,a ,,history ,,of ,,science    ,by      
,henry ,smith ,williams    ,assisted ,by
 ,edward ,h4 ,williams    ,in ,five     
,volumes      ,,volume ,v4    ,aspects  
,of ,recent ,science    ,new ,york ,and 
,london    ,harper ,and ,brothers       
,copyright1 #aijd1 by ,harper           
,brothers4    ,published ,november1     
#aijd4        ,,contents        ,,book  
,v        ,,chapter ,i--,,the ,,british 
,,museum      ,the founding of the      
,british ,museum1 p4 #d--,purchase of   
,sir ,hans ,sloane's    collection of   
curios by the ,english government1 p4   
#d--;,collection of    curios and       
library located in ,montague ,mansion1  
p4 #e--;,acquisition of    the          
collection of ,sir ,william ,hamilton1  
p4 #e--;,capture of ,egyptian           
antiquities by the ,english1 p4         
#e--;,construction of the present museum
    building1 p4 #f--,the ,mesopotamian 
department1 p4 #h--,the ,museum of      
,natural    ,history in ,south          
,kensington1 p4 #h--,novel features in  

the structure of    the building1 p4    
#i--;,arrangement of specimens to       
illustrate evolution1    protective     
coloring1 etc41 p4-- --,exhibits of     
stuffed specimens amid    their natural 
surroundings1 p4 #aj--;,interest taken  
by visitors in the    institution1 p4   
#ab4      ,,chapter ,,ii--,,the ,,royal 
,,society ,,op ,,london ,,for           
,,improving ,,natural ,,knowledge       
,the ,royal ,society1 p4 #ad--,weekly   
meetings of the society1 p4 #ae--,the   
tea    before the opening of the        
lecture1 p4 #ae--;,announcement of the  
beginning    of the lecture by bringing 
in the great mace1 p4 #af--,the         
lecture-room    itself1 p4              
#ag--;,comparison of the ,royal ,society
 and the ,royal ,academy    of ,sciences
 at ,berlin1 p4 #ah--,the library and   
reading-room1 p4 #ai--,the    busts of  
distinguished members1 p4 #bj--,newton's
 telescope and ,boyle's    air-pump1 p4 
#ba4      ,,chapter ,,iii--,,the ,,royal
 ,,institution ,,and ,,low-,,temperature

 ,,researches      ,the founding of the 
,royal ,institution1 p4 #bi--;,count    
,rumford1 p4 #cj--;,his    plans for    
founding the ,royal ,institution1 p4    
#cb--;,change in the spirit    of the   
enterprise after ,rumford's death1 p4   
#cc--;,attitude of the    earlier       
workers towards the question of heat as 
a form of motion1    p4                 
#cd--;,experiments upon gases by ,davy  
and ,faraday1 p4 #ce--;,faraday's       
experiments with low temperatures1 p4   
#ci--,other experiments to produce      
lower temperature1 p4 #ci--,professor   
,de-war begins low-temperature          
research1 p4 #ci--;,his liquefaction of 
hydrogen1 p4 #dc--;,hampson's method    
of producing low temperatures1 p4       
#dd--;,dewar's invention of the vacuum  
vessel1 p4 #ec--;,its use in retaining  
liquefied gases1 p4 #ed--;,changes in   
physical properties of substances at    
excessively low temperatures1 p4        
#ef--,magnetic phenomena at low         
temperatures1 p4 #ef--;,changes in the  

color    of substances at low           
temperatures1 p4 #eg--,substances made  
luminous by    low temperatures1 p4     
#eh--;,effect of low temperatures upon  
the strength of    materials1 p4        
#ei--;,decrease of chemical activity at 
low temperatures1 p4    #fj--,olzewski's
 experiments with burning substances in 
liquid oxygen1    p4 #fa--;,approach to 
the absolute zero made by liquefying    
hydrogen1 p4    #fi--,probable form of  
all matter at the absolute zero1 p4     
#gj--,uncertain    factors that enter   
into this determination1 p4 #ga4        
,,chapter ,,iv--,,some ,,physical       
,,laboratories ,,and ,,physical         
,,problems      ,sir ,norman ,lockyer   
and ,spectroscopic ,studies of the ,sun 
and ,stars1 p4    #gc--,observations    
made at ,south ,kensington by ,sir      
,norman and his staff1    p4 #gd--;,his 
theories as to the influence of         
sun-spots and terrestrial    weather1 p4
 #ge--,spectroscopic studies of         
sun-spots1 p4 #gf--,studies of    the   

so-called reverse lines of the spectrum1
 p4 #gh--;,discovery of the new    star 
in the constellation of ,perseus1 p4    
#hj--,spectroscopic studies    of the   
new star1 p4 #ha--,professor ,ramsay and
 the new gases1 p4    #hb--,university  
,college in ,london1 p4 #hc--,professor 
,ramsay's laboratory    and its         
equipment1 p4 #hd--,the discovery of    
argon1 p4 #hf--,professor    ,ramsay's  
work on krypton1 neon1 and zenon1 p4    
#hg--;,discoveries of new               
constituents of the atmosphere1 p4      
#hh--;,interesting questions raised     
by these discoveries1 p4 #hi--,professor
 ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson and the nature    of  
electricity1 p4 #ib--,study of gases in 
relation to the conduction    of        
electricity1 p4 #ic--;,electricity      
regarded as a form of matter1 p4        
#ig--,radio-activity1 p4 #ig--,the      
nature of emanations from radio-active  
bodies1 p4 #aj;a--,the source of energy 
of radioactivity1 p4                    
#ajf--,radio-activity and the structure 

