,a ,,treatise ,,on ,,anatomy1 ,,physiology1 ,,and ,,hygiene ,,designed ,,for ,,colleges1 ,,academies1 ,,and ,,families4 ,,by ,,calvin ,,cutter1 ,m4,d4 ----- ,,with ,,one ,,hundred ,,and ,,fifty ,,engravings4 ----- ,,revised ,,stereotype ,,edition4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,clark1 ,,austin ,,and ,,smith4 ,,cincinnati3--,w4 ,b4 ,,smith ,,co4 ,,st4 ,,louis1 ,,mo43--,,keith ,,woods4 #aheh4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #aheb1 by ,,calvin ,,cutter1 ,m4 ,d41 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,district of ,massachusetts4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,alvord1 ,printer1 ,no4 #ae ,vandewater ,street1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,preface4 ,agesilaus1 king of ,sparta1 when asked what things boys should learn1 replied1 ,those which they will practise when they become men4 ,as health requires the observance of the laws inherent to the different organs of the human system1 so not only boys1 but girls1 should acquire a knowledge of the laws of their organization4 ,if sound morality depends upon the inculcation of correct principles in youth1 equally so does a sound physical system depend on a correct physical education during the same period of life4 ,if the teacher and parents who are deficient in moral feelings and sentiments1 are unfit to communicate to children and youth those high moral principles demanded by the nature of man1 so are they equally incompetent directors of the physical training of the youthful system1 if ignorant of the organic laws and the physiological conditions upon which health and disease depend4 ,for these reasons1 the study of the structure of the human system1 and the laws of the different organs1 are subjects of interest to all1--the young and the old1 the learned and the unlearned1 the rich and the poor4 ,every scholar1 and particularly every young miss1 after acquiring a knowledge of the primary branches1--as spelling1 reading1 writing1 and arithmetic1--should learn the structure of the human system1 and the conditions upon which health and disease depend1 as this knowledge will be required in practice in after life4 ,it is somewhat unaccountable1 says ,dr4 ,dick1 and not a little inconsistent1 that while we direct the young to look abroad over the surface of the earth1 and survey its mountains1 rivers1 seas1 and continents1 and guide their views to the regions of the firmament1 where they may contemplate the moons of ,jupiter1 the rings of ,saturn1 and thousands of luminaries placed at immeasurable distances1 444 that we should never teach them to look into themselves2 to consider their own corporeal structures1 the numerous parts of which they are composed1 the admirable functions they perform1 the wisdom and goodness displayed in their mechanism1 and the lessons of practical instruction which may be derived from such contemplations4 ,again he says1 ,one great practical end which should always be kept in view in the study of physiology1 is the invigoration and improvement of the corporeal powers and functions1 the preservation of health1 and the prevention of disease4 ,the design of the following pages is1 to diffuse in the community1 especially among the youth1 a knowledge of ,human ,anatomy1 ,physiology1 and ,hygiene4 ,to make the work clear and practical1 the following method has been adopted3-- #ast4 ,the structure of the different organs of the system has been described in a clear and concise manner4 ,to render this description more intelligible1 one hundred and fifty engravings have been introduced1 to show the situation of the various organs4 ,hence the work may be regarded as an elementary treatise on anatomy4 #b;d4 ,the functions1 or uses of the several parts have been briefly and plainly detailed2 making a primary treatise on human physiology4 #c;d4 ,to make a knowledge of the structure and functions of the different organs practical1 the laws of the several parts1 and the conditions on which health depends1 have been clearly and succinctly explained4 ,hence it may be called a treatise on the principles of hygiene1 or health4 ,to render this department more complete1 there has been added the appropriate treatment for burns1 wounds1 hemorrhage from divided arteries1 the management of persons asphyxiated from drowning1 carbonic acid1 or strangling1 directions for nurses1 watchers1 and the removal of disease1 together with an ,appendix1 containing antidotes for poisons1 so that persons may know what should be done1 and what should not be done1 until a surgeon or physician can be called4 ,in attempting to effect this in a brief elementary treatise designed for schools and families1 it has not been deemed necessary to use vulgar phrases for the purpose of being understood4 ,the appropriate scientific term should be applied to each organ4 ,no more effort is required to learn the meaning of a proper1 than an improper term4 ,for example3 a child will pronounce the word as readily1 and obtain as correct an idea1 if you say lungs1 as if you used the word lights4 ,a little effort on the part of teachers and parents1 would diminish the number of vulgar terms and phrases1 and1 consequently1 improve the language of our country4 ,to obviate all objections to the use of proper scientific terms1 a ,glossary has been appended to the work4 ,the author makes no pretensions to new discoveries in physiological science4 ,in preparing the anatomical department1 the able treatises of ,wilson1 ,cruveilhier1 and others have been freely consulted4 ,in the physiological part1 the splendid works of ,carpenter1 ,dunglison1 ,liebig1 and others have been perused4 ,in the department of hygiene many valuable hints have been obtained from the meritorious works of ,combe1 ,rivers1 and others4 ,we are under obligations to ,r4 ,d4 ,mussey1 ,m4 ,d41 formerly ,professor of ,anatomy and ,surgery1 ,dartmouth ,college1 ,n4 ,h41 now ,professor of ,surgery in the ,ohio ,medical ,college2 to ,j4 ,e4 ,m',girr1 ,a4 ,m41 ,m4 ,d41 ,professor of ,anatomy1 ,physiology1 and ,chemistry1 ,st4 ,mary's ,university1 ,ill42 to ,e4 ,hitchcock1 ,jr41 ,a4 ,m41 ,m4 ,d41 ,teacher of ,chemistry and ,natural ,history1 ,williston ,seminary1 ,mass42 to ,rev4 ,e4 ,hitchcock1 ,d4 ,d41 ,president of ,amherst ,college1 ,mass41 who examined the revised edition of this work1 and whose valuable suggestions rendered important aid in preparing the manuscript for the present stereotype edition4 ,we return our acknowledgments for the aid afforded by the ,principals of the several ,academies and ,normal ,schools who formed classes in their institutions1 and examined the revised edition as their pupils progressed1 thus giving the work the best possible test trial1 namely1 the recitation-room4 ,to the examination of an intelligent public1 the work is respectfully submitted by ,,calvin ,,cutter4 ,,warren1 ,,mass41 ,sept4 #a1 #aheb4 ,,to ,,teachers ,,and ,,parents4 ,as the work is divided into chapters1 the subjects of which are complete in themselves1 the pupil may commence the study of the structure1 use1 and laws of the several parts of which the human system is composed1 by selecting such chapters as fancy or utility may dictate1 without reference to their present arrangement1--as well commence with the chapter on the digestive organs as on the bones4 ,the acquisition of a correct pronunciation of the technical words is of great importance1 both in recitation and in conversation4 ,in this work1 the technical words interspersed with the text1 have been divided into syllables1 and the accented syllables designated4 ,an ample ,glossary of technical terms has also been appended to the work1 to which reference should be made4 ,it is recommended that the subject be examined in the form of topics4 ,the questions in ,italics are designed for this method of recitation4 ,the teacher may call on a pupil of the class to describe the anatomy of an organ from an anatomical outline plate2 afterwards call upon another to give the physiology of the part1 while a third may state the hygiene1 after which1 the questions at the bottom of the page may be asked promiscuously1 and thus the detailed knowledge of the subject possessed by the pupils will be tested4 ,at the close of the chapters upon the ,hygiene of the several portions of the system1 it is advised that the instructor give a lecture reviewing the anatomy1 physiology1 and hygiene1 of the topic last considered4 ,this may be followed by a general examination of the class upon the same subject4 ,by this course a clear and definite knowledge of the mutual relation of the ,anatomy1 ,physiology1 and ,hygiene1 of different parts of the human body1 will be presented4 ,we also suggest the utility of the pupils' giving analogous illustrations1 examples1 and observations1 where these are interspersed in the different chapters1 not only to induce inventive thought1 but to discipline the mind4 ,to parents and others we beg leave to say1 that about two thirds of the present work is devoted to a concise and practical description of the uses of the important organs of the human body1 and to show how such information may be usefully applied1 both in the preservation of health1 and the improvement of physical education4 ,to this have been added directions for the treatment of those accidents which are daily occurring in the community1 making it a treatise proper and profitable for the ,,family ,,library1 as well as the school-room4 ,,contents4 ,chapter4 ,page4 #a4 ,general ,remarks1 #ac #b4 ,structure of ,man1 #ag #c4 ,chemistry of the ,human ,body1 #be #d4 ,anatomy of the ,bones1 #bi #e4 ,anatomy of the ,bones1 continued1 #ci #f4 ,physiology of the ,bones1 #dh #g4 ,hygiene of the ,bones1 #ec #h4 ,anatomy of the ,muscles1 #fd #i4 ,physiology of the muscles1 #gf #aj4 ,hygiene of the ,muscles1 #he #aa4 ,hygiene of the ,muscles1 continued1 #if #ab4 ,anatomy of the ,teeth1 #aje #ab4 ,physiology of the ,teeth1 #aji #ab4 ,hygiene of the ,teeth1 #aaj #ac4 ,anatomy of the ,digestive ,organs1 #aac #ad4 ,physiology of the ,digestive ,organs1 #abd #ae4 ,hygiene of the ,digestive ,organs1 #abi #af4 ,hygiene of the ,digestive ,organs1 continued1 #adb #ag4 ,anatomy of the ,circulatory ,organs1 #aed #ah4 ,physiology of the ,circulatory ,organs1 #afd #ai4 ,hygiene of the ,circulatory ,organs1 #agb #bj4 ,anatomy of the ,lymphatic ,vessels1 #aha #bj4 ,physiology of the ,lymphatic ,vessels1 #ahc #bj4 ,hygiene of the ,lymphatic ,vessels1 #ahh #ba4 ,anatomy of the ,secretory ,organs4 #aib #ba4 ,physiology of the ,secretory ,organs1 #aic #ba4 ,hygiene of the ,secretory ,organs1 #aig #bb4 ,nutrition1 #bjj #bb4 ,hygiene of ,nutrition1 #bje #bc4 ,anatomy of the ,respiratory ,organs1 #bji #bd4 ,physiology of the ,respiratory ,organs1 #bag #be4 ,hygiene of the ,respiratory ,organs1 #bbh #bf4 ,hygiene of the ,respiratory ,organs1 continued1 #bci #bg4 ,animal ,heat1 #beb #bh4 ,hygiene of ,animal ,heat1 #bfa #bi4 ,anatomy of the ,vocal ,organs1 #bfh #bi4 ,physiology of the ,vocal ,organs1 #bgb #cj4 ,hygiene of the ,vocal ,organs1 #bgd #ca4 ,anatomy of the ,skin1 #bhb #cb4 ,physiology of the ,skin1 #bic #cc4 ,hygiene of the ,skin1 #cja #cd4 ,hygiene of the ,skin1 continued1 #caa #ce4 ,appendages of the ,skin1 #cbb #cf4 ,anatomy of the ,nervous ,system1 #cbg #cg4 ,anatomy of the ,nervous ,system1 continued1 #cdj #ch4 ,physiology of the ,nervous ,system1 #cdf #ci4 ,hygiene of the ,nervous ,system1 #ceh #dj4 ,hygiene of the ,nervous ,system1 continued1 #cfh #da4 ,the ,sense of ,touch1 #cgh #db4 ,anatomy of the ,organs of ,taste1 #chd #db4 ,physiology of the ,organs of ,taste1 #chf #dc4 ,anatomy of the ,organs of ,smell1 #chi #dc4 ,physiology of the ,organs of ,smell1 #cia #dd4 ,anatomy of the ,organs of ,vision1 #cid #de4 ,physiology of the ,organs of ,vision1 #djd #de4 ,hygiene of the ,organs of ,vision1 #daj #df4 ,anatomy of the ,organs of ,hearing1 #dad #dg4 ,physiology of the ,organs of ,hearing1 #dbj #dg4 ,hygiene of the ,organs of ,hearing1 #dbb #dh4 ,means of preserving the ,health1 #dbe #di4 ,directions for ,nurses1 #dcb - - - - - ,,appendix1 #dci ,,glossary1 #dea ,,index1 #dfc ,,anatomy1 c4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,general ,,remarks4 #a4 ,,anatomy is the science which treats of the structure and relations of the different parts of animals and plants4 #b4 ,it is divided into ,vegetable and ,animal anatomy4 ,the latter of these divisions is subdivided into ,human anatomy1 which considers1 exclusively1 human beings2 and ,comparative anatomy1 which treats of the mechanism of the lower orders of animals4 #c4 ,,physiology treats of the functions1 or uses of the organs of animals and plants4 ,another definition is1 the science of life4 #d4 ,this is also divided into ,vegetable and ,animal physiology1 as it treats of the vegetable or animal kingdom2 and into ,human and ,comparative physiology1 as it describes the vital functions of man or the inferior animals4 #e4 ,,hygiene is the art or science of maintaining health1 or a knowledge of those laws by which health may be preserved4 #f4 ,the kingdom of nature is divided into organic and inorganic bodies4 ,organic bodies possess organs1 on whose action depend their growth and perfection4 ,this division includes animals and plants4 ,inorganic bodies are devoid of organs1 or instruments of life4 ,in this division are classed the earths1 metals1 and other minerals4 ------------ #a4 ,what is anatomy8 #b4 ,how is it divided8 ,how is the latter division subdivided8 #c4 ,what is physiology8 ,give another definition4 #d4 ,how is physiology divided8 ,give a subdivision4 #e4 ,what is hygiene8 #f4 ,define organic bodies4 ------------ #g4 ,in general1 organic matter differs so materially from inorganic1 that the one can readily be distinguished from the other4 ,in the organic world1 every individual of necessity springs from some parent1 or immediate producing agent2 for while inorganic substances are formed by chemical laws alone1 we see no case of an animal or plant coming into existence by accident or chance1 or chemical operations4 #h4 ,animals and plants are supported by means of nourishment1 and die without it4 ,they also increase in size by the addition of new particles of matter to all parts of their substances2 while rocks and minerals grow only by additions to their surfaces4 #i4 ,organized bodies always present a combination of both solids and fluids2--of solids1 differing in character and properties1 arranged into organs1 and these endowed with functional powers1 and so associated as to form of the whole a single system2--and of fluids1 contained in these organs1 and holding such relation to the solids that the existence1 nature1 and properties of both mutually and necessarily depend on each other4 #aj4 ,another characteristic is1 that organic substances have a certain order of parts4 ,for example1 plants possess organs to gain nourishment from the soil and atmosphere1 and the power to give strength and increase to all their parts4 ,and animals need not only a digesting and circulating apparatus1 but organs for breathing1 a nervous system1 c4 ------------ #f4 ,define inorganic bodies4 #g4 ,what is said of the difference1 in general1 between organic and inorganic bodies8 #h4 ,what of the growth of organic and inorganic bodies8 #i4 ,what do organized bodies always present8 #aj4 ,give another characteristic of organized substances4 ------------ #aa4 ,individuality is an important characteristic4 ,for instance1 a large rock may be broken into a number of smaller pieces1 and yet every fragment will be rock2 but if an organic substance be separated into two or more divisions1 neither of them can be considered an individual4 ,closely associated with this is the power of life1 or vitality1 which is the most distinguishing characteristic of organic structure2 since we find nothing similar to this in the inorganic creation4 #ab4 ,the distinction between plants and animals is also of much importance4 ,animals grow proportionally in all directions1 while plants grow upwards and downwards from a collet only4 ,the food of animals is organic1 while that of plants is inorganic2 the latter feeding entirely upon the elements of the soil and atmosphere1 while the former subsist upon the products of the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,the size of the vegetable is in most cases limited only by the duration of existence1 as a tree continues to put forth new branches during each period of its life1 while the animal1 at a certain time of life1 attains the average size of its species4 #ac4 ,one of the most important distinctions between animals and plants1 is the different effects of respiration4 ,animals consume the oxygen of the atmosphere1 and give off carbonic acid2 while plants take up the carbonic acid1 and restore to animals the oxygen1 thus affording an admirable example of the principle of compensation in nature4 #ad4 ,but the decisive distinctions between animals and plants are sensation and voluntary motion1 the power of acquiring a knowledge of external objects through the senses1 and the ability to move from place to place at will4 ,these are the characteristics which1 in their fullest development in man1 show intellect and reasoning powers1 and thereby in a greater degree exhibit to us the wisdom and goodness of the ,creator4 ------------ #aa4 ,what is said of the individuality of organized and inorganized bodies8 ,what is closely associated with this8 #ab4 ,give a distinction between animals and plants as regards growth4 ,the food of animals and plants4 ,what is said in respect to size8 #ac4 ,what important distinction in the effects of respiration of animals and plants8 #ad4 ,what are the decisive distinctions between animals and plants8 ------------ #ae4 ,,disease1 which consists in an unnatural condition of the bodily organs1 is in most cases under the control of fixed laws1 which we are capable of understanding and obeying4 ,nor do diseases come by chance2 they are penalties for violating physical laws4 ,if we carelessly cut or bruise our flesh1 pain and soreness follow1 to induce us to be more careful in the future2 or1 if we take improper food into the stomach1 we are warned1 perhaps immediately by a friendly pain1 that we have violated an organic law4 #af4 ,sometimes1 however1 the penalty does not directly follow the sin1 and it requires great physiological knowledge to be able to trace the effect to its true cause4 ,if we possess good constitutions1 we are responsible for most of our sickness2 and bad constitutions1 or hereditary diseases1 are but the results of the same great law1--the iniquities of the parents being visited on the children4 ,in this view of the subject1 how important is the study of physiology and hygiene6 ,for how can we expect to obey laws which we do not understand8 ------------ #ae4 ,what is said of disease8 #af4 ,why is the study of physiology and hygiene important8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,structure ,,of ,,man1 #ag4 ,in the structure of the human body1 there is a union of fluids and solids4 ,these are essentially the same1 for the one is readily changed into the other4 ,there is no fluid that does not contain solid matter in solution1 and no solid matter that is destitute of fluid4 #ah4 ,in different individuals1 and at different periods of life the proportion of fluids and solids varies4 ,in youth1 the fluids are more abundant than in advanced life4 ,for this reason1 the limbs in childhood are soft and round1 while in old age they assume a hard and wrinkled appearance4 #ai4 ,the fluids not only contain the materials from which every part of the body is formed1 but they are the medium for conveying the waste1 decayed particles of matter from the system4 ,they have various names1 according to their nature and function2 as1 the blood1 and the bile4 #bj4 ,the solids are formed from the fluids1 and consequently they are reduced1 by chemical analysis1 to the same ultimate elements4 ,the particles of matter in solids are arranged variously2 sometimes in fibres1 7threads17 sometimes in lami-n1 7plates17 sometimes homogeneously1 as in basement membranes4 7,appendix ,a47 #ba4 ,the parts of the body are arranged into ,fibres1 ,fas-cicu-li1 ,tissues1 ,organs1 ,ap-pa-ratus-es1 and ,systems4 ------------ #ag4 ,what substances enter into the structure of the human body8 ,are they essentially the same8 #ah4 ,what is said of these substances at different periods of life8 #ai4 ,what offices do the fluids of the system perform8 #bj4 ,what is said of the solids8 ,how are the particles of matter arranged in solids8 #ba4 ,give an arrangement of the parts of the body4 ------------ #bb4 ,a ,,fibre is a thread of exceeding fineness4 ,it is either cylindriform or flattened4 #bc4 ,a ,,fasciculus is the term applied to several fibres united4 ,its general characteristics are the same as fibres4 #bd4 ,a ,,tissue is a term applied to several different solids of the body4 #be4 ,an ,,organ is composed of tissues so arranged as to form an instrument designed for action4 ,the action of an organ is called its function1 or use4 ,example4 ,the liver is an organ1 and the secretion of the bile from the blood is one of its functions4#a #a ,where examples and observations are given or experiments suggested1 let the pupil mention other analogous ones4 #bf4 ,an ,,apparatus is an assemblage of organs designed to produce certain results4 ,example4 ,the digestive apparatus consists of the teeth1 stomach1 liver1 c41 all of which aid in the digestion of food4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,represents a portion of broken muscular fibre of animal life1 7magnified about seven hundred diameters47 #bg4 ,the term ,,system is applied to an assemblage of organs arranged according to some plan1 or method2 as the nervous system1 the respiratory system4 ------------ #bb4 ,define a fibre4 #bc4 ,define a fasciculus4 #bd4 ,define a tissue4 #be4 ,define an organ4 ,what is the action of an organ called8 ,give examples4 ,mention other examples4 #bf4 ,what is an apparatus8 ,give an example #bg4 ,how is the term system applied8 ------------ #bh4 ,a ,,tissue is a simple form of organized animal substance4 ,it is flexible1 and formed of fibres interwoven in various ways2 as1 the cellular tissue4 #bi4 ,however various all organs may appear in their structure and composition1 it is now supposed that they can be reduced to a few tissues2 as1 the ,cellu-lar1 ,osse-ous1 ,muscu-lar1 ,mucous1 ,nervous1 c4 7,appendix ,b47 #cj4 ,the ,,cellular ,,tissue1#b now called the areolar tissue1 consists of small fibres1 or bands1 interlaced in every direction1 so as to form a net-work1 with numerous interstices that communicate freely with each other4 ,these interstices are filled1 during life1 with a fluid resembling the serum of blood4 ,the use of the areolar tissue is to connect together organs and parts of organs1 and to envelop1 fix1 and protect the vessels and nerves of organs4 #b ,the ,cellular1 ,serous1 ,dermoid1 ,fibrous1 and ,mucous tissues are very generally called membranes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,arrangement of fibres of the cellular tissue magnified one hundred and thirty diameters4 ------------ #bh4 ,what is a tissue8 #bi4 ,what is said respecting the structure and composition of the various organs8 ,name the primary membranes4 #cj4 ,describe the cellular tissue4 ,how are the cells imbedded in certain tissues8 ,give observation #ast1 relative to the cellular tissue4 ------------ ,observations4 #ast4 ,when this fluid becomes too great in quantity1 in consequence of disease1 the patient labors under general dropsy4 ,the swelling of the feet when standing1 and their return to a proper shape during the night1 so often noticed in feeble persons1 furnish a striking proof both of the existence and peculiarity of this tissue1 which allows the fluid to flow from cell to cell1 until it settles in the lower extremities4 #b;d4 ,the free communication between the cells is still more remarkable in regard to air4 ,sometimes1 when an accidental opening has been made from the air-cells of the lungs into the contiguous cellular tissue1 the air in respiration has penetrated every part until the whole body is so inflated as to occasion suffocation4 ,butchers often avail themselves of the knowledge of this fact1 and inflate their meat to give it a fat appearance4 #ca4 ,although this tissue enters into the composition of all organs1 it never loses its own structure1 nor participates in the functions of the organ of which it forms a part4 ,though present in the nerves1 it does not share in their sensibility2 and though it accompanies every muscle and every muscular fibre1 it does not partake of the irritability which belongs to these organs4 #cb4 ,several varieties of tissue are formed from the cellular2 as1 the ,serous1 ,dermoid1 ,fibrous1 and several others4 #cc4 ,the ,,serous ,,tissue lines all the closed1 or sac-like cavities of the body2 as1 the chest1 joints1 and abdomen4 ,it not only lines these cavities1 but is reflected1 and invests the organs contained in them4 ,the liver and the lungs are thus invested4 ,this membrane is of a whitish color1 and smooth on its free surfaces4 ,these surfaces are kept moist1 and prevented from adhering by a serous fluid1 which is separated from the blood4 ,the use of this membrane is to separate organs and also to facilitate the movement of one part upon another1 by means of its moist1 polished surfaces4 ------------ ,give observation #b;d4 #ca4 ,what is said of the identity of this tissue8 #cb4 ,name the varieties of tissue formed from the cellular4 #cc4 ,where is the serous tissue found8 ,what two offices does it perform8 ,give its structure4 ,what is the use of this membrane8 ------------ #cd4 ,the ,,dermoid ,,tissue covers the outside of the body4 ,it is called the cutis1 7skin47 ,this membrane is continuous with the mucous at the various orifices of the body1 and in these situations1 from the similarity of their structure1 it is difficult to distinguish between them4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,in consequence of the continuity and similarity of structure1 there is close sympathy between the mucous and dermoid membranes4 ,if the functions of the skin are disturbed1 as by a chill1 it will frequently cause a catarrh1 7cold17 or diarrhoea4 ,again1 in consequence of this intimate sympathy1 these complaints can be relieved by exciting a free action in the vessels of the skin4 #b;d4 ,it is no uncommon occurrence that diseased or irritated conditions of the mucous membrane of the stomach or intestines produce diseases or irritations of the skin1 as is seen in the rashes attendant on dyspepsia1 and eating certain species of fish4 ,these eruptions of the skin can be relieved by removing the diseased condition of the stomach4 #ce4 ,the ,,fibrous ,,tissue consists of longitudinal1 parallel fibres1 which are closely united4 ,these fibres1 in some situations1 form a thin1 dense1 strong membrane1 like that which lines the internal surface of the skull1 or invests the external surface of the bones4 ,in other instances1 they form strong1 inelastic bands1 called liga-ments1 which bind one bone to another4 ,this tissue also forms tendons1 7white cords17 by which the muscles are attached to the bones4 ,observation4 ,in the disease called rheumatism1 the fibrous tissue is the part principally affected2 hence the joints1 where this tissue is most abundant1 suffer most from this affection4 ------------ #cd4 ,describe the dermoid tissue4 ,what is said of the sympathy between the functions of the skin and mucous membrane8 ,give another instance of the sympathy between these membranes4 #ce4 ,of what does the fibrous tissue consist8 ,how do these appear in some situations8 ,how in others8 ,what tissue is generally affected in rheumatism8 ------------ #cf4 ,the ,,adipose ,,tissue is so arranged as to form distinct bags1 or cells4 ,these contain a substance called fat4 ,this tissue is principally found beneath the skin1 abdominal muscles1 and around the heart and kidneys2 while none is found in the brain1 eye1 ear1 nose1 and several other organs4 ,observation4 ,in those individuals who are corpulent1 there is in many instances1 a great deposit of this substance4 ,this tissue accumulates more readily than others when a person becomes gross1 and is earliest removed when the system emaciates1 in acute or chronic diseases4 ,some of the masses become1 in some instances1 enlarged4 ,these enlargements are called adipose1 or fatty tumors4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 #a1 ,a portion of the adipose tissue4 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,minute bags containing fat4 #c1 ,a cluster of these bags1 separated and suspended4 #cg4 ,the ,,cartilaginous ,,tissue is firm1 smooth1 and highly elastic4 ,except bone1 it is the hardest part of the animal frame4 ,it tips the ends of the bones that concur in forming a joint4 ,its use is to facilitate the motion of the joints by its smooth surface1 while its elastic character diminishes the shock that would otherwise be experienced if this tissue were inelastic4 ------------ #cf4 ,describe the adipose tissue4 ,where does this tissue principally exist8 ,give observation in regard to the adipose tissue4 #cg4 ,describe the cartilaginous tissue4 ,what is its use8 ------------ #ch ,the ,,osseous ,,tissue1 in composition and arrangement of matter1 varies at different periods of life1 and in different bones4 ,in some instances1 the bony matter is disposed in plates1 while in other instances1 the arrangement is cylindrical4 ,sometimes1 the bony matter is dense and compact2 again1 it is spongy1 or porous4 ,in the centre of the long bones1 a space is left which is filled with a fatty substance1 called marrow4 ,observation4 ,various opinions exist among physiologists in regard to the use of marrow4 ,some suppose it serves as a reservoir of nourishment1 while others1 that it keeps the bones from becoming dry and brittle4 ,the latter opinion1 however1 has been called in question1 as the bones of the aged man contain more marrow than those of the child1 and they are likewise more brittle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,a section of the femur1 7thigh-bone47 #a1 #a1 ,the extremities1 showing a thin plate of compact texture1 which covers small cells1 that diminish in size1 but increase in number1 as they approach the articulation4 #b1 #b1 ,the walls of the shaft1 which are very firm and solid4 #c1 ,the cavity that contains the marrow4 #ci4 ,the ,,muscular ,,tissue is composed of many fibres1 that unite to form fasciculi1 each of which is enclosed in a delicate layer of cellular tissue4 ,bundles of these fasciculi constitute a muscle4 ,observation4 ,a piece of boiled beef will clearly illustrate the arrangement of muscular fibre4 ------------ #ch4 ,what is said of the osseous tissue8 ,how is the bony matter arranged in different parts of the animal frame8 ,what is said of the use of marrow8 #ci4 ,of what is the muscular tissue composed8 ,how may the arrangement of muscular fibre be illustrated8 ------------ #dj4 ,the ,,mucous ,,tissue differs from the serous by its lining all the cavities which communicate with the air4 ,the nostrils1 the mouth1 and the stomach afford examples4 ,the external surface of this membrane1 or that which is exposed to the air1 is soft1 and bears some resemblance to the downy rind of a peach4 ,it is covered by a viscid fluid called mucus4 ,this is secreted by small gland-cells1 called ep-i-theli-a1 or secretory cells of the mucous membrane4 ,the use of this membrane and its secreted mucus is to protect the inner surface of the cavities which it lines4 ,observation4 ,a remarkable sympathy exists between the remote parts of the mucous membrane4 ,thus the condition of the stomach may be ascertained by an examination of the tongue4 #da4 ,the ,,nervous ,,tissue consists of soft1 pulpy matter1 enclosed in a sheath1 called neu-ri-lema4 ,this tissue consists of two substances4 ,the one1 of a pulpy character and gray color1 is called cin-e-ritious1 7ash-colored47 ,the other1 of a fibrous character and white1 is named medul-la-ry1 7marrow-like47 ,in every part of the nervous system both substances are united1 with the exception of the nervous fibres and filaments1 which are solely composed of the medullary matter enclosed in a delicate sheath4 ------------ #dj4 ,how does the mucous differ from the serous tissue8 ,what is the appearance of the external surface of this membrane8 ,where is the mucus secreted8 ,what is the use of this membrane8 #da4 ,of what does the nervous tissue consist8 ,describe the two substances that enter into the composition of the nervous tissue4 ------------ ,,chapter ,,iii ,,chemistry ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,body4 #db4 ,an ,,ultimate ,,element is the simplest form of matter with which we are acquainted2 as gold1 iron1 c4 #dc4 ,these elements are divided into metallic and non-metallic substances4 ,the metallic substances are ,po-tassi-um1 ,sodi-um1 ,calci-um1 ,mag-nesi-um1 ,a-lumin-um1 ,iron1 ,manga-nese1 and ,copper4 ,the non-metallic substances are ,oxy-gen1 ,hydro-gen1 ,carbon1 ,nitro-gen1 ,si-li-ci-um1 ,phosphor-us1 ,sulphur1 ,chlorine1 and a few others4 #dd4 ,,potash 7potassium united with oxygen7 is found in the blood1 bile1 perspiration1 milk1 c4 #de4 ,,soda 7sodium combined with oxygen7 exists in the muscles1 and in the same fluids in which potash is found4 #df4 ,,lime 7calcium combined with oxygen7 forms the principal ingredient of the bones4 ,the lime in them is combined with phosphoric and carbonic acid4 #dg4 ,,magnesia 7magnesium combined with oxygen7 exists in the bones1 brain1 and in some of the animal fluids2 as milk4 #dh4 ,,silex 7silicium combined with oxygen7 is contained in the hair and in some of the secretions4 #di4 ,,iron forms the coloring principle of the red globules of the blood1 and is found in every part of the system4 ,observation4 ,as metallic or mineral substances enter into the ultimate elements of the body1 the assertion that all minerals are poisonous1 however small the quantity1 is untrue4 ------------ #db4 ,what is an ultimate element8 ,give examples4 #dc4 ,how are they divided8 ,name the metallic substances4 ,name the non-metallic substances4 #dd4 ,what is said of potash8 #de4 ,of soda8 #df4 ,of lime8 #dg4 ,of magnesia8 #dh4 ,of silex8 #di4 ,what forms the coloring principle of the blood8 ,what is said of mineral substances8 ------------ #ej4 ,,oxygen is contained in all the fluids and solids of the body4 ,it is almost entirely derived from the inspired air and water4 ,it is expelled in the form of carbonic acid and water from the lungs and skin4 ,it is likewise removed in the other secretions4 #ea4 ,,hydrogen is found in all the fluids and in all the solids of the body4 ,it is derived from the food1 as well as from water and other drinks4 ,it exists in the greatest abundance in the impure1 dark-colored blood of the system4 ,it is removed by the agency of the kidneys1 skin1 lungs1 and other excretory organs4 #eb4 ,,carbon is an element in the oil1 fat1 albumen1 fibrin1 gelatin1 bile1 and mucus4 ,this element likewise exists in the impure blood in the form of carbonic acid gas4 ,carbon is obtained from the food1 and discharged from the system by the secretions and respiration4 #ec4 ,,nitrogen is contained in most animal matter1 but is most abundant in fibrin4 ,it is not contained in fat and a few other substances4 ,observation4 ,the peculiar smell of animal matter when burning is owing to nitrogen4 ,this element combined with hydrogen forms am-moni-a1 7hartshorn17 when animal matter is in a state of putrefaction4 #ed4 ,,phosphorus is contained in many parts of the system1 but more particularly in the bones4 ,it is generally found in combination with oxygen1 forming phosphoric acid4 ,the phosphoric acid is usually combined with alkaline bases2 as lime in the bones1 forming phosphate of lime4 #ee4 ,,sulphur exists in the bones1 muscles1 hair1 and nails4 ,it is expelled from the system by the skin and intestines4 #ef4 ,,chlorine is found in the blood1 gastric juice1 milk1 perspiration1 and saliva4 ------------ #ej4 ,what is said of oxygen8 #ea4 ,of hydrogen8 #eb4 ,what is said of carbon8 #ec4 ,of nitrogen8 ,how is ammonia formed8 #ed4 ,what is said of phosphorus8 #ee4 ,what is said of sulphur8 #ef4 ,of chlorine8 ------------ #eg4 ,,proximate ,,elements are forms of matter that exist in organized bodies in abundance1 and are composed chiefly of oxygen1 hydrogen1 carbon1 and nitrogen1 arranged in different proportions4 ,they exist already formed1 and may be separated in many instances1 by heat or mechanical means4 ,the most important compounds are ,al-bumen1 ,fibrin1 ,gela-tin1 ,mucus1 ,fat1 ,case-ine1 ,chondrine1 ,lactic acid1 and ,osma-zome4 #eh4 ,,albumen is found in the body1 both in a fluid and solid form4 ,it is an element of the skin1 glands1 hair1 and nails1 and forms the principal ingredient of the brain4 ,albumen is without color1 taste1 or smell1 and it coagulates by heat1 acids1 and alcohol4 ,observation4 ,the white of an egg is composed of albumen1 which can be coagulated or hardened by alcohol4 ,as albumen enters so largely into the composition of the brain1 is not the impaired intellect and moral degradation of the inebriate attributable to the effect of alcohol in hardening the albumen of this organ8 #ei4 ,,fibrin exists abundantly in the blood1 chyle1 and lymph4 ,it constitutes the basis of the muscles4 ,fibrin is of a whitish color1 inodorous1 and insoluble in cold water4 ,it differs from albumen by possessing the property of coagulating at all temperatures4 ,observation4 ,fibrin may be obtained by washing the thick part of blood with cold water2 by this process1 the red globules1 or coloring matter1 are separated from this element4 #fj4 ,,gelatin is found in nearly all the solids1 but it is not known to exist in any of the fluids4 ,it forms the basis of the cellular tissue1 and exists largely in the skin1 bones1 ligaments1 and cartilages4 ------------ #eg4 ,what are proximate elements8 ,do they exist already formed in organized bodies8 ,name the most important compounds4 #eh4 ,what is said of albumen8 ,give observation relative to this element4 #ei4 ,of fibrin8 ,how does albumen differ from fibrin8 ,how can fibrin be obtained8 #fj4 ,what is said of gelatin8 ------------ ,observation4 ,gelatin is known from other organic principles by its dissolving in warm water1 and forming jelly4 ,when dry1 it forms the hard1 brittle substance1 called glue4 ,isinglass1 which is used in the various mechanical arts1 is obtained from the sounds of the sturgeon4 #fa4 ,,mucus is a viscid fluid secreted by the gland-cells1 or epithelia4 ,various substances are included under the name of mucus4 ,it is generally alkaline1 but its true chemical character is imperfectly understood4 ,it serves to moisten and defend the mucous membrane4 ,it is found in the cuticle1 brain1 and nails2 and is scarcely soluble in water1 especially when dry4 7,appendix ,c47 #fb4 ,,osmazome is a substance of an aromatic flavor4 ,it is of a yellowish-brown color1 and is soluble both in water and alcohol1 but does not form a jelly by concentration4 ,it is found in all the fluids1 and in some of the solids2 as the brain4 ,observation4 ,the characteristic odor and taste of soup are owing to osmazome4 #fc4 ,there are several acids found in the human system2 as the ,a-cetic1 ,ben-zoic1 ,ox-alic1 ,uric1 and some other substances1 but not of sufficient importance to require a particular description4 ------------ ,how is it known from other organic principles8 #fa4 ,what is said of mucus8 #fb4 ,of osmazome8 ,to what are the taste and odor of soup owing8 #fc4 ,what acids are found in the system8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,bones4 #fd4 ,the bones are firm and hard1 and of a dull white color4 ,in all the higher orders of animals1 among which is man1 they are in the interior of the body1 while in lobsters1 crabs1 c41 they are on the outside1 forming a case which protects the more delicate parts from injury4 #fe4 ,in the mechanism of man1 the variety of movements he is called to perform requires a correspondent variety of component parts1 and the different bones of the system are so admirably adapted to each other1 that they admit of numerous and varied motions4 #ff4 ,when the bones composing the skeleton are united by natural ligaments1 they form what is called a natural skeleton1 when united by wires1 what is termed an artificial skeleton4 #fg4 ,the elevations1 or protuberances1 of the bones are called proces-ses1 and are1 generally1 the points of attachment for the muscles and ligaments4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,bones4 #fh4 ,the ,,bones are composed of both animal and earthy matter4 ,the earthy portion of the bones gives them solidity and strength1 while the animal part endows them with vitality4 ------------ #fd4 ,what is said of the bones8 #fe4 ,is there an adaptation of the bones of the system to the offices they are required to perform8 #ff4 ,what is a natural skeleton8 ,what an artificial8 #fg4 ,what part of the bones are called processes8 #fh-gc4 ,give the structure of the bones4 #fh4 ,of what are the bones composed8 ,what are the different uses of the component parts of the bones8 ------------ ,experiments4 #ast4 ,to show the earthy without the animal matter1 burn a bone in a clear fire for about fifteen minutes1 and it becomes white and brittle1 because the gelatin1 or animal matter of the bone1 has been destroyed4 #b;d4 ,to show the animal without the earthy matter of the bones1 immerse a slender bone for a few days in a weak acid1 7one part muriatic acid and six parts water17 and it can then be bent in any direction4 ,in this experiment1 the acid has removed the earthy matter1 7carbonate and phosphate of lime17 yet the form of the bone is unchanged4 #fi4 ,the bones are formed from the blood1 and are subjected to several changes before they are perfected4 ,at their early formative stage1 they are cartilaginous4 ,the vessels of the cartilage1 at this period1 convey only the lymph1 or white portion of the blood2 subsequently1 they convey red blood4 ,at this time1 true ossification 7the deposition of phosphate and carbonate of lime7 commences at certain points1 which are called the points of ossification4 #gj4 ,most of the bones are formed of several pieces1 or centres of ossification4 ,this is seen in the long bones which have their extremities separated from the body by a thin partition of cartilage4 ,it is some time before these separate pieces are united to form one bone4 #ga4 ,when the process of ossification is completed1 there is still a constant change in the bones4 ,they increase in bulk1 and become less vascular1 until middle age4 ,in advanced life1 the elevations upon their surface and near the extremities become more prominent1 particularly in individuals accustomed to labor4 ,as a person advances in years1 the vitality diminishes1 and in extreme old age1 the earthy substance predominates2 consequently1 the bones are extremely brittle4 ------------ ,how can the earthy matter of the bones be shown8 ,the animal8 #fi4 ,what is the appearance of the bones in their early formative stage8 ,when does true ossification commence8 #gj4 ,how are most of the bones formed8 #ga4 ,what is said of the various changes of the bones after ossification8 ------------ #gb4 ,the fibrous membrane that invests the bones is called per-i-oste-um2 that which covers the cartilages is called per-i-chondri-um4 ,when this membrane invests the skull1 it is called per-i-crani-um4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,a section of the knee-joint4 ,the lower part of the femur1 7thigh-bone17 and upper part of the tibia1 7leg-bone17 are seen ossified at #a1 #a4 ,the cartilaginous extremities of the two bones are seen at d1 d4 ,the points of ossification of the extremities1 are seen at #b1 #b4 ,the patella1 or knee-pan1 is seen at c4 #c1 ,a point1 or centre of ossification4 #gc4 ,the ,,periosteum is a firm membrane immediately investing the bones1 except where they are tipped with cartilage1 and the crowns of the teeth1 which are protected by enamel4 ,this membrane has minute nerves1 and when healthy1 possesses but little sensibility4 ,it is the nutrient membrane of the bone1 endowing its exterior with vitality2 it also gives insertion to the tendons and connecting ligaments of the joints4 ------------ #gb4 ,what is the membrane called that invests the bones8 ,that covers the cartilage8 ,that invests the skull8 ,explain fig4 #f4 #gc4 ,describe the periosteum4 ------------ #gd4 ,there are two hundred and eight#c bones in the human body1 beside the teeth4 ,these1 for convenience1 are divided into four parts3 #ast4 ,the bones of the ,head4 #b;d4 ,the bones of the ,trunk4 #c;d4 ,the bones of the ,upper ,extremities4 #dth4 ,the bones of the ,lower ,extremities4 #c ,some anatomists reckon more than this number1 others less1 for the reason that1 at different periods of life1 the number of pieces of which one bone is formed1 varies4 ,example4 ,the breast-bone1 in infancy1 has eight pieces2 in youth1 three2 in old age1 but one4 #ge4 ,the bones of the ,,head are divided into those of the ,skull1 ,ear1 and ,face4 #gf4 ,the ,,skull is composed of eight bones4 ,they are formed of two plates1 or tablets of bony matter1 united by a porous portion of bone4 ,the external tablet is fibrous and tough2 the internal plate is dense and hard1 and is called the vitre-ous1 or glassy table4 ,these tough1 hard plates are adapted to resist the penetration of sharp instruments1 while the different degrees of density possessed by the two tablets1 and the intervening spongy bone1 serve to diminish the vibrations that would occur in falls or blows4 #gg4 ,the skull is convex externally1 and at the base much thicker than at the top or sides4 ,the most important part of the brain is placed here1 completely out of the way of injury1 unless of a very serious nature4 ,the base of the cranium1 or skull1 has many projections1 depressions1 and apertures2 the latter affording passages for the nerves and blood-vessels4 ------------ #gd4 ,how many bones in the human body8 ,how are they divided8 #ge-ha4 ,give the anatomy of the bones of the head4 #ge4 ,how are the bones of the head divided8 #gf4 ,describe the bones of the skull4 #gg4 ,what is the form of the skull8 ,what does the base of the skull present8 ------------ #gh4 ,the bones of the cranium are united by ragged edges1 called sutures4 ,the edges of each bone interlock with each other1 producing a union1 styled1 in carpentry1 dovetailing4 ,they interrupt1 in a measure1 the vibrations produced by external blows1 and also prevent fractures from extending as far as they otherwise would1 in one continued bone4 ,from infancy to the twelfth year1 the sutures are imperfect2 but1 from that time to thirty-five or forty1 they are distinctly marked2 in old age1 they are nearly obliterated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 #a1 #a1 ,the coronal suture at the front and upper part of the skull1 or cranium4 #b1 ,the sagittal suture on the top of the skull4 #c1 #c1 ,the lambdoidal suture at the back part of the cranium4 #gi4 ,we find as great a diversity in the form and texture of the skull-bone1 as in the expression of the face4 ,the head of the ,new ,hollander is small2 that of the ,african is compressed2 while the ,caucasian is distinguished for the beautiful oval form of the head4 ,the ,greek skulls1 in texture1 are close and fine1 while the ,swiss are softer and more open4 ------------ #gh4 ,how are the bones of the skull united8 ,what are the uses of the sutures8 ,mention the appearance of the sutures at different ages4 ,what does fig4 #g represent8 #gi4 ,what is said respecting the form and texture of the skull in different nations8 ------------ #hj4 ,in each ,,ear are four very small bones4 ,they aid in hearing4 #ha4 ,in the ,,face are fourteen bones1 some of which serve for the attachment of powerful muscles1 which are more or less called into action in masticating food2 others retain in place the soft parts of the face4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 #a1 ,the frontal1 or bone of the forehead4 #b4 ,the parietal bone4 #c1 ,the temporal bone4 #d1 ,the zygomatic process of the temporal bone4 #e1 ,the malar 7cheek7 bone4 #f1 ,the superior maxillary bone1 7upper jaw47 #g1 ,the vomer1 that separates the cavities of the nose4 #h1 ,the inferior maxillary bone1 7lower jaw47 #i4 ,the cavity for the eye4 #hb4 ,the ,,trunk has fifty-four bones--twenty-four ,ribs2 twenty-four bones in the ,spinal ,column1 7back-bone27 four in the ,pelvis2 the ,sternum1 7breast-bone27 and the ,os hy-oides1 7the bone at the base of the tongue47 ,they are so arranged as to form1 with the soft parts attached to them1 two cavities1 called the ,thorax 7chest7 and ,ab-domen4 ------------ #hj4 ,how many bones in the ear8 #ha4 ,how many bones in the face8 ,what is their use8 ,explain fig4 #h4 #hb-id4 ,give the anatomy of the bones of the trunk4 #hb4 ,how many bones in the trunk8 ,name them4 ,what do they form by their arrangement8 ------------ #hc4 ,the ,,thorax is formed by the sternum in front2 the ribs1 at the sides2 and the twelve dorsal bones of the spinal column1 posteriorly4 ,the natural form of the chest is a cone1 with its apex above2 but fashion1 in many instances1 has nearly inverted this order4 ,this cavity contains the lungs1 heart1 and large blood-vessels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 #a1 ,the first bone of the sternum1 7breast-bone47 #b4 ,the second bone of the sternum4 #c1 ,the cartilage of the sternum4 #d1 ,the first dorsal vertebra1 7a bone of the spinal column47 #e1 ,the last dorsal vertebra4 #f1 ,the first rib4 #g1 ,its head4 #h1 ,its neck4 #i1 ,its tubercle4 #aj1 ,the seventh1 or last true rib4 #aa1 ,the cartilage of the third rib4 #ab1 ,the floating ribs4 #hd4 ,the ,,sternum is composed of eight pieces in the child4 ,these unite and form but three parts in the adult4 ,in youth1 the two upper portions are converted into bone1 while the lower portion remains cartilaginous and flexible until extreme old age1 when it is often converted into bone4 #he4 ,the ,,ribs are connected with the spinal column1 and increase in length as far as the seventh4 ,from this they successively become shorter4 ,the direction of the ribs from above1 downward1 is oblique1 and their curve diminishes from the first to the twelfth4 ,the external surface of each rib is convex2 the internal1 concave4 ,the inferior1 or lower ribs1 are1 however1 very flat4 ------------ #hc4 ,describe the thorax4 ,explain fig4 #i4 #hd4 ,describe the sternum4 #he4 ,describe the ribs4 ------------ #hf4 ,the seven upper ribs are united to the sternum1 through the medium of cartilages1 and are called the true ribs4 ,the cartilages of the next three are united with each other1 and are not attached to the sternum2 these are called false ribs4 ,the lowest two are called floating ribs1 as they are not connected either with the sternum or the other ribs4 #hg4 ,the ,,spinal ,,column is composed of twenty-four pieces of bone4 ,each piece is called a verte-bra4 ,on examining one of the bones1 we find seven projections1 called processes2 four of these1 that are employed in binding the bones together1 are called articulating processes2 two of the remaining are called the transverse2 and the other1 the spinous4 ,the last three give attachment to the muscles of the back4 #hh4 ,the large part of the vertebra1 called the body1 is round and spongy in its texture1 like the extremity of the round bones4 ,the processes are of a more dense character4 ,the projections are so arranged that a tube1 or canal1 is formed immediately behind the bodies of the vertebr1 in which is placed the me-dulla spi-nalis1 7spinal cord17 sometimes called the pith of the back-bone4 #hi4 ,between these joints1 or vertebr1 is a peculiar and highly elastic substance1 which much facilitates the bending movements of the back4 ,this compressible cushion of cartilage also serves the important purpose of diffusing and diminishing the shock in walking1 running1 or leaping1 and tends to protect the delicate texture of the brain4 ------------ #hf4 ,how are the ribs united to the sternum8 #hg4 ,describe the spinal column4 #hh4 ,give the structure of the vertebra4 ,where is the spinal cord placed8 #hi4 ,what is placed between each vertebra8 ,what is its use8 ------------ #ij4 ,another provision for the protection of the brain1 which bears convincing proof of the wisdom and beneficence of the ,creator1 is the antero-posterior1 or forward and backward curve of the spinal column4 ,were it a straight column1 standing perpendicularly1 the slightest jar1 in walking1 would cause it to recoil with a sudden jerk2 because1 the weight bearing equally1 the spine would neither yield to the one side nor the other4 ,but1 shaped as it is1 we find it yielding in the direction of the curves1 and thus the force of the shock is diffused4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a vertebra of the neck4 #a1 ,the body of the vertebra4 #b1 ,the spinal canal4 #d1 ,the spinous process1 cleft at its extremity4 #e1 ,the transverse process4 #g1 ,the inferior articulating process4 #h1 ,the superior articulating process4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 #a1 ,the cartilaginous substance that connects the bodies of the vertebr4 #b1 ,the body of the vertebra4 #c1 ,the spinous process4 #d1 #d1 ,the transverse processes4 #e1 #e1 ,the articulating processes4 #f1 #f1 ,a portion of the bony bridge that assists in forming the spinal canal1 7#g47 ,observation4 ,a good idea of the structure of the vertebr may be obtained by examining the spinal column of a domestic animal1 as the dog1 cat1 or pig4 #ia4 ,the ,,pelvis is composed of four bones2 the two in-nom-i-nata1 7nameless bones17 the sacrum1 and the coccyx4 #ib4 ,the ,,innominatum1 in the child1 consists of three pieces4 ,these1 in the adult1 become united1 and constitute but one bone4 ,in the sides of these bones is a deep socket1 or depression1 like a cup1 called the ac-e-tabu-lum1 in which the round head of the thigh-bone is placed4 ------------ #ij4 ,what is said of the curves of the spinal column8 ,what is represented by fig4 #aj8 ,by fig4 #aa8 ,how can the structure of the vertebr be seen8 #ia4 ,of how many bones is the pelvis composed8 #ib4 ,what is said of the innominatum in the child8 ------------ #ic4 ,the ,,sacrum1 so called because the ancients offered it in sacrifices1 is a wedge-shaped bone1 that is placed between the innominata1 and to which it is bound by ligaments4 ,upon its upper surface it connects with the lower vertebra4 ,at its inferior1 or lower angle1 it is united to the coccyx4 ,it is concave upon its anterior1 and convex upon its posterior surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 #a1 #a1 ,the innominata1 7nameless bones47 #b1 ,the sacrum4 #c1 ,the coccyx4 #d1 #d1 ,the acetabulum4 a1 a1 ,the pubic portion of the innominata4 d1 ,the arch of the pubes2 e1 ,the junction of the sacrum and lower lumbar vertebra4 #id4 ,the ,,coccyx1 in infants1 consists of several pieces1 which1 in youth1 become united and form one bone4 ,this is the terminal extremity of the spinal column4 ------------ ,in the adult8 ,describe the acetabulum4 #ic4 ,describe the sacrum4 ,explain fig4 #ab4 #id4 ,describe the coccyx4 ------------ ,,chapter ,v4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,bones1 ,,continued #ie4 ,the bones of the upper and lower limbs are enlarged at each extremity1 and have projections1 or processes4 ,to these1 the tendons of muscles and ligaments are attached1 which connect one bone with another4 ,the shaft of these bones is cylindrical and hollow1 and in structure1 their exterior surface is hard and compact1 while the interior portion is of a reticulated character4 ,the enlarged extremities of the round bones are more porous than the main shaft4 #if4 ,the ,,upper ,,extremities contain sixty-four bones--the ,scapu-la1 7shoulder-blade27 the ,clavi-cle1 7collar-bone27 the ,humer-us1 7first bone of the arm27 the ,ulna and ,radi-us1 7bones of the fore-arm27 the ,carpus1 7wrist27 the ,met-a-carpus1 7palm of the hand27 and the ,pha-langes1 7fingers and thumb47 #ig4 ,the ,,clavicle is attached1 at one extremity1 to the sternum2 at the other1 it is united to the scapula4 ,it is shaped like the ,italic s4 ,its use is to keep the arms from sliding toward the breast4 #ih4 ,the ,,scapula is situated upon the upper and back part of the chest4 ,it is flat1 thin1 and of a triangular form4 ,this bone lies upon and is retained in its position by muscles4 ,by their contractions it may be moved in different directions4 #ii4 ,the ,,humerus is cylindrical1 and is joined at the elbow with the ulna of the fore-arm2 at the scapular extremity1 it is lodged in the glenoid cavity1 where it is surrounded by a membranous bag1 called the capsular ligament4 ------------ #ie-ajd4 ,give the anatomy of the bones of the upper extremities4 #ie4 ,give the structure of the bones of the extremities4 #if4 ,how many bones in the upper extremities8 ,name them4 #ig4 ,give the attachments of the clavicle4 ,what is its use8 #ih4 ,describe the scapula4 ,how is it retained in its position8 #ii4 ,describe the humerus4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 #a1 ,the shaft of the humerus4 #b1 ,the large1 round head that is placed in the glenoid cavity4 #c1 #d1 ,processes1 to which muscles are attached4 #e1 ,a process1 called the external elbow4 #f1 ,a process1 called the internal elbow4 #g1 ,the articulating surface upon which the ulna rolls4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 #a1 ,the body of the ulna4 #b1 ,the shaft of the radius4 #c1 ,the upper articulation of the radius and ulna4 #d1 ,articulating cavity1 in which the lower extremity of the humerus is placed4 #e1 ,upper extremity of the ulna1 called the olecranon process1 which forms the point of the elbow4 #f1 ,space between the radius and ulna1 filled by the intervening ligament4 #g1 ,styloid process of the ulna4 #h1 ,surface of the radius and the ulna1 where they articulate with the bones of the wrist4 #i1 ,styloid process of the radius4 #ajj4 ,the ,,ulna articulates with the humerus at the elbow1 and forms a perfect hinge-joint4 ,this bone is situated on the inner side of the fore-arm4 ------------ ,what is represented by fig4 #ac8 ,by fig4 #ad8 #ajj4 ,describe the ulna4 ------------ #aja4 ,the ,,radius articulates with the bones of the carpus and forms the wrist-joint4 ,this bone is situated on the outside of the fore-arm1 7the side on which the thumb is placed47 ,the ulna and radius1 at their extremities1 articulate with each other1 by which union the hand is made to rotate1 permitting its complicated and varied movements4 #ajb4 ,the ,,carpus is composed of eight bones1 ranged in two rows1 and so firmly bound together1 as to permit only a small amount of movement4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,u1 ,the ulna4 ,r1 ,the radius4 ,s1 ,the scaphoid bone4 ,l1 ,the semilunar bone4 ,c1 ,the cuneiform bone4 ,p1 ,the pisiform bone4 ,these four form the first row of carpal bones4 ,t1 ,t1 ,the trapezium and trapezoid bones4 ,m1 ,the os magnum4 ,u1 ,the unciform bone4 ,these four form the second row of carpal bones4 #a1 #a1 #a1 #a1 #a1 ,the metacarpal bones of the thumb and fingers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 #aj1 #aj1 #aj1 ,the metacarpal bones of the hand4 #aa1 #aa1 ,first range of finger-bones4 #ab1 #ab1 ,second range of finger-bones4 #ac1 #ac1 ,third range of finger-bones4 #ad1 #ae1 ,bones of the thumb4 #ajc4 ,the ,,metacarpus is composed of five bones1 upon four of which the first range of the finger-bones is placed2 and upon the other1 the first bone of the thumb4 ,the five metacarpal bones articulate with the second range of carpal bones4 ------------ #aja4 ,the radius4 #ajb4 ,how many bones in the carpus8 ,how are they ranged8 #ajc4 ,describe the metacarpus4 ------------ #ajd4 ,the ,,phalanges of the fingers have three ranges of bones1 while the thumb has but two4 ,observation4 ,the wonderful adaptation of the hand to all the mechanical offices of life1 is one cause of man's superiority over the rest of creation4 ,this arises from the size and strength of the thumbs1 and the different lengths of the fingers4 #aje4 ,the ,,lower ,,extremities contain sixty bones--the ,femur1 7thigh-bone27 the ,pa-tella1 7knee-pan27 the ,tibi-a1 7shin-bone27 the ,fibu-la1 7small bone of the leg27 the ,tarsus1 7instep27 the ,met-a-tarsus1 7middle of the foot27 and the ,pha-langes1 7toes47 #ajf4 ,the ,,femur is the longest bone in the system4 ,it supports the weight of the head1 trunk1 and upper extremities4 ,the large1 round head of this bone is placed in the acetabulum4 ,this articulation is a perfect specimen of the ball and socket joint4 #ajg4 ,the ,,patella is a small bone connected with the tibia by a strong ligament4 ,the tendon of the ex-tensor muscles of the leg is attached to its upper edge4 ,this bone is placed on the anterior part of the lower extremity of the femur1 and acts like a pulley1 in the extension of the limb4 #ajh4 ,the ,,tibia is the largest bone of the leg4 ,it is of a triangular shape1 and enlarged at each extremity4 #aji4 ,the ,,fibula is a smaller bone than the tibia1 but of similar shape4 ,it is firmly bound to the tibia1 at each extremity4 #aaj4 ,the ,,tarsus is formed of seven irregular bones1 which are so firmly bound together as to permit but little movement4 ------------ #ajd4 ,how many ranges of bones have the phalanges8 #aje-aab4 ,give the anatomy of the bones of the lower extremities4 #aje4 ,how many bones in the lower extremities8 ,name them4 #ajf4 ,describe the femur4 #ajg4 ,describe the patella4 ,what is its function8 #ajh4 ,what is the largest bone of the leg called8 ,what is its form8 #aji4 ,what is said of the fibula8 #aaj4 ,describe the tarsus4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 #a1 ,the shaft of the femur1 7thigh-bone47 #b1 ,a projection1 called the trochantar minor1 to which are attached some strong muscles4 #d1 ,the trochantar major1 to which the large muscles of the hip are attached4 #c1 ,the head of the femur4 #e1 ,the external projection of the femur1 called the external condyle4 #f1 ,the internal projection1 called the internal condyle4 #g1 ,the surface of the lower extremity of the femur1 that articulates with the tibia1 and upon which the patella slides4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 #a1 ,the tibia4 #e1 ,the fibula4 #h1 ,the space between the two1 filled with the inter-osseous ligament4 #f1 ,the junction of the tibia and fibula at their upper extremity4 #b1 ,the external malleolar process1 called the external ankle4 #c1 ,the internal malleolar process1 called the internal ankle4 #d1 ,the surface of the lower extremity of the tibia1 that unites with one of the tarsal bones to form the ankle-joint4 #g1 ,the upper extremity of the tibia1 upon which the lower extremity of the femur rests4 ------------ ,explain fig4 #ag4 ,explain fig4 #ah4 ------------ #aaa4 ,the ,,metatarsal bones are five in number4 ,they articulate at one extremity with one range of tarsal bones2 at the other extremity1 with the first range of the toe-bones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,a representation of the upper surface of the bones of the foot4 #a1 ,the surface of the astragulus1 where it unites with the tibia4 #b1 ,the body of the astragulus4 #c1 ,the calcis1 7heel-bone47 #d1 ,the scaphoid bone4 #e1 #f1 #g1 ,the cuneiform bones4 #h1 ,the cuboid4 #i1 #i1 #i1 ,the metatarsal bones4 #aj1 ,the first bone of the great toe4 #aa1 ,the second bone4 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 ,three ranges of bones1 forming the small toes ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,a side view of the bones of the foot1 showing its arched form4 ,the arch rests upon the heel behind1 and the ball of the toes in front4 #a1 ,the lower part of the tibia4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 ,bones of the tarsus4 #f1 ,the metatarsal bone4 #g1 #h1 ,the bones of the great toe4 ,these bones are so united as to secure a great degree of elasticity1 or spring4 ,observation4 ,the tarsal and metatarsal bones are united so as to give the foot an arched form1 convex above1 and concave below4 ,this structure conduces to the elasticity of the step1 and the weight of the body is transmitted to the ground by the spring of the arch1 in a manner which prevents injury to the numerous organs4 ------------ #aaa4 ,describe the metatarsal bones4 ,explain fig4 #ai4 ,what is represented by fig4 #bj8 ,what is said of the arrangement of the bones of the foot8 ------------ #aab4 ,the ,,phalanges 7fig4 #ai7 are composed of fourteen bones2 each of the small toes has three ranges of bones1 while the great toe has but two4 #aac4 ,the ,,joints form an interesting part of the body4 ,in their construction1 every thing shows the regard that has been paid to the security and the facility of motion of the parts thus connected together4 ,they are composed of the extremities of two or more bones1 ,carti-lages1 7gristles17 ,syn-ovi-al membrane1 and ,liga-ments4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba ,the relative position of the bones1 cartilages1 and synovial membrane4 #a1 #a1 ,the extremities of two bones that concur to form a joint4 #b1 #b1 ,the cartilages that cover the end of the bones4 #c1 #c1 #c1 #c1 ,the synovial membrane which covers the cartilage of both bones1 and is then doubled back from one to the other2 it is represented by the dotted lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,a vertical section of the knee-joint4 #a1 ,the femur4 #c1 ,the patella4 #e1 ,the tibia4 #b1 #d1 ,the ligaments of the patella4 #f1 ,the cartilage of the tibia #ab1 ,the cartilage of the femur4 99 99 99 991 ,the synovial membrane4 #aad4 ,,cartilage is a smooth1 solid1 elastic substance1 of a pearly whiteness1 softer than bone4 ,it forms upon the articular surfaces of the bones a thin incrustation1 not more than the sixteenth of an inch in thickness4 ,upon convex surfaces it is the thickest in the centre1 and thin toward the circumference2 while upon concave surfaces1 an opposite arrangement is presented4 ------------ #aab4 ,describe the phalanges4 #aac-aah4 ,give the anatomy of the joints4 #aac4 ,what is said of the joints8 ,of what are the joints composed8 ,what is illustrated by fig4 #ba8 ,by fig4 #bb8 #aad4 ,define cartilage4 ------------ #aae4 ,the ,,synovial ,,membrane is a thin1 membranous layer1 which covers the cartilages1 and is thence bent back1 or reflected upon the inner surfaces of the ligaments which surround and enter into the composition of the joints4 ,this membrane forms a closed sac1 like the membrane that lines an egg-shell4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,the anterior ligaments of the knee-joint4 #a1 ,the tendon of the muscle that extends the leg4 #b1 ,the patella4 #c1 ,the anterior ligament of the patella1 near its insertion4 #d1 #d1 ,the synovial membrane4 #e1 ,the internal lateral ligament4 #f1 ,the long external lateral ligament4 #g1 ,the anterior and superior ligament that unites the fibula to the tibia4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 #b1 #c1 ,the ligaments that extend from the clavicle 7#a7 to the scapula 7#d47 ,the ligaments #e1 #f1 extend from the scapula to the first bone of the arm4 #aaf4 ,beside the synovial membrane1 there are numerous smaller sacs1 called burs mu-cos4 ,these are often associated with the articulation4 ,in structure1 they are analogous to synovial membranes1 and secrete a similar fluid4 ------------ #aae4 ,describe the synovial membrane4 #aaf4 ,describe the burs mucos4 ,what is represented by fig4 #bc8 ,by fig4 #bd8 ------------ #aag4 ,the ,,ligaments are composed of numerous straight fibres1 collected together1 and arranged into short bands of various breadths1 or so interwoven as to form a broad layer1 which completely surrounds the articular extremities of the bones1 and constitutes a capsular ligament4 ,these connecting bands are white1 glistening1 and inelastic4 ,most of the ligaments are found exterior to the synovial membrane4 #aah4 ,the bones1 cartilages1 ligaments1 and synovial membrane are insensible when in health2 yet they are supplied with organic nerves1 as well as with arteries1 veins1 and lymphatics4 ,observation4 ,the joints of the domestic animals are similar in their construction to those of man4 ,to illustrate this part of the body1 a fresh joint of the calf or sheep may be used4 ,after divesting the joints of the skin1 the satin-like bands1 or ligaments1 will be seen passing from one bone to the other1 under which may be observed the membranous bag1 called the capsular ligament4 ,this is very smooth1 as it is lined with the soft synovial membrane1 beneath which will be seen the cartilage1 that may be cut with a knife1 and under this the rough extremity of the ends of the bones4 ------------ #aag4 ,of what are ligaments composed8 ,what is the appearance of these bands8 ,where are they found8 #aah4 ,with what vessels are the cartilages and ligaments supplied8 ,how can the structure of the joints be explained8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,bones4 #aai4 ,the bones are the framework of the system4 ,by their solidity and form1 they not only retain every part of the fabric in its proper shape1 but afford a firm surface for the attachment of the muscles and ligaments4 ,by means of the bones1 the human frame presents to the eye a wonderful piece of mechanism1 uniting the most finished symmetry of form with freedom of motion1 and also giving security to many important organs4 #abj4 ,to give a clear idea of the relative uses of the bones and muscles1 we will quote the comparison of another1 though1 as in other comparisons1 there are points of difference4 ,the bones are to the body what the masts and spars are to the ship1--they give support and the power of resistance4 ,the muscles are to the bones what the ropes are to the masts and spars4 ,the bones are the levers of the system2 by the action of the muscles their relative positions are changed4 ,as the masts and spars of a vessel must be sufficiently firm to sustain the action of the ropes1 so the bones must possess the same quality to sustain the action of the muscles in the human body4 #aba4 ,some of the bones are designed exclusively for the protection of the organs which they enclose4 ,of this number are those that form the skull1 the sockets of the eye1 and the cavity of the nose4 ,others1 in addition to the protection they give to important organs1 are useful in movements of certain kinds4 ,of this class are the bones of the spinal column1 and ribs4 ,others are subservient to motion4 ,of this class are the upper and lower extremities4 ------------ #aai-abh4 ,give the physiology of the bones4 #aai4 ,how may the bones be considered8 #abj4 ,to what may the bones be compared8 #aba4 ,give the different offices of the bones4 ------------ #abb4 ,the bones are subject to growth and decay2 to removal of old1 useless matter1 and the deposit of new particles1 as in other tissues4 ,this has been tested by the following experiment4 ,some of the inferior animals were fed with food that contained madder4 ,in a few days1 some of the animals were killed1 and their bones exhibited an unusually reddish appearance4 ,the remainder of the animals were1 for a few weeks1 fed on food that contained no coloring principle4 ,when they were killed1 their bones exhibited the usual color of such animals4 ,the coloring matter1 which had been deposited1 had been removed by the action of the lymphatics4 #abc4 ,the extremities of the bones that concur in forming a joint1 correspond by having their respective configurations reciprocal4 ,they are1 in general1 the one convex1 and the other concave4 ,in texture they are porous1 and consequently more elastic than if more compact4 ,these are covered with a cushion of cartilage4 ,the elastic character of these parts acts as so many springs1 in diminishing the jar which important organs of the system would otherwise receive4 #abd4 ,the synovial membrane secretes a viscous fluid1 which is called syn-ovi-a4 ,this lubricating fluid of the joints enables the surfaces of the bones and tendons to move smoothly upon each other1 thus diminishing the friction consequent on their action4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,in this secretion is manifested the skill and omnipotence of the ,great ,architect2 for no machine of human invention supplies to itself1 by its own operations1 the necessary lubricating fluid4 ,but1 in the animal frame1 it is supplied in proper quantities1 and applied in the proper place1 and at the proper time4 ------------ #abb4 ,what is said of the change in bones8 ,how was it proved that there was a constant change in the osseous fabric8 #abc4 ,what is said of the extremities of the bones that form a joint8 #abd4 ,what is synovia8 ,its use8 ,what is said of this lubricating fluid8 ------------ #b;d4 ,in some cases of injury and disease1 the synovial fluid is secreted in large quantities1 and distends the sac of the joint4 ,this affection is called dropsy of the joint1 and occurs most frequently in that of the knee4 #abe4 ,the function of the ligaments is to connect and bind together the bones of the system4 ,by them the small bones of the wrist and foot1 as well as the large bones1 are as securely fastened as if retained by clasps of steel4 ,some of them are situated within the joints1 like a central cord1 or pivot1 7#c1 fig4 #bf47 ,some surround it like a hood1 and contain the lubricating synovial fluid1 7#h1 #i1 fig4 #be17 and some in the form of bands at the side1 7#e1 #f1 fig4 #bc47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 #h1 #i1 ,the ligaments that extend from the hip-bone 7#f7 to the femur1 7#e47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 #b1 ,the socket of the hip-joint4 #e1 ,the head of the femur1 which is lodged in the socket4 #c1 ,the ligament within the socket4 #abf4 ,by the ligaments the lower jaw is bound to the temporal bones1 and the head to the neck4 ,they extend the whole length of the spinal column1 in powerful bands1 on the outer surface1 between the spinal bones1 and from one spinous process to another4 ,they bind the ribs to the vertebr1 to the transverse process behind1 and to the sternum in front2 and this to the clavicle2 and this to the first rib and scapula2 and this last to the humerus4 ------------ ,what is the effect when the synovial fluid is secreted in large quantities8 #abe4 ,what is the function of the ligaments8 #abf4 ,mention how the bones of the system are connected4 ------------ #abg4 ,they also bind the two bones of the fore-arm at the elbow-joint2 and these to the wrist2 and these to each other and to those of the hand2 and these last to each other and to those of the fingers and thumb4 ,in the same manner1 they bind the bones of the pelvis together2 and these to the femur2 and this to the two bones of the leg and patella2 and so on1 to the ankle1 foot1 and toes1 as in the upper extremities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 #a1 ,a front view of the lateral ligaments of the finger-joints4 #b1 ,a view of the anterior ligaments 7a1 b17 of the finger-joints4 #c1 ,a side view of the lateral ligaments of the finger joints4 #abh4 ,the different joints vary in range of movement1 and in complexity of structure4 ,some permit motions in all directions1 as the shoulder2 some move in two directions1 permitting only flexion and extension of the part1 as the elbow2 while others have no movement1 as the bones of the head in the adult4 ------------ ,explain fig4 #bg4 #abh4 ,describe the variety of movements in the different joints4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 #a1 #a1 ,the spinal column4 #b1 ,the skull4 #c1 ,the lower jaw4 #d1 ,the sternum4 #e1 ,the ribs4 #f1 #f1 ,the cartilages of the ribs4 #g1 ,the clavicle4 #h1 ,the humerus4 #i1 ,the shoulder-joint4 #aj1 ,the radius4 #aa1 ,the ulna4 #ab1 ,the elbow joint4 #ac1 ,the wrist4 #ad1 ,the hand4 #ae1 ,the haunch-bone4 #af1 ,the sacrum4 #ag1 ,the hip-joint4 #ah1 ,the thigh-bone4 #ai1 ,the patella4 #bj1 ,the knee-joint4 #ba1 ,the fibula4 #bb1 ,the tibia4 #bc1 ,the ankle-joint4 #bd1 ,the foot4 #be1 #bf1 ,the ligaments of the clavicle1 sternum1 and ribs4 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 ,the ligaments of the shoulder1 elbow1 and wrist4 #cj1 ,the large artery of the arm4 #ca1 ,the ligaments of the hip-joint4 #cb1 ,the large blood-vessels of the thigh4 #cc1 ,the artery of the leg4 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 ,the ligaments of the patella1 knee1 and ankle4 ,note4 ,let the pupil1 in form of topics1 review the anatomy and physiology of the bones from fig4 #bh1 or from anatomical outline plates ,no4 #a and #b4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,bones4 #abi4 ,the bones increase in size and strength by use1 while they are weakened by inaction4 ,exercise favors the deposition of both animal and earthy matter1 by increasing the circulation and nutrition in this texture4 ,for this reason1 the bones of the laborer are dense and strong1 while those who neglect exercise1 or are unaccustomed to manual employment1 are deficient in size1 and have not a due proportion of earthy matter to give them the solidity and strength of the laboring man4 ,observation4 ,the tendons of the muscles are attached near the extremities of the bones4 ,exercise of the muscles increases the action of the vessels of that part to which the tendons are attached1 and thus increases the nutrition and size of this portion of the bone4 ,hence the joints of an industrious mechanic or farmer are larger than those of an individual who has not pursued manual vocations4 #acj4 ,the gelatinous bones of the child are not so well adapted for labor and severe exercise as those of an adult4 #ast4 ,they are liable to become distorted4 #b;d4 ,they are consolidated by the deposition of earthy material before they are fully and properly developed4 ,if a young animal1 as the colt1 be put to severe1 continued labor1 the deposition of earthy matter is hastened1 and the bones are consolidated before they attain full growth4 ,such colts make small and inferior animals4 ,similar results follow1 if a youth is compelled to toil unduly before maturity of growth is attained4 ,on the other hand1 moderate and regular labor favors a healthy development and consolidation of the bones4 ------------ #abi-adh4 ,give the hygiene of the bones4 #abi4 ,what effect has exercise upon the bones8 ,what effect has inaction8 ,why are the joints of the industrious farmer and mechanic larger than those of a person unaccustomed to manual employment8 #acj4 ,give the first reason why the bones of the child are not adapted to severe exercise4 ,the second reason4 ------------ #aca4 ,the kind and amount of labor should be adapted to the age1 health1 and development of the bones4 ,neither the flexible bones of the child nor the brittle bones of the aged man are adapted1 by their organization1 to long-continued1 and hard labor4 ,those of the one bend too easily1 while those of the other fracture too readily4 ,in middle age1 the proportions of animal and earthy matter are1 usually1 such as to give the proper degree of flexibility1 firmness1 and strength for labor1 with little liability to injury4 #acb4 ,the imperfectly developed bones of the young child will not bear long-continued exertions or positions without injury4 ,hence the requisitions of the rigid disciplinarian of schools1 are unwise when he compels his pupils to remain in one position for a long time4 ,he may have a quiet school2 but1 not unfrequently1 by such discipline1 the constitution is impaired1 and permanent injury is done to the pupils4 #acc4 ,the lower extremities1 in early life1 contain but a small proportion of earthy matter2 they bend when the weight of the body is thrown upon them for a long time4 ,hence1 the assiduous attempts to induce children to stand or walk1 either naturally or artificially1 when very young1 are ill advised1 and often productive of serious and permanent evil4 ,the bandy or bow legs are thus produced4 ------------ ,what effect has moderate1 regular labor upon the growing youth8 #aca4 ,what remark respecting the kind and amount of labor8 ,at what age are the bones best fitted for labor8 #acb4 ,what effect has long-continued exertions or positions on the bones of a child8 ,what is said of the requisitions of some teachers1 who have the famed quiet schools8 #acc4 ,why should not the child be induced to stand or walk1 either naturally or artificially1 at too early an age8 ------------ #acd4 ,the benches or chairs for children in a school-room should be of such a height as to permit the feet to rest on the floor4 ,if the bench is so high as not to permit the feet to rest upon the floor1 the weight of the limbs below the knee may cause the flexible bone of the thigh to become curved4 ,the child thus seated1 is inclined to lean forward1 contracting an injurious and ungraceful habit4 ,again1 when the feet are not supported1 the child soon becomes exhausted1 restless1 and unfit for study4 ,in the construction of a school-room1 the benches should be of different heights1 so as to be adapted to the different pupils1 and they should also have appropriate backs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,the position assumed when the seat is of proper height1 and the feet supported4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,the position a child naturally assumes when the seat is so high that the feet are not supported4 ------------ #acd4 ,what is said of the benches or chairs in a school-room8 ,what is represented by fig4 #bi8 ,by fig4 #cj8 ,what is the effect when the lower limbs are not supported8 ------------ #ace4 ,compression of the chest should be avoided4 ,in children1 and also in adults1 the ribs are very flexible1 and a small amount of pressure will increase their curvature1 particularly at the lower part of the chest1 and thus lessen the size of this cavity4 ,the lower ribs are united to the breast-bone1 by long1 yielding cartilages1 and compression may not only contract the chest1 but an unseemly and painful ridge may be produced1 by the bending of the cartilages1 on one or both sides of the sternum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,a natural and well-proportioned chest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,a chest fashionably deformed4 ------------ #ace4 ,why should compression of the chest be avoided8 ,what is represented by fig4 #ca8 ,by fig4 #cb8 ------------ #acf4 ,again1 the cartilages on one side may be bent outward1 while those on the opposite side are bent inward1 thus forming a depression parallel with the sternum4 ,in some instances1 the anterior extremity of the lower ribs on each side are brought nearly or quite together4 ,in these instances1 the movable extremities of the ribs are drawn down toward the haunch-bones1 while the space between the ribs is lessened4 ,all this may be effected by tight or snug clothing4 ,therefore the apparel of a child should be loose1 and supported over the shoulders1 to avoid the before-mentioned evils4 ,the same may be said of the clothing for adults4 #acg4 ,the erect position in sitting and standing should be assiduously observed4 ,the spinal column1 in its natural position1 curves from front to back1 but not from side to side ,the admirable arrangement of the bones1 alternating with cartilages1 permits a great variety of motions and positions2 and when the spine is inclined to either side1 the elasticity of its cartilages tends to restore it to its natural position4 ,for this reason we may incline the spinal column in any direction for a short time1 without danger of permanent curvature1 if1 afterward1 the erect position is assumed4#d #d ,compare #a1 #a1 ,fig4 #bh1 with #b1 #b1 #b1 ,fig4 #dh4 #ach4 ,but if a stooping position1 or a lateral curved posture1 is continued for a long time1 the spinal column does not easily recover its proper position1 for the compressed edges of the cartilages lose their power of reaction1 and finally one side of the cartilage becomes thinned1 while the other is thickened2 and these wedge-shaped cartilages produce a permanent curvature of the spinal column4 ,in a similar way1 the student1 seamstress1 artisan1 and mechanic acquire a stooping position1 and become round shouldered1 by inclining forward to bring their books or work nearer the eyes4 ------------ #acf4 ,may simply snug clothing compress the cartilages8 ,how should the apparel of a child be worn8 #acg4 ,in what direction does the spinal column1 in its natural position1 curve8 ,what restores it to its natural position when curved laterally8 #ach4 ,what is the effect if a lateral curved position of the spinal column is continued for a long time8 #aci4 ,when one shoulder is elevated for a long time1 what is the effect upon the spinal column8 ------------ #aci4 ,pupils1 while writing1 drawing1 and sometimes while studying1 frequently incline the spinal column to one side1 in order to accommodate themselves to the desks at which they are seated4 ,often1 these are higher than the elbow as it hangs from the shoulder while at rest4 ,this attitude elevates one shoulder while it depresses the other2 consequently1 the upper part of the spinal column is inclined toward the elevated shoulder1 and the lower part is curved in the opposite direction1 giving the form of the letter ,s to the supporting column of the body4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,the table is of proper height1 the position is correct1 and the spinal column1 #a1 #a1 is straight1 while the shoulders are of equal height4 ------------ ,what does fig4 #cc represent8 ------------ ,experiment4 ,let a pupil be placed at a desk or table with one elbow raised1 as is frequently seen while writing1 or at study1 and observe the condition of the shoulder and spinal column in this position4 ,place another pupil at a table no higher than the elbow when it hangs by the side while sitting1 and observe the appearance of the shoulders and spinal column4 ,by a comparison of the two attitudes1 the preceding remarks will be comprehended and appreciated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,the table is too high1 and the position is oblique and improper4 ,the right shoulder is seen higher than the left1 while the spinal column1 #a1 #a1 exhibits three curves4 #adj4 ,one shoulder may be elevated1 and no injurious results follow1 provided care is taken not to keep it in the raised position too long1 or if the opposite shoulder is elevated for the same period of time4 ,the right shoulder projects more frequently than the left4 ,this arises from the greater use of the right hand with the shoulder elevated1 and not unfrequently the oblique positions assumed in performing the daily vocations of life4 ,with proper care1 and by calling into action the left shoulder1 this deformity can be prevented4 ------------ ,what experiment is mentioned8 ,what does fig4 #cd represent8 #adj4 ,how can one shoulder be elevated and no injurious results follow8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,a representation of a deformed trunk4 #ada4 ,the loss of symmetry and diminution of height from deformed spines are minor considerations1 compared with the distortions that the chest experiences1 thereby impairing respiration and inducing diseases of the heart and lungs4 ,the invasion of the functions of these two important organs lessens the vitality of the whole system1 and causes general ill health4 ,again1 the curvature of the spinal column is frequently attended by irritation and disease of the spinal cord4 ------------ ,why does the right shoulder project more frequently than the left8 ,how can this deformity be prevented8 #ada4 ,what is said of deformed spinal columns8 ------------ #adb4 ,eminent physicians1 both in this country and ,france state that not more than one female in ten1 who has been fashionably educated1 is free from deformities of the shoulder or spinal column4 ,teachers1 as well as mothers1 should notice the positions of the child in performing the tasks allotted to it1 whether studying or pursuing any employment4 ,the feebler the organization of the child1 the more frequently should there be a change of position4 #adc4 ,when a slight projection of the shoulder1 with a curvature of the spine1 exists1 it can be improved by walking with a book1 or something heavier1 upon the head2 to balance which1 the spinal column must be nearly erect4 ,those people that carry burdens upon their heads seldom have crooked spines4 ,observation4 ,persons from the ,north1 in travelling through the ,southern ,states1 are surprised to see the heavy burdens that the porters carry on their heads4 ,it is not unusual to see them walking at a rapid pace1 with one or two trunks1 weighing fifty or eighty pounds each1 upon their heads4 ,occasionally1 we meet an itinerant toy-man1 with his tray of fragile merchandise upon his head1 walking with as much apparent security1 as though his toys1 or images1 were in his hands4 ,this is the easiest method of carrying burdens1 because the position of the head and spinal column is erect4 #add4 ,if the animal and earthy matter of the bones is not deposited in proper proportions1 they are deficient in strength4 ,if the gelatin predominates1 the bones are weak1 and become distorted4 ,when nutrition is defective in the cylindrical bones1 the heads are generally enlarged1 and the shafts crooked2 if in the spinal column1 it may be curved2 or in the cranium1 it may be enlarged4 ,this disease is familiarly known by the name of rickets4 ,it is most common among these who have poor and insufficient food1 live in dark1 damp rooms1 and breathe a vitiated air4 ,the prevention and remedies for this disease are cleanliness1 regular exercise1 pure air1 and nutritious food4 ------------ #adb4 ,what statement by eminent physicians respecting deformities of the spine8 ,what caution to teachers and mothers8 #adc4 ,why should we stand and sit erect8 ,how may slight deformities of the spine be prevented8 ,what is frequently noticed in travelling ,south8 #add4 ,what is the effect upon the bones when the gelatin preponderates8 ------------ #ade4 ,when a bone is broken1 some days elapse before the substance that reunites it is thrown out from the blood4 ,in young persons1 it may be secreted during the second or third week1 and in individuals advanced in life1 usually during the third and fourth week4 ,when the bone is uniting1 during the second1 third1 or fourth week1 the attention of a surgeon is more needed than during the first week4 ,at this time1 the ends of the bone should be placed together with accuracy1 which requires the careful application of proper dressing4 ,after the bones have united1 it will take some weeks to consolidate the uniting material and render the callus1 or union1 firm4 ,during this time1 the limb should be used with care4 ,observation4 ,when a bone is fractured1 a surgeon is immediately called1 and the bone is set4 ,while the limb remains swelled and painful1 the surgeon is required to attend and keep the dressings 7bandages and splints7 on4 ,when the swelling has abated1 and the pain subsided1 frequently the patient intimates to the surgeon that his services can be dispensed with1 as the limb is doing well4 ,this is the most important period1 as the bone is uniting1 and1 unless the ends are nicely adjusted1 the dressing properly applied1 the person will find1 on recovery1 a shortened and crooked limb4 ,the surgeon is then censured1 when he is not blamable4 ------------ ,what is one cause of rickets8 ,what are the prevention and remedies for this disease8 #ade4 ,does the time vary when the reuniting substance of the bone is secreted from the blood8 ,when is the surgeon's care most needed8 ,why8 ------------ #adf4 ,it is seldom that a bone is displaced without injury to the connecting ligaments and membranes4 ,when these connecting bands are lacerated1 pain1 swelling1 and other symptoms indicating inflammation succeed1 which should be removed by proper treatment1 directed by a surgical adviser4 #adg4 ,in sprains1 but few1 if any1 of the fibres of the connecting ligaments are lacerated2 but they are unduly strained and twisted1 which occasions acute pain at the time of the injury4 ,this is followed by inflammation and weakness of the joints4 ,the treatment of these injuries is similar to that of a dislocated bone after its reduction4 ,the most important item in the treatment during the few first days1 is rest4 #adh4 ,in persons of scrofulous constitutions1 and those in whom the system is enfeebled by disease1 white swellings and other chronic diseases of the joints frequently succeed sprains4 ,such persons cannot be too assiduous in adopting a proper and early treatment of injured joints4 ------------ #adf4 ,what parts are injured in the displacement of a bone8 #adg4 ,what causes the acute pain in sprains8 ,what is a good remedy for this kind of injury8 #adh4 ,what caution to persons of scrofulous constitutions8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,muscles4 #adi4 ,all the great motions of the body are caused by the movement of some of the bones which form the framework of the system2 but these1 independently of themselves1 have not the power of motion1 and only change their position through the action of other organs attached to them1 which1 by contracting1 draw the bones after them4 ,in some of the slight movements1 as the winking of the eye1 no bones are displaced4 ,these moving1 contracting organs are the ,muscles1 7lean meat47 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,muscles4 #aej4 ,the ,,muscles1 by their size and number1 constitute the great bulk of the body1 upon which they bestow form and symmetry4 ,in the limbs1 they are situated around the bones1 which they invest and defend1 while they form1 to some of the joints1 their principal protection4 ,in the trunk1 they are spread out to enclose cavities1 and constitute a defensive wall1 capable of yielding to internal pressure1 and reassuming its original state4 #aea4 ,in structure1 a muscle is composed of fas-cicu-li 7bundles of fibres7 of variable size4 ,these are enclosed in a cellular membranous investment1 or sheath4 ,every bundle composed of a number of small fibres1 and each fibre consists of a number of filaments1 each of which is enclosed in a delicate sheath4 ,toward the extremity of the organ the muscular fibre ceases1 and the cellular structure becomes aggregated1 and so modified as to constitute tendons1 7cords17 by which the muscle is tied to the surface of the bone4 ,the union is so firm1 that1 under extreme violence1 the bone will sooner break than permit the tendon to separate from its attachment4 ,in some situations1 there is an expansion of the tendon1 in the manner of a membrane1 called ,ap-o-neu-rosis1 or ,fasci-a4 ------------ #adi4 ,how are all the motions of the body produced8 ,what are these motor organs called8 #aej-afj4 ,give the anatomy of the muscles4 #aej4 ,what is said of the muscles8 #aea4 ,give their structure4 ------------ ,observation4 ,the pupil can examine a piece of boiled beef1 or the leg of a fowl1 and see the structure of the fibres and tendons of a muscle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 #a1 ,a representation of the direction and arrangement of the fibres in a fusiform1 or spindle-shaped muscle4 #b1 ,in a radiated muscle4 #c1 ,in a penniform muscle4 #d1 ,in a bipenniform muscle4 t1 t1 ,the tendons of a muscle4 #aeb4 ,muscles present various modifications in the arrangement of their fibres1 as relates to their tendinous structure4 ,sometimes they are completely longitudinal1 and terminate1 at each extremity1 in a tendon1 the entire muscle being spindle-shaped4 ,in other situations1 they are disposed like the rays of a fan1 converging to a tendinous point1 and constituting a radi-ate muscle4 ,again they are penni-form1 converging1 like the plumes of a pen1 to one side of a tendon1 which runs the whole length of the muscle2 or they are bi-penni-form1 converging to both sides of the tendon4 ------------ ,how are tendons or cords formed8 ,what is the expansion of a tendon called8 ,how can the structure of muscles and their fibres be shown8 ,what does fig4 #cf represent8 #aeb4 ,give the different arrangements of muscular fibres4 ------------ #aec4 ,in the description of a muscle1 its attachments are expressed by the terms origin and insertion4 ,the term origin is generally applied to the more fixed or central attachment1 or to the point toward which motion is directed2 while insertion is assigned to the more movable point1 or to that most distant from the centre4 ,the middle1 fleshy portion is called the belly1 or swell4 ,the color of a muscle is red in warm-blooded fish and animals2 and each fibre is supplied with arteries1 veins1 lymphatics1 and both sensitive and motor nervous filaments4 #aed4 ,the ,,fascia is of various extent and thickness1 distributed through the different regions of the body1 for the purpose of investing and protecting the softer and more delicate organs4 ,an instance is seen in the membrane which envelopes a leg of beef1 and which is observed on the edges of the slices when it is cut for broiling4 ,when freshly exposed1 it is brilliant in appearance1 tough1 and inelastic4 ,in the limbs it forms distinct sheaths to all the muscles4 #aee4 ,this tendinous membrane assists the muscles in their action1 by keeping up a tonic pressure on their surface4 ,it aids materially in the circulation of the fluids1 in opposition to the laws of gravity4 ,in the palm of the hand and sole of the foot1 it is a powerful protection to the structures that enter into the formation of these parts4 ,in all parts of the system1 the separate muscles are not only invested by fascia1 but they are arranged in layers1 one over another4 ,the sheath of each muscle is loosely connected with another1 by the cellular membrane4 ------------ #aec4 ,what is meant by the origin of a muscle8 ,the insertion8 ,the swell8 ,what is the color of muscles8 ,with what is each muscular fibre supplied8 #aed4 ,what is said of fascia8 ,what is its appearance when freshly exposed8 #aee4 ,what effect has it on the muscles8 ,give other uses of the fascia4 ------------ #aef4 ,the interstices between the different muscles are filled with adipose matter1 or fat4 ,this is sometimes called the packing of the system4 ,to the presence of this tissue1 youth are indebted for the roundness and beauty of their limbs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,a transverse section of the neck4 ,the separate muscles1 as they are arranged in layers1 with their investing fasci1 are beautifully represented4 ,as the system is symmetrical1 figures are placed only on one side4 ,in the trunk the muscles are arranged in layers1 surrounded by fasci1 as in the neck4 ,the same is true of the muscles of the upper and lower limbs4 #ab1 ,the trachea1 7windpipe47 #ac1 ,the oesophagus1 7gullet47 #ad1 ,the carotid artery and jugular vein4 #bh1 ,one of the bones of the spinal column4 ,the figures that are placed in the white spaces represent some of the fasci2 the other figures indicate muscles4 #aeg4 ,the muscles may be arranged1 in conformity with the general division of the body1 into four parts3 #ast4 ,those of the ,head and ,neck4 #b;d4 ,those of the ,trunk4 #c;d4 ,those of the ,upper ,extremities4 #dth4 ,those of the ,lower ,extremities4 ------------ #aef4 ,give a reason why the limbs of youth are rounder than those of the aged4 ,describe fig4 #cg4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,the superficial layer of muscles on the face and neck4 #a1 #a1 ,the occipito-frontalis muscle4 #b1 ,the orbicularis palpebrarum4 #f1 ,the levator labii superioris #g1 ,the levator anguli oris4 #h1 ,the zygomaticus minor4 #i1 ,the zygomaticus major #aj1 ,the masseter4 #aa1 ,the depressor labii superioris4 #ac1 ,the orbicularis oris4 #ae1 ,the depressor anguli oris4 #af1 ,the depressor labii inferioris4 #ah1 ,the sterno-hyoideus4 #ai1 ,the platysma-myodes4 #bj1 ,the superior belly of the omo-hyoideus4 #ba1 ,the sterno-cleido mastoideus4 #bj1 ,the scalenus medius4 #bc1 ,the inferior belly of the omo-hyoideus4 #bd1 ,the trapezius4#e ,practical ,explanation4 ,the muscle #a1 #a1 elevates the eyebrows4 ,the muscle #b closes the eye4 ,the muscle #f elevates the upper lip4 ,the muscles #g1 #h1 #i1 elevate the angle of the mouth4 ,the muscle #aj brings the teeth together when eating4 ,the muscle #aa depresses the upper lip4 ,the muscle #ac closes the mouth4 ,the muscle #ae depresses the angle of the mouth4 ,the muscle #af draws down the lower lip4 ,the muscles #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bc1 depress the lower jaw and larynx and elevate the sternum4 ,the muscle #ba1 when both sides contract1 draws the head forward1 or elevates the sternum2 when only one contracts1 the face is turned one side toward the opposite shoulder4 ,the muscles #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 aid in respiration4 #e ,in the plates illustrating the muscular system1 the names of such muscles are given as are referred to in the paragraph ,practical ,explanation4 ,these names need not be committed to memory4 ,if a pupil wishes to acquire a knowledge of the general attachment of the muscles represented in the plates1 he can do so by comparing the muscular plate with that of the skeleton1 7fig4 #bh47 ,observation4 ,when we are sick1 and cannot take food1 the body is sustained by absorption of the fat4 ,the removal of it into the blood causes the sunken cheek1 hollow eye1 and prominent appearance of the bones after a severe illness4 #aeh4 ,the number of muscles in the human body is more than five hundred2 in general1 they form about the skeleton two layers1 and are distinguished into superficial and deep-seated muscles4 ,some of the muscles are voluntary in their motions1 or act under the government of the will1 as those which move the fingers1 limbs1 and trunk2 while others are involuntary1 or act under the impression of their proper stimulants1 without the control of the individual1 as the heart4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,the abdominal muscles are expiratory1 and the chief agents for expelling the residuum from the rectum1 the bile from the gall bladder1 the contents of the stomach and bowels when vomiting1 and the mucus and irritating substances from the bronchial tubes1 trachea1 and nasal passages by coughing and sneezing4 ,to produce these effects they all act together4 ,their violent and continued action sometimes produces hernia1 and1 when spasmodic1 may occasion ruptures of the different organs4 #b;d4 ,the contraction and relaxation of the abdominal muscles and diaphragm stimulate the stomach1 liver1 and intestines to a healthy action1 and are subservient to the digestive powers4 ,if the contractility of their muscular fibres is destroyed or impaired1 the tone of the digestive apparatus will be diminished1 as in indigestion and costiveness4 ,this is frequently attended by a displacement of those organs1 as they generally gravitate towards the lower portion of the abdominal cavity1 when the sustaining muscles lose their tone and become relaxed4 ------------ ,what causes the hollow eye and sunken cheek after a severe sickness8 #aeh4 ,how many muscles in the human system8 ,into how many layers are they arranged8 ,what is a voluntary muscle8 ,give examples4 ,what is an involuntary muscle8 ,mention examples4 ,give observation #ast1 respecting the use of the abdominal muscles8 ,observation #b;d4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,a front view of the muscles of the trunk4 ,on the left side the superficial layer is seen2 on the right1 the deep layer4 #a1 ,the pectoralis major muscle4 #b1 ,the deltoid muscle4 #f1 ,the pectoralis minor muscle4 #i1 ,the coracoid process of the scapula4 #aa1 ,the external intercostal muscle4 #ab1 ,the external oblique muscle #ac1 ,its aponeurosis4 #af1 ,the rectus muscle of the right side4 #ah1 ,the internal oblique muscle4 ,practical ,explanation4 ,the muscle #a draws the arm by the side1 and across the chest1 and likewise draws the scapula forward4 ,the muscle #b elevates the arm4 ,the muscle #f elevates the ribs when the scapula is fixed1 or draws the scapula forward and downward when the ribs are fixed4 ,the muscles #ab1 #af1 #ah1 bend the body forward or elevate the hips when the muscles of both sides act4 ,they likewise depress the rib in expiration4 ,when the muscles on only one side act1 the body is twisted to the same side4 ------------ ,explain fig4 #ci4 ,give the function of some of the most prominent muscles1 from this figure4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,a lateral view of the muscles of the trunk4 #c1 ,the upper part of the external oblique muscle4 #d1 ,two of the external intercostal muscles4 #e1 ,two of the internal intercostals4 #f1 ,the transversalis muscle4 #g1 ,its posterior aponeurosis4 #h1 ,its anterior aponeurosis4 #aa1 ,the right rectus muscle4 #ac1 ,the crest of the ilium1 or haunch-bone4 ,practical ,explanation4 ,the rectus muscle1 #aa1 bends the thorax upon the abdomen when the lower extremity of the muscle is the fixed point2 but when the upper extremity is the fixed point1 the effect is to bring forward and raise the pelvis and lower extremities4 ,they likewise depress the ribs in respiration4 ,the transverse muscle1 #f1 #g1 #h1 lessens the cavity of the abdomen1 and presses the intestines2 stomach1 and liver upward1 against the diaphragm1 in expiration4 #c;d4 ,the region of the back1 in consequence of its extent1 is common to the neck1 the upper extremities1 and the abdomen4 ,the muscles of which it is composed are numerous1 and are arranged in six layers4 ------------ ,what is represented by fig4 #dj8 ,give the function of some of the muscles represented by this figure4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da ,the first1 second1 and part of the third layer of muscles of the back4 ,the first layer is shown on the right1 and the second on the left side4 #a1 ,the trapezius muscle4 #b1 ,the spinous processes of the vertebr4 #c1 ,the acromion process and spine of the scapula4 #d1 ,the latissimus dorsi muscle4 #e1 ,the deltoid muscle4 #g1 ,the external oblique muscle4 #h1 ,the gluteus medius muscle4 #i1 ,the gluteus maximus muscle1 #aa1 #ab1 ,the rhomboideus major and minor muscles4 #ae1 ,the vertebral aponeurosis4 #af1 ,the serratus posticus inferior muscle4 #bb1 ,the serratus magnus muscle4 #bc1 ,the internal oblique muscle4 ,practical ,explanation4 ,the muscles #a1 #aa1 #ab1 draw the scapula back toward the spine4 ,the muscles #aa1 #ab1 draw the scapula upward toward the head1 and slightly backward4 ,the muscle #d draws the arm by the side1 and backward1 ,the muscle #e elevates the arm4 ,the muscles #h1 #i1 extend the thigh on the body4 ,the muscle #a draws the head back and elevates the chin4 ,the muscle #af depresses the ribs in expiration4 ,the muscle #bb elevates the ribs in inspiration4 #aei4 ,the diaphragm1 or midriff1 is the muscular division between the thorax and the abdomen4 ,it is penetrated by the oesophagus on its way to the stomach1 by the aorta conveying blood toward the lower extremity1 and by the ascending vena cava1 or vein1 on its way to the heart4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,a representation of the under1 or abdominal side of the diaphragm4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,the portion which is attached to the margin of the ribs4 #h1 #aj1 ,the two fleshy pillars of the diaphragm1 which are attached to the third and fourth lumbar vertebr4 #i1 ,the spinal column4 #aa1 ,the opening for the passage of the aorta4 #ab1 ,the opening for the oesophagus4 #ac1 ,the opening for the ascending vena cava1 or vein4 ,observation4 ,the diaphragm may be compared to an inverted basin1 its bottom being turned upward into the thorax1 while its edge corresponds with the outline of the edges of the lower ribs and sternum4 ,its concavity is directed toward the abdomen1 and thus1 this cavity is very much enlarged at the expense of that of the chest1 which is diminished to an equal extent4 ------------ #aei4 ,describe the diaphragm4 ,what vessels penetrate this muscular septum8 ------------ #afj4 ,the motions of the fingers do not merely result from the action of the large muscles which lie on the fore-arm1 these being concerned more especially in the stronger actions of the hands4 ,the finer and more delicate movements of the fingers are performed by small muscles situated in the palm and between the bones of the hand1 and by which the fingers are expanded and moved in all directions with wonderful rapidity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,a front view of the superficial layer of muscles of the fore-arm4 #e1 ,the flexor carpi radialis muscle4 #f1 ,the palmaris longus muscle4 #g1 ,one of the fasciculi of the flexor sublimis digitorum muscle1 7the rest of the muscle is seen beneath the tendons of the pintails longus47 #h1 ,the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle4 #i1 ,the palmar fascia4 #aa1 ,the abductor pollicis muscle4 #ab1 ,one portion of the flexor orevis pollicis muscle4 #ac1 ,the supinator longus muscle4 #ad1 ,the extensor ossis metacarpi1 and extensor primi internodii pollicis muscles1 curving around the lower border of the fore-arm4 #ae1 ,the anterior portion of the annular ligament1 which binds the tendons in their places4 ,practical ,explanation4 ,the muscles #e1 #f1 #h1 bend the wrist on the bones of the fore-arm4 ,the muscle #g bends the second range of finger-bones on the first4 ,the muscle #aa draws the thumb from the fingers4 ,the muscle #ab flexes the thumb4 ,the muscle #ac turns the palm of the hand upward4 ,the muscles #h1 #ac1 #ad1 move the hand laterally4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,a back view of the superficial layer of muscles of the fore-arm4 #e1 ,the extensor carpi radialis longior muscle4 #f1 ,the extensor carpi radialis brevior muscle4 #g1 ,the tendons of insertion of these two muscles4 #h1 ,the extensor communis digitorum muscle4 #i1 ,the extensor