genuine originality and was a delightful contrast to the conventional flourish of trumpets with which the ,finale of the period was expected to end4 ,music is often most impressive when most subdued4 ,footnote #abe3 ,this modification became a favorite with ,beethoven1 notable examples being the ,slow movement of the ,fifth ,sonata1 where the ,development is represented by a single chord2 the ,slow movement of the ,d minor ,sonata1 op4 #ca2 and1 above all1 the ,allegretto ,scherzando of the ,eighth ,symphony1 where a series of contrasted accents keeps the interest alive and leads most deftly to the ,recapitulation4 ,footnote #abf3 ,in measures #bj and #ba may be found some striking syncopations--an anticipation of what now-a-days is known as rag-time4 ,the ,g minor ,symphony is universally acknowledged to be the highest achievement of #ahth century instrumental music and is also premonitory of that subjective spirit peculiar to the #aith century4 ,it will remain immortal so long as human beings are capable of being touched by a sincere revelation of emotion combined with a perfection of utterance which seems fairly ,divine4 ,this delicate treatment and this exquisite finish are two prominent characteristics of ,mozart's style4 ,truly the ,symphony is the quintessence of ,mozart in terms of sound and rhythm1 and we need but to listen to his message and receive it with grateful appreciation4 ,the work contains the four customary movements1 all of them 7save the three-part ,minuet and ,trio7 in complete ,sonata-form4 ,the first movement begins at once with a gracefully poised theme sung by the violins1 a theme which may be likened in its outlines to the purity of a ,greek statue4 ,the entrancing effect of this melody cannot be realized except on the orchestra1 for it seems to float on the gently pulsating chords of the violas like a beautiful flower4 ,everyone who hears the work is at once arrested by this highly original treatment1 e4g4 ,music ,the transition is short but leads us in a happy state of expectancy through a change of rhythm from the graceful outlines of the first theme to the vigorous phrase ,music and by a bold run1 thrice repeated1 to the entrance of the second theme in measure #dc4 ,this theme1 in the customary relative major 7,b-flat71 illustrates ,mozart's fondness for the chromatic element which gives to many of his melodies such a haunting appeal4 ,the closing portion1 beginning at measure #ga1 is an example of ,mozart's spontaneous skill in polyphonic writing4 ,it is based entirely on the motive of the main theme in delightful imitations tossed about by different sections of the orchestra4 ,the second part is a genuine ,development1 since the musical life never flags in its contrapuntal vitality2 the theme appears in all parts of the texture--upper1 inner and lower voices--and we are carried vigorously onward by the daring modulations4 ,just at the close of the ,development we see ,mozart's constructive skill in the fusion of this part with the subsequent ,recapitulation4 ,a series of drifting chromatic chords in the flutes and oboes1 like light fleecy clouds1 keeps us in a state of suspended wonder when quietly there emerges the first theme and the return home has begun4 ,it is one of the truly poetic touches in musical literature and has been often imitated--especially by ,tchaikowsky in his ,fifth and ,sixth ,symphonies4#abg ,the ,recapitulation corresponds exactly with the ,exposition1 but an added pathos is given to the second theme by its appearance in the tonic key of ,g minor4 ,observe the impassioned intensity of the climax in measures #ac-ai 7counting back from the end74 ,the mood of dreamy contemplation with which the ,slow ,movement begins cannot be translated into words2 why attempt it8 ,we have the music which1 coming from the divinely gifted imagination of the composer1 reveals in its own language a message of pathetic longing and ideal aspiration4 ,the movement is very concise but in complete ,sonata-form1 and with an orchestration felicitous in the treatment of the horns and the wood-wind instruments4 ,the ,minuet1 noteworthy for the three-measure rhythm of the opening phrase1 ,music shows clearly the new life which ,mozart infused into the old form by his remarkable polyphonic skill4 ,note at the outset of the second part the vigorous effect of the theme in the bass and the frequency of biting dissonances4 ,the charming grace and simplicity of the ,trio are indescribable2 here again we find an eloquent use of the wood-wind group4 ,the ,finale1 in complete ,sonata-form1 begins with a perfectly balanced periodic theme1 presented in ,two-part form1 i4e41 two sentences of eight measures1 each repeated4 ,if from our present standpoint we feel that the tone of this movement is a bit light to follow the serious thoughts of the preceding movements1 let us remember that it was composed when the ,finale was meant merely to top off a work2 and that1 if it radiated a general atmosphere of sunshine and satisfaction1 its purpose was fulfilled4 ,for the ,finale1 which1 like the glorious splendor of an autumn day1 is the crowning objective towards which the other movements have been striving1 we must wait for ,beethoven and his modern successors4 ,in fact we may express the general trend of a ,haydn or a ,mozart ,symphony by a decrescendo1 thus decrescendo symbol i4e41 the real genius of the composer is shown in the first three movements2 whereas1 beginning with ,beethoven1 we find an organic climactic effect#abh from the first movement to the last1 thus crescendo symbol4 ,but to carry such criticisms too far is ungracious and unjust4 ,mozart's themes1 both the first and the second 7beginning in measure #ee71 with their tripping contredance rhythms1 fill our hearts with life and carry us irresistibly onward4 ,and the ,development has some surprises in store1 for now the dramatic genius of ,mozart asserts itself4 ,note the bold leaps and daring modulations of the opening measures4 ,nothing trite or formal here6 ,the strong polyphonic treatment of the first theme1 beginning in measure #abj and sustained with unflagging energy for seventy measures1 makes this one of the most stimulating developments in symphonic literature1 not excepting ,beethoven himself4 ,the ,recapitulation1 in subject matter1 is an exact duplication of the ,exposition and allows us to recover gradually from our excitement and to return to the ordinary world of men and events4 ,the presentation of the second theme1 however1 shows ,mozart's mastery of melodic variation4 ,the substance is the same1 but the import of the melody is intensified1 e4g4 ,music3 ,exposition ,music3 ,recapitulation ,footnote #abg3 ,see the ,waltz movement of the ,fifth ,symphony and the second movement of the ,sixth4 ,footnote #abh3 ,this expanding of interest is distinctly felt in ,beethoven's ,fifth ,symphony1 in ,brahms's ,first1 in ,tchaikowsky's ,fifth and in that by ,csar ,franck4 ,the ,overtures to ,mozart's three operas3 ,the ,marriage of ,figaro1 ,don ,giovanni and the ,magic ,flute are of particular interest1 not only for the beauty of their contents but because they are our earliest examples of the ,overture fashioned in complete ,sonata form4 ,originally the ,overture had been a prelude to the opening of a play1 a prelude of the lightest and most meagre nature4 ,examples1 beginning with ,monteverde1 abound in all the early ,italian opera composers4#abi ,lully of the ,french school and ,alessandro ,scarlatti of the ,italian were the first to amplify these beginnings and to establish a definite standard of structure4 ,in both schools this standard represented an application of the ,three-part form principle2 the ,french arranging their contrasts1 slow1 fast1 slow 7the so-called ,french overture--of which we have an example in ,handel's ,messiah7 and the ,italians1 fast1 slow1 fast 7the so-called ,italian ,overture74 ,although ,gluck 7#agad-aghg7 did much to establish a more dramatic connection between the overture and the play1 even the best of his ,overtures1 ,iphigenia in ,aulis1 is a rather loosely expanded tripartite structure with a good many meaningless passages4 ,but ,mozart1 coming after ,haydn's definite establishment of the ,sonata-form and with the growing interest of the public in instrumental music for its own sake as an incentive1 could take advantage of these circumstances to display his genius and to delight his hearers with a piece of genuine music4 ,this he did and his operatic overtures are of such distinct import and self-sufficiency that they are often detached from the opera itself and played as concert numbers4 ,the ,magic ,flute ,overture is also noteworthy because of the polyphonic treatment of the first theme which is a definite fugal presentation in four voices4 ,the second theme1 beginning in measure #fd1 and soon repeated1 is light and winning1 meant to supplement rather than to contrast strongly with the first theme1 which indeed keeps up at the same time1 in the inner voices1 its rhythmic impetuosity4 ,the ,exposition ends with a graceful closing phrase1 e4g41 ,music and the usual cadence in the dominant key4 ,it is considered that the ,adagio chords for the trombones1 interpolated between the ,exposition and the ,development1 are suggestive of the religious element in the play that is to follow4 ,the ,development is remarkable for the spirited imitative treatment of the first theme1 for the bold way in which the voices cut into each other and for the fusion of its closing measures with the ,recapitulation4 ,the chief feature in this brilliant passage is a piling up of the theme in stretto form 7see measures #adh-aec74 ,the ,recapitulation is somewhat shortened and the melodic outline of the second theme is slightly changed2 otherwise it corresponds with the ,exposition4 ,after the closing phrase we have some pungent dissonances1 e4g4 ,music ,rossini1 it is said1 was never tired of eulogizing this ,overture and certainly for spontaneity and vigor it is unrivalled4#acj ,footnote #abi3 ,for a complete account of this development see ,grove's ,dict4 ,vol4 ,,iii under ,overture and the ,oxford ,history1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 page #bhf1 seq4 ,footnote #acj3 ,its companion in modern literature is the ,overture to the ,bartered ,bride 7by the ,bohemian composer ,smetana71 which also begins with a brilliant fugal treatment of the theme4 ,the last illustration from ,mozart is his ,adagio in ,b minor 7see ,supplement ,no4 #dc7 an independent piece1 far too little known1 in complete ,sonata-form4 ,the haunting pathos in the theme1 the exquisite loveliness in the whole fabric instantly reach the hearer's heart4 ,analytical comment seems quite unnecessary2 a child can follow the music1 but only he with a ripe knowledge of human life can begin to fathom its deep mystery4#aca ,when we see such modern passages as the following1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #aca3 ,for some illuminating comments on this subtle character of ,mozart's creations see the ,stanford-,forsyth ,history of ,music1 p4 #bed4 ,tchaikowsky's love for ,mozart's music is readily understood4 ,indeed1 we cannot refrain from urging everyone to cultivate such a love himself2 for in the works of ,mozart are found a purity1 a sanity and a delight in creation which keep them alive and make them in very truth things of beauty and a joy forever4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,beethoven1 ,,the ,,tone-,,poet ,as ,beethoven was such an intensely subjective composer1 a knowledge of his personality and environment is indispensable for a complete appreciation of his works4#acb ,footnote #acb3 ,hence is given a more extended biographical account than in the case of former composers4 ,beethoven1 ,ludwig van 7#aggj-ahbg71 born at ,bonn on the ,rhine1 though his active career is associated with ,vienna1 may be called the first thinker in music2 for at last the art is brought into correlation with man's other powers and becomes a living reflex of the tendencies and activities of the period4 ,notwithstanding the prodigious vitality of ,bach's work1 we feel that his musical sense operated abstractly like a law of ,nature and that he was an unconscious embodiment1 as it were1 of the deep religious sentiment of his time and of the sturdy independence of his race4 ,at any period and in any place ,bach would have been ,bach4 ,beethoven's music1 however1 in its intense personality and as a vivid expression of the ideals of his fellow men1 was different from any the world had heard before4 ,there were three paramount advantages in his equipment3 first1 ,beethoven was a strong character who only happened to find in music his most suitable means of self-expression4 ,the full import of his works cannot be understood unless he is recognized1 great creative artist that he was1 as first and foremost a unique personality4 ,had he not written a note of music we should have sufficient historical evidence to assure ourselves of the vigor of his intellect and the elevation of his ideals4 ,whereas ,haydn and ,mozart are to be judged purely as musicians1 in ,beethoven it is always something underlying the musical symbols which claims our allegiance4 ,furthermore he had the inestimable advantage of finding the mechanical structure of instrumental music carefully formulated by his predecessors4 ,the stone had been quarried1 the rough cutting done and the blocks lay ready for a genius to use in the erection of his own poetically conceived edifice4 ,and these forms were still fresh and vigorous2 they had not yet hardened into formalism4 ,in ,beethoven's works we rarely find form employed for its own sake1 as a mere tour de force of skilful workmanship1 rather is it made to adapt itself to the individual needs of the composer4 ,finally ,beethoven's career coincided with momentous changes and upheavals in the social1 political and artistic world4 ,he is the embodiment of that spirit of individualism1 of human freedom and self-respect which found its expression in the ,french ,revolution1 in our ,american ,war of ,independence and in the entire alteration of social standards4 ,beethoven at all costs resolved to be himself4 ,with him music ceases to be a mere concourse of sweet sounds2 it must always bring some message to the brooding human soul1 and be something more than a skilful example of abstract ingenuity4 ,these personal tendencies of ,beethoven were fostered by the spirit of the times1 and his music became in turn a vital expression of revolt against existing conditions and of passionate aspiration towards something better4 ,he was the first musician to free himself from the enervating influence of having to write exclusively for aristocratic patronage4 ,such was the social emancipation of the period that he could address himself at first hand to a musical public eagerly receptive and constantly growing4 ,his representative works could never have been composed in the time of ,haydn and ,mozart2 for though in formal structure the logical development of preceding methods--,beethoven being no reckless iconoclast--in individual content they reveal a freedom of utterance which took its rise in tendencies hitherto unknown4 ,beethoven's mighty personality and far-reaching influence can not be stated in a few formulae4 ,an extensive library covering his life and times is accessible to the interested layman1 and a thorough appreciation of his masterpieces is a spiritual possession which everyone must gain individually4 ,since ,beethoven's works compel a man to think for himself1 the constructive power of the creator must be met with an analogous activity on the part of the receptive hearer4 ,the symphonies1 for example1 are more than cunningly contrived works of musical art2 they are human documents of undying power to quicken and exalt the soul which will submit itself to their influence4 ,beethoven's great instrumental compositions are few in number in comparison with the voluminous and uneven output of his predecessors4 ,thus from ,haydn we have #abe symphonies1 from ,mozart about #dj1 from ,beethoven #i4 ,of ,haydn's symphonies possibly a half dozen have permanent vitality2 of ,mozart's four2 of ,beethoven's all1 with the possible exception of the experimental first4 ,condensation of subject matter1 conciseness of style1 a ceaseless exaltation of quality above quantity are the prominent features in ,beethoven's work4 ,all adipose tissue is relentlessly excised1 and the finished creation resembles a human being in perfect physical condition--the outward mechanical organism subservient to the spirit within4 ,beethoven's life is of supreme interest and importance1 for his music is the direct expression of himself1 of his joys and sorrows4 ,his ancestry raises many perplexing questions as to the influence of heredity and the sources of genius4 ,in the first place ,beethoven was not a pure-blooded ,german1 but partly ,flemish on his father's side4 ,his paternal grandfather1 ,ludwig van#acc ,beethoven1 was a man of strong character and of a certain musical aptitude1 who had migrated from the neighborhood of ,antwerp to ,bonn where he served as court musician to the ,elector of ,cologne4 ,the paternal grandmother early developed a passion for drink and ended her days confined in a convent4 ,the son of this couple1 ,johann 7the father of the composer7 was a tenor singer in the court chapel at ,bonn and soon became a confirmed drunkard4 ,he seems to be a mere intermediary between grandfather and grandson4 ,in #agfg he married a young widow1 ,maria ,keverich1 a woman of warm affections and depth of sentiment1 whose life was bound up in the care of her gifted son4 ,the tender love between ,beethoven and his mother was a bright spot in his early years1 in many ways so sordid and unhappy4 ,unfortunately she was delicate1 of consumptive tendencies1 and died when ,ludwig was but seventeen4 ,she has been to me a good and loving mother1 he writes1 and my best friend4 ,as we ponder on such facts and then consider for what ,beethoven stands1 we can only exclaim1 ,god works in a mysterious way1 his wonders to perform4 ,it was early seen that the young ,beethoven had unusual ability1 and so the shiftless father1 with the example of ,mozart's precocity before him1 submitted the boy to a deal of enforced drudgery in the way of harpsichord and violin practice4 ,he had one good teacher however1 ,neefe1 who records that the boy of thirteen played the harpsichord with energetic skill and had mastered the ,preludes and ,fugues of the ,well-,tempered ,clavichord4 ,beethoven's general education was sadly neglected1 and when he was thirteen practically ceased4 ,these deficiencies were a source of mortification all his life4 ,he spelled atrociously1 was never sure of his addition and subtraction and so was often involved in altercations with landlords and washerwomen4 ,by nature ,beethoven was of strong1 eager intellect4 ,he became an omnivorous reader1 and later in life acquired a working facility in ,latin1 ,french1 ,italian and ,english4 ,the first period of his life ends with his departure in #agib for ,vienna1 whither he was sent by the ,elector to study with ,haydn4 ,in summing up its special incidents we are struck first by the vivid and lasting impression which ,beethoven1 in spite of his lowly origin and deficiencies in education and cultivation1 made upon wealthy and refined people of distinction1 simply through his extraordinary personality and unmistakable sincerity4 ,two of these friends were the von ,breuning family1 including the charming daughter ,eleanore--one of ,beethoven's early loves--and the cultivated and influential ,count ,waldstein1 in whose companionship he became acquainted with the ,german poets and with the dramas of ,shakespeare4 ,for a vivid picture of these boyish years the student is recommended to the ,romance1 ,jean ,christophe 7by ,romain ,rolland7 which1 though somewhat idealized1 is mainly on a historical basis4 ,two of ,beethoven's most unique characteristics date from this period4 ,first1 his constant habit of drawing inspiration directly from ,nature1 of which he was a passionate and persistent lover4 ,he says of himself ,no one can love the country as ,i love it4 ,here alone can ,i learn wisdom4 ,every tree exclaims to me ',holy1 ,holy1 ,holy4' ,in long walks through wood and field he would allow his thoughts to germinate1 giving himself up utterly to creative emotion4 ,when in this state of mind ,madame von ,breuning used to say that he was in his raptus4 ,consequently1 in comparison with the works of previous composers1 which often have a note of primness and artificial restraint--they smell a bit of the lamp and the study--those of ,beethoven have the elemental power of ,nature herself1 especially shown in the vigor and variety of the rhythm4 ,second1 he would always carry sketch books in which to jot down ideas as they came to him4 ,these he would polish and improve--sometimes for years--before they took final shape4 ,many of these sketch books#acd have been preserved and edited1 and they illustrate1 most vividly1 ,beethoven's method of composing3 slow1 cautious1 but invincible in its final effect2 an idea frequently being altered as many as twenty times4 ,at the age of twenty-two he was chiefly known as a pianist with wonderful facility in improvisation2 his compositions had been insignificant4 ,the next eight years--up to #ahjj1 when ,beethoven was thirty--were spent in acquainting himself with the ,viennese aristocracy and in building up a public clientle4 ,then follows the marvellous period until #ahae in which his power of inspiration was at its height1 and which gave to the world a body of work for magnitude and variety never surpassed3 all the symphonies except the ,ninth1 the first twenty-seven pianoforte ,sonatas1 five concertos for pianoforte and orchestra1 the opera of ,fidelio1 several ,overtures1 numerous string quartets and ensemble chamber music4 ,we realize even more vividly the heroic and sublime character of ,beethoven when we learn that1 as early as #agih1 there began the signs of that deafness which altered his whole life4 ,by nature he was hypersensitive1 proud and high-strung1 and these qualities were so aggravated by his malady that he became suspicious1 at times morose1 and his subsequent career was checkered with the violent altercations1 and equally spasmodic renewals of friendship1 which took place between him and his best friends4 ,his courage was extraordinary4 ,thus we find him writing3 ,though at times ,i shall be the most miserable of ,god's creatures1 ,i will grapple with ,fate1 it shall never pull me down4 ,on the artistic side this affliction had its compensations in that it isolated the composer from outer distractions1 and allowed him to lay entire stress on the spiritual inner side of his art2 certainly this is one of the strongest notes in his music--the pure fancy manifested therein4 ,as a deaf musician he is comparable to the blind seer who penetrates more deeply into the mysteries of life than those whose physical eyesight is perfect4 ,beethoven's closing years form a period of manifold complications1 caused by the care of his scapegrace nephew1 by his settled deafness and precarious financial position4 ,yet he grimly continued to compose1 his last works being of titanic dimensions such as the ,choral symphony1 the ,mass in ,d and the last ,quartets and ,pianoforte ,sonatas4 ,beethoven died on ,march #bf1 #ahbg2 nature most appropriately giving a dramatic setting to the event by a terrific storm of hail and snow1 lightning and thunder4 ,it would take too long to dwell on the many characteristics of the man ,beethoven4 ,power1 individuality and sincerity were stamped upon him1 and his music is just what we should expect from his nature4 ,he embodied all the longings1 the joys and sorrows of humanity1 and gave them such burning utterance that the world has listened ever since4 ,footnote #acc3 ,the prefix van is not a symbol of nobility4 ,footnote #acd3 ,see the two ,beethoveniana by ,nottebohm4 ,to touch now upon a few of the formal aspects of ,beethoven's work1 as far as verbal analysis can help1 it may be asserted that he is the acknowledged master of the ,sonata ,form as ,bach was of the ,fugue1 and in his hands this form1 and also the ,air with ,variations1 were raised to a potency the influence of which is felt even to-day4 ,from beginning to end every portion of the ,sonata ,form was made over and vitalized4 ,instead of the perfunctory flourish of trumpets which served previous composers for an introduction1 this portion with ,beethoven deftly leads on the hearer to a contemplation of the main work1 and is as carefully planned as the porch of a great ,cathedral4 ,for examples1 witness the continually growing excitement generated in the introductions to the ,second and ,seventh ,symphonies1 the breathless suspense of the introduction to the ,fourth1 and the primeval1 mysterious beginning of the ,ninth4 ,and then what a difference in the character and emotional suggestiveness of the themes1 that with ,beethoven are actual human voices1 dramatic characters1 which once met can never be forgotten4 ,as ,lavoix says of the ,fifth ,symphony1 ,is not this a drama in its purity1 where passion is no longer the attribute of a theatrical work1 but the expression of our own individual feelings8 ,no longer are the transitions mere mechanical connections1 but a portion of the structure which1 though subsidiary1 is yet organically developed from that which precedes and inevitably related to that which follows4 ,in the development section we find the real ,beethoven4 ,here his marvellous freshness of invention found full play4 ,such inexhaustible fancy1 such coherence of structure1 such subtlety of transformation were unknown in former times1 when development was often as lifeless as the perfunctory motions of an automaton4 ,beethoven's developments are no mere juggling with tones2 they are vast tonal edifices1 examples of what the imagination of man controlled by intellect can achieve4 ,possibly ,beethoven's greatest skill as a musical architect was shown in his treatment of the ,coda1 which became the crowning climax of a movement1 a last driving home with all possible eloquence of the message heretofore presented4 ,the end of previous compositions had too often been a mere ceasing to go1 a running down1 but in ,beethoven there is usually a strong objective point towards which everything converges4 ,fully conscious as he was of the throbbing human message it was his mission to reveal1 we may be sure that ,beethoven spared no effort to enhance the expressive capabilities of music as a language4 ,certain aspects of his style in this respect are strikingly noticeable in every one of his representative works4 ,first1 the marvellous rhythmic vitality4 ,note the absence of the former sing-song rhythm of ,haydn2 in its stead we hear the heart-beat1 now fast1 now slow1 of a living human being4 ,no longer can the hearer in dreamy apathy beat time with his foot4 ,second1 his use of the fiercest dissonances to express the heights and depths of our stormy human existence4 ,in listening to contemporary works nothing should persuade us more strongly to a sympathetic tolerance1 or at any rate to a suspension of judgment1 than the fact that many of ,beethoven's most individual cries 7surely in his case the outward expression of what he heard within1 those very outbursts which to-day ring longest in our consciousness7 were considered at the time of their creation as the ravings of a mad-man4 ,dissonances1 both acoustically and psychologically1 are a vital principle in music4 ,in no respect was his music more original than in his ,promethean boldness in their use4 ,one of his favorite conceptions was that music should strike fire from the soul of man2 it was not meant to lull the hearer into a drowsy revery1 but to awaken his spiritual consciousness with a shock at times positively galvanic4 ,a third feature is his subtlety in expression1 as is shown by the minute indications in which every page of his work abounds4 ,the crescendos1 often leading to a sudden drop to pianissimo1 the long stretches of hushed suspense1 the violent sforzandos on unimportant beats1 the plasticity of periodic formation1 all these workings of a rich imagination first gave music its place as the supreme art of human expression4 ,a word must be spoken concerning two forms which we owe to ,beethoven's constructive genius4 ,in place of the former nave ,minuet1 so characteristic of the formal manners of its time1 he substituted a movement with a characteristic name--the ,scherzo1 which opened up entirely new possibilities4 ,no mere literary distinction between wit and humor#ace can explain the power of ,beethoven's ,scherzos2 only through his own experience of life can the hearer fathom their secrets4 ,the expression of real humor1 akin to that spirit which is found in ,cervantes1 ,swift1 ,mark ,twain and ,abraham ,lincoln1 was a genuine contribution of ,beethoven4 ,deep thinkers alone are capable of humor which1 to quote a recent writer1 is that faculty of imagination so humane and sympathetic in its nature that it can perceive at the same time serious and jocose things4 ,it can feel the pathos of a scene on life's stage and yet have an eye for the incongruities of the actors4 ,it is imagination1 the feel of kinship with the universal human soul4 ,beethoven's ,scherzos are as varied as life itself4 ,who can forget the boisterous vitality of this movement in the ,eroica1 which quite sweeps us off our feet1 the haunting mystery of the ,scherzo of the ,fifth ,symphony1 or listen unmoved to the grim seriousness1 alternating with touching pathos1 in the ,scherzo of the ,ninth8 ,secondly1 his conception of the ,air and ,variations was so different from anything previously known that he may fairly be called its creator4 ,with him variations became poetic transformations1 and the notable works in this form of ,brahms1 ,tchaikowsky1 ,franck and d',indy are only freer manifestations of ,beethoven's method4 ,upon two last features1 his use of titles and his individualizing of the orchestral instruments1 we cannot dwell in detail4 ,although program music in its literal sense dates back several centuries1 ,beethoven--far more than was customary before--used external suggestions or incidents1 often intimate subjective experiences1 as the quickening impulse to his imagination4 ,we know from his own words that1 while composing1 he generally had some mental picture before him4 ,very often we are not given the clue to his thoughts1 but the titles1 familiar to every one1 which he did use1 such as the ,heroic and ,pastoral ,symphonies1 the ,coriolanus and ,egmont ,overtures1 those to several of the ,sonatas1 are full of import and show clearly that he was engaged in no mere abstract music making for its own sake4 ,these works are the point of departure for the significant development of modern music along this path4 ,with ,beethoven the orchestra began to assume its present importance1 and the instruments are no longer treated as mere producers of sound and rhythm1 but often as living beings4 ,how eloquent is the message of the ,horns in the ,trio to the ,scherzo of the ,heroic6 ,berlioz compares the double basses in the ,fifth ,symphony to the gambols of sportive elephants1 and instances might be multiplied4 ,but words are futile in describing the wonders of ,beethoven4 ,a striking tribute is that of ,professor ,john ,k4 ,paine4 ,in instrumental music ,beethoven is pre-eminent1 from all points of view1 formally1 aesthetically and spiritually4 ,like ,shakespeare's1 his creations are distinguished by great diversity of character2 each is a type by itself4 ,beethoven is the least of a mannerist of all composers4 ,his compositions are genuine poems1 which tell their meaning to the true listener clearly and unmistakably in the language of tones1 a language however which cannot be translated into mere words4 ,footnote #ace3 ,the derivation of the word is worthy of note2 it means moisture1 juice1 something not dry4 ,humor is certainly the juice of human nature4 ,we are now in a position to approach intelligently1 enthusiastically and reverently the mighty works of ,beethoven which1 though built upon the foundations of ,haydn and ,mozart1 yet take us into an entirely new world of power and fancy4 ,for illustrations we select the first movement of the ,third or ,heroic ,symphony2 the ,seventh ,sonata in ,d major for ,pianoforte2 the ,fifth ,symphony in ,c minor 7entire7 and the ,coriolanus ,overture4 ,in regard to the symphonies it is understood that the emphasis on certain ones and the omission of others implies no ultra-critical attitude4 ,each of ,beethoven's symphonies has its characteristic attributes and each is the work of a genius4 ,but just as in ,nature some mountains are more majestic than others1 so concerning the nine symphonies we may say that their order of excellence as endorsed by the consensus of mankind would be as follows4 ,the ,first ,symphony is somewhat experimental1 composed when ,beethoven was working out his technique of expression4 ,it is closely modeled on the style of ,haydn and1 though showing certain daring touches and though perfectly direct and sincere1 is not of marked individuality4 ,in the ,second ,symphony a long advance is made1 for we find numerous traits which are thoroughly distinctive of the genius of ,beethoven3 the exciting ,prelude to the first movement2 the heavenly ,larghetto1 one of the first slow movements of real emotional power2 the rollicking ,scherzo 7note the fantastic touches in the ,trio7 and the splendor of the last pages of the ,finale1 which can only be compared to a sunset with its slowly fading colors and its last burst of glory4 ,the general style of the ,second ,symphony however is that of ,haydn and ,mozart1 though raised to the highest pitch of eloquence4 ,in the ,third ,symphony the complete ,beethoven steps forth4 ,it was his declaration of independence1 and in this work1 as he himself said1 he began a completely new line of activity2 it was also his own favorite among the symphonies4#acf ,heretofore there had been no such impassioned utterance as is revealed in the first movement of this ,third ,symphony and there have been few1 if any1 to equal it since4 ,the ,fourth ,symphony is an entrancing work and shows ,beethoven's inexhaustible variety of mood2 since1 save for the grand manner peculiar to all his works1 it differs strikingly from the ,third and the ,fifth4 ,it was composed during the happiest period of ,beethoven's life and is related in its whole character to his emotions and aspirations at that time4#acg ,the slow movement is the most sublime love-song in music4 ,the ,fifth ,symphony is undoubtedly the most popular of them all1 in the true sense of the term4#ach ,the reason for this verdict is the unparalleled combination in a single work of the emotional intensity found in the first movement1 the touching appeal of the slow movement1 the mystery1 followed by the reckless display of spirit1 in the ,scherzo and the paean of rejoicing which rings through the ,finale4 ,the ,sixth or ,pastoral1 ,beethoven's one excursion into the realm of tone-painting based on natural phenomena1 is of interest more as a point of departure for the work of his successors than for its intrinsic message4 ,the conception of the possibilities of musical description has so widened since ,beethoven1 and the facilities for orchestral color so increased1 that this symphony1 though it has many characteristic beauties1 sounds a bit old-fashioned4 ,the ,seventh is one of the most original of them all1 incomparable for its rhythmic vitality--the ,apotheosis of the ,dance1 as ,wagner called it4#aci ,if rhythm be the basis of music and of life itself1 this symphony is thoroughly alive from start to finish1 hence immortal4 ,the ,eighth is the embodiment of ,beethoven's 7possibly7 most individual trait--his abounding humor4 ,never before had symphonic music played such pranks as are found here1 especially in the ,finale4 ,the ,symphony is in fact a prolonged ,scherzo#adj--the third movement 7a ,minuetto7 being merely for contrast4 ,the ,ninth ,symphony1 composed in the philosophic period of ,beethoven's life1 when he was attempting still greater heights1 is a vast work1 the first three movements purely instrumental1 and the ,finale1 for the first time in symphonic literature1 a union of solo voices and chorus with the instrumental forces4 ,the text was taken from ,schiller's ,ode to ,joy4 ,the spirit of the poem made a strong appeal to ,beethoven's humanitarian and democratic aspirations and there is no question of the grandeur of his conception4 ,but it is not carping criticism to say that his thoughts were too heaven-soaring for a perfect realization through any earthly means4 ,beethoven moreover was seldom happy in writing for the human voice--he thought in terms of the instruments--and it is not to be denied that there are several passages in the ,finale which consist of mere boisterous shouting4 ,no one save believers in plenary inspiration can give to this ,finale the whole-hearted admiration that is paid to the three instrumental movements which are pure gold2 especially the seraphic ,adagio and the ,gargantuan ,scherzo with its demoniacal rhythmic energy4 ,to sum up the foregoing estimates1 if the student is forced to select and cannot become equally familiar with all of the nine symphonies1 a reasonable order of study would be the following3 the ,fifth1 the ,third1 the ,seventh1 the ,eighth1 the ,fourth1 the ,ninth1 the ,second1 the ,sixth and the ,first4 ,see ,supplement ,no4 #dd4 ,footnote #acf3 ,see ,beethoven1 ,kerst-,krehbiel1 p4 #de4 ,footnote #acg3 ,read the appropriate essay in ,beethoven and ,his ,nine ,symphonies by ,sir ,george ,grove4 ,footnote #ach3 ,vox populi1 vox ,dei4 ,footnote #aci3 ,d',indy1 however1 in his ,beethoven 7p4 #fa1 ,english translation7 dissents from this view2 not at all convincingly1 it would seem to us4 ,for the basic rhythm of each movement is on a definite dance metre and the theme of the first movement is a regular ,irish jig 7,beethoven at one time being very much interested in ,irish folk-dances7 with its typical three final notes1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #adj3 ,it was written1 to use ,beethoven's own words1 in an aufgeknpft 7unbuttoned7 condition1 i4e41 free1 untramelled1 rather than straight-laced1 swaddled in conventions4 ,we shall now make a few comments#ada on the first movement of the ,third or ,heroic ,symphony1 merely to stimulate the hearer's interest1 for the music may be trusted to make its own direct appeal4 ,after two short1 sonorous chords1 which summon us to attention1 the first theme1 allegro con brio1 with its elemental1 swinging rhythm1 is announced by the 'cellos4 ,it is often glibly asserted that these notes of the tonic triad are the whole of the first theme4 ,this is a great misconception1 for although the motive in the first four measures is the generative basis for the entire movement1 the arresting1 dramatic note of the theme is the ,c-sharp in measure five4 ,this theme in fact is a typical example of ,beethoven's broad sweeps of thought2 for prolonged with secondary melodic phrases in the first violins and flutes1 its real close does not come until the #acth measure1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #ada3 ,these are based in this work and in all ,symphonic compositions on the full orchestral score 7in the ,peters edition72 the student is therefore recommended to adopt this practise4 ,for in ,beethoven and all orchestral writers the thought and expression are so integrally bound up with the tone color and idiom of the various instruments that when their works are reduced to another medium much of the eloquence is lost4 ,for those who cannot handle an orchestral score there are adequate arrangements for #b hands1 #d hands and for #b pianofortes in several standard editions4 ,those who have an advanced pianoforte technique should certainly become familiar with the virtuoso-transcriptions of the ,beethoven ,symphonies by ,franz ,liszt4 ,after a varied repetition of the first motive of the theme1 there occurs a passage 7measures #bc-cc7adb which illustrates one of the most characteristic features in all ,beethoven's work1 i4e41 those sharp dislocations of the rhythm1 indicated by the sforzando accents 7sf7 on beats usually unaccented and often coupled with strong dissonances4 ,although the basic rhythm is triple1 the beats for several measures are in groups of two quarter notes or their equivalent1 one half note1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #adb3 ,it is an excellent practise to number the measures of a score in groups of #aj4 ,no longer can we drift along in dreamy apathy2 our vitality is quickened as by the gusts of a tornado4 ,there have been those who for the first time in their lives were jarred from the even tenor of their way by these impassioned onslaughts4 ,when ,beethoven's ,symphonies were first played in ,paris1 it is reported that the operatic composer ,boieldieu was much disconcerted1 because1 as he said1 he liked musique qui me berce4 ,the transition 7measures #dc-ha7 is a remarkable example of ,beethoven's power of creating ever more and more excitement and expectancy4 ,it contains three subsidiary melodic phrases1 each of increasing rhythmic animation1 e4g41 ,music and fairly whirls us into the beautiful contemplative theme at measure #ha4 ,this theme embodies some entrancing modulations into remote keys1 and then1 after one of ,beethoven's typical passages of hushed pianissimo 7beginning in measure #ig7 we are led through a series of sforzandos1 crescendos and titanic ejaculations to the overpowering dissonances in measure #ade1 which with the tonic chord close the ,exposition in the dominant key4 ,the ,development 7measures #afd-cif7 is extremely long and varied1 but a perfect manifestation of spontaneous1 organic treatment--each portion growing inevitably from what has preceded and marching irresistibly onward to its objective goal4 ,every modulatory1 rhythmic and polyphonic device is employed to vary and intensify the message2 yet1 notwithstanding the diversity of the material1 we are held spellbound by the directness and coherence of the thought4 ,such is ,beethoven's passionate insistence on the right to speak out just what he felt that in one stupendous passage 7measures #bdf-bgg7 it seems as if the very ,heavens were falling about our heads4 ,at measure #bhb a theme of ideal repose is interpolated--just the contrast needed after the preceding cataclysm4 ,the ,development proper is renewed in measure #bih and after a repetition of the interpolated theme in measures #cbj-cce the rhythm of the first theme asserts itself in all its majesty1 carrying us upward to a veritable table-land of sublimity4 ,from this we are brought down through a series of decrescendo1 modulatory chords1 like drifting mists1 to an almost complete cessation of musical life--nothing but a pianissimo tremolo on the strings4 ,from this hush there floats in upon us the rhythmic motive of the first theme2 then1 with a ff chord of the dominant1 we are suddenly brought back into the sunshine of the main theme1 and the ,recapitulation has begun4 ,this portion with certain happy changes in modulation--note the beautiful variant on the horn in measures #djf-dad1 e4g41 ,music --preserves the customary emphasis on the main tonality of ,e-flat major1 ending in measures #edi-eej with the same dissonances which closed the ,exposition4 ,then are declaimed by the full orchestra those two dramatic outbursts which usher in the ,coda and which may be likened to ,stop6 ,listen6 the best is yet to come4 ,the blunt1 intentional disjunction of the harmony adds weight to the assertion1 e4g4 ,music ,here we have a convincing illustration of ,beethoven's individual conception that the ,coda should be a second and final development2 special points of interest and treatment being held in store1 so that it becomes a truly crowning piece of eloquence4 ,observe how the reappearance of the interpolated theme balances the ,coda with the ,development proper and how the various rhythms of the ,exposition are concentrated in the last page4 ,finally a series of bold1 vibrato leaps in the first violins--based on the dominant chord--brings this impassioned movement to a close4 ,a lack of space prevents the inclusion in the ,supplement of the rest of the ,symphony1 but the student is urged to make himself familiar with the three remaining movements3 the ,marcia ,funbre1 the ,scherzo and the ,finale4 ,the ,funeral ,march is justly ranked with that of ,chopin in his ,b-flat minor ,sonata and that of ,wagner in the last act of the ,gtterdmmerung as one of the most eloquent in existence1 and contains melodies so touching that they could have come only from the very soul of ,beethoven4 ,especially noteworthy is the aspiring melody of the middle1 contrasting portion 7,maggiore7 where the spirit1 freed from earthly dross1 seems to mount to the skies in a chariot of fire4 ,the third part1 where the minor mode is resumed1 abounds in dramatic touches2 especially that fugal passage1 where the ecclesiastical tone1 combined with pealing trumpets1 brings before us some funeral pageant in a vast1 medieval cathedral4 ,the ,coda1 beginning in ,a-flat major1 with an impressive mood of resignation1 illustrates at its close a psychological use of programmistic effect2 for the first theme1 treated as a real person1 disintegrates before our very eyes--becoming1 as it were1 a disembodied spirit4 ,nothing can show more clearly than this passage the widening of the expressive powers of music which we owe to the genius of ,beethoven4 ,the same effect with a slightly different dramatic purpose is found at the end of the ,coriolanus ,overture4 ,the ,scherzo1 allegro vivace1 in triple time1 but marked one beat a measure #aaf 7almost two measures per second671 is unsurpassed for sustained brilliancy and daring rhythmic changes4 ,it is so idiomatically conceived for orchestra that only the barest idea can be gained from a pianoforte transcription4 ,the prevailing background is a mass of shimmering strings1 marked by ,beethoven sempre pp e staccato and against this stands out a buoyant1 folk-song type of melody on the oboe4 ,after some mysterious and fantastic modulations a ff climax is reached which leads to the famous syncopated passage where the orchestra seems to hurl itself headlong into space1 e4g4 ,music ,the ,trio1 with its three hunting horns1 gives a fresh1 woodland note typifying ,beethoven's love of nature4 ,some mysterious modulations lead us back from the dim recesses of the forest to the sparkling animation of the ,scherzo4 ,in this part of the movement ,beethoven plays one of his characteristic practical jokes2 for1 just where we expect the same syncopated effect as before1 the time is changed from #c_/d to #b_/b1 the duration of the measure remaining the same1 e4g4 ,music ,this effect may be likened to the uproarious guffaws of a giant4 ,the ,coda has a clear reminiscence of the dramatic ,c-sharp in the main theme of the first movement1 e4g4 ,music#adc ,footnote #adc3 ,d-flat being the enharmonic equivalent of ,c-sharp4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the music notation contains a ,d-flat4 ,such an organic connection between movements begins to be very frequent in ,beethoven's works4 ,the ,finale1 ,allegro molto1 has caused considerable difficulty to the commentators for reasons known only to themselves4 ,different forms are assigned to it by different critics2 one regrets the falling off of inspiration1 another asserts that the movement does not fulfill the requirements which the human mind makes of art2 it leaves us confused4 ,poor ,beethoven6 ,but why all this pother8 ,if the inner evidence of the music itself be any justification for structural classification1 this wonderful1 inspired ,finale is a series of free ,variations#add on a double theme of which the parts are related to each other as ,soprano and ,bass1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #add3 ,the variations are not numbered and the demarcations indicated only by certain cadential objective points4 ,by beginning the first two variations with the less important of the two melodies 7i4e41 the bass7 ,beethoven is simply indulging in his fondness for piquing the fancy of the hearer by starting him on a false trail--not giving away1 as it were1 his real purpose too soon4 ,yet from the first announcement of the leading melody in the ,third ,variation it assumes increasing importance1 through successive appearances in ,e-flat major1 ,b minor1 ,d major and ,c major1 until after a long fugal development we reach the inspired passage 7,poco ,andante con espressione71 e4g41 ,music in which the main theme is stated first in its noble simplicity and then enhanced by an obligato melody on the oboe4 ,it is one of the most eloquent passages in all symphonic literature4 ,at its last appearance the real theme comes fully to its own--for the first time in the bass1 that fundamental voice--where it is declaimed ff in gorgeous splendor by all the lower instruments of the orchestra4 ,it is evident that not even the most inspired genius can sustain such a flight for ever1 and after this magnificent paean the workings of ,beethoven's imagination resemble those of ,nature herself4 ,following a tranquil intermediary passage in ,a-flat major we enter upon one of those long1 mysterious periods of hushed suspense which may be compared to a long expanse of open country or to the fading lights on the sea at sunset4 ,the last page1 beginning with the ,presto1 is sheer orchestral jubilation of the most intoxicating kind4 ,we may picture an enthusiastic gathering1 with hats thrown aloft and shouts of triumph ringing from every throat4 ,it is of historical interest to know that the theme of this ,finale must have been a favorite with ,beethoven1 for he had used it in three former works3 a ,contre-dance1 as the basis for a set of ,pianoforte ,variations and in the ,ballet ,music to ,prometheus4 ,it may not be too fanciful to trace a dramatic relationship between its use in portraying the daring spirit who first stole fire from ,heaven and as the crowning message of a work meant to glorify all heroic endeavor4 ,a thorough familiarity with this movement will repay the student not only as exemplifying ,beethoven's freedom of expression but indeed as a point of departure for so many modern works in free variation form4 ,see ,supplement ,no4 #de4 ,to illustrate ,beethoven's ,pianoforte compositions we shall now analyze the ,seventh ,sonata in ,d major1 op4 #aj1 ,no4 #c4 ,only wholesale hero-worshipers consider all of the thirty-two ,sonatas of equal significance4 ,it is true that1 taken as a whole1 they are a storehouse of creative vitality and that in each there is something1 somewhere1 which strikes a spark2 for everything which ,beethoven wrote was stamped with his dominating personality4 ,but the fire of genius burns more steadily in some of the ,sonatas than in others4 ,it is the very essence of genius to have its transcendent moments2 only mediocrity preserves a dead level4 ,it is therefore no spirit of fault finding which leads us to centre our attention upon those ,sonatas which have best stood the test of time and which never fail to convince us of their raison d'tre3 the ,appassionata1 the ,waldstein1 the ,c-sharp minor1 the ,pathtique1 the ,sonata in ,g major1 op4 #ad1 ,no4 #b1 and all the last five1 especially the glorious one in ,a-flat major1 op4 #aai4 ,it is futile to deny that some of the early sonatas are experimental and that certain others do not represent ,beethoven at his best1 being more the result of his constructive power than of an impelling message which had to be expressed4 ,the ,d major ,sonata has been selected for study because1 though composed in ,beethoven's first period1 it is thoroughly characteristic1 and because its performance is within the powers of the average intelligent amateur4 ,the full beauty of the later ,sonatas can be realized only by great virtuosi who devote to them years of study4 ,the work is in four movements3 the first1 complete ,sonata-form2 the second1 modified ,sonata-form2 the third1 ,three-part2 the ,finale1 a freely treated ,rondo-,sonata-form4 ,the first movement1 ,presto1 begins with a vigorous presentation of the main theme which ends in measure #bb with the last of three ff octaves4 ,the unusually long transition1 containing a subsidiary theme in ,b minor1 is remarkable for its onrushing excitement and for the playful false leads which usher in the second theme4 ,after a brilliant cadence in the dominant key1 one would suppose this theme might be announced in measure #ec1 but not so2 after three measures of cantabile melody1 progress is interrupted by a group of descending octave leaps4 ,a second attempt is now made1 this time in ,a minor1 only to be thwarted by a still more capricious octave descent4 ,this time1 however1 after a dramatic pause1 we are rewarded with a clear-cut1 periodic melody beginning in measure #ff1 against which the rhythm of the first theme keeps up a gentle undercurrent4 ,some interesting modulations develop into a series of descending octaves which1 accompanied by sf chords1 lead to the closing portion4 ,this brilliant passage accentuates the dominant key of the second theme4 ,after a short tranquillo phrase and some free imitations of the main theme we repeat the ,exposition1 or go on to the ,development ushered in by a bold change to the mediant key of ,b-flat major4 ,after several appearances of the main theme in the bass1 ,beethoven takes a leaf out of ,d4 ,scarlatti's book and revels in some crossing of the hands and some wide leaps4 ,the ,recapitulation corresponds exactly with the first part until we reach the ,coda in measure #bih1 which affords a striking example of ,beethoven's power of climax4 ,after a long period of suspense an imitative treatment of the first theme1 with kettle-drum effect in the bass1 leads to a stringendo ascending passage which closes with two crashing dissonances and two peculiarly grouped chords1 e4g4 ,music ,they have a hard1 cutting brilliance all their own and give just the touch of color needed to finish this dazzling movement4#ade ,footnote #ade3 ,by ,beethoven everything is carefully planned4 ,note in performance the contrast of mood suggested by these final chords and the sombre register of the opening chords of the ,slow ,movement4 ,in the ,slow ,movement1 ,largo e ,mesto1 there is a depth of emotion quite unparalleled in the early history of music4#adf ,certainly no composer since ,bach had uttered such a message4 ,as soon as the movement begins we are convinced that it represents the outpouring of a soul capable of deep meditations upon life and its mysteries1 and with the eloquence at its command to impress these thoughts upon the hearer4 ,the number of themes and their key relationship are those of ,sonata-form1 but instead of the usual development we have a new contrasting theme of great pathos in the major mode4 ,observe the poignancy of the dissonances1 e4g41 ,music in the second theme of the ,exposition which begins in measure #ag1 and the passionate outcries in measures #ce and #cg of the middle portion4 ,just before the ,recapitulation1 in measures #da-dc1 is an early example of ,beethoven's fondness for instrumental recitative--music speaking with a more intimate appeal than words4 ,the movement ends with an impassioned ,coda which1 beginning with the main theme in the bass and working up1 more and more agitato1 to a powerful climax1 dies away with mysterious fragments of the opening measures4 ,the dissonant element so characteristic of the whole movement is retained to the end1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #adf3 ,according to d',indy it is more truly pathetic than the entire so-called ,pathetic ,sonata4 ,the growing importance of dissonance may be seen from a comparison of this movement with the average slow movements of ,haydn and ,mozart ,these1 although they have serenity and grace1 beauty and finish of form1 and are sincere manifestations of the genius of their creators1 are yet lacking in passion4 ,this placid mood and amiability of style is shown by the comparatively slight employment of dissonances4 ,by unthinking and uncultivated persons dissonances#adg are often considered as something harsh1 repellant--hence to be avoided4 ,but dissonances contain the real life and progress of music4 ,they arouse1 even take by storm our imaginations and shake us out of our equanimity4 ,consonant chords represent stability1 satisfaction and1 when over-used1 inertia4 ,the genius of the composer is shown in establishing just the right proportion between these two elements2 but if there is to be any disproportion let us have too much rather than too little dissonance1 for then1 at any rate1 the music is alive4 ,since ,beethoven the whole development of music as a human language shows the preponderating stress laid on dissonance2 to this fact a knowledge of the works of ,schumann1 ,chopin1 ,wagner1 ,debussy and ,franck will amply testify4#adh ,the same analogy holds equally in all realms of life1 human and physical4 ,the truest development of character depends on the warring elements of good and evil4 ,honest discontent is the first step to progress4 ,dissonance is the yeast of music and should be welcomed for its invigorating influence4 ,footnote #adg3 ,a frequent confusion of thought is shown in the use of the words discord and dissonance4 ,a discord is an unrelated noise1 as when one bangs with both fists on the key-board4 ,a dissonance is a logical introduction of intervals or chords made up of jarring factors for their stimulating effect upon the imagination4 ,footnote #adh3 ,two of the greatest innovators in this direction1 ,scryabin and ,stravinsky1 have been working in our own day1 and there is no doubt that by their daring experiments they have enlarged the expressive powers of music4 ,while it is obvious that the dramatic effect of to-day stimulates the experimentation of tomorrow1 contrariwise1 the immediate contribution of each innovator is to render more clear the work of his predecessor1 up to that moment the confessed iconoclast4 ,the third movement1 ,minuetto1 may be taken as a reply to ,haydn's well-known wish ,oh6 that some one would write us a new ,minuet4 ,well1 here it is--with all the grace and charm of the #ahth century type and yet with more import1 especially in the ,coda with its haunting retrospect4 ,the rhythmic formation of the opening sentence would be clearer if two measures had been thrown into one1 for the swing is clearly that of a #f_/d measure4 ,the ,trio1 with its ,scarlatti-like crossing of the hands1 is a playful bit of badinage1 affording a delightful contrast to the ,minuetto4 ,such genuine variety in mood makes the ,three-part ,form of lasting worth4 ,the ,finale1 ,allegro1 with its capricious fortissimo outbursts and unexpected sforzandos is a characteristic example of ,beethoven's freedom of utterance4 ,any cast-iron conception of form was entirely foreign to his nature2 instead1 he made form the servant of the freest flights of fancy4 ,the movement begins as if it were to be worked out in the so-called ,rondo ,sonata-form--a hybrid1 tripartite structure related to the ,sonata-form in that it has two themes in the first and last portions1 and to the ,rondo in that the middle portion is a free ,episode instead of the customary development of former material4 ,the salient feature by which this form may always be recognized is that the ,exposition closes with a definite return to the first theme--thus emphasizing the ,rondo aspect--instead of with an expanded cadence based upon the second theme4 ,as we have stated before 7see ,chapter ,,ix71 many of ,beethoven's ,finales are in this mixed form1 clear examples of which may be found in the last movements of the ,fourth1 ,eighth and ,twelfth ,sonatas4 ,the ,finale of the ,twelfth ,sonata has been included in the ,supplement in order to make this important form familiar to the student4 ,to return now to the ,finale of the sonata we are studying4 ,its first two portions correspond exactly to the usual practice in the ,rondo-,sonata form just explained2 i4e41 we find in the ,exposition a first theme1 a modulatory transition1 a second theme 7beginning in measure #ag7 and a definite repetition of the first theme1 in measures #be-cb4 ,then1 after two measures of bold modulation1 begins the middle1 episodical passage which1 closing with a whimsical cadenza-like passage1 leads back to the beginning of the third part4 ,after a complete1 slightly varied appearance of the first theme1 ,beethoven does not repeat the second theme1 as we should expect1 but allows his fancy to indulge in a series of brilliant passages1 exciting modulations and dynamic contrasts4 ,all this freedom is held together by insistence on the fundamental rhythmic motive 7measures #gb-hc74 ,a final embellished statement of the first theme ushers in the fiery ,coda1 in measure #ib1 which ends with a long running passage2 beneath1 we hear reminiscences of the main theme4 ,it is often stated that ,beethoven's ,sonatas are lacking in pianistic effect1 and it is true that his pianoforte works do not bring out the possibilities of color and sonority as we find them1 for example1 in ,chopin and ,debussy--the orchestra and the string-quartet being indeed his favorite media of expression4 ,yet during his entire early career ,beethoven was famous as a performer and improviser on the pianoforte and some1 at any rate1 of his deepest thoughts have been confided to that instrument4 ,that he was not at all insensible to the beauty of pianistic effect for its own sake is shown by the syncopated1 shadowy chords in measures #aja-aje1 the whole justification for which lies in their enchanting sound4#adi ,footnote #adi3 ,for a very clear tabular view of the structure of this ,sonata see d',indy's ,cours de ,composition ,musicale1 ,book ,,ii1 p4 #ccb4 ,,symphony ,,no4 #eaej ,footnote #aej3 ,this is not given in the ,supplement4 ,see preceding remarks apropos of the ,third ,symphony4 ,the comments are based1 as usual1 on the full orchestral score4 ,the ,fifth ,symphony in ,c minor1 op4 #fg1 is deservedly popular because it is so human2 a translation1 in fact1 of life itself into the glowing language of music4 ,beethoven's emotional power was so deep and true that1 in expressing himself1 he spoke1 like every great philosopher1 poet or artist1 for all mankind4 ,which one of us in his own experience1 has not felt the same protests against relentless ,fate that find such uncontrollable utterance in the first movement8 ,who1 again1 is untouched by that angelic message1 set before us in the second movement1 of hope and aspiration1 of heroic and even warlike#aea resolution1 mingled with the resignation which only great souls know8 ,the third movement 7,allegro7--in reality a ,scherzo of the most fantastic type1 though not so marked--might well typify the riddle of the ,universe4 ,we indeed see through a glass darkly1 and yet there is no note of despair4 ,amid the sinister mutterings of the basses there ring out1 on the horns and trumpets1 clarion calls to action4 ,while we are in this world we must live its life2 a living death is unendurable4 ,the ,finale1 ,allegro maestoso1 is a majestic declaration of unconquerable faith and optimism--the intense expression of ,beethoven's own words1 ,i will grapple with ,fate1 it shall never pull me down--to be compared only with ,browning's ,god's in his heaven1 all's right with the world1 and the peroration to ,whitman's ,mystic ,trumpeter1 ,joy1 joy1 over all joy6 ,no adequate attempt could be made to translate the music into words4 ,the ,symphony is extremely subjective2 indeed1 autobiographic4 ,for all historical details as to its composition1 the reader is referred to the ,grove essay1#aeb and for eulogistic rhapsodies nothing can surpass the essay of ,berlioz1 that prince of critics4 ,we shall content ourselves with a few comments of a structural nature and then trust the student to seek a performance of the work by a good orchestra4 ,of the first movement 7,allegro con brio7#aec the dominant characteristics1 especially in comparison with the wealth of material in the ,heroic1 are conciseness and intensity4 ,it starts at once1 without prelude1 with the motive--one of the tersest in music--from which is developed1 polyphonically1 the first theme1 e4g4 ,music,a ,footnote #aea3 ,this interpretation of d',indy is based upon the prevalence in the movement of the conventional martial rhythm ,music and carries1 we must acknowledge1 considerable weight4 ,it is1 however1 distinctly subjective and prevents no one from gaining quite a different impression4 ,we should be more inclined to accept the views of the noted ,french scholar had he not been so wide of the mark1 while speaking of the ,seventh ,symphony1 as to deny any appearance of dance-rhythm in the first movement ,but the ,irish composer1 ,villiers ,stanford1 has shown conclusively that the theme is based upon the rhythm of an ,irish ,hornpipe4 ,thus do the wise ones disagree6 ,meanwhile1 we others have the music itself4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,beethoven and his ,nine ,symphonies by ,sir ,george ,grove4 ,footnote #aec3 ,beethoven's favorite mark of tempo and expression4 ,footnote ,a3 ,there are also some p holding notes on the bassoons4 ,everything is concentrated in the highest degree and the assault upon our consciousness is of corresponding power4 ,a tempestuous transition leads to two short sf chords and then in measure #ei1 announced ff by the horns1 appears the first phrase of the second theme1 based on the same motive as the first1 but in the relative major 7,e-flat71 e4g4 ,music ,it is answered by a second phrase of marked simplicity and loveliness--a mood1 indeed1 of resignation4 ,this is only momentary1 however1 for the relentless rhythm of the chief motive continues to assert itself in the basses until1 as it gathers headway after a short closing phrase 7#ie-ii71 it is thundered out ff by the full orchestra in a series of descending groups4 ,the ,development continues the same resistless impetuosity4 ,note the grim effect of the empty fifths and fourths in measures #abf-abg4 ,once only is there a slackening of the titanic1 elemental drive--in the mysterious passage 7#bab-bci7 where the pent-up fury of the composer seems to have exhausted itself4 ,it is only1 however1 a lull in the storm which breaks forth with renewed energy in the ,recapitulation and ,coda4 ,observe the pathetic commentary which the solo oboe makes upon the main theme at the outset of the third part 7#bfh7--;a flower growing out of the dbris of the avalanche4 ,the ,coda begins1 at measure #cgd1 with a passionate insistence upon the fundamental rhythm1 driven home with sharp hammer-blows and1 as in all ,beethoven's symphonic movements1 furnishes an overpowering climax1 not a mere perfunctory close4 ,the second ,movement1 in ,a-flat major1 is a series of free#aed ,variations 7five in number7 based on a theme1 ,andante con moto1#aee of great rhythmic vitality1 peculiarly rich and suave--announced1 as it is1 by 'celli and violas in unison1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #aed3 ,free1 in that they are not numbered and are not separated by rigid cadences2 in that episodical passages--often of a rhapsodic nature--are interpolated4 ,footnote #aee3 ,the tempo is often taken by conductors too slowly1 thus losing much of its buoyancy4 ,the first two presentations of the theme are in each case followed by a passage of martial character which bursts triumphantly into ,c major4 ,there is an orchestral touch of great beauty and originality in the first and second variations 7beginning in measures #di and #ih respectively71 where a solo clarinet--later a flute1 oboe and bassoon--prolongs a single tone which seems to float above the melody like a guiding star4#aef ,a passage of special significance is that in measures #abc-adf1 where ,beethoven indulges in a touching soliloquy upon his main theme4 ,it is mysteriously introduced by the repetition1 eight times1 pp1 of the dominant chord 7the simplest medium of suspense7 which seems to say ,hush1 ,i have something most intimate reveal4 ,the ,coda 7,pi ,moto7 begins with a mood of wistful reverie1 but the clouds are soon dispelled and the movement ends in radiant sunshine4 ,footnote #aef3 ,while listening to this passage one is instinctively reminded of ,keats's ,bright and steadfast star1 hung aloft the night4 ,the salient structural feature in the last two movements#aeg is that they are merged together2 there is no pause after the ,scherzo2 and the movements are further interlocked by an interpolation1 in the middle of the ,finale1 of a portion of the preceding ,scherzo--a kind of inter-quotation or cross reference4 ,this composite movement is a striking example of the organic relationship which ,beethoven succeeded in establishing--between the different movements of the symphony4 ,prior to him1 it is fair to say--to use a homely simile--that a sonata or a symphony resembled a train of different cars merely linked together1 one after the other2 whereas the modern work1 as foreshadowed by ,beethoven1 is a vestibuled train3 one indivisible whole from beginning to end4#aeh ,but before the ,fifth ,symphony there had been no such systematic unification2 for it is not too much to say that the whole work is based upon the persistent iteration of a single note in varied rhythmic groups4 ,thus in the first movement we find continually the rhythm ,music2 in the second1 in several places ,music2 in the ,scherzo ,music2 and in the ,finale ,music4 ,furthermore a ,c1 repeated by the kettle-drums for fifty measures1 is the chief factor in the connecting link between the ,scherzo and the ,finale4 ,we shall observe this tendency to interconnection still further developed by ,schumann in his ,fourth ,symphony1 by ,liszt in the ,symphonic ,poem#aei 7to be treated later71 and a climax of attainment reached in such highly unified works as ,csar ,franck's ,d minor ,symphony and ,tchaikowsky's ,fifth4 ,to return to the ,scherzo1 well worthy of note is the ,trio1 in free fugal form 7its theme announced by the ponderous double basses71 because it is such a convincing illustration of the humorous possibilities inherent in fugal style4 ,the way in which the voices chase each other about--compared by ,berlioz#afj with the gambols of a delighted elephant--and their spasmodic attempts at assertion1 produce an effect irresistibly droll4 ,the humour is as broad as that of ,aristophanes or ,rabelais4 ,words are powerless to describe the thrill of the last fifty measures which launch us into the ,finale4 ,we may merely observe that this long passage1 pp throughout until the last molto crescendo1 and with the rhythmic element reduced to a minimum1 makes more of an impact upon our imagination than that of the loudest orchestral forces ever conceived4 ,we are reminded of the effect of the still1 small voice after the thunders on ,sinai4 ,the ,finale1 with its majestic opening theme in fanfare1 contains a wealth of material and is conceived throughout in the utmost spirit of optimistic joy and freedom4#afa ,the ,exposition has a subsidiary theme of its own1 beginning at measure #bf1 which reappears with rhythmic modification 7diminution71 and most eloquently announced by the bassoons1 in the first section of the final ,coda4 ,after the brilliant second theme 7#de-fc7 there is an impressive closing theme 7with some biting fp dissonances7 which forms the basis of the ,presto portion of the ,coda4 ,the ,development is a marvellous treatment of the second theme1 in imitation1 modulation and climactic growth2 the rhythm ,music1 so vitally connected with the whole work1 persisting with stupendous energy4 ,in the final measures it would seem as if ,beethoven were storming the very heavens4 ,here occurs the quotation from the preceding ,scherzo which binds the movements together and serves as a point of departure for a still greater climax4 ,it seems unreasonable to expect a higher flight1 but the genius of ,beethoven is equal to the effort4 ,if1 before1 we have reached the heavens1 now we pierce them4 ,the brilliant ,coda--note the ascending runs for the piccolo--is in three sections1 the first based on the subsidiary theme1 e4g41 ,music the second on the closing theme in quickened tempo1 e4g41 ,music,b and the third1 a canonic treatment of the opening fanfare1 e4g41 ,music in which the orchestra seems to tumble head over heels in a paroxysm of delight4 ,the movement closes with prolonged shouts of victory and exultation4#afb ,footnote #aeg3 ,taken separately1 the movements are perfectly normal2 the ,scherzo in the usual ,three-part form and the ,finale in complete ,sonata-form4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,there are traces of this striving for organic unity in several of the early ,sonatas1 notably in the ,sonata ,pathtique1 where the motive of the first theme of the ,finale is identical with that of the second theme of the opening movement e4g4 ,music3 #ast ,movement ,music3 ,finale ,also in the ,c-sharp minor ,sonata1 op4 #bg1 we find a case of melodic relationship between a phase in the introductory meditation and the main theme of the ,minuet4 ,footnote #aei3 ,a ,symphonic ,poem is a descriptive composition for orchestra which incorporates many of the customary symphonic moods2 but the form is free1 largely dependent on the poetic basis1 and the structure is without stops1 being one continuous whole4 ,footnote #afj3 ,his exact words are--,le milieu 7the trio7 ressemble assez aux bats d'un lphant en gaiet--mais le monstre s'loigne et le bruit de sa folle course se perd graduellement4 ,footnote #afa3 ,its motto might well be ,browning's famous lines3 ,how good is man's life1 how fit to employ all the heart and the soul and the senses forever in joy4 ,footnote ,b3 ,this pianoforte figure being a very inadequate substitute for the restless tremolo of the violas1 i4e41 ,music4 ,footnote #afb3 ,for suggestive comments by the noted critic ,e4,t4,a4 ,hoffmann1 one of the first to realize the genius of ,beethoven1 and for a complete translation of his essay on the ,fifth ,symphony see the article by ,a4,w4 ,locke in the ,musical ,quarterly for ,january1 #aiag4 ,,the ,,coriolanus ,,overture ,this dramatic work is of great importance1 not only for its emotional power and eloquence1 but because it represents a type of ,program music1 i4e41 music with a suggestive title1 which ,beethoven was the first to conceive and to establish4 ,from the inherent connection between the materials of music 7sound and rhythm7 and certain natural phenomena 7the sound and rhythm of wind1 wave and storm1 the call of birds1 etc47 it is evident that the possibility for ,program--or descriptive--music has always existed4#afc ,that is1 the imagination of musicians has continually been influenced by external sights1 sounds and events2 and to their translation into music suggestive titles have been given1 as a guide to the hearer4 ,thus we find ,jannequin1 a ,french composer of the #afth century1 writing two pieces--for voices6--entitled ,les cris de ,paris and ,la ,bataille--dfaite des ,suisses la journe de ,marignan2 in the former of which are introduced the varied cries of street venders and in the latter1 imitations of fifes1 drums1 cannon and all the bustle and noises of war4 ,in the ,fitzwilliam ,virginal ,book there is a ,fantasie by ,john ,mundy of the ,english school1 in which such natural phenomena as thunder1 lightning and fair weather are delineated4 ,there is a curious similarity between the musical portrayal of lightning in this piece#afd of ,mundy and that of ,wagner in the ,valkyrie4 ,in the ,bible ,sonatas of the ,german composer ,kuhnau 7#affj-agbb7 we have a musical description of the combat between ,david and ,goliath4 ,anyone at all familiar with the music of ,couperin and ,rameau will recall the variety of fantastic titles assigned to their charming pieces for the clavein--almost always drawn from the field of nature3 birds1 bees1 butterflies1 hens1 windmills1 even an eel6 ,it is but fair to state that we also find attempts at character drawing1 even in those early days1 as is indicated by such titles as ,la ,prude1 ,la ,diligente1 ,la ,sduisante4#afe ,haydn's portrayal of ,chaos1 in the ,prelude to the ,creation1 is a remarkable mood-picture and shows a trend in quite a different direction4 ,all these instances corroborate the statement that1 in general1 composers were influenced by external phenomena and that their program music was of an imitative and often frankly literal kind4 ,from what we know of ,beethoven's nature and genius1 however1 we should imagine that he would be far more interested in the emotions and struggles of the soul and we find that such indeed is the case4 ,with the exception of the ,pastoral ,symphony with its bird-calls and thunderstorm and the ,egmont ,overture with its graphic description of a returning victorious army1 his program music invariably aims at the description of character and the manner in which it is influenced by events--not1 be it understood1 at a musical portrayal of the events themselves4 ,this difference in type is generally indicated by the terms subjective and objective1 i4e41 program music is subjective1 when it deals with the emotions and moods of real or historical persons2 objective1 when it is based upon incidents or objects of the actual world4 ,it is evident that in subjective program music an adjustment must be made1 for the dramatic needs of the subject are to be considered as well as the inherent laws of music itself4 ,we may state that the widening of the conception of form1 so marked in modern music1 has been caused by the need of such an adjustment2 for as composers became more cultivated1 more in touch with life and of more richly endowed imagination1 the arbitrary conventions of strict form had perforce to yield to the demands of dramatic treatment4 ,this implies not that program music is without a definite structure1 only that the form is different--modified by the needs of the subject4 ,as there is no other point in aesthetics which has caused more loose thinking1 a few further comments may be pertinent4 ,some critics go so far as to deny the right of existence to all program music4#aff ,of course there is good as well as bad program music1 but to condemn it per se is simply to fly in the face of facts1 for a large proportion of the music since ,beethoven is on a poetic basis and has descriptive titles4 ,others claim that they cannot understand it4 ,but that is their loss1 not the fault of the music2 the composer writes it and it is for us to acquire the state of mind to appreciate it4 ,another misleading allegation1 often heard1 is that a piece of program music should be so clear and self-sufficient that the hearer needs to know nothing of the title to derive the fullest enjoyment4 ,but this simply begs the question4 ,as well say that in listening to a song we need to know nothing of the meaning of the text4 ,it is true that in listening to ,beethoven's ,coriolanus1 for example1 any sensitive hearer will be impressed by the vitality of the rhythm and the sheer beauty of orchestral sound4 ,but to hold that such a hearer gets as much from the work as he who knows the underlying drama and can follow sympathetically the correspondence between the characters and their musical treatment is to indulge in reckless assertion4 ,the true relationship between composer and hearer is this3 when works are entitled ,coriolanus1 ,melpomene1 ,francesca da ,rimini1 ,sakuntala1 ,l'aprs-midi d'un ,faune1 ,the ,mystic ,trumpeter1 ,l'apprenti ,sorcier1 and the composers reveal therein the influence such subjects have had upon their imagination1 they are paying a tacit compliment to the hearer whose breadth of intelligence and cultivation they expect to be on a par with their own4 ,if such be not the case1 the fault is not the composer's2 the burden of proof is on the listener4#afg ,let us now trace certain relationships between the drama of ,coriolanus and the musical characterization of ,beethoven4 ,the ,overture was composed as an introduction to a tragedy by the ,german playwright von ,collin1 but as the play is obsolete and as both von ,collin and ,shakespeare went to ,plutarch for their sources1 a familiarity--which should be taken for granted#afh--with the ,english drama will furnish sufficient background for an appreciation of the music4 ,the scene before the city gates is evidently that in which ,volumnia and ,virgilia plead with the victorious warrior to refrain from his fell purpose of destruction4 ,the work is in ,sonata-form1 since the great ,sonata principle of duality of theme exactly harmonizes with the two main influences of the drama--the masculine and the feminine4 ,it is of particular interest to observe how the usual methods of ,sonata-form procedure are modified to suit the dramatic logic of the subject4 ,the work begins ,allegro con brio1 with three sustained ,cs--as if someone were stamping with heavy foot--followed by a series of assertive ff chords for full orchestra 7note the piercing dissonance in the #gth measure71 which at once establishes an atmosphere of headstrong defiance4 ,the first theme1 beginning in measure #ae with its restless rhythm1 is not meant to be beautiful in the ordinary sense of the term--a concourse of sweet sounds2 rather is it a dramatic characterization1 a picture in terms of music1 of the reckless energy and the fierce threats which we naturally associate with ,coriolanus4 ,the theme is repeated and then the transition develops this masculine mood in an impassioned manner--observe the frequency of sf accents and the crashing dissonances#afi--until a sustained note on the violins1 followed by a descending cantabile phrase1 brings us to the second theme1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #afc3 ,a complete account of this development may be found in the first two chapters of ,niecks's ,programme ,music4 ,footnote #afd3 ,for an excellent description of this piece1 as well as others of the period1 see the volume by ,krehbiel ,the ,pianoforte and ,its ,music4 ,footnote #afe3 ,a comprehensive and invaluable description of the works and style of ,couperin and ,rameau may be found in the ,history of the ,pianoforte and its ,players by ,oscar ,bie4 ,for an early example of what is now called poetic atmosphere everyone should know ,couperin's piece ,les ,barricades ,mystrieuses which is more suggestive when played on the clavein with its delicate tone4 ,footnote #aff3 ,a favorite term of opprobrium is that the program is a crutch4 ,footnote #afg3 ,there are several essays which will help the student toward clear thinking on this important subject3 the valuable essay ,program ,music in ,newman's ,musical ,studies1 the article on the subject in ,grove's ,dictionary1 and the exhaustive volume by ,niecks2 some of his views1 however1 are extreme and must be accepted with caution4 ,above all should be read ,wagner's interpretation of ,coriolanus in his essay on the ,overture 7,english translation by ,w4,a4 ,ellis74 ,footnote #afh3 ,twenty-five years' experience as a college teacher1 however1 has proved that too much may be taken for granted6 ,footnote #afi3 ,it is unfortunate that the diminished seventh chord does not sound so fierce to our modern ears as it undoubtedly did in ,beethoven's time1 but that is simply because we have become accustomed to more strident effects4 ,this theme1 in distinction from the first1 typifies the appeal for mercy made by the women in the drama4 ,no contrast could be stronger than that between these two themes--the first1 impulsive1 staccato1 of sweeping range1 and in the minor2 the second1 suave1 legato1 restrained and in the major4 ,they show indeed how powerfully ,beethoven's imagination was impressed by the subject4 ,after an eloquent expansion of the second theme there follow several stormy measures 7the deprecations of the women are at first of no avail7 that lead through a crescendo to a closing theme1 at measure #hc1 in which the mood of defiant assertion is strongly marked4 ,the exposition closes in this mood1 in measure #ajj1 and the following ,development accentuates it through several successions of restless1 crescendo passages until a ff descent sweeps us back to the ,recapitulation1 in measure #aea4 ,it is now evident that the furious intentions of the warrior have raged themselves out1 for not only is the theme which represents him much shortened but it loses somewhat of its former fiery intensity4 ,from here on1 the trend of the music is largely modified by the dramatic demands of the subject4 ,that the appeals of the women are beginning to prevail is evident from the emphasis laid on the second theme1 which gives its message no less than three times1 instead of the single appearance which we should expect in the usual ,recapitulation4 ,the third appeal1 in measures #bdg-bec1 is rendered most pathetic by being expressed in the minor mode4 ,in the ,coda there are fitful flare-ups of the relentless purpose1 but that the stubborn will has been softened is evident from the slowing down of the rhythm1 in measures #bhe-bid4 ,finally1 in the wonderful closing passage1 we have a picture of broken resolves and ruined hopes4 ,the theme disintegrates and fades away--a lifeless vision4 ,although much of the structure in this overture is identical with that which prevails in absolute music--for1 after all1 the composer must be true to the laws of his medium of expression--there is enough purely dramatic treatment to justify the foregoing analysis4 ,beethoven1 at any rate1 called the overture ,coriolanus1 and we may be sure he meant it to represent ,coriolanus and to be something more than a skillful combination of sounds and rhythms4 ,we now add a few last words on the quality of ,beethoven's themes in his moments of supreme inspiration4 ,the unshaken hold which his music has upon the affections of mankind is due chiefly to two striking characteristics3 first1 the way in which he dramatized everything--themes1 instruments1 even single notes1 i4e41 treating them as actual factors in life itself rather than as artistic abstractions2 second1 the spirituality and sublimity in his immortal message4 ,the first quality is exemplified in a number of passages1 notably in the first movement of the ,violin ,concerto and in the ,finale of the ,eighth ,symphony4 ,in the opening measures of the ,concerto the use of the single note ,d-sharp1 and the entry pp of the ,f natural in the following passage--in each case1 entirely disconnected from the normal rules of musical grammar--are most dramatic1 e4g4 ,music ,at the mysterious entrance of the ,f natural in this passage it would seem as if some mighty spirit were suddenly looking over our shoulder4 ,in the ,finale of the ,eighth ,symphony what can be more startling than the sudden explosive entrance of the unrelated ,c-sharp--before the orchestra continues its mad career--which can be compared only to the uproarious laughter of ,rabelais himself1 e4g4 ,music ,there are numerous examples in ,beethoven showing his dramatic use of such orchestral instruments as the bassoons1 horns1 kettle-drums and double basses4 ,possibly the most striking#agj is the ,slow ,movement of the ,g major ,pianoforte ,concerto--that inspired dialogue1 as it has been eloquently called1 between ,destiny and the human soul1 in which the touching appeals of the solo instrument are constantly interrupted by the sinister mutterings and forebodings of the strings4 ,observe especially the closing measures where the basses1 alone are heard pp1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #agj3 ,see1 however1 the octave leaps of the kettle-drums in the ,scherzo of the ,ninth ,symphony4 ,a spiritual quality escapes verbal definition2 but just as we can feel it in certain characters1 and just as we recognize the sublime in nature and in such works of art as a cathedral or a ,shakespearian ,drama1 so we may find it in the following specific examples from his works3 the ,trio of the second movement of the ,seventh ,symphony2 the ,slow ,movement theme of the ,b-flat major ,trio and the ,slow ,movement of the ,sonata op4 #aji4 7,see ,supplement ,nos4 #dg1 #dh1 #di47 ,anyone who allows these themes to sink into his consciousness is carried into a realm of ideality where he begins to recognize the truth that the things which are unseen are eternal4 ,music of this transporting power is far above that which merely excites1 amuses or even fascinates2 and of such music ,beethoven is the poet for all time4 ,we have referred above to the voluminous literature extant concerning ,beethoven4 ,several scholars1 in fact--notably ,alexander ,thayer and ,sir ,george ,grove--have devoted a large part of their lives to finding out all there is to be known about his life and works4 ,obviously the layman cannot be expected to become familiar with this entire mass of historical and critical writing4 ,the following books1 however1 may be considered indispensable aids to those who would become cultivated appreciators of ,beethoven's masterpieces3 the ,life of ,beethoven by ,alexander ,thayer--a great glory to ,american scholarship2 the life in ,grove's ,dictionary2 the illuminating ,biography by d',indy 7in ,french and in ,english72 ,beethoven and his ,nine ,symphonies by ,grove2 the ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,v2 and the essay by ,mason in his ,beethoven and his ,forerunners4#aga ,we cite1 in closing1 a eulogy#agb by ,dannreuther--in our opinion the most eloquent ever written on ,beethoven's genius3 ,while listening1 says ,mr4 ,dannreuther1 to such works as the ,overture to ,leonora1 the ,sinfonia ,eroica1 or the ,ninth ,symphony1 we feel that we are in the presence of something far wider and higher than the mere development of musical themes4 ,the execution in detail of each movement and each succeeding work is modified more and more by the prevailing sentiment4 ,a religious passion and elevation are present in the utterances4 ,the mental and moral horizon of the music grows upon us with each renewed hearing4 ,the different movements--like the different particles of each movement--have as close a connection with one another as the acts of a tragedy1 and a characteristic significance to be understood only in relation to the whole2 each work is in the full sense of the word a revelation4 ,beethoven speaks a language no one has spoken before1 and treats of things no one has dreamt of before3 yet it seems as though he were speaking of matters long familiar1 in one's mother tongue2 as though he touched upon emotions one had lived through in some former existence4444 ,the warmth and depth of his ethical sentiment is now felt all the world over1 and it will ere long be universally recognised that he has leavened and widened the sphere of men's emotions in a manner akin to that in which the conceptions of great philosophers and poets have widened the sphere of men's intellectual activity4 ,footnote #aga3 ,suggestive comments from a literary point of view may also be found in these works3 ,studies in the ,seven ,arts1 ,symonds2 ,beethoven by ,romain ,rolland--with an interesting though ultra-subjective introduction by ,carpenter2 ,the ,development of ,symphonic ,music by ,t4,w4 ,surette2 ,beethoven by ,walker2 ,beethoven by ,chantavoine in the series ,les ,matres de la ,musique4 ,as to the three successive styles under which ,beethoven's works are generally classified there is an excellent account in ,pratt's ,history of ,music1 p4 #dai4 ,footnote #agb3 ,this passage is to be found in the ,life in ,grove's ,dictionary4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,romantic ,,composers4 ,,schubert ,,and ,,weber ,during the latter part of ,beethoven's life--he died in #ahbg--new currents were setting in1 which were to influence profoundly the trend of modern music4 ,two important1 though in some respects unconscious1 representatives of these tendencies were actually working contemporaneously with ,beethoven1 von ,weber 7#aghf-ahbf7 and ,schubert 7#agig-ahbh74 ,beethoven himself is felt to be a dual personality in that he summed up and ratified all that was best in his predecessors1 and pointed the way for most of the tendencies operative since his time4 ,for the designation of these two contrasting1 though not exclusive1 ideals1 the currently accepted terms are ,classic and ,romantic4 ,so many shades of meaning have unfortunately been associated with the word ,romantic that confusion of thought has arisen4 ,it is also true that the so-called ,romanticists1 including poets and painters as well as musicians1 in their endeavors to break loose from the formality of the ,classic period1 have indulged in many irritating idiosyncracies4 ,we are beginning to see clearly that a too violent expression of individuality destroys a most vital factor in music--universality of appeal4 ,yet the ,romantic ,school cannot be ignored4 ,to its representatives we owe many of our finest works1 and they were the prime movers in those strivings toward freedom and ideality which have made the modern world what it is4 ,the term ,romantic is perfectly clear in its application to literature1 from which music borrowed it4 ,it refers to the movement begun about the year #agif among such ,german poets as ,tieck1 the two ,schlegels and ,novalis1 to restore the poetic legends of the middle ages1 written in the ,romance dialects1 and to embody in their own works the fantastic spirit of this medieval poetry4#agc ,in reference to music1 however1 the terms ,classic and ,romantic are often vague and misleading1 and have had extreme interpretations put upon them4#agd ,thus1 to many1 romantic implies ultra-sentimental1 mawkish or grotesque1 while everything classic is dry1 uninspired and academic4 ,how often we hear the expression1 ,i am not up to classic music2 let me hear something modern and romantic4 ,many scholars show little respect for the terms and some would abolish them altogether4 ,everything1 however1 hinges upon a reasonable definition4 ,pater's well-known saying that ,romanticism is the addition of strangeness to beauty is fair2 and yet1 since strangeness in art can result only from imaginative conception1 it amounts to nothing more than the truism that romantic art is imbued with personality4 ,hence ,stendhal is right in saying that ,all good art was ,romantic in its day2 i4e41 it exhibited as much warmth and individuality as the spirit of its times would allow4 ,surely ,bach1 ,haydn and ,mozart were real characters1 notwithstanding the restraint which the artificialities of the period often put upon their utterance4 ,on the other hand1 work at first pronounced to be romantic establishes1 by a universal recognition of its merit1 the claim to be considered classic1 or set apart2 what is romantic to-day thus growing to be classic#age tomorrow4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the terms interlock and are not mutually exclusive4 ,it is a mistaken attitude to set one school off against the other1 or to prove that one style is greater than the other2 they are simply different4 ,compositions of lasting worth always manifest such a happy union of qualities that1 in a broad sense1 they may be called both romantic and classic1 i4e41 they combine personal emotion and imagination with breadth of meaning and solidity of structure4 ,footnote #agc3 ,for a more complete historical account see the article ,romantic in ,grove's ,dictionary and the introduction to ,vol4 ,,vi of ,the ,oxford ,history of ,music4 ,rousseau and ,romanticism by ,professor ,irving ,babbitt presents the latest investigations in this important field4 ,footnote #agd3 ,some very sane comments may be found in ,pratt's ,history of ,music1 pp4 #dbg1 #eja1 #ejb4 ,footnote #age3 ,a classic is properly a book--and the same would be true of a musical composition--which maintains itself by that happy coalescence of matter and style1 that innate and requisite sympathy between the thought that gives life and the form that consents to every mood of grace and dignity1 and which is something neither ancient nor modern1 always new and incapable of growing old4 ,lowell1 ,among ,my ,books4 ,beginning1 however1 with ,schubert and ,weber--the two first representatives of the romantic group--there is a marked novelty of content and style2 and if we drop the terms and confine ourselves to the inner evidence of the music itself1 we note a difference which may be felt and to a certain extent formulated4 ,to take extreme types for the sake of vivid contrast1 let us compare the compositions of ,haydn and ,mozart with those of ,berlioz and ,liszt4 ,in the former there is repose1 restraint and a perfect finish in the structural presentation2 a feeling of serenity comes over us as we listen4 ,in the latter1 a peculiar intensity of expression1 an attempt to fascinate the listener by the most intimate kinds of appeal1 especially to the senses and fancy1 regardless of any liberties taken with former modes of treatment4 ,the purely classical composer is always master of his subject1 whereas the romanticist is often carried away by it4 ,classical works are objectively beautiful1 commending themselves to everyone like works of nature1 or1 let us say1 like decorative patterns in pure design4 ,romantic works are subjective1 charged with individuality and demand a sensitive and sympathetic appreciation on the part of the hearer4 ,it is evident that many of these tendencies are found clearly outlined in the works of ,beethoven4 ,in fact1 as has been said1 he was not only the climax of the classical school1 but the founder of the new era--opening a door1 as it were1 into the possibilities of a more intense1 specialized form of emotional utterance and a freer conception of form4 ,these special characteristics were so fully developed by ,beethoven's successors1 ,schubert1 ,weber1 ,schumann1 ,chopin1 etc4 that they are always grouped together as the ,romantic ,school4 ,a striking feature in this whole ,romantic group is the early flowering of their genius and the shortness of their lives--,weber1 forty years1 ,schubert1 thirty-one1 ,schumann1 forty-six1 ,mendelssohn1 thirty-eight1 ,chopin1 forty4 ,in the case of all the composers we have hitherto studied1 with the exception of ,mozart1 their masterpieces have been the result of long years of patient1 technical study and hence show that finish and maturity of style which come only with time4 ,but the precocity of the ,romanticists is astounding6 ,many of ,schubert's famous pieces were composed in his earliest manhood2 ,mendelssohn's ,midsummer ,night's ,dream ,overture dates from his sixteenth year2 ,schumann's best pianoforte works were composed before he was thirty4 ,the irresistible spontaneity and vigor of all these works largely atone for any blemishes in treatment4 ,we feel somewhat the same in the case of ,keats and ,shelley in comparison with ,milton1 and are reminded of ,wordsworth's lines1 ,bliss was it in that hour to be alive1 but to be young was very ,heaven4#agf ,why expect senatorial wisdom and the fancy of youth in any one person6 ,footnote #agf3 ,compare also the definition of genius by ,masters in the ,spoon ,river ,anthology3 ,in youth my wings were strong and tireless1 ,but ,i did not know the mountains4 ,in age ,i knew the mountains ,but my weary wings could not follow my vision-- ,genius is wisdom and youth4 ,a most important distinction between a classical and a romantic composer is the knowledge and love of literature shown by the latter4 ,although ,haydn kept a note-book on his ,london tours1 and although we have a fair number of letters from ,mozart1 in neither of these men do we find any appreciation of general currents of thought and life4 ,in many of ,beethoven's works we have seen how close was the connection between literature and musical expression4 ,all the ,romantic composers1 with the exception of ,schubert1 were broadly cultivated1 and several could express themselves artistically in words as well as in notes4 ,they may not have been on this account any better composers1 as far as sheer creative vitality is concerned1 but it is evident that their imaginations were nourished in quite a different way and hence a novel product was to be expected4 ,romantic music has been defined as a reflex of poetry expressed in musical terms1 at times fairly trembling on the verge of speech4 ,music can not1 to be sure1 describe matters of fact1 but the ,romantic composers have brought it to a high degree of poetical suggestiveness4 ,thus the horn-calls of ,weber and ,schubert remind us of the horns of ,elfland faintly blowing and much romantic music arouses our imaginations and enchants our senses in the same way as the lines of ,keats where he tells of ,magic casements opening on the foam of perilous seas in fairy lands forlorn1 the chief glory of which is not any precise intellectual idea they convey1 but the fascinating picture which carries us from the land of hard and fast events into the realm of fancy4 ,schumann claimed that his object in writing music was so to influence the imagination of the listeners that they could go on dreaming for themselves4 ,a second characteristic is the freedom of form4 ,considering that a free rein to their fancy was incompatible with strict adherence to traditional rules1 the ,romantic spirits refused to be bound by forms felt to be inadequate4 ,although this attitude sometimes resulted in diffuseness and obscurity1 on the whole 7as ,goethe says of romantic literature7 a wider and more varied subject matter and a freer form has been attained4 ,the chief aim of romantic art being to arouse the imagination1 we find a predilection for the use of solo wood-wind instruments1 which are capable of such warmth and variety of tone-color4 ,whereas in the classical masters1 and even generally in ,beethoven1 the melodies are likely to be the upper voice of a harmonic mass1 or assigned to groups of instruments1 ,weber and ,schubert in particular showed the eloquence to be gained by the use of such warm-blooded solo instruments as the horn1 the oboe and the clarinet4 ,schubert fairly conjures with the horn1 often holding us spellbound with its haunting appeal1 e4g41 in the well-known second movement of the ,c major ,symphony1 the calls of which1 as ,schumann said1 seem to come from another world4 ,schubert was anything but a thinker1 and reflected unconsciously the tendencies which were in the air2 but his wonderful gift of lyric melody was thoroughly in keeping with the individual expression for which ,romanticism stood4 ,he said himself that his compositions were the direct result of his inmost sorrows4 ,he was steeped in romantic poetry and the glowing fancy in his best work leads us to condone the occasional prolixity referred to by ,schumann as heavenly length4 ,schubert was well named by ,liszt the most poetic of musicians1 i4e41 a creator of pure beauty which enthralls the imagination of the hearer4 ,why expect the work of any one composer to manifest all possible merits8 ,if we crave dynamic power of emotion or sublimity of thought we may have recourse to ,bach and ,beethoven2 but the spontaneous charm of ,schubert never grows old2 and it is not without interest to note that his music fulfils the definition of one of the most poetic composers of our time1 ,debussy1 who claims that music is chiefly meant to give pleasure4 ,we note these same tendencies in ,weber as shown in the overtures to his three ,romantic operas1 ,der ,freischtz1 ,euryanthe and ,oberon1 which are the foundations of the modern art of dramatic orchestration1 i4e41 the intensification of certain ideas and situations by the special tone color and register of solo-instruments or by a novel use of customary means1 e4g41 the divided violins in the mysterious passage of the ,euryanthe overture4 ,another favorite means of arresting the attention was by modulation2 not used in a constructive sense1 simply to pass from one point to another1 or to connect themes in different keys1 but to furnish the ear with a purely sensuous delight1 corresponding to that which the eye derives from the kaleidoscopic colors of a sunset4 ,the works of ,schubert1 ,chopin and to a lesser degree of ,schumann abound in these shifting harmonies by which we seem to be wafted along on a magic carpet4 ,a final characteristic1 shared by all the ,romantic composers1 is the prevalence of titles--the logical result of the close connection between music1 literature and the world of outward events1--thus ,mendelssohn's ,overture to the ,midsummer ,night's ,dream with its romantic opening chords1 his ,hebrides ,overture1 the musical record of a trip to ,scotland1 and ,schumann's ,manfred1 from ,byron4 ,liszt even went so far as to draw inspiration from a painting1 as in his ,battle of the ,huns1 and again from a beautiful vase in ,orpheus4 ,we shall now make a few specific comments on the style of ,schubert and ,weber and then analyze some of their representative works4 ,schubert was a born composer of songs1 and though his works for ,pianoforte1 ,string quartet and ,orchestra were of marked significance and have proved of lasting value1 the instinct for highly individualized1 lyric melody predominates1 and all his instrumental compositions may fairly be called ,songs without words4#agg ,it is evident that the solo-song1 unencumbered by structural considerations1 is one of the best media for expressing the ,romantic spirit1 and many of its fairest fruits are found in this field4 ,schubert's songs are often tone-dramas in which the expressive powers of music are most eloquently employed4#agh ,note the poetic touches of character-drawing and of description in the ,young ,nun 7see ,supplement ,no4 #ej74 ,schubert's pianoforte compositions are miniature tone-poems1 mood-pictures--their titles3 ,impromptus and ,moments ,musicaux1 speak for themselves--making no pretense to the scope and elaborate structure of movements in ,sonata-form1#agi yet of great import not only for their intrinsic beauty but as the prototypes of the numerous lyric and descriptive pieces of ,schumann1 ,brahms1 ,grieg1 ,debussy and others4 ,their charm lies in the heart-felt melodies and surprising modulations4 ,while neither sublime nor deeply introspective1 they make the simple1 direct appeal of a lovely flower4 ,in the development of music they are as important as the modern short story in the field of literature2 which1 in distinction to the old three-decker novel1 often really says more and says it so concisely that our interest never flags4 ,this tendency to the short1 independent piece had been begun by ,beethoven in his ,bagatelles 7,french trifles72 but these1 as has been aptly said1 were mere chips from the work-shop whereas in a short piece of ,schubert we find the quintessence of his genius4 ,he was a prolific composer in the field of chamber music1 and the ,trios for ,violin1 ',cello and ,pianoforte1 the ,a minor ,quartet1 the ,c major ,quintet and1 above all1 the posthumous ,quartet in ,d minor1 which contains the entrancing ,variations on the song ,death and the ,maiden1 are still as fresh as when they were composed4 ,in these works we do not look for architectonic power--we must admit1 in fact1 at the risk of seeming ungracious1 that ,schubert is diffuse at times--but our senses are so enthralled by the imaginative freedom and by the splendor of color1 that all purely intellectual judgment is suspended4 ,the magician works his wonders2 it is for us to enjoy4 ,we have from ,schubert seven complete ,symphonies and the so-called ,unfinished in ,b minor1 i4e41 the first two movements and the fragment of a ,scherzo4 ,of these the ,fourth 7,tragic71 composed in #ahaf1 foreshadows the real ,schubert and is occasionally heard to-day4 ,but the immortal ones are the ,b minor and the ,c major1 the latter composed in #ahbh 7the last year of his life7 and never heard by its author4#ahj ,of this work ,schumann said that a tenth ,muse had been added to the nine of ,beethoven4 ,this symphony is specially characterized by the incorporation of ,hungarian types of melody1 particularly in the first and in the last movement4 ,it is indeed a storehouse of beauty1 but the high moments are in the last two movements--the fairly intoxicating ,trio of the ,scherzo1 which seems as if ,nature herself were singing to us1 and the gorgeous ,finale with its throbbing rhythms4 ,the first movement is laid out on a vast scale and holds the attention throughout1 but the second movement1 notwithstanding its wondrous theme1 suffers from a lack of concentration2 the sweetness is so long-drawn out that we become sated4 ,footnote #agg3 ,schubert was of incredible versatility and fecundity2 he literally tried his hand at everything3 operas1 church-music1 ensemble combinations4 ,since1 however1 he exercised little power of selection or revision much of this music has become obsolete4 ,the joke is well-known that he could set a theatre notice to music1 and his rule for composing was ,when ,i have finished one song ,i begin another4 ,footnote #agh3 ,for an original1 though at times rhapsodic1 study of ,schubert's vocal style see ,h4,t4 ,finck's ,songs and ,song ,writers1 and the last chapter of the ,fifth ,volume of the ,oxford ,history4 ,footnote #agi3 ,schubert did compose a number of ,pianoforte ,sonatas in the conventional form1 but with the exception of the one in ,a minor they seem diffuse and do not represent him at his best2 they certainly have not held their own in modern appeal4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,for the account of its exciting discovery in ,vienna by ,schumann in #ahch1 after a neglect of ten years1 see the life of ,schubert in ,grove's ,dictionary4 ,as examples#aha for analytical comment we select the ,menuetto in ,b minor from the ,fantasia for ,pianoforte1 op4 #gh2 the fourth ,impromptu in ,a-flat major from the set1 op4 #ij1 and the ,b minor ,symphony for orchestra4 ,the ,menuetto1 though one of ,schubert's simpler pieces--the first part in an idealized ,mozartian vein--yet exemplifies in the ,trio one of the composer's most characteristic traits1 the predilection for those bewitching alternations1#ahb like sunlight and shadow1 between the major and the minor mode4 ,footnote #aha3 ,for lack of space no one of these compositions is cited in the ,supplement1 but they are all readily available4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,this tendency is prevalent in folk-music1 especially that of the ,russians and ,scandinavians4 ,schubert1 however1 was the first to make such systematic and artistic use of the effect4 ,for a beautiful modern example see the ,spanish folk-dance by ,granados1 e4g41 ,music ,the ,impromptu in ,a-flat major1 one of several equally fine ones1 is notable for the wealth of its iridescent modulations and for the note of genuine pathos and passion in the middle portion in the minor mode4 ,schubert might well say that his most inspired music came from his sorrows4 ,the ,unfinished ,symphony requires less comment and elucidation than perhaps any other symphonic composition4 ,the two movements are in definite ,sonata-form--the first1 strict1 the second1 with modifications2 but the quality of the themes is quite different from that to which we have been accustomed in classical treatment4 ,instead of the terse1 characteristic motive which1 often at first uncompromisingly bare1 impresses us as its latent possibilities are revealed1 we have a series of lyric1 periodic melodies which make their instant appeal4 ,in ,schubert everything sings2 thus in the first part of the ,exposition of the ,allegro we have three distinct melodies3 the introductory phrase1 the