of the atom1 p4 #ajh--;,effect of       
radio-activity upon heat-giving life of 
the sun and the earth1 p4 #aaa4         
,,chapter ,v--,,the ,,marine            
,,biological ,,laboratory      ,the     
aquarium1 p4 #aac--,the arrangement of  
the tanks and exhibits1 p4    #aad--,the
 submarine effect of this arrangement1  
p4 #aae--;,appearance of the            
submarine dwellers in their natural     
surroundings1 p4 #aaf--,the eels and    
cuttle-fishes1 p4 #aaf--,the octopuses1 
p4 #aag--,the technical department    of
 the laboratory1 p4 #aai--,the work of  
,dr4 ,anton ,dohrn1 founder of the      
laboratory1 p4 #aba--,the associates of 
,dr4 ,dohrn1 p4 #abb--,the collecting   
of surface specimens1 p4                
#abc--;,collecting specimens by         
dredging1 p4    #abd--;,fauna of the    
,bay of ,naples1 p4 #abd--;,abundance of
 the material for    biological study1  
p4 #abe--;,advantages offered by marine 
specimens for    biological study1 p4   
#abf--,method of preserving jelly-fish  

and similar    fragile creatures1 p4    
#abg--,uses made of the specimens in    
scientific    study1 p4                 
#abh--;,different nationalities         
represented among the workers at    the 
laboratory1 p4 #acj--,methods of        
investigation1 p4 #aca--;,dr4 ,diesch's 
studies of heredity at the laboratory1  
p4 #aca--,other subjects under          
scientific investigation1 p4 #acb--,the 
study of chromosomes1 p4                
#acc--,professor ,weismann's theory of  
heredity based on these studies1    p4  
#cc--;,experiments in the division of   
egg-cells1 p4 #acd--;,experiments       
tending to refute ,weismann's theory1 p4
 #acf--;,dr4 ,dohrn99s theory of    the 
type of the invertebrate ancestor1 p4   
#acg--,publications of the              
laboratory1 p4 #aci--,meetings of the   
investigators at ,signor ,bifulco's1    
p4 #ada--,marine laboratories of other  
countries1 p4 #adb4      ,,chapter      
,,vi--,,ernst ,,haeckel ,,and ,,the     
,,new ,,zoology      ,the dream city of 

,jena1 p4 #ade--,the old market-place1  
p4 #adg--,the    old lecture-halls of   
the university1 p4 #adh--;,ernst        
,haeckel1 p4 #aea--;,his    discoveries 
of numerous species of radiolarians1 p4 
#aec--,the part played    in evolution  
by radiolarians1 p4 #aef--;,haeckel's   
work on morphology1    and its aid to   
,darwinian philosophy1 p4               
#aef--;,freedom of thought and          
expression in the ,university of ,jena1 
p4 #aeg--;,haeckel's laboratory1 p4     
#afj--;,his method of working1 p4       
#afa--;,his methods of teaching1 p4     
#afd--,the    import of the study of    
zoology1 p4 #aff--;,its bearing upon    
evolution1 p4    #afh--,the present     
status of ,haeckel's genealogical tree  
regarding the    ancestry of man1 p4    
#aga--;,dubois's discovery of the skull 
of the ape-man    of ,java1 p4          
#agc--;,its close resemblance to the    
skull of the ape1 p4    #agc--,man's    
line of descent clearly traced by       
,haeckel1 p4 #age--,the    missing link 

no longer missing1 p4 #agf4             
,,chapter ,,vii--,,some ,,medical       
,,laboratories ,,and ,,medical          
,,problems      ,the ,boulevard         
,pasteur1 p4 #agi--,the ,pasteur        
,institute1 p4 #ahj--,the tomb    of    
,pasteur within the walls1 p4           
#aha--;,aims and objects of the ,pasteur
    ,institute1 p4 #ahb--;,antirabic    
treatment given1 p4 #ahc--,methods of   
teaching in the institute1 p4 #ahe--,the
 director of the institute and his      
associates1 p4 #ahe--,the ,virchow      
,institute of ,pathology1 p4            
#ahf--,studies    of the causes of      
diseases1 p4 #ahg--,organic action and  
studies of    cellular activities1 p4   
#ahh--,the discoveries of ,rudolph      
,virchow1 p4    #ahh--;,his work in     
pathology1 p4 #ahi--;,character of the  
man1 his ways of    living and working1 
p4 #ahi--;,his methods of lecturing and 
teaching1 p4    #aia--,the ,berlin      
,institute of ,hygiene1 p4 #aic--,work  
of ,professor ,koch    as carried on in 

the institute1 p4 #aid--,work of his    
successors in the    institute1 p4      
#aie--;,investigations in hygiene1 p4   
#aif--;,investigations    of the        
functions of the human body in their    
relations to everyday    environment1 p4
 #aig--,the ,museum of ,hygiene1 p4     
#aih--,studies in methods    of         
constructing sewerage systems in large  
cities1 p4 #aii--,studies in    problems
 of ventilation1 p4 #bjj4      ,,chapter
 ,,viii--,,some ,,unsolved ,,scientific 
,,problems      ,the ever-shifting      
ground of scientific progress1 p4       
#bjc--,solar and    telluric problems1  
p4 #bje--,mayer's explanation of the    
continued heat    of the sun1 p4        
#bjf--;,helmholtz's suggestion as to the
 explanation1 p4    #bjg--,the estimate 
of the heat-giving life of the sun by   
,lord ,kelvin    and ,professor ,tait1  
p4 #bjh--,lockyer's suggestion that the 
chemical    combination of elements     
might account for the sun's heat1 p4    
#bji--;,computations as to the age of   

the earth's crust1 p4 #baj--,lord       
,kelvin's computation of the rigidity of
 the telluric structure1 p4             
#baa--;,estimates of the future life of 
the earth1 p4 #bab--,physical           
problems1 p4 #bac--;,attempts to explain
 the power of gravitation1    p4        
#bad--,the theory of ,le ,sage1 p4      
#bad--,speculations based upon the      
hypothesis of the vortex atom1 p4       
#baf--,lord ,kelvin's estimate of the   
vortex theory1 p4 #bag--;,attempted     
explanation of the affinity of    atoms1
 p4 #bag--,solubility1 as explained by  
,ostwald and ,mendeleef1 p4             
#bah--,professor ,van 't ,hoof's studies
 of the space relations of atoms1 p4    
#bai--,life problems1 p4 #bbj--,question
 as to living forms on other worlds     
besides our own1 p4 #ba x--,the question
 of the spontaneous generation    of    
living protoplasm1 p4 #bbb--,the        
question of the evolution from          
non-vital to vital matter1 p4 #bbc--,the
 possibility of producing organic       