minimi dlgiti muscle4 #aj1 ,the extensor carpi ulnaris muscle4 #ac1 ,the extensor ossis metacarpi and extensor primi internodii muscles1 lying together4 #ad1 ,the extensor secundi internodii muscle2 its tendon is seen crossing the two tendons of the extensor carpi radialis longior and brevior muscles4 #ae1 ,the posterior annular ligament4 ,the tendons of the common extensor muscle of the fingers are seen on the back of the hand1 and their mode of distribution on the back of the fingers4 ,practical ,explanation4 ,the muscles #e1 #f1 #aj1 extend the wrist on the fore-arm4 ,the muscle #h extends the fingers4 ,the muscle #i extends the little finger4 ,the muscles #ac extend the metacarpal bone of the thumb1 and its first phalanx4 ,the muscle #ad extends the last bone of the thumb4 ,the muscles #aj1 #ac1 #ad1 move the hand laterally4 ------------ #afj4 ,where are the muscles situated that effect the larger movements of the hand8 ,that perform the delicate movements of the fingers8 ,give the use of some of the muscles represented by fig4 #dc4 ,those represented by fig4 #dd4 ------------ ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,muscles4 #afa4 ,the muscles exercise great influence upon the system4 ,it is by their contraction that we are enabled to pursue different employments4 ,by their action the farmer cultivates his fields1 the mechanic wields his tools1 the sportsman pursues his game1 the orator gives utterance to his thoughts1 the lady sweeps the keys of the piano1 and the young are whirled in the mazy dance4 ,as the muscles bear so intimate a relation to the pleasures and employments of man1 a knowledge of the laws by which their action is governed1 and the conditions upon which their health depends1 should be possessed by all4 #afb4 ,the peculiar characteristic of muscular fibres is contractility1 or the power of shortening their substance on the application of stimuli1 and again relaxing when the stimulus is withdrawn4 ,this is illustrated in the most common movements of life4 ,call into action the muscles that elevate the arm1 by the influence of the will1 or mind1 7the common stimulus of the muscles17 and the hand and arm are raised2 withdraw this influence by a simple effort of the will1 and the muscles1 before rigid and tense1 become relaxed and yielding4 #afc4 ,the contractile effect of the muscles1 in producing the varied movements of the system1 may be seen in the bending of the elbow4 ,the tendon of one extremity of the muscle is attached to the shoulder-bone1 which acts as a fixed point2 the tendon of the other extremity is attached to one of the bones of the fore-arm4 ,when the swell of the muscle contracts1 or shortens1 its two extremities approach nearer each other1 and by the approximation of the terminal extremities of the muscle1 the joint at the elbow bends4 ,on this principle1 all the joints of the system are moved4 ,this is illustrated by fig4 #de4 ------------ #afa-agb4 ,give the physiology of the muscles4 #afa4 ,what are some of the influences exerted by the muscles on the system8 #afb4 ,what is peculiar to muscular fibres8 ,how is this illustrated8 #afc4 ,explain how the movements of the system are effected by the contraction of the muscles4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,a representation of the manner in which all of the joints of the body are moved4 #a1 ,the bone of the arm above the elbow4 #b1 ,one of the bones below the elbow4 #c1 ,the muscle that bends the elbow4 ,this muscle is united1 by a tendon1 to the bone below the elbow1 7#d17 at the other extremity1 to the bone above the elbow1 7#e17 #f1 ,the muscle that extends the elbow4 #g1 ,its attachment to the point of the elbow4 #h1 ,a weight in the hand to be raised4 ,the central part of the muscle #c contracts1 and its two ends are brought nearer together4 ,the bones below the elbow are brought to the lines shown by #i1 #aj1 #aa4 ,the weight is raised in the direction of the curved line4 ,when the muscle #f contracts1 the muscle #c relaxes and the fore-arm is extended4 ,experiments4 #ast4 ,clasp the arm midway between the shoulder and elbow1 with the thumb and fingers of the opposite hand4 ,when the arm is bent1 the inside muscle will become hard and prominent1 and its tendon at the elbow rigid1 while the muscle on the opposite side will become flaccid4 ,extend the arm at the elbow1 and the outside muscle will swell and become firm1 while the inside muscle and its tendon at the elbow will be relaxed4 ------------ ,explain fig4 #de4 ,give experiment #ast4 ------------ #b;d4 ,clasp the fore-arm about three inches below the elbow1 then open and shut the fingers rapidly1 and the swelling and relaxation of the muscles on the opposite sides of the arms1 alternating with each other1 will be felt1 corresponding with the movement of the fingers4 ,while the fingers are bending1 the inside muscles swell1 and the outside ones become flaccid2 and1 while the fingers are extending1 the inside muscles relax1 and the outside ones swell4 ,the alternate swelling and relaxation of antagonist muscles may be felt in the different movements of the limbs4 #afd4 ,each fibre of the several muscles receives from the brain1 through the nervous filament appropriated to it1 a certain influence1 called nervous fluid1 or stimulus4 ,it is this that induces contraction1 while the suspension of this stimulus causes relaxation of the fibres4 ,by this arrangement1 the action of the muscular system1 both as regards duration and power1 is1 to a limited extent1 under the control of the mind4 ,the more perfect the control1 the better the education of the muscular system2 as is seen in the graceful1 effective1 and well-educated movements of musicians1 dancers1 skaters1 c4 #afe4 ,the length of time which a muscle may remain contracted1 varies4 ,the duration of the contraction of the voluntary muscles1 in some measure1 is in an inverse ratio to its force4 ,if a muscle has contracted with violence1 as when great effort is made to raise a heavy weight1 relaxation will follow sooner than when the contraction has been less powerful1 as in raising light bodies4 #aff4 ,the velocity of the muscular contraction depends on the will4 ,many of the voluntary muscles in man contract with great rapidity1 so that he is enabled to utter distinctly fifteen hundred letters in a minute2 the pronunciation of each letter requiring both relaxation and contraction of the same muscle1 thus making three thousand actions in one minute4 ,but the contraction of the muscles of some of the inferior animals surpasses in rapidity those of man4 ,the race-horse1 it is said1 has run a mile in a minute2 and many birds of prey will probably pass not less than a thousand miles daily4 ------------ ,give experiment #b;d4 #afd4 ,with what is each muscular fibre supplied8 ,what effect has this stimulus on the muscles8 #afe4 how long does a voluntary muscle remain contracted8 #aff4 ,on what is the velocity of muscular contraction dependent8 ,how many letters may be pronounced in a minute8 ------------ #afg4 ,the functions of the involuntary muscles are necessary the digestion of food1 the absorption and circulation of the nutritive fluids4 ,they could not be trusted with safety to the control of the will1 lest the passions or the indiscretions of the person should continually avert those operations so necessary to health1 and even to life4 ,the ,divine ,builder of this complicated machine has wisely ordered that the muscles upon which these motions depend1 shall act under the impression of their proper stimulants1 without the control of the individual4 #afh4 ,again1 there are certain operations which could not be safely intrusted to the absolute government of the voluntary muscles1 or entirely removed from their control4 ,thus life can be supported only a few minutes without breathing2 but it would be impossible to perform the daily vocations of life if we were compelled to breathe at all times1 or at perfectly regular intervals4 #afi4 ,it has been observed that1 among men of the same size1 a wide difference exists in their strength and activity--qualities which depend upon the size and number of the nerves1 the size and activity of the brain1 and the education1 or training of the muscles4 ,men having large nerves leading to the muscles1 with the brain active1 and muscles well trained will perform feats of strength and agility1 that other men1 of the same size1 cannot effect4 ,rope-dancers1 harlequins1 and other performers of feats1 are persons thus constituted4 ------------ ,how many contractions and relaxations of the same muscle8 ,what is said of the rapidity of muscular contractions in other animals8 #afg4 ,when are the involuntary muscles called into action8 ,why would it not have been safe to trust these important operations to the exclusive control of the will8 #afh4 ,give an instance where some of the muscles act under the government of the will1 conjoined with those that are involuntary4 #afi4 ,on what does the difference in muscular activity and strength depend8 ------------ #agj4 ,persons with small muscles1 and largely developed nervous systems1 will sometimes exhibit very great muscular power for a time2 but it will not be of long continuance1 unless the brain is functionally diseased1 as in hysteria1 delirium of fever1 insanity1 c4 ,men of large muscles and small nerves can never perform feats of great strength2 but they have the power of endurance1 and are better capacitated for continued labor4 ,thus we cannot judge of the ability of persons to make exertions and continue them1 by their stature alone4 ,strength1 and the power of endurance1 are the result of a combination of well-developed muscles1 large nerves1 and a full-sized1 healthy1 and active brain4 ,observation4 ,the muscles of fishes are large1 and the nerves distributed to them1 comparatively small4 ,the muscles of birds are small1 but their fibres are very compact4 ,the nerves appropriated to the muscles that are called into action in flying1 are large as well as numerous4 #aga4 ,the contractile portion of a muscle is1 in general1 at a distance from the part to be moved4 ,thus the principal muscles that move the fingers are situated upon the forearm2 and when the limb is nearly or quite extended1 the angle formed by the part to be moved and the contractile muscles is small4 ,again1 the attachment of the muscles to the part to be moved is near the joint that forms the fulcrum1 7fig4 #de47 ,by these arrangements there is a loss of power2 but we are compensated for this disadvantage by increased celerity of movement1 beauty of form1 and adaptation of the limbs to the varied pursuits of man4 ------------ #agj4 ,what is said of those persons who have small muscles and largely developed nervous systems8 ,of those who have large muscles and small nerves8 ,upon what do strength and the power of endurance depend8 #aga4 ,why is there a loss of power in the action of the muscles8 ------------ ,illustration4 ,the muscle that bends the elbow acts at disadvantage1 and this is greatest when the arm is nearly or quite extended1 as the angle of action is then least4 ,this disadvantage is further increased by the attachment of the motive muscles near the joint4 #agb4 ,the number of muscles which are called into action in the movements of the different joints1 varies4 ,the hinge-joints1 as the elbow1 have two sets of muscles--one to bend the joint1 the other to extend it4 ,the ball and socket joints1 as the shoulder1 are not limited to mere flexion and extension4 ,no joint in the system has the range of movement that is possessed by that of the shoulder4 ,by the action of the muscles attached to the arm1 it is not only carried upward and forward1 but forward and backward4 ,hence the arm may be moved at any angle1 by a combined action of its muscles4 ,observation4 ,could we behold properly the muscular fibres in operation1 nothing1 as a mere mechanical exhibition1 can be conceived more superb than the intricate and combined actions that must take place during our most common movements4 ,look at a person running or leaping1 or watch the motions of the eye4 ,how rapid1 how delicate1 how complicated1 and yet how accurate1 are the motions required6 ,think of the endurance of such a muscle as the heart1 that can contract1 with a force equal to sixty pounds1 seventy-five times every minute1 for eighty years together1 without being weary4 ,note4 ,it would be a profitable exercise for pupils to press their fingers upon prominent muscles1 and1 at the same time1 vigorously contract them1 not only to learn their situations1 but their use2 as the one that bends the arm1 #ad1 fig4 #df4 ------------ ,how is this illustrated8 #agb4 ,do all joints require the same number of muscles1 when called into action8 ,how many are called into action in the movement of the elbow8 ,what is their office8 ,what is said of the movement of the ball and socket joint8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,an anterior view of the muscles of the body4 #a4 ,the frontal swell of the occipito-frontalis4 #b1 ,the orbicularis palpebrarum4 #c1 ,the levator labli superioris4 #d1 ,the zygomaticus major4 #e1 ,the zygomaticus minor4 #f1 ,the masseter4 #g1 ,the orbicularis oris4 #h1 ,the depressor labli inferioris4 #i4 ,the platysma myodes4 #aj1 ,the deltoid4 #aa1 ,the pectoralis major4 #ab1 ,the latissimus dorsi4 #ad1 ,the biceps flexor cubiti4 #ae1 ,the triceps extensor cubiti4 #af1 ,the supinator radii longus4 #ah1 ,the flexor carpi radialis longior4 #ai1 ,the flexor communis digitorum4 #bj1 ,the annular ligament4 #ba1 ,the palmar fascia4 #bb1 ,the obliquus externus abdominis4 #bf1 ,the psoas magnus4 #bg1 ,the adductor longus4 #bh1 ,the sartorius4 #bi1 ,the rectus femoris4 #cj1 ,the vastus externus4 #ca1 ,the vastus internus4 #cb1 ,the tendon patell4 #cc1 ,the gastrocnemius4 #cd1 ,the tibialis anticus4 #cf1 ,the tendons of the extensor digitorum communis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,a posterior view of the muscles of the body4 #c1 ,the complexus4 #d1 ,the splenius4 #e1 ,the masseter4 #f1 ,the sterno-cleido mastoideus4 #g1 ,the trapezius4 #h1 ,the deltoid4 #aj1 ,the triceps extensor4 #ac1 ,the tendinous portion of the triceps4 #ad1 ,the anterior edge of the triceps4 #ae1 ,the supinator radii longus4 #ag1 ,the extensor communis digitorum4 #ah1 ,the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis4 #ai1 ,the tendons of the extensor communis digitorum4 #bj1 ,the olecranon process of the ulna and insertion of the triceps4 #ba1 ,the extensor carpi ulnaris4 #bb1 ,the extensor communis digitorum4 #bd1 ,the latissimus dorsi4 #be1 ,its tendinous origin4 #bf1 ,the obliquus externus4 #bg1 ,the gluteus medius4 #bh1 ,the gluteus magnus4 #bi1 ,the biceps flexor cruris4 #cj1 ,the semi-tendinosus4 #ca1 #cb1 ,the gastrocnemius4 #cc1 ,the tendo ,achillis4 ,practical ,explanation4 ,the muscle #a1 fig4 #df1 by its contraction1 raises the eyebrows4 ,the muscle #b1 fig4 #df1 closes the eyelids4 ,the muscle #c1 fig4 #df1 elevates the upper lip4 ,the muscles #d1 #e1 fig4 #df1 elevate the angles of the mouth4 ,the muscles #f1 fig4 #df1 and #e1 fig4 #dg1 bring the teeth together4 ,the muscle #g1 fig4 #df1 closes the mouth4 ,the muscle #h1 fig4 #df1 depresses the lower lip4 ,the muscles #i1 fig4 #df1 and #f1 fig4 #dg1 bend the neck forward4 ,the muscles #c1 #d1 fig4 #dg1 elevate the head and chin4 ,the muscle #bb1 fig4 #df1 bends the body forward1 and draws the ribs downward4 ,the muscle #aa1 fig4 #df1 brings the shoulder forward4 ,the muscle #g1 fig4 #dg1 draws the shoulder back4 ,the muscles #aj1 fig4 #df1 and #h1 fig4 #dg1 elevate the arm4 ,the muscles #aa1 fig4 #df1 and #bd1 fig4 #dg1 bring the arm to the side4 ,the muscle #ad1 fig4 #df1 bends the arm at the elbow4 ,the muscle #aj1 fig4 #dg1 extends the arm at the elbow4 ,the muscles #af1 #ah1 fig4 #df1 bend the wrist and fingers4 ,the muscle #ai bends the fingers4 ,the muscles #ah1 #ba1 #bc1 fig4 #dg1 extend the wrist4 ,the muscle #bc1 fig4 #dg1 extends the fingers4 ,the muscles #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 fig4 #df1 bend the lower limbs on the body1 at the hip4 ,the muscle #bh1 fig4 #df1 draws one leg over the other1 7the position of a tailor when sewing47 ,the muscles #bg1 #bh1 fig4 #dg1 extend the lower limbs on the body1 at the hip4 ,the muscles #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 fig4 #df1 extend the leg at the knee4 ,the muscles #bi1 #cj1 fig4 #dg1 bend the leg at the knee4 ,the muscles #cd1 #cf1 fig4 #df1 bend the foot at the ankle1 and extend the toes4 ,the muscles #ca1 #cb1 #cc1 fig4 #dg1 extend the foot at the ankle4 ,note4 ,let the anatomy and physiology of the muscular system be reviewed1 in form of topics1 from figs #df1 #dg1 or from the anatomical outline plates ,no4 #c and #d4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,muscles #agc4 ,the muscles should be used1 in order that the size and strength of these organs may be adequate to the demand made upon them4 ,it is a law of the system that the action and power of an organ are commensurate1 to a certain extent1 with the demand made upon it2 and it is a law of the muscular system that1 whenever a muscle is called into frequent use1 its fibres increase in thickness within certain limits1 and become capable of acting with greater force2 while1 on the contrary1 the muscle that is little used decreases in size and power4 ,illustrations4 #ast4 ,the blacksmith uses and rests the muscles of his arm when striking upon the anvil4 ,they not only increase in size1 but become very firm and hard4 #b;d4 ,the student uses the muscles of the arm but little1 in holding his books and pen2 they not only become small1 but soft4 #c;d4 ,let the student leave his books1 and wield an iron sledge1 and the muscles of his arm will increase in size and firmness4 ,on the other hand1 let the blacksmith assume the student's vocation1 and the muscles of his arm will become soft and less firm4 #agd4 ,when the muscles are called into action1 the flow of blood in the arteries and veins is increased4 ,the increased flow of blood in the arteries and veins1 causes a more rapid deposition of the particles of matter of which the muscles are composed4 ,if the exercise is adequate to the power of the system1 the deposit of new material will exceed in quantity the particles of matter removed1 and both the size and energy of the muscles are increased4 ,but there is a limit to the muscles becoming strong by labor4 ,sooner or later1 man will attain his growth or power2 yet by judicious exercise1 care1 and discreet management1 the greatest power of the muscles may be preserved until advanced age4 ------------ #agc-baa4 ,give the hygiene of the muscles4 #agc4 ,what is necessary that muscles may attain size and strength8 ,give a law of the muscular system4 ,show this by practical illustrations4 #agd4 ,why do muscles increase in size when exercised8 ------------ #age4 ,the muscles are lessened in size and diminished in power when the exercise is continued so as to produce a feeling of exhaustion4 ,the loss of material1 in this instance1 will exceed the deposition of the atoms of matter4 ,this is seen in the attenuated frames of over-tasked domestic animals1 as the horse4 ,the same truth is illustrated by the laborious agriculturist1 who1 in consequence of too severe toil while gathering the products of the field1 frequently diminishes his weight several pounds in a few weeks4 ,exercise1 either for pleasure or profit1 may fatigue1 yet it should never be protracted to languor or exhaustion1 if the individual desires a green old age4 #agf4 ,the same amount of exercise will not conduce to the health of all individuals4 ,if riding or walking one mile causes slight fatigue1 this may be beneficial2 while1 by travelling two miles1 the exhaustion may be highly injurious4 ,exercise and labor should be adapted to the strength of particular individuals4 ,how little soever the strength1 that must be the measure of exertion4 ,any other rule would be fatal to the hopes of invigorating the system1 either by exercise or labor4 ------------ ,is there a limit to the muscles becoming powerful by action8 ,how may the strength of muscles be kept until advanced age8 #age4 ,what is the effect when exercise is continued until there is a feeling of exhaustion8 ,give a practical illustration4 ,what rule is mentioned in regard to exercise8 #agf4 ,can all persons take the same amount of exercise8 ,what rule is given as to the amount of exercise8 ------------ #agg4 ,relaxation must follow contraction1 or1 in other words1 rest must follow exercise4 ,the necessity of relaxation1 when a muscle has been called into action1 is seen in the example of a boy extending his arm with a book in his hand1 as a penalty4 ,the boy can keep the arm extended but a short time1 make what effort he may4 ,it is also seen in the restlessness and feverish excitement that are evinced by persons gazing on troops during days of review4 ,the same is noted in shopping4 ,such employments call into action the muscles that support the spinal column in an erect position1 and the languor or uneasiness is muscular pain4 ,the long-continued tension of a muscle enfeebles its action1 and eventually destroys its contractility4 #agh4 ,in school1 the small children1 after sitting a short time1 become restless4 ,if their position be changed1 their imperfectly developed muscles will acquire tone1 and will again support the spinal column erect without pain4 ,the necessity for frequent recesses in school1 is founded on the organic law of muscular action alternating with rest4 ,the younger and feebler pupils are1 the greater the necessity for frequent recesses4 ,we would not have the teacher think that one half of the time should be spent in recesses2 or the mother1 that her daughter is going to school to play4 ,but we do maintain that recesses should be given1 and that they should be short and frequent1 especially for small and feeble scholars4 #agi4 ,exhaustion is the inevitable result of continued muscular contraction4 ,for example1 let a lady ply the needle quickly for some hours1 and the muscles of the back and right arm will become exhausted1 which will be indicated by a sense of weariness in these parts4 ,a change of employment and position calls into action a different set of muscles1 and the exhausted organs are relieved4 ------------ #agg4 ,what is said of the contraction and relaxation of the muscles8 ,give examples of the necessity of relaxing the muscles4 #agh4 ,why should not small children be confined in one position for a long time8 ,what evils result from this practice8 ,what class of pupils should have recesses most frequently8 #agi4 ,what effect has continued muscular contraction8 ------------ #ahj4 ,much more labor will be accomplished by taking time to relax the exhausted muscles1 or by so changing the employment as to bring into action a new set of muscles2 the woodman thus relieves himself1 by sawing and splitting alternately4 ,this principle applies to the labor of the horse and ox2 and it is also applicable to all kinds of employment4 ,with the invalid convalescing from fever1 relapses result from inattention to these laws4 ,when a patient is recovering from sickness1 his physician should take care that his exercise be proper1 neither too much1 too little1 nor too long continued4 #aha4 ,the muscles of growing youths will not endure so much exercise or labor as those of mature men4 ,in youth a portion of the vital1 or nervous energy of the system1 is expended upon the growth of the organs of the body1 while in the individual who has attained his growth1 this expenditure is not demanded2 consequently severe labor or exercise should not be imposed on growing children4 ,observation4 ,in the campaigns of ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 his army was frequently recruited by mere boys4 ,he complained to the ,french government1 because he was not supplied with men of mature years1 as the youths could not endure the exertion of his forced marches4 #ahb4 ,the muscles should be gradually called into action4 ,these organs in action require more blood and nervous fluid than when at rest4 ,as the circulation of these fluids can only be increased in a gradual manner1 it follows1 that1 when the muscular system has been in a state of rest1 it should not suddenly be called into vigorous action4 ,on arising from a bed1 lounge1 or chair1 the first movements of the limbs should be slow1 and then gradually increased4 ,observation4 if a man has a certain amount of work to perform in nine hours1 and his muscles have been in a state of rest1 he will do it with less fatigue by performing half the amount of the labor in five hours1 and the remainder in four hours4 ,the same principle should be regarded in driving horses and other beasts of burden4 ------------ #ahj4 ,how can the greatest amount of labor be secured with the least exhaustion to the muscles8 #aha4 ,why should not severe labor be imposed on growing children8 #ahb4 ,how should the muscles be called into action8 ------------ #ahc4 ,the muscles should be rested gradually1 when they have been vigorously used4 ,if a person has been making great muscular exertion in cutting wood1 or any other employment1 instead of sitting down to rest1 he should continue muscular action1 for a short time1 by some moderate labor or amusement4 #ahd4 ,if the system has been heated by muscular action1 and the skin is covered with perspiration1 avoid sitting down to cool in a current of air2 rather1 put on more clothing1 and continue to exercise moderately4 ,in instances when severe action of the muscles has been endured1 bathing and rubbing the skin of the limbs and joints that have been used1 are of much importance4 ,the laboring agriculturist and industrious mechanic1 by reducing to practice this suggestion1 would thus prevent soreness of the muscles1 and stiffness of the joints4 #ahe4 ,the muscles should be abundantly supplied with pure blood4 ,this state of the circulating fluid requires a healthy condition of the digestive apparatus1 and that the skin should be kept warm by proper clothing1 clean by bathing1 and be acted upon by pure air and good light2 the movements of the ribs and diaphragm should be unrestricted1 and the lungs should have ample volume and be supplied with pure air4 ,in all instances1 muscular power is greatest when the preceding conditions exist1 as the muscles are then stimulated by pure blood2 consequently1 it is of practical importance to the mechanic1 the farmer1 the man of leisure1 and not less so to the ladies1 to observe these conditions1 whatever vocation of life they pursue4 ------------ #ahc4 ,how should the muscles be rested when they have been vigorously used8 #ahd4 ,what precaution is given when the skin is covered with perspiration8 ,how may soreness of the muscles1 consequent upon severe action1 be prevented8 #ahe4 ,should the muscles be supplied with pure blood8 ,when is muscular power the greatest8 ------------ #ahf4 ,the muscles should be used in pure air4 ,the purer the air we breathe1 the more stimulating the blood supplied to the muscles1 and the longer they can be used in labor1 walking1 or sitting1 without fatigue and injury2 hence the benefit derived in thoroughly ventilating all inhabited rooms4 ,for the same reason1 if the air of the sick-room is pure1 the patient will sit up longer than when the air is impure4 ,observation4 ,it is a common remark that sick persons will sit up longer when riding in a carriage1 than in an easy chair in the room where they have lain sick4 ,in the one instance1 they breathe pure air2 in the other1 usually1 a confined1 impure air4 #ahg4 ,the muscles should be exercised in the light4 ,light1 particularly that of the sun1 exercises more or less influence on man and the inferior animals as well as on plants4 ,both require the stimulus of this agent4 ,shops occupied by mechanics1 kitchens1 and sitting-rooms1 should be well lighted1 and situated on the sunny side of the house4 ,cellar kitchens and underground shops should be avoided4 ,for similar reasons1 students should take their exercise during the day1 rather than in the evening1 and1 as much as possible1 laborers should avoid night toil4 ,illustrations4 ,plants that grow in the shade1 as under trees1 or in a dark cellar1 are of lighter color and feebler than those that are exposed to the light of the sun4 ,persons that dwell in dark rooms are paler and less vigorous than those who inhabit apartments well lighted1 and exposed to the rays of the sun4 ------------ #ahf4 ,why should the muscles be used in pure air8 ,give a common observation4 #ahg4 ,what effect has light on the muscular system8 ,what should the laborer avoid8 ,why should not students take their daily exercise in the evening8 ,how is the influence of solar light illustrated8 ------------ #ahh4 ,exercise should be regular and frequent4 ,the system needs this means of invigoration as regularly as it does new supplies of food4 ,it is no more correct that we devote several days to a proper action of the muscles1 and then spend one day inactively1 than it is to take a proper amount of food for several days1 and then withdraw this supply for a day4 ,the industrious mechanic and the studious minister suffer as surely from undue confinement as the improvident and indolent4 ,the evil consequences of neglect of exercise are gradual1 and steal slowly upon an individual4 ,but sooner or later they are manifested in muscular weakness1 dyspepsia1 and nervous irritability4 ,observation4 ,the custom among farmers of enduring severe and undue toil for several successive days1 and then spending one or two days in idleness to rest1 is injudicious4 ,it would be far better to do less in a day1 and continue the labor through the period devoted to idleness1 and then no rest will be demanded4 #ahi4 ,every part of the muscular system should have its appropriate share of exercise4 ,some employments call into exercise the muscles of the upper limbs1 as shoe-making2 others1 the muscles of the lower limbs2 while some1 the muscles of both upper and lower limbs1 with those of the trunk1 as farming4 ,in some kinds of exercise1 the lower limbs are mainly used1 as in walking2 in others1 the upper limbs2 and again1 the muscles of the trunk1 together with those of the upper and lower limbs1 as in archery1 quoits1 playing ball4 ,those trades and kinds of exercise are most salutary1 in which all the muscles have their due proportion of action1 as this tends to develop and strengthen them equally4 ,thus labor upon the farm and domestic employment are superior as vocations1 and archery1 quoits1 and dancing1 if the air is pure1 among the pastimes4 ,for sedentary persons1 that kind of exercise is best which calls into action the greatest number of muscles4 ------------ #ahh4 ,how should exercise be taken8 ,what is said respecting irregular exercise8 ,are the consequences of neglected exercise immediately apparent8 ,what practical observation is given8 #ahi4 ,should every muscle have its due amount of exercise8 ,mention some employments that only call into action the muscles of the upper limbs4 ,those of the lower limbs1 those of the trunk and limbs4 ,mention1 in the different pastimes1 what muscles are called into action4 ------------ #aij4 ,the proper time for labor or exercise should be observed4 ,this is modified by many circumstances4 ,as a general rule1 the morning1 when the air is pure and the ground dry1 is better than the evening2 for then1 the powers of the body are greatest4 ,severe exercise and labor should be avoided immediately before or after eating a full meal1 for the energies of the system are then required to perform the digestive function4 ,for similar reasons1 it is not an appropriate time for energetic muscular action immediately before or after severe mental toil1 as the powers of the system are then concentrated upon the brain4#f #f ,it appears to be a fact1 that no two important organs can be called into intense action at the same time1 without injury to both1 as well as to the general system4 ,this arises from the circumstance that an organ1 when in functional action1 attracts fluids 7sanguineous and nervous7 from other organs of the system4 ,except in a few instances of high health in youth1 the power of the system is not adequate to supply more than one organ in action with the appropriate fluids at the same time4 ------------ ,what kinds of exercise are best8 #aij4 ,what rule is given respecting the time for exercise8 #aia4 ,why do the muscles require sleep8 ,what is the effect of an inversion of the law of rest8 ------------ #aia4 ,the muscles require sleep to restore their expended energies4 ,among the arrangements of creative wisdom1 no one harmonizes with the wants of the system more than the alternation of day and night4 ,the natural inclination of man to sleep1 is in the stilly hour of night1 when all nature reposes1 and to be in action during the light of day4 ,an inversion of this law of rest causes greater exhaustion of the system than the same amount of exertion during daylight4 ,this is illustrated by the wearied and exhausted condition of watchers1 night-police1 and other individuals who spend a part of the night in some active business of life4 #aib4 ,the muscles should not be compressed4 ,compression prevents the blood from passing to the muscles with freedom2 consequently1 they are not supplied with material to renovate and promote their growth4 ,again1 pressure stimulates the lymphatics to action2 and by the increased activity of these vessels the muscles are attenuated4 ,in the case of a man with a fractured limb1 the muscles are not only enfeebled by inaction1 but diminished in size by compression from the dressing4 ,limbs enfeebled in this way will not recover their size1 tone1 and strength1 until the bandages are removed1 and a proper amount of exercise taken4 #aic4 ,the pressure of tight dresses1 under the name of a snug fit1 enfeebles the muscles of the back1 and is a common cause of projecting shoulders and curvature of the spinal column4 ,thus every appendage to the dress of ladies which prevents free motion of the muscles of the chest and spinal column1 weakens the muscles thus restrained1 and not only prevents the proper expansion of the lungs1 but1 by weakening the muscles which sustain the spine1 induces curvature and disease4 ,whalebone1 wood1 steel1 and every other unyielding substance1 should be banished from the toilet1 as enemies of the human race4 #aid4 ,the mind exerts a great influence upon the tone and contractile energy of the muscular system4 ,a person acting under a healthy mental stimulus will make exertion with less fatigue than he would without this incentive4 ,for this reason1 a sportsman will pursue his game miles without fatigue1 while his attendant1 not having any mental stimulus1 will become weary4 ,again1 if the sportsman spends some hours in pursuit of his favorite game without success1 a feeling of languor creeps over him2 but while he is thus fatigued and dispirited1 let him catch a glimpse of the game1--his wearied feelings are immediately dissipated1 and he presses on with renewed energy and recruited strength4 ------------ #aib4 ,why should not the muscles be compressed8 #aic4 ,what is the effect of tight clothing upon the muscles8 #aid4 ,what is said of the influence of the mind upon muscular activity8 ,give an illustration of mental stimulus coperating with muscular activity in the case of a sportsman4 ------------ #aie4 ,this principle was well illustrated in the retreat from ,russia of the defeated and dispirited ,french army4 ,when no enemy was near1 they had hardly strength sufficient to carry their arms2 but no sooner did they hear the report of the ,russian guns1 than new life seemed to pervade them1 and they wielded their weapons powerfully until the foe was repulsed1 then there was a relapse to weakness1 and prostration followed4 ,it is thus with the invalid when riding for his health2--relate an anecdote1 or excite this mental stimulus by agreeable conversation1 and much benefit will accrue from the ride to the debilitated person4 ,so it is in the daily vocations of life2 if the mind have some incentive1 the tiresomeness of labor will be greatly diminished4 ,let an air of cheerfulness ever pervade our every employment1 and1 like music1 it sweetens toil4 #aif4 ,facts illustrative of the inutility of calling the muscles into action1 without the coperation of the mind1 are seen in the spiritless aspect of many of our boarding school processions1 when a walk is taken merely for exercise1 without having in view any attainable object4 ,but present to the mind a botanical or geological excursion1 and the saunter will be exchanged for the elastic step1 the inanimate appearance for the bright eye and glowing cheek4 ,the difference is1 simply1 that1 in the former case1 the muscles are obliged to work without that full nervous impulse so essential to their energetic action2 and that1 in the latter1 the nervous influence is in full and harmonious operation4 ------------ #aie4 ,give an illustration of mental stimulus coperating with muscular activity in the case of the dispirited ,french army in their retreat from ,russia4 ,how can a union of mental impulse and muscular action be beneficial to an invalid8 ,does this same principle apply to those who labor8 #aif4 ,give an instance of the different effects produced by the absence and presence of the mental stimulus4 ------------ #aig4 ,it must not1 however1 be supposed that a walk simply for the sake of exercise can never be beneficial4 ,every one1 unless prevented by disease1 should consider it a duty to take exercise every day in the open air2 if possible1 let it be had in combination with harmonious mental exhilaration2 if not1 let a walk1 in an erect position1 be made so brisk as to produce rapid respiration and circulation of the blood1 and in a dress that shall not interfere with free motions of the arms and free expansion of the chest4 ,observation4 ,the advantages of combining harmonious mental excitement1 with muscular activity1 is thus given by ,dr4 ,armstrong3-- ,in whate'er you sweat1 ,indulge your taste4 ,some love the manly toils ,the tennis some1 and some the graceful dance2 ,others1 more hardy1 range the purple heath ,or naked stubble1 where1 from field to field1 ,the sounding covies urge their lab'ring flight1 ,eager amid the rising cloud to pour ,the gun's unerring thunder2 and there are ,whom still the mead of the green archer charm4 ,he chooses best whose labor entertains ,his vacant fancy most2 the toil you hate ,fatigues you soon1 and scarce improves your limbs4 ------------ #aig4 ,may not a walk1 simply as an exercise1 be beneficial8 ,what is preferred8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,muscles1 ,,continued4 #aih4 ,the erect attitude lessens the exhaustion of the muscles4 ,a person whose position is erect will stand longer1 walk further1 and perform more labor1 than an individual whose position is stooping1 but equal in all other respects4 ,the manly port in an erect attitude1 depends chiefly upon the action of the muscles of the back2 and it follows that the fewer the muscles in a state of tension1 the less the draught upon the nervous system1 and the less its exhaustion4 ,another advantage which attends the erect position is1 the trunk and head are balanced upon the bones and cartilages of the spinal column4 ,if the body slightly incline forward1 the muscles attached to the posterior side of the spine1 by a gentle contraction1 will bring it to the perpendicular1 and even incline it backward4 ,this is immediately removed by a slight contraction of the muscles upon the anterior side of the spinal column4 #aii4 ,in the erect position1 there is a constant slight oscillation of the body backward and forward1 like the movement of a pendulum2 while1 in the stooping posture1 the muscles on the posterior side of the spinal column are kept in a state of continued tension and contraction1 to prevent the body from falling forward4 ,this enfeebles the muscles of the back1 and exhausts the nervous energy1 while the erect position favors their development and power1 because there is an alternate contraction and relaxation of the muscles4 ,again1 in the stooping position1 the lower limbs are curved at the knee4 ,in this attitude1 there is a constant tension of the muscles of the lower extremities1 which produces muscular exhaustion4 ------------ #aih4 ,why will a person who stands erect walk further1 and perform more labor1 than if he assumed the stooping posture8 #aii4 ,why are the muscles of the back so soon exhausted in the stooping position8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 #a1 ,a perpendicular line from the centre of the feet to the upper extremity of the spinal column1 where the head rests4 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,the spinal column1 with its three natural curves4 ,here the head and body are balanced upon the spinal column and joints of the lower extremities1 so that the muscles are not kept in a state of tension4 ,this erect position of the body and head is always accompanied with straight lower limbs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 #a1 ,a perpendicular line from the centre of the feet4 #b1 ,represents the unnatural curved spinal column1 and its relative position to the perpendicular1 #a4 ,the lower limbs are curved at the knee1 and the body is stooping forward4 ,while standing in this position1 the muscles of the lower limbs and back are in continued tension1 which exhausts and weakens them4 ------------ ,what is represented by figs4 #dh and #di8 ------------ #bjj4 ,when it is necessary to call into action a part of the muscles of the system in the performance of any duty1 as those of the lower limbs in walking1 if the muscles of other parts are in a state of inaction1 the influence of the nervous system can be determined in an undivided manner upon those parts of the lower limbs in action2 hence they will not so soon become wearied or exhausted1 as when this influence is divided between a greater number of muscles4 ,in performing any labor1 as in speaking1 reading1 singing1 mowing1 sewing1 c41 there will be less exhaustion1 and the effort can be longer maintained in the erect position of the body and head1 than in a stooping attitude4 ,experiment4 ,hold in each hand a pail of water or equal weights1 in a stooping posture1 as long as it can be done without much suffering and injury4 ,again1 when the muscular pain has ceased1 hold the same pails of water1 for the same length of time1 in an erect posture1 and note the difference in the fatigue of the muscles4 #bja4 ,if the stooping posture is acquired in youth1 we are quite certain of seeing the deformed shoulders in old age4 ,hence the importance of duly exercising the muscles of the back1 for when they are properly developed1 the child can and will stand erect4 ,in this attitude1 the shoulders will be thrown back1 and the chest will become broad and full4 #bjb4 ,pupils1 while standing during recitations1 often inadvertently assume the attitude represented by fig4 #di1 and it is the duty of teachers to correct this position when assumed4 ,when a child or adult has contracted a habit of stooping1 and has become round-shouldered1 it can be measurably1 and generally1 wholly1 remedied by moderate and repeated efforts to bring the shoulders back1 and the spinal column in an erect position4 ,this deformity can and should be remedied in our schools4 ,it may take months to accomplish the desired end1 yet it can be done as well under the direction of the kind instructor1 as under the stern1 military drill sergeant1 who never fails to correct this deformity among his raw recruits4 ------------ #bjj4 ,what suggestion when it is necessary to call into action a part of the muscular system8 ,give the experiment that illustrates this principle4 #bja4 ,why should a child he taught to stand erect8 #bjb4 ,how can round shoulders acquired by habit be remedied8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,a proper position in sitting4 #bjc4 ,the child should be taught to sit erect when employed in study or work4 ,this attitude favors a healthy action of the various organs of the system1 and conduces to beauty and symmetry of form4 ,scholars are more or less inclined to lean forward and place the elbow on the table or desk1 for support and this is often done when their seats are provided with backs4 ,where there is a predisposition to curvature of the spine1 no position is more unfavorable or more productive of deformities than this2 for it is usually continued in one direction1 and the apparent deformity it induces is a projection of the shoulders4 ,if the girl is so feeble that she cannot sit erect1 as represented by fig4 #ej1 let her stand or recline on a couch2 either is preferable to the position represented by fig4 #ea4 ,in furnishing school-rooms1 care should be taken that the desks are not so low as to compel the pupils to lean forward in examining their books4 ------------ #bjc4 ,why should the erect attitude be assumed in sitting8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,an improper position in sitting4 #bjd4 ,the muscles1 when exhausted1 cannot endure continued effort4 ,when the energies of the muscular system have been expended by severe and long-continued exercise1 or the brain and nervous system prostrated by protracted mental effort1 the muscles are unfitted to maintain the body erect in standing or sitting for a long time1 as the nervous system1 in its exhausted state1 cannot supply a sufficient amount of its peculiar influence to maintain the supporting muscles of the body and head in a state of contraction4 ,hence1 a child or adult1 when much fatigued1 should not be compelled to stand or sit erect in one posture1 but should be permitted to vary the position frequently1 as this rests and recruits both the muscular and the nervous system4 #bje4 ,a slight relaxation of the muscles tends to prevent their exhaustion4 ,in walking1 dancing1 and most of the mechanical employments1 there will be less fatigue1 and the movements will be more graceful1 when the muscles are slightly relaxed4 ,when riding in cars or coaches1 the system does not suffer so severely from the jar if there is a slight relaxation of the muscles1 as when they are in a state of rigid contraction4 ,experiments4 ,attempt to bow with the muscles of the limbs and trunk rigid1 and there will be a stiff bending of the body only at the hip-joint4 ,on the other hand1 attempt to bow with the muscles moderately relaxed2 the ankle1 the knee1 and the hip-joint will slightly bend1 accompanied with an easy and graceful curve of the body4 #bjf4 ,the muscles when relaxed1 together with the yielding character of the cartilage1 and the porous structure of the ends of the bones that form a joint1 diffuse or deaden the force of jars1 or shocks1 in stepping suddenly down stairs1 or in falling from moderate heights4 ,hence1 in jumping or falling from a carriage1 or any height1 the shock to the organs of the system may be obviated in the three following ways3 #ast4 ,let the muscles be relaxed1 not rigid4 #b;d4 ,let the limbs be bent at the ankle1 knee1 and hips2 the head should be thrown slightly forward1 with the trunk a little stooping4 #c;d4 ,fall upon the toes1 not the heel4 ------------ #bjd4 ,when are the muscles unfitted to maintain the system erect either in standing or sitting8 ,what is necessary when this condition of the system exists8 #bje4 ,why should the muscular system be slightly relaxed in walking1 c48 ,give illustrative experiments4 #bjf4 ,what is the reason that we do not feel the jar in falling from a moderate height8 ------------ ,experiments4 ,stand with the trunk and lower limbs firm1 and the muscles rigid2 then jump a few inches perpendicularly to the floor1 and fall upon the heels4 ,again1 slightly bend the limbs1 jump a few inches1 and fall upon the toes1 and the difference in the force of the shock1 to the brain and other organs1 will be readily noticed4 #bjg4 ,the muscles require to be educated1 or trained4 ,the power of giving different intonations in reading1 speaking1 singing1 the varied and rapid executions in penmanship1 and all mechanical or agricultural employments1 depend1 in a measure1 upon the education of the muscles4 ,in the first effort of muscular education1 the contractions of the muscular fibres are irregular and feeble1 as may be seen when the child begins to walk1 or in the first efforts of penmanship4 #bjh4 ,repetition of muscular action is necessary4 ,to render the action of the muscles complete and effective1 they must be called into action repeatedly and at proper intervals4 ,this education must be continued until not only each muscle1 but every fibre of the muscle1 is fully under the control of the will4 ,in this way persons become skilful in every employment4 ,in training the muscles for effective action1 it is very important that correct movements be adopted at the commencement4 ,if this is neglected1 the motions will be constrained and improper1 while power and skill will be lost4 ------------ ,how is this shown by experiment8 #bjg4 ,upon what do the different intonations of sound or mechanical employments depend8 ,why are the first efforts in educating the muscles indifferent or irregular8 #bjh4 ,why is repetition of muscular action necessary8 ,why is it important that correct movements be adopted in the first efforts of muscular education8 ------------ ,illustration4 ,if a boy1 while learning to mow1 is allowed to swing his scythe in a stooping position1 twisting his body at every sweep of the scythe1 he will never become an easy1 efficient mower4 ,proper instruction is as necessary in many of the agricultural branches as in the varied mechanical employments4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,an improper1 but not an unusual position1 when writing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,a proper position1 when writing4 #bji4 ,good penmanship requires properly trained muscles4 ,to a deficient analysis of the movements of the arm1 hand1 and fingers1 on the part of teachers and pupils in penmanship1 together with an improper position in sitting1 is to be ascribed the great want of success in acquiring this art4 ,the pen should be held loosely1 and when the proper position is attained1 the scholar should make an effort to imitate some definite copy as nearly as possible4 ,the movements of the fingers1 hand1 and arm1 necessary to accomplish this1 should be made with ease and rapidity1 striving1 at each effort1 to imitate the copy more nearly4 ------------ ,how is this illustrated8 #bji4 ,why have so many pupils failed in acquiring good penmanship8 ------------ #baj4 ,when the arm1 hand1 and fingers are rigid1 the large muscles1 that bend and extend these parts1 are called into too intense action4 ,this requires of the small muscles1 that produce the lateral movements1 which are essential to rapidity in writing1 an effort which they cannot make1 or can with difficulty accomplish4 ,experiment4 ,vigorously extend the fingers by a violent and rigid contraction of the muscles upon the lower part of the arm1 and the lateral movement which is seen in their separation cannot be made4 ,but gently extend the fingers1 and their oblique movements are made with freedom4 #baa4 ,an individual who is acquainted with the laws of health1 whose muscles are well trained1 will perform a certain amount of labor with less fatigue and waste to the system1 than one who is ignorant of the principles of hygiene1 and whose muscles are imperfectly trained4 ,hence the laboring poor have a deep interest in acquiring a knowledge of practical physiology1 as well as skill in their trade or vocation4 ,it is emphatically true to those who earn their bread by the sweat of their brow1 that knowledge is power4 ------------ #baj4 ,what is said of the lateral and oblique movements of the arm1 hand1 and fingers in writing8 ,how is this shown by experiment8 #baa4 ,why is the study of physiology and hygiene of utility to the laborer8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,teeth4 #bab4 ,the teeth1 in composition1 nutrition1 and growth1 are different from other bones of the body4 ,they vary in number at different periods of life1 and1 unlike other bones1 they are exposed to the immediate action of atmospheric air and foreign substances4 ,the bones of the system1 generally1 when fractured1 unite2 but there is never a permanent union of a tooth when broken4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,teeth4 #bac4 ,the ,,teeth are attached to the upper and lower jaw-bone1 by means of bony sockets1 called alve-o-lar processes4 ,these give great solidity to the attachment of the teeth1 and frequently render their extraction difficult4 ,the gums1 by their fibrous1 fleshy structure1 serve to fix the teeth more firmly in the jaw4 ,observation4 ,when a permanent tooth is extracted1 these bony processes are gradually absorbed1 so that in advanced age there remains only the jaw-bone covered by the lining membrane of the gum4 ,this accounts for the narrow jaw and falling in of the lips in old age4 ,frequently1 a piece of the alveolar process comes out with the tooth when extracted1 and the dentist has then the credit of breaking the jaw4 ,no great injury results from the removal of the process in this manner4 ------------ #bab4 ,what is said of the teeth8 ,in what respect do they differ from other bones of the body8 #bac-bah4 ,give the anatomy of the teeth4 #bac4 ,what confines the teeth in the jaw-bone8 ,what becomes of the socket when a tooth is removed8 ,what effect has this absorption upon the jaw and lips8 ------------ #bad4 ,the teeth are formed in the interior of the jaws1 and within dental capsules1 7membranous pouches17 which are enclosed within the substance of the bone1 and present in their interior a fleshy bud1 or granule1 from the surface of which exudes the ivory1 or the bony part of the tooth4 ,in proportion as the tooth is formed1 it rises in the socket1 which is developed simultaneously with the tooth1 and passes through the gum1 and shows itself without4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 #a1 ,the body of the lower jaw4 #b1 ,ramus1 or branch of the jaw1 to which the muscles that move it are attached4 #c1 #c1 ,the processes which unite the lower jaw with the head4 i1 ,the middle and lateral incisor tooth of one side4 b1 ,the bicuspid teeth4 c1 ,the cuspids1 or eye teeth4 m1 ,the three molar teeth4 ,a1 shows the relation of the permanent to the temporary teeth4 #bae4 ,the first set1 which appears in infancy1 is called tempo-ra-ry1 or milk teeth4 ,they are twenty in number2 ten in each jaw4 ,between six and fourteen years of age1 the temporary teeth are removed1 and the second set appears1 called perma-nent teeth4 ,they number thirty-two1 sixteen in each jaw4 ------------ #bad4 ,where and how are the teeth formed8 ,explain fig4 #ed4 #bae4 ,what are the first set called8 ,how many in each jaw8 ,the second set8 ,how many in number8 ------------ #baf4 ,the four front teeth in each jaw are called in-cisors1 7cutting teeth27 the next tooth in each side1 the cuspid1 7eye tooth27 the next two1 bi-cuspids1 7small grinders27 the next two1 molars1 7grinders47 ,the last one on each side of the jaw is called a wisdom tooth1 because it does not appear until a person is about twenty years old4 ,the incisors1 cuspids1 and bicuspids1 have each but one root4 ,the molars of the upper jaw have three roots1 while those of the lower jaw have but two4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,the permanent teeth of the upper and lower jaw4 a1 b1 ,the incisors4 c1 ,the cuspids4 d1 e1 ,the bicuspids4 f1 g1 ,the molars1 7double teeth47 h1 ,the wisdom teeth4 ,observation4 ,the shape of the teeth in different species of animals is adapted to the kind of food on which they subsist4 ,those animals that feed exclusively on flesh1 as the lion1 have the cuspids1 or canine teeth1 largely developed1 and the molars have sharp cutting points4 ,those animals that feed on grass and grain1 as the horse and the sheep1 have their molar teeth more rounded and flat on the crown4 ,the human teeth are adapted to feed on fruits1 grain1 or flesh1 as they are less pointed than those of the cat1 and more pointed than those of the sheep4 ------------ #baf4 ,give the names of the permanent teeth4 ,what teeth have but one root1 or fang8 ,how many roots have the molars of the upper jaw8 ,of the lower jaw8 ,what is said of the shape of the teeth in different species of animals8 ------------ #bag4 ,the teeth are composed principally of two substances--the ivo-ry and the en-amel4 ,the internal part of the tooth or the ivory1 is harder and more enduring than bone1 and forms the body of the tooth4 ,the enamel is remarkable for its hardness1 and varies somewhat in color with the age1 temperament1 habits1 and manner of living of different individuals4 ,when any part of the enamel is destroyed1 it is never regenerated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,a side view of the body and enamel of a front tooth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,a side view of a molar tooth4 #a1 ,the enamel4 #b1 ,the body of the tooth4 #c1 ,the cavity in the crown of the tooth that contains the pulp4 #d1 ,a nerve that spreads in the pulp of the tooth4 #e1 ,an artery that ramifies in the pulp of the tooth4 #bah4 ,each tooth is divided into two parts1 namely1 crown and root4 ,the crown is that part which protrudes from the jaw-bone and gum1 and is covered by the highly polished enamel4 ,the root1 or fang1 is placed in the sockets of the jaw1 and consists of bony matter4 ,through this bony substance several small vessels pass1 to aid in the growth and also in the removal of the tooth4 ,there are1 beside these vessels1 small white cords passing to each tooth1 called nerves4 7,see fig4 #eg47 ,when these nerves are diseased1 we have the toothache4 ------------ #bag4 ,give the structure of the teeth4 ,what is said of the enamel8 #bah4 ,into how many parts are the teeth divided8 ,describe the crown4 ,the root4 ,what vessels pass through the bony matter8 ,what is their use8 ------------ ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,teeth4 #bai4 ,the use of the teeth is twofold4 #ast4 ,by the action of the incisors the food is divided1 while the molars grind or break down the more solid portions of it4 ,by these processes1 the food is prepared to pass more easily and rapidly into the stomach4 #bbj4 ,in the mastication of food there are two movements of the lower jaw--the action by which the teeth are brought together1 and the lateral motion4 ,in the former1 the food is cut or divided1 the jaws acting like shears4 ,this movement is produced by the action of two large muscles situated on each side of the head and face4 ,observation4 ,the muscles attached to the lower jaw are of great strength2 by their action alone1 some persons are enabled to bite the hardest substances4 ,by putting the fingers upon the side of the head above and in front of the ears1 and upon the face above the angle of the jaw1 while masticating food1 the alternate swelling and relaxation of these muscles will be clearly felt4 #bba4 ,the lateral1 or grinding movement of the teeth1 is produced by the action of a strong muscle that is attached to the lower jaw on the inside4 ,observation4 ,those animals that live solely on flesh1 have only the cutting1 or shear-like movement of the jaws4 ,those that use vegetables for food1 have the grinding motion2 while man has both the cutting and grinding movement4 ------------ #bai-bbb4 ,give the physiology of the teeth4 #bai4 ,give one of the functions of the teeth4 #bbj4 ,how many movements of the lower jaw in masticating food8 ,what effect has the first movement upon the food8 ,how produced8 ,what is the character of the masticating muscles8 #bba4 ,how is the grinding motion of the teeth produced8 ,what is said of the movements of the teeth in different animals8 ------------ #bbb4 #b;d4 ,the teeth aid us in articulating with distinctness certain letters and words4 ,an individual who has lost his front teeth cannot enunciate distinctly certain letters called dental4 ,again1 as the alveolar processes are removed by absorption soon after the removal of the teeth1 the lips and cheeks do not retain their former full position1 thus marring1 in no slight degree1 the symmetry of the lower part of the face4 ,consequently1 those simple observances that tend to the preservation of the teeth are of great practical interest to all persons4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,teeth4 #bbc4 ,to preserve the teeth1 they must be kept clean4 ,after eating food1 they should be cleansed with a brush and water1 or rubbed with a piece of soft flannel1 to prevent the tartar collecting1 and to remove the pieces of food that may have lodged between them4 ,toothpicks may be useful in removing any particles inaccessible to the brush4 ,they may be made of bone1 ivory1 or the common goose-quill4 ,metallic toothpicks should not be used1 as they injure the enamel4 #bbd4 ,the mouth should be cleansed with pure tepid water at night1 as well as in the morning2 after which the teeth should be brushed upward and downward1 both on the posterior and anterior surfaces4 ,it may be beneficial to use refined soap1 once or twice every week1 to remove any corroding substance that may exist around the teeth2 care being taken to thoroughly rinse the mouth after its use4 #bbe4 ,food or drink should not be taken into the mouth when very hot or very cold4 ,sudden changes of temperature will crack the enamel1 and finally produce decayed teeth4 ------------ #bbb4 ,what is another use of the teeth8 #bbc-bcb4 ,give the hygiene of the teeth4 #bbc4 ,how can the teeth be preserved8 ,by what means8 #bbd4 ,how often should they be cleansed8 #bbe4 ,what is said of very hot or cold drinks8 ------------ ,observation4 ,on this account1 smoking is pernicious1 because the teeth are subjected to an alternate inhalation of both cold and warm air4 #bbf4 ,the temporary teeth should be removed as soon as they become loose4 ,if a permanent tooth makes it appearance before the first is removed1 or has become loose1 the milk tooth1 although not loose1 should be removed without delay4 ,this is necessary that the second set of teeth may present a regular and beautiful appearance4 #bbg4 ,in general1 when the permanent teeth are irregular1 one or more should be removed4 ,if the teeth are crowded and irregular1 in consequence of the jaw being narrow and short1 or when they press so hard upon each other as to injure the enamel1 remove one or more to prevent their looking unsightly1 and in a few months the remaining teeth1 with a little care1 will fill the spaces4 ,observation4 ,when it is necessary to remove a tooth1 apply to some skilful operator4 ,it requires as much skill and knowledge to extract teeth well1 as it does to amputate a limb2 yet some persons1 who possess strong arms1 will obtain a pair of forceps1 or a tooth-key1 and hang out the sign of surgeon-dentist1 although ignorant of the principles that should guide them4 #bbh4 ,it is not always necessary to have teeth extracted when they ache4 ,the nerve1 or the investing membrane of the root1 may be diseased1 and the tooth still be sound4 ,in such instances1 the tooth should not be extracted1 but the diseased condition may be remedied by proper medication4 ,there are many sound teeth1 that become painful1 as already mentioned1 which are unnecessarily removed4 ------------ ,why is smoking injurious to the teeth8 #bbf4 ,what remark respecting the temporary teeth8 #bbg4 ,what remarks respecting the permanent teeth8 ,do those persons that extract teeth require skill as well as knowledge8 #bbh4 ,why should not teeth be extracted at all times when they are painful8 ------------ ,illustration4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,m41 of ,belfast1 ,me41 related to me that an individual in that vicinity had his teeth1 7all of them sound17 on one side of the lower jaw1 extracted by an ignoramus of a tooth-puller1 and this without any relief from pain4 ,the disease was tic douloureux1 which was relieved by ,dr4 ,m4 #bbi4 ,the preservation of the teeth requires that they be frequently examined4 ,when a part of the enamel is removed1 and a small portion of the body of the tooth has become carious1 in many instances such teeth may be preserved from further decay by having them filled or plugged with gold foil4 ,all amalgams1 pastes1 and cheap patent articles for filling1 should be avoided1 if you would preserve both the teeth and the general health4 #bcj4 ,the practice of cracking nuts with the teeth1 or of lifting heavy bodies1 and the constant habit of biting thread1 should be avoided1 as they finally destroy the enamel4 #bca4 ,all acidulated drinks and mineral waters1 that set the teeth on edge1 are injurious4 ,all tooth-powders and washes that contain any article that is acid1 corrosive1 or grinding1 should be banished from the toilet4 ,tobacco is not a preservative of the teeth4 ,it contains grit1 which wears away the enamel2 beside1 when chewed1 it debilitates the vessels of the gums1 turns the teeth yellow1 and renders the breath and the appearance of the mouth disagreeable4 #bcb4 ,healthy persons have generally sound teeth1 while feeble persons have decayed teeth4 ,for this reason1 we should try to learn and practise the few simple rules that promote health4 ------------ ,give an illustration of the removal of sound teeth4 #bbi4 ,how may decaying teeth be preserved8 ,what should be avoided in the filling of teeth8 #bcj4 ,what practices should also be avoided8 #bca4 ,what is said of acidulated drinks8 ,what effect has the chewing of tobacco upon the teeth8 #bcb4 ,what is one reason for preserving health8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,digestive ,,organs4 #bcc4 ,from the earliest existence of the human system to the last ray of life1 change is impressed upon it by the ,giver of this curious fabric4 ,new atoms of matter are deposited1 while the old and now useless particles are constantly removed4 ,the material necessary to sustain the growth of the body in early life1 and also to repair the waste that is unceasing to animal existence1 is the food we eat4 #bcd4 ,food1 animal or vegetable1 contains most of the elements of the different tissues of the system1 yet it must undergo certain essential alterations before it can become a part of the body4 ,the first change is effected by the action of the ,digestive ,organs4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,digestive ,,organs #bce4 ,the ,,digestive ,,organs are the ,mouth1 ,teeth1#g ,sali-va-ry ,glands1 ,pharynx1 ,,oe-sopha-gus1 7gullet17 ,stomach1 ,in-testines1 7bowels17 ,lacte-als1 7milk1 or chyle vessels17 ,tho-racic ,duct1 ,liver1 and the ,pancre-as1 7sweetbread47 #g ,see ,chapter ,,xii4 ------------ #bcc4 ,what is impressed upon the human system from its earliest existence8 ,what maintains this change8 #bcd4 ,has animal or vegetable food any resemblance to the different tissues of which it finally forms a part8 ,by what organs is the first change in the food effected8 #bce-beh4 ,give the anatomy of the digestive organs4 #bce4 ,name them4 #bcf4 ,describe the mouth4 ------------ ,,mouth is an irregular cavity1 which contains the instruments of mastication and the organs of taste4 ,it is bounded in front by the lips2 on each side by the internal surface of the cheeks2 above1 by the hard palate 7roof of the mouth7 and teeth of the upper jaw2 below1 by the tongue and teeth of the lower jaw2 behind1 it is continuous with the pharynx1 but is separated from it by a kind of movable curtain1 called the soft palate4 ,this may be elevated or depressed1 so as to close the passage or leave it free4 #bcg4 ,the ,,salivary ,,glands are six in number2 three on each side of the jaw4 ,they are called the pa-rotid1 the sub-maxil-la-ry and the sub-lingual4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,a view of the salivary glands in their proper situations4 #a1 ,the parotid gland4 #b1 ,its duct4 #c1 ,the submaxillary gland4 #d1 ,its duct4 #e1 ,the sublingual gland1 brought to view by the removal of a section of the lower jaw4 #bch4 ,the ,,parotid ,,gland1 the largest1 is situated in front of the external ear1 and behind the angle of the jaw4 ,a duct 7,steno's7 from this gland opens into the mouth1 opposite the second molar tooth of the upper jaw4 ------------ #bcg4 ,how many glands about the mouth8 ,give their names4 ,what does fig4 #eh represent8 #bch4 ,describe the parotid gland4 ------------ #bci4 ,the ,,submaxillary ,,gland is situated within the lower jaw1 anterior to its angle4 ,its excretory duct 7,wharton's7 opens into the mouth by the side of the frnum lingu1 7bridle of the tongue47 #bdj4 ,the ,,sublingual ,,gland is elongated and flattened1 and situated beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth1 on each side of the frnum lingu4 ,it has seven or eight small ducts1 which open into the mouth by the side of the bridle of the tongue4 ,observation4 ,in the mumps1 the parotid gland is diseased4 ,the swelling under the tongue called the frog is a disease of the sublingual gland4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,a side view of the face1 oesophagus1 and trachea4 #a1 ,the trachea 7wind pipe47 #b1 ,the larynx4 #c1 ,the oesophagus4 #d1 #d1 #d1 ,the muscles of the upper portion of the oesophagus forming the pharynx4 #e1 ,the muscle of the cheek4 #f1 ,the muscle that surrounds1 the mouth4 #g1 ,the muscle that forms the floor of the mouth4 ------------ #bci4 ,the submaxillary4 #bdj4 ,the sublingual4 ,what observation respecting these glands8 ,what does fig4 #ei represent8 ------------ #bda4 ,the ,,pharynx is a membranous sac1 situated upon the upper portion of the spinal column4 ,it extends from the base of the skull to the top of the trache-a1 7windpipe17 and is continuous with the oesophagus4 ,from the pharynx are four passages2 one opens upward and forward to the nose1 the second leads forward to the mouth1 the third downward to the trachea and lungs1 the fourth downward and backward to the stomach4 #bdb4 ,the ,,oesophagus is a large membranous tube that extends behind the trachea1 the heart1 and lungs1 pierces the diaphragm1 and terminates in the stomach4 ,it is composed of two membranes--an internal1 or mucous1 and a muscular coat4 ,the latter is composed of two sets of fibres2 one extends lengthwise1 the other is arranged in circular bands4 #bdc4 ,the ,,stomach is situated in the left side of the abdomen1 immediately below and in contact with the diaphragm4 ,it has two openings2 one connected with the oesophagus1 called the cardi-ac orifice2 the other connected with the upper portion of the small intestine1 called the py-loric orifice4 ,it is composed of three coats1 or membranes4 ,the exterior or serous coat is very tough and strong1 and invests every part of this important organ4 ,the middle1 or muscular coat is composed of two layers of muscular fibres1 one set of which is arranged longitudinally1 the other circularly4 ,the interior coat is called the mucous1 and is arranged in rug1 7folds47 ,the stomach is provided with a multitude of small glands1 in which is secreted the gastric fluid4 ,illustration4 ,the three coats of the stomach anatomically resemble tripe1 which is a preparation of the largest stomach of the cow or ox4 ,the outer coat is smooth and highly polished4 ,the middle coat is composed of minute threads1 which are arranged in two layers4 ,the fibres of these layers cross each other4 ,the inner coat is soft1 and presents many folds1 usually named the honey-comb4 ------------ #bda4 ,describe the pharynx and the passages leading from it4 #bdb4 ,give the structure of the oesophagus4 #bdc4 ,where is the stomach situated8 ,how many coats has it8 ,describe them4 ,what article prepared for food does the stomach resemble8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,the inner surface of the stomach and duodenum4 #a1 ,the lower portion of the oesophagus4 #b1 ,the opening through which the food is passed into the stomach4 #h1 ,the stomach4 #i1 ,the opening through which the food passes out of the stomach into the duodenum1 or upper portion of the small intestine4 #aj1 #aa1 #ad1 ,the duodenum #ab1 #ac1 ,ducts through which the bile and pancreatic fluid pass into it4 a1 b1 c1 ,the three coats of the stomach4 #bdd4 ,the ,,intestines1 or alimentary canal1 are divided into two parts--the small and large4 ,the small intestine is about twenty-five feet in length1 and is divided into three portions1 namely1 the ,du-o-denum1 the ,je-junum1 and the ,ile-um4 ,the large intestine is about five feet in length1 and is divided into three parts1 namely1 the ,ccum1 the ,colon1 and the ,rectum4 7,appendix ,d47 #bde4 ,the ,,duodenum is somewhat larger than the rest of the small intestine1 and has received its name from being in length about the breadth of twelve fingers4 ,it commences at the pylorus1 and ascends obliquely backward to the under surface of the liver4 ,it then descends perpendicularly in front of the right kidney1 and passes transversely across the lower portion of the spinal column1 behind the colon1 and terminates in the jejunum4 ,the ducts from the liver and pancreas open into the perpendicular portion1 about six inches from the stomach4 ------------ #bdd4 ,explain fig4 #fj4 ,what is the length of the small intestine1 and how is it divided8 ,what is the length of the large intestine8 ,give its divisions4 #bde4 ,describe the duodenum4 ------------ #bdf4 ,the ,,jejunum is continuous with the duodenum4 ,it is thicker than the rest of the small intestine1 and has a pinkish tinge4 #bdg4 ,the ,,ileum is smaller1 and thinner in texture1 and somewhat paler1 than the jejunum4 ,there is no mark to distinguish the termination of the one or the commencement of the other4 ,the ileum terminates near the right haunch-bone1 by a valvular opening into the colon at an obtuse angle4 ,this arrangement prevents the passing of substances from the colon into the ileum4 ,the jejunum and ileum are surrounded above and at the sides by the colon4 #bdh4 ,the small intestine1 like the stomach1 has three coats4 ,the inner1 or mucous coat is thrown into folds1 or valves4 ,in consequence of this valvular arrangement1 the mucous membrane is more extensive than the other tissues1 and gives a greater extent of surface with which the aliment comes in contact4 ,there are imbedded under this membrane an immense number of minute glands1 and it has a great number of piles1 like those upon velvet4 ,for this reason1 this membrane is sometimes called the villous coat4 #bdi4 ,the ,c,,cum is the blind pouch1 or cul-de-sac1 at the commencement of the large intestine4 ,attached to its extremity is the ap-pendix verm-i-formis1 7a long1 worm-shaped tube47 ,it is from one to six inches in length1 and of the size of a goose-quill4 ------------ ,what important ducts open into it8 #bdf4 ,describe the jejunum4 #bdg4 ,the ileum4 #bdh4 ,what is said of the coats of the intestines8 ,why is the mucous membrane sometimes called the villous coat8 #bdi4 ,describe the ccum4 ------------ #bej4 ,the ,,colon is divided into three parts--the ascending1 transverse1 and descending4 ,the ascending colon passes upward from the right haunch-bone to the under surface of the liver4 ,it then bends inward1 and crosses the upper part of the abdomen1 below the liver and stomach1 to the left side under the name of the transverse colon4 ,at the left side1 it turns1 and descends to the left haunch-bone1 and is called the descending colon4 ,here it makes a peculiar curve upon itself1 which is called the sigmoid flexure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 #a1 #a1 ,the duodenum4 #b1 #b1 ,the small intestine4 #c1 ,the junction of the small intestine with the colon4 #d1 ,the appendix vermiformis4 #e1 ,the ccum4 #f1 ,the ascending colon4 #g1 ,the transverse colon4 #h1 ,the descending colon4 #i1 ,the sigmoid flexure of the colon4 #aj1 ,the rectum4 ------------ #bej4 ,describe the course of the divisions of the colon4 ,explain fig4 #fa4 ------------ #bea4 ,the ,,rectum is the termination of the large intestine4 ,the large intestine has three coats1 like the stomach and small intestine4 ,the longitudinal fibres of the muscular coat are collected into three bands4 ,these bands are nearly one half shorter than the intestine1 and give it a sacculated appearance1 which is characteristic of the ccum and colon4 #beb4 ,the ,,lacteals are minute vessels1 which commence in the villi1 upon the mucous surface of the small intestine4 ,from the intestine they pass between the membranes of the mesen-ter-y to small glands1 which they enter4 ,the first range of glands collects many small vessels1 and transmits a few larger branches to a second range of glands2 and1 finally1 after passing through several successive ranges of these glandular bodies1 the lacteals1 diminished in number and increased in size1 proceed to the enlarged portion of the thoracic duct1 into which they open4 ,they are most numerous in the upper portion of the small intestine4 #bec4 ,the ,,thoracic ,,duct commences in the abdomen1 by a considerable dilatation1 which is situated in front of the lower portion of the spinal column4 ,from this point1 it passes through the diaphragm1 and ascends to the lower part of the neck4 ,in its ascent1 it lies anterior to the spine1 and by the side of the aorta and oesophagus4 ,at the lower part of the neck1 it makes a sudden turn downward and forward1 and terminates by opening into a large vein which passes to the heart4 ,the thoracic duct is equal in diameter to a goose-quill1 and1 at its termination1 is provided with a pair of semilunar valves1 which prevent the admission of venous blood into its cylinder4 ------------ #bea4 ,what is said of the arrangement of the fibres of the muscular coat of the large intestine8 #beb4 ,what are the lacteals8 ,give their course from the mucous coat of the intestine to the thoracic duct4 #bec4 ,describe the course of the thoracic duct4 ,how is the venous blood prevented from passing into this duct8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,a portion of the small intestine1 lacteal vessels1 mesenteric glands1 and thoracic duct4 #a1 ,the intestine4 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,mesenteric glands1 through which the lacteals pass to the thoracic duct4 #e1 #f1 ,the thoracic duct4 #g1 ,the point in the neck where it turns down to enter the vein at #h4 #i1 #aj1 ,the aorta4 #aa1 #ab1 ,vessels of the neck4 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 ,the large veins that convey the blood and chyle to the heart4 #af1 #ag1 ,the spinal column4 #ah1 ,the diaphragm1 7midriff47 ------------ ,explain fig4 #fb4 ,what is said respecting the mesenteric glands8 ------------ ,observation4 ,the mesenteric glands1 which are situated between two layers of serous membrane 7mesentery7 that connects the small intestine with the spinal column1 occasionally become diseased in childhood1 and prevent the chyle from passing to the thoracic duct4 ,children thus affected have a voracious appetite1 and at the same time are becoming more and more emaciated4 ,the disease is called mesenteric consumption4 #bed4 ,the ,,liver1 a gland appended to the alimentary canal1 is the largest organ in the system1 and weighs about four pounds4 ,it is situated in the right side1 below the diaphragm1 and is composed of several lobes4 ,its upper surface is convex2 its under1 concave4 ,this organ is retained in its place by several ligaments4 ,it performs the double office of separating impurities from the venous blood1 and of secreting a fluid 7bile7 necessary to chylification4 ,on the under surface of the liver is a membranous sac1 called the gall-cyst1 which is generally considered as a reservoir for the bile4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,the under surface of the liver4 #a1 ,the right lobe4 #b1 ,the left4 #c1 #d1 ,smaller lobes4 #aj1 ,the gall-bladder1 or cyst1 lodged in its depression4 #ag1 ,the notch on the posterior border1 for the spinal column4 ,observation4 ,a good idea of the liver and intestines can be obtained by examining these parts of a pig4 ,in this animal1 the sacs1 or pouches1 of the large intestine are well defined4 #bee4 ,the ,,pancreas is a long1 flattened gland1 analogous to the salivary glands4 ,it is about six inches in length1 weighs three or four ounces1 and is situated transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen1 behind the stomach4 ,a duct from this organ opens into the duodenum4 ------------ #bed4 ,describe the liver4 #bee4 ,what is said of the pancreas8 ------------ #bef4 ,the ,,spleen1 7milt17 so called because the ancients supposed it to be the seat of melancholy1 is an oblong1 flattened organ1 situated in the left side1 in contact with the diaphragm1 stomach1 and the pancreas4 ,it is of a dark1 bluish color1 and is abundantly supplied with blood1 but has no duct which serves as an outlet for any secretion4 ,its use is not well determined4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,the pancreas with its duct1 through which the pancreatic secretion passes into the duodenum4 #beg4 ,the ,,omentum 7caul7 consists of four layers of the serous membrane1 which descends from the stomach and transverse colon4 ,a quantity of adipose matter is deposited around its vessels1 which ramify through its structure4 ,its function is twofold in the animal economy4 #ast4 ,it protects the intestines from cold4 #b;d4 ,it facilitates the movements of the intestines upon each other during their vermicular1 or worm-like action4 #beh4 ,every part of the digestive apparatus is supplied with arteries1 veins1 lymphatics1 and nervous filaments1 from the ganglionic system of nerves4 ------------ #bef4 ,why is the spleen so called8 ,what is peculiar to this organ8 #beg4 ,of what is the omentum composed8 ,what is its use8 #beh4 ,with what is every part of the digestive apparatus supplied8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,digestive ,,organs4 #bei4 ,substances received into the stomach as food1 must necessarily undergo many changes before they are fitted to form part of the animal body4 ,the solid portions are reduced to a fluid state1 and those parts that will nourish the body are separated from the waste material4 #bfj4 ,the first preparation of food for admission into the system1 consists in its proper mastication4 ,the lips in front1 the cheeks upon the side1 the soft palate1 by closing down upon the base of the tongue1 retain the food in the mouth1 while it is subjected to the2 process of mas-ti-cation1 7chewing47 ,the tongue rolls the mass around1 and keeps it between the teeth1 while they divide the food to a fineness suitable for the stomach4 #bfa4 ,while the food is in process of mastication1 there is incorporated with it a considerable amount of sa-liva1 7spittle47 ,this fluid is furnished by the salivary glands1 situated in the vicinity of the mouth4 ,the saliva moistens and softens the food1 so that1 when carried into the pharynx4 it is passed1 with ease1 through the oesophagus into the stomach4 #bfb4 ,when the food has been properly masticated1 7and in rapid eaters when it is not17 the soft palate is raised from the base of the tongue backward1 so as to close the posterior opening through the nostrils4 ,by a movement of the muscles of the tongue1 cheeks1 and floor of the mouth1 simultaneous with that of the soft palate1 the food is pressed into the upper part of the pharynx4 ------------ #bei-bgb4 ,give the physiology of the digestive organs4 #bei4 ,what is necessary before food can nourish the body8 #bfj4 ,describe how mastication is performed4 #bfa4 ,of what use is the saliva in the process of mastication8 #bfb4 ,how is the food pressed into the pharynx8 ------------ #bfc4 ,when in the pharynx1 the food and drink are prevented from passing into the trachea by a simple valve-like arrangement1 called the ep-i-glottis4 ,the ordinary position of this little organ is perpendicular1 so as not to obstruct the passage of air into the lungs2 but in the act of swallowing1 it is brought directly over the opening of the trachea1 called the glottis4 ,the food1 being forced backward1 passes rapidly over the epiglottis into the oesophagus1 where the circular band of muscular fibres above1 contracts and forces the food to the next lower band4 ,each band relaxes and contracts successively1 and thus presses the alimentary ball downward and onward to the stomach4#h #h ,the process of deglutition may be comprehended by analyzing the operation of swallowing food or saliva4 ,observation4 ,if air is inhaled when the food or drink is passing over the glottis1 some portions of it may be carried into the larynx or trachea4 ,this produces violent spasmodic coughing1 and most generally occurs when an attempt is made to speak while masticating food2 therefore1 never talk when the mouth contains food4 ------------ #bfc4 ,when the food is in the pharynx1 how is it prevented from passing into the trachea1 or windpipe8 ,describe how it is passed into the stomach8 ,give the observation4 #bfd4 ,describe how the food in the stomach is converted into chyme4 ------------ #bfd4 ,when the food reaches the stomach1 the gastric glands are excited to action1 and they secrete a powerful solvent1 called gastric juice4 ,the presence of food in the stomach also increases a contractile action of the muscular coat1 by which the position of the food is changed from one part of this cavity to another4 ,thus the aliment is brought in contact with the mucous membrane1 and each portion of it becomes saturated with gastric juice1 by which it is softened1 or dissolved into a pulpy homogeneous mass1 of a creamy consistence1 called ,chyme4 ,the food is not all converted into chyme at the same time2 but as fast as it is changed1 it passes through the pyloric orifice into the duodenum4 ,observation4 ,the gastric juice has the property of coagulating liquid albuminous matter when mixed with it4 ,it is this property of rennet1 which is an infusion of the fourth stomach of the calf1 by which milk is coagulated1 or formed into curd4 #bfe4 ,the ,,chyme is conveyed through the pyloric orifice of the stomach into the duodenum4 ,the chyme not only excites an action in the duodenum1 but also in the liver and pancreas4 ,mucus is then secreted by the duodenum1 bile by the liver1 and pancreatic fluid by the pancreas4 ,the bile and pancreatic fluid are conveyed into the duodenum1 and mixed with the chyme4 ,by the action of these different fluids1 the chyme is converted into a fluid of a whitish color1 called ,chyle1 and into residuum4 ,observation4 ,the bile has no agency in the change through which the food passes in the stomach4 ,in a healthy condition of this organ1 no bile is found in it4 ,the common belief1 that the stomach has a redundancy of this secretion1 is erroneous4 ,if bile is ejected in vomiting1 it merely shows1 not only that the action of the stomach is inverted1 but also that of the duodenum4 ,a powerful emetic will1 in this way1 generally bring this fluid from the most healthy stomach4 ,a knowledge of this fact might save many a stomach from the evils of emetics1 administered on false impressions of their necessity1 and continued from the corroboration of these by the appearance of bile1 till derangement1 and perhaps permanent disease1 are the consequences4 #bff4 ,the ,,chyle and residual matter are moved over the mucous surface of the small intestine1 by the action of its muscular coat4 ,as the chyle is carried along the tract of the intestine1 it comes in contact with the villi1 where the lacteal vessels commence4 ,these imbibe1 or take up1 the chyle1 and transfer it through the mesenteric glands into the thoracic duct1 through which it is conveyed into a large vein at the lower part of the neck4 ,in this vein the chyle is mixed with the venous fluid4 ,the residual matter is conveyed into the large intestine1 through which it is carried and excreted from the system4 7,appendix ,e47 ------------ ,what peculiar property has gastric juice8 #bfe4 ,where and how is chyme converted into chyle8 ,what is said in regard to the bile8 #bff4 ,what becomes of the chyle8 ,of the residuum8 ------------ #bfg4 ,in the process of digestion1 the food is subjected to five different changes4 #ast4 ,the chewing and admixture of the saliva with the food2 this process is called mastication4 #bfh4 #b;d4 ,the change through which the food passes in the stomach by its muscular contraction1 and the secretion from the gastric glands2 this is called chymification4 #bfi4 #c;d4 ,the conversion of the homogeneous chyme1 by the agency of the bile and pancreatic secretions1 into a fluid of milk-like appearance2 this is chylification4 #bgj4 #dth4 ,the absorption of the chyle by the lacteals1 and its transfer through them and the thoracic duct1 into the subclavian vein at the lower part of the neck4#i #i ,the chyle is changed by the lacteals and mesenteric glands1 but the nature of this change is not1 as yet1 well defined or understood4 #bga4 #eth4 ,the separation and excretion of the residuum4 #bgb4 ,perfection of the second process of digestion requires thorough and slow mastication4 ,the formation of proper chyle demands appropriate mastication and chymification2 while a healthy action of the lacteals requires that all the anterior stages of the digestive process be as perfect as possible4 7,appendix ,f47 ------------ #bfg4 ,recapitulate the five changes in the digestive process4 ------------ ,note4 ,let the pupil review the anatomy and physiology of the digestive organs from figs4 #fb and #fe1 or from anatomical outline plate ,no4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,an ideal view of the organs of digestion1 opened nearly the whole length4 #a1 ,the upper jaw4 #b1 ,the lower jaw4 #c1 ,the tongue4 #d1 ,the roof of the mouth4 #e1 ,the oesophagus4 #f1 ,the trachea4 #g1 ,the parotid gland4 #h1 ,the sublingual gland4 #i1 ,the stomach4 #aj1 #aj1 ,the liver4 #aa1 ,the gall-cyst4 #ab1 ,the duct that conveys the bile to the duodenum1 7#ac1 #ac47 #ad1 ,the pancreas4 #ae1 #ae1 #ae1 #ae1 ,the small intestine4 #af1 ,the opening of the small intestine into the large intestine4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 ,the large intestine4 #ba1 ,the spleen4 #bb1 ,the upper part of the spinal column4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,digestive ,,organs4 #bgc4 ,it is a law of the system1 that each organ is excited to healthy and efficient action1 when influenced by its appropriate stimulus4 ,accordingly1 nutrient food1 that is adapted to the wants of the system1 imparts a healthy stimulation to the salivary glands during the process of mastication4 ,the food that is well masticated1 and has blended with it a proper amount of saliva1 will induce a healthy action in the stomach4 ,well-prepared chyme is the natural stimulus of the duodenum1 liver1 and pancreas2 pure chyle is the appropriate excitant of the lacteal vessels4 #bgd4 ,the perfection of the digestive process1 as well as the health of the general system1 requires the observance of certain conditions4 ,these will be considered under four heads3--#ast4 ,the ,quantity of food that should be taken4 #b;d4 ,its ,quality4 #c;d4 ,the ,manner in which it should be taken4 #dth4 ,the ,condition of the system when food is taken4 #bge4 ,the ,,quantity of food necessary for the system varies4 ,age1 occupation1 temperament1 temperature1 habits1 amount of clothing1 health and disease are among the circumstances which produce the variation4 ------------ #bgc-ccj4 ,give the hygiene of the digestive organs4 #bgc4 ,give a law of the system4 ,what is the appropriate stimulus of the salivary glands during mastication8 ,of the stomach8 ,of the duodenum8 ,of the lacteal vessels8 #bgd4 ,what does the perfection of the digestive organs require8 #bge4 ,what exert an influence on the quantity of food necessary for the system8 ------------ #bgf4 ,the child and youth require food to promote the growth of the different parts of the body4 ,the more rapid the growth of the child1 the greater the demand for food4 ,this accounts for the keen appetite and vigorous digestion in childhood4 ,when the youth has attained his full growth1 this necessity for nutriment ceases2 after this period of life1 if the same amount of food is taken1 and there is no increase of labor or exertion1 the digestive apparatus will become diseased1 and the vigor of the whole system diminished4 ,observation4 ,when the body has become emaciated from want of nutriment1 either from famine or disease1 there is an increased demand for food4 ,this may be gratified with impunity until the individual has regained the usual size1 but repletion should be avoided4 #bgg4 ,food is required to repair the waste1 or loss of substance that attends action4 ,in every department of nature1 waste1 or loss of substance1 attends and follows action4 ,when an individual increases his exercise1--changes from light to severe labor1--or the inactive and sedentary undertake journeys for pleasure1 the fluids of the system circulate with increased energy4 ,the old and exhausted particles of matter are more rapidly removed through the action of the vessels of the skin1 lungs1 kidneys1 and other organs1 and their places are filled with new atoms1 deposited by the small blood-vessels4 #bgh4 ,as the chyle supplies the blood with the newly vitalized particles of matter1 there is1 consequently1 an increased demand for food4 ,this want of the system induces1 in general1 a sensation of hunger or appetite1 which may be regarded as an indication of the general state of the body4 ,the sympathy that exists throughout the system accords to the stomach the power of making known this state to the nervous system1 and1 if the functions of this faithful monitor have not been impaired by disease1 abuse1 or habit1 the call is imperious1 and should be regarded4 ------------ #bgf4 ,at what age is the appetite keen and the digestion vigorous8 ,why8 ,what is said in regard to the quantity of food when the youth has attained his growth8 ,what exception1 as given in the observation8 #bgg4 ,give another demand for food4 ,what effect has increased exercise upon the system8 #bgh4 ,how are the new particles of matter supplied8 ,what does this induce8 ------------ #bgi4 ,when exercise or labor is lessened1 the quantity of food should be diminished4 ,when a person who has been accustomed to active exercise1 or even hard manual labor1 suddenly changes to an employment that demands less activity1 the waste attendant on action will be diminished in a corresponding degree2 hence the quantity of food should be lessened in nearly the same proportion as the amount of exercise is diminished4 ,if this principle be disregarded1 the tone of the digestive organs will be impaired1 and the health of the system enfeebled4 #bhj4 ,this remark is applicable to those students who have left laborious employments to attend school4 ,although the health is firm1 and the appetite keen from habit1 yet every pupil should practise some self-denial1 and not eat as much as the appetite craves1 the first week of the session4 ,after some days1 the real wants of the system will generally be manifested by a corresponding sensation of hunger4 ,observation4 ,it is a common observation that in academies and colleges1 the older students from the country1 who have been accustomed to hard manual labor1 suffer more frequently from defective digestion and impaired health than the younger and feebler students from the larger towns and cities4 #bha4 ,food is essential in maintaining a proper temperature of the system4 ,the heat of the system1 at least in part1 is produced in the minute vessels of the several organs1 by the union of oxygen with carbon and hydrogen1 which the food and drink contain4 ,the amount of heat generated1 is greatest when it is most rapidly removed from the system1 which occurs in cold weather4 ,this is the cause of the system requiring more food in winter than summer4 ------------ #bgi4 ,why should the quantity of food be diminished when the exercise is lessened8 ,what effect if this principle be disregarded8 #bhj4 ,to what class is this remark applicable8 ,what is often observed among students in academies and colleges8 #bha4 ,state another demand for food4 ,what is one source of heat in the body8 ------------ ,observation4 ,persons that do not have food sufficient for the natural wants of the system1 require more clothing than those who are well fed4 #bhb4 ,the last-mentioned principle plainly indicates the propriety and necessity of lessening the quantity of food as the warm season approaches4 ,were this practised1 the tone of the stomach and the vigor of the system would continue unimpaired1 the season complaints would be avoided1 and the strengthening bitters would not be sought to create an appetite4 ,observation4 ,stable-keepers and herdsmen are aware of the fact1 that as the warm season commences1 then animals require less food4 ,instinct teaches these animals more truly1 in this particular1 than man allows reason to guide him4 #bhc4 ,the quantity of food should have reference to the present condition of the digestive organs4 ,if they are weakened or diseased1 so that but a small quantity of food can be properly digested or changed1 that amount only should be taken4 ,food does not invigorate the system1 except it is changed1 as has been described in previous paragraphs4 ,observation4 ,when taking care of a sick child1 the anxiety of the mother and the sufferings of the child may induce her to give food when it would be highly injurious4 ,the attending physician is the only proper person to direct what quantity should be given4 ------------ ,why do we eat more in the winter than in the summer8 ,what practical observation is given8 #bhb4 ,why should the quantity of food be lessened as warm weather commences8 ,what would be avoided if this principle were obeyed8 #bhc4 ,why should the present condition of the digestive organs be regarded in reference to the quantity of food8 ,mention an instance in which it would be injudicious to give food4 ------------ #bhd4 ,the quantity of food is modified1 in some degree1 by habit4 ,a healthy person1 whose exercise is in pure air1 may be accustomed to take more food than is necessary4 ,the useless excess is removed from the system by the waste outlets1 as the skin1 lungs1 liver1 kidneys1 c4 ,in such cases1 if food is not taken in the usual quantity1 there will be a feeling of emptiness1 if not of hunger1 from the want of the usual distention of the stomach4 ,this condition of the digestive organs may be the result of disease1 but it is more frequently produced by inordinate daily indulgence in eating1 amounting almost to gluttony4 #bhe4 ,large quantities of food oppress the stomach1 and cause general languor of the whole body4 ,this is produced by the extra demands made on the system for an increased supply of blood and nervous fluid to enable the stomach to free itself of its burden4 ,thus1 when we intend to make any extraordinary effort1 mental or physical1 at least for one meal1 we should eat less food than usual1 rather than a greater quantity4 #bhf4 ,no more food should be eaten than is barely sufficient to satisfy the appetite4 ,nor should appetite be confounded with taste4 ,the one is a natural desire for food to supply the wants of the system2 the other is an artificial desire merely to gratify the palate4 #bhg4 ,although many things may aid us in determining the quantity of food proper for an individual1 yet there is no certain guide in all cases4 ,it is maintained by some1 that the sensation of hunger or appetite is always an indication of the want of food1 while the absence of this peculiar sensation is regarded as conclusive evidence that aliment is not demanded4 ,this assertion is not correct1 as an appetite may be created for food by condiments and gormandizing1 which is as artificial and as morbid as that which craves tobacco or ardent spirits4 ,on the other hand1 a structural or functional disease of the brain may prevent that organ from taking cognizance of the sensations of the stomach1 when the system actually requires nourishment4 ,observation shows1 that disease1 habit1 the state of the mind1 and other circumstances1 exert an influence on the appetite4 ------------ #bhd4 ,show the effect of habit upon the quantity of food that is eaten4 ,what is said in regard to inordinate eating8 #bhe4 ,what is the effect of eating large quantities of food8 ,what suggestion when an extraordinary effort1 either mental or physical1 is to be made8 #bhf4 ,how much food should generally be eaten8 #bhg4 ,what is the assertion of some persons relative to the quantity of food necessary for the system8 ------------ ,observation4 ,dr4 ,beaumont noticed1 in the experiments upon ,alexis ,st4 ,martin1 that after a certain amount of food was converted into chyme1 the gastric juice ceased to ooze from the coats of the stomach4 ,consequently1 it has been inferred by some writers on physiology1 that the glands which supply the gastric fluid1 by a species of instinctive intelligence1 would only secrete enough fluid to convert into chyme the aliment needed to supply the real wants of the system4 ,what are the reasons for this inference8 ,there is no evidence that the gastric glands possess instinctive intelligence1 and can there be a reason adduced1 why they may not be stimulated to extra functional action as well as other organs1 and why they may not also be influenced by habit8 #bhh4 ,while all agree that the remote or predisposing cause of hunger is1 usually1 a demand of the system for nutrient material1 the proximate or immediate cause of the sensation of hunger is not clearly understood4 ,some physiologists suppose that it is produced by an engorged condition of the glands of the stomach which supply the gastric juice2 while others maintain that it depends on a peculiar condition of the nervous system4 #bhi4 ,the ,,quality of the food best adapted to the wants of the system is modified by many circumstances4 ,there are many varieties of food1 and these are much modified by the different methods of preparation4 ,the same kind of food is not equally well adapted to different individuals1 or to the same individual in all conditions2 as vocation1 health1 exposure1 habits of life1 season1 climate1 c41 influence the condition of the system4 ------------ ,what does observation show8 #bhh4 ,what is said of the causes of hunger8 #bhi4 ,why is not the same kind of food adapted to different individuals8 ------------ #bij4 ,all articles of food may be considered in two relations3 #ast1 ,as nutritive4 #b;d1 ,as digestible4 ,substances are nutritious in proportion to their capacity to yield the elements of chyle1 of which carbon1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen are the most essential2 they are digestible in proportion to the facility with which they are acted upon by the gastric juice4 ,these properties should not be confounded in the various articles used for food4 #bia4 ,as a living body has no power of forming elements1 or of converting one elementary substance into another1 it therefore follows that the elements of which the body of an animal is composed must be in the food4 7,chap4 ,,iii47 ,of the essential constituents of the human body1 carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and nitrogen are the most important1 because they compose the principal part of the animal body2 while the other elements are found in very small proportions1 and many of them only in a few organs of the system4 7,appendix ,g47 ,observation4 ,nitrogen renders food more stimulating1 particularly if combined with a large quantity of carbon1 as beef4 ,those articles that contain the greatest amount of the constituent elements of the system are most nutritious4 ,as milk and eggs contain all the essential elements of the human system1 so they are adapted to almost universal use1 and are highly nutritious4 ------------ #bij4 ,in what proportion are substances nutritious8 ,digestible8 ,why does beef stimulate the system8 ,what is said of milk and eggs8 ------------ #bib4 ,the following table1 by ,pereira1 in his treatise on ,food and ,diet may aid the student in approximating to correct conclusions of the quantity of nutriment in different kinds of food1 and its adaptation to the wants of the system4 ,,table1 ,,showing ,,the ,,average ,,quantity ,,of ,,dry1 ,,or ,,solid ,,matter1 ,,carbon1 ,,nitrogen1 ,,and ,,moisture1 ,,in ,,different ,,articles ,,of ,,diet4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,one hundred ,parts4 ,dry ,carbon4 ,nitrogen4 ,water ,matter4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,arrowroot1 #ha4h #cf4d #ah4b ,beans1 #he4hi #ch4bd #ad4aa ,beef1 fresh1 #be #ab4ieg #c4geb #ge ,bread1 rye1 #fg4gi #cj4fgd #cb4ba ,butter1 #ajj #fe4f ,cabbage1 #g4g #j4bh #ib4c ,carrot1 #ab4d #j4cj #hg4f ,cherries1 #be4ae #gd4he ,chickens1 #bb4g #gg4c ,codfish1 #bj #hj ,cucumbers1 #b4hf #ig4ad ,eggs1 whites1 #bj #hj ----1 yolk1 #df4bc #ec4gg ,lard1 hog's1 #ajj #gi4jih ,milk1 cow's1 #ab4ih #hg4jb ,oats1 #gi4b #dj4aed #a4gdb #bj4h ,oatmeal1 #ic4d #f4f ,olive-oil1 #ajj #gg4ej ,oysters1 #ab4f #hg4d ,peaches1 #ai4gf #hj4bd ,pears1 #af4ab #hc4hh ,peas1 #hd #ce4gdc #af ,plums1 greengage1 #bh4ij #ga4aj ,potatoes1 #bd4a #aj4fjd #j4cfae #ge4i ,rye1 #hc4d #ch4ecj #a4dag #af4f ,suet1 mutton1 #ajj #gh4iif ,starch1 potato1 #hb #cf4dd #ah ----1 wheat1 #he4b #cg4e #ad4h ,sugar1 maple1 #db4a ----1 refined1 #db4e ----1 brown1 #dj4hh ,turnips1 #g4e #c4bage #j4abge #ib4e ,veal1 roasted1 #eb4eb #ad4gj ,wheat1 #he4e #ci4dae #a4iff #ad4e ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,note4 ,let the pupil mention those articles of food that are most nutritious1 from a review of this table1 and the last four paragraphs4 #bic4 ,those articles that do not contain the essential elements of the system should not be used as exclusive articles of diet4 ,this principle has been1 and may be illustrated by experiment4 ,feed a dog with pure sugar1 or olive-oil1 7articles that contain no nitrogen17 for several weeks1 and the evil effects of non-nitrogenous nutriment will be manifested4 ,at first1 the dog will take his food with avidity1 and seem to thrive upon it2 soon this desire for food will diminish1 his body emaciate1 his eye become ulcerated1 and in a few weeks he will die2 but mix bran or sawdust with the sugar or oil1 and the health and vigor of the animal will be maintained for months4 ,a similar phenomenon will be manifested1 if grain only be given to a horse1 without hay1 straw1 or material of like character4 7,appendix ,h47 #bid4 ,some articles of food contain the elements of chyle in great abundance1 yet afford but little nutriment1 because they are difficult of digestion2 while other articles contain but a small quantity of these elements1 and afford more nourishment1 because they are more easily affected by the digestive process4 ------------ #bic4 ,how has the effect of non-nitrogenous nutriment been illustrated8 #bid4 ,why do some articles of food that contain the elements of chyle afford but little nutriment8 ,why do articles that contain a small quantity of these elements afford more nourishment8 #bie4 ,how was the time required for digesting different articles of food ascertained8 ------------ #bie4 ,the following table exhibits the general results of experiments made on ,alexis ,st4 ,martin1 by ,dr4 ,beaumont1 when he endeavored to ascertain the time required for the digestion of different articles of food4#aj ,the stomach of ,st4 ,martin was ruptured by the bursting of a gun4 ,when he recovered from the effects of the accident under the surgical care of ,dr4 ,beaumont1 the stomach became adherent to the side1 with an external aperture4 ,nature had formed a kind of valve1 which closed the aperture from the interior1 and thus prevented the contents of the stomach from escaping2 but on pushing it aside1 the process of digestion could be seen4 ,through this opening1 the appearance of the coats of the stomach and food1 at different stages of digestion1 were examined4 #aj ,the time required for the digestion of the different articles of food might vary in other persons2 and would probably vary in the same individual at different periods1 as the employment1 health1 season1 c41 exert a modifying influence4 ,,table1 ,,showing ,,the ,,mean ,,time ,,of ,,digestion ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,articles ,,of ,,diet4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,articles4 ,preparation4 ,time h4 m4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,apples1 sour1 hard1 ,raw1 #b #ej ,apples1 sour1 mellow1 ,raw1 #b ,apples1 sweet1 do41 ,raw1 #a #cj ,bass1 striped1 fresh1 ,broiled1 #c ,beans1 pod1 ,boiled1 #b #cj ,beef1 fresh1 lean1 rare1 ,roasted1 #c ,beef1 fresh1 lean1 dry1 ,roasted1 #c #cj ,beef steak1 ,broiled1 #c ,beef1 with salt only1 ,boiled1 #c #cf ,beef1 with mustard1 ,boiled1 #c #aj ,beef1 fresh1 lean1 ,fried1 #d ,beef1 old1 hard1 salted1 ,boiled1 #d #ae ,beets1 ,boiled1 #c #de ,bread1 wheat1 fresh1 ,baked1 #c #cj ,bread1 corn1 ,baked1 #c #ae ,butter1 ,melted1 #c #cj ,cabbage head1 ,raw1 #b #cj ,cabbage1 with vinegar1 ,raw1 #b ,cabbage1 ,boiled1 #d #cj ,cake1 sponge1 ,baked1 #b #cj ,carrot1 orange1 ,boiled1 #c #ae ,catfish1 ,fried1 #c #cj ,cheese1 old1 strong1 ,raw1 #c #cj ,chicken1 full-grown1 ,fricas'd1 #b #de ,codfish1 cured1 dry1 ,boiled1 #b ,corn1 green1 beans1 ,boiled1 #c #de ,corn bread1 ,baked1 #c #ae ,corn cake1 ,baked1 #c ,custard1 ,baked1 #b #de ,dumpling1 apple1 ,boiled1 #c ,ducks1 domesticated1 ,roasted1 #d ,ducks1 wild1 ,roasted1 #d #cj ,eggs1 fresh1 ,boiled hard1 #c #cj ,eggs1 fresh1 ,boiled soft1 #c ,eggs1 fresh1 ,fried1 #c #cj ,eggs1 fresh1 ,raw1 #b ,flounder1 fresh1 ,fried1 #c #cj ,fowl1 domestic1 ,boiled1 #d ,fowl1 domestic1 ,roasted1 #d ,goose1 ,roasted1 #b #cj ,lamb1 fresh1 ,broiled1 #b #cj ,liver1 beef's1 fresh1 ,broiled1 #b ,meat hashed with vegetables1 ,warm'd1 #b #cj ,milk1 ,boiled1 #b ,milk1 ,raw1 #b #ae ,mutton1 fresh1 ,roasted1 #c #ae ,mutton1 fresh1 ,broiled1 #c ,mutton1 fresh1 ,boiled1 #c ,oysters1 fresh1 ,raw1 #b #ee ,oysters1 fresh1 ,roasted1 #c #ae ,oysters1 fresh1 ,stewed1 #c #cj ,parsnips1 ,boiled1 #b #cj ,pig1 