accompaniment figure which has a melodic line of its own1 and the first theme proper4 ,in any consideration of this work from a pianoforte version we must always remember how much the beauty and eloquence of the themes depend upon the solo instruments to which they are assigned4 ,for ,schubert was one of the first1 as well as one of the greatest1 of ,colorists4 ,by the use of this pictorial term in music we mean that the tone-quality of certain instruments--the mellow1 far-echoing effect of the horn1 the tang of the oboe1 the passionate warmth of the clarinet#ahc--;appeals to our sense of hearing in the same way in which beautiful colors--the green grass1 the blue sky1 the hues of a sunset--delight our sight4 ,a striking example of ,schubert's genius in utilizing tone-color to suit structural needs is found in the transition beginning at measure #ch4 ,this is a single tone on the horn 7with a modulatory ending7 announced forte and then allowed to die away1 i4e41 sf decrescendo symbol4 ,so powerful is the horn in evoking a spirit of suspense and revery that this tone introduces the beautiful1 swaying second theme more impressively than a whole series of routine modulations4 ,the ,development speaks for itself4 ,though there is little polyphonic treatment1 it holds our interest by reason of the harmonic variety and the dramatic touches of orchestration4 ,in ,schubert we do not look for the development of a complicated plot but give ourselves up unreservedly to the enjoyment of pure melodic line1 couched in terms of sensuously delightful tone-color4 ,the transitional passage of the ,recapitulation 7measures #bca-bec7 illustrates ,schubert's fondness for modulation just for its own sake2 we care not what the objective point of the music may be--enthralled1 as we are1 by the magical shifts of scene4 ,in the ,second ,movement1 likewise1 the chief beauty--especially of the second theme--consists in the lyric quality1 in the color of the solo instruments1 the oboe1 clarinet and horn1 and in the enharmonic changes1 e4g41 where1 in measures #hj-ie1 the theme modulates from ,c-sharp minor to ,d-flat major4 ,note in the orchestral score the charming dialogue in this passage between the clarinet1 oboe and flute4 ,the ,development1 based upon the second theme1 with some effective canonic treatment1 shows that ,schubert was by no means entirely lacking in polyphonic skill4 ,at any rate he can work wonders with the horn1 for at the close of the ,development 7measures #acd-adb7 by the simple device of an octave leap1 ppp1 he veritably transports the listener1 e4g4 ,music ,the ,coda has a dream-like quality all its own4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,so appropriately called by ,berlioz the heroine of the orchestra4 ,weber's permanent contribution to musical literature has proved to be his operas--a form of art not treated in this book4 ,but the whole nature of his genius was so closely related to the ,romantic spirit1 as shown in the intimate connection between literature and music1 in his descriptive powers and his development of the orchestra1 that for the sake of comprehensiveness some familiarity should be gained with the essential features of his style4 ,of ,weber it may be said with conviction that there is hardly a composer of acknowledged rank in whom style1 i4e41 the way and the medium by which musical thought is presented1 so prevails over the substance of the thought itself4 ,there are few if any of ,weber's melodies which are notable for creative power1 and as a harmonist he was lamentably weak4 ,it has been scathingly said1 though with considerable truth1 that all his melodies are based upon an alternation of tonic and dominant chords6#ahd ,but when we consider what his themes are meant to describe1 the pictures they evoke and their orchestral dress1 we must acknowledge in ,weber the touch of real poetic genius4 ,to quote ,runciman#ahe-- ,if you look1 and look rightly1 for the right thing in ,weber's music1 disappointment is impossible1 though ,i admit that the man who professes to find there the great qualities he finds in ,mozart1 ,beethoven1 or any of the giants1 must be in a very sad case4 ,grandeur1 pure beauty1 and high expressiveness are alike wanting4 ,weber's claim to a place amongst the composers is supported in a lesser degree by the gifts which he shared1 even if his share was small1 with the greater masters of music1 than by his miraculous power of vividly drawing and painting in music the things that kindled his imagination4 ,being a factor of the ,romantic movement1 that mighty rebellion against the tyranny of a world of footrules and ledgers1 he lived in a world where two and two might make five or seven or any number you pleased1 and where footrules were unknown2 he took small interest in drama taken out of the lives of ordinary men and enacted amidst every-day surroundings2 his imagination lit up only when he thought of haunted glens and ghouls and evil spirits1 the fantastic world and life that goes on underneath the ocean1 or of men or women held by ghastly spells4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,a striking illustration of this progression 7surely ,weber's most characteristic mannerism7 is navely supplied by ,weingartner2 when1 in his own orchestral arrangement of ,weber's ,invitation to the ,dance1 for the final climax he assembles all the leading themes in combination--an effect made possible only by their common harmonic basis4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,this whole article is well worth reading and may be found in that breezy though somewhat erratic volume called ,old ,scores and ,new ,readings4 ,weber's present-day fame rests upon the ,overtures to his three operas of ,der ,freischtz1 ,euryanthe and ,oberon1 which are often played in detached concert form and hold their own for their romantic glow and for the brilliancy of orchestral effect4 ,by employing for his thematic material the leading melodies of the operas themselves ,weber has created what may be called epitomized dramas which1 if we have any knowledge of what the titles imply1 present us with realistic pictures4 ,for the use of special tone-color to enhance the dramatic situation ,weber is the precursor of that type of orchestration which has reached such heights in ,wagner and other moderns4 ,from the above comments it is evident that only the barest idea of the ,overtures can be gained from a pianoforte version2 we have selected ,oberon#ahf because it suffers less than either of the others4 ,everyone1 however1 should become familiar with the mysterious1 boding passage in the introduction to ,der ,freischtz 7taken from the scene in the ,wolf's ,glen7 and the ,intermezzo from ,euryanthe for muted1 divided strings1#ahg which accompanies the apparition of the ghost4 ,this is genuine descriptive music for it really sounds ghostly4 7,see ,supplement ,no4 #ea47 ,footnote #ahf3 ,not given in the ,supplement since good arrangements for two and four hands are numerous4 ,to gain the real effect the student is strongly advised to consult the orchestral score4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,the genesis of so many similar effects in modern music1 notably in ,wagner4 ,the ,oberon ,overture in ,d major1 begins with the intoning of the motto of ,oberon's magic horn1 and then follows a passage for muted strings 7piano e adagio sostenuto7 and for delicate combinations of the wood-wind instruments1 which gives us a picture of the moonlit glens of fairyland1 peopled with airy spirits4 ,the vision is dispelled by a sudden ff chord for full orchestra which1 from its setting1 is one of the loudest effects in music1 thoroughly characteristic of ,weber's penchant for dramatic contrast4 ,the main body of the work 7allegro con fuoco7 opens with a dashing theme for the strings of great brilliancy1 most typical of ,weber4 ,though we may feel that it has little substance 7note the tonic and dominant foundation of the harmony7 we cannot be insensible to its abounding vigor4 ,it is not alone the ponderous things which should move our imaginations2 even a soap-bubble is a wonderful phenomenon4 ,the theme is expanded to a climax1 in measure #bh 7counting from the allegro71 of great sonority and considerable harmonic boldness4 ,after some reminiscent appearances of the introductory horn-call1 a long-sustained dominant note introduces the second theme which seems a bit cloying1 to be sure1 but is just suited to the melting tone-color of the clarinet4 ,the closing theme borders on triviality2 the ,exposition ends1 however1 with some exceedingly brilliant improvisations on the rhythmic figure of the main theme4 ,the following ,development is rather flimsy and we need expend upon it no critical powder4 ,weber was a great colorist but not a great architect4 ,these qualities are united only too seldom4 ,in the ,recapitulation1 which is shortened by the omission of the second theme--rather overworked in the ,development--he is once more on his own ground of rhythmic life and dazzling orchestral color4 ,at the close we are convinced that the overture has accomplished its purpose of graphically depicting the revels of ,fairy-land4 ,although they are seldom#ahh played to-day1 no account of ,weber would be complete which entirely passed over his compositions for the ,pianoforte1 i4e41 the four ,sonatas1 the concert piece in ,f minor and the originally conceived ,invitation to the ,dance1 often played in the orchestral version of ,berlioz which is so much better than the inflated1 bombastic one by ,weingartner4 ,weber is classed as one of the founders of the brilliant school of pianoforte playing which1 chiefly through the genius of ,franz ,liszt1 has done so much to enlarge the sonorous and coloristic possibilities of the instrument4 ,here again ,weber's fame rests more upon his influence than upon lasting achievement2 as to the importance of this influence1 however1 there can be no doubt4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,perhaps the whirligig of time may restore them2 who can say8 ,the student will be repaid for informing#ahi himself as fully as possible concerning ,weber's career and artistic ideals1 for he was a genuine though early exponent of ,romantic tendencies4 ,of marked versatility1 of no mean literary skill and of such social magnetism and charm that he might properly be considered a man of the world1 as well as an artist1 ,weber was thus enabled to do pioneer work in raising the standard of musicianship and in bringing the art of music and ordinary1 daily life into closer touch4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,the life in ,grove's ,dictionary is well worth while2 there are essays by ,krehbiel and others and1 above all1 the biographical and critical accounts in the two ,french series3 ,les ,musiciens ,clbres1 and ,les ,matres de la ,musique4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,schumann ,,and ,,mendelssohn ,in distinction from pioneers like ,schubert1 slightly tinged with ,romanticism1 and ,weber who1 though versatile1 was somewhat lacking in creative vigor1 ,schumann 7#ahaj-ahef7 stands forth as the definite1 conscious spokesman of the ,romantic movement in ,german art just as ,berlioz was for art in ,france4 ,he was endowed with literary gifts of a high order1 had a keen critical and historical sense and wrote freely and convincingly in support of his own views and in generous recognition of the ideals of his contemporaries4 ,many of his swans1 to be sure1 proved later to be geese1 and it is debatable how much good was done by his rhapsodic praise to young ,brahms2 whether in fact he did not set before the youngster a chimerical ideal impossible of attainment4 ,schumann early came under the influence of ,jean ,paul ,richter1 that incarnation of ,german ,romanticism1 whom he placed on the same high plane as ,shakespeare and ,beethoven4 ,an intimate appreciation of much that is fantastic and whimsical in ,schumann is possible only through acquaintance with the work of this ,jean ,paul4 ,schumann's first compositions were for the pianoforte--in fact his original ambition#aij was to be a pianoforte virtuoso--and to-day his permanent significance depends on the spontaneity in conception and the freedom of form manifested in these pianoforte works and in his romantic songs4 ,here we have the ipsissimus ,schumann1 as von ,blow so well remarks4 ,schumann's pianoforte style is compounded of two factors3 first1 his intensely subjective and varied imagination which1 nourished by the love of ,romantic literature1 craved an individual mode of expression2 second1 a power of concentration and of organic structure which was largely derived from a study of ,bach and of the later works of ,beethoven4 ,schumann saw that the regularity of abstract form1 found in the purely classical writers1 was not suited to the full expression of his moods and so he worked out a style of his own1 although in many cases this was simply a logical amplification or modification of former practice4 ,in his pianoforte compositions1 then1 we find a striking freedom in the choice of subject1 which is generally indicated by some poetically descriptive title1 e4g41 ,waldscenen1 ,nachtstcke1 ,fantasiestcke1 ,novelletten1 ,kreisleriana1 ,humoreske1 etc4 ,the danger in this form of subject matter is that it often degenerates into sentimentality coupled with a corresponding spinelessness of structure4 ,this danger ,schumann avoids by a style noticeable for terseness and structural solidity4 ,his effort was to give significance to every note2 all verbiage1 meaningless scale passages and monotonous arpeggios were swept away1 while the imagination was aroused by the bold use of dissonances and by the variety of tone-color4 ,a thoroughly novel feature was the flexibility of the rhythm1 which breaks from the old sing-song metres and abounds in syncopations1 in contrasted accents1 and in subtle combinations of metrical groups2 every effort being made to avoid the tyranny of the bar-line4 ,footnote #aij3 ,because of an unfortunate accident to one of his fingers this ambition1 however1 had to be abandoned4 ,the world thereby gained a great composer4 ,schumann's career was peculiar in that1 beginning as a pianoforte composer1 he tried successively every other form as well--the song1 chamber music1 works for orchestra1 and for orchestra with solo voices and chorus--and won distinction to a greater or less degree in every field save that of the opera4 ,notwithstanding the beauty of poetic inspiration enshrined in the four symphonies1 a grave defect is the quality of orchestral tone which greets the ear1 especially the modern ear accustomed to the many-hued sonority of ,wagner1 ,tchaikowsky1 ,debussy and others4 ,these symphonies have been called huge pieces for four hands which were afterwards orchestrated1 and the allegation is not without truth1 as real orchestral glow and brilliancy is so often lacking4 ,each one1 however1 has notable features1 e4g41 the sublime ,adagio of the #b;d1 and the touching ,romanza of the #dth1 and each is worthy of study2 for ,schumann in certain aspects furnishes the best avenue of approach to the modern school4 ,in the ,fourth ,symphony he obliterates the pauses between the movements and fuses them all together2 calling it a ,symphony in einem ,satze and anticipating the very same procedure that ,schnberg follows in his ,string ,quartet which has had recent vogue4 ,schumann's chief contribution to the development of the ,german ,song lay in the pianoforte part1 which with ,schubert and ,mendelssohn might properly be called an accompaniment1 however rich and varied4 ,but in ,schumann the pianoforte attains to a real independence of style1 intensifying in the most subtle and delicate way every shade of poetic feeling in the text4 ,in fact1 it is often used to reveal some deep meaning beyond the expressive power of words4 ,this is seen in the closing measures of ,moonlight where the voice ceases in suspense1 and the instrument completes the eloquence of the message4 ,schumann's great achievement as a literary man was his founding1 in #ahcd1 of the ,neue ,zeitschrift fr ,musik1 to which he himself contributed many stimulating and suggestive essays1 opposing with might and main the ,philistinism which so pervaded the music of his time4 ,he even established an imaginary club1 called the ,davidsbund1 to storm the citadel of ,philistia4 ,the best eulogy of ,schumann is the recognition that many of the tendencies in modern music1 which we now take for granted1 date from him3 the exaltation of freedom and fancy over mere formal presentation1 the union of broad culture with musical technique1 and the recognition of music as the art closest in touch with the aspirations of humanity4 ,he was an idealist with such perseverance and clearness of aim that his more characteristic work can never die4 ,,des ,,abends4 ,the ,fantasiestcke#aia1 op4 #ab1 of which this piece is the first1 amply justify their title1 for they abound in soaring thoughts1 in fantastic1 whimsical imaginings and in novel modes of utterance and structure4 ,every number of the set is a gem1 ,in der ,nacht being perhaps the most poetic of ,schumann's short pieces for the pianoforte4 ,they are thoroughly pianistic and evoke from the instrument all its possibilities of sonority and color4 ,in point of texture they illustrate that happy combination1 which ,schumann worked out1 of lyric melodies on a firmly knit polyphonic basis4 ,they are also programmistic in so far as ,schumann believed in music of that type4 ,there is no attempt to tell a detailed story or to have the music correspond literally to definite incidents4 ,the titles merely afford a verbal clue to the general import and atmosphere of the music4 ,thus in regard to the piece under consideration1 the mere mention of eventide is supposed to be enough to stimulate thought in any one with a sensitive imagination1 and the music is a suggestive expression of ,schumann's own intimate reveries4 ,the piece is in extended two-part form--each part repeated--and rounded out with an eloquent ,coda4 ,the rhythmic scheme is of particular significance for it illustrates not only the composer's fondness for inventing new combinations1 but1 as well1 suggests most delicately the mood of the piece4 ,it would evidently be false art to write a piece1 entitled ,evening1 in a vigorous1 arousing rhythm1 such as might be associated with a noon-day sun1 when we often see the heat-waves dancing over the fields4 ,on the other hand ,schumann1 by a subtle blending of triple time in the main upper melody and duple time in the lower1 suggests that hazy indefiniteness appropriate to the time of day when the life of ,nature seems momentarily subsiding and everything sinking to rest1 e4g4 ,music ,in many measures of the second part 7i4e41 #ba-bd7 the accent is so disguised that it seems as if we were in a twilight revery1 quite apart from matters of time and space4 ,footnote #aia3 ,as the music is readily procurable the student should make himself familiar with the entire set4 ,,warum8 ,this piece is a happy illustration of the intensity of meaning and the conciseness of structure which ,schumann gained by the application of polyphonic imitation4 ,it is difficult to say exactly what ,warum signifies4 ,it was characteristic of the ,romantic unrest of the ,german mind to question everything--especially ,why am ,i not more happy in love8 ,the motto may be considered a ,carlyle-like everlasting why4 ,at any rate the composition is an example of music speaking more plainly than words2 for no one can fail to recognize the haunting appeal in the theme with its long-drawn out final note after the upward leap4 ,it is a real musical question1 e4g4 ,music ,grillen1 the next piece in the set1 deserves careful study4 ,it is too long to present as a whole1 but we cite the middle part 7,see ,supplement ,no4 #eb7 as it is such a convincing example of syncopated effect 7i4e41 the persistent placing of the accent on weak beats71 and of elasticity in the metric scheme4 ,novellette in ,e major4 ,this piece illustrates the vigor and massiveness of ,schumann's pianoforte style4 ,note the sonority gained by the use of widely spaced chords4 ,for the brilliant effect demanded1 there should be a liberal use of the damper pedal4#aib ,we likewise find1 beginning with the third brace1 some characteristic polyphonic imitations which give to the movement a remarkable concentration4 ,in the middle contrasting portion it seems as if ,schumann had taken a leaf out of ,chopin's book--a beautiful1 lyric melody floating on an undercurrent of sonorous1 arpeggio chords4 ,the theme is presented in dialogue form1 first in the upper voice1 next in an inner voice and finally in the bass4 7,see ,supplement ,no4 #ec47 ,footnote #aib3 ,a beautiful contrast may be made by playing the section in ,f major with the una corda pedal throughout4 ,,song1 ,mondnacht4 ,no estimate of ,schumann would be fair or comprehensive without some mention of his songs2 upon which1 together with his pianoforte compositions1 his immortality tends more and more to rest4 ,notwithstanding the many poetic and dramatic touches in ,schubert's accompaniments1 those of ,schumann are on the whole more finely wrought2 for he had the advantage of ,schubert in being1 himself1 a pianist of high attainment1 thoroughly versed in pianistic effects4 ,his imagination was also more sensitive to subtle shades of meaning in the text and he was inspired by the wonderful lyrics of ,heine1 ,eichendorff and ,chamisso who in ,schubert's day had written very little4 ,special features of ,schumann's songs are the instrumental preludes and postludes1 the prelude establishing just the right setting for the import of the words and the postlude commenting on the beautiful message which the voice has just delivered4 ,in ,mondnacht1 for example1 7as previously mentioned71 note how the voice stops in suspense and in what an eloquent revery the accompaniment completes the picture4 7,see ,supplement ,no4 #ed47 ,,overture ,,to ,manfred4 ,this ,overture1 the first of a set of incidental numbers which ,schumann composed to illustrate ,byron's dramatic poem1 represents some of his most typical inspiration1 and so is well worthy of our study4 ,the music is labored at times1 especially in the ,development1 and the orchestration is often dry and stereotyped4 ,but the conception was a powerful one1 and there is a genuine correspondence between the nature of the music and the spirit of the poem4 ,it is evident that the subject made a deep impression on ,schumann1 whose own imagination1 addicted to mysterious and even morbid broodings1 was strongly akin to that of ,byron's fictitious character4 ,the composition is program music of the subjective order1 comparable to ,beethoven's ,coriolanus1 i4e41 the themes are dramatic characterizations3 the first typifying the stormy nature of ,manfred2 the second1 with its note of pleading1 the mysterious influence over the recluse of the spirit of ,astarte4 ,as in all works of this kind the music cannot be readily appreciated without a knowledge of the poem which it illustrates4#aic ,as for the structure1 ,schumann clings too closely to the ,sonata-form4 ,the music is eloquent just in proportion as he gives his fancy free rein2 where he tries to force the themes into an arbitrary mould1 the result is unsatisfactory--especially the development1 which is neither very dramatic nor interesting from a purely musical point of view4 ,the work opens with three spasmodic syncopated#aid chords1 and then follow twenty-four measures 7lento and at first pianissimo7 of a preludial nature with suggestions of the ,manfred theme4 ,the movement becomes gradually faster and more impassioned until1 in measure #bf1 we reach the presentation of the first theme 7allegro agitato7 which1 with its frequent syncopations1 is characteristic of ,manfred's restless nature4 ,the transition begins in measure #ci2 at first with a repetition of the main theme1 which soon modulates to ,f-sharp minor1 in which key the second theme enters1 in measure #ea4 ,this theme--in three portions--seems to embody different aspects of the feminine influence of ,astarte4 ,the first portion1 measures #ea-fa1 with its undulating1 chromatic outline1 may be said to typify the haunting apparition so real to ,manfred's imagination and yet so intangible2 the second1 #fb-fg1 contains a note of impassioned protest1 and the third1 #fh-gg1 is a love message of tender consolation4 ,if this interpretation seem too subjective1 a careful reading of the drama where ,astarte appears 7pp4 #bhd-bhe in the ,everyman's ,edition7 will1 we believe1 corroborate it4 ,the rest of the ,exposition consists in a treatment of the ,astarte motive1 primarily of a musical nature2 though there is a real dramatic intensity in measures #if-ajc1 which are an expansion of the love message with its characteristic appoggiatura4 ,the ,development1 beginning in measure #acb1 is a striking example of how difficult it was--even for an exponent of freedom in musical expression like ,schumann--to break loose from the shackles of arbitrary form4 ,the musical thought is kept in motion1 to be sure1 but that is about all2 for the treatment is often very labored1 and nothing is added to the dramatic picture4 ,the world had to await the work of ,tchaikowsky1 and ,strauss for a satisfactory adjustment#aie between the demands of dramatic fitness and the needs of musical structure4 ,in the ,coda1 beginning measure #beh1 ,schumann--now that he is free from considerations of structure--gains a dramatic effect of truly impressive power4 ,the horns1 supported by trumpets and trombones1 intone a funeral dirge of touching solemnity 7evidently suggested by the closing death scene of the drama7 while1 above1 hover portions of the ,astarte motive1 as if even in his death her influence was paramount in ,manfred's imagination1 e4g4 ,music ,notwithstanding certain blemishes1 this ,overture at the time of its composition was a landmark in the development of program music1 and if to our modern tastes it seems a bit antiquated1 this is largely because of the great progress which has since been made4#aif ,footnote #aic3 ,the poem is easily procured in a volume of ,everyman's ,library4 ,footnote #aid3 ,these chords are an amusing example of a paper effect1 for unless you watch the conductor's beat1 it is impossible to feel the syncopation4 ,there being no first beat proper1 the chords are syncopated against the air6 ,footnote #aie3 ,for pertinent comments on this point see ,newman's essay on ,program ,music1 pp4 #acd-ace1 in his ,musical ,studies4 ,footnote #aif3 ,in studying this work consult1 if possible1 the orchestral score4 ,for those who need a condensed two-hand arrangement1 the ,litolff edition is to be recommended4 ,,symphony ,,in ,d ,,minor4 ,this ,symphony is selected from ,schumann's four1 both for the peculiar romantic beauty of its themes and because the form in which it is cast makes it an important connecting link between the freedom of structure1 instituted by ,beethoven1 and the ,symphonic ,poem of ,liszt and other modern composers4 ,all of ,schumann's symphonies contain genuine beauties and should be familiar to the cultivated musician4 ,perhaps the first in ,b-flat major is the most sustained1 and it has a freshness and buoyancy summed up in its title1 the ,spring1 by which it is popularly known4 ,the exuberance of the ,finale is pure ,schumann and is expressed with an orchestral eloquence in which he was frequently lacking4#aig ,the ,second ,symphony is notable for its sublime ,adagio1 ,schumann's love-song--comparable to the slow movement of ,beethoven's ,fourth4 ,at some future day1 conductors will have the courage to play this movement by itself like a magnificent ,torso1 for indubitably the other movements have aged beyond recall4 ,the ,third ,symphony1 known as the ,rhenish 7composed when ,schumann was living at ,dsseldorf on the ,rhine7 is significant for its incorporation of popular melodies from the ,rhineland1 and for the movement1 scored chiefly for trombones and other brass instruments1 which gives a picture of some ceremonial occasion in the ,cologne ,cathedral4 ,footnote #aig3 ,it is more than a matter of mere chronology to realise that the ,d minor ,symphony was composed in the same year as the ,b-flat major4 ,it was afterwards revised and published as ,no4 #d1 but the vitality and spontaneity of its themes come from the first gush of ,schumann's inspiration4 ,the ,fourth ,symphony is an uneven work1 for there are many places where ,schumann's constructive power was unequal to his ideal conceptions4 ,we often can see the joints1 and the structure--in places--resembles a rag-carpet rather than the organic texture of an oriental rug4 ,but the spontaneous outpouring of melody touches our emotions and well-nigh disarms criticism4 ,schumann had constantly been striving for a closer relationship#aih between the conventional movements of the symphony2 and his purpose1 in the structural treatment adopted1 is indicated by the statement published in the full score--,introduction1 ,allegro1 ,romanze1 ,scherzo und ,finale in einem ,satze i4e41 the work is to be considered as a continuous whole and not broken up into arbitrary movements with rigid pauses between4 ,the long drawn-out ,introduction1#aii with its mysterious harmonies1 leads us into the land of romance1 and a portion of this introduction is happily carried over and repeated in the ,romanze4 ,the ,first movement proper1 from ,lebhaft1 seems at first as if it were to be in the customary ,sonata-form2 the ,exposition beginning with two themes in the normal relationship of minor and relative major1 though to be sure the second theme is more of a supplementary expansion of the first than one which provides a strong contrast4 ,but after the double bar and repeat1 this first theme is developed in a free preludial manner as if it were continually leading up to a climax4 ,we are finally rewarded by a new theme of great warmth which amply makes up for any lack of individuality in the second theme proper1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #aih3 ,we find traces of this tendency in the ,first ,symphony1 where the ,slow ,movement and the ,scherzo are linked together1 likewise in the ,second1 where the motto of the first movement is repeated at the end of the ,scherzo4 ,footnote #aii3 ,the analysis is based1 as usual1 on the orchestral score2 for class-room study there are excellent editions for two and four hands4 ,the rest of the movement consists of additional improvisations1 rather too rigidly sectionalized1 on the first theme and a second appearance of the interpolated theme4 ,this theme1 with rhythmic modifications1 serves also as the basis for the brilliant ,coda2 for there is no ,recapitulation proper1 and it is evident that the movement is an extended prelude for what is to come--a first portion of the work as a whole4 ,after a dramatic pause1#bjj which enhances the feeling of expectancy 7so prominent in the first movement7 followed by a sustained modulatory chord1 the ,romanze begins with a plaintive theme in ,a minor4 ,the mood is that of an idealized serenade1 and in the original score the accompaniment for the oboe melody was given to the guitar#bja to secure the appropriate atmosphere4 ,after the first statement of the theme there is an interpolated quotation of the characteristic passage from the introduction1 which serves to bind the movements together both in structure and in relationship of mood4 ,the movement is in clear-cut three-part form and the middle contrasting section in the major mode reveals a sustained descending melody played by the body of strings1 which is delicately embellished by an obligato variant given to a solo violin1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bjj3 ,concert-goers may well be reminded that there should be no applause between the movements of this work4 ,one of the most pernicious ideas of the public is that as soon as the music ceases1 handclapping should begin2 whereas a complete silence is often the very means the composer employs for intensifying what has been said and preparing for what is to come4 ,let us ponder the cryptic remark attributed to ,mozart that the rests in music are more important than the notes4 ,footnote #bja3 ,this was afterwards withdrawn as impracticable4 ,what a pity that ,schumann wrote before the harp as a member of the orchestra had come into its own4 ,for the mood which he was trying to establish compare the scoring of this ,romanza with that in the ,slow movement of ,franck's ,symphony4 ,at first the 'cellos1 also1 re-enforce this melody4 ,music ,the effect is that of an ethereal voice commenting on the beauty of the main theme4 ,this obligato part is of special significance1 since with rhythmic change it forms the chief theme of the ,trio in the following movement4 ,the ,romanze closes with a simple return to the plaintive oboe melody1 this time in ,d minor4 ,the tonality is purposely indefinite to accentuate the wistful feeling of the movement--the last chords having the suspense of a dominant ending4 ,after a short pause we are at once whirled into the dashing ,scherzo which seems to represent the playful badinage of a ,romantic lover4 ,the ,trio affords a delightful reminiscence of the ,romanze and1 from a structural point of view1 is an early example of the principle of transformation of theme#bjb which plays so important a role in the works of ,liszt1 ,franck1 ,tchaikowsky and ,dvovrk4 ,for the melody1 e4g41 ,music is a rhythmic variant of the former obligato of the solo violin1 and has this characteristic1 which gives a peculiar note of surprise1 that it always begins on the third beat of the measure4 ,following a repetition of the ,scherzo the movement ends eloquently with a coda-like return to the ,trio which1 after some modulatory changes1 is broken up into detached fragments1 seeming to vanish into thin air4 ,there is no pause between the end of the ,scherzo and the introduction1 based on the theme of the first movement1 which ushers in the ,finale4 ,this movement is in ,sonata-form with a modified ,recapitulation--i4e41 the first theme is not repeated--and with a passionate closing theme1 e4g41 ,music which atones for the intentional incompleteness with which the first movement ends4 ,the main theme is a compound of a vigorous march-like motive1 closely related to one of the subsidiary phrases of the first movement1 and a running figure in the bass--the derivation of which is obvious4 ,after a rather labored transition#bjc--surely the most mechanical passage in the whole work--we are rewarded by a melody of great buoyancy and rhythmic life1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bjb3 ,in ,brahms1 who was something of a conservative as to freedom of form1 there is a striking example in the connection between the second movement and the ,finale of the ,third ,symphony4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,schumann was a true poet in the spontaneity of his themes1 but often an unsuccessful architect when connecting them4 ,the free ,fantasie begins with a contrapuntal working-out of a figure taken from the first theme1 but it suffers from a persistent emphasis on what1 after all1 is an uninteresting rhythm ,music2 there is1 furthermore1 a rigid grouping of the phrases in twos and fours4 ,schumann's instinct was a wise one in omitting the main theme of the ,recapitulation and in leading1 as soon as possible1 to the repetition of the delightful second theme--the gem of the movement--which now makes its orthodox appearance in the tonic4 ,after some ejaculatory measures1 which remind us of the beginning of the ,development1 we have the impassioned closing theme1 referred to above1 which ushers in the free and brilliant ,coda1 worked up contrapuntally with ever increasing speed4 ,the movement ends with ,schumannesque syncopations4 ,the ,d minor ,symphony1 thus1 although not a perfect work of art1 is a significant one and repays intimate study4 ,a long life may safely be predicted for it by reason of the fervor and charm of its melodies4 ,an important historical status it will always hold1 for it is the honorable ancestor of such great symphonies as ,csar ,franck's in ,d minor and ,tchaikowsky's in ,e minor1 in which we find the same freedom of form and the same fusion of material attempted by ,schumann's daring spirit4#bjd ,footnote #bjd3 ,for a detailed and illuminating study of this symphony and of ,schumann's style in general see the last essay in ,preludes and ,studies by ,w4,j4 ,henderson4 ,another excellent essay may be found in ,studies in ,modern ,music by ,w4,h4 ,hadow4 ,closely connected with ,schumann1 chronologically and also by certain executive associations1 e4g41 the ,leipsic ,conservatory1 is the career of ,mendelssohn 7#ahji-ahdg74 ,there was much in common between the two2 they both were extremely versatile1 of strong literary bent and naturally drawn to the same media of expression3 pianoforte1 solo voices and orchestra4 ,and yet1 so dissimilar were the underlying strains in their temperaments that their compositions1 as an expression of their personalities1 show little in common4 ,schumann1 as we have seen1 was fantastic1 mystical1 a bold1 independent thinker1 the quintessence of the ,romantic spirit4 ,mendelssohn1 on the other hand1 though not lacking in poetic fancy and warmth1 was cautious--a born conservative2 and his early classical training1 together with the opulent circumstances of his life1 served as a natural check upon the freedom of genius4 ,his dazzling precocity--witness the ,midsummer ,night's ,dream ,overture1 composed while he was in his seventeenth year--and a great popular success were surely not the best stimuli to make him delve into the depths of his imagination4 ,undoubtedly he did a valuable service1 in his day1 in uniting the leading tendencies of the two schools3 the exuberant fancy of the ,romantic1 and the reserve and finish of the ,classic4 ,he has been aptly called a ,romanticist with a classical equipment4 ,if any appraisement be necessary to the detriment of one or the other1 it must be conceded that ,schumann was the greater genius4 ,a just estimate of ,mendelssohn's work is difficult1 for his career was so meteoric and in his life he was so overvalued that now1 with the opposite swing of the pendulum1 he is as often underrated4 ,he was assuredly a great artist1 for what he had to say was beautifully expressed2 the question hinges on the actual worth of the message4 ,with perfect finish there often goes a lack of power and objective energy2 somewhat the same difference that we feel between skillful gardening and the free vitality of ,nature4 ,although ,mendelssohn's music delights and charms there is a prevailing lack of that deep emotion which alone can move the soul4 ,and yet a composer whom ,wagner called the greatest of landscape painters and whose best works have stood the test of time can by no means be scorned4 ,his descriptive ,overtures for orchestra3 the ,hebrides1 the ,midsummer ,night's ,dream and the ,fair ,melusine2 his ,variations ,srieuses for ,pianoforte and some of the ,songs without ,words#bje contain a genuinely poetic message1 flawlessly expressed4 ,as for the pianoforte music1 when the ,songs without ,words are called hackneyed we must remember that only compositions of truly popular appeal ever have sufficient vogue to warrant the application of this opprobrious term4 ,in the pianoforte ,scherzos and in the ,rondo ,capriccioso in ,e major there is without doubt a vitality and a play of fancy easier to criticize than to create4 ,the prevalent mood in ,mendelssohn's music is one of sunny-hearted lightness and emotional satisfaction2 and if this be a one-sided presentation of life1 it is no more so1 as ,pratt well says in his ,history of ,music1 than the picture of gloom and sorrow which certain other composers continually emphasize4 ,the fact that his descriptive ,overtures1 just mentioned1 have been surpassed--owing to the recent expansion in orchestral possibilities of tone-color--must not blind us to the beauty of their content1 or make us forget the impetus they have given to modern composers4 ,no one could possibly find in the ,hebrides ,overture that subtle descriptive fancy or that wealth of orchestral coloring which exists in ,debussy's marvellous ,sea ,pieces2 and yet the ,mendelssohn composition is a genuine reflection of nature in terms of music and can still be heard with sustained attention4 ,wagner#bjf praises highly its orchestral effects2 and a modern scholar1 ,cecil ,forsyth1#bjg considers the tone-painting quite irresistible4 ,a sincere tribute of admiration should also be paid to ,mendelssohn's ,concerto for ,violin and ,orchestra4 ,written in the most idiomatic style for the solo instrument and containing real violin melodies it is still one of the few great works in its class4 ,any final critical estimate of ,mendelssohn--no matter how earnest the effort to be absolutely fair--is inevitably involved with personal prejudices4 ,if his music appeals to any one1 it is liked extremely and no one need be ashamed of enjoying it1 for it is sincerely felt and beautifully expressed4 ,mendelssohn1 himself1 doubtless knew perfectly well that he was not ,bach1 ,beethoven or ,schubert4 ,for those whose natures crave a more robust message1 more fire and a deeper passion1 there are the works of those other composers to which they may turn4 ,footnote #bje3 ,several of these were constantly played by both ,paderewski and ,de ,pachman1 two of the greatest virtuosi of our day3 surely a convincing tribute6 ,footnote #bjf3 ,see the ,oxford ,history of ,music1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #hj-hd4 ,anyone who cares to see what ,wagner owed to ,mendelssohn may compare the opening theme1 and its treatment1 of the ,fair ,melusine ,overture with the music of the ,rhine ,maidens in the ,rheingold4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,see his treatise on ,orchestration1 p4 #aid4 ,let us now analyze the ,midsummer ,night's ,dream ,overture1#bjh his first and highest flight to quote ,schumann4 ,in this work we do not find a characterization by musical means of the emotions of the dramatis personae1 as in the ,coriolanus ,overture2 and there is little specific correspondence between the type of theme and definite incidents1 except possibly at the beginning of the ,recapitulation1 where the low tones of the ,bass ,tuba#bji may be thought to represent the snores of ,bottom1 as the fairies hover about him4 ,anyone familiar with ,shakespeare's play--and such a knowledge is indispensible for a complete enjoyment of the music--will see that ,mendelssohn's object was to give a broad1 general picture of the fairy world and to intensify1 by his music1 the fancy and humor found in the play4 ,the introductory sustained chords1 pianissimo1 are a happy illustration of his deftness in tone-painting2 for1 assigned to the ethereal flutes and clarinets1 they constitute1 as ,niecks ingeniously expresses it1 a magic formula which ushers us into the moonlit realm of fairyland4 ,the first theme in ,e minor 7,allegro di molto3 throughout pp and staccato71 announced by the strings1 is a graphic representation of the playful antics of the nimble elves and fairies4 ,its course is twice interrupted by a peculiar1 prolonged chord which seems to say1 ,hush6 you are listening to the activities of beings not of this every-day1 humdrum world4 ,the first theme has a second part in ,e major 7beginning at measure #fb7 of a pompous1 march-like nature1 which may be thought to represent the dignity of ,duke ,theseus and his train4 ,the ,overture being in complete ,sonata-form1 there occurs at this point a short transition based on the rhythm of the first theme2 followed by a lovely cantabile melody--the second theme proper--that typifies the romantic love pervading the play4 ,this theme also is expanded into several sections2 the first of which may portray the clownish ,athenian tradespeople1 and the second1 the brays of ,bottom after he has been transformed into an ass1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bjh3 ,this is exceptionally effective in the four-hand version--in fact1 it was often played as a pianoforte duet by his sister ,fanny and himself--although the real poetic effect is inseparably connected with the orchestral treatment4 ,footnote #bji3 ,originally these tones were played by the ,ophicleide or ,serpent 7now obsolete74 ,the free fantasia1 an improvisation on the first theme--although containing a few perfunctory manipulations--sustains interest1 as a whole1 by its modulations and by the suggestive orchestral effects4 ,the closing measures1 where the pizzicato 'cellos and double basses seem to imitate the light1 tripping footsteps of the elves1 is genuinely realistic4 ,the ,recapitulation1 which begins with the same chords as the ,introduction1 is an illustration of bondage to classic practise2 for here they have no dramatic significance and are merely a concession to routine procedure4#baj ,the first theme and the transition1 however1 are effectively abridged so that the second theme1 by far the most appealing in the whole work1 stands out in greater prominence4 ,then follows a brilliant expansion of the closing portions of the second theme1 until we reach the ,coda4 ,this begins with a reminiscence of the first theme which fades away into a modified presentation of the ,duke ,theseus theme1 followed by four long-drawn out ,amens4#baa ,these may signify the blessing which1 in the play1 the elves bestow upon the ,ducal house4 ,the ,introductory chords dissolve the dream which the music has evoked1 and we are back once more in the world of reality4 ,footnote #baj3 ,this1 after all1 is a rather subtle point for a boy of seventeen to be called upon to consider4 ,perhaps if he had been that kind of a boy he might not have written the ,overture at all6 ,footnote #baa3 ,the ecclesiastical formula for an ,amen being the so-called ,plagal cadence of subdominant and tonic chords4 ,to suggest the attitude which we of to-day should take towards ,mendelssohn--he may justly be admired as a musician of great natural gifts1 of high ideals and of unusually finished technique in many branches of composition4 ,it is ungracious to censure him because he lacks the gripping emotional power of a ,beethoven or a ,wagner4 ,those who indulge in such narrow criticism condemn only themselves4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,chopin ,,and ,,pianoforte ,,style ,although ,chopin 7#ahji-ahdi7 was less aggressively romantic than others of the group we have been considering1 in many respects his music represents the romantic spirit in its fairest bloom4 ,not even yet has full justice been done him--although his fame is growing--since he is often considered as a composer of mere salon-pieces which1 though captivating1 are too gossamer-like to merit serious attention4 ,chopin was a life-long student of ,bach2 and much of his music1 in its closeness of texture1 shows unmistakably the influence of that master4 ,together with ,schumann1 he broke away from the strict formality of the old classic forms and instituted the reign of freely conceived tone-poems for the pianoforte3 the form being conditioned by the poetic feelings of the composer4 ,as far as fundamental principles of architecture are concerned1 his pieces are generally simple1 modeled as they are on the two and three-part form and that of the rondo4 ,when he attempted works of large scope1 where varied material had to be held together1 he was lamentably deficient1 e4g41 in his ,sonatas4 ,in fact1 even in such pieces as the tudes and ,scherzos1 in the presentation of the material we find occasional blemishes4 ,but there are so many other wonderful qualities that this weakness may be overlooked4 ,in spite of a certain deficiency in form1 ,chopin is indisputably a great genius4 ,far too much stress has been laid on the delicacy of his style to the exclusion of the intensity and bold dramatic power that characterize much of his music to a marked degree4 ,though of frail physique1#bab and though living in an environment which tended to overdevelop his fastidious nature1 ,chopin had a fiery soul1 which would assert itself with unmistakable force4 ,his music by no means consists solely of melting moods or languorous sighs2 he had a keen instinct for the dissonant element 7witness passages in the ,g minor ,ballade72 he was a daring harmonic innovator2 and much of his music is surcharged with tragic significance4 ,a born stylist1 he nevertheless did not avoid incessant labor to secure the acme of finish4 ,so perfect in his works is the balance between substance and treatment1 that they make a direct appeal to music-lovers of every nation4 ,in listening to ,chopin we are never conscious of turgidity1 of diffuseness1 of labored treatment of material4 ,all is direct1 pellucid2 poetic thoughts are presented in a convincingly beautiful manner4 ,he was a great colorist as well1 and in his work we must recognize the fact that color in music is as distinct an achievement of the imagination as profound thought or beauty of line4 ,chopin's position in regard to program music is an interesting subject for speculation4 ,few of his works bear specifically descriptive titles2 and it is well known that he had little sympathy with the extreme tendencies of ,berlioz and ,liszt4 ,yet there is1 in general1 something more than an abstract presentation of musical material1 however beautiful4 ,the varied moods aroused by the ,ballades and ,nocturnes1 the actual pictures we see in the ,polonaises1 must have had their counterpart in definite subjective experiences in the life of the composer1 and so from a broad psychological standpoint--even in the absence of explanatory titles--we may call ,chopin a thoroughly romantic tone-poet2 indeed1 as ,balzac says1 a soul which rendered itself audible4 ,footnote #bab3 ,he was born of a ,polish mother and a ,french father1 and these mixed strains of blood account fundamentally for the leading characteristics of his music4 ,from the former strain came the impassioned1 romantic and at times chivalrous moods1 prominent in all ,polish life and art2 and from the latter the grace1 charm and finish which we rightly associate with the ,french nature4 ,for side-lights on ,chopin's intimacy with ,george ,sand see the well-known essays by ,henry ,james and ,ren ,doumic4 ,as ,chopin composed so idiomatically for his chosen instrument1 the pianoforte1 to which he devoted himself exclusively1#bac no understanding or adequate appreciation of the subtleties of his style is possible without some knowledge of the nature and attributes of this instrument which1 in our time1 has become the universal medium for the rendering of music4 ,all of ,chopin's works were not only published for the pianoforte but were conceived in terms of the pianoforte2 his style in this respect being quite unique in the history of musical art4 ,for there are noble and poetically inspired thoughts of many composers which may be satisfactorily presented through a number of media3 pianoforte1 organ1 string-quartet or voices4 ,this fact has been the cause of many so-called transcriptions of orchestral or string-quartet music for the organ4 ,a composer1 furthermore1 often publishes a work for a certain instrument when the inner evidence shows that1 during the period of creation1 he actually had some other medium in mind4 ,beethoven's ,sonatas abound#bad in effects which1 for their complete realization1 require an orchestra2 so that1 notwithstanding the beauty of the thought1 his style is often anything but pianistic4 ,in certain of ,csar ,franck's pianoforte works we are conscious of his predilection for the organ1 as the spirit of the music demands a sustained volume of sound which the organ1 with its powerful lungs1 alone can give4 ,but if the full beauty of ,chopin's conception is to be gained1 his music must be played on the pianoforte and on nothing else4 ,the pianoforte has1 to be sure1 several limitations2 it is not per se a loud instrument in comparison with a trumpet or an organ1 and the whole nature of its tone is evanescent--that is1 as soon as the tone is produced1 it begins to fade away1 decrescendo symbol4 ,this latter apparent limitation1 however1 is in fact one of its most suggestive beauties2 for nothing is more stimulating to the imagination than the dying away of a beautiful sound1 as may be felt in the striking of a clear-toned bell1 or in the wonderful diminuendo of the horn4 ,this effect1 inherent in pianoforte tone1 should be more utilized rather than deplored1 especially since dwelling on a delightful harmony or a single dramatic note is a definite characteristic of tempo rubato--that peculiar feature of ,chopin's rhythm4 ,the pianoforte can neither steadily sustain a tone sustaining symbol nor increase it crescendo symbol2 achievements for which the strings and the wind instruments are so valued4 ,on the other hand1 the instrument has the merits of great sonority and marvellous coloristic possibilities2 and when music is composed for the pianoforte by one who understands its secrets and1 furthermore1 when it is properly played1 it is quite the finest#bae instrument ever yet brought under the control of a single performer4 ,again1 the pianoforte is not meant for great rapidity of utterance1 such as1 for instance1 we associate with the violin1 the flute or the clarinet4 ,it is1 in fact1 often played too fast1 sounding like a pianola or a machine rather than an instrument with a soul4 ,if there be no lingering over the notes1 beautiful effects have no opportunity to be heard4 ,rapidity and brilliance on the pianoforte do not depend on so many notes per second but on vitality and precision of accent4 ,these admirable qualities of the instrument are due to the great number of vibrating metal strings 7in a modern concert-grand1 about two hundred and thirty1 i4e41 three strings to each of the twelve notes of the seven octaves1 save for a few of the lowest bass notes72 to the large sounding board 7about twenty-four square feet1 on the largest model71 and above all to the damper pedal which ,rubinstein--so appropriately--calls the soul of the pianoforte4 ,the very term ,pianoforte implies a wealth of meaning2 for a special glory of the instrument is its power of shading1 its flexibility of utterance1 from piano to forte or vice versa4 ,the limits themselves1 to be sure1 are not so striking as in certain other instruments1 e4g41 the pianoforte cannot produce the almost ghostly whisper of which the clarinet is capable1 nor can it equal the trumpet or the trombone in intensity or volume4 ,but it can produce a very beautiful pianissimo2 and if a sense of relativity be kept1 and soft effects begun quietly enough1 it can be made to sound with remarkable brilliancy4 ,the pianoforte should always be played with a keen regard for this power of shading1 of nuance2 the tones should undulate like the winds or the waves4 ,anything like the steady sostenuto level for which the organ shows itself so fitted is1 except for special effects1 entirely foreign to the nature of the pianoforte4 ,nor should we ever attempt to make it1 per se1 a loud1 overpowering instrument4 ,its forte and its brilliancy are purely relative2 and1 when forced to do something unsuited to its real nature1 it protests with a hard1 unmelodious tone4 ,footnote #bac3 ,the few exceptions being the ,polish ,songs1 the ,trio for ,violin1 ',cello and ,pianoforte and the orchestral accompaniment to the two ,concertos4 ,footnote #bad3 ,there will occur to every one numerous passages in which the pianoforte is expected to be a kettle-drum1 or where the figuration is far better suited to the violin than to the hand in connection with keys4 ,footnote #bae3 ,this by reason of its combined powers in melody1 harmony and rhythm4 ,some of these qualities it shares1 to be