matter from inorganic in the laboratory1
 p4 #bbd--,questions as to    the       
structure of the cell1 p4 #bbe--,van    
,beneden's discovery of the             
centrosome1 p4 #bbf--,some problems of  
anthropology1 p4 #bbg4      ,,chapter   
,,ix--,,retrospect ,,and ,,prospect     
,the scientific attitude of mind1 p4 #b 
#cj--,natural versus supernatural1    p4
 #bcc--;,inductive versus deductive     
reasoning1 p4 #bce--,logical induction  
versus hasty generalization1 p4         
#bci--,the future of ,darwinism1 p4     
#bda4      ,,appendix      ,a ,,list    
,,of ,,sources          ,a ,,history    
,,of ,,science--,,book ,v               
,,aspects ,,of ,,recent ,,science       
,,students of the classics will recall  
that the old ,roman historians were     
accustomed to detail the events of the  
remote past in what they were  pleased  
to call annals1 and to elaborate        
contemporary events into  so-called     
histories4 ,actuated perhaps by the same
 motives1 though with  no conscious     

thought of imitation1 ,i have been led  
to conclude this  history of the        
development of natural science with a   
few chapters  somewhat different in     
scope and in manner from the ones that  
have gone  before4    ,these chapters   
have to do largely with recent          
conditions4 ,now and again1  to be sure1
 they hark back into the past1 as when  
they tell of the  origin of such        
institutions as the ,british ,museum1   
the ,royal ,society1  and the ,royal    
,institution2 or when the visitor in    
modern ,jena imagines  himself          
transplanted into the ,jena of the      
sixteenth century4 ,but these           
reminiscent moods are exceptional4 ,our 
chief concern is with strictly          
contemporary events--with the deeds and 
personalities of scientific             
investigators who are still in the full 
exercise of their varied powers4  ,i had
 thought that such outlines of the      
methods of contemporary workers1  such  
glimpses of the personalities of living 

celebrities1 might form a  fitting      
conclusion to this record of progress4  
,there is a stimulus in  contact with   
great men at first hand that is scarcely
 to be gained in  like degree in any    
other way4 ,so ,i have thought that     
those who have not  been privileged to  
visit the great teachers in person might
 like to  meet some of them at second   
hand4 ,i can only hope that something of
  the enthusiasm which ,i have gained   
from contact with these men may make    
itself felt in the succeeding pages4    
,it will be observed that these studies 
of contemporary workers are             
supplemented with a chapter in which a  
hurried review is taken of the  field of
 cosmical1 of physical1 and of          
biological science1 with  reference to a
 few of the problems that are still     
unsolved4 ,as we have  noted the        
clearing up of mystery after mystery in 
the past1 it may be  worth our while in 
conclusion thus to consider the hordes  
of mysteries  which the investigators of

 our own age are passing on to their    
successors4 ,for the unsolved problems  
of to-day beckon to the alluring  fields
 of to-morrow4          ,i4 ,,the       
,,british ,,museum    ,,in the year     
#agec a remarkable lottery drawing took 
place in ,london4  ,it was authorized1  
through ,parliament1 by his gracious    
,majesty ,king  ,george the ,second4    
,such notables as the archbishop of     
,canterbury and the  lord chancellor of 
the realm took official interest in its 
success4 ,it  was advertised far and    
wide--as advertising went in those      
days--in the  ,gazette1 and it found a  
host of subscribers4 ,of the fifty      
thousand  tickets--each costing three   
pounds--more than four thousand were to 
be of the class which the act of        
,parliament naively describes as        
fortunate tickets4 ,the prizes          
aggregated a hundred thousand pounds4   
,to be sure1 state lotteries were no    
unique feature in the ,england of  that 
day4 ,they formed as common a method of 

raising revenue in the  island realm of 
,king ,george ,,ii4 as they still do in 
the alleged  continental portion of his 
realm1 ,france1 and in the land of his  
nativity1 ,germany4 ,indeed1 the        
particular lottery in question was to   
be officered by the standing committee  
on lotteries1 whose official  business  
was to secure two and a half million    
pounds for his ,majesty  by this means4 
,but the great lottery of #aged had     
interest far beyond the  common run1 for
 it aimed to meet a national need of an 
anomalous kind--a  purely intellectual  
need4 ,the money which it was expected  
to bring was  to be used to purchase    
some collections of curiosities and of  
books that  had been offered the        
government1 and to provide for their    
future care  and disposal as a public   
trust for the benefit and use of the    
people4  ,the lottery brought the       
desired money as a matter of course1 for
 the  fool's tax is the one form of     
revenue that is paid without stint and  

without grumbling4 ,almost fifty        
thousand pounds remained in the hands   
of the archbishop of ,canterbury and his
 fellow-trustees after the prizes  were 
paid4 ,and with this sum the institution
 was founded which has been             
increasingly famous ever since as the   
,british ,museum4    ,the idea which had
 this splendid result had originated    
with ,sir ,hans  ,sloane1 baronet1 a    
highly respected practising physician of
 ,chelsea1  who had accumulated a great 
store of curios1 and who desired to see 
the  collection kept intact and made    
useful to the public after his death4   
,dying in #agec1 this gentleman had     
directed in his will that the           
collection should be offered to the     
government for the sum of twenty        
thousand pounds2 it had cost him fifty  
thousand pounds4 ,the government        
promptly accepted the offer--as why     
should it not1 since it had at hand  so 
easy a means of raising the necessary   
money8 ,it was determined to  supplement