sucking1 ,roasted1 #b #cj ,pigs' feet1 soused1 ,boiled1 #a ,pork1 fat and lean1 ,roasted1 #e #ae ,pork1 recently salted1 ,boiled1 #d #cj ,pork1 recently salted1 ,fried1 #d #ae ,pork1 recently salted1 ,broiled1 #c #ae ,pork1 recently salted1 ,raw1 #c ,pork1 steak1 ,broiled1 #c #ae ,potatoes1 ,irish1 ,boiled1 #c #cj ,potatoes1 ,irish1 ,baked1 #b #cj ,rice1 ,boiled1 #a ,sago1 ,boiled1 #a #de ,salmon1 salted1 ,boiled1 #d ,sausage1 fresh1 ,broiled1 #c #bj ,soup1 beef1 vegetables1 and ,boiled1 #d bread1 ,soup1 chicken1 ,boiled1 #c ,soup1 mutton1 ,boiled1 #c #cj ,soup1 oyster1 ,boiled1 #c #cj ,suet1 beef1 fresh1 ,boiled1 #e #cj ,suet1 mutton1 ,boiled1 #d #cj ,tapioca1 ,boiled1 #b ,tripe1 soused1 ,boiled1 #a ,trout1 salmon1 fresh1 ,boiled1 #a #cj ,trout1 salmon1 fresh1 ,fried1 #a #cj ,turkey1 domesticated1 ,roasted1 #b #cj ,turkey1 ,boiled1 #b #be ,turkey1 wild1 ,roasted1 #b #ah ,turnips1 flat1 ,boiled1 #c #cj ,veal1 fresh1 ,broiled1 #d ,veal1 fresh1 ,fried1 #d #cj ,venison steak1 ,broiled1 #a #ce ---------------------------------------- ----------- #bif4 ,in view of this table1 the question may be suggested1 ,is that article of food most appropriate to the system which is most easily and speedily digested8 ,to this it may be replied1 that the stomach is subject to the same law as the muscles and other organs2 exercise1 within certain limits1 strengthens it4 ,if1 therefore1 we always eat those articles most easily digested1 the digestive powers will be weakened2 if over-worked1 they will be exhausted4 ,hence the kind and amount of food should be adapted to the maintenance of the digestive powers1 and to their gradual invigoration when debilitated4 ,observation4 ,food that is most easily digested is not always most appropriate to a person convalescing from disease4 ,if the substance passes rapidly through the digestive process1 it may induce a recurrence of the disease4 ,thus the simple preparations which are not stimulating1 as water-gruel1 are better for a sick person than the more digestible beef and fish4 #big4 ,the question is not well settled1 whether animal or vegetable food is best adapted to nourish man4 ,there are nations1 particularly in the torrid zone1 that subsist1 exclusively1 on vegetables2 while those of the frigid zone feed on fish or animal food4 ,in the temperate zone1 among civilized nations1 a mixed diet is almost universal4 ,when we consider the organization of the human system1 the form and arrangement of the teeth1 the structure of the stomach and intestines1 we are led to conclude1 that both animal and vegetable food is requisite1 and that a mixed diet is most conducive to strength1 health1 and long life4 ------------ #bif4 ,how is the question answered1 whether that article is most appropriate to the system which is most easily digested8 ,give observation4 #big4 ,what is said of the adaptation of animal and vegetable food to man8 ------------ #bih4 ,the food should be adapted to the distensible character of the stomach and alimentary canal4 ,the former will be full1 if it contain only a gill2 it may be so distended as to contain a quart4 ,the same is true of the intestines4 ,if the food is concentrated1 or contains the quantity of nutriment which the system requires1 in small bulk1 the stomach and intestines will need the stimulation of distention and friction1 which is consequent upon the introduction and transit of the innutritious material into and through the alimentary canal4 ,if the food is deficient in innutritious matter1 the tendency is1 to produce an inactive and diseased condition of the digestive organs4 ,for this reason1 nutrient food should have blended with it innutritious material4 ,unbolted wheat bread is more healthy than hot flour cakes2 ripe fruits and vegetables than rich pies1 or jellies4 ,observation4 #ast4 ,the observance of this rule is of more importance to students1 sedentary mechanics1 and those individuals whose digestive apparatus has been enfeebled1 than to those of active habits and firm health4 #b;d4 ,the circumstance that different articles of food contain different proportions of waste1 or innutritious matter1 may be made practically subservient in the following way3 ,if1 at any particular season of the year1 there is a tendency to a diarrhoea1 an article that contains a small proportion of waste should be selected for food2 but1 if there is a tendency to an inactive or costive condition of the intestinal canal1 such kinds of food should be used as contain the greatest proportion of waste1 as such articles are most stimulating to the digestive organs1 and1 consequently1 most laxative4 #bii4 ,in the selection of food1 the influence of season and climate should be considered4 ,food of a highly stimulating character may be used almost with impunity during the cold weather of a cold climate2 but in the warm season1 and in a warm climate1 it would be very deleterious4 ,animal food1 being more stimulating than vegetable1 can be eaten in the winter but vegetable food should be used more freely in the spring and summer4 ------------ #bih4 ,what is said of the distensible character of the stomach and alimentary canal8 ,what is the effect of eating highly concentrated food8 ,why is the unbolted wheat bread more healthy than flour cakes8 ,give observation #ast4 ,observation #b;d4 #bii4 ,what kind of food is adapted to cold weather8 ,to warm weather8 ------------ #cjj4 ,the influence of food on the system is modified by the age of the individual4 ,the organs of a child are more sensitive and excitable than those of a person advanced in years4 ,therefore a vegetable diet would be most appropriate for a child1 while stimulating animal food might be conducive to the health of a person advanced in life4 ,observation4 ,when the digestive organs are highly impressible or diseased1 it is very important to adopt a nutritious1 unstimulating1 vegetable diet1 as soon as the warm season commences4 #cja4 ,habit is another strong modifying influence4 ,if a person has been accustomed to an animal or vegetable diet1 and there is a sudden change from one to the other1 a diseased condition of the system1 particularly of the digestive apparatus1 usually follows4 ,when it is necessary to change our manner of living1 it should be done gradually4#aa #aa ,the system is gradually developed1 and all changes of food1 apparel1 labor1 exercise1 or position1 should be gradual4 ,even a change from a bad to a good habit1 on this principle1 should be gradual4 #cjb4 ,some temperaments require more stimulating food than others4 ,as a general rule1 those persons whose sensations are comparatively obtuse1 and movements slow1 will be benefited by animal food2 while those individuals whose constitutions are highly impressible1 and whose movements are quick and hurried1 require a nutritious and unstimulating vegetable diet4 ------------ #cjj4 ,what kinds of food are appropriate to old age8 ,why8 ,what kinds to childhood8 ,why8 #cja4 ,what is the effect when there is a sudden change from a vegetable to an animal diet8 ,how should all changes of the system be made8 #cjb4 ,do different temperaments require different kinds of food8 ,what general rule is given8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,digestive ,,organs1 ,,continued4 #cjc4 ,the ,,manner in which food should be taken is of much practical importance2 upon it the health of the digestive organs measurably depends4 ,but few circumstances modify the proper manner of taking food1 or should exercise any controlling influence4 #cjd4 ,food should be taken at regular periods4 ,the interval between meals should be regulated by the character of the food1 the age1 health1 exercise1 and habits of the individual4 ,the digestive process is more energetic and rapid in the young1 active1 and vigorous1 than in the aged1 indolent1 and feeble2 consequently1 food should be taken more frequently by the former than by the latter class4 #cje4 ,in some young and vigorous persons1 food may be digested in one hour2 in other persons1 it may require four hours or more4 ,the average time1 however1 to digest an ordinary meal1 will be from two to four hours4 ,in all instances1 the stomach will require from one to three hours to recruit its exhausted powers after the labor of digesting a meal before it will again enter upon the vigorous performance of its duties4 #cjf4 ,food should not be taken too frequently4 ,if food is taken before the stomach has regained its tone and energy by repose1 the secretion of the gastric juice1 and the contraction of the muscular fibres1 will be imperfect4 ,again1 if food is taken before the digestion of the preceding meal has been completed1 the effects will be still worse1 because the food partially digested becomes mixed with that last taken4 ,therefore the interval between each meal should be long enough for the whole quantity to be digested1 and the time of repose should be sufficient to recruit the exhausted organs4 ,the feebler the person and the more debilitated the stomach1 the more important to observe the above directions4 ------------ #cjc4 ,why is it important that we regard the manner of taking our food8 #cjd4 ,how should the intervals between meals be regulated8 #cje4 ,what is the average time required to digest an ordinary meal8 #cjf4 ,why should not food be taken too frequently8 ------------ ,observation4 ,in the feeding of infants1 as well as in supplying food to older children1 the preceding suggestions should always be regarded4 ,the person who has been confined by an exhausting sickness1 should most scrupulously regard this rule1 if he wishes to regain his strength and flesh with rapidity4 ,as the rapidity of the digestive process is less in students and individuals who are engaged in sedentary employments1 than in stirring agriculturists1 the former class are more liable to take food too frequently than the latter1 while its observance is of greater importance to the sedentary artisan than to the lively lad and active farmer4 #cjg4 ,food should be well masticated4 ,all solid aliments should be reduced to a state of comparative fineness1 by the teeth1 before it is swallowed2 the gastric fluid of the stomach will then blend with it more readily1 and act more vigorously in reducing it to chyme4 ,the practice of swallowing solid food1 slightly masticated1 or bolting it down1 tends to derange the digestive process and impair the nutrition of the system4 #cjh4 ,mastication should be moderate1 not rapid4 ,in masticating food1 the salivary glands are excited to action1 and some time must elapse before they can1 secrete saliva in sufficient quantities to moisten it4 ,if the aliment is not supplied with saliva1 digestion is retarded2 besides1 in rapid eating1 more food is generally consumed than the system demands1 or can be easily digested4 ,laborers1 as well as men of leisure1 should have ample time for taking their meals4 ,imperfect mastication is a prevailing cause of indigestion4 ------------ ,what persons would be benefited by observing the preceding remarks8 #cjg4 ,why should food be well masticated8 ,what is the effect of bolting down food8 #cjh4 ,how should mastication be performed8 ,why8 ------------ #cji4 ,food should be masticated and swallowed without drink4 ,as the salivary glands supply fluid to moisten the dry food1 the use of tea1 coffee1 water1 or any other fluid1 is not demanded by nature's laws while taking a meal4 ,one objection to washing down the food with drink is1 the aliment is moistened1 not with the saliva1 but with the drink4 ,this tends to induce disease1 not only in the salivary organs1 by leaving them in a state of comparative inactivity1 but in the stomach1 by the deficiency of the salivary stimulus4 ,another is1 large quantities of fluids1 used as drinks1 give undue distention to the stomach1 and lessen the energy of the gastric juice by its dilution1 thus retarding digestion4 ,again1 drinks taken into the stomach must be removed by absorption before the digestion of other articles is commenced4 ,observation4 ,were it customary not to place drinks on the table until the solid food is eaten1 the evil arising from drinking too much at meals would be obviated4 ,the horse is never known to leave his provender1 nor the ox his blade of grass1 to wash it down2 but many persons1 from habit rather than thirst1 drink largely during meals4 #caj4 ,the peculiar sensation in the mouth and fauces1 called thirst1 may not always arise from the demand for fluids to increase the serum 7water7 of the blood1 as in the desire for drink attendant on free perspiration1 for then1 pure water or some diluent drink is absolutely necessary2 but it may be the result of fever1 or local disease of the parts connected with the throat4 ,in many instances1 thirst may be allayed by chewing some hard substance1 as a dry cracker4 ,this excites a secretion from the salivary glands1 which removes the disagreeable sensation4 ,in thirst1 attendant on a heated condition of the system1 this practice affords relief1 and is safe2 while the practice of drinking large quantities of cold fluids1 is unsafe1 and should never be indulged4 ------------ ,why should all persons have ample time for eating8 #cji4 ,why are drinks not necessary while masticating food8 ,give the objections to washing down food4 ,what observation relative to drink8 #caj4 ,does the sensation of thirst always arise from a real want of the system8 ------------ #caa4 ,food or drink should not be taken when very hot4 ,when food or drink is taken hot1 the vessels of the mucous membrane of the gums1 mouth1 and stomach are unduly stimulated for a short time2 and this is followed by reaction1 attended by a loss of tone1 and debility of these parts4 ,this practice is a fruitful cause of spongy gums1 decayed teeth1 sore mouth1 and indigestion4 #cab4 ,food or drink should not be taken very cold4 ,if a considerable quantity of very cold food or liquid be taken immediately into the stomach1 the health will be endangered1 and the tone of the system will be impaired1 from the sudden abstraction of heat from the coats of the stomach1 and from surrounding organs1 to impart warmth to the cold food or drink4 ,this arrests the digestive process1 and the food is retained in the stomach too long1 and causes oppression and irritation4 ,consequently1 food and drink that are moderately heated are best adapted to the natural condition of the digestive apparatus4 ,observation4 ,food of an injurious quality1 or taken in an improper manner1 affects the inferior animals as well as man4 ,the teeth of cows that are closely penned in cities1 and are fed on distillery slops1 or the unhealthy slops and remnants of kitchens1 decay and fall out in about two years4 ,can the milk of such diseased animals be healthy--the proper nourishment for children8 ------------ ,give instances when it does and when it does not4 #caa4 ,why should not food or drink be taken hot8 #cab4 ,why should they not be taken cold8 ,show some of the effects of improper food upon the inferior animals4 ------------ #cac4 ,the ,,condition of the system should be regarded when food is taken4 ,this is necessary1 as the present and ulterior condition of the digestive apparatus is strongly influenced by the state of the other organs of the system4 #cad4 ,food should not be taken immediately after severe exertion1 either of the body or mind4 ,for all organs in action require and receive more blood and nervous fluid1 than when at rest4 ,this is true of the brain1 muscles1 and vocal organs1 when they have been actively exercised4 ,the increased amount of fluid1 both sanguineous and nervous1 supplied to any organ during extra functional action1 is abstracted from other parts of the system4 ,this enfeebles and prostrates the parts that supply the blood and nervous fluid to the active organ4 ,again1 when any organ has been in vigorous action for a few hours1 some time will elapse before the increased action of the arteries and nerves abates1 and a due supply of fluids is transmitted to other organs1 or an equilibrium of action in the system is restablished4 #cae4 ,thus food should not be taken immediately after severe mental labor1 protracted speaking1 continued singing1 or laborious manual toil2 as the digestive organs will be in a state of comparative debility1 and consequently unfit to digest food4 ,from thirty to sixty minutes should elapse1 after the cessation of severe employment1 before food is taken4 ,this time may be spent in cheerful amusement or social conversation4 ,observation4 ,the practice of students and accountants going immediately from severe mental labor to their meals1 is a pernicious one1 and a fruitful cause of indigestion and mental debility4 ,the custom of farmers and mechanics hurrying from their toil to the dinner-table1 does much to cause dyspepsia and debility among these classes in community4 ------------ #cac4 ,should the condition of the system be regarded in taking food8 #cad4 ,when should food not be taken8 ,why8 ,what is the result when an organ has been in vigorous action8 #cae4 ,after the cessation of severe toil1 how much time should expire before eating8 ,what is one cause of indigestion among students and accountants8 ------------ #caf4 ,severe mental or manual toil should not be entered upon immediately after eating4 ,as there is an increased amount of blood and nervous fluid supplied to the stomach and alimentary canal during the digestion of food1 a deficiency exists in other organs4 ,this is evinced by a slight paleness of the skin1 and a disinclination to active thought and exercise4 ,under such circumstances1 if either the mind1 vocal organs1 or muscles are called into energetic action1 there will be an abstraction of the necessary amount of blood and nervous fluid from the stomach1 and the process of digestion will be arrested4 ,this will not only cause disease of the digestive organs1 but chyle will not be formed1 to nourish the system4 ,illustration4 ,an ,english gentleman fed two dogs upon similar articles of food4 ,he permitted one to remain quiet in a dark room2 the other he sent in pursuit of game4 ,at the expiration of one hour1 he had both killed4 ,the stomach of the dog that had remained quiet was nearly empty4 ,the food had been properly changed and carried forward into the alimentary canal4 ,in the stomach of the dog that had used his muscles in chasing game1 the aliment remained nearly unaltered4 #cag4 ,the same principle may be applied to the action of the organs of man4 ,if his mind or muscles act intensely soon after eating1 the stomach will not be sufficiently stimulated by blood and nervous fluid to change the food in a suitable period4 ,the ,spanish practice of having a siesta1 or sleep after dinner1 is far better than the custom of the ,anglo-,saxon race1 who hurry from their meals to the field1 shop1 or study1 in order to save time1 which1 in too many instances1 is lost by a sense of oppression and suffering which soon follows4 ------------ #caf4 ,why should not severe manual or mental exertion be made immediately after eating8 ,state the illustration4 #cag4 ,may this principle be applied to the action of the human stomach8 ,what is said of the ,spanish custom of resting after dinner8 ------------ #cah4 ,in some instances of good health1 the infringement of this organic law may seem to pass with impunity1 but ,nature1 though lenient1 sooner or later asserts her claims4 ,the practice of the ,spaniard may be improved by indulging1 for an hour before resuming toil1 in moderate exercise of the muscular system1 conjoined with agreeable conversation and a hearty laugh1 as this facilitates digestion1 and tends to shake the cobwebs from the brain4 ,observation4 ,no judicious teamster drives his animals as soon as they have swallowed their food1 but gives them a period for repose1 so that their food may be digested1 and their systems invigorated4 ,in this way1 he secures the greatest amount of labor from his team4 #cai4 ,the mind exerts an influence upon the digestive process4 ,this is clearly exhibited1 when an individual receives intelligence of the loss of a friend or of property4 ,he may at the time be sitting before a plentiful board1 with a keen appetite2 but the unexpected news destroys it1 because the excited brain withholds its stimulus4 ,this shows the propriety of avoiding absorbing topics of thought at meals1 as labored discussions and matters of business2 but substitute cheerful and light conversation1 enlivening wit1 humor1 the social intercourse of family and friends2 these keep the brain in action1 but not in toil4 ,under such circumstances1 the blood and nervous fluid flow freely1 the work of digestion is readily commenced1 and easily carried on4 #cbj4 ,indigestion arising from a prostration of the nervous system1 should be treated with great care4 ,the food should be simple1 nutritious1 moderate in quantity1 and taken at regular periods4 ,large quantities of stimulating food1 frequently taken1 serve to increase the nervous prostration4 ,those afflicted should exercise in the open air1 and engage in social conversation1 that the brain may be excited to a natural or healthy action1 in order that it may impart to the digestive organs the necessary stimulation4 ------------ ,of the ,anglo-,saxon race8 #cah4 ,how can the ,spanish custom be improved8 #cai4 ,how is the influence of the mind on the digestive process exhibited8 ,what does it show the necessity of avoiding8 #cbj4 ,how should indigestion arising from nervous prostration be treated8 ------------ #cba4 ,persons should abstain from eating1 at least three hours before retiring for sleep4 ,it is no unusual occurrence1 for those persons who have eaten heartily immediately before retiring to sleep1 to have unpleasant dreams1 or to be aroused from their unquiet slumber by colic pains4 ,in such instances1 the brain becomes partially dormant1 and does not impart to the digestive organs the requisite amount of nervous influence4 ,the nervous stimulus being deficient1 the unchanged food remains in the stomach1 causing irritation of this organ4 ,illustration4 ,a healthy farmer1 who was in the habit of eating one fourth of a mince pie immediately before going to bed1 became annoyed with unpleasant dreams1 and1 among the varied images of his fancy1 he saw that of his deceased father4 ,becoming alarmed1 he consulted a physician1 who1 after a patient hearing of the case1 gravely advised him to eat half of a mince pie1 assuring him that he would then see his grandfather4 #cbb4 ,when the general system and digestive organs are enfeebled1 mild1 unstimulating food1 in small quantities1 should be given4 ,in the instance of a shipwrecked and famished mariner1 or a patient recovering from disease1 but a small quantity of nourishment should be given at a time4 ,the reason for this1 is1 that when the stomach is weakened from want of nourishment1 it is as unfitted for a long period of action in digesting food1 as the muscles are1 under like circumstances1 for walking4 ,consequently1 knowledge and prudence should direct the administration of food under these circumstances4 ,the popular adage1 that food never does harm when there is a desire for it1 is untrue1 and1 if practically adopted1 may be injurious and destructive to life4 ------------ #cba4 ,what is the effect of eating immediately before retiring for sleep8 ,how is this illustrated in the case of a healthy farmer8 #cbb4 ,how should the food be given when both the digestive organs and general system are debilitated8 ,give the reason4 ------------ ,observation4 ,liquids are rapidly removed from the stomach by absorption4 ,hence1 in cases of great prostration1 when it is desirable to introduce nutriment into the system1 without delay1 the animal and vegetable broths are a desirable and convenient form of supplying aliment4 #cbc4 ,the condition of the skin exercises an important influence on the digestive apparatus4 ,let free perspiration be checked1 either from uncleanliness or from chills1 and it will diminish the functional action of the stomach and its associated organs4 ,this is one of the fruitful causes of the liver and stomach complaints among the half-clothed and filthy population of the crowded cities and villages of our country4 ,attention to clothing and bathing would likewise prevent many of the diseases of the alimentary canal1 called season complaints1 particularly among children4 #cbd4 ,restricting the movements of the ribs and diaphragm impairs digestion4 ,at each full inspiration1 the ribs are elevated1 and the central portion of the diaphragm is depressed1 from one to two inches4 ,this depression is accompanied by a relaxation of the anterior abdominal walls4 ,at each act of expiration1 the relaxed abdominal muscles contract1 the ribs are depressed1 the diaphragm relaxes1 and its central parts ascend4 ,these movements of the midriff cause the elevation and depression of the stomach1 liver1 and other abdominal organs1 which is a natural stimulus of these parts4 ------------ ,in cases of great prostration1 what is recommended8 #cbc4 ,how is the influence that the skin exercises on the digestive organs illustrated8 #cbd4 ,what effect on the digestive process has the restriction of the ribs and diaphragm8 ------------ #cbe4 ,it is noted of individuals who restrain the free movements of the abdominal muscles by tight dresses1 that the tone and vigor of the digestive organs are diminished4 ,the restricted waist will not admit of a full and deep inspiration and so essential is this to health1 that abuse in this respect soon enfeebles and destroys the functions of the system4 #cbf4 ,pure air is necessary to give a keen appetite and vigorous digestion4 ,the digestive organs not only need the stimulus of blood1 but they absolutely need the influence of pure blood1 which cannot exist in the system1 except when we breathe a pure air4 ,from this we learn why those persons who sleep in small1 ill ventilated rooms1 have little or no appetite in the morning1 and why the mouth and throat are so dry and disagreeable4 ,the effect of impure blood1 in diminishing the desire for food1 and enfeebling the digestive organs1 is well illustrated by the following incidents4 ,illustrations4 #ast4 ,dr4 ,reid1 in his work on ,ventilation of ,rooms1 relates that an innkeeper in ,london1 when he provided a public dinner1 always spread his tables in an under-ground room1 with low walls1 where the air was confined and impure4 ,he assigned as a reason for so doing1 that his guests consumed only one third as much food and wine1 as if the tables were laid in the open air4 #b;d4 ,a manufacturer stated before a committee of the ,british ,parliament1 that he had removed an arrangement for ventilating his mill1 because he noticed that his men ate much more after his mill was ventilated1 than previous to admitting fresh air into the rooms1 and that he could not afford to have them breathe pure air4 ,observation4 ,many of the cases of indigestion among clergymen1 seamstresses1 school teachers1 sedentary mechanics1 and factory operatives1 are produced by breathing the impure air of the rooms they occupy4 ,these cases can be prevented1 as well as cured1 by proper attention to ventilation4 ------------ #cbe4 ,what is observed of those individuals that restrict the movements of the abdominal muscles8 #cbf4 ,why is pure air necessary to vigorous digestion8 ,give illustration #ast4 ,illustration #b;d4 ,what is one cause of indigestion among the sedentary class in community8 ------------ #cbg4 ,the position of a person1 in standing or sitting1 exerts an influence upon the digestive organs4 ,if a person lean1 or stoop forward1 the distance between the pelvic bones and the diaphragm is diminished4 ,this prevents the depression of the diaphragm1 while the stomach1 liver1 pancreas1 and other abdominal organs1 suffer compression1 which induces many severe diseases of these organs4 ,as healthy and well-developed muscles keep the spinal column in an erect position1 which conduces to the health of the organs of digestion1 the child should be taught to avoid all positions but the erect1 while studying or walking4 ,this position1 combined with unrestricted waists1 will do much to remove the now prevalent disease1 dyspepsia4 #cbh4 ,whatever kind of aliment is taken1 it is separated into nutriment and residuum2 the former of which is conveyed1 through the medium of the circulation1 to all organs of the system1 and the latter1 if not expelled1 accumulates1 causing headache and dizziness1 with a general uneasiness2 and1 if allowed to continue1 it lays the foundation of a long period of suffering and disease4 ,for the preservation of health1 it is necessary that there should be a daily evacuation of the residual matter4 ,observation4 ,in chronic diseases of the digestive organs1 very frequently1 there is an inactive1 or costive condition of the alimentary canal4 ,this may be removed in many cases1 and relieved in all instances1 by friction over the abdominal organs1 and by making an effort at some stated period each day1 7evening is best17 to evacuate the residuum4 ,in acute diseases1 as fever1 regard should be given to regularity in relieving the intestines of residuum4 ,attention to this suggestion will in many instances obviate the necessity of cathartic medicine4 ------------ #cbg4 ,why does the position of a person affect digestion8 #cbh4 ,into what are different kinds of aliment separated8 ------------ #cbi4 ,we would add1 for the benefit of those afflicted with hemorrhoids1 or piles1 that the best time for evacuating the intestinal canal would be immediately before retiring for the night4 ,during the night1 while recumbent1 the protruding parts return to their proper place1 and the surrounding organs acquire increased tone to retain them4 ,the same observance will do much to prevent such prostrating diseases4#ab #ab ,the urinary organs1 as well as the intestinal canal1 should be frequently and regularly evacuated4 ,some most distressing and frequently incurable complaints are caused by false customs and false delicacy in this particular4 ,teachers should be particularly careful1 and regard this suggestion in reference to young pupils4 #ccj4 ,to recapitulate3 digestion is most perfect when the action of the cutaneous vessels is energetic2 the brain and vocal organs moderately stimulated by animated conversation2 the blood well purified2 the muscular system duly exercised2 the food of an appropriate quality1 taken in proper quantities1 at regular periods1 and also properly masticated4 ------------ #ccj4 ,give the summary when digestion is most perfect4 ------------ ,,chapter ,,vxii4 ,,the ,,circulatory ,,organs4 #cca4 ,the ultimate object of the food and drink introduced into the body1 is to furnish material to promote the growth and repair the waste of the organs of the system4 ,the formation of chyle 7the nutrient portion of the food7 has been traced through the digestive process1 and its transfer into the vein at the lower part of the neck1 from which it is conveyed to the heart2 and1 finally1 in the lungs it assimilates to the character of blood4 #ccb4 ,the ,,blood1 after standing a short time1 when drawn from its vessels1 separates into serum1 7a watery fluid17 and co-agu-lum1 7clot47 ,this fluid is distributed to every part of the system4 ,there is no part so minute that it does not receive blood4 ,the organs by which this distribution is effected are so connected that there is properly neither beginning nor end2 but as it respects their functions1 they are connected in a complete circle4 ,from this circumstance1 they are called the ,circulatory ,organs4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,circulatory ,,organs4 #ccc4 ,the ,,circulatory ,,organs are the ,heart1 ,arte-ries1 ,veins1 and ,capil-la-ries4 #ccd4 ,the ,,heart is placed obliquely1 in the left cavity of the chest1 between the right and left lung4 ,its general form is that of an inverted cone1 the base of which is directed upward and backward1 toward the right shoulder1 while its apex points forward to the left side1 about three inches from the sternum to the space between the fifth and sixth ribs4 ,its under side rests upon the tendinous portion of the diaphragm4 ,the heart is surrounded by a sac1 called the per-i-cardi-um1 7heart-case47 ,the interior surface of this membrane secretes a watery fluid1 that lubricates the exterior of the heart1 and obviates friction between it and the pericardium4 ------------ #cca4 what is the ultimate object of the food8 #ccb4 ,of what is the blood composed8 ,what is said of the distribution of the blood8 #ccc4 ,name the circulatory organs4 #ccd-cea4 ,give the anatomy of the circulatory organs4 #ccd4 ,describe the heart4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,a front view of the heart4 #a1 ,the right auricle of the heart4 #b1 ,the left auricle4 #c1 ,the right ventricle4 #d1 ,the left ventricle4 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 ,the vessels#ac through which the blood passes to and from the heart4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,a back view of the heart4 #a1 ,the right auricle4 #b1 ,the left auricle4 #c1 ,the right ventricle4 #d1 ,the left ventricle4 #e1 #f1 #g1 ,the vessels that carry the blood to and from the heart4 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 ,the nutrient vessels of the heart4 #ac ,all vessels that carry blood to the heart1 are called veins4 ,all vessels that carry blood from the heart1 are called arteries4 ------------ ,with what is it surrounded8 ,what is its use8 ,how much fluid does this membrane contain when healthy8 ------------ ,observation4 ,in health1 there is usually about a tea-spoonful of fluid in the pericardium4 ,when these parts are diseased1 it may be thrown out more abundantly1 and sometimes amounts to several ounces1 producing a disease called dropsy of the heart4 ,but all the unpleasant sensations in the region of the heart are not caused by an increased amount of fluid in the pericardium1 as this disease is not of frequent occurrence4 #cce4 ,the heart is composed of muscular fibres1 that traverse it in different directions1 some longitudinally1 but most of them in a spiral direction4 ,the human heart is a double organ1 or it has two sides1 called the right and the left4 ,the compartments of the two sides are separated by a muscular septum1 or partition4 ,again1 each side of the heart is divided into two parts1 called the ,auri-cle 7deaf ear7 and the ,ventri-cle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,a section of the heart1 showing its cavities and valves4 #c1 ,the right auricle4 #d1 ,the opening between the right auricle and right ventricle4 #e1 ,the right ventricle4 #f1 ,the tricuspid valves4 #g1 ,the pulmonary artery4 #i1 ,the semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery4 #aj1 ,the septum between the right and left ventricle4 #ab1 ,the left auricle4 #ac1 ,the opening between the left auricle and left ventricle4 #ad1 ,the left ventricle4 #ae1 ,the mitral valves4 #af1 ,the aorta4 #ag1 ,the semilunar valves of the aorta4 #ccf4 ,the ,,auricles differ in muscularity from the ventricles4 ,their walls are thinner1 and of a bluish color4 ,these cavities are a kind of reservoir1 designed to contain the blood arriving by the veins4 #ccg4 ,the ,,ventricles not only have their walls thicker than the auricles1 but they differ in their internal structure4 ,from the interior of these cavities arise fleshy columns1 called co-lumn carne-4 ,the walls of the left ventricle are thicker and stronger than those of the right4 ------------ #cce4 ,of what is the heart composed8 ,give its divisions4 #ccf4 ,describe the auricles4 #ccg4 ,describe the ventricles4 ------------ #cch4 ,the cavities in the right side of the heart are triangular in shape2 those of the left1 oval4 ,each cavity will contain about two ounces of blood4 ,between the auricle and ventricle in the right side of the heart1 there are three folds1 or doublings1 of thin1 triangular membrane1 called the tri-cuspid valves4 ,between the auricle and ventricle in the left side1 there are two valves1 called the mitral4 ,there are seen passing from the floating edge of these valves to the column carne1 small white cords1 called chord tendi-n1 which prevent the floating edge of the valve from being carried into the auricle4 #cci4 ,the right ventricle of the heart gives rise to the ,pulmo-na-ry artery2 the left ventricle1 to a large artery called the ,a-orta4 ,at the commencement of each of these arteries there are three folds of membrane1 and from their shape1 they are called sem-i-lunar valves4 #cdj4 ,the heart is supplied with arteries and veins1 which ramify between its muscular fibres1 through which its nutrient blood passes4 ,it has1 likewise1 a few lymphatics1 and many small nervous filaments from the sympathetic system of nerves4 ,this organ1 in its natural state1 exhibits but slight indications of sensibility1 and although nearly destitute of the sensation of touch1 it is yet1 however1 instantly affected by every painful bodily excitement1 or strong mental emotions4 ,observation4 ,to obtain a clear idea of the heart and its valves1 it is recommended to examine this part of an ox or calf4 ,in order that each ventricle be opened without mutilating the fleshy columns1 tendinous cords1 and valves1 cut on each side of the septum parallel to it4 ,this may be easily found between the ventricles1 as they differ in thickness4 ------------ #cch4 ,how do the cavities in the heart differ8 ,what is found between the auricle and ventricle in the right side of the heart8 ,how many valves in the left side1 and their names8 ,where are the tendinous cords1 and what is their use8 #cci4 ,what vessels proceed from the ventricles8 ,what is said of their valves8 #cdj4 ,with what is the heart supplied8 ,what is said of its sensibility8 ,how can an idea of the structure of the heart be obtained8 ------------ #cda4 ,the ,,arteries are the cylindrical tubes that convey the blood from the heart to every part of the system4 ,they are dense in structure1 and preserve1 for the most part1 the cylindrical form1 when emptied of their blood1 which is their condition after death4 #cdb4 ,the arteries are composed of three coats4 ,the external1 or cellular coat1 is firm and strong2 the middle1 or fibrous coat1 is composed of yellowish fibres4 ,this coat is elastic1 fragile1 and thicker than the external coat4 ,its elasticity enables the vessel to accommodate itself to the quantity of blood it may contain4 ,the internal coat is a thin1 serous membrane1 which lines the interior of the artery1 and gives it the smooth polish which that surface presents4 ,it is continuous with the lining membrane of the heart4 #cdc4 ,communications between arteries are free and numerous4 ,they increase in frequency with diminution in the size of the branches1 so that through the medium of the minute ramifications1 the entire body may be considered as one circle of inosculation4 ,the arteries1 in their distribution through the body1 are enclosed in a loose1 cellular investment1 called a sheath1 which separates them from the surrounding tissues4 #cdd4 ,the ,,pulmonary ,,artery commences in front of the origin of the aorta4 ,it ascends obliquely to the under surface of the arch of the aorta1 where it divides into two branches1 one of which passes to the right1 the other to the left lung4 ,these divide and subdivide in the structure of the lungs1 and terminate in the capillary vessels1 which form a net-work around the air-cells1 and become continuous with the minute branches of the pulmonary veins4 ,this artery conveys the impure blood to the lungs1 and1 with its corresponding veins1 establishes the lesser1 or pulmonic circulation4 ------------ #cda4 ,what are arteries8 #cdb4 ,give their structure4 #cdc4 ,what is said of the communications between the arteries8 ,in their distribution1 how are they separated from the surrounding tissues8 #cdd4 ,describe the pulmonary artery4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,the divisions of this artery continue to divide and subdivide1 until they become no larger than hairs in size4 ,these minute vessels pass over the air-cells1 represented by small dark points around the margin of the lungs4 #cde4 ,the ,,aorta proceeds from the left ventricle of the heart1 and contains the pure1 or nutrient blood4 ,this trunk gives off branches1 which divide and subdivide to their ultimate ramifications1 constituting the great arterial tree which pervades1 by its minute subdivisions1 every part of the animal frame4 ,this great artery and its divisions1 with their returning veins1 constitute the greater1 or systemic circulation4 ------------ ,what does this artery and its corresponding veins establish8 ,explain fig4 #fi4 #cde4 ,describe the aorta4 ,what do this artery and its corresponding veins constitute8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,the aorta and its branches4 #a1 ,the commencement of the aorta4 #b1 ,the arch of the aorta4 #c1 ,the carotid artery4 #d1 ,the temporal artery4 #e1 ,the subclavian artery4 #f1 ,the axillary artery4 #g1 ,the brachial artery4 #h1 ,the radial artery4 #i1 ,the ulnar artery4 #aj1 ,the iliac artery4 #aa1 ,the femoral artery4 #ab1 ,the tibial artery1 #ac4 ,the peroneal artery4 #cdf4 ,the ,,veins are the vessels which return the blood to the auricles of the heart1 after it has been circulated by the arteries through the various tissues of the body4 ,they are thinner and more delicate in structure than the arteries1 so that when emptied of their blood1 they become flattened and collapsed4 ,the veins commence by minute radicles in the capillaries1 which are every where distributed through the textures of the body1 and coalesce to constitute larger and larger branches1 till they terminate in the large trunks which convey the dark-colored blood directly to the heart4 ,in diameter they are much larger than the arteries1 and1 like those vessels1 their combined area would constitute an imaginary cone1 the apex of which is placed at the heart1 and the base at the surface of the body4 ------------ ,what does fig4 #gj represent8 #cdf4 ,what are the veins8 ------------ #cdg4 ,the communications between the veins are more frequent than between the arteries1 and take place between the larger as well as among the smaller vessels4 ,the office of these inosculations is very apparent1 as tending to obviate the obstructions to which the veins are peculiarly liable1 from the thinness of their coats1 and from inability to overcome great impediments by the force of their current4 ,these tubes1 as well as the arteries1 are supplied with nutrient vessels1 and it is to be presumed that nervous filaments from the sympathetic nerves are distributed to their coats4 #cdh4 ,the external1 or cellular coat of the veins1 is dense and firm1 resembling the cellular tunic of the arteries4 ,the middle coat is fibrous1 like that of the arteries1 but extremely thin4 ,the internal coat is serous1 and also similar to that of the arteries4 ,it is continuous with the lining membrane of the heart at one extremity1 and with the lining membrane of the capillaries at the other4 #cdi4 ,at certain intervals1 the internal coat forms folds1 or duplicatures1 which constitute valves4 ,they are generally composed of two semilunar folds1 one on each side of the vessel4 ,the free extremity of the valvular folds is concave1 and directed forward1 so that while the current of blood sets toward the heart1 they present no impediment to its free passage2 but let the current become retrograde1 and it is impeded by their distention4 ,the valves are most numerous in the veins of the extremities1 particularly the deeper veins situated between the muscles2 but in some of the larger trunks1 and also in some of the smaller veins1 no valves exist4 ------------ ,where do they commence8 #cdg4 ,what is said of their communications8 ,what is the apparent design of the inosculations of the veins8 ,what vessels are distributed to the coats of the veins8 #cdh4 ,give the structure of the coats of the veins4 #cdi4 ,how are the valves in the veins formed8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,a vein laid open to show the valves4 #a1 ,the trunk of the vein4 #b1 #b1 ,its valves4 #c1 ,an opening of a branch into the main trunk4 ------------ ,what is their use8 ,where are they the most numerous8 ------------ #cej4 ,the ,,capillaries constitute a microscopic net-work1 and are so distributed through every part of the body as to render it impossible to introduce the smallest needle beneath the skin1 without wounding several of these fine vessels4 ,they are remarkable for the uniformity of diameter1 and for the constant divisions and communications which take place between them4 #cea4 ,the capillaries inosculate1 on the one hand1 with the terminal extremity of the arteries1 and on the other1 with the commencement of the veins4 ,they establish the communication between the termination of the arteries and the beginning of the veins4 ,the important operations of secretion and the conversion of the nutrient materials of the blood into bone1 muscle1 c41 are performed in these vessels4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,an ideal view of a portion of the pulmonic circulation4 #a1 #a1 ,a branch of the artery that carries the impure blood to the lungs4 #c1 #c1 ,capillary vessels4 #b1 #b1 ,a vein through which red blood is returned to the left side of the heart4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,an ideal view of a portion of the systemic circulation4 #a1 #a1 ,a branch of the aorta4 ,this terminates in the capillaries1 7#c1 #c47 #b1 #b1 ,a vein through which the impure blood is carried to the right side of the heart4 ------------ #cej4 ,what do the capillaries constitute8 ,for what are they remarkable8 #cea4 ,what relation do they bear to the arteries and veins8 ,what important operations are performed in these vessels8 ,what is represented by fig4 #gb8 ,by fig4 #gc8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,circulatory ,,organs4 #ceb4 ,the walls of all the cavities of the heart are composed of muscular fibres1 which are endowed with the property of contracting and relaxing1 like the muscles of the extremities4 ,the contraction and relaxation of the muscular tissue of the heart1 produce a diminution and enlargement of both auricular and ventricular cavities4 ,the auricles contract and dilate simultaneously1 and so do the ventricles2 yet the contraction and dilatation of the auricles do not alternate with the contraction and dilatation of the ventricles1 as the dilatation of the one is not completed before the contraction of the other commences4 ,the dilatation of the ventricles is termed the di-asto-le of the heart2 their contraction1 its systo-le4 #cec4 ,the ventricles contract quicker and more forcibly than the auricles1 and they are three times longer in dilating than contracting4 ,the walls of the right ventricle1 being thinner than the left1 are more distensible1 and thus this cavity will contain a greater amount of blood4 ,this arrangement adapts it to the venous system1 which is more capacious than the arterial4 ,the thicker and more powerful walls of the left ventricle adapt it to expel the blood to a greater distance4 #ced4 ,the valves in the heart permit the blood to flow from the auricles to the ventricles1 but prevent its reflowing4 ,the valves at the commencement of the aorta and pulmonary artery1 permit the blood to flow from the ventricles into these vessels1 but prevent its returning4 ------------ #ceb-cff4 ,give the physiology of the circulatory organs4 #ceb4 ,what do the contraction and relaxation of the muscular walls of the heart produce8 ,how do the auricles and ventricles contract and dilate8 #cec4 ,what is said of the contraction and dilatation of the ventricles in the heart8 ,how is the right ventricle adapted to its function8 ,how the left8 #ced4 ,what is the use of the valves in the heart8 ,those of the aorta and pulmonary artery8 ------------ #cee4 ,the function of the different parts of the heart will be given1 by aid of fig4 #gd4 ,the blood passes from the right auricle 7#c7 into the right ventricle1 7#e17 and the tricuspid valves 7#f7 prevent its reflux2 from the right ventricle the blood is forced into the pulmonary artery1 7#g17 through which it passes to the lungs4 ,the semilunar valves 7#i7 prevent this circulating fluid returning to the ventricle4 ,the blood1 while passing over the air-cells in the lungs1 in the minute divisions of the pulmonary artery1 is changed from a bluish color to a bright red4 ,it is then returned to the left auricle of the heart by the pulmonary veins1 7#aa1 #aa47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4 #a1 ,the descending vena cava1 7vein47 #b1 ,the ascending vena cava1 7vein47 #c1 ,the right auricle4 #d1 ,the opening between the right auricle and the right ventricle4 #e1 ,the right ventricle4 #f1 ,the tricuspid valves4 #g1 ,the pulmonary artery4 #h1 #h1 ,the branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to the right and left lung4 #i1 ,the semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery4 #aj1 ,the septum between the two ventricles of the heart4 #aa1 #aa1 ,the pulmonary veins4 #ab1 ,the left auricle4 #ac1 ,the opening between the left auricle and ventricle4 #ad1 ,the left ventricle4 #ae1 ,the mitral valves4 #af1 #af1 ,the aorta4 #ag1 ,the semilunar valves of the aorta4 ------------ #cee4 ,describe the course of the blood from the right auricle in the heart to the lungs4 ------------ ,observation4 ,if the blood is not changed in the lungs1 it will not flow to the pulmonary veins4 ,this phenomenon is seen in instances of death from drowning1 strangling1 carbonic acid1 c4 ,the same is true1 but in a less degree1 of individuals whose apparel is tight1 as well as of those who breathe impure air1 or have diseased lungs4 #cef4 ,the left auricle1 7#ab17 by its contraction1 forces the blood into the left ventricle1 7#ad47 ,the mitral valves 7#ae7 prevent its reflowing4 ,from the left ventricle the blood is forced into the aorta1 7#af17 through which1 and its subdivisions1 it is distributed to every part of the system4 ,the semilunar valves 7#ag7 prevent its returning4 ,observation4 ,the parts of the circulatory organs most liable to disease are the valves of the heart1 particularly the mitral4 ,when these membranous folds become ossified or ruptured1 the blood regurgitates1 and causes great distress in breathing4 ,the operations of the system are thus disturbed as the movements of the steam engine would be if its valves were injured1 or did not play freely4 #ceg4 ,the difference between the functions of the pulmonary artery and aorta is1 the former communicates with the right ventricle of the heart1 and distributes only impure blood to the lungs2 the other connects with the left ventricle of the heart1 and distributes pure blood to the whole body1 the lungs not excepted4 ,at the extremity of the divisions of the aorta1 as well as the pulmonary artery1 are found capillary vessels4 ,this curious net-work of vessels connects with the minute veins of the body1 which return the blood to the heart4 ,observation4 ,the function of the veins of the systemic circulation is similar to the office of the arteries in the lungs1 and that the veins of the pulmonic circulation transmit to the heart the pure1 or nutrient blood1 and thus supply the arteries of the general system with assimilating fluid4 ------------ ,what is the effect when the blood is not changed in the lungs8 #cef4 ,describe the circulation of the blood from the left auricle to the general system4 ,what part of the circulatory organs is most liable to disease8 ,what is the effect when the valves are diseased8 #ceg4 ,give the difference in the functions of the pulmonary artery and aorta4 ,show the relation between the functions of the arteries and veins both of the pulmonic and systemic circulation4 ------------ #ceh4 ,the veins that receive the blood from all parts of the body1 follow nearly the same course as the arteries4 ,the myriads of these small vessels beneath the skin1 and others that accompany the arteries1 at last unite and form two large trunks1 called vena cava as-cendens1 and de-scendens4 ,observation4 ,a peculiarity is presented in the veins which come from the stomach1 spleen1 pancreas1 and intestines4 ,after forming a large trunk1 they enter the liver1 and ramify like the arteries1 and in this organ they again unite into a trunk1 and enter the ascending vein1 or cava1 near the heart4 ,this is called the portal circulation4 #cei4 ,the ventricles of the heart contract1 or the pulse beats1 about seventy-five times every minute2 in adults2 in infants1 more than a hundred times every minute2 in old persons1 less than seventy-five times every minute4 ,the energy of the contraction of this organ varies in different individuals of the same age4 ,it is likewise modified by the health and tone of the system4 ,it is difficult to estimate the muscular power of the heart2 but1 comparing it with other muscles1 and judging from the force with which blood is ejected from a severed artery1 it must be very great4 ,observation4 ,the phenomenon known under the name of pulse1 is the motion caused by the pressure of the blood against the coats of the arteries at each contraction of the ventricles4 #cfj4 ,the following experiment will demonstrate that the blood flows from the heart4 ,apply the fingers upon the artery at the wrist1 at two different points1 about two inches apart2 if the pressure be moderately made1 the pulse will be felt at both points4 ,let the point nearest the heart be pressed firmly1 and there will be no pulsation at the lower point2 but make strong pressure upon the lower point only1 and the pulsation will continue at the upper point1 proving that the blood flows from the heart1 in the arteries1 to different parts of the system4 ------------ #ceh4 ,what is the course of the veins8 ,what peculiarity is observable in the veins of the liver8 #cei4 ,how often does the heart contract1 or the pulse beat1 in adults8 ,in infants8 ,in old persons8 ,what is said of the energy of its contraction in different persons8 ,how is the pulse produced8 #cfj4 ,demonstrate by experiment that the blood flows from the heart4 ------------ #cfa4 ,there are several influences1 either separately or combined that propel the blood from the heart through the arteries1 among which may be named1--#ast4 ,the contraction of the muscular walls of the heart4 #b;d4 ,the contractile and elastic middle coat of the arteries aids the heart in impelling the blood to the minute vessels of the system4 #c;d4 ,the peculiar action of the minute capillary vessels is considered1 by some physiologists1 as a motive power in the arterial circulation4 #dth4 ,the pressure of the muscles upon the arteries1 when in a state of contraction1 is a powerful agent1 particularly when they are in active exercise4 #cfb4 ,the following experiments will demonstrate that the blood from every part of the system flows to the heart by the agency of the veins4 #ast4 ,press firmly on one of the veins upon the back of the hand1 carrying the pressure toward the fingers2 for a moment1 the vein will disappear4 ,on removing the pressure of the finger1 it will reappear1 from the blood rushing in from below4 #b;d4 ,if a tape be tied around the arm above the elbow1 the veins below will become larger and more prominent1 and also a greater number will be brought in view1 while the veins above the tape are less distended4 ,at this time1 apply the finger at the wrist1 and the pulsation of the arteries still continues1 showing that the blood is constantly flowing from the heart through the arteries1 into the veins2 and the increased size of the veins shows that the pressure of the tape prevents its flowing back to the heart4 ------------ #cfa4 ,state the influences that propel the blood from the heart4 #cfb4 ,demonstrate by the first experiment that the blood flows to the heart4 ,by the second experiment4 ------------ #cfc4 ,the influences that return the blood to the heart through the veins1 are not so easily understood as those that act on the blood in the arteries4 ,some physiologists have imputed an active propulsive power to the capillary vessels in carrying the blood through the veins4 ,this is not easily explained1 and perhaps it is as difficult to understand4 ,an influence upon which others have dwelt1 is the suction power of the heart in active dilatation1 acting as a vis a fronte 7power in front7 in drawing blood to it4 #cfd4 ,another influence that aids the venous circulation is attributed to the propulsive power of the heart4 ,it is not easy to comprehend how this power of the heart can be extended through the capillary vessels to the blood in the veins4 ,again1 an important agency has been found1 by some physiologists1 in the inspiratory movements1 which are supposed to draw the blood of the veins into the chest1 in order to supply the vacuum which is created there by the elevation of the ribs and the descent of the diaphragm4 #cfe4 ,one of the most powerful causes which influence the venous circulation1 is the frequently-recurring action of the muscles upon the venous trunks4 ,when the muscles are contracted1 they compress that portion of the veins which lie beneath the swell1 and thus force the blood from one valve to the other1 toward the heart4 ,when they are relaxed1 the veins refill1 and are compressed by the recurring action of the muscles4 ,observation4 ,the physician1 in opening a vein1 relies on the energetic contractions and sudden relaxations of the muscles1 when he directs the patient to clasp the head of a cane1 or the arm of a chair2 these alternate motions of the muscles cause an increased flow of blood to the veins of the ligated arm4 ------------ #cfc4 ,what is said of the influences that return the blood to the heart8 ,what is said of the propulsive power of the capillaries8 ,of the suction power of the heart8 #cfd4 ,give another influence4 ,state another agency4 #cfe4 ,what is one of the most powerful causes which influence venous circulation8 ,give practical observation4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,an ideal view of the circulation in the lungs and system4 ,from the right ventricle of the heart1 7#b17 the dark1 impure blood is forced into the pulmonary artery1 7#c17 and its branches 7#d1 #e7 carry the blood to the left and right lung4 ,in the capillary vessels 7#f1 #f7 of the lungs1 the blood becomes pure1 or of a red color1 and is returned to the left auricle of the heart1 7#i17 by the veins1 7#g1 #h47 ,from the left auricle the pure blood passes into the left ventricle1 7#aj47 ,by a forcible contraction of the left ventricle of the heart1 the blood is thrown into the aorta1 7#aa47 ,its branches 7#ab1 #ac1 #ac7 carry the pure blood to every organ or part of the body4 ,the divisions and subdivisions of the aorta terminate in capillary vessels1 represented by #ad1 #ad4 ,in these hair-like vessels the blood becomes dark colored1 and is returned to the right auricle of the heart 7#a7 by the vena cava descendens1 7#ae17 and vena cava ascendens1 7#af47 ,the tricuspid valves 7#ag7 prevent the reflow of the blood from the right ventricle to the right auricle4 ,the semilunar valves 7#ah7 prevent the blood passing from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle4 ,the mitral valves 7#ai7 prevent the reflow of blood from the left ventricle to the left auricle4 ,the semilunar valves 7#bj7 prevent the reflow of blood from the aorta to the left ventricle4 #cff4 ,the muscles exercise an agency in maintaining the venous circulation at a point above what the heart could perform4 ,as the pulsations are diminished by rest1 so they are accelerated by exercise1 and very much quickened by violent effort4 ,there can be little doubt that the increased rapidity of the return of blood through the veins1 is1 of itself1 a sufficient cause for the accelerated movements of the heart during active exercise4 ,observation4 ,the quantity of blood in different individuals varies4 ,from twenty-five to thirty-five pounds may be considered an average estimate in a healthy adult of medium size4 ,the time in which the blood courses through the body and returns to the heart1 is different in different individuals4 ,many writers on physiology unconditionally limit the period to three minutes4 ,it is undeniable that the size and health of a person1 the condition of the heart1 lungs1 and brain1 the quantity of the circulating fluid1 the amount and character of the inspired air1 and the amount of muscular action1 exert a modifying influence4 ,the time probably varies from three to eight minutes4 ------------ #cff4 ,what causes the accelerated movements of the heart during active exercise8 ------------ ,note4 ,let the pupil review the anatomy and physiology of the circulatory organs from fig4 #ge1 or from anatomical outline plates1 ,no4 #f and #g4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,circulatory ,,organs #cfg4 ,if any part of the system is deprived of blood1 its vitality will cease2 but1 if the blood is lessened in quantity to a limited extent1 only the vigor and health of the part will be impaired4 ,the following conditions1 if observed1 will favor the free and regular supply of blood to all portions of the system4 #cfh4 ,the clothing should be loosely worn4 ,compression of any kind impedes the passage of blood through the vessels of the compressed portion4 ,hence1 no article of apparel should be worn so as to prevent a free flow of blood through every organ of the body4 #cfi4 ,the blood which passes to and from the brain1 flows through the vessels of the neck4 ,if the dressing of this part of the body is close1 the circulation will be impeded1 and the functions of the brain will be impaired4 ,this remark is particularly important to scholars1 public speakers1 and individuals predisposed to apoplexy1 and other diseases of the brain4 #cgj4 ,as many of the large veins lie immediately beneath the skin1 through which the blood is returned from the lower extremities1 if the ligatures used to retain the hose1 or any other article of apparel1 in proper position1 be tight and inelastic1 the passage of blood through these vessels will be obstructed1 producing1 by their distention1 the varicose1 or enlarged veins4 ,hence elastic bands should always be used for these purposes4 ------------ #cfg-chf4 ,give the hygiene of the circulatory organs4 #cfg4 ,what effect will be produced on the body if it is deprived of blood8 ,if the blood is only lessened in quantity8 #cfh4 ,why should the clothing be worn loose8 #cfi4 ,what is said of dressing the neck8 ,to what persons is this remark applicable8 #cgj4 ,how are enlarged veins frequently produced8 ------------ #cga4 ,an equal temperature of all parts of the system promotes health4 ,a chill on one portion of the body diminishes the size of its circulating vessels1 and the blood which should distend and stimulate the chilled part1 will accumulate in other organs4 ,the deficiency of blood in the chilled portion induces weakness1 while the superabundance of sanguineous fluid may cause disease in another part of the system4 #cgb4 ,the skin should be kept not only of an equal1 but at its natural temperature4 ,if the skin is not kept warm by adequate clothing1 so that chills shall not produce a contraction of the blood-vessels and a consequent paleness1 the blood will recede from the surface of the body1 and accumulate in the internal organs4 ,cleanliness of the skin is likewise necessary1 for the reason1 that this condition favors the free action of the cutaneous vessels4 ,observation4 ,when intending to ride in a cold day1 wash the face1 hands1 and feet1 in cold water1 and rub them smartly with a coarse towel4 ,this is far better to keep the extremities warm1 than to take spirits into the stomach4 #cgc4 ,exercise promotes the circulation of the blood4 ,as the action of the muscles is one of the important agents which propel the blood through the arteries and veins1 daily and regular exercise of the muscular system is required to sustain a vigorous circulation in the extremities and skin1 and also to maintain a healthy condition of the system4 ,the best stimulants to improve the sluggish circulation of an indolent patient1 whose skin is pale and whose extremities are cold1 are the union of vigorous muscular exercise with agreeable mental action1 and the systematic application to the skin of cold water1 attended with friction4 ------------ #cga4 ,why should the temperature of the body be equal8 #cgb4 ,why should the skin be kept at its natural1 as well as at an equal temperature8 ,what practical observation when intending to ride in a cold day8 #cgc4 ,why does exercise promote health8 ,what are good stimulants for sluggish circulation in the indolent8 ------------ ,illustration4 ,the coach-driver and teamster throw their arms around their bodies to warm them when cold4 ,the muscles that are called into action in swinging the arms1 force a greater quantity of blood into the chilled parts1 and consequently1 more heat is produced4 #cgd4 ,when a number of muscles are called into energetic action1 a greater quantity of blood will be propelled to the lungs and heart in a given time1 than when the muscles are in a state of comparative inaction4 ,it is no uncommon occurrence1 that before there is a proper expansion of the respiratory organs to correspond with the frequency and energy of the movements of the muscles1 there is an accumulation of blood in the lungs1 attended by a painful sensation of fulness and oppression in the chest1 with violent and irregular action of the heart4 ,this condition of the organs of the chest1 called congestion1 may be followed by cough1 inflammation of the lungs1 asthma1 and a structural disease of the heart4 #cge4 ,to avoid these sensations and results1 when we feel necessitated to walk or run a considerable distance in a short time1 commence the movements in a moderate manner increasing the speed as the respiratory movements become more frequent and their expansion more extensive1 so that a sufficient amount of air may be received into the lungs to purify the increased quantity of blood forced into them4 ,the same principles should be observed when commencing labor1 and in driving horses and other animals4 ,observation4 ,when a large number of muscles are called into action after repose1 as when we rise from a recumbent or sitting posture1 the blood is impelled to the heart with a very strong impetus4 ,if that organ should be diseased1 it may arrive there in larger quantities than can be disposed of1 and death may be the result4 ,hence the necessity of avoiding all sudden and violent movements1 on the part of those who have either a functional or structural disease of the heart4 ------------ ,mention the illustration4 #cgd4 ,what is the effect when a number of muscles are called into energetic action8 ,what effect has this accumulation of blood in the lungs8 #cge4 ,how can such disagreeable sensations be avoided8 ,mention a practical observation4 ------------ #cgf4 ,the mind exercises no inconsiderable influence upon the circulatory organs4 ,when an individual is stimulated by hope1 or excited by anger1 the heart beats more forcibly1 and the arteries act more energetically1 than when a person is influenced by fear1 despair1 or sorrow4 ,consequently1 the system is more fully nourished1 and capable of greater exertion1 when the former condition obtains1 than when the latter exists4 #cgg4 ,the quality and quantity of the blood modify the action of the heart and blood-vessels4 ,if this fluid is abundant and pure1 the circulatory vessels act with more energy than when it is deficient in quantity or defective in quality4 ,illustrations4 #ast4 ,in an athletic man1 whose heart beats forcibly1 and whose pulse is strong1 if a considerable quantity of blood is drawn from a vein1 as in bleeding1 the heart will beat feebly1 and the pulse will become weak4 #b;d4 ,when the blood is made impure by inhaling vitiated air1 the action of the heart and arteries is diminished1 which produces an effect similar to that which takes place when blood is drawn from a vein4 #cgh4 ,hemorrhage from divided arteries should be immediately arrested4 ,when large blood-vessels are wounded or cut1 the flow of blood must be immediately stopped1 or the person soon faints1 and the heart ceases its action4 ,if it is a large artery that is wounded1 the blood will be thrown out in jets1 or jerks1 every time the pulse beats4 ,the flow of blood can be stopped until a surgeon arrives1 either by compressing the vessel between the wound and the heart1 or by compressing the end of the divided artery in the wound4 ------------ #cgf4 ,state some of the effects that the mind has on circulation4 #cgg4 ,what effect have the quantity and quality of blood upon the circulatory organs8 ,give illustration #ast4 ,illustration #b;d4 #cgh4 ,what is necessary when large blood-vessels are wounded or cut8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,the track of the large artery of the arm4 #a1 ,the collar-bone4 #i1 ,the axillary artery4 #aj1 ,the brachial artery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,b1 ,the manner of compressing the artery near the collar-bone4 ,a1 ,the manner of compressing the large artery of the arm1 with the fingers4 ,c1 ,the manner of compressing the divided extremity of an artery in the wound1 with a finger4 #cgi4 ,after making compression with the fingers1 as described and illustrated1 take a piece of cloth or handkerchief1 twist it cornerwise1 and tie a hard knot midway between the two ends4 ,this knot should be placed over the artery1 between the wound and the heart1 and the ends carried around the limb and loosely tied4 ,a stick1 five or six inches long1 should be placed under the handkerchief1 which should be twisted until the knot has made sufficient compression on the artery to allow the removal of the fingers without a return of bleeding4 ,continue the compression until a surgeon can be called4 ------------ ,what is shown by fig4 #gf8 ,by fig4 #gg8 #cgi4 ,what is to be done after compressing the wound1 as before described8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,a1 ,b1 ,the track of the large artery of the arm4 ,the figure exhibits the method of applying the knotted handkerchief to make compression on this artery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,a1 ,c1 ,the track of the large artery of the thigh4 ,b1 ,the method of applying the knotted handkerchief to compress this artery4 ,in practice1 the twisting stick ,b should be placed opposite the knot over the artery ,a1 ,c4 #chj4 ,when an artery of the arm is cut1 elevating the wounded limb above the head will tend to arrest the flow of blood4 ,in a wound of a lower limb1 raise the foot1 so that it shall be higher than the hip1 until the bleeding ceases4 ,illustration4 ,on one occasion1 the distinguished ,dr4 ,nathan ,smith was called to a person who had divided one of the large arteries below the knee4 ,after trying in vain to find the bleeding vessel1 so as to secure it1 he caused the foot to be elevated higher than the hip4 ,at the first instant the blood was forced from the wound about twelve inches2 in a minute1 it was diminished to three or four2 and1 in a short time1 the bleeding ceased4 ,this ,dr4 ,s4 called his great operation2 and it was truly great in simplicity and science4 ------------ ,what is shown by fig4 #gh and #gi8 #chj4 ,what suggestion relative to the position of a limb when bleeding8 ,relate a simple operation by ,dr4 ,nathan ,smith4 ------------ #cha4 ,the practical utility of every person knowing the proper means of arresting hemorrhage from severed arteries1 is illustrated by the following incidents4 ,in #ahdh1 in the town of ,n41 ,mass41 a mechanic divided the femoral artery2 although several adult persons were present1 he died in a few minutes from loss of blood1 because those persons were ignorant of the method of compressing severed arteries until a surgeon could be obtained4 #chb4 ,in #ahdf1 a similar accident occurred in the suburbs of ,philadelphia4 ,while the blood was flowing copiously1 a lad1 who had received instruction on the treatment of such accidents at the ,philadelphia ,high ,school1 rushed through the crowd that surrounded the apparently dying man1 placed his finger upon the divided vessel1 and continued the compression until the bleeding artery was secured by a surgeon4 #chc4 ,in flesh wounds1 when no large blood-vessel is divided1 wash the part with cold water1 and1 when bleeding has ceased1 draw the incision together1 and retain it with narrow strips of adhesive plaster4 ,these should be put on smoothly1 and a sufficient number applied to cover the wound4 ,in most instances of domestic practice1 the strips of adhesive plaster are too wide4 ,they should not exceed in width one fourth of an inch4 ,then apply a loose bandage1 and avoid all healing salves1 ointments1 and washes4 ,in removing the dressing from a wound1 both ends of the strips of plaster should be raised and drawn toward the incision4 ,the liability of the wound re-opening is thus diminished4 ------------ #cha4 ,relate the first incident showing the utility of every person knowing the proper method of arresting the flow of blood from divided arteries4 #chb4 ,the second incident4 #chc4 ,how should flesh wounds be dressed8 ------------ ,observation4 ,the union of the divided parts is effected by the action of the divided blood-vessels1 and not by salves and ointments4 ,the only object of the dressing is to keep the parts together1 and protect the wound from air and impurities4 ,nature1 in all cases of injuries1 performs her own cure4 ,such simple wounds do not generally require a second dressing and should not be opened until the incisions are healed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,the manner in which strips of adhesive plaster are applied to wounds4 #chd4 ,in wounds made by pointed instruments1 as a nail1 or in lacerated wounds1 as those made by forcing a blunt instrument1 as a hook1 into the soft parts1 there will be no direct and immediate union4 ,in these cases1 apply a soothing poultice1 as one made of linseed meal1 and also keep the limb still4 ,it is judicious to consult a physician immediately1 in punctured or lacerated wounds1 because they often induce the most dangerous diseases4 #che4 ,wounds caused by the bite of rabid animals or venomous serpents1 should be immediately cleansed with pure water4 ,in many instances1 the application of suction1 either with cupping glasses1 or the mouth1 will prevent the introduction of the poisonous matter into the system by absorption4 ,when this is effected1 cover the wound with a soothing poultice1 as one made of slippery elm bark4 ------------ ,what should be avoided8 ,how should the strips of plaster be removed from a wound8 ,how is the union of the divided parts effected8 #chd4 ,how should punctured and lacerated wounds be dressed8 #che4 ,what is the treatment of wounds caused by the bite of rabid animals8 ------------ ,observation4 ,although animal poisons1 when introduced into the circulating fluid through the broken surface of the skin1 frequently cause death1 yet they can be taken into the mouth and stomach with impunity1 if the mucous membrane which lines these parts is not broken4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 a1 a1 ,representation of wounds on the back part of the arm and fore-arm b1 b1 ,wounds on the anterior part of the arm and fore-arm4 ,by bending the elbow and wrist1 the incisions at a1 a1 are opened1 while those at b1 b1 are closed4 ,were the arm extended at the elbow and wrist1 the wounds at a1 a1 would be closed1 and those at b1 b1 would be opened4 #chf4 ,the proper position of the limbs favors the union of wounds4 ,if the incision be upon the anterior part of the leg1 between the knee and ankle1 extending the knee and bending the ankle will aid its closing4 ,if it be upon the back part of the leg1 by extending the foot and bending the knee1 the gaping of the incision will be diminished4 ,when wounds occur upon the trunk or upper extremities1 let the position of the person be regarded4 ------------ #chf ,does the proper position of the limbs favor the union of wounds8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,absorption4 #chg4 ,,absorption is the process by which the materials of nutrition are removed from the alimentary canal1 to be conveyed into the circulatory vessels4 ,it is likewise the process by which the particles of matter that have become injurious1 or useless1 are removed from the mass of fluids and solids of which the body is composed4 ,these renovating and removing processes are performed by two sets of vessels ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,lymphatic ,,vessels4 #chh4 ,the vessels that act exclusively for the growth and renovation of the system1 are found only in the alimentary canal4 ,they are called lacteals4 ,the vessels whose sole function is to remove particles of matter already deposited1 are called ,lym-phatics4 ,the radicles1 or commencement of the veins1 in many1 and it may be in all parts of the body1 perform the office of absorption4 ,observation4 ,this fact accounts for the capacity of the venous system exceeding the arterial4 ,had the veins no other function to perform1 beside returning the blood that had been distributed by the arteries1 it would be reasonable to suppose that this system would be less than the arterial1 but the reverse is known to be true4 #chi4 ,the ,,lymphatic ,,vessels1 in structure1 resemble the lacteals4 ,they exist in great numbers in the skin and mucous membranes1 particularly those of the lungs4 ,though no lymphatics have been traced to the brain1 it is presumed that they exist there1 as this part of the body is not exempt from the composition and decomposition1 which are perpetual in the body4 ,these vessels are extremely minute at their origin1 so that in many parts of the system they cannot be detected without the aid of a microscope4 ------------ #chg4 ,define absorption4 #chh-cia4 ,give the anatomy of the lymphatic vessels4 #chh4 ,what are those vessels called that act exclusively for the growth and renovation of the body8 ,those whose office is to remove the atoms already deposited8 ,what other vessels perform the office of absorption8 ,give observation4 #chi4 ,describe the lymphatics4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,a single lymphatic vessel1 much magnified4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,the valves of a lymphatic trunk4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 #a1 ,a lymphatic gland with several vessels passing through it4 #cij4 ,the lymphatic vessels1 like the veins1 diminish in number as they increase in size1 while pursuing their course toward the large veins near the heart1 into which they pour their contents4 ,the walls of these vessels have two coats of which the external one is cellular1 and is capable of considerable distention4 ,the internal coat is folded so as to form valves1 like those in the veins4 ,their walls are so thin1 that these folds give them the appearance of being knotted4 ------------ ,what is represented by fig4 #hb8 ,by fig4 #hc8 ,by fig4 #hd8 #cij4 ,in what respect do these vessels resemble the veins of the system8 ,give the structure of their coats4 ------------ #cia4 ,at certain points1 the lymphatic vessels pass through distinct1 soft bodies1 peculiar to themselves1 which are called lymphatic glands1 which are to these vessels what the mesenteric glands are to the lacteals4 ,the lymphatic glands vary in form and in size4 ,they are extremely vascular1 and appear to consist of a collection of minute vessels4 ,these glands are found in different parts of the body1 but are most numerous in the groins1 axilla1 or arm-pits1 neck1 and cavities of the chest and abdomen4 ,observation4 ,from exposure to cold1 these glands are frequently enlarged and inflamed4 ,they are known under the name of kernels4 ,they are often diseased1 particularly in scrofula1 or king's evil4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,lymphatic ,,vessels4 #cib4 ,though the lacteals and lymphatics resemble each other in their structure and termination1 yet they differ as to the nature of the fluids which they convey1 as well as the nature of their functions4 ,the lacteals open into the small intestine1 and possess the power of rejecting all substances in the passing aliment1 but the chyle4 ,the lymphatics1 on the contrary1 not only imbibe all the various constituents of the body1 both fluid and solid1 but they sometimes absorb foreign and extraneous substances1 when presented to their mouths1 as in vaccination4 #cic4 ,the varieties of absorption are1 the ,in-ter-stitial1 ,rec-re-men-titial1 ,ex-cre-men-titial1 ,cu-tane-ous1 ,res-pira-to-ry1 ,venous1 and the ,lacte-al4 ------------ #cia4 ,describe the lymphatic glands4 ,what observation is given in regard to these glands8 #cib-djc4 ,give the physiology of the lymphatic vessels4 #cib4 ,explain the difference between the lacteals and lymphatics #cic4 ,name the varieties of absorption4 ------------ #cid4 ,,interstitial absorption is that change which is constantly going on in the animal economy among the particles of matter of which every texture is composed4 ,the ordinary functions of the body1 in health1 require incessant action of the lymphatics2 the circulatory system1 with its myriads of small vessels1 is constantly depositing new atoms of matter1 which become vitalized1 and perform a course of actions1 then die1 or become useless4 ,these old atoms are removed by the absorbent system4 ,thus1 wherever there is a minute artery to deposit a living particle of matter1 there is a lymphatic vessel1 or venous radicle1 to remove it as soon as it shall have finished its particular office4 #cie4 ,the action of the lymphatic vessels counterbalances those of nutrition1 and thus the form and size of every part of the body is preserved4 ,when their action exceeds that of the nutrient vessels1 the body emaciates2 when it is deficient1 plethora is the result4 ,in youth1 they are less active than the nutrient vessels1 and the limbs are plump2 but in later periods of life1 we find these actions reversed1 and the body diminishes in size4 ,it is not unfrequent that wens1 and other tumors of considerable size1 disappear1 and even the entire bone of a limb has been removed from the same general cause4 ,the effused fluids of bruises are also removed by absorption4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,when little or no food is taken into the stomach1 life is supported by the lymphatic vessels and veins imbibing the fat and reconveying it into the blood vessels4 ,it is the removal of this secretion which causes the emaciation of the face and extremities of a person recovering from a fever4 ,in consumption1 the extreme attenuation of the limbs is caused by the absorption1 not only of the fat1 but also of the muscles and more solid parts of the system4 ------------ #cid4 ,what is interstitial absorption8 ,flow are the new atoms of matter deposited8 ,how removed8 #cie4 ,what vessels do the lymphatics counterbalance in action8 ,what is the result when their action exceeds that of the nutrient vessels8 ,when it is less8 ,mention some instances of active absorption4 ,what causes the emaciated limbs of a person recovering from fever8 ,the extreme attenuation in consumption8 ------------ #b;d4 ,animals which live in a half torpid state during the winter1 derive their nourishment from the same source4 ,in other words1 we may say the starving animal lives for a time upon itself1 eating up1 by internal absorption1 such parts of the body as can be spared under urgent necessity1 to feed those organs and continue those functions that are absolutely essential to life4 #cif4 ,,recrementitial absorption is the removal of those fluids from the system1 which are secreted upon surfaces that have no external outlet4 ,these fluids are various1 as the fat1 the marrow1 the synovia of joints1 serous fluids1 and the humors of the eye4 ,were it not for this variety of absorption1 dropsy would generally exist in the cavities of the brain1 chest1 and abdomen1 from the continued action of the secretory vessels4 #cig4 ,,excrementitial absorption relates to the fluids which have been excreted1 such as the bile1 pancreatic fluid1 saliva1 milk1 and other secretions4 #cih4 ,,cutaneous absorption relates to the skin4 ,here the lymphatic vessels extend only to the cuticle1 which they do not permeate4 ,there has been much diversity of opinion on the question of cutaneous absorption2 some maintaining that this membrane absorbs1 while others deny it4 ,many experiments have proved that the skin may absorb sufficient nutriment to support life for a time1 by immersing the patient in a bath of milk or broth4 ,it has been found that the hand1 immersed to the wrist in warm water1 will absorb from ninety to one hundred grains of fluid in the space of an hour4 #cii4 ,thirst may be quenched by applying moist clothes to the skin1 or by bathing4 ,it is no uncommon occurrence1 during a passage from one continent to the other1 for the saliva to become bitter by the absorption of sea water4 ,medicinal substances1 such as mercury1 morphine1 and ,spanish flies1 are frequently introduced into the system through the skin4 ------------ #cif4 ,what is recrementitial absorption8 #cig4 ,define excrementitial absorption4 #cic4 ,to what does cutaneous absorption relate8 ,is there a diversity of opinion respecting this variety of absorption8 ,what do well attested experiments show8 #cii4 ,what remark in reference to quenching thirst8 ,what agency conveys medicinal substances and ointments into the system when tabbed on the skin8 ------------ #djj4 ,,respiratory absorption has reference to the lungs4 ,the mucous membrane of these organs is abundantly supplied with lymphatic vessels4 ,by their action1 substances finely pulverized1 or in the form of gas1 are readily imbibed when inhaled into the lungs1 such as metallic vapors1 odoriferous particles1 tobacco smoke1 and other effluvia4 ,in this way1 contagious diseases are frequently contracted4 ,illustration4 ,in inhaling sulphuric ether1 or letheon1 it is introduced into the vessels of the lungs in the form of vapor1 and through them it is rapidly conveyed to the brain1 and thus influences the nervous system4 #dja4 ,,venous absorption is the function which the veins perform in absorbing from the alimentary canal liquids of various kinds that have been taken into the stomach and are not converted into chyle4 ,in other parts of the body1 they also perform the common office of lymphatics4 #djb4 ,,lacteal1 or digestive absorption has reference to the absorption of chyle only1 which is destined for the nutrition of the body4 #djc4 ,absorption is not only very abundant1 but generally very rapid1 and all these varieties are maintained through life1 except when suspended by disease4 ------------ #djj4 ,what is said of respiratory absorption8 ,how is letheon introduced into the system8 #dja4 ,define venous absorption4 #djb4 ,what is lacteal absorption8 #djc4 ,what is said of absorption8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,a representation of the lymphatic vessels and glands4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 ,the lymphatic vessels and glands of the lower limbs4 #g1 ,lymphatic glands4 #h1 ,the commencement of the thoracic duct4 #i1 ,the lymphatics of the kidney4 #aj1 ,of the stomach4 #aa1 ,of the liver4 #ab1 #ab1 ,of the lungs4 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 ,the lymphatics and glands of the arm4 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 ,of the face and neck4 #ai1 #bj1 ,large veins4 #ba1 ,the thoracic duct4 #bf1 ,the lymphatics of the heart4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,lymphatic ,,vessels4 #djd4 ,by the action of the lymphatics1 substances of an injurious1 as well as of a beneficial1 character may be conveyed into the system4 ,these vessels1 under certain conditions1 are more active in their office than at other periods2 and it is of practical utility to know what influences their action4 #dje4 ,the function of these vessels is increased by moisture1 and lessened by an active state of the lacteals4 ,observation shows that the ill-fed1 and those persons that live in marshy districts1 contract contagious diseases more readily than those individuals who are well fed1 and breathe a dry and pure air4 #djf4 ,the air of the sick-room should be dry4 ,if due attention is not given to ventilation1 the clothing of the nurse and patient1 together with the air of the room1 will be moistened by the exhalations from the skin and lungs4 ,this exhalation may contain a poison of greater or less power1 according to its quantity and degree of concentration1 and may be absorbed and reconveyed into the system1 causing inflammatory diseases1 and not unfrequently death4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,when we are attending a sick person a current of air that has passed over the patient should be avoided4 ,we may approach with safety very near a person who has an infectious disease1 provided care is taken to keep on the side from which the currents of air are admitted into the room4 #b;d4 ,when we have been visiting or attending on a sick person1 it is judicious to change the apparel worn in the sick-room1 and also give the skin a thorough bathing4 ,the outside garments1 also1 should be aired1 as poisonous matter may have penetrated the meshes of the clothing4 ------------ #djd-dac4 ,give the hygiene of the lymphatic vessels4 #djd4 ,what is said respecting the action of the lymphatic vessels8 #dje4 ,what influences the function of these vessels8 ,what does observation show8 #djf4 ,why should the air of the sick-room be dry8 ,what suggestion when we have been visiting or attending on the sick8 ------------ #djg4 ,the stomach should be supplied with food of a nutrient and digestible character1 in proper quantities1 and at stated periods4 ,the chyle formed from the food stimulates the lacteals to activity1 which activity is attended with an inactive state of the lymphatics of the skin and lungs4 ,thus due attention should be given to the food of the attendants on the sick1 and the members of the family4 ,before visiting a sick person it is judicious to take a moderate amount of nutritious food4 ,observation4 ,many individuals1 to prevent contracting disease that may be communicated from one person to another1 use tobacco1 either chewed or smoked2 and sometimes alcohol1 with decoctions of bitter herbs4 ,these substances do not diminish1 but tend to increase1 the activity of the lymphatics4 ,thus they make use of the means by which the poisonous matter formed in the system of the diseased person1 may be more readily conveyed into their own4 #djh4 ,the skin and clothing1 as well as the bed-linen1 should be frequently cleansed4 ,this will remove the poisonous matter that may be deposited upon the skin and garments1 which1 if suffered to remain1 might be conveyed into the system by the action of the lymphatics4 ,this points also to a frequent change of the wearing apparel1 as well as the coverings of the bed4 ,in visiting the unhealthy districts of the ,south and ,west1 the liability of contracting disease is much lessened by taking a supply of food at proper periods1 keeping the skin and clothing in a clean state1 the room well ventilated1 and avoiding the damp chills of evening4 #dji4 ,absorption by the skin is most vigorous when the cuticle is removed by vesication1 or blistering4 ,then external applications are brought into immediate contact with the orifices of the lymphatics of the skin1 and by them rapidly imbibed and circulated through the system4 ,thus arsenic applied to the cutaneous vessels1 and strong solutions of opium to extensive burns1 have been absorbed in quantities sufficient to poison the patient4 ------------ #djg4 ,why should the stomach be supplied with food of a nutrient and digestible character8 ,what is said of the use of alcohol1 or tobacco1 in preventing the introduction of the poisonous matter of contagious diseases8 #djh4 ,why should the clothing and bed-linen be frequently washed8 ,what suggestion to persons in visiting the unhealthy districts of the ,south and ,west8 #dji4 ,when is cutaneous absorption most vigorous8 ,why8 ------------ #daj4 ,when the cuticle is only punctured or abraded1 poisonous matter may be introduced into the system4 ,the highly respected ,dr4 ,w41 of ,boston1 lost his life by poisonous matter from the body of a patient subjected to a post mortem examination4 ,he had removed from his finger1 previous to the examination1 a hang-nail1 and the poison from the dead body was brought in contact with the denuded part1 and through the agency of the lymphatics it was conveyed into the system4 #daa4 ,puncture any part of the cuticle with the finest instrument that has upon its point the smallest conceivable quantity of the vaccine virus1 or small-pox matter1 and it will be brought into contact with the lymphatic vessels1 and through their agency conveyed into the system4 ,the result is1 that persons thus operated upon have the small-pox1 or the vaccine disease4 #dab4 ,when we expose ourselves to any poisonous vapors1 or handle diseased animals or sick persons1 safety and health require that the cuticle be not broken or otherwise injured4 ,in many instances1 the poisonous animal matter upon hides has been introduced into the systems of tanners1 through small ulcers upon their fingers or hands4 ,from these sores there would be seen small red lines extending up the arm4 ,these swelled tracts indicate an inflammation of the large lymphatic trunks1 that have been irritated and diseased by the passage of poisonous matter through them into the system4 ------------ #daj4 ,do the same results follow1 if the cuticle is only punctured8 ,relate an instance of death by the absorption of poisonous matter4 #daa4 ,by what means is the vaccine matter introduced into the system8 #dab4 ,what caution is necessary when we expose ourselves to poisonous vapors8 ------------ ,observation4 ,a distressing illustration of the absorption of deleterious substances from the surface of a sore1 is seen in the favorite experiments of that class of quacks1 who style themselves cancer doctors4 ,with them1 every trifling and temporary enlargement1 or tumor1 is a cancer4 ,their general remedy is arsenic2 and happy is the unfortunate sufferer who escapes destruction in their hands1 for too frequently their speedy cure is death4 #dac4 ,in case of an accidental wound1 it is best immediately to bathe the part thoroughly in pure water1 and to avoid all irritating applications4 ,in some instances1 it would be well to apply lunar caustic immediately4 ,when handling or shrouding dead bodies1 or removing the skin from animals that have died of disease1 it would be well to lubricate the hands with olive-oil or lard4 ,this affords protection to the minute portions of the skin1 from which the cuticle may be removed4 ,in all cases where there is an ulcer or sore1 the part should be covered with something impervious to fluids1 as court-plaster1 before exposing the system to any animal1 vegetable1 or mineral poison4 ------------ #dac4 ,what direction is given when the cuticle is broken8 ,what suggestion is given when shrouding dead bodies8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,secretion4 #dad4 ,in the human body are found many fluids and solids of dissimilar appearance and character4 ,these are produced by the action of organs1 some of which are of simple structure1 while others are very complicated in their arrangement4 ,these organs are called ,se-creto-ry4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,secretory ,,organs4 #dae4 ,the ,,secretory ,,organs are the ,ex-halants1 ,folli-cles1 and the ,glands4 #daf4 ,the ,,exhalants were supposed to be terminations of arteries or capillaries4 ,the external exhalants terminate on the skin and mucous membranes2 the internal in the cellular and medullary tissues4 7,appendix ,i47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,a secretory follicle4 ,an artery is seen1 which supplies the material for its secretion4 ,follicles are also supplied with veins and organic nerves4 #dag4 ,the ,,follicles are small bags1 or sacs1 situated in the true skin1 and mucous membrane4 ,the pores seen on the skin are the outlets of these bodies4 ------------ #dad4 ,how are the fluids and solids of the body produced8 #dae-dai4 ,give the anatomy of the secretory organs4 #dae4 ,name the secretory organs4 #daf4 ,describe the exhalants4 ,what is represented by fig4 #hf8 #dag4 ,define follicles4 ------------ #dah4 ,the ,,glands are soft1 fleshy organs1 and as various in their structure1 as the secretions which it is their function to produce4 ,each gland is composed of many small lobules united in a compact mass1 and each lobule communicates by a small duct with the principal outlet1 or duct of the organ4 ,every gland is supplied with arteries1 veins1 lymphatics1 and nerves4 ,these1 with the ducts1 are arranged in a peculiar manner1 and connected by cellular membrane4 #dai4 ,there are two classes of glands1 one for the modification of the fluids which pass through them1 as the mesenteric and lymphatic glands2 and the other for the secretion of fluids which are either useful in the animal economy1 or require to be rejected from the body4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 #a1 #a1 ,a secretory gland4 #b1 #b1 ,minute ducts that are spread through the glands4 ,these coalesce to form the main duct1 #c4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,secretory ,,organs4 #dbj4 ,,secretion is one of the most obscure and mysterious functions of the animal economy4 ,it is that process by which various substances are separated from the blood1 either with or without experiencing any change during their separation4 ,not only is the process by which substances are separated from the blood1 called secretion1 but the same term is also applied to substances thus separated4 ,thus physiologists say1 that by the process of secretion1 bile is formed by the liver2 and also1 that bile is the secretion of this organ4 ------------ #dah4 ,give the structure of the glands4 #dai4 ,how are the glands arranged8 #dbj-dca4 ,give the physiology of the secretory organs4 #dbj4 ,what is secretion8 ------------ #dba4 ,the secreted fluids do not exist in that form in the blood1 but most of the elements of which they are made do exist in this fluid1 and the vessels by which it is accomplished may well be called the architects and chemists of the system2 for out of the same material--the blood--they construct a variety of wonderful fabrics and chemical compounds4 ,we see the same wonderful power possessed1 also1 by vegetables2 for out of the same materials the olive prepares its oil1 the cocoa-nut its milk1 the cane its sugar1 the poppy its narcotic1 the oak its green pulpy leaves1 and its dense woody fibre4 ,all are composed of the same few1 simple elements1 arranged in different order and proportions4 #dbb4 ,in like manner we find the vessels1 in animated bodies1 capable of forming all the various textures and substances which compose the frame2 the cellular tissue1 the membranes1 the ligaments1 the cartilages1 the bones1 the marrow1 the muscles with their tendons1 the lubricating fluid of the joints1 the pulp of the brain1 the transparent jelly of the eye2 in short1 all the textures of the various organs of which the body is composed1 consist of similar ultimate elements1 and are manufactured from the blood4 #dbc4 ,of the agents that produce or direct the different secretions1 we have no very accurate knowledge4 ,some have supposed this function to be mechanical1 others a chemical process1 but experiments prove that it is dependent on nervous influence4 ,if the nerves are divided which are distributed to any organ1 the process of secretion is suspended4 ,it is no uncommon occurrence1 that the nature of milk will be so changed from the influence of anger in the mother1 as to cause vomiting1 colic1 and even convulsions1 in the infant that swallows it4 ,unexpected intelligence either of a pleasant or unpleasant character1 by its influence on the nervous system1 will frequently destroy the appetite4 ,sometimes mental agitation1 as fear1 will cause a cold sweat to pervade the surface of the body4 ------------ #dba4 ,what is said respecting secreted substances8 ,do vegetables possess the property of secretion8 #dbb4 ,from what are the various textures formed8 #dbc4 ,have we accurate knowledge of the agents that produce secretion8 ------------ #dbd4 ,secretions are constantly maintained1 during life1 from the serous membrane1 by the action of the internal exhalants4 ,the fluid which is exhaled bears some resemblance to the serum of the blood4 ,its use is to furnish the organs1 which are surrounded by this membrane1 with a proper degree of moisture1 and thus enables them to move easily on each other1 as those within the chest and abdomen4 #dbe4 ,the cellular tissue exhales a serous fluid1 and when it becomes excessive in quantity1 general dropsy is produced4 ,fat is another secretion1 which is thrown out1 in a fluid state1 from the cellular membrane4 ,it is deposited in little cells1 and exists in the greatest abundance between the skin and the muscles4 ,its use seems to be1 to form a cushion around the body for its protection2 to furnish nutriment for the system when food cannot be taken2 to supply the carbon and hydrogen necessary to sustain the generation of heat1 when these articles of combustion are not otherwise furnished4 ,the medul-la-ry substance1 7marrow17 in the cavities of the long bones1 is very much like fat4 ,observation4 ,during sickness1 if there is not emaciation or absorption of this secretion1 it is considered an unfavorable symptom1 because it indicates a want of power in the absorbing system1 which is among the last to be affected4 ------------ ,how is it proved that secretion depends on nervous influence8 #dbd4 ,what is said of the secretions from the serous membrane8 #dbe4 ,from what tissue is a serous fluid exhaled8 ,what is the effect when this fluid becomes excessive in quantity8 ,what is fat8 ,its use8 ,what is marrow8 ------------ #dbf4 ,the mucous secretion is a transparent1 viscid fluid which is secreted by those membranes that line the cavities of the body1 which have an external communication1 as the trachea and alimentary canal4 ,this secretion serves to protect these parts from the influence of the air1 and concurs1 by means of its peculiar properties1 in the performance of their functions4 #dbg4 ,there are two external secretions1 namely1 one from the skin1 called perspiration1 and the other from the lungs4 ,the cutaneous exhalation1 or transpiration#ad exists in two forms1 called sensible perspiration 7sweat7 and insensible perspiration4 ,the pulmonary exhalation is the most important and universal1 and closely resembles that of the skin4 #ad ,transpiration is a term often used generically1 to signify the passage of fluids or gases through membranes1 internally or externally2 but perspiration is a specific term1 signifying transpiration on to the external surface4 #dbh4 ,the follicles are found only in the skin and mucous membrane4 ,they secrete an oily1 unctuous substance1 which mixes with the transpiration1 and lubricates the skin4 ,at the root of each hair there is a minute follicle1 which secretes the fluid that oils the hair4 ,the wax in the passage of the ear is secreted from these bodies4 #dbi4 ,all the blood distributed to the different glands is similar in composition and character2 but the fluids secreted by them1 vary in appearance in a remarkable degree4 ,the office of the glands appears to be principally to form different secretions4 ,thus the salivary glands secrete the insipid saliva2 the lachrymal glands1 the saline tears2 the liver1 the yellow1 ropy bile2 and the kidneys1 the acrid urine4 ------------ #dbf4 ,what is said relative to the mucous secretion8 #dbg4 ,name the external secretions4 #dbh4 ,give the office of the follicles4 #dbi4 ,what appears to be the principal office of the glands8 #dcj4 ,mention a secretion produced in a particular emergency4 ------------ #dcj4 ,some secretions are evidently produced only in particular emergencies1 as is seen in the increased secretion of bony matter when a limb is broken4 #dca4 ,when any substance which is not demanded for nutrition1 or does not give nourishment to the system1 is imbibed by the lymphatic vessels1 and conveyed into the blood1 it is eliminated in the secretions4 ,illustration4 ,a few years since1 a poor inebriate was carried to a ,london hospital in a state of intoxication4 ,he lived but a few hours4 ,on examining his brain1 nearly half a gill of fluid1 strongly impregnated with gin1 was found in the cavities of this organ4 ,this was secreted from the vessels of the brain4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,secretory ,,organs4 #dcb4 ,unless the secretions are regularly maintained1 disease will be the ultimate result4 ,let the secretions from the skin be suppressed1 and fever or some internal inflammation will follow4 ,if the bile is impeded1 digestion will be impaired4 ,if any other secretion is suppressed1 it will cause a derangement of the various internal organs4 ,observation4 ,ardent spirits derange the secretions1 and change the structure of the brain4 ,this is one reason why inebriates do not generally live to advanced age4 #dcc4 ,the quantity of blood influences the character of the secretions4 ,if it is lessened to any great extent1 the secretions will be lessened as well as changed in character4 ,illustration4 ,when a person has lost a considerable quantity of blood1 there is a sensation of thirst in the fauces1 attended with a cold1 pale1 dry skin4 ,when reaction comes on1 the perspiration is cold1 attended with nausea1 and sometimes vomiting4 ------------ #dca4 ,what becomes of those substances imbibed by the lymphatics that do not give nourishment to the body4 #dcb-dcg4 ,give the hygiene of the secretory organs4 #dcb4 ,what effect on the system when the secretions are not regularly maintained8 #dcc4 ,does the quantity of blood influence the secretions8 ,give an illustration4 ------------ #dcd4 ,the secretory organs require the stimulus of pure blood4 ,if this fluid is vitiated1 the action of the secretory organs will be more or less modified4 ,either the quantity will be affected or the quality will be altered4 ,observation4 ,the impurity of the blood arising from the inhalation of the vitiated air of sleeping rooms1 diminishes and changes the character of the secretions of the mouth and stomach4 ,this accounts for the thirst1 coated tongue1 and disagreeable taste of the mouth when impure air is breathed during sleep4 ,the disease it induces1 is indigestion or dyspepsia4 #dce4 ,the amount of action modifies the condition of the secretory organs4 ,when a secretory organ is excessively stimulated1 its vigor and energy are reduced4 ,the subsequent debility may be so great as to suppress or destroy its functional power4 ,illustrations4 #ast4 ,in those sections of the country where flax is spun on a foot-wheel1 it is not unfrequent that the spinners moisten the thread with the secretions of the mouth4 ,this seems to operate economically for a time1 but debility of the salivary organs soon follows1 which incapacitates them from supplying saliva sufficient to moisten the food1 producing in a short time disease of the digestive organs4 #b;d4 ,the habit of continual spitting1 which attends the chewing of tobacco and gums1 and other substances1 between meals1 induces debility1 not only of the salivary glands1 but of the system generally4 #dcf4 ,one secretory organ may do the office of another4 ,this increased action of a secretory organ may be sustained for a limited time without permanent injury1 but1 if long continued1 a diseased action of the organ will follow4 ,of morbid secretions we have examples in the ossification of the valves of the heart1 cancerous and other tumors4 ------------ #dcd4 ,what is the effect of impure blood on the secretory organs8 #dce4 ,what results from stimulating excessively a secretory organ8 ,how is this illustrated8 #dcf4 ,what is the effect when one secretory organ performs the office of another8 ------------ ,observation4 ,in the evenings of the warm season1 a chill upon the impressible skin1 that suppresses the perspiration1 is frequently followed by a diarrhoea1 dysentery1 or cholera morbus4 ,these can be prevented by avoiding the chill4 ,an efficient means of relief1 is immediately to restore the skin to its proper action4 #dcg4 ,the secretions are much influenced by the mind4 ,how this is effected1 it is difficult to explain2 but many facts corroborate it4 ,every one has felt an increased action of the tear-glands from distressing feelings4 ,cheerfulness of disposition and serenity of the passions are peculiarly favorable to the proper performance of the secretory function4 ,from this we may learn how important it is to avoid such things as distract1 agitate1 or harass us4 ,observation4 ,in fevers and other diseases1 when the skin1 mouth1 and throat are dry from a suppression of the secretions1 let the mind of the patient be changed from despondency to hope1 and the skin and the membrane that lines the mouth and throat will exhibit a more moist condition1 together with a general improvement of the vital organs of the system4 ,consequently1 all just encouragement of the restoration to health should be given to a sick person4 ------------ ,give examples of morbid secretions4 ,what is one cause of dysentery and cholera morbus8 ,how can these affections he relieved8 #dcg4 ,show the influence of the mind on the secretions4 ,mention instances of its influence4 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,nutrition4 #dch4 ,,nutrition is the vital act by which the different parts of the body renew the materials of which they are composed4 ,digestion1 circulation1 absorption1 and respiration1 are but separate links in the chain of nutrition1 which would be destroyed by the absence of any one of them4 #dci4 ,the nutritive process is also a kind of secretion1 by which particles of matter are separated