sure1 with the organ2 but the organ is inherently lacking in rhythm1 and its solid1 block-like tones do not exercise the same fascination upon the imagination as do the fleeting sounds of the pianoforte4 ,it is1 of course1 possible and desirable to enjoy both instruments--each in its own proper sphere1 and each for its characteristic effects4 ,likewise the two pedals1#baf when their technical names are understood1 imply their own meaning1 just as their popular designations hint at the way in which they are often abused4 ,the pedal employed by the right foot1 properly called the damper pedal1 is so named because1 by its action1 all the dampers of the key-board may be raised simultaneously4 ,this allows the strings to vibrate together and to send forth great waves of colored sound like those produced by an ,aeolian harp2 an effect similar to that heard when a sea-shell is held to the ear4 ,the pianoforte1 in fact1 has aptly been called a harp laid on its back to which the action of keys has been applied4 ,accordingly an open1 flowing style 7arpeggio7 is one of the idioms best suited to its nature4 ,to secure proper contrast1 a massive1 chordal style is sometimes employed by such composers as ,schumann1 ,brahms and ,franck--even at times by ,chopin himself2 but that the extended arpeggio 7often merely two voices1 with the body of tone secured by the pedal7 is the norm may be seen from almost any page of ,chopin's compositions4 ,the resonance and carrying power of these waves are intensified by raising the lid#bag of the pianoforte2 for then they are brought to a focus and projected into space4 ,the effect produced by raising the dampers is appropriate and beautiful1 not alone with consonant chords but1 at times1 equally with chords that are unrelated2 which1 were they sustained for long by an organ1 would be intolerably harsh4 ,but the tone of the pianoforte is so fleeting that such a mixture ensures great brilliance and warmth without undue jargon1 and is thus akin to the blending of strange colors by modern painters4 ,many people1 in fact1 play the pianoforte with too little1 rather than too much1 pedal2 or with too much pedal used the wrong way6 ,a definite attempt should be made to cultivate a feeling for color and warmth of tone2 a hard1 colorless tone on the pianoforte being a great blemish as it is so unnecessary4 ,the following passage illustrates the above points4 ,footnote #baf3 ,it is understood that all the comments are based on the action of a concert-grand pianoforte1 since on an upright or a square--because of mechanical limitations of space--the effects are quite different4 ,footnote #bag3 ,in this connection1 even at the risk of seeming to preach1 let the advice be given that nothing should ever be put on top of a grand pianoforte3 neither flowers1 afternoon tea-sets1 bird-cages1 books1 nor even an aquarium6 ,for the lid is not merely a cover1 but an additional sounding-board1 and must always be in readiness to be so used4 ,the pianoforte as a coloristic instrument1 in short1 is completely itself only when played with the lid raised4 ,music3 ,,chopin3 ,barcarolle ,there is really no such thing on the pianoforte as a pure single tone4 ,it is an acoustical law that no tone exists by itself1 but always generates a whole series of overtones#bah or upper partials1 as they are called1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bah3 ,an instrument designed to reinforce these upper tones1 so that they may be clearly heard1 is to be found in any ,physical ,laboratory4 ,that these tones really vibrate sympathetically may be proved by striking ff ,transcriber's ,note3 ,music example indicates sf this note ,music3 ,c#b ,with damper pedal and then pressing down very lightly the keys of ,g and ,e just above middle ,c1 thus removing the individual dampers of these notes4 ,in a quiet room the tones are distinctly audible4 ,for another rewarding experiment of the same nature1 see the ,introduction to the first volume of ,arthur ,whiting's ,pedal ,studies and the well-known treatise of ,helmholtz4 ,even what we call the perfectly consonant chord of ,c major1 e4g41 ,music would be slightly qualified and colored by the ,b-flat1 and this effect has actually been utilized by ,chopin in the final cadence of his ,prelude in ,f major1 ,no4 #bc1 e4g4 ,music ,in this example the ,e-flat must be very delicately accented and both pedals freely used4 ,let it be clearly understood1 therefore1 that the damper pedal--popularly but erroneously called the loud pedal--has nothing to do with noise as such4 ,its purpose is to amplify and color the waves of sound and these waves may vary all the way from pp to ff4 ,the dynamic gradation of pianoforte tone is caused by the amount of force with which the hammer strikes the wires2 and this power is applied by the attack and pressure of the fingers4 ,the damper pedal will1 to be sure1 reinforce fortissimo effects1 but logically it is only a means of reinforcement and should never be used so that a mere roar of sound is produced4 ,the normal pianoforte tone1 however1 is that brought forth in connection with the damper pedal1 and only to gain an effect of intentional coolness and dryness do we see in pianoforte literature the direction senza pedal2 passages so marked being often most appropriate as a strong contrast to highly colored ones4#bai ,footnote #bai3 ,for a complete and illuminating treatise on the pedals and their artistic use1 see the aforesaid two volumes of ,pedal ,studies by ,arthur ,whiting 7,g4 ,schirmer1 ,new ,york74 ,an important adjunct of the instrument1 though even less intelligently used1 is the pedal employed by the left foot2 that popularly known as the soft pedal1 but of which the technical name is the una corda pedal4 ,by this device on a grand pianoforte the whole key-board is shifted from left to right1 so that the hammers strike but two wires in each group of three1 and the third wire of the set is left free to vibrate sympathetically4 ,thus a very etherial1 magical quality of tone is produced1 especially in the upper ranges of the instrument4 ,in the middle register1 passages played forte or fortissimo will have a richness comparable to the ,g string of a violin4 ,the effect is analogous to that of a viol d'amour which has1 as is well known 7stretched underneath the strings1 which produce the actual tone7 a set of additional strings1 freely vibrating4 ,although this una corda#bbj pedal may be used in a dynamic sense to reduce1 as it were1 the size of the instrument1 its chief purpose is coloristic1 i4e41 to make possible a special quality of tone4 ,this statement is proved by directions in pianoforte literature as far back as ,beethoven1 in whose ,sonatas we find the dynamic marks of f and ff coupled with the proscribed use of the una corda pedal4 ,in any case1 this left-foot pedal should not be abused2 for1 just because the tone quality produced thereby is so beautiful and characteristic1 it soon becomes1 if constantly employed1 rather cloying4 ,the dynamic gradation of tone is primarily a matter for the control of the fingers1 i4e41 the touch4 ,the damper pedal is for sonority and color2 the una corda for special shades1 and all three factors--touch and the two pedals--are combined in pianistic effects which only a trained technique and artistic judgment can regulate4#bba ,footnote #bbj3 ,the term dates from the period when this pedal controlled three shifts3 una corda1 due corde and tre corde2 the hammer striking respectively one1 two or three strings4 ,the whole mechanism is well implied in the ,german word ,verschiebung1 i4e41 the shoving along--so frequent in ,schumann's works1 e4g41 the middle part of his ,vogel als ,prophet from the ,waldscenen1 op4 #hb1 ,no4 #g4 ,footnote #bba3 ,american pianofortes also have a middle pedal called the sustaining pedal1 by which tones in the lower register may be prolonged4 ,it has not proved to be of great value1 though there are occasional passages1 e4g41 the closing measures of the second movement of ,csar ,franck's ,violin ,sonata1 where it may be effectively employed4 ,even a slight analysis of ,chopin's style proves that it is based upon logical inferences1 drawn from the series of overtones as they are generated and reinforced by the very nature of the pianoforte4 ,from the wide spacing of the lower tones of the series ,chopin derived the extended grouping of his arpeggios1 e4g41 ,music ,music3 ,prelude1 ,no4 #ai so that the chord of the #ajth1 instead of the former grouping within the octave1 may be considered the basis of his harmonic scheme4 ,by this means a great gain was made in richness and sonority4 ,another striking feature of ,chopin's style is found in those groups of spray-like1 superadded notes with which the melody is embellished4 ,it is evident1 in many cases at least1 that these tones are not merely embroidery in the ordinary sense4 ,rather do they represent a reinforcement of the overtones1 ideally or actually present1 in connection with bass tones and chords used in the lower part of the musical fabric4 ,as a striking example#bbb see the long series of descending non-harmonic tones in the ,coda of the ,b major ,nocturne1 op4 #i1 ,no4 #c1 and note the delicate colors in the closing arpeggio chord 7to be played with a free use of both pedals74 ,footnote #bbb3 ,for a commentary on this passage see ,d4,g4 ,mason's essay on ,chopin in ,the ,romantic ,composers4 ,music ,in general1 ,chopin's style is homophonic--wondrous lyric melodies which seem to float on waves of richly colored sound4 ,but there is also much subtly used polyphony1 i4e41 delightful phrases in inner voices and imitative effects between the different parts4 ,in comparison1 however1 with ,schumann's style 7which is largely on a polyphonic basis7 ,chopin is a decidedly homophonic composer4#bbc ,a great deal of interesting and instructive reading on ,chopin is available and the following works are especially recommended3 ,chopin1 the ,man and his ,music by ,huneker2 the ,life of ,chopin by ,niecks2 the essay on ,chopin in ,mason's ,romantic ,composers and in ,hadow's ,studies in ,modern ,music2 the volume on ,chopin by ,eli ,poire in the series ,les ,musiciens ,clbres2 and the same by ,louis ,laloy in the series ,les ,matres de la ,musique2 the ,life by ,liszt 7well known and most valuable as coming from a contemporary and brother musician72 finally a somewhat rhapsodic essay by ,h4,t4 ,finck in ,chopin and ,other ,essays4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,for a detailed analysis of many special features of style see the volume by ,edgar ,stillman ,kelly1 ,chopin the ,composer4 ,we select1 as being thoroughly representative1 the following works for comment3 the first ,prelude1 the ,a-flat major tude1 the ,f-sharp minor ,mazurka1 the ,e-flat minor ,polonaise1 the ,barcarolle and the ,c-sharp minor ,scherzo4#bbd ,footnote #bbd3 ,to save space1 no one of these pieces except the ,barcarolle is given in the ,supplement1 since they are readily accessible4 ,the ,barcarolle1 however1 is given in order to make it better known2 for although it is one of the most inspired and beautifully expressed of all ,chopin's works1 it is heard comparatively seldom4 ,the best editions of the works are those of ,kullak1 ,mikuli and ,klindworth4 ,,prelude ,,in ,c ,,major1 ,,op4 #bh1 ,,no4 #a4 ,this ,prelude1 the first of the set of #bd1 is an excellent example of the sonority ,chopin gained from widely extended chords in the bass2 by the use--characteristically bold--of dissonances 7measures #ac-bj71 and by the sensuous richness of the closing measures1 in which a wonderful wave of sound is produced through the damper pedal1 in connection with the blending of the tonic1 dominant and subdominant chords4 ,the prelude is a kind of intensified ,bach and may well be compared with that prelude in the same key which begins the immortal well-tempered ,clavichord4 ,all the ,preludes1 for their poetic import1 finished style and pianistic effect1 are masterpieces of the first rank4 ,schumann well says of them3 ,they are sketches1 eagle's feathers1 all strangely intermingled4 ,but in every piece we recognize the hand of ,frdric ,chopin2 he is the boldest1 the proudest poet-soul of his time4 ,,tude ,,in ,a-,,flat ,,major1 ,,op4 #be1 ,,no4 #a4 ,this tude1 deservedly popular1 may be considered the example par excellence of ,chopin's style4 ,the lyric beauty of the melody1 the fascinating modulations1 the shades of color alike justify the following rhapsodic comments of ,schumann1 ,imagine that an ,aeolian harp possessed all the musical scales1 and that the hand of an artist were to cause them to intermingle in all sorts of fantastic embellishments1 yet in such a way as to leave everywhere audible a deep fundamental tone and a soft1 continuously singing upper voice1 and you will get about the right idea4 ,but it would be an error to think that ,chopin1 in playing this tude1 permitted every one of the small notes to be distinctly heard4 ,it was rather an undulation of the ,a-flat major chord1 here and there thrown aloft by the pedal4 ,throughout the harmonies one always heard in great tones a wondrous melody1 while once only1 in the middle of the piece1 besides that chief song1 a tenor voice became prominent4 ,after the tude a feeling came over one as of having seen in a dream a beatific picture which1 when already half awake1 one would gladly once more recall4 ,,mazurka ,,in ,f-,,sharp ,,minor1 ,,op4 #f1 ,,no4 #a4 ,as ,franz ,liszt says in his life of ,chopin1 ,the ,mazurka is not only a dance1 it is a national poem1 and like all poems of conquered nations1 is shaped so as to let the blazing flames of patriotic feeling shimmer out through the transparent veil of popular melody4 ,the chief peculiarity of the ,mazurka 7which is always in triple rhythm1 with a latitude in speed from ,presto to ,mesto7 is the scheme of accentuation--the normal accent on the first beat being systematically transferred to the second and third beats4 ,we also find in the ,mazurka frequent indications for the use of the so-called tempo rubato1 a proper conception of which is so essential in the performance of ,chopin's music4 ,tempo rubato--so often abused6--literally meaning borrowed time1 is simply free rhythm emancipated from rigid1 scholastic bonds4 ,as ,huneker well says1 ,chopin must be played in curves with emotional freedom2 just as the heart1 when excited1 increases the speed of its pulsations1 and in moments of calm and depression slows down4 ,the jerky1 really unrhythmical playing of certain performers reminds us of a person suffering from palpitation of the heart4 ,liszt's description of the rubato is most suggestive3 ,a wind plays in the leaves1 life unfolds and develops beneath them1 but the tree remains the same4 ,in ,chopin1 accordingly1 the ground rhythm should always be preserved1 though varied with subtle1 and yet logical fluctuations4 ,,polonaise ,,in ,e-,,flat ,,minor1 ,,op4 #bf1 ,,no4 #aa4 ,the ,polonaise#bbe is the great national dance of the ,poles2 an impassioned and yet stately pageant in which1 as ,liszt says1 ,the noblest traditional feelings of ancient ,poland are represented4 ,this dance--or rather1 processional march--is always in triple rhythm and based on a definite rhythmic formula3 either ,music or ,music4 ,the frequent feminine endings are also a characteristic feature1 e4g41 the cadence in the well known military ,polonaise in ,a major3 ,music ,to return to the example being considered1--it is in ,three-part form 7,a1 ,b1 ,a1 with ,coda7 the first part in the minor mode2 the second part beautifully contrasted by being in ,b major--introduced by the implied enharmonic change from ,e-flat to ,d-sharp4 ,this first part1 remarkable for its passionate1 headlong impetuosity1 should dispel any idea that ,chopin was a weak sentimentalist4 ,although of a delicate constitution he certainly had a fiery soul4 ,the second part1 sotto voce--note the feminine endings--reminds us of the muffled music of a military band as it passes by4 ,footnote #bbe3 ,for an account of its origin see the chapter in ,huneker's book and the article on the ,polonaise in ,grove's ,dictionary4 ,,barcarolle ,,in ,f-,,sharp ,,major1 ,,op4 #fj4 ,this composition1 in many ways the most wonderful single piece we have from ,chopin1 is the quintessence of his genius4 ,it seems1 in fact1 to contain everything3 appealing melodies1 wealth of harmony1 bold dissonances 7note in particular the #fth and #gth measures of the ,coda71 brilliant embellishments2 and withal1 it is written in a pianistic style which1 for richness and warmth of color1 is quite unsurpassed4 ,it is also most sincerely conceived1 intensifying the suggestiveness of the descriptive title4 ,would that objective program music were always so true to life and to the real nature of music6 ,it is in free three-part form1 the first part of a calm nature in which we are rocked on gently undulating waves2 a more rhythmic second part where1 as ,kullak says1 the bass seems to suggest the monotonous steadiness of oar-strokes2 an interlude1 marked dolce sfogato1 introduced by some delightful modulations1 as if in a quiet nook the poet were dreaming of the beauties of love and nature2 an impassioned return to the chief subject1 together with a partial presentation of the middle portion2 and finally a long and brilliant coda4 ,the composition is unique in romantic literature for its power to arouse the imagination1 or1 as ,schumann so well says1 to set people romancing for themselves4 ,,scherzo ,,in ,c-,,sharp ,,minor1 ,,op4 #ci4 ,the four ,scherzos1 for passion and eloquence1 rank among ,chopin's most characteristic works1 though it seems impossible to trace a logical correspondence between the former classic meaning of the term ,scherzo and the contents revealed to us in these poems2 save that they are all in triple rhythm1 hence on a dance-form basis4 ,as ,niecks well says1 ,there is in them neither frolicsomeness nor humor--such1 for example1 as we find in ,beethoven's ,scherzos--and he suggests that ,capriccio might be a less misleading designation4 ,but1 however inexplicable the title which ,huneker thinks ,chopin may have applied in serious jest1 there is no doubt of the uncompromising dignity of the utterance1 and there is often a grim irony1 a wayward scorn1 which a liberal interpretation might well consider attributes of humor4 ,these were marked traits in ,chopin's nature1 and the ,scherzos are their revelation in terms of music4 ,schumann's well-known comment is apropos--,how is gravity to clothe itself if jest goes about in dark veils8 ,this ,scherzo 7,presto con fuoco7 is in extended three-part form2 the dominant note of the first part being one of feverish agitation1 which expresses itself in spasmodic outbursts4 ,the second part1 with its broad cantabile melody of a hymn-like character1 reveals a calmer mood4 ,the last note of each phrase is adorned throughout with lovely coloristic embellishments4 ,after a return to the first theme1 the second part is also repeated2 this time with striking modulatory changes which strongly resemble the mood of ,wotan's ,farewell1 in the third ,act of ,wagner's ,valkyrie4 ,a long and fiery coda of new thematic material closes the work4 ,the major ending is like a shaft of light dispelling storm-tossed clouds4 ,chopin's works are so instinct with genius and have proved to be so immortal that they may well be considered as ideal witnesses to the triumph of quality over mere quantity or sensational display4 ,to-day1 when we suffer from musical bombast1 their refined message is of special significance4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,berlioz ,,and ,,liszt4 ,,programme ,,music ,there is no doubt that ,hector ,berlioz 7#ahjc-ahfi71 however varied the appeal of his music to different temperaments1 is an artistic personality to be reckoned with2 one not to be ticketed and laid on the shelf4 ,although a century and more has elapsed since his birth the permanent value of his music is still debated1 often amusingly enough1 by those who seem unaware that1 whatever the theoretical rights of the case1 in practice his principles are the reigning ones in modern music4 ,as ,berlioz stands as the foremost representative of program music and never wrote anything without a title1 it is certain that before his music or influence can be appreciated1 the mind must be cleared of prejudice and we must recognize that modern program music is a condition--an artistic fact1 not a theory--and that the tendency towards specific1 subjective expression 7whether manifested in song1 opera or symphonic poem7 is a dominant one among present day composers4 ,it is true that all music is the expression in tones of the imagination of the composer2 true1 also1 that music must fulfil certain conditions of its own being4 ,but imaginations differ4 ,that of ,berlioz1 for example1 was quite a new phenomenon2 and as for the working principles of musical composition1 they are as much subject to modification as any other form of human experimentation4 ,berlioz1 himself1 says that he never intended to subvert the laws of music1 only to make a new and individual use of them4 ,as he was no abstract maker of music1 his autobiography--one of the most fascinating in the history of art1 only to be compared with that of ,benvenuto ,cellini--should be familiar to all who would penetrate the secrets of his style4 ,berlioz's compositions1 in fact1 are more specifically autobiographic than those of any other notable musician4 ,both in his music and his literary works are the same notes of passionate insistence on his own point of view1 of radical dislike for accepting conditions as they were 7he says of himself that he loved to make the barriers crack7 and of fondness for brilliant outward effect4 ,in considering ,berlioz1 one is always reminded of ,matthew ,arnold's lines on ,byron1 who resembles ,berlioz so closely4 ,he taught us little2 but our soul ,had felt him1 like the thunder's roll4 ,with shivering heart the strife we saw ,of passion with eternal law2 ,and yet with reverential awe ,we watch'd the fount of fiery life ,which served for that ,titanic strife4 ,only realize that ,berlioz's ,fantastic ,symphony was composed but twenty-one years after ,haydn's death1 and compare the simple1 self-centered ,haydn with the restless1 wide-visioned ,berlioz1 of a mentality positively omnivorous2 who1 in addition to his musical achievements1 was a brilliant critic and littrateur1 a man of travel and wide acquaintance with the world4 ,then indeed you will appreciate what an enormous change had come over music4 ,a mere mention of the authors from whom ,berlioz drew his subjects3 ,shakespeare1 ,goethe1 ,byron1 ,scott1 ,virgil1 ,hugo1 shows the wide range of his reading and the difference in output which would inevitably result4 ,the previous impersonal attitude towards music is shown by the very names of compositions which1 broadly speaking 7till the beginning of the #aith century7 were seldom more than ,symphony1 ,sonata1 or ,quartet1 ,no4 so and so2 while the movements1 in an equally mechanical way1 were known by the designations of tempo3 allegro1 adagio1 andante1 etc4--those senseless terms1 as ,beethoven himself says4 ,beginning pre-eminently with ,berlioz1 composers have had more highly cultivated imaginations1 much more to say2 and the wider range of emotion resulting therefrom has necessitated differences of form and treatment4 ,a frequent misconception on the part of the layman is that worthy music should be so constructed that the hearer be spared all mental exertion4 ,as long as it was certain that a composer would present just so many themes in a prescribed order and treated in the routine fashion1 listening to music was a comparatively easy task4 ,since ,berlioz1 music has made ever greater demands on the hearer2 who only when his receptivity is of an equal degree of cultivation with the creative power of the composer1 can grasp the full meaning of the music4 ,the first step1 therefore1 toward an appreciation of ,berlioz is to recognize the peculiar1 picturesque power of his imagination1 which was of an entirely new order1 and may be called musico-poetic in distinction from purely musical activity4 ,this form of double consciousness is equally necessary on the part of the hearer4 ,as ,debussy1 the modern ,french composer1 so well says1 people often do not understand or enjoy new music because it differs from une musique i4e41 from a conventional and unvarying type which they have in their mind4 ,the real effect of ,berlioz's ,carnaval ,romain ,overture1 to take a simple example1 is to complement and intensify the mental picture which any well-read person--or better still1 any one who has actually visited ,rome--will have of this characteristic incident in ,italian life4 ,if the work be considered merely as abstract music1 notwithstanding the stimulation and delight caused by the rhythmic vitality and by the orchestral effects1 the real poetic purpose of the composer remains unfulfilled4 ,this peculiar quality of ,berlioz was partly the result of his fiery excitable temperament and partly the reactive effect of the environment in which he found himself4 ,what an amazing group in ,paris 7beginning about #ahcj7 was that with which he was associated6 ,de ,musset1 de ,vigny1 ,liszt1 ,rossini1 ,meyerbeer1 ,balzac1 ,dumas1 ,chopin1 ,heine1 ,delacroix1 ,gricault3 young men representing every art and several nationalities1 all under the lead of ,hugo1 that prince of ,romanticists2 their object being--revolt from conventional standards and a complete expression of their own personalities4 ,hugo1 as he says in the famous preface to ,cromwell1 was tearing down the plaster which hides the facade of the fair temple of art2 ,dumas had just demolished ,racine2 ,gricault and ,delacroix1 by their daring conceptions1 were founding our modern school of painting4 ,into this maelstrom of revolution1 ,berlioz--he of the flaming locks1 that hairy ,romantic as ,thackeray calls him--flung himself with temperamental ardor2 for he was a born fighter and always in opposition to someone4 ,the audacity and dramatic energy of his compositions are but the natural result of the tendencies of the period4 ,berlioz's early career is of extreme interest to us ,english-speaking people1 because the first strong stimulus to his imagination came from his acquaintance with the dramas of ,shakespeare4 ,in #ahbg1 some of the dramas1 7such as ,hamlet1 and ,romeo and ,juliet7 were played in ,paris by an ,english company1 and their effect upon ,berlioz was overwhelming4 ,he would wander about the streets raving of ,shakespeare2 he promptly fell in love with the most beautiful actress in the troupe--,henrietta ,smithson1 whom he later married#bbf--;and then began the frenzied period of composing and concert giving1 which came to a climax in the ,fantastic ,symphony first performed in #ahcj4 ,berlioz's courage and perseverance are shown by his winning the ,prix de ,rome1 after four failures6 ,his two years in ,italy 7his picture may still be seen at the ,villa ,medici71 replete with amusing and thrilling incidents1 were1 on the whole the happiest period of his stormy life4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,for a convincing account of this tragic marriage see the volume of ,recollections by ,ernest ,legouv4 ,but we must pass to some brief comments upon the characteristics1 pro and con1 of his style4 ,in the first place it was extremely original2 showed little or no connection with former composers2 has had no imitators1 and cannot be parodied4 ,berlioz likewise possessed great range of emotion--though he rarely touched the sublime2 a power of laying out works on a vast scale1 and1 in general1 of achieving with unerring certainty the effects desired4 ,the poet ,heine said that much of ,berlioz's music reminded him of primeval monsters and fabulous empires4 ,and what a master he was of rhythm6--one of the greatest in music6 ,prior to his work1 and that of ,schumann among the ,germans1 the classic rhythms were becoming rather stereotyped2 and the vigorous elasticity introduced by these two composers has widened incalculably the range of dramatic effect4 ,but his indisputable claim to lasting recognition is his genius in the treatment of the orchestra4 ,berlioz had an inborn instinct for sensuous tonal effect for its own sake1 and not as the clothing of an abstract idea4 ,with him the art of making that composite instrument1 the orchestra1 give forth the greatest beauty and variety of sound became an end in itself2 and from his ingenious and innovating effects has been evolved the orchestra as we hear it to-day4 ,berlioz thought1 so to speak1 in terms of orchestral color4 ,in his melodies we do not feel that the drawing1 the contour of the pure line1 is the chief thing2 but that the assignment of the melody to just the right instrument1 and the color-effect thereby produced1 are integral parts of the conception4 ,notwithstanding the fact that some of his effects are extravagant or at times bizarre1 he must be credited with revealing possibilities in orchestral shading and color which1 still further developed by ,wagner1 ,strauss and ,tchaikowsky1 have become conventional means of expression4 ,some of his most celebrated and satisfying works1 in addition to those mentioned1 are the ,harold in ,italy ,symphony1 with its personification by a solo viola of the chief character2 the ,romeo and ,juliet ,symphony1 for both vocal and instrumental forces 7of which the ball-scene with its wondrous love-melody and the ,queen ,mab ,scherzo--unequalled for daintiness--represent his highest attainments as a tone-poet7 and1 most popular of all1 the ,damnation of ,faust based on scenes from ,goethe's poem4 ,the bewitching incidental pieces for orchestra alone1 such as the ,ballet of ,sylphs and the ,rakoczy ,march1 are often played at symphony concerts1 and are familiar to everyone4 ,certain blemishes in ,berlioz's music are obvious and need not be over-emphasized4 ,there is often more style and outward effect than real substance4 ,his works excite1 but how seldom do they exalt6 ,for he was frequently deficient in depth of emotion and in latent warmth--qualities quite different from the hectic glow and the feverish passion which his ,french admirers1 ,tiersot and ,boschot1 claim to be genuine attributes of musical inspiration1 of power to compel universal attention4 ,we of other nations can only firmly dissent4 ,without question his work has never succeeded in calling forth the spontaneous love of a large body of admirers4#bbg ,in an eloquent passage the conductor and critic ,weingartner sums up the case3 ,berlioz will always represent a milestone in the development of music1 for he is the real founder of the modern school4 ,he did not approach that ethical depth1 that ideal purity which surround ,beethoven's name with such unspeakable glory1 but no composer since ,beethoven1 except ,wagner1 has enriched music with so many new means of expression as this great ,frenchman4 ,berlioz1 ,liszt and ,wagner are the heroes of the last half of the #aith century1 just as ,haydn1 ,mozart1 ,beethoven1 ,weber and ,schubert were of the first4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,it is understood that this is merely a personal opinion of the writer and might well have been prefaced by the ,socratic it seems to me4 ,too much criticism reminds us of wine-tasting--,mr4 ,so-and-,so likes port1 ,mr4 ,so-and-,so sherry4 ,the object of fair-minded appreciation is to understand clearly just what each composer set out to do1 i4e41 what was the natural tendency of his individual genius2 then the only question is3 did or did he not do this well8 ,it is futile to blame him because he was not someone else or did not achieve what he never set out to do4 ,as ,berlioz is1 if possible1 even more idiomatic for the orchestra than ,chopin for the pianoforte1 no conception of the real quality of his message can be gained from transcriptions1 however good4 ,his works#bbh must be studied at first hand in the orchestral score and then heard in performance by an excellent orchestra4 ,some preliminary acquaintance and appreciation1 however1 of characteristic features in his style is possible from arrangements and so we select for comment the following works and movements3 ,the ,fantastic ,symphony1 the ,carnaval ,romain ,overture1 the ,ballet des ,sylphes and the ,feux ,follets from the ,damnation of ,faust1 the ,pilgrim's ,march from the ,childe ,harold ,symphony and the ,slow ,movement from the ,romeo and ,juliet ,symphony4#bbi ,there is much valuable and stimulating reading#bcj about ,berlioz and his influence2 for1 as ,thophile ,gautier acutely remarks1 ,s'il fut un grand gnie1 on peut le discuter encore1 le monde est livr aux controverses2 mais nul ne penserait nier qu'il fut un grand caractre4 ,the ,symphonie#bca fantastique1 op4 #ad1 pisode de la vie d'un artiste1 in five movements is significant for being the first manifestation of ,berlioz's conviction that music should be yet more specifically expressive1 since it is founded on a characteristic theme1 called l'ide fixe which typifies the heroine1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bbh3 ,the best edition is the complete one1 beautifully engraved and with critical comments1 by ,malherbe and ,weingartner4 ,this is expensive1 but should be found in any large library4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,the only citations possible in the ,supplement are the ,overture and portions of a few of the others4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,particularly to be recommended are the following3 the essay in ,musical ,studies by ,newman2 that by ,r4 ,rolland in ,musiciens d'aujourd'hui 7in ,french and in ,english72 ,berlioz et la socit de son temps by ,j4 ,tiersot2 the essay in ,studies in ,modern ,music by ,hadow2 ,berlioz's own ,mmoires 7in ,french and in ,english7 and his entertaining essays1 ,a ,travers ,chants1 ,grotesques de la ,musique and ,soires d',orchestre2 the excellent rsum of ,berlioz's writings in the ,amateur ,series by ,w4,f4 ,apthorp2 the ,symphony since ,beethoven by ,weingartner2 and1 above all1 the monumental work by ,boschot in three parts--,la ,jeunesse d'un ,romantique1 ,un ,romantique sous ,louis ,philippe1 ,le ,crpuscule d'un ,romantique4 ,there is an amusing but far from convincing assault against ,berlioz as a programme composer and1 to a certain extent1 against ,romanticism in general1 in the ,new ,laocon by ,professor ,irving ,babbitt4 ,footnote #bca3 ,on the title page of the autograph copy of the full score is inscribed the following quotation from ,king ,lear3 ,as flies to wanton boys are we to the ,gods2 they kill us for their sport4 ,this theme1 with modifications appropriate to the changes in the character and the environment1 is repeated in each movement4 ,as for the theme itself1 frankly it does not amount to much2 it certainly fails to take our emotions by storm or sing itself into our hearts4 ,berlioz's harmonization is very bald1 and as to his attempts at development1#bcb the less said the better4 ,of course whatever ,berlioz writes for the orchestra sounds well2 of that there is no doubt4 ,but this is not enough2 any more than we are convinced by a person's statements or arguments merely because he happens to have a beautiful speaking voice4 ,this dramatization of a musical theme was1 after all1 nothing iconoclastically new and ,berlioz is perfectly right in claiming that he was merely extending the possibilities of that same type of theme as is found in ,beethoven himself1 e4g41 in the ,coriolanus ,overture and to a certain extent in the ,fifth ,symphony4 ,if1 furthermore1 we look back from the dramatic and highly personified use made of themes in modern music1 in the works of ,strauss1 ,tchaikowsky1 ,franck and even ,brahms 7e4g41 his ,first ,symphony with its motto-theme7 we can see that this symphony of ,berlioz is an important link in a perfectly logical chain of development4 ,this melody1 then1 l'ide fixe1 appears in each of the five movements2 undergoing1 however1 but slight purely thematic development1 being introduced and modified primarily for dramatic purposes4 ,in the second movement1#bcc ,un ,bal1 two phrases drawn from it are sung pp by the clarinet as an indication that1 amid the gaieties of the dance1 the vision of the beloved one is ever present4 ,in the ,scne aux ,champs it is modified and eloquently declaimed by the flute and oboe1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bcb3 ,dannreuther1 in his essay in the ,sixth ,volume of the ,oxford ,history of ,music1 speaks of the peculiar process of rabbeting which serves ,berlioz in the place of counterpoint1 and the criticism1 though caustic1 holds much truth4 ,footnote #bcc3 ,this movement is also of interest as an early example of the ,waltz among the conventional symphonic moods4 ,the example has been followed by ,tchaikowsky in the third movement of his ,fifth ,symphony4 ,at the close of the movement occurs one of ,berlioz's most novel and realistic effects--the imitation of the rumbles of distant thunder produced by four kettle-drums tuned in a very peculiar way 7see page #ge of the orchestral score1 ,breitkopf and ,hrtel edition74 ,in the fourth movement1 ,marche au ,supplice1 four measures of l'ide fixe are introduced just at the moment when the head of the hero is to be chopped off4 ,this is done for purely theatric purposes and certainly makes our flesh creep--as ,berlioz no doubt intended4 ,the most spectacular effect1 however1 is in the last movement1 ,songe d'une ,nuit du ,sabbat1 where the theme is parodied to typify the degraded appearance which the beloved one takes in the distorted dreams of her lover1 e4g4 ,music ,the impression made by the ,symphony depends largely upon the attitude of the hearer4 ,in this work we are not to look for the sublimity and emotional depth of a ,bach or ,beethoven any more than we expect a whimsical comedy of ,aristophanes to resemble an epic poem of ,milton4 ,but for daring imagination1 for rhythmic vitality and certainty of orchestral effect1 it was and remains a work#bcd of genius4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,for further comments on this ,symphony see ,mr4 ,mason's essay in the ,romantic ,composers1 an essay which1 while thoughtful1 strikes the writer as somewhat biased4 ,,the ,,carnaval ,,romain ,,overture 7,,see ,,supplement ,,no4 #eg7 ,this work is one of ,berlioz's most brilliant pieces1 with an orchestral life and color all its own4 ,the material is taken from his opera ,benvenuto ,cellini2#bce the checquered career of this artist having made an irresistible appeal to ,berlioz's love of the unusual and the spectacular4 ,the body of the work is based on the ,italian national dance1 the ,saltarello2 and with this rhythm as a steadying background ,berlioz achieves a continuity sometimes lacking in his work4 ,the mere thought of the sights1 sounds and colors of that important event in the life of ,rome would be enough to inflame his susceptible imagination1 and so here we have ,berlioz at his very best4 ,the overture begins1 allegro assai con fuoco1 with a partial announcement of the saltarello theme by the violins and violas1 freely imitated by the wood-wind instruments1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bce3 ,for an entertaining account of the subject matter of the opera see ,chapter ,,vii of ,boschot's ,un ,romantique sous ,louis ,philippe4 ,after a sudden prolonged silence and some crescendo trills the first periodic melody is introduced1 sung by the ,english horn--the tune taken from an aria of ,benvenuto in the first act4 ,the melody is soon repeated in the dominant key by the violas and then1 treated canonically1 by the 'cellos and violins4 ,the canon really tells and shows that ,berlioz1 as is often alleged1 was not altogether lacking in polyphonic skill4 ,the rhythm is now gradually quickened and leads to the main body of the work1 in #f_/h time1 based on the ,italian folk-dance--the ,saltarello which1 as its name implies1 is of a skipping nature4 ,the music is freely developed from the two following themes2 there is no second theme proper1 e4g4 ,music3 7a7 ,music3 7b7 ,toward the close there is a return to the introductory melody which is treated contrapuntally by the bassoons and other wind-instruments4 ,the saltarello resumes its sway and is worked up to a fiery ending2 especially brilliant are the closing chords scored for full brass with trills on the cornets4 ,two of ,berlioz's most poetically conceived descriptive pieces are the ,menuet des ,feux-,follets and the ,ballet des ,sylphes1 incidental orchestral numbers from the ,damnation of ,faust2 for they illustrate convincingly what one means by the claim that ,berlioz thought in terms of orchestral color and suggestion4 ,to give a musical picture of such airy and fantastic imaginings by the mere repetition of conventional formulae would obviously be of no avail4 ,berlioz's genius is equal to the situation2 and as we listen to the music we can really see the flickering of the ,will o' the ,wisps and feel the graceful swaying of the ,sylphs as they hover about the sleeping ,faust4 ,to suggest the ,feux-,follets ,berlioz ingeniously gives the theme to two piccolos in thirds1 which are supported by a rich but subdued mass of wind instruments1 horns and trumpets1 e4g4 ,music ,with equal felicity does he create the picture of the delicate1 graceful ,sylphs4 ,any boisterous rhythmic activity would be quite out of place2 and so1 above a sustained ground tone on muted 'cellos and basses 7which continues through the piece71 and the slightest suspicion of motion on the second violins and violas1 there floats in the first violins one of the most perfectly rounded and exquisite melodies in existence1 e4g4 ,music ,in the closing measures there is a charming shadowy dialogue between kettle-drums 7struck with sponge-headed sticks7 and harps1 in harmonics1 carrying out ,berlioz's stage directions--,les esprits de l'air se balancent quelque temps autour de ,faust endormi et disparaissent peu peu4 ,the piece ends with a chord barely whispered on the clarinets1 pppp1 which1 as ,hadow aptly suggests1 reminds us of vanishing soap bubbles4 ,berlioz's most sustained and perfect work1 both in content and treatment1 is universally acknowledged to be the ,harold en ,italie ,symphony#bcf in four movements for full orchestra and solo viola4 ,there is little actual correspondence between the scenes of ,byron's poem and the musical portrayal2 and in fact1 as ,liszt says1 ,the title clearly shows that the composer wished to render the impression which the magnificent nature of ,italy could not fail to make on a soul such as that of ,harold languishing in sorrow4 ,the significant features of the work are the melody for solo viola1 recurring#bcg in each movement1 which typifies ,harold--that melancholy dreamer1 e4g41 ,music and the dazzling sensationalism of the ,finale 7,orgy of ,brigands7 which1 when it was once played con amore by a fine orchestra1 called forth from ,berlioz the following eulogy1--,sublime6 ,i thank you1 gentlemen1 and ,i wonder at you2 you are perfect brigands4 ,the finale is also notable in that the opening portion is a reminiscence1 a passing in review1 of the chief themes of the preceding movements4 ,berlioz1 we may surmise1 was following the precedent established by ,beethoven in the finale of the ,ninth ,symphony1 and1 although his treatment is rather mechanical and lacking in any such dramatic logic as justified ,beethoven1 a certain organic connection between the movements is undoubtedly secured4 ,a portion of the second movement1 ,march of ,pilgrims singing the evening prayer1 is cited in the ,supplement 7,see ,no4 #eh7 chiefly because it is one of ,berlioz's noblest inspirations1 giving an eloquent picture of a procession approaching1 passing by and losing itself in the distance--a long crescendo and diminuendo4 ,at every eighth measure the ,march melody is interrupted by the muffled chant of the pilgrims1 very effectively scored for brass instruments1 pianissimo4 ,in the middle of the piece a contrast is gained by the introduction of a religious chant4 ,the closing measures of this movement are of haunting beauty--a mysterious effect being produced by an intentional mixture of tonalities 7the sustained ,b in the flute and oboe being answered by a ,c on the horns and harp1 while beneath are heard fragments of the ,march theme in the main key on the pizzicato double basses74#bch ,berlioz's most pretentious orchestral composition is that called in the full title ,romeo and ,juliet1 dramatic symphony1 with choruses1 vocal solos1 and a prologue in choral recitative1 composed after ,shakespeare's tragedy4 ,notwithstanding many touches of genius1 it is a very uneven work and is too much a conglomerate of styles--narrative1 lyrical1 dramatic1 theatric and symphonic--for the constructive ability of the author to weld into a living whole4 ,there are several portions which1 however noble and glorious may have been ,berlioz's conception1#bci and however inspired by ,shakespeare's genius1 do not come off4 ,two of the numbers1 on the other hand1 are worthy of the highest praise--the ,love ,scene and the ,queen ,mab ,scherzo4 ,of the latter ,saint-,sans writes--,the famous ,scherzo is worth even more than its reputation4 ,it is a miracle of lightness and gracefulness4 ,beside such delicacies and transparencies the finesses of ,mendelssohn in the ,midsummer ,night's ,dream seem heavy4 ,the main theme is fascinating in its daintiness and sparkle1 e4g4 ,music ,berlioz considered the ,love ,scene his finest inspiration and there are few pieces comparable with it for passionate utterance4 ,the orchestration is wonderful for richness and variety4#bdj ,footnote #bcf3 ,for an extended analysis of the work and also for an account of the alleged connection of the virtuoso ,paganini with its composition1 see the essay in ,niecks' ,program ,music4 ,there are1 in addition1 interesting comments in ,stories of ,symphonic ,music by ,lawrence ,gilman4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,an early example of the modern principle of transformation and transference by theme4 ,footnote #bch3 ,a striking illustration of association of ideas may be gained from a comparison of the end of this movement with the closing measures of ,strauss's ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra2 it seems incredible that ,strauss did not have ,berlioz's effect in his mind4 ,footnote #bci3 ,see the ,mmoires for a rhapsodic account of his state of mind at this time--basking in the warm rays of ,shakespeare's imagination and believing it in his power to arrive at the marvellous island where rises the temple of pure ,art4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,for extended comments and a long citation of the actual music see the ,sixth ,volume of the ,oxford ,history of ,music4 ,after a careful study of the foregoing examples the reader1 we hope1 is in a position to make a fair estimate of ,berlioz's power and to realize his great significance4 ,it should be understood that this music is intensely subjective and so requires a sympathetic and cultivated attitude on the part of the listener4 ,to the writer at least1 there remains one vital lack in ,berlioz's music1--that of the dissonant element4 ,it often seems as if his conceptions could not be fully realized for want of sheer musical equipment1 largely due to insufficient early training4 ,for what is music without dissonance8 ,surely flat1 stale and unprofitable even if1 in ,berlioz's case1 this deficiency is offset by great rhythmic vitality and gorgeous color4 ,yet in his best works#bda there is such a strong note of individuality1 indeed such real character1 that they are deserving of sincere respect and admiration1 although by everybody they may not be deeply loved4 ,we should1 furthermore1 always remember that1 if ,berlioz's poverty of harmonic effect is sometimes annoying1 he never falls into the humdrum ruts of those who have had a stereotyped academic training4 ,his genius was unhampered by any conventional harmonic vocabulary1 and hence it could always express itself freely4 ,that he was a real genius no one can fairly doubt4 ,footnote #bda3 ,for valuable analytical comments on ,berlioz's orchestral style see ,vol4 ,,viii1 ,chapter ,x1 of the ,art of ,music 7,csar ,saerchinger1 ,n4,y471 and for biographical details and matters of general import1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,chap4 ,,ix4 ,all the qualities which have been enumerated as typical of the romantic temperament3 warmth of sentiment1 broad culture1 love of color and the sensuous side of music1 freedom of form1 and stress laid on the orchestra as the most eloquent means of expression1 reach their climax in ,franz ,liszt 7#ahaa-ahhf74 ,born near ,vienna of a ,hungarian father and a ,german mother1 but chiefly associated with ,paris1 ,weimar1 ,budapest and ,rome1 he is certainly the most picturesque and versatile figure in the music of the #aith century2 for he worked and won fame as a pianoforte virtuoso--probably the greatest the world has known--as a prolific composer for pianoforte1 orchestra and voice1 as a teacher1 conductor and man of letters1 and withal spent a large part of his time1 strength and fortune in helping young artists and in producing works which otherwise might never have seen the light4 ,his life is of constant and varied interest1 so spectacular at times that it seems like a fairy tale4#bdb ,as a mere boy he began to receive adulation for his precocity2 at the height of his career he was loaded with honors and wealth2 in his old age he was a favorite with everyone of distinction and influence in ,france1 ,germany1 ,england and ,italy4 ,nevertheless he preserved1 throughout1 the integrity of his character and the nobility of his disposition4 ,whatever may be the final estimate of his powers as a creative artist1 as a man he has earned nothing but eulogy2#bdc for seldom has any one been freer from the faults of vanity1 petty jealousy and envy which so often mar the artistic temperament4 ,liszt's generous encouragement and financial support of ,wagner in the struggling days of his unpopularity have never been surpassed in the brotherhood of art4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,the best biographies in ,english are the one by ,huneker and that in ,vol4 #b of ,grove's ,dictionary4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,for a lively description of his influence as a pianoforte teacher see ,music ,study in ,germany by ,amy ,fay4 ,liszt is akin to ,berlioz in many respects2 we feel the same natural tendency to derive musical inspiration from external sources1 poetic1 pictorial or from the realm of ,nature4 ,purely as a musician1 however1 ,liszt was far greater1 with a wider vocabulary and more power in thematic development4 ,his work also is somewhat uneven2 moments of real beauty alternating with passages which are trivial1 bombastic or mere lifeless padding4 ,when we bear in mind ,liszt's unparalleled versatility1 his output in quantity and variety is so amazing--there being well over #a1jjj works of about every kind--that it is unfair to expect the style to be as finely wrought as the original conception is noble4 ,a serious and unbiased study of his best compositions will convince one that ,liszt is entitled to high rank as a musician of genuine poetic inspiration4 ,the average music-lover is prone to dwell upon him as the composer of ,les ,prludes1 the ,hungarian ,rhapsodies1 and as the somewhat flashy transcriber of operatic potpourris1 such as the ,rigoletto ,fantasie4 ,but ,les ,prludes1 notwithstanding a certain charm and the clever manner in which the music 7without becoming minutely descriptive7 supplements the poem of ,lamartine1 is yet barred from the first rank by its mawkishness of sentiment and by its cloying harmonies4 ,the most significant among the symphonic poems are ,orpheus with its characteristic crescendos and diminuendos2 ,tasso of great nobility and pathos1 and ,mazeppa1 a veritable tour de force of descriptive writing4 ,to hear any one of these masterpieces can not fail to alter the opinion of those who may have considered ,liszt as exclusively given over to sensational effects4 ,as for the ,hungarian ,rhapsodies1 which ,liszt intended as a kind of national ballade and so1 for the basic themes and rhythms1 drew largely on ,hungarian ,folk music1 here again the public1 with its fondness for being dazzled1 has laid exclusive stress on the flashy ones to the detriment of those containing much that is noble and of enduring worth4 ,in his transcriptions of standard songs ,liszt did as valuable a public service as any popularizer1 and has thereby made familiar the melodies of ,schubert and ,schumann to hundreds who otherwise would know nothing of them4 ,in considering ,liszt's pianoforte works we must remember that he was a born virtuoso with a natural fondness for exploiting the possibilities of his instrument1 and with an amazing technique as a performer4 ,when the sincerity of a composer is in question there is a great difference as to what should be the standard of judgment1 whether the work be for orchestra or for pianoforte4 ,in writing for orchestra the composer naturally centres himself on the pure ideas and their treatment1 as the execution is something entirely external to himself4 ,in works for pianoforte1 however1 the composer who is also a virtuoso will often1 and quite justifiably1 introduce passages of purely pianistic effect which in other circumstances would amount to a confession of deficient imagination4 ,that ,liszt at times abused his facility in decoration need not be gainsaid1 and yet how poetic and eloquent are his best pianoforte compositions6--the tudes1 the ,waldesrauschen1 the ,ballade and1 above all1 the ,sonata in ,b minor4#bdd ,much unjust criticism has been expended upon ,liszt for treating the pianoforte like an orchestra4 ,as a matter of fact he widened1 in a perfectly legitimate way1 the possibilities of the instrument as to sonority1 wealth and variety of color-effect4 ,according to the testimony of contemporary colleagues1 ,rubinstein1 ,taussig and von ,blow who1 had they not been convinced of his supremacy1 might well have been jealous1 ,liszt was incontestably the greatest interpreter of ,bach1 ,beethoven and ,chopin2 and his power as a ,beethoven scholar is attested by the poetically annotated edition of the ,sonatas4 ,it is often asserted that ,liszt lacked spontaneous melodic invention4 ,this is a hard saying unless taken in a relative sense4 ,we may grant that ,liszt was neither a ,schubert nor a ,mozart1 and yet recognize in his works some extremely haunting melodies4 ,his creative power was acknowledged by ,wagner and in a very practical manner4 ,in fact1 after a comparative study of their works1 one is amazed at the number of melodies which ,wagner borrowed from ,liszt and at the generous complaisance of the latter4 ,the reactive influence of ,liszt and ,wagner1 each upon the other1 is an interesting chapter in the development of modern art4 ,liszt was undoubtedly encouraged in his revolutionary aims by ,wagner's fiery courage4 ,wagner1 on his side1 owed much to ,liszt's unselfish generosity2 and with his more powerful constructive gifts worked up into enduring form motives which1 internal evidence clearly shows1 came from ,liszt himself4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,for a most entertaining description of this work see the ,huneker ,biography1 pp4 #fd-gj4 ,just a few closing words as to ,liszt's specific contributions to the expansion of musical structure4 ,he was an advanced leader in the program school1 being endowed with considerably more constructive power than ,berlioz1 who often fell between two stools3 in that while his subject demanded the freest treatment1 he lacked the vigor to break away from the formal routine of his