 the collection with a library of rare  
books1 for which  ten thousand pounds   
was to be paid to the ,right ,honorable 
,henrietta  ,cavendish ,holies1         
,countess of ,oxford and ,countess      
,mortimer1 ,relict of  ,edward1 ,earl of
 ,oxford and ,earl ,mortimer1 and the   
,most ,noble ,margaret  ,cavendish1     
,duchess of ,portland1 their only       
daughter4    ,the purchases were made   
and joined with the ,cottonian library1 
which  was already in hand4 ,a home was 
found for the joint collection1 along   
with some minor ones1 in ,montague      
,mansion1 on ,great ,russell ,street1   
and  the ,british ,museum came into     
being4 ,viewed retrospectively1 it seems
  a small affair2 but it was a noble    
collection for its day2 indeed1  the    
,sloane collection of birds and mammals 
had been the finest private  natural    
history collection in existence4 ,but1  
oddly enough1 the weak  feature of the  
museum at first was exactly that feature
 which has been  its strongest element  

in more recent years--namely1 the       
department of  antiquities4 ,this       
department was augmented from time to   
time1 notably by  the acquisition of the
 treasures of ,sir ,william ,hamilton in
 #aggc2 but it  was not till the        
beginning of the nineteenth century that
 the windfall  came which laid the      
foundation for the future incomparable  
greatness of  the museum as a repository
 of archaeological treasures4    ,in    
that memorable year the ,british        
defeated the ,french at ,alexandria1    
and received as a part of the           
conqueror's spoils a collection of      
,egyptian antiquities which the savants 
of ,napoleon's expedition had  gathered 
and carefully packed1 and even shipped  
preparatory to sending  them to the     
,louvre4 ,the feelings of these savants 
may readily be  imagined when1 through  
this sad prank of war1 their invaluable 
treasures  were envoyed1 not to their   
beloved ,france1 but to the land of     
their  dearest enemies1 there to be     

turned over to the trustees of the      
,british  ,museum4    ,the museum       
authorities were not slow to appreciate 
the value of the  treasures that had    
thus fallen into their hands1 yet for   
the moment  it proved to them something 
of a white elephant4 ,montague ,mansion 
was  already crowded2 moreover1 its     
floors had never been intended to hold  
such heavy objects1 so it became        
imperatively necessary to provide new   
quarters for the collection4 ,this was  
done in #ahjg by the erection of  a new 
building on the old site4 ,but the      
trustees of that day failed to  gauge   
properly the new impulse to growth that 
had come to the museum  with the        
,egyptian antiquities1 for the new      
building was neither in  itself         
sufficient for the needs of the         
immediate future nor yet  so planned as 
to be susceptible of enlargement with   
reasonable  architectural effect4 ,the  
mistakes were soon apparent1 but1       
despite  various tentatives and         

meditatings1 fourteen years elapsed     
before  the present magnificent building
 was planned4 ,the construction1 wing by
  wing1 began in #ahbc1 but it was not  
until #ahdf that the last vestige  of   
the old museum buildings had vanished1  
and in their place1 spreading  clear    
across the spacious site1 stood a       
structure really worthy of the  splendid
 collection for which it was designed4  
,but no one who sees this building      
to-day would suspect its relative       
youth4 ,half a century of ,london air   
can rival a cycle of ,greece or ,italy  
in weathering effect1 and the fine      
building of the ,british ,museum  frowns
 out at the beholder to-day as grimy and
 ancient-seeming as if  its massive     
columns dated in fact from the old      
,grecian days which they  recall4       
,regardless of age1 however1 it is one  
of the finest and most  massive         
specimens of ,ionic architecture in     
existence4 ,forty-four massive  columns1
 in double tiers1 form its frontal      

colonnade1 jutting forward  in a wing at
 either end4 ,the flight of steps       
leading to the central  entrance is in  
itself one hundred and twenty-five feet 
in extent2 the  front as a whole covers 
three hundred and seventy feet4 ,capping
 the  portico is a sculptured tympanum  
by ,sir ,richard ,westmacott1           
representing  the ,progress of          
,civilization not unworthily4 ,as a     
whole1 the building  is one of the few  
in ,london that are worth visiting for  
an inspection of  their exterior alone4 
,it seems admirably designed to be1 as  
it is1 the  repository of one of the    
finest collections of ,oriental and     
classical  antiquities in the world4    
,there is an air of repose about the    
ensemble that is in itself  suggestive  
of the ,orient2 and the illusion is     
helped out by the pigeons  that flock   
everywhere undisturbed about the        
approaches to the building1  fluttering 
to be fed from the hand of some         
recognized friend1 and  scarcely evading

 the feet of the casual wayfarer4 ,with 
this scene before  him1 if one will     
close his ears to the hum of the great  
city at his  back he can readily imagine
 himself on classical soil1 and1        
dreaming of  ,greece and ,italy1 he will
 enter the door quite prepared to find  
himself  in the midst of antique marbles
 and the atmosphere of by-gone ages4    
,i have already pointed out that the    
turning-point in the history of  the    
,british ,museum came just at the       
beginning of the century1 with the      
acquisition of the ,egyptian            
antiquities4 ,with this the institution 
threw  off its swaddling-clothes4       
,hitherto it had been largely a museum  
of  natural history2 in future1 without 
neglecting this department1 it  was to  
become equally important as a museum of 
archaeology4 ,the ,elgin  marbles1      
including the wonderful ,parthenon      
frieze1 confirmed this  character1 and  
it was given the final touch by the     
reception1 about  the middle of the     

century1 of the magnificent ,assyrian   
collection just  exhumed at the seat of 
old ,nineveh by ,mr4 7afterwards ,sir   
,henry7 ,layard4  ,since then these     
collections1 with additions of similar  
character1 have  formed by far the most 
important feature of the ,british       
,museum4 ,but in  the mean time         
archaeology has become a science4       
,within recent years the natural history
 collection has been removed in  toto   
from the old building to a new site far 
out in ,south ,kensington1  and the     
casual visitor is likely to think of it 
as a separate  institution4 ,the        
building which it occupies is very      
modern in appearance  as in fact4 ,it is
 a large and unquestionably striking    
structure1 and one  that gives          
opportunity for very radical difference 
of opinion as to its  architectural     
beauty4 ,by some it is much admired2 by 
others it is almost  equally scoffed at4
 ,certain it is that it will hardly bear
 comparison  with the parent building in