from the blood and conveyed with wonderful accuracy to the appropriate textures4 ,the function of the nutrient vessels antagonizes those of absorption3 while one system is constructing1 with beautiful precision1 the animal frame1 the other is diligently employed in pulling down this complicated structure4 #ddj4 ,this ever-changing state of the body is shown by giving animals colored matter1 mixed with their food1 which in a short time tinges their bones with the same color as the matter introduced4 ,let it be withdrawn1 and in a few days the bones will assume their former color--evidently from the effects of absorption4 ,the changeful state of the body is further shown by the losses to which it is subjected2 by the necessity of aliment2 by the emaciation which follows abstinence from food4 ------------ #dch-ded4 ,what remarks respecting nutrition8 #dch4 ,what is nutrition8 #dci4 ,what is said of the nutritive process8 ,the function of the nutrient vessels8 #ddj4 ,give a proof of the ever-changing state of the body4 ,give other instances illustrative of the changeful state of the body4 ------------ #dda4 ,every part of the body is subject to this continual change of material1 yet it is effected with such regularity1 that the size1 shape1 and appearance1 of every organ is preserved2 and after an interval of a few years1 there may not remain a particle of matter which existed in the system at a former period4 ,notwithstanding this entire change1 the personal identity is never lost4 #ddb4 ,many calculations have been made to determine in what length of time the whole body is renewed4 ,some have supposed that it is accomplished in four years2 others have fixed the period at seven years2 but the time of the change is not definite1 as was supposed by a genuine son of the ,emerald ,isle1 who had been in ,america seven years and three months1 and consequently maintained that he was a native ,american4 ,observation4 ,india ink1 when introduced into the skin1 is not removed2 hence some assert that this tissue is an exception to the alternate deposition and removal of its atoms4 ,the ink remains because its particles are too large to be absorbed1 and when in the skin it is insoluble4 #ddc4 ,those animals which are most complicated in their structure1 and are distinguished by the greatest variety of vital manifestations1 are subject to the most rapid changes of matter4 ,such animals require more frequent and more abundant supplies of food2 and1 in proportion as they are exposed to the greater number of external impressions1 will be the rapidity of this change of matter4 #ddd4 ,animals may be situated so that they lose nothing by secretion2 consequently1 they will require no nutriment4 ,frogs have been taken from fissures in solid lime rock1 which were imbedded many feet below the surface of the earth1 and1 on being exposed to the air1 exhibited signs of life4 ------------ #dda4 ,why is the personal identity never lost in the change of materials1 which is unceasing in the system8 #ddb4 ,give the opinion of physiologists respecting the time required for the renewal of the whole body4 ,what exception to the changing state ,of the different textures8 #ddc4 ,what animals are subject to the most rapid changes of material8 #ddd4 ,may animals be situated so that they require no nutriment8 ,what is related of frogs8 ------------ #dde4 ,the renovation of the bone1 muscle1 ligament1 tendon1 cartilage1 fat1 nerve1 hair1 c41 is not perfected merely by the general circulation of the fluid which is expelled from the left side of the heart1 but through the agency of a system of minute vessels1 which1 under ordinary circumstances1 cannot be seen by the eye1 even when aided by the microscope2 still1 minute as they are1 the function of these agents is necessary to the continuance of life4 ,they are the smallest capillary vessels4 #ddf4 ,as the blood goes the round of the circulation1 the nutrient capillary vessels select and secrete those parts which are similar to the nature of the structure1 and the other portions pass on2 so that every tissue imbibes and converts to its own use the very principles which it requires for its growth2 or1 in other words1 as the vital current approaches each organ1 the particles appropriate to it feel its attractive force1--obey it1--quit the stream1--mingle with the substance of its tissue1--and are changed into its own true and proper nature4 #ddg4 ,thus1 if a bone is broken1 a muscle or a nerve wounded1 and1 if the system is in a proper state of health1 the vital economy immediately sets about healing the rupture4 ,the blood1 which flows from the wounded vessels1 coagulates in the incision1 for the double purpose of stanching the wound1 and of forming a matrix for the regeneration of the parts4 ,very soon1 minute vessels shoot out from the living parts into the coagulum of the blood1 and immediately commence their operations1 and deposit bony matter1 where it is required to unite fractured bones1 and nervous substance to heal the wounded nerve1 c4 ------------ #dde4 ,show how the renovation of the bones1 muscles1 c41 is perfected4 #ddf4 ,what is said of the office of the nutrient capillary vessels8 #ddg4 ,when a bone is fractured1 by what process is it healed8 ------------ #ddh4 ,but the vital economy seems not to possess the power of reproducing the muscles and true skin1 and therefore1 when these parts are wounded1 the rupture is repaired by a gelatinous substance1 which gradually becomes hard1 and sometimes assumes something of a fibrous appearance4 ,it so perfectly unites the divided muscle1 however1 as to restore its functional power4 ,when the cuticle is removed1 it is reproduced and no scar remains2 but1 when the true skin is destroyed1 a scar is formed4 #ddi4 ,it is not uncommon that the nutrient arteries have their action so much increased in some parts1 as to produce preternatural growth4 ,sometimes the vessels whose function it is to deposit fat1 are increased in action1 and wens of no inferior size are formed4 ,again1 there may be a deposition of substances unlike any known to exist in the body4 ,occasionally1 these nutrient arteries of a part take on a new action1 and not only deposit their ordinary substance1 but others1 which they have not heretofore secreted1 but which are formed by vessels of other parts of the body4 ,it is in this way that we account for the bony matter deposited in the valves of the heart and brain1 also the chalky deposits around the finger-joints4 #dej4 ,in infancy and childhood1 the function of nutrition is very active2 a large amount of food is taken1 to supply the place of what is lost by the action of the absorbents1 and also to contribute to the growth of the body4 ,in middle age1 nutrition and absorption are more equal2 but in old age1 the absorbents are more active than the nutrient vessels4 ,the size1 consequently1 diminishes1 the parts become weaker1 the bones more brittle1 the body bends forward1 and every function exhibits marks of decay and dissolution4 #dea4 ,a striking instance of active absorption in middle age was exhibited in the person of ,calvin ,edson1 of ,vermont1 who was exhibited in the large towns of ,new ,england1 as the living skeleton4 ,in early manhood he was athletic1 and weighed one hundred and sixty pounds2 but the excessive action of the absorbents over the nutrient vessels1 reduced his weight1 in the interval of eighteen years1 to sixty pounds4 ------------ #ddh4 ,what occurs when a muscle is divided8 #ddi4 ,state some of the results of an increased action of the nutrient arteries4 #dej4 ,when is nutrition most active8 ,how in middle age8 ,how in old age8 #dea4 ,relate a striking instance of active absorption in middle age4 ------------ #deb4 ,instances1 on the other hand1 have occurred1 of the action of the nutrient vessels exceeding1 in an extreme degree1 those of absorption2 as in the person of a colored girl1 thirteen years of age1 who was exhibited in ,new ,york in the summer of #ahdj4 ,she was of the height of misses at that age1 but weighed five hundred pounds4 ,several cases are on record of persons weighing eight hundred pounds4 #dec4 ,as already mentioned1 the blood is the nutritive fluid of animals4 ,when this fluid is coagulated1 a thick1 jelly-like mass floats in the serum1 called coagulum4 ,this coagulated mass is composed of fibrin1 and red globulated matter4 ,the color of the red globules is owing to the presence of iron1 though some physiologists think it depends on an animal substance of a gelatinous character4 ,observation4 ,that portion of the serum which remains fluid after coagulation by heat has taken place1 is called se-rosi-ty4 ,it is more abundant in the blood of old1 than in that of young animals2 and it forms the red gravy in roasted meats4 #ded4 ,the blood is not necessarily red4 ,it may be white1 as in most fish4 ,there is no animal in which the blood is equally red in all parts of the body4 ,the ligaments1 tendons1 and other white tissues in man are supplied but sparingly with red blood4 ,the fluid that supplies these tissues is whitish4 ------------ #deb4 ,of excessive nutrition in early life4 #dec4 ,describe the parts that enter into the composition of the blood4 ,what part of the blood forms the red gravy in roasted meats8 #ded4 ,is the blood necessarily red8 ,of what color is the blood of the fish8 ,what part of the human system has white blood8 ------------ ,,hygiene ,,of ,,nutrition4 #dee4 ,healthy nutrition requires pure blood4 ,if the nutrient arteries of the bones are supplied with impure blood1 they will become soft or brittle1 their vitality will be impaired1 and disease will be the ultimate result4 ,the five hundred muscles receive another portion of the blood4 ,these organs are attached to1 and act upon the bones4 ,upon the health and contractile energy of the muscles depends the ability to labor4 ,give these organs of motion impure blood1 which is an unhealthy stimulus1 and they will become enfeebled1 the step will lose its elasticity1 the movement of the arm will be inefficient1 and every muscle will be incapacitated to perform its usual amount of labor4 #def4 ,when the stomach1 liver1 and other organs subservient to the digestion of food1 are supplied with impure blood1 the digestive process is impaired1 causing faintness and loss of appetite1 also a deranged state of the intestines1 and1 in general1 all the symptoms of dyspepsia4 #deg4 ,the delicate structure of the lungs1 in which the blood is or should be purified1 needs the requisite amount of pure blood to give them vigor and health4 ,when the blood is not of this character1 the lungs themselves lose their tone1 and1 even if permitted to expand freely1 have not power fully to change the impure quality of this circulating fluid4 #deh4 ,the health and beauty of the skin require that the blood should be well purified2 but1 if the arteries of the skin receive vitiated blood1 pimples and blotches appear1 and the individual suffers from humors4 ,drinks1 made of various kinds of herbs1 as well as pills and powders1 are taken for this affection4 ,these will never have the desired effect1 while the causes of impure blood exist4 ------------ #dee-dfb4 ,give the hygiene of nutrition4 #dee4 ,what is the effect of impure blood upon the bones8 ,on the muscles8 #def4 ,on the digestive organs8 #deg4 ,on the lungs8 #deh4 ,what is the effect if the vessels of the skin are supplied with vitiated blood8 ------------ #dei4 ,if the nutrient arteries convey impure material to the brain1 the nervous and bilious headache1 confusion of ideas1 loss of memory1 impaired intellect1 dimness of vision1 and dulness of hearing1 will be experienced2 and in process of time1 the brain becomes disorganized1 and the brittle thread of life is broken4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,an exertion of any organ beyond its powers1 induces weakness that will disturb the nutrition of the part that is called into action2 and it recovers its energy more slowly in proportion to the excess of the exertion4 ,the function of the organ may be totally and permanently destroyed1 if the exertion is extremely violent4 ,we sometimes see palsy produced in a muscle simply by the effort to raise too great a weight4 ,the sight is impaired1 and total blindness may be produced1 by exposure to light too strong or too constant4 ,the mind may be deranged1 or idiocy may follow the excess of study or the over-tasking of the brain4 #b;d4 ,when the function of an organ is permanently impaired or destroyed by over-exertion1 the nutrition of the part is rendered insufficient1 or is entirely arrested2 and then the absorbents remove it wholly or partially1 as they do every thing that is no longer useful4 ,thus1 in palsied patients1 a few years after the attack1 we often find scarce any trace of the palsied muscles remaining2 they are reduced almost to simple cellular tissue4 ,the condition of the calf of the leg1 in a person having a club-foot1 is a familiar proof of this4 #dfj4 ,the blood may be made impure1 by the chyle being deficient in quantity or defective in quality4 ,this state of the chyle may be produced by the food being improper in quantity or quality1 or by its being taken in an improper manner1 at an improper time1 and when the system is not prepared for it4 ,the remedy for impure blood produced in any of these ways is to correct the injudicious method of using food4 7,see ,chapters ,,xv4 and ,,xvi47 ------------ #dei4 ,how does impure blood affect the brain8 ,what is the effect when any organ is exerted beyond its powers8 ,what is the effect when an organ is permanently impaired8 #dfj4 ,how may the blood become impure8 ------------ #dfa4 ,the blood may also be rendered impure1 by not supplying it with oxygen in the lungs1 and by the carbon not being eliminated from the system through this channel4 ,the remedy for impurities of the blood1 produced in this manner1 would be1 to carefully reduce to practice the directions in the chapters on the hygiene of the respiratory organs1 relative to the free movements of the ribs and diaphragm1 and the proper ventilation of rooms4 #dfb4 ,a retention of the waste products of the skin produces impure blood4 ,when the vessels of the skin1 by which the waste1 useless material is eliminated from the system1 have become inactive by improper and inadequate clothing1 or by a want of cleanliness1 the dead1 injurious atoms of matter are retained in the circulatory vessels4 ,the only successful method of purifying the blood and restoring health when this condition exists1 is to observe the directions given relative to clothing and bathing4 7,see ,chapters ,,xxxiii4 and ,,xxxiv47 ,observation4 ,if the blood has become impure1 or loaded with humors1 7an idea generally prevalent17 it is not and cannot be purified by taking patent pills1 powders1 drops1 c4 ,but1 on the contrary1 by observing the suggestions in the preceding paragraphs1 the blood can be freed of its impurities1 and1 what is of greater importance1 such injurious humors will be prevented4 ------------ #dfa4 ,mention another means by which the blood may be made impure4 ,how remedied8 #dfb4 ,what is the effect of want of cleanliness upon the blood8 ,what is said respecting humors in the blood8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,a front view of the organs within the chest and abdomen4 #a1 #a1 #a1 #a1 ,the muscles of the chest4 #b1 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,the ribs4 #c1 #c1 #c1 ,the upper1 middle1 and lower lobes of the right lung4 #d1 #d1 ,the lobes of the left lung4 #e1 ,the right ventricle of the heart4 #f1 ,the left ventricle4 #g1 ,the right auricle of the heart4 #h1 ,the left auricle4 #i1 ,the pulmonary artery4 #aj1 ,the aorta4 #aa1 ,the vena cava descendens4 #ab1 ,the trachea4 #ac1 ,the oesophagus4 #ad1 #ad1 #ad1 #ad1 ,the pleura4 #ae1 #ae1 #ae1 ,the diaphragm4 #af1 #af1 ,the right and left lobe of the liver4 #ag1 ,the gall-cyst4 #ah1 ,the stomach4 #bf1 ,the spleen4 #ai1 #ai1 ,the duodenum4 #bj1 ,the ascending colon4 #ba1 ,the transverse colon4 #be1 ,the descending colon4 #bb1 #bb1 #bb1 #bb1 ,the small intestine4 #bc1 #bc1 ,the abdominal walls turned down4 #bd1 ,the thoracic duct1 opening into the left subclavian vein1 7#bg47 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,respiratory ,,organs4 #dfc4 ,the nutrient portion of the food is poured into the left subclavian vein1 7#bd1 #bg1 fig4 #hh17 at the lower part of the neck1 and is carried to the right cavities of the heart4 ,the fluid in these cavities consists of the chyle incorporated with the impure blood4 ,neither of these two elements is fitted to promote the growth or repair the waste of the body4 ,they must be subjected to a process1 by which the first can be converted into blood1 and the second freed of its carbonic acid gas and water4 ,this is effected by the ,respiratory ,organs4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,respiratory ,,organs4 #dfd4 ,the ,,respiratory ,,organs are the ,lungs1 7lights17 the ,trache-a1 7windpipe17 the ,bronchi-a1 7subdivisions of the trachea17 and the ,air-,vesi-cles1 7air-cells at the extremities of the bronchia47 ,the ,dia-phragm1 7midriff17 ,ribs1 and several ,muscles1 also aid in the respiratory process4 #dfe4 ,the ,,lungs are conical organs1 one on each side of the chest1 embracing the heart1 7fig4 #hh17 and separated from each other by a membranous partition4 ,the color of the lungs is a pinkish gray1 mottled1 and variously marked with black4 ,each lung is divided into lobes1 by a long and deep fissure1 which extends from the posterior surface of the upper part of the organ1 downward and forward1 nearly to the anterior angle of the base4 ,in the right lung1 the upper lobe is subdivided by a second fissure4 ,this lung is larger and shorter than the left4 ,it has three lobes1 while the left has only two4 ------------ #dfc4 ,what fluids are conveyed into the right cavities of the heart8 ,what is necessary before they can be adapted to the wants of the body8 ,by what organs are these changes effected8 #dfd-dgd4 ,give the anatomy of the respiratory organs4 #dfd4 ,name the respiratory organs4 ,what organs also aid in the respiratory process8 #dfe4 ,describe the lungs4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,a back view of the heart and lungs4 ,the posterior walls of the chest are removed4 #a1 #b1 #c1 ,the upper1 middle1 and lower lobes of the right lung4 #h1 #i1 #aj1 ,the two lobes of the left lung4 #f1 #ac1 ,the diaphragm4 #g1 #g1 #ad1 #ad1 ,the pleura that lines the ribs4 #d1 #aa1 ,the pleura that lines the mediastine4 #e1 #ab1 #ab1 ,the portion of the pleura that covers the diaphragm4 #ae1 ,the trachea1 #af1 ,the larynx4 #ai1 #ai1 ,the right and left bronchia4 #bj1 ,the heart4 #bi1 ,the lower part of the spinal column4 ------------ ,explain fig4 #hi4 ------------ #dff4 ,each lung is enclosed1 and its structure maintained by a serous membrane1 called the pleura1 which invests it as far as the root1 and is thence reflected upon the walls of the chest4 ,the lungs1 however1 are on the outside of the pleura1 in the same way as the head is on the outside of a cap doubled upon itself4 ,the reflected pleur in the middle of the thorax form a partition1 which divides the chest into two cavities4 ,this partition is called the me-di-as-tinum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,the heart and lungs removed from the chest1 and the lungs freed from all other attachments4 #a1 ,the right auricle of the heart4 #b1 ,the superior vena cava4 #c1 ,the inferior vena cava4 #d1 ,the right ventricle4 #e1 ,the pulmonary artery issuing from it4 a1 a1 ,the pulmonary artery1 7right and left17 entering the lungs4 b1 b1 ,bronchia1 or air-tubes1 entering the lungs4 v1 v1 ,pulmonary veins1 issuing from the lungs4 #f1 ,the left auricle4 #g1 ,the left ventricle4 #h1 ,the aorta4 #i1 ,the upper lobe of the left lung4 #aj1 ,its lower lobe4 #aa1 ,the upper lobe of the right lung4 #ab1 ,the middle lobe4 #ac1 ,the lower lobe4 ,observation4 ,when this membrane that covers the lungs1 and also lines the chest1 is inflamed1 the disease is called pleurisy4 ------------ #dff4 ,by what are the lungs enclosed8 ,what is the relative position of the lungs and pleura8 ,what is said of the reflected pleur8 ,explain fig4 #ij4 ,what part of the lungs is affected in pleurisy8 ------------ #dfg4 ,the lungs are composed of the ramifications of the bronchial tubes1 which terminate in the bronchial cells1 7air-cells17 lymphatics1 and the divisions of the pulmonary artery and veins4 ,all of these are connected by cellular tissue1 which constitutes the pa-renchy-ma4 ,each lung is retained in its place by its root1 which is formed by the pulmonary arteries1 pulmonary veins1 and bronchial tubes1 together with the bronchial vessels and pulmonary nerves4 #dfh4 ,the ,,trachea extends from the larynx1 of which it is a continuation1 to the third dorsal vertebra1 where it divides into two parts1 called bronchia4 ,it lies anterior to the spinal column1 from which it is separated by the oesophagus4 #dfi4 ,the ,,bronchia proceed from the bifurcation1 or division of the trachea1 to their corresponding lungs4 ,upon entering the lungs1 they divide into two branches1 and each branch divides and subdivides1 and ultimately terminates in small sacs1 or cells1 of various sizes1 from the twentieth to the hundredth of an inch in diameter4 ,so numerous are these bronchial or air-cells1 that the aggregate extent of their lining membrane in man has been computed to exceed a surface of #bj1jjj square inches1 and ,munro states that it is thirty times the surface of the human body4 ,illustration4 ,the trachea may be compared to the trunk of a tree2 the bronchia1 to two large branches2 the subdivisions of the bronchia1 to the branchlets and twigs2 the air-cells1 to the buds seen on the twigs in the spring4 #dgj4 ,the ,,air-,,vesicles and small bronchial tubes compose the largest portions of the lungs4 ,these1 when once inflated1 contain air1 under all circumstances1 which renders their specific gravity much less than water2 hence the vulgar term1 lights1 for these organs4 ,the trachea and bronchial tubes are lined by mucous membrane4 ,the structure of this membrane is such1 that it will bear the presence of pure air without detriment1 but not of other substances4 ------------ #dfg4 ,of what are the lungs composed8 ,how retained in place8 #dfh4 ,where is the trachea situated8 #dfi4 ,describe the bronchia4 ,what is the aggregate extent of the lining membrane of the air-cells8 ,to what may the trachea and its branches be compared8 #dgj4 ,what is said of the air-cells and bronchial tubes8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,a representation of the larynx1 trachea1 bronchia1 and air-cells4 #a1 #a1 #a1 ,an outline of the right lung4 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,an outline of the left lung4 #c1 ,the larynx #d1 ,the trachea4 #e1 ,the right bronchial tube4 #f1 ,the left bronchial tube4 #g1 #g1 #g1 #h1 #h1 #h1 ,the subdivisions of the right and left bronchial tubes4 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 ,air-cells4 ------------ ,what membrane lines the trachea and its branches8 ,what is peculiar in its structure8 ,what does fig4 #ia represent8 ------------ ,observation4 ,the structure of the trachea and lungs may be illustrated1 by taking these parts of a calf or sheep and inflating the air-vesicles by forcing air into the windpipe with a pipe or quill4 ,the internal structure may then be seen by opening the different parts4 #dga4 ,the lungs1 like other portions of the system1 are supplied with nutrient arteries and nerves4 ,the nervous filaments that are distributed to these organs are in part from the tenth pair1 7par vagum17 that originates in the brain1 and in part from the sympathetic nerve4 ,the muscles that elevate the ribs and the diaphragm receive nervous fibres from a separate system1 which is called the respiratory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 #a1 ,a bronchial tube4 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,air-vesicles4 ,both the tube and vesicles are much magnified4 #c1 ,a bronchial tube and vesicles laid open4 ,observation4 ,when the mucous membrane of a few of the larger branches of the windpipe is slightly inflamed1 it is called a cold2 when the inflammation is greater1 and extends to the lesser air-tubes1 it is called bronch-itis4 ,when the air-cells and parenchyma become inflamed1 it is called inflammation of the lungs4 ,coughing is a violent expulsory effort by which air is suddenly forced through the bronchia and trachea to remove offending matter4 ------------ ,how may the structure of the trachea and its branches be illustrated8 #dga4 ,are the lungs supplied with nutrient arteries8 ,where are the respiratory nerves distributed8 ,from what source do these organs derive their nervous filaments8 ------------ #dgb4 ,the ,,ribs are joined to the spinal column at their posterior extremity2 and in front1 they terminate in cartilages1 which unite them to the sternum4 ,they incline downward1 from the spinal column to the breast-bone1 and form resisting walls that assist in producing the partial vacuum necessary for inspiration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,a section of the chest when the lungs are inflated4 #a1 ,the diaphragm4 #b1 ,the muscular walls of the abdomen4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,a section of the chest when the lungs are contracted4 #a1 ,the diaphragm in common expiration4 #b1 #b1 ,the muscular walls of the abdomen4 #c1 ,the position of the diaphragm in forced expiration4 ,these engravings show the diaphragm to be more convex1 and the walls of the abdomen more flattened1 when the lungs are collapsed1 than when they are inflated4 #dgc4 ,the ,,diaphragm is a flexible circular partition1 that separates the respiratory from the digestive organs1 and the chest from the abdomen4 ,its margin is attached to the spinal column1 the sternum1 and cartilages of the lower ribs4 ,the lungs rest upon its upper surface1 while the liver and stomach are placed below it1 7fig4 #hh47 ,in a state of repose1 its upper surface forms an arch1 the convexity of which is toward the chest4 ,in forced expiration1 its upper point reaches as high as the fourth rib4 ,in an ordinary inspiration1 it is depressed as low as the seventh rib1 which increases the capacity of the chest4 ------------ #dgb4 ,describe the ribs4 ,explain figs4 #ic and #id4 #dgc4 ,describe the diaphragm4 ------------ #dgd4 ,the ,,respiratory muscles are1 in general1 attached at one extremity to the parts about the shoulders1 head1 and upper portion of the spinal column4 ,from these1 they run downward and forward1 and are attached1 at the opposite extremity1 to the sternum1 clavicle1 and upper rib4 ,other muscles are attached at one extremity to a rib above1 and by the opposite extremity to a rib below4 ,these fill the spaces between the ribs1 and1 from their situation1 are called in-ter-costal muscles4 ,observation4 #ast4 ,there are several actions of common occurrence1 that are intimately connected with respiration2 such as hiccough1 sneezing1 c4 ,hiccough is an involuntary contraction of the muscles of respiration1 particularly the diaphragm4 #b;d4 ,sneezing is a violent1 involuntary contraction of the respiratory muscles1 as in hiccough4 ,when an acrid stimulant1 as snuff1 is applied to the mucous membrane of the nose1 an irritation is produced which is accompanied by a violent expulsion of air from the lungs4 ,this is owing to the connection between the nasal and respiratory nerves4 ------------ ,what is its form when not in action8 #dgd4 ,where do the respiratory muscles make their attachment8 ,what name is given to those muscles that fill the places between the ribs8 ,what is hiccough8 ,what is sneezing8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,respiratory ,,organs4 #dge4 ,,respiration1 or breathing1 is that process by which air is taken into the lungs and expelled from them4 ,the object of respiration is1 #ast4 ,to supply the system with oxygen1 which is essential to the generation of animal heat2 #b;d4 ,to convert the chyle into blood4 ,this is done by the oxygen of the inspired air2 #c;d4 ,to relieve the organs of the body of the principal elements 7carbon and hydrogen7 that compose the old and useless particles of matter4 ,the organs of the system1 as already mentioned1 are principally composed of carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and nitrogen4 #dgf4 ,by the action of the lymphatics and capillary veins1 the old and worn-out particles are conveyed into the veins of the systemic circulation4 ,the hydrogen1 in form of watery vapor1 is easily discharged in the perspiration and other secretions4 ,the nitrogen and oxygen are1 or may be1 separated from the blood1 through the agency of several different organs2 but carbon does not escape so readily4 ,it is probable that a part of the surplus carbon of the venous blood is secreted by the liver2 but a far greater amount passes to the lungs1 and these may be considered as special organs designed to separate this element from the venous blood4 #dgg4 ,an ordinary inspiration may be accomplished by the action of the diaphragm1 and a slight elevation of the ribs4 ,in full inspiration1 the diaphragm is not only more depressed but the ribs are evidently elevated4 ,to produce this effect on the ribs1 two sets of muscles are called into action4 ,those which are attached to the upper rib1 sternum1 and clavicle1 contract and elevate the lower and free extremities of the ribs4 ,this enlarges the cavity of the chest between the spinal column and the sternum4 ,but the lateral diameter1 in consequence1 is only slightly increased1 because the central portion of the ribs sinks lower than their posterior extremities1 or their cartilaginous attachment to the sternum4 ------------ #dge-did4 ,give the physiology of the respiratory organs4 #dge4 ,what is respiration8 ,what is the principal object in breathing8 #dgf4 ,how are the useless atoms of matter conveyed into the veins of the systemic circulation8 ,how may the principal elementary substances be separated from the blood8 #dgg4 ,how may an ordinary inspiration be accomplished8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4 #f1 ,four of the vertebr1 to which are attached three ribs1 7#g1 #g1 #g17 with their intercostal muscles1 7#h1 #h47 ,these ribs1 in their natural position1 have their anterior cartilaginous extremity at #d1 while the posterior extremity is attached to the vertebr1 7#f17 which are neither elevated nor depressed in respiration4 #a1 #a1 and #b1 #b1 parallel lines1 within which the ribs lie in their natural position4 ,if the anterior extremity of the ribs is elevated from #d to #e1 they will not lie within the line #b1 #b1 but will reach the line #c1 #c4 ,if two hands extend from #a1 #a1 to #b1 #b1 they will effectually prevent the elevation of the ribs from #d to #e1 as the line #b1 #b1 cannot be moved to #c1 #c4 ------------ ,what effect has a full inspiration on the ribs and diaphragm8 ,how is the chest enlarged between the spinal column and sternum8 ,what is said of the lateral diameter of the chest8 ,explain fig4 #ie4 ------------ #dgh4 ,the central portion of the ribs is raised by the action of intercostal muscles4 ,the first1 or upper rib1 has but little movement2 the second has more motion than the first1 while the third has still more than the second4 ,the second rib is elevated by the contraction of the muscles between it and the first4 ,the third rib is raised by the action of two sets of muscles2 one lies between the first and second ribs1 the other between the second and third4 ,the motion of each succeeding rib is increased1 because it is not only acted upon by the muscles that move the ribs above1 but by an additional intercostal2 so that the movement of the twelfth rib is very free1 as it is elevated by the contraction of eleven muscles4 #dgi4 ,the tenth rib is raised eight times as much as the second rib1 and the lateral diameter of the lower portion of the chest is increased in a corresponding degree4 ,at the same time1 the muscular margin of the diaphragm contracts1 which depresses its central portion2 and in this way1 the chest is enlarged forward1 laterally1 and downward1 simultaneously with the relaxation of the walls of the abdomen4 #dhj4 ,the lungs follow the variations of capacity in the chest1 expanding their air-cells when the latter is enlarged1 and contracting when the chest is diminished4 ,thus1 when the chest is expanded1 the lungs follow1 and consequently a vacuum is produced in their air-cells4 ,the air then rushes through the mouth and nose into the trachea and its branches1 and fills the vacuum as fast as it is made4 ,this mechanical process constitutes inspiration4 #dha4 ,after the expansion of the chest1 the muscles that elevated the ribs relax1 together with the diaphragm4 ,the elasticity of the cartilages of the ribs depresses them1 and the cavity of the chest is diminished1 attended by the expulsion of a portion of the air from the lungs4 ,at the same time1 the muscles that form the front walls of the abdominal cavity1 contract1 and press the alimentary canal1 stomach1 and liver1 upward against the diaphragm2 this1 being relaxed1 yields to the pressure1 rises upward1 and presses upon the lungs1 which retreat before it1 and another portion of air is expelled from these organs4 ,this process is called expiration4 ------------ #dgh4 ,describe the action of the intercostal muscles upon the ribs4 #dgi4 ,how does the elevation of the tenth rib compare with the second8 ,what effect has this elevation upon the lateral diameter of the chest8 #dhj4 ,describe the process of inspiration4 #dha4 ,describe the process by which the air is forced out of the lungs4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,a front view of the chest and abdomen in respiration4 #a1 #a1 ,the position of the walls of the chest in inspiration4 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,the position of the diaphragm in inspiration4 #c1 #c1 ,the position of the walls of the chest in expiration4 #d1 #d1 #d1 ,the position of the diaphragm in expiration4 #e1 #e1 ,the position of the walls of the abdomen in inspiration4 #f1 #f1 ,the position of the abdominal walls in expiration4 #dhb4 ,thus it is obvious that the enlargement of the chest1 or inspiration1 is produced in two ways3 #ast4 ,by the depression of the convex portion of the diaphragm2 #b;d4 ,by the elevation of the ribs4 ,on the contrary1 the contraction of the chest1 or expiration1 is produced by the depression of the ribs1 and elevation of the central part of the diaphragm4 ,these movements are successive during life1 and constitute respiration4 ------------ ,explain fig4 #if4 #dhb4 ,in how many ways may the chest be enlarged1 and how is it accomplished8 ,how is the contraction of the chest effected8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,a side view of the chest and abdomen in respiration4 #a1 ,the cavity of the chest4 #b1 ,the cavity of the abdomen4 #c1 ,the line of direction for the diaphragm when relaxed in expiration4 #d1 ,the line of direction for the diaphragm when contracted in inspiration4 #e1 #f1 ,the position of the front walls of the chest and abdomen in inspiration4 #g1 #h1 ,the position of the front walls of the abdomen and chest in expiration4 ,experiment4 ,place the ear upon the chest of a person1 and a murmuring sound will be heard1 somewhat like the soft sighings of the wind through forest trees4 ,this sound is caused by the air rushing in and out of the lungs1 and is peculiarly distinct in the child4 ------------ ,explain fig4 #ig4 ,how may the murmur of respiration be heard8 ------------ #dhc4 ,it is not easy to decide how much air is taken into the lungs at each inspiration4 ,the quantity1 however1 must vary in different individuals1 from the difference in the condition and expansion of the lungs1 together with the size of the chest4 ,from numerous experiments1 the quantity1 at an ordinary inspiration1 of a common-sized man1 is fixed at forty cubic inches4 ,it has been estimated that one hundred and seventy cubic inches can be thrown out of the lungs by a forcible expiration1 and that there remain in the lungs two hundred and twenty cubic inches2 so that these organs1 in their quiescent state1 may be considered as containing about three hundred and ninety cubic inches of air1 or more than a gallon4 #dhd4 ,respiration is more frequent in females and children than in adult men4 ,in diseases1 particularly those of the lungs1 it is more increased in frequency than the action of the heart4 ,in health1 the smallest number of inspirations in a minute by an adult1 is not less than fourteen1 and they rarely exceed twenty-five4 ,eighteen may be considered an average number4 ,the quantity of oxygen taken into the lungs at each inspiration is about eight cubic inches1 one half of which disappears in every act of respiration4 ,observation4 ,under different circumstances1 however1 the consumption of oxygen varies4 ,it is greater when the temperature is low1 than when it is high2 and during digestion the consumption has been found one half greater than when the stomach was empty4 ------------ #dhc4 ,can it be ascertained with accuracy how much air is taken into the lungs at each inspiration8 ,why not8 ,what is the probable quantity that an ordinary sized man inspires8 ,how much can be thrown out of the lungs at a forcible expiration1 and how much remains in the lungs8 ,from these calculations1 how much may they contain in their quiescent state8 #dhd4 ,in whom is respiration most frequent8 ,how in disease8 ,how in health8 ,how many may be considered an average number8 ,when is the consumption of oxygen the greatest8 ------------ #dhe4 ,dr4 ,southwood ,smith has lately performed a series of very interesting experiments1 from which he deduces the following general results3 #ast4 ,the volume of air ordinarily present in the lungs is about twelve pints4 #b;d4 ,the volume of air received by the lungs at an ordinary inspiration is one pint4 #c;d4 ,the volume of air expelled from the lungs at an ordinary expiration1 is a little less than one pint4 #dth4 ,of the volume of air received by the lungs at one inspiration1 only one fourth part is decomposed at one action of the heart4 #eth4 ,the quantity of blood that flows to the lungs1 to be acted upon by the air at one action of the heart1 is two ounces1 and this is acted on in less than one second of time4 #fth4 ,the quantity of blood in the whole body of the human adult1 is twenty-five pounds avoirdupois1 or twenty pints4 #gth4 ,in the mutual action that takes place between the air and blood1 every twenty-four hours1 the air loses thirty-seven ounces of oxygen1 and the blood fourteen ounces of carbon4 #dhf4 ,apparently1 atmospheric air is a simple element4 ,but chemical analysis shows its composition to be oxygen and nitrogen1 in the proportion of twenty-one parts of the former1 and about seventy-nine of the latter4 ,in addition1 there is a small amount of vapor of water and carbonic acid4 ,the pressure of this invisible1 elastic fluid upon the body of an ordinary sized adult1 is estimated to equal thirty-five thousand pounds4 #dhg4 ,the principal substance of a vitiated character in the dark-colored blood is carbonic acid4 ,and since there is no chemical affinity between the oxygen and nitrogen of the air1 the former readily unites with some of the elements of the blood4 ,hence1 whenever blood is presented to the air in the lungs1 the oxygen leaves the nitrogen1 and becomes mixed with the circulating fluid4 7,appendix ,j47 ------------ #dhe4 ,state the #ast1 #b;d1 #c;d1 and #dth deductions from the experiments of ,dr4 ,southwood ,smith4 ,the #eth1 #fth1 and #gth4 #dhf4 ,of what is atmospheric air composed8 ,what is the weight of air upon a common sized man8 #dhg4 ,what is the principal substance of a vitiated character in the dark-colored blood8 ,what is said of the chemical affinity between oxygen and nitrogen8 ------------ #dhh4 ,again1 carbonic acid and water have a stronger affinity for atmospheric air than for the other elements of the blood4 ,consequently1 when they are brought into contact with the air in the lungs1 the carbonic acid and water leave the other constituents of the blood1 and unite with the air4 ,in this way the bluish1 or impure blood is relieved of its impurities1 and becomes the red1 or pure blood1 which contains the principles so essential to life4 7,appendix ,k47 #dhi4 ,the formation of carbonic acid and water1 eliminated from the system through the lungs and skin1 is explained by the following theory3 ,in the lungs and upon the skin the oxygen separates from the nitrogen and unites with the blood in the capillary vessels of these organs4 ,the oxygen is conveyed with the blood to the capillary arteries and veins of the different tissues of the system4 ,in these membranes there is a chemical union of the oxygen with the carbon and hydrogen contained in the blood and waste atoms of the system4 ,this combustion1 or union of oxygen with carbon and hydrogen1 is attended with the disengagement of heat1 and the formation of carbonic acid and water4 7,appendix ,l47 #dij4 ,the following experiment will illustrate the passage of fluids through membranes1 and the different affinity of gases for each other4 ,put a mixture of water and alcohol into a phial and leave it uncorked4 ,both the water and alcohol have a greater affinity for air than for each other4 ,alcohol has a greater affinity for the air1 and will be diffused through it more readily than the water1 when there is no intervening obstacle4 ,but tie a piece of bladder over the mouth of the phial1 and let it stand a few days1--the water will leave the alcohol1 and pass through the membrane4 ,by the aid of this experiment1 we shall endeavor to explain the interchange of fluids in the lungs4 ------------ #dhh4 ,what is formed when oxygen unites with carbon or hydrogen8 #dhi4 ,give the theory for the formation of carbonic acid and watery vapor thrown out of the system4 #dij4 ,illustrate the passage of fluids through membranes1 and the different affinities of gases4 ------------ #dia4 ,the walls of the air-vesicles1 and coats of the blood-vessels1 are similar1 in their mechanical arrangement1 to the membranous bladder in the before described experiment4 ,as the oxygen of the air has greater affinity for blood than for nitrogen1 so it permeates the membranes that intervene between the air and blood more readily than the nitrogen4 ,as the carbonic acid and water have a greater affinity for air than for the other elements of the blood1 so they will also pass through the walls of the blood-vessels and air-cells more readily than the other elements of the dark-colored blood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4 #a1 ,a bronchial tube divided into three branches4 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,air-cells4 #c1 ,branches of the pulmonary artery1 that spread over the air-cells4 ,through the pulmonary artery the dark1 impure blood is carried to the air-cells of the lungs4 #d1 ,branches of the pulmonary vein1 that commence at the minute terminations of the pulmonary artery4 ,through the pulmonary vein the red blood is returned to the heart4 #dib4 ,as the impure blood is passing in the minute vessels over the air-cells1 the oxygen passes through the thin coats of the air-cells and blood-vessels1 and unites with the blood4 ,at the same time1 the carbonic acid and water leave the blood1 and pass through the coats of the blood-vessels and air-cells1 and mix with the air in the cells4 ,these are thrown out of the system every time we breathe4 ,this interchange of products produces the change in the color of the blood4 ------------ ,explain fig4 #ih4 #dib4 ,how and where is the blood changed8 ------------ ,experiment4 ,fill a bladder with dark blood drawn from any animal4 ,tie the bladder closely1 and suspend it in the air4 ,in a few hours1 the blood next to the membrane will have become of a bright red color4 ,this is owing to the oxygen from the air passing through the bladder1 and uniting with the blood1 while the carbonic acid has escaped through the membrane4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,an ideal view of the pulmonary circulation4 #a1 #a1 ,the right lung4 #b1 #b1 ,the left lung4 #c1 ,the trachea4 #d1 ,the right bronchial tube4 #e1 ,the left bronchial tube4 #f1 #f1 #f1 #f1 ,air-cells4 #g1 ,the right auricle4 #h1 ,the right ventricle4 #i1 ,the tricuspid valves4 #aj1 ,the pulmonary artery4 #aa1 ,the branch to the right lung4 #ab1 ,the branch to the left lung4 #ac1 ,the right pulmonary vein4 #ad1 ,the left pulmonary vein4 #ae1 ,the left auricle4 #af1 ,the left ventricle4 #ag1 ,the mitral valves4 #dic4 ,the presence of carbonic acid and watery vapor in the expired air1 can be proved by the following experiments3 #ast4 ,breathe into lime-water1 and in a few minutes it will become of a milk-white color4 ,this is owing to the carbonic acid of the breath uniting with the lime1 forming the carbonate of lime4 #b;d4 ,breathe upon a cold1 dry mirror for a few minutes1 and it will be covered with moisture4 ,this is condensed vapor from the lungs4 ,in warm weather1 this watery vapor is invisible in the expired air1 but in a cold1 dry morning in winter1 the successive jets of vapor issuing from the mouth and nose are sufficiently obvious4 ------------ ,give the experiment showing that oxygen changes the dark-colored blood to a bright red color4 ,what is represented by fig4 #ii8 #dic4 ,how can the presence of carbonic acid in the lungs be proved8 ------------ #did4 ,from the lungs are eliminated other impurities beside carbonic acid1 the perceptible quality of which is various in different persons4 ,the offensive breath of many persons may be caused by decayed teeth1 or the particles of food that may be retained between them1 but it often proceeds from the secretion1 in the lungs1 of certain substances which previously existed in the system4 ,illustration4 ,when spirituous liquors are taken into the stomach1 they are absorbed by the veins and mixed with the dark-colored blood1 in which they are carried to the lungs to be expelled from the body4 ,this will explain the fact1 which is familiar to most persons1 that the odor of different substances is perceptible in the breath1 or expired air1 long after the mouth is free from these substances4 ------------ ,how the watery vapor8 #did4 ,are there other excretions from the lungs8 ,give the illustration4 ------------ ,note4 ,let the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory organs be reviewed from figs4 #if1 #ig1 and #ii1 or from anatomical outline plates ,nos4 #e and #g4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,respiratory ,,organs4 #die4 ,for man to enjoy the highest degree of health1 it is necessary that the impure venous blood be properly changed4 ,as this is effected in the lungs by the action of the air1 it follows that this element1 when breathed1 should be pure1 or contain twenty-one per cent4 of oxygen to about seventy-nine per cent4 of nitrogen4 #dif4 ,the volume of air expelled from the lungs is somewhat less than that which is inspired4 ,the amount of loss varies under different circumstances4 ,an eightieth part of the volume taken into the lungs1 or half a cubic inch1 may be considered an average estimate4 #dig4 ,the quality and purity of the air is affected by every respiration4 #ast4 ,the quantity of oxygen is diminished4 #b;d4 ,the amount of carbonic acid is increased4 #c;d4 ,a certain proportion of watery vapor is ejected from the lungs in the expired air4 ,of the twenty-one parts of oxygen in the inspired air1 only eighteen parts are expired1 while the carbonic acid and watery vapor are increased about four per cent4 ,the quantity of nitrogen is nearly the same in the expired as in the inspired air4 ,observation4 ,it is now fully ascertained that while the chemical composition of the blood is essentially changed1 its weight remains the same1 as the carbon and hydrogen discharged are equal to the united weight of the oxygen and nitrogen absorbed4 ------------ #die-edf4 ,give the hygiene of the respiratory organs4 #die4 ,what is necessary that man enjoy the highest degree of health8 #dif4 ,how does the volume ,of expired air compare with that which was inspired8 ,does this loss vary1 and what is an average estimate8 #dig4 ,how is the purity of the air affected by respiration8 ,how is the inhaled oxygen affected8 ,what effect on the carbonic acid and watery vapor8 ,on the nitrogen8 ,what is said respecting the weight of the blood8 ------------ #dih4 ,if one fourth part of the volume of air received by the lungs at one inspiration is decomposed at one beat of the heart1 it might be supposed that if the expired air be again received into the lungs1 one half of the oxygen would be consumed1 and1 in a similar ratio1 if re-breathed four times1 all the oxygen would be consumed4 ,but it does not follow1 if the air is thus re-breathed1 that the same changes will be effected in the lungs4 ,for air that has been inspired does not part with its remaining oxygen as freely as when it contains the proper amount of this life-giving element1 and thus the changes in the impure blood are not so completely effected4 ,illustration4 ,in the process of dyeing1 each successive article immersed in the dye weakens it2 but it does not follow that the dye each time is affected in the same degree1 or that the coloring matter by repeated immersions can be wholly extracted4 ,the same principle applies to the exchange of oxygen and carbonic acid gas in the lungs4 #dii4 ,if the inspired air is free from moisture and carbonic acid1 these substances contained in the blood will be more readily imparted to it4 ,when the air is loaded with vapor1 they are removed more slowly2 but if it is saturated with moisture1 no vapor will escape from the blood through the agency of the lungs4 ,this may be illustrated by the following experiment3 ,take two and a half pounds of water1 add to it half a pound of common salt1 7chloride of sodium17 and it will readily mix with the water2 and to this solution add the same quantity of salt1 and it will be dissolved more slowly4 ,again1 add more salt1 and it will remain undissolved1 as the water has become saturated by the pound before dissolved4 ------------ #dih4 ,does air that is re-breathed freely impart its oxygen8 ,why8 #dii4 ,what is the effect on the blood when the air is free from vapor and carbonic acid8 ,when loaded with vapor8 ,when saturated8 ,how is this illustrated8 ------------ #ejj4 ,the principle in this experiment is analogous to that of the union between carbonic gas and atmospheric air4 ,allen and ,pepy showed by experiment1 that air which had been once breathed1 contained eight and a half per cent4 of carbonic acid4 ,they likewise showed1 that no continuance of the respiration of the same air could make it take up more than ten per cent4 ,this is the point of saturation4 ,experiment4 ,sink a glass jar that has a stop-cock1 or one with a glass stopper1 into a pail of water1 until the air is expelled from the jar4 ,fill the lungs with air1 and retain it in the chest a short time1 and then breathe into the jar1 and instantly close the stop-cock4 ,close the opening of the jar that is under the water with a piece of paper laid on a plate of sufficient size to cover the opening1 invert the jar1 and sink into it a lighted candle4 ,the flame will be extinguished as quickly as if put in water4#ae ,remove the carbonic acid by inverting the jar1 and place a lighted candle in it1 and the flame will be as clear as when out of the jar4 #ae ,as a substitute for a jar with a stop-cock1 take a piece of lead pipe bent in the form of a siphon1 and insert it in the mouth of a reversed jar4 ,this experiment is as conclusive whether the air is inhaled once only or breathed many times4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,it is familiarly known that a taper will not burn where carbonic acid exists in any considerable quantity1 or when there is a marked deficiency of oxygen4 ,from this originated the judicious practice of sinking a lighted candle into a well or pit before descending into it4 ,if the flame is extinguished1 respiration cannot there be maintained1 and life would be sacrificed should a person venture in1 until the noxious air is removed4 ------------ #ejj4 ,what did the experiments of ,allen and ,pepy show8 ,how can the presence of carbonic gas in the expired air be demonstrated8 ,state observation #ast4 ,observation #b;d4 ------------ #b;d4 ,it is the action of carbonic acid upon the respiratory organs1 that gives rise to a phenomenon frequently seen in mines and caves4 ,a man may enter these subterranean rooms1 and feel no inconvenience in breathing2 but the dog that follows him1 falls apparently dead1 and soon dies if not speedily removed to pure air4 ,this arises from the fact that this gas is heavier than air1 and sinks to the bottom of the room or cave4 #c;d4 ,while it is true that carbonic acid possesses properties that render it unfit to be breathed1 it is1 notwithstanding1 productive of very agreeable effects1 when conveyed into the stomach4 ,it forms the sparkling property of mineral waters1 and fills the bubbles that rise when beer or cider is fermenting4 #eja4 ,pure atmospheric air is best adapted to a healthy action of the system4 ,as the air cannot be maintained pure under all circumstances1 the question may be asked1 ,to what degree may the air be vitiated and still sustain life8 and what is the smallest quantity of pure air a person needs each minute to maintain good health8 ,birnan says1 that air which contains more than three and a half per cent4 of carbonic acid is unfit for respiration1 and1 as air once respired contains eight and a half per cent4 of carbonic acid1 it clearly shows that it is not fitted to be breathed again4 #ejb4 ,no physiologist pretends that less than seven cubic feet of air are adequate for a man to breathe each minute1 while ,dr4 ,reid allows ten feet4 ,the necessity of fifteen or twenty times the amount of air actually taken into the lungs1 arises from the circumstance1 that the expired air mixes with and vitiates the surrounding element that has not been inhaled4 #ejc4 ,the quantity of air which different persons actually need1 varies4 ,the demand is modified by the size1 age1 habits1 and condition of the body4 ,a person of great size who has a large quantity of blood1 requires more air than a small man with a less amount of circulating fluid4 ,individuals whose labor is active1 require more air than sedentary or idle persons1 because the waste of the system is greater4 ,on the same principle1 the gormandizer needs more of this element than the person of abstemious habits4 ,so does the growing lad require more air than an adult of the same weight1 for the reason that he consumes more food than a person of mature years4 ,habit also exerts a controlling influence4 ,a man who works in the open air suffers more when placed in a small1 unventilated room1 than one who is accustomed to breathe the confined air of workshops4 ------------ ,observation #c;d4 #eja4 ,what questions may be asked respecting the inspired air8 ,give the remark of ,birnan4 #ejb4 ,how many cubic feet of air are adequate for a man to breathe each minute8 ,how much does ,dr4 ,reid allow8 #ejc4 ,mention some reasons why different persons do not require the same amount of air4 ------------ #ejd4 ,air1 in which lamps will not burn with brilliancy1 is unfitted for respiration4 ,in crowded rooms1 which are not ventilated1 the air is vitiated1 not only by the abstraction of oxygen and the deposition of carbonic acid1 but by the excretions from the skin and lungs of the audience4 ,the lamps1 under such circumstances1 emit but a feeble light4 ,let the oxygen gas be more and more expended1 and the lamps will burn more and more feebly1 until they are extinguished4 ,illustrations4 #ast4 ,the effects of breathing the same air again and again1 are well illustrated by an incident that occurred in one of our halls of learning4 ,a large audience had assembled in an ill-ventilated room1 to listen to a lecture2 soon the lamps burned so dimly that the speaker and audience were nearly enveloped in darkness4 ,the oppression1 dizziness1 and faintness experienced by many of the audience induced them to leave1 and in a few minutes after1 the lamps were observed to rekindle1 owing to the exchange of pure air on opening the door4 ------------ ,how is it with the laborer8 ,with the gormandizer8 ,with the person that works in the open air8 #ejd4 ,what effect has impure air on a burning lamp8 ,give the illustration of the effects of impure air on lighted lamps4 ------------ #b;d4 ,in the ,black ,hole of ,calcutta1 one hundred and forty-six ,englishmen were shut up in a room eighteen feet square1 with only two small windows on the same side to admit air4 ,on opening this dungeon1 ten hours after their imprisonment1 only twenty-three were alive4 ,the others had died from breathing impure air4 #eje4 ,air that has become impure from the abstraction of oxygen1 an excess of carbonic acid1 or the excretions from the lungs and skin1 has a deleterious effect on the body4 ,when this element is vitiated from the preceding causes1 it prevents the proper arterialization1 or change in the blood4 ,for this reason1 pure air should be admitted freely and constantly into work-shops and dwelling-houses1 and the vitiated air permitted to escape4 ,this is of greater importance than the warming of these apartments4 ,we can compensate for the deficiency of a stove1 by an extra garment or an increased quantity of food2 but neither garment1 exercise1 nor food will compensate for pure air4 #ejf4 ,school-rooms should be ventilated4 ,if they are not1 the pupils will be restless1 and complain of languor and headache4 ,those unpleasant sensations are caused by a want of pure air1 to give an adequate supply of oxygen to the lungs4 ,when pupils breathe for a series of years such vitiated air1 their life is undoubtedly shortened1 by giving rise to consumption and other fatal diseases4 ,illustration4 ,a school-room thirty feet square and eight feet high1 contains #gbjj cubic feet of air4 ,this room will seat sixty pupils1 and1 allowing ten cubic feet of air to each pupil per minute1 all the air in the room will be vitiated in twelve minutes4 ,observation4 ,in all school-rooms where there is not adequate ventilation1 it is advisable to have a recess of five or ten minutes each hour4 ,during this time1 let the pupils breathe fresh air1 and open the doors and windows1 so that the air of the room shall be completely changed4 ------------ ,of the effects of breathing impure air4 #eje4 ,in preserving health1 what is of greater importance than warming the room8 #ejf4 ,why should a school-room be ventilated8 ,give the illustration4 ------------ #ejg4 ,churches1 concert halls1 and all rooms designed for a collection of individuals1 should be amply ventilated4 ,while the architect and workmen are assiduous in giving these public rooms architectural beauty and splendor1 by adorning the ceiling with ,gothic tracery1 rearing richly carved columns1 and providing carefully for the warming of the room1 it too frequently happens that no direct provision is made for the change of that element which gives us beauty1 strength1 and life4 ,illustration4 ,a hall sixty feet by forty1 and fifteen feet high1 contains #cf1jjj cubic feet of air4 ,a hall of this size will seat four hundred persons2 by allowing ten cubic feet of air to each person per minute1 the air of the room will be rendered unfit for respiration in nine minutes4 #ejh4 ,railroad cars1 cabins of steam and canal-boats1 omnibuses1 and stage-coaches1 require ample ventilation4 ,in the construction of these public conveyances1 too frequently1 the only apparent design is1 to seat the greatest number of persons1 regardless of the quantity and character of the air to maintain health and even life4 ,the character of the air is only realized when1 from the fresh1 pure air1 we enter a crowded cabin of a boat or a closed coach2 then the vitiated air from animal excretions and noxious gases is offensive1 and frequently produces sickness4 #eji4 ,the influence of habit is strikingly expressed by ,birnan1 in the ,art of ,warming and ,ventilating ,rooms3 ,not the least remarkable example of the power of habit is its reconciling us to practices which1 but for its influence1 would be considered noxious and disgusting4 ,we instinctively shun approach to the dirty1 the squalid1 and the diseased1 and use no garment that may have been worn by another4 ,we open sewers for matters that offend the sight or the smell1 and contaminate the air4 ,we carefully remove impurities from what we eat and drink1 filter turbid water1 and fastidiously avoid drinking from a cup that may have been pressed to the lips of a friend4 ,on the other hand1 we resort to places of assembly1 and draw into our mouths air loaded with effluvia from the lungs1 skin1 and clothing of every individual in the promiscuous crowd--exhalations offensive1 to a certain extent1 from the most healthy individuals2 but when arising from a living mass of skin and lungs1 in all stages of evaporation1 disease1 and putridity1--prevented by the walls and ceiling from escaping--they are1 when thus concentrated1 in the highest degree deleterious and loathsome4 ------------ ,what suggestion when a school-room is not ventilated8 #ejg4 ,what is said in regard to ventilating churches1 concert halls1 c48 ,state the illustration4 #ejh4 ,what remarks relative to public conveyances8 #eji4 ,state the influence of habit by ,birnan4 ------------ #eaj4 ,the sleeping-room should be so ventilated that the air in the morning will be as pure as when retiring to rest in the evening4 ,ventilation of the room would prevent morning headaches1 the want of appetite1 and languor--so common among the feeble4 ,the impure air of sleeping-rooms probably causes more deaths than intemperance4 ,look around the country1 and those who are most exposed1 who live in huts but little superior to the sheds that shelter the farmer's flocks1 are found to be the most healthy and robust4 ,headaches1 liver complaints1 coughs1 and a multitude of nervous affections1 are almost unknown to them2 not so with those who spend their days and nights in rooms in which the sashes of the windows are calked1 or perchance doubled1 to prevent the keen but healthy air of winter from entering their apartments4 ,disease and suffering are their constant companions4 ------------ #eaj4 ,what is said of the ventilation of sleeping-rooms8 ,what would adequate ventilation prevent8 ,give a common observation4 ------------ ,illustration4 ,by many1 sleeping apartments twelve feet square and seven feet high1 are considered spacious for two persons1 and good accommodations for four to lodge in4 ,an apartment of this size contains #ajjh cubic feet of air4 ,allowing ten cubic feet to each person per minute1 two occupants would vitiate the air of the room in fifty minutes1 and four in twenty-five minutes4 ,when lodging-rooms are not ventilated1 we would strongly recommend early rising4 #eaa4 ,the sick-room1 particularly1 should be so arranged that the impure air may escape1 and pure air be constantly admitted into the room4 ,it is no unusual practice in some communities1 when a child or an adult is sick of an acute disease1 to prevent the ingress of pure air1 simply from the apprehension of the attendants1 that the patient will contract a cold4 ,again1 the prevalent custom of several individuals sitting in the sick-room1 particularly when they remain there for several hours1 tends to vitiate the air1 and1 consequently1 to increase the suffering and danger of the sick person4 ,in fevers or inflammatory diseases of any kind1 let the patient breathe pure air2 for the purer the blood1 the greater the power of the system to remove disease1 and the less the liability to contract colds4 ,observation4 ,among children1 convulsions1 or fits1 usually occur when they are sleeping4 ,in many instances1 these are produced by the impure air which is breathed4 ,to prevent these alarming and distressing convulsions1 the sleeping-room should be ventilated1 and there should be no curtains around the bed1 or coverings over the face1 as they produce an effect similar to that experienced when sleeping in a small1 unventilated room4 ,to relieve a child when convulsed1 carry it into the open air4 ------------ ,what is said of the size of sleeping-rooms8 #eaa4 ,what is said of the sick-room8 ,mention some prevailing customs in reference to these rooms4 ,what is said of convulsions among children8 ------------ #eab4 ,while occupying a room1 we are insensible of the gradual vitiation of the air4 ,this is the result of the diminished sensibility of the nervous system1 and gradual adaptation of the organs to blood of a less stimulating character4 ,this condition is well illustrated in the hibernating animals4 ,we are insensible of the impure air of unventilated sleeping-rooms1 until we leave them for a walk or ride4 ,if they have been closed1 we are made sensible of the character of the air as soon as we renter them1 for the system has regained its usual sensibility while inhaling a purer atmosphere4 #eac4 ,in the construction of every inhabited room1 there should be adequate means of ventilation1 as well as warming4 ,no room is well ventilated1 unless as much pure air is brought into it as the occupants vitiate at every respiration4 ,this can be effected by making an aperture in the ceiling of the room1 or by constructing a ventilating flue in the chimney4 ,this should be in contact with the flues for the escape of smoke1 but separated from them by a thin brick partition4 ,the hot air in the smoke flues will warm the separating brick partition1 and consequently rarefy the air in the ventilating flue4 ,communication from every room in a house should be had to such flues4 ,the draught of air can be regulated by well-adjusted registers1 which in large rooms should be placed near the floor as well as near the ceiling4 #ead4 ,while provision is made for the escape of rarefied impure air1 we should also provide means by which pure air may be constantly admitted into the room1 as the crevices of the doors and windows are not always sufficient2 and1 if they should be adequate1 air can be introduced in a more convenient1 economical1 and appropriate manner4 ,there should be an aperture opposite the ventilating flue1 at or near the floor1 to connect with the outer walls of the building or external air4 ,but if pure heated air is introduced into the room1 it obviates the necessity of the introduction of the external air4#af #af ,mr4 ,frederick ,emerson1 of ,boston1 has devised a simple and effective apparatus for removing vitiated air from a room4 ,it is successfully used upon all the public school-houses of ,boston4 ,it is now being generally applied to the school-houses and other public buildings1 as well as private dwellings1 of ,new ,england4 ------------ #eab4 ,why are we insensible to the gradual vitiation of the air of an unventilated room8 #eac4 ,what is very important in the building of every inhabited room8 ,how can a room be well ventilated8 #ead4 ,what is said relative to a communication with the external air8 ------------ #eae4 ,in warming rooms1 the hot air furnaces1 or box and air-tight stoves converted into hot air furnaces1 should be used in preference to the ordinary stoves4 ,the air thus introduced into the room is pure as well as warm4 ,in the adaptation of furnaces to dwelling-houses1 c41 it is necessary that the air should pass over an ample surface of iron moderately heated2 as a red heat abstracts the oxygen from the contiguous air1 and thus renders it unfit to be respired4#ag #ag ,dr4 ,wyman's valuable work on ,ventilation1 and the work of ,henry ,barnard1 ,esq41 on ,school-house architecture1 can be advantageously consulted1 as they give the practical methods of ventilating and warming shops1 school-rooms1 dwelling-houses1 public halls1 c4 ,observation4 ,domestic animals need a supply of pure air as well as man4 ,the cows of cities1 that breathe a vitiated air1 have1 very generally1 tubercles4 ,sheep that are shut in a confined air1 die of a disease called the rot1 which is of a tuberculous character4 ,interest and humanity require that the buildings for animals be properly ventilated4 ------------ #eae4 ,how should rooms be warmed8 ,what is necessary in the adaptation of furnaces to dwelling-houses8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,respiratory ,,organs1 ,,continued4 #eaf4 ,the change that is effected in the blood while passing through the lungs1 not only depends upon the purity of the air1 but the amount inspired4 ,the quantity varies according to the size of the chest1 and the movement of the ribs and diaphragm4 #eag4 ,the size of the chest and lungs can be reduced by moderate and continued pressure4 ,this is most easily done in infancy1 when the cartilages and ribs are very pliant2 yet it can be effected at more advanced periods of life1 even after the chest is fully developed4 ,for want of knowledge of the pliant character of the cartilages and ribs in infants1 too many mothers1 unintentionally1 contract their chests1 and thus sow the seeds of disease by the close dressing of their offspring4 #eah4 ,if slight but steady pressure be continued from day to day and from week to week1 the ribs will continue to yield more and more1 and after the expiration of a few months1 the chest will become diminished in size4 ,this will be effected without any suffering of a marked character2 but the general health and strength will be impaired4 ,it is not the violent and ephemeral pressure1 but the moderate and protracted1 that produces the miscalled1 genteel1 contracted chests4 #eai4 ,the style of dress which at the present day is almost universal1 is a prolific cause of this deformity4 ,these baneful fashions are copied from the periodicals1 so widely circulated1 containing a fashion plate of the latest fashions1 from ,paris4 ,in every instance2 the contracted1 deformed1 and1 as it is called1 lady-like waist1 is portrayed in all its fascinating loveliness4 ,these periodicals are found on almost every centre-table1 and exercise an influence almost omnipotent4 ,if the plates which corrupt the morals are excluded by civil legislation1 with the same propriety ought not those to be suppressed that have a tendency so adverse to health8 ------------ #eaf4 ,what varies the amount of air received into the lungs8 #eag4 ,how can the size of the chest be diminished8 ,when is this most easily effected8 #eah4 ,how are the miscalled1 genteel1 contracted chests usually produced8 #eai4 ,what is said of the style of the dress at the present day8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,a correct outline of the ,venus de ,medici1 the beau ideal of female symmetry4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,an outline of a well-corseted modern beauty4 ,one has an artificial1 insect waist2 the other1 a natural waist4 ,one has sloping shoulders1 while the shoulders of the other are comparatively elevated1 square1 and angular4 ,the proportion of the corseted female below the waist1 is also a departure from the symmetry of nature4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,the ,chinese1 by compressing the feet of female children1 prevent their growth2 so that the foot of a ,chinese belle is not larger than the foot of an ,american girl of five years4 ------------ ,what does fig4 #ajj represent8 ,fig4 #aja8 ,give observation #ast4 ------------ #b;d4 ,the ,american women compress their chests1 to prevent their growth2 so that the chest of an ,american belle is not larger than the chest of a ,chinese girl of five years4 ,which country1 in this respect1 exhibits the greater intelligence8 #c;d4 ,the chest can be deformed by making the linings of the waists of the dresses tight1 as well as by corsets4 ,tight vests1 upon the same principle1 are also injurious4 #ebj4 ,in children1 who have never worn close garments1 the circumference of the chest is generally about equal to that of the body at the hips2 and similar proportions would exist through life1 if there were no improper pressure of the clothing4 ,this is true of the laboring women of the ,emerald ,isle1 and other countries of ,europe1 and in the ,indian female1 whose blanket allows the free expansion of the chest4 ,the symmetrical statues of ancient sculptors bear little resemblance to the beau ideal of ,american notions of elegant form4 ,this perverted taste is in opposition to the laws of nature4 ,the design of the human chest is not simply to connect the upper and lower portions of the body1 like some insects1 but to form a case for the protection of the vital organs4 #eba4 ,individuals may have small chests from birth4 ,this1 to the particular individual1 is natural2 yet it is adverse to the great and general law of ,nature relative to the size of the human chest4 ,like produces like1 is a general law of the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,no fact is better established1 than that which proves the hereditary transmission from parents to children of a constitutional liability to disease and the same may be said in regard to their conformations4 ,if the mother has a small1 taper waist1 either hereditary or acquired1 this form may be impressed on her offspring2--thus illustrating the truthfulness of scripture1 that the sins of the parents shall be visited upon the children unto the third and fourth generation4 ------------ ,observation #b;d4 ,observation #c;d4 #ebj4 ,what is the size of the chest of a child that has always worn loose clothing8 ,what is said of the size of the laboring women of ,ireland1 and the ,indian female8 ,how is it in ancient statues8 ,what is the design of the chest8 #eba4 ,what is a general law of both the animal and vegetable kingdoms8 ,what fact in this connection is well established8 ------------ #ebb4 ,the quantity of air inhaled is modified by the capacity of the respiratory organs4 ,the necessity of voluminous lungs may he elucidated by the following experiment3 ,suppose a gill of alcohol1 mixed with a gill of water1 be put into a vessel having a square foot of surface1 and over the vessel a membrane be tied1 and that the water will evaporate in twenty-four hours4 ,if the surface had been only six inches square1 only one fourth of the water would have evaporated through the membrane in the given time4 ,if the surface had been extended to two square feet1 the water would have evaporated in twelve hours4 #ebc4 ,apply this principle to the lungs3 suppose there are two hundred feet of carbonic acid to be carried out of the system every twenty-four hours4 ,this gas1 in that time1 will pass through a vesicular membrane of two thousand square feet4 ,if the lungs were diminished in size1 so that there would be only one thousand square feet of vesicular membrane1 the amount of carbonic acid would not1 and could not1 be eliminated from the system4 ,under such circumstances1 the blood would not be purified4 #ebd4 ,again2 suppose the two thousand square feet of membrane would transmit two hundred cubic feet of oxygen into the system every twenty-four hours4 ,if it should be diminished one half1 this amount of oxygen would not pass into the blood4 ,from the above illustrations we may learn the importance of well-developed chests and voluminous lungs2 for1 by increasing the size of the lungs1 the oxygen is more abundantly supplied to the blood1 and this fluid is more perfectly deprived of its carbon and hydrogen4 ------------ ,what does this hereditary transmission prove8 #ebb4 ,how is the necessity of voluminous lungs illustrated8 #ebe4 ,how is this principle applied to the interchange of products in the lungs8 ------------ #ebe4 ,the chest is not only most expanded at its lower part1 but the portion of the lungs that occupies this space of the thoracic cavity contains the greater part of the air-cells2 and1 from the lower two thirds of the lungs the greatest amount of carbonic acid is abstracted from the blood1 and the greatest amount of oxygen gas is conveyed into the circulating fluid4 ,hence1 contracting the lower ribs is far more injurious to the health than diminishing the size of the upper part of the chest4 #ebf4 ,the question is often asked1 ,can the size of the chest and the volume of the lungs be increased1 when they have been injudiciously compressed1 or have inherited this unnatural form8 ,the answer is in the affirmative4 ,the means for attaining this end are1 a judicious exercise of the lungs1 by walking in the open air1 reading aloud1 singing1 sitting erect1 and fully inflating the lungs at each act of inspiration4 ,if the exercise be properly managed and persevered in1 it will expand the chest1 and give tone and health to the important organs contained in it4 ,but1 if the exercise be ill-timed or carried to excess1 the beneficial results sought will probably not be attained4 ,observation4 ,scholars1 and persons who sit much of the time1 should frequently1 during the day1 breathe full and deep1 so that the smallest air-cells may be fully filled with air4 ,while exercising the lungs1 the shoulders should be thrown back and the head held erect4 #ebg4 ,the movement of the ribs and diaphragm is modified by the dress4 ,when the lungs are properly filled with air1 the chest is enlarged in every direction4 ,if any article of apparel is worn so tight as to prevent the full expansion of the chest and abdomen1 the lungs1 in consequence1 do not receive air sufficient to purify the blood4 ,the effect of firm1 unyielding clothing1 when worn tight1 in preventing a due supply of air to the lungs1 may be shown by the following illustration4 ------------ #ebe4 ,why is it more injurious to contract the lower part of the chest than the upper8 #ebf4 ,how can the size of the chest be increased when it is contracted8 ,give the observation4 #ebg4 ,how is the movement of the ribs and diaphragm modified8 ------------ ,illustration4 ,if the diameter of a circle is three feet1 the circumference will be nine feet4 ,if the diameter is extended to four feet1 the circumference will be increased to twelve feet4 ,should a tight band be thrown around a circle of nine feet1 its diameter cannot be increased1 for the circumference cannot be enlarged4 #ebh4 ,any inelastic band1 drawn closely around the lower part of the chest1 or the abdomen1 below the ribs1 operates like the band in the preceding illustration1 in restricting the movement of the ribs4 ,when any article of dress encircles either the chest or abdomen1 so as to prevent an increase of its circumference1 it has an injudicious tendency1 as it prevents the introduction of air in sufficient quantities to purify the blood4 ,the question is not1 ,how much restriction of the respiratory movements can be endured1 and life continue8 but1 ,does any part of the apparel restrict the movements8 ,if it does1 it is a violation of the organic laws2 and though ,nature is profuse in her expenditures1 yet sooner or later1 she sums up her account4 #ebi4 ,in determining whether the apparel is worn too tight1 inflate the lungs1 and1 if no pressure is felt1 no injurious effects need be apprehended from this cause4 ,in testing the tightness of the dress1 some persons will contract to the utmost the abdominal muscles1 and thus diminish the size of the chest1 by depressing the ribs2 when this is done1 the individual exclaims1 ,how loose my dress is6 ,this practice is both deceptive and ludicrous4 ,a good test is1 to put the hand on the chest below the arm2 if there is no movement of the ribs during respiration1 the apparel is too tight4 ,the only reliable test1 however1 is a full inflation of the lungs4 ------------ ,how is the effect of unyielding clothing1 when worn tight1 illustrated8 #ebh4 ,what effect has an inelastic band upon the lower part of the chest8 ,what question is asked8 #ebi4 ,how can we determine whether the apparel is worn too tight8 ------------ ,observation4 ,many individuals do not realize the small amount of force that will prevent the enlargement of the chest4 ,this can be demonstrated by drawing a piece of tape tightly around the lower part of the chest of a vigorous adult1 and confining it with the thumb and finger4 ,then endeavor fully to inflate the lungs1 and the movement of the ribs will be much restricted4 #ecj4 ,the position in standing and sitting influences the movement of the ribs and diaphragm4 ,when the shoulders are thrown back1 and when a person stands or sits erect1 the diaphragm and ribs have more freedom of motion1 and the abdominal muscles act more efficiently2 thus the lungs have broader range of movement than when the shoulders incline forward1 and the body is stooping4 #eca4 ,habit exercises an influence upon the range of the respiratory movements4 ,a person who has been habituated to dress loosely1 and whose inspirations are full and free1 suffers more from the tightness of a vest or waistband1 than one1 the range of movements of whose chest has long been subjected to tight lacing4 #ecb4 ,the condition of the brain exercises a great influence upon respiration4 ,if the brain is diseased1 or the mind depressed by grief1 tormented by anxiety1 or absorbed by abstract thought1 the contractile energy of the diaphragm and muscles that elevate the ribs1 is much diminished1 and the lungs are not so fully inflated1 as when the mind is influenced by joy or other exhilarating emotions4 ,the depressing passions likewise lessen the frequency of respiration4 ,by the influence of these causes1 the blood is but partially purified1 and the whole system becomes enfeebled4 ,here we may see the admirable harmony between the different parts of the body1 and the adaptation of all the functions to each other4 ------------ ,give another test4 ,how can the amount of pressure necessary to prevent the enlargement of the chest be demonstrated8 #ecj4 ,show the effect of position on the movements of the ribs and diaphragm4 #eca4 ,show the effect of habit on the respiratory movements4 #ecb4 ,state the influence of the mind upon respiration4 ------------ #ecc4 ,as the quantity of air inhaled at each unimpeded inspiration in lungs of ample size1 is about forty cubic inches1 it follows1 if the movement of the ribs and diaphragm is restricted by an enfeebled action of the respiratory muscles1 or by any other means1 the blood will not be perfectly purified4 ,in the experiment1 7 #ebb1 #ebc17 suppose forty cubic inches of air must pass over the membrane twenty times every minute1 and that this is the amount required to remove the vapor which arises from the membrane2 if only half of this amount of air be supplied each minute1 only one half as much water will be removed from the alcohol through the membrane in twenty-four hours2 consequently1 the alcohol would be impure from the water not being entirely removed4 #ecd4 ,restrain the elevation of the ribs and depression of the diaphragm1 so that the quantity of air conveyed into the lungs will be reduced to twenty cubic inches1 when forty are needed1 and the results will be as follows3 ,only one half of the carbonic acid will be eliminated from the system1 and the blood will receive but one half as much oxygen as it requires4 ,this fluid will then be imperfectly oxydated1 and partially freed of its impurities4 ,the impure blood will be returned to the left side of the heart1 and the whole system will suffer from an infringement of organic laws4 ------------ #ecc4 ,illustrate the effect upon the blood when the respiratory muscles are enfeebled in their action4 #ecd4 ,show how the blood is imperfectly purified by restricting the movements of the ribs and diaphragm4 ------------ #ece4 ,scrofula1 or consumption1 frequently succeeds a depressed state of the nervous system4 ,these diseases arise from the deposition of tuberculous matter in different parts of the body4 ,those individuals who have met with reverses of fortune1 in which character and property were lost1 afford painful examples4 ,hundreds yearly die from the effect of depressed spirits1 caused by disappointed hopes1 or disappointed ambition4 ,illustration4 ,a striking instance of the effects of mental depression is related by ,lnnec4 ,in a female religious establishment in ,france1 great austerities were practised2 the mind was absorbed in contemplating the terrible truths of religion1 and in mortifying the flesh4 ,the whole establishment1 in the space of ten years1 was several times depopulated--with the exception of the persons employed at the gate1 in the kitchen1 and garden--with that fatal disease1 consumption4 ,this institution did not long continue1 but was suppressed by order of the ,french government4 #ecf4 ,the purity of the blood is influenced by the condition of the lungs4 ,when the bronchial tubes and air-cells have become partially impervious to air1 from pressure upon the lungs1 from fluids in the chest1 from tumors1 or from the consolidation of the cells and tubes from disease1--as inflammation1 or the deposition of yellow1 cheesy matter1 called tubercles1--the blood will not be purified1 even if the air is pure1 the lungs voluminous1 and the respiratory movements unrestricted1 as the air cannot permeate the air-cells4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,the twenty-three who escaped immediate death in the ,black ,hole of ,calcutta were soon attacked with inflammation of the lungs1 by which these organs were consolidated1 and thus prevented the permeation of air into their cells4 ,this disease of the lungs was caused by breathing vitiated air4 ------------ #ece4 ,mention some of the effects of mental depression upon the body4 ,what is related by ,lnnec8 #ecf4 ,does the condition of the lungs influence the purity of the blood8 ,mention some of the conditions that will impede the oxydation of blood in the lungs4 ,what occurred to those persons who escaped death in the ,black ,hole of ,calcutta8 ------------ #b;d4 ,one of the precursory symptoms of consumption is the feeble murmur of respiration in the upper part of the lungs4 ,this condition of these organs is produced by1 or frequently follows1 mental depression1 the breathing of impure air1 the stooping position in standing or sitting1 and the restriction of the movements of the ribs and diaphragm4 #c;d4 ,persons asphyxiated by carbonic acid1 water1 strangling1 or any noxious air1 after resuscitation1 are usually affected with coughs and other diseases of the lungs4 #ecg4 ,,colds and ,,coughs are generally induced by a chill1 that produces a contraction of the blood-vessels of the skin2 and the waste material1 which should be carried from the body by the agency of the vessels of this membrane1 is retained in the system1 and a great portion of it is returned to the mucous membrane of the lungs4 ,for such is the harmony established by the ,creator1 that if the function of any portion of the body is deranged1 those organs whose offices are similar take on an increased action4 #ech4 ,the waste material1 that should have passed through the many outlets of the skin1 creates an unusual fulness of the minute vessels that nourish the mucous membrane of the bronchia2 this induces an irritation of these vessels1 which increases the flow of blood to the nutrient arteries of the lungs4 ,there is1 also1 a thickening of the lining membrane of the lungs1 caused by the repletion of the bronchial vessels of the mucous membrane2 this impedes the passage of air through the small bronchial tubes1 and consequently the air-vesicles cannot impart a sufficient quantity of oxygen to purify the blood1 and this fluid1 imperfectly purified1 does not pass with facility through the lungs4 ,an additional obstacle to the free passage of air into the lungs1 is the accumulation of blood in the pulmonary vessels4 ------------ ,what is one of the precursory symptoms of consumption8 ,how is this condition frequently produced8 ,what diseases usually follow asphyxia by carbonic acid1 water1 strangling1 c48 #ecg4 ,how are colds generally induced8 #ech4 ,what effect has a common cold upon the mucous membrane of the lungs8 ------------ #eci4 ,as colds and coughs are very generally treated by the matrons of the community1 or by the patient1 the following suggestions may aid in directing a proper treatment3 ,to effect a speedy cure1 it is necessary to diminish the amount of fluid in the vessels of the lungs4 ,this can be effected in two ways3 #ast4 ,by diminishing the quantity of blood in the system2 #b;d4 ,by diverting it from the lungs to the skin4 ,the first condition can be easily and safely affected1 by abstaining from food1 and drinking no more than a gill of fluid in twenty-four hours4 ,as there is a continuous waste from the skin and other organs of the system1 the quantity of blood by this procedure will be diminished1 and the lungs relieved of the accumulated fluid4 #edj4 ,the second condition can be accomplished by resorting to the warm or vapor bath4 ,these and the common sweats will invite the blood from the lungs to the skin4 ,by keeping up the action of the skin for a few hours1 the lungs will be relieved4 ,in some instances1 emetics and cathartics are necessary2 mucilages1 as gum arabic or slippery-elm bark1 would be good4 ,after the system is relieved1 the skin is more impressible to cold1 and consequently requires careful protection by clothing4 ,in good constitutions1 the first method is preferable1 and generally sufficient without any medicine or sweating4 #eda4 ,the method of resuscitating persons apparently drowned4 ,in the first instance1 it is necessary to press the chest1 suddenly and forcibly1 downward and backward1 and instantly discontinue the pressure4 ,repeat this without intermission1 until a pair of bellows can be procured4 ,when the bellows are obtained1 introduce the nozzle well upon the base of the tongue1 and surround the mouth and nose with a towel or handkerchief1 to close them4 ,let another person press upon the projecting part of the neck1 called ,adam's apple1 while air is introduced into the lungs through the bellows4 ,then press upon the chest1 to force the air from the lungs1 to imitate natural breathing4 7,appendix ,m47 ------------ #eci4 ,give the first method for the treatment of cold4 #edj4 ,the second method4 #eda1 #edb4 ,how should persons apparently drowned be treated8 ------------ #edb4 ,continue the use of the bellows1 and forcing the air out of the chest1 for an hour at least1 unless signs of natural breathing come on4 ,wrap the body in warm1 dry blankets1 and place it near the fire1 to preserve the natural warmth1 as well as to impart artificial heat4 ,every thing1 however1 is secondary to filling the lungs with air4 ,avoid all friction until breathing is restored4 ,send immediately for medical aid4 #edc4 ,the means of resuscitating persons asphyxiated from electricity1 c4 ,in apparent death from electricity1 7lightning17 the person is frequently asphyxiated from pa-raly-sis 7palsy7 of the respiratory muscles4 ,to recover such persons1 resort to artificial respiration4 ,in cases of apparent death from hanging or strangling1 the knot should be untied or cut immediately2 then use artificial respiration1 or breathing1 as directed in apparent death from drowning4 ,observation4 ,it is an impression1 in many sections of the country1 that the law will not allow the removal of the cord from the neck of a body found suspended1 unless the coroner be present4 ,it is therefore proper to say1 that no such delay is necessary1 and that no time should be lost in attempting to resuscitate the strangled person4 #edd4 ,the method of resuscitating persons apparently dead from inhaling carbonic acid gas4 ,when life is apparently extinct from breathing carbonic acid gas1 the person should be carried into the open air4 ,the head and shoulders should be slightly elevated2 the face and chest should be sponged or sprinkled with cold water1 or cold vinegar and water1 while the limbs are wrapped in dry1 warm blankets4 ,in this1 as in asphyxia from other causes1 immediately resort to artificial respiration4 ------------ #edc4 ,what treatment should be adopted in asphyxia from electricity8 ,from hanging8 #edd4 ,what should be the treatment in asphyxia from inhaling carbonic acid gas8 ------------ ,observations4 #ast4 ,many persons have died from breathing carbonic acid that was formed by burning charcoal in an open pan or portable furnace1 for the purpose of warming their1 sleeping-rooms4 ,this is not only produced by burning charcoal1 but is evolved from the live coals of a wood fire2 and being heavier than air1 it settles on the floor of the room2 and1 if there is no open door or chimney-draught1 it will accumulate1 and1 rising above the head of an individual1 will cause asphyxia or death4 #b;d4 ,in resuscitating persons apparently dead from causes already mentioned1 if a pair of bellows cannot be procured immediately1 let their lungs be inflated by air expelled from the lungs of some person present4 ,to have the expired air as pure as possible1 the person should quickly inflate his lungs1 and instantly expel the air into those of the asphyxiated person4 ,place the patient in pure air1 admit attendants only into the apartment1 and send for a physician without delay4 ------------ ,what sad results frequently follow the burning of charcoal in a closed room8 ,what suggestion in resuscitating asphyxiated persons8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,animal ,,heat4 #ede4 ,the true sources of animal heat1 or calorification1 are still imperfectly known4 ,no hypothesis has1 as yet1 received the concurrent assent of physiologists4 ,we see certain phenomena1 but the ultimate causes are hidden from our view4 ,its regular production1 to a certain degree1 is essential both to animal and vegetable life4 #edf4 ,there is a tendency between bodies of different temperature to an equilibrium of heat4 ,thus1 if we touch or approach a hot body1 the heat1 or caloric passes from that body to our organs of feeling1 and gives the sensation of heat4 ,on the contrary1 when we touch a cold body1 the heat passes from the hand to that body1 and causes a sensation of cold4 #edg4 ,the greater number of animals appear cold when we touch them2 and1 indeed1 the temperature of their bodies is not much above that of the atmosphere1 and changes with it4 ,in man1 and other animals that approach him in their organization1 it is otherwise4 ,they have the faculty of producing a sufficient quantity of caloric to maintain their temperatures nearly at the same degree1 under all atmospheric changes1 and keep themselves warm4 #edh4 ,those animals whose proper heat is not very perceivable1 are called cold-blooded2 as most species of fishes1 toads1 snakes1 turtles1 and reptiles generally4 ,those animals which produce sufficient heat independently of the atmosphere surrounding them1 are called warm-blooded2 as man1 birds1 quadrupeds1 c4 ------------ #ede-egj4 ,what is said respecting animal heat8 #ede4 ,are the true sources of animal heat known8 ,what do we see8 #edf4 ,what is the tendency between bodies of different temperatures8 ,give an explanation4 #edg4 ,what is said of the temperature of animals8 #edh4 ,what is meant by cold-blooded animals8 ,by warm-blooded animals8 ------------ #edi4 ,the temperature of man is about #ih1 7,fahrenheit's thermometer17 and that of some other animals is higher2 the temperature of birds1 for example1 is about #aaj4 ,it is obvious1 that in most parts of the globe1 the heat of the atmosphere is1 even in summer1 less than that of the human body4 ,in our latitude1 the mercury rarely attains #ih1 and sometimes it descends to several degrees below zero4 #eej4 ,captain ,parry1 with his ship's company1 in his voyage of discovery to the arctic regions1 wintered in a climate where the mercury was at #dj1 and sometimes at #ee below zero4 ,captain ,back found it #gj below zero4 ,these were #gb and #ajb below the freezing point1 or about #bjj below that of their own bodies1 and still they were able to resist this low temperature1 and escape being frost-bitten4 #eea4 ,captain ,lyon1 who accompanied ,captain ,parry in his second voyage to the northern regions1 found the temperature of an arctic fox to be #ajf1 while that of the atmosphere was #cb below zero2 making a difference between the temperature of the fox and that of the atmosphere1 of #ach4 ,captain ,scoresby found the temperature of a whale1 in the ,arctic ,ocean1 to be #ajd1 or nearly as high as that of other animals of the same kind in the region of the equator1 while the temperature of the ice was as low as #cb1 and the water was nearly as cold4 ,these facts show what a strong counteracting energy there is in animals against the effects of cold4 #eeb4 ,on the other hand1 it has been ascertained by numerous and well-conducted experiments1 that the human body can be exposed1 even for a length of time1 to a very high temperature1 without essentially elevating that of the body4 ,chantrey1 the sculptor1 often entered the furnace1 heated for drying his moulds1 when the temperature indicated by the thermometer was #ccj4 ,chaubert1 the ,fire-,king1 is said to have entered ovens when heated to #fjj4 ,in #aggd1 ,sir ,charles ,blagden entered a room in which the mercury rose to #bfj4 ,he remained eight minutes without suffering4 ------------ #edi4 ,what is the temperature of the human body8 ,of birds8 ,how does the heat of the atmosphere in summer1 in our latitude1 compare with that of the human system8 #eej4 ,what is related of ,captain ,parry8 ,of ,captain ,back8 #eea4 ,of ,captain ,lyon8 ,of ,captain ,scoresby8 ,what do these facts show8 #eeb4 ,what has been ascertained on the other hand8 ------------ #eec4 ,in order to render it certain that there was no fallacy1 says ,sir ,charles ,blagden1 in the degree of heat shown by the thermometer1 but that the air breathed was capable of producing all the well-known effects of such a heat on inanimate matter1 ,i put some eggs and beefsteak upon a tin frame placed near the thermometer1 and farther distant from the cockle than from the wall of the room4 ,in about twenty minutes the eggs were taken out1 roasted quite hard2 and in forty-seven minutes1 the steak was not only dressed1 but almost dry4 #eed4 ,if a thermometer be placed under the tongue of a healthy person1 in all climates and seasons the temperature will be found nearly the same4 ,sir ,charles ,blagden1 while in the heated room1 breathed on a thermometer1 and the mercury sank several degrees2 and when he expired forcibly1 the air felt cool as it passed through the nostrils1 though it was scorching hot when it entered them in inspiration4 ,observation4 ,did not the human body possess within itself the power of generating and removing heat1 so as to maintain nearly an equality of temperature1 the most fatal consequences would ensue4 ,in northern latitudes1 especially1 in severe weather of winter1 the blood would be converted into a solid mass1 and on the other hand1 the fatty secretion1 when subjected to equatorial heat1 would become fluid1 and life would be extinguished4 ------------ ,what is related of ,chantrey8 ,of ,chaubert8 ,of ,sir ,charles ,blagden8 #eec4 ,give ,sir ,charles's own statement4 #eed4 ,what is said of the temperature of the human tongue8 ,mention the experiment by ,sir ,charles ,blagden4 ,what would be the effect if the human system did not maintain an equality of temperature8 ------------ #eee4 ,to enable man1 and other warm-blooded animals1 to maintain this equilibrium of temperature under such extremes of heat and cold1 naturally suggests two inquiries3 #ast4 ,by what organs is animal heat generated8 #b;d4 ,by what means is its uniformity maintained8 #eef4 ,the ancients had no well-arranged theory on the subject of animal heat4 ,they believed that the chief object of respiration was to cool the blood1 and that the heart was the great furnace where all the heat was generated4 ,at a later period1 ,mayow1 from his discoveries respecting respiration1 asserted that the object of respiration was to produce heat1 and denied that the blood was cooled in the lungs4 #eeg4 ,when it was discovered that1 both in combustion and respiration1 carbonic acid was produced and oxygen absorbed1 it led ,dr4 ,black to conclude that breathing was a kind of combustion by which all the heat of the body was produced4 ,this theory was objected to1 because1 if all the heat was generated in the lungs1 like those parts of a stove in contact with the fuel1 they would be at a higher temperature than those parts at a distance1 which was known not to exist4 #eeh4 ,the next theory1 and one which received the sanction of the scientific men of ,europe1 was proposed by ,dr4 ,crawford4 ,he agreed with ,dr4 ,black that heat not only was generated in the lungs1 but that the arterial blood had a greater capacity for heat than the venous1 and that this increase of capacity takes place in the lungs4 ,at the moment heat is generated1 a portion of it1 under the name of latent heat1 is absorbed and conveyed to the different parts of the body ,wherever arterial blood is converted into venous1 this latent heat is given out4 ,but1 unfortunately for this theory1 ,dr4 ,davy proved the capacity of both1 for heat1 to be nearly the same4 ------------ #eee4 ,what inquiries are naturally suggested8 #eef4 ,what was the theory of the ancients8 ,what did ,mayow assert at a later period8 #eeg4 ,what was the theory of ,dr4 ,black8 ,the objection8 #eeh4 ,what was the theory of ,dr ,crawford8 ------------ #eei4 ,no one can doubt that respiration and animal heat are closely connected4 ,those animals whose respiratory apparatus is the most extended1 have the highest temperature4 ,an example is seen in birds1 whose organs of respiration extend over a large part of the body1 and their temperature is #ab above man2 while the respiratory apparatus of cold-blooded animals1 as some kinds of fish1 is imperfect1 and only a small quantity of blood is subjected1 at any time1 to the effects of respiration4 #efj4 ,to understand the process by which heat is generated in the human system and in animals1 it will be necessary to state3 #ast4 ,that the apparent heat of a body1 as perceived by the touch1 or as indicated by a thermometer1 is not the measurement of heat contained in the body1 or its capacity for heat4 ,illustration4 ,if we mix one pound of water1 at the temperature of #fj1 with another pound at #ia1 the resulting temperature will be exactly the medium1 or #ge4 ,but1 if we mix a pound of water at #fj with a pound of quicksilver at #ia1 the resulting temperature will be only #fa1 because the capacity of water for heat is so much greater than that of quicksilver1 that the heat which raised the quicksilver #ca will raise the water only #a4 #efa4 #b;d4 ,when the density and the arrangement of the atoms of a body are changed1 its capacity to hold heat in a latent state is altered4 ,if it will retain more1 heat will be absorbed from contiguous and surrounding substances2 but1 if its capacity for caloric is lessened1 heat will be set free and given out to surrounding bodies4 ------------ ,the objection8 #eei4 ,in what do all the physiologists of the present day concur8 ,how is it proved that respiration and animal heat are closely connected8 #efj4 ,what is said of the apparent heat of bodies8 ,how is this illustrated8 #efa4 ,what is the effect when the density and the arrangement of the atoms of a body are changed8 ------------ ,illustrations4 #ast4 ,ice and salt1 7,chl4 of ,sodium17 when mixed1 are converted into a fluid4 ,in this state they will hold more heat than when solid4 ,the heat necessary to produce this change is drawn from the surrounding medium1 which is made proportionally colder by the loss of caloric imparted to the ice and salt4 ,it is by this chemical process that ice-cream is made4 #b;d4 ,on the other hand1 mix water and sulphuric acid1 7oil of vitriol17 of the temperature of #fj1 and the mixture will become quite warm1 and will freely impart its heat to surrounding and contiguous objects4 #efb4 ,the same principle is exhibited1 when oxygen unites with an inflammable body1 as in the burning of wood1 coal1 oil1 c4 ,in combustion1 the oxygen of the atmosphere unites with carbon and hydrogen1 and carbonic acid and water are produced4 ,this process1 according to all the known laws of caloric1 is attended with heat4 ,the quantity of heat disengaged in combustion is always in proportion to the amount of carbon and hydrogen consumed2 thus a piece of wood weighing one pound1 in burning slowly1 would give out the same quantity of heat as a pound of shavings of the same wood1 in burning rapidly4 ,upon these principles1 the production of animal heat may be understood4 #efc4 ,the food contains carbon and hydrogen4 ,these exist in the chyle4 ,the old and waste atoms of the body likewise contain the same elements4 ,in the lungs the oxygen and nitrogen of the inspired air are separated4 ,it is now supposed that the oxygen enters the capillary vessels of the lungs1 and mingles with the blood1 with which it is carried to the heart and thence to the nutrient capillary vessels of every part of the system4 ------------ ,give the #ast illustration4 ,the #b;d4 #efb4 ,what changes take place when oxygen unites with an inflammable body8 ,to what is the quantity of heat proportionate in combustion8 ,give an example4 #efc4 ,how are carbon and hydrogen supplied to the system8 ,how the oxygen8 ,where does the oxygen mingle with the blood8 ------------ #efd4 ,in the capillary vessels1 the oxygen of the arterial blood unites with the carbon and hydrogen which the refuse materials contain1 and carbonic acid and water are formed4 ,the combustion of carbon and hydrogen in the capillaries of every part of the system1 7the lungs not excepted17 is attended with a disengagement of heat1 and the carbonic acid and water are returned to the lungs in the dark-colored blood1 and evolved from the system4 #efe4 ,sir ,benjamin ,brodie and some others have maintained1 that the heat of the system is generated exclusively by the influence of the brain and nerves4 ,this theory is discarded by most physiologists2 yet it is true that the nervous system exercises a great influence over the action of the capillary vessels in the process of nutrition1 secretion1 and absorption4 ,when these operations are most active1 the change among the particles of matter of which the body is composed1 is then greatest1 and the generation of heat is increased in a corresponding degree4 #eff4 ,the necessity of pure1 red blood in the production of animal heat1 is shown when the vessels that carry blood to a limb are ligated1 or tied2 the part immediately becomes colder4 ,the necessity of nervous influence is seen in the diminished temperature of a paralytic limb4 #efg4 ,our next inquiry is1 ,by what means is the uniformity of temperature in the body maintained8 ,as there is a constant generation of heat in the system1 there would be an undue accumulation1--so much so as to cause disagreeable sensations1--if there were no means by which it could be evolved from the body1 or its production lessened4 ------------ #efd4 ,where does it unite with the carbon and hydrogen contained in the body1 and how is heat generated8 #efe4 ,what was the theory of ,sir ,benjamin ,brodie8 ,is this theory in general discarded8 ,what is true of this theory8 #eff4 ,how is the necessity of pure1 red blood and nervous action shown in the production of animal heat8 ------------ #efh4 ,it has been ascertained that the principal means by which the system is kept at a uniform temperature1 is the immense evaporation from the skin and lungs4 ,these membranes1 in an ordinary state1 are constantly giving out water1 which is converted into vapor1 and carried off by the surrounding air4 ,the quantity of heat abstracted from the system to effect this1 depends on the rapidity of the change of air1 its temperature1 and the amount of water it contains in a state of vapor4 ,the quantity removed is greatest when the air is warm and dry1 and the change1 or current1 rapid4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,the first discovery of the use of free evaporation of the perspiration from the skin in reducing the heat of the body1 and the analogy subsisting between this process and that of the evaporation of water from a rough porous surface1 so constantly resorted to in warm countries1 as an efficacious means of reducing the temperature of the air in rooms1 and of wine and other drinks1 much below that of the surrounding atmosphere1 was made by ,franklin4 #b;d4 ,in all ages and climes1 it has been observed that the increased temperature of the skin and system in fevers1 is abated as soon as free perspiration is restored4 ,in damp1 close weather1 as during the sultry days of ,august1 although the temperature is lower1 we feel a disagreeable sensation of heat1 because the saturation of the air with moisture lessens evaporation1 and thus prevents the escape of heat through the lungs and skin4 #c;d4 ,it is on the principle of the evaporation of fluids that warm vinegar and water1 applied to the burning1 aching head1 cools it1 and imparts to it a comfortable feeling4 ,the same results follow if warm liquids are applied to the skin in the hot stage of fever2 and this evaporation can be increased by constant fanning4 ------------ #efh4 ,what are the principal means by which a uniform temperature of the body is maintained8 ,on what does the quantity of heat abstracted from the system depend8 ,what discovery relative to animal heat is due to ,franklin8 ,what is said of free perspiration in fevers8 ,what occasions the disagreeable sensation of heat in damp1 close weather8 ------------ #dth4 ,it is frequently noticed1 in very warm weather1 that dogs and other domestic animals are seen with their tongues out of their mouths1 and covered with frothy secretions4 ,this is merely another mode of reducing animal heat1 as the skin of such animals does not perspire as much as that of man4 #efi4 ,under some circumstances1 a portion of the heat of the system is removed by radiation4 ,when cold air comes in contact with the skin and mucous membrane of the lungs1 heat is removed from the body1 as from a stove1 to restore