classic models4 ,in ,liszt's orchestral works1 however1 the term ,symphonic ,poem--one of his own invention--is fully justified1 i4e41 they are symphonic in that they have organic unity1 although this is not attained by preserving the classic number and arrangement of themes2 and they are also poetic1 being not a presentation of abstract tone patterns1 but illustrative of some external idea which shapes the course of the music entirely to its own needs4#bde ,the distinguishing quality of the ,symphonic ,poem is its unbroken continuity4 ,although objective points are reached1 and while there are broad lines of demarcation with reference to the varied moods of the poem to be illustrated1 there are no rigid stops--everything is fused together into a continuous whole4 ,liszt was an advocate of persistent development1 i4e41 the music going out into space like a straight line instead of returning on itself4 ,inner evidence shows1 however1 that although he avoided many needless and conventional repetitions1 he could not entirely throw overboard the cyclical law of restatement2 for there is not one of his ,symphonic ,poems which does not repeat1 at the end1 thematic material already heard4 ,liszt carried the principle of theme transformation still further than ,berlioz2 and1 as a ,german1 tended to lay stress rather on the psychological aspects of character than on those outward theatric events which appeal to ,french taste4 ,the difference is well shown by a comparison of the ,damnation of ,faust with ,liszt's ,faust ,symphony1 considered his most inspired orchestral work4 ,liszt must not be forgotten as a song-writer1 especially for his settings to ,goethe's poems2 which1 as ,huneker says1 are masterpieces and contain1 in essence1 all the dramatic lyricism of modern writers1 ,strauss included4 ,in these songs the instrumental part is of special import2 ,liszt in pianistic treatment anticipating ,hugo ,wolf with his ,songs for ,voice and ,pianoforte1 i4e41 the voice and the instrument are treated as coequal factors4 ,footnote #bde3 ,for stimulating comments see ,the ,symphony since ,beethoven by ,weingartner1 pp4 #ga-hf4 ,the works of ,liszt selected for analytical comment are the ,symphonic ,poem ,orpheus1 the ,faust ,symphony and the ,pianoforte tude1 ,waldesrauschen4 ,the student1 however1 should become familiar with several others#bdf of the ,symphonic ,poems1 notably ,tasso1 ,les ,prludes and ,mazeppa2 with the ,pianoforte ,sonata in ,b minor in one movement1 in which ,liszt works on the same plan as ,schumann in the ,fourth ,symphony2 with the descriptive pianoforte pieces and tudes2 and with the songs1 of which ,kennst du das ,land1 ,die ,lorelei and ,du bist wie eine ,blume are beautiful examples4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,an enlightening and comprehensive account of each of these may be found in ,niecks's ,programme ,music already referred to4 ,see also ,chapter ,,vii1 pp4 #ada-aee in ,vol4 ,,vi of the ,oxford ,history for what is perhaps a rather biased point of view4 ,there is an excellent tabulation of the themes from ,les ,prludes in ,mason's ,romantic ,composers4 ,,symphonic ,,poem1 ,,orpheus ,in this work1 as must always be the case in poetically suggestive music1 the composer trusts to the general intelligence and insight of the listener4 ,for a mere mention of the name ,orpheus may well call up the vision of a majestic1 godlike youth proclaiming his message of joy and peace to soften the unruly passions of men and animals4 ,it is said that ,liszt's imagination was kindled by a beautiful representation of ,orpheus playing on the lyre1 which decorates an ,etruscan vase in the ,louvre4 ,the aim of the music was thus to intensify and supplement the visual effect4 ,the ,poem begins with soft1 sustained calls on the horns1 creating a mood of expectancy1 interspersed with modulatory arpeggios on the harp serving to complete the legendary picture4 ,in these ,symphonic ,poems1 we must always observe how closely the nature of the themes and the whole import of the music are involved with the orchestral dress4 ,for ,liszt1 though not perhaps so brilliant and sensational as ,berlioz1 was equally a great master of orchestral coloring and poetic suggestion by means of appropriate instruments2 often1 too1 more delicate and refined4 ,in measure #ae begins for sustained strings the stately march which typifies the gradual approach of ,orpheus4 ,the second phrase of the march1 beginning in measure #ch1 has received the compliment of being appropriated1 almost literally1 by ,wagner in the second act of the ,valkyrie for the march motive with which ,wotan is ushered in4 ,some beautiful modulatory developments of the march theme1 with which the original horn calls are united1 lead to the impassioned theme in ,e major1 sung by an ,english horn1 which is the message of ,orpheus to the sons of men1 e4g4 ,music ,the theme is expanded by means of striking modulations until1 in measure #ajb1 it is presented by the full orchestra4 ,some rather meaningless repetitions1 in detached phrases1 of the ,orpheus theme bring us1 in measure #acj1 to a return of the original march which is finally proclaimed ff with great power and sonority4 ,it seems to typify the triumphant justification of ,orpheus's appearance4 ,the dissonant modulations in the following passage1 beginning measure #aee1 7in which the double basses take a dramatic part7 have been thought by some to represent realistically the uncouth roars of forest monsters4 ,these outcries finally subside and in the ,coda1 beginning at measure #ahj1 we have first a beautiful reminiscence of ,orpheus's message and then a last announcement of the march theme1 which is now presented in the form of a long diminuendo1 as if the ,god-like apparition were slowly withdrawing from our sight4 ,a series of shifting modulations 7adagio and pianissimo7 seems to bring a cloud before our enraptured senses1 and the work closes with a long sustained chord in ,c major1 ppp1 giving an elemental idea of peace and satisfaction4 ,from the standpoint of musical structure the work is a crescendo followed by a diminuendo and1 poetically considered1 is a convincing picture in terms of music of the effect made upon ,liszt's imagination by the legend of ,orpheus4 ,observe that1 although the composition is free in form1 it is not formless4#bdg ,the main lines are the familiar ones of statement1 contrast and restatement1 i4e41 three-part form1 and the key-relationship is clear and carefully planned4 ,footnote #bdg3 ,an allegation often brought against ,liszt's work by those whose conception of form is that of a cast-iron mould4 ,,the ,,faust ,,symphony ,this work1 although embodying ,liszt's favorite ideas of dramatic characterization and transformation of theme as found in the ,symphonic ,poems1 more nearly resembles the ordinary symphony in that it is in three distinct movements--with pauses between--which stand1 respectively1 for the three chief characters in ,goethe's drama3 ,faust1 ,gretchen and ,mephistopheles4 ,in the ,faust ,symphony the principle of transformation or metamorphosis of themes is of such importance that it may be defined as their rhythmic1 melodic and harmonic modification for the purpose of changing the meaning to correspond with a modification in the characters for which they stand4 ,the first movement sets before us five themes illustrative of the most prominent traits in the complex nature of ,faust2 the three most important being 7a7 typical of brooding1 speculative inquiry1 7b7 the longing of love1 7c7 the enthusiasm and chivalry of ,faust1 e4g4 ,music3 7a7 ,music3 7b7 ,music3 7c7 ,the development of these themes is entirely free1 the musical texture being held together by a general application of the principle of contrast and by a logical key-scheme4 ,the second movement has two main themes1 e4g4 ,music3 7a7 ,music3 7b7 which portray eloquently the sweetness and dreamy ecstacy of ,gretchen's nature4 ,in the course of this portrayal there appear several themes from the first movement showing1 by their transformation1 the effect upon the introspective ,faust of the awakening influence of love4 ,thus the love theme appears as-- ,music and also later in this form-- ,music ,towards the close of the movement there is a subtle reference to the chivalrous theme1 as follows-- ,music ,much of the appeal of the music depends upon the orchestration which throughout is of remarkable beauty4 ,in the final movement1 entitled ,mephistopheles1 there are a few independent themes which portray the malign influence of the spirit of ,evil--the movement is marked ,allegro vivace ironico6--but most of the material is a transformation of the ,faust themes which are here burlesqued1 parodied2 as if all the noble aspirations of ,faust were being mocked and set at naught4 ,this treatment is a perfectly logical result of the correspondence1 for which ,liszt was striving1 between the music and the spirit of the underlying drama4 ,as for the final impressiveness of his artistic message1 the composer may well have felt that the effect would be indefinite without the specific meaning which words alone can give4 ,for the style is very subjective throughout2 that is1 if the hearer is in a responsive condition1 an effect is produced on his imagination--otherwise1 not4 ,to close the work1 therefore1 in the most moving and dignified manner1 ,liszt1 with unerring instinct and following the precedent of ,beethoven in the ,ninth ,symphony1 introduces a chorus of men's voices--marked ,andante ,mistico--which intones the famous stanza ,alles ,vergngliche#bdh at the close of the second part of ,faust2 while1 above this chorus1 a solo tenor proclaims the motto of the redeeming love of woman1 ,das ewig ,weibliche--a sentiment so dear to the ,german#bdi mind and one that plays such an important part in the music dramas of ,wagner4 ,a dramatic and musical connection between the movements is established by using1 for this solo part1 the melody 7intensified by augmentation7 which in the second movement typified the love and charm of ,gretchen1 e4g4 ,music3 ,das ewig ,weibliche ,footnote #bdh3 ,translated as follows by ,bayard ,taylor3-- ,chorus ,misticus ,all things transitory ,but as symbols are sent2 ,earth's insufficiency ,here grows to ,event2 ,the ,indescribable1 ,here it is done3 ,the ,woman-,soul leadeth us ,upward and on6 ,footnote #bdi3 ,the way in which the ,germans in the recent war have applied this doctrine raises1 we must say1 many searching questions4 ,notwithstanding the ultra sensationalism in some of ,liszt's works there is no doubt that1 in the closing pages of ,faust1 he has produced an effect of genuine power and of inspired musical beauty4#bej ,faust1 in fact1 may be called a great work because of the character of its leading melodies1 its freedom of structure and expression and its wealth of appropriate orchestral color4 ,for these merits we may overlook certain dreary passages where it would surely seem as if the imagination of the composer were not able to translate into tones all the phases of ,goethe's stupendous drama4#bea ,footnote #bej3 ,that this is the verdict of the public is shown by the fact that1 whenever of late years ,faust has been given by the ,boston ,symphony ,orchestra1 it has had to be repeated by popular request4 ,footnote #bea3 ,for further comments on the work see ,huneker's ,franz ,liszt1 pp4 #ada-adf and the third part 7on ,program ,music7 of ,finck's ,r4 ,strauss1 ,the ,man and ,his ,works4 ,also ,chap4 ,,vii passim in ,vol4 ,,vi of the ,oxford ,history4 ,in a book such as this1 chiefly concerned with broad principles of structure and style1 it would be out of place to attempt a detailed account of ,liszt's numerous and varied pianoforte compositions4 ,but they can by no means be left out of consideration by anyone who wishes to gain a comprehensive estimate of his influence4 ,for although the fundamental principles of pianoforte style1 both in writing for the instrument and in playing upon it1 are derived from ,chopin and ,schumann1#beb ,liszt so amplified the work of these men and added so many novel features of his own in pianistic effect and especially in execution that he is rightly considered a genius of the instrument4 ,he certainly brought out of the pianoforte a sonority and wealth of color which heretofore had been associated only with the orchestra4 ,the chief groups of the pianoforte works are 7#a7 the transcriptions of songs1 notably of ,schubert and ,schumann1 and of operas1 particularly of ,wagner4 ,in this group should also be included the remarkable arrangement for solo-pianoforte of all the ,beethoven ,symphonies4 7#b7 ,the tudes1 especially the set entitled tudes d'excution transcendante--a description which clearly shows the idea ,liszt set before himself and indubitably attained2 of this set the one in ,f minor is particularly fine4 7#c7 ,the world-famed ,hungarian ,rhapsodies1 fifteen in number1 based on national melodies and rhythms4 ,in these ,liszt aspired to be the poet of his nation1 and they are still among the most important manifestations of the national spirit so prominent in our modern music4 ,perhaps the most eloquent and celebrated are the #b;d1 the #abth and the #adth4 ,even if at times they are overencrusted with effects meant primarily for display1 the rhythmic vitality and color of the melodies cannot be withstood4 ,footnote #beb3 ,weber and ,schubert had1 of course1 done valuable pioneer work4 ,,concert ,,tude1 ,waldesrauschen 7,,see ,,supplement ,,no4 #ei7 ,this composition begins with a swaying1 cantabile theme for the left hand very characteristic of ,liszt1 which stands out in relief against some beautifully placed arabesque figures in the upper register of the instrument--the whole to be played una corda1 dolce con grazia4 ,it really is a poetic picture1 in terms of music1 of the delicious murmur of the woods4 ,in the #aeth measure the theme is transferred to the right hand1 in octaves1 over sonorous1 widely extended groups below4 ,the theme is expanded through a series of striking modulations and then returns1 in measure #cj1 to the left hand in a single melodic line4 ,this middle portion1 measures #cj-ej1 is very beautiful in its genuine atmospheric treatment4 ,towards its close1 however1 ,liszt's fondness for sensational effect rather runs away with him and there is a good deal1 in measures #ej-fj 7marked martellato1 strepitoso and fff71 which is rather difficult to reconcile with the poetic subject4 ,perhaps a mighty wind is roaring through the trees6 ,in measure #fa the theme is once more presented in amplified form by the right hand1 pi mosso and molto appassionata1 and worked up to a brilliant climax--ending with an interlocking trill and a long1 descending passage of delightful sensuous effect4 ,the closing measures1 una corda and dolcissimo1 afford a reminiscence of the haunting appeal of the chief melody4 ,all in all1 in spite of a certain admixture of alloy1 here is a poetic composition1 a real tone-picture of the woods and of the effects implied by the title4 ,certainly a piece which1 in its picturesque suggestiveness and pianistic treatment1 may fairly be called the ancestor of much that is beautiful in such modern composers as ,debussy and ,ravel4 ,as a final estimate of ,liszt and as a suggestion for the student's attitude we cite from ,niecks the following quotation1 since1 in our opinion1 it is true and forcibly expressed3 ,liszt's works are too full of originality and striking expressiveness to deserve permanently the neglect that has been their lot4 ,be1 however1 the ultimate fate of these works what it may1 there will always remain to ,liszt the fame of a daring striver1 a fruitful originator and a wide-ranging quickener4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,brahms ,after the novel and brilliant work of the ,romanticists had reached its height in the compositions just studied1 it seemed as if there were nothing more for music to do4 ,wagner1 with his special dramatic aims and gorgeous coloring1 loomed so large on the horizon that for a time all other music was dwarfed4 ,it is1 therefore of real significance that just in this interregnum two men1 born in the early years of the #aith century1 were quietly laying the foundations for eloquent works in absolute or symphonic music4 ,these men were ,johannes ,brahms 7#ahcc-ahig7 and ,csar ,franck 7#ahbb-ahij74 ,following a few preliminary remarks about the significance of symphonic style in general1 the next chapters will be devoted to an account of their works and influence4 ,a striking feature in the development of music since #ahej is the number of symphonies produced by the representative composers of the various nations2 and the manner in which these works embody certain phases of style and manifest national tendencies is a subject of great interest4 ,ever since ,beethoven1 there has been a universal feeling that the symphony is the form in which a composer should express his highest thoughts4 ,if ,wagner and ,richard ,strauss seem to be exceptions1 we must remember that their work for orchestra is thoroughly symphonic both in material and in scope4 ,the difference is chiefly one of terms4 ,wagner claimed that he merely applied to dramatic purposes ,beethoven's thematic development2 and the tone-poems of ,strauss are symphonies in essence though on a free poetic basis4 ,every composer has taken up the writing of a symphony with a serious purpose and often comparatively late in life4 ,to be sure1 ,beethoven's first ,symphony1 op4 #ba1 was composed in his thirtieth year2 but for the works which manifest most strongly his personality1 such as the ,third1 ,fifth and ,ninth1 we have to wait until a later period4 ,schumann essayed symphonic composition only after his technique had been developed in every other field4 ,brahms's first ,symphony1 on which he is said to have worked ten years1 is op4 #fh4 ,csar ,franck looked forward to a ,symphony as the climax of his career4 ,the day has passed when a composer could dash off symphonies by the dozen2 quality and genuine personality in each work are the modern requirements4 ,thus from ,brahms we have four symphonies1 from ,tchaikowsky six1 from ,bruckner nine--a dangerously large number6--from ,sibelius five1 from ,elgar two1 from d',indy three2 and1 even if a composer write but a single really inspired and noble symphony--as for example1 ,csar ,franck--he is in so far immortal4 ,for the symphonic form is the product of too much intense striving 7think of ,beethoven's agonies of conception67 to be treated lightly4 ,beginning with the operatic overture of ,lully and ,scarlatti1 called ,sinfonia avanti l'opera1 down through the labors of ,stamitz1 ,gossec1 ,emmanuel ,bach1 ,haydn and ,mozart1 this form1 as we know it to-day1 is the result of at least a century and a half of sustained1 constructive work4 ,a musician who wishes to compose a symphony is brought face to face with the formidable question1 ,have ,i a real message to utter and the technical skill to present it in communicable form8 ,there are no accessory appeals to the other senses in the way of a dramatic story1 scenic effect1 dancing and costumes--as in opera--to cloak poverty of invention and to mollify the judgment of the listener4 ,i grant that the composition of an original opera is a high achievement1 but we know how many composers have won success in the operatic field from whom we should never expect a symphony4 ,from comparatively few have we great works in both forms4 ,consider1 furthermore1 how complicated a tool is the present orchestra1 as a tool1 to say nothing of the invention of ideas4 ,many years of study are required to attain a certainty of calculation in sonority and nuance1 and the mere writing out the score of a symphony requires unremitting toil4 ,we all pay homage to life3 human life in men1 women and children1 and the life of nature in animals1 birds1 trees and flowers4 ,let us ever remember that the imagination also has its products and the themes of a symphony may certainly be considered its children4 ,the public often seems to have slight idea of the sanctity and mystery of a musical idea4 ,composers are considered people with a kind of knack in writing down notes4 ,in reality1 a musical idea is as wonderful a thing as we can conceive--a miracle of life and yet intangible1 ethereal4 ,the composer apparently creates something out of nothing1 pure fancy being wrought into terms of communication4 ,since the close of the ,romantic period proper1 the ,symphonic composers of universal recognition have been ,brahms1 ,franck1 ,tchaikowsky1 d',indy1 ,sibelius1 ,bruckner1 ,mahler1 ,dvovrk1 ,elgar1 and a few lesser men of the ,russian and ,french schools4 ,their works carry still further the principles which can be traced from ,beethoven down through the ,romantic ,school1 i4e41 the chief themes are of a highly subjective nature1 often in fact being treated like actual characters in a drama2 and great freedom is shown in regard to mood and order of the usual symphonic movements--this being particularly true of ,mahler and ,bruckner4 ,a distinct feature of interest in the work of ,tchaikowsky1 ,dvovrk and ,sibelius is the introduction of exotic types of melody and rhythm1 drawn from national sources4 ,thus ,tchaikowsky1 who said that he wished all his instrumental music to sound like a glorified ,russian folk-song1 uses rhythms of #e and 7in his chamber music7 #g beats a measure1 with frequent touches of old modal harmony4 ,dvovrk founds his harmony and modulations on the exceedingly chromatic scale of the ,bohemians2 and his piquant and dashing rhythms could come only from a nation which has no less than forty national dances4 ,in listening to ,sibelius1 we are conscious of the wild sweep of the wind1 of unchained forces of nature2 and there are the same traits of virile strength and grim dignity which have made the ,kalevala1 ,finland's national poem1 one of the great epics of the world4 ,although ,brahms never lets us forget that he is a ,teuton1 there are frequent traces in his compositions of the ,hungarian element--so dear to all the ,viennese composers--as well as of ,german folk-songs2 and the most artistic treatment we have of ,hungarian rhythms is found in his two sets of ,hungarian dances4 ,it is manifestly beyond the scope of a single book to treat comprehensively each of the symphonists in the list just cited1 so ,i shall dwell chiefly upon the characteristics of ,brahms1 ,franck1 ,tchaikowsky and d',indy as probably the greatest1 and touch only incidentally upon the others1 as of somewhat lesser import2 though if anyone take issue with this preference in regard to ,mahler and ,bruckner ,i shall not combat him4 ,for ,i believe ,mahler to be a real genius2 feeling1 however1 that his wonderful conceptions are sometimes not expressed in the most convincing manner4 ,there is no doubt that ,mahler has not yet received his bigger part in due valuation1 but his time will surely come4 ,as for ,bruckner1 we have from him some of the most elemental and powerful ideas in modern music--witness the dirge in the ,seventh ,symphony with its impressive scoring for trombones and ,bayreuth tubas1 a movement ,beethoven might have signed2 although with the virgin gold there is mixed1 it must be confessed1 a large amount of crude alloy1 and there are dreary stretches of waste sand4 ,johannes ,brahms1 like ,beethoven1 with whom his style has many affinities1 was a ,north-,german1 born in #ahcc in the historic seaport town of ,hamburg4#bec ,brahms came of lowly though respectable and intelligent parents1 his father being a double-bass player in one of the theatre orchestras4 ,that the positiveness of character1 so conspicuous in his famous son1 was an inherited trait may be seen from the following anecdote4 ,the director of the theatre orchestra once asked father ,brahms not to play so loud2 whereupon he replied with dignity1 ,herr ,kapellmeister1 this is my double-bass1 ,i want you to understand1 and ,i shall play it as loud as ,i please4 ,the music of ,brahms in its bracing vigor has been appropriately compared to a mixture of sea air and the timbre of this instrument4 ,footnote #bec3 ,noted as being the original centre of national ,german opera and for its associations with the early career of ,handel4 ,brahms's mother was a deeply religious woman who imbued her son with a seriousness of purpose which runs through all his work4 ,from his earliest years he was trained for music1 as a matter of course1 and showed marked precocity as a pianist1 though it soon became evident that he also was endowed with rare creative gifts4 ,the young student made such progress under ,marxsen1 a famous teacher of the period1 that at the age of fifteen he gave a public concert1 on the program of which stood some original pieces of his own4 ,the next few years were spent in diligent study and in the composition of some of his early works1 of which the ,scherzo op4 #d is the most significant4 ,brahms was extraordinarily precocious and during these formative years manifested a trait which is noticeable throughout his career--that of knowing exactly what end he had in view and of setting to work quickly and steadily to attain it4 ,finally in #ahec1 when he was twenty1 he was invited to participate in the memorable concert-tour with the ,hungarian ,violinist ,remenyi1 which was the cause of his being brought before the public under the auspices of three such sponsors as ,schumann1 ,liszt and ,joachim4 ,it seems that1 at one of the concerts in a small town1 the pianoforte was a semitone too low1 whereupon young ,brahms transposed at sight a difficult ,beethoven ,sonata into the requisite higher key4 ,this remarkable feat of musicianship so impressed ,joachim1 who was in the audience1 that he gave ,brahms two letters of introduction--one to ,liszt at ,weimar and one to ,schumann at ,dsseldorf on the ,rhine4 ,following up these letters1 ,brahms now spent six weeks at ,weimar with ,liszt1 assimilating important points of method and style4 ,although the two natures were somewhat unsympathetic1 ,liszt was so impressed with the creative power and character of ,brahms's first compositions1 that he tried to adopt him as an adherent of the advanced school of modern music2 while ,brahms was led1 as some would claim1 through ,liszt's influence to an appreciation of the artistic effects to be found in ,hungarian music4 ,brahms's visit to ,schumann in the autumn of #ahec was in its consequences a significant incident4 ,after hearing ,brahms's music1 ,schumann wrote for the ,neue ,zeitschrift an article entitled ,neue ,bahnen 7,new ,paths7 in which the young composer was heralded as the master for whom the world had been waiting1 the successor of ,beethoven in the symphonic style4 ,through ,schumann's influence1 the publishers ,breitkopf and ,hrtel at once brought out ,brahms's first works1 which were by no means received by the public with general favor2 in fact they provoked as bitter discussion as those of ,wagner1 and made headway slowly4 ,for four years--from #ahed to #aheh--;,brahms was in the service of the ,prince of ,lippe-,detmold1 a small principality near ,hanover1 where the court was a quiet one1 thus affording ample time for composition and private study4 ,brahms's strength of purpose and unusual power of self-criticism are shown by the way in which this period was spent4 ,although he had made a brilliant dbut1 ,brahms now imposed upon himself a course of rigorous technical training1 appeared seldom before the public and published no compositions2 his object being to free himself from a narrow subjectivity and to give scope to his wide human sympathies and to his passion for perfection of utterance4 ,it seemed to him that a plausible originality might degenerate into mere idiosyncrasy1 and that universality of appeal should be a musician's highest goal4 ,when he resigned his post and came before the public with his first large work1 a concerto for pianoforte and orchestra1 the gain made in increased power and resources was evident4 ,the greatest tribute which can be paid ,brahms is that he has summed up and united the classic principles of clearness and solidity of workmanship with the warmth and spontaneity of the ,romantic ,school4 ,in #ahfb ,brahms settled in ,vienna where1 for thirty-five years1 his career was entirely free from external incidents of note2 his time spent in quiet steady work and in the attainment of artistic ideals4 ,his slow logical development is like that of ,beethoven1 due to the fact that his works were far from numerous1 but finished with the greatest care4 ,the standard of creative quality is also very high2 comparatively few of ,brahms's works are not altogether alive4 ,matthew ,arnold's beautiful lines on labor are applicable to ,brahms4 ,work which in lasting fruit outgrows far noisier schemes2 accomplished in repose2 too great for haste2 too high for rivalry4 ,brahms thus described to ,mr4 ,henschel1 a former conductor of the ,boston ,symphony ,orchestra1 his ideals concerning composing3 ,there is no real creating without hard work2 that which you call invention is simply an inspiration from above1 for which ,i am not responsible1 which is no merit of mine4 ,and again1 ,whether a composition is beautiful is one consideration1 but perfect it must be4 ,the few of his compositions which show connection with outward events are the ,deutsches ,requiem1 his best-known choral work 7in commemoration of his mother's death7 and the ,academic ,overture1 composed in place of the conventional thesis1 when--in #ahhj--the ,university of ,breslau conferred on him a doctor's degree4 ,this ,overture1 based on several convivial student songs1 is on the whole his most genial composition for orchestra and has won a deserved popularity the world over4#bed ,for sustained fancy his most beautiful work for chorus and orchestra is the ,schicksalslied 7,song of ,destiny74 ,symphonic composition1 as has been said1 came in the latter part of ,brahms's career1 his first work in that form being op4 #fh4 ,after that1 within a few years1 three other symphonies were composed4 ,his last works include the significant pianoforte pieces called ,intermezzi--not all equally inspired1 but many representing the finest flower of ,brahms's genius2 four serious songs for bass voice1 and one posthumous work1 ,eleven ,choral ,preludes for ,organ4 ,brahms died in #ahig and lies buried in ,vienna not far from ,beethoven and ,schubert4 ,footnote #bed3 ,another very fine work in this class is the ,tragic ,overture1 worthy of the deepest study4 ,from ,brahms we have beautiful works in every branch of composition save the opera and symphonic poem4 7,he once said he would risk neither an opera nor getting married67 ,very few of his works have titles1 and in this respect he stood somewhat aloof from that strong tendency in modern times--the connection between music and poetic and literary sources of inspiration4 ,but he had a right to choose his own line of effort2 it is for us to become familiar with his works as they are4 ,they comprise about two hundred songs1 three pianoforte sonatas and many lesser pieces1 two concertos for pianoforte and orchestra1 a wonderfully fine violin concerto1 four symphonies--each with a character of its own--and a large group of chamber compositions3 string quartets1 sonatas for violin and pianoforte1 trios1 and a number of works for unusual ensemble combinations--the ,trio for ,violin1 ,horn and ,pianoforte being the best known4 ,as to the nature of ,brahms's music the following comments are submitted for consideration4 ,he was not a colorist or a stylist in the broad sense of those terms1 i4e41 color and style were not the prime ingredients in his music4 ,there is light and shade in ,brahms but seldom that rich and varied glow found1 for example1 in ,rimsky-,korsakoff--that supreme master of orchestral coloring4 ,as for style1 it may be said that his work fulfils ,matthew ,arnold's definition of that desirable quality1 ,to have something to say and to say it in the most simple and direct manner possible4 ,we sometimes feel1 however1 that he is thinking more of what he has to say than of outward eloquence of expression4 ,but when there are so many composers#bee in whom there is far more style than substance1 we should not carp at ,brahms for the stuff in his work4 ,the matter might be put in a nut-shell by saying that ,brahms is ,brahms2 you accept him or leave him1 as you see fit4 ,the bulk of his music not only has stood the test of time but becomes more potent each year2 surely this is the highest possible endorsement4 ,he is rightly considered a great master of pure melodic line and a consummate architect1 especially in the conciseness and concentration of certain compositions1 e4g41 the ,third ,symphony1 and in his superb mastery of the ,variation form which is the basis of some of his most famous works for orchestra and for pianoforte4 ,his texture is of marked richness and variety2 seldom do we find verbiage or lifeless padding4 ,he has been called the ,browning of music--a deep thinker in tones4 ,genuine appreciation of ,brahms presupposes work on the part of the music-lover2 and the recognition should be more general that the imaginative stimulation gained only through work is one of the blessings music has to bestow4 ,footnote #bee3 ,we cite ,saint-,sans1 as one instance4 ,it is often alleged1 indeed1 that to enjoy ,brahms one has to work4 ,of course1 but what repaying work6 ,this may be said equally of ,shakespeare1 of ,dante1 of ,browning1 of ,bach and of every poet with a serious message4 ,the vitality of ,brahms's creative power1 like that of ,beethoven1 is seen in his rhythm4 ,he had a highly developed rhythmic sense1 and in his fondness for syncopations1 for contrasted accents and for complicated metric groups he is the logical successor of ,schumann4 ,one of his favorite devices is the altered grouping of the notes in a measure1 so that there is a contrast between duple and triple rhythm1 e4g41 the following passage in the ,second ,symphony1 where an effect of great vigor is produced4 ,music ,there are never in ,brahms weak or conventional rhythms4 ,he is also one of the great modern song-composers1 representing with ,strauss1 ,wolf and ,mahler the culmination of the ,german ,lied4 ,in his songs there is a warmth and depth of sentiment as yet unsurpassed1 and the accompaniment is always a highly wrought factor in the work4 ,in estimating the value of ,brahms's compositions as a whole1 it is difficult to hold the balance true4 ,those to whom he is sympathetic through an affinity of temperament revere him as one of the great geniuses for all time1 while to others his message is not of such convincing power4 ,the effect of inborn temperament in the personal appeal made by any composer is vividly shown by the estimate which ,tchaikowsky and ,brahms had for one another4 ,each felt respect for the sincerity and artistic skill of his contemporary1 at the same time regretfully acknowledging that the essence of the music meant little to him4 ,to ,tchaikowsky ,brahms seemed cold and lacking in melodic spontaneity2 to ,brahms1 on the other hand1 ,tchaikowsky seemed superficial1 sensational4 ,the gist of the matter is that ,brahms was a ,teuton and wrote with characteristic ,teutonic reserve and dignity4 ,tchaikowsky1 being a ,slav1 wrote with the impassioned lack of restraint and volatility of mood associated with that people4 ,how could it be otherwise8 ,each was a genuine artist1 expressing his natural feelings with clearness and conviction2 and each should be respected for what he did3 not one at the expense of the other4 ,in ,brahms1 however1 the question does arise of facility of expression versus worthiness of expression4 ,he had an unparalleled technique in the manipulation of notes but whether there was always an emotional impulse behind what he wrote is debatable4 ,for there are these two contrasting types in every art3 works which come from the heart 7remember ,beethoven's significant inscription at the end of his ,mass71#bef and those which come from the head4 ,this brings us face to face with the perplexing question as to the essence of music4 ,to some it is a record of intellectual activity tinged with emotion2 to others1 an emotional outpouring controlled by intellect4 ,these two types of music will always exist1 being the natural expression of the corresponding classes in human nature4 ,footnote #bef3 ,from the heart it has come1 to the heart it shall go4 ,brahms's music is sometimes called dry1 but this is a misuse of terms4 ,to draw an analogy from another sense1 we might rejoin that the best champagne is sec1 all the superfluous1 cloying sugar being removed4 ,there is plenty of saccharine music in the world for those who like it4 ,in ,brahms1 however1 we find a potential energy and a manly tenderness which cannot be ignored even by those who are not profoundly thrilled by his message4 ,he was a sincere idealist and composed to please his own high standards1 never thinking of outward effect nor testing the pulse of the fickle public4 ,as a man there is no doubt that he was warm-hearted and vigorous1 but his was not the nature to come forward with captivating geniality4 ,on the contrary he expects the hearer to come to him1 and is too reserved to meet you more than half-way4 ,that this austerity has proved a bar in the way of a wide-spread fame1 while to be regretted1 is unavoidable2 remove these characteristics from ,brahms and he ceases to be ,brahms4 ,those1 however1 who may think that ,brahms is always austere and grim1 holding himself aloof from broad human emotion1 should remember that he has done more than any other modern composer to idealize the ,waltz2 and1 if the atmosphere of his symphonic style be too rarified1 they may well begin their effort in appreciation with those charming ,waltzes op4 #ci 7both for solo pianoforte and for a four-hand arrangement72 the ,hungarian ,dances1 and--most beautiful of all--the ,liebeslieder ,walzer for chorus and pianoforte 7four-hands74 ,anyone who knows these works cannot fail to become a genuine lover of ,brahms4 ,to be of the earth and yet to strike the note of sublimity is a paradox4 ,for1 in ,brahms at his best1 we surely find more of the sublime1 of true exalted aspiration1 than in any other modern composer save ,csar ,franck4 ,to strike this note of sublimity is the highest achievement of music--its proper function2 a return1 as it were1 to the abode whence it came4 ,such music is far beyond that which is merely sensuous1 brilliantly descriptive1 or even dramatically characteristic4 ,much of present day music excites and thrills but does not exalt4 ,brahms1 in his great moments1 lifts us high above the earth4 ,his universal acceptance is alike hindered by a deficiency which1 though as natural as his reserve1 may yet justly be cited against him--the occasional monotony of his color scheme4 ,in the symphonies1 notwithstanding the dignity and sincerity of thought1 we find pages in the style of an engraving which would be more effective as a glowing canvas1 e4g41 in the slow movement of the ,second ,symphony and in the last two movements of the ,fourth4 ,many consider1 however1 that ,brahms's orchestral treatment is exactly suited to the seriousness of his ideas2 so it comes down to a question of individual taste4 ,that he had his own delicate feeling for color and sensuous effect is shown in many pages of the chamber music1 especially in those works for unusual combinations1 e4g41 the ,clarinet ,quintet1 and the ,trio for ,violin1 ,horn and ,pianoforte4 ,no one in modern times has used more eloquently that romantic instrument1 the horn4 ,see1 for example1 the ,coda to the first movement of the ,d major ,symphony and the slow movement of the ,third ,symphony4 ,we must gratefully acknowledge the lasting quality of his music--without question it wears well4 ,in fact1 difficult though it be to comprehend at a first hearing1 the more it is heard1 the more it is enjoyed4 ,brahms's#beg music is steadily growing in popularity4 ,his orchestral works and chamber music are applauded to-day1 although twenty-five years ago they were received with apathy and scornful indifference4 ,footnote #beg3 ,for literature on ,brahms the following works are recommended3 the comprehensive ,life by ,fuller-,maitland2 the essay in ,hadow's ,studies in ,modern ,music2 that in ,mason's ,from ,grieg to ,brahms2 that by ,spitta in ,studies in ,music by ,robin ,grey2 the first essay in ,mezzotints in ,modern ,music by ,huneker2 the biographical and critical article in ,grove's ,dictionary2 ,chapter ,,ix in ,volume #h of the ,art of ,music1 and ,chapter ,,xiii in ,volume #b4 ,there are also some stimulating remarks on ,brahms's style in general1 and on the attitude of a past generation towards his work1 in those delightful essays1 in #b volumes1 ,by the ,way1 ,about ,music by the late well-known critic1 ,w4,f4 ,apthorp4 ,as a representative work in each of the four fields in which ,brahms created such masterpieces we have selected1 for detailed analysis1 the ,first ,symphony1 the ,sonata for ,violin and ,pianoforte in ,a major1 the ,ballade in ,g minor and the ,song1 ,meine ,liebe ist grn wie der ,fliederbusch4 ,all four of ,brahms's symphonies may justly be considered great1 each in its own way4 ,for ,brahms is not a man with a single message and has not written one large symphony in different sections1 as1 in a broad sense1 may be said of ,tchaikowsky4 ,the ,second1 on account of the spontaneity and direct appeal of its themes1 is undoubtedly the most popular4 ,it contains a first movement of a quasi-,mendelssohnian suavity and lyric charm2 a slow movement which is a meditation of the profundity of ,bach himself2 a third movement1 allegretto1 based on a delightful waltz of the ,viennese ,lndler type and a ,finale of a ,mozartian freshness and vigor--the second theme being specially notable for its broad sweep4 ,the whole work is a convincing example of ,brahms's vitality and joie de vivre4 ,the ,third symphony is a marvel of conciseness and virile life4 ,the ,fourth1 though not in all respects so inspired as the others1 is famous for its beautiful slow movement--with an impressive introduction in the ,phrygian mode 7,brahms often showing a marked fondness for old modal harmony7--and for the ,finale1 which is an illustration of his polyphonic skill in modernizing the variation form1 the ,passacaglia or ground bass4 ,but the ,first1#beh it seems to us1 is the greatest1 in scope1 in wealth of material1 in its remarkable combination of dramatic1 epic and lyric elements and in an intensity of feeling and sublimity of thought peculiar to ,brahms4 ,it is extremely subjective1 of deep ethical value1 and sets forth a message of optimism and undying hope4 ,the structural basis is a motto1 often recurring in the work1 which 7whatever it may mean7 is evidently--like the theme of the ,c minor symphony--some fierce protest against fate4 ,the symphony1 as a whole1 represents a triumphant progress from darkness to light2 and this meaning is made evident by the ever-brightening mood of the successive movements1 the tone of which is strengthened by the scheme of key-relationship--based on an ascending series of major thirds1 e4g4 ,music3 ,c ,minor1 ,e major1 ,a-flat major1 ,c major4 ,footnote #beh3 ,the eloquence of the work is so integrally involved with its orchestral dress that it should always be studied1 if possible1 in the full score4 ,for class-room work excellent editions are available for two and four hands4 ,the work is somewhat uneven--never weak--but at times a bit labored2 as if the composer were consciously wrestling with great thoughts4 ,this1 however1 is nothing against it1 because equally true of large works in other fields of art1 e4g41 the ,agamemnon of ,aeschylus or ,wagner's ,tetralogy4 ,it cannot be understood1 much less appreciated1 without close attention and earnest thought1 for it presents the struggles and aspirations of mankind and is not meant solely to delight or entertain4 ,when the hearer has made it his own it is a priceless possession for all time4 ,the ,prelude to the first movement1 un poco sostenuto1 is of impressive solemnity1 developed from the motto1 and based on the almost persistent iteration of the pedal notes ,c and ,g--the tonic and dominant4 ,it proclaims that a serious meaning is to be revealed1 and this meaning is accentuated by the orchestration which with its stratified grouping of melodic lines has a grim strength characteristic of ,brahms4 ,music ,the first movement proper1 ,allegro1 in complete sonata-form1 begins with a ff announcement of the impassioned1 chromatic motto1 e4g4 ,music ,note the cutting effect of the dissonant tones ,f-sharp and ,a-flat6 ,from this motto grows the melodic part of the first theme in two balancing phrases1 e4g4 ,music ,then follow some stormy measures of dissonant chords and warring rhythms until the theme rages itself out1 in measure #eb4 ,the transition begins with some sharp staccato chords1 as if summoning to further attention4 ,it gradually cools down through a series of beautiful modulations and1 in measure #hd1 the second theme--introduced by calls on the horn and sung by the oboe--enters in the relative major key of ,e-flat4 ,this also is based on the ascending1 chromatic line of the motto2 still further organic unity being gained by the bass1 which has the same melodic figure as the second phrase of the first theme1 e4g4 ,music ,much of the previous fierceness1 however1 has abated and the remainder of the second theme is of a rare loveliness1 with mysterious answering calls between oboes1 clarinets and horns4 ,the pp dominant ninth chords at the beginning of the closing portion 7measures #abj-abb7 give a positively shuddering effect and then the combat of clashing rhythms is renewed4 ,the development begins with a series of shifting harmonies1 at first ff and then pp--a lull before the storm--as if preparing the way for a still more terrific assault upon our emotions4 ,it is tempestuous throughout2 based at first on material taken from the preceding codetta and ending with an extended presentation of the motto over an iterated pedal note on the dominant1 e4g4 ,music ,the fusion of the development with the recapitulation is skillfully handled1 and the motto is proclaimed1 beginning at measure #bih1 in a series of ascending strata1 with overwhelming force4 ,the third part1 with slight abridgment and necessary adjustment of key-relationship1 conforms exactly to the exposition4 ,there is the same agitato closing portion as before1 and then the ,coda proper1 beginning at measure #dba1 emphasizes with fiery accents the mood of storm and stress characteristic of the movement as a whole4 ,after the fury has subsided1 the dramatic motto asserts itself in the closing measures1 poco sostenuto2 the problem is still unsolved and the last ,c major chord is but a ray of light cast on troubled waters4 ,the second movement1 andante sostenuto--in three-part form--begins with a tender melody expressing a mood of deep resignation and religious hope4 ,no sooner has it started1 however1 than there creeps in the sinister motto1 as if to remind us that life is undeniably stern and grim1 e4g4 ,music ,in measure #ag there enters a closing theme1 sung by the oboe1 of ineffable beauty which is used in the third part as the climax of the movement4 ,it surely seems to come from another world and is one of the most sublime melodies by ,brahms or any one else4 ,its climax is impressively united with the main theme in the bass1 e4g4 ,music ,the middle portion1 beginning in measure #ch1 is a meditation--in dialogue form--for solo oboe and clarinet1 worked up to an eloquent climax in the key of the relative minor1 ,c-sharp4 ,the third part1 beginning measure #ff1 with the addition of some lovely modulatory changes1 corresponds to part one2 save that the melody is varied by ,brahms's favorite device of three notes to a beat in one voice against two in another4 ,beginning in measure #ij1 the wondrous closing theme of the first part is sung by a solo violin1 reinforced by oboe and horn4 ,it is finally entrusted1 in the home key1 to the horn alone1 above which the solo violin soars in ecstacy1 e4g4 ,music ,some diminuendo1 descending passages lead to a reminiscent portion of the first theme and then1 in measure #aaf1 the grim motto enters1 but this time without prevailing2 for1 in measures #abb-abd1 it is finally exorcised and the movement closes with the seraphic calm of a soft1 rich chord in ,e major1 above which is heard a star-like note on the solo violin4 ,the third movement is an ,allegretto2 it being ,brahms's custom in each#bei of his symphonies to substitute a movement of this type in place of the conventional ,scherzo or ,minuet4 ,this movement clearly in three-part form1 is thrown in to furnish relief after the emotional tension of the movement preceding4 ,it has no obvious organic connection with the other movements1 but is just the right thing in its surroundings1 with a note of vitality which does much to brighten the scene and to prepare the way for the ,finale4 ,the opening theme in ,a-flat major is in two phrases of five measures each--a favorite rhythm with ,brahms--given out by the clarinet over a pizzicato bass in the 'cellos4 ,the melodic formation is unusual in that the latter phrase is an inversion of the first1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bei3 ,the only slight exception is the third movement of the ,fourth ,symphony which1 being marked ,allegro giocoso1 partakes somewhat of the nature of a ,scherzo4 ,after some descending passages in thirds and sixths--one of the characteristic#bfj effects in ,brahms's style--the theme is repeated in the violins with richer scoring4 ,the descending passage returns and this time leads to the entrance of a subsidiary theme in ,f minor4 ,in measures #ej-ea occurs one of those cases of melodic germination which entitles ,brahms to be called a genuine creative artist4 ,the melody with its dashing1 ,hungarian zest sounds like something brand-new and yet is logically derived from the main theme by diminution1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bfj3 ,those eternal sixths and thirds4 ,weingartner later publicly recanted and became a whole-souled convert to ,brahms4 7,see ,the ,symphony since ,beethoven1 latest edition47 ,this is real poetic creation1 it being the prime object of a poet to create in music something out of apparent nothing4 ,after these vivacious developments the first part ends with a slight repetition of the main theme4 ,the middle part1 beginning measure #ga1 in #f_/h time and in the enharmonic key of ,b major 7,e-flat ,d-sharp7 is noteworthy for its rhythmic swing1 bold syncopations and contrasted accents2 see especially measures #ig-ajg4 ,at the beginning of the third part there is an effective blending of the rhythm which has just prevailed with the graceful lines of the first theme4 ,the fabric is made up of effective changes1 modulatory and rhythmic1 in the material from the first part4 ,at the ,coda1 pi tranquillo1 there is a delightful reminiscence of the rhythm of the middle portion carried out to the very end by the double basses4#bfa ,footnote #bfa3 ,a similar effect may be found in the closing measures of the first movement of ,beethoven's ,eighth ,symphony4 ,the ,finale is one of the most thrilling perorations in music2 not a perfunctory close1 but a veritable ,apotheosis of victorious aspiration1 giving an irresistible contrast to the first movement4 ,whereas1 before1 there was nothing but conflict1 now all is triumphant joy4 ,this movement is laid out on a vast scale1 with a wealth of material1 including a long ,prelude with a distinct theme of its own and an extended ,coda4 ,the body of the movement is in abridged sonata form1 i4e41 there is a complete ,exposition with first1 second and closing themes1 and the usual ,recapitulation1 but no ,development proper4 ,this lack is made good by considerable variation and expansion in the first part of the ,rsum4 ,the ,prelude begins ,adagio with some strains which1 like smouldering embers1 remind us of the sinister motto of the first movement--note the same dissonant tones ,a-flat and ,f-sharp4 ,the following measures are of indefinite nature1 beginning piano and pizzicato as if a great body were gathering headway slowly4 ,the pace gradually quickens and we are led through a series of impetuous stringendo runs to a ff chord which1 accompanied by a ff roll on the kettle-drums1 sounds like a clap of thunder and which1 as the reverberations die away1 ushers in a most moving theme#bfb--;given out forte and sempre passionato on the horn over a pp muted tremolo on the strings with a background of pp trombones1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bfb3 ,there is a striking analogy between the intervals of this theme and those of a well-known peal in a cathedral chime1 e4g4 ,music ,in both the same elemental effect is produced by using the natural tones of the harmonic series 7see page #aic74 ,this inspired passage#bfc has been eloquently described by ,w4,f4 ,apthorp as follows3 ,amid hushed1 tremulous harmonies in the strings1 the horn and afterward the flute pour forth an utterly original melody1 the character of which ranges from passionate pleading to a sort of wild exultation according to the instrument that plays it4 ,the coloring is enriched by the solemn tones of the trombones1 which appear for the first time in this movement4 ,it is ticklish work trying to dive down into a composer's brain1 and surmise what special outside source his inspiration may have had2 but one cannot help feeling that this whole wonderful episode may have been suggested to ,brahms by the tones of the ,alpine horn1 as it awakens the echoes from mountain after mountain on some of the high passes in the ,bernese ,oberland4 ,this is certainly what the episode recalls to any one who has ever heard those poetic tones and their echoes4 ,a short1 solemn1 even ecclesiastical interruption by the trombones and bassoons is of more thematic importance4 ,as the horn-tones gradually die away1 and the cloud-like harmonies in the strings sink lower and lower--like mist veiling the landscape--an impressive pause ushers in the ,allegro4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,see also a similar eulogy by ,weingartner in his ,the ,symphony since ,beethoven4 ,after the flute has repeated this theme there is an interpolation of an important choral-like phrase 7referred to above71 e4g4 ,music for it is later used as the climax of the ,finale--in fact1 of the whole work--and its tone of religious fervor1 accentuated by the scoring for trombones and bassoons1 is a clear indication of the ideal message which ,brahms meant to convey4 ,the body of the movement1 ,allegro non troppo ma con brio1 begins with a majestic1 sweeping theme#bfd of great rhythmic vitality and elasticity announced by the strings1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bfd3 ,there is a statement in many books that this is a reminiscence of the theme in the ,finale of the ,ninth ,symphony4 ,how such a legend started it is difficult to say2 it must be due to what the late ,w4,f4 ,apthorp called purblind criticism4 ,for my part ,i see a resemblance in only one measure--save that both melodies are in quadruple rhythm--between the theme of ,brahms and the following3-- ,music ,it is at once repeated with richer scoring and then some exciting transitional passages lead1 after a slight phrase taken from the chief theme of the prelude1 to the second theme1 animato1 in ,g major1 e4g4 ,music ,this has some rhythmical expansion and then a quieter part1 dolce e piano1 beginning measure #ga4 ,some rushing ff passages bring us1 in measure #ajg1 to the brilliant closing theme with its staccato1 triplet rhythm4 ,the ,exposition ends in ,e minor1 in measure #abb1 after a series of forte1 staccato chords4 ,the ,recapitulation begins at once after two modulatory chords1 and though sufficient stress is laid on the first theme1 there is so much development of previous material that it serves for both the customary second and third parts4 ,a good deal of adverse criticism has been expended on this portion of the movement and it is possible that ,brahms's remarkable technique in handling his material ran away with him4 ,but the music is always striving toward some goal1 and even if it has to plough through desperate seas1 there is no weakness or faltering4 ,this part of the work is not beautiful in the popular sense of the term1 but no one can fail to be impressed with its character4 ,a climax is finally reached1 in measure #bbd1 with a fortissimo statement of the chief theme of the prelude1 and then1 after this has cooled down1 diminuendo e calando1 the second theme enters in the home key4 ,the rest of the recapitulation corresponds closely with the exposition4 ,the ,coda begins1 in measure #cjf1 with a shadowy outline of modulatory chords1 as if slumbering forces were slowly awakening2 and1 becoming more crescendo and stringendo1 reveals its full glory at the ,pi ,allegro4 ,this portion1 based on quickened phrases of the first theme1 seems charged with superhuman energy1 and mounting higher and higher culminates in a majestic proclamation of the choral-like motto of the prelude1 e4g4 ,music ,on hearing this it always seems as if the heavens above us really opened4 ,the rest of the ,coda is a scene of jubilation with ever more life and light4 ,the dissonant tones of ,f-sharp and ,a-flat try to lift their heads but this time are crushed forever by the triumphant fundamental chords of ,c major1 e4g4 ,music ,the movement1 in keeping with its serious message1 ends with a prolonged and brilliant ,plagal ,cadence in which the double basses and the trombone surge upward with elemental power4 ,,sonata ,,for ,,violin ,,and ,,pianoforte ,of ,brahms's three ,sonatas for violin and pianoforte1 respectively1 in ,d minor1 ,a major and ,g major1 that in ,a major has been selected to give some idea of his chamber music1 on account of the spontaneous appeal of its melodies and because its performance is possible for fairly well equipped executants4 ,in many respects the ,d minor ,sonata is the greatest of the three1 but it is a work exceedingly difficult of execution and interpretation4 ,the ,a major ,sonata needs few comments1 as the music speaks for itself4 ,the work is in three movements1 the first in complete sonata-form with the two customary themes1 each of distinct lyric charm and hence eminently suited to the singing qualities of the violin2 the second movement a fusion of the two normal middle ones1 and the ,finale a ,rondo1 freely treated4 ,the first movement1 ,allegro amabile1 begins with a suave theme1 e4g41 ,music the first interval of which1 a descending leap from the third to the leading tone1 always seems to make a distinct appeal4#bfe ,after the customary transition appears the second theme1 announced by the pianoforte in measure #ej1 e4g41 ,music showing ,brahms's fondness for contrasted rhythms--three notes to a beat in one hand against two in the other4 ,after a repetition by the violin there is a spirited closing theme in measure #ge1 of great importance later4 ,the ,development1 one of ,brahms's best1 manifests real organic growth2 there is nothing labored or perfunctory4 ,it is based on the first theme and the closing theme of the ,exposition1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bfe3 ,it is used at the beginning of three other well-known melodies1 e4g41 the slow movement of ,beethoven's ,ninth ,symphony1 in the middle part of ,schumann's ,aufschwung and in the first phrase of ,wagner's ,preislied4 ,the ,reprise beginning in measure #aeh1 shows the usual treatment4 ,the ,coda1 from measure #bai1 is long and1 like codas of ,beethoven1 has features of a second development4 ,the movement ends with brilliant arpeggios in the pianoforte against octaves and double stops in the violin4 ,in the second movement1 ,andante tranquillo1 in ,f major1 ,brahms fuses#bff together the moods usually associated with the slow movement and the scherzo1 playing one off against the other2 the slow theme appearing three times--at its final appearance with eloquent modulations--and the rapid one twice1 with contrast gained the second time through pizzicato effects on the violin4 ,the two themes are as follows3-- ,music ,music ,footnote #bff3 ,this practice he has adopted in several other works and it is also the structural feature in the slow movement of ,csar ,franck's ,d minor ,symphony4 ,the short1 dashing ,coda is based on the vivace theme1 with sonorous chords on the violin1 both pizzicato and arco4 ,the ,finale1 ,allegretto grazioso1 is a convincing example of how such a rigid form as the ,older ,rondo can be freshened up and revitalized by the hand of a master1 for the main theme1 e4g4 ,music has such genuine melodic life that we always recur to it with pleasure and yet at each appearance it is so deftly varied that no monotony is felt4 ,the two episodes afford stimulating contrasts and need no comment4 ,the main theme at its third appearance is in the subdominant key1 with effective rhythmic modifications4 ,the movement is a remarkable illustration of idiomatic style for each of the instruments3 the violin part1 sustained and cantabile2 the pianoforte part1 broken up and of remarkable color and sonority4 ,the last page of the ,coda1 almost exclusively in double stops for the violin1 brings a rousing close to a masterpiece4 ,,ballade ,,in ,g ,,minor ,,for ,,pianoforte 7,,see ,,supplement ,,no4 #fj7 ,although the most important factor in ,brahms's pianoforte pieces is ,brahms himself1 a careful examination of his works in this field shows that his style is fashioned from an intelligent1 and by no means slavish assimilation of important features in the works of his great predecessors4 ,thus we find the same melodic warmth as in ,schubert1 the rhythmic vitality and massive harmony so prominent in ,schumann and the extended arpeggios and chords1 the color and richness1 peculiar to ,chopin4 ,from among the numerous and beautiful compositions of ,brahms for solo pianoforte we have selected the ,ballade in ,g minor because it represents a somewhat unusual and hence seldom recognized side of his genius--the specifically dramatic4 ,when a composer calls his piece a ,ballade1 as in the case of compositions so entitled by ,chopin and ,liszt1 we may assume that there is some dramatic or subjective meaning behind the notes2 and the hearer is at liberty to give play to his own imagination and to receive the message as something more than music in the ordinary abstract or absolute sense4 ,from the inner evidence of this ,ballade of ,brahms it seems to the writer#bfg not too fanciful to consider it a picture of a knight-errant in medieval times setting out on his adventures4 ,observe the vigorous swing of the opening theme in that five-measure rhythm so dear to ,brahms4 ,but in the middle portion1 in the romantic key of ,b major1#bfh the woman appears--perhaps some maiden imprisoned in a tower--and she sings to the knight a song of such sweetness that he would fain forsake duty1 battle1 everything6 ,the contrast of opposing wills#bfi is dramatically indicated by an interpolation1 after the maiden's first appeal1 of the martial theme of the knight1 as if he felt he should be off instead of lingering1 enchanted by her song4 ,notwithstanding a still more impassioned repetition of the song1 the ,knight is firm1 tears himself away and continues on his course2 how great the wrench1 being clearly indicated by the unusual modulations in measures #gb-gf4 ,the enchanting song1 however1 still lingers with him and he dwells with fond regret upon bygone scenes and dreams which were unattainable4 ,in this piece is seen ,brahms's aristocratic distinction in the treatment of program music4 ,the subject is portrayed broadly--there are no petty details--and the music itself1 to anyone with a sensitive imagination1 tells the story clearly4 ,hence a detailed poetic interpretation is out of place1 since only to the suggester would it have meaning4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,it is to be understood that this is a purely personal interpretation and if any one wishes to consider the piece merely as absolute music with a strong masculine theme in the minor1 a lyric melody in the major for the natural contrast1 and a coda referring in a general way to the first theme1 there is no way to disprove the contention4 ,that ,brahms1 however1 was not entirely averse to out and out programmistic treatment is seen from his two pieces on specific poetic texts1 i4e41 the first number in op4 #aj on the ,scottish ,ballads of ,edward and the ,lullaby in op4 #aag on the ,scottish ,folk-song ,sleep ,soft1 ,my ,child4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,the same key that ,wagner uses for the end of ,tristan and ,isolde and ,csar ,franck for the gorgeous ,finale of the ,prelude1 ,chorale and ,fugue4 ,footnote #bfi3 ,the subject is the same as the story of the ,sirens in the ,odyssey or of the ,lorelei in ,german ,legend4 ,so many of ,brahms's pianoforte compositions are of great beauty and significance that1 although space is lacking for further comment on definite examples1 we urge the music-lover to study the following3 the second ,intermezzo#bgj in ,b-flat minor of op4 #aag1 perhaps the most beautiful single piece ,brahms has written--remarkable for its rhythmic texture and for the equalization of both hands1 which was one of his chief contributions to pianoforte style2 the second ,intermezzo of op4 #aai1 the middle part of which is significant for the extended arpeggio grouping for the left hand 7,brahms following ,chopin's lead in this respect72 the sixth ,intermezzo of op4 #aah1 a superb piece for sonority and color2 the third ,intermezzo in op4 #aai1 7grazioso e giocoso7 and the ,b minor ,capriccio op4 #gf--;both in ,brahms's happiest vein of exuberant vitality2 the sixth ,intermezzo in op4 #aaf1 a beautiful example1 in its polyphonic texture1 of modernized ,schumann2 and1 above all1 the mighty ,rhapsodies in ,e-flat major1 op4 #aab ,no4 #d and the one in ,g minor op4 #gi--this latter1 one of ,brahms's most dramatic conceptions1 and an example1 as well1 of complete sonata-form used for an independent composition4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,for further comments on the phraseology see ,the ,rhythm of ,modern ,music by ,abdy ,williams1 pp4 #ge-gg4 ,we may add that the pieces called ,intermezzi1 are generally of a meditative1 somber nature2 whereas the ,capriccios are more sprightly1 even whimsical in spirit4 ,,song--,meine ,liebe ist grn wie der ,fliederbusch 7,,see ,,supplement ,,no4 #fa7 ,whatever ,brahms is or is not1 he is universally recognized as an inspired song-composer and those who do not know his songs are cut off from one of the greatest joys music has to offer4 ,as ,huneker so well says1 ,although his topmost peaks are tremendously remote1 and glitter and gleam in an atmosphere almost too thin for dwellers of the plains1 in his songs he was as simple1 as manly1 as tender as ,robert ,burns4 ,in ,brahms's songs we cannot say which is the most significant factor3 the words1 the vocal part or the accompaniment2 all go together to make up a perfect whole4 ,brahms had discernment in the selection of texts suited to inspire poetic creation4 ,his melodies are always appropriate to the spirit of the words1 yet truly lyric and singable1 and the accompaniment catches and intensifies every subtle shade of meaning4 ,if any one factor is of special beauty1 however1 it is the instrumental part2 for here ,brahms's great genius in pianoforte style came to the fore and in utilizing every resource of the instrument to glorify the spirit of the text1 he is a worthy successor of ,schubert1 ,schumann and ,franz4 ,note how in this song the passionate glow of the poem is reflected in the gorgeous modulations and sonority of the pianoforte part4 ,especially remarkable is the interlude between the stanzas1 with its wealth of dissonances and waves of flashing color4 ,after this surely no one can say that ,brahms had no feeling for sensuous effect1 at any rate on the pianoforte4 ,other famous songs of ,brahms which should be familiar to the student are the following3 ,wie ,melodien zieht es mir1 ,feldeinsamkeit1 ,minnelied1 ,von ewiger ,liebe1 ,immer leiser wird mein ,schlummer1 ,sapphische ,ode1 ,vergebliches ,stndchen4 ,an excellent essay on ,brahms as a song composer will be found in the preface to the ,forty ,songs of ,brahms in the ,musician's ,library 7,the ,oliver ,ditson ,company74 ,the foregoing illustrations have made clear1 we trust1 the inspiration and power of ,brahms's varied message4 ,his music1 therefore1 must be approached reverently1 sympathetically and with an earnest desire for a better understanding1 for ,brahms is veritably a giant4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,c,,sar ,,franck ,before an appreciation of the significant works and influence of ,csar ,franck can be gained1 it is necessary to have a broad historical perspective of what had been the trend and the limitations of ,french music prior to his career4 ,since the time of ,couperin and ,rameau1 musical composition in ,france had been devoted almost exclusively to opera--with its two types of grand opera and opra-comique--and in this field there had been some ,french musicians of real1 though possibly rather slight1 genius3 ,philidor1 ,mhul1 ,grtry1 ,boieldieu1 ,hrold and ,auber4 ,one searches in vain through ,french literature for great symphonies1 string-quartets1 violin sonatas or pianoforte compositions of significance4 ,berlioz1 as we have seen1 had composed a number of orchestral works2 but1 from the standpoint of absolute music1 even these rather beg the question as they are so extremely programmistic1 dramatic or even theatric4 ,this one-sided development of ,french music was chiefly caused by the people's innate fondness for the drama1 and by the national genius for acting1 mimicry and dancing4 ,prior to the advent of ,franck there were two important pioneers in the broadening tendency which finally became noticeable1 ,saint-,sans and ,lalo4 ,for great assimilative power1 for versatility1 for clarity of expression and a finish and finesse peculiarly ,french1 ,camille ,saint-,sans 7#ahce-still living7 is certainly one of the most remarkable musicians of the nineteenth century4 ,his works are numerous1 always well-made and1 though lacking in emotional depth1 by no means without charm and grace4 ,they comprise ensemble works3 trios1 etc41 several concertos and symphonies and four symphonic poems4 ,of these1 the third concerto for pianoforte1 with its ,bach-like introduction1 the third violin concerto1 the two symphonic poems1 ,le ,rouet d',omphale and ,phaton and1 in particular1 the third symphony in ,c minor1 still hold their own4 ,whatever ,saint-,sans has to say is well said2 and if the ,french have modified their previous opinion that the only vehicle for musical expression was the opera1 it is largely through the influence of his compositions4 ,this ,c minor symphony1 first performed in ,london in #ahhf1 shares with ,lalo's symphony in ,g minor 7#ahhg7 the claim to be1 in all ,french literature1 the first instrumental work of large scope free from programmistic tendencies4 ,saint-,sans#bga and ,lalo fairly popularized the ,sonata form and their works are worthy of great respect2 since1 through them1 the public became accustomed to symphonic style and was prepared for the subsequent greater works of ,franck1 d',indy and ,chausson4 ,although not so versatile as ,saint-,sans nor so varied in output1 ,eduard ,lalo 7#ahbc-ahib7 should decidedly not be overlooked4 ,he was of ,spanish origin and this racial strain is noticeable in the vivacity of his rhythm1 in the piquant individuality of his melodies and in his brilliant and picturesque orchestration4 ,his characteristic work is represented by a series of ,concertos and ,rhapsodies in which he employs ,spanish1 ,russian and ,norwegian themes4 ,he did not escape the ,french predilection for operatic fame and his best work is probably the well-known opera ,le ,roi d',ys1 from which the dramatic overture is often played separately4 ,his ,g minor symphony1 however1 will always be considered an important landmark in the development of ,french instrumental music4#bgb ,footnote #bga3 ,for further comments on the style and influence of ,saint-,sans see the essay ,mason's ,from ,grieg to ,brahms2 the article by ,professor ,e4,b4 ,hill in the third volume of the ,art of ,music2 and1 for some pungent and witty remarks1 the ,program ,book of the ,boston ,symphony ,orchestra 7edited by ,philip ,hale7 for ,nov4 #bb1 #aiah4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,for a comprehensive and discriminating account of his style see the ,boston ,symphony ,orchestra ,program ,book1 for ,january #ag1 #aiai4 ,csar ,franck 7#ahbb-ahij7 was a composer of such innate spirituality that to analyze and classify him in a formal manner seems well-nigh irreverent4 ,his music once heard is never forgotten1 and when thoroughly known is loved for all time4 ,nor is an elaborate biographical account necessary2 for ,franck1 more than any other modern composer1 has been fortunate in that his life and works have been sympathetically presented to the world by a distinguished contemporary1 his most famous pupil d',indy--himself a gifted composer and a man of rare literary powers4 ,his biography of ,csar ,franck 7in ,french and in ,english7 should certainly be read by all who would keep abreast of modern tendencies4 ,franck's message1 however1 is so remarkable and his style so individual1 that a few definite comments may be made concerning the structural features of his work and the essential attributes1 thereby expressed1 of his inspiring personality4 ,franck was a ,belgian born at ,lige--one of that long line of musicians who1 though born elsewhere1 have become thoroughly identified with ,french thought and standards2 and there is much in his music which finds a parallel in the literary qualities of another ,belgian artist1 ,maeterlinck1 for in both is that same haunting indefiniteness1 that same symbolic aspiration4 ,nothing in ,franck is rigid1 square-toed2 his music is suggestive of a mystic idealism1 the full expression of which1 from its very nature is unattainable4 ,franck's outward life was simple1 without excitement or diversion of any kind4 ,when he was not giving lessons or composing1 he was active in the service of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 in which he was a devout believer4 ,for a number of years he was organist at ,sainte ,clotilde1 and his style thereby was influenced strongly4 ,a distinct note of religious exaltation runs through much of his music2 for ,franck was a fine character1 of spotless purity of life and of such generosity and elevation of soul that his pupils looked upon him as a real father and always called him ,pater ,seraphicus4 ,he was universally acknowledged to be the greatest improviser on the organ since ,bach himself4 ,even ,liszt1 who heard him in #ahff1 left the church1 lost in amazement2 evoking the name of the great ,sebastian as the only possible comparison4 ,franck's services to the development of music are twofold3 #ast1 as an inspired composer of varied works1 which are more and more becoming understood and loved2 #b;d1 as a truly great teacher1 among his notable pupils being d',indy1 ,chausson1 ,duparc1 ,ropartz1 and the gifted but short-lived ,lekeu4 ,in ,franck's music1 fully as remarkable as the content--the worthy expression of his poetic nature--is its organic structure4 ,he was the first composer of the ,french ,school to use adequately the great forms of symphonic and chamber music which had been worked out hitherto by the ,germans3 ,bach1 ,haydn1 ,mozart1 ,beethoven1 etc4 ,if during the last thirty years1 composers of the modern ,french ,school have put forth a number of instrumental works of large dimensions 7chamber music1 symphonies1 symphonic poems and pianoforte sonatas71 it is to ,franck more than to any other man1 by reason of his own achievements in these fields and his stimulating influence on others1 that this significant fact is due4 ,a striking feature of ,franck's music is the individual harmonic scheme1 fascinating because so elusive4 ,he was a daring innovator in modulations and in chromatic effect2 and has1 perhaps1 added more genuinely new words to our vocabulary than any one since ,wagner4 ,the basis of ,franck's harmony is the novel use of the so-called augmented harmonies which1 in their derivation1 are chromatically altered chords4 ,these are resolved by ,franck in a manner remarkably free1 and are often submitted to still further chromatic change4 ,in revealing new possibilities he has1 in fact1 done for these chords what ,wagner did for the chord of the ninth4 ,any page of ,franck's music will exemplify this statement1 and as an illustration we have cited1 in the ,supplement1 the first part of the ,prelude in ,e major4 ,a life-long student of ,bach and ,beethoven1 ,franck believed--as a cardinal principle--that great ideas were not enough2 they must be welded together with inexorable logic4 ,and so his chief glory as a musical architect is the free use he makes of such organic forms as the ,canon1 the ,fugue and the ,varied ,air4 ,franck was likewise a pioneer in establishing in a sonata or symphony a new conception as to the relationship of the movements4 ,this he effected by the use of what may be called generative motives which1 announced in the first movement of a work1 are found with organic growth1 modulatory and rhythmic1 in all the succeeding portions4 ,such a method of gaining unity had been hinted at by ,beethoven in his ,fifth ,symphony1 was further developed by ,schumann and ,liszt and1 since the example of ,franck1 has become a recognized principle in all large cyclic works4 ,the following estimate of his music by ,f4 ,baldensperger is worthy of citation4 ,the contemplative character of ,franck's music which explains his entire technique is rare at the epoch in which his life was cast1 an epoch of realism1 generally inspired by a taste for the picturesque and the dramatic4 ,posterity will place ,csar ,franck in a niche similar to that of ,puvis de ,chavannes1 whose inspiration1 indifferent to all worldly solicitations1 flowed willingly1 like that of ,franck1 into the paths of reverie1 and pursued its way like a beautiful river of quiet waters1 undisturbed by waves or rapids1 and reflecting the eternal calm of the sky4 ,as representative works#bgc we have chosen1 for analytical comments the ,d minor ,symphony 7,franck's only work in this field71 the ,sonata for violin and pianoforte and the ,symphonic ,variations for pianoforte and orchestra4 ,franck has also composed a very beautiful ,quintet for strings and pianoforte--considered by some the most sublime chamber work of recent times2 a ,string ,quartet1 notable for its interrelationship of themes and movements2 two elaborate compositions for pianoforte solo1 the ,prelude1 ,chorale and ,fugue 7the fugue showing a masterly combination of strict fugal style and free form7 and the ,prelude1 ,aria and ,finale2 a wealth of organ works--the three ,chorales being of special beauty--and several ,symphonic ,poems of lesser importance4 ,his purely vocal works1 oratorios and church music lie outside the province of this book4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,on account of the length of these works it is impossible to include any of them in the ,supplement4 ,the ,symphony#bgd in ,d minor is in three movements2 the first in complete and elaborate sonata-form1 the second a fusion of the two customary middle movements1 and the ,finale 7though fundamentally on a sonata-form basis7 an organic summing-up of the chief themes of the entire work4 ,the first movement begins1 ,lento1 with the main theme proper 7thesis7 the motive#bge of which is the foundation of the whole work1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bgd3 ,study1 if possible1 the orchestral score4 ,for class-room work there is an excellent four-hand arrangement by the composer1 and one for two hands by ,ernest ,alder4 ,footnote #bge3 ,this terse phrase is identical with motives from several other works1 e4g41 the beginning of ,liszt's ,les ,prludes1 the motive ,muss es sein8 in ,beethoven's quartet1 opus #ace1 and the ,fate motive in ,wagner's ,valkyrie4 ,the phraseology of the theme is noticeable for its flexibility2 since the first phrase is expanded to five measures and the second phrase 7antithesis71 with a descending motive1 to seven1 e4g4 ,music ,the harmony of this second phrase illustrates a striking feature in ,franck's style1 namely the fact that his resolutions seldom come out as expected but1 instead1 drift imperceptibly into other channels4 ,in measure #ac there begins a long series of modulatory developments of the main theme--of a preludial nature--but not a mere prelude in the ordinary sense4 ,that this entire opening portion is the main body of the work is seen by a comparison with what takes place at the beginning of the recapitulation4 ,in measure #bi1 allegro non troppo1 we begin with a presentation of the motive in the usual first-movement mood4 ,the answering phrase1 antithesis1 is now quite different2 and1 in measure #dh1 is developed--with some new contrapuntal voices--to a half cadence in ,f minor4 ,this whole portion1 both the ,lento and the ,allegro1 is now repeated almost literally 7the one slight change being in measures #ef-eg7 in this new key1 a minor third higher than the original4 ,to begin a first movement in this way1 i4e41 with such a strong contrast of moods is very novel and striking1 but as ,franck was a devoted student of ,beethoven1 it would seem that1 by presenting his theme in different strata1 he was simply expanding the practise#bgf of that master in order to impress his message upon the listener's memory4 ,the repetition of the ,allegro part now leads through some rich modulations to the entrance of the second theme1 in measure #ii4 ,this lovely melody1 characteristic of ,franck's tenderness1 ,music is noteworthy for the imitations between the violins and the 'cellos and basses4 ,it shows1 furthermore1 that peculiar quality in ,franck's style which comes from his elusive modulations4 ,in measures #aji-aaj we are at a loss to tell just what direction the music will take when almost miraculously1 in measure #aaa1 we find ourselves in ,d-flat major--in which key the whole theme is now repeated4 ,some stimulating modulations bring us1 in measure #abi1 to a most energetic and aspiring melody1 considered by some another part of the second theme1 but which certainly has the note of a closing theme and also the structural position of a closing theme1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bgf3 ,see for example the opening measures of the ,waldstein and of the ,appassionata ,sonata4 ,it is developed with great brilliancy through a series of mediant modulations1 in which the originality of ,franck's harmonic scheme is very apparent4 ,the exposition ends with some dreamy1 pianissimo reminiscences of the closing theme in the mediant keys of ,f1 ,d and ,b major1 delicately scored for the wood-wind instruments and horns4 ,the development begins1 in measure #aia1 with the motive of the closing theme which1 combined with other phrases from the exposition1 is used persistently in the bass for a number of measures4 ,the material is developed climactically until1 in measure #bbi1 we find an impressive treatment of the second descending phrase of the first theme--originally in augmentation and later in diminution1 e4g4 ,music and ,music ,the rest of the development is clearly derivable from material already presented4 ,after a final ff climax there begins1 in measure #bhg1 a series of beautiful entries pp of the closing theme for the clarinet1 oboe and flute4 ,this is the spot in a sonata-form movement where appears the hand of the master2 for the excitement of the free fantasy must cool down without entirely dying out1 and there must also be a fresh crescendo of energy for the restatement of themes in the part following4 ,franck handles the situation with convincing skill2 and some climactic measures1 in which the main theme hints at the return1 lead us1 in measure #ccc1 to the recapitulation4 ,this is one of the most powerful and eloquent parts of the movement1 for the whole first theme is presented canonically--the announcement in the trombones1 tuba and basses being answered1 a half measure later1 by trumpets and cornets4 ,the rest of the recapitulation1 with necessary modulations and slight expansion1 corresponds closely to the first portion4 ,the coda1 beginning after the same echo-effects heard at the close of the exposition1 is founded on one of the counterpoints of the first subject1 e4g4 ,music ,gathering headway it leads to an imposing assertion fff1 in canon form1 of the main motto which concludes1 with a widely spaced chord1 in the brilliant#bgg orchestral key of ,d major4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,brilliant by reason of the fact that the four principal tones in ,d major1 ,d1 ,a1 ,g1 ,e are open strings on the violin4 ,the second movement begins with a series of subdued1 pizzicato chords 7for strings and harp7 which establish the mood and later furnish the harmonic background for the main theme4 ,this haunting melody1 announced--in measure #af--;by the ,english horn and afterwards strengthened by the clarinet and flute1 is clearly derived from the motto of the first movement1 e4g4 ,music and is a notable example of the free phraseology and long sweep peculiar to ,franck4 ,although extending #cb measures it never loses its continuity1 for every measure grows inevitably from what has preceded4 ,it begins with two identical eight-measure phrases2 the second of which1 with a different harmonic ending1 is varied by a cantabile counter theme in the violas--causing thereby1 with the upper voice1 some delightful dissonant effects4 ,the last eight-measure phrase1 also varied by a counterpoint in the 'cellos1 ends with a characteristic1 ,franckian modulation2 keeping us in suspense until the last moment1 and then debouching unexpectedly into ,b-flat major4 ,in this key there follows a long-breathed1 cantabile melody--at first for strings alone1 but scored with increasing richness4 ,it abounds in modulatory changes and expresses1 throughout1 the note of mystical exaltation so prominent in ,franck's nature4 ,it ends in measures #ha-hf with an eloquent cadence1 largamente and pianissimo1 in ,b-flat major and is followed by a partial restatement of the first theme2 thus giving1 to this portion of the movement1 a feeling of three-part form4 ,then1 after some preliminary phrases1 begins the piquant theme in ,g minor1 in triplet rhythm1 which takes the place of the conventional ,scherzo1 e4g41 ,music for1 as we have stated1 the structural feature of this movement is the fusion of the two customary middle movements4 ,this theme1 mostly pp 7con sordini and vibrato7--daintily scored for strings and light wood-wind chords--closes1 in measures #aca-acd1 with a cadence in ,g minor4 ,the following portion1 beginning in ,e-flat major1 but often modulating--its graceful theme sung by the clarinets1 dolce espressivo1 answered by flutes and oboes--e4g41 ,music evidently takes the place of a trio and is one of the most poetic parts of the movement4 ,after some effective development there is a return1 in measure #age1 to the ,g minor scherzo-theme in the strings2 soon joined1 in measure #ahc1 by the slow theme on the ,english horn--the structural union of the two moods being thus established1 e4g4 ,music ,the rest of the movement is a free but perfectly organic improvisation on the chief melodies already presented4 ,it is richly scored1 with dialogue effects between the several orchestral choirs2 especially beautiful are the two passages in ,b major1 poco pi lento1 scored pp for the complete wood-wind group and horns4 ,the closing measures have lovely echoes between wood-wind and strings1 and the final cadence is one of the most magical in all ,franck2 holding us off to the very last from our goal and finally reaching it in a chord of unforgettable peace and satisfaction1 e4g4 ,music ,the ,finale in ,d major1 allegro non troppo1 is a remarkable example in modern literature of that tendency1 growing since ,beethoven1 not to treat the last movement as an unrelated independent portion but1 instead1 as an organic summing up of all the leading themes4 ,this cyclic use of themes--transferring them from one movement to another--is one of ,franck's important contributions to musical architecture4 ,the movement has two themes of its own1 e4g4 ,music3 #ast theme ,music3 #b;d theme and at first proceeds along regular sonata-form lines1 i4e41 with an exposition1 development and recapitulation4 ,after vigorous summons to attention the first theme is given out by the 'cellos and bassoons4 ,it is expanded at some length1 repeated ff by the full orchestra1 and then after bold modulations leads1 in measure #gb1 to the second theme in ,b major1 happily called by ,ropartz the theme of triumph4#bgh ,after a quieter portion of sombre tone in ,b minor we reach1 in measure #abd1 an interpolation of the slow movement theme1 e4g41 ,music sung by the ,english horn against a triplet accompaniment in the strings2 the fundamental beat--the time now changed from #b_/b to #c_/d--preserving the same value4 ,now we begin to foresee that this theme is to be the climax of the whole work4 ,in measure #adj the development proper is resumed2 based1 at first1 on some modulatory and imitative treatment of the first theme and followed by two ff sostenuto announcements of the jubilant second theme4 ,after these have subsided there are a number of measures 7pi lento7 of a shadowy outline1 developed from preceding melodic phrases4 ,the pace gradually quickens1 the volume of sound increases and we are brought1 through a series of pungent dissonances and stimulating syncopations1 to a brilliant assertion of the first theme in ,d major4 ,this again waxes more and more eloquent until it bursts into a truly apocalyptic proclamation of the slow movement theme for full orchestra which1 closing in ,d major1 is the real climax of the movement and indeed of the work4 ,franck1 however1 still wishes to impress upon us some of his other thoughts--they are really too lovely not to be heard once more--and so1 after an intermediary passage consisting entirely of successive ninth chords1#bgi there is a reminiscence of the whole closing theme of the first movement now for low strings alone--the violins playing on the ,g string--later for the wood-wind and finally echoed by the high strings ppp4 ,as this fades away we reach one of the most inspired passages of the whole work--in its mood of mysterious suggestion truly indescribable4 ,over a slow elemental kind of basso ostinato there appear first the dramatic motto and then other portions of preceding themes1 as if struggling to come to the light4 ,a long exciting crescendo leads to a complete statement of the main theme of the ,finale1 with a canonic treatment of which the work ends1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bgh3 ,the scoring of this theme for trumpets1 cornets and trombones has been severely criticized and it is true that the cornet is an instrument to be employed and played with discretion4 ,the writer1 however1 has heard performances of this work in which the cornets seemed to give just that ringing note evidently desired by ,franck4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,the harmony of this passage is most characteristic of ,franck and should be carefully studied4 ,that both the first and last movements end with canons is indeed noteworthy2 ,franck thus clearly showing his belief that in no other way than by polyphonic imitation could such intensity of utterance be gained4 ,,sonata ,,for ,,violin ,,and ,,pianoforte ,,in ,a ,,major ,this ,sonata ranks with those of ,brahms as being among the great works in its class4 ,some of its lovers1 in fact1 would risk an unqualified superlative and call it the greatest4 ,it certainly is remarkable for its inspired themes1 its bold harmonies1 its free and yet organic structure and for that sublime fervor which was the basis of ,franck's genius4 ,it is1 in two respects1 at least1 a highly original work3 in the unusual moods of the several movements1 and in the relationship between the two instruments4 ,for although it is a violin sonata1 the emphasis in many respects is laid on the pianoforte part which requires great virtuoso power of performance1--the violin1 at times1 having the nature more of an obligato4 ,there are four movements1 the first in abridged sonata form1 i4e41 there is no development2 the second in complete and elaborate sonata form2 the third1 a kind of free rhapsody1 supplying an intermezzo between the third and fourth movements and organically connected with the ,finale4 ,this1 in free rondo-form1 with a main theme of its own treated canonically1 sums up the chief themes which have preceded4 ,the work exemplifies ,franck's practise of generative themes2 for d',indy claims#bhj that the whole structure is based on three motives1 e4g41 ,music the rising and falling inflexion of which he typifies by what is called a torculus 7torculus symbol76 ,whether such minute analysis is necessary for the listener may be open to question2 but it is true that in hearing the work one is struck by the homogeneity of the material4 ,the first movement is an impassioned kind of revery--in a mood more often associated with the slow movement1 in character somewhat like the beginning of ,beethoven's ,c-sharp minor ,sonata4 ,after some preludial ninth chords the dreamy first theme is given out1 molto dolce1 by the violin1 supported by rich harmonies on the pianoforte1 the use of the augmented chords being prominent1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bhj3 ,see his ,course in ,composition1 book ,,ii1 pp4 #dbc-dbf4 ,some natural expansion and development lead1 in measure #ca1 to the broad and vigorous second theme1 sempre forte e largamente1 announced by the pianoforte1 e4g4 ,music ,this ends in ,f-sharp minor and is at once followed by a closing portion1 i4e41 a repetition of the second theme with an elaborate arpeggio accompaniment and some fragmentary phrases of the first theme on the violin4 ,its last measures#bha are striking for the bold use of augmented chords and for the wide spacing which gives an organ-like sonority4 ,the recapitulation1 beginning in measure #fc with still richer harmonization1 is almost identical with the exposition2 the second theme appearing logically in the home key4 ,the closing measures of the coda1 which starts in measure #ig1 illustrate ,franck's genius in the chromatic alteration of chords4 ,footnote #bha3 ,note the correspondence between these measures in the first part and the measures just before the end in the second part4 ,the second movement1 in a structural sense the most normal of the four1 speaks for itself4 ,it is stormy and dramatic1 with a number of passages marked passionato and molto fuoco1 and presents a rather unusual side of ,franck's quiet nature4 ,the two themes are strong and well contrasted3 the first for the pianoforte1 the second for the violin1 e4g4 ,music3 #ast theme ,music3 #b;d theme ,the development begins at the quasi lento1 measure #hj1 with the second 7b7 of the generative motives which is to play an important role in the ,fantasia and the ,finale4 ,it is rather broken up into sections1 but holds the interest through its unflagging rhythmic vigor and daring dissonances4 ,franck's contrapuntal skill is shown here in the closing measures 7#acj-acd7 where a phrase from the second theme on the violin1 dolcissimo espressivo1 is united with a phrase of the first theme on the pianoforte1 hinting at the return4 ,the recapitulation1 beginning in measure #ach1 is perfectly normal and leads to a coda which1 becoming more and more animated1 ends with brilliant bravura effects for each instrument4 ,the third movement1 entitled ,recitative-,fantasia1 is notable for its long declamations for the violin alone1 and for its introduction of a theme from the preceding movement and of one to be repeated in the ,finale4 ,thus the organic relationship between the various movements is shown and is still further emphasized in the ,finale4 ,the mood is often very impassioned 7once fff7 and dramatic1 with several passages specifically marked4 ,this music alone1 which sounds like nothing before or since1 would stamp ,franck as an absolutely original genius4 ,in measure #ec appears a long pianissimo meditation by the violin on a phrase--the second generative motive 7b7--from the preceding movement1 supported by beautifully spaced arpeggio chords on the pianoforte1 e4g4 ,music ,in measure #ga occurs the first appearance of the bold theme which is to be twice used for episodes in the ,finale1 e4g4 ,music ,the closing cadence#bhb of the movement1 one of the most original and truly beautiful in all literature as it seems to the writer1 furnishes a marvellous contrast to the stormy measures immediately preceding4 ,footnote #bhb3 ,already cited on page #eg1 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,finale is perhaps the most spontaneous canon in existence1 an imitative dialogue between the two instruments2 this form 7which is often rigid and mechanical7 being used so easily that it seems as if each instrument were naturally commenting upon the message of the other4 ,observe also the sonorous background provided for the violin melody by the widely spaced chords on the pianoforte1 e4g4 ,music ,the first episode1 beginning in ,f-sharp minor at measure #ch1 is based on the third generative phrase 7c7 brought over from the ,fantasia and embroidered by running passages 7delicato7 on the violin4 ,this leads to a return of the canonic first theme which1 with an interchange of statement and answer and with free modulations1 is developed to a brilliant climax--the canon still persisting--in the dominant key of ,e major4 ,some transitional modulations1 in which the excitement cools down1 bring us to the second episode1 in ,b-flat minor4 ,this at first develops the phrase 7b7 from the middle part of the second movement1 e4g4 ,music and later1 also in the bass1 a phrase from the main theme1 e4g4 ,music ,it is soon followed by a bold entrance of the dramatic theme from the ,fantasia which1 twice presented--the second time grandioso--leads to a thrilling cadence in ,c major4 ,the third and last refrain is a complete restatement of the original canon and closes in ,a major with a still more brilliant imitative treatment of the passage formerly in the dominant4 ,the last measures--with the high trill on the violin and cutting dissonances on the pianoforte--are far too exciting for mere verbal description4 ,,symphonic ,,variations ,,for ,,pianoforte ,,and ,,orchestra ,this is one of ,franck's most significant works1 containing all his individual characteristics3 melodic intensity1 novel chromatic harmony and freedom of form combined with coherence4 ,franck always claimed that the variation form1 rightly treated1 was a perfect medium for free1 imaginative expression2 surely this work is a manifestation of his belief4 ,a careful study will justify the statement that his style is founded on that of ,bach and ,beethoven2 for the naturalness of these melodic variations can be compared only with the ,passacaglia in ,c minor1 and the general structure of the work finds its prototype in the ,finale of the ,heroic ,symphony4 ,it is a set of free variations1 or rather organic transformations of two themes2 the first sombre1 entirely in the minor1 the second brighter1 with some passing emphasis on the major4 ,the variations are not numbered and there are no rigid stops2 though1 of course1 when objective points are reached1 there is natural punctuation4 ,the two themes1 as follows--a striking example of ,franck's peculiar harmonic scheme--should be carefully studied1 e4g4 ,music3 #ast theme ,music3 #b;d theme ,the work opens with a series of restless dotted notes for the strings ff which diminish and retard to an entrance of the first theme1 pi lento1 for the pianoforte2 the two phrases of which are interrupted by a passage1 somewhat modified1 from the introduction4 ,some preludial measures1 expanding the material presented1 bring us at ,b#bhc to a premonitory statement of the second theme pp 7in wood-wind and pizzicato strings7 over a muffled roll of the kettle-drums on ,c-sharp1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #bhc3 ,the indication by letters is the same in the full score as in the version for two pianofortes4 ,then follows a long rhapsodic presentation of the first theme for pianoforte solo--the melody in octaves and the accompaniment in the widest arpeggios possible4 ,this passage is one of great sonority and reveals clearly the influence of the organ upon ,franck's style4 ,some further measures of general development1 containing at ,e a reminiscence of the first theme1 bring us 7after an elaborate half-cadence on the dominant of ,f-sharp minor7 to the entrance of the second theme4 ,now that all the melodic material has been presented1 ,franck allows it to grow and blossom4 ,in the first variation at ,f we have phrases of the second theme broken up into a dialogue between strings1 wood-wind and pianoforte2 and in the second at ,g the violas and 'cellos sing the whole second theme accompanied by some ingenious figuration on the pianoforte4 ,this is followed at ,h by a brilliant amplification for the solo instrument1 lightly accompanied on the orchestra1 of phrases already heard and leads at ,i to a fortissimo orchestral tutti in ,d major--the next variation--which proclaims a portion of the second theme4 ,this is developed with great power on both instruments and is combined1 nine measures after ,j1 with a variant of the first theme4 ,at ,k there is a bold treatment of the second theme 7sostenuto7 for oboes and clarinets against rushing octaves on the pianoforte4 ,at ,l we have some further development of the second theme1 the melody being in the strings with a background of broken triplet chords on the pianoforte4 ,we now reach at ,m--molto pi lento--the most poetic variation of the work4 ,all the 'cellos1 dolce e sostenuto1 sing the second theme in the rich key of ,f-sharp major1 the closing phrases answered by the wood-wind2 while the pianoforte supports them with coloristic1 arabesque-like broken chords containing a melodic pattern of their own4 ,at ,n the 'cellos continue with phrases from the first theme1 the accompaniment being in extended arpeggios against a background of sustained strings 7ppp con sordino74 ,a climax is gradually reached which ends1 smorzando1 with a descending chromatic run on the pianoforte1 followed by a long trill on ,c-sharp which ushers in the closing portion of the work4 ,the structure1 as a whole1 is divided into three main portions3 the first preludial1 the second sombre and often meditative--largely in the minor--the third entirely in the major and of extraordinary brilliance and vivacity4 ,at the ,allegro non troppo after the trill1 we find a variant of the first theme for the 'cellos and basses in ,f-sharp major1 e4g41 ,music accompanied by broken chords on the pianoforte and wood-wind4 ,this is followed at ,p by a free treatment for pianoforte1 con fuoco1 of the first theme which develops at ,q into a most pianistic presentation 7in the upper register of the instrument7 of the phrase just announced by the 'cellos4 ,in the fifth measure after ,r the basses begin1 pizzicato but forte1 a modified statement of the second theme1 accompanied by a new counter melody on the pianoforte1 dolce ma marcato1 e4g4 ,music ,this leads into a brilliant climax for orchestra alone based on the first theme which1 at the very end1 modulates to ,e-flat major4 ,then follows an episodical portion of unusual beauty--a long1 dreamy passage1 dolce rubato1 for solo pianoforte1 in which the first theme is merely hinted at in shadowy outlines1 e4g4 ,music ,abounding in fascinating modulations and coloristic effects it shows ,franck's genius equally for real melodic germination with an avoidance of all perfunctory manipulation of his material4 ,this leads1 four measures after ,t1 to an entrance pp in the wood-wind1 of a variant of the first theme4 ,due to the effect of contrasted accents the passage is most exciting--two rhythms being treated at once4 ,a climax for full orchestra brings us at ,v to a repetition of the former pianoforte presentation of the first theme1 followed as before1 at ,w by the counter-melody against the second theme1 forte1 in the basses4 ,the first theme1 now in complete control1 is here proclaimed most eloquently in antiphonal form between the full orchestra and pianoforte1 e4g4 ,music ,the work ends with a rapid iteration1 molto crescendo1 of the first motive--in diminution4 ,now that we have reviewed the entire composition1 there is one feature worthy of special emphasis4 ,the structure as a whole 7as we have stated7 is clearly divided into three main parts2 but when we examine the third part by itself1 we find that it follows the lines of the sonata-form4 ,for there is a first portion1 with a main theme in ,f-sharp major1 and a second theme--the new melody--in ,d major2 the passage for pianoforte in ,e-flats major stands for the development1 and the movement concludes with a distinct third portion1 both first and second theme being in the home key4 ,thus the structure represents a carefully planned union of the variation form and the sonata-form which were special favorites of ,franck4 ,the work1 which1 after earnest study1 will surely be enjoyed and loved1 ranks with the ,istar ,symphonic ,variations by d',indy and the two sets on themes from ,paganini by ,brahms as the acme of what the variation form may indeed be when treated by a master4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,modern ,,french ,,school--,d',,indy ,,and ,,debussy ,not only as the most distinguished of ,csar ,franck's pupils1 but by reason of his undoubted musicianship and marked versatility--his works being in well nigh every form--,vincent d',indy 7#ahea-still living7 is rightly considered to be the most representative composer of his branch of the modern ,french school4#bhd ,whether history will accord to him the rank of an inspired genius it is as yet too early to decide2 but for the sincerity and nobility of his ideas1 for his finished workmanship and the influence he has exerted1 through his many-sided personality1 in elevating public taste and in the education of young musicians1 he is worthy of our gratitude4 ,d',indy is a patriotic ,frenchman believing profoundly that ,french music has an important rle to bear2 who has incarnated this belief in a series of works of such distinction that1 if not unqualifiedly loved1 they at least compel recognition4 ,if he swings a bit too far in his insistence upon the exclusive glories of ,french genius1 let us remember that the modern ,germans#bhe have been just as one-sided from their point of view--and with even less tangible proof of attainment4 ,for it seems incontestable that1 since the era of ,wagner and ,brahms1 the modern ,french and ,russian ,schools have contributed to the development of music more than all the other nations combined4 ,it is for us in ,america who1 free from national prejudice1 can stand off and take an impartial view1 to appreciate the good points in all schools4 ,a detailed account of d',indy's life and works will not be necessary1 for the subject has been admirably and comprehensively treated by ,d4,g4 ,mason in his set of ,essays on ,contemporary ,composers and in the article by ,e4,b4 ,hill in the ,art of ,music1 ,vol4 #c4 ,footnote #bhd3 ,this school may be said to contain two groups3 one1 the pupils of ,csar ,franck--d',indy1 ,chausson1 ,duparc1 ,rousseau1 ,augusta ,holms and ,ropartz1 the chief feature in whose style is a modernization of classic practice2 a second consisting of ,debussy1 ,ravel1 ,dukas and ,florent ,schmitt1 whose works manifest more extreme individualistic tendencies4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,the well-known ,german scholar and editor ,max ,friedlnder1 who visited this country in #aiaj1 acknowledged--in a conversation with the writer--that he had never even heard of ,chabrier6 ,d',indy's compositions1 as in the case of ,franck1 are not numerous1 but finely wrought and of distinct and varied individuality4 ,his chief instrumental#bhf works comprise a ,wallenstein ,trilogy 7three symphonic poems based on ,schiller's drama7 notable for descriptive power and orchestral effect2 a ,symphony for orchestra and pianoforte on a mountain air#bhg--one of his best works1 because the folk-song basis furnishes a melodic warmth which elsewhere is sometimes lacking2 a set of ,symphonic ,variations on the ,assyrian legend of ,istar2 a remarkable ,sonata for violin and pianoforte2 a ,string-,quartet1 all the movements of which are based on a motto of four notes1 and lastly the ,symphony in ,b-flat major--considered his masterpiece--in which the same process of development from generative motives is followed as in ,csar ,franck4 ,all these works contain certain salient characteristics proceeding directly from d',indy's imagination and intellect4 ,there is always an ideal and noble purpose1 a stoutly knit musical fabric and melodies--d',indy's own melodies1 sincerely felt and beautifully presented4 ,whether they have abounding power to move the heart of the listener is1 indeed1 the point at issue4 ,since d',indy is on record as saying1 ,there is in art1 truly1 nothing but the heart that can produce beauty1 it is evident that he believes in the emotional element in music4 ,that there is a difference of opinion however1 as to what makes emotional power is shown by his estimate of ,brahms 7set forth in his ,cours de ,composition ,musicale1 pp4 #dae-daf7 in the statement that1 though ,brahms is a fine workman1 his music lacks the power to touch the heart 7faire vibrer le coeur74 ,there is no doubt that1 in any question of ,brahms versus d',indy1 such has not been the verdict of outside opinion4 ,d',indy is admired and respected1 whereas ,brahms has won the love of those who know him2 and the truth in the saying1 ,securus judicat orbis terrarum is surely difficult to contravene4 ,d',indy's melodies can always be minutely analysed#bhh and they justify the test2 but we submit that the great melodies of the world speak to us in more direct fashion4 ,for there is1 in his music1 a seriousness which at times becomes somewhat austere4 ,he seems so afraid of writing pretty tunes or ear-tickling music1 that we often miss a sensuous1 emotional warmth4 ,he hates the commonplace1 cultivating the ideal and religion of beauty4 ,bruneau1 himself a noted ,french critic and composer1 says1 ,no one will deny his surprising technique or his unsurpassed gifts as an orchestral writer1 but we might easily wish him more spontaneity and less dryness4 ,we cannot1 however1 miss the dignity and elevation of style found in d',indy's works or fail to be impressed by their wonderfully planned musical architecture4 ,his music demands study and familiarity and well repays such effort4 ,d',indy's work1 as a teacher1 centres about the ,schola ,cantorum so-called1 in which several talented ,american students from ,harvard and other ,universities have already worked4 ,here all schools of composition are thoroughly studied1 and the rigid and formal methods of the ,conservatoire abandoned4 ,d',indy believes that the materials for the structure of modern music are to be found in the ,fugue of ,bach1 and in the