 ,great ,russell ,street4               
,interiorly1 the building of the natural
 history museum is admirably  adapted   
for its purpose4 ,its galleries are for 
the most part well  lighted1 and the    
main central hall is particularly well  
adapted for  an exhibition of specimens1
 to which ,i shall refer more at length 
in  a moment4 ,for the rest there is no 
striking departure from the             
conventional4 ,perhaps it is not desired
 that there should be1 since long       
experience seems to have settled fairly 
well the problem of greatest  economy of
 space1 combined with best lighting     
facilities1 which always  confronts the 
architect in founding a natural history 
museum4    ,there is1 however1 one      
striking novel feature in connection    
with the  structure of the natural      
history museum at ,kensington which must
 not  be overlooked4 ,this is the quite 
unprecedented use of terra-cotta        
ornamentation4 ,without there is a      
striking display of half-decorative  and

 half-realistic forms2 while within the 
walls and pillars everywhere  are       
covered with terracotta bas-reliefs     
representing the various forms  of life 
appropriate to the particular department
 of the museum which  they ornament4    
,this very excellent feature might well 
be copied  elsewhere1 and doubtless will
 be from time to time4    ,as to the    
exhibits proper within the museum1 it   
may be stated in a word  that they cover
 the entire range of the faunas and     
floras of the  globe in a variety and   
abundance of specimens that are hardly  
excelled  anywhere1 and only duplicated 
by one or two other collections in      
,europe  and two or three in ,america4  
,it would be but a reiteration of what  
the catalogues of all large  collections
 exhibit were one to enumerate the      
various forms here shown1  but there are
 two or three exhibits in this museum   
which are more novel  and which deserve 
special mention4 ,one of these is to be 
found in a set  of cases in the main    

central hall4 ,here are exhibited1 in a 
delightfully  popular form1 some of the 
lessons that the evolutionist has taught
 us  during the last half-century4      
,appropriately enough1 a fine marble    
statue  of ,darwin1 whose work is the   
fountain-head of all these lessons1 is  
placed on the stairway just beyond1 as  
if to view with approval this  beautiful
 exemplification of his work4    ,one of
 these cases illustrates the variations 
of animals under  domestication1 the    
particular specimens selected being     
chiefly the  familiar pigeon1 in its    
various forms1 and the jungle-fowl with 
its  multiform domesticated descendants4
    ,another case illustrates very      
strikingly the subject of protective    
coloration of animals4 ,two companion   
cases are shown1 each occupied by       
specimens of the same species of birds  
and animals--in one case in their       
summer plumage and pelage and in the    
other clad in the garb of winter4  ,the 
surroundings in the case have1 of       

course1 been carefully prepared  to     
represent the true environments of the  
creatures at the appropriate  seasons4  
,the particular birds and animals       
exhibited are the  willow-grouse1 the   
weasel1 and a large species of hare4    
,all of these1  in their summer garb1   
have a brown color1 which harmonizes    
marvellously  with their surroundings1  
while in winter they are pure white1 to 
match  the snow that for some months    
covers the ground in their habitat4     
,the other cases of this interesting    
exhibit show a large variety of  birds  
and animals under conditions of somewhat
 abnormal variation1 in  the one case of
 albinism and the other of melanism4    
,these cases are1  for the casual       
visitor1 perhaps the most striking of   
all1 although1 of  course1 they teach no
 such comprehensive lessons as the other
 exhibits  just referred to4    ,the    
second of the novel exhibits of the     
museum to which ,i wish to refer  is to 
be found in a series of alcoves close   

beside the central cases in  the main   
hallway4    ,each of these alcoves is   
devoted to a class of animals--one to   
mammals1  one to birds1 one to fishes1  
and so on4 ,in each case very beautiful 
sets  of specimens have been prepared1  
illustrating the anatomy and physiology 
of the group of animals in question4    
,here one may see1 for example1 in  the 
alcove devoted to birds1 specimens      
showing not only details of  the        
skeleton and muscular system1 but the   
more striking examples of  variation of 
form of such members as the bill1 legs1 
wings1 and tails4  ,here are            
preparations also illustrating1 very    
strikingly1 the vocal  apparatus of     
birds4 ,here1 again1 are finely prepared
 wings1 in which  the various sets of   
feathers have been outlined with        
different-colored  pigments1 so that the
 student can name them at a glance4 ,in 
fact1 every  essential feature of the   
anatomy of the bird may be studied here 
as in  no other collection that ,i know 

of4 ,and the same is true of each of the
  other grand divisions of the animal   
kingdom4 ,this exhibit alone gives an   
opportunity for the student of natural  
history that is invaluable4 ,it is      
quite clear to any one who has seen it  
that every natural history museum  must 
prepare a similar educational exhibit   
before it can claim to do  full justice 
to its patrons4    ,a third feature that
 cannot be overlooked is shown in the   
numerous cases  of stuffed birds1 in    
which the specimens are exhibited1 not  
merely  by themselves on conventional   
perches1 but amid natural surroundings1 
usually associated with their nests and 
eggs or young4 ,these exhibits  have    
high artistic value in addition to their
 striking scientific worth4  ,they teach
 ornithology as it should be taught1    
giving such clews to  the recognition of
 birds in the fields as are not at all  
to be found in  ordinary collections of 
stuffed specimens4 ,this feature of the 
museum  has1 to be sure1 been imitated  

in the ,american ,museum of ,natural    
,history  in ,new ,york1 but the ,south 
,kensington ,museum was the first in the
 field  and is still the leader4    ,a  
few words should be added as to the use 
made by the public of the  treasures    
offered for their free inspection by the
 ,british ,museum4 ,i  shall attempt    
nothing further than a few data         
regarding actual visits to  the museum4 
,in the year #ahii the total number of  
such visits  aggregated #ffc1gbd2 in    
#aijj the figures rise to #fhi1bdi--well
 towards  three-quarters of a million4  
,the number of visits is smallest in the
  winter months1 but mounts rapidly in  
,april and ,may2 it recedes slightly    
for ,june and ,july1 and then comes     
forward to full tide in ,august1 during 
which month more than ninety-five       
thousand people visited the museum  in  
#aija1 the largest attendance in a      
single day being more than nine         
thousand4 ,august1 of course1 is the    
month of tourists--particularly of      