an equilibrium of temperature4 ,the removal of heat from the body is greatest when we are in a current of cold air1 or when a brisk1 cold wind is blowing upon us4 #egj4 ,as the primary object of the different processes of nutrition is to supply animal heat1 so the action of the different nutritive organs is modified by the demands of the system for heat4 ,when heat is rapidly removed from the body1 the functional activity of the organs of nutrition is increased4 ,when the system is warmed by foreign influence1 the activity of the nutritive organs is diminished4 ,this leads to the natural1 and1 we may add1 instinctive change in the quality and quantity of food at different seasons of the year4 ------------ #efi4 ,when is heat radiated from the body8 ,when is it greatest8 #egj4 ,what is the primary object of the different processes of nutrition8 ,when is the activity of the nutritive organs increased8 ,when diminished8 ,to what does this lead8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,animal ,,heat4 #ega4 ,the amount of heat generated in man and inferior animals depends upon the quantity and quality of the food1 age1 exercise1 the amount and character of the respired air1 condition of the brain1 skin1 and general system4 #egb4 ,animal heat is modified by the proportion of digestible carbon which the food contains1 and by the quantity consumed4 ,as the kind of fuel that contains the greatest amount of combustible material evolves the most caloric when burned1 so those articles of food that contain the greatest quantity of carbon produce the most heat when converted into blood4 ,the inhabitants of the frigid zones1 and individuals in temperate climates during the cold season1 consume with impunity stimulating animal food1 that contains a large proportion of carbon1 while the inhabitants of the tropical regions1 and persons in temperate climates during the warm season1 are more healthy with a less stimulating or vegetable diet4 ,observation4 ,when we ride or labor in cold weather1 an adequate amount of nutritious food will sustain the warmth of the system better than intoxicating drinks4 #egc4 ,age is another influence that modifies the generation of animal heat4 ,the vital forces of the child being feeble1 less heat is generated in its system than in that of an adult4 ,the experiments of ,dr4 ,milne ,edwards show that the power of producing heat in warm-blooded animals1 is at its minimum at birth1 and increases successively to adult age2 and that young children part with their heat more readily than adults1 and1 instead of being warmer1 are generally a degree or two colder4 ,after adult age1 as the vital powers decline1 the generation of heat is diminished1 as the energies of the system are lessened4 ,hence the young child1 and the debilitated aged person1 need more clothing than the vigorous individual of middle age4 ------------ #ega-ehe4 ,give the hygiene of animal heat4 #ega4 ,state some of the influences that modify the generation of animal heat4 #egb4 ,what element of the food influences the generation of heat8 ,when and where can animal food be eaten with impunity8 ,give the practical observation4 ------------ #egd4 ,exercise is an influence that modifies the generation of animal heat4 ,as carbon and hydrogen enter into the composition of the organs of the body1 whatever increases the flow of blood in the system1 increases also the deposition of new material1 and the removal of the waste particles4 ,this change among the particles of matter is attended with an elevation of temperature1 from the union of oxygen with the carbon and hydrogen of the waste atoms4 ,for this reason1 a person in action is warmer than in a quiescent state4 ,consequently1 the amount of clothing should be increased1 when exercise or labor is diminished or suspended4 #ege4 ,on the other hand1 whatever impedes the circulation and the interchange of the atoms of matter1 diminishes animal heat4 ,common observation shows1 that the extremities are not as warm when tight gloves or boots are worn as when they are loose4 ,one reason is1 the circulation of blood is impeded1 which is attended with less frequent change of the particles of matter4 #egf4 ,the quantity of air which is inhaled modifies the heat of the system4 ,in the generation of heat in a stove1 air1 or oxygen1 is as essential as the wood or coal4 ,it is equally so in the production of animal heat4 ,the oxygen of the inspired air should be in proportion to the carbon and hydrogen to be consumed4 ,this requires voluminous lungs1 together with free movements of the ribs and diaphragm4 ,a person whose chest is small1 and whose apparel is worn tight over the ribs1 suffers more from the cold1 and complains more frequently of chilliness and cold extremities1 than the broad-chested and loosely dressed4 ------------ ,what do the experiments of ,dr4 ,milne ,edwards show8 #egd4 ,why does exercise influence animal heat8 #ege4 ,what is the effect when the circulation of blood is impeded8 ,give examples4 #egf4 ,why do those persons that have broad chests and voluminous lungs suffer less from cold than the narrow-chested with small lungs8 ------------ ,observation4 ,fishes that breathe by means of gills1 as the cod1 pike1 c41 depend solely on the small quantity of oxygen that is contained in the air mixed with the water4 ,their temperature is not much greater than the medium in which they live4 ,whales1 dolphins1 c41 breathe by means of lungs1 and the inhalation of atmospheric air makes their temperature about #ajj1 independent of the heat of the element in which they live4 #egg4 ,the quality of respired air influences the generation of animal heat4 ,in vestries1 and other public rooms1 when crowded with an audience1 where the ventilation is inadequate1 the lamps will emit but a faint light1 because the oxygen is soon expended1 and there is not enough of the vivifying principle to unite with the oil and disengage light4 ,in the human body1 when the respired air has lost some of its life-giving properties1 the combustion that takes place in different parts of the system is not so complete as when it contains a proper proportion of oxygen2 and hence less heat is disengaged4 ,for this reason1 those persons that breathe impure air1 either in the daytime or night1 require more clothing1 than those that work and sleep in well-ventilated rooms4 #egh4 ,the condition of the brain and nervous system affects the generation of animal heat4 ,if the brain is diseased1 or the mind is absorbed in thought1 depressed by sorrow1 or aroused from fear1 the breathing becomes slow and scarcely perceptible1 and a chilliness pervades the body1 particularly the extremities2 while1 on the contrary1 if the mind and nervous system are excited by joyous and agreeable emotions1 the circulation of blood is quicker1 and the system more powerfully resists external cold4 ,during sleep1 when the brain is partially inactive1 less heat is generated than when awake4 ------------ ,what is said of those fishes that breathe by means of gills8 ,of those that breathe by means of lungs8 #egg4 ,why do lamps give but a faint light in crowded1 unventilated rooms8 ,what effect on animal heat has impure air8 #egh4 ,mention the effects of some of the mental emotions on animal heat4 ------------ ,observation4 ,the preceding remark explains why an individual who sleeps in the same clothing that was adequate to prevent chills while awake1 contracts a cold1 unless he throws over him an additional covering4 #egi4 ,the state of the skin exercises much influence in the generation of heat4 ,if the functions of this membrane are not interrupted1 more heat will be generated than when it is pallid and inactive4 ,the action of the capillaries is most energetic when the skin is clean2 on this account1 before taking a walk or a ride1 in cold weather1 remove all impurities from the skin1 by thorough ablution and vigorous friction4 #ehj4 ,the amount and kind of clothing modify the temperature of the system4 ,those persons that are well clothed have greater power to resist cold than the thinly apparelled1 because both the evaporation and the radiation from the skin are impeded1 and less heat1 in consequence1 is abstracted from the body4 ,if the articles of apparel possess the property of retaining air in their meshes1 as flannel1 the removal of heat is not as rapid as when linen is worn4 ,observation4 ,in winter1 although more heat is generated in the system than in summer1 yet we require more clothing1 and also those articles that are poor conductors of heat1 because caloric is more rapidly extracted in clear1 cold weather1 than in a warm day4 ------------ ,what does the preceding remark explain8 #egi4 ,what suggestion respecting the condition of the skin before taking a walk or ride in a cold day8 ,why8 #ehj4 ,do the amount and kind of clothing affect animal heat8 ,what is said of well-clothed persons8 ,when does the system generate the most heat8 ------------ #eha4 ,the health and constitution influence the generation of heat4 ,when the health is firm1 and the constitution vigorous1 less clothing is needed1 for the change among the particles of matter is more rapid1 and more heat is generated1 than when the opposite condition obtains4 ,persons of a feeble constitution1 particularly1 if any of the vital organs#ah are diseased1 need more clothing and require rooms of a warmer temperature1 than individuals who are free from disease and have a vigorous constitution4 #ah ,the brain1 lungs1 heart1 and digestive organs1 are called vital organs4 ,observation4 ,persons who are infirm1 and whose vital powers are feeble1 in general1 accustom themselves to an undue amount of clothing and warm rooms4 ,a more judicious practice would be1 to exercise more and use a moderate amount of clothing1 together with a more nutritious diet4 #ehb4 ,the surplus heat should be removed equally from all parts of the system4 ,the rapid evaporation of fluids1 as in free perspiration1 or from radiation1 as in a cold atmosphere1 is attended with a removal of heat from the system4 ,this modifies the action of the circulatory vessels4 ,consequently1 if heat is suddenly and rapidly abstracted from one part of the system1 the equilibrium of the circulation is destroyed1 which will produce disease4 ------------ ,why do we1 then1 require more clothing in winter than in summer8 #eha4 ,why do persons of firm health and vigorous constitutions need less clothing than those who are feeble8 ,what is a general practice among infirm persons8 ,what would be more judicious8 #ehb4 ,why should the surplus heat be removed equally from all parts of the system8 ,what is said respecting currents of air from small apertures8 ------------ ,observation4 ,currents of air that impinge upon small portions of the body1 as from small apertures1 or from a window slightly raised1 should be avoided4 ,they are more dangerous than to expose the whole person to a brisk wind1 because the current of air removes the heat from the part exposed1 which disturbs the circulation of blood and causes disease1 usually in the form of colds4 ,for the same reason1 it is not judicious to stand in an open door1 or the opening of a street4 #ehc4 ,the system suffers less when the change of temperature is gradual4 ,the change in the production of heat1 as well as in the evaporation of fluids from the system1 is gradual when not influenced by foreign causes4 ,this gradual change is known under the name acclimation4 ,by this means the body is enabled to endure tropical heat and polar cold4 ,owing to this gradual adaptation of the system to different temperatures1 we can bear a greater degree of heat in the summer between the tropics1 than in the winter under the polar circles4 ,on the other hand1 we can endure a greater degree of cold in winter and in the arctic region1 than in the summer and in equatorial countries4 #ehd4 ,the sensation of heat which would be oppressive in a mild1 warm day of ,january1 would only be grateful in ,july1 and a degree of cold which could scarcely be endured in ,august1 would not be uncomfortable in ,december4 ,the changes of season in our latitude prevent the disagreeable and perhaps fatal consequence that would follow1 if no spring or autumn intervened between the severity of winter's cold and the intensity of summer's heat4 ,during the transition periods1 the constitution is gradually changed1 and adapted to bear the extremes of temperature without suffering4 ,the amount of heat generated in the nutrient capillary vessels1 is likewise diminished or increased as the temperature of the season becomes greater or less4 ------------ #ehc4 ,in what manner should change of temperature take place1 to be adapted to the body8 ,how is the body enabled to endure tropical heat and polar cold8 ,state some of the effects of the gradual adaptation of the system to different temperatures4 #ehd4 ,what is said relative to a warm day in winter8 ,to a cold day in summer8 ,what is said of the changes of seasons in our latitude8 ,what effect on the constitution during spring and autumn8 ,what change in the amount of heat generated8 ------------ #ehe4 ,but1 on the contrary1 we cannot suddenly pass from one extreme of temperature to the other with impunity4 ,let an inhabitant of ,quebec suddenly arrive in ,cuba in ,february1 and he would suffer from languor and exhaustion2 after becoming acclimated to this tropical climate1 let him suddenly return to ,quebec in ,january1 and the severity of the weather would be almost insupportable4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,experience shows that heated rooms1 as well as tropical climates1 lessen the generation of heat in the body1 and likewise the power of resisting cold4 ,it would be idle for the merchant from his warehouse1 or the mechanic from his heated shop1 to attempt to sit on the box with a coachman1 with the same amount of clothing as his companion1 who is daily exposed to the inclemency of the weather4 #b;d4 ,it is the power of endurance of cold at one period1 and the absence of its necessity at another1 that enables animals1 in their wild and unprotected state1 to bear the vicissitudes of the seasons with so little preparation in clothing1 and so little real inconvenience4 ------------ #ehe4 ,what effect on the system has a sudden transition from a cold to a warm climate8 ,what does experience show8 ,why do wild animals bear the vicissitudes of the seasons with so little preparation in clothing8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,voice4 #ehf4 ,the beautiful mechanism of the vocal instrument1 which produces every variety of sound1 from a harsh1 unmelodious tone1 to a soft1 sweet1 flute-like sound1 has1 as yet1 been imperfectly imitated by art4 ,it has been compared1 by many physiologists1 to a wind1 reed1 and stringed instrument4 ,this inimitable1 yet simple instrument1 is the ,larynx4 #ehg4 ,incidentally1 the different parts of the respiratory organs1 as well as the larynx1 are subservient to speaking and singing4 ,the tongue1 nasal passages1 muscles of the fauces and face1 are agents which aid in the intonation of the voice4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,vocal ,,organs4 #ehh4 ,the ,,larynx is a kind of cartilaginous tube1 which1 taken as a whole1 has the general form of a hollow1 reversed cone1 with its base upward toward the tongue1 in the shape of an expanded triangle4 ,it opens into the pharynx1 at its superior extremity1 and communicates1 by its inferior opening with the trachea4 ,it is formed by the union of five cartilages1 namely1 the ,thyroid1 the ,cricoid1 the two ,a-ryt-enoid1 and the ,ep-i-glottis4 ,these are bound together by ligaments1 and moved by muscles4 ------------ #ehf4 ,what is said of the structure of the vocal instrument8 ,with what instrument have physiologists compared it8 ,what is the vocal instrument called8 #ehg4 ,what organs are called into action in speaking beside the larynx8 #ehh-eif4 ,give the anatomy of the vocal organs4 #ehh4 ,describe the larynx4 ,name the cartilages that form the larynx4 ------------ #ehi4 ,the ,,thyroid ,,cartilage is the largest of the five1 and forms the prominence in the front of the neck1 called ,pomum ,a-dami1 7,adam's apple47 ,it is composed of two parts1 and is connected with the bone of the tongue above1 and with the cricoid cartilage below4 #eij4 ,the ,,cricoid ,,cartilage takes its name from its resemblance to a ring4 ,it is situated below the thyroid cartilage1 it is narrow in front1 broader at the sides1 and still broader behind1 where it is connected with the thyroid cartilage4 ,below1 it connects with the first ring of the trachea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,a side view of the cartilages of the larynx4 99 ,the front side of the thyroid cartilage4 #a1 ,the os hyoides1 7bone at the base of the tongue47 #b1 ,the ligament that connects the hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage4 #c1 #d1 #e1 ,the thyroid cartilage4 #f1 ,the cricoid cartilage4 #g1 ,the trachea4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,a posterior view of the cartilages and ligaments of the larynx4 #a1 ,the posterior face of the epiglottis4 #c1 #c1 ,the os hyoides4 #d1 #d1 ,the lateral ligaments which connect the os hyoides and thyroid cartilage4 #e1 #e1 ,the posterior face of the thyroid cartilage4 #f1 #f1 ,the arytenoid cartilages4 #g1 ,the cricoid cartilage4 #h1 #h1 ,the junction of the cricoid and the arytenoid cartilages4 #ab1 ,the first ring of the trachea4 ------------ #ehi4 ,describe the thyroid cartilage4 #eij4 ,from what does the cricoid cartilage derive its name8 ,where is it situated8 ,explain fig4 #ajb4 ,fig4 #ajc4 ------------ #eia4 ,the ,,arytenoid ,,cartilages are small triangular bodies placed upon the back part of the cricoid cartilage4 ,they are connected with the thyroid cartilages1 by four ligaments1 called ,vocal ,cords4 #eib4 ,the ,,epiglottis is fibro-cartilaginous1 and is placed behind the base of the tongue4 ,in shape it resembles a leaf of parsley4 #eic4 ,the ,,vocal ,,cords1 or ligaments1 are formed of elastic and parallel fibres1 enclosed in a fold of mucous membrane4 ,they are about two lines in width1 and pass from the anterior angle of the thyroid cartilage1 to the two arytenoid cartilages4 ,the one is called the superior1 and the other the inferior vocal ligament4 ,the cavity1 or depression between the superior and inferior ligament1 is called the ventricle of the larynx4 ,the aperture1 or opening between these ligaments1 is called the glottis1 or chink of the glottis4 ,it is about three fourths of an inch in length1 and one fourth of an inch in width1 the opening being widest at the posterior part4 ,this opening is enlarged and contracted by the agency of the muscles appropriated to the larynx4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,an ideal1 lateral section of the larynx4 #a1 #a1 ,the upper vocal cords4 #b1 #b1 ,the lower vocal cords4 #c1 #c1 ,the glottis4 #d1 #d1 ,the ventricles of the larynx4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,a vertical section of the larynx4 #b1 ,the os hyoides4 #d1 ,the apex of the epiglottis4 #g1 ,the superior vocal ligament4 #i1 ,the ventricle of the larynx4 #aj4 ,the lower vocal ligament4 #aa1 ,the arytenoid cartilage4 #ab1 #ac1 ,the cricoid cartilage4 #ad1 ,the trachea4 #ah1 ,the oesophagus4 ------------ #eia4 ,describe the arytenoid cartilages4 #eib4 ,what is said of the epiglottis8 #eic4 ,give the structure of the vocal cords4 ,where is the ventricle of the larynx8 ,where is the glottis situated8 ,what is represented by fig4 #ajd8 ,explain fig4 #aje4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,a view of the larynx from above1 showing the vocal ligaments4 #a1 ,the anterior edge of the larynx4 #d1 ,the posterior face of the thyroid cartilage4 #e1 #e1 ,the arytenoid cartilages4 #f1 #f1 ,the vocal ligaments4 #g1 ,their origin1 within the angle of the thyroid cartilage4 #i1 ,their termination1 at the base of the arytenoid cartilages4 #h1 #aj1 ,the glottis4 #eid4 ,the larynx is connected by muscles with the sternum1 oesophagus1 base of the skull1 hyoid bone1 lower jaw1 and tongue4 ,this organ is supplied with a large number of blood-vessels1 and it likewise receives nerves from the sympathetic system1 and two large nerves from the tenth pair4 ,the number and size of the nervous filaments distributed to the mucous membrane of the larynx1 render it more sensitive than any other portion of the respiratory organs4 ------------ ,how is the glottis enlarged or contracted8 ,explain fig4 #ajf4 #eid4 ,by what means and to what organs is the larynx connected8 ,why is the larynx more sensitive than other parts of the respiratory organs8 ------------ #eie4 ,the larynx is much more developed and prominent in man than in woman4 ,in the former1 the anterior angle of the thyroid cartilage is acute1 while in the latter it is rounded1 and the central slope of the superior border of the same cartilage is less deep1 and the epiglottis smaller and less prominent1 than in man4 #eif4 ,the difference in the formation of the larynx in infancy is less striking2 but at a later period1 it is more developed in the male than in the female4 ,it is very remarkable that this increase is not progressive1 like that of other organs1 but1 on the contrary1 develops itself at once at the period of puberty4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,vocal ,,organs4 #eig4 ,in the formation of the voice1 each part already described performs an important office4 ,the cricoid and thyroid cartilages give form and stability to the larynx2 the arytenoid cartilages1 by their movement1 vary the width of the glottis4 ,the epiglottis is flexible and elastic4 ,when it is erect1 the chink of the glottis is open1 as in inspiration2 when depressed1 as in swallowing food and drink1 it covers and closes this aperture4 ,it prevents the introduction of articles of food into the trachea1 and probably modifies sound as it issues from the glottis4 #eih4 ,the muscles of the neck elevate and depress the larynx2 the muscles of the larynx increase or diminish the width of the glottis2 at the same time1 the vocal cords are relaxed or tightened1 while the muscles of the face open and close the mouth4 ------------ #eie4 ,what difference between the formation of the larynx of the female and that of the male8 #eif4 ,does this difference exist in childhood8 ,is its development progressive8 #eig-fjj4 ,give the physiology of the vocal organs4 #eig4 ,which cartilages give stability and form to the larynx8 ,which vary the width of the glottis8 ,what is the function of the epiglottis8 #eih4 ,what effect have the muscles of the neck upon the larynx8 ,the use of the muscles of the larynx8 ------------ #eii4 ,the elasticity of the ribs and the contraction of the abdominal muscles diminish the cavity of the chest1 and the air1 in consequence1 is pressed from the air-cells into the bronchial tubes and trachea4 ,it then rushes by the vocal cords1 and causes a peculiar vibration1 which produces sound4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,experiments have satisfactorily shown that the vocal cords are the principal agents in the formation of the voice4 ,the tongue1 which many have supposed to be the most important organ in speaking1 is not essential to sound4 ,in several instances it has been removed1 and the persons thus mutilated could speak with fluency4 #b;d4 ,when the vocal cords are ulcerated1 or inflamed1 however slightly1 as in sore throat produced by a cold1 the voice will be changed4 ,the loss of speech among public speakers is generally produced by a relaxation of the vocal ligaments4 ,hence1 bronchitis is a misnomer for this affection4 #fjj4 ,sound is varied by the velocity of the expelled current of air1 and the tension of the vocal ligaments4 ,the size of the larynx1 the volume and health of the lungs1 the condition of the fauces and nasal passages1 the elevation and depression of the chin1 the development and freedom of action of the muscles which are attached to the larynx1 the opening of the mouth1 the state of the mind1 and general health of the system1 influence the modulations of sound4 ------------ ,what effect has the combined action of these muscles8 #eii4 ,how is sound produced8 ,what have experiments shown8 ,what effect has disease of the vocal ligaments upon the voice8 #fjj4 ,how is sound varied8 ,mention other conditions that contribute to the modulation of sound4 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,vocal ,,organs4 #fja4 ,the voice can be changed and modified by habit4 ,sailors1 smiths1 and others1 who are engaged in noisy occupations1 exert their vocal organs more strongly than those of more quiet pursuits4 ,this not only affects the structure of the vocal organs1 but varies the intonation of the voice4 #fjb4 ,the voice is strong in proportion to the development of the larynx1 and the capacity of the chest4 ,singing and reading aloud improve and strengthen the vocal organs1 and give a healthy expansion to the chest4 ,the enunciation of the elementary sounds of the ,english language1 aids in developing the vocal organs1 as well as preventing disease of the throat and lungs4 ,this exercise also conduces to the acquisition of musical sounds4 #fjc4 ,the attitude affects the modulation of the voice4 ,when an individual stands erect1 the movements of the whole respiratory apparatus are most free and effective4 ,the larynx is brought forward by the erect position of the head and the elevation of the chin4 ,the muscles of the arytenoid cartilages are then brought to a proper relation for action1 by which a tension of the vocal cords is produced1 that favors clear and harmonious enunciation4 ,experiment4 ,read with the head bowed forward and the chin depressed2 then read with the head erect and the chin elevated1 and the difference in the movement of the vocal organs1 together with the difference in the voice1 will be manifest4 ------------ #fja-faf4 ,give the hygiene of the vocal organs4 #fjb4 ,how may the voice be strengthened8 #fjc4 ,what effect has the erect attitude upon the modulations of the voice8 ,give the experiment4 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,an improper position2 but one not unfrequently seen in some of our common schools1 and in some of our public speakers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,the proper position for reading1 speaking1 and singing4 #fjd4 ,if an individual or class read or sing when sitting1 let the position represented by fig4 #aji be adopted1 and not the one represented by fig4 #aaj2 for the erect position in sitting conduces to the free and effective action of the respiratory and vocal organs1 and is as important as the erect attitude in standing4 ------------ #fjd4 ,what position should be adopted when a person reads or sings when sitting8 ,why8 ------------ #fje4 ,the muscles of the neck should not be compressed4 ,if the muscles of the neck and larynx are compressed by a high cravat1 or other close dressing1 not only will the free and energetic movements of these parts be impeded1 but the tones will be feeble and ineffective4 ,therefore the dress of the neck1 particularly of public speakers and singers1 should be loose and thin4 ,for a warm dress upon the neck1 when the vocal organs are in action1 will induce too great a flow of blood to these parts1 which will be attended by subsequent debility4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,the loss of voice1 7lar-yn-gitis17 which is prevalent among public speakers1 may be ascribed in part to the injudicious dressing of the neck1 and improper position in standing4 ------------ #fje4 ,how should public speakers dress their necks8 ,why8 ,what is a common cause of the loss of voice8 ------------ #b;d4 ,when individuals have been addressing an audience in a warm room1 or engaged in singing1 they should avoid all impressions of a cold atmosphere1 unless adequately protected by an extra garment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 #fjf4 ,the condition of the air modifies speaking and singing4 ,as pure air is more elastic and resonant than impure1 and as easy1 melodious speaking or singing requires atmospheric elasticity1 so school-rooms and singing-halls should be well ventilated1 if we would be entertained with soft intonations in reading1 or sonorous singing4 ,observation4 ,the imperfect ventilation of churches and vestries is another cause of laryngitis among clergymen4 ,this affection is almost unknown among those who speak in very open rooms1 where stoves are not used4 ------------ ,give #b;d4 observation4 #fjf4 ,why does easy and melodious speaking require pure air8 ,what is another cause laryngitis among clergymen8 ------------ #fjg4 ,the condition of the nasal passages and throat modifies the voice4 ,the enunciation of words is rendered more or less distinct1 in proportion as the jaws are separated in speaking1 and the fauces and nasal passages are free from obstruction4 ,for these reasons1 the scholar should be taught to open the mouth adequately when reading1 speaking1 or singing1 that the sounds formed in the larynx and modified in the fauces may have an unobstructed egress4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,if the fauces are obstructed by enlarged tonsils1 7a condition by no means uncommon in children17 they should be removed by a surgical operation1 which is not only effective1 but safe1 and attended with little suffering4 ,the tonsils are situated on each side of the base of the tongue1 and1 when enlarged1 they obstruct the passage through which the air passes to and from the lungs1 and the respiration is not only laborious1 but distressing4 #b;d4 ,when the nasal passages are obstructed1 there is a peculiar sound of the voice1 which is called talking through the nose4 ,this phenomenon arises1 not from the expired air passing through the nose1 but from its not being able to pass through the nasal passages4 #fjh4 ,the state of the mind and health exerts an influence upon the vocal organs4 ,the organs of the voice1 in common with all other parts of the bodily frame1 require the vigor and pliancy of muscle1 and the elasticity and animation of mind1 which result from good health1 in order to perform their appropriate functions with energy and effect4 ,but these indispensable conditions to the exercise of vocal organs1 are1 in the case of most learners1 very imperfectly supplied4 ------------ #fjg4 ,does the condition of the throat and nasal passages modify the voice8 ,name the influences that produce clear enunciation of words4 ,what is the effect when the nasal passages are obstructed8 #fjh4 ,how are the vocal organs influenced8 ,what do they require8 ------------ #fji4 ,a sedentary mode of life1 the want of invigorating exercise1 close and long-continued application of mind1 and1 perhaps1 an impaired state of health1 or a feeble constitution1 prevent1 in many instances1 the free and forcible use of those muscles on which voice is dependent4 ,hence arises the necessity of students of elocution practising physical exercises adapted to promote general muscular vigor1 as a means of attaining energy in speaking2 the power of any class of muscles being dependent on the vigor of the whole system4 #faj4 ,gymnastic and calisthenic exercises are invaluable aids to the culture and development of the voice1 and should be sedulously practised when opportunity renders them accessible4 ,but even a slight degree of physical exercise1 in any form adapted to the expansion of the chest and to the freedom and force of the circulation1 will serve to impart energy and glow to the muscular apparatus of voice1 and clearness to its sound4 #faa4 ,there is1 therefore1 a great advantage in always practising some preliminary muscular actions1 as an immediate preparation for vocal exercises4 ,the art of cultivating the voice1 however1 has1 in addition to the various forms of corporeal exercise1 practised for the general purpose of promoting health1 its own specific prescription for securing the vigor of the vocal organs1 and modes of exercise adapted to the training of each class of organs separately4 #fab4 ,the results of such practice are of indefinite extent4 ,they are limited only by the energy and perseverance of the student1 excepting perhaps in some instances of imperfect organization4 ,a few weeks of diligent cultivation are usually sufficient to produce such an effect on the vocal organs1 that persons who commence practice with a feeble and ineffective utterance1 attain1 in that short period1 the full command of clear1 forcible1 and varied tone4 ------------ #fji4 ,why are students of elocution in general necessitated to practise physical exercise8 #faj4 ,what are invaluable aids in the culture of the voice8 #faa4 ,what is said of the art of cultivating the voice8 #fab4 ,are the results of such practices limited8 ,what exception8 ------------ #fac4 ,repetition is essential to distinct articulation of words4 ,in teaching a child to articulate a letter or word1 in the first instance1 make an effort to induce a proper state of the vocal organs by which the particular sound is produced4 ,repeat the letter or word again and again1 until all the parts of the vocal apparatus harmonize in their movements to produce the given sound4 ,this repetition is as necessary in learning to read as in singing4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,there is nothing gained by trying to teach a child to pronounce the letters of the alphabet1 before the vocal organs are so developed that distinct utterance can be given to the proper sounds4 #b;d4 ,the drawling method of talking to young children1 as well as using words that are not found in any written language1 7called child's talk17 is decidedly wrong4 ,a child will pronounce and understand the application of a correct word as quickly as an incorrect one4 #fad4 ,no part of the vocal organs is wanting1 with those individuals that stammer1 or who have an impediment in their speech4 ,some parts may be more developed than others1 but they generally are but imperfectly under the control of the will1 and assume an irregular and rapid movement1 while other parts1 the motions of which are essential1 remain comparatively inactive4 ,this can be seen by comparing the movements of the lips1 tongue1 and larynx1 while attempting to speak1 in a person who stammers1 with the movements of the corresponding parts1 while speaking1 in an individual who has no such impediment4 ------------ #fac4 ,is repetition essential to distinct articulation8 ,what method is suggested in teaching a child to articulate letters or words8 ,give observation #ast4 ,observation #b;d4 #fad4 ,are the vocal organs wanting in stammerers8 ,why the defect in their articulation of words8 ------------ #fae4 ,surgical operations and medical treatment are not highly advantageous in a majority of these cases4 ,in the young and middle aged1 this defect can be remedied by patient and judicious training4 ,at first1 only those letters and words should be spoken that can be articulated with distinctness4 ,let there be repetition1 until the words can be spoken at any time with readiness4 ,then take for a lesson other words1 more difficult to articulate2 and pursue a similar process of training and repetition1 until every part of the vocal organs can be called into a ready and harmonious action in giving utterance to any word in common use4 #faf4 ,the method of removing foreign bodies from the throat4 ,it is not necessary to ascertain which passage the foreign body is in1 for the immediate treatment ought in either case to be the same4 ,some person should place one hand on the front of the chest of the sufferer1 and1 with the other1 give two or three smart blows upon the back1 allowing a few seconds to intervene between them4 ,this treatment will generally be successful1 and cause the substance to be violently thrown from the throat4 ,observation4 ,if the foreign body passes into the larynx violent spasmodic coughing immediately succeeds1 which continues until it is removed or life is extinct4 ,such cases demand the prompt opening of the trachea below the larynx by a skilful surgeon4 ------------ #fae4 ,how can stammering be remedied8 #faf4 ,what is the method of removing foreign bodies from the throat8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,skin4 #fag4 ,the skin is a membrane which envelops the muscles and other parts of the system4 ,in youth1 and in females particularly1 it is smooth1 soft1 and elastic4 ,in middle age1 and in males1 it is firm and rough to the touch4 ,in old age1 in persons who are emaciated1 and about the flexions of the joints1 it is thrown into folds4 ,the interior of the body1 like the exterior1 is covered by a skin1 which1 from the constantly moistened state of its surface1 is called the mucous membrane4 ,at the various orifices of the body1 the exterior skin is continuous with the internal4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 #fah4 ,the ,,skin1 to the naked eye1 appears composed of one membrane4 ,but examination has shown that it consists of two layers of membrane1 namely1 the ,cuti-cle1 7scarf-skin17 and the ,cutis ,vera1 7true skin47 ,these layers are widely different from each other in structure1 and perform very different offices in the animal economy4 #fai4 ,the ,,cuticle 7sometimes called the ep-i-dermis7 is the external layer of the skin4 ,this membrane is thin and semi-transparent1 and resembles a thin shaving of soft1 clear horn1 and bears the same relation to other parts of the skin that the rough bark of a tree does to the liber1 or living bark4 ,the cuticle has no perceptible nerves or blood-vessels2 consequently1 if it is cut or abraded1 no pain will be felt1 and no fluid will ooze from it4 ------------ #fag4 ,what is the skin8 ,mention its different appearances in its different conditions in the human frame4 ,is the interior of the body1 as well as the exterior1 covered by a skin8 ,what is the interior membrane called8 ,why has it received this name8 #fah-fcf4 ,give the anatomy of the skin4 #fah4 ,what is said of the skin8 ,what is said relative to these layers of membrane8 #fai4 ,describe the cuticle4 ,what name is sometimes applied to the cuticle8 ------------ ,experiment4 ,pass a pin through the portion of the cuticle that skirts the nails1 or remove a thin shaving from the palm of the hand1 and no painful sensation will be experienced unless the pin or knife penetrates deeper than the cuticle4 #fbj4 ,this membrane varies in thickness on different parts of the body1--from the thin1 delicate skin upon the internal flexions of the joints1 to the thickened covering of the soles of the feet4 ,the greater thickness of the cuticle of the palms of the hands and soles of the feet1 is manifestly the intentional work of the ,creator2 for it is perceptible in infants1 even at birth1 before exercise can have had any influence4 #fba4 ,the ,,cutis ,,vera 7sometimes called the cori-on7 is composed of minute fibres1 which are collected into small bundles or strands4 ,these are interwoven with each other so as to constitute a firm1 strong1 and flexible web4 ,in the superficial part of the true skin1 the web is so close as to have the appearance of felt-cloth2 but more deeply1 the pores become progressively larger1 and1 upon the lower surface1 have a diameter of about a line1 or one twelfth of an inch4 ,this gives the under surface the appearance of a coarse web4 ,the strands of the under surface of the true skin are connected with the fibrous web1 in which the sub-cutaneous fat of the body is deposited2 while the upper surface gives support to the sensitive1 or papillary layer1 which is bedded upon it4 ------------ ,give the experiment4 #fbj4 ,what is said of the thickness of the cuticle in different parts of the body8 #fba4 ,describe the cutis vera4 ,by what name is it sometimes called8 ,what is the appearance of the upper surface of the cutis vera8 ,of the under surface8 ------------ ,observation4 ,when the skins of animals are immersed in a strong solution of oak or hemlock bark1 a chemical union takes place between the gelatin1 of which the true skin is mostly composed1 and the tannin of the bark4 ,by this process leather is formed1 and its peculiar markings are owing to the papillary layer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,an ideal representation of the papill4 #a1 #a1 ,the cutis vera4 #b1 #b1 ,the papillary layer4 #c1 #c1 ,the arteries of the papill4 #d1 #d1 ,the veins of the papill4 #e1 #e1 ,the nerves of the papill4 #fbb4 ,the sensitive layer of the skin is thin1 soft1 uneven1 pinkish in hue1 and composed of blood-vessels1 which confer its various tints of red2 and of nerves1 which give it the faculty of sensation4 ,the unevenness of this layer is produced by small1 elongated1 conical prominences1 called ,pa-pill4 #fbc4 ,each ,,papilla is composed of a minute artery1 vein1 and nerve4 ,some of the prominences are arranged in concentric ovals1 as may be seen on the ends of the fingers2 others are more or less parallel1 and pursue a serpentine course2 some suddenly diverge1 and again reunite1 as may be seen in the palm of the hand4 ,papill are found in every part of the skin4 ,consequently1 their number is very great4 ------------ ,how is leather formed8 #fbb4 ,what is the appearance of the sensitive layer8 ,what causes the unevenness of this layer8 ,explain fig4 #aaa4 #fbc4 ,describe the papill4 ------------ #fbd4 ,the cutis vera contains not only ,arteries1 ,veins1 and ,nerves but ,lymphatics1 ,oil-,glands and ,tubes1 and ,perspiratory ,glands and ,tubes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,the arteries and veins of a section of the skin4 ,a1 ,a1 ,arterial branches4 ,b1 ,b1 ,capillary1 or hair-like vessels1 in which the large branches terminate4 ,c1 ,the venous trunk1 collecting the blood from the capillaries4 #fbe4 ,the ,,arteries ,,and ,,veins of the skin are very numerous4 ,the larger branches of the arteries pass through the open meshes of the true skin1 and are subdivided into a myriad of minute capillary vessels1 which form a beautiful net-work on the upper surface of the true skin4 ,this vascular net sends a branch to each of the papill1 which opens into and terminates in a minute vein4 ,the capillary veins are as numerous as the arteries which they accompany4 ,they unite and form larger trunks1 as small springs from the hill side coalesce to form rivulets4 ------------ #fbd4 ,what vessels are found in the cutis vera8 ,explain fig4 #aab4 #fbe4 ,what is said of the cutaneous arteries8 ,of the cutaneous veins8 ------------ #fbf4 ,the ,,nerves that are spread over every part of the sensitive layer of the true skin1 proceed from the spinal cord4 ,as a proof of the great number of nervous filaments in the skin1 no part of this tissue can be punctured with a fine needle without transfixing a nerve1 and inducing pain4 ,in some parts of the system1 however1 the nerves are more abundant than in others2 where the sense of feeling is most acute1 we find the greatest number of nerves1 and those of the largest size4 ,those parts that are most exposed to injury are most sensitive4 ,examples4 #ast4 ,the conjunctiva1 or skin of the eye1 is pained by the presence of a particle of dust1 because it would render vision imperfect4 #b;d4 ,the lungs1 also1 would be injured by the smallest particle of matter2 they are therefore protected by the exquisite sensitiveness of the lining membrane of the trachea1 so that a particle of food or dust is ejected by a convulsive cough before it reaches the lungs4 #fbg4 ,the nerves are more numerous in the upper than lower extremities2 in greater numbers upon the palm than the back of the hand4 ,they are1 likewise1 more abundant and larger at the extremities of the fingers1 and in the lips1 than in any other part of the skin4 ,observation4 ,the proboscis of the elephant1 the extremities of the tails of certain species of monkeys1 and the tentacula of some kinds of fish1 receive a more abundant supply of sensitive nerves than other parts of their systems4 ------------ #fbf4 ,where do the nerves of the skin proceed from8 ,are they numerous in this membrane8 ,how is it proved8 ,what is said of those parts most exposed to injury8 ,give example #ast4 ,example #b;d4 #fbg4 ,mention the difference in the distribution of the nerves in various parts of the body4 ,is this difference found in the lower order of animals8 ------------ #fbh4 ,in the small papill1 the nerve forms a single loop1 while in papill of larger size1 and endowed with a power of more exalted sensation1 the nerve is bent several times upon itself previous to completing the loop4 ,these little loops spring from a net-work of nerves1 imbedded in the upper porous layer of the true skin1 at the base of the papill4 ,this net-work of nerves receives its influence through nerves which take their winding course through the fat distended openings of the deeper layers of the true skin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4 #a1 #a1 ,the cuticle4 #b1 #b1 ,the colored layer of the cuticle4 #c1 #c1 ,the papillary layer1 exhibiting the nerves as they form loops4 #d1 #d1 ,the net-work of nerves4 #e1 #e1 ,the true skin4 #f1 #f1 #f1 ,three nerves that divide to form the net-work 7#d1 #d47 #g1 #g1 #g1 ,the furrows between the papill4 #h1 #h1 #h1 ,three papill magnified fifty diameters4 #fbi4 ,the ,,lymphatics are found in great numbers in the true skin1 and they are so minute that they cannot be seen with the naked eye2 but when these hair-like vessels are injected with quicksilver1 7a work of great difficulty17 the surface injected resembles a sheet of silver4 ,in this way their existence can be imperfectly demonstrated4 ,they are a part of the vascular net-work situated upon the upper surface of the true skin4 ,each papilla is supplied with a lymphatic filament1 the mouth of which opens beneath1 and lies in contact with the under surface of the cuticle4 ,this net-work of vessels communicates through the open meshes of the true skin with larger lymphatic trunks1 that open into the venous system4 ------------ #fbh4 ,how are the nerves of the small papill arranged8 ,how in the large papill8 ,what does fig4 #aac represent8 #fbi4 ,what is said of the cutaneous lymphatics8 ,how is their existence proved8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,a plexus of lymphatic vessels in the skin1 considerably magnified from an injected preparation4 #fcj4 ,the ,,oil-,,glands are small bodies imbedded in the true skin4 ,they connect with the surface of the skin by small tubes1 which traverse the cuticle4 ,in some parts1 these glands are wanting2 in others1 where their office is most needful1 they are abundant1 as on the face and nose1 the head1 the ears1 c4 ,in some parts1 these tubes are spiral2 in others1 straight4 ,these glands offer every shade of complexity1 from the simple1 straight tube1 to a tube divided into numberless ramifications1 and constituting a little rounded tree-like mass1 about the size of a millet seed4 ------------ ,of what are they a part8 #fcj4 ,describe the oil-glands4 ,with what do they connect8 ,do they exist in every part of the body8 ,of what form are their tubes8 ------------ #fca4 ,in a few situations1 these small glands are worthy of particular notice1 as in the eyelids1 where they possess great elegance of distribution and form1 and open by minute pores along the lids2 in the ear-passages1 where they produce that amber-colored substance1 known as the ce-rumen1 7wax of the ears17 and in the scalp1 where they resemble small clusters of grapes1 and open in pairs into the sheath of the hair1 supplying it with a pomatum of ,nature's own preparing4 ,the oil-tubes are sometimes called the se-baceous folli-cles4 ,illustration3 #d4 ,a small hair from the scalp1 with its oil-glands4 ,the glands 7,a7 form a cluster around the shaft of the hair-tube1 7,c47 ,these ducts open into the sheath of the hair1 7,b47 ,all the figures1 from #a to #d1 are magnified thirty-eight diameters4 ------------ #fca4 ,what is said of these tubes in the eyelids8 ,in the ear8 ,in the scalp8 ,what are these glands sometimes called8 ------------ ,observation4 ,among the inhabitants of cities1 and especially in persons who have a torpid state of the skin1 the contents of the oil-tubes become too dense and dry to escape in the usual manner4 ,thus it collects1 distends the tube1 and remains until removed by art4 ,when this impacted matter reaches the surface1 dust and smoke mix with it1 then it is recognized by small1 round1 dark spots4 ,these are seen on the forehead1 nose1 and other parts of the face4 ,when this matter is pressed out1 the tube gives it a cylindrical form4 ,the parts around the distended tubes sometimes inflame4 ,this constitutes the disease called1 acne punc-tata4 #fcb4 ,the ,,perspiratory ,,apparatus consists of minute cylindrical tubes1 which pass inward through the cuticle1 and terminate in the deeper meshes of the cutis vera4 ,in their course1 each little tube forms a beautiful spiral coil2 and1 on arriving at its destination1 coils upon itself in such a way as to constitute an oval-shaped1 or globular ball1 called the perspiratory gland4 #fcc4 ,the opening of the perspiratory tube on the surface of the cuticle1 namely1 the pores1 is also deserving of attention4 ,in consequence of its extremity being a section of a spirally-twisted tube1 the aperture is oblique in direction1 and possesses all the advantages of a valvular opening1 preventing the ingress of foreign injurious substances to the interior of the tube and gland4 #fcd4 ,to arrive at something like an estimate of the value of the perspiratory system1 in relation to the rest of the organism1 ,i counted the perspiratory pores on the palm of the hand1 and found #cebh in a square inch4 ,now each of these pores being the aperture of a little tube about a quarter of an inch long1 it follows1 that in a square inch of skin on the palm of the hand there exists a length of tube equal to #hhb inches1 or #gc feet4 ,surely such an amount of drainage as seventy-three feet in every square inch of skin--assuming this to be the average for the whole body--is something wonderful and the thought naturally intrudes itself1 ,what if this drainage be obstructed8 ------------ ,what is said of the retention of the unctuous matter in the oil-tubes8 #fcb4 ,of what does the perspiratory apparatus consist8 #fcc4 ,what is peculiar in the opening of the perspiratory tubes on the surface of the cuticle8 #fcd4 ,how many perspiratory pores did ,dr4 ,wilson count upon a square inch of skin on the palm of the hand8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,a perspiratory gland from the palm of the hand1 magnified forty diameters4 #a1 #a1 ,a twisted tube composing the gland4 #b1 #b1 ,the two excretory ducts from the gland4 ,these unite to form one spiral tube1 that perforates the cuticle1 7#c17 and opens obliquely on its surface at #d4 ,the gland is imbedded in cells filled with fat1 which are seen at #e1 #e4 ------------ ,what does fig4 #aaf represent8 ------------ #fce4 ,could we need a stronger argument for enforcing the necessity of attention to the skin8 ,on the pulps of the fingers1 where the ridges of the sensitive layer of the true skin are somewhat finer than in the palm of the hand1 the number of pores on a square inch a little exceeded that of the palm2 and on the heels1 where the ridges are coarser1 the number of pores on the square inch was #bbfh1 and the length of the tube #efg inches1 #dg feet4 #fcf4 ,to obtain an estimate of the length of tube of the perspiratory system of the whole surface of the body1 ,i think that #bhjj might be taken as a fair average of the number of pores in the square inch2 and consequently1 #gjj1 the number of inches in length4 ,now1 the number of square inches of surface in a man of ordinary height and bulk is #bejj2 the number of pores1 therefore1 #g1jjj1jjj2 and the number of inches of perspiratory tube is #a1gej1jjj2 that is1 #ade1hcc feet1 or #dh1faa yards1 or nearly ,,twenty-,,eight miles6--,wilson4 ------------ ,give other computations in this paragraph4 #fce4 ,what is said of the number of these pores on the pulp of the fingers8 ,on the heels8 #ecf4 ,what is an average number of pores and length of tube of the whole surface of the body8 ,give the summary of the number of pores1 and number or inches of perspiratory tube4 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 #fcg4 ,the skin invests the whole of the external surface of the body1 following all its prominences and curves1 and gives protection to all the organs it encloses1 while each of its several parts has a distinct use4 #fch4 ,the cuticle is insensible1 and serves as a sheath of protection to the highly sensitive skin 7cutis vera7 situated beneath it4 ,the latter feels2 but the former blunts the impression which occasions feeling4 ,in some situations1 the cuticle is so dense and thick1 as wholly to exclude ordinary impressions4 ,of this we see an example in the ends of the fingers1 where the hard and dense nail is the cuticle modified for the purpose referred to4 ,were the nervous tissue of the true skin not thus protected1 every sensation would be so acute as to be unpleasant1 and contact with external bodies would cause pain4 #fci4 ,the cuticle1 also1 prevents disease1 by impeding the evaporation of the fluids of the true skin1 and the absorption of the poisonous vapors1 which necessarily attend various employments4 ,it1 however1 affords protection to the system only when unbroken1 and then1 to the greatest degree1 when covered with a proper amount of oily secretion from the oil-glands4 #fdj4 ,the cuticle is1 originally1 a transparent fluid1 exuded by the blood-vessels1 and distributed as a thin layer on the surface of the true skin4 ,while successive layers are formed on the exterior of the true skin1 the external cuticular layers are converted into dry1 flattened scales1 by the evaporation of their fluid contents4 ,the thickness of the cuticle is formed mainly from these scales4 ------------ #fcg-fef4 ,give the physiology of the skin4 #fcg4 ,what is said of the skin8 #fch4 ,give a function of the cuticle4 ,does it vary in thickness on different parts of the body8 ,give examples4 #fcj4 ,mention another use of the cuticle4 #fdj4 ,what is the cuticle originally8 ------------ #fda4 ,the cuticle is1 therefore1 undergoing a constant process of formation and growth at its under part1 to compensate for the wear that is taking place continually on its surface4 ,a proper thickness of the cuticle is in this manner preserved2 the faculty of sensation and that of touch are properly regulated2 the places of the little scales1 which are continually falling off under the united influence of friction and ablution1 are supplied2 and an action necessary1 not merely to the health of the skin1 but to that of the entire body1 is established4 #fdb4 ,whenever the cuticle is exposed to moderate and repeated friction1 it becomes thicker and tougher1 as may be seen in the cuticle of the lady's finger that plies the needle and in the hard or callous appearance of the hands of farmers masons1 and other mechanics4 ,this enables them to handle the utensils and materials used in their vocations without pain or inconvenience4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,when the joints of the feet are subjected to moderate and continued pressure or friction1 frequently one or more of the papill enlarge4 ,this is accompanied with a thickening of the layers of the cuticle1 which is termed a callosity1 or corn4 ,these thickened layers of the cuticle are broad at the top and narrow at the bottom1 and the enlarged mass is conical1 with the point innermost4 ,when pressed upon by a tight shoe1 these sensitive papill cause pain4 ------------ ,how is the thickness of the cuticle mainly formed8 #fda4 ,describe the changes of this membrane4 ,show the necessity of this constant growth4 #fdb4 ,how does moderate and repeated friction affect the cuticle8 ,give examples4 ,what is the benefit derived from having the cuticle thus changed8 ,what is the result if the joints of the feet are subjected to moderate and continued pressure8 ,what is the form of a corn8 ------------ #b;d4 ,to remove these painful excrescences1 take a thick piece of soft leather1 somewhat larger than the corn2 in the centre punch a hole of the size of the summit of the corn1 spread the leather with adhesive plaster1 and apply it around the corn4 ,the hole in the leather may be filled with a paste made of soda and soap1 on going to bed4 ,in the morning1 remove it1 and wash with warm water4 ,repeat this for several successive nights1 and the corn will be removed4 ,the only precaution is1 not to repeat the application so as to cause pain4 #fdc4 ,let a person unaccustomed to manual labor1 trundle the hand-cart1 or row a boat1 for several successive hours1 and the cuticle upon the palms of the hands1 instead of becoming thicker by use1 is frequently separated from the subjacent tissues1 by an effusion of serum1 7water17 thrown out by the vessels of the true skin4 ,had the friction been moderate1 and applied at regular intervals1 instead of blisters being formed upon the inside of the hands1 material would have been thrown out to form new layers upon the lower surface of the cuticle4 #fdd4 ,the cuticle is interesting to us in another point of view1 as being the seat of the color of the skin4 ,the difference of color between the blonde and the brunette1 the ,european and the ,african1 lies in the cuticle2--in the deeper1 and softer1 and newly-formed layers of that structure4 ,in the whitest skin1 the cells of the cuticle always contain more or less of a peculiar pigment1 incorporated with the elementary granules which enter into their composition4 ,in the white races1 the pigmentary tint is extremely slight1 and less in winter than in the summer season4 ,in the darker races1 on the contrary1 it is deep and strongly marked4 ------------ ,how can they be removed8 ,what precaution is given8 #fdc4 ,explain why those persons unaccustomed to labor1 blister their hands in rowing a boat or performing ordinary manual employment for several successive hours4 #fdd4 ,in what other point of view is the cuticle interesting8 ,in what part of it do we find the coloring matter8 ------------ #fde4 ,the various tints of color exhibited by mankind1 are1 therefore1 referable to the amount of coloring principle contained within the elementary granules of the cuticle1 and their consequent depth of hue4 ,in the negro1 the granules are more or less black2 in the ,european of the south1 they are amber-colored2 and in the inhabitants of the north1 they are pale and almost colorless4 #fdf4 ,color of the skin has relation to energy in its action2 thus1 in the equatorial region1 where light and heat are most powerful1 the skin is stimulated by these agents to vigorous action1 and color is very deep2 while in the temperate regions1 where light and heat are not so intense1 the lungs1 liver1 and kidneys relieve the skin of part of its duties4 ,the colored layer of the cuticle has been called the rete mu-cosum1 7mucous coat of the skin17 and described as a distinct layer by many physiologists4 ,observation4 ,the various coloring of the inner layer of the cuticle gives to some animals their varied hues2 the serpent1 the frog1 the lizard1 and some fishes have a splendor of hue almost equal to polished metal4 ,the gold-fish and the dolphin owe their difference of color and the brilliancy of their hues to the color of this layer of the skin4 #fdg4 ,the nerves of the skin are the organs of the sense of touch and feeling4 ,through them we receive many impressions that enhance our pleasures1 as the grateful sensations imparted by the cooling breeze in a warm day4 ,in consequence of their sensitiveness1 we are individually protected1 by being admonished of the proximity of destructive agents4 ------------ ,in what season of the year is the coloring matter less in the white race8 #fde4 ,to what is the color of the skin referable8 #fdf4 ,why have the races of the torrid zone darker complexions than those of the temperate or frigid zones8 ,what is this colored layer called by many physiologists8 ,to what is the different hues in animals owing8 #fdg4 ,of what use are the nerves of the skin8 ------------ ,illustration4 ,a man who had been afflicted some years with a severe disease of a portion of the brain and spinal cord1 was deprived of feeling in the lower extremities4 ,he was directed by his attending physician to use a warm footbath4 ,intending to follow the directions given him1 he immersed his feet in boiling water1 which he supposed of a proper temperature4 ,while his feet were immersed in the water1 he experienced no sensation of an unpleasant nature4 ,on withdrawing them1 he was astonished to find the cuticle separated from the other tissues1 by the effusion of serum1 and thus producing a blister over the whole surface4 #fdh4 ,portions of the skin would suffer every day1 were it not for the sentinel-like care exercised by the nerves1 by which all impressions are transmitted to the brain4 ,as the skin is continually exposed to the influence of destructive agents1 it is important that the nerves1 provided for its protection1 should be kept in a healthy state4 #fdi4 ,a large proportion of the waste of the body passes through the outlets of the skin2 some portions in the form of oil1 others in the form of water and carbonic acid4 #fej4 ,the oil-glands secrete an oil1 partly free and diffused1 and partly mixed with albumen4 ,when the cells are fully formed1 that is1 fully distended1 they yield their contents1 and the fluid matter they contain is set free1 and passes along the tubes to the surface2 this fluid matter constitutes the oily element of the economy of the skin4 #fea4 ,the uses of the unctuous product of the oil-glands are twofold3 #ast4 ,the protection2 #b;d4 ,the removal of waste matter from the system4 ,in the exercise of these offices the oily substance is diffused over those parts of the skin which are naturally exposed to vicissitudes of temperature and moisture1--as the nose1 face1 and head2--to the injurious attrition of contiguous surfaces1--as the flexures of joints2--or the contact of acrid fluids1--as in the excoriations to which infants are liable4 ------------ ,give the illustration4 #fdh4 ,why is it necessary that the cutaneous nerves be kept in a healthy state8 #fdi4 ,through what membrane does a large proportion of the waste material of the system pass8 #fej4 ,what is the function of the oil-glands8 #fea4 ,what are the uses of the oily product of these glands8 ------------ #feb4 ,the oil of the unctuous substance is the principal agent in effecting these purposes3 #ast4 ,it prevents the evaporation or congelation of the water of the cuticle1 which would cause it to become parched and peel off1 thus leaving the sensitive skin exposed4 #b;d4 ,it affords a soft medium to the contact of moving substances4 #c;d4 ,it repels moisture and fluids4 #dth4 ,the action of these glands removes the waste atoms and purifies the blood4 #fec4 ,in considering the purpose of the oily matter of the skin1 there are two situations in which it deserves especial remark4 #ast4 ,along the edges of the eyelids1 where it is poured out in considerable quantity4 ,here1 it is the means of confining the tears and moisture of the eyes within the lids1 defending the skin from the irritation of that fluid1 and preventing the adhesion of the lids1 which is liable to occur upon slight inflammation4 #b;d4 ,in the ears1 where the unctuous wax not only preserves the membrane of the drum and the passage of the ear moist1 but also1 by its bitterness1 prevents the intrusion of small insects4 #fed4 ,the use of the perspiratory glands is to separate from the blood that portion of the waste matter which is carried off through the skin in the form of vapor4 ,sanctorius1 a celebrated medical writer1 daily1 for thirty years1 weighed himself1 his food1 and excretions4 ,he estimated that five of every eight pounds of food and drink passed from the system through the many outlets upon the skin4 ,many place the estimate much lower4 ,all physiologists agree that from twenty to forty ounces of matter pass off from the skin of an adult every twenty-four hours4 ------------ #feb4 ,what prevents the evaporation of the water of the cuticle8 ,give its #b;d use4 ,its #c;d4 ,its #dth4 #fec4 ,what is said in reference to the distribution of the oily matter along the edges of the eyelids8 ,in the ears8 #fed4 ,of what use are the perspiratory glands8 ,how long did ,sanctorius daily weigh his food1 to ascertain the amount of secretion that passed through the skin8 ------------ #fee4 ,the average amount of perspiration is about thirty ounces2 and it passes off in such minute portions1 and mixes so rapidly with the surrounding air1 that it is not perceived4 ,for this reason1 it is called insensible perspiration4 ,when this excretion is increased1 it forms into drops1 and is called sensible perspiration4 ,the following experiments prove the existence of this excretion from the skin4 ,experiments4 #ast4 ,take a cold bell-glass1 or any glass vessel large enough to admit the hand1 and introduce it perfectly dry2 at the same time close the mouth by winding a napkin about the wrist2 in a short time1 the insensible perspiration from the hand1 will be seen deposited on the inside of the glass4 ,at first1 the deposit is in the form of mist2 but1 if the experiment be continued a sufficient time1 it will collect in drops4 #b;d4 ,hold the apparently dry hand near a looking-glass1 and the invisible vapor will soon be condensed1 and cover the glass with a slight dew4 #fef4 ,it is important that this excretion be maintained with steadiness and regularity4 ,when the action of the perspiratory glands is suppressed1 all the vessels of the different organs will suffer materially1 and become diseased1 by the redundant waste matter that should be carried from the system4 ,if a person is vigorous1 the action of the organs1 whose functions are similar to those of the skin1 as channels for the exit of waste matter1 will be increased1 and thus relieve the diseased state of the body4 ,but the over-taxing of these organs1 to relieve the system1 often produces a diseased action in themselves4 ------------ ,what were his conclusions8 #fee4 ,what is the average amount of perspiration every twenty-four hours8 ,what is insensible perspiration8 ,what is sensible perspiration8 ,how can the existence of the excretion of the skin be shown8 ,give the #b;d experiment4 #fef4 ,why is it important that these excretions be maintained regularly8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4 #a1 #a1 ,the lines1 or ridges of the cuticle1 cut perpendicularly4 #b1 #b1 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,the furrows1 or wrinkles of the same4 #c1 ,the cuticle4 #d1 #d1 #d1 ,the colored layer of the cuticle4 #e1 #e1 ,the cutis vera4 #f1 #f1 #f1 #f1 #f1 ,the papill4 #g1 #g1 ,small furrows between the papill4 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 ,the deeper furrows between each couple of the papill4 #i1 #i1 ,cells filled with fat4 #aj1 #aj1 #aj1 ,the adipose layer1 with numerous fat vesicles4 #aa1 #aa1 #aa1 ,cellular fibres of the adipose tissue4 #ab1 ,two hairs4 #ac1 ,a perspiratory gland1 with its spiral duct4 #ad1 ,another perspiratory gland1 with a duct less spiral4 #ae1 #ae1 ,oil-glands with ducts opening into the sheath of the hair1 7#ab47 ,note4--,let the pupil review the anatomy and physiology of the skin from ,fig4 #aag or from anatomical outline plate ,no4 #i4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 #feg4 ,the sensibility of the skin1 and the activity of the oil and perspiratory glands1 are modified by the condition of the cuticle1 the temperature of the skin and body1 the purity and warmth of the air1 and the character of the light to which the body is exposed4 ,thus1 to maintain a healthy action of every part of this membrane1 attention should be given to ,clothing1 ,bathing1 ,light1 and ,air4 #feh4 ,,clothing1 in itself1 does not bestow heat1 but is chiefly useful in preventing the escape of heat from the body1 and in defending it from the temperature of the atmosphere4 ,in selecting and applying clothing to our persons1 the following suggestions should be observed4 #fei4 ,the material for clothing should be a bad conductor of heat2 that is1 it should have little tendency to conduct or remove heat from the body4 ,this depends mainly on the property possessed by the material in retaining atmospheric air in its meshes4 #ffj4 ,the material for clothing should not possess the property of absorbing and retaining moisture4 ,dampness1 or moisture1 renders apparel a good conductor of heat2 beside1 if the perspired fluid1 and the saline material it holds in solution1 are readily absorbed by the clothing1 they become sources of irritation to the skin with which the apparel comes in contact4 ------------ #feg-gaf4 ,give the hygiene of the skin4 #feg4 ,what influences modify the action of the oil and perspiratory glands8 ,to what must attention be given to maintain a healthy action of the skin8 #feh4 ,what is said in regard to the clothing8 #fei4 ,mention a property that the material for clothing should possess4 #ffj4 ,what property in the selection of clothing should we avoid8 ,why8 ------------ #ffa4 ,furs contain a greater amount of air in their meshes1 than any other article1 and they absorb no moisture2 consequently1 as an article of dress1 they are best adapted to those who are exposed to great vicissitudes of heat and cold4 #ffb4 ,woollen cloth retains more air in its meshes than any other article except furs and eider down1 and it absorbs but very little moisture4 ,these properties1 together with its comparative cheapness1 render it a good article of apparel for all classes of persons4 ,the only objection to its general use is1 the disturbance of the electricity of the system1 and the irritation to delicate skins from the roughness of its fibres4 ,observation4 ,flannels are not only beneficial1 during the cold season1 in preventing colds and rheumatism1 but they are of great utility in the warm season1 in shielding the system from the chills at evening1 that induce disease of the alimentary canal4 ,their general use among children and delicate females1 would be a preventive of the season complaints prevalent in the months of ,august and ,september4 #ffc4 ,cotton contains less air in its meshes than woollen1 but much more than linen4 ,in texture1 it is smoother than wool1 and less liable to irritate the skin4 ,this fabric absorbs moisture in a small degree4 ,in all respects1 it is well adapted for garments worn next the skin4 ,when woollen flannels irritate the skin1 they may be lined with cotton4 #ffd4 ,silk is not as good a conductor of heat as cotton1 nor does it absorb moisture to any considerable degree2 its texture is smooth1 and does not irritate the skin2 consequently1 when the garment of this fabric has sufficient body or thickness1 it is a good article for clothing4 ,the greatest objection to its use is the disturbance of the electricity of the system1 and its high price4 ------------ #ffa4 ,give the properties of fur4 ,as an article of dress1 to whom are they best adapted8 #ffb4 ,give the properties of woollen cloth4 ,is this a good article for clothing8 ,what objection8 ,what are the advantages of wearing flannels8 #ffc4 ,what are the qualities of cotton as an article of dress8 #ffd4 ,of silk8 ------------ #ffe4 ,linen is not only a good conductor of heat1 and consequently a poor article of apparel1 but it likewise absorbs the fluids carried from the system by the agency of the oil and perspiratory glands4 ,when garments are made of this material1 the body is not surrounded by a layer of air1 but by one of moisture4 ,this still further increases its power to conduct heat from the system1 rendering it a very objectionable article of apparel1 even in warm weather and in hot climates1 where the dress is usually thin4 #fff4 ,clothing differs in its power of radiating heat4 ,this is influenced by the color2 those articles that radiate heat freely also absorb it readily4 ,a black surface is a good radiator1 while a white surface is not1 because it reflects the calorific rays4 ,it is obvious that those colors which render the transmission of external heat difficult1 must impede the transmission of caloric from the body4 ,thus it is manifest1 that light-colored apparel is best adapted for every season and every climate4 ,observation4 ,coach-drivers are practically aware1 that in cold weather1 light-colored over-coats are warmest1 except when they are exposed to the direct rays of the sun1 or when seated before a warm fire4 ,on the other hand1 when the temperature is elevated1 light-colored apparel is coolest1 because the sun's rays are then reflected4 #ffg4 ,the clothing should be of a porous character4 ,the skin is not only an important agent in separating from the blood those impurities that otherwise would oppress the system and occasion death1 but it exercises great influence upon the system1 by receiving oxygen through its tissues1 and giving back carbonic acid in return4 ,consequently1 the apparel should be made of a material that will permit free transpiration from the skin1 and likewise convey the excreted fluids from the surface4 ------------ #ffe4 ,what is said of linen as an article of apparel8 #fff4 ,why is light-colored apparel best adapted for every season8 ,what is said of the apparel of coach-drivers8 #ffg4 ,why should we wear porous clothing8 ------------ #ffh4 ,the necessity for this is illustrated in wearing ,india rubber over-shoes4 ,if they are worn over boots ten or twelve hours1 not only the hose1 but the boots will be moist from retained perspiration1 and the residual matter left in contact with the skin may be reconveyed into the system by absorption1 causing headache and other diseases4 ,cotton and woollen fabrics are not only bad conductors of heat1 but are also porous2 for these reasons1 they are well adapted to transmit the excretions of the skin4 #ffi4 ,the clothing should be not only porous1 but fitted loosely4 ,the garments should retain a layer of air between them and the body4 ,every one is practically aware that a loose dress is much warmer than one which fits closely2 that a loose glove is warmer than a tight one2 and that a loose boot or shoe affords greater warmth than one of smaller dimensions4 ,the explanation is obvious2 the loose dress encloses a thin layer of air1 which the tight dress is incapable of doing2 and what is required1 is1 that the dress should be closed at the upper part1 to prevent the dispersion of the warm air1 by the ventilating current which would be established from below4 ,observation4 ,as the purpose of additional garments is to maintain a series of strata of warm air within our clothing1 we should1 in going from a warm room into the cold air1 put on our defensive coverings some little time previous1 in order that the layers of air which we carry with us may be sufficiently warmed by the heat of the room1 and not borrowed from the body on exposure to the cold4 ------------ #ffh4 ,how is the necessity of porous clothing illustrated8 #ffi4 ,why should we wear loose garments8 ,what is the use of additional garments when going from a warm to a cold air8 ,when should they be put on8 ------------ #fgj4 ,the clothing should be suited to the temperature of the atmosphere and the condition of the individual4 ,the invariable rule should be1 to wear enough to maintain an equal and healthy action of the skin4 ,care should be taken1 however1 that the action of the cutaneous vessels is not inordinately increased1 as this would debilitate1 not only the skin1 but the internal organs of the system1 as the stomach and lungs4 #fga4 ,no rule as to the quantity of clothing can be given1 as the demand will vary with different individuals4 ,the following are among the most prominent causes of this variation3 ,those persons who have large1 active brains1 full chests1 well developed lungs1 breathe an adequate amount of pure air1 and take sufficient food to supply the wants of the system1 require less clothing than those of an opposite character1 because more heat is generated in the system4 #fgb4 ,the child and the aged person require more clothing than the vigorous adult4 ,should we judge from observation1 the inference would be1 that children require less clothing than adults4 ,this is an error1 for the temperature in infancy is not only lower than in manhood1 but the power of creating heat is feebler4 ,the same remarks are applicable to those persons who have outlived the energies of adult life4 ,observation4 ,the system of hardening children1 by an inadequate supply of clothing1 and keeping them uncomfortably cold throughout the whole day1 is inhuman1 as well as unprofitable4 ,it operates upon the child somewhat like the long-continued chill upon a certain portion of the farmer's herd1 that are kept shivering under the thatched shed1 retarding the growth of their systems1 which require more food to satisfy the keen cravings of hunger than when they are comfortably sheltered4 ,to make the boy robust and active1 he must have nutritious food at stated hours1 and free exercise in the open air1 and his system must be guarded from chills by a due amount of apparel4 ------------ #fgj4 ,what should be the invariable rule in reference to the amount of clothing that should be worn8 ,what precaution should be observed8 #fga4 ,what are some of the causes of the variation of the demand for clothing8 #fgb4 ,why do the child and aged person require more clothing than the vigorous adult8 ,what is said of the system of hardening children8 ------------ #fgc4 ,more clothing is needed when a vital organ is diseased4 ,it may be observed that in consumption1 dyspepsia1 and even in headache1 the skin is pale and the extremities cold1 because less heat is generated4 ,thus persons affected with these complaints1 when exposed to cold air1 need more clothing than those individuals whose organs are not diseased1 and the functions of which are properly performed4 #fgd4 ,more clothing is required in the evening1 than during the day4 ,in the evening we have less vital energy1 and therefore less heat is generated in the system1 than in the early part of the day2 beside1 the atmosphere is damp1 the skin has become moist from free perspiration1 and heat1 in consequence1 is rapidly removed from the system4 ,for this reason1 when returning from crowded assemblies1 we should be provided with an extra garment4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,if there is a chill upon the system after having arrived home1 warmth should be restored as speedily as possible4 ,this can be done by friction with warm flannels1 and by using the warm or vapor bath4 ,by this procedure1 the pernicious effects of the chill will be prevented before any disease is fixed upon the system4 ,is it not the duty of the parent and the guardian to learn these facts1 and to see that they are not only learned1 but reduced to practice8 #b;d4 ,the farmer and industrious mechanic would be freed from many a rheumatic pain1 if1 while resting from their labors at evening1 or taking the ordinary meal after hard toil1 they would put on an extra garment4 ,the coat might not feel so agreeable for the first few minutes1 but it would ultimately conduce to health and longevity4 ------------ #fgc4 ,why do dyspeptic and consumptive persons require more clothing than those who have healthy vital organs8 #fgd4 ,why do we need more clothing in the evening than during the day8 ,how can the pernicious effects of a chill be prevented8 ,give the #b;d observation4 ------------ #fge4 ,the person of active habits requires less clothing than one of sedentary employments4 ,exercise increases the circulation of the blood1 which is always attended by the disengagement of a greater quantity of heat2 consequently1 an increase of warmth is felt throughout the system4 ,we likewise need more clothing while riding1 than when we are walking2 because the exercise of the former is less than that of the latter4 ,the same is true when resting in the field or shop1 after laborious exercise4 ,observation4 ,we need a greater amount of clothing while asleep1 than during the day2 as not only the action of the body1 but that of the brain1 during sleep1 is suspended4 #fgf4 ,less clothing is required when the cutaneous surface is clean4 ,a film of impurities obstructs the perspiratory ducts1 and diminishes the action of their glands2 consequently1 less heat is generated4 ,for this reason1 the hands or feet when clean are less liable to become chilled or frozen4 #fgg4 ,the sensitiveness of the skin to the influence of cold1 is much modified by habit4 ,a person who has been habituated to the temperature of a warm room1 or warm climate1 suffers more when exposed to cold1 than an individual who has been accustomed to colder air4 ,thus a person who labors or studies in a warm room1 should wear more clothing when exposed to the air1 while walking or riding1 than an individual who labors in a cooler atmosphere4 ,not only is the sensibility of the skin increased by a warm atmosphere1 but the activity of the digestive1 respiratory1 and nervous systems1 in generating heat1 is much diminished4 ,this is an additional reason why an increased amount of clothing is demanded during exposure to cold air4 ,in all cases where practicable the heat of the system should be maintained by exercise1 in preference to the use of fur or flannel4 ------------ #fge4 ,why does the person of active habits require less clothing than one of sedentary employments8 #fgf4 ,why do we need less clothing when the skin is clean8 #fgg4 ,show the effect of habit on the sensitiveness of the skin4 ------------ #fgh4 ,those parts of the skin usually covered1 uniformly need that protection4 ,the power of generating heat is diminished1 and the impressibility to cold is increased1 on those portions of the skin usually clothed4 ,if a person wears the dress high and close about the neck1 he suffers from exposure to a cold atmosphere if a dress is worn that is not as high or more open4 ,as a general rule1 it is preferable that those parts of the system1 as the larynx1 be exposed that are not uniformly protected by clothing4 #fgi4 ,the clothing should be kept clean4 ,no article of apparel is entirely free from absorption2 even wool and cotton possess it in a small degree4 ,they take up a portion of the transpired fluids which contain saline and animal matter1 and thus the fibres of the garments become covered with the cutaneous excretions4 ,we are practically aware of the retention of these secretions from the soiled appearance of those garments worn next the skin1 which are so covered as to preclude the particles of dust from lodging upon them4 #fhj4 ,the porosity of the clothing is lessened when soiled1 and its power of conducting heat from the system in consequence1 is increased4 ,the residual matter with which the clothing is coated is brought in contact with the skin1 which causes irritation1 and not unfrequently re-absorption of the elements1 thrown off from the system through this avenue4 ,hence warmth1 cleanliness1 and health require that the clothing1 particularly the garments worn next to the skin1 should be frequently and thoroughly washed4 ,this should not be forgotten in regard to children1 for their blood circulates with greater rapidity than that of adults1 and a proportionably greater amount of waste matter is thrown off from their systems4 #fha4 ,the under-garments worn during the day should not be worn at night1 or the reverse4 ,when under-garments are worn several successive days or nights1 they should not be put in drawers1 or hung up in a close closet1 as soon as taken from the body1 but should be exposed to a current of air4 #fhb4 ,occupied beds should be thoroughly aired in the morning4 ,the excretions from the skin are most abundant during the hours of sleep2 and if the sheets and blankets1 together with the bed1 are not aired every morning1 by being so arranged that both surfaces may be exposed to the air1 the materials eliminated from the skin will be retained in the meshes of the bed-clothing1 and may be conveyed into the system of the next occupant1 by absorption4 ,oftentimes diseases of a disagreeable nature are contracted in this way4 ,this fact should be instilled into every mother's and daughter's mind4 ,observation4 ,bed-linen should not be put on a bed when it is not sufficiently dried1 or contains moisture from the excretions of the skin1 nor should beds or bedding be slept in1 that have remained in a damp room that has not been occupied for many weeks1 unless the dampness is removed from the bed-linen by a warming-pan1 or in some other way4 #fhc4 ,changes of dress1 from thick to thin1 should always be made in the morning4 ,at this time the vital powers are usually in full play4 ,many a young lady has laid the foundation of a fatal disease1 by disregarding this rule1 in exchanging the thick dress1 with woollen stockings1 for the flimsy dress and hose of silk or cotton1 which are considered suitable for the ball-room or party4 ,sudden changes in wearing-apparel1 as well as in food and general habits1 are attended with hazard2 and this is proportionate to the weakness or exhaustion of the system when the change is made4 ------------ #fha4 ,should the garments worn during the day be worn at night8 #fhb4 ,what is said respecting the cleanliness of beds and bedding8 ,why should not bed-linen that is damp be slept in8 #fhc4 ,when should change of dress from thick to thin be made8 ,why8 ------------ #fhd4 ,when the clothing has become wet1 it is best to change it immediately4 ,the skin should then be rubbed with a dry crash towel1 until reaction1 indicated by redness1 is produced4 ,if the garments are not changed1 the person should exercise moderately1 so that sufficient heat may continue to be generated in the system to dry the clothing and skin without a chill4 ,sitting in a cool shade1 or current of air1 should1 by all means1 be avoided2 as colds are not contracted by free and excessive exercise1 but by injudicious management after such exercise4 ,observation4 ,when an individual has been thrown into a profuse perspiration by violent exercise1 though the skin and clothing may become wet1 he feels no inconvenience from the dampness1 as long as he continues that amount of exercise for the reason that the circulation of the blood being increased heat is generated in sufficient quantity to replace the amount abstracted from the system in evaporating the free perspiration2 but as soon as the exercise is discontinued1 the increased circulation subsides1 and with it the extra amount of generated heat4 ,this accounts for the chill we experience1 when the damp clothing is permitted to dry on the body1 after the cessation of exercise4 ------------ #fhd4 ,what suggestion when the clothing has become wet8 ,what should be done if the garments are not changed8 ,what causes the chill that is experienced when damp clothing is permitted to dry on the body8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,skin1 ,,continued4 #fhe4 ,bathing1 its necessity and expediency1 is obvious from the structure and the functions of the skin4 ,the cuticle is cast off in minute1 powdery scales1 many of which are retained upon the surface by the pressure of clothing4 ,these mingle with the oily and saline products of the skin1 and form a thin crust4 ,this crust1 on account of its adhesiveness1 collects particles of dust and soot from the atmosphere1 and particles of foreign matter from our dress2 so that in the course of the day the whole body becomes coated with impurities4 ,if this coating remains1 becomes thick and established upon the skin1 it will produce the following effects3-- #fhf4 #ast4 ,the pores will be obstructed1 consequently transpiration impeded1 and the influence of the skin as an excretory entirely prevented4 ,when the pores are obstructed1 and transpiration is checked1 the elements of the transpired fluids will necessarily be retained in the system2 and1 as they are injurious and poisonous if retained1 they must be removed by those organs whose functions in the animal economy are similar1 as the lungs1 kidneys1 liver1 intestines1 c4 #fhg4 ,when these organs are called upon to perform their offices1 and in addition that of another1 the healthy equilibrium is destroyed1 and the oppressed organ will suffer from exhaustion1 and become the prey of disease4 ,thus1 obviously1 habits of uncleanliness are a cause of consumption and other serious diseases of the vital organs4 ,again1 obstruction of the pores will prevent respiration through the skin1 thus depriving the blood of one source of its oxygen1 and one outlet of its carbonic acid1 which will diminish the temperature of the system1 and the same results follow as when the clothing is inadequate4 ------------ #fhe4 ,show the necessity for bathing4 #fhf4 ,what effect upon the body if the pores of the skin are obstructed8 #fhg4 ,what is the effect when an organ not only performs its own specific function1 but that of another8 ------------ #fhh4 #b;d4 ,the retained perspirable matter will irritate the skin1 both mechanically and chemically2 and this membrane will be kept damp and cold1 from attraction and detention of moisture2 and foreign material1 as before adverted to1 once removed from the system1 may be reconveyed into it by absorption4 ,as a consequence1 cutaneous eruptions and diseases will be produced1 and the re-absorption of matter once separated from the system1 will be the exciting cause of other injurious disorders4 #fhi4 #c;d4 ,a film of foreign substance on the skin will inevitably become the seat of detention of miasmata and infectious vapors4 ,these will remain until absorbed1 and engender the diseases of which they are the peculiar cause4 ,this is one reason why filthy persons contract infectious diseases more frequently than individuals of cleanly habits4 #fij4 ,bathing is useful to promote cleanliness4 ,in this capacity1 it enables us to remove the coating of impurities from the exterior of our persons4 ,it effects this purpose by dissolving saline matters1 and holding in temporary suspension those substances which are insoluble4 #fia4 ,the cuticle is composed of a substance resembling the dried white of egg1 or1 in a word1 albumen4 ,this is soluble in alkalies1 and these are the agents which are commonly employed for purifying the skin4 ,soap is a compound of the alkali soda with oil1 the former being in excess4 ,when used for washing1 the excess of alkali combining with the oily fluid1 with which the skin is naturally bedewed1 removes it1 in the form of an emulsion1 and with it a portion of any adhering matter4 ,another portion of the alkali softens and dissolves the superficial layer of the cuticle2 and when this is removed the cuticle is free from impurities4 ------------ #fhh4 ,how are cutaneous eruptions frequently produced8 #fhi4 ,how are infectious vapors transmitted to the system8 #fij4 ,how does bathing promote cleanliness8 #fia4 ,why is it necessary to use soap in bathing8 ------------ #fib4 ,every washing of the skin with soap removes the old face of the cuticle1 and leaves a new one2 and were the process repeated to excess1 the latter would become so thin as to render the body sensible to impressions too slight to be felt through its ordinary thickness4 ,on the other hand1 when the cuticle and its accumulated impurities are rarely disturbed1 the sensitiveness of the skin is impaired4 ,the proper inference to be drawn from the preceding remarks1 is in favor of the moderate use of soap to cleanse the skin4 ,observation4 ,if any unpleasant sensations are felt after the use of soap1 they may be immediately removed by washing the surface with water slightly acidulated with lemon juice or vinegar1 which neutralizes the alkali that may remain on the skin4 ,this is effective treatment for chapped hands4 #fic4 ,bathing may be partial or general1 and the water used may be cold1 temperate1 tepid1 warm1 or hot4 ,a person may apply it to his system with a sponge1 it may be poured upon him1 or he may immerse himself in it4 ,the simplest mode of bathing is to apply water to a small extent of surface1 by means of a wet sponge1 and after being wiped dry1 again cover with the dress4 ,in this way the whole body may be speedily subjected to the influence of water1 and to no less useful friction4 ,the water used may be warm or cold4 ,this species of bathing may be practised by any invalid1 and always with benefit1 if the bathing is succeeded by a glow of warmth over the surface2 and this is the test by which the benefit of all forms of bathing is to be estimated4 ------------ #fib4 ,why should only a moderate amount of soap be used in bathing8 ,if unpleasant sensations are felt from too free use of soap1 how can they be counteracted8 #fic4 ,give the different forms of bathing4 ,what is the simplest mode of bathing8 ,can this mode be adopted by invalids with safety8 ------------ #fid4 ,when the heat of the system is adequate1 the bather may stand or sit in a shallow tub1 while he receives the water from a sponge squeezed over the shoulders or against the body4 ,in this form of bathing1 the person is more exposed to the cold air1 and on this account it is less suitable for very feeble individuals than the first-mentioned method4 ,in the early use of this form of the sponge-bath1 the bather should content himself with a single affusion from the sponge2 the body should be quickly wiped with a soft towel1 and friction applied with a crash towel or a brush4 #fie4 ,the third kind of bathing is that of the shower-bath1 which provides a greater amount of affusion than the former1 combined with a greater shock to the nervous system4 ,the concussion of the skin by the fall of water1 particularly distinguishes this from the previous modes of bathing4 ,the degree of concussion is modified by the size of the openings through which the water issues1 and the height of the reservoir4 ,the shower-bath admits of modification1 adapting it to the most delicate as well as the robust4 ,the extent of fall1 the size of the apertures1 the quantity and temperature of the water1 may be regulated at pleasure4 ,observation4 ,in using the shower-bath1 it would be judicious to commence with warm or tepid water1 for which1 by a gradual process1 cold water may be substituted4 ,in this way the system may be inured to cold water4 ,after bathing1 the skin should be wiped dry and rubbed briskly4 #fif4 ,the fourth form of bathing is that in which the body1 or a portion of it1 is immersed in water4 ,the temperature of water in this form of bathing may be modified according to the sensations and purposes of the bather4 ,this form of bathing is designated according to the heat of the water4 ,when the temperature is below #ge1 it is termed a cold bath2 when from #ge to #he1 a temperate bath2 from #he to #ie1 a tepid bath2 from #ie to #ih1 a warm bath2 from #ih to #aje1 a hot bath4 ,in using this form of bathing1 the skin should be wiped perfectly dry1 and briskly rubbed4 ------------ ,what is the test by which to estimate1 the benefit of all modes of bathing8 #fid4 ,give another method of sponge-bathing4 #fie4 ,what is said of the shower-bath8 ,what caution is given8 #fif4 ,give the fourth form of bathing4 ------------ ,observation4 ,the length of time a person may remain in a cold bath with benefit varies from two to ten minutes2 while a person may remain in a temperate1 tepid1 or warm bath1 from ten to thirty minutes1 or until special indications are exhibited4 #fig4 ,in the vapor-bath1 the vapor is not only applied to the exterior of the system1 but it is inhaled and brought in contact with every part of the interior of the lungs4 ,the bather is seated upon a chair1 and the vapor gradually turned on around him1 until the proper temperature 7#ij to #aaj7 is attained4 ,the bath may be continued from ten to thirty minutes4 ,after leaving the bath1 attention should be given to the skin1 as in other forms of bathing4 #fih4 ,in order to increase and promote reaction of the skin1 various measures and processes are used1 some of which are practised in1 and others after1 quitting the bath4 ,of the former1 the rubbing and brushing the skin are the most common and important4 ,the brisk and efficient friction of the skin with a coarse towel and flesh-brush1 after quitting the bath1 should never be omitted4 ,this short catalogue embraces all the appliances requisite for the purpose4 #fii4 ,bathing promotes health by its immediate and remote physiological effects on the system4 ,when the body is moistened with a sponge wet with cold water1 or when an affusion by the sponge or shower-bath is used1 the skin instantly shrinks1 and the whole of its tissue contracts4 ,this contraction diminishes the capacity of the cutaneous system of blood-vessels1 and a portion of the blood circulating through them is suddenly thrown upon the more internal parts of the body4 ,the nervous system1 among others1 participates in it1 and is stimulated by the afflux1 and communicates its stimulus to the whole system4 ,this causes a more energetic action of the heart and blood-vessels1 and a consequent rush of blood back to the skin4 ,this is the state termed reaction1 the first object and purpose of every form of bathing4 ------------ ,what degree of temperature of water is termed a cold bath8 ,a temperate8 ,a tepid8 ,a warm8 ,a hot bath8 ,state the length of time that a person should remain in the different baths4 #fig4 ,what is said of the vapor bath8 #fih4 ,mention the different methods for promoting reaction of the skin4 ------------ #gjj4 ,this condition of the skin is known by the redness of the surface1 the glow1 comfort1 and warmth which follow the bath4 ,the bather should direct all his care to insure this effect4 ,by it the internal organs are relieved1 respiration is lightened1 the heart is made to beat calm and free1 the mind is clear and strong1 the tone of the muscular system is increased1 the appetite is sharpened1 and the whole system feels invigorated4 ,this is the end and aim of the bather1 and to this all his training tends4 ,the error is1 to expect the result without the preparation4 #gja4 ,in order to promote reaction1 and to be efficient in preserving health1 bathing should be regular1 should be commenced by degrees1 and increased by a process of training1 and should not be permitted to intrude upon hours devoted to some important function1 as digestion4 ,it must not precede or follow too closely a meal1 or severe mental or muscular exercise1 as reaction is less certain and vigorous when important internal organs are employed1 than when they are at rest4 ,when the vital powers are greatest1 and the system most free from exhaustion1 bathing is most beneficial2 hence the morning is preferable to the evening1 and the middle of the forenoon to the middle of the afternoon1 for this healthful and agreeable duty2 as the vital action of the system is most energetic in the early part of the day4 ------------ #fii4 ,what is the effect upon the skin when cold water is applied8 ,what is the first object and purpose of every form of bathing8 #gjj4 ,how is this condition of the skin known8 ,mention the salutary effects that this condition has on the body4 #gja4 ,how should bathing be performed1 in order to be efficient in preserving health8 ------------ #gjb4 ,in regard to the frequency of bathing1 the face and neck1 from their necessary exposure to the atmosphere1 and the impurities which the latter contains1 should receive at least two washings in twenty-four hours1 one of which should be with soap2 the feet1 from the confined nature of the coverings which are worn over them1 require at least one2 the armpits1 from the detention1 as well as from the peculiar properties of the secretions1 at least one2 and the hands and arms1 as many as seem proper4 ,the whole person should be bathed at least every second day1 but the most perfect health of every part of the body would be maintained1 if the excretions from the skin were removed daily4 #gjc4 ,in diseases of the skin and internal organs1 bathing is a remedial measure of great power4 ,it should never be neglected or omitted4 ,it is not only pleasant and safe1 but is really more effective than any medicine administered internally4 ,this1 like other curative means1 should be applied by the direction and under the eye of the medical adviser1 that it may be adapted to the condition of the patient4 #gjd4 ,from the first hour of man's existence to his latest breath1 in health and in sickness1 rich or poor1 water is always requisite4 ,baths were dedicated by the ancients to the divinities of medicine1 strength1 and wisdom1 namely1 sculapius1 ,hercules1 and ,minerva1 to whom might properly be added the goddess of health1 ,hygeia4 ,the use of water has been enforced as a religious observance1 and water has been adopted as one of the symbols of ,christianity4 ------------ ,when should bathing be performed8 #gjb4 ,how often should we bathe8 #gjc4 ,what is said of bathing in disease8 ,who should direct the kind of bath proper in different diseases8 #gjd4 ,were baths dedicated by the ancients8 ------------ #gje4 ,the ,,air is an agent of importance in the functions of the skin4 ,it imparts to this membrane oxygen1 and receives from it carbonic acid4 ,it likewise removes from it a large portion of the perspiration and the more fluid portions of the oily secretion4 ,in order that the air may accomplish these ends1 it is necessary that it come in contact with the body4 ,this is one of the many reasons why we should wear loose and porous clothing4 #gjf4 ,again1 the air should be pure1 and free from redundant moisture4 ,in the warm mornings of ,july and ,august1 the air is loaded with moisture and impurities1 and the perspirable matter is not removed from the system as it is when the air is pure and dry4 ,this is the cause of the general lassitude that is experienced during such mornings4 ,as soon as the fog is dispelled1 these unpleasant sensations are removed4 ,to sustain the functions of the skin in a healthy state1 the parlor1 kitchen1 sleeping-room1 school-house1 and work-shop1 should be well ventilated4 ,the blood of the system will be purer1 and its color of a brighter scarlet1 if the skin is surrounded by fresh and pure air1 than when it is foul or moist4 #gjg4 ,the ,,light permeating the skin1 not only exercises a salutary influence upon this membrane1 but upon the blood1 and1 through this fluid1 upon the whole system4 ,for this reason1 the kitchen and the sitting-room1 which are the apartments most used by ladies1 should be selected from the most pleasant and well-lighted rooms in the house4 ,on the other hand1 dark rooms and damp cellar-kitchens should be avoided1 as exercising an injurious influence upon both body and mind4 #gjh4 ,the dark1 damp rooms1 so much used in cities and large villages1 by indigent families and domestics1 are fruitful causes of disease1 as well as of vice1 poverty1 and suffering4 ,common observation shows that solar light also exercises much influence upon the vigor and color of vegetables4 ,plants that are kept in well-lighted rooms1 have darker and more brilliant colors than those that grow in darkened apartments4 ------------ #gje4 ,give the reasons why pure air should be supplied to the skin4 #gjf4 ,what is the cause of the general lassitude in a damp1 warm morning8 #gjg4 ,show the salutary effects of light on the skin4 #gjh4 ,what is one cause of disease and suffering in large villages8 ------------ #gji4 ,,burns and ,,scalds are terms applied to those conditions of the skin which are produced by the application of an undue amount of heat1 which changes the action of its vessels4 #gaj4 ,a small degree of heat will irritate the nerves1 and cause an increased action of the blood-vessels4 ,this is attended with severe smarting pain1 and will be followed by the deposition of serum under the cuticle1 unless applications are made immediately1 to prevent vesication1 or blistering4 ,to prevent or suppress this state of arterial action1 wet some folds of cotton or woollen cloth with cold water1 and apply them to the parts scalded2 continue to apply cold water1 so as to steadily maintain the low temperature of the applications1 as long as the smarting pain is experienced4 ,the steady application of cold dressing also tends to prevent an increased action of the blood-vessels1 and will suppress it1 if it already exist4 #gaa4 ,when blisters are formed1 the cuticle is separated from the other tissues of the skin by the effusion of serum4 ,in all cases1 if this layer of the skin is not removed1 a small opening should be made in the raised cuticle1 by which the serum deposited may be removed4 ,under such circumstances1 never remove the cuticle1 as it makes the best possible covering for the blood-vessels and nerves of the true skin4 ,the cold water dressing1 recommended in the preceding paragraph1 may then be applied as long as the smarting sensation continues4 ,after the pain has subsided1 the blistered part may be covered by a patch of cotton or linen cloth1 upon which an ointment1 made of lard and bees-wax1 has been spread4 ------------ #gji4 ,to what condition of the skin are the terms burns and scalds applied8 #gaj4 ,what is the effect when only a small degree of heat is applied to the skin8 ,how can vesication be prevented8 #gaa4 ,what should be the treatment when blisters are formed8 ------------ #gab4 ,if the cuticle has been removed1 there will be much suffering1 because the nerves are unduly stimulated by the air4 ,the cuticle is the sheath or covering of the vessels and nerves of the skin1 and when it is removed1 a substitute should be applied4 ,this substitute should be soothing1 and cover the denuded surface4 ,linseed-meal or ground slippery-elm bark poultice1 fresh cream1 or lard and bees-wax1 spread upon linen or cotton cloth1 would make a good dressing4 ,when dressings are applied1 they should not be removed until they become dry and irritating4 #gac4 ,if there is much suffering1 administer to an adult from twenty-five to sixty drops of laudanum1 according to the severity of the pain4 ,if the patient is a child1 from fifteen drops to a tea-spoonful of paregoric may be administered4 ,when there is much prostration1 some hot peppermint tea or other stimulant may be found necessary to bring on reaction4 #gad4 ,the hands1 feet1 ears1 c41 are subject1 in cold latitudes1 to be frozen1 or frost-bitten4 ,this may occur when the patient1 at the moment1 is not aware of it4 ,the part affected at first assumes a dull red color1 which gradually gives place to a pale1 waxy appearance1 and becomes quite insensible4 ,the first thing to be done in such cases1 is to restablish circulation4 ,this should be effected very gradually4 ,if a large quantity of blood is thrown suddenly into the chilled and debilitated vessels of the frozen part1 inflammation may be produced that will destroy the vitality of the limb4 ------------ #gab4 ,that should be the treatment if the cuticle has been removed8 ,how often should the dressing of burns be removed8 #gac4 ,what may be necessary when there is much suffering8 #gad4 ,what is the appearance of limbs while freezing8 ,how should the circulation be at first restablished8 ,what should be avoided8 ------------ #gae4 ,the circulation and sensibility may be restored by rubbing the frozen limb1 with snow1 or1 when this is not to be obtained1 cold water2 but snow is always to be preferred4 ,the fire should be avoided2 and it would be better for the patient to be kept in a cold room1 for a time1 where there is no fire1 or where the temperature is moderate4 #gaf4 ,when a person is found benumbed with cold1 and almost or quite insensible1 he should be taken into a cold room1 the clothing removed1 and friction commenced and continued for some time1 with snow4 ,when warmth begins to be restored1 the individual should be rubbed with dry flannel1 and the friction continued until reaction takes place4 ,observation4 ,when the toes and heels have been repeatedly chilled1 there may be produced a disease called chilblains4 ,this affection is attended with tenderness of the parts1 accompanied with a peculiar and troublesome itching4 ,the prevention of this disease is in wearing warm hose and thick shoes of ample size4 ,bathing the feet morning and evening is also a prevention of this disagreeable affection4 ,when chilblains exist1 apply cold water1 warm camphorated spirits1 or turpentine linament4 ------------ #gae4 ,how may the circulation and sensibility be restored8 #gaf4 ,what treatment should be adopted when a person is benumbed with cold8 ,what treatment should be adopted when warmth begins to be restored8 ,what is said of chilblains8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,appendages ,,of ,,the ,,skin4 #gag4 ,the ,,hairs are appendages of the skin1 and1 like the cuticle1 they are a product of secretion4 ,they have no blood-vessels or nerves1 and1 consequently1 no vitality4 ,the hairs take their origin from the cellular membrane1 in the form of bulbs4 ,each hair is enclosed beneath the surface by a vascular secretory follicle1 which regulates its form during growth4 ,in texture1 it is dense1 and homogeneous toward the circumference1 and porous and cellular in the centre1 like the pith of a plant4 ,every hair has on its surface pointed barbs1 arranged in a spiral manner1 and directed toward the root of the hair2 so that1 if a hair be rolled between the fingers1 it moves only in one direction4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,the hair follicle 7#a7 is represented as imbedded in the cellular membrane1 7#b17 which is situated beneath the skin4 #c1 #c1 ,the membranous sac1 which has a narrow neck1 opening externally by a contracted orifice1 through which the hair 7#d7 passes4 ,its internal surface is smooth1 and not adherent to the hair1 but separated from it by a reddish fluid4 ,from the bottom of the sac 7#e7 the pulp of the hair arises1 and passes through the skin at #f4 ------------ #gag-gbc4 ,describe the appendages of the skin4 #gag4 ,why have not hairs vitality8 ,where do they take their origin8 ,give their structure4 ,what is represented