cyclical ,sonata ,form and the free ,air with ,variations of ,beethoven--these forms1 by reason of their inherent logic and simplicity1 allowing scope for infinite freedom of treatment4 ,d',indy is also a thoroughly modern composer in that he is an artist in words as well as in notes4 ,his life of ,csar ,franck is a model of biographical style1 and he has recently published a life of ,beethoven refreshingly different from the stock narratives4 ,in fine1 d',indy is a genius1 in whom the intellectual aspects of the art1 rather than purely emotional appeal1 are clearly in the ascendant4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,d',indy's significant contributions to operatic and choral literature1 such as ,fervaal1 ,l'tranger1 ,le ,chant de la ,cloche and ,la ,lgende de ,st4 ,christophe1 lie without our province4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,from the ,cvennes region whence d',indy's family originally came4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,see the elaborate analysis by ,mr4 ,mason in the essay above referred to4 ,we shall now comment briefly on one1 only1 of d',indy's compositions1 the ,symphonic ,poem1 ,istar1 which is a set of variations#bhi treated in a manner as novel as it is convincing2 the work beginning with variations which gradually become less elaborate until finally only the theme itself is heard in its simple beauty4 ,this reversal of customary treatment is sanctioned by the nature of the subject1 and the correspondence between dramatic logic and musical procedure is admirably planned4 ,the story of the work is that portion of the ,assyrian epic ,izdubar which describes1 to quote ,apthorp's translation of the ,french version1 how ,istar1 daughter of ,sin1 bent her steps toward the immutable land1 towards the abode of the dead1 towards the seven-gated abode where ,he entered1 toward the abode whence there is no return4 ,then follows a description of the raiment and the jewels of which she is stripped at the entrance to each of the gates4 ,istar went into the immutable land1 she took and received the waters of life4 ,she presented the sublime ,waters1 and thus1 in the presence of all1 set free the ,son of ,life1 her young lover4 ,the structural novelty of the work is that1 beginning with complexity--typifying the gorgeously robed ,istar--the theme discloses itself little by little1 as she is stripped of her jewels1 until at last1 when she stands forth in the full splendor of nudity1 the theme is heard unaccompanied1 like ,isis unveiled or1 to change the figure1 like a scientific law which has been disclosed4 ,the work is based on three generative themes2 the second1 derived from the first and of subsidiary importance1 called by d',indy the motif d'appel4 ,it plays its part1 however1 since it introduces the work and serves as a connection between the variations1 seven in all4 ,these themes are as follows3 #a4 ,principal theme3 ,music #b4 ,motif d'appel4 ,music #c4 ,subsidiary theme1 in form of a march4 ,music ,footnote #bhi3 ,for a detailed analysis the student is referred to the account by the composer himself in his ,cours de ,composition ,musicale1 part ,,ii1 pp4 #dhd-dhf2 to ,gilman's ,studies in ,symphonic ,music and to ,vol4 #c of ,mason's ,short ,studies of ,great ,masterpieces4 ,by following the poem the imaginative listener can readily appreciate the picturesque suggestiveness of the composer4 ,the work opens with a mysterious intoning1 by a muted horn1 of the motif d'appel1 and then follows a triple presentation of the march theme in ,f minor1 scored for wood-wind and low strings--the melody sung at first by the violas and clarinets and later by the bass clarinet and 'cellos4 ,this original scoring establishes just the appropriate atmosphere for an entrance to the abode of captivity4 ,music ,the first variation1 in ,f major1 employing all the tone-color of the full orchestra1 is a gorgeous picture of the ,oriental splendor of ,istar4 ,it is noteworthy that each variation contains a modulation to a key a semitone higher1 thus affording a factor of unity amid the elaborate flowerings of the musical thought4 ,the second variation1 in ,e major scored for strings and wood-wind1 is significant for the way in which the original theme is expanded into a flowing melody4 ,the logical derivation of the fabric from the first intervals of the main theme is obvious1 e4g4 ,music ,the fourth variation1 in ,f-sharp major1 scored for pizzicato strings and staccato wood-wind1 with light touches on horns1 trumpets1 cymbals1 triangle and harps1 introduces the scherzo mood into the work and with its persistent #e_/d rhythm is of fascinating effect4 ,music ,the loveliest variation for warmth and emotional appeal is the sixth1 in ,a-flat major 7at ,o in the orchestral score7 for strings with the gradual addition of the wood-wind and harps4 ,its climax certainly does much to atone for any dryness found in d',indy's other works4 ,music ,in the next variation1 at ,p1 the trend of the work becomes increasingly manifest for it is written in only two voices1 scored for flute and violins and is a dramatic preparation for the announcement of the complete main theme which is now proclaimed in unison by the full orchestra4 ,the work closes with a transformation of the opening march into ,f major1 its majestic rhythm symbolizing the successful result of ,istar's quest 7,see ,supplement ,no4 #fb47 ,debussy1 ,claude ,achille1 7#ahfb-aiah7 is certainly the embodiment1 as a composer1 of ,pater's saying that ,romanticism#bij is the addition of strangeness to beauty2 for when we listen to his music we are conscious of material and of forms of treatment which we have never heard before4 ,debussy has listened to the promptings of his own subtle imagination and has evolved a style as novel as it is beautiful4 ,as with all real originators1 ,debussy at the outset was fiercely challenged1 and his music even to-day calls forth intolerant remarks on the part of those who are suspicious of all artistic progress and evolution4 ,in this connection it is worthy of note that the ,french1 notwithstanding their national doctrine of liberty1 have been chary of applying this to composers who were departing from the beaten path4 ,berlioz1 whom now they acclaim as one of their greatest artists1 was welcomed as he deserved only after his fame had been established among the ,germans4 ,bizet was but slightly appreciated during his life4 ,franck met with fierce opposition from the routine members of the profession2 and ,debussy1 although the work by which he won the ,prix de ,rome in #ahhd was acknowledged to be one of the most interesting which had been heard at the ,institute for years1 was afterwards severely criticized for the setting made in ,rome to ,rossetti's ,blessed ,damozel because1 forsooth1 he had strayed too far from established and revered tradition4 ,we ,americans may have a distinct feeling of pride in the knowledge that the music of ,debussy1 the strongest note of which is personal freedom--the inherent right of the artist to express in his own way the promptings of his imagination--was widely studied and appreciated in this land of the free before it had begun to have anything like a universal acceptance among the ,french themselves4 ,footnote #bij3 ,from this comparison we should not wish it to be understood that ,debussy is merely an addition to the standard ,romantic group of ,schumann1 ,chopin1 ,liszt1 etc42 his style1 however1 is surely ,romantic in the broad sense of the term1 i4e41 highly imaginative and individual4 ,but can any connection with the past be traced in the style of this remarkable#bia composer1 and can we discover any sources1 in the world of nature1 from which he has derived the materials for his novel and fascinating harmonies8 ,when we definitely analyze ,debussy's harmonic scheme1 we see that he looks both forward and back4 ,much of his original tone coloring is derived from the old church modes such as the ,lydian1 the ,dorian and the ,phrygian2 for example1 the mysterious opening chords of his opera1 and the following passage from ,la ,cathdrale engloutie4 ,footnote #bia3 ,the trs exceptionnel1 trs curieux1 trs solitaire ,claude ,debussy as he has been aptly characterized4 ,music ,he is also extremely fond of a scale of whole tones1 which had been somewhat anticipated by ,liszt and members of the ,russian#bib school4 ,in this the normal perfect #dth and #eth and the major #fth become augmented1 thus producing a very peculiar but alluring harmonic basis4 ,music ,footnote #bib3 ,the first authentic use being probably by ,dargomijsky in his opera the ,stone ,guest4 ,music ,music3 ,reflets dans l'eau ,modern composers have been feeling for some time that harmonic scope was needlessly limited by clinging too closely to the major and minor diatonic scales2 and ,brahms1 ,tchaikowsky and ,franck have all introduced the old modes for special contrasts of color4 ,but no one has used them so subtly as ,debussy4 ,in his music they often take the place of our customary scales with their deep-rooted harmonic tendencies and perpetual suggestion of traditional cadences4 ,this return to the greater flexibility and variety of the old modes is a significant feature in modern music and ,debussy's example in this respect has been highly beneficial4 ,as to his alleged use of new material1 an astute ,french critic has observed that a revolution is merely an evolution rendered apparent4 ,by no means all of music can be found in nature1 but the basis is there1 and it remains for the artistic imagination to select and to amplify4 ,already many years ago the scientist ,helmholtz said1 ,our system of scales and of harmonic tissues does not rest upon unalterable natural laws1 but is partly at least the result of aesthetic principles of selection1 which have already changed1 and will change still further with the progressive development of humanity4#bic ,in other words the limits of receptivity of the human ear cannot be foreseen nor can the workings of the artistic imagination be prescribed4 ,the so-called ,chord of ,nature1#bid consisting of the overtones struck off by any sounding body1 and re-enforced on the pianoforte with its large sounding board1 contains in epitome this basic material of music2 and the several octaves represent in a striking manner the harmonic combinations used at different periods of development4 ,thus during the early centuries nothing but triads were in use2 only gradually were #gth chords--those of four factors--introduced4 ,wagner was the first to realize the possibilities of chords of the #ith1 #aath1 and #acth4 ,in ,debussy these combinations are used as freely as triads1 e4g4 ,music3 ,pellas et ,mlisande ,music3 ,la fille aux cheveux de lin ,music3 ,reflets dans l'eau and he has gone far beyond anything known before in a subtle use of the extreme dissonant elements1 his sensitive imagination evidently hearing sounds hitherto unrealized4 ,this surmise is corroborated by ,debussy's own statement that1 while serving as a young man on garrison duty1 he took great delight in listening to the overtones of bugles and of the bells from a nearby convent4 ,this chromatic style had been anticipated by ,chopin whose use of the harmonic series in those prismatic1 spray-like groups of superadded tones is such a striking feature in his pianoforte works4 ,there is1 therefore1 nothing outr or bizarre in ,debussy's idiom2 it is but a logical continuation of former tendencies4 ,his works show great variety and comprise pianoforte pieces1 many songs1 a remarkable string quartet1 some daringly original tone-poems for full orchestra1 several cantatas1 and--most unique of all--his opera of ,pellas et ,mlisande1 based on the well-known play by ,maeterlinck4 ,a few comments may profitably be made on each of these types4 ,with few exceptions all his pianoforte pieces have suggestive titles1 e4g41 ,reflets dans l'eau1 ,jardins sous la pluie1 ,la soire dans ,grenade1 ,poissons d'or1 ,voiles1 ,le vent dans la plaine1 ,bruyres4 ,they are mood-pictures in which the composer has tried to imprison certain elusive states of mind--or the impressions made on his susceptible imagination by the phenomena of ,nature3 the subtly blended hues of a sunset1 the changing rhythm of drifting clouds1 the indefinite murmur of the sea1 the dripping of rain4 ,for ,debussy1 like ,beethoven before him1 is a passionate lover of ,nature4 ,to quote his own words1 he finds his great object lessons of artistic liberty in the unfolding of the leaves in ,spring1 in the wavering winds and changing clouds4 ,again1 ,it benefits me more to watch a sunrise than to listen to a symphony4 ,go not to others for advice1 but take counsel from the passing breezes1 which relate the history of the world to those who listen4 ,thus we see that ,debussy submits himself to the spells of ,nature and tries to transmute them into sound4 ,the only analogies to use in a verbal description of his music must be drawn from nature1 for in each are the same shadowy pictures1 the same melting outlines4#bie ,debussy has a close affinity with that school of painters known as impressionists or symbolists--,manet1 ,monet1 ,dgas1 ,whistler--and is doing with novel combinations of sound1 with delicate effects of light and shade1 what they have done for modern freedom in color4 ,his music has been called a sonorous impressionism4 ,it might equally well be phrased rhythmic sound4 ,to those conservatives who find it difficult to think in terms of musical color1 and wish their imagination rather than that of genius to be the standard1 the retort of the artist ,whistler is applicable3 ,to a lady who viewing one of his sunsets remarked1 ,but1 ,mr4 ,whistler1 ,i have never seen a sunset like that came the reply ,yes1 ,madam1 but don't you wish you had8 ,in his songs ,debussy has been most fastidious as to choice of texts1 his favorite poets being ,verlaine1 ,baudelaire and ,mallarm1 called symbolists1 since the aim of their art is to resemble music and to leave for the reader a wide margin for symbolic interpretation4 ,his songs throughout are imaginative and fanciful in the highest degree1 and the instrumental part a beautiful background of color4 ,of ,debussy's compositions for orchestra the one to win--and possibly to deserve--the most lasting popularity is ,l'aprs-midi d'un ,faune1 which is an extraordinary translation into music of the veiled visions and the shadowy beings of an eclogue of ,mallarm in which1 as ,edmund ,gosse says1 ,words are used in harmonious combinations merely to suggest moods or conditions1 never to state them definitely4#bif ,by perfect rhythmic freedom1 and by delicately-colored waves of sound ,debussy has expressed in a manner most felicitous just the atmosphere of remoteness1 and of primeval simplicity4 ,by many this work is considered the most hypnotic composition in existence1 and the writer trusts that his readers have heard a poetic interpretation of it by a fine orchestra4 ,the salient features of ,debussy's style are found in ,pellas et ,mlisande--by far the most important operatic work since ,wagner4 ,maeterlinck's play deals with legendary1 mysterious1 symbolic beings1 and the entire subject-matter was admirably suited to ,debussy's genius4 ,as ,maeterlinck says1 ,the theatre should be the reflex of life1 not this external life of outward show1 but the true inner life which is entirely one of contemplation4 ,this opera is quite different from any previously written1 in that the characters sing throughout in recitative now calm1 now impassioned1 but never in set1 periodic arias4 ,in fact1 here we have at last a true musical speech1 which is indeed another thing from music set to words4 ,debussy has defended this peculiar style in the following words3 ,melody is1 if ,i may say so1 almost anti-lyric1 and powerless to express the constant change of emotion or life4 ,melody is suitable only for the song 7chanson71 which confirms a fixed sentiment4 ,i have never been willing that my music should hinder1 through technical exigencies1 the changes of sentiment and passion felt by my characters4 ,it is effaced as soon as it is necessary that these should have perfect liberty in their gestures as in their cries1 in their joy as in their sorrow4 ,footnote #bic3 ,for an enlightening amplification of this point see the first chapter of ,wallace's ,the ,threshold of ,music4 ,footnote #bid3 ,see page #aic4 ,footnote #bie3 ,for further suggestive comments on ,debussy's style consult the ,essay on ,pellas et ,mlisande by ,lawrence ,gilman 7,g4 ,schirmer1 ,new ,york7 and in particular an article by the same author in the ,century ,magazine for ,august1 #aiah4 ,footnote #bif3 ,gosse also calls it a famous miracle of intelligibility4 ,now that we may look forward to no more compositions from ,debussy#big--;he died in ,march1 #aiah--;it is certainly fitting to attempt a forecast as to the permanent worth of his achievements and his influence upon future development4 ,like all music his compositions may be judged from several points of view3 the worth of the content1 the perfection or inadequacy of style and the manner in which the media of presentation are used4 ,to begin with the last characteristic--there is no doubt that ,debussy has enlarged the resources of our two chief modern instruments1 the pianoforte and the orchestra4 ,by him the pianoforte is always treated according to its true nature1 i4e41 as an intimate1 coloristic instrument and1 in amplifying all its resources of tone-color1 flexible rhythm and descriptive power he is the worthy successor of ,chopin4 ,in his orchestral compositions such as the ,nocturnes 7,clouds1 ,festivals and ,sirens71 the ,sea ,pieces and ,images1 of which the ,rondes de ,printemps and ,ibria are the most significant1 there is a union of warmth and delicacy as individual as it is rare4 ,ibria1 in fact1 for vitality of imagination and flawless workmanship may be considered the acme of ,debussy's orchestral style4 ,the great resources of the modern orchestra are often abused4 ,compositions are rich and gorgeous but at the same time inflated1 turgid and bombastic4 ,certain works of ,richard ,strauss and ,mahler are examples in point4 ,debussy's treatment1 however1 of the varied modern orchestra is remarkable for its economy4 ,the melodic lines stand out clearly1 there is always a rich supporting background and we are convinced that everything sounds just as the composer meant4 ,as to the structure and style of his music1 these are more subtle matters to estimate4 ,we may acknowledge at once that ,debussy's style is free and individual1 for he has written his music his own way1 with slight regard for academic models4 ,but a thorough examination of his works shows no evidence of carelessness or uncertainty of aim4 ,there is1 to be sure1 nothing of that routine development of musical material which we associate with classic practice--instead a free1 imaginative growth4 ,but there is always a definite structural foundation to support the freedom of expression4 ,this coherence is sometimes gained by a single dominating note about which everything is grouped1 as1 in the ,soire dans ,grenade1 the ,c-sharp and in the ,reflets dans l'eau1 an ,f4 ,most of ,debussy's compositions imply the principles1 albeit freely used1 of ,two- and ,three-part form and the fundamental laws of key-relationship and of artistic contrast4 ,footnote #big3 ,the best books yet written on ,debussy and his style are those by ,mrs4 ,liebich and ,louis ,laloy4 ,consult also the comprehensive essay by ,e4,b4 ,hill in ,vol4 ,,iii of the ,art of ,music4 ,in considering the value of ,debussy's message1 i4e41 the content of his music1 the animus and predilection of the hearer have to be taken into account4 ,for his music is so intensely subjective and intimate that you like it or not1 as the case may be4 ,many persons1 however1 become very fond of it1 when they have accustomed themselves to its peculiar idiom4 ,the charge that there is in ,debussy no melody of a purely musical nature1 as some critics have asserted1#bih seems to the writer too sweeping and not supported by the inner evidence4 ,it may be granted that ,debussy's melodic line is very fluid and elastic1 like ,wagner's continuous melody1 not definitely sectionalized by balanced phrases or set cadences4 ,but it surely has its own right to existence--music being pre-eminently the art of freedom--and let us remember that ,nature herself has melting outlines1 shadowy vistas and subtle rhythms4 ,debussy1 in fact1 is the poet of the indefinite and the suggestive and his music has had a great influence in freeing expression from scholastic bonds4 ,even from the standpoint of the popular conception of tune it is difficult to see what objection can be made to the following melodies3 ,music3 ,l'isle joyeuse ,music3 ,poissons d'or ,music3 ,cortge ,footnote #bih3 ,see the #b;d volume of ,great ,composers by ,d4,g4 ,mason and also the essay on ,debussy in ,contemporary ,composers by the same author4 ,it cannot be denied that such an individual style as ,debussy's is liable to manneristic treatment1 though whether he should be called the prince of mannerists#bii is decidedly open to debate4 ,some critics feel that he has over-used the whole-tone scale and it must be confessed1 he has a rather affected fondness for a formula of block-like chords1 e4g4 ,music3 ,danse sacre ,footnote #bii3 ,according to ,ernest ,newman in a well-known article in the ,musical ,times 7,london74 ,but these1 after all1 are but spots on the sun4 ,to sum up our conclusions3 the following merits in ,debussy's music1 it seems to me1 cannot be gainsaid4 ,he has widened incalculably the vocabulary of music and has expressed in poetic and convincing fashion moods which never before had been attempted4 ,in his work are new revelations of the power of the imagination4 ,as ,lawrence ,gilman keenly remarks1 ,he has known how to find music 7in ,pellas et ,mlisande7 for the sublime reflection of ,arkel1 ',if ,i were ,god1 ,i should pity the hearts of men4' ,debussy was also gifted with rare critical ability and many of his observations are worthy of deep consideration4 ,for example--,music should be cleared of all scientific apparatus4 ,music should seek humbly to give pleasure2 great beauty is possible between these limits4 ,extreme complexity is the opposite of art4 ,beauty should be perceptible2 it should impose itself on us1 or insinuate itself1 without any effort on our part to grasp it4 ,look at ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,mozart6 ,these are great artists4 ,no account of modern ,french music would be satisfactory which omitted to mention several composers who1 though of somewhat lesser importance than d',indy and ,debussy1 have nevertheless achieved works of distinction and charm4 ,these are ,chabrier1 ,faur1 ,duparc1 ,chausson and ,ravel4 ,chabrier 7#ahda-ahid7 is noted for a bold exuberance and vividness of expression1 for a sense of humor and for a power of orchestral color and brilliance which have not been duplicated4 ,his style is entirely his own and he is a veritable incarnation of vis ,gallica4 ,born in the ,south of ,france1 the hot blood of that magic land seems to throb in his music4 ,we have from him several pianoforte compositions of marked originality1 in particular the ,bourre ,fantasque1 some inimitable songs1 e4g41 ,les ,cigales and ,la ,villanelle des petits ,canards and1 most famous of all1 his ,rhapsody for orchestra entitled ,espaa1 based on ,spanish themes4 ,this work has proved to be a landmark in descriptive power and shares with ,rimsky-,korsakoff's ,scheherazade the claim of being the most brilliant piece of orchestral writing in modern times4 ,some of ,chabrier's best work is in his opera of ,gwendoline1 especially the ,prelude to the second act which is often played by itself4 ,although ,faur 7#ahde-still living7 is more versatile and prolific than ,chabrier1 his fame rests upon his achievements in two fields--the song and pianoforte composition4 ,some of his pianoforte pieces are1 to be sure1 of a light1 salon type2 yet in many we find a true1 poetic sentiment and they are all written in a thoroughly pianistic idiom4 ,in fact1 prior to ,debussy ,faur was the only ,frenchman worthy to compare in mastery of pianoforte style with ,chopin1 ,schumann and ,liszt4 ,as a song composer ,faur ranks with the highest in modern times4 ,the exotic charm and finesse of workmanship in such songs as ,clair de ,lune1 ,les ,roses d',ispahan cannot be denied and the instrumental part is always worthy of the composer's genius for pianoforte style1 e4g41 the accompaniment to ,nell being a model in its free polyphony and richness of effect4 ,faur has been fastidious in his selection of texts and he is fortunate to have been able to avail himself of the genius of such lyric poets as ,leconte de ,lisle1 ,baudelaire1 ,verlaine1 ,sully-,prudhomme and others4 ,indeed as a song-composer ,faur may fairly be grouped with the great ,german masters4 ,his songs are not ,german songs1 but they are just as subtle in expressing all that is fine in ,french spirit as those of ,schumann and ,brahms in their ,teutonic sentiment4 ,for this reason alone ,faur is a commanding figure in modern ,french music4 ,he is also the author of a violin sonata which has enjoyed a popularity second only to that of ,franck and a ,quintet for pianoforte and strings of distinct originality4 ,duparc 7#ahdh-still living7 one of the earliest of ,csar ,franck's pupils--though working in practically but a single field and though by reason of ill health he has written nothing since #ahhe--will always hold high rank for the beauty and breadth of his songs1 especially ,l'invitation au ,voyage1 ,extase and ,phydil4 ,this last is considered by the writer the most exquisite song in modern literature2 its melody1 its modulations1 its accompaniment alike are flawless4#cjj ,footnote #cjj3 ,an excellent collection of modern ,french songs may be found in the two volumes published by the ,oliver ,ditson ,co4 in the ,musicians ,library4 ,chausson 7#ahee-ahii7 the most gifted of ,franck's pupils1 though without d',indy's strength of character1 was killed by an unfortunate accident#cja just as he was ready for an adequate self-expression4 ,he had a sensitive imagination1 an individual harmonic style2 and in those works which he has left--notably several songs1 a ,quartet for pianoforte and strings and the ,symphony in ,b-flat major1 op4 #bj--there is found a spirit of genuine romantic inspiration4 ,footnote #cja3 ,while he was riding a bicycle4 ,although ,ravel 7#ahge-still living7 cannot claim to be a pioneer like ,debussy--since in his music there are frequent traces of the exuberance of ,chabrier1 the suavity of ,faur1 the atmosphere and impressionistic tendencies of ,debussy and the exoticism of the ,neo-,russians--yet he is indeed no empty reflection of these men1 for he has his own bold1 fantastic style and has been a daring experimenter in freedom of harmony and structure4 ,one finds a power of ironic brilliance and of unexpected harmonic transformations certainly new in modern literature4 ,ravel#cjb is one of the most versatile and prolific of all the younger ,frenchmen having composed significant works in at least four fields3 songs1 particularly the set entitled ,histoires ,naturelles1 which reveal an unusual instinct for delicate description2 and pianoforte pieces of which ,miroirs1 the dazzling tour de force ,jeux d'eau1 the ,valses nobles et sentimentales1 the ,sonatine1 the ,pavane and1 above all1 the ,poems1 ,gaspard de la ,nuit 7,ondine1 ,le ,gibbet#cjc and ,scarbo7 are conspicuous examples of his style4 ,furthermore in the field of chamber music are found a ,string ,quartet1 remarkable for inspiration and for certainty of workmanship1 and a ,trio 7for pianoforte1 violin and 'cello7 which is one of the most brilliant modern works1 of convincing originality in its freedom of rhythm1 e4g41 the opening measures of the first movement4 ,music ,footnote #cjb3 ,the best account of his works and style is to be found in the volume ,maurice ,ravel et son oeuvre by ,roland ,manuel4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,le ,gibbet is without doubt the most realistic piece of musical description in our time4 ,finally1 for orchestra his ,spanish ,rhapsody ranks with ,chabrier's ,espaa and ,debussy's ,ibria as the acme of descriptive power and of orchestral color4 ,his ,mother ,goose ,suite 7originally a set of four-hand pieces but since orchestrated with incomparable finesse7 illustrates his humor and play of fancy4 ,it has become a truly popular concert number4 ,ravel's chef d'oeuvre the choreographic symphony ,daphnis et ,chlo displays an extraordinary synthetic grasp1 for all the factors--plot1 action1 the musical fabric1 a large orchestra and a chorus of mixed voices behind the scenes--are held together with a master hand4 ,this work ranks with ,debussy's ,pellas et ,mlisande as the most significant dramatic work of recent years4 ,it is evident1 we trust1 from the foregoing somewhat condensed estimates that the modern ,french school is very much alive1 that it has to its credit numerous distinct achievements and that it contains the promise of still further growth4 ,the ,french nature1 which is highly emotional and yet1 at its best1 always controlled#cjd by a regard for fitness and clarity of thought1 is particularly suited to express itself worthily in music1 for in no other form of artistic endeavor is this balance more requisite4 ,music without emotion is1 to be sure1 like sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal and dies in short order4 ,on the other hand1 music which is a mere display of crude emotion soon palls4 ,the works of modern ,french composers deserve enthusiastic study for their charm1 their finish and their refined emotional power4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,witness the wonderful manifestation of these qualities by the ,french in the recent war4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,national ,,schools--,,russian1 ,,bohemian ,,and ,,scandinavian ,before beginning an account of ,tchaikowsky1 the most noted though not necessarily the greatest of the ,russian composers1 a few words may be said concerning nationalism in music1 the chief representatives of which are the ,russians1 the ,bohemians1 the ,scandinavians and the ,hungarians4 ,of these1 however1 the present-day ,russian ,school is the most active and contributes constantly new factors to musical evolution4 ,this grafting of forms of expression derived from the outlying nations on to the parent-stock of music--which for some three hundred years had been in the exclusive control of ,italy1 ,germany and ,france--has been a stimulating factor in the development of the last half-century4 ,for the idiom of music was becoming somewhat stereotyped1 and it has been noticeably revitalized by the incorporation of certain exotic traits1 of which there run through all national music these three3 7#a7 the use1 in their folk-songs1 of other forms of scale and mode than are habitual with ourselves2 7#b7 the preference given to the minor mode and the free commingling of major and minor2 7#c7 the great rhythmic variety and especially the use of groups foreign to our musical sense1 such as measures of #e and #g beats1 and the intentional placing of the accent on parts of the measure which with us are ordinarily unaccented4 ,every country has its folk-songs--the product of national rather than individual genius--but ,russia1 in the number and variety of these original melodies is most exceptional4 ,the ,russian expresses himself spontaneously in song1 and so we find appropriate music for every activity or incident in daily life3 planting songs1 reaping songs1 boating songs1 wedding songs1 funeral songs2 ,russian soldiers sing on the march and even enter upon a desperate charge with songs on their lips4 ,in certain battles of the ,crimean ,war this fact caused much comment from the ,english officers4 ,for many centuries the bulk of the ,russian people has been downtrodden2 and the country1 with its endless steppes and gloomy climate1 is hardly such as to call forth the sparkling vivacity found in the ,scandinavian and ,hungarian songs4 ,the prevalent mood in ,russian folk-songs is one of melancholy or of brooding1 wistful tenderness--very often in the old ,greek modes1 the ,aeolian1 ,dorian and ,phrygian4 ,from this we see the close connection existing between the ,russian and ,greek ,churches4 ,the ,russian liturgy is exceedingly old1 and ,russian church music1 always unaccompanied1 has long been celebrated for its dignified character1 especially those portions rendered by men's voices1 which are capable of unusually low notes1#cje as majestic as those of an organ4 ,footnote #cje3 ,in ,grove's ,dictionary1 under ,bass1 occurs this statement3 ,this voice1 found1 or at least cultivated1 only in ,russia is by special training made to descend to ,,ff ,music4 ,during the entire #ahth century the development of music in ,russia was in the hands of imported ,italians2 the beginnings of a national type being first made in the works of ,glinka1 born #ahjd4 ,by the middle of the #aith century two schools had arisen1 the ,neo-,russian group of ,balakireff1 ,borodin1 ,cui1 ,rimsky-,korsakoff and ,moussorgsky1 who believed in the extreme development of national traits in melody1 rhythm and color2 and a second group which was more cosmopolitan in its tastes and believed that ,russian music1 without abandoning its national flavor1 could be written in a style of universal appeal4 ,the chief members of this group were ,rubinstein and ,tchaikowsky1 and distinguished pupils of the latter1 in particular ,rachmaninoff and ,glazounoff4 ,to the world at large ,tchaikowsky1 of them all1 has made the strongest appeal2 though he himself said that ,rimsky-,korsakoff as an orchestral colorist was more able1 and certainly ,moussorgsky has a more strongly marked individuality4 ,tchaikowsky 7#ahdj-ahic7 like so many of the ,russian composers1 began as a cultivated amateur who showed no special musical gifts1 save a sensitive nature and a general fondness for the art4 ,he studied in the school of jurisprudence and won a post in the ,ministry of ,justice4 ,in #ahfa1 however1 his musical nature awaking with a bound1 he gave up all official work and for the sake of art faced a life of poverty4 ,under the teaching of ,nicholas ,rubinstein at the ,petrograd ,conservatory he made such amazing progress that in five years he himself was ,professor of ,harmony at ,moscow and had begun his long series of compositions--at first operas of merely local fame4 ,there now followed years of great activity spent in teaching and composing--well-known works being the first ,string ,quartet and the ,pianoforte ,concerto in ,b-flat minor1 first performed by von ,blow at ,boston in '#hh4 ,at this period his health completely broke down1 the immediate cause being an unhappy marriage4 ,he finally rallied but had to travel abroad for a year1 and for the rest of his life his temper1 never bright1 was overcast with gloom4 ,there now entered ,tchaikowsky's life ,frau von ,meck1 the woman who played the part of fairy godmother4 ,she greatly admired his music1 was wealthy and generous and1 that he might have entire leisure for composition1 settled upon him a liberal annuity4 ,their relationship is one of the most remarkable in the annals of art2 for1 fearing that the ideal would be shattered1 they met but once1 quite by accident1 and ,tchaikowsky was acutely embarrassed4 ,we have a lengthy and impassioned correspondence1 and ,tchaikowsky's #dth ,symphony1 dedicated mon meilleur ami1 is the result of this friendship4 ,in #ahia1 invited to ,new ,york for the dedication of ,carnegie ,hall1 he made his memorable ,american tour4 ,his success was genuine1 and was the beginning of the popularity his music has always enjoyed in this country4 ,for several years ,tchaikowsky had been working at his ,sixth ,symphony1 to which he himself gave the distinctive title ,pathetic4 ,this work ends with one of the saddest dirges in all literature1 although ,tchaikowsky1 during its composition1 as we know from his letters1 had never been in a happier state of mind or worked more passionately and freely4 ,he himself says1 ,i consider it the best1 especially the most open-hearted of all my works4 ,when1 however1 he suddenly died in #ahic1 there were rumors of suicide1 but it is now definitely settled that his death was caused by cholera4#cjf ,footnote #cjf3 ,the writer had this statement from the lips of ,tchaikowsky's own brother1 ,modeste4 ,to turn now to his achievements1 it may be asserted that ,tchaikowsky was marvellously versatile1 composing in every form save for the organ2 for productiveness1 only ,mozart1 ,schubert and ,liszt can be compared with him4 ,his works comprise eight operas1 six symphonies1 six symphonic poems1 three overtures1 four orchestral suites1 two pianoforte concertos1 a violin concerto1 three string quartets1 a wonderful trio1 about one hundred songs and a large number of pianoforte pieces4 ,in addition he made several settings of the ,russian liturgy and edited many volumes of church music4 ,whatever may be the final estimate of his music1 it assuredly has great vogue at present1 for it is an intense expression of that mental and spiritual unrest so characteristic of our times4 ,as ,byron was said to have but one subject1 himself1 so all ,tchaikowsky's music is the message of his highly emotional and feverish sensibility4 ,he is invariably eloquent in the presentation of his material1 although the thoughts are often slight and the impression made not lasting4 ,he pours out his emotions with the impulsiveness and abandon so characteristic of his race1 and this lack of serenity1 of restraint1 is surely his gravest weakness4 ,we are reminded by his music of a fire which either glows fitfully or bursts forth into a fierce uncontrolled blaze1 but where a steady white heat is too often missing4 ,his style has been concisely described as fiery exultation on a basis of languid melancholy4 ,to all this we may retort that what he lacks in profundity and firm control1 he makes up in spontaneity1 wealth of imagination and1 above all1 warmth of color4 ,it is illogical to expect his music to be different from what it is4 ,he expressed himself sincerely and his style is the direct outcome of his own temperament plus his nationality4 ,tchaikowsky was widely read in modern literature--,dickens and ,thackeray being favorite authors--and had travelled much4 ,the breadth of his cultivation is shown in the subjects of his symphonic poems and the texts of his songs1 which are from ,shakespeare1 ,dante1 ,goethe and ,bryon4 ,however much estimates may differ as to the import of ,tchaikowsky's message1 he is universally recognized as a superb colorist1 one of the masters of modern orchestral treatment2 who1 by his subtle feeling for richness and variety of tone1 has enlarged the means of musical expression4 ,this is especially shown in the characteristic use he makes of the orchestra in its lower ranges4 ,as ,brahms1 for depth of thought1 was compared with ,browning1 so ,tchaikowsky may well be likened to such poets as ,shelley and ,swinburne1 so exquisite is his instinct for tonal beauty and for delicacy of shading4 ,at times1 to be sure1 he fairly riots in gorgeous colors--this being the result of his ,slavic blood--but few composers have been able to achieve such brilliancy without becoming vulgar4 ,as to the charge of pessimism often made against ,tchaikowsky1 he was a thinker1 an explorer into the mysteries of human aspiration and disappointment1#cjg and his music seems weighted down with the riddle of the universe4 ,this introspective dejection1 however1 is a natural result of his temperament and his nationality4 ,if to us of a more hopeful outlook upon life it seems morbid1 we should simply remember that our conditions have been different4 ,a distinction must likewise be made between the expression of such feelings in art and their influence in actual life4 ,as a man ,tchaikowsky was practical1 conscientious1 and did not in the least allow his feelings to emasculate him4 ,he was a prodigious worker and throughout his career1 in the face of ill health and many adverse circumstances1 showed immense courage4 ,his creed was no ignoble one--,to regret the past1 to hope in the future1 and never to be satisfied with the present2 this is my life4 ,and to a gushing patroness of art who asked him what were his ideals1 his simple reply was ,my ideal is to become a good composer4 ,certain ,english critics in their fault-finding have been particularly boresome1 because1 forsooth1 ,tchaikowsky's music does not show the serenity of ,brahms or the solidity or stolidity of their own composers4 ,to the well-fed and prosperous ,briton ,god's in his ,heaven1 all's right with the world is hardly an expression of faith1 but a certainty of existence4 ,not so with the ,russian1 upon whom the oppression of centuries has left its stamp4 ,this same note of gloomy or even morbid introspection is found in some of the great literature of the world--in the ,bible1 the ,greek ,tragedies and in ,shakespeare4 ,granted that optimism is the only working creed for every-day life1 until the millenium arrives a sincere and artistic expression of the sorrows of humanity will always strike a note in oppressed souls4 ,footnote #cjg3 ,see the passage from his diary 7quoted on page #ejd of the ,biography by his brother7 in which he writes--,what touching love and compassion for mankind lie in these words3 ',come unto me1 all ye that labor and are heavy laden6' ,in comparison with these simple words all the ,psalms of ,david are as nothing4 ,each of ,tchaikowsky's last three symphonies is a remarkable work4 ,the ,fourth is most characteristically ,russian and certainly the most striking in its uncompromising directness of expression4 ,the first movement announces a recurrent1 intensely subjective motto typical of that impending ,fate which would not allow ,tchaikowsky happiness4#cjh ,the slow movement is based upon a ,russian folk song of a melancholy beauty1 sung by the oboe1 and another1 already cited 7see ,chapter ,,ii1 p4 #cc71 is incorporated in the ,finale4 ,the ,scherzo is unique as an orchestral tour de force2 for1 with the exception of a short middle portion for wood-wind and brass1 it is for the string orchestra playing pizzicato throughout4 ,the effect is extremely fantastic and resembles that of ghosts flitting about in their stocking-feet or of sleep-chasings1 to use ,whitman's expression4#cji ,the ,finale is a riot of natural1 primitive joy1 a picture--as the composer says--of a popular festivity4 ,when you find no joy within you1 go among the people1 see how fully they give themselves up to joyous feelings4 ,fate sounds its warning1 but in vain2 nothing can repress the exultation of the composer4 ,enjoy the joy of others and--you still can live4 ,the work is sensational1 even trivial in places2 but it reveals sincerity and elemental life4 ,the composer lays himself bare and we see a real man--not a masked hypocrite--with all his joys and sorrows1 caught1 as ,henley would say1 in the fell clutch of circumstance1 bludgeoned by ,fate4 ,footnote #cjh3 ,see the detailed program by the composer himself1 cited in ,nieck's ,program ,music4 ,footnote #cji3 ,for this simile ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,philip ,hale4 ,the ,sixth ,symphony1 the ,pathetic1 is the most popular and1 on the whole1 ,tchaikowsky's most sustained work4 ,it owes its hold upon public esteem to the eloquent way in which it presents that maladie du sicle which1 in all modern art1#caj is such a prominent note4 ,the mood may be a morbid one but we cannot mistake the conviction with which it is treated4 ,the work is likewise significant because of the novel grouping of movements4 ,the first is in complete sonata form and for finished architecture will stand comparison with any use of that form4 ,the themes are eloquent1 well contrasted and organically developed4 ,the orchestration is a masterpiece4#caa ,the second movement is the one famous for its use of five beats a measure throughout2 and its trio1 on a persistent pedal note ,d1 is a striking example of the ,russian tendency to become fairly obsessed with one rhythm4 ,it is an intentional1 artistic use of monotony and may be compared to the limitless ,russian ,steppes4 ,if it seem strange to ,western ,europeans1 it should be remembered that the music is ,russian and portrays a mood perfectly natural to that people4 ,the third movement is a combination of a scherzo and a march--of a most unbridled fury4 ,the ,finale is a threnody1 one of overpowering grief1 the motto of which might be vanity of vanities1 all is vanity4 ,it abounds in soul-stirring orchestral eloquence and invariably makes a deep impression4 ,footnote #caj3 ,for further comment see the ,life of ,tchaikowsky by ,rosa ,newmarch4 ,footnote #caa3 ,as may be seen by the number of illustrations from it in text books6 ,for special comment we have selected ,tchaikowsky's#cab ,fifth ,symphony in ,e minor since1 being a union of ,russian and ,italian characteristics1 it reveals that eclecticism so prominent in his style4 ,it is also an admirable example of organic relationship between the movements4 ,this symphony1 like the ,fourth1 contains a recurrent motto of sombre nature in the minor mode which1 appearing in the first three movements with some dramatic implication1 is changed in the ,finale to the major and used as the basis for a march of rejoicing4 ,the first and last movements are in elaborate sonata-form2 the second and third in three-part form4 ,the ,finale is one of the most striking examples in modern literature of a rsum of preceding themes and hence a convincing proof of the composer's constructive power4 ,the symphony begins with a long prelude announcing the motto4 ,scored for clarinets1 bassoons and low strings it shows vividly that peculiar impression which ,tchaikowsky secured by using the lower ranges of the orchestra4 ,footnote #cab3 ,the authoritative work on ,tchaikowsky is ,the ,life and ,letters by his brother ,modeste2 the abridged biography by ,rosa ,newmarch should also be read4 ,there are excellent essays in ,mezzotints in ,modern ,music by ,huneker2 in ,streatfield's volume ,modern ,composers and in ,mason's ,from ,grieg to ,brahms4 ,music ,the melody itself seldom moves above middle ,c1 and its effect is enhanced by the quality of the clarinets in their chalumeau register4 ,the first theme of the movement proper 7beginning at the ,allegro con anima71 on the same harmonic basis as the motto and derived from it rhythmically1 is given out pp by a solo clarinet and solo bassoon1 accompanied by very light detached chords in the strings1 e4g4 ,music ,this is elaborately and brilliantly developed until1 in measure #gi 7counting from the ,allegro71 we reach a transitional1 subsidiary theme in ,b minor4 ,this is followed by some striking sequences1 exquisitely scored1 and then 7at un pochettino pi animato7 there is a quickened presentation of the transitional theme1 interspersed by syncopated calls--on the horns and wood-wind--a presentation which introduces the second theme in ,d major1 marked molto pi tranquillo4 ,this melody1 sung by the violins against an obbligato in the wood-wind1 is clearly ,italian in its grace and suavity and establishes that wonderful contrast so prominent in ,tchaikowsky--the warmth and exuberance of the ,south set against the grim austerity of the ,north4 ,music ,this theme1 expanded 7stringendo and crescendo7 into a series of exciting climaxes fff leads1 after some modulatory phrases derived from the transitional theme1 to the ,development which begins in ,b-flat major4 ,throughout this is a fine piece of work--with real thematic growth1 bold modulations and no padding4 ,it should refute completely any erroneous opinion that ,tchaikowsky was lacking in power of organic treatment4 ,the connection between the ,development and the ,recapitulation is skilfully managed and the third part does not bore us but is welcomed as something we would gladly hear again4 ,there is a long and stormy ,coda--a second development in true ,beethoven style--which finally ends ppp in the lowest depths of the orchestra1 in the same mood as the opening measures4 ,the second movement1 ,andante cantabile1 con alcuna licenza1 with its melting theme on the solo horn1 e4g41 ,music --accompanied later by answering phrases on the clarinet--might seem a bit too luscious were it not for the beauty and finish of the orchestration4 ,the movement is in rather loose three-part form--as the title would imply--the joints being somewhat obvious in certain places1 e4g41 measures #ci-de4 ,the themes1 however1 have that intensity peculiar to ,tchaikowsky1 and the original orchestral treatment1 especially in the use of the horns1 enhances their effect4 ,the middle contrasting portion1 starting in ,f-sharp minor1 shows some very effective polyphonic imitations based on the following theme3 ,music ,at the climax of its development the motto is proclaimed fff in a most arresting manner--its effect being due to the unusual pedal point which makes a chord of the second with the upper voices1 e4g41 ,music ,the third part with slight expansions corresponds to the first4 ,at its close1 just before the ,coda1 we have a second appearance of the motto--this time1 on account of the fierce dissonances1 with even more sinister effect4#cac ,the closing measures are of great beauty by reason of the imitations on the strings and the dreamy1 reminiscent phrase on the clarinets1 e4g4 ,music ,footnote #cac3 ,the passage has already been cited in ,chapter ,,iv as an example of a deceptive cadence4 ,the third movement1 a ,waltz1 with a graceful theme1 in clear-cut three-part form1 needs little comment4 ,if any one considers it too light or even trivial for a place in a symphony he might study the individual orchestration and then try to compose one like it6 ,the second and third parts are ingeniously fused together--,tchaikowsky following the practise of ,mozart1 his favorite master1 in the first movement of the ,g minor ,symphony4 ,in the ,russian philosophy of life1 however1 there is no such thing as perpetual joy2 so1 even amid scenes of festivity1 the motto obtrudes itself as if to ask ,what right have you to be dancing when life is so stern and grim8 ,see measures #bc-bh from end of movement4 ,music ,the ,finale1 in complete sonata-form and laid out on a large scale1 for several reasons is of distinct significance4 ,it is a carefully planned rsum of preceding themes2 it contains several examples of those periods of depression or exultation 7especially on a pedal-point7 so characteristic of the ,slav1 and lastly1 there are pages of extreme brilliancy4 ,in fact1 the orchestration throughout is of such convincing power that it refutes any charge of sensationalism or mere bombast4 ,if to us the music seem unrestrained1 unbridled1 we are to remember that the ,russian temperament is prone to a reckless display of emotion just as in their churches they like to lay the colors on thick4 ,the movement begins with an extended prelude in which the original sombre motto is transformed into a stately1 march-like theme4 ,this is presented twice with continually richer scoring and more rhythmic animation4 ,the closing measures of the prelude are a specific instance of that protracted mood of depression spoken of above4 ,the movement proper begins at the ,allegro vivace with a fierce1 impassioned theme1 ,music which leads1 in measure #be1 to a subsidiary theme treated at first in free double counterpoint#cad and later canonically4 ,music ,footnote #cad3 ,by double counterpoint is meant such a grouping of the voices that they may be inverted 7the upper voice becoming the lower and vice versa7 and sound equally well4 ,for further comments1 together with illustrative examples1 consult ,chapter ,,ix of ,spalding's ,tonal ,counterpoint4 ,music ,this is developed with more and more animation until the announcement1 in measure #ga1 of the second theme in ,d major4 ,here we see the first instance of that organic relationship for which the movement is noted2 for this theme ,music is evidently derived by rhythmic modification from that of the preceding slow movement4 ,it is brilliantly expanded and leads directly--there being no double bar and repeat--to the development in measure #aae4 ,this part of the movement evades description2 it is throughout most eloquent and exciting4 ,in measures #aec-afj all the bells of ,russia seem to be pealing6 ,with measure #agg begins 7marcato largamente7 an impressive treatment in the bass of the second theme1 answered shortly after in the upper voice4 ,this is developed to a climax which1 in turn1 is followed by one of those long periods of cooling down which prepare us for the ,recapitulation in measure #bci4 ,this corresponds exactly with the ,exposition1 ending with two passages 7poco meno mosso and molto vivace71--based upon the rhythm of the motto--which usher in the long1 elaborate ,coda4 ,this begins1 maestoso1 with an impressive statement of the march theme1 scored in brilliant fashion1 with rushing figures in the wood-wind instruments4 ,it seems to portray some ceremonial in a vast cathedral with trumpets blaring and banners flying4 ,a still more gorgeous treatment 7marziale1 energico1 con tutta forza7 leads to the ,presto based on the subsidiary theme 7cited on page #cab71 which fairly carries us off our feet4 ,the last portion of the ,coda 7molto meno mosso7 is an animated yet dignified proclamation of the main theme of the first movement--the work thus concluding with an unmistakable effect of unity4 ,music ,the subject of ,russian music#cae is too vast for any adequate treatment within the limits of a single book1 but there are several other composers in addition to ,tchaikowsky of such individuality and remarkable achievement as to warrant some notice4 ,these men1 ,balakireff1 ,borodin1 ,rimsky-,korsakoff and ,moussorgsky1 have done for the free expression of the ,russian temperament in music what ,pushkin1 ,gogol and ,dostoyevsky represent in literature4 ,to understand fully the tendencies of ,neo-,russian music1 and above all to sympathize with the spirit in which this music is written1 the incredible history of ,holy ,russia1 the history of its rulers and people--the mad caprices and horrid deeds of the ,romanoffs1 who1 in centuries gone by1 surpassed in restless melancholy and atrocity the insane ,caesars1 and were more to be pitied1 as well as detested1 than ,tiberius or ,nero--the nature of the landscape1 the waste of steppes1 the dreariness of winter1 and the loneliness of summer--the barbaric extravagance of aristocratic life--the red tape1 extortion1 and cruelty of officers--the sublime patience of the common people--the devotion of the enduring1 starving multitude to the ,tsar--all this should be as familiar as a twice-told tale4 ,there should also be a knowledge of ,russian literature1 from the passion of ,pushkin and the irony of ,gogol1 to ,turgenieff's tales of life among the serfs1 and the novels of ,tolstoi1 in which mysticism and realism are strangely blended4 ,inasmuch as ,neo-,russian music is founded upon the folk-songs of that country1 one should know first of all the conditions that made such songs possible1 and one should breathe the atmosphere in which musicians who have used such songs have worked4#caf ,footnote #cae3 ,the most authoritative work in ,english is the ,history of ,russian ,music by ,montagu-,nathan2 in ,french there are the ,essays ,musiques de ,russie by ,bruneau4 ,footnote #caf3 ,quoted from the chapter on ,russian music in ,famous ,composers and ,their ,works 7#b;d series74 ,the first real leader after the wholesome beginnings made by ,glinka 7with his operas1 ,a ,life for the ,czar and ,ludmilla7 was ,balakireff 7#ahcg-aiaj7 who finding his country