tourists from ,america--but it is       
interesting and suggestive to note  that
 it is not the tourist alone who visits 
the ,british ,museum1 for the           
flood-tide days of attendance are always
 the ,bank holidays1 including          
,christmas boxing-day and ,easter       
,monday1 when the working-people turn   
out  en masse4 ,on these days the number
 of visits sometimes mounts above  ten  
thousand4    ,all this1 it will be      
understood1 refers exclusively to the   
main building  of the museum on ,great  
,russell ,street4 ,but1 meantime1 out in
 ,kensington1  at the natural history   
museum1 more than half a million visits 
each year  are also made4 ,in the       
aggregate1 then1 about a million and a  
quarter of  visits are paid to the      
,british ,museum yearly1 and though the 
bulk of the  visitors may be mere       
sight-seers1 yet even these must carry  
away many  ideas of value1 and it hardly
 requires argument to show that1 as a   
whole1 the educational influence of the 

,british ,museum must be enormous4  ,of 
its more direct stimulus to scientific  
work through the trained  experts       
connected with the institution ,i shall 
perhaps speak in another  connection4   
,,ii4 ,,the ,,royal ,,society ,,of      
,,london ,,for ,,improving ,,natural    
,,knowledge      ,a ,,session ,,of ,,the
 ,,society    ,,there is one scientific 
institution in ,london more venerable   
and more  famous even than the ,british 
,museum4 ,this1 of course1 is the ,royal
  ,society1 a world-famous body1 whose  
charter dates from #affb1 but whose     
actual sessions began at ,gresham       
,college some twenty years earlier4 ,one
  can best gain a present-day idea of   
this famous institution by attending    
one of its weekly meetings in           
,burlington ,house1 ,piccadilly--a      
great1  castle-like structure1 which    
serves also as the abode of the ,royal  
,chemical ,society and the ,royal       
,academy of ,arts4 ,the formality of an 
invitation from a fellow is required1   

but this is easily secured by any       
scientific visitor who may desire to    
attend the meeting4 ,the  programme of  
the meeting each week appears in that   
other great ,british  institution1 the  
,times1 on ,tuesdays4    ,the weekly    
meeting itself is held on ,thursday     
afternoon at half-past  four4 ,as one   
enters the door leading off the great   
court of ,burlington  ,house a liveried 
attendant motions one to the rack where 
great-coat  and hat may be left1 and    
without further ceremony one steps into 
the  reception-room unannounced4 ,it is 
a middle-sized1 almost square room1     
pillared and formal in itself1 and      
almost without furniture1 save for  a   
long temporary table on one side1 over  
which cups of tea are being  handed out 
to the guests1 who cluster there to     
receive it1 and then  scatter about the 
room to sip it at their leisure4 ,we had
 come to hear  a lecture and had        
expected to be ushered into an          
auditorium2 but we had  quite forgotten 

that this is the hour when all ,england 
takes its tea1  the lite of the         
scientific world1 seemingly1 quite as   
much as the  devotees of another kind of
 society4 ,indeed1 had we come unawares 
into  this room we should never have    
suspected that we had about us other    
than  an ordinary group of cultured     
people gathered at a conventional  tea1 
except1 indeed1 that suspicion might be 
aroused by the great  preponderance of  
men--there being only three or four     
women present--and  by the fact that    
here and there a guest appears in       
unconventional  dress--a short coat or  
even a velvet working-jacket4 ,for the  
rest  there is the same gathering into  
clusters of three or four1 the same     
inarticulate clatter of many voices that
 mark the most commonplace of           
gatherings4    ,but if one will withdraw
 to an inoffensive corner and take a    
critical  view of the assembly1 he will 
presently discover that many of the     
faces  are familiar to him1 although he 

supposed himself to be quite among      
strangers4 ,the tall figure1 with the   
beautiful1 kindly face set in  white    
hair and beard1 has surely sat for the  
familiar portrait of ,alfred  ,russel   
,wallace4 ,this short1 thick-set1       
robust1 business-like figure is  that of
 ,sir ,norman ,lockyer4 ,yonder         
frail-seeming scholar1 with white       
beard1 is surely ,professor ,crookes4   
,and this other scholar1 with tall1     
rather angular frame and most kindly    
gleam of eye1 is ,sir ,michael  ,foster2
 and there beyond is the large-seeming  
though not tall figure1  and the round1 
rosy1 youthful-seeming1 beautifully     
benevolent face of  ,lord ,lister4      
,what6 a real lord there8 said a little 
,american girl to  whom ,i enumerated   
the company after my first visit to the 
,royal ,society4  ,then how did he act8 
,was he very proud and haughty1 as if he
 could not  speak to other people8 ,and 
,i was happy to be able to reply that   
though  ,lord ,lister1 perhaps of all   

men living1 would be most excusable did 
he  carry in his manner the sense of his
 achievements and honors1 yet in  point 
of fact no man could conceivably be more
 free from any apparent                 
self-consciousness4 ,as one watches him 
now he is seen to pass from group  to   
group with cordial hand-shake and       
pleasant word1 clearly the most  affable
 of men1 lord though he be1 and         
president of the ,royal ,society1  and  
foremost scientist of his time4         
,presently an attendant passed through  
the tearoom bearing a tremendous  silver
 mace1 perhaps five feet long1          
surmounted by a massive crown and       
cross1 and looking like nothing so much 
as a gigantic war-club4  ,this is the   
mace which1 when deposited on the       
president's desk in the  lecture-room   
beyond1 will signify that the society is
 in session4 ,it is  the veritable mace1
 some one whispers at your elbow1       
concerning which  ,cromwell gave his    
classical command to ',remove that      