by fig4 #aah8 ------------ #gah4 ,the color of the hair varies in different individuals1 and is generally supposed to depend on the fluids contained in the pith4 ,there are two causes which act in changing the hair gray4 ,the first is1 defective secretion of the coloring fluid4 ,the second is1 the canals1 which convey the fluid into the hair1 become obliterated4 ,in the first instance1 the hair will remain2 in the second1 it dies1 and drops out2 the cuticle of the scalp grows over the canal1 which is soon obliterated1 and the head becomes bald4 ,observation4 ,it is related that the hair of ,marie ,antoinette1 ,queen of ,france1 and others1 from excessive mental agitation1 changed from black to gray in a single night4 ,this is not strictly true2 the secretion may be arrested1 but that already deposited in the pith will require days or weeks to be removed4 #gai4 ,upon the upper part of the head1 the oil-tubes open into the hair-sacs2 consequently1 the secretion of the oil-glands is spread over the surface of the hair1 and not upon the cuticle4 ,this is the cause of the dry1 white1 branny scales1 called scurf1 or dandruff1 upon the head4 ,this is natural1 and cannot be prevented4 ,when scurf exists1 the only necessary application to remove it1 is the frequent use of the hair-brush1 and washing with pure water4 ,observation4 ,the secretion of the oil-glands may become impacted around the hairs as they issue from the skin1 and thus prevent their outward movement in growing4 ,the pressure of the matter deposited at their bulbs will then cause itching4 ,the comb and the brush may be used to remove the impacted matter1 and relieve the disagreeable sensation4 #gbj4 ,the oil is most abundant near the roots of the hair ,a free use of the brush spreads it along the hairs1 and gives them a smooth1 glossy appearance4 ,soap should rarely be used in washing the head1 as it will remove the oil which is essential to the health and appearance of the hair4 ------------ #gah4 ,upon what does the color of the hair depend8 ,what are the causes of the hair becoming gray8 ,what is the cause of the hair dropping out8 ,what is related of ,marie ,antoinette8 #gai4 ,how is dandruff on the scalp produced8 ,what is the only necessary application to remove it8 ,give observation4 #gbj4 ,where is the oil of the hair most abundant8 ------------ #gba4 ,the uses of the hair vary in different regions of the body4 ,upon the head1 it aids in shielding the brain from injury by blows1 and it likewise serves to protect this part of the system from heat and cold1 thus maintaining equal temperature of the cerebral organ4 ,about the flections of the joints1 as in the axilla1 7armpit17 they prevent irritation of the skin from friction2 in the passages to the ears and nostrils1 they present an obstacle to the ingress of insects and foreign bodies2 while in the eyebrows and eyelids1 they serve to protect the organ of vision4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,a section of the end of the finger and nail4 #d1 ,section of the last bone of the finger4 #e1 ,fat1 forming the cushion at the end of the finger4 #b1 ,the nail4 #a1 #a1 ,the cuticle continued under and around the root of the nail1 at #c1 #c1 #c4 #gbb4 ,the ,,nails are hard1 elastic1 flexible1 semi-transparent scales1 and present the appearance of a layer of horn4 ,the nail is divided into the root1 the body1 and the free portion4 ,the root is that part which is covered on both surfaces2 the body is that portion which has one surface free2 the free portion projects beyond the end of the finger4 #gbc4 ,the nail is formed of several lamin1 or plates1 that are fitted the one to the other2 the deepest is that which is last formed4 ,the nails1 as well as the hoofs of animals and the cuticle1 are products of secretion4 ,they receive no blood-vessels or nerves4 ,if the cuticle be removed in severe scalds they will separate with it1 as the hoofs of animals are removed by the agency of hot water4 ,the nails increase in length and thickness1 by the deposition of albumen upon their under surface1 and at their roots1 in a manner similar to the growth of the cuticle1 of which they constitute a part4 ------------ ,how can it be spread along the hairs8 ,why should soap not be used in washing the hair8 #gba4 ,of what use is the hair upon the head8 ,about the flexions of the joints8 ,in the nasal and ear passages8 ,upon the eyebrows and eyelids8 #gbb4 ,describe the nails4 #gbc4 ,how are they formed8 ------------ ,observations4 #ast4 ,the nail upon its under surface is fashioned into thin vertical plates1 which are received between the folds of the sensitive skin4 ,in this manner1 the two kinds of lamin reciprocally embrace each other1 and the firmness of connection of the nail is maintained4 ,if we look on the surface of the nail1 we see an indication of this structure in the alternate red and white lines which are there observed4 ,the former of these correspond with the sensitive lamin2 the latter with the horny plates4 ,the ribbed appearance of the nail is due to the same circumstance4 ,these sensitive lamin are provided with an unusual number of capillary vessels for the formation of the nail1 and hence they give a red tint to the portion under which they lie4 #b;d4 ,near the root of the nail there is a part that is not laminated1 and it is less abundantly supplied with blood-vessels4 ,this portion consequently looks pale compared with the laminated portion1 and from its half-moon shape is technically termed lunula4 ,beyond the lunula1 the root of the nail is imbedded in the fold of the sensitive skin1 and has the same relation to that structure that any single one of the thin horny plates of its under surface has to its corresponding pair of sensitive lamin4 #gbd4 ,the nails1 from their position1 are continually receiving knocks1 which produce a momentary disturbance of their cell formation1 followed by a white spot4 ,the care of the nails should be strictly limited to the knife or scissors1 to their free border1 and an ivory presser1 to prevent adhesion of the free margin of the scarf-skin to the surface of the nail4 ,this edge of the cuticle should never be pared1 the surface of the nail never scraped1 nor the nails cleaned with any instrument whatever1 except the nail-brush1 aided by water and soap4 ,an observance of these suggestions1 will prevent irregularities and disorders of the nails4 ------------ ,give observation #ast4 ,observation #b;d4 #gbd4 ,how should the nails be treated to prevent irregularities and disease8 ------------ ,observations4 #ast4 ,when we wear a shoe that is too short for the foot1 the edge of the nail is brought against the leather4 ,this interrupts the forward growth of the nail1 and it spreads out on the sides1 and becomes unusually thick4 ,it then presses upon the soft parts1 and is said to grow into the flesh4 ,the prevention is1 to wear shoes of ample size4 #b;d4 ,instances are by no means unfrequent in which the power of production of the nail at the root becomes entirely destroyed1 and it then grows in thickness only4 ,when this affection occurs1 it is often remarkable what a mass the nail presents4 ,instances are on record1 where the nail is regularly shed2 and1 whenever the old nail falls off1 a new one is found beneath it1 perfectly formed4 ,sometimes the growth in length is not entirely checked1 although growth in thickness is induced2 the nail then presents a peculiar appearance4 ------------ ,what causes the edge of the nail to grow into the flesh of the toe8 ,how prevented8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 #gbe4 ,in the preceding chapters1 we have seen how various and complex are many of the motions necessary to maintain the life of an animal whose organization is superior to all others4 ,we have noted the wonderful mechanism of the muscular system1 in producing the varied movements of the body1 the different processes by which the food is converted into chyle and mixed with the blood1 and the circulation of this fluid to every organ and tissue of the system1 that each may select from it the very principles which it requires for its growth4 #gbf4 ,lymphatic absorption commences as soon as nutrition is completed1 and conveys the useless1 worn-out particles of different tissues back into the circulating fluid2 while the respiratory organs and secretory glands perform the work of preparing the waste products to be eliminated from the body4 ,each of these processes effects a single object1 and is performed in a regular manner4 #gbg4 ,they must succeed each other in proper order in propelling every particle to its proper destination1 or life would be sacrificed almost at the moment of its commencement4 ,there is1 therefore1 a mutual dependence of all portions of the machinery of organic life upon each other1 and a necessity for some medium of communication from one organ to another1 by which they may convey mutual information of their several conditions1 if we may be permitted to employ a figurative expression4 ,were there no such medium1 how would the stomach notify the heart that additional exertion on its part is required1 because the stomach is busy in digesting food8 ------------ #gbe4 ,what has been noted in the preceding chapters8 #gbf4 ,show the manner in which the several processes are performed4 #gbg4 ,how must they succeed each other8 ------------ #gbh4 ,when we are exerting the muscular system for a long time in some laborious employment1 how else are our members to inform the stomach that they are too much occupied with their duties to spare the blood necessary in digestion2 that it is requisite that the appetite should decline2 and that digestion should cease for the time1 even if the stomach should be oppressed with its contents8 ,when we are thinking1 how else are the blood-vessels to be told that an unusual supply of their contents is wanting in the head8 or when the whole frame is weary with exertion1 how1 without some regular line of intelligence between all the organs1 is the brain to be instructed that circumstances require that it should go to sleep8 ,to supply the necessary medium of communication1 ,providence has furnished all the animals that possess distinct organs1 with a peculiar apparatus called the ,nervous ,system4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 #gbi4 ,the ,,nervous ,,system consists of the ,cere-bro-spinal ,centre1 and of numerous rounded and flattened white cords1 called nerves1 which are connected at one extremity with the cerebro-spinal centre1 and at the other1 distributed to all the textures of the body4 ,the sympathetic nerve is an exception to this description2 for1 instead of one1 it has many small centres1 which are called gangli-a1 and which communicate very freely with the cerebro-spinal centre1 and with its nerves4 ------------ #gbh4 ,what is the medium of communication from one organ to another8 #gbi-ged4 ,give the anatomy of the brain and cranial nerves4 #gbi4 ,of what does the nervous system consist8 ,what constitutes an exception to this8 ------------ #gcj4 ,the ,,cerebro-,,spinal ,,centre consists of two portions3 ,the brain1 and the spinal cord4 ,for convenience of description1 the nervous system may be divided into the ,brain1 ,cranial ,nerves1 ,spinal ,cord1 ,spinal ,nerves1 and the ,sympathetic ,nerve4 #gca4 ,the term ,,brain designates those parts of the nervous system1 exclusive of the nerves themselves1 which are contained within the cranium1 or skull-bones2 they are the ,cere-brum1 ,cer-e-bellum1 and ,me-dulla ,ob-lon-gata4 ,these are invested and protected by the membranes of the brain1 which are called the ,dura ,mater1 ,a-rachnoid1 and ,pia ,mater4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 #a1 #a1 ,the scalp turned down4 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,the cut edge of the bones of the skull4 #c1 ,the external strong membrane of the brain 7dura mater17 suspended by a hook4 #d1 ,the left hemisphere of the brain1 showing its convolutions4 ------------ #gcj4 ,of what does the cerebro-spinal centre consist8 ,how is the nervous system divided8 #gca4 ,what does the term brain designate8 ,name them4 ,how are they protected8 ,describe fig4 #abj4 ------------ #gcb4 ,the ,,cerebrum ,,is divided into two hemispheres1 by a cleft1 or fissure4 ,into this cleft dips a portion of the dura mater1 called the falx cere-bri1 from its resembling a sickle4 ,the apparent design of this membrane is to relieve the one side from the pressure of the other1 when the head is reclining to either side4 ,upon the superior surface of the cerebrum are seen undulating windings1 called con-vo-lutions4 ,upon its inferior1 or lower surface1 each hemisphere admits of a division into three lobes--the anterior1 middle1 and posterior4 7,fig4 #abb1 #abc7 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba ,a section of the skull-bones and cerebrum4 #a1 #a1 ,the skull4 #b1 #b1 the dura mater #c1 #c1 ,the cineritious portion of the cerebrum4 #d1 #d1 ,the medullary portion4 ,the dark points indicate the position of divided blood-vessels4 #e1 #e1 ,the lateral ventricles4 ------------ #gcb4 ,how is the cerebrum divided8 ,what is the use of the falx cerebri8 ,what is seen upon the superior surface of the brain8 ,its inferior8 ------------ #gcc4 ,when the upper part of the hemispheres is removed horizontally with a sharp knife1 a centre of white substance is brought to view4 ,this is surrounded by a border of gray1 which follows the depressions of the convolutions1 and presents a zigzag outline4 ,the divided surface will be seen studded with numerous small red points1 which are produced by the escape of blood from the division of the minute arteries and veins4 ,the gray border is called the cortical1 or cineritious portion1 while the white central portion is called the medullary4 ,the two hemispheres are connected by a dense layer of transverse fibres1 called corpus cal-losum4 #gcd4 ,in the interior of the brain there are several cavities1 two of which are of considerable size1 and are called the lateral ventricles4 ,they extend from the anterior to the posterior part of the brain1 and wind their way into other parts of the cerebral organ4 ,observation4 ,in the disease called dropsy of the brain1 7hydrocephalus internus17 the serum1 or water1 is usually deposited in these ventricles4 ,this is effused from the many small blood-vessels of the membrane in these cavities4 #gce4 ,the brain is of a pulpy character1 quite soft in infancy and childhood2 but it gradually becomes more and more consistent1 and in middle age it assumes the form of determinate structure and arrangement4 ,it is more abundantly supplied with blood than any organ of the system4 ,no lymphatics have been detected1 but it is to be presumed that they exist in this organ4 #gcf4 ,the ,,cerebellum is about seven times smaller than the cerebrum4 ,like that organ1 it is composed of white and gray matter1 but the gray constitutes the larger portion4 ,its surface is formed of parallel plates separated by fissures4 ,the white matter is so arranged1 that when cut vertically1 the appearance of the trunk and branches of a tree 7arbor vit7 is presented4 ,it is situated under the posterior lobe of the cerebrum1 from which it is separated by a process of the dura mater1 called the ten-tori-um4 ------------ #gcc4 ,describe the appearance of the brain when a horizontal section has been made4 ,what is the gray border often called8 ,what connects the hemispheres8 #gcd4 ,describe the ventricles of the brain4 ,in the disease called dropsy of the brain1 where is the water deposited8 #gce4 ,what is the character of the brain in childhood8 ,in adults8 #gcf4 ,how does the cerebellum compare in size with the cerebrum8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,the under surface1 or base1 of the brain and origin of the cranial nerves4 #a1 #a1 ,the anterior lobes of the cerebrum4 #b1 #b1 ,the middle lobes4 #c1 #c1 ,the posterior lobes1 almost concealed by the cerebellum4 #d1 #d1 ,the cerebellum4 #g1 #g1 ,the longitudinal fissure that divides the brain into two hemispheres4 #h1 ,the first pair of nerves4 #i1 #i1 ,the second pair of nerves4 #aj1 ,the decussation1 or crossing1 of its fibres4 #ac1 #ac1 ,the third pair of nerves4 #ad1 ,the pons varolii4 #ae1 #ae1 ,the fourth pair of nerves4 #af1 #af1 ,the fifth pair of nerves4 #ag1 ,the sixth pair of nerves4 #ah1 #ah1 ,the seventh and eighth pair of nerves4 #ai1 ,the medulla oblongata1 with the crossing of some of its fibres exhibited4 #bj1 ,the ninth pair of nerves4 #ba1 ,the tenth pair of nerves1 #bb1 ,the eleventh pair of nerves4 #bc1 ,the twelfth pair of nerves4 ------------ ,describe this portion of the brain4 ,explain fig4 #abb4 ------------ #gcg4 ,the ,,medulla ,,oblongata1 or that portion of the spinal cord which is within the skull1 consists of three pairs of bodies1 7corpus py-ram-i-dale1 res-ti-forme1 and ol-i-vare17 united in a single bulb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,the base of the skull and the openings through which the cranial nerves pass4 #a1 #a1 ,the first pair of nerves4 #b1 #b1 ,the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone through which this nerve passes4 #c1 #c1 ,the second pair of nerves4 #d1 #d1 ,the optic foramen in the sphenoid bone2 through which passes the second pair of nerves4 #e1 #e1 ,the sphenoidal fissure4 #f1 #f1 ,the third pair of nerves4 #g1 #g1 ,the fifth pair of nerves4 #h1 #h1 ,the ophthalmic branch of the fifth nerve4 ,the third1 the ophthalmic branch of the fifth and the sixth nerve pass from the brain through the sphenoidal fissure to the eye4 #i1 #i1 ,the superior maxillary branch of the fifth nerve4 #aj1 #aj1 ,the foramen rotundum1 7round opening17 through which the nerve #i1 #i1 passes to the upper jaw4 #aa1 #aa1 ,the inferior maxillary branch of the fifth pair4 #ab1 #ab1 ,the foramen ovale1 7oval opening17 through which the nerve #aa1 #aa1 passes to the lower jaw4 #ac1 #ac1 ,the sixth pair of nerves4 #ad1 #ad1 ,the seventh and eighth pair of nerves4 #ae1 #ae1 ,the opening in the temporal bone1 through which the seventh and eighth nerves pass to the face and ear4 #af1 #af1 ,the ninth pair of nerves4 #ag1 ,the tenth pair of nerves4 #ah1 #ah1 ,the eleventh pair of nerves4 #ai1 #ai1 ,the foramen lacerum 7rough opening47 ,the ninth1 tenth1 and eleventh nerves pass from the brain through this opening4 #bj1 ,the spinal cord4 #ba1 ,the foramen spinalis1 through which the spinal cord passes4 #bb1 #bb1 ,the position of the anterior lobe of the brain4 #bc1 #bc1 ,the middle lobe4 #bd1 #bd1 ,the posterior lobe4 #be1 #be1 ,a section of the skull-bones4 ------------ #gcg4 ,describe the medulla oblongata4 ,explain fig4 #abc4 ------------ #gch4 ,the ,,dura ,,mater is a firm1 fibrous membrane1 which is exposed on the removal of a section of the skull-bones4 ,this lines the interior of the skull and spinal column1 and likewise sends processes inward1 for the support and protection of the different parts of the brain4 ,it also sends processes externally1 which form the sheaths for the nerves1 as they quit the skull and spinal column4 ,the dura mater is supplied with arteries and nerves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,a vertical section of the cerebrum1 cerebellum1 and medulla oblongata1 showing the relation of the cranial nerves at their origin4 #a1 ,the cerebrum4 #b1 ,the cerebellum1 with its arbor vit represented4 #c1 ,the medulla oblongata4 #d1 ,the spinal cord4 #e1 ,the corpus callosum4 #f1 ,the first pair of nerves4 #g1 ,the second pair4 #h1 ,the eye4 #i1 ,the third pair of nerves4 #aj1 ,the fourth pair4 #aa1 ,the fifth pair4 #ab1 ,the sixth pair4 #ac1 ,the seventh pair4 #ad1 ,the eighth pair4 #ae1 ,the ninth pair4 #af1 ,the tenth pair4 #aj1 ,the eleventh pair4 #ah1 ,the twelfth pair4 #bj1 ,spinal nerves4 #ba1 ,the tentorium4 ------------ #gch4 ,describe the dura mater4 ,what is its use8 ,explain fig4 #abd4 ------------ #gci4 ,the ,,arachnoid1 so called from its extreme tenuity1 is the serous membrane of the brain and spinal cord1 and is1 like other serous membranes1 a closed sac4 ,it envelops these organs1 and is reflected upon the inner surface of the dura mater1 giving to that membrane its serous investment4 #gdj4 ,the ,,pia ,,mater is a vascular membrane1 composed of innumerable vessels1 held together by cellular membrane4 ,it invests the whole surface of the brain1 and dips into its convolutions4 ,the pia mater is the nutrient membrane of the brain1 and receives its blood from the carotid and vertebral arteries4 ,its nerves are minute branches of the sympathetic1 which accompany the branches of the arteries4 #gda4 ,the ,,cranial ,,nerves1 that connect with the brain1 are arranged in twelve pairs4 ,they are called3 #ast4 ,the ,ol-facto-ry4 #b;d4 ,the ,optic4 #c;d4 ,the ,mo-tores ,oc-u-lorum4 #dth4 ,the ,pa-theti-cus4 #eth4 ,the ,tri-facial4 #fth4 ,the ,ab-du-centes4 #gth4 ,the ,porti-o ,dura4 #hth4 ,the ,porti-o ,mollis4 #ith4 ,the ,glosso-pha-ryngi-al4 #ajth4 ,the ,pneu-mo-gastric4 #aath4 ,the ,spinal ,acces-so-ry4 #abth4 ,the ,hypo-glossal4 #gdb4 ,the ,,olfactory ,,nerve 7first pair7 passes from the cavity of the skull through many small openings in a plate of the ethmoid bone4 7,this plate is called cribri-form1 from its resemblance to a sieve47 ,this nerve ramifies upon the membrane that lines the nasal passages4 ,it is the softest nerve of the body4 7,fig4 #acf47 #gdc4 ,the ,,optic ,,nerve 7second pair7 passes from the interior of the cranium1 through an opening in the base of the skull1 7fo-ramen opti-cum17 to the cavity for the eye4 ,it pierces the coats of the eye1 and expands in the retina4 #gdd4 ,the ,,motores ,,oculorum 7third pair7 pass from the brain1 through an opening of the sphenoid bone1 7sphe-noidal fissure17 to the muscles of the eye4 ------------ #gci4 ,describe the arachnoid membrane4 #gdj4 ,what is said respecting the pia mater8 #gda4 ,how many pairs of cranial nerves8 ,name them4 #gdb4 ,describe the olfactory nerve4 #gdc4 ,the optic nerve4 #gdd4 ,describe the motores oculorum4 ------------ #gde4 ,the ,,patheticus 7fourth pair7 passes from the brain1 through the sphenoidal fissure1 to the superior oblique muscle of the eye4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,the distribution of the third1 fourth1 and sixth pairs of nerves1 to the muscles of the eye4 #a1 ,the ball of the eye and rectus externus muscle4 #b1 ,the upper jaw4 #c1 ,the third pair1 distributed to all the muscles of the eye1 except the superior oblique1 and external rectus4 #d1 ,the fourth pair passes to the superior oblique muscle4 #f1 ,the sixth pair1 is distributed to the external rectus muscle4 #gdf4 ,the ,,trifacial ,,nerve 7fifth pair7 is analogous to the spinal nerves in its origin by two roots1 from the anterior and posterior columns of the spinal cord4 ,it has a ganglion1 like the spinal nerves upon its posterior root4 ,for these reasons1 it ranges with the spinal nerves1 and is considered the cranial spinal nerve4 ,this nerve divides into three branches3--,the oph-thalmic1 superior maxil-la-ry1 and inferior maxil-la-ry4 ------------ #gde4 ,the patheticus4 ,what does fig4 #abe represent8 #gdf4 ,what is the trifacial nerve sometimes called8 ,why is it classed with the cranial spinal nerves8 ,give the names of its branches4 ------------ #gdg4 ,the ophthalmic nerve passes from the cranial cavity through the sphenoidal fissure4 ,it sends branches to the forehead1 eye1 and nose4 ,the superior maxillary nerve passes through an opening in the base of the skull1 7foramen ro-tunddum17 and sends branches to the eye1 the teeth of the upper jaw1 and the muscles of the face4 ,the inferior maxillary nerve escapes from the cranial cavity through an opening called foramen o-vale4 ,it sends branches to the muscles of the lower jaw1 the ear1 the tongue1 and the teeth of the lower jaw4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,the distribution of the fifth pair of nerves4 #a1 ,the orbit for the eye4 #b1 ,the upper jaw4 #c1 ,the tongue4 #d1 ,the lower jaw4 #e1 ,the fifth pair of nerves4 #f1 ,the first branch of this nerve1 that passes to the eye4 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 ,divisions of this branch4 #g1 ,the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves is distributed to the teeth of the upper jaw4 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 ,divisions of this branch4 #h1 ,the third branch of the fifth pair1 that passes to the tongue and teeth of the lower jaw4 #bc4 ,the division of this branch that passes to the tongue1 called the gusta-to-ry4 #bd4 ,the division that is distributed to the teeth of the lower jaw4 ------------ #gdg4 ,where do the filaments of the ophthalmic branch ramify8 ,the superior maxillary8 ,the inferior maxillary8 ,explain fig4 #abf4 ------------ #gdh4 ,the ,,abducentes 7sixth pair7 passes through the opening by which the carotid artery enters the cranial cavity4 ,it is the smallest of the cerebral nerves1 and is appropriated to the external straight muscle of the eye4 #gdi4 ,the ,,portio ,,mollis 7seventh pair7 enters the hard portion of the tempo-ral bone at the internal auditory opening1 and is distributed upon the internal ear4 7,fig4 #adg1 #adh47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,a representation of the distribution of the eighth pair of nerves with some branches of the fifth4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #i1 ,are branches of the eighth pair4 ,they are distributed over the face in a radiated manner1 which constitutes the pes anserinus1 7foot of a goose47 ,the nerves #d1 #f1 #h1 are branches of the fifth pair4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 ,are branches of nerves from the upper part of the spinal cord1 7cervical47 #gej4 ,the ,,facial ,,nerve 7eighth pair7 passes from the skull through an opening situated below the ear1 7mastoid foramen47 ,it is distributed over the face1 supplying the muscles with nervous filaments4 ------------ #gdh4 ,what is said of the abducentes1 or sixth pair of nerves8 #gdi4 ,of the portio mollis8 ,explain fig4 #abg4 #gej4 ,of the facial nerve8 ------------ #gea4 ,the ,,glosso-,,pharyngeal ,,nerve 7ninth pair7 passes from the brain1 through an opening with the jugular vein1 7foramen lace-rum47 ,it is distributed to the mucous membrane of the tongue and throat1 and also to the mucous glands of the mouth4 #geb4 the ,,pneumogastric ,,nerve 7tenth pair7 escapes from the brain through the foramen lacerum4 ,it sends branches to the larynx1 pharynx1 oesophagus1 lungs1 spleen1 pancreas1 liver1 stomach1 and intestines4 7,fig4 #acb47 #gec4 ,the ,,spinal ,,accessory ,,nerve 7eleventh pair7 has its origin in the respiratory tract of the spinal cord4 ,it connects with the ninth and tenth pairs of nerves1 and is distributed to the muscles about the neck4 #ged4 ,the ,,hypo-,,glossal ,,nerve 7twelfth pair7 passes from the brain1 through a small opening1 7condy-loid foramen47 ,it ramifies upon the muscles of the tongue1 and is its motor nerve4 ,observation4 ,the cranial nerves1 with the exception of the olfactory1 optic1 and auditory1 connect with each other by means of filaments4 ,they also send connecting nervous filaments to the upper spinal nerves1 7cervical17 and the sympathetic nerve4 ------------ #gea4 ,describe the glosso-pharyngeal nerve4 #geb4 ,the pneumogastric nerve4 #gec4 ,the spinal accessory nerve4 #ged4 ,the hypo-glossal nerve4 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,system1 ,,continued4 #gee4 ,the spinal column contains the spinal cord1 the roots of the spinal nerves1 and the membranes of the cord4 #gef4 ,the ,,spinal ,,cord extends from the medulla oblongata to the second lumbar vertebra1 where it terminates in a rounded point4 ,it presents a difference of diameter in different parts of its extent1 and exhibits three enlargements4 ,the uppermost of these is the medulla oblongata4 ,there is no distinct demarkation between this enlargement and the spinal cord4 ,the next corresponds with the origin of the nerves distributed to the upper extremities2 the third enlargement is situated near the termination of the cord1 and corresponds with the attachment of the nerves which are intended for the supply of the lower extremities4 #geg4 ,an anterior and posterior fissure divides the spinal cord into two lateral cords4 ,these are united by a thin layer of white substance4 ,the lateral cords are each divided by furrows into three distinct sets of fibres1 or columns2 namely the anterior1 lateral1 and posterior columns4 ,the anterior are the motor columns2 the posterior are the columns of sensation2 the lateral columns are divided in their function between motion and sensation4 ,they contain the fasciculus described1 by ,sir ,charles ,bell1 as the respiratory tract4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,a section of the brain and spinal column4 #a1 ,the cerebrum4 #b1 ,the cerebellum4 #c1 ,the medulla oblongata4 #d1 #d1 ,the spinal cord in its canal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,anterior view of the brain and spinal cord4 #a1 #a1 ,the two hemispheres of the cerebrum4 #c1 #c1 ,the cerebellum4 #d1 ,the olfactory nerve4 #e1 ,the optic nerve4 #g1 ,the third pair of nerves4 #h1 ,the pons varolii4 #i1 ,the fourth pair of nerves4 #aj1 ,the lower portion of the medulla oblongata4 #aa1 #aa1 ,the spinal cord4 #ab1 #ab1 ,spinal nerves4 #ac1 #ac1 ,the brachial plexus4 #ad1 #ad1 ,the lumbar and sacral plexus4 ------------ #gee-gfg4 ,give the anatomy of the spinal cord1 spinal nerves1 and the sympathetic nerve4 #gee4 ,what does the spinal column contain8 #gef4 ,give the extent of the spinal cord4 ,how many enlargements has this cord8 ,what is said of each enlargement8 #geg4 ,into how many parts is the spinal cord divided8 ,give the function of these columns4 ------------ #geh4 ,the ,,spinal ,,nerves1 that connect with the spinal cord1 are arranged in thirty-one pairs1 each arising by two roots2 an anterior1 or motor root1 and a posterior1 or sensitive root4 ,each nerve1 when minutely examined1 is found to consist of an aggregate of very delicate filaments1 enclosed in a common cellular envelope4 ------------ #geh4 ,how many pairs of nerves issue from the spinal cord8 ,explain fig4 #abh4 ,fig4 #abi4 ------------ #gei4 ,the anterior roots arise from a narrow white line upon the anterior columns of the spinal cord4 ,the posterior roots arise from a narrow gray band formed by the internal gray substance of the cord4 ,they are larger1 and the filaments of origin more numerous than those of the anterior roots4 ,a ganglion is found upon each of the posterior roots in the openings between the bones of the spinal column through which the nerve passes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,a section of the spinal cord1 surrounded by its sheath4 ,b1 ,a spinal nerve1 formed by the union of the motor root 7,c7 and the sensitive root 7,d47 ,at ,d1 the ganglion upon this root is seen4 #gfj4 ,after the formation of the ganglion1 the two roots unite1 and constitute a spinal nerve1 which passes through the opening between the vertebr on the sides of the spinal column4 ,the nerves divide and subdivide1 until their minute filaments ramify on the tissues of the different organs4 ------------ #gei4 ,give the origin of the anterior roots4 ,of the posterior roots4 ,in what respect do the posterior roots differ from the anterior8 #gfj4 ,when do the two roots unite1 and where do they pass8 ------------ #gfa4 ,the spinal nerves are divided into-- ,cervical1 #h pairs1 ,dorsal1 #ab ,lumbar1 #e ,sacral1 #f #gfb4 ,the four lower cervical and upper dorsal pass into each other and then separate to reunite4 ,this is called the brachi-al plexus4 ,from this plexus six nerves proceed1 which ramify upon the muscles and skin of the upper extremities4 #gfc4 ,the last dorsal and the five lumbar nerves form a plexus called the lumbar1 similar to that of the cervical4 ,six nerves pass from this plexus1 which ramify upon the muscles and skin of the lower extremities4 #gfd4 ,the last lumbar and the four upper sacral unite to form the sacral plexus4 ,from this plexus five nerves proceed1 that are distributed to the muscles and skin of the hip and lower extremities4 #gfe4 ,the ,,sympathetic ,,nerve#ai consists of a series of ,gangli-a1 or knots1 extending each side of the spinal column1 forming a chain its whole length4 ,it communicates with both the cranial and spinal nerves4 ,with the exception of the neck1 there is a ganglion for each intervertebral space4 ,these ganglia are composed of a mixture of cineritious and medullary matter1 and are supposed to be productive of peculiar nervous power4 #ai ,the structure of this nerve is very complicated1 and different physiologists ascribe to it various functions4 ,the character of its diseases are not well understood4 ------------ #gfa4 ,give the division of the spinal nerves4 #gfb4 ,what nerves constitute the brachial plexus8 ,how many nerves pass from this plexus8 #gfc4 ,how many nerves from the lumbar plexus1 and where do they ramify8 #gfd4 ,how is the sacral plexus formed8 #gfe4 ,of what does the sympathetic nerve consist8 ,how is the sympathetic nerve distributed8 ,what exception8 ,of what are the ganglia composed8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,a beautiful representation of the sympathetic ganglia and their connection with other nerves4 ,it is from the grand engraving of ,manec1 reduced in size4 ,a1 ,a1 ,a1 ,the semilunar ganglion and solar plexus1 situated below the diaphragm and behind the stomach4 ,this ganglion is situated in the region 7pit of the stomach7 where a blow gives severe suffering4 ,d1 ,d1 ,d1 ,the thoracic ganglia1 ten or eleven in number4 ,e1 ,e1 ,the external and internal branches of the thoracic ganglia4 ,g1 ,h1 ,the right and left coronary plexus1 situated upon the heart4 ,i1 ,n1 ,q1 ,the inferior1 middle1 and superior cervical ganglia4 #a1 ,the renal plexus of nerves that surrounds the kidneys4 #b1 ,the lumbar ganglion4 #c1 ,their internal branches4 #d1 ,their external branches4 #e1 ,the aortic plexus of nerves that lies upon the aorta4 ,the other letters and figures represent nerves that connect important organs and nerves with the sympathetic ganglia4 #gff4 ,the ,,ganglia may be considered as distinct centres1 giving off branches in four directions2 namely1 the superior1 or ascending1 to communicate with the ganglion above2 the inferior1 or descending1 to communicate with the ganglion below2 the external1 to communicate with the spinal nerves2 and the internal1 to communicate with the sympathetic filaments4 ,it is generally admitted that the nerves that pass from the ganglia are larger than those that entered them2 as if they imparted to the nerve some additional power4 #gfg4 ,the branches of distribution accompany the arteries which supply the different organs1 and form communications around them1 which are called plexuses1 and take the name of the artery with which they are associated4 ,thus we have the mesenteric plexus1 hepatic plexus1 splenic plexus1 c4 ,all the internal organs of the head1 neck1 and trunk1 are supplied with branches from the sympathetic1 and some of them exclusively2 for this reason1 it is considered a nerve of organic life4 ------------ ,what is the design of fig1 #aca8 #gff4 ,how may the ganglia be considered8 #gfg4 ,what is said of the branches of the sympathetic nerve8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 #gfh4 ,the brain is regarded by physiologists and philosophers as the organ of the mind4 ,most writers consider it as an aggregate of parts1 each charged with specific functions1 and that these functions are the highest and most important in the animal economy4 ,to the large brain1 or cerebral lobes1 they ascribe the seat of the faculties of thinking1 memory1 and the will4 ,in man1 this lobe extends so far backward as to cover the whole of the cerebellum4 ,to the cerebellum1 or little brain1 is ascribed the seat of the animal1 or lower propensities4 #gfi4 ,the constant relation between mental power and development of brain1 explains why capacities and dispositions are so different4 ,in infancy1 for example1 the intellectual powers are feeble and inactive4 ,this arises partly from the inaptitude of a still imperfect brain2 but in proportion as the latter advances toward its mature state1 the mental faculties also become vigorous and active4 #ggj4 ,we are able1 in most instances1 at least1 to trace a correspondence between the development of the cerebral lobes and the amount of intelligence possessed by the person4 ,the weight of the brain in man to that of the whole body varies in different individuals4 ,the heaviest brain on record was that of ,cuvier1 which weighed #d pounds and #ac ounces4 ------------ #gfh-ggb4 ,give the physiology of the nervous system4 #gfh4 ,how is the brain regarded by physiologists and philosophers8 ,what do they ascribe to the cerebrum8 ,to the cerebellum8 #gfi4 ,what does the relation between mental powers and development of brain explain8 #ggj4 ,what is said respecting the correspondence between the development of the brain and the amount of intelligence possessed by the person8 ,what is said of the weight of the brain8 ------------ #gga4 ,the brain likewise holds an important relation to all the other organs of the system4 ,to the muscular system it imparts an influence which induces contraction of the fibres4 ,by this relation they are brought under the control of the will4 ,to the skin1 eye1 and ear1 it imparts an influence that gives sensibility1 or the power of feeling1 seeing1 hearing1 c4 #ggb4 ,again1 the involuntary functions of the different portions of the system are more or less influenced by the brain4 ,if the action of this central organ of the nervous system is destroyed1 the functions of the digestive1 respiratory1 and circulatory apparatuses will be much disturbed or entirely suppressed4 #ggc4 ,the brain is the seat of sensation4 ,it receives the impressions made on all parts of the body1 through the medium of the sensitive nerves4 ,that the impressions of external objects1 made on these nerves1 be communicated to the brain1 where sensation is perceived1 it is necessary that they be not diseased or injured4 ,observation4 ,there is a plain distinction between sensations and impressions2 the latter are the changes produced in the extremities of the nerve2 the former1 the changes produced in the brain and communicated to the mind4 #ggd4 ,what part of the brain receives the impressions or has the most intimate relation with the intellectual faculties is unknown4 ,some portions1 however1 are of less importance than others4 ,large portions of the cortical1 or outer part1 are frequently removed without affecting the functions of this organ4 ,pieces of the medullary1 or central parts1 have been removed by injuries without impairing the intellect or destroying life4 ,this organ1 although it takes cognizance of every sensation1 is1 of itself1 but slightly sensible4 ,it may be cut1 or parts may be removed without pain1 and the individual1 at the same times retain his consciousness4 ------------ #gga4 ,what is said of the relation of the brain to all of the organs of the body8 #ggb4 ,are the involuntary functions of different parts of the system influenced by the brain8 #ggc4 ,where is sensation perceived8 ,by what agency are the impressions of external objects conveyed to the brain8 ,what is the difference between sensations and impressions8 #ggd4 ,is it known what part of the brain has the most intimate relation with the intellectual faculties8 ------------ #gge4 ,the brain is the seat of the will4 ,it superintends the physical as well as the mental movements1 and the medium of communication from this organ to the muscles1 or the parts to be moved1 is the motor nerves4 ,if the brain is in a quiescent state1 the muscles are at rest2 if1 by an act of the will1 the brain sends a portion of nervous influence to a voluntary muscle1 it immediately contracts1 and those parts to which the muscle is attached move4 ,there is no perceptible interval between the act of the will and the motion of the part4 #ggf4 ,some physiologists assert1 that the medulla oblongata is the point at which excitement to motion commences1 and sensation terminates2 and also1 that it possesses the power of originating motion in itself4 ,observation4 ,the medulla oblongata1 unlike the brain1 is highly sensitive2 if slightly punctured1 convulsions follow2 if much injured1 respiration1 or breathing1 immediately ceases4 #ggg4 ,it is remarkable that the nerves which arise from the right side of the spinal cord communicate with the left hemisphere of the cerebrum1 and vice versa2 this results from the crossing of the fibres in the medulla oblongata4 ,it follows from this1 that if the right side of the brain receives an injury1 the parts of the opposite side of the body lose their sensibility and motion4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,if the cranial nerves which are connected by a single root are divided1 only the sensation of the part to which they are distributed is lost4 ,thus1 if the optic nerve is divided1 the sense of vision disappears1 but the motions of the eye are performed as readily as before4 ,but1 if the spinal nerves are divided1 both sensation and motion of the part to which they lead are destroyed4 ------------ ,what portions have been removed without impairing the intellect8 ,what is remarkable of the brain8 #gge4 ,what is the influence of the brain upon the muscles8 #ggf4 ,what do some physiologists assert of the medulla oblongata8 #ggg4 ,what is remarkable of the nerves8 ,give the #ast observation relative to the cranial nerves4 ------------ #b;d4 ,when the spinal cord is divided or compressed1 as in fractures of the spinal column1 all parts below the fracture are paralyzed1 though the nerves leading to these parts may be uninjured4 #c;d4 ,again1 one side of the body or one limb may become insensible1 and the power to move it1 be perfectly retained2 or the reverse of this may happen--the power of motion will be lost while sensation remains4 ,in the former instance1 the function of the posterior1 or sensitive column of the spinal cord on one side is destroyed2 in the latter1 the anterior1 or motor column is affected4 #dth4 ,in some cases1 both sensation and motion of one side of the body or one limb are destroyed4 ,in such instances1 both the anterior and the posterior columns of one side of the spinal cord are diseased4 #ggh4 ,vigorous and controllable muscular contraction requires a sound and well-developed brain4 ,if this organ is defective in these particulars1 the movements will be inefficient1 and may be irregular4 ,the central organ of the nervous system must1 likewise1 be in an active condition1 to induce regular1 steady1 and controllable muscular movements4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,persons who have suffered from apoplexy and other severe diseases of the brain1 have an involuntary trembling of the limbs1 which results from a weakened state of the nervous system4 ------------ ,to the spinal nerves4 ,what is said of the compression of the spinal cord8 ,give the #c;d observation relative to the spinal nerves4 ,the #dth observation4 #ggh4 ,upon what does vigorous controllable muscular contraction depend8 ,what causes the involuntary trembling of the limbs in persons who have suffered from apoplexy8 ------------ #b;d4 ,the tremor of the hand1 that lessens the usefulness or incapacitates the fine artist or skilful mechanic1 in the prime of life1 from pursuing their vocations1 may be1 and is often1 induced by the influence of intoxicating drink1 which debilitates and disorganizes the brain4 #c;d4 ,the tottering step1 trembling hand1 and shaking head of the aged invalid1 are the results of diminished nervous energy1 so that steady muscular contraction1 so essential to regular movements1 cannot be maintained4 #ggi4 ,no difference can be discovered in the structure of the several kinds of nerves in any part of their course1 and the functions they are designed to perform can only be known by ascertaining the place of their origin4 ,the nerves may be functionally divided into five groups4 #ghj4 #ast4 ,nerves of special sensation4 ,these are the first1 second1 eighth1 and it may be one of the branches of the fifth pair of cranial nerves4 ,the function of these nerves is particularly described in the chapters upon the senses of smell1 vision1 hearing1 and taste4 #gha4 #b;d4 ,nerves of general sensation4 ,these embrace the fifth pair of cranial nerves1 and the thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves4 ,in those parts that require sensation for their safety and the performance of their functions1 there is an abundant supply of sensitive nervous filaments4 ,the nerves of sensation are mostly distributed upon the skin4 ,few filaments ramify upon the mucous membranes and muscles4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,the painful sensations experienced in the face1 and in the teeth or jaws1 7tic douloureux and toothache17 are induced by irritation and disease of a portion of the filaments of the fifth pair of cranial nerves4 ------------ ,the tremor of the hand among some mechanics in the prime of life8 ,the tottering step of the aged invalid8 #ggi4 ,what is said relative to the structure of the nerves8 ,how may they be divided8 #ghj4 ,give the nerves of special sense4 #gha4 ,those of general sensation4 ,where are the nerves of sensation distributed8 ,what causes tic douloureux8 ------------ #b;d4 ,the unpleasant sensation sometimes experienced when we hear the grating of a file or saw1 is produced by the connection of the nerve that passes across the drum of the ear with the fifth cranial nerve4 #c;d4 ,when pressure is made on the trunk of a nerve1 the sensibility of the part where the nerve ramifies is modified4 ,this is illustrated1 when pressure is made upon the large nerve of the lower extremity 7sciatic7 in sitting upon a hard bench4 ,the foot is then said to be asleep4 #dth4 ,when the trunk of a nerve is diseased or injured1 the pain is experienced in the outer extremity of the nerve4 ,a blow upon the elbow1 which causes a peculiar sensation in the little finger and one side of the ring finger1 affords a familiar illustration4 ,this sensation is produced by injuring the ulnar nerve1 which is distributed to the little finger4 #ghb4 #c;d4 ,nerves of motion4 ,these are the third1 sixth1 and twelfth pairs of cranial nerves1 and the thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves4 ,these nerves are distributed to the fibres of the five hundred muscles of the body4 ,the functions of the muscular are different from those of the sensitive nerves4 ,the former are provided for the purpose of motion1 and not of feeling4 ,hence1 muscles may be cut1 and the pain will be slight1 compared with the cutting of the skin4 ,this may be called muscular pain4 ,weariness is a sensation recognized by one set of muscular nerves4 #ghc4 ,so uniformly is a separate instrument provided for every additional function1 that there is strong reason to regard the muscular nerves1 although running in one sheath1 as in reality double1 and performing distinct functions4 ,sir ,charles ,bell1 in his work on the ,nervous ,system1 endeavors to show1 that one set of nervous fibres conveys the mandate from the brain to the muscle1 and excites the contraction2 and that another set conveys1 from the muscle to the brain1 a peculiar sense of the state or degree of contraction of the muscle1 by which we are enabled to judge of the amount of stimulus necessary to accomplish the end desired4 ,this is obviously an indispensable piece of information to the mind in regulating the movements of the body4 ------------ ,how is the peculiar sensation accounted for when we hear the grating of a file or saw8 ,what produces the sensation when the foot is said to be asleep8 ,what is the effect when the ulnar nerve is injured by a blow8 #ghb4 ,give the nerves of motion4 ,what is said of the functions of the muscular nerves8 #ghc4 ,what does ,sir ,charles ,bell endeavor to show8 ------------ #ghd4 #dth4 ,nerves of respiration4 ,these are the fourth1 seventh1 ninth1 tenth1 and eleventh pair of cranial nerves1 also the phrenic and the external respiratory nerve4 ,all of these nerves have their origin in a distinct tract or column1 called the lateral1 in the upper part of the spinal cord4 ,hence it is sometimes named the respiratory column4 ,these nerves are distributed to one of the muscles of the eye2 to the muscles of the face2 to the tongue1 pharynx1 oesophagus1 stomach1 heart1 lungs1 diaphragm1 and some of the muscles of the neck and chest4 #ghe4 ,it is through the instrumentality of the accessory1 phrenic1 and external respiratory nerves1 7#aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 fig4 #acb17 that the muscles employed in respiration are brought into action without the necessity of the interference of the mind4 ,though to a certain extent they may be under the influence of the will1 yet it is only in a secondary degree4 ,no one can long suspend the movements of respiration2#bj for in a short time1 instinctive feeling issues its irresistible mandate1 which neither requires the aid of erring wisdom1 nor brooks the capricious interference of the will4 #bj ,dr4 ,elliotson1 and some other writers ,on physiology1 have detailed cases of death from voluntary suspension of respiration4 ,but these cases are not conclusive1 as examinations were not made1 so as to determine positively1 that death did not result from disease of the heart1 brain1 or some other vital organ4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,the distribution of the respiratory nerves4 a1 ,section of the brain and medulla oblongata4 b1 ,the lateral columns of the spinal cord4 c1 c1 ,the respiratory tract of the spinal cord4 d1 ,the tongue4 e1 ,the larynx4 f1 ,the bronchia4 g1 ,the oesophagus4 h1 ,the stomach4 i1 ,the diaphragm4 #a1 ,the pneumogastric nerve4 #b1 ,the superior laryngeal nerve4 #c1 ,the recurrent laryngeal nerve4 7,these two ramify on the larynx47 #d1 ,the pulmonary plexus of the tenth nerve4 #e1 ,the cardiac plexus of the tenth nerve4 ,these two plexuses supply the heart and lungs with nervous filaments4 #g1 ,the origin of the fourth pair of nerves1 that passes to the superior oblique muscle of the eye4 #h1 ,the origin of the facial nerve1 that is spread out on the side of the face and nose4 #i1 ,the origin of the glosso-pharyngeal nerve1 that passes to the tongue and pharynx4 #aj1 ,the origin of the spinal accessory nerve4 #aa1 ,this nerve penetrating the sterno-mastoideus muscle4 #ab1 ,the origin of the internal respiratory or phrenic nerve1 that is seen to ramify on the diaphragm4 #ac1 ,the origin of the external respiratory nerve1 that ramifies on the pectoral and scaleni muscles4 ------------ #ghd4 ,give the respiratory nerves4 ,what is said in reference to the respiratory nerves8 #ghe4 ,through the agency of what nerves are the respiratory muscles brought into action8 ,explain fig4 #acb4 ------------ #ghf4 ,the fourth1 seventh1 and tenth pairs of nerves1 7#g1 #h1 #i1 fig4 #acb17 with the spinal accessory1 phrenic1 and external respiratory1 are not only connected with the function of respiration1 but contribute to the expression of the passions and emotions of the mind4 #ghg4 ,the influence of this order of nerves in the expression of the passions1 is strikingly depicted in ,sir ,charles ,bell's ,treatise on the ,nervous ,system4 ,in terror1 he remarks1 we can readily conceive why a man stands with his eyes intently fixed on the object of his fears--the eyebrows elevated1 and the eyeballs largely uncovered2 or why1 with hesitating and bewildered steps1 his eyes are rapidly and wildly in search of something4 ,in this way1 we only perceive the intense application of his mind to the objects of his apprehension1 and its direct influence on the outward organs4 ------------ ,can respiration be suspended for any considerable length of time8 #ghf4 ,what nerves contribute to the expression of the passions and emotions of the mind8 #ghg1 #ghh4 ,what does ,sir ,charles ,bell say of the influence of this order of nerves in the expression of the passions8 ------------ #ghh4 ,but when we observe him further1 there is a spasm in his breast2 he cannot breathe freely2 the chest remains elevated1 and his respiration is short and rapid4 ,there is a gasping and convulsive motion of his lips1 a tremor on his hollow cheeks1 a gasping and catching of his throat2 his heart knocks at his ribs1 while yet there is no force in the circulation--the lips and cheeks being ashy pale4 #ghi4 ,these nerves are the instruments of expression1 from the smile upon the infant's cheek1 to the last agony of life4 ,it is when the strong man is subdued by this mysterious influence of soul on body1 and when the passions may be truly said to tear the heart1 that we have the most afflicting picture of human frailty1 and the most unequivocal proof that it is the order of functions we have been considering1 that is thus affected4 ,in the first struggle of the infant to draw breath1 in the man recovering from a state of suffocation1 and in the agony of passion1 when the breast labors from the influence at the heart1 the same system of parts is affected1 the same nerves1 the same muscles1 and the symptoms or character have a strict resemblance4 #gij4 ,the seventh pair of nerves not only communicates the purposes of the will to the muscles of the face1 but at the same time it calls them into action1 under the influence of instinct and sympathy4 ,on this subject a late writer remarks1 ,how expressive is the face of man6 ,how clearly it announces the thoughts and sentiments of the mind6 ,how well depicted are the passions on his countenance6 tumultuous rage1 abject fear1 devoted love1 envy1 hatred1 grief1 and every other emotion1 in all their shades and diversities1 are imprinted there1 in characters so clear that he that runs may read6 ,how difficult1 nay1 how impossible1 is it to hide or falsify the expressions which indicate the internal feelings6 ,thus conscious guilt shrinks from detection1 innocence declares its confidence1 and hope anticipates with bright expectation4 ,observation4 ,the fifth pair of nerves 7fig4 #abf7 is distributed to the parts of the face on which the seventh pair ramifies4 ,the former serves for sensation1 the latter for motion4 ,thus1 when the seventh pair of nerves is divided1 or its functions destroyed by disease1 the side affected loses all power of expression1 though sensation remains unaffected4 ,on the contrary1 if we divide the fifth pair1 sensation is entirely destroyed1 while expression remains4 ------------ #ghi4 ,are they also the instruments of expression1 either of joy or grief8 #gij4 ,what is said in reference to the seventh pair of nerves8 ,where is the fifth pair of nerves distributed8 ------------ #gia4 #eth4 ,the sympathetic nerve4 ,this nerve confers vitality on all the important portions of the system4 ,it exerts a controlling influence over the involuntary functions of digestion1 absorption1 secretion1 circulation1 and nutrition4 ,every portion of the body is1 to a certain extent1 under its influence1 as filaments from this system of nerves accompany the blood-vessels throughout their course4 #gib4 ,an important use of the sympathetic nerve is to form a communication of one part of the system with another1 so that one organ can take cognizance of the condition of every other1 and act accordingly4 ,if1 for example1 disease seizes the brain1 the stomach1 by its sympathetic connection1 knows it2 and as nourishment would add to the disease1 it refuses to receive food1 and perhaps throws off what has already been taken4 ,loss of appetite in sickness is thus a kind provision of nature1 to prevent our taking food when it would be injurious2 and following this intimation1 we1 as a general rule1 should abstain from food until the appetite returns4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,a back view of the brain and spinal cord4 #a1 ,the cerebrum4 #b1 ,the cerebellum4 #c1 ,the spinal cord4 #d1 ,nerves of the face4 #e1 ,the brachial plexus of nerves4 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 ,nerves of the arm4 #aj1 ,nerves that pass under the ribs1 #aa1 ,the lumbar plexus of nerves4 #ab1 ,the sacral plexus of nerves #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 ,nerves of the lower limbs4 ------------ ,what is the function of this nerve8 ,what is the effect if the seventh pair is divided1 or its function destroyed by disease8 #gia4 ,what is said of the sympathetic nerve8 #gib4 ,what is the use of the sympathetic system8 ,explain fig4 #acc4 ------------ ,note4 ,let the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system be reviewed from figs4 #aca1 #acb1 #acc1 or from anatomical outline plate4 ,no4 #h4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,system4 #gic4 ,as the different organs of the system are dependent on the brain and spinal cord for efficient functional action1 and as the mind and brain are closely associated during life1 the former acting in strict obedience to the laws which regulate the latter1 it becomes an object of primary importance in education1 to discover what these laws are1 that we may escape the numerous evils consequent on their violation4 #gid4 ,for healthy and efficient action1 the brain should be primarily sound2 as this organ is subject to the same general laws as other parts of the body4 ,if the brain of the child is free from defects at birth1 and acquires no improper impressions in infancy1 it will not easily become diseased in after life4 ,but1 if the brain has inherited defects1 or has acquired a proneness to disease by mismanagement in early life1 it will more easily yield to influences that cause diseased action4 ,the hereditary tendency to disease is one of the most powerful causes that produce nervous and mental affections4 ,consequently1 children have a strong tendency to the diseases from which the parents suffered4 #gie4 ,when both parents have similar defects1 or have descended from tainted families1 the children are usually more deeply impressed with their imperfections than when only one possesses the defect4 ,this is the reason of the frequency of nervous disease and imbecility among the opulent1 as intermarriages among near relations are more frequent with this class than among the poor4 ------------ #gic-hej4 ,give the hygiene of the nervous system4 #gic4 ,why is it important to know the laws which regulate the action of the brain8 #gid4 ,what is necessary that the action of the brain be healthy and efficient8 ,what follows if the brain of the child has inherited defects8 #gie4 ,what is the effect when both parents possess similar defects8 ------------ ,observation4 ,among some of the reigning families of ,europe1 particularly the ,spanish1 the folly of intermarriage among themselves is strongly illustrated4 ,the high and noble talents that characterized their progenitors are not seen1 but there is now exhibited1 among their descendants1 imbecility and the most revolting forms of nervous disease4 #gif4 ,unhappily1 it is not merely as a cause of disease1 that hereditary predisposition is to be dreaded4 ,the obstacles which it throws in the way of permanent recovery are even more formidable1 and can never be entirely removed4 ,safety is to be found only in avoiding the perpetuation of the mischief4 #gig4 ,therefore1 if two persons1 each naturally of excitable and delicate nervous temperament1 choose to unite for life1 they have themselves to blame for the concentrated influence of similar tendencies in destroying the health of their offspring1 and subjecting them to all the miseries of nervous disease1 madness1 or melancholy4 ,the command of ,god not to marry within certain degrees of consanguinity1 is in accordance with the organic laws of the brain1 and the wisdom of the prohibition is confirmed by observation4 ,observation4 ,the inhabitants1 females particularly1 of the sea-girt islands of ,america1 are more affected with nervous diseases1 than those who reside upon the mainland4 ,the prevalence of these affections is ascribed to the frequent intermarriage of persons closely related by blood4 ------------ ,what is one cause of nervous disease among the higher classes8 ,what is true of some of the reigning families of ,europe8 #gif4 ,why is hereditary predisposition to be dreaded8 #gig4 ,is the prohibition of ,god respecting intermarriage in accordance with the organic laws of the brain8 ,what is said of the inhabitants of the sea-girt islands of ,america8 ------------ #gih4 ,the brain requires a due supply of pure blood4 ,this organ receives an unusually large supply of blood1 in comparison with the rest of the body4 ,it is estimated that one tenth of all the blood sent from the heart goes to this organ4 ,if the arterial blood be altogether withdrawn1 or a person breathes air that is filled with carbonic gas1 the brain ceases its proper action1 and sensibility with consciousness becomes extinct4 ,illustrations4 #ast4 ,if a person lose a considerable quantity of blood1 dizziness and loss of consciousness follow4 ,this results from the brain not receiving a sufficient amount of blood to sustain its functions4 #b;d4 ,when an individual descends into a well or pit that contains carbonic acid1 the blood is not changed or purified in the lungs1 and loss of consciousness and death soon follow4 #gii4 ,the slighter variations in the state of the blood have equally sure1 though less palpable effects4 ,if its vitality is impaired by breathing an atmosphere so much vitiated as to be insufficient to produce the proper degree of oxygenation1 the blood then affords an imperfect stimulus to the brain4 ,as a necessary consequence1 languor and inactivity of the mental and nervous functions ensue1 and a tendency to headache1 fainting1 or hysteria1 makes its appearance4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,let a person remain1 for a time1 in a crowded1 ill-ventilated1 hall or church1 and headache or faintness is generally produced4 ,this is caused by the action of impure blood upon the brain4 #b;d4 ,if a school-teacher wishes to have his pupils1 on the day of examination1 appear creditably1 he will be careful to have the room well ventilated4 ,ventilating churches might prevent the inattention and sleepiness that are observed during the afternoon service4 ------------ #gih4 ,why does the brain require a due supply of pure blood8 ,what is the effect when a person loses a considerable quantity of blood8 ,what causes the loss of consciousness when carbonic acid is breathed8 #gii4 ,what effects are produced by slight variations in the quality of the blood8 ,from the following observations1 give some of the effects of impure blood on the brain4 ------------ #c;d4 ,in many instances1 the transmission of imperfectly oxygenated blood to the brain1 is an influential cause in the production of nervous disease and delicacy of constitution4 ,the only efficient remedy for these conditions is a supply of pure blood to the brain4 #hjj4 ,the brain should be called into action4 ,this organ1 like the muscles1 should be used1 and then allowed to rest1 or cease from vigorous thought4 ,when the brain is properly called into action by moderate study1 it increases in size and strength2 while1 on the other hand1 if it is not used1 the action of this organ is enfeebled1 thereby diminishing the function of all parts of the body4 #hja4 ,the brain1 being an organized part1 is subject1 so far as regards exercise1 to the same laws as the other organs of the body4 ,if it is doomed to inactivity1 its size diminishes1 its health decays1 and the mental operations and feelings1 as a necessary consequence1 become dull1 feeble1 and slow4 ,if it is duly exercised after regular intervals of repose1 the mind acquires readiness and strength4 ,lastly1 if it is overtasked1 either in the force or duration of its activity1 its functions become impaired1 and irritability and disease take the place of health and vigor4 #hjb4 ,the consequences of inadequate exercise will first be explained4 ,we have seen that by disuse the muscles become emaciated1 the bones soften1 and the blood-vessels are obliterated4 ,the brain is no exception to this general rule4 ,it is impaired by permanent inactivity1 and becomes less fit to manifest the mental powers with readiness and energy4 ,nor will this surprise any reflecting person1 who considers that the brain1 as a part of the same animal system1 is nourished by the same blood and regulated by the same vital laws as the muscles1 bones1 and arteries4 ------------ #hjj4 ,why should the brain be called into action8 #hja4 ,what is the effect if the brain is doomed to inactivity8 #hjb4 ,show the consequences of disuse of the organs mentioned in preceding chapters4 ,does the same principle apply to the brain8 ------------ #hjc4 ,it is the weakening and depressing effect which is induced by the absence of the stimulus necessary for the healthy exercise of the brain1 that renders solitary confinement so severe a punishment1 even to the most daring minds4 ,keeping the above principle in view1 we shall not be surprised to find that non-exercise of the brain and nervous system1 or1 in other words1 inactivity of intellect and feeling1 is a very frequent predisposing cause of every form of nervous disease4 #hjd4 ,for demonstrative evidence of this position1 we have only to look at the numerous victims to be found among females of the middle and higher ranks1 who have no calls to exertion in gaining the means of subsistence1 and no objects of interest on which to exercise their mental faculties1 and who1 consequently1 sink into a state of mental sloth and nervousness1 which not only deprives them of much enjoyment1 but subjects them to suffering1 both of body and mind from the slightest causes4 #hje4 ,but let the situation of such persons be changed2 bring them1 for instance1 from the listlessness of retirement to the business and bustle of the city2 give them a variety of imperative employments1 and so place them in society as to supply to their cerebral organs that extent of exercise which gives health and vivacity of action1 and in a few months the change produced will be surprising4 ,health1 animation1 and energy1 will take the place of former insipidity and dulness4 #hjf4 ,an additional illustration1 involving an important principle in the production of many distressing forms of disease will be found in the case of a man of mature age1 and of active habits1 who has devoted his life to the toils of business1 and whose hours of leisure have been few and short4 ,suppose such a person to retire to the country in search of repose1 and to have no moral1 religious1 or philosophical pursuits to occupy his attention and keep up the active exercise of his brain2 this organ will lose its health1 and the inevitable result will be1 weariness of life1 despondency1 or some other variety of nervous disease4 ------------ #hjc4 ,what renders solitary confinement so severe a punishment to the most daring minds8 ,what is a predisposing cause of nervous disease8 #hjd4 ,in what classes do mental and nervous debility prevail8 #hje4 ,how can this be counteracted8 #hjf4 ,give another illustration1 showing how disease of the brain is induced4 ------------ #hjg4 ,one great evil attending the absence of some imperative employment or object of interest1 to exercise the mind and brain1 is the tendency which it generates to waste the mental energies on every trifling occurrence which presents itself1 and to seek relief in the momentary excitement of any sensation1 however unworthy4 ,the best remedy for these evils is to create occupation to interest the mind1 and give that wholesome exercise to the brain1 which its constitution requires4 #hjh4 ,the evils arising from excessive or ill-timed exercise of the brain1 or any of its parts1 are numerous4 ,when we use the eye too long1 or in too bright a light1 it becomes bloodshot4 ,the increased action of its vessels and nerves gives rise to a sensation of fatigue and pain1 requiring us to desist4 ,if we relieve the eye1 the irritation gradually subsides and the healthy state returns4 ,but1 if we continue to look intently1 or resume our employment before the eye has regained its natural state by repose1 the irritation at last becomes permanent1 and disease1 followed by weakness of vision1 or even blindness1 may ensue4 #hji4 ,phenomena precisely analogous occur1 when1 from intense mental excitement1 the brain is kept long in a state of excessive activity4 ,the only difference is1 that we can always see what happens in the eye1 but rarely what takes place in the brain2 occasionally1 however1 cases of fracture of the skull occur1 in which1 part of the bone being removed1 we can see the quickened circulation in the vessels of the brain1 as easily as those of the eye4 ------------ #hjg4 ,what is one great evil attending the absence of some imperative employment to exercise the mind and brain8 ,what is the true remedy for these evils8 #hjh4 ,from what other cause do evils arise to the brain8 ,explain the evil of it by the excessive use of the eye4 #hji4 ,what is the only difference in the analogy of the phenomena of the eye and brain8 ,has the analogy been verified8 ------------ #haj4 ,sir ,astley ,cooper had a young man brought to him1 who had lost a portion of his skull1 just above the eyebrow4 ,on examining the head1 says ,sir ,astley1 ,i distinctly saw that the pulsation of the brain was regular and slow2 but at this time he was agitated by some opposition to his wishes1 and directly the blood was sent with increased force to the brain1 and the pulsation became frequent and violent4 #haa4 ,indeed1 in many instances1 the increased circulation in the brain1 attendant on mental excitement1 reveals itself when least expected1 and leaves traces after death1 which are very perceptible4 ,when tasked beyond its strength1 the eye becomes insensible to light1 and no longer conveys any impressions to the mind4 ,in like manner1 the brain1 when much exhausted1 becomes incapable of thought1 and consciousness is almost lost in a feeling of utter confusion4 #hab4 ,at any time of life1 excessive and continued mental exertion is hurtful2 but in infancy and early youth1 when the structure of the brain is still immature and delicate1 permanent mischief is more easily produced by injudicious treatment than at any subsequent period4 ,in this respect1 the analogy is as complete between the brain and the other parts of the body1 as that exemplified in the injurious effects of premature exercise of the bones and muscles4 #hac4 ,scrofulous and rickety children are the most usual sufferers in this way4 ,they are generally remarkable for large heads1 great precocity of understanding1 and small1 delicate bodies4 ,but in such instances1 the great size of the brain1 and the acuteness of the mind1 are the results of morbid growth4 ,even with the best of management1 the child passes the first years of its life constantly on the brink of active disease4 ------------ #haj4 ,relate the case detailed by ,sir ,astley ,cooper4 #haa4 ,may the increased functional action of the brain change its structure8 #hab4 ,at what age particularly is excessive and continued mental exertion hurtful8 #hac4 ,what is said of scrofulous and rickety children8 ------------ #had4 ,instead1 however1 of trying to repress its mental activity1 the fond parents1 misled by the early promise of genius too often excite it still further1 by unceasing cultivation1 and the never-failing stimulus of praise4 ,finding its progress for a time equal to their warmest wishes1 they look forward with ecstasy to the day when its talents will break forth and shed lustre on its name4 #hae4 ,but in exact proportion as the picture becomes brighter to their fancy1 the probability of its being realized becomes less2 for the brain1 worn out by premature exertion1 either becomes diseased1 or loses its tone1 leaving the mental powers imbecile and depressed for the remainder of life4 ,the expected prodigy is thus easily outstripped in the social race by many whose dull outset promised him an easy victory4 #haf4 ,taking for our guide the necessities of the constitution1 it will be obvious that the modes of treatment commonly resorted to ought to be reversed4 ,instead of straining to the utmost the already irritable powers of the precocious child1 and leaving his dull competitor to ripen at leisure1 a systematic attempt ought to be made1 from early infancy1 to rouse to action the languid faculties of the latter1 while no pains ought to be spared to moderate and give tone to the activity of the former4 #hag4 ,instead of this1 however1 the prematurely intelligent child is sent to school and tasked with lessons at an unusually early age1 while the healthy but more backward boy1 who requires to be stimulated1 is kept at home in idleness1 perhaps for two or three years longer1 merely on account of his backwardness4 ,a double error is here committed4 ,the consequences to the intelligent boy are1 frequently1 the permanent loss both of health and of his envied superiority of intellect4 ------------ #had4 ,how are such children usually managed8 #hae4 ,what is the cause of their early promise and subsequent disappointment8 #haf4 ,what mode of treatment should be adopted in educating precocious children8 #hag4 ,how should the dull or less active child be treated8 ,what is the usual course8 ------------ #hah4 ,in youth1 too1 much mischief is done by the long daily period of attendance at school1 and the continued application of the mind which the ordinary system of education requires4 ,the law of exercise--that long-sustained action exhausts the vital powers of the organ--applies as well to the brain as to the muscles4 ,hence the necessity of varying the occupations of the young1 and allowing frequent intervals of exercise in the open air1 instead of enforcing the continued confinement now so common4 ,observation4 ,it is no unusual occurrence1 that on examination day1 the best scholars appear indifferently4 ,this may be the result of nervous exhaustion1 produced by extra mental effort in preparing for the final examination4 ,it is advisable for such pupils to divert their minds from close study for a few days previous to examination4 ,during this time1 the student may indulge in physical recreation1 social intercourse1 and a moderate amount of reading4 #hai4 ,in early and middle life1 fever1 an unusual degree of cerebral disorder1 is a common consequence of the excessive and continued excitement of the brain4 ,this unhappy result is brought on by severe study1 unremitted mental exertion1 anxiety1 and watching4 ,nervous disease1 from excessive mental labor and high mental excitement1 sometimes shows itself in another form4 ------------ ,what are the consequences of the error8 #hah4 ,what error prevails in the present system of education8 ,why should youths be allowed frequent intervals to exercise in the open air8 ,give observation4 #hai4 ,what is a frequent consequence of continued and excessive excitement of the brain8 ------------ #hbj4 ,from the want of proper intervals of rest1 the vascular excitement of the brain has not time to subside4 ,a restless irritability of temper and disposition comes on1 attended with sleeplessness and anxiety1 for which no external cause can be assigned4 ,the symptoms gradually become aggravated1 the digestive functions give way1 nutrition is impaired1 and a sense of wretchedness is constantly present1 which often leads to attempts at suicide4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,moderation in mental exertion is more necessary in old age than in early or mature years4 ,in youth and manhood1 the exhaustion of the brain from over-excitement may be repaired1 but no such result follows over-exertion in the decline of life4 ,what is lost then1 is lost forever4 ,at that period1 the brain becomes excited1 and is soon exhausted when forced to protracted and vigorous thought4 ,sir ,walter ,scott and ,president ,harrison afford sad examples of premature death from overtasked brains at an advanced period of their lives4 #b;d4 ,if the mind is incessantly engaged in the contemplation of the same object1 there is danger from over-exertion of the brain at any period of life1 but more particularly in old age4 ,the more limited the sphere of mental action1 the greater the danger of the brain being over-exercised4 ,hence the frequency of nervous diseases in poets1 mathematicians1 and musicians4 ------------ #hbj4 ,what often manifests itself from the want of proper intervals of rest8 ,why is moderation in mental action necessary in old age8 ,what is the effect if the mind is incessantly engaged in the contemplation of the same object8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,system1 ,,continued4 #hba4 ,having pointed out the evils arising both from inadequate and from excessive mental exertion1 it remains to direct the attention to some of the rules which should guide us in the exercise of the brain4 #hbb4 ,we should not enter upon continued mental exertion1 or arouse deep feeling1 immediately before or after a full meal4 ,such is the connection between the mind and body1 that even in a perfectly healthy person1 unwelcome news1 sudden anxiety1 or mental excitement1 occurring soon after eating1 will impede digestion1 and cause the stomach to loathe the masticated food4 #hbc4 ,the worst forms of indigestion and nervous depression are those which arise from excessive mental application1 or depressed feeling1 conjoined with unrestrained indulgence in the pleasures of the table4 ,in such circumstances1 the stomach and brain react upon and disturb each other1 till all the horrors of nervous disease make their unwelcome appearance1 and render life miserable4 ,too many literary men and students know this from sad experience4 #hbd4 ,we should engage in intense study in the early part of the day4 ,nature has allotted the darkness of the night for repose1 and for restoration by sleep of the exhausted energies of mind and body4 ,in the early part of the evening1 if study or composition be ardently engaged in1 the increased action of the brain1 which always accompanies activity of mind1 requires a long time to subside4 ,if the individual possesses a nervous temperament1 he will be sleepless for hours after he has retired1 or perhaps be tormented by unpleasant dreams4 ------------ #hbb4 ,why should we not arouse deep feeling immediately before or after eating a full meal8 #hbc4 ,how are the worst forms of indigestion and nervous depression produced8 ,what class of men know this from sad experience8 #hbd4 ,what evils arise from studious application at night8 ------------ #hbe4 ,it is1 therefore1 of great advantage to enter upon intense mental application early in the day1 and to devote several of the hours which precede bedtime to entertaining conversation1 music1 and lighter reading4 ,the vascular excitement previously induced in the brain by study1 has then time to subside1 and sound1 refreshing sleep is much more certainly obtained4 ,this rule is of great consequence to those who are obliged to undergo much mental labor4 ,observation4 ,the idea of gathering wisdom by burning the midnight oil1 is more poetical than profitable4 ,the best time to use the brain is during the day4 #hbf4 ,the close student and the growing child need more sleep than the idler or the adult4 ,as steep is the natural repose of all organs1 it follows that the more the brain and other organs of the system are employed1 the more repose they require4 ,the organs of the child1 beside sustaining their proper functions1 are busy in promoting its growth4 ,this nutritive process is attended with a certain degree of exhaustion4 ,the impaired health of children often results from a disregard of this principle4 ,but1 on the other hand1 an excess of sleep produces feebleness1 by preventing the proper exercise of the mind as well as the body4 #hbg4 ,the length of time the brain may be advantageously used1 is modified by many circumstances4 ,the power of the brain in different persons to endure action1 is various4 ,this is modified by its primary character2 by development and age2 by habits of action2 by the health of the cerebral organ and general system2 by the moral feelings and other conditions4 ------------ #hbe4 ,why should we engage in intense study in the early part of the day8 #hbf4 ,what persons require the most sleep8 ,why8 #hbg4 ,what is said relative to the length of time that the brain can be advantageously used8 ,give a condition that modifies the amount of mental labor4 ------------ #hbh4 ,the primary physical organization of some individuals is such1 that they are enabled to endure with impunity an amount of mental labor that would disorder1 if not destroy functionally1 the cerebral organ of others differently constituted4 ,napoleon ,bonaparte was of this number4 ,there can be no fixed period for mental labor1 that may be adopted as a rule for all persons whose systems are maturely developed4 ,much less is there a proper definite period for study1 that is applicable to all children4 ,observation4 ,the practice of retaining pupils of all ages1 from five to twenty years1 in the school-room the same period of time1 for the purpose of study1 is not predicated upon any law of physiology4 ,an exercise of three hours1 with one or two recesses of ten minutes each1 may profit the eldest class2 two hours with a recess of ten minutes1 the middle class2 while one hour1 or one hour and a half1 with one recess1 would be as long a period as the youngest pupils should be retained in the study-room at one session4 #hbi4 ,a person who is accustomed to muscular exertion will endure a longer period of physical toil than one who is not inured to it4 ,so it is with mental labor4 ,if the brain has been habituated to mental action and profound study1 it will not be so soon fatigued as when not accustomed to such exertions2 consequently1 an amount of mental labor may be performed with impunity at one time1 that would exhaust and cause serious disease of the cerebral organ at another4 ,observation4 ,persons that commence a course of study at a late period in life1 frequently evince their zeal at the commencement by poring over their books twelve or more hours each day4 ,the progress of such students is soon arrested by physical and mental depression4 ,in such instances1 it would be more judicious to commence with only three or four hours' vigorous application each day1 and gradually protract the period of study five or more minutes every successive day1 until the brain may be called into vigorous action six or eight hours with impunity4 ------------ #hbh4 ,why can there be no fixed period for mental labor8 ,what is said of the practice of retaining pupils of all ages the same period of time in the school-room8 #hbi4 ,show that the action of the brain is influenced by habit1 as well as the muscular system4 ,what suggestion to those persons that commence a course of study at a late period in life8 ------------ #hcj4 ,the amount of mental power is greatly influenced by the general health4 ,such is the intimate connection of the different parts of the system1 particularly the digestive apparatus1 with the cerebral organs1 that except there be vigor of constitution1 and freedom from disease1 mental efforts will be feeble and of little avail4 ,observation4 ,the prevalent opinion1 that individuals who are feeble or diseased may acquire a collegiate education1 and thus become useful to themselves and the community1 is very generally erroneous4 ,such persons should enter upon a daily and systematic course of physical training1 and their labor should be in the open air1 in order that the system may be invigorated and freed from disease4 #hca4 ,the moral feelings exert a controlling influence over the functions of the muscular1 digestive1 and respiratory organs4 ,they also exert an influence1 perhaps1 more powerful upon the nervous system4 ,while fear and anxiety depress1 hope and the enlivening emotions1 facilitate the functional activity of the brain1 and increase its power for mental exertion4 ,by a proper and systematic education of the moral feelings1 they are not only a source of happiness1 and productive of right conduct1 but aid in the culture of the intellect4 ,consequently1 we should cultivate a feeling of hopeful trust in the future1 and a firm reliance upon the laws which the ,creator has given us for our guidance4 ------------ #hcj4 ,show that the amount of mental power is modified by the general health4 ,what is said of feeble persons acquiring a collegiate education8 #hca4 ,do the moral feelings exert a controlling influence over the principal functions of the system8 ,what is the effect of a proper and systematic culture of the moral feelings8 ------------ #hcb4 ,regularity is very important in exercising the moral and intellectual powers4 ,periodicity1 or a tendency to resume the same mode of action at stated times1 is peculiarly the characteristic of the nervous system4 ,if we repeat any kind of mental effort every day at the same hour1 we at last find ourselves entering upon it without premeditation when the time approaches4 ,in like manner1 if we arrange our studies in accordance with this law1 and take up each in the same order1 a natural aptitude is soon produced1 which renders application more easy than by resuming the subjects as accident may direct4 ,observation4 ,when engaged in abstruse studies1 it may be found advantageous to pursue others that are less difficult4 ,the intense application of the brain1 which is requisite in the one instance1 is relieved by directing the attention to a study that requires less thought4 ,by this change1 there is mental relaxation attended with invigoration of the cerebral organ4 ,or1 it may be explained by assuming1 that the brain is composed of an aggregate of distinct organs1 each of which is called into action in pursuing different studies4 #hcc4 ,effective study is impossible if the powers of the brain are depressed4 ,when the cerebral organ has been temporarily debilitated by protracted intellectual efforts1 it is ineffectual to attempt any concentrated mental exercise4 ,this condition of the nervous system is indicated by confusion of thought and inability to attain results that usually follow similar efforts4 ,mental rest in these cases is required4 ,observation4 ,students frequently fail in solving mathematical problems when the mind is prostrated by continued and excessive effort to obtain a solution4 ,not unfrequently after a night's rest the problem is quickly solved1 and the pupil thinks he dreamed it out4 ,the true explanation is rest invigorated the exhausted brain1 which fitted it for vigorous and successful thought4 ------------ #hcb4 ,why is regularity of great importance in exercising the moral and intellectual powers8 ,what suggestion when pursuing abstruse studies8 ,how explained8 #hcc4 ,when is effective study impossible8 ,how is this condition of the nervous system indicated8 ------------ #hcd4 ,the intellect should not be cultivated to the neglect of the moral and physical powers4 ,all the faculties require for their development regular exercise1 alternated with intervals of rest4 ,this is as necessary to the due development of the moral feelings of a child as in physical training and mental culture4 ,consequently1 those schools are to be preferred in the education of youth1 where the physical1 intellectual1 and moral faculties receive each day a due share of attention and culture4 #hce4 ,the continuance of healthy and vigorous action in the matured physical1 mental1 and moral powers1 requires frequent and regular action1 alternated with rest1 as much as in their development4 ,consequently1 those who cultivate one or two of these faculties1 to the neglect of the others1 exhibit a marked deficiency of acuteness and vigor in those not exercised4 ,this defect reacts on the powers that are vigorous1 diminishing the energy and deteriorating all the other faculties of man4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,if the principles before mentioned are true1 the adult1 as well as the child1 should spend a part of each day in some proper physical employment2 another portion should be appropriated to intellectual pursuits2 while another should be sedulously devoted to the cultivation of the moral feelings4 #b;d4 ,disease of the corporeal system more frequently occurs when only one set of faculties is used than when all are equally employed4 ,this is particularly true of nervous and mental disease1 which follows and is caused by either high intellectual action1 or intense moral emotions1 without a due amount of physical exercise4 ------------ ,how is the dreaming out of problems explained8 #hcd4 ,what is said of the culture of the intellect8 ,what schools are preferable in the education of youth8 ,why8 #hce4 ,what is the effect of cultivating only one faculty of the mind8 ,give observation #ast4 ,observation #b;d4 ------------ #hcf4 ,the brain can exercise its full force upon only one object at a time4 ,if its energies are directed to two or more operations1 neither will receive that full power of exertion that it would if only one object had engaged the mind4 ,although the brain will direct several operations at the same time when only slight mental effort is required1 yet when one operation becomes difficult1 or demands special attention of the mind1 the other will be suspended4 ,this is illustrated in social conversation while walking4 ,let it become necessary to concentrate the nervous power upon the motor organs1 and the conversation declines or ceases4 #hcg4 ,in acquiring an education1 or in pursuing any profession or trade1 none of those influences that promote the proper functions of the body1 and tend to increase physical ease1 should be neglected4 ,for1 if the brain is occupied with disagreeable sensations1 it cannot concentrate its power as effectively in the various employments of man4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,the situation1 ventilation1 light1 and warmth of a school-room1 together with the arrangement of the benches1 do much to influence the concentration or distraction of the operations of the mind4 ,let there be attached to the school-house a spacious yard planted with trees2 let its architecture be attractive2 let the windows be arranged with regularity1 and not with the elevation of a convict's cell1 and the benches1 in every respect1 be adapted to the different scholars1 so that the position of each may be comfortable1 and we mistake if there is not a greater improvement1 in a given time1 in such a school1 than where there is an apparent disregard to the pleasure or comfort of the scholars4 ------------ #hcf4 ,what is the effect if the brain concentrates its energies on more than one object at a time8 ,how illustrated8 #hcg4 ,what should be regarded in pursuing any employment8 ,why8 ,what is said in reference to the arrangement of school-rooms8 ------------ #b;d4 ,mechanics' shops should receive as much attention1 relative to their situation1 light1 warmth1 c41 as school-rooms4 ,if these are duly observed1 the nervous influence transmitted from the brain to the muscles will be more stimulating1 as well as more abundant2 consequently1 labor will be performed with less exhaustion4 #hch4 ,repetition is necessary to make a durable impression on the mind4 ,the necessity of judicious repetition in mental and moral education1 is1 in fact1 too little adverted to1 because the principle which renders it efficacious has not been understood4 ,to induce facility of action in the organs of the mind1 practice is as essential as it is in the organs of motion4 #hci4 ,in physical education we are aware of the advantages of repetition4 ,we know that if practice in dancing1 fencing1 skating1 and riding1 is persevered in for a length of time sufficient to give the muscles the requisite promptitude and harmony of action1 the power will be ever afterward retained1 although little called into use2 whereas1 if the muscles have not been duly trained1 we may reiterate practice at different intervals1 without proportionate advancement4 ,the same principle applies equally to the moral and intellectual powers1 because these operate by means of material organs4 #hdj4 ,according to this principle1 it follows1 that in learning a language or science1 six successive months of application will be more effectual in fixing it in the mind and making it a part of its furniture1 than double or treble the time1 if the lessons are interrupted by long intervals4 ,hence it is a great error to begin and study1 and then break off1 to finish at a later period4 ,the fatigue is thus doubled1 and the success greatly diminished4 ------------ ,of mechanics' shops8 #hch4 ,is repetition necessary to make a durable impression on the mind8 ,why8 #hci4 ,how is it with physical education8 #hdj4 ,what follows1 according to this principle8 ------------ #hda4 ,the best way is to begin at the proper age1 and to persevere till the end is attained4 ,this accustoms the mind to sound exertion1 and not to fits of attention4 ,hence the evil arising from long vacations2 and also the evil of beginning studies before the age at which they can be understood1 as in teaching children the abstract rules of grammar1 to succeed in which1 implies in them a power of thinking1 and an amount of general knowledge1 which they do not possess4 #hdb4 ,the skull is susceptible of fractures from slight blows4 ,this occurs most frequently when the blow is given on the side of the head above and anterior to the ear4 ,here the bone is very thin1 and often quite brittle4 ,for these reasons1 no instructor1 or any person1 should punish a child by striking upon any portion of the head4 ,observation4 ,a few years since1 a teacher in one of the ,middle ,states gave a pupil a slight blow upon the head4 ,it fractured the skull and ruptured a blood-vessel of the brain1 causing a loss of consciousness1 and finally death4 #hdc4 ,concussion of the brain may be produced by blows1 or by violently shaking a person4 ,as the brain is of pulpy consistence1 the atoms of which it is composed1 and the circulation of blood in its minute vessels1 may be disturbed by the vibration from a blow on the exterior of the skull-bones4 ,this disturbance of the cerebral organ is attended with unpleasant sensations1 dizziness1 loss of memory and consciousness4 ,these may be followed by headache and inflammation of the brain4 ,concussion of the brain1 and the results above mentioned1 may be produced by the sudden motion attendant on the violent shaking of a scholar4 ,consequently1 a child should never be seized by the arm and shaken violently as a method of chastisement4 ------------ #hda4 ,what is the best way of learning the sciences8 #hdb4 ,why should not a child be struck upon any portion of the head8 ,what observation in this connection8 #hdc4 ,how may concussion of the brain be produced8 ,what is the effect of each upon the brain of the child8 ------------ ,observation4 ,most persons have experienced a disagreeable sensation and dizziness1 caused by falling from a slight elevation1 or by jumping from a carriage4 ,this is the result of a moderate concussion of the brain4 #hdd4 ,in injuries of the brain1 from blows and falls1 the symptoms are usually alarming1 and all should possess some information for such contingencies4 ,in general1 such accidents are attended by insensibility2 the skin and extremities are pale and cold1 the pulse is very weak and feeble1 and the circulation is less vigorous2 the respiration1 also1 is less frequent and full4 #hde4 ,when these symptoms exist1 the individual1 in the first instance1 should be placed in pure air1 and friction and dry warmth should be applied to the pallid and cold skin4 ,this should be assiduously persevered in until heat and color are restored to the skin and limbs1 and due action of the heart and arteries has been established4 ,mild stimulants may also be used internally1 with much advantage4 ,the sympathizing friends should not be permitted to stand about the patient1 as they vitiate the air4 ,there should be no bleeding until the skin and extremities become warm4 ,send for a surgeon without delay4 ------------ ,give an instance where moderate concussion of the brain is produced4 #hdd4 ,what are the symptoms when the brain is injured from blows and falls8 #hde4 ,what treatment should be adopted8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,the ,,sense ,,of ,,touch4 #hdf4 ,,sensation is the perception of external objects by means of the senses4 ,there are five senses1 namely1 ,touch1 ,taste1 ,smell1 ,hearing1 and ,vision4 #hdg4 ,,touch is the sense by which the mind becomes acquainted with some of the properties of bodies1 and enables us determine whether their surfaces are smooth or rough1 their relative temperature1 and1 to a certain degree1 their form and weight4 #hdh4 ,some physiologists make a distinction between the sense of touch and tact4 ,tact1 or feeling1 is more general1 extending over the whole surface of the skin and mucous membranes1 while touch exists chiefly in the fingers of man and in the noses of certain quadrupeds4 #hdi4 ,in the exercise of these functions1 tact is considered passive2 as1 when any part of the system comes into contact with another body1 a sensation of its presence is given1 without the exercise of volition4 ,on the contrary1 touch is active1 and is exercised voluntarily1 for the purpose of conveying to the mind a knowledge of the qualities or properties of the surfaces of bodies2 as when we feel of a piece of cloth to ascertain its qualities1 or a polished surface1 to prove its smoothness4 #hej4 ,in man1 the hand is admirably adapted to the exercise of touch4 ,the fineness of the skin1 its great sensibility1 the species of cushion formed by the sub-cutaneous fat at the extremities of the fingers1 the length and flexibility of these organs1 and the capability of opposing the thumb to the fingers1 like a pair of forceps1 are so many conditions essentially favorable to the delicacy of this sense1 and enable us to appreciate with exactitude the qualities of the bodies we may feel4 ------------ #hdf4 ,define sensation4 ,how many senses have we8 #hdg-hea4 ,what is said of the sense of touch8 #hdg4 ,define touch4 #hdh4 ,what is the difference between touch and tact8 #hdi4 ,in the exercise of these functions1 which is active1 and which passive8 #hej4 ,why is the hand so admirably adapted to the exercise of the sense of touch8 ------------ #hea4 ,the nerves that supply the sense of touch1 proceed from the anterior half of the spinal cord4 ,where this sense is most acute and delicate1 we find the greatest number of sensitive nervous filaments1 and those of the largest size4 ,observation4 ,in amputating limbs1 and other surgical operations1 the division of the skin causes more pain than all the subsequent steps of the operation1 however protracted4 ,the muscles1 cellular membrane1 and fat have but little sensibility2 while the bones1 tendons1 and ligaments are insensible when not diseased1 and may be cut without causing pain4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,sense ,,of ,,touch4 #heb4 ,the sense of touch varies in different persons1 and also in individuals of different ages4 ,thus the sensibilities of the child are more acute than those of the aged4 ,although there is an original difference of sensibility from organization1 still1 the function of the nerves of sensation is modified by certain influences4 #hec4 ,the healthy or unhealthy1 active or inactive state of the brain1 influences the action of the sensitive nerves4 ,in sound and perfect sleep1 the brain is inactive4 ,in this state1 ordinary impressions made upon the skin are not observed by the sleeping person4 ,thus the arm may be blistered while sleeping1 when exposed to the warm rays of the sun1 and the individual will not be aware of it at the time4 ------------ #hea4 ,from what do the nerves proceed that supply this sense8 #heb-hfd4 ,give the hygiene of the sense of touch4 #heb4 ,does this sense vary in different persons8 #hec4 ,mention a condition of the brain that influences the nerves of sensation4 ------------ #hed4 ,if there is compression of the brain1 as when the skull-bones are depressed1 or disease of this organ exists1 as in severe typhus fever1 impressions made upon the nerves of the skin will not be noticed4 ,the same is true when the mind is engaged in intense thought or study2 heat or cold may be so intense as to disorganize the skin1 and not to be noticed4 #hee4 ,the varying health or condition of the brain usually depresses or increases the sensitiveness of the skin4 ,this is seen in grief and fear1 which diminish1 while hope and joy increase the impressibility of this tissue4 ,it is not uncommon to see the unfortunate insane endure exposure to heat and cold with seeming impunity2 whereas it would induce almost insupportable suffering to the sane man4 ,diseases of the heart1 stomach1 and lungs1 alter the condition of the brain1 and modify1 to a greater or less degree1 the sensitiveness of the skin4 #hef4 ,the state of the conducting nervous trunks influences the nerves of sensation4 ,if a nervous trunk is compressed or divided1 the parts supplied by nervous filaments from this branch1 will be insensible to the impressions made upon them1 and consequently such impressions are not transmitted to the brain4 ,observation4 ,when the inside of the arm or lower extremities rests upon a hard surface1 the nerves may be compressed so as to deprive the parts of sensibility4 ,this condition is called numbness4 #heg4 ,the quantity of blood supplied to the skin modifies its sensitiveness4 ,if the quantity of blood is diminished1 the sensibility of the skin will be impaired4 ,this is demonstrated by noting the effects of cold upon the cutaneous tissue1 the application of which contracts the blood-vessels1 and drives the circulating fluid from this membrane1 which is shown by the paleness1 as well as by the shrivelled appearance of the skin4 ,and1 if this tissue is wounded while under the influence of cold1 but little pain will be felt1 and this chilling influence may be carried so far as not only to deprive the part of sensation1 but of vitality4 ------------ #hed4 ,mention other conditions that affect these nerves4 #hee4 ,what is the effect of the varying health or condition of the brain upon the sensitiveness of the skin8 ,give instances of this effect4 #hef4 ,what is the result if a nervous trunk is divided or compressed8 ,how may numbness in the limbs be produced8 #heg4 ,does the quantity of blood supplied to the skin affect its sensibility8 ------------ #heh4 ,the influence of the blood upon the sensibility of the skin1 is further demonstrated by the pain experienced when chilled extremities are suddenly exposed to heat4 ,the nerves1 by the sudden dilatation of the contracted blood-vessels1 are put in vivid and rapid motion1 which causes the painful and tingling sensation that we experience4 ,in every part of the system1 sudden changes produce unpleasant sensations1 and frequently a diseased condition of the organs4 ,observation4 ,when the hands1 or other portions of the body1 are frozen1 or severely chilled1 safety and comfort demand that circulation be restored to the parts by moderate exercise in a cool room4 ,not unfrequently1 the vitality of the limb is destroyed by immersing it in hot water or holding it near the fire4 #hei4 ,the quality of the blood also influences sensation4 ,if the brain and other parts of the nervous system receive impure blood1 their energy is depressed1 and the sensibility of the skin rendered more or less obtuse4 #hfj4 ,the condition of the cuticle modifies the impression made upon the cutaneous nerves4 #ast4 ,when the cuticle has become thick and hard1 like horn1 as on the inside of the mason's hand1 it enables him to ply his tools without much suffering1 because the thickened cuticle diminishes the impressions made upon the nerves4 ------------ ,how is it demonstrated8 #heh4 ,how is the influence of the blood upon the skin further demonstrated8 ,how should circulation be restored to limbs frozen or severely chilled8 ,what should be avoided8 #hei4 ,show how the quality of the blood influences sensation4 #hfj4 ,give the #ast condition of the cuticle that influences the impressions made on the cutaneous nerves4 ------------ #hfa4 #b;d4 ,when the cuticle is very thin and delicate1 as on the hand of the lady who is unaccustomed to manual labor4 ,let her pursue some manual employment for several hours1 and the extreme tenuity1 or thinness of the cuticle1 will not protect the nerves and parts below from becoming irritated and inflamed4 #hfb4 #c;d4 ,when the cuticle is removed by blistering or abrasion1 the pain indicates that the naked nerves are too powerfully stimulated by the contact of external bodies4 #dth4 ,when the cuticle is coated with impurities1 blended with the secretion from the oil-glands1 the sensibility of the skin is lessened4 #hfc4 ,the sensibility of the cutaneous nerves is modified by being habituated to impressions4 ,if1 for example1 an individual should immerse his feet in moderately warm water1 at first it might induce a smarting sensation2 in a short time1 the nerves would not only become habituated to the warm water1 but its warmth night be considerably increased4 ,the same results follow1 if an individual is exposed to a cold element4 ,the impressions at first are highly disagreeable2 but as soon as the nerves become accustomed to the surrounding atmosphere1 it may impart the most agreeable sensations4 ,illustration4 #ast4 ,let a person from the tropical regions go to a colder climate1 and the cool mornings of the latter will at first affect him unpleasantly2 but1 after a few days' exposure to the cooler air1 the sensation will be far from disagreeable4 #b;d4 ,let a person enter a room moderately heated2 gradually increase the temperature1 until it attains extreme summer heat2 not only the cutaneous nerves1 but the whole system1 become habituated to the high temperature4 ,from these facts we learn that the sensations1 are not always a correct index of the real temperature4 ,a well-adjusted thermometer will indicate it with unerring certainty4 ------------ #hfa4 ,the #b;d condition4 #hfb4 ,the #c;d and #dth condition4 #hfc4 ,show how habit influences the sensibility of the cutaneous nerves4 ,give illustration #ast4 ,illustration #b;d4 ------------ #hfd4 ,touch is modified1 in a high degree1 by education4 ,thus the blind1 whose windows of the soul are closed to the beauties of the external world1 cultivate this sense to such a degree that they can distinguish objects with great accuracy4 ,and the rapidity with which they read books prepared for their use1 is a convincing proof of the niceness and extent to which the cultivation of this sense can be carried4 ,illustrations4 #ast4 ,the cloth-dresser1 by the aid of this sense1 distinguishes the quality1 as well as the slightest difference of texture1 in the different pieces of cloth4 #b;d4 ,the miller1 from a similar education1 quickly detects the quality of flour or meal1 by permitting it to pass between his fingers4 ,the difference in the texture of cloths1 or the quality of the flour1 would not be distinguished by an individual whose tactile sense had not been trained to make nice comparisons4 ------------ #hfd4 ,is this sense susceptible of improvement8 ,what persons cultivate it to a high degree8 ,give illustration #ast4 ,illustration #b;d4 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,,sense ,,of ,,taste4 #hfe4 ,the chief organ of ,,taste is the upper surface of the tongue2 though the lips1 the palate1 the internal surface of the cheeks1 and the upper part of the oesophagus1 participate in this function4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,taste4 #hff4 ,the tongue is a double organ1 composed chiefly of muscular fibres1 which run in almost every direction4 ,the two sides are so perfectly distinct1 that sometimes1 in paralysis1 one side is affected1 while the function of the other remains perfect4 ,it possesses great versatility of motion1 and can be moulded into a great variety of shapes4 ,in articulation1 mastication1 and deglutition1 the tongue is an auxiliary to other organs4 #hfg4 ,this organ is abundantly supplied with blood-vessels1 having a large artery sent to each side of it4 ,it is also very largely furnished with nerves2 it receives nervous filaments from the fifth1 ninth1 and twelfth pairs of nerves4 ,the branch of the fifth1 called the gustatory1 is the nerve of taste and sensibility2#ba the twelfth1 called the hypo-glossal1 of voluntary motion4 ,by means of the ninth1 called the glosso-pharyngeal the tongue is brought into association with the fauces1 oesophagus1 and larynx4 ,it is of obvious importance that these parts should act in concert2 and this is effected by the distribution of this nerve4 #ba ,some physiologists impute the sense of taste to the ninth pair of nerves2 others1 to the twelfth pair2 while others1 again1 contend that taste is the result of a concurrent action of the fifth1 ninth1 and twelfth pairs of nerves4 ------------ #hfe4 ,what is the chief organ of taste8 ,what other parts participate in the function8 #hff-hgj4 ,give the anatomy of the organs of taste4 #hff4 ,give the structure of the tongue4 #hfg4 ,is this organ abundantly supplied with blood8 ,from what source does the tongue derive its nerves8 ------------ ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,a view of one side of the neck1 showing the nerves of the tongue4 #a1 ,a fragment of the temporal bone4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 ,muscles of the tongue1 fauces1 and neck4 #e1 ,the tongue4 #ac1 ,the common carotid artery4 #ad1 ,the jugular vein4 #ae1 ,the external carotid4 #af1 ,the internal carotid4 #ag1 ,the gustatory branch of the fifth pair of nerves4 #bj1 ,the glosso-pharyngeal nerve4 #ba1 ,the hypo-glossal1 or the muscular nerve of the tongue4 #bd1 ,the pneumogastric nerve4 #be1 ,the facial nerve4 ------------ #hfh4 ,what is the appearance of the surface of the tongue8 ,explain fig4 #acd4 ------------ #hfh4 ,the surface of the tongue is thickly studded with fine papill1 or villi1 which give the organ a velvety appearance4 ,these papill are of three varieties4 ,the first is situated near the base of the tongue4 ,they belong to the class of mucous follicles4 ,they are larger than the others1 and are called len-ticu-lar1 from being shaped like a lens4 ,these1 together with the tonsils1 7sometimes called the almonds of the ears17 secrete mucus1 to lubricate the food in the act of deglutition4 #hfi4 ,the instruments of taste are the two other sets of papill4 ,one set consists of small1 oval-shaped bodies1 which are scattered over the whole surface of the tongue4 ,they give it a rough appearance1 and are called the fili-form papill4 #hgj4 ,the other set of papill is called the fungi-form4 ,they are larger than the former1 and consist of small1 rounded heads1 supported on short stalks1 something in the shape of mushrooms1 from which they derive their name4 ,in the last two described sets of sensitive papill1 the gustatory branch of the fifth pair of nerves ramifies4 ,observation4 ,by applying strong acids1 as vinegar1 to the tongue1 with a hair pencil1 these points will become curiously lengthened4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,taste4 #hga4 ,,taste is the sense which makes us acquainted with the savor of substances4 ,when fluids are taken into the mouth1 the papill dilate and erect themselves1 and the particular impression excited is transmitted to the brain through filaments of the gustatory nerve4 ,this sense is closely connected with that of smell4 ,the pleasures derived from it are strictly sensual and corporeal1 and contribute in no way to the expansion of the mind1 like those of hearing and seeing4 ------------ ,how many varieties of papill8 ,describe the first variety4 ,what is the function of the lenticular papill8 #hfi4 ,describe the filiform papill4 #hgj4 ,the fungiform papill8 ,what nerve ramifies in the fungiform papill8 ,how can these papill1 or points1 be seen8 #hga-hge4 ,give the physiology of the organs of taste4 #hga4 ,define taste4 ------------ #hgb4 ,if dry1 solid food is taken1 the tongue carries it to the back side of the mouth1 where it receives secretions from the salivary glands2 the saliva1 becoming impregnated with its flavor1 flows over the sides of the tongue1 and gives to the papill a perception of the savory juice2 this impression is then communicated to the brain4 ,observation4 ,it is supposed that the salts which enter into the composition of the saliva1 are very efficient agents in reducing substances to a proper state for making impressions on the nerves of taste4 ,the fact that metals impart a peculiar taste1 is owing to a galvanic shock1 and not properly to what we understand by taste4 #hgc4 ,the primary use of taste is to guide animals in the selection of food1 and to warn them against the introduction of noxious articles into the stomach4 ,in all the inferior animals1 we see that the original design of taste is still answered4 ,but in man1 this sense has been so abused and perverted1 by the introduction of stimulants and condiments1 and the endless admixture of different articles of food1 that the simple action of this part seems to have been superseded almost entirely by acquired taste4 #hgd4 ,in children1 this sense is usually acute1 and their preference is for food of the mildest character4 ,and it is also true1 that every person has some peculiarities of taste1 or dislikes to particular articles of food4 ,this may be either constitutional or from the influence of association4 ------------ ,with what sense is this closely connected8 ,what is said of this sense8 #hgb4 ,give the process by which we taste substances4 ,how can we account for the taste of metals when applied to the tongue8 #hgc4 ,what is the primary use of taste8 ,where do we see it perverted8 #hgd4 ,how is this sense in children8 ,what is true of every person in reference to taste8 ------------ ,observation4 ,this sense has been made to vary more than any other by the refinements of social life4 ,thus1 the ,indian's like or dislike to particular kinds of food1 generally extends to every person of the same tribe2 but among civilized men1 no two individuals can be found alike in all their tastes4 #hge4 ,this sense is modified by habit1 and not unfrequently those articles1 which at first were disgusting1 become highly agreeable by persevering in the use of them4 ,by cultivation1 this sense may be made very acute4 ,those persons whose business leads them to judge of the quality of an article by their taste1 can discriminate shades of flavor not perceivable by ordinary persons4 ,epicures1 and tasters of wines and teas1 afford examples4 ,observation4 ,many persons impair their taste by bad habits1 as chewing and smoking tobacco1 and using stimulating drinks1 and pungent condiments with the food4 ,these indulgences lessen the sensibility of the nerve1 and destroy the natural relish for food4 ------------ ,what is true of the ,indian8 #hge4 ,is this sense modified by habit8 ,give instances4 ,how is this sense sometimes impaired8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xliii4 ,,sense ,,of ,,smell4 #hgf4 ,this sense is located in the air-passages of the ,nose4 ,to understand the function of smell1 the structure of the nose and nasal cavities1 with the distribution of the olfactory nerves1 must be first examined4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,smell4 #hgg4 ,the ,,nose is composed of the ,bones1 ,fibro-cartilages1 and ,mucous ,membrane1 together with its integuments4 #hgh4 ,the ,,bones of the nose are the nasal1 and the nasal processes of the upper jaw4 #hgi4 ,the ,,fibro-,,cartilages give form and stability to the framework of the nose1 providing at the same time1 by their elasticity1 against injuries4 ,they are five in number4 #hhj4 ,the ,,mucous ,,membrane1 which lines the interior of the nose1 is continuous with the skin externally1 and with the lining membrane of the parts of the throat4 ,the entrance of the nostrils is provided with numerous hairs1 which serve as guardians to the delicate membrane of the nose4 #hha4 ,the ,,nasal ,,foss1 or nostrils1 are two irregular1 compressed cavities1 extending from the nose to the pharynx4 ,these cavities are bounded superiorly by the sphenoid and ethmoid bones2 inferiorly1 by the hard palate4 ,in the middle line they are separated from each other by a bony and fibro-cartilaginous septum2 upon the outer wall of each fossa1 in the dried skull1 are three projecting processes1 termed spongy bones4 ,in the fresh fossa1 these are covered by a mucous membrane4 ------------ #hgf4 ,where is the sense of smell located8 #hgg-hhd4 ,give the anatomy of the organs of smell4 #hgg4 ,name the parts that enter into the structure of the nose8 #hgh4 ,what bones form the framework of the nose8 #hgi4 ,what is the use of the cartilages8 #hhj4 ,what relation has the mucous membrane with other membranes of the nose8 #hha4 ,describe the nasal cavities4 ------------ #hhb4 ,the space that intervenes between the superior and middle spongy bone1 is called the superior me-atus1 or channel2 the space between the middle and inferior bone1 is the middle meatus2 and that between the inferior bone and the floor of the fossa1 is the inferior meatus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,a vertical section of the middle part of the nasal cavities4 #g1 ,the middle spongy bones4 #h1 ,the superior part of the nasal cavities4 #aj1 ,the inferior spongy bones4 #aa1 ,the vomer4 #ab1 ,the upper jaw4 #ac4 ,the middle channel of the nose4 #ad1 ,the lower channel of the nose4 #ag1 ,the palatine process of the upper jaw-bone4 #ah1 ,the roof of the mouth covered by mucous membrane4 #ai1 ,a section of this membrane4 #hhc4 ,the ,,meatuses are passages that extend backward1 from the nostrils1 into which are several openings4 ,they are lined by a mucous membrane1 called the pi-tui-ta-ry1 or schneiderian1 from ,schneider1 who first showed that the secretion of the nasal foss proceeded from the mucous membrane1 and not from the brain4 ------------ #hhb4 ,what terms are applied to the spaces between these processes8 ,what does fig4 #ace represent8 #hhc4 ,define the meatuses4 ,by what are they lined8 ------------ #hhd4 ,upon the mucous membrane of the nasal passages1 the olfactory nerve ramifies1 and also a branch of the fifth pair of nerves4 ,this membrane is of considerable extent in man2 and in those animals whose sense of smell is very acute1 it is still more extensive4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4 ,a side view of the passage of the nostrils1 and the distribution of the olfactory nerve4 #d1 ,the olfactory nerve4 #e1 ,the fine and curious divisions of this nerve on the membrane of the nose4 #f1 ,a branch of the fifth pair of nerves4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,smell4 #hhe4 ,the sense of smell enables us to discern the odor or scent of any thing4 ,when substances are presented to the nose1 the air that is passing through the nostrils brings the odoriferous particles of matter in contact with the filaments of the olfactory nerves1 that are spread upon the membrane that lines the air-passages1 and the impression is then transmitted to the brain4 ------------ #hhd4 ,what nerves ramify upon this membrane8 ,what is represented by fig4 #acf8 #hhe-hii4 ,give the physiology of the organs of smell4 #hhe4 ,how does the mind become sensible of odoriferous particles8 ------------ #hhf4 ,this sense1 with that of taste1 aids man as well as the inferior animals1 in selecting proper food1 and it also gives us pleasure by the inhalation of agreeable odors4 ,the sense of smell1 like that of taste and touch1 may be improved by cultivation4 ,it likewise varies in different persons4 ,observation4 ,sometimes this sense seems to possess a morbid degree of acuteness in respect to odors1 which is highly inconvenient and even dangerous4 ,with some individuals1 the smell of certain fruits1 flowers1 cheese1 c41 produce nausea and even convulsions4 #hhg4 ,in the inferior animals generally1 the sense of smell is more acute than in man4 ,thus the bloodhound will track the hare over the ground for miles1 guided only by the odor that it leaves in its flight4 ,he also traces the progress of his master through thickly-crowded streets1 distinguishing his footsteps from those of a thousand others1 and amidst the odorous particles emanating from a thousand sources4 ,observation4 ,in some of the higher orders of the inferior animals1 there is an astonishing acuteness of smell in regard to effluvia that come from living animals4 ,to these animals1 it possesses an importance in them far beyond what it has in man1 by making them acquainted with the presence of their enemies or their prey1 when the eye and ear are incapable of acting4 ,it is related by travellers in ,africa1 that they were always apprised of lions in their vicinity during the night1 by the moans and tremblings of their horses4 #hhh4 ,smell is somewhat under the control of the will4 ,that is1 we have the power of receiving or rejecting odors that are presented2 thus1 if odors are agreeable1 we inspire forcibly1 to enjoy them2 but1 if they are offensive1 our inspirations are more cautious1 or we close our nostrils4 ,this sense is likewise modified by habit2 odors which1 in the first instance1 were very offensive1 may not only become endurable1 but even agreeable4 ------------ #hhf4 ,what is the use of the sense of smell8 ,can this sense be improved by cultivation8 ,what is said respecting this sense in some individuals8 #hhg4 ,what is said of this sense in the bloodhound8 ,mention an instance of astonishing acuteness of smell in some of the higher orders of animals4 #hhh4 ,show that smell is somewhat under the control of the will4 ------------ #hhi4 ,acuteness of smell requires that the brain and nerve of smell be healthy1 and that the membrane that lines the nose be thin and moist4 ,any influence that diminishes the sensibility of the nerves1 thickens the membrane1 or renders it dry1 impairs this sense4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,snuff1 when introduced into the nose1 not only diminishes the sensibility of the nervous filaments1 but thickens the lining membrane4 ,this thickening of the membrane obstructs the passage of air through the nostrils1 and thus obliges snuff-takers to open their mouths when they breathe4 #b;d4 ,the mucous membrane of the nasal passages is the seat of chronic catarrh4 ,this affection is difficult of removal1 as remedial agents cannot easily be introduced into the windings of these passages4 ,snuff and many other articles used for catarrh1 produce more disease than they remove4 ------------ #hhi4 ,on what does acuteness of smell depend8 ,what effect has snuff when introduced into the nose8 ,what is said of chronic catarrh8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xliv4 ,,sense ,,of ,,vision4 #hij4 ,this sense contributes more to the enjoyment and happiness of man than any other of the senses4 ,by it we perceive the form1 color1 volume1 and position of objects that surround us4 ,the eye is the organ of sight1 or vision1 and its mechanism is so wonderful1 that it not only proves the existence of a great ,first ,cause1 but perhaps1 more than other organs1 the design of the ,creator to mingle pleasure with our existence4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,vision4 #hia4 ,the apparatus of vision consists of the ,optic ,nerve1 the ,globe and ,muscles of the eye1 and its ,protecting ,organs4 #hib4 ,the ,,optic ,,nerve arises by two roots from the central portion of the base of the brain4 ,the two nerves approach each other1 as they proceed forward1 and some of the fibres of each cross to the nerve of the opposite side4 ,they then diverge1 and enter the globe of the eyes at their back part1 where they expand1 and form a soft1 whitish membrane4 #hic4 ,the ,,globe1 or ball of the eye1 is an optical instrument of the most perfect construction4 ,the sides of the globes are composed of ,coats1 or membranes4 ,the interior of the globe is filled with refracting ,humors1 or medi-ums4 ------------ #hij4 ,which sense contributes most to the enjoyment of man8 ,what do we perceive by this sense8 ,what is said of the mechanism of the eye8 #hia-iaf4 ,give the anatomy of the organs of vision4 #hia4 ,of what does the apparatus of vision consist8 #hib4 ,describe the optic nerve4 #hic4 ,describe the globe of the eye4 ------------ #hid4 ,the ,,coats are three in number3 #ast4 ,the ,scle-rotic and ,corne-a4 #b;d4 ,the ,choroid1 ,iris1 and ,cilia-ry processes4 #c;d4 ,the ,reti-na4 #hie ,the ,,humors are also three in number3 #ast4 ,the ,aque-ous1 or watery4 #b;d4 ,the ,crystal-line1 7lens47 #c;d4 ,the ,vitre-ous1 or glassy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,the second pair of nerves4 #a1 #a1 ,globe of the eye3 the one on the left is perfect1 but that on the right has the sclerotic and choroid coats removed1 to show the retina4 #b1 ,the crossing of the optic nerve4 #e1 ,the pons varolii4 #f1 ,the medulla oblongata4 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 ,the origin of several pairs of cranial nerves4 #hif4 ,the ,,sclerotic ,,coat is a dense1 fibrous membrane and invests about four fifths of the globe of the eye4 ,it gives form to this organ1 and serves for the attachment of the muscles that move the eye in various directions4 ,this coat1 from the brilliancy of its whiteness1 is known by the name of the white of the eye4 ,anteriorly1 the sclerotic coat presents a bevelled edge1 which receives the cornea in the same way that a watch-glass is received by the groove in its case4 ------------ #hid4 ,name the coats of the eye4 #hie4 ,name the humors of the eye4 ,explain fig4 #acg4 #hif4 ,describe the sclerotic coat4 ------------ #hig4 ,the ,,cornea is the transparent projecting layer1 that forms the anterior fifth of the globe of the eye4 ,in form1 it is circular1 convexo-concave1 and resembles a watch-glass4 ,it is received by its edge1 which is sharp and thin1 within the bevelled border of the sclerotic1 to which it is firmly attached4 ,the cornea is composed of several different layers2 its blood-vessels are so small that they exclude the red particles altogether1 and admit nothing but serum4 #hih4 ,the ,,choroid ,,coat is a vascular membrane1 of a rich chocolate-brown color upon its external surface1 and of a deep black color within4 ,it is connected1 externally1 with the sclerotic1 by an extremely fine cellular tissue1 and by the passage of nerves and vessels2 internally1 it is in contact with the retina4 ,the choroid membrane is composed of three layers4 ,it secretes upon its internal surface a dark substance1 called pig-mentum nigrum1 which is of great importance in the function of vision4 #hii4 ,the ,,iris is so called from its variety of color in different persons4 ,it forms a partition between the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye1 and is pierced by a circular opening1 which is called the pupil4 ,it is composed of two layers4 ,the radiating fibres of the anterior layer converge from the circumference to the centre4 ,through the action of these radiating fibres the pupil is dilated4 ,the circular fibres surround the pupil1 and by their action produce contraction of its area4 ,the posterior layer is of a deep purple tint1 and is called u-vea1 from its resemblance in color to a ripe grape4 ------------ ,how are this coat and the cornea united8 #hig4 ,describe the cornea4 #hih4 ,what is the color of the external surface of the choroid coat8 ,of the internal8 ,how is it connected externally8 ,how internally8 ,what does this membrane secrete upon its internal surface8 #hii4 ,describe the iris4 ,of how many layers of fibres is the iris composed8 ,what is the function of the radiating fibres8 ,of the circular8 ------------ #ijj4 ,the ,,ciliary ,,processes consist of a number of triangular folds1 formed1 apparently1 by the plaiting of the internal layer of the choroid coat4 ,they are about sixty in number4 ,their external border is continuous with the internal layer of the choroid coat4 ,the central border is free1 and rests against the circumference of the crystalline lens4 ,these processes are covered by a layer of the pigmentum nigrum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,a view of the anterior segment of a transverse section of the globe of the eye1 seen from within4 #a1 ,the divided edge of the three coats--sclerotic1 choroid1 and retina4 #b1 ,the pupil4 #c1 ,the iris3 the surface presented to view in this section being the uvea4 #d1 ,the ciliary processes4 #e1 ,the scalloped anterior border of the retina4 #ija4 ,the ,,retina is composed of three layers3 ,the external2 middle1 or nervous2 and internal1 or vascular4 ,the external membrane is extremely thin1 and is seen as a flocculent film1 when the eye is suspended in water4 ,the nervous membrane is the expansion of the optic nerve1 and forms a thin1 semi-transparent1 bluish-white layer4 ,the vascular membrane consists of the ramifications of a minute artery and its accompanying vein4 ,this vascular layer forms distinct sheaths for the nervous papill1 which constitute the inner surface of the retina4 ------------ #ijj4 ,how are the ciliary processes formed8 ,what does fig4 #ach exhibit8 #ija4 ,of how many layers is the retina composed8 ,describe the external layer4 ,the nervous layer4 ------------ #ijb4 ,the ,,aqueous ,,humor is situated in the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye4 ,it is an albuminous fluid1 having an alkaline reaction4 ,its specific gravity is a very little greater than distilled water4 ,the anterior chamber is the space intervening between the cornea1 in front1 and the iris and pupil1 behind4 ,the posterior chamber is the narrow space1 less than half a line in depth1 bounded by the posterior surface of the iris and pupil1 in front1 and by the ciliary processes and crystalline lens1 behind4 ,the two chambers are lined by a thin layer1 the secreting membrane of the aqueous humor4 #ijc4 ,the ,,crystalline ,,humor1 or lens1 is situated immediately behind the pupil1 and is surrounded by the ciliary processes4 ,this humor is more convex on the posterior than on the anterior surface1 and1 in different portions of the surface of each1 the convexity varies from their oval character4 ,it is imbedded in the anterior part of the vitreous humor1 from which it is separated by a thin membrane1 and is invested by a transparent elastic membrane1 called the capsule of the lens4 ,the lens consists of concentric layers1 disposed like the coats of an onion4 ,the external layer is soft1 and each successive one increases in firmness until the central layer forms a hardened nucleus4 ,these layers are best demonstrated by boiling1 or by immersion in alcohol1 when they separate easily from each other4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,the lens in the eye of a fish is round1 like a globe1 and has the same appearance1 when boiled1 as the lens of the human eye4 ------------ ,the vascular layer4 #ijb4 ,where is the aqueous humor situated8 ,what part of the eye is called the anterior chamber8 ,the posterior chamber8 ,with what are the chambers lined8 #ijc4 ,where is the crystalline humor situated8 ,with what is it surrounded8 ,of what does the lens consist8 ,how are these layers best demonstrated8 ,what is produced when the lens1 or its investing membrane1 is changed in structure8 ------------ #b;d4 ,when the crystalline lens1 or its investing membrane1 is changed in structure1 so as to prevent the rays of light passing to the retina1 the affection is called a cataract4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,a section of the globe of the eye4 #a1 ,the sclerotic coat4 #b1 ,the cornea 7,this connects with the sclerotic coat by a bevelled edge47 #c1 ,the choroid coat4 #f1 #f1 ,the iris4 #g1 ,the pupil4 #h1 ,the retina4 #aj1 #aa1 #aa1 ,chambers of the eye that contain the aqueous humor4 #ab1 ,the crystalline lens4 #ac1 ,the vitreous humor4 #ae1 ,the optic nerve4 #af1 ,the central artery of the eye4 #ijd4 ,the ,,vitreous ,,humor forms the principal bulk of the globe of the eye4 ,it is an albuminous fluid1 resembling the aqueous humor1 but is more dense1 and differs from the aqueous in this important particular1 that it has not the power of re-producing itself4 ,if by accident it is discharged1 the eye is irrecoverably lost2 while the aqueous humor may be let out1 and will be again restored4 ,it is enclosed in a delicate membrane1 called the hya-loid1 which sends processes into the interior of the globe of the eye1 forming the cells in which the humor is retained4 ------------ #ijd4 ,describe the vitreous humor4 ,how does this humor differ from the aqueous8 ,what membrane encloses the vitreous humor8 ------------ ,observation4 ,the structure of this organ can be seen by first freezing the eye of a sheep or an ox2 it then can be cut in various directions1 and each part separately examined4 #ije4 ,the ,,muscles of the eye are six in number4 ,they are attached1 at one extremity1 to the bones of the orbit behind the eye2 at the other extremity1 they are inserted by broad1 thin tendons1 near the junction of the cornea with the sclerotic coat4 ,the white1 pearly appearance of the eye is caused by these tendons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,a view of the eye and its muscles4 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 ,five of these muscles4 f1 ,the optic nerve4 ,g1 ,the trochlea1 or pulley over which one of the muscles passes4 ,the bone is seen above and below the eye4 ,observation4 ,if the external muscle is too short1 the eye is turned out1 producing the wall eye4 ,if the internal muscle is contracted1 the eye is turned inward toward the nose4 ,it is then called a cross eye4 ------------ #ije4 ,how many muscles has the eye8 ,give their attachments4 ,what causes the pearly appearance of the eye8 ,what does fig4 #adj represent8 ,what is the effect if the external muscle is contracted8 ,the internal muscle8 ------------ #ijf4 ,the ,,protecting ,,organs are the ,orbits1 ,eyebrows1 ,eyelids1 and ,lachry-mal ,apparatus4 #ijg4 ,the ,,orbits are deep1 bony sockets1 in which the globes of the eyes are situated4 ,they have the form of a cone1 the base of which is open and directed forward4 ,the bottom of the orbits is pierced by a large hole which gives passage to the optic nerve4 ,these cavities are lined with a thick cushion of fat1 in order that the eyes may move in all directions1 with perfect freedom and without friction4 #ijh4 ,the ,,eyebrows are two projecting arches of integument1 covered with short1 thick hairs1 which form the upper boundary of the orbits4 ,the eyebrows are so arranged that they prevent the moisture that accumulates on the forehead1 in free perspiration1 from flowing into the eye1 and also shade these organs from too vivid light4 #iji4 ,the ,,eyelids are two movable curtains placed in front of the eye4 ,they have a delicate skin on the outside1 muscular fibres beneath1 and a narrow cartilage on their edges1 which tends to preserve the shape of the lid4 ,internally1 they are lined by a smooth membrane1 which is reflected over the front of the eye upon the sclerotica4 ,this membrane is called the con-junc-tiva4 ,it secretes the fluid that moistens and lubricates the eye1 and which causes the eyelids to open and shut without friction4 ,observation4 ,when the portion of this membrane that is reflected over the globe of the eye1 is inflamed1 there is frequently a deposition of whitish material1 called lymph4 ,this accounts for the films1 opacities1 and white spots seen upon the eye after the inflammation has subsided4 ------------ #ijf4 ,name the protecting organs of the eye4 #ijg4 ,describe the orbits4 ,how are the movements of the eye facilitated8 #ijh4 ,describe the eyebrows4 ,what does this arrangement prevent8 #iji4 ,describe the eyelids4 ,what is the use of the conjunctiva8 ,how are the white spots frequently seen upon the eye accounted for8 ------------ #iaj4 ,there are found several small glands on the internal surface of the cartilage1 which have the appearance of parallel strings of pearls4 ,they open by minute apertures upon the edges of the lids4 ,the secretion from these glands prevents the edges of the eyelids from being united during sleep4 #iaa4 ,the edges of the eyelids are furnished with a triple row of long1 thick hairs1 called eyelashes1 which curve upward from the upper lid1 and downward from the lower1 so that they may not interlace with each other in the closure of the eyelids4 ,these appendages of the eye1 by closing1 not only protect it from moisture1 but from dust1 particularly during sleep4 ,they likewise1 by their movements in opening and shutting1 spread the lubricating fluid equally over the eye4 #iab4 ,the ,,lachrymal ,,apparatus1 which secretes the tears1 consists of the ,lachrymal ,gland with its ducts1 ,lachrymal ,canals1 and the ,nasal ,duct4 #iac4 ,the ,,lachrymal ,,gland is situated at the upper and outer angle of the orbit4 ,it is about three quarters of an inch in length1 flattened and oval in shape1 and occupies a depression in the orbital plate of the frontal bone4 ,ten or twelve small ducts pass from this gland1 and open upon the upper eyelid1 where they pour upon the conjunctiva the lachrymal fluid1 or tears4 ,this secretion is maintained while we are asleep1 as well as when we are awake4 ,the eye from this cause is kept constantly moist4 #iad4 ,the ,,lachrymal ,,canals commence at minute openings upon the free borders of each eyelid1 near the internal angle of the eye1 by two small orifices1 called puncta lach-ry-mali-a1 7tear points47 ,each of these points communicate with the sac at the upper part of the nasal duct4 ------------ #iaj4 ,what are found on the internal surface of the cartilage of the eyelids8 ,where do they open1 and what is their use8 #iaa4 ,with what are the edges of the eyelids furnished8 ,what are their uses8 #iab4 ,of what does the lachrymal apparatus consist8 #iac4 ,describe the lachrymal gland4 ,how many ducts pass from this gland1 and what do they convey to the eye8 ,why is the eye constantly moist8 #iad4 ,where do the lachrymal canals commence8 ------------ #iae4 ,the ,,nasal ,,duct is a short canal1 about three quarters of an inch in length1 directed downward and backward to the inferior channel of the nose1 where it terminates by an expanded orifice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4 #a1 ,the lachrymal gland4 #b1 ,ducts leading from the lachrymal gland to the upper eyelid4 #c1 #c1 ,the puncta lachrymalia4 #d1 ,the nasal sac4 #e1 ,the termination of the nasal duct4 #iaf4 ,the fluid 7tears7 secreted by the lachrymal gland1 is conveyed to the eye by the small ducts before described4 ,it is then imbibed by the puncta lachrymalia1 and carried by the lachrymal canals into the lachrymal sac1 from which it is passed to the nasal cavities by the nasal ducts4 ------------ ,what are they called8 ,with what do they communicate8 #iae4 ,describe the nasal duct4 #iaf4 ,how are the tears conveyed from the lachrymal gland to the nose8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xlv4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,vision4 #iag4 ,to comprehend the theory of vision1 it is not sufficient to know the structure of the eye4 ,we must be familiar with some of the properties of a subtile fluid1 which is constantly emanating from all luminous bodies1 called light4 #iah4 ,it is the province of natural philosophy1 rather than physiology1 to enter minutely upon the properties of light4 ,it may be observed1 however1 that1 when light passes through any medium of the same density1 the rays are in straight lines2 but1 when it passes from one medium into another of different density1 it is refracted1 or turned from a straight course1 unless it strikes the medium in a perpendicular direction--then light passes through without a change of direction4 #iai4 ,when a ray of light meets with a body1 it either passes through it1 or is reflected by it1 or it may be absorbed4 ,again1 in proportion as the rays of light become distant from the body from which they emanate1 they diverge one from the other4 ,in accordance with the laws of optics1 the rays of light1 in passing through an optical instrument like the eye1 must cross each other1 and thus produce an inverted image of the object from which the rays proceed4 ,with the general view of the structure of the eye1 we will now examine the use of each part in the function of vision4 ------------ #iag-icc4 ,give the physiology of the organs of vision4 #iag4 ,what is necessary in order to understand the theory of vision8 #iah4 ,when light passes through a medium of the same density1 in what direction will be its rays8 ,of a different density8 ,what exception8 #iai4 ,when light meets with a body1 what takes place8 ,what is said in reference to rays of light in passing through the eye8 ------------ #ibj4 ,the sclerotic coat not only gives form to the body of the eye1 but protection to the interior and more delicate parts4 ,the choroid coat seems to be chiefly composed of a tissue of nerves and minute blood-vessels2 the latter give nourishment to the different parts of the eye4 ,one of the uses of this coat is1 to absorb the rays of light immediately after they have passed through the retina4 ,this is effected by the black pigment that lines its inner surface4 ,were it not for this provision1 light would be too intense1 and vision indistinct4 ,observation4 ,in albinos1 where there is an absence of the black pigment1 the rays of light traverse the iris1 and even the choroid coat1 and so overwhelm the eye with light1 that their vision is quite imperfect1 except in the dimness of evening1 or at night4 ,in the manufacture of optical instruments1 care is taken to color their interior black1 for the same object1 namely1 the absorption of scattered rays4 #iba4 ,the iris1 by means of its powers of expansion and contraction1 regulates the quantity of light admitted through the pupil4 ,if the iris is thin1 and the rays of light pass through its substance1 they are immediately absorbed by the uvea1 and1 if that layer be insufficient1 they are taken up by the black pigment of the choroid coat4 ,observation4 ,when we look toward the bottom of the eye1 the pupil appears like a black spot1 instead of an opening4 ,this is caused by seeing the black pigment through the retina and humors of the eye4 ------------ #ibj4 ,what is the use of the sclerotic coat8 ,of what is the choroid coat chiefly composed8 ,what is the use of this coat8 ,how is it effected8 ,what is said of albinos8 ,what care is taken in the manufacture of optical instruments8 #iba4 ,what is the use of the iris8 ,when we look toward the bottom of the eye1 why does the pupil look like a black spot1 instead of an opening8 ------------ #ibb4 ,the cornea1 and the aqueous1 crystalline1 and vitreous humors1 are transparent2 so that rays of light traverse these parts of the eye1 and fall upon the retina4 ,the office of these humors and the cornea is to refract the rays of light in such proportion as to direct the image in the most favorable manner upon the retina4 #ibc4 ,the office of the retina is to receive the impression of the rays of light which leave an object at which we look1 and it is upon it that a small but very clear image of that object is formed4 ,the impression thus produced by the reflected light is transmitted by the optic nerve to the brain1 which receives the sensation4 ,this constitutes vision4 #ibd4 ,the optic nerve has but one function1 that of sight4 ,sensibility is conferred on this organ by a large branch from the fifth pair of nerves1 which ramifies upon the different parts of the eye and its appendages4 ,these parts1 however1 receive some nervous filaments from the seventh pair4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,the large number of sensitive nervous filaments renders the visual organ very impressible to bodies that cause irritation1 as dust1 or intense light4 ,this compels us to use due care to shield the eye from the influence of agents that would impair or destroy vision4 #b;d4 ,although particles of dust1 when in contact with the delicate parts of the eye1 induce severe pain1 yet these parts may be cut in surgical operations1 and the patient's sufferings are not as great as when an incision is made in the skin to remove a small tumor4 #ibe4 ,different degrees of density1 as already mentioned1 modify the refractory power of any transparent medium4 ,it is found1 on examination1 that the cornea1 the vitreous1 the crystalline1 and the aqueous humors1 have each1 severally1 various degrees of density3 and that the crystalline lens1 at its circumference1 is less dense than at its centre4 ,these circumstances modify the direction of the refraction of the rays of light1 in their passage from the cornea to the retina4 ------------ #ibb4 ,what is the use of the cornea1 aqueous1 crystalline1 and vitreous humors8 #ibc4 ,what is the office of the retina8 #ibd4 ,what is the function of the optic nerve8 ,how is sensibility conferred on this organ8 ,give the #ast observation in this connection4 ,the #b;d observation4 ------------ #ibf4 ,the refracting powers of the plane1 convex1 concave1 plano-convex1 plano-concave1 and concavo-convex lenses1#bb are different4 ,the cornea and aqueous humors are convexo-concave1 the vitreous humor is concavo-convex1 while the crystalline humor is a convexo-convex medium4 7,fig4 #aci47 #bb ,the refracting character of differently-formed lenses is illustrated in the works on ,natural ,philosophy1 to which the pupil is referred4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,the forms of the different lenses4 #a1 ,a plane lens4 #b1 ,a globe lens4 #c1 ,a convexo-convex lens4 #d1 ,a plano-convex lens4 #e1 ,a concavo-concave lens4 #f1 ,a plano-concave lens4 #g1 ,meniscus4 #h1 ,a concavo-convex lens4 ------------ #ibe4 ,have the cornea and the humors of the eye different degrees of density8 ,what is said of the crystalline lens8 ,what effect has the different density of the parts of the eye upon the light admitted to this organ8 #ibf4 ,what kind of lenses do the humors exhibit8 #ibg4 ,what modifies the refracting powers of transparent mediums8 ,how does this principle apply to the humors of the eye8 ------------ #ibg4 ,the different degrees of convexity or concavity also modify the refracting character of transparent mediums4 ,the crystalline lens is of different degrees of convexity on its two sides4 ,the convex surfaces of the aqueous and vitreous humors are segments of circles1 of different diameters from their concave surfaces4 7,fig4 #aci47 ,all these circumstances still further influence the refracting character of the visual organ4 ,the achromatic arrangement of the transparent refracting mediums of the eye1 remedies the aberration of refraction in the different portions of the eye4 #ibh4 ,again1 the refracting power of lenses is modified by their convexity or concavity4 ,the more convex a lens is1 the shorter the distance from the refracting medium1 where the different refracted rays converge to a focus4 ,to adapt the eye to view objects at different distances1 requires a change in the refracting power of some of the transparent mediums of the eye4 #ibi4 ,both surfaces of the crystalline lens are oval1 not spherical1 and the refraction of the rays of light is mainly effected in this portion of the eye4 ,change the inclination of this lens1 so that different portions of its anterior surface shall be directly behind the pupil1 and its refracting power is increased or diminished1 as the surface presented is more or less convex4 #icj4 ,to view objects at a distance1 a less convex lens is needed than in examining articles very near the eye2 and this organ1 from its structure1 has the power of adaptation to different distances4 ,it is supposed that the muscular substance of the ciliary body and processes changes1 by its contraction1 the inclination of the crystalline lens4 ,without this1 or some other adapting power1 a picture of objects at different distances would not be formed upon the retina1 and the vision of every person would be defective1 except in reference to objects at certain definite distances from the eye4 ------------ #ibh4 ,what modifies the refracting power of lenses8 ,what is necessary to adapt the eye to view objects at different distances8 #ibi4 ,where is the refraction of the rays of light mainly effected8 #icj4 ,when we view objects at a distance1 what kind of lens is required8 ,has the eye the power of adapting itself to different distances8 ,how is it effected8 ------------ ,observation4 ,it is well known that a separate image is formed on each eye1 and1 if they are not in the same direction1 the objects will appear double4 ,this is proved by pressing one eye1 so that the rays of light cannot enter it in the same direction as they do in the other2 consequently1 the vision is double4 #ica4 ,by the action of the muscles of the eye1 it is turned in different directions1 so that objects can be examined upon each side1 as well as in front1 without turning the body4 ,by the slight or intense action of the straight muscles1 the eye is more or less compressed1 and the form of the globe is changed1 together with the relative positions of the different humors4 ,this modification also adapts the eye to view objects at different distances4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adc4 #a1 ,a pen1 an inverted image of which is painted on the retina of the eye1 at #b4 ,the image of all objects upon the expansion of the optic nerve1 is inverted by the crossing of the rays of light from objects as they traverse the pupil4 ,observation4 ,if the eye is fixed for a time on some object which is distinguished with difficulty1 there is a painful sensation1 similar to that experienced by other muscles of the body when used too long4 ,this is called straining the eye4 #icb4 ,when the refraction of the rays of light is too great1 as in over-convexity of the cornea1 or the crystalline lens1 or the vitreous humor1 or all of them1 the image is formed a little in front of the retina4 ,persons thus affected cannot see distinctly1 except at a very short distance4 ,this infirmity is called near1 or short-sightedness4 ,this defect is in a great measure obviated by the use of concave glasses1 which scatter the luminous rays1 and thus counterbalance the too strong refracting force of the eye4 ------------ ,what does fig4 #adc represent8 #ica4 ,why can we see objects at the side as well as in front of the eye1 without turning the body8 ,what is the effect when the eye is fixed on an object that is indistinctly seen8 ------------ #icc4 ,when the different parts of the eye are not sufficiently convex1 the image is formed beyond the retina1 and thus only distant objects are distinctly seen4 ,this defect is called long-sightedness4 ,the feebleness in the refracting power of the eye may be caused by disease2 but usually it is a consequence of old age1 and is remedied by wearing spectacles with convex glasses4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,vision4 #icd4 ,the eye1 like other organs of the body1 should be used1 and then rested4 ,if we look intently at an object for a long time1 the eye becomes wearied1 and the power of vision diminished4 ,the observance of this rule is particularly needful to those whose eyes are weak1 and predisposed to inflammation4 ,on the contrary1 if the eye is not called into action1 its functions are enfeebled4 #ice4 ,sudden transitions of light should be avoided4 ,the iris enlarges or contracts1 as the light that falls upon the eye is faint or strong2 but the change is not instantaneous4 ,hence the imperfect vision in passing from a strong to a dim light1 and the overwhelming sensation experienced on emerging from a dimly-lighted apartment to one brilliantly illuminated4 ,a common cause of am-aur-osis1 or paralysis of the retina1 is1 using the eye for a long time in a very intense light4 ------------ #icb4 ,what is short-sightedness8 ,how is the defect remedied8 #icc4 ,what is long-sightedness8 ,how is the defect remedied8 #icd-idb4 ,give the hygiene of the organs of vision4 #icd4 ,do the same principles apply to the use of the eye as to other organs8 ,what is the effect if the eye is fixed intently on an object for a long time8 ,what results if the eye is not called into action8 #ice4 ,why should sudden transitions of light be avoided8 ------------ ,note4 ,let the anatomy and physiology of the eye be reviewed from figs4 #aci and #adc1 or from anatomical outline plate ,no4 #aj4 #icf4 ,long-continued oblique positions of the eye should be avoided1 when viewing objects4 ,if the eye is turned obliquely for a long time in viewing objects1 it may produce an unnatural contraction of the muscle called into action4 ,this contraction of the muscle is termed stra-bismus1 or cross-eye4 ,the practice of imitating the appearance of a person thus affected1 is injudicious1 as the imitation1 designed to be temporary1 may become permanent4 ,observation4 ,the vision of a cross-eye is always defective4 ,in general1 only one eye is called into action1 in viewing the object to which the mind is directed4 ,this defect can be remedied by a surgical operation1 which also corrects the position of the eye4 #icg4 ,children should be trained to use the eye upon objects at different distances4 ,this is necessary1 in order that the vision may be correct when objects at various distances are viewed4 ,any action unnatural to the muscles1 if frequently repeated1 may and will modify the character and action of the parts so operated upon4 ,if a limb1 as the arm1 be kept flexed for a long time1 one set of muscles will be relaxed and elongated1 and another will be shortened1 and its contractile power will be increased4 ,the same principle is true of the eye4 ------------ ,what causes palsy of the retina8 #icf4 ,why should we avoid oblique positions of the eye in viewing objects8 ,what is said of the practice of imitating persons thus affected8 ,what is said in reference to the vision of a cross-eye8 #icg4 ,why should children be trained to use the eye upon objects at different distances8 ,what is the effect if an unnatural action of the muscles is frequently repeated8 ,does the same principle apply to the eye8 ------------ #ich4 ,in viewing objects very near the eye1 the ciliary processes are called into action to produce a proper inclination of the crystalline lens1 so that the rays of light may be properly refracted to form a perfect image on the retina4 ,in looking at objects at a great distance1 the ciliary processes are called into a different action1 to produce a different inclination of the lens4 ,let either of these actions be repeated1 again and again1 for weeks and months1 and they will become natural1 and the acquired inclination will be permanent4 #ici4 ,from the preceding principle1 a person becomes short or long sighted1 as the objects to which the eye is usually directed are near or remote4 ,this is one reason why scholars1 watchmakers1 and artisans1 who bring minute objects near the eye to examine them1 are short-sighted1 and why hunters and sailors1 who are habituated to view objects at a distance1 are long-sighted4 ,observation4 ,in the management of children1 whether in the nursery or school-room1 it is very important that their books1 or articles upon which they may labor1 should be held at an appropriate distance from the eye4 ,were this attended to by the parent or instructor1 we should not see so many persons with defective vision4 #idj4 ,cleanliness1 as well as the health of the eye1 require that it be bathed every morning with pure water1 either cold or tepid1 accompanied with as little rubbing or friction as possible4 ,in all instances1 the secretion from the lachrymal glands1 that sometimes collects at the angle of the eye1 should be removed1 as it contains saline matter4 #ida4 ,when small particles1 or dust1 get upon the eye1 they produce much inconvenience1 which is often increased by harsh attempts to remove them4 ,the individual should be placed before a strong light1 the lids held open with one hand1 or by another person1 and the particles removed with the corner of a fine linen or silk handkerchief4 ------------ #ich4 ,what is the effect of repeatedly using the eye in one direction8 #ici4 ,why are artisans and scholars generally short-sighted8 ,why are sailors and hunters long-sighted8 ,how can defective vision in a great degree be prevented8 #idj4 ,what reasons are there for bathing the eye8 #ida4 ,how can dust and other small particles be removed from the eye8 ------------ #idb4 ,sometimes the substance is concealed under the upper eyelid1 and it may then be exposed by turning back the lid in the following manner3 ,take a knitting-needle1 or small1 slender piece of stick1 which is perfectly smooth1 and place it over the upper lid1 in contact with1 and just under the edge of the orbit2 then1 holding it firmly1 seize the eyelashes with the fingers of the disengaged hand1 and gently turn the lid back over the stick or needle4 ,the inner side of the lid can then be examined1 and any substance removed that may have been there concealed4 ,too many trials ought not to be made1 if unsuccessful1 as much inflammation may be induced2 but a surgeon should be consulted as soon as possible4 ,observation4 ,eyestones ought never to be placed in the eye1 as they often cause more pain and irritation than the evil which they are intended to remedy4 ------------ #idb4 ,how removed from the upper eyelid8 ,why should not eyestones be used8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xlvi4 ,,the ,,sense ,,of ,,hearing4 #idc4 ,the sense of hearing is next in importance to that of vision4 ,through this sense we are enabled to perceive sounds1 that not only subserve to our comfort and pleasure1 but are instrumental in promoting our intellectual enjoyments4 ,the organ of hearing1 or the ear1 is one of the most complicated in the human body4 ,,anatomy ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,hearing4 #idd4 ,the ,,ear is composed of three parts3 #ast4 ,the ,external ,ear4 #b;d4 ,the ,tympan-um1 or middle ear4 #c;d4 ,the ,laby-rinth1 or internal ear4 #ide4 ,the ,,external ,,ear is composed of two parts3 ,the ,pinna1 7pavilion of the ear17 and the ,me-atus ,aud-it-ori-us ,ex-ternus1 7auditory canal47 #idf4 ,the ,,pinna is a cartilaginous plate which surrounds the entrance of the auditory canal4 ,it presents many ridges and furrows1 arising from the folds of the cartilage that form it4 ,observation4 ,the pinna1 in many animals1 is movable2 in those that pursue their prey1 it is generally directed forward2 in timid animals1 as the hare and rabbit1 it is directed backward4 ,in man1 this part is but slightly under the control of the will4 ------------ #idc4 ,what is said of the importance of hearing8 ,is the ear complicated in its structure8 #idd-ifb4 ,give the anatomy of the organs of hearing4 #idd4 ,of how many parts is the ear composed8 ,name them4 #ide4 ,give the parts of the external ear4 #idf4 ,describe the pinna4 ,what is said in reference to the pinna of many animals8 ------------ #idg4 ,the ,,meatus ,,auditorius is a canal partly cartilaginous1 and partly bony1 about an inch in length1 which extends inward from the pinna to the ,membra-na ,tympan-i1 7drum of the ear47 ,it is narrower in the middle than at the extremities4 ,it is lined by an extremely thin pouch of cuticle1 which1 when withdrawn1 after maceration1 preserves the form of the canal4 ,some stiff1 short hairs are also found in the interior of the channel1 which stretch across the tube1 and prevent the ingress of insects4 ,beneath the cuticle are a number of small follicles1 which secrete the wax of the ear4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #add4 ,a representation of the four bones of the ear4 ,the smallest is highly magnified4 ,this bone is early matured1 and in the adult it becomes united with the incus4 ,these bones are retained in their places and moved by three ligaments and four muscles4 #idh4 ,the ,,membrana ,,tympani is a thin1 semi-transparent membrane1 of an oval shape4 ,it is about three eighths of an inch in diameter1 and is inserted into a groove around the circumference of the meatus1 near its termination4 ,this membrane is placed obliquely across the area of that tube4 ,it is concave toward the meatus1 and convex toward the tympanum4 #idi4 ,the ,,tympanum consists of an irregular bony cavity1 situated within the temporal bone4 ,it is bounded externally by the membrana tympani2 internally by its inner wall2 and in its circumference by the petrous portion of the temporal bone and mastoid cells4 ,the tympanum contains four small bones1 called the os-sicu-la au-ditus4 ,these are named separately1 the malle-us1 incus1 stapes1 and or-bicu-lar4 ------------ #idg4 ,what is the meatus auditorius8 ,what is found in this canal8 ,what is their use8 ,where is the wax of the ear secreted8 #idh4 ,describe the membrana tympani4 #idi4 ,where is the tympanum situated8 ------------ #iej4 ,there are ten openings in the middle ear2 five large and five small4 ,the larger openings are1 the ,me-atus ,aud-it-ori-us ,ex-ternus1 ,fe-nestra ,o-valis1 7oval window17 ,fe-nestra ,ro-tunda1 7round window17 ,mastoid ,cells1 and ,eu-stachi-an ,tube4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4 ,a representation of the pinna1 meatus1 membrana tympani1 bones of the ear1 and semicircular canals4 a1 ,the pinna4 c1 ,the meatus auditorius externus4 g1 ,the membrana tympani4 k1 ,the tympanum4 e1 ,the bones of the ear4 b1 ,the semicircular canals4 f1 ,the cochlea4 h1 ,the vestibule4 i1 ,the ,eustachian tube4 d1 ,the auditory nerve4 #iea4 ,the ,,fenestra ,,ovalis is the opening of communication between the tympanum and the vestibule4 ,it is closed by the foot of the stapes1 or bone of the ear1 and by the lining membrane of both cavities4 #ieb4 ,the ,,fenestra ,,rotunda serves to establish a communication between the tympanum and the cochlea4 it is closed by a proper membrane1 as well as by the lining of both cavities4 ------------ ,what does this cavity contain8 #iej4 ,how many openings in the tympanum8 ,explain fig4 #ade4 #iea4 ,describe the fenestra ovalis4 #ieb4 ,the fenestra rotunda4 ------------ #iec4 ,the ,,mastoid ,,cells are very numerous1 and occupy the whole of the interior of the mastoid process of the temporal bone1 and part of the petrous bone4 ,they communicate1 by a large1 irregular opening1 with the upper and posterior circumference of the tympanum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adf4 ,a view of the labyrinth laid open4 ,this figure is highly magnified4 #a1 #a1 ,the cochlea4 #b1 #c1 ,two channels1 that wind two and a half turns around a central point1 7#e47 #g1 ,the central portion of the labyrinth1 7vestibule47 #h1 ,the foramen rotundum4 #i1 ,the fenestra ovalis4 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 ,the semicircular canals4 ,the cochlea and semicircular canals open into the vestibule4 #ied4 ,the ,,eustachian ,,tube is a canal of communication1 extending obliquely between the pharynx and the anterior circumference of the tympanum4 ,in structure it is partly fibro-cartilaginous and partly bony4 ,it is broad and expanded at its pharyngeal extremity1 and narrow and compressed at the tympanum4 ------------ #iec4 ,where are the mastoid cells8 ,explain fig4 #adf4 #ied4 ,describe the ,eustachian tube4 ------------ #iee4 ,the small openings of the middle ear are for the entrance and exit of the chorda tympani1 7a small nerve that crosses the tympanum17 and for the exit of the muscles that act upon the membrana tympani and bones of the ear4 #ief4 ,the ,,labyrinth consists of a membranous and a bony portion4 ,the bony labyrinth presents a series of cavities which are channelled through the substance of the petrous bone4 ,it is situated between the cavity of the tympanum and the ,audit-o-ry ,nerve4 ,the labyrinth is divided into the ,vesti-bule1 ,sem-i-circu-lar ,canals1 and ,cochle-a4 #ieg4 ,the ,,vestibule is a small1 three-cornered cavity1 situated immediately within the inner wall of the tympanum4 #ieh4 ,the ,,semicircular ,,canals are three bony passages which communicate with the vestibule1 into which two of them open at both extremities1 and the third at one extremity4 #iei4 ,the ,,cochlea forms the anterior portion of the labyrinth4 ,it consists of a bony and gradually tapering canal1 about one and a half inches in length1 which makes two turns and a half1 spirally1 around a central axis1 called the mo-dio-lus4 ,the modiolus is large near its base1 where it corresponds with the first turn of the cochlea1 and diminishes in diameter toward its extremity4 #ifj4 ,the interior of the canal of the cochlea is partially divided into two passages1 by means of a bony and membranous plate4 ,at the extremity of the modiolus1 the two passages communicate with each other4 ,at the other extremity1 one opens into the vestibule2 the other into the tympanum1 by the foramen rotundum4 ,the internal surface of the bony labyrinth is lined by a fibro-serous membrane4 ------------ #iee4 ,what passes through the small openings of the middle ear8 #ief4 ,of what does the labyrinth consist8 ,give the parts of the internal ear4 #ieg4 ,describe the vestibule4 #ieh4 ,what is said of the semicircular canals8 #iei4 ,why is the cochlea so called8 ,of what does it consist8 #ifj4 ,how is the interior of the canal of the cochlea divided8 ,where do they communicate with each other8 ------------ #ifa4 ,the membranous labyrinth is smaller in size1 but a perfect counterpart1 with respect to form1 of the bony vestibule1 cochlea1 and semicircular canals4 ,within this labyrinth are two small1 elongated sacs1 which are filled with a fluid4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,a view of the auditory nerve4 #a1 ,the spinal cord4 #b1 ,the medulla oblongata4 #c1 ,the lower part of the brain4 #d1 ,the auditory nerve4 #e1 ,a branch to the semicircular canals4 #f1 ,a branch to the cochlea4 #ifb4 ,the ,,auditory ,,nerve enters the temporal bone upon its internal surface1 and divides into two branches1 at the bottom of the cavity of the internal ear4 ,these branches enter the structure of the elongated sacs and membranous labyrinth1 radiating in all directions1 and finally1 they terminate upon the inner surface of the membrane1 in minute papill1 resembling those of the retina4 ------------ ,by what is the internal labyrinth lined8 #ifa4 ,describe the membranous labyrinth4 ,what does fig4 #adg represent8 #ifb4 ,where does the auditory nerve enter and divide8 ,where do the branches of the auditory nerve enter and terminate8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xlvii4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,hearing4 #ifc4 ,,hearing is that function by which we obtain a knowledge of the vibratory motions of bodies1 which constitute sounds4 ,the precise function of all the different parts of the ear is not known4 #ifd4 ,the function of that part of the external ear which projects from the head is to collect sounds and reflect them into the meatus4 #ife4 ,the membrana tympani serves to facilitate the transmission of sounds1 and also to moderate their intensity4 ,it is so arranged that it can be relaxed or tightened4 ,observation4 ,this membrane1 when healthy1 has no opening2 and it must be apparent that the apprehension which is often expressed1 that insects will penetrate further1 is groundless4 ,the pain is owing to the extreme sensibility of the membrana tympani4 #iff4 ,the supposed office of the tympanum is to transmit the vibrations made on the membrana tympani to the internal ear4 ,this is effected by the air which it contains1 and by the chain of small bones that are enclosed in this cavity4 #ifg4 ,the use of the ,eustachian tube is to admit air into the tympanum1 which renders the pressure on both sides equal1 and thus its membrane is kept in a proper state of tension4 ------------ #ifc-iga4 ,give the physiology of the organs of hearing4 #ifc4 ,what is hearing8 ,are the precise functions of the different parts of the ear known8 #ifd4 ,what is the function of the external ear8 #ife4 ,of the membrana tympani8 ,what observation in reference to this membrane8 #iff4 ,what is the supposed office of the middle ear8 #ifg4 ,what is the use of the ,eustachian tube8 ------------ ,observation4 ,when near a cannon1 or a field-piece1 about being discharged1 by opening the mouth the impression upon the auditory nerve will be diminished1 and the unpleasant sensation lessened4 ,this is the result of the air in the middle ear escaping through the ,eustachian tube1 when the vibrations of the membrana tympani are violent4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,a view of all the parts of the ear4 #a1 ,the tube that leads to the internal ear4 #b1 ,the membrana tympani4 #c1 #d1 #e1 ,the bones of the ear4 #g1 ,the central part of the labyrinth1 7vestibule47 #h1 #i1 #aj1 ,the semicircular canals4 #aa1 #ab1 ,the channels of the cochlea4 #ac1 ,the auditory nerve4 #ad1 ,the channel from the middle ear to the throat1 7,eustachian tube47 #ifh4 ,but little is known of the functions of the internal ear2 its parts are filled with a watery fluid1 in which the filaments of the auditory nerve terminate4 ------------ ,what observation in this connection8 #ifh4 ,what is the function of the internal ear8 ------------ #ifi4 ,many of the parts just enumerated aid in hearing1 but are not absolutely essential to this sense4 ,but if the vestibule and auditory nerve are diseased or destroyed1 no sound is then perceived4 ,if this sense is destroyed in early life1 the person also loses the power of articulating words4 ,hence a man born deaf is always dumb4 #igj4 ,the transmission of sound through the different parts of the ear will now be explained by aid of fig4 #adh4 ,the vibrations of air are collected by the external ear1 and conducted through the tube 7#a7 to the membrana tympani1 7#b47 ,from the membrane vibrations pass along the chain of bones1 7#c1 #d1 #e47 ,the bone #e communicates with the internal ear1 7#g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #aa1 #aa1 #ab1 #ab1 #ab47 ,from the internal ear the impression is transmitted to the brain by the nerve1 7#ac47 #iga4 ,the auditory nerve1 like the optic1 has but one function1 that of special sensibility4 ,the nerves which furnish the ear with ordinary sensibility1 proceed from the fifth pair4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,the ,,organs ,,of ,,hearing4 #igb4 ,hearing1 like the other senses1 is capable of very great improvement4 ,by cultivation1 the blind are enabled to judge with great accuracy the distance of bodies in motion1 and even the height of buildings4 ,it is also capable of improvement when all the other senses are perfect4 ,thus the ,indian will distinguish sounds that are inaudible to the white man4 ------------ #ifi4 ,what parts of the ear are essential in order to hear sounds8 ,what follows loss of hearing8 #iga4 ,what is the office of the auditory nerve8 ,what nerves convey ordinary sensibility to the ear8 #igb-igh4 ,give the hygiene of the organs of hearing4 #igb4 ,is this sense capable of improvement8 ,how does this sense aid the blind8 ,is it also capable of improvement when all the other senses are perfect8 ,in whom is this illustrated8 ------------ ,note4 ,let the anatomy and physiology of the organs of hearing be reviewed1 from fig4 #adh1 or from anatomical outline plate ,no4 #aj4 #igc4 ,acute hearing requires perfection in the structure and functions of the different parts of the ear1 and that portion of the brain from which the auditory nerve proceeds4 ,deafness is by no means unfrequent4 ,we will now advert to some of the common causes of imperfect hearing4 #igd4 ,the structure or functional action of the brain may be deranged by inflammation1 by compression1 or by debility1 and produce deafness4 ,the first is seen during inflammatory affections of the brain1 and in fevers2 the second is seen in accidental injuries of the head2 the third is seen in old age1 and after severe diseases of the head1 and fevers4 ,in these cases1 applications to1 and operations upon1 the ear do no good4 ,the only remedy is to remove1 if possible1 the diseased condition of the brain4 #ige4 ,imperfect hearing may be produced by the destruction of the membrana tympani1 or removal of the bones of the ear1 or the parts within the labyrinth4 ,in these instances1 medical treatment is of no avail1 as the destroyed parts cannot be restored4 #igf4 ,hearing may be rendered defective by a diminution of the vibratory character of the membrana tympani4 ,this may result from a thickening of this membrane1 or from an accumulation of wax upon its outer surface4 ,the increased thickness is usually the result of inflammation1 either acute or chronic4 ,the proper treatment is such as is efficient to remove inflammatory action4 ,observations4 #ast4 ,the introduction of heads of pins into the ear is a frequent cause of chronic inflammation of the membrana tympani4 ,hence this practice should never be adopted1 and if acquired1 should be abandoned4 ------------ #igc4 ,on what does acute hearing depend8 #igd4 ,state effects on the hearing in some conditions of the brain4 ,how relieved8 #ige4 ,of the effect on hearing when the bones of the ear or the labyrinth are destroyed8 ,is medical treatment of any avail8 #igf4 ,what conditions of the drum of the ear may impair hearing8 ,how relieved8 ,what is said of the introduction of pins to cleanse the ear8 ------------ #b;d4 ,the accumulations of viscid wax may be softened by dropping some animal oil into the ear1 and then removing it by ejecting warm soap suds a few hours subsequent to the use of the oil4 ,this may be repeated for several successive days4 #igg4 ,hearing may be impaired by obstruction of the ,eustachian tube4 ,the closure of this canal diminishes the vibratory character of the air within the tympanum1 in the same manner as closing the opening in the side of a drum4 ,for the same reason1 enlarged tonsils1 inflammation and ulceration of the fauces and nasal passages during and subsequent to an attack of scarlet fever1 and the inflammation attending the sore throat in colds1 are common causes of this obstruction4 #igh4 ,the treatment of such cases of defective hearing1 is to have the tonsils1 if enlarged1 removed by a surgeon2 for the inflammation and thickening of the parts remedial means should be applied1 directed by a skilful physician4 ,the nostrums for the cure of deafness are generally of an oleaginous character1 and may be beneficial in cases of defective hearing caused by an accumulation of wax upon the drum of the ear1 but in this respect they are no better than the ordinary animal oils4 ------------ ,what is the remedy where there is an accumulation of wax8 #igg4 ,what is the effect on hearing if the ,eustachian tube is obstructed8 #igh4 ,what is the treatment when deafness is caused by inflammation or ulceration the fauces8 ,what is said of the nostrums used for deafness8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xlviii ,,means ,,of ,,preserving ,,the ,,health4#bc #bc ,it is advised1 that a thorough review of the hygiene of the preceding chapters be given from the suggestions contained in this4 #igi4 ,our bodies are constituted in harmony with certain laws1 and every person should learn these1 in order to regulate his actions and the performance of his duties1 so that health may be unimpaired1 and the power of enjoyment1 activity1 and usefulness continue while life lasts4 #ihj4 ,it is a law of the bones and the muscles1 that they should either be used in some vocation1 or called into action by some social play and active sport4 #iha4 ,all admit that food is necessary to sustain life2 and unless it be of a proper quality1 taken in proper quantities1 and at proper times1 the functions of the digestive organs will be deranged1 and disease produced4 #ihb4 ,pure air is essential to the full enjoyment of health4 ,the impure air of unventilated rooms may be breathed1 and the effect be so gradual as not to arrest attention2 yet it is a violation of the physical laws1 and1 sooner or later1 we pay the penalty in disease and suffering4 ------------ #igi4 ,why is it incumbent on every person to learn the laws of health8 #ihj4 ,give a law of the muscles4 #iha4 ,in preserving the health1 is it necessary to give attention to the food which is eaten8 ,why8 #ihb4 ,what beside food is essential to the full enjoyment of health8 ,what is said of the impure air of unventilated rooms8 #ihc4 ,what should be observed in regard to sleep8 ------------ #ihc4 ,the body also requires sleep2 and if it is not taken at the right time1 or with regularity1 we do not feel full refreshment from tired nature's sweet restorer4 ,let youth be taught that early to bed and early to rise gives him health and its attendant blessings4 ,the brain1 like other organs of the body1 should be called into action at proper times4 #ihd4 ,from the extent of the surface of the skin1 and the close sympathy that exists between it and those organs whose office is1 to remove the waste particles of matter from the body1 it therefore becomes very important in the preservation of the health1 that the functions of this membrane be properly maintained4 #ihe4 ,the function of the circulatory and secretory organs1 together with the operations of absorption and nutrition1 should be steadily maintained1 as vitality and the generation of animal heat are intimately connected with these processes4 ,in the proper performance of these functions1 very much depends on the observance of the laws of the muscular1 digestive respiratory1 dermoid1 and nervous apparatuses4 ,,removal ,,of ,,disease4 #ihf4 ,it is seldom that a physician is called in the first stages of disease4 ,at this important period1 the treatment adopted should be proper and judicious1 or the sufferings of the patient are increased1 and life1 to a greater or less degree1 is jeopardized4 ,hence the utility of knowing what should be done1 and what should not be done1 in order that the health may be rapidly regained4 #ihg4 ,in all instances of acute disease1 it is proper to rest1 not only the body1 but the mind4 ,to effect this1 the patient should cease from physical exertion1 and also withdraw his thoughts from study and business operations4 ,this should be done1 even if the person is but slightly indisposed4 ------------ #ihd4 ,why should the functions of the skin be properly maintained8 #ihe4 ,show the necessity of maintaining properly other functions of the system4 #ihf4 ,what is important in the first stages of disease8 #ihg4 ,what is proper in all instances of acute disease8 ,how can it be effected8 ------------ #ihh4 ,select a room for a sick person that is exposed to as little external noise as possible1 as impressions made on the organ of hearing greatly influence the nervous system4 ,likewise select a spacious1 well-ventilated apartment1 that has no superfluous furniture4 ,the practice of placing a sick person in a small1 ill-arranged sleeping-room1 when a more spacious room can be used1 is poor economy1 not to say unkind4 #ihi4 ,care is necessary in regulating the light of a sick-room4 ,while a strong light would produce an increased action of the vessels of the brain1 a moderate light would be an appropriate stimulus to this organ4 ,it is seldom or never necessary to exclude all light from the sick-chamber4 #iij4 ,a sick person1 whether a child or an adult1 should not be disturbed by visitors1 even if their calls are short4 ,the excitement of meeting them is followed by a depression of the nervous system4 ,the more dangerous and apparently nearer death the sick person is1 the more rigorous should be the observance of this suggestion4 ,nor should the sick-room be opened to privileged classes2 for the excitement caused by a visit from relations and the virtuous1 will do as much injury to the sick1 as that produced by strangers and the vicious4 #iia4 ,the custom of visiting and conversing with sick friends during the intervals of daily labor1 and particularly on ,sunday1 is a great evil4 ,no person will thus intrude herself in the sick-chamber who cares more for the welfare of the suffering friend than for the gratification of a sympathetic curiosity4 ,inquiries can be made of the family respecting the sick1 and complimentary or necessary messages can be communicated through the nurse4 ------------ #ihh4 ,what rooms should be selected for the sick8 ,why8 #ihi4 ,what is said in reference to the quantity of light admitted into a sick-room8 #iij4 ,what effect have calls on the sick8 #iia4 ,what is said of the custom of calling and conversing with the sick during the intervals of daily labor8 ------------ ,illustration4 ,while attending a ,miss ,b41 of ,n4 ,h41 sick of fever1 ,i pronounced her better1 withdrew medicine1 directed a simple1 low diet1 and the exclusion of all visitors4 ,in the evening ,i was sent for to attend her4 ,there was a violent relapse into the disease1 which continued to increase in severity until the fourth day1 when death terminated her sufferings4 ,i learned that1 soon after ,i gave directions that no visitors be admitted into her room1 several particular friends were permitted to enter the chamber and talk with the sick girl4 ,their conversation produced a severe headache2 and1 to use the language of the patient1 it seemed as if their talk would kill me2 and it did kill her4 #iib4 ,no solid food should be taken in the first stages of disease1 even if the affection is slight4 ,the thirst can be allayed by drinking cold water1 barley-water1 and other preparations of an unstimulating character4 ,it is wrong to tempt the appetite of a person who is indisposed4 ,the cessation of a desire for food1 is the warning of nature1 that the system is in such a state that it cannot be digested4 #iic4 ,when a patient is recovering from illness1 the food should be simple1 and in quantities not so great as to oppress the stomach4 ,it should also be given with regularity4 ,eat little and often1 with no regard to regularity1 is a pernicious practice4 #iid4 ,when a physician attends a sick person1 he should have the special management of the food1 particularly after the medicine has been withdrawn and the patient is convalescent4 ,the prevailing idea that every person may safely advise relative to food1 or that the appetite of the convalescing person is a competent guide1 is dangerous2 and cannot be too much censured4 ------------ ,give an illustration4 #iib4 ,what suggestion relative to food in the first stages of disease8 ,how can the thirst be allayed8 #iic4 ,when the patient is convalescent1 how should the food be given8 ,what is said of the practice of eating little and often8 #iid4 ,who should have the special management of food when medicine is withdrawn8 ,what idea prevails in the community8 ------------ ,illustration4 ,in #ahcb1 ,i attended a ,miss ,m41 sick of fever4 ,after an illness of a few days1 the fever abated1 and ,i directed a simple1 unstimulating diet4 ,business called me from the town two days4 ,during my absence1 a sympathizing1 officious matron called2 found her weak1 but improving2 and told her she needed food to strengthen her2 and that it would now do her good4 ,accordingly1 eggs and a piece of beefsteak were prepared1 and given to the convalescent girl4 ,she ate heartily1 and the result was a relapse into a fever more violent than the first attack4 #iie4 ,it is very important in disease that the skin be kept clean4 ,a free action of the vessels of this part of the body exerts a great influence in removing disease from the internal organs1 as well as keeping them in health4 ,if the twenty or thirty ounces of waste1 hurtful matter1 that passes through the pores of the skin in twenty-four hours1 are not removed by frequent bathing and dry rubbing1 it deranges the action of the vessels that separate this waste matter from the blood1 and thus increases the disease of the internal organs4 ,illustration4 ,mrs4 ,m4 ,r41 of ,n41 ,mass41 was afflicted with disease of the lungs and cough4 ,this was accompanied with a dry1 inactive condition of the skin4 ,as medicine had no salutary effect in relieving her cough1 she was induced by the advice of the clergyman of the parish to enter upon a systematic course of bathing twice every day4 ,soon the skin became soft1 its proper functions were restored1 the disease of the lungs yielded1 and the cough disappeared4 #iif4 ,every sick person should breathe pure air4 ,the purer the blood that courses through the body1 the greater the energy of the system to remove disease4 ,the confined vitiated air of the sick-chamber1 not unfrequently prolongs disease2 and in many instances1 the affection is not only aggravated1 but1 even rendered fatal1 by its injurious influences4 ------------ ,give an illustration of the evil effects attending such an idea4 #iie4 ,does the skin exert a great influence in removing disease from the internal organs1 as well as in keeping them in health8 ,give an illustration #iif4 ,why should every sick person1 particularly1 breathe pure air8 ------------ ,illustrations4 #ast4 ,in #ahcc1 ,i was called1 in consultation with another physician1 to ,mr4 ,h41 who was much debilitated1 and delirious4 ,for several successive days he had not slept4 ,his room was kept very warm and close1 for fear he would take cold4 ,the only change that ,i made in the treatment1 was to open the door and window1 at a distance from the bed4 ,in a short time1 the delirium ceased1 and he fell into a quiet slumber4 ,from this time he rapidly recovered1 and the delirium was probably the result of breathing impure air4 #b;d4 ,formerly1 every precaution was used to prevent persons sick of the small-pox from breathing fresh air4 ,when ,mrs4 ,ramsay had this disease in ,charleston1 ,s4,c41 her friends1 supposing that life was extinct1 caused her body to be removed from the house to an open shed4 ,the pure air revived the vital spark4 ,the result probably would have been different1 had she been kept a few hours longer in the vitiated air4 #iig4 ,the influence of habit should not be disregarded in the removal of disease4 ,if food or drink is to be administered1 however small in quantity or simple its quality1 it should be given at or about the time when the ordinary meals were taken in health4 #iih4 ,again1 the usual time when the patient was in the habit of retiring for sleep should be observed1 and all preparation necessary for the sick-room during the night should be made previous to this hour4 ,efforts should also be made to evacuate the waste matter of the digestive and urinary organs at the period which habit has formed in health4 ,this is not only a remedial agent in disease1 but often precludes the necessity of laxative or drastic cathartics4 ------------ ,are not diseases prolonged1 and even rendered fatal1 from breathing the impure1 vitiated air of the sick-chamber8 ,give illustration #ast4 ,give illustration #b;d4 #iig4 ,what is said respecting the influence of habit in removing disease8 ------------ #iii4 ,,medicine is sometimes necessary to assist the natural powers of the system to remove disease2 but it is only an assistant4 ,while emetics are occasionally useful in removing food and other articles from the stomach that would cause disease if suffered to remain1 and cathartics are valuable1 in some instances1 to relieve the alimentary canal of irritating residuum1 yet the frequent administration of either will cause serious disease4 #ajjj4 ,although medicine is useful in some instances1 yet1 in a great proportion of the cases of disease1 including fevers and inflammations of all kinds1 attention to the laws of health will tend to relieve the system from disease2 more certainly and speedily1 and with less danger1 than when medicines are administered4 #ajja4 ,thomas ,jefferson1 in writing to ,dr4 ,wistar1 of ,philadelphia1 said1 ,i would have the physician learn the limit of his art4 ,i would say1 ,have the matrons1 and those who are continually advising herb teas1 and other cure-alls1 for any complaint1 labelled with some popular name1 learn the limits of their duty1 namely1 attention to the laws of health4 ,the rule of every family1 and each individual1 should be1 to touch not1 taste not of medicine of any kind1 except when directed by a well-educated and honest physician1 7sudden disease from accidents excepted47 ------------ #iii4 ,what is said of the use of medicine8 #ajjj4 ,of its use in fevers and many other cases of disease8 #ajja4 ,what remark by ,thomas ,jefferson to ,dr4 ,wistar8 ,what should matrons learn8 ,what should be the rule of every person in regard to taking medicine8 ,what exception8 ------------ ,,chapter ,,xlix4 ,,directions ,,for ,,nurses4 #ajjb4 ,the nurse requires knowledge and practice to enable her to discharge aright her duty to the patient1 as much as the physician and surgeon do to perform what is incumbent on them4 ,woman1 from her constitution and habits1 is the natural nurse of the sick2 and1 in general1 no small portion of her time is spent in ministering at the couch of disease and suffering4 #ajjc4 ,as the young and vigorous1 as well as the aged and the infirm1 are liable to be laid upon the bed of sickness1 by an epidemic1 or imprudent exposure1 or by some accident1 it is therefore necessary that the girl1 as well as the matron1 may know how she can render services in an efficient and proper manner4 ,no girl should consider her education complete who is not acquainted with the principles of the duties of a general nurse and a temporary watcher4 #ajjd4 ,it is to be regretted1 that while we have medical schools and colleges to educate physicians1 there is no institution to educate nurses in their equally responsible station4 ,in the absence of such institutions1 the defect can be remedied1 to some extent1 by teaching every girl hygiene1 or the laws of health4 ,to make such knowledge more available and complete1 attention is invited to the following suggestions relative to the practical duties of a nurse4 ------------ #ajjb4 ,does the nurse require knowledge and practice in her employment1 as well as the physician8 ,who is the natural nurse of the sick8 #ajjc4 ,what1 then1 is incumbent on every girl8 #ajjd4 ,should there be schools to educate nurses1 as well as physicians and surgeons8 ------------ #ajje4 ,,bathing4 ,the nurse1 before commencing to bathe the patient1 should provide herself with water1 two towels1 a sponge1 a piece of soft flannel1 and a sheet4 ,the temperature of the room should also be observed4 #ajjf4 ,when the patient is feeble1 use tepid or warm water4 ,cold water should only be used when the system has vigor enough to produce reaction upon the skin4 ,this is shown by the increased redness of the skin1 and a feeling of warmth and comfort1 after a proper amount of friction4 ,before using the sponge to bathe1 a sheet1 or fold of cloth1 should be spread smoothly over the bed1 and under the patient1 to prevent the bed-linen on which the patient lies from becoming damp or wet4 #ajjg4 ,apply the wet sponge to one part of the body at a time2 as the arm1 for instance4 ,by doing so1 the liability of contracting chills is diminished4 ,take a dry1 soft towel1 wipe the bathed part1 and follow this by vigorous rubbing with a crash towel1 or1 what is better1 a mitten made of this material2 then use briskly a piece of soft flannel1 to remove all moisture that may exist on the skin1 and particularly between the fingers and the flections of the joints4 ,in this manner bathe the entire body4 #ajjh4 ,the sick should be thoroughly bathed1 at least twice in twenty-four hours4 ,particular attention should be given to the parts between the fingers and toes1 and about the flections of the joints1 as the accumulation of the excretions is most abundant on these parts4 ,in bathing1 these portions of the system are very generally neglected4 ,the best time for bathing1 is when the patient feels most vigorous1 and freest from exhaustion4 ,the practice of daubing the face and hands with a towel dipped in hot rum1 camphor1 and vinegar1 does not remove the impurities1 but causes the skin soon to feel dry1 hard1 and uncomfortable4 ------------ #ajje4 ,what should a nurse provide herself with1 before bathing a patient8 #ajjf4 ,when should cold water be used8 #ajjg4 ,how should the bathing then be performed1 so that the patient may not contract a cold8 #ajjh4 ,how often should a sick person be bathed8 ,what is said of daubing the face and hands merely with a wet cloth8 ------------ #ajji4 ,,food4 ,it is the duty of every woman to know how to make the simple preparations adapted to a low diet1 in the most wholesome and the most palatable way4 ,water-gruel1#bd which is the simplest of all preparations1 is frequently so ill-made as to cause the patient to loathe it4 ,always prepare the food for the sick1 in the neatest and most careful manner4 #bd ,directions for making the simple preparations for the sick are found in almost every cook-book4 #ajaj4 ,when the physician enjoins abstinence from food1 the nurse should strictly obey the injunction4 ,she should be as particular to know the physician's directions about diet1 as in knowing how and when to give the prescribed medicines1 and obey them as implicitly4 #ajaa4 ,when a patient is convalescent1 the desire for food is generally strong1 and it often requires firmness and patience1 together with great care1 on the part of the nurse1 that the food is prepared suitably1 and given at proper times ,the physician should direct how frequently it should be taken4 #ajab4 ,,pure ,,air4 ,it is the duty of the nurse to see that not only the room is well ventilated in the morning1 but that fresh air is constantly admitted during the day4 ,great care must be taken1 however1 that the patient does not feel the current4 #ajac4 ,bed-linen1 as well as that of the body1 should be aired every day1 and oftener changed in sickness than in health4 ,all clothing1 when changed1 should be well dried1 and warmed by a fire previous to its being put on the patient or the bed4 ------------ #ajji4 ,should every woman know how to make the simple preparations adapted to a low diet8 #ajaj4 ,should the nurse strictly obey the injunctions of the physician relative to food8 #ajaa4 ,what period of a person's illness requires the most care in regard to the food8 #ajab4 ,give another duty of the nurse4 #ajac4 ,what directions respecting the bed-linen of the patient8 ,what is necessary when there is a change of clothing8 ------------ #ajad4 ,,temperature4 ,the warmth of the chamber should be carefully watched by the nurse4 ,the feelings of the patient or nurse are not to be relied on as an index of the temperature of the room4 ,there should be a well-adjusted thermometer in every sick-room4 ,this should be frequently consulted by the nurse4 #ajae4 ,the temperature of the sick-chamber should be moderate4 ,if it is so cold as to cause a chill1 the disease will be aggravated4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it is too warm1 the patient is enfeebled and rendered more susceptible to cold on leaving the sick-chamber4 ,the ,latin maxim1 ,in medio tutissimus ibis1 7in medium there is most safety17 should be regarded in the rooms of the sick4 #ajaf4 ,,quiet4 ,the room of the patient should be kept free from noise4 ,the community should be guided by this rule1 that no more persons remain in the room of the sick1 than the welfare of the patient demands4 ,it is the duty of the physician to direct when visitors can be admitted or excluded from the sick-room1 and the nurse should see that these directions are enforced4 #ajag4 ,the movements of the attendants should be gentle and noiseless4 ,shutting doors violently1 creaking hinges1 and all unnecessary noise1 should be avoided4 ,most persons refrain from loud talking in the sick chamber1 but are not equally careful to abstain from whispering1 which is often more trying than a common tone4 #ajah4 ,it is the duty of the nurse to ascertain the habits of the patient as respects the period for eating and sleep1 when in health1 that she may prepare the food and arrange the sick-room in accordance with the practice of the patient4 ,if the person who is sick is ignorant of the necessity of the removal of the waste products from the system the nurse should invite attention to these functions at such periods as are in accordance with the previous habits of the patient4 ------------ #ajad4 ,why should there be a well-adjusted thermometer in every sick-chamber8 #ajae4 ,what is said of the temperature of the sick-chamber8 #ajaf4 ,why should the sick-room be kept quiet8 #ajag4 ,what is said of noise in the sick-chamber8 ,of whispering8 #ajah4 ,should the habits of the patient be regarded in reference to the period for eating and sleep8 ------------ #ajai4 ,the deportment and remarks of the nurse to the patient should be tranquil and encouraging4 ,the illness of a friend1 or persons who have recently died1 should not be alluded to in the sick-room4 ,no doubts or fears of the patient's recovery1 either by a look or by a word1 should be communicated by the nurse in the chamber of the sick4 ,when such information is necessary to be communicated1 it is the duty of the physician to impart it to the sick person4 #ajbj4 ,the nurse should not confine herself to the sick-room more than six hours at a time4 ,she should eat her food regularly1 sleep at regular periods1 and take exercise daily in the open air4 ,to do this1 let her quietly leave the room when the patient is sleeping4 ,a watcher1 or temporary nurse1 may supply her place4 ,there is but little danger of contracting disease1 if the nurse attends to the simple laws of health1 and remains not more than six hours at a time in the sick-room4 ,,directions ,,for ,,watchers4 #ajba4 ,these necessary assistants1 like the nurse1 should have knowledge and practice4 ,they should ever be cheerful1 kind1 firm1 and attentive in the presence of the patient4 #ajbb4 ,a simple1 nutritious supper should be eaten before entering the sick-room2 and it is well1 during the night1 to take some plain food4 ------------ #ajai4 ,what should be the deportment of the nurse toward the patient8 ,should doubts and fears of the patient's recovery be communicated in the sick-room8 ,when necessary to impart such intelligence1 on whom does it depend8 #ajbj4 ,how long should a nurse remain in the sick-chamber at a time8 #ajba4 ,what qualifications are necessary in a watcher8 #ajbb4 ,what directions in regard to the food of the watcher8 ------------ #ajbc4 ,when watching in cold weather1 a person should be warmly dressed1 and furnished with an extra garment1 as a cloak or shawl1 because the system becomes exhausted toward morning1 and less heat is generated in the body4 #ajbd4 ,light-colored clothing should be worn by those who have care of the sick1 in preference to dark-colored apparel2 particularly if the disease is of a contagious character4 ,experiments have shown1 that black and other dark colors will absorb more readily the subtile effluvia that emanate from sick persons1 than white or light colors4 #ajbe4 ,whatever may be wanted during the night1 should be brought into the sick-chamber1 or the adjoining room1 before the family retires for sleep1 in order that the slumbers of the patient be not disturbed by haste1 or searching for needed articles4 #ajbf4 ,the same general directions should be observed by watchers1 as are given to the nurse2 nor should the watcher deem it necessary to make herself acceptable to the patient by exhausting conversation4 #ajbg4 ,it can hardly be expected that the farmer1 who has been laboring hard in the field1 or the mechanic1 who has toiled during the day1 is qualified to render all those little attentions that a sick person requires4 ,hence1 would it not be more benevolent and economical to employ and pay watchers1 who are qualified by knowledge and training1 to perform this duty in a faithful manner1 while the kindness and sympathy of friends may be practically manifested by assisting to defray the expenses of these qualified and useful assistants8 ------------ #ajbc4 ,when watching in cold weather1 what precaution is necessary8 #ajbd4 ,what is said relative to the color of the clothing worn in the sick-room8 #ajbe4 ,what suggestions to watchers relative to the arrangement of the sick-chamber8 #ajbf4 ,what should watchers observe8 #ajbg4 ,what is said of employing those persons to watch who labor hard during the day8 ------------ ,,appendix4 ,,poisons ,,and ,,their ,,antidotes #ajbh4 ,,poisoning1 either from accident or design1 is of such frequency and danger1 that it is of the greatest importance that every person should know the proper mode of procedure in such cases1 in order to render immediate assistance when within his power4 #ajbi4 ,poisons are divided into two classes--mineral 7which include the acids7 and vegetable4 #ajcj4 ,the first thing1 usually1 to be done1 when it is ascertained that a poison has been swallowed1 is to evacuate the stomach1 unless vomiting takes place spontaneously4 ,emetics of the sulphate of zinc1 7white vitriol17 or ipecacuanha1 7ipecac17 or ground mustard seed1 should be given4 #ajca4 ,when vomiting has commenced1 it should be aided by large and frequent draughts of the following drinks3 flaxseed tea1 gum-water1 slippery-elm tea1 barley water1 sugar and water1 or any thing of a mucilaginous or diluent character4 ,,mineral ,,poisons4 #ajcb4 ,,ammonia4--,the water of ammonia1 if taken in an over-dose1 and in an undiluted state1 acts as a violent corrosive poison4 #ajcc4 ,the best and most effectual antidote is vinegar4 ,it should be administered in water1 without delay4 ,it neutralizes the ammonia1 and renders it inactive4 ,emetics should not be given4 #ajcd4 ,,antimony4--,the wine of antimony and tartar emetic1 if taken in over-doses1 cause distressing vomiting4 ,in addition to the diluent1 mucilaginous drinks1 give a tea-spoonful of the sirup of poppies1 paregoric1 or twenty drops of laudanum1 every twenty minutes1 until five or six doses have been taken1 or the vomiting ceases4 ------------ #ajbe4 ,is it useful to know the antidotes or remedies for poison8 #ajbi4 ,into how many classes are poisons divided8 #ajcj4 ,what is the first thing to be done when it is ascertained that poison has been swallowed8 #ajca4 ,what should be taken after the vomiting has commenced8 #ajcb4 ,what effect has an over-dose of ammonia8 #ajcc4 ,the antidote8 ,should an emetic be given for this poison8 #ajcd4 ,what effect has an over-dose of the wine of antimony or tartar emetic8 ------------ #ajce4 ,the antidotes are nutgalls and oak bark1 which may be administered in infusion1 or by steeping in water4 #ajcf4 ,,arsenic4--,when this has been taken1 administer an emetic of ipecac1 speedily1 in mucilaginous teas1 and use the stomach-pump as soon as possible4 #ajcg4 ,the antidote is the hydrated peroxide of iron4 ,it should be kept constantly on hand at the apothecaries' shops4 ,it may be given in any quantity1 without injurious results4 #ajch4 ,,copper4--,the most common cause of poisoning from this metal1 is through the careless use of cooking utensils made of it1 on which the acetate of copper 7verdigris7 has been allowed to form4 ,when this has been taken1 immediately induce vomiting1 give mucilaginous drinks1 or the white of eggs1 diffused in water4 #ajci4 ,the antidote is the carbonate of soda1 which should be administered without delay4 #ajdj4 ,,lead4--,the acetate 7sugar7 of lead is the preparation of this metal1 which is liable to be taken accidentally1 in poisonous doses4 ,induce immediate vomiting1 by emetics of ground mustard seed1 sulphate of zinc1 and diluent drinks4 #ajda4 ,the antidote is diluted sulphuric acid4 ,when this acid is not to be obtained1 either the sulphate of magnesia1 7epsom salts17 or the sulphate of soda1 7glauber's salts17 will answer every purpose4 #ajdb4 ,,mercury4--,the preparation of this mineral by which poisoning is commonly produced1 is corrosive sublimate4 ,the mode of treatment to be pursued when this poison has been swallowed1 is as follows3 ,the whites of a dozen eggs should be beaten in two quarts of cold water1 and a tumbler-full given every two minutes1 to induce vomiting4 ,when the whites of eggs are not to be obtained1 soap and water should be mixed with wheat flour1 and given in copious draughts1 and the stomach-pump introduced as soon as possible4 ,emetics or irritating substances should not be given4 #ajdc4 ,,nitre--,saltpetre4--,this1 in over-doses1 produces violent poisonous symptoms4 ,vomiting should be immediately induced by large doses of mucilaginous1 diluent drinks2 but emetics which irritate the stomach should not be given4 ------------ #ajce4 ,what is the antidote8 #ajcf4 ,what should immediately be done when arsenic is swallowed8 #ajcg4 ,what is the antidote8 ,can any quantity of this preparation of iron be given without injurious results8 #ajch4 ,what should be given when verdigris has been taken into the stomach8 #ajci4 ,what is the antidote8 #ajdj4 ,what should immediately be given when sugar of lead is taken8 #ajda4 ,what is the antidote8 #ajdb4 ,give the treatment when corrosive sublimate has been swallowed4 #ajdc4 ,what effect has an over-dose of saltpetre8 ,what treatment should be adopted8 ------------ #ajdd4 ,,zinc4--,poisoning is sometimes caused by the sulphate of zinc1 7white vitriol47 ,when this takes place1 vomiting should be induced1 and aided by large draughts of mucilaginous and diluent drinks4 ,use the stomach-pump as soon as possible4 #ajde4 ,the antidote is the carbonate1 or super-carbonate of soda4 #ajdf4 ,,nitric1 7aqua fortis17 ,,muriatic1 7,,marine ,,acid17 ,,or ,,sulphuric 7,,oil ,,of ,,vitriol17 ,,acids1 may be taken by accident1 and produce poisonous effects4 #ajdg4 ,the antidote is calcined magnesia1 which should be freely administered1 to neutralize the acid and induce vomiting4 ,when magnesia cannot be obtained1 the carbonate of potash 7salratus7 may be given4 ,chalk1 powdered and given in solution1 or strong soap suds1 will answer a good purpose1 when the other articles are not at hand4 ,it is of very great importance that something be given speedily1 to neutralize the acid4 ,one of the substances before mentioned should be taken freely1 in diluent and mucilaginous drinks1 as gum-water1 milk1 flaxseed1 or slippery-elm tea4 ,emetics ought to be avoided4 #ajdh4 ,,oxalic ,,acid4--,this acid resembles the sulphate of magnesia1 7epsom salts17 which renders it liable to be taken1 by mistake1 in poisonous doses4 ,many accidents have occurred from this circumstance4 ,they can easily be distinguished by tasting a small quantity4 ,epsom salts1 when applied to the tongue1 have a very bitter taste1 while oxalic acid is intensely sour4 #ajdi4 ,the antidote is magnesia1 between which and the acid a chemical action takes place1 producing the oxalate of magnesia1 which is inert4 ,when magnesia is not at hand1 chalk1 lime1 or carbonate of potash1 7salratus17 will answer as a substitute4 ,give the antidote in some of the mucilaginous drinks before mentioned4 ,no time should be lost in introducing the stomach-pump as soon as a surgeon can be obtained4 #ajej4 ,,ley4--,the ley obtained by the leaching of ashes may be taken by a child accidentally4 ,the antidote is vinegar1 or oil of any kind4 ,the vinegar neutralizes the alkali by uniting with it1 forming the acetate of potash4 ,the oil unites with the alkali1 and forms soap1 which is less caustic than the ley4 ,give1 at the same time1 large draughts of mucilaginous drinks1 as flaxseed tea1 c4 ------------ #ajdd4 ,what is the antidote for white vitriol8 #ajdg4 ,what is the antidote for aqua fortis and oil of vitriol8 ,should emetics be avoided8 #ajdh4 ,how can oxalic acid be distinguished from epsom salts8 #ajdi4 ,what is the antidote for an over-dose of oxalic acid8 ,when magnesia cannot be obtained1 what will answer as a substitute8 #ajej4 ,what is the antidote when ley is swallowed8 ------------ ,,vegetable ,,poisons4 #ajea4 ,the vegetable poisons are quite as numerous1 and many of them equally as virulent1 as any in the mineral kingdom4 ,we shall describe the most common1 and which1 therefore1 are most liable to be taken4 #ajeb4 ,,opium4--,this is the article most frequently resorted to by those wishing to commit suicide1 and1 being used as a common medicine1 is easily obtained4 ,from this cause1 also1 mistakes are very liable to be made1 and accidents result from it4 ,two of its preparations1 laudanum and paregoric1 are frequently mistaken for each other2 the former being given when the latter is intended4 #ajec4 ,morphia1 in solution1 or morphine1 as it is more commonly called by the public1 is a preparation of the drug under consideration1 with which many cases of poisoning are produced4 ,it is the active narcotic principle of the opium2 and one grain is equal to six of this drug in its usual form4 #ajed4 ,when an over-dose of opium1 or any of its preparations1 has been swallowed1 the stomach should be evacuated as speedily as possible4 ,to effect this1 a teaspoonful of ground mustard seed1 or as much tartar emetic as can be held on a five cent piece1 or as much ipecacuanha as can be held on a twenty-five cent piece1 should be mixed in a tumbler of warm water1 and one half given at once1 and the remainder in twenty minutes1 if the first has not1 in the mean time1 operated4 ,in the interval1 copious draughts of warm water1 or warm sugar and water1 should be drank4 #ajee4 ,the use of the stomach-pump1 in these cases1 is of the greatest importance1 and should be resorted to without delay4 ,after most of the poison has been evacuated from the stomach1 a strong infusion of coffee ought to be given2 or some one of the vegetable acids1 such as vinegar1 or lemon-juice1 should be administered4 #ajef4 ,the patient should be kept in motion1 and salutary effects will often be produced by dashing a bucket of cold water on the head4 ,artificial respiration ought to be established1 and kept up for some time4 ,if the extremities are cold1 apply warmth and friction to them4 ,after the poison has been evacuated from the stomach1 stimulants1 as warm wine and water1 or warm brandy and water1 should be given1 to keep up and sustain vital action4 #ajeg4 ,,stramonium--,thorn-,apple4--,this is one of the most active narcotic poisons1 and1 when taken in over-doses1 has1 in numerous instances1 caused death4 ------------ #ajea4 ,are vegetable poisons as numerous and as virulent in their effects as mineral8 #ajeb4 ,what is said of opium and its preparations8 #ajed1 #ajee1 #ajef4 ,what treatment should be adopted when an over-dose of opium or any of its preparations is taken8 #ajeg4 ,what is said of stramonium8 ------------ #ajeh4 ,,hyosciamus--,henbane4--,this article1 which is used as a medicine1 if taken in improper doses1 acts as a virulent irritating and narcotic poison4 #ajei4 ,the treatment for the two above-mentioned articles is similar to that of poisoning from over-doses of opium4 #ajfj4 ,,conium--,hemlock4--,hemlock1 improperly called1 by many1 cicuta1 when taken in an over-dose1 acts as a narcotic poison4 ,it was by this narcotic that the ,athenians used to destroy the lives of individuals condemned to death by their laws4 ,socrates is said to have been put to death by this poison4 ,when swallowed in over-doses1 the treatment is similar to that of opium1 stramonium1 and henbane1 when over-doses are taken4 #ajfa4 ,,belladonna--,deadly ,nightshade4--,,camphor4 ,,aconite--,monkshood1 ,wolfsbane4 ,,bryonia--,bryony4 ,,digitalis--,foxglove4 ,,dulcamara--,bittersweet4 ,,gamboge4 ,,lobelia--,indian ,tobacco4 ,,sanguinaria--,bloodroot4 ,,oil ,,of ,,savin4 ,,spigelia--,pinkroot4 ,,strychnine--,nux vomica4 ,,tobacco4--,all of these1 when taken in over-doses1 are poisons of greater or less activity4 ,the treatment of poisoning1 by the use of any of these articles1 is similar to that pursued in over-doses of opium4 7,see ,,opium1 page #ddb47 #ajfb4 ,in all cases of poisoning1 call a physician as soon as possible4 ------------ #ajeh4 ,of henbane8 #ajei4 ,what should be the treatment when an over-dose of stramonium or henbane is taken8 #ajfj4 ,what name is sometimes improperly given to conium1 or hemlock8 ,how was this narcotic poison used by the ,athenians8 ,how are the effects of an over-dose counteracted8 #ajfa4 ,what is the treatment when an over-dose of deadly nightshade1 monkshood1 foxglove1 bittersweet1 gamboge1 lobelia1 bloodroot1 tobacco1 c41 is taken8 #ajfb4 ,should a physician be called in all cases when poison is swallowed8 ------------ ,a4 ,the essential parts of every secretory apparatus are a simple membrane1 apparently textureless1 named the primary1 or basement membrane1 certain cells and blood-vessels4 ,the serous and mucous membrane are examples4 ,b4 ,the division and description of the different membranes and tissues are not well defined and settled by anatomical writers4 ,this is not a material defect1 as a clear description of the different parts of the system can be given by adopting the arrangement of almost any writer4 ,c4 ,,fat is one of the non-nitrogenous substances4 ,it forms the essential part of the adipose tissue4 ,chemical analysis shows that all fatty substances are compounds of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen4 ,they are lighter than water1 generally fluid at the natural temperature of the body1 and burn with a bright flame1 forming water and carbonic acid4 ,,caseine is abundantly found in milk4 ,when dried1 it constitutes cheese4 ,alcohol1 acids1 and the stomach of any of the mammalia coagulate it2 and it is also soluble in water4 ,it is found in the blood1 bile1 saliva1 and the lens of the eye4 ,,chondrine is a variety of gelatin4 ,it is obtained from cartilage4 ,it is soluble in warm water1 but solidifies on cooling4 ,,lactic ,,acid is common to all the solids and fluids of the system4 ,it is found united with potash1 soda1 lime1 or magnesia4 ,d4 ,the word duodenum is derived from the ,latin1 signifying twelve1 since the intestine1 of which this is the name1 is usually about twelve fingers' breadth in length4 ,the jejunum is also from the ,latin jejunum1 empty1 since it is usually found in that condition after death1 as the food seems to pass rapidly through this part of the intestine4 ,the term ileum is from the ,greek1 signifying to twist1 since it always appears in a contorted condition4 ,the name ccum is derived from the fact of its being a blind or short sack1 perforated by the extremity of the ileum4 ,the name of the next division of the intestine--colon--is from the ,greek1 to prohibit1 as the contents of the alimentary canal pass slowly through this portion4 ,the rectum is named from the straight direction that it assumes in the latter part of its course4 ,e4 ,the food is forced through the alimentary canal by contractions of its muscular coat1 produced by the nervous filaments of the sympathetic system1 not being at all dependent on the cerebro-spinal centre4 ,this is called the peristaltic1 or vermicular motion4 ,the great length of intestine in all animals1 and especially in the herbivorous ones1 is owing to the necessity of exposing the food to a large number of the lacteals1 that the nourishment may all be taken from it4 ,f4 ,the different processes through which the food passes before assimilation are of considerable interest4 ,the mastication and mixture of the saliva with the food are purely of a mechanical nature4 ,when any solid or fluid substance is placed upon the tongue1 or in contact with the inner surface of the cheeks1 by an involuntary act1 the salivary glands are stimulated to activity1 and commence pouring the saliva into the mouth through the salivary ducts4 ,as soon as mastication commences1 the contraction of the masseter and other muscles employed in mastication stimulates the salivary glands to increased action1 and a still greater quantity of saliva is secreted and forced upon the food1 which is constantly being ground to a finer condition1 until it is sufficiently reduced for deglutition4 ,whether the salivary fluid acts any other part than simply that of a demulcent to assist the gastric juice in still further dissolving the food1 is yet a matter of some doubt1 although it is found that no other liquid will equally well subserve the process of digestion and promote health4 ,after the food is in the condition ready to be swallowed1 by an apparently involuntary motion1 it is placed upon the back of the tongue1 which carries it backwards to the top of the pharynx1 where the constrictions of the pharynx1 aided by the muscles of the tongue and floor of the mouth1 with a sudden and violent movement thrust it beyond the epiglottis1 in order to allow the least necessary time to the closure of the glottis1 after which1 by the compression of the oesophagus1 it is forced into the stomach4 ,here it is that the true business of digestion commences4 ,for as soon as any substance except water enters the stomach1 this organ1 with involuntary movements1 that seem almost like instinct1 commences the secretion of the gastric juice1 and by long-continued contractions of its muscular coat1 succeeds in effecting a most perfect mixture of the food with this juice1 by which the contents of the stomach are reduced to the softest pulp4 ,the gastric juice1 in its pure state1 is a colorless1 transparent fluid2 inodorous1 a little saltish1 and perceptibly acid4 ,it possesses the property of coagulating albumen1 and separating the whey of milk from its curd1 and afterwards completely dissolving the curd4 ,its taste1 when applied to the tongue1 is similar to that of mucilaginous water1 slightly acidulated with muriatic acid4 ,the organs of its secretion are an immense number of tubes or glands1 of a diameter varying from one five hundredth to one three hundredth of an inch1 situated in the mucous coat of the stomach1 and receiving their blood from the gastric arteries4 ,a chemical analysis shows it to consist of water1 mucilage1 and the several free acids--muriatic1 acetic1 lactic1 and butyric1 together with a peculiar organic matter called pepsin1 which acts after the manner of ferments between the temperature of #ej and #ajd ,f4 ,the true process of digestion is probably owing to the action of pepsin and the acids1 especially if the presence of the chloro-hydric or muriatic be admitted2 since we know1 by experiments out of the body1 that chlorine1 one of its elements1 is a powerful solvent of all organic substances4 ,the antiseptic properties of the gastric juice1 as discovered by experiments made on ,alexis ,st4 ,martin1 doubtless have much influence on digestion1 although their true uses are probably not yet known4 ,as soon as the food is reduced to a state of fluidity1 the pyloric orifice of the stomach is unclosed1 and it is thrust onwards through the alimentary canal1 receiving in the duodenum the secretions of the liver and pancreas1 after which it yields to the lacteals its nutrient portion1 and the residuum is expelled from the body4 ,there have been many hypotheses in regard to the nature of the digestive process4 ,some have supposed that digestion is a mere mechanical process1 produced by the motion of the walls of the stomach2 while others1 in later times1 have considered it as under the influence of a spirit separate from the individual1 who took up his residence in the stomach and regulated the whole affair2 while others still would make it out to be a chemical operation1 and thus constitute the stomach a sort of laboratory4 ,but to all these ridiculous hypotheses ,sir ,john ,hunter has applied the following playful language3 ,some will have it that the stomach is a mill2 others that it is a fermenting vat2 and others that it is a stewpan2 but in my view of the matter1 it is neither a mill1 a fermenting vat1 nor a stewpan1 but a stomach1 a stomach6 ,at the present day this process is regarded as a complex1 and not a simple operation4 ,it seems to be a process in which the mechanical1 chemical1 and vital agencies must all act in harmony and order2 for if one of these be withdrawn1 the function cannot be sustained for any considerable length of time2 and of the chemical and mechanical parts of the process1 since the former is much more important1 and1 as a matter of course1 the vital powers are indispensable1 therefore digestion may be considered