almost entirely under the dominion of ,italian and ,german music1 proclaimed the doctrine that ,russia1 with its wealth of folk-songs and its undoubted emotional power should create its own music4 ,like many of the ,russians ,balakireff was an amateur1 but in the true sense of that term1 i4e41 he loved music for its own sake4 ,he therefore set to work vigorously to combat foreign influences and to manifest in original works a spirit true to his own genius and to the tendencies of his native land4 ,though educated as a lawyer he had acquired through a study of ,mozart1 ,berlioz and ,liszt a thorough technique and so was equipped to put into practise his watchword which was individual liberty4 ,i believe in the subjective1 not in the objective power of music1 he said to his pupils4 ,objective music may strike us with its brilliancy1 but its achievement remains the handiwork of a mediocre talent4 ,mediocre or merely talented musicians are eager to produce effects1 but the ideal of a genius is to reproduce his very self1 in unison with the object of his art4 ,there is no doubt that art requires technique1 but it must be absolutely unconscious and individual4444 ,often the greatest pieces of art are rather rude technically1 but they grip the soul and command attention for intrinsic values4 ,this is apparent in the works of ,michelangelo1 of ,shakespeare1 of ,turgenieff1 and of ,mozart4 ,the beauty that fascinates us most is that which is most individual4 ,i regard technique as a necessary but subservient element4 ,it may1 however1 become dangerous and kill individuality as it has done with those favorites of our public1 whose virtuosity ,i despise more than mere crudities4 ,balakireff's actual works are few in number since he spent most of his time in organizing schools of music and in teaching others2 but in those works which we have#cag there is a strong note of freedom not to be missed4 ,his ,symphonic ,poem ,tamara and his fantasy for pianoforte ,islamey are remarkable for that semi-oriental exotic spirit so prevalent in ,russian music4 ,many of his songs also are of genuine beauty4 ,footnote #cag3 ,towards the end of his life he destroyed many of his compositions4 ,borodin 7#ahcd-ahhg7 is the ne plus ultra example of that versatility in which the modern ,russian ,school is unique4 ,as a surgeon and doctor he enjoyed a high position2 as a chemist he made original researches and wrote treatises which were recognized as distinct contributions to science2 he was one of the earliest scholars in the world to advocate that women should have the same education as men and was one of the founders 7about #ahgj7 of a medical school for women in ,petrograd4 ,so tireless was he in these varied activities1 it seems a miracle that he could also become one of the best pianists of his time 7he played well also the violin and the flute7 and according to ,liszt1#cah one of the most able orchestral masters of the nineteenth century4 ,but as evidence of this amazing fact are his works1 comprising two symphonies 7the second in ,b minor often heard in this country7 two string quartets1 the first strikingly original1 thematically1 harmonically and in idiomatic use of the instruments2 a small ,suite for pianoforte1 of which the ,serenade is cited in the ,supplement2 an opera1 ,le ,prince ,igor--remarkable for its picturesque description and ,oriental coloring1 of which the composer himself said ,prince ,igor is essentially a national opera1 which can be of interest only to us ,russians who love to refresh our patriotism at the sources of our history and to see the origins of our nationality live again upon the stage2 a symphonic poem ,dans les ,steppes de l',asie centrale and--showing some of his most characteristic work--the ,paraphrases written in collaboration with ,korsakoff1 ,liadoff and ,cui as a kind of musical joke4 ,this composition1#cai a set of twenty-four variations founded on the tune popularly known as chop-sticks is dedicated to little pianists capable of executing the theme with a finger of each hand4 ,for the paraphrases themselves a player of considerable technique is required4 ,in ,borodin's style we always find a glowing color-scheme of ,slavic and ,oriental elements4 ,as a modern ,russian composer says1 ,it is individually descriptive and extremely modern--so modern that the audience of to-day will not be able to grasp all its intrinsic beauties4 ,footnote #cah3 ,for a delightful account of the friendship of these two composers consult the volume ,borodin and ,liszt by ,alfred ,habets 7translated by ,rosa ,newmarch74 ,footnote #cai3 ,according to ,liszt a compendium of musical science in the form of a jest4 ,the most widely known and in many respects the most gifted of the ,neo-,russian group is ,rimsky-,korsakoff 7#ahdd-aijh74 ,he has been aptly characterized as the ,dgas or ,whistler of music1 and for his marvellous powers of description1 especially of the sea1 and for his command of orchestral tone-painting he is considered the storyteller par excellence in modern music4 ,as in the case of ,borodin we are filled with amazement at the power of work and the versatility in ,korsakoff's nature4 ,for many years he was an officer in the ,russian navy and throughout his life was involved with official duties4 ,yet he found time for a number of compositions of originality and finished workmanship4 ,these comprise the symphonic poems ,antar1 ,sadko and ,scheherazade2#cbj a ,spanish ,caprice for full orchestra2 twelve operas of which the best known in this country is the fascinating ,le ,coq d',or2 a concerto for pianoforte and orchestra2 a large number of songs and many choruses for men's and women's voices4 ,his treatises on harmony and orchestration are standard works1 the latter being the authority in modern treatment of the orchestra4 ,his ,scheherazade is undoubtedly the most brilliant descriptive work in modern literature1 for an account of which we quote the eloquent words of ,philip ,hale4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,this work in structure is a ,suite1 i4e41 there are four distinct1 separated movements4 ,scheherazade 7,op4 #ce7 is a suite inspired by the ,arabian ,nights4 ,the ,sultan1 persuaded of the falseness and faithlessness of woman1 had sworn to put every one of his wives to death in turn after the first night4 ,but ,scheherazade saved her life by interesting him in the stories she told him for a thousand and one nights4 ,many marvels were told by her in ,rimsky-,korsakoff's fantastic poem1--marvels and tales of adventure3 ',the ,sea and ,sinbad's ,ship'2 ',the ,story of the ,three ,kalandars'2 ',the ,young ,prince and the ,young ,princess'2 ',the ,festival at ,bagdad'2 ',the ,ship that went to pieces against a rock surmounted by a bronze warrior4' ,as in ,berlioz's ,fantastic ,symphony1 so in this suite1 there is a theme which keeps appearing in all four movements4 ,for the most part it is given to a solo violin4 ,it is a free melodic phrase in ,oriental bravura1 gently ending in a free cadenza4 ,there is no development of themes in this strange work4 ,there is constant repetition in different tonalities2 there is an exceedingly skillful blending of timbres2 there is a keen sense of possible orchestral effects4 ,a glance at the score shows how sadly the pedagogue might go astray in judgment of the work1 without a hearing of it1 and furthermore1 the imagination of the hearer must be in sympathy with the imagination of the composer1 if he would know full enjoyment3 for this symphonic poem provokes swooning thoughts1 such as come to the partakers of leaves and flowers of hemp2 there are the stupefying perfumes of charred frankincense and grated sandal-root4 ,the music comes to the listener of western birth and mind1 as the ,malay who knocked among ,english mountains at ,de ,quincey's door4 ,you learn of ,sinbad1 the explorer1 who is nearer to us than ,nansen2 of the ,kalandar ,prince who spent a mad evening with the porter and the three ladies of ,bagdad1 and told of his incredible adventures2 and ,scheherazade1 the narrator1 she too is merely a shape in a dream2 she fades away1 and her soul dies on the high note exhaled by the wondering violin4 ,the melody of this ,russian is wild1 melancholy1 exotic2 a droning such as falls from the lips of white-bearded1 turbaned1 venerable men1 garrulous in the sun2 and then again1 there is the reckless chatter of the babbler in the market-place1 heated with unmixed wine4 ,the most boldly individual of all ,russian composers is ,moussorgsky#cba 7#ahca-ahha74 ,although of intense inspiration and of uncompromising ideals his musical education was so incomplete that his technique was inadequate for the expression of his message4 ,as the ,french critic1 ,arthur ,pougin well says1 ,his works bizarre though they be1 formless as they often are1 have in them a force of expression and a dramatic accent of which no one can deny the intensity4 ,it would be unjust to pretend that he spoke for the purpose of saying nothing2 unfortunately he is too often satisfied with merely stammering4 ,as ,moussorgsky himself says3 ,art is a means of talking with men2 it is not an end4 ,starting with the principle that human speech is subject to musical laws1 ,i see in music1 not only the expression of sentiment by means of sound1 but especially the notation of a human language4 ,in fact the dominant idea of his music was to bring it into closer relation with actual life4 ,footnote #cba3 ,for biographical information consult the volume by ,montagu-,nathan4 ,in order to understand ,moussorgsky's work and his attitude towards art1 it is necessary to realise the social conditions under which he lived4 ,he was a true child of the sixties1 of that period of moral and intellectual ferment which followed the accession of ,alexander ,,ii and the emancipation of the serfs4 ,of the little group of composers then striving to give musical expression to their newly awakened nationality1 none was so entirely carried away by the literary and political movements of the time as ,moussorgsky4 ,every man was asking himself and his comrades the question posed by the most popular novel of the day3 ',what shall we do8' ,the answer was3 ',throw aside social and artistic conventions4 ,make art the hand-maiden of humanity4 ,seek not for beauty but for truth4 ,go to the people4 ,hold out the hand of fellowship to the liberated masses and learn from them the true purpose of life4' ,to this democratic and utilitarian spirit1 to this deep compassion for the people1 to this contempt for the dandyism and dilettantism of an earlier generation ,moussorgsky strove to give expression in his music1 as ,perov expressed it in painting1 as ,tchernichevsky1 ,dostoyevsky1 and ,tolstoi expressed it in fiction4 ,we may disagree with his aesthetic principles1 but we must confess that he carried out with logical sequence and conviction a considerable portion of his programme4 ,in his sincere efforts to attain great ends he undoubtedly overlooked the means4 ,he could never submit to the discipline of a thorough musical training as ,tchaikowsky and ,rimsky-,korsakoff4 ,he preserved his originality intact1 but at a heavy cost4 ,the weakness of his technique has been exaggerated by those who put down all his peculiarities to ignorance2 but in some respects--particularly as regards orchestration--his craftsmanship was certainly unequal to the demands of his inspiration1 for his aims were very lofty4 ,had this been otherwise1 ,moussorgsky's name would have been more closely linked with those of ,berlioz and ,richard ,strauss4#cbb ,footnote #cbb3 ,quoted from the article in ,grove's ,dictionary4 ,his acknowledged masterpieces are first1 the songs1 especially the series the ,nursery and the ,songs and ,dances of ,death1 in which we see mirrored with extraordinary fidelity the complex nature of the ,russian people4 ,rosa ,newmarch has called him the ,juvenal of musicians4 ,second1 his national music drama1 ,boris ,godounoff--dealing with one of the most sensational episodes in ,russian history--which1 for the gripping vividness of its descriptions1 is quite unparalleled4 ,boris ,godounoff1 finished in #ahgj1 was performed four years later in the ,imperial ,opera ,house4 ,the libretto of this opera he took from the poetic drama of ,pushkin1 but he changed it1 eliminating much and adding new scenes here and there1 so that as a whole it is his own creation4 ,in this work ,moussorgsky went against the foreign classic opera in conception as well as in construction4 ,it is a typically ,russian music-drama1 with all the richness of ,slavic colors1 true ,byzantine atmosphere and characters of the medieval ages4 ,based on ,russian history of about the middle of the seventeenth century1 when an adventurous regent ascends the throne and when the court is full of intrigues1 its theme stands apart from all other operas4 ,the music is more or less1 like many of ,moussorgsky's songs1 written in imitation of the old folk-songs1 folk dances1 ceremonial chants1 and festival tunes4 ,foreign critics have considered the opera as a piece constructed of folk melodies4 ,but this is not the case4 ,there is not a single folk melody in ,boris ,godounoff1 every phrase is the original creation of ,moussorgsky4#cbc ,footnote #cbc3 ,quoted from the ,art of ,music1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,in concluding this account of ,russian music let the statement be repeated that only by a thorough knowledge of the life and character of this strange yet gifted people can their music be understood4 ,it is necessary therefore to become acquainted with ,russian literature and pictorial art--with the works of ,gogol1 ,tolstoi and ,dostoyevsky and the paintings of ,perov and ,veretschagin4 ,in this way only will be made clear what is otherwise inexplicable--the depth and sincerity of the ,russian soul4 ,the other two prominent national schools in modern times are the ,bohemian and ,scandinavian4 ,although from neither of these have we products at all comparable in breadth2 or depth of meaning with those of the ,russian school1 yet each has its note of exotic individuality and hence deserves recognition4 ,the ,bohemian ,school centres about the achievements of ,fibich1 ,smetana#cbd and ,dvovrk1 and its prevalent characteristics are the variety of dance rhythms 7,bohemia having no less than forty national dances7 together with the peculiarly novel harmonic and modulatory scheme4 ,the dances best known outside of ,bohemia are the ,polka#cbe and the ,furiant2 the former being used so frequently by ,smetana and ,dvovrk that it has attained an international status4 ,the first of the above group1 ,fibich 7#ahej-aijj71 was a composer of marked versatility--there being extant over seven hundred works in every form--and no little originality4 ,many of his pianoforte pieces have distinct charm and atmosphere and should be better known4 ,fibich was strongly influenced by ,schumann1 and there is found in his music the same note of fantastic freedom prominent in the ,german master4 ,but the first impression of ,bohemian music upon the world in general was made by ,smetana 7#ahbd-ahhd74 ,an ardent follower of ,liszt1 he definitely succeeded in the incorporation of ,bohemian traits with the current musical idiom just as ,liszt had done with ,hungarian folk-music4 ,smetana's style is thoroughly original1 his form is free yet coherent and he has a color sense and power of orchestral description peculiar to his race4 ,bohemia is one of the most picturesque countries in the world and the spirit of its woodlands1 streams and mountains is always plainly felt in ,bohemian music4 ,the ,bohemians are an out-of-door people with an inborn instinct for music 7with its basic factors of rhythm and sound7 by which they express the vigorous exuberance of their temperament4#cbf ,smetana's significant work lies in his numerous operas1 his symphonic poems and in the remarkable ,string ,quartet in ,e minor entitled ,aus meinem ,leben4 ,the operas deal with subjects so strongly national that they can have but little vogue outside their own country4 ,however1 ,prodana ,nevesta--,the ,bartered ,bride--has been universally recognized as one of the genuine comic operas in modern times and its spirited ,overture 7the first theme on a fugal basis7 is played the world over4 ,his six ,symphonic ,poems1 comprised under the title ,mein ,vaterland1 are works of considerable power and brilliant orchestral treatment4 ,perhaps the finest sections are ,vltava 7,moldau71 celebrating the beauties of ,bohemia's sacred river1 and ,vyvsehrad1 a realistic description of the national fortress at ,prague4#cbg ,the ,quartet in ,e minor1 noted for its freedom and intimacy of style1 has become a classic4 ,whenever it was performed ,smetana wished the sub-title ,aus ,meinem ,leben to be printed on the program2 for1 as he says in a letter to a friend1 ,my quartet is no mere juggling with tones2 instead ,i have wished to present the hearer with pictures of my life4 ,i have studied theory2 ,i know what style means and ,i am master of it4 ,but ,i prefer to have circumstances determine form and so have written this quartet in the form which it itself demanded4 ,in the first and last of the four movements there is a long sustained high ,e1 symbolic of the buzzing sound which the composer constantly heard as his congenital deafness increased4 ,this malady finally affected his mind and was the cause of his tragic death in an asylum at ,prague4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,his surname is to be accented on the first syllable--a fact which may be remembered from the story attributed to ,liszt who1 once asking ,smetana how his name was to be pronounced received this reply3 ,my name is always ,music3 ,overture to ,fidelio ,smtana1 ,smtana1 ,smtana but never ,music3 ,overture to ,leonora1 ,no4 #c ,friedrich ,smetna ,friedrich ,smetna4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,for example in the second movement of ,smetana's ,quartet and in ,dvovrk's ,suite for small orchestra1 op4 #ci4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,for a graphic description of the country and the customs of its people consult the essay on ,dvovrk in ,hadow's ,studies in ,modern ,music4 ,footnote #cbg3 ,a detailed account of these works may be found in the article on ,smetana in ,famous ,composers and their ,works 7#b;d series74 ,although in some respects not so characteristic as ,smetana1 ,dvovrk#cbh 7#ahda-aijd71 by reason of his greater breadth and more cosmopolitan style1 is considered the representative ,bohemian composer4 ,dvovrk's music in its simplicity and in its spontaneity of treatment is a reincarnation of ,schubert's spirit2 we feel the same overflowing musical life and we must make the same allowances for looseness of structure4 ,dvovrk1 however1 has made one contribution thoroughly his own--his skill in handling the orchestra4 ,he was a born colorist and his scores in their clarity1 in the subtle distinctions between richness and delicacy1 are recognized masterpieces4 ,as a sensuous delight to the ear they may be compared to the fine glow of certain ,dutch canvases--those for example of ,vermeer4 ,dvovrk's compositions are varied and fairly numerous 7some #aaa opus numbers7 comprising operas1 cantatas1 chamber music1 symphonies1 overtures1 pianoforte pieces and songs4 ,from #ahib to #ahie he was in this country as director of the ,national ,conservatory in ,new ,york4 ,three works composed during this period1 a ,quartet1 a ,quintet and ,the ,new ,world ,symphony1 are of special interest to us since they were meant as a compliment to the possibilities of ,american music and also reflect ,dvovrk's attitude toward the sources of musical inspiration4 ,a true child of the people1 and the embodiment of folk-music1 he naturally searched for native material when he wished to compose something characteristically ,american4 ,but folk-music in our country1 as has been stated in ,chapter ,,ii1 is 7or was at ,dvovrk's time7 practically limited to that of the ,indians and the ,negroes4 ,it is often stated1 in fact1 that the ,new ,world ,symphony is founded upon ,negro tunes4 ,this1 however1 is a sweeping assertion4 ,there is no doubt that ,dvovrk found a strong affinity between certain of the ,southern plantation melodies and the songs of his native land1 e4g41 the following melody 7the second theme of the first movement7 which is similar to ,swing low1 sweet chariot4 ,music ,footnote #cbh3 ,for his biography1 consult the ,hadow essay 7referred to above7 and the chapter on ,dvovrk in ,mason's ,from ,grieg to ,brahms4 ,but the individual tone of the melodies could come only from a ,bohemian and if they seem both ,negro and ,bohemian it simply proves the common bond existing in all folk-music4#cbi ,this ,new ,world ,symphony has had a great vogue and by reason of the warmth of its melodies and the rich1 colorful scoring is indisputably a work full of charm4#ccj ,two prevalent traits of ,dvovrk's music are noticeable in this symphony--the unexpectedness of the modulations and the unusual harmonic scheme4#cca ,the structure is at times rather loose1 particularly in the ,finale where the joints often crack wide open4 ,but1 as an offset1 there is great rhythmic vitality--observe in particular the swing of the ,trio from the ,scherzo--and that sensuous tone-color peculiar to the composer4 ,in fact1 the scoring of the slow movement with its magical theme for ,english horn would alone compensate for many structural blemishes4 ,this movement closes with a mysterious chord for divided double basses 7four solo instruments7 which is one of many touches in individual treatment4 ,the ,finale1 in accordance with modern practise1 although containing themes of its own1 finally becomes a rsum of preceding material4 ,the two main themes are striking and well contrasted2 but ,dvovrk was a mediocre architect and the movement1 in comparison with the ,finales of ,franck and ,tchaikowsky1 is more of a potpourri than a firmly knit organic whole4 ,the final page is stimulating in its bold use of dissonances4 ,but we must take ,dvovrk as he is4 ,there is no question of his genius1 for his music is spontaneous1 never labored1 and he has expressed with convincing artistic skill the emotions and ideals of his gifted race4 ,footnote #cbi3 ,the author has heard this symphony played in ,prague and other continental cities under ,bohemian conductors4 ,it is always welcomed as being thoroughly characteristic of ,bohemia4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,for detailed analytical comment consult ,vol4 ,,iii of ,short ,studies in ,great ,masterpieces by ,d4,g4 ,mason4 ,footnote #cca3 ,note for example the chords at the opening of the slow movement4 ,scandinavian music1 ethnologically considered1 would comprise that of the three related nations1 the ,swedes1 the ,danes and the ,norwegians2 some would include even the ,finns1 with their eloquent spokesman ,sibelius4 ,although the ,danes have considerable folk-music1 and as a people love music1 they have produced no composer of distinction save ,niels ,gade 7#ahag-ahij71 who was so encrusted with ,german habits of thought that his music is neither one thing or the other--certainly it is not characteristically ,danish4 ,the best known of the ,swedish composers is ,sjgren from whom we have some poetic songs4 ,he also attempted the larger instrumental forms but without notable success4 ,scandinavian music1 as far as the outside world is concerned1 practically centres about the ,norwegian composer ,grieg#ccb 7#ahdc-aijg7 just as its dramatic art centres about ,ibsen4 ,the names1 however1 of four other ,norwegian composers deserve mention3 the pioneers ,kjerulf 7#ahae-ahfh7 noted for his melodious songs2 ,svendsen 7#ahdj-aiaa7 endowed with a fine sense for orchestral color2 and ,nordraak 7#ahdb-ahff7 the first self-conscious representative of the ,norwegian spirit3 a talented musician who exerted a marked influence upon ,grieg--his promise cut short by an early death4 ,in modern times the mantle of ,grieg has fallen upon ,sinding 7#ahef-still living7 whose songs and poetic pieces for the pianoforte have become household favorites4 ,in ,norwegian music we find the exuberant rhythmic vitality typical of a people living in the bold and highly colored scenery of that sun-lit land4#ccc ,grieg1 a born lyric poet saturated with folk-music1 has embodied this spirit in his works4 ,his fame rests upon his songs and descriptive pianoforte pieces2 though in his ,pianoforte ,concerto1 in his ,peer ,gynt ,suite1 in the ,violin ,sonatas and ,string ,quartet he proved that he was not lacking in power to handle larger forms4 ,but most of his work is in miniature--the expression1 like the music of ,schubert and ,chopin1#ccd of moods short and intense4 ,while ,grieg's music is patterned upon ,norwegian folk-dances and folk-melodies it is something far more4 ,he has evoked from the characteristics of his native land a bold1 original harmony and a power of color and description thoroughly his own4 ,he might say with de ,musset ,mon verre n'est pas grand1 mais je bois dans mon verre4 ,in his music we feel the sparkling sunshine and the breezes of the ,north4 ,in fact1 ,grieg was the first popular impressionist and for his influence in humanizing music and freeing it from academic routine his fame will endure4 ,we have cited in the ,supplement 7,nos4 #fh1 #fi7 one of his most original songs--the melody of which was used also for the work ,im ,frhling for string orchestra--and a pianoforte piece which illustrates his rhythmic life and also in certain measures that melodic line typical of all ,norwegian music3 the descent from the leading tone1 i4e41 ,g1 ,f-sharp1 ,d4 ,footnote #ccb3 ,the best biography in ,english is that by ,h4,t4 ,finck2 the work1 however1 is somewhat marred by fulsome praise4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,during the summer solstice it is dark for only a few hours2 and further north1 in the land1 so-called1 of the ,midnight ,sun1 for a few weeks there is perpetual daylight4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,he was called by ,blow the ,chopin of the ,north4 ,for a complete appreciation therefore of national music1 we must always take into consideration the traits and environment of the people from which it sprung4 ,music1 to be sure1 is a universal language1 but each nation has used this language in its own way4 ,the most striking fact in present-day music is the variety gained from a free expression of nationalism#cce without infringing upon universality of appeal4 ,footnote #cce3 ,an admirable treatment of the whole subject may be found in ,vol4 ,,iii of ,the ,art of ,music4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,varied ,,tendencies ,,of ,,modern ,,music ,modern music--broadly speaking1 music since the beginning of the twentieth century--is certainly manifesting the characteristics which the preceding survey has shown to be inherent in its nature3 that is1 it has grown by a course of free experimentation1 it is the youngest of the arts1 and it is a human language as well as a fine art4 ,hence we find that modern composers are making daring experiments in dissonance1 in rhythmic variety1 in subtle blends of color and1 above all1 in the treatment of the orchestra4 ,in comparison with achievements in the other arts music often seems in its infancy2 being limited by no practical or utilitarian considerations1 and employing the boundless possibilities of sound and rhythm1 there is so much still before it4 ,the truth contained in the saying1 that music is the youngest as well as the oldest of the arts1 becomes more apparent year by year2 for although a work which originally had imaginative life can never die1 yet many former works have passed out of recognition simply because they have been superseded by more inspired ones1 composed since their day4 ,we can no longer listen with whole-hearted enthusiasm to many of the older symphonies1 songs and pianoforte pieces1 because ,brahms1 ,franck1 ,debussy and d',indy have given us better ones4 ,these experiments1 just referred to1 have been particularly notable on the part of two composers of the neo-,russian group1 ,stravinsky and ,scryabin4 ,stravinsky1#ccf in his brilliant pantomime ballets1 ,l',oiseau du ,feu1 ,petroushka1 and ,le ,sacre du ,printemps1 has proved incontestably that he is a genius--it being of the essence of genius to create something absolutely new4 ,these works1 in their expressive melody1 harmonic originality and picturesque orchestration1 have widened the bounds of musical characterization4 ,scryabin#ccg 7#ahga-aiae7 is noted for his esoteric harmonic scheme1 shown in a series of pianoforte preludes1 sonatas and1 above all1 in his orchestral works1 the ,divine ,poem1 the ,poem of ,ecstacy and ,prometheus or ,poem of ,fire4 ,the effect of ,scryabin's harmonies is one of great power1 and1 as previously said of ,debussy in his earlier days1 his imagination has undoubtedly heard sounds hitherto unrealized4 ,the sensational style of ,prometheus is augmented by the use of a color machine which flashes upon a screen hues supposed to supplement the various moods of the music4 ,how many of these experiments will be incorporated into the accepted idiom of music1 time alone will tell2 but they prove conclusively that modern music is thoroughly awake and is proving true to that spirit of freedom which is the breath of its being4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,for a detailed account of his life and works consult the essay in ,contemporary ,russian ,composers by ,montagu-,nathan and ,vol4 ,,iii of ,the ,art of ,music4 ,footnote #ccg3 ,for a comprehensive estimate of his style and achievements the following works will prove useful3 the ,biography1 by ,eaglefield ,hull2 the ,essay1 by ,montagu-,nathan in the volume referred to1 and an article by ,w4,h4 ,hadow in the ,musical ,quarterly for ,jan4 #aiae4 ,music is1 furthermore1 not only a fine art in which have worked and are working some of the best intellects of our race1 but is inevitably becoming a universal language4 ,we see this clearly in the rapid growth of music among peoples and nations which1 comparatively a short time ago1 were thought to be quite outside the pale of modern artistic development4 ,no longer is music confined exclusively to the ,italians1 ,french and ,germans4 ,a national spokesman for the ,finns is the gifted ,sibelius1 the composer of five symphonies1 several ,symphonic poems1 numerous songs and pianoforte pieces2 his second ,symphony in ,e minor being a work of haunting beauty1 and the ,fourth noted for its bold use of the dissonant element4 ,the ,roumanians have come to the fore in ,enesco1 who has written several characteristic works for orchestra4 ,the ,spaniards are endeavoring to restore their former glories--for we must not forget that1 in past centuries1 the ,spanish composers ,morales and ,vittoria ranked with the great painters which that nation has produced4 ,three ,spanish composers1 indeed1 are worthy of distinct recognition3 ,albeniz for his pianoforte pieces1 tangos1 malagueas1 etc41 in which there is such a fascinating treatment of national dance rhythms2 ,granados1#cch with several operas to his credit1 and ,laparra1 the composer of a fantastic suite recently played by the ,boston ,symphony ,orchestra4 ,spanish rhythms1 melodies and local color have been frequently incorporated in the works of other composers1 e4g41 by ,bizet in ,carmen1 by ,debussy in ,ibria1 and in the pianoforte piece ,soire dans ,granade1 by ,chabrier in ,espaa1 by ,lalo in several works1 and by the ,russians1 ,glinka and ,rimsky-,korsakoff1 in brilliant orchestral works4 ,the ,spanish influence1#cci in fact1 may be called one of the most potent in modern music4 ,footnote #cch3 ,who lost his life on the ,sussex when it was torpedoed by the ,germans4 ,footnote #cci3 ,for a comprehensive account1 historical and critical1 of this influence consult the volume by ,carl ,van ,vechten ,the ,music of ,spain4 ,although there is no doubt of the strong musical instinct inherent in the ,hungarians--witness the prevalence of ,hungarian rhythms in ,schubert1 ,liszt1 ,brahms and others--their country has always been so torn with political dissensions that the lack of a national artistic culture is not to be wondered at4 ,recently however three ,hungarian composers1 ,dohnnyi1 ,moor and ,bla ,bartok1 have produced works embodying racial tendencies and yet of such significant content and sound workmanship as to attract the attention of the world outside4 ,italy1 also1 is awakening from a long sleep1 and there is now a group of young men representing ,new ,italy 7of whom ,malipiero and ,casella are the best known7 which should accomplish results worthy of the glorious musical traditions of that country4 ,england is shaking off her subserviency#cdj to the influence of ,handel and ,mendelssohn1 and at last has made a promising start toward the achievement of works which shall rank with her glories in poetry1 in fiction and in painting4 ,among the older group we have such names as ,sullivan1 with his inimitable series of operas1 the ,mikado1 ,gondoliers1 ,iolanthe1 etc42 ,parry1 with some notable choral works1 and ,stanford--a most versatile man--,irish by birth1 and with the humor and spontaneity natural to his race2 his ,irish ,symphony and his opera ,shamus ,o',brien would give lustre to any period4 ,the only genius of the first rank however which ,england has produced since the days of ,purcell is ,edward ,elgar 7#aheg-still living74 ,practically self-educated and spending his early life in his native country he escaped the influences of ,german training which so deadened the efforts of former composers1 such as ,pierson and ,bennett4 ,elgar's music is thoroughly ,english in its sturdy vigor#cda and wholesome emotion4 ,with something first-hand to say he has acquired such a technique in musical expression that his compositions rank in workmanship with those of the great continental masters4 ,in his use of the modern orchestra ,elgar need be considered second to none4 ,his overtures ,in the ,south and ,cockaigne1 his two ,symphonies and his ,enigma ,variations are universally acknowledged to be models of richly-colored and varied scoring4 ,although his music is ,english it is never parochial but has that note of universal import always found in the work of a real genius4 ,among the younger men there are ,wallace1 both composer and writer on musical subjects 7his ,threshold of music being particularly stimulating71 ,holbrook1 ,vaughan ,williams1 ,roger ,quilter1 ,arthur ,hinton1 ,balfour ,gardiner and ,john ,ireland1 a composer of genuine individuality1 as is evident from his ,violin ,sonata in ,d ,minor4 ,footnote #cdj3 ,some pithy remarks on the habitual ,english attitude toward music may be found in the history of ,stanford and ,forsyth1 page #cac1 seq4 ,footnote #cda3 ,see for example the broad theme in the middle portion of the ,march1 ,pomp and ,circumstance4 ,even such outlying parts of the world as ,australia and ,south ,america have contributed executive artists of great ability though1 to our knowledge1 as yet no composer4 ,what1 now1 in this connection can be said of ,america8 ,this much at least3 when we consider that1 beyond the most rudimentary attempts1 music in our land is not yet a century old1 a start has been made which promises great things4 ,such pioneers as ,paine1 ,chadwick1 ,mac,dowell1 ,foote1 ,parker1 ,osgood1 ,whiting and ,mrs4 ,h4,h4,a4 ,beach have written works1 often in the larger forms1 showing genuine inspiration and fine workmanship1 many of which have won permanent recognition outside of their own country4 ,of late years a younger group has arisen1 the chief members#cdb of which are ,converse1 ,carpenter1 ,gilbert1 ,hadley1 ,hill1 ,mason1 ,atherton1 ,stanley ,smith1 ,brockway1 ,blair ,fairchild1 ,heilman1 ,shepherd1 ,clapp1 ,john ,powell1 ,margaret ,ruthven ,lang1 ,gena ,branscombe and ,mabel ,daniels4 ,these composers all have strong natural gifts1 have been broadly educated1 and1 above all1 in their music is reflected a freedom1 a humor and an individuality which may fairly be called ,american2 that is1 it is not music which slavishly follows the made-in-,germany model4#cdc ,the composer of greatest genius and scope in ,america is undoubtedly ,charles ,martin ,loeffler2 but1 although he has become a loyal ,american1 and although his best works have been composed in this country1 we can hardly claim him as an ,american composer1 for his music vividly reflects ,french taste and ideals4 ,his inspired works--in particular ,la ,mort de ,tintagiles1 ,the ,pagan ,poem and a ,symphony 7in one movement7--are of peculiar importance for their connection with works of literature and for consummate power in orchestration4 ,not even ,debussy has expressed more subtly the tragic spirit of ,maeterlinck than has ,loeffler in ,la ,mort de ,tintagiles2 and ,the ,pagan ,poem1 founded on an ,eclogue of ,virgil portrays most eloquently the romance of those pastoral days4 ,loeffler's latest work1 a ,string ,quartet#cdd dedicated to the memory of ,victor ,chapman1 the ,harvard aviator1 is remarkable for the heart-felt beauty of its themes and for advanced technique in treating the four solo instruments4 ,footnote #cdb3 ,this valuation of ,american composers is made solely on the basis of published compositions4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,for additional comments on this point see an article by the author in the ,musical ,quarterly for ,january1 #aiah4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,performed recently several times by the ,flonzaley ,quartet4 ,let us now indulge in a few closing remarks of advice to the young student faced with all this perplexing novelty4 ,our studies should have made plain two definite facts3 first1 that the real message of music is contained in its melody--that part of the fabric which we can carry with us and sing to ourselves4 ,harmony and color are factors closely involved with melodic inspiration1 but their impression is more fleeting2 and in general1 no work lacking in melody1 however colorful or filled with daring harmonic effects1 can long endure4 ,but we must be judicious and fair in estimating exactly what constitutes a real melody4 ,the genius is always ahead of his time2 if he thought just as other men1 he would be no genius4 ,new types of melody are continually being worked out2 all we can say is that the creative composer hears sounds in his imagination1 the result of his emotional and spiritual experiences and of his sympathy with the world4 ,he recreates these sounds in terms of notation1 hoping that1 as they mean so much to him1 they may be a delight and inspiration to his fellowmen4 ,if enough people like these works for a long enough time1 they are2 that is1 they live--no matter how much they differ from a priori standards as to what music should be4 ,the second fact concerns the structure of music2 that is1 the way in which the thought is presented4 ,we have seen that music always has a carefully planned architecture--that being necessary by reason of the indefiniteness of the material4 ,but let us always remember that without abandoning the fundamental principles of all organic life1 form may be--and should be--free and elastic4 ,every work which lives reveals a perfect balance between the emotional and imaginative factors and their logical presentation4 ,if we are puzzled by the structure of a new work the assumption should be1 not that it is formless but that1 when we know the work1 it will be seen to employ simply a new use of old and accepted principles2 for the works analyzed must have convinced us that the principles of unity1 contrast1 balance and symmetry are eternal2 and1 however modified1 can never be abandoned4 ,the normal imagination must express itself logically1 and can no more put forth incoherent works than the human body would give birth to misshapen offspring4 ,musical compositions1 which after study prove to be incoherent1 diffuse and flabby1 are to be considered exceptional and not worth condemning2 they are only to be pitied4 ,the chief aim of the music-lover should be to become an intelligent and enthusiastic appreciator of the great works already composed1 and to train himself liberally for the welcome of new works4 ,towards such an end we hope that this book may offer a helpful contribution4 ,index ,a ,academic ,overture of ,brahms1 #bcc4 ,aeolian mode1 #bd4 ,aeschylus1 compared with ,brahms1 #bci4 ,albeniz1 pianoforte pieces1 #cbg4 answer 7to a fugue71 #db4 ,apthorp1 ,w4,f41 comments on ,brahms1 #bch2 eulogy on ,brahms's ,first ,symphony1 #bdf2 comments on ,istar1 #bhc4 arabesque1 #hc4 ,aristophanes1 his humor compared with ,beethoven's1 #aej4 ,arnold1 ,matthew1 lines on ,byron apropos of ,berlioz1 #bjc2 stanza applicable to ,brahms1 #bcc2 definition of style1 #bcd4 ,atherton1 ,percy ,lee1 #cbi4 ,auber1 #bee4 augmentation1 definition of1 #dd4 ,b ,babbitt1 ,irving1 book on ,romanticism1 #afa2 ,the ,new ,laocon1 #bjg4 ,bach1 ,emmanuel1 use of two themes1 #ic2 contributions to the ,sonata-form1 #ajj4 ,bach1 ,j4,s41 ,well-tempered ,clavichord1 #bc2 choral 7,phrygian mode71 #be2 polyphonic style1 #cd2 ,goldberg ,variations1 #cg2 celebrated organ fugues1 #da2 analysis of ,fugue in ,e-flat major1 #db-dc4 ,bagatelles1 of ,beethoven1 #aff4 ,balakireff1 works and features of style1 #cae-caf4 ,baldensperger1 ,f41 eulogy of ,franck1 #beh4 ,ballet music to ,prometheus1 #adj4 ,balzac1 comment on ,chopin1 #ahi4 ,barcarolle1 of ,chopin1 color effect therein1 #aic2 analysis of1 #bjj-bja4 ,bartered ,bride ,overture1 #aba1 #cbb4 basso ostinato1 #hf4 ,baudelaire1 #bic4 ,beach1 ,mrs41 ,menuet ,italien1 #gh1 #cbi4 ,beethoven1 #b1 #e1 #h3 motive of ,fifth ,symphony1 #ab2 ,waldstein ,sonata1 #ae2 ,string ,quartet 7,lydian mode71 #bf2 fugal passages in symphonies1 #da2 sentences from sonatas1 #eh-fa2 ,egmont ,overture1 #gg2 ,rondo ,capriccio1 #hb2 sets of ,variations1 #hh2 biography1 #abb-abf2 love of ,nature1 #abe2 features of style1 #abf-abi2 development of the ,sonata-form1 #abf-abg2 treatment of the ,coda1 #abg2 variety of rhythm1 #abg-abh2 use of dissonances1 #abh2 humor1 #abh-abi2 development of ,program music1 #abi2 development of varied air1 #abi2 characterization of the ,symphonies1 #acj-acb2 estimate of the ,pianoforte ,sonatas1 #adj2 pianistic effect in ,sonatas1 #ade2 as a programmistic composer1 #aec-aed2 quality of themes1 #aef2 dramatic use of single notes1 #aef-aeg2 theme of ,ninth ,symphony compared with theme from ,brahms's ,first ,symphony1 #bdg4 ,bla ,bartok1 #cbh4 ,berlioz1 quotation from ,grotesques de la ,musique1 #ba2 canon in ,carnaval ,romain ,overture1 #cg2 comment on ,trio of ,fifth ,symphony1 #aej2 biography1 #bjb-bje2 names of his ,parisian friends1 #bjd2 features of style1 #bje-bjf2 ,fantastic ,symphony1 analysis of1 #bjg-baa2 ,carnaval ,romain ,overture1 analysis of1 #baa-bab2 ,damnation of ,faust1 instrumental numbers from1 #bac-bad2 ,harold in ,italy ,symphony1 analysis of1 #bad-bae2 ,romeo and ,juliet ,symphony1 comments on1 #bae-baf4 ,bie1 ,oscar1 #gd2 on the style of ,couperin and ,rameau1 #aeb4 ,bizet1 ,l',arlsienne ,suites1 #hj4 ,bohemian ,school1 #cbj-cba4 ,boieldieu1 comment on ,beethoven1 #acd1 #bee4 bolero1 #ge4 ,boris ,godounoff1 description of1 #cbj4 ,borodin1 works and features of style1 #caf-cag4 ,boschot1 work1 in three parts1 on ,berlioz1 #bjg4 bourre1 #ge4 ,brahms1 ,first ,symphony1 #h1 #ad1 #ba1 #dd2 modal expression in works1 #bc2 ,fourth ,symphony 7,phrygian mode71 #be2 canonic style1 #cf2 ,c minor ,trio1 #fg2 sets of variations1 #hh2 biography1 #bca-bcc2 features of style1 #bcc-bch2 analysis of ,first ,symphony1 #bci-bdi2 of ,violin ,sonata1 #bej-beb2 of ,g minor ,ballade for ,pianoforte1 #beb-bec2 attitude toward program music1 #bec2 the nature of his ,intermezzi1 #bec2 of the ,capriccios1 #bec2 his ,rhapsodies1 #bed2 analysis of song ,meine ,liebe ist grn1 #bed2 other songs1 #bee4 branle 7brawl71 #ge4 ,branscombe1 ,gena1 #cbi4 ,brenet1 ,m41 ,life of ,haydn1 #ajd4 ,brockway1 ,h41 on ,american folk-songs1 #cc1 #cbi4 ,browning1 #a2 quotation apropos of the fugue1 #di2 quotations apropos of the ,fifth ,symphony1 #adf1 #aej4 ,bruckner1 movement from ,seventh ,symphony1 #bca4 ,bruneau1 ,history of ,russian ,music1 #cad4 ,bull1 ,john1 #gi1 #he4 ,blow1 ,sonatas of ,e4 ,bach1 #ajj2 comment on ,grieg1 #cbe4 ,burney1 on the #ahth ,century1 #ajc4 ,buxtehude1 #cd4 ,byrd1 ,william1 #ab1 #gi1 #he4 ,byron1 influence on ,schumann's style1 #agg4 ,c ,c minor ,symphony 7,beethoven71 analysis of1 #ade-aea4 ,c minor ,symphony 7,brahms71 analysis of1 #bci-bdi4 cadences1 #ee-eg4 ,calvacoressi1 on dominant relationship1 #eb4 canon1 #aa2 account of1 #cf-cg4 canzona1 #fi4 ,carnaval ,romain ,overture1 analysis of1 #baa-bab4 ,carpenter1 ,john ,alden1 ,adventures in a ,perambulator1 #hj1 #cbi4 ,casella1 #cbh4 ,casse-,noisette ,suite1 #hj4 ,cellini1 ,benvenuto1 compared with ,berlioz1 #bjb2 opera by ,berlioz1 #baa4 ,chabrier1 ,bourre ,fantasque1 #hj1 #big2 ,espaa1 #hj1 #big2 ,overture to ,gwendoline1 #ii1 #big2 account of style1 #big4 chaconne1 #hf2 ,bach's for violin solo1 #hg4 ,chadwick1 ,canonic ,studies1 #cf2 fugal passage in ,vagrom ,ballad1 #da1 #cbi4 ,chamisso1 texts for ,schumann's songs1 #agj4 ,chantavoine1 ,life of ,beethoven1 #aei4 ,charpentier1 ,impressions of ,italy1 #hj4 ,chausson1 ,ernest1 account of style1 #bih4 ,chavannes1 ,puvis de1 compared with ,franck1 #beh4 ,chopin1 type of melody1 #aj1 #ba2 ,sonata in ,c minor1 #fg2 biography and features of style1 #ahh-ahi2 analysis of ,prelude in ,c major1 #aih2 tude in ,a-flat major1 #aii2 ,mazurka in ,f-sharp minor1 #aii2 analysis of ,polonaise in ,e-flat minor1 #bjj2 of ,barcarolle1 #bjj-bja2 of ,scherzo in ,c-sharp minor1 #bja4 chromatic changes1 #ea4 ,clapp1 ,p4,g41 #dh1 #cbi4 coda1 definition and examples of1 #ii4 color1 in different keys1 #ea4 ,combarieu1 ,jules1 #b4 ,converse1 ,f4,s41 ,dramatic ,poem1 ,job 7,phrygian mode71 #bf2 ,string ,quartet1 #ii1 #cbi4 ,corelli1 #gj1 #gd4 ,coriolanus ,overture1 analysis of1 #aeb-aef4 counterpoint1 definition of1 #aa4 counter-subject 7of a fugue71 #db4 ,couperin1 #gj1 #gd1 #ha1 #he2 descriptive pieces1 #aeb1 #bee4 courante 7corrente71 #ge4 ,croatian ,folk-songs 7in ,haydn71 #aja-ajb4 csrds1 #gf4 ,d ,d major ,sonata of ,beethoven1 analysis of1 #adj-ade4 ,d ,minor ,symphony of ,schumann1 #agi-ahd4 d',albert1 ,suite for ,pianoforte1 #gh4 ,damnation of ,faust1 instrumental numbers from1 #bac-bad4 ,daniels1 ,mabel1 #cbi4 ,dannreuther1 eulogy on ,beethoven1 #aei2 comment on ,berlioz's counterpoint1 #bji4 ,dargomijsky1 use of whole-tone scale1 #bhi4 ,debussy1 modal expression in works1 #bc1 #bhh-bhi2 ,pellas et ,mlisande 7,dorian mode71 #bd2 comments upon1 #bid2 ,minstrels 7cadence in71 #ee-ef2 ,sarabande for pianoforte1 #gg2 comment on development1 #ig2 compared with ,mendelssohn1 #ahe2 apropos of new music1 #bjd2 features of style1 #bhg-big2 whole-tone scale1 #bhi-bij2 titles of pianoforte pieces1 #bib-bic2 on his pianoforte style1 #bie-bif4 de ,musset1 quotation apropos of ,grieg1 #cbe4 deceptive cadence1 #ef4 ,dent1 ,e4,j41 ,mozart's ,operas1 #aab4 ,de ,pachman1 playing of ,mendelssohn's pieces1 #ahe4 ,de ,quincey1 quotation from the ,dream ,fugue1 #di4 ,deutsches ,requiem1 #bcc4 development section of ,sonata-form1 #ic-id1 #ig-ih4 ,dickinson1 ,edward1 estimate of ,haydn1 #aja4 diminution1 definition of1 #dd4 d',indy1 modal expression in works1 #bc2 canonic style1 #cf2 ,symphonic ,variations1 ,istar1 #fg2 comments on the ,sonata-form1 #ie1 #ajj2 comment on ,beethoven's ,seventh ,symphony1 #aca2 comment on ,sonata ,pathtique1 #adb2 comments on ,d major ,sonata1 #ade2 comments on ,fifth ,symphony1 #ade2 ,life of ,beethoven1 #aei2 comments on ,franck's themes1 #bfh2 biography and features of style1 #bhj-bhb2 ,istar1 analysis of1 #bhc-bhg4 dissonance1 discord1 distinction between terms1 #adc4 ,dohnnyi1 #cbh4 ,dominant1 acoustical and harmonic importance of1 #bb-bc1 #eb4 ,don ,giovanni1 #aaa1 #aai4 ,don ,juan1 #he4 ,don ,quixote1 #hi4 ,dorian mode1 #bd4 ,dostoyevsky1 #cad1 #cai1 #cbj4 ,doumic1 ,ren1 essay on ,george ,sand1 #ahi4 ,dowland1 ,john1 his ,pavans1 #hj4 ,duparc1 ,henri1 account of his style1 #bih4 ,dvovrk1 ,new ,world ,symphony1 #i1 #ba2 modal expression in works1 #bc2 ,new ,world ,symphony 7,aeolian mode71 #bf2 ,suite for ,orchestra1 #gi2 works and features of style1 #cbb-cbd4 ,e ,eichendorff1 texts for ,schumann's songs1 #agf4 ,eighth ,symphony of ,beethoven1 ,finale1 #aeg4 ,elgar1 ,edward1 works and features of style1 #cbh-cbi4 ,ellis1 ,w4,a41 translation of ,wagner's ,essays1 #aed4 ,enesco1 #cbg4 enharmonic1 modulation1 #eb-ec4 episode1 definition of1 #ci-dj4 exposition of ,sonata-form1 #if4 extended cadences1 #fb-fc4 ,f ,f major ,sonata of ,mozart1 analysis of1 #aac-aae4 ,fairchild1 ,blair1 #cbi4 ,fantastic ,symphony1 analysis of1 #bjg-baa2 quotation from1 #bjg-bji4 ,farwell1 ,arthur1 on folk-music1 #cc4 ,faur1 ,gabriel1 account of style1 #big-bih4 ,faust ,symphony1 analysis of1 #bbc-bbf4 ,fay1 ,amy1 account of ,liszt1 #bag4 feminine ending1 #eg4 ,fibich1 #cba4 ,finck1 ,h4,t41 ,songs and ,song ,writers1 #bfe2 ,chopin and ,other ,essays1 #aih2 comments on ,program ,music1 #bbf2 biography of ,grieg1 #cbd4 ,fitzwilliam ,virginal ,book1 #gi1 #aeb4 five-bar rhythm1 #fc-fd4 ,flonzaley ,quartet1 #aje4 folk-songs1 principle of restatement in1 #af2 origin and importance of1 #ai-cc4 ,foote1 ,arthur1 fugal ,finale to ,suite1 #da1 #cbi4 ,forsyth1 ,cecil1 eulogy of ,mendelssohn1 #ahe4 ,francesca da ,rimini1 #aed4 ,franck1 ,symphony1 #h1 #ae2 polyphonic structure1 #ac2 canonic style1 #cf2 canon in ,symphony1 #cg2 in ,violin ,sonata1 #cg2 ,fugue in ,b minor for ,pianoforte1 #da2 comparison of his scoring with that of ,schumann1 #aha2 limitations of his pianoforte style1 #aij2 his fusion of movements compared with that of ,brahms1 #bea2 biography1 #bef-beg2 features of style1 #beg-beh2 analysis of ,d minor ,symphony1 #bei-bfh2 of ,sonata for ,violin1 #bfh-bgd2 use of generative themes1 #bfh2 ,symphonic ,variations1 #bgd-bhj2 comparison of his style with that of ,bach and ,beethoven1 #bgd2 his group of pupils1 #bhj4 ,french folk-song1 #bi4 ,french ,overture1 #aai4 ,frescobaldi1 #cd4 ,friedlnder1 ,max1 apropos of ,chabrier1 #bha4 fugue1 #aa2 definition of1 #ci4 ,fuller-,maitland1 life of ,brahms1 #bch4 furiant1 #ge1 #cba4 ,g ,g major ,pianoforte ,concerto of ,beethoven1 #aeb-aeh4 ,g minor ,symphony1 analysis of1 #aae-aai4 ,gade1 ,neils1 #cbd4 galliard1 #ge1 #hj4 ,galuppi1 as a pioneer in ,sonata-form1 #ic4 ,gardiner1 ,balfour1 #cbi4 ,gautier1 ,thophile1 eulogy of ,berlioz1 #bjg4 gavotte1 #ge2 account of1 and examples1 #gh-gi4 ,gilbert1 ,h4,f41 on folk-songs1 #bj1 #cc1 #cbi4 ,gilman1 ,lawrence1 essay on ,berlioz1 #bad2 comments on ,istar1 #bhc2 essay on ,debussy1 #bic2 comments on ,pellas el ,mlisande1 #big4 ,glinka1 #cja1 #cae4 ,gluck1 ,ballet music1 #hg2 ,operatic ,overtures1 #aai4 ,goethe1 eulogy on ,mozart1 #aab4 ,gogol1 #cad1 #cbj4 ,gosse1 ,edmund1 comment on ,mallarm's eclogue1 #bic4 ,gossec1 as a pioneer in ,sonata-form1 #ic4 ,granados1 ,spanish folk-dance1 #afg2 works1 #cbg4 ,gregorian ,chant1 #aj4 ,gregorian modes in folk-songs1 #bj4 ,grtry1 comments on ,sonata-form1 #ih1 #bee4 ,grieg1 #ba2 ,canon for ,pianoforte1 #cg2 ,peer ,gynt ,suite1 #hj2 ,holberg ,suite1 #hj2 works and features of style1 #cbd-cbe4 ground bass1 #hf2 from ,bach's ,mass1 #hf4 ,grove1 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,till's ,merry ,pranks4 ,,vii4 ,march in ,dorian ,mode4 ,guilmant4 ,,viii4 ,movement in ,lydian ,mode4 ,beethoven4 ,,ix4 ,canon4 ,thomas ,tallys4 ,x4 ,canon from tudes ,symphoniques4 ,schumann4 ,,xi4 ,no4 ,,vi of the ,goldberg ,variations4 ,j4,s4 ,bach4 ,,xii4 ,canon for ,pianoforte4 ,grieg4 ,,xiii4 ,canon for ,pianoforte4 ,jadassohn4 ,,xiv4 ,two-voiced ,invention in ,c major4 ,j4,s4 ,bach4 ,,xv4 ,three-voiced ,fugue in ,e-flat major4 ,j4,s4 ,bach4 ,,xvi4 ,final portion of ,organ ,fugue in ,g major4 ,j4,s4 ,bach4 ,,xvii4 ,cat ,fugue for ,pianoforte4 ,d4 ,scarlatti4 ,,xviii4 ,fuga ,giocosa for ,pianoforte4 ,j4,k4 ,paine4 ,,xix4 ,song1 ,the ,evening ,star4 ,schumann4 ,,xx4 ,gavotte in ,f major4 ,corelli4 ,,xxi4 ,waltz in ,a-flat major4 ,schubert4 ,,xxii4 ,trumerei4 ,schumann4 ,,xxiii4 ,prelude in ,a major4 ,chopin4 ,,xxiv4 ,lyric ,piece in ,e-flat major4 ,grieg4 ,,xxv4 ,nocturne in ,f major4 ,chopin4 ,,xxvi4 ,berceuse in ,g major4 ,grieg4 ,,xxvii4 ,intermezzo in ,e-flat minor4 ,heilman4 ,,xxviii4 ,sarabande in ,d major4 ,j4,s4 ,bach4 ,,xxix4 ,gavotte from ,third ,english ,suite4 ,j4,s4 ,bach4 ,,xxx4 ,minuet from ,don ,giovanni4 ,mozart4 ,,xxxi4 ,two ,minuets from ,castor and ,pollux4 ,rameau4 ,,xxxii4 ,gigue in ,g major4 ,j4,s4 ,bach4 ,,xxxiii4 ,gigue in ,g major4 ,mozart4 ,,xxxiv4 ,courante in ,f minor4 ,d4 ,scarlatti4 ,,xxxv4 ,french ,suite in ,e major4 ,j4,s4 ,bach4 ,,xxxvi4 ,soeur ,monique4 ,rondo by ,couperin4 ,,xxxvii4 ,romance in ,e major4 ,rondo by ,schumann4 ,,xxxviii4 ,rondo ,capriccio in ,g major4 ,beethoven4 ,,xxxix4 ,aria from ,dido and ,aeneas 7,ground bass74 ,purcell4 ,,xl4 ,sonata in ,c major4 ,d4 ,scarlatti4 ,,xli4 ,finale from ,sonata in ,e-flat major4 ,haydn4 ,,xlii4 ,first ,movement from the ,surprise ,symphony4 ,haydn4 ,,xliii4 ,adagio in ,b minor4 ,mozart4 ,,xliv4 ,first ,movement from the ,heroic ,symphony4 ,beethoven4 ,,xlv4 ,sonata in ,d ,major4 ,beethoven4 ,,xlvi4 ,finale from ,sonata in ,a-flat major4 ,beethoven4 ,,xlvii4 ,portion of ,slow ,movement of ,seventh ,symphony4 ,beethoven4 ,,xlviii4 ,slow ,movement of ,trio in ,b-flat major4 ,beethoven4 ,,xlix4 ,theme of ,slow ,movement from ,sonata in ,e major1 ,op4 #aji4 ,beethoven4 ,l4 ,the ,young ,nun4 ,song by ,schubert4 ,,li4 ,intermezzo from the ,euryanthe ,overture4 ,weber4 ,,lii4 ,portion of ,fantasy ,piece1 ,grillen4 ,schumann4 ,,liii4 ,novellette in ,e major4 ,schumann4 ,,liv4 ,moonlight4 ,song by ,schumann4 ,,lv4 ,venetian ,boat ,song4 ,mendelssohn4 ,,lvi4 ,barcarolle4 ,chopin4 ,,lvii4 ,the ,carnaval ,romain ,overture4 ,berlioz4 ,,lviii4 ,march of the ,pilgrims from the ,harold in ,italy ,symphony4 ,berlioz4 ,,lix4 ,forest ,murmurs4 tude by ,liszt4 ,,lx4 ,ballade in ,g minor4 ,brahms4 ,,lxi4 ,my ,love is ,green as the ,alder ,bush4 ,song by ,brahms4 ,,lxii4 ,finale of ,symphonic ,poem1 ,istar4 ,d',indy4 ,,lxiii4 ,chanson triste for ,pianoforte4 ,tchaikowsky4 ,,lxiv4 ,invocation to ,sleep4 ,song by ,tchaikowsky4 ,,lxv4 ,serenade4 ,borodin4 ,,lxvi4 ,cradle ,song of the ,poor4 ,moussorgsky4 ,,lxvii4 ,silhouette4 ,dvovrk4 ,,lxviii4 ,spring ,song4 ,grieg4 ,,lxix4 ,dance of ,spring4 ,grieg4 ,,critical and ,,historical ,,essays ,by ,edward ,mac,dowell 7,lectures ,delivered at ,columbia ,university7 ,especially valuable to that circle of readers who desire to secure the essential elements of a liberal culture in music4 ,with this aim1 ,mr4 ,mac,dowell outlines somewhat the technical side of music1 and with it1 gives a general idea of the history and aesthetics of the art4 ,price #a4ej 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tonal ,,counterpoint ,studies in ,part-,writing ,by ,,walter ,r4 ,,spalding ,professor of ,music in ,harvard ,university ,price #b4jj 99 99 99 99 99 ,,modern ,,harmony2 ,,its ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,arthur ,foote1 ,a4,m4 and ,walter ,r4 ,spalding1 ,a4,m4 ,price #a4ej 99 99 99 99 99 ,,just ,,issued ,,modulation and ,,related ,,harmonic ,,questions ,by ,,arthur ,,foote ,price #a4be ,scales and ,key ,relationship ,modulation in ,general ,change of ,keys or ,chords without ,modulation ,change of ,keys by moving to a ,new ,tonic ,modulation by means of ,various ,chords ,diatonic1 ,chromatic1 and ,enharmonic ,modulation ,harmonic ,changes resulting from the ,symmetrical ,movement of ,individual ,voices ,harmonic ,changes resulting from the ,elision of ,chords ,a ,table of ,modulations 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,arthur ,p4 ,,schmidt ,,co4 ,,boston #abj ,boylston ,street ,,new ,,york #h ,west #djth ,street