bauble4' ,but since  the mace was not   
made until #affc1 some five years after 
,cromwell's  death1 this account may    
lack scientific accuracy4 ,be that as it
 may1  this mace has held its own far   
more steadily than the fame of its      
alleged detractor1 and its              
transportation through the tea-room is  
the  only manner of announcement that   
the lecture is about to open in the     
hall beyond4 ,indeed1 so inconspicuous  
is the proceeding1 and so quietly  do   
the members that choose to attend pass  
into the lecture-hall1 leaving  perhaps 
half the company engaged as before1 that
 the stranger --as  the non-member is   
here officially designated--might very  
readily fail  to understand that the    
sance proper had begun4 ,in any event1  
he cannot  enter until permission has   
been formally voted by the society4     
,when he is allowed to enter he finds   
the meeting-room little different  from 
the one he has left1 except that it is  
provided with a sort of  throne on a    

raised platform at one end and with     
cushioned benches for  seats4 ,on the   
throne1 if one may so term it1 sits     
,lord ,lister1 scarcely  more than his  
head showing above what seems to be a   
great velvet cushion  which surmounts   
his desk1 at the base of which1 in full 
view of the  society1 rests the mace1   
fixing the eye of the stranger1 as it is
  alleged to have fixed that of         
,cromwell aforetime1 with a peculiar    
fascination4 ,on a lower plane than the 
president1 at his right and left1  sit  
,sir ,michael ,foster and ,professor    
,arthur ,william ,rucker1 the two       
permanent secretaries4 ,at ,sir         
,michael's right1 and one stage nearer  
the  audience1 stands the lecturer1 on  
the raised platform and behind the  desk
 which extends clear across the front of
 the room4 ,as it chances1  the lecturer
 this afternoon is ,professor ,ehrlich1 
of ,berlin and  ,frankfort-on-the-,main1
 who has been invited to deliver the    
,croonian  lecture4 ,he is speaking in  

,german1 and hence most of the fellows  
are  assisting their ears by following  
the lecture in a printed translation1   
copies of which1 in proof1 were to be   
secured at the door4    ,the subject of 
the lecture is ,artificial ,immunization
 from ,disease4  ,it is clear that the  
reader is followed with interested      
attention1 which  now and again gives   
rise to a subdued shuffle of applause4  
,the fact that the lecturer is speaking 
,german serves perhaps to suggest  even 
more vividly than might otherwise occur 
to one the contrast between  this       
meeting and a meeting of the            
corresponding ,german society--the      
,royal ,academy of ,sciences at ,berlin4
 ,each is held in an old building  of   
palatial cast and dimensions1 of which  
,burlington ,house1 here  in            
,piccadilly1 is much the older--dating  
from #affd--;although its  steam-heating
 and electric-lighting apparatus1 when  
contrasted with the  tile stoves and    
candles of the other1 would not suggest 

this4 ,for the  rest1 the rooms are not 
very dissimilar in general appearance1  
except  for the platform and throne4    
,but there the members of the society   
are  shut off from the audience both by 
the physical barrier of the table and   
by the striking effect of their         
appearance in full dress1 while here the
  fellows chiefly compose the audience1 
there being only a small company  of    
strangers present1 and these in no way  
to be distinguished by dress  or        
location from the fellows themselves4   
,it may be added that the custom  of the
 ,french ,academy of ,sciences is       
intermediate between these two4  ,there 
the visitors occupy seats apart1 at the 
side of the beautiful  hall1 the main   
floor being reserved for members4 ,but  
the members  themselves are not         
otherwise distinguishable1 and they come
 and go and  converse together even     
during the reading of a paper almost as 
if this  were a mere social gathering4  
,as it is thus the least formal1 the    

,french meeting is also by far the most 
democratic of great scientific          
gatherings4 ,its doors are open to      
whoever may choose to enter4 ,the       
number who avail themselves of this     
privilege is not large1 but it          
includes1 on occasions1 men of varied   
social status and of diverse races  and 
colors--none of whom1 so far as ,i could
 ever discern1 attracts the  slightest  
attention4    ,at the ,german meeting1  
again1 absolute silence reigns4 ,no one 
thinks  of leaving during the session1  
and to make any sound above a sigh would
  seem almost a sacrilege4 ,but at the  
,royal ,society an occasional auditor   
goes or comes1 there are repeated       
audible signs of appreciation of the    
speaker's words1 and at the close of the
 discourse there is vigorous  and       
prolonged applause4 ,there is also a    
debate1 of the usual character1         
announced by the president1 in which    
strangers are invited to  participate1  
and to which the lecturer finally       

responds with a brief  ,nachwort1 all of
 which is quite anomalous from the      
,german or ,french  stand-points4 ,after
 that1 however1 the meeting is declared 
adjourned  with as little formality in  
one case as in the others1 and the      
fellows  file leisurely out1 while the  
attendant speedily removes the mace1 in 
official token that the sance of the    
,royal ,society is over4      ,,the     
,,library ,,and ,,reading-,,room    ,but
 the stranger must not leave the        
building without mounting to the  upper 
floor for an inspection of the library  
and reading-room4 ,the rooms  below were
 rather bare and inornate1 contrasting  
unfavorably with the  elegant           
meeting-room of the ,french institute4  
,but this library makes  full amends for
 anything that the other rooms may lack4
 ,it is one of the  most                
charming--enchanting is the word that   
the ,princess ,christian is  said to    
have used when she visited it           
recently--and perhaps quite the  most   

inspiring room to be found in all       
,london4 ,it is not very large as       
library rooms go1 but high1 and with a  
balcony supported by ,corinthian        
columns4 ,the alcoves below are         
conventional enough1 and the high       
tables down the centre1 strewn with     
scientific periodicals in engaging      
disorder1 are equally conventional4 ,but
 the color-scheme of the                
decorations--sage-green and tawny--is   
harmonious and pleasing1 and the  effect
 of the whole is most reposeful and     
altogether delightful4    ,chief        
distinction is given the room1 however1 
by a row of busts on  either side and by
 certain pieces of apparatus on the     
centre tables4    ,the busts1 as will   
readily be surmised1 are portraits of   
distinguished  fellows of the ,royal    
,society4 ,there is1 however1 one       
exception to this1  for one bust is that
 of a woman--,mary ,somerville1         
translator of the  ,mcanique ,cleste1   
and perhaps the most popular of the     