as a chemical operation1 directly dependent on the laws of vitality1 or of life2 since the proper consistency of the food depends1 in a great measure1 upon the character of the solvents1 while the secretion of these fluids1 their proper amount1 together with the peculiar instinct--as it almost seems to be--necessary to direct the stomach in its many functions1 are exclusively and entirely dependent on the laws and conditions of life4 ,g4 ,as food is necessary to supply the waste and promote the growth of the body1 it follows that that will be the best adapted to the system which contains the same chemical elements of which the body is composed2 viz41 oxygen1 hydrogen1 carbon1 and nitrogen4 ,these elements are found in greater or less quantity in all animal food1 and in many vegetable products4 ,hence1 that article of food which contains all these elements in a proper proportion will tend much more to the growth and strength of the body than those kinds which are deficient in one or more of them4 ,much experience on this point1 and scientific research1 seem to show that a reasonable amount of animal food in health tends to give greater strength of muscle1 and a more general sense of fulness1 than in ordinary cases a vegetable diet is able to do1 owing to the presence of nitrogen in animal tissues4 ,yet there are examples of the healthiest and strongest men1 who live years without a morsel of animal food2 and the fact can only be accounted for1 by supposing that the system has the power to make the most economical use of the little nitrogen offered to it in the food2 or else that it has by some means the power to abstract it from the atmosphere1 and transform it to the living animal substance4 ,h4 ,the proximate principles1 which are the most important in nourishing the body1 are albumen and fibrin4 ,these constitute the greater part of all the softer animal tissues1 and are also found in certain classes of vegetables1 such as peas1 beans1 lentils1 and many seeds4 ,hence1 in many cases1 a vegetable diet1 especially if embracing any of those articles1 would be sufficient to sustain life1 even if no animal food should be eaten4 ,but no animal can exist for a long time if permitted only to eat substances destitute of nitrogen1 as in the case of a dog fed entirely on sugar1 which lived but thirty days4 ,and owing to this fact1 ,baron ,liebig proposes to call substances used for food1 containing nitrogen1 elements of nutrition1 and those containing an excess of carbon1 elements of respiration2 since1 according to his view1 the food is necessary to support the growth of the body by replacing the effete and worn-out particles with new matter1 and also to keep up the supply of fuel1 in order to promote a sufficient degree of heat in the system4 ,accordingly1 under the first division would be included all lean meats and vegetables1 such as peas1 c42 while the fat of animals1 vegetable oils1 sugars1 tubers1 7as the potato17 and all other substances containing starch1 would be included under the latter division4 ,i4 ,this definition of exhalants is from the theory of ,haller and others4 ,it is now believed that the fluids exude through the thin coats of the blood vessels4 ,this process is called exosmose1 and is the exhalation of old physiologists4 ,j4 ,it is a well-established fact1 in animal and vegetable physiology1 that membranes possess the property of allowing fluids and gases to pass through them in either direction1 and also to permit two fluids to pass in opposite directions at the same time4 ,this property is designated endosmose when a fluid passes from without a body inward2 and exosmose when the reverse takes place4 ,the first is called imbibition4 ,one of the most striking instances of this1 in the human system1 is shown in the lungs1 where carbonic acid and water pass out through the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes and air-cells2 and the oxygen of the air enters the blood through the same membrane4 ,by this process of imbibition1 the oxygenation of the blood is much more readily and faithfully accomplished2 inasmuch1 as by the immense number of bronchial tubes and air-cells a larger quantity of blood is exposed to a greater portion of air1 than if the blood were directly laid open to the atmosphere in a mass1 or the air were immediately transmitted through it4 ,since the function of respiration is to free the system of superfluous carbon and hydrogen1 by union with the oxygen of the air1 it follows that the greater the amount of the products to be expelled1 the larger the quantity of oxygen will be required to effect this purpose1 as we find to be the case with those who consume large quantities of food4 ,the quantity of oxygen daily consumed through the lungs by an adult is about #cb4e oz41 and the carbon in the food #ac4i oz4 ,but in order to convert this whole amount of carbon into carbonic acid1 which passes off through the lungs and skin1 #cg oz4 of oxygen are required2 the remaining #d4e oz4 being absorbed by the skin4 ,if the supply of food remain the same1 while the amount of oxygen in the inspired air is diminished1 the superfluous carbon will induce disease in the system1 as is the case of those persons who are limited in their supply of air of a proper quality or quantity1 and1 consequently1 have less appetite for food than those who are abundantly supplied with air of the proper standard of health2 and in children1 who proportionally consume more food than adults1 and who are more active1 thereby causing a more rapid circulation of blood1 and1 consequently1 the removal of more superfluous particles of matter4 ,in children we notice the need of air1 by their disposition to be much in the open air1 and often inspiring more deeply than is common in older persons4 ,also1 if the carbon of the food does not have a requisite supply of oxygen from the air1 or other sources1 the body becomes emaciated1 although nourishing food may be used4 ,and on the other hand1 if there be a diminished supply of food1 but an abundance of atmospheric air1 leanness and emaciation are sure to follow2 owing to the fact that if the oxygen has no waste carbon from the body to unite with1 it combines with the fat1 and some other soft portions of the body1 which the ,author of nature seems to have provided for this very purpose2 as is seen in the case of hibernating animals1 who enter their places of winter abode sleek and fat1 but crawl out in the spring not merely deprived of their fatty matter1 but also with great diminution of all the softer parts1 which have given up their share of carbon to supply animal heat4 ,one important cause of emaciation in febrile diseases is the greater rapidity of the pulse and respiration1 which consume more carbon than is afforded by the scanty supply of food that is taken1 although profuse perspiration1 which almost always occurs in some stages of fevers1 greatly diminishes the full state of the body4 ,k4 ,the theory of ,baron ,liebig concerning the change which the blood experiences in color1 in its passage through the lungs1 meets with the approbation of many physiologists1 although there are some important difficulties in the way of fully receiving it4 ,a chemical analysis of the blood shows it to be composed of albumen and fibrin1 together with some other substances1 in small proportions1 and always perceptible traces of iron4 ,he attributes the change in color to the iron1 as this substance enters into combination with carbon and oxygen4 ,for1 as the blood passes through the trunks of the larger vessels and capillaries1 it receives the carbon from the tissues which are continually transformed1 and taking up the oxygen from the arterialized blood1 forms carbonic acid1 which unites with the iron1 forming proto-carbonate of iron4 ,this being of a gray color1 he supposes it to be that which1 with the other impurities of the blood1 gives the venous blood the dark blue color4 ,then1 as the blood comes in contact with the oxygen1 as it is returned and exposed to this element in the lungs1 the carbonic acid leaves the iron1 which has a stronger affinity for oxygen than for carbonic acid1 and forms the scarlet red peroxide of iron1 that gives the characteristic color to the arterial blood4 ,after this1 as the blood is sent out through the smaller arteries and capillaries1 it again gathers carbon and other impurities from the system1 and becomes the dark1 venous blood1 thus completing the whole change of color in the circulation4 ,l4 ,as already mentioned1 different articles of food have been divided into the azotized and non-azotized1 or those which contain nitrogen as one of their constituents1 and those which are nearly destitute of it4 ,of these1 according to ,liebig1 the azotized portions are simply to supply the waste that is continually going on in the body1 and promote its growth in the early stages of existence1 or1 in other words1 the nutrient portion2 while the sugar1 starch1 c41 are mainly of use in the respiratory organs4 ,the correctness of this view may be understood from the fact1 that the inhabitants in the colder regions of the earth consume a much larger quantity of oil and fat than the residents of hotter climates2 and also those dwelling in the temperate zones can eat with greater impunity a larger quantity of fat meats in the winter than in the summer1 there being then so much more demand for animal heat than in the summer4 ,m4 ,the suggestion of using the bellows in asphyxia1 is from the directions of that distinguished and veteran surgeon1 ,valentine ,mott1 of ,new ,york city4 ,the directions in the first part of the paragraph are the most practical1 and best adapted to the wants of the community4 ,,glossary ,,ab-,,duc,,tor4 ,l4 abduco to lead away4 ,a muscle which moves certain parts1 by separating them from the axis of the body4 ,,ab-,,do,,men4 ,l4 abdo1 to hide4 ,that part of the body which lies between the thorax and the bottom of the pelvis4 ,,ab-,,dom,,in-,,is4 ,pertaining to the abdomen4 ,a-,,ce-,,tab,u-,,lum4 ,l4 acetum1 vinegar4 ,the socket for the head of the thigh-bone2 an ancient vessel for holding vinegar4 ,a-,,ce,,tic4 ,l4 acetum1 vinegar4 ,relating to acetic acid4 ,this is always composed of oxygen1 hydrogen1 and carbon1 in the same proportion4 ,a-,,chil,,lis4 ,a term applied to the tendon of two large muscles of the leg4 ,a-,,cro,,mi-,,on4 ,gr4 akros1 akros1 highest1 and mos1 omos1 shoulder4 ,a process of the scapula that joins to the clavicle4 ,,ad-,,duc,,tor4 ,l4 adduco1 to lead to4 ,a muscle which draws one part of the body toward another4 ,,al-,,bu-,,gin,e-,a4 ,l4 albus1 white4 ,a term applied to white textures4 ,,al-,,bu,,men4 ,l4 albus1 white4 ,an animal substance of the same nature as the white of an egg4 ,a-,,lu,,min-,,um4 ,l4 ,the name given to the metallic base of alumina4 ,,al,,ve-,o-,,lar4 ,l4 alveolus1 a socket ,pertaining to the sockets of the teeth4 ,,am-,,mo,,ni-,a4 ,an alkali4 ,it is composed of three equivalents of hydrogen and one of nitrogen4 ,a-,,nas,,to-,,mose4 ,gr4 ana1 ana1 through1 and stoma1 stoma1 mouth4 ,the communication of arteries and veins with each other4 ,,an-,a-,,tom,i-,,cal4 ,relating to the parts of the body1 when dissected or separated4 ,a-,,nat,o-,,my4 ,greek ana1 ana1 through1 and tom1 tom a cutting4 ,the description of the structure of animals4 ,the word anatomy properly signifies dissection4 ,,an,,gu-,,li4 ,l4 angulus1 a corner4 ,a term applied to certain muscles on account of their form4 ,,an-,i-,,mal,,cu-,l4 ,l4 animalcula1 a little animal4 ,animals that are only perceptible by means of a microscope4 ,,an,,nu-,,lar4 ,l4 annulus1 a ring4 ,having the form of a ring4 ,,an-,,ti,,cus4 ,l4 ,a term applied to certain muscles4 ,a-,,ort,a4 ,gr4 aort1 aort2 from ar1 ar1 air1 and tre1 treo1 to keep4 ,the great artery that arises from the left ventricle of the heart4 ,,ap-,o-,,neu-,,ro,,sis4 ,gr4 apo1 apo1 from1 and neuron1 neuron1 a nerve4 ,the membranous expansions of muscles and tendons4 ,the ancients called every white tendon neuron1 a nerve4 ,,ap-,,pa-,,ra,,tus4 ,l4 apparo1 to prepare4 ,an assemblage of organs designed to produce certain results4 ,,ap-,,pend,,ix4 ,l41 an addition4 ,something appended or added4 ,a,,que-,,ous4 ,l4 aqua1 water4 ,partaking of the nature of water4 ,a-,,rach,,noid4 ,gr4 arachn1 arachn1 a spider1 and eidos1 edos1 form4 ,resembling a spider's web4 ,a thin membrane that covers the brain4 ,,ar,,bor4 ,l4 ,a tree4 ,arbor vit4 ,the tree of life4 ,a term applied to a part of the cerebellum4 ,,ar,,te-,,ry4 ,gr4 ar1 ar1 air1 and tre1 treo1 to keep2 because the ancients thought that the arteries contained only air4 ,a tube through which blood flows from the heart4 ,a-,,ryt-,e,,noid4 ,gr4 arytaina1 arutaina1 a ewer1 and eidos1 edos1 form4 ,the name of a cartilage of the larynx4 ,,as-,,cend,,ens4 ,l4 ,ascending2 rising4 ,,as-,,phyx,i-,a4 ,gr4 a1 a1 not1 and sphyxis1 sphyxis1 pulse4 ,originally1 want of pulse2 now used for suspended respiration1 or apparent death4 ,,as-,,trag,a-,,lus4 ,gr4 ,the name of a bone of the foot4 ,one of the tarsal bones4 ,,aud-,i,,tion4 ,l4 audio1 to hear4 ,hearing4 ,,aud-,,it-,o,,ri-,,us4 ,l4 ,pertaining to the organ of hearing4 ,,au,,ri-,,cle4 ,l4 auricula1 the external ear2 from auris1 the ear4 ,a cavity of the heart4 ,,au-,,ric,u-,,lar4 ,l4 auricula4 ,pertaining to the auricle4 ,,ax-,,il,,la4 ,l4 ,the armpit4 ,,ax,,il-,,la-,,ry4 ,belonging or relating to the armpit4 ,a-,,zote4 ,gr4 a1 a1 not1 and z1 zo1 life4 ,nitrogen4 ,one of the constituent elements of the atmosphere4 ,so named because it will not sustain life4 ,,ben-,,zo,,ic4 ,benzoic acid4 ,a peculiar vegetable acid1 obtained from benzoin and some other balsams4 ,,bi,,ceps4 ,l4 bis1 twice1 and caput1 a head4 ,a name applied to muscles with two heads at one extremity4 ,,bi-,,cus,,pids4 ,l4 bis and cuspis1 a point4 ,teeth that have two points upon their crown4 ,,bile4 ,l4 bilis4 ,a yellow1 viscid fluid secreted by the liver4 ,,bi-,,pen,,ni-,,form4 ,l4 bis and penna1 a feather4 ,bipenniform muscle4 ,having fibres on each side of a common tendon4 ,,brach,i-,,al4 ,l4 brachium4 ,belonging to the arm4 ,,bre,,vis4 ,l4 ,brevis1 short2 brevior1 shorter4 ,,bronch,i-,a1 -4 ,l4 ,a division of the trachea that passes to the lungs4 ,,bronch,i-,,al4 ,relating to the bronchia4 ,,bronch-,i,,tis4 ,l4 ,an inflammation of the bronchia4 ,,buc-,,ci-,,na,,tor4 ,l4 buccinum1 a trumpet4 ,the name of a muscle of the cheek1 so named because used in blowing wind instruments4 ,,bur,s ,,mu-,,co,,sa4 ,l4 bursa1 a purse1 and mucosa1 viscous4 ,small sacs1 containing a viscid fluid1 situated about the joints1 under tendons4 ,c,,cum4 ,l4 ,blind2 the name given to the commencement of the colon4 ,,calx1 ,,cal,,cis4 ,l4 ,the heel-bone4 ,,cal,,ci-,,um4 ,l4 ,the metallic basis of lime4 ,,cap,,il-,,la-,,ry4 ,l4 capillus1 a hair4 ,resembling a hair2 small4 ,,cap,,su-,,lar4 ,pertaining to a capsule4 ,,cap,,sule4 ,l4 capsula1 a little chest4 ,a membranous bag1 enclosing a part4 ,,ca,,put4 ,l4 ,the head4 ,caput coli4 ,the head of the colon4 ,,car,,bon4 ,l4 carbo1 a coal4 ,pure charcoal4 ,an elementary combustible substance4 ,,car-,,bon,,ic4 ,pertaining to carbon4 ,,car,,di-,,ac4 ,gr4 kardia1 kardia1 heart4 ,relating to the heart1 or upper orifice of the stomach4 ,,car,,ne-,a1 -4 ,l4 caro1 carnis1 flesh4 ,fleshy4 ,,ca-,,rot,,id4 ,gr4 karos1 karos1 lethargy4 ,the great arteries of the neck that convey blood to the heart4 ,the ancients supposed drowsiness to be seated in these arteries4 ,,car,,pal4 ,l4 carpus1 the wrist4 ,relating to the wrist4 ,,car,,pus1 -,i4 ,l4 ,the wrist4 ,,car,,ti-,,lage4 ,l4 cartilago4 ,gristle4 ,a smooth1 elastic substance1 softer than bone4 ,,car-,,ti-,,lag,,in-,,ous4 ,pertaining to cartilage4 ,,cau-,,ca,,sian4 ,one of the races of men4 ,,ca,,va4 ,l4 ,hollow4 ,vena cava4 ,a name given to the two great veins of the body4 ,,cel,,lu-,,lar4 ,l4 cellula1 a little cell4 ,composed of cells4 ,,cer-,e-,,bel,,lum4 ,l4 ,the hinder and lower part of the brain1 or the little brain4 ,,cer,e-,,bral4 ,pertaining to the brain4 ,,cer,e-,,brum4 ,l4 ,the front and large part of the brain4 ,the term is sometimes applied to the whole contents of the cranium4 ,,cer,e-,,bro-,,spi,,nal4 ,relating to the brain and spine4 ,,cer,,vix4 ,l4 ,the neck4 ,,cer,,vi-,,cal4 ,relating to the neck4 ,,chest4 ,sax4 ,the thorax2 the trunk of the body from the neck to the abdomen4 ,,chlo,,rine4 ,gr4 chloros1 chloros1 green4 ,chlorine gas1 so named from its color4 ,,chor,,da1 -4 ,l4 ,a cord4 ,an assemblage of fibres4 ,,cho,,roid4 ,gr4 chorion1 chorion4 ,a term applied to several parts of the body that resemble the skin4 ,,chyle4 ,gr4 chulos1 chulos1 juice4 ,a nutritive fluid1 of a whitish appearance1 which is extracted from food by the action of the digestive organs4 ,,chyl-,i-,,fi-,,ca,,tion4 chyle and ,l4 facio1 to make4 ,the process by which chyle is formed4 ,,chyme4 ,gr4 chumos1 chumos1 juice4 ,a kind of grayish pulp formed from the food in the stomach4 ,,chym-,i-,,fi-,,ca,,tion4 chyme and ,l4 facio1 to make4 ,the process by which chyme is formed4 ,,cil,,ia-,,ry4 ,l4 cilia1 eyelashes4 ,belonging to the eyelids4 ,,cin-,e-,,ri,,tious4 ,l4 cinis1 ashes4 ,having the color of ashes4 ,,clav,i-,,cle4 ,l4 clavicula1 from clavis1 a key4 ,the collar-bone2 so called from its resemblance in shape to an ancient key4 ,,clei,,do4 ,a term applied to some muscles that are attached to the clavicle4 ,,co-,,ag,u-,,lum4 ,l4 ,a coagulated mass1 a clot of blood4 ,,coc,,cyx4 ,gr4 ,an assemblage of bones joined to the sacrum4 ,,coch,,le-,a4 ,gr4 kochl1 kochlo1 to twist2 or ,l4 cochlea1 a screw4 ,a cavity of the ear resembling in form a snail shell4 ,,co,,lon4 ,gr4 ,a portion of the large intestine4 ,,co-,,lum,,na1 -4,l4 ,a column or pillar4 ,,com-,,mu,,nis4 ,l4 ,a name applied to certain muscles4 ,,com-,,plex,,us4 ,l4 complector1 to embrace4 ,the name of a muscle that embraces many attachments4 ,,com-,,press,,or4 ,l4 con1 together1 and premo1 pressus1 to press4 ,a term applied to some muscles1 that compress the parts to which they are attached4 ,,con,,dyle4 ,gr4 kondulos1 kondulos1 a knuckle1 a protuberance4 ,a prominence on the end of a bone4 ,,con-,,junc-,,ti,,va4 ,l4 con1 together1 and jungo1 to join4 ,the membrane that covers the anterior part of the globe of the eye4 ,,cop,,per4 ,a metal of a pale1 red color1 tinged with yellow4 ,,cor-,a,,coid4 ,gr4 korax1 korax1 a crow1 and eidos1 edos1 form4 ,a process of the scapula shaped like the beak of a crow4 ,,co,,ri-,,on4 ,gr4 chorion1 chorion1 skin4 ,the true skin4 ,,corn,e-,a4 ,l4 cornu1 a horn4 ,the transparent membrane in the fore part of the eye4 ,,cos,,ta4 ,l4 costa1 a coast1 side1 or rib4 ,a rib4 ,,crib,,ri-,,form4 ,l4 cribrum1 a sieve1 and forma1 form4 ,a plate of the ethmoid bone1 through which the olfactory nerve passes to the nose4 ,,cri,,coid4 ,gr4 krikos1 krikos1 a ring1 and eidos1 edos1 form4 ,a name given to a cartilage of the larynx1 from its form4 ,,crys,,tal-,,line4 ,l4 crystallinus1 consisting of crystal4 ,crystalline lens4 ,one of the humors of the eye4 ,it is convex1 white1 firm1 and transparent4 ,,cu,,bi-,,tus1 -,i4 ,l4 cubitus1 the elbow4 ,one of the bones of the forearm1 also called the ulna4 ,,cu,,boid4 ,gr4 kubos1 kubos1 a cube1 and eidos1 edos1 form4 ,having nearly the form of a cube4 ,,cu-,,ne,i-,,form4 ,l4 cuneus1 a wedge4 ,the name of bones in the wrist and foot4 ,,cus,,pid4 ,l4 cuspis1 a point4 ,having one point4 ,,cu-,,ta,,ne-,,ous4 ,l4 cutis1 skin4 ,belonging to the skin4 ,,cu,,ti-,,cle4 ,l4 cutis4 ,the external layer of the skin4 ,,cu,,tis ,,ve,,ra4 ,l4 cutis1 and vera1 true4 ,the internal layer of the skin2 the true skin4 ,,del,,toid4 ,gr4 delta1 delta1 the ,greek letter ,delta1 and eidos1 edos1 form4 ,the name of a muscle1 that resembles in form the ,greek letter ,delta4 ,,dens4 ,l4 ,a tooth4 ,,dent,,al4 ,l4 dens1 tooth4 ,pertaining to the teeth4 ,,de-,,press,,or4 ,l4 ,the name of a muscle that draws down the part to which it is attached4 ,,derm,,oid4 ,gr4 derma1 derma1 the skin1 and eidos1 edos1 form4 ,resembling skin4 ,,de-,,scend,,ens4 ,l4 de and scando1 to climb4 ,descending1 falling4 ,,di,a-,,phragm4 ,gr4 diaphragma1 diaphragma1 a partition4 ,the midriff2 a muscle separating the chest from the abdomen4 ,,di-,,ar-,,rhoe,a4 ,gr4 diarre1 diarrheo1 to flow through4 ,a morbidly frequent evacuation of the intestines4 ,,di-,,as,,to-,,le4 ,gr4 diastell1 diastello1 to put asunder4 ,the dilatation of the heart and arteries when the blood enters them4 ,,di-,,ges,,tion4 ,l4 digestio4 ,the process of dissolving food in the stomach1 and preparing it for circulation and nourishment4 ,,dig-,i-,,to,,rum4 ,l4 digitus1 a finger4 ,a term applied to certain muscles of the extremities4 ,,dor,,sal4 ,l4 dorsum1 the back4 ,pertaining to the back4 ,,du-,o-,,de,,num4 ,l4 duodenus1 of twelve fingers' breadth4 ,the first portion of the small intestine4 ,,du,,ra ,,ma,,ter4 ,l4 durus1 hard1 and mater1 mother4 ,the outermost membrane of the brain4 ,,dys,,en-,,ter-,y4 ,gr4 dys1 ds1 bad1 and enteria1 enteria1 intestines4 ,a discharge of blood and mucus from the intestines attended with tenesmus4 ,,dys-,,pep,,si-,a4 ,gr4 dys1 ds1 bad1 and pept1 pepto1 to digest4 ,indigestion1 or difficulty of digestion4 ,,en-,,am,,el4 ,fr4 ,the smooth1 hard substance which covers the crown or visible part of a tooth4 ,,ep-,i-,,derm,,is4 ,gr4 epi1 epi1 upon1 and derma1 derma1 the skin4 ,the scarf-skin2 the cuticle4 ,,ep-,i-,,glot,,tis4 ,gr4 epi1 epi1 upon1 and gltta1 gltta1 the tongue4 ,one of the cartilages of the glottis4 ,,eu-,,sta,,chi-,,an ,,tube4 ,a channel from the fauces to the middle ear1 named from ,eustachius1 who first described it4 ,,ex,,cre-,,ment4 ,l4 excerno1 to separate4 ,matter excreted and ejected2 alvine discharges4 ,,ex-,,cre-,,men-,,ti,,tial4 ,pertaining to excrement4 ,,ex,,cre-,,to-,,ry4 ,a little duct or vessel1 destined to receive secreted fluids1 and to excrete or discharge them2 also1 a secretory vessel4 ,,ex-,,ha,,lant4 ,l4 exhalo1 to send forth vapor4 ,having the quality of exhaling or evaporating4 ,,ex-,,tens,,or4 ,l4 ,a name applied to a muscle that serves to extend any part of the body2 opposed to ,flexor4 ,,fa,,cial4 ,l4 facies1 face4 ,pertaining to the face4 ,,falx4 ,l4 falx1 a scythe4 ,a process of the dura mater shaped like a scythe4 ,,fas,,ci-,a4 ,l4 fascia1 a band4 ,a tendinous expansion or aponeurosis4 ,,fas-,,cic,u-,,lus1 -,,li4 ,l4 fascis1 a bundle4 ,a little bundle4 ,,faux1 -,,ces4 ,l4 ,the top of the throat4 ,,fem,o-,,ral4 ,pertaining to the femur4 ,,fem,o-,,ris4 ,a term applied to muscles that are attached to the femur4 ,,fe,,mur4 ,l4 ,the thigh-bone4 ,,fe-,,nes,,tra1 -,,um4 ,l4 fenestra1 a window4 ,a term applied to some openings into the internal ear4 ,,fi,,bre4 ,l4 fibra4 ,an organic filament1 or thread1 which enters into the composition of every animal and vegetable texture4 ,,fi,,brin4 ,a peculiar organic substance found in animals and vegetables2 it is a solid substance1 tough1 elastic1 and composed of thready fibres4 ,,fi,,brous4 ,composed or consisting of fibres4 ,,fi,,bro-,,car,,ti-,,lage4 ,an organic tissue1 partaking of the nature of fibrous tissue and that of cartilage4 ,,fib,u-,,la4 ,l41 a clasp4 ,the outer and lesser bone of the leg4 ,,fib,u-,,lar4 ,belonging to the fibula4 ,,fil,a-,,ment4 ,l4 filamenta1 threads4 ,a fine thread1 of which flesh1 nerves1 skin1 c41 are composed4 ,,flec,,tion4 ,l4 flectio4 ,the act of bending4 ,,fol,,li-,,cle4 ,l4 folliculus1 a small bag4 ,a gland2 a little bag in animal bodies4 ,,fore,,arm4 ,the part of the upper extremity between the elbow and hand4 ,,fos,,sa4 ,l41 a ditch4 ,a cavity in a bone1 with a large aperture4 ,,fr,,num4 ,l41 a bridle4 ,frnum lingu4 ,the bridle of the tongue4 ,,func,,tion4 ,l4 fungor1 to perform4 ,the action of an organ or system of organs4 ,,fun,,gi-,,form4 ,l4 fungus and forma4 ,having terminations like the head of a fungus1 or a mushroom4 ,,gan,,gli-,,on1 -,a4 ,gr4 ,an enlargement in the course of a nerve4 ,,gas,,tric4 ,gr4 gastr1 gastr1 the stomach4 ,belonging to the stomach4 ,,gas-,,troc-,,ne,,mi-,,us4 ,gr4 gastr1 gastr1 the stomach1 and knm1 knm1 the leg4 ,the name of large muscles of the leg4 ,,gel,a-,,tin4 ,l4 gelo1 to congeal4 ,a concrete animal substance1 transparent and soluble in water4 ,,gle,,noid4 ,gr4 gln1 gln1 a cavity4 ,a term applied to some articulate cavities of bones4 ,,glos,,sa4 ,gr4 ,the tongue4 ,names compounded with this word are applied to muscles of the tongue4 ,,glos,,so-,,pha-,,ryn,,gi-,,al4 ,relating to the tongue and pharynx4 ,,glot,,tis4 ,gr4 ,the narrow opening at the upper part of the larynx4 ,,glu,,te-,,us4 ,gr4 ,a name given to muscles of the hip4 ,,hem,,or-,,rhage4 ,gr4 haima1 haima1 blood and rgnu1 rgnuo1 to burst4 ,a discharge of blood from an artery or vein4 ,,hu,,mer-,,us4 ,l4 ,the bone of the arm4 ,,hy,a-,,loid4 ,gr4 ,a transparent membrane of the eye4 ,,hy,,dro-,,gen4 ,gr4 hydr1 water1 and genna1 to generate4 ,a gas which constitutes one of the elements of water4 ,,hy,,gi-,,ene4 ,gr4 hugieinon1 hugienon1 health4 ,the part of medicine which treats of the preservation of health4 ,,hy,,oid4 ,gr4 u and eidos1 edos1 shape4 ,a bone of the tongue resembling the ,greek letter upsilon in shape4 ,,hy-,,oid,e-,,us4 ,pertaining to the hyoid bone4 ,,hy,,po-,,glos,,sal4 ,under the tongue4 ,the name of a nerve of the tongue4 ,,il,e-,,um4 ,gr4 eil1 eil1 to wind4 ,a portion of the small intestines4 ,,il,i-,,ac4 ,from the above4 ,the flank2 pertaining to the small intestine4 ,,il,i-,,um4 ,the haunch-bone4 ,,in-,,ci,,sor4 ,l4 incido1 to cut4 ,a front tooth that cuts or divides4 ,,in,,dex4 ,l4 indico1 to show4 ,the fore-finger2 the pointing finger4 ,,in-,,nom-,i-,,na,,ta4 ,l4 in1 not1 and nomen1 name4 ,parts which have no proper name4 ,,in-,,os,,cu-,,late4 ,l4 in and osculatus1 from osculor1 to kiss4 ,to unite1 as two vessels at their extremities4 ,,in,,ter4 ,l4 ,between4 ,,in-,,ter-,,cost,,al4 ,l4 inter1 between1 and costa1 a rib4 ,between the ribs4 ,,in-,,ter-,,no,,di-,i4 ,l4 inter1 between1 and nodus1 knot4 ,a term applied to some muscles of the forearm4 ,,in-,,ter-,,sti,,tial4 ,l4 inter1 between1 and sto1 to stand4 ,pertaining to or containing interstices4 ,,in-,,tes,,tines4 ,l4 intus1 within4 ,the canal that extends from the stomach to the anus4 ,i,,ris4 ,l41 the rainbow4 ,the colored circle that surrounds the pupil of the eye4 ,i,,vo-,,ry4 ,a hard1 solid1 fine-grained substance of a fine white color2 the tusk of an elephant4 ,,je-,,ju,,num4 ,l41 empty4 ,a portion of the small intestine4 ,,ju,,gu-,,lar4 ,l4 jugulum1 the neck4 ,relating to the throat4 ,the great veins of the neck4 ,,la,,bi-,,um1 ,,la,,bi-,i4 ,l4 ,the lips4 ,,lab,y-,,rinth4 ,gr4 ,the internal ear1 so named from its many windings4 ,,lach,,ry-,,mal4 ,l4 lachryma1 a tear4 ,pertaining to tears4 ,,lac,,te-,,al4 ,l41 lac1 milk4 ,a small vessel or tube of animal bodies for conveying chyle from the intestine to the thoracic duct4 ,,lam,i-,,na1 -4 ,l4 ,a plate1 or thin coat lying over another4 ,,lar,,ynx4 ,gr4 larunx1 larunx4 ,the upper part of the windpipe4 ,,lar-,,yn-,,gi,,tis4 ,inflammation of the larynx4 ,,la-,,tis,,si-,,mus1 -,,mi4 ,l41 superlative of latus1 broad4 ,a term applied to some muscles4 ,,le-,,va,,tor4 ,l4 levo1 to raise4 ,a name applied to a muscle that raises some part4 ,,lig,a-,,ment4 ,l4 ligo1 to bind4 ,a strong1 compact substance serving to bind one bone to another4 ,,lin,e-,a1 -4 ,l4 ,a line4 ,,lin,,gua1 -4 ,l4 ,a tongue4 ,,liv,,er4 ,the name of one of the abdominal organs1 the largest gland in the system4 ,it is situated below the diaphragm1 and secretes the bile4 ,,lobe4 ,a round projecting part of an organ4 ,,lon,,gus1 ,,lon,,gi-,,or4 ,l41 long1 longer4 ,a term applied to several muscles4 ,,lum,,bar4 ,l4 lumbus1 the loins4 ,pertaining to the loins4 ,,lymph4 ,l4 lympha1 water4 ,a colorless fluid in animal bodies1 and contained in vessels called lymphatics4 ,,lym-,,phat,,ic4 ,a vessel of animal bodies that contains or conveys lymph4 ,,mag-,,ne,,si-,,um4 ,the metallic base of magnesia4 ,,mag,,nus1 -,,na1 -,,num4 ,l41 great4 ,a term applied to certain muscles4 ,,ma,,jor4 ,l41 greater4 ,greater in extent or quantity4 ,,man,,ga-,,nese4 ,a metal of a whitish gray color4 ,,mar,,row4 ,sax4 ,a soft1 oleaginous substance1 contained in the cavities of bones4 ,,mas-,,se,,ter4 ,gr4 massaomai1 massaomai1 to chew4 ,the name of a muscle of the face4 ,,mas,,ti-,,cate1 ,,mas-,,ti-,,ca,,tion4 ,l4 mastico4 ,to chew2 the act of chewing4 ,,mas,,toid4 ,gr4 mastos1 mastos1 breast1 and eidos1 edos1 form4 the name of a process of the temporal bone behind the ear4 ,,mas-,,toid,e-,,us4 ,a name applied to muscles that are attached to the mastoid process4 ,,max-,,il,,la4 ,l4 ,the jaw-bone4 ,,max,,il-,,la-,,ry4 ,pertaining to the jaw4 ,,max,i-,,mus1 -,,um4 ,l41 superlative of magnus1 great4 ,a term applied to several muscles4 ,,me-,a,,tus4 ,l4 meo1 to go4 ,a passage or channel4 ,,me-,,di-,,as-,,ti,,num4 ,a membrane that separates the chest into two parts4 ,,me,,di-,,um1 -,a4 ,l4 ,the space or substance through which a body passes to any point4 ,,med,,ul-,,la-,,ry4 ,l41 medulla1 marrow4 ,pertaining to marrow4 ,,me-,,dul,,la ,,ob-,,lon-,,ga,,ta4 ,commencement of the spinal cord4 ,,me-,,dul,,la ,,spi-,,na,,lis4 ,the spinal cord4 ,,mem,,bra-,,na4 ,a membrane2 a thin1 white1 flexible skin formed by fibres interwoven like net-work4 ,,mem,,bra-,,nous4 ,relating to membrane4 ,,mes,,en-,,ter-,y4 ,gr4 mesos1 mesos1 the middle1 and enteron1 enteron1 the intestine4 ,the membrane in the middle of the intestines1 by which they are attached to the spine4 ,,mes-,,en-,,ter,,ic4 ,pertaining to the mesentery4 ,,met-,a-,,car,,pal4 ,relating to the metacarpus4 ,,met-,a-,,car,,pus4 ,gr4 meta1 meta1 after1 and karpos1 karpos1 wrist4 ,the part of the hand between the wrist and fingers4 ,,met-,a-,,tar,,sal4 ,relating to the metatarsus4 ,,met-,a-,,tar,,sus4 ,gr4 meta1 meta1 after1 and tarsos1 tarsos1 the tarsus4 ,the instep4 ,a term applied to seven bones of the foot4 ,,mid,,riff4 ,sax4 mid1 and hrife1 the belly4 ,see ,,diaphragm4 ,,min,i-,,mus1 -,i4 ,l4 ,the smallest4 ,a term applied to several muscles4 ,,mi,,nor4 ,l4 ,less1 smaller4 ,a term applied to several muscles4 ,,mi,,tral4 ,l4 mitra1 a mitre4 ,the name of the valves in the left side of the heart4 ,,mo-,,di,o-,,lus4 ,l4 modus1 a measure4 ,a cone in the cochlea around which the membranes wind4 ,,mo,,lar4 ,l4 mola1 a mill4 ,the name of some of the large teeth4 ,,mol,,lis4 ,l4 ,soft4 ,,mo,,tor1 -,,es4 ,l4 moveo1 to move4 ,a mover4 ,a term applied to certain nerves4 ,,mu,,cous4 ,pertaining to mucus4 ,,mu,,cus4 ,a viscid fluid secreted by the mucous membrane1 which it serves to moisten and defend4 ,,mus,,cle4 ,a bundle of fibres enclosed in a sheath4 ,,mus,,cu-,,lar4 ,relating to a muscle4 ,,my-,o,,des4 ,a term applied to certain muscles of the neck4 ,,na,,sal4 ,relating to the nose4 ,,na,,sus4 ,l41 the nose4 ,the nostrils4 ,,nerve4 ,an organ of sensation and motion in animals4 ,,nerv,,ous4 ,relating to the nerves4 ,,neu-,,ri-,,lem,a4 ,gr4 neuron1 neuron1 a nerve1 and lemma1 lema1 a sheath4 ,the sheath or covering of a nerve4 ,,ni,,grum4 ,l4 ,black4 ,,ni,,tro-,,gen4 ,that element of the air which is called azote4 ,,nu-,,tri,,tion4 ,the art or process of promoting the growth1 or repairing the waste of the system4 ,,oc-,,cip-,i-,,ta,,lis4 ,pertaining to the back part of the head4 ,,oc,,ci-,,put4 ,l4 ob and caput1 the head4 ,the hinder part of the head4 ,,oc-,u-,,lo,,rum4 ,of the eyes4 ,,oc,,ulus1 -,i4 ,l4 ,the eye4 ,,oe-,,soph,a-,,gus4 ,gr4 oi1 oi1 to carry1 and phag1 phago1 to eat4 ,the name of the passage through which the food passes from the mouth to the stomach4 ,o-,,lec,,ra-,,non4 ,gr4 lene1 lene1 the cubit1 and kranon1 kranon1 the head4 ,the elbow2 the head of the ulna4 ,,ol-,,fact,o-,,ry4 ,l4 oleo1 to smell1 and facio1 to make4 ,pertaining to smelling4 ,o-,,men,,tum4 ,l4 ,the caul4 ,o,,mo4 ,gr4 mos1 mos1 the shoulder4 ,names compounded of this word are applied to muscles attached to the shoulder4 ,,oph-,,thal,,mic4 ,gr4 ophthalmos1 ophthalmos1 the eye4 ,belonging to the eye4 ,,op-,,po,,nens4 ,that which acts in opposition to something4 ,the name of two muscles of the hand4 ,,op,,ti-,,cus1 ,,op,,tic4 ,gr4 optomai1 optomai1 to see4 ,relating to the eye4 ,,or-,,bic,u-,,lar4 ,l4 orbis1 a circle4 ,circular4 ,,or-,,bic-,u-,,la,,ris4 ,a name applied to several muscles4 ,,or,,gan4 ,a part of the system destined to exercise some particular function4 ,,or,i-,,gin4 ,commencement2 source4 ,,os4 ,l4 ,a bone2 the mouth of any thing4 ,o,,ris4 ,l4 os1 oris4 ,of the mouth4 ,,os ,,hy-,,oid,,es4 ,gr4 ,see ,,hyoid4 ,the name of the bone at the base of the tongue4 ,,os,,ma-,,zome4 ,gr4 osm1 osm1 smell1 and zmos1 zmos1 broth4 ,a principle obtained from animal fibre which gives the peculiar taste to broth4 ,,os,,sa4 ,l41 plural of os1 bone4 ,bones4 ,,os,,se-,,ous4 ,pertaining to bones4 ,,os-,,si-,,fi-,,ca,,tion4 ,the formation of bones in animals4 ,,os,,si-,,fy4 ,l4 ossa1 bones1 and facio1 to make4 ,to convert into bone4 ,,os,,sis4 ,of a bone4 ,o-,,va,,le4 ,l4 ,the shape of an egg4 ,,ox-,,al,,ic4 ,pertaining to sorrel4 ,oxalic acid is the acid of sorrel4 ,it is composed of two equivalents of carbon and three of oxygen4 ,,ox,y-,,gen4 ,a permanently elastic fluid invisible and inodorous4 ,one of the components of atmospheric air4 ,,pa-,,la,,tum4 ,l4 ,the palate2 the roof of the mouth4 ,,pal-,,pe-,,bra,,rum4 ,l4 palpebra1 the eyelid4 ,of the eyelids4 ,,pal,,mar4 ,l4 palma1 the palm4 ,belonging to the hand4 ,,pal-,,ma,,ris4 ,a term applied to some muscles attached to the palm of the hand4 ,,pan,,cre-,,as4 ,gr4 pan1 pan1 all1 and kreas1 kreas1 flesh4 ,the name of one of the digestive organs4 ,,pan-,,cre-,,at,,ic4 ,belonging to the pancreas4 ,,pa-,,pil,,la1 -4 ,l4 ,small conical prominences4 ,,pa-,,ral,y-,,sis4 ,abolition of function whether of intellect1 sensation1 or motion4 ,,pa-,,ren,,chy-,,ma4 ,gr4 parenche1 parengche1 to pour through4 ,the substance contained between the blood vessels of an organ4 ,,pa-,,rot,,id4 ,gr4 para1 para1 near1 and tos1 tos1 the gen4 of ous1 ous1 the ear4 ,the name of the largest salivary gland4 ,,pa-,,tel,,la1 -4 ,l4 ,the knee-pan4 ,,pa-,,thet,i-,,cus1 -,,ci4 ,gr4 pathos1 pathos1 passion4 ,the name of the fourth pair of nerves4 ,,pec,,tus4 ,l4 ,the chest4 ,,pec,,to-,,ral4 ,pertaining to the chest4 ,,pec-,,to-,,ra,,lis4 ,belonging to the chest4 ,,pe,,dis4 ,l41 gen4 of pes1 the foot4 ,of the foot4 ,,pel,i-,,tongs4 ,a term applied to masses of fat4 ,,pel,,li-,,cle4 ,l41 dim4 of pellis1 the skin4 ,a thin skin or film4 ,,pel,,vic4 ,relating to the pelvis4 ,,pel,,vis4 ,l4 ,the basin formed by the large bones at the lower part of the abdomen4 ,,pen,,ni-,,form4 ,l4 penna1 a feather4 ,having the form of a feather1 or quill4 ,,per-,i-,,car,,di-,,um4 ,gr4 peri1 peri1 around1 and kardia1 kardia1 the heart4 ,a membrane that encloses the heart4 ,,per-,i-,,chon,,dri-,,um4 ,gr4 peri1 peri1 around1 and chondros1 chondros1 cartilage4 ,a membrane that invests cartilage4 ,,per-,i-,,cra,,ni-,,um4 ,gr4 peri1 and kranion1 kranion1 the cranium4 ,a membrane that invests the skull4 ,,per,,ma-,,nent4 ,durable2 lasting4 ,,per-,i-,,stal,,tic4 ,gr4 peristell1 peristello1 to involve4 ,a movement like the crawling of a worm4 ,,per-,,spi-,,ra,,tion4 ,l4 per1 through1 and spiro1 to breathe4 ,the excretion from the skin4 ,,phal,,anx1 -,,ges4 ,gr4 phalanx1 phalanx1 an army4 ,three rows of small bones forming the fingers or toes4 ,,pha-,,lan,,gi-,,al4 ,belonging to the fingers or toes4 ,,pha-,,ryn,,ge-,,al4 ,relating to the pharynx4 ,,phar,,ynx4 ,gr4 pharunx1 pharunx4 ,the upper part of the oesophagus4 ,,phos,,phor-,,us4 ,gr4 phs1 phs1 the light1 and pher1 pher1 to bear4 ,a combustible substance1 of a yellowish color1 semi-transparent1 resembling wax4 ,,phren,,ic4 ,gr4 phrn1 phrn1 the mind4 ,belonging to the diaphragm4 ,,phys-,i-,,ol,o-,,gy4 ,gr4 phusis1 phusis1 nature1 and logos1 logos1 a discourse4 ,the science of the functions of the organs of animals and plants4 ,,pi,a ,,ma,,ter4 ,l41 good mother4 ,the name of one of the membranes of the brain4 ,,pig-,,men,,tum4 ,l4 ,paint2 a preparation of colors4 ,,pin,,na4 ,l41 a wing4 ,a part of the external ear4 ,,pla-,,tys,,ma4 ,gr4 platus1 plats1 broad4 ,a muscle of the neck4 ,,pleu,,ra1 -4 ,gr4 pleura1 pleura1 the side4 ,a thin membrane that covers the inside of the thorax1 and also forms the exterior coat of the lungs4 ,,pleu,,ral4 ,relating to the pleura4 ,,plex,,us4 ,l4 plecto1 to weave together4 ,any union of nerves1 vessels1 or fibres1 in the form of net-work4 ,,pneu-,,mo-,,gas,,tric4 ,gr4 pneumn1 pneumn1 the lungs1 and gastr1 gastr1 the stomach4 ,belonging to both the stomach and lungs4 ,,pol,,li-,,cis4 ,l4 ,a term applied to muscles attached to the fingers and toes4 ,,pons4 ,l4 ,a bridge4 ,pons varolii4 ,a part of the brain formed by the union of the crura cerebri and cerebelli4 ,,pop-,,lit-,e,,al4 ,l4 poples1 the ham4 ,pertaining to the ham or knee-joint4 ,a name given to various parts4 ,,pos,,ti-,,cus4 ,l4 ,behind2 posterior4 ,a term applied to certain muscles4 ,,por,,ti-,o ,,du,,ra4 ,l41 hard portion4 ,the facial nerve2 #hth pair4 ,,por,,ti-,o ,,mol,,lis4 ,l41 soft portion4 ,the auditory nerve2 #gth pair4 ,,po-,,tas,,si-,,um4 ,l4 ,the metallic basis of pure potash4 ,,pro-,,bos,,cis4 ,gr4 pro1 pro1 before1 and bosk1 bosk1 to feed4 ,the snout or trunk of an elephant or other animal4 ,,proc,,ess4 ,a prominence or projection4 ,,pro-,,na,,tor4 ,l4 pronus1 turned downward4 ,the muscle of the forearm that moves the palm of the hand downward4 ,,pso,,as4 ,gr4 psoai1 psoai1 the loins4 ,the name of two muscles of the leg4 ,,pul-,,mon,,ic4 ,,pul,,mo-,,na-,,ry4 ,l4 pulmo1 the lungs4 ,belonging or relating to the lungs4 ,,pul-,,mo-,,na,,lis4 ,,pu,,pil4 ,a little aperture in the centre of the iris1 through which the rays of light pass to the retina4 ,,py-,,lor,,ic4 ,pertaining to the pylorus4 ,,py-,,lor,,us4 ,gr4 pulros1 pulros1 a gate keeper4 ,the lower orifice of the stomach1 with which the duodenum connects4 ,,ra,,di-,,us4 ,l41 a ray1 a spoke of a wheel4 ,the name of one of the bones of the forearm4 ,,ra-,,di-,a,,lis4 ,radial2 belonging to the radius4 ,,ra,,di-,,ate4 ,having lines or fibres that diverge from a point4 ,,ra,,mus4 ,l4 ,a branch4 ,a term applied to the projections of bones4 ,,rec-,,re-,,men-,,ti,,tial4 ,l4 re1 again1 and cerno1 to secrete4 ,consisting of superfluous matter separated from that which is valuable4 ,,rec,,tum4 ,the third and last portion of the intestines4 ,,rec,,tus1 -,i4 ,l4 ,straight2 erect4 ,a term applied to several muscles4 ,,re-,,sid,u-,,al4 ,pertaining to waste matter4 ,,re-,,sid,u-,,um4 ,l4 ,waste matter4 ,the fces4 ,,res-,,pi-,,ra,,tion4 ,l4 re1 again1 and spiro1 to breathe4 ,the act of breathing4 ,inspiring air into the lungs and expelling it again4 ,,re-,,spi,,ra-,,to-,,ry4 ,pertaining to respiration2 serving for respiration4 ,,ret,i-,,na4 ,l41 rete1 a net4 ,the essential organ of sight4 ,one of the coats of the eye1 formed by the expansion of the optic nerve4 ,,ro-,,tun,,dum1 -,a4 ,l4 ,round2 circular4 ,,ru,,ga1 -4 ,l4 ,a wrinkle2 a fold4 ,,sac,,cu-,,lus4 ,l41 dim4 of saccus1 a bag4 ,a little sac4 ,,sa,,cral4 ,pertaining to the sacrum4 ,,sa,,crum4 ,l41 sacred4 ,the bone which forms the posterior part of the pelvis1 and is a continuation of the spinal column4 ,,sa-,,li,,va4 ,l4 ,the fluid which is secreted by the salivary glands1 which moistens the food and mouth4 ,,sal,i-,,va-,,ry4 ,that which belongs to the saliva4 ,,san,,guin-,e-,,ous4 ,l4 sanguis1 the blood4 ,bloody2 abounding with blood2 plethoric4 ,,sar-,,to,,ri-,,us4 ,l4 sartor1 a tailor4 ,a term applied to a muscle of the thigh4 ,,sca,,la1 -4 ,l41 a ladder4 ,cavities of the cochlea4 ,,sca-,,le,,nus4 ,gr4 skalnos1 skalnos1 unequal4 ,a term applied to some muscles of the neck4 ,,scaph,,oid4 ,gr4 skaph1 skaph1 a little boat4 ,the name applied to one of the wrist-bones4 ,,scap,u-,,la4 ,l4 ,the shoulder-blade4 ,,scap,u-,,lar4 ,relating to the scapula4 ,,scarf-,,skin4 ,the outer1 thin integument of the body2 the cuticle4 ,,sci-,,at,,ic4 ,gr41 pertaining to the loins4 ,the name of the large nerve of the loins and leg4 ,,scle-,,rot,,ic4 ,gr4 sklros1 sklros1 hard4 ,a membrane of the eye4 ,,se-,,ba,,ceous4 ,l41 sebum1 tallow4 ,pertaining to fat2 unctuous matter4 ,,se-,,cre,,tion4 ,the act of secerning2 the act of producing from the blood substances different front the blood itself1 as bile1 saliva4 ,the matter secreted1 as mucus1 bile1 c4 ,,se-,,cre,,to-,,ry4 ,performing the office of secretion4 ,,se-,,cun,,dus4 ,second4 ,a term applied to certain muscles4 ,,sem-,i-,,cir,,cu-,,lar4 ,having the form of a half circle4 ,the name of a part of the ear4 ,,sem-,i-,,ten-,,di-,,no,,sus4 ,l4 semi1 half and tendo1 a tendon4 ,the name of a muscle4 ,,sep,,tum4 ,l4 ,a membrane that divides two cavities from each other4 ,,se,,rous4 ,thin2 watery4 ,pertaining to serum4 ,,se,,rum4 ,l4 ,the thin1 transparent part of blood4 ,,ser-,,ra,,tus4 ,l4 serro1 to saw4 ,a term applied to some muscles of the trunk4 ,,sig,,moid4 ,gr4 ,resembling the ,greek s1 sigma4 ,,si-,,li,,ci-,,um4 ,a term applied to one of the earths4 ,,si,,nus4 ,l41 a bay4 ,a cavity1 the interior of which is more expanded than the entrance4 ,,skel,e-,,ton4 ,gr4 skell1 skell1 to dry4 ,the aggregate of the hard parts of the body2 the bones4 ,,so,,di-,,um4 ,the metallic base of soda ,,sphinc,,ter4 ,gr4 sphing1 sphingo1 to restrict4 ,a muscle that contracts or shuts an orifice4 ,,spi,,nal ,,cord4 ,a prolongation of the brain4 ,,spi-,,na,,lis4 ,relating to the spine4 ,,spine4 ,a thorn4 ,the vertebral column2 back-bone4 ,,spi,,nous4 ,belonging to the spinal column4 ,,spleen4 ,the milt4 ,it is situated in the abdomen1 and attached to the stomach4 ,,splen,,ic4 ,relating to the spleen4 ,,sple,,ni-,,us4 ,the name of a muscle of the neck4 ,,sta,,pes4 ,the name of one of the small bones of the ear4 ,,ster,,num4 ,the breast-bone4 ,the bone that forms the front of the chest from the neck to the stomach4 ,,stom,,ach4 ,the principal organ of the digestive apparatus4 ,,stra,,tum4 ,l4 sterno1 to stew4 ,a bed2 a layer4 ,,sty,,loid4 ,l4 stylus1 a pencil4 ,an epithet applied to processes that resemble a style1 a pen4 ,,sub-,,cla,,vi-,,an4 ,l4 sub1 under1 and clavis1 a key4 ,situated under the clavicle4 ,,sub-,,li,,mis4 ,high in place4 ,,sub-,,lin,,gual4 ,l4 sub1 under1 and lingua1 the tongue4 ,situated under the tongue4 ,,sub-,,max,,il-,,la-,,ry4 ,l4 sub1 under1 and maxilla1 the jaw-bone4 ,located under the jaw4 ,,sul,,phur4 ,a simple1 mineral substance1 of a yellow color1 brittle1 insoluble in water1 but fusible by heat4 ,,su-,,pe-,,ri-,o,,ris4 ,a term applied to certain muscles4 ,,su-,,pi-,,na,,tor4 ,l4 ,a muscle that turns the palm of the hand upward4 ,,sut,,ure4 ,l4 suo1 to sew4 ,the seam or joint that unites the bones of the skull4 ,,syn-,o,,vi-,a4 ,gr4 syn1 sn1 with1 and on1 on1 an egg4 ,the fluid secreted into the cavities of joints for the purpose of lubricating them4 ,,syn-,o,,vi-,,al4 ,pertaining to synovia4 ,,sys,,tem4 ,an assemblage of organs composed of the same tissues1 and intended for the same functions4 ,,sys-,,tem,,ic4 ,belonging to the general system4 ,,sys,,to-,,le4 ,gr4 systell1 sstell1 to contract4 ,the contraction of the heart and arteries for expelling the blood and carrying on the circulation4 ,,tar,,sal4 ,relating to the tarsus4 ,,tar,,sus4 ,l4 ,the posterior part of the foot4 ,,ten,,don4 ,gr4 tein1 teino1 to stretch4 ,a hard1 insensible cord1 or bundle of fibres1 by which a muscle is attached to a bone4 ,,ten,,di-,,na1 -4 ,pertaining to a tendon4 ,,tens,,or4 ,a muscle that extends a part4 ,,ten-,,tac,u-,,la1 -4 ,l4 tento1 to seize4 ,a filiform process or organ on the bodies of various animals4 ,,ten-,,to,,ri-,,um4 ,l4 tendo1 to stretch4 ,a process of the dura mater which lies between the cerebrum and cerebellum4 ,,te,,res4 ,l4 teres1 round4 ,an epithet given to many organs1 the fibres of which are collected in small bundles4 ,,tho,,rax4 ,gr4 ,that part of the skeleton that composes the bones of the chest4 ,the cavity of the chest4 ,,tho-,,rac,,ic4 ,relating to the chest4 ,,thy,,roid4 ,gr4 thureos1 thureos1 a shield4 ,resembling a shield4 ,a cartilage of the larynx4 ,,tib,i-,a4 ,l41 a flute4 ,the large bone of the leg4 ,,tib-,i-,a,,lis1 ,,tib,i-,,al4 ,relating to the tibia4 ,,tis,,sue4 ,the texture or organization of parts4 ,,ton,,sil4 ,l4 ,a glandular body in the throat or fauces4 ,,tra,,che-,a4 ,gr4 trachus1 trachus1 rough4 ,the windpipe4 ,,tra,,che-,,al4 ,belonging to the trachea4 ,,trans-,,verse1 ,,trans-,,ver-,,sa,,lis4 ,lying in a cross direction4 ,,tra-,,pe,,zi-,,us4 ,the name of a muscle1 so called from its form4 ,,tri,,ceps4 ,l4 tres1 three1 and caput1 head4 ,three4 ,a name given to muscles that have three attachments at one extremity4 ,,tri-,,cus,,pid4 ,l4 tres1 three1 and cuspis1 point4 ,the triangular valves in the right side of the heart4 ,,troch,,le-,a4 ,gr4 trochalia1 trochalia1 a pulley4 ,a pulley-like cartilage1 over which the tendon of a muscle of the eye passes4 ,,troch-,,le-,a,,ris4 ,the name of a muscle of the eye4 ,,trunk4 ,the principal part of the body1 to which the limbs are articulated4 ,,tu,,ber-,,cle4 ,l4 tuber1 a bunch4 ,a small push1 swelling1 or tumor1 on animal bodies4 ,,tu-,,ber-,,os,i-,,ty4 ,the state of being knobbed or protuberant4 ,,tym,,pan-,,um4 ,l4 ,the middle ear4 ,,ul,,na4 ,l4 ,a bone of the forearm4 ,,ul,,nar1 ,,ul-,,na,,ris4 ,relating to the ulna4 ,u,,ric4 ,gr4 ouron1 ouron1 urine4 ,an acid contained in urine1 and in gouty concretions4 ,u-,,ve,a4 ,l4 uva1 a grape4 ,resembling grapes4 ,a thin membrane of the eye4 ,u,,vu-,,la4 ,a soft body1 suspended from the palate1 near the aperture of the nostrils1 over the glottis4 ,,vac,,cine ,,vi,,rus4 ,l4 vacca1 a cow1 virus1 poison4 ,pertaining to cows2 derived from cows4 ,,valve4 ,any membrane1 or doubling of any membrane1 which prevents fluids from flowing back in the vessels and canals of the animal body4 ,,val,,vu-,,la1 -4 ,a valve4 ,,vas,,cu-,,lar4 ,l4 vasculum1 a vessel4 ,pertaining to vessels2 abounding in vessels4 ,,vas,,tus4 ,l4 ,great1 vast4 ,applied to some large muscles4 ,,veins4 ,vessels that convey blood to the heart4 ,,ve,,nous4 ,pertaining to veins4 ,,ven,,tri-,,cle4 ,l4 venter1 the stomach4 ,a small cavity of the animal body4 ,,ven-,,tric,u-,,lar4 ,relating to ventricles4 ,,ver-,,mic,u-,,lar4 ,l4 vermiculus1 a little worm4 ,resembling the motions of a worm4 ,,verm-,i-,,form,,is4 ,l4 vermis1 a worm1 and forma1 form4 ,having the form and shape of a worm4 ,,vert,e-,,bra1 -4 ,l4 verto1 to turn4 ,a joint of the spinal column4 ,,vert,e-,,bral4 ,pertaining to the joints of the spinal column4 ,,ves,i-,,cle4 ,l4 vesica1 a bladder4 ,a little bladder1 or a portion of the cuticle separated from the cutis vera and filled with serum4 ,,ves,,ti-,,bule4 ,l4 ,a porch of a house4 ,a cavity belonging to the ear4 ,,vil,,li4 ,l4 ,fine1 small fibres4 ,,vi,,rus4 ,l4 poison4 ,foul matter of an ulcer2 poison4 ,,vi,,tal4 ,l4 vita1 life4 ,pertaining to life4 ,,vit,,re-,,ous4 ,l4 vitrum1 glass4 ,belonging to glass4 ,a humor of the eye4 ,,vo,,lar4 ,l4 vola1 the hollow of the hand or foot4 ,belonging to the palm of the hand4 ,,vo,,mer4 ,l4 a ploughshare4 ,one of the bones of the nose4 ,,zyg-,o-,,mat,i-,,cus4 ,gr4 zugos1 zugos1 a yoke4 ,a term applied to some muscles of the face1 from their attachment4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,,page4 ,,abdomen1 #cd ,,absorption1 #aha ----1 ,varieties of1 #ahc ----1 ,cutaneous1 #ahe ,,acetabulum1 #ch ,,acids1 ,acetic1 #bh ----1 ,benzoic1 #bh ----1 ,muriatic1 #ddj ----1 ,nitric1 #ddj ----1 ,oxalic1 #bh1 #ddj ----1 ,sulphuric1 #ddj ,,air1 ,composition of the1 #bbc ----1 ,influence of1 on the ,muscles1 #ij ----1 ,quality of the1 #bbc1 #cah ----1 ,quantity inhaled1 #bbb ----1 ,quantity exhaled1 #bbh ----1 ,impure ,air1 the ,effects of1 #bcb ,,air ,,vesicles1 #bab ,,albumen1 #bg ,,animal ,,heat1 #beb ,,aorta1 #aei ----1 ,valves of the1 #aeg ,,apparatus1 #ah ,,arteries1 ,structure of the1 #aeh ----1 ,cutaneous1 #bhe ----1 ,pulmonary1 #aeh ,,attitude1 ,effects of1 on ,digestion1 #aeb ----1 ,effects of1 on the ,voice1 #bgd ----1 ,effects of1 in ,respiration1 #bde ,,auricles of the ,heart1 #aef ,,asphyxia1 from ,drowning1 #bdi ----1 from ,electricity1 #bej ----1 from ,hanging1 #bej ----1 from ,carbonic ,gas1 #bea ,,azote1 #bf ,b4 ,,bathing1 ,necessity of1 #caa ----1 ,methods of1 #cac ----1 ,proper ,time for1 #caf ----1 ,influence of1 on the ,system1 #caf ----1 ,frequency of1 #cag ,,beds1 #cji ,,bile1 #abb ,,blood1 ,composition of1 #aed ----1 ,color of1 #bjd ----1 ,quantity of1 #aga ----1 ,change of1 #bbe ----1 ,impure1 ,effects of1 #bje ,,bones1 ,anatomy of the1 #bi ----1 ,physiology of the1 #dh ----1 ,hygiene of the1 #ec ----1 of the ,head1 #cb ----1 of the ,trunk1 #cd ----1 of the ,upper ,extremities1 #ci ----1 of the ,lower ,extremities1 #db ----1 ,composition of1 #bi ----1 ,ossification of1 #cj ----1 ,union of fractured1 #fb ----1 ,influence of ,position on the1 #ee ,,brain1 #cbi ----1 ,functions of the1 #cdf ----1 ,effects of ,impure ,blood on the1 #cfj ----1 ,effects of inadequate ,mental ,exertion1 #cfa ----1 ,effects of excessive ,mental ,exertion1 #cfc ----1 ,directions for exercising the1 #cfh ----1 ,membranes of the1 #ccd ----1 ,injuries of the1 #cgg ,,bronchia1 #bab ,,bronchitis1 #bad ,,burns ,,and ,,scalds1 #cai ,,burs ,,mucos1 #df ,c4 ,c,,cum1 #aah ,,capillaries1 #afc ,,carbon1 #bf ,,carbonic ,,gas1 where formed1 #bbd ----1 ,effects of1 when inhaled1 #bcj ----1 ,effects of1 on ,combustion1 #bcj ----1 ,effects of1 on ,respiration1 #bca ,,carpus1 #da ,,cartilage1 #de ---- of the ,larynx1 #bfi ,,caul1 #abc ,,cellular ,,tissue1 #ai ,,cerebellum1 #cca ,,cerebrum1 #ccj ,,chest1 #ce ----1 ,compression of the1 #ef ----1 ,influence of the ,size of the1 #bci ,,chilblains1 #cba ,,chlorine1 #bg ,,chyle1 #abf ,,chyme1 #abf ,,circulatory ,,organs1 ,anatomy1 #aed ----1 ,physiology of the1 #afd ----1 ,hygiene of the1 #agb ,,clavicle1 #ci ,,clothing1 ,kind of1 #cja ----1 ,amount of1 #cje ----1 ,cleanliness of1 #cjh ,,coccyx1 #ch ,,colds1 ,treatment of1 #bdh ,,colon1 #aai ,,consumption1 how frequently produced1 #bdg ,,corns1 ,treatment of1 #bie ,,cuticle1 ,structure of the1 #bhb ----1 ,use of the1 #bic ,,cutis ,,vera1 ,structure of the1 #bhc ,d4 ,,definitions1 ,general1 #ac ,,diaphragm1 #gc1 #bae ,,digestive ,,organs1 ,anatomy of the1 #aac ----1 ,physiology of the1 #abd ----1 ,hygiene of the1 #abi ----1 ,influence of the ,mind on the1 #adh ----1 ,influence of ,pure ,air on the1 #aea ----1 ,influence of ,position on the1 #aeb ,,drinks1 how taken1 #ade ,,drowned ,,persons1 ,treatment of1 #bdi ,,duodenum1 #aag ,e4 ,,ear1 ,bones of1 #cd1 #dae ,,epiglottis1 #abe1 #bgj ,,exhalants1 #aib ,,exercise1 how it should be taken1 #ia ----1 ,influence of1 on the ,bones1 #ec ----1 ,influence of1 on ,muscles1 #he ----1 ,influence of1 on the ,circulation1 #agc ,,eye1 #cid ,,expiration1 how effected1 #bbj ,f4 ,,face1 ,bones of the1 #cd ,,fascia1 #ff ,,fat1 #fg1 #aie ,,femur1 #db ,,fibre1 #ah ,,fibrin1 #bg ,,fibula1 #db ,,filament1 #ah ,,flannel1 ,use of1 #cjb ,,fluids1 ,use of1 #ag ,,follicle1 #aib ,,food1 ,quantity of the1 #abi ----1 ,quality of the1 #acd ----1 ,manner in which it is taken1 #adb ----1 ,condition of the system1 when taken1 #adf ,,foot1 ,bones of the1 #dd ,,frozen ,,limbs1 ,treatment of1 #cbj ,g4 ,,gastric ,,juice1 #abe ,,gelatin1 #bg ,,glands1 #aic ----1 ,gastric1 #aaf ----1 ,lachrymal1 #djb ----1 ,lymphatic1 #ahc ----1 ,mesenteric1 #aba ----1 ,oil1 #bhh ----1 ,perspiratory1 #bij ----1 ,salivary1 #aad ,,glottis1 #bga ,h4 ,,hair1 #cbb ,,heart1 #aed ----1 ,auricles of the1 #aef ----1 ,ventricles of the1 #aef ,,heat1 ,animal1 #beb ----1 ,hygiene of1 #bfa ,,hearing1 ,anatomy of the ,organs of1 #dad ----1 ,physiology of the ,organs of1 #dbj ----1 ,hygiene of the ,organs of1 #dbb ,,humerus1 #ci ,,hemorrhage1 ,means of arresting1 #age ,,hydrogen1 #bf ,i4 ,,ileum1 #aah ,,intestines1 #aag ,,innominatum1 #cg ,,inspiration1 how effected1 #bai ,,iron1 #be ,j4 ,,jejunum1 #aah ,,joints1 ,structure of the1 #de ,l4 ,,lacteals1 #abj1 #aha ,,lamin1 #ag ,,larynx1 #bfh ,,laryngitis1 #bgf ,,ligaments1 #bc1 #dg ----1 ,use of1 #ej ----1 ,capsular1 #dj ,,light1 ,influence on the ,skin1 #cah ,,lime1 #be ,,liver1 #abb ,,lungs1 #bji ,,lymph1 #cj ,,lymphatics1 ,anatomy of the1 #aha ----1 ,physiology of the1 #ahc ----1 ,hygiene of the1 #ahh ----1 ,cutaneous1 #bhg ,m4 ,,magnesia1 #be ,,marrow1 ,uses of1 #bd ,,mediastinum1 #baa ,,medulla ,,oblongata1 #ccc ,,membrane1 #ai ----1 ,adipose1 #bj ----1 ,cellular1 #ai ----1 ,dermoid1 #bb1 #bhb ----1 ,mucous1 #ba ----1 ,muscular1 #bd ----1 ,serous1 #ba ,,mesentery1 #abj ,,metacarpus1 #da ,,mouth1 ,structure of1 #aac ,,mucus1 #bh ,,muscles1 ,anatomy of1 #fd ----1 ,physiology of1 #gf ----1 ,hygiene of1 #he ----1 ,compression of1 #ic1 #bgf ----1 ,exhaustion of1 #hg1 #aja ----1 ,effects of ,pure ,blood on1 #hi ----1 ,effects of ,pure ,air on the1 #ij ----1 ,effects of ,light on the1 #ij ----1 ,influence of the ,mind on1 #ic ----1 ,influence of ,position on1 #ij ----1 ,intercostal1 #baf ----1 ,respiratory1 #baf ,n4 ,,nails1 #cbd ,,nerves1 ,cranial1 #cce1 #cej ----1 ,cutaneous1 #bhf ----1 ,respiratory1 #cdj1 #ceb ----1 ,spinal1 #cda1 #cea ----1 ,sympathetic1 #cdc1 #cef ,,nervous ,,system1 ,anatomy of1 #cbg ----1 ,physiology of1 #cdf ----1 ,hygiene of1 #ceh ,,nitrogen1 #bf ,,nose1 ,structure1 #chi ,,nurses1 ,directions for1 #dcc ,,nutrition1 #bjj ----1 ,hygiene of1 #bje ,o4 ,,oesophagus1 #aaf ,,oil-,,glands1 ,structure of the1 #bhh ----1 ,use of the1 #big ,,omentum1 #abc ,,organ1 #ah ,,organic ,,and ,,inorganic ,,bodies1 ,difference between1 #ad ,,orifice1 ,cardiac1 #aaf ----1 ,pyloric1 #aaf ,,osmazome1 #bh ,,oxygen1 #bf ----1 ,quantity at each ,inspiration1 #bbb ,p4 ,,papilla1 #bhd ,,pancreas1 #abb ,,parotid ,,gland1 #aad ,,patella1 #db ,,pericardium1 #aee ,,perichondrium1 #ca ,,pericranium1 #ca ,,periosteum1 #ca ,,pelvis1 ,bones of the1 #cg ,,perspiratory ,,apparatus1 #bij ---- ,use of1 #bih ,,phalanges1 #db1 #de ,,pharynx1 #aae ,,phosphorus1 #bf ,,pleura1 #baa ,,poisons1 and their ,antidotes1 #dci ,,potash1 #be ,,preservation ,,of ,,health1 #dbe ,r4 ,,radius1 #da ,,reading1 ,proper ,position in1 #bge ,,rectum1 #abj ,,removal ,,of ,,disease1 #dbf ,,respiratory ,,organs1 ,anatomy of1 #bji ----1 ,physiology of1 #bag ----1 ,hygiene of1 #bbh ,,retina1 #cig ,,ribs1 #ce ,,rooms1 ,ventilation of1 #bcc ----1 ,warming of1 #bch ,s4 ,,sacrum1 #ch ,,saliva1 ,its ,use1 #abd ,,scapula1 #ci ,,secretory ,,organs1 ,anatomy of1 #aib ----1 ,physiology of1 #aic ----1 ,hygiene of1 #aig ,,senses1 #cgh ,,sick-,,room1 ,ventilation of1 #bcf ,,sitting1 ,proper ,position in1 #ii ,,skeleton1 #bi ,,skin1 ,anatomy of the1 #bhb ----1 ,physiology of the1 #bic ----1 ,hygiene of the1 #cja ,,skull1 ,structure of1 #cb ,,sleep1 ,necessity of1 #ib ,,sleeping-,,rooms1 ,ventilation of1 #bce ,,smell1 ,anatomy of the ,organs of1 #chi ----1 ,physiology of the ,organs of1 #cia ,,soda1 #be ,,solids1 ,arrangement of1 #ag ,,sound1 #bgc ,,spinal ,,column1 ,structure of1 #cf ----1 ,curvature of1 #eg1 #fj ,,spinal ,,cord1 #cf1 #cdj ,,spleen1 #abc ,,sprains1 #fc ,,stammering1 how improved1 #bha ,,sternum1 #ce ,,stomach1 #aaf ,,sublingual ,,gland1 #aae ,,submaxillary ,,gland1 #aae ,,sulphur1 #bf ,,sutures1 #cc ,,synovial ,,membrane1 #df ,,synovia1 #di ,,system1 #ah ,t4 ,,tarsus1 #db ,,taste1 ,anatomy of the ,organs of1 #chd ----1 ,physiology of the ,organs of1 #chf ,,teeth1 ,anatomy of the1 #aje ----1 ,physiology of the1 #aji ----1 ,hygiene of the1 #aaj ,,tendons1 #bc1 #fe ,,thoracic ,,duct1 #abj ,,thorax1 #ce ,,throat1 ,extraneous ,bodies in1 #bha ,,tibia1 #db ,,tissue1 #ah ----1 ,adipose1 #bj ----1 ,cartilaginous1 #bc ----1 ,fibrous1 #bb ----1 ,osseous1 #bc ----1 ,nervous1 #bd ,,touch1 ,sense of1 #cgh ----1 ,hygiene of the1 #cgi ,,trachea1 #bab ,u4 ,,ulna1 #dj ,,uvea1 #cif ,v4 ,,valves of the ,heart1 #aeg ----1 ,use of the1 #afd ----1 of the ,veins1 #afb ,,veins1 #afj ----1 ,cutaneous1 #bhe ,,ventilation1 #bcc ,,ventricles of the ,heart1 #aef ,,vertebra1 #cf ,,vision1 ,anatomy of the ,organs of1 #cid ----1 ,physiology of the ,organs of1 #djd ----1 ,hygiene of the ,organs of1 #daj ,,vocal ,,organs1 ,anatomy of the1 #bfh ----1 ,physiology of the1 #bgb ----1 ,hygiene of the1 #bgd ,,vocal ,,cords1 #bgj ,w4 ,,watchers1 ,directions for1 #acf ,,wounds1 ,treatment of1 #agh ,,writing1 ,proper ,position when1 #ajc ,,key ,,to ,,anatomical ,,outline ,,plates4 ,,suggestions ,,to ,,teachers4 ,in using these plates1 we would suggest1 that the pupil carefully examine the illustrating cuts interspersed with the text1 in connection with the lesson to be recited4 ,the similarity between these and the plates will enable the pupil to recite1 and the teacher to conduct his recitation1 from the latter4 ,let a pupil show the situation of an organ1 or part1 on an anatomical outline plate1 and also give its structure2 while other members of the class note all omissions and misstatements4 ,another pupil may give the use of that organ1 and if necessary1 others may give an extended explanation4 ,the third may explain the laws on which the health of the part depends1 while other members of the class supply what has been omitted4 ,after thus presenting the subject in the form ,of topics1 questions may be proposed promiscuously1 from each paragraph1 and where examples occur in the text1 let other analogous ones be given4 ,if the physiology and hygiene of a given subject have not been studied1 confine the recitation to those parts only on which the pupil is prepared4 ,when practicable1 the three departments should be united2 but this can only be done when the chapter on the hygiene has been learned1 while the physiology can be united with the anatomy1 in all chapters upon physiology4 ,,plate ,i4 ,a ,,front ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,skeleton4 ,bones of the ,head4 #g1 ,the sphenoid bone4 #h1 ,the frontal bone4 #aj1 ,the parietal bone4 #aa1 ,the os unguis4 #ab1 ,the superior maxillary bone1 7upper jaw47 #ac1 ,the nasal bone4 #ad1 ,the ethmoid bone4 #ae1 ,the malar bone1 7cheek-bone47 #af1 ,the vomer4 #ag1 ,the inferior maxillary bone1 7the lower jaw47 a1 ,its body4 b1 ,its ramus1 or branch4 #ah1 ,the teeth4 ,bones of the ,trunk4 #a1 #a1 ,the spinal column4 #b1 ,the sternum4 #c1 #c1 ,the ribs4 #d1 ,the sacrum4 #e1 ,the innominatum4 ,bones of the ,upper ,extremities4 #ai1 ,the clavicle1 7collar-bone47 #bj1 ,the scapula1 7shoulder blade47 #ba1 ,the humerus4 #bb1 ,the ulna4 #bc1 ,the radius4 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 ,the bones of the carpus 7wrist47 #cb1 #cb1 #cb1 ,the five bones of the metacarpus1 7the palm of the hand47 #cc1 #cc1 #cc1 ,the first range of finger-bones4 #cd1 #cd1 ,the second range of finger-bones4 #ce1 #ce1 #ce1 ,the third range of finger-bones4 ,bones of the ,lower ,extremities4 #cf1 ,the femur1 7thigh-bone47 #cg1 ,the patella1 7knee-pan47 #ch1 ,the tibia1 7shin-bone47 #ci1 ,the fibula4 #dj1 #dj1 #dj1 ,the bones of the tarsus1 7instep47 #da1 #da1 ,the bones of the metatarsus1 7middle of the foot47 #db1 #db1 ,the bones of the toes4 ,,articulations4 7,left side of the plate47 ,ligaments of the ,trunk4 #a1 #a1 ,the common spinal ligament4 #b1 #b1 ,the intervertebral ligament1 7cartilage between the vertebrae47 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 ,articulations of the ribs with the spinal column4 #ac1 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 ,ligaments that connect the cartilages of the ribs with the sternum4 ,ligaments of the ,upper ,extremities4 #be1 ,the ligament that connects the clavicle and sternum4 #bg1 ,the ligament that connects the upper rib and clavicle4 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 ,ligaments that connect the clavicle and scapula4 #ca1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 ,ligaments of the shoulder-joint4 #ce1 #ce1 #cf1 ,ligaments of the elbow-joint4 #cg1 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 ,ligaments of the wrist4 #da1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 ,ligaments of the fingers4 ,ligaments of the ,lower ,extremities4 #di1 #di1 ,ligaments of the hip-joint4 #ej1 #ej1 ,ligaments of the patella4 #ea1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed1 #ee1 ,ligaments of the knee-joint4 #ef1 ,a large bursa mucosa4 #eg1 ,the ligament of the tibia and fibula4 #eh1 #eh1 ,the interosseous ligament4 #ei1 #ei1 ,ligaments of the ankle-joint #fj1 #fa1 #fb1 ,ligaments of the metatarsus4 #fc1 #fd1 ,ligaments of the toes4 ,a1 ,the brachial artery4 ,b1 ,the brachial vein4 ,c1 ,the radial artery ,d1 ,the femoral artery4 ,e1 ,the femoral vein4 ,f1 ,g1 ,the anterior tibia artery4 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,a ,,back ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,skeleton4 ,bones of the ,head4 #e1 ,the occipital bone4 #f1 ,the parietal bone4 #g1 ,the temporal bone4 #h1 ,the frontal bone4 #i1 ,the sphenoid bone4 #ae1 ,the malar bone4 #af1 ,the nasal bone4 #ag1 ,the superior maxillary bone1 7upper jaw47 #ah1 ,the inferior maxillary bone1 7lower jaw47 #ai1 ,the teeth4 ,bones of the ,trunk4 #a1 #a1 ,the spinal column4 #b1 ,the sacrum4 #c1 ,the coccyx4 #bj1 ,the innominatum4 #d1 #d1 ,the ribs4 ,bones of the ,upper ,extremities4 #ba1 ,the clavicle1 7collar-bone47 #bb1 ,the scapula1 7shoulder-blade47 #bc1 ,the humerus4 #bd4 ,the ulna1 #be1 ,the radius4 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 ,the bones of the carpus1 7wrist47 #cc1 #cc1 #cc1 ,the bones of the metacarpus1 7palm of the hand47 #cd1 #cd1 #cd1 ,the first range of finger-bones4 #ce1 #ce1 ,the second range of finger-bones4 #cf1 #cf1 #cf1 ,the third range of finger-bones4 ,bones of the ,lower ,extremities4 #cg1 ,the femur1 7thigh-bone47 #ch1 ,the patella1 7knee-pan47 #ci1 ,the tibia1 7shin-bone47 #dj1 ,the fibula4 #da1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #de1 ,the bones of the tarsus1 7instep47 #df1 #df1 ,the bones of the metatarsus1 7middle of the foot47 #dg1 #dg1 ,bones of the toes4 ,,articulations4 7,left side of the plate47 ,ligaments of the ,trunk4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 ,ligaments of the spinal column4 #ad1 #ad1 #ae1 #ae1 ,ligaments that connect the ribs and spinal column4 #aa1 #aa1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 ,ligaments that connect the sacrum and innominatum4 ,ligaments of the ,upper ,extremities4 #bg1 #bh1 ,ligaments that connect the clavicle and scapula4 #bi1 ,the capsular ligament of the shoulder-joint4 #cj1 #cj1 ,ligaments of the elbow4 #ca1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 ,ligaments of the carpus1 7wrist47 ,ligaments of the ,lower ,extremities4 #i1 ,tendon of the gluteus muscle4 #ce1 ,the capsular ligament of the hip-joint4 #cf1 #cf1 ,ligaments of the knee-joint4 #cg1 ,the ligament that connects the tibia and fibula4 #ch1 ,the interosseous ligament4 #ci1 #dj1 ,ligaments of the ankle-joint4 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,a ,,front ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,muscles4 ,muscles of the ,head and ,neck4 #g1 ,the sterno-mastoideus muscle4 #h1 ,the sterno-hyoideus muscle4 #i1 ,the omo-hyoideus muscle4 #aj1 ,the trapezius muscle4 #aa1 ,the orbicularis oculi muscle4 #ab1 ,the frontal muscle4 #ad1 ,the orbicularis oris muscle4 #ae1 ,the elevator muscle of the nostrils4 #af1 ,the zygomatic muscle4 #ag1 ,the depressor of the lower lip4 #ah1 ,the depressor anguli oris muscle4 #ai1 ,the triangular muscle of the nose4 #bj1 #ba1 ,the aural muscles4 #bb1 ,the masseter muscle4 ,muscles of the ,trunk4 #b1 #c1 ,the external oblique muscles4 ,muscles of the ,upper ,extremities4 #a1 ,the grand pectoral muscle4 #c1 #d1 ,the serratus muscle4 #bc1 ,the deltoid muscle4 #bd1 ,the biceps brachialis muscle4 #be1 ,the coraco-brachialis muscle4 #bf1 ,the anterior brachial muscle4 #bg1 ,the triceps brachialis muscle4 #bh1 ,the long supinator muscle4 #bi1 ,the external radial muscle4 #cj1 ,the pronator teres muscle4 #ca1 ,the anterior radial muscle4 #cb1 ,the palmaris brevis muscle4 #cc1 ,the anterior ulnar muscle4 #ce1 ,the palmar muscle4 #cf1 ,the abductor muscle of the thumb4 #cg1 ,the adductor muscle of the thumb4 #ch1 #ci1 ,small flexor muscles of the thumb4 #dj1 ,the abductor muscle of the little finger4 #da1 #da1 ,the lumbricales muscles4 #fa1 #fa1 ,the bifurcation of the tendons of the superficial flexor muscle1 in the fingers4 ,muscles of the ,lower ,extremities4 #db1 ,the fascia lata muscle4 #dc1 ,the sartorius muscle4 #dd1 ,the rectus femoris muscle4 #de1 ,the vastus externus muscle4 #df1 ,the vastus internus muscle4 #dg1 ,the internal straight muscle4 #dh4 ,the pectineus muscle4 #di1 ,the adductor muscle4 #ej1 ,the psoas muscle4 #ea1 ,the tibialis anticus muscle4 #eb1 ,the long extensor muscle of the great toe4 #ec1 ,the long extensor muscle of the toes4 #ed1 ,the anterior peroneal muscle4 #ee1 ,the long lateral peroneal muscle4 #ef1 #eg1 ,the gastrocnemii muscles4 #eh1 ,the long flexor muscle of the great toe4 #fi1 ,the short extensor muscles of the toes4 #fj1 ,the abductor muscle of the great toe4 ,the figures and letters on the left side of the plate1 indicate the position of important fasci1 that cover the muscles and enclose the tendons4 ,,plate ,,iv4 ,,back ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,muscles4 ,muscles of the ,head and ,neck4 #d1 ,the sterno-mastoideus muscle4 #e1 ,the complexus muscle4 #f1 ,the mylo-hyoideus muscle4 #g1 #h1 ,the occipito-frontalis muscle4 #i1 ,the masseter muscle4 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 ,the anterior1 middle1 and posterior aural muscles4 #ac1 ,the temporal muscle4 ,muscles of the ,trunk4 #a1 #a1 ,the trapezius muscle4 #b1 ,the latissimus dorsi muscle4 #c1 ,the rhomboideus muscle4 #d1 ,the external oblique muscle4 ,muscles of the ,upper ,extremities4 #e1 ,the deltoid muscle4 #f1 #g1 ,the infra-spinatus muscle4 #i1 ,the triceps extensor muscle4 #aj1 ,the internal brachial muscle4 #aa1 ,the long supinator muscle4 #ab1 ,the external radial muscle4 #ac1 ,the second external radial muscle4 #ad1 ,the anconeus muscle4 #ae1 #af1 ,the extensor digitorum communis muscle4 #ag1 ,the extensor carpi ulnaris muscle4 #ah1 ,the flexor carpi ulnaris4 #ai1 #bj1 ,the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis muscles4 #ba1 ,an extensor muscle of the thumb4 #bb1 #bh1 ,interossii muscles4 ,muscles of the ,lower ,extremities4 #bi1 ,the gluteus maximus muscle4 #cj1 ,the gluteus medius muscle4 #ca1 ,the biceps flexor cruris muscle4 #cb1 ,the semi-tendinosus muscle4 #cc1 ,the semi-membranosis muscle4 #cd1 ,the gracilis muscle4 #ce1 ,the adductor muscle4 #cf1 ,the vastus externus muscle4 #cg1 ,the sartorius muscle4 #ch1 #ci1 ,the gastrocnemii muscles4 #dj1 ,the long peroneal muscle4 #da1 ,the external peroneal muscle4 #db1 ,the long flexor muscle of the great toe4 #dc1 ,the long extensor muscle of the toes4 #dd1 ,the short extensor muscle of the toes4 #dg1 ,the short flexor muscle of the toes4 ,the figures and letters on the left side of the plate1 indicate the position of membranous fasci which envelop the muscles and tendons4 ,,plate ,v4 ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,thorax ,,and ,,abdomen4 ,fig4 #a4 ,the ,mouth and ,neck4 7,a ,side view47 #a1 ,the upper lip4 #b1 ,the lower lip4 #c1 ,the upper jaw4 #d1 ,the lower jaw4 #e1 ,the tongue4 #f1 ,the hard palate1 7roof of the mouth47 #g1 ,the parotid gland4 #h1 ,the sublingual gland4 ,t1 ,the larynx4 #aj1 ,the pharynx4 #aa1 ,the oesophagus4 #ab1 ,the upper portion of the spinal column4 ,c1 ,the spinal cord4 ,the ,chest and its ,organs4 #i1 #i1 ,the trachea4 ,r1 ,the right auricle of the heart4 ,l1 ,the left auricle4 #ac1 ,the left ventricle of the heart4 #ad1 ,the right ventricle4 #ae1 ,the aorta4 #af1 ,the pulmonary artery4 #ag1 ,the vena cava descendens4 #ah1 ,the right subclavian vein4 #ai1 ,the left subclavian vein4 #bj1 ,the right jugular vein4 #ba1 ,the left jugular vein4 #bb1 ,the right carotid artery4 #bc1 ,the left carotid artery4 #bd1 #be1 #bf1 ,the upper1 middle1 and lower lobes of the right lung4 #bg1 #bh1 ,the upper and lower lobes of the left lung4 #bi1 #bi1 #bi1 ,the diaphragm4 ,p1 ,p1 ,p1 ,p1 ,the pleura1 that lines the cavity of the chest4 ,s1 ,s1 ,the clavicles4 ,o1 ,o1 ,o1 ,o1 ,the ribs4 ,m1 ,m1 ,m1 ,m1 ,muscles of the chest4 #dj1 ,the thoracic duct1 opening into the left subclavian vein4 ,the ,abdomen and its ,organs4 #cj1 ,the stomach4 #ca1 #cb1 ,the right and left lobe of the liver4 ,f1 ,the fissure that separates the two lobes4 #cc1 ,the gall bladder4 #cd1 #cd1 ,the duodenum4 #ce1 ,the ascending colon4 #cf1 ,the transverse colon4 #cg1 ,the descending colon4 #ch1 #ch1 #ch1 #ch1 ,the small intestine4 #ci1 #ci1 ,the walls of the abdominal cavity turned down4 #da1 ,the spleen4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the ,relation of the ,lacteals and ,thoracic ,duct4 #a1 #a1 ,a section of the small intestine4 #b1 #b1 #b1 #b1 #b1 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,mesenteric glands1 through which the lacteals from the intestine pass4 #c1 ,several lacteal vessels entering the enlarged portion and commencement of the thoracic duct4 #e1 #e1 #e1 ,the thoracic duct4 #f1 ,the thoracic duct opening into the left subclavian vein4 #g1 7,see #dj1 ,fig4 #a47 #h1 ,the right subclavian vein4 #i1 ,the vena cava descendens4 #aj1 #aa1 #aa1 ,the aorta4 #ab1 ,the carotid arteries4 #ac1 #ac1 ,the jugular veins4 #ad1 ,the vena azagos4 #ae1 #ae1 ,the spinal column4 #af1 ,the diaphragm4 ,fig4 #c4 ,the ,relation of the ,larynx1 ,trachea1 ,bronchia1 and ,air-cells4 #a1 #a1 #a1 ,an outline of the right lung4 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,an outline of the left lung4 #c1 ,the larynx4 #d1 ,the trachea4 #e1 ,the right bronchia4 #f1 ,the left bronchia4 #g1 #g1 #g1 #g1 ,divisions of the right bronchia4 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 ,divisions of the left bronchia4 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 ,air-cells4 ,fig4 #d4 ,an ideal ,view of a lateral and vertical ,section of the ,larynx4 #a1 #a1 ,the superior vocal cords1 7ligaments47 #b1 #b1 ,the inferior vocal cords4 #c1 #c1 ,the glottis4 #d1 #d1 ,the ventricles of the larynx4 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,heart1 ,,arteries1 ,,and ,,veins ,fig4 #a4 ,the ,heart and large ,arteries4 #a1 ,the right auricle of the heart4 #b1 ,the right ventricle of the heart4 #c1 ,the left auricle4 #d1 ,the left ventricle4 #e1 ,the pulmonary artery4 #f1 ,the aorta4 #g1 #g1 ,the descending aorta4 #h1 ,the arteria innominata4 #i1 ,the left carotid artery4 #aj1 ,the left subclavian artery4 #ef1 ,the right subclavian artery4 ,arteries of the ,neck and ,head4 #ae1 ,the right carotid artery4 #af1 ,the left carotid artery4 #ag1 ,the right temporal artery4 #ej1 ,the right facial artery4 #ed1 ,the left temporal artery4 ,arteries of the ,upper ,extremities4 #aa1 #aa1 ,the left brachial artery4 #ab1 ,the left radial artery4 #ac1 #ac1 ,the right brachial artery4 #ad1 ,the right radial artery4 #ea1 ,the right ulnar artery4 ,arteries of the ,lower ,extremities4 #ah1 ,the left iliac artery4 #ai1 ,the right iliac artery4 #bj1 ,the left femoral artery4 #ba1 ,the right femoral artery4 #bb1 ,the peroneal artery4 #bc1 ,the left anterior tibial artery4 #bd1 ,the muscular artery4 #be1 #be1 ,the right and left arteria profunda4 #bf1 ,the right anterior tibial artery4 #bg1 ,the right peroneal artery4 ,the ,veins of the ,neck and ,head4 #bh1 ,the vena cava descendens4 #bi1 ,the left subclavian vein4 #cj1 ,the right subclavian vein4 #ca1 ,the right jugular vein4 #cb1 ,the left jugular vein4 #ec1 ,the right temporal vein4 #ee1 ,the left temporal vein4 #di1 ,the right facial vein4 ,veins of the ,upper ,extremities4 #cc1 ,the left brachial vein4 #cd1 ,the left radial vein4 #ce1 ,the right brachial vein4 #cf1 ,the right radial vein4 #ea1 ,the right ulnar vein4 ,veins of the ,lower ,extremities4 #cg1 ,the vena cava ascendens4 #ch1 ,the left iliac vein4 #ci4 ,the right iliac vein4 #dj1 ,the left femoral vein4 #da1 ,the right femoral vein4 #db1 ,the left anterior tibial vein4 #dc1 ,the left peroneal vein4 #dd1 ,the right anterior tibial vein4 #de1 ,the right peroneal vein4 #df1 #df1 ,the profunda veins4 #dg1 ,the muscular veins4 #dh1 #dh1 #dh1 #dh1 #dh1 #dh1 ,intercostal arteries and veins4 ,fig4 #b4 ,the ,relation of the ,cavities of the ,heart to the large ,blood-vessels4 #a1 ,the vena cava descendens4 #b1 ,the vena cava ascendens4 #c1 ,the right auricle of the heart4 #d1 ,the opening between the right auricle and right ventricle4 #e1 ,the right ventricle4 #f1 ,the tricuspid valves4 #g1 ,the pulmonary artery4 #h1 #h1 ,the branches of the pulmonary artery that pass to the right and left lung4 #i1 ,the semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery4 #aj1 ,the left pulmonary veins4 #aa1 ,the right pulmonary veins4 #ab1 ,the left auricle4 #ac1 ,the opening between the left auricle and left ventricle4 #ad1 ,the left ventricle4 #ae1 ,the mitral valves4 #af1 #af1 ,the aorta4 #ag1 ,the semilunar valves of the aorta4 #ah1 ,the septum between the right and left ventricle4 ,fig4 #c4 ,an ideal ,view of the ,heart1 ,arteries1 and ,veins4 ,a1 ,the right auricle4 ,b1 ,the right ventricle4 ,c1 ,the tricuspid valves4 ,d1 ,the opening between the right auricle and right ventricle4 ,e1 ,the left auricle4 ,f1 the left ventricle4 ,g1 ,the mitral valves4 ,h1 ,the opening between the left auricle and left ventricle4 ,i1 ,the septum between the right and left ventricle4 ,k1 ,the pulmonary artery4 ,l1 ,the semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery4 ,m1 ,m1 ,the right pulmonary artery4 ,n1 ,n1 ,the left pulmonary artery4 ,o1 ,o1 ,o1 ,o1 ,o1 ,o1 ,the capillary vessels of the lungs4 ,p1 ,p1 ,p1 ,the right pulmonary vein4 ,q1 ,q1 ,the left pulmonary vein4 ,r1 ,r1 ,the aorta4 ,s1 ,the semilunar valves of the aorta4 ,t1 ,t1 ,a branch of the aorta to the upper extremities4 ,u1 ,u1 ,u1 ,u1 ,a branch to the lower extremities4 ,v1 ,v1 ,v1 ,v1 ,v1 ,v1 ,the capillary vessels at the extremity of the branches of the aorta4 ,w1 ,w1 ,the descending vena cava4 ,x1 ,x1 ,x1 ,the ascending vena cava4 ,in ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 the course of the blood through the circulatory vessels is indicated by arrows4 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,,the ,,pulmonary ,,circulation4 ,fig4 #a4 #a1 ,the right auricle of the heart4 #b1 ,the left auricle4 #c1 ,the right ventricle of the heart4 #d1 ,the left ventricle4 #e1 ,the pulmonary artery4 #f1 ,the branch of the pulmonary artery to the left lung4 #g1 ,the branch of the pulmonary artery to the right lung4 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 ,branches of the pulmonary artery in the right and left lung4 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 ,air-cells4 #aj1 #aj1 #aj1 #aj1 #aj1 #aj1 #aj1 ,small pulmonary veins in the right and left lung4 #aa1 ,the left pulmonary vein4 #ab1 #ab1 ,the right pulmonary vein4 ,fig4 #b4 ,an ideal ,view of the ,pulmonary ,circulation4 #a1 #a1 ,the right lung4 #b1 #b1 ,the left lung4 #c1 ,the trachea4 #d1 #d1 #d1 #d1 #d1 ,the right bronchia4 #e1 #e1 #e1 #e1 #e1 ,the left bronchia4 #f1 #f1 #f1 #f1 #f1 #f1 ,air-cells1 with arteries and veins passing around them4 #g1 ,the right auricle of the heart4 #h1 ,the right ventricle of the heart4 #i1 ,the tricuspid valves4 #aj1 ,the pulmonary artery4 #aa1 #aa1 #aa1 #aa1 ,the right pulmonary artery4 #ab1 #ab1 #ab1 #ab1 #ab1 ,the left pulmonary artery4 #ac1 #ac1 #ac1 #ac1 ,the right pulmonary vein4 #ad1 #ad1 #ad1 #ad1 ,the left pulmonary vein4 #ae1 ,the left auricle4 #af1 ,the left ventricle4 #ag1 ,the mitral valves4 #ah1 ,the septum between the right and left ventricles4 ,fig4 #c4 ,an ideal ,view of the ,capillaries4 #a1 #a1 ,a branch of the pulmonary artery4 #b1 #b1 ,a branch of the pulmonary vein4 #c1 #c1 ,capillary vessels between the artery and vein4 ,fig4 #d4 ,an ideal ,view of the ,relations of the ,bronchia1 ,air-cells1 ,pulmonary ,arteries1 and ,veins4 #a1 ,a bronchial tube4 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,air-cells4 #c1 ,a branch of the pulmonary artery4 #d1 ,a branch of the pulmonary vein4 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,,the ,,cerebrum1 ,,cerebellum1 ,,spinal ,,cord1 ,,and ,,nerves #a1 ,the cerebrum4 #b1 ,the cerebellum4 #c1 #c1 ,the spinal cord4 #d1 ,the brachial plexus of nerves4 #e1 ,the lumbar plexus of nerves4 #f1 ,the sacral plexus of nerves4 #g1 ,the facial nerve4 #h1 #ag1 ,the radial nerve4 #i1 #i1 #af1 ,the ulnar nerve4 #aj1 ,the median nerve4 ,g1 ,the circumvex nerve of the shoulder4 #aa1 #aa1 ,the great sciatic nerve4 #ab1 ,the external popliteal1 or peroneal nerve4 #ac1 #ac1 ,the posterior tibial nerve4 #ad1 ,the external tibial nerve4 #ae1 ,the muscular branch of the external peroneal nerve4 #ah1 ,the muscular branch of the sciatic nerve4 ,p1 ,q1 ,the posterior tibial nerve4 ,the letters and other figures indicate minor nervous filaments distributed to the various muscles and the skin4 ,,plate ,,ix4 ,,the ,,skin4 ,fig4 #a4 ,a perspiratory ,tube and ,gland4 #a1 #a1 ,the contorted portion of the tube that forms the gland4 #b1 #b1 ,two branches which unite to form the main duct of the gland4 #c1 #c1 ,the perspiratory tube4 #d1 ,the cuticle4 #e4 ,its colored portion4 #f1 ,the cutis vera1 7true skin47 #g1 #g1 ,fat vesicles1 in which the gland is imbedded4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a ,papilla of the ,skin4 #a1 #a1 ,two papill1 formed of an artery vein1 and nerve4 #b1 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,nerves forming a loop in the papill4 #c1 #c1 ,arteries of the papill4 #d1 #d1 ,veins of the papill4 #e1 #e1 ,a net-work of arteries1 veins1 and nerves4 #f1 #f1 ,nerves of the skin4 #h1 #h1 ,arteries of the skin4 #g1 #g1 ,veins of the skin4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a ,hair1 and its ,oil-,glands4 #a1 #a1 ,the hair4 #b1 #b1 ,the sheath of the hair4 #c1 ,oil-glands that surround the bulb of the hair1 the ducts of which open into the sheath of the hair1 7#b1 #b47 ,fig4 #d4 ,a ,section of the ,skin4 #a1 #a1 ,the cuticle4 #b1 #b1 ,its colored portion4 #c1 #c1 ,the papillary layer4 #d1 #d1 ,a net-work of arteries1 veins1 and nerves1 upon the upper surface of the cutis vera4 #e1 #e1 #e1 #e1 ,the cutis vera1 7true skin47 #f1 #f1 #f1 ,hairs that originate in the cutis vera4 #g1 #g1 #g1 ,oil-glands1 the ducts of which connect with the sheath of the hair4 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 ,perspiratory glands and their ducts4 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 ,nerves of the skin #aj1 #aj1 #aj1 #aj1 #aj1 ,arteries of the skin4 #aa1 #aa1 #aa1 #aa1 #aa1 ,veins of the skin4 #ab1 #ab1 #ab1 #ab1 ,papill1 or ridges of the skin4 ,,plate ,x4 ,,an ,,antero-,,posterior ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,eye4 ,fig4 #a4 #a1 #a1 ,the sclerotic coat4 #b1 #b1 ,the cornea4 #c1 #c1 ,the choroid coat4 #d1 #d1 ,the retina4 #e1 #e1 ,the iris4 #f1 #f1 ,the posterior chamber of the eye that contains the aqueous humor4 #g1 #g1 ,the anterior chamber4 #h1 #h1 ,the pupil4 #i1 ,the crystalline humor4 #aj1 #aj1 ,the vitreous humor #aa1 ,the optic nerve4 #ab1 ,a representation of a pen4 #ac1 ,an inverted image of the pen 7#ab7 on the retina4 #ad1 #ad1 ,a canal surrounding the crystalline humor4 #ae1 #ae1 ,the bevelled junction of the cornea and sclerotic coats4 ,a1 a perpendicular ray of light from the pen4 ,b1 ,b1 oblique rays1 that are refracted in passing through the humors of the eye4 ,fig4 #b4 ,a ,view of the ,external1 ,middle1 and ,internal ,ear4 #a1 #a1 ,the external ear4 #b1 ,the meatus auditorius externus1 7the tube that connects with the middle ear47 #c4 ,the membrana tympani1 7drum of the ear47 #h1 #h1 ,the tympanum1 7middle ear47 #d1 ,the malleus4 #e1 ,the incus4 #f1 ,the orbicularis4 #g1 ,the stapes1 7stirrup-bone17 that connects with the vestibule of the internal ear4 #i1 #i1 7#d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 ,the small bones of the middle ear17 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 ,the semicircular canals4 #ac1 #ac1 ,the cochlea4 #ad1 ,the auditory nerve4 #ae1 ,the division of the auditory nerve to the semicircular canals4 #af1 ,the division to the cochlea4 #ag1 #ag1 ,the ,eustachian tube4 #ah1 ,the chorda tympani nerve4 #ai1 ,the seventh pair 7facial7 nerve4 #bj1 ,the styloid process of the temporal bone4 #ba1 #ba1 #ba1 #ba1 #ba1 ,the petrous or hard portion of the temporal bone1 in which the parts of the middle and internal ear are situated4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,below is given the ,title of a ,book on a new plan1 just published1 intended for beginners in the study of ,physiology4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,human ,,and ,,comparative ,,anatomy1 ,,physiology1 ,,and ,,hygiene ,,by ,,mrs4 ,,eunice ,p4 ,,cutter4 ,,with ,,one ,,hundred ,,engravings4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,clark1 ,,austin1 ,,and ,,smith #c ,,park ,,row ,,text ,,books ,,upon ,anatomy1 ,physiology1 and ,hygiene4 ,recommended by the ,hon4 ,n4 ,w4 ,,edwards1 ,school ,sup't1 ,ill4 ,,human ,,and ,,comparative ,,anatomy1 ,,physiology1 ,,and ,,hygiene4 ,for ,district ,schools4 ,with #ajj ,engravings4 #acb pages4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,,eunice ,p4 ,,cutter4 ,price #cc cts4 ,this work contains full directions for the study and teaching of ,anatomy1 ,physiology1 and ,hygiene4 ,this is a new feature4 ,every teacher would profit by it4 ,the plan of the work can be gathered from the following fac-simile of the table of contents3-- ,illustration3 ,fac-simile of the table of contents 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,typographical problems have been changed and are listed below4 ,author's archaic and variable spelling is mostly preserved4 ,author's punctuation style is mostly preserved4 ,passages in italics indicated by underscores4 ,passages in bold indicated by equal signs4 ,in paragraph #ig1 's' is used to represent the integral symbol4 ,greek words and letters have been transliterated and placed between marks4 ,this transcription is faithful to the original transliterations of ,greek 7which occur in italics71 even when they seem incorrect4 ,author's ,greek transliterations included vowels with macrons4 ,these macrons have been changed to circumflexes in order to display correctly in this text transcription4 ,the original revision questions at the bottom of each page have been set between lines that look like '------------'4 ,footnotes have been placed directly below their relevant paragraphs4 ,transcriber's changes3 ,title page3 ,was ',,designer' 7,,designed ,,for7 ,title page3 ,was ',massachuetts' 7,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,district of ,massachusetts47 ,title page3 ,added '4' 7,no4 #ae ,vandewater ,street1 ,n4 ,y47 ,page #ah3 ,added '1' 7,example4 ,the digestive apparatus consists of the teeth1 stomach1 liver1 c41 all of which aid in the digestion of food47 ,page #bc1 ,fig4 #e3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #e4 ,a section of the femur1 7thigh-bone47 #a1 #a1 ,the extremities1 showing a thin plate of compact texture7 ,page #bd3 ,was 'serious' 7#dj4 ,how does the mucous differ from the serous tissue8 ,what is the appearance of the external surface of this membrane87 ,page #bg3 ,added comma 7,the most important compounds are ,al-bumen1 ,fibrin1 ,gela-tin7 ,page #bg3 ,was 'organ ized 7#eg4 ,what are proximate elements8 ,do they exist already formed in organized bodies8 ,name the most important compounds47 ,page #bi3 ,added '4' 7,the earthy portion of the bones gives them solidity and strength1 while the animal part endows them with vitality47 ,page #cc1 ,fig4 #g3 ,added '4' 7#g4 #a1 #a1 ,the coronal suture at the front and upper part of the skull1 or7 ,page #cc1 ,fig4 #g3 ,was 'cra nium' over line break4 7suture at the front and upper part of the skull1 or cranium4 #b1 ,the sagittal suture on the top of the skull47 ,page #ce1 ,fig4 #i3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #i4 #a1 ,the first bone of the sternum1 7breast-bone47 #b4 ,the second bone of the sternum47 ,page #cf3 ,added '4' 7#hc4 ,describe the thorax4 ,explain fig4 #i4 #hd4 ,describe the sternum4 #he4 ,describe the ribs47 ,page #cf3 ,added '8' 7#hh4 ,give the structure of the vertebra4 ,where is the spinal cord placed8 #hi4 ,what is placed between each vertebra8 ,what is its use87 ,page #cg1 ,fig #aj3 ,added '4' 7#e1 ,the transverse process4 #g1 ,the inferior articulating process47 ,page #ch1 ,fig #ab3 ,added '4' 7#b1 ,the sacrum4 #c1 ,the coccyx4 #d1 #d1 ,the acetabulum4 a1 a1 ,the pubic portion7 ,page #ch3 ,added '4' 7,in the adult8 ,describe the acetabulum4 #ic4 ,describe the sacrum4 ,explain fig4 #ab4 #id4 ,describe the coccyx47 ,page #da3 ,was 'out side' over page break 7#aja4 ,the ,,radius articulates with the bones of the carpus and forms the wrist-joint4 ,this bone is situated on the outside of the fore-arm7 ,page #da1 ,fig4 #af3 ,added '4' 7#aa1 #aa1 ,first range of finger-bones4 #ab1 #ab1 ,second range of finger-bones4 #ac1 #ac1 ,third range of finger-bones4 #ad1 #ae1 ,bones of the thumb47 ,page #db3 ,was 'meta carpal' over line break4 7and upon the other1 the first bone of the thumb4 ,the five metacarpal bones articulate with the second range of carpal bones47 ,page #db3 ,added '4' 7#aja4 ,the radius4 #ajb4 ,how many bones in the carpus8 ,how are they ranged8 #ajc4 ,describe the7 ,page #db3 ,added '4' 7#ajc4 ,describe the metacarpus47 ,page #db3 ,was 'sim ilar' over line break4 7#aji4 ,the ,,fibula is a smaller bone than the tibia1 but of similar shape4 ,it is firmly bound to the tibia1 at each extremity47 ,page #dc1 ,fig4 #ag3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #ag4 #a1 ,the shaft of the femur1 7thigh-bone477 ,page #dd3 ,was 'a' 7,they articulate at one extremity with one range of tarsal bones2 at the other extremity1 with the first range of the toe-bones47 ,page #de1 ,fig4 #ba3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #ba ,the relative position of the bones1 cartilages1 and synovial membrane4 #a1 #a1 ,the extremities of two bones that concur to form a joint47 ,page #df3 ,added '4' 7#aab4 ,describe the phalanges4 #aac-aah4 ,give the anatomy of the joints4 #aac4 ,what is said of the joints8 ,of what are the joints composed87 ,page #df3 ,added '8' 7#aab4 ,describe the phalanges4 #aac-aah4 ,give the anatomy of the joints4 #aac4 ,what is said of the joints8 ,of what are the joints composed87 ,page #eb1 ,fig4 #bh3 ,added '4' 7#ad1 ,the hand4 #ae1 ,the haunch-bone4 #af1 ,the sacrum4 #ag1 ,the hip-joint47 ,page #eb1 ,fig4 #bh3 ,added '4' 7#ai1 ,the patella4 #bj1 ,the knee-joint4 #ba1 ,the fibula4 #bb1 ,the tibia47 ,page #fe3 ,added '4' 7#aej-afj4 ,give the anatomy of the muscles4 #aej4 ,what is said of the muscles8 #aea4 ,give their structure47 ,page #gj1 ,fig4 #ci3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #ci4 ,a front view of the muscles of the trunk47 ,page #gj1 ,fig4 #ci3 ,was 'superficia' 7,on the left side the superficial layer is seen2 on the right1 the deep layer4 #a1 ,the pectoralis major muscle47 ,page #gb1 ,fig4 #da3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #da ,the first1 second1 and part of the third layer of muscles of the back4 ,the first layer is shown on the right1 and the second on the left side47 ,page #gb1 ,fig4 #da3 ,added '4' 7,practical ,explanation4 ,the muscles #a1 #aa1 #ab1 draw the scapula back toward the spine4 ,the muscles #aa1 #ab1 draw the scapula upward toward the head7 ,page #gc1 ,fig4 #db3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #db4 ,a representation of the under1 or abdominal side of the diaphragm4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,the portion which is attached to the margin of the ribs47 ,page #gd1 ,fig4 #dc3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #dc4 ,a front view of the superficial layer of muscles of the fore-arm4 #e1 ,the flexor carpi radialis muscle47 ,page #gd3 ,added '4' 7,that perform the delicate movements of the fingers8 ,give the use of some of the muscles represented by fig4 #dc4 ,those represented by fig4 #dd47 ,page #ha3 ,added '4' 7,the ball and socket joints1 as the shoulder1 are not limited to mere flexion and extension4 ,no joint in the system has the range of movement that is7 ,page #hd1 ,fig4 #dg3 ,added '4' 7,the muscles #i1 fig4 #df1 and #f1 fig4 #dg1 bend the neck forward4 ,the muscles #c1 #d1 fig4 #dg1 elevate the head and chin47 ,page #hd1 ,fig4 #dg3 ,added '4' 7,the muscles #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 fig4 #df1 bend the lower limbs on the body1 at the hip4 ,the muscle #bh1 fig4 #df1 draws one leg over the other7 ,page #hd1 ,fig4 #dg3 ,added '4' 7,the muscles #bg1 #bh1 fig4 #dg1 extend the lower limbs on the body1 at the hip4 ,the muscles #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 fig4 #df1 extend the leg at the knee47 ,page #hd1 ,fig4 #dg3 ,added '1' 7,the muscles #bg1 #bh1 fig4 #dg1 extend the lower limbs on the body1 at the hip4 ,the muscles #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 fig4 #df1 extend the leg at the knee47 ,page #hd1 ,fig4 #dg3 ,added '4' 7,the muscles #bg1 #bh1 fig4 #dg1 extend the lower limbs on the body1 at the hip4 ,the muscles #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 fig4 #df1 extend the leg at the knee47 ,page #hd1 ,fig4 #dg3 ,added '4' 7,the muscles #bi1 #cj1 fig4 #dg1 bend the leg at the knee4 ,the muscles #cd1 #cf1 fig4 #df1 bend the foot at the ankle1 and extend the toes47 ,page #hh3 ,added '8' 7,what class of pupils should have recesses most frequently8 #agi4 ,what effect has continued muscular contraction87 ,page #ie3 ,added '4' 7#aif4 ,give an instance of the different effects produced by the absence and presence of the mental stimulus47 ,page #ig1 ,fig4 #di3 ,was '7#a4' 7the unnatural curved spinal column1 and its relative position to the perpendicular1 #a4 ,the lower limbs are curved at the knee7 ,page #ih3 ,added comma4 7,in performing any labor1 as in speaking1 reading1 singing1 mowing1 sewing1 c41 there will be less exhaustion7 ,page #ajj1 ,fig4 #ea3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #ea4 ,an improper position in sitting47 ,page #ajd3 ,added '1' 7#baj4 ,what is said of the lateral and oblique movements of the arm1 hand1 and fingers in writing8 ,how is this shown by experiment87 ,page #ajg1 ,fig4 #ee3 ,added '4' 7d1 e1 ,the bicuspids4 f1 g1 ,the molars1 7double teeth47 h1 ,the wisdom teeth47 ,page #ajh1 ,fig4 #ef3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #ef4 ,a side view of the body and enamel of a front tooth47 ,page #ajh1 ,fig4 #eg3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #eg4 ,a side view of a molar tooth4 #a1 ,the enamel4 #b1 ,the body of the tooth47 ,page #ajh1 ,fig4 #eg3 ,added '4' 7#a1 ,the enamel4 #b1 ,the body of the tooth4 #c1 ,the cavity in the crown of the tooth that contains the pulp47 ,page #aae1 ,fig4 #ei3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #ei4 ,a side view of the face1 oesophagus1 and trachea47 ,page #aah3 ,was ',,coecum' 7#bdi4 ,the ,c,,cum is the blind pouch1 or cul-de-sac1 at the commencement of the large intestine4 ,attached to its extremity7 ,page #aai3 ,was 'coecum' 7is the mucous membrane sometimes called the villous coat8 #bdi4 ,describe the ccum47 ,page #aai1 ,fig4 #fa3 ,was 'coecum' 7#d1 ,the appendix vermiformis4 #e1 ,the ccum4 #f1 ,the ascending colon4 #g1 ,the transverse colon47 ,page #abj3 ,was 'coecum' 7half shorter than the intestine1 and give it a sacculated appearance1 which is characteristic of the ccum and colon47 ,page #abg3 ,moved up from the following box4 7,what is said in regard to the bile8 #bff4 ,what becomes of the chyle8 ,of the residuum87 ,page #abh1 ,fig4 #fe3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #fe4 ,an ideal view of the organs of digestion1 opened nearly the whole length47 ,page #abh1 ,fig4 #fe3 ,added '4' 7#a1 ,the upper jaw4 #b1 ,the lower jaw4 #c1 ,the tongue4 #d1 ,the roof of the mouth4 #e1 ,the oesophagus4 #f1 ,the trachea4 #g1 ,the parotid gland47 ,page #abh1 ,fig4 #fe3 ,added '4' 7#h1 ,the sublingual gland4 #i1 ,the stomach4 #aj1 #aj1 ,the liver4 #aa1 ,the gall-cyst47 ,page #abh1 ,fig4 #fe3 ,added '1' 7#af1 ,the opening of the small intestine into the large intestine4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 ,the large intestine4 #ba1 ,the spleen47 ,page #abh1 ,fig4 #fe3 ,added '4' 7#af1 ,the opening of the small intestine into the large intestine4 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 ,the large intestine4 #ba1 ,the spleen47 ,page #abh1 ,fig4 #fe3 ,added '4' 7#ba1 ,the spleen4 #bb1 ,the upper part of the spinal column47 ,page #abi3 ,was 'prope' 7,the food that is well masticated1 and has blended with it a proper amount of saliva1 will induce a healthy action in the stomach47 ,page #abi3 ,added '4' 7will induce a healthy action in the stomach4 ,well-prepared chyme is the natural stimulus of the duodenum17 ,page #abi3 ,added '1' 7,well-prepared chyme is the natural stimulus of the duodenum1 liver1 and pancreas2 pure chyle is the appropriate excitant of7 ,page #aca3 ,added '4' 7another demand for food4 ,what effect has increased exercise upon the system8 #bgh4 ,how are the new particles of matter supplied8 ,what does this induce87 ,page #adc3 ,was ',there fore' over line break4 7digested becomes mixed with that last taken4 ,therefore the interval between each meal should be7 ,page #ade3 ,added '4' 7#cab4 ,why should they not be taken cold8 ,show some of the effects of improper food upon the inferior animals47 ,page #aec3 ,added '4' 7#cbg4 ,why does the position of a person affect digestion8 #cbh4 ,into what are different kinds of aliment separated87 ,page #aed3 ,added '1' 7#ccc4 ,the ,,circulatory ,,organs are the ,heart1 ,arte-ries1 ,veins1 and ,capil-la-ries47 ,page #agj1 ,fig4 #ge3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #ge4 ,an ideal view of the circulation in the lungs and system4 ,from the right ventricle of the heart7 ,page #agi3 ,added '4' 7the proper method of arresting the flow of blood from divided arteries4 #chb4 ,the second incident4 #chc4 ,how should flesh wounds be dressed87 ,page #ahb3 ,added '4' 7,what other vessels perform the office of absorption8 ,give observation4 #chi4 ,describe the lymphatics47 ,page #ahf1 ,fig4 #he3 ,added '4' 7#af1 #ag1 #ah1 ,of the face and neck4 #ai1 #bj1 ,large veins4 #ba1 ,the thoracic duct4 #bf1 ,the lymphatics of the heart47 ,page #ahi3 ,added '4' 7matter formed in the system of the diseased person1 may be more readily conveyed into their own47 ,page #aia3 ,was 'gen eral' over line4 7every trifling and temporary enlargement1 or tumor1 is a cancer4 ,their general remedy is arsenic2 and happy is the unfortunate sufferer7 ,page #aia3 ,was 'suf ferer' over line4 7arsenic2 and happy is the unfortunate sufferer who escapes destruction in their hands1 for too frequently7 ,page #aia3 ,was 'frequent ly' over line4 7happy is the unfortunate sufferer who escapes destruction in their hands1 for too frequently their speedy cure is death47 ,page #aia3 ,was 'imme diately' over line4 7#dac4 ,in case of an accidental wound1 it is best immediately to bathe the part thoroughly in pure water1 and to7 ,page #aib3 ,was ',fol li-cles' 7#dae4 ,the ,,secretory ,,organs are the ,ex-halants1 ,folli-cles1 and the ,glands47 ,page #aib1 ,fig4 #hf3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #hf4 ,a secretory follicle4 ,an artery is seen1 which supplies the material for its secretion4 ,follicles are also supplied7 ,page #aic3 ,was 'mys terious' over line4 7#dbj4 ,,secretion is one of the most obscure and mysterious functions of the animal economy4 ,it is that process7 ,page #aid3 ,was 'secre tion' over line4 7#dbj-dca4 ,give the physiology of the secretory organs4 #dbj4 ,what is secretion87 ,page #bjb3 ,was 'he' 7,very soon1 minute vessels shoot out from the living parts into the coagulum of the blood1 and immediately commence their operations7 ,page #bjg3 ,added '8' 7#dfa4 ,mention another means by which the blood may be made impure4 ,how remedied8 #dfb4 ,what is the effect of want of cleanliness upon the blood87 ,page #bjh1 ,fig4 #hh3 ,added '4' 7#g1 ,the right auricle of the heart4 #h1 ,the left auricle4 #i1 ,the pulmonary artery4 #aj1 ,the aorta4 #aa1 ,the vena cava descendens4 #ab1 ,the trachea47 ,page #bjh1 ,fig4 #hh3 ,added '4' 7#af1 #af1 ,the right and left lobe of the liver4 #ag1 ,the gall-cyst4 #ah1 ,the stomach4 #bf1 ,the spleen4 #ai1 #ai1 ,the duodenum47 ,page #bjh1 ,fig4 #hh3 ,added '4' 7#ai1 #ai1 ,the duodenum4 #bj1 ,the ascending colon4 #ba1 ,the transverse colon4 #be1 ,the descending colon47 ,page #baa1 ,fig4 #ij3 ,added '4' 7#aj1 ,its lower lobe4 #aa1 ,the upper lobe of the right lung4 #ab1 ,the middle lobe4 #ac1 ,the lower lobe47 ,page #bah3 ,was 'cavicle' 7,those which are attached to the upper rib1 sternum1 and clavicle1 contract and elevate the lower and free extremities of the ribs47 ,page #bbj1 ,fig4 #if3 ,added '4' 7#e1 #e1 ,the position of the walls of the abdomen in inspiration4 #f1 #f1 ,the position of the abdominal walls in expiration47 ,page #bbc3 ,was 'cabonic' 7,in addition1 there is a small amount of vapor of water and carbonic acid4 ,the pressure of this invisible7 ,page #bbe1 ,fig4 #ih3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #ih4 #a1 ,a bronchial tube divided into three branches4 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,air-cells4 #c1 ,branches of the pulmonary artery1 that spread over the air-cells47 ,page #bbf3 ,added 'to' 7,in a few hours1 the blood next to the membrane will have become of a bright red color47 ,page #bbg3 ,added '4' 7reviewed from figs4 #if1 #ig1 and #ii1 or from anatomical outline plates ,nos4 #e and #g47 ,page #bcb3 ,added '4' 7#ejc4 ,mention some reasons why different persons do not require the same amount of air47 ,page #bcb3 ,added '4' 7,give the illustration of the effects of impure air on lighted lamps47 ,page #bcg3 ,added '4' 7to connect with the outer walls of the building or external air4 ,but if pure heated air is introduced into the room1 it obviates7 ,page #bda3 ,added '4' 7,what does fig4 #ajj represent8 ,fig4 #aja8 ,give observation #ast47 ,page #bdh3 ,added '4' 7#ece4 ,mention some of the effects of mental depression upon the body4 ,what is related by ,lnnec87 ,page #bej3 ,was single-quote 7,let another person press upon the projecting part of the neck1 called ,adam's apple1 while air is introduced into the lungs through the bellows47 ,page #bfc3 ,changed '4' to '8' 7persons that have broad chests and voluminous lungs suffer less from cold than the narrow-chested with small lungs87 ,page #bfi3 ,added '4' 7still broader behind1 where it is connected with the thyroid cartilage4 ,below1 it connects with the first ring of the trachea47 ,page #bga3 ,was 'glot tis' 7,the aperture1 or opening between these ligaments1 is called the glottis1 or chink of the glottis47 ,page #bgf3 ,added '4' 7vocal organs are in action1 will induce too great a flow of blood to these parts1 which will be attended by subsequent debility47 ,page #bhi1 ,fig4 #aae3 ,added '4' 7,these ducts open into the sheath of the hair1 7,b47 ,all the figures1 from #a to #d1 are magnified thirty-eight diameters47 ,page #bid3 ,added '2' 7,a proper thickness of the cuticle is in this manner preserved2 the faculty of sensation and that of touch are properly regulated27 ,page #cbf3 ,added '8' 7,what causes the edge of the nail to grow into the flesh of the toe8 ,how prevented87 ,page #cbi3 ,added '4' 7#gca4 ,what does the term brain designate8 ,name them4 ,how are they protected8 ,describe fig4 #abj47 ,page #ccj1 ,fig4 #aba3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #aba4 ,a section of the skull-bones and cerebrum4 #a1 #a1 ,the skull47 ,page #ccj1 ,fig4 #aba3 ,added '4' 7#a1 #a1 ,the skull4 #b1 #b1 the dura mater4 #c1 #c1 ,the cineritious portion of the cerebrum47 ,page #ccj1 ,fig4 #aba3 ,added '4' 7#c1 #c1 ,the cineritious portion of the cerebrum4 #d1 #d1 ,the medullary portion4 ,the dark points indicate the position of divided blood-vessels47 ,page #ccb3 ,added '4' 7#gcc4 ,describe the appearance of the brain when a horizontal section has been made4 ,what is the gray border often called8 ,what connects the7 ,page #ccc1 ,fig4 #abc3 ,added '4' 7#d1 #d1 ,the optic foramen in the sphenoid bone2 through which passes the second pair of nerves4 #e1 #e1 ,the sphenoidal fissure47 ,page #ccd1 ,fig4 #abd3 ,added '4' 7#e1 ,the corpus callosum4 #f1 ,the first pair of nerves4 #g1 ,the second pair4 #h1 ,the eye4 #i1 ,the third pair of nerves47 ,page #ccd3 ,added '4' 7#gch4 ,describe the dura mater4 ,what is its use8 ,explain fig4 #abd47 ,page #cdb3 ,added '4' 7#geh4 ,how many pairs of nerves issue from the spinal cord8 ,explain fig4 #abh4 ,fig4 #abi47 ,page #cdg3 ,was '#ac #a-b' 7,the heaviest brain on record was that of ,cuvier1 which weighed #d pounds and #ac ounces47 ,page #cfe3 ,added '4' 7what age particularly is excessive and continued mental exertion hurtful8 #hac4 ,what is said of scrofulous and rickety children87 ,page #cfi3 ,added '4' 7the more repose they require4 ,the organs of the child1 beside sustaining their proper functions17 ,page #che3 ,added '4' 7#hfh4 ,what is the appearance of the surface of the tongue8 ,explain fig4 #acd47 ,page #chg3 ,added '4' 7papill4 #hgj4 ,the fungiform papill8 ,what nerve ramifies in the fungiform papill8 ,how can these papill1 or points1 be seen8 #hga-hge4 ,give the physiology of the organs of taste4 #hga4 ,define taste47 ,page #cid3 ,added '4' 7#hib4 ,describe the optic nerve4 #hic4 ,describe the globe of the eye47 ,page #cid3 ,added '4' 7#hib4 ,describe the optic nerve4 #hic4 ,describe the globe of the eye47 ,page #cie1 ,fig4 #acg3 ,added '4' 7#g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 ,the origin of several pairs of cranial nerves47 ,page #cif3 ,added '4' 7,in form1 it is circular1 convexo-concave1 and resembles a watch-glass4 ,it is received by its edge1 which is sharp and thin1 within the7 ,page #cig1 ,fig4 #ach3 ,added '4' 7a transverse section of the globe of the eye1 seen from within4 #a1 ,the divided edge of the three coats--sclerotic7 ,page #cii1 ,fig4 #aci3 ,added '4' 7,the cornea 7,this connects with the sclerotic coat by a bevelled edge47 #c1 ,the choroid coat4 #f1 #f1 ,the iris4 #g1 ,the pupil47 ,page #dja3 ,added '1' 7#ijf4 ,the ,,protecting ,,organs are the ,orbits1 ,eyebrows1 ,eyelids1 and ,lachry-mal ,apparatus47 ,page #dja3 ,added '4' 7covered with short1 thick hairs1 which form the upper boundary of the orbits4 ,the eyebrows are so arranged7 ,page #dja3 ,added '4' 7#iji4 ,describe the eyelids4 ,what is the use of the conjunctiva8 ,how are the white spots frequently7 ,page #djc3 ,added '4' 7#iac4 ,describe the lachrymal gland4 ,how many ducts pass from this gland1 and what do they convey to the7 ,footnote #bb3 ,added '4' 7,the refracting character of differently-formed lenses is illustrated in the works on ,natural ,philosophy1 to which the pupil is referred47 ,page #djg1 ,fig4 #adb3 ,added '4' 7,fig4 #adb4 ,the forms of the different lenses4 #a1 ,a plane lens4 #b1 ,a globe lens4 #c1 ,a convexo-convex lens4 #d1 ,a plano-convex lens47 ,page #djg1 ,fig4 #adb3 ,added '4' 7#d1 ,a plano-convex lens4 #e1 ,a concavo-concave lens4 #f1 ,a plano-concave lens4 #g1 ,meniscus4 #h1 ,a concavo-convex lens47 ,page #daf3 ,changed '4' to '8' 7,where is the wax of the ear secreted8 #idh4 ,describe the membrana tympani47 ,page #dag3 ,was '1 #a1' 7,this figure is highly magnified4 #a1 #a1 ,the cochlea4 #b1 #c1 ,two channels1 that wind two and a half turns around a central point7 ,page #dba3 ,was ',eustuchian' 7,this is the result of the air in the middle ear escaping through the ,eustachian tube1 when the vibrations of the membrana tympani are violent47 ,page #dbb3 ,added '4' 7#ifi4 ,many of the parts just enumerated aid in hearing1 but are not absolutely essential to this sense4 ,but if the vestibule7 ,page #dbb3 ,added '4' 7,note4 ,let the anatomy and physiology of the organs of hearing be reviewed1 from fig4 #adh1 or from anatomical outline plate ,no4 #aj47 ,page #dci3 ,added '4' 7know the proper mode of procedure in such cases1 in order to render immediate assistance when within his power47 ,page #dda3 ,added '4' 7#ajce4 ,what is the antidote8 #ajcf4 ,what should immediately be done when arsenic is swallowed87 ,page #dda3 ,changed '4' to '8' 7,when magnesia cannot be obtained1 what will answer as a substitute8 #ajej4 ,what is the antidote when ley is swallowed87 ,page #ddb3 ,changed '4' to '8' 7,what treatment should be adopted when an over-dose of opium or any of its preparations is taken8 #ajeg4 ,what is said of stramonium87 ,page #ddc3 ,added '4' 7lobelia1 bloodroot1 tobacco1 c41 is taken8 #ajfb4 ,should a physician be called in all cases when poison is swallowed87 ,page #ddd3 ,added '4' 7,,caseine is abundantly found in milk4 ,when dried1 it constitutes cheese4 ,alcohol1 acids1 and the stomach of any of the mammalia coagulate it2 and7 ,page #ddd3 ,added '4' 7canal pass slowly through this portion4 ,the rectum is named from the straight direction that it assumes in the latter part of its course47 ,page #dde3 ,was 'a' 7,this is called the peristaltic1 or vermicular motion4 ,the great length of intestine in all animals1 and especially in the herbivorous ones1 is owing to the necessity of7 ,page #ddh3 ,added '4' 7and often inspiring more deeply than is common in older persons4 ,also1 if the carbon of the food does not have a requisite supply of oxygen7 ,page #dea3 ,added '4' 7,,ab-,,duc,,tor4 ,l4 abduco to lead away4 ,a muscle which moves certain parts17 ,page #deb3 ,original looks like ',arbr'4 7,,ar,,bor4 ,l4 ,a tree4 ,arbor vit4 ,the tree of life4 ,a term applied to a part7 ,page #deb3 ,added '1' 7,,bre,,vis4 ,l4 ,brevis1 short2 brevior1 shorter47 ,page #deb3 ,added '' 7,,cap,,il-,,la-,,ry4 ,l4 capillus1 a hair4 ,resembling a hair2 small47 ,page #ded3 ,added '4' 7,having the quality of exhaling or evaporating47 ,page #deg3 ,added '4' 7,,mi,,tral4 ,l4 mitra1 a mitre4 ,the name of the valves in the left side of7 ,page #deh3 ,added '4' 7,o-,,men,,tum4 ,l4 ,the caul47 ,page #deh3 ,added '4' 7,,op-,,po,,nens4 ,that which acts in opposition to something4 ,the name of two7 ,page #deh3 ,added '4' 7,,ox-,,al,,ic4 ,pertaining to sorrel4 ,oxalic acid is the acid of sorrel4 ,it is composed of two equivalents of carbon7 ,page #deh3 ,added '4' 7invisible and inodorous4 ,one of the components of atmospheric air47 ,page #deh3 ,added '4' 7,,pec,,tus4 ,l4 ,the chest47 ,page #deh3 ,added '4' 7,,pec,,to-,,ral4 ,pertaining to the chest47 ,page #dei3 ,added '4' 7,,plex,,us1 ,l4 plecto1 to weave together4 ,any union of nerves1 vessels1 or fibres17 ,page #dei3 ,added '4' 7,,pos,,ti-,,cus4 ,l4 ,behind2 posterior4 ,a term applied to certain muscles47 ,page #dei3 ,added '4' 7,the muscle of the forearm that moves the palm of the hand downward47 ,page #dfj3 ,added '4' 7,,ra-,,di-,a,,lis4 ,radial2 belonging to the radius47 ,page #dfj3 ,added '4' 7,,ra,,mus4 ,l4 ,a branch4 ,a term applied to the projections of bones47 ,page #dfj3 ,added '4' 7,,sep,,tum4 ,l4 ,a membrane that divides two cavities from each other47 ,page #dfb3 ,was ',be longing' over line4 7,,vit,,re-,,ous4 ,l4 vitrum1 glass4 ,belonging to glass4 ,a humor of the eye47 ,page #dfb3 ,removed comma3 was ',l41' 7,,vo,,mer4 ,l4 a ploughshare4 ,one of the bones of the nose47 ,page #dfd3 ,added '1' 7----1 ,physiology of the1 #afd7 ,page #dfd3 ,added '1' 7----1 ,hygiene of the1 #agb7 ,page #dfd3 ,added '1' 7----1 ,influence of1 on the ,circulation1 #agc7 ,page #dfe3 ,added '1' 7,,mediastinum1 #baa7 ,page #dfe3 ,added '1' 7,,medulla ,,oblongata1 #ccc7 ,page #dff3 ,added '1' 7,,preservation ,,of ,,health1 #dbe7 ,page #dff3 ,substituted ',spinal' for the repeat line4 7,,spinal ,,cord1 #cf1 #cdj7 ,page #dfg3 ,added comma 7,bones of the ,head4 #g1 ,the sphenoid bone4 #h1 ,the frontal bone4 #aj1 ,the parietal bone4 #aa1 ,the os unguis4 #ab1 ,the superior maxillary bone17 ,page #dfh3 ,added '1' 7#da1 #da1 ,the bones of the metatarsus1 7middle of the foot47 #db1 #db1 ,the bones of the toes47 ,page #dfi3 ,added '4' 7#bg1 #bh1 ,ligaments that connect the clavicle and scapula4 #bi1 ,the capsular ligament of the shoulder-joint47 ,page #dfi3 ,added '4' 7#i1 ,tendon of the gluteus muscle4 #ce1 ,the capsular ligament of the hip-joint47 ,page #dfi3 ,added '4' 7#cg1 ,the ligament that connects the tibia and fibula4 #ch1 ,the interosseous ligament47 ,page #dfi3 ,added '4' 7#ch1 ,the interosseous ligament4 #ci1 #dj1 ,ligaments of the ankle-joint47 ,page #dfi3 ,added '4' 7,,plate ,,iii47 ,page #dfi3 ,added '4' 7,muscles of the ,head and ,neck4 #g1 ,the sterno-mastoideus muscle4 #h1 ,the sterno-hyoideus muscle4 #i1 ,the omo-hyoideus muscle4 #aj1 ,the7 ,page #dfi3 ,added '4' 7#af1 ,the zygomatic muscle4 #ag1 ,the depressor of the lower lip4 #ah1 ,the depressor anguli oris muscle4 #ai1 ,the triangular muscle of the7 ,page #dfi3 ,added '4' 7#dc1 ,the sartorius muscle4 #dd1 ,the rectus femoris muscle4 #de1 ,the vastus externus muscle4 #df1 ,the vastus internus muscle47 ,page #dfi3 ,added '4' 7#df1 ,the vastus internus muscle4 #dg1 ,the internal straight muscle4 #dh4 ,the pectineus muscle4 #di1 ,the adductor muscle4 #ej1 ,the psoas muscle47 ,page #dgj3 ,added '4' 7#ef1 #eg1 ,the gastrocnemii muscles4 #eh1 ,the long flexor muscle of the great toe4 #fi1 ,the short extensor muscles of the toes47 ,page #dgj3 ,added '4' 7,muscles of the ,lower ,extremities4 #bi1 ,the gluteus maximus muscle4 #cj1 ,the gluteus medius muscle4 #ca1 ,the biceps flexor cruris muscle47 ,page #dga3 ,added '4' 7#aj1 ,the pharynx4 #aa1 ,the oesophagus4 #ab1 ,the upper portion of the spinal column4 ,c1 ,the spinal cord47 ,page #dga3 ,added '4' 7#a1 #a1 #a1 ,an outline of the right lung4 #b1 #b1 #b1 ,an outline of the left lung4 #c1 ,the larynx4 #d1 ,the trachea47 ,page #dgb3 ,added '4' 7,arteries of the ,neck and ,head4 #ae1 ,the right carotid artery4 #af1 ,the left carotid artery47 ,page #dgb3 ,added '4' 7,the capillary vessels of the lungs4 ,p1 ,p1 ,p1 ,the right pulmonary vein4 ,q1 ,q1 ,the left pulmonary vein47 ,page #dgc3 ,unclear in original 7#aj1 ,the median nerve4 ,g1 ,the circumvex nerve of the shoulder47 ,page #dgd3 ,added '1' 7#h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 #h1 ,perspiratory glands and their ducts4 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 #i1 ,nerves of the7 ,page #dge3 ,added '4' 7#h1 #h1 ,the tympanum1 7middle ear47 #d1 ,the malleus4 #e1 ,the incus4 #f1 ,the orbicularis47