scientific  writers of her time4 ,it is 
almost superfluous to state that the row
 of  busts begins with that of ,newton4 
,the place of honor opposite is held by 
that of ,faraday4 ,encircling the room  
to join these two one sees1 among       
others1 the familiar visages of ,dr4    
,gilbert2 of ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 the   
famous surgeon of the early nineteenth  
century1 who had the honor of  being the
 only man that ever held the            
presidential chair of the  ,royal       
,society longer than it was held by     
,newton2 of ,james ,watts1 of           
steam-engine fame2 of ,sabine1 the      
astronomer1 also a president of  the    
society2 and of ,dr4 ,falconer and ,sir 
,charles ,lyell1 the famous  geologists4
    ,there are numerous other busts in  
other rooms1 some of them stowed away   
in nooks and crannies1 and the list of  
those selected for the library  does    
not1 perhaps1 suggest that this is the  
room of honor1 unless1  indeed1 the     
presence of ,newton and ,faraday gives  

it that stamp4 ,but in  the presence of 
the images of these two1 and of ,lyell1 
to go no farther1  one feels a certain  
sacredness in the surroundings4    ,if  
this is true of the mere marble images1 
what shall we say of the  emblems on the
 centre table8 ,that little tubular     
affair1 mounted on a  globe1 the whole  
cased in a glass frame perhaps two feet 
high1 is the  first reflecting telescope
 ever made1 and it was shaped by the    
hand of  ,isaac ,newton4 ,the brass     
mechanism at the end of the next table  
is the  perfected air-pump of ,robert   
,boyle1 ,newton's contemporary1 one of  
the  founders of the ,royal ,society and
 one of the most acute scientific minds 
of any time4 ,and here between these two
 mementos is a higher apparatus1  with  
crank and wheel and a large glass bulb  
that make it conspicuous4  ,this is the 
electrical machine of ,joseph           
,priestley4 ,there are other  mementos  
of ,newton--a stone graven with a       
sun-dial1 which he carved as  a boy1 on 

the paternal manor-house2 a chair1 said 
to have been his1  guarded here by a    
silk cord against profanation2 bits of  
the famous  apple-tree which1 as        
tradition will have it1 aided so        
tangibly in  the greatest of            
discoveries2 and the manuscript of the  
,principia  itself--done by the hand of 
an amanuensis1 to be sure1 but with     
interlinear corrections in the small1   
clear script of the master-hand  itself4
 ,here1 too1 is the famous death-mask1  
so much more interesting  than any      
sculptured portrait1 and differing so   
strangely in its  broad-based nose and  
full1 firm mouth from the over-refined  
lineaments  of the sculptured bust close
 at hand4 ,in a room not far away1 to   
reach  which one passes a score or two  
of portraits and as many busts of       
celebrities--including1 by-the-bye1 both
 bust and portrait of ,benjamin         
,franklin--one finds a cabinet          
containing other mementos similar to    
those  on the library tables4 ,here is  

the first model of ,davy's safety-lamp2 
there a chronometer which aided ,cook in
 his famous voyage round the  world4    
,this is ,wollaston's celebrated        
,thimble ,battery4 ,it will slip        
readily into the pocket1 yet he         
jestingly showed it to a visitor as  his
 entire laboratory4 ,that is a model of 
the double-decked boat made  by ,sir    
,william ,petty1 and there beyond is a  
specimen of almost1 if not  quite1 the  
first radiometer devised by ,sir        
,william ,crookes4    ,as one stands in 
the presence of all these priceless     
relics1 so vividly  do the traditions of
 more than two centuries of science come
 to mind  that one seems almost to have 
lived through them4 ,one recalls1 as if 
it  were a personal recollection1 the   
founding of the ,royal ,society itself  
in #affb1 and the extraordinary scenes  
which the society witnessed during  the 
years of its adolescence4    ,as one    
views the mementos of ,boyle and        
,newton1 one seems to be living in  the 

close of the seventeenth century4 ,it is
 a troublous time in ,england4          
,revolution has followed revolution4    
,commonwealth has supplanted monarchy   
and monarchy commonwealth4 ,at last the 
glorious revolution of #afhh has  placed
 a secure monarch on the throne4 ,but   
now one external war follows  another1  
and the new king1 ,william of ,orange1  
is leading the ,grand  ,alliance against
 the ,french despot ,louis ,,xiv4 ,there
 is war everywhere  in ,europe1 and the 
treaty of ,ryswick1 in #afig1 is but the
 preparation  for the war of the        
,spanish ,alliance1 which will usher in 
the new  century4 ,but amid all this    
political turmoil the march of          
scientific  discovery has gone serenely 
on2 or1 if not serenely1 then steadily1 
and  perhaps as serenely as could be    
hoped4 ,boyle has discovered the law of 
the elasticity of gases and a host of   
minor things4 ,robert ,hooke is  on the 
track of many marvels4 ,but all else    
pales before the fact that  ,newton has 

just given to the world his marvellous  
law of gravitation1  which has been     
published1 with authority of the ,royal 
,society1 through  the financial aid of 
,halley4 ,the brilliant but erratic     
,hooke lias  contested the priority of  
discovery and strenuously claimed a     
share in  it4 ,halley eventually urges  
,newton to consider ,hooke's claim in   
some of  the details1 and ,newton yields
 to the extent of admitting that the    
great fact of gravitational force       
varying inversely as the square of  the 
distance had been independently         
discovered by ,hooke2 but he includes   
also ,halley himself and ,sir           
,christopher ,wren1 along with ,hooke1  
as equally independent discoverers of   
the same principle4 ,to the             
twentieth-century consciousness it seems
 odd to hear ,wren thus named as  a     
scientific discoverer2 but in truth the 
builder of ,st4 ,paul's began  life as a
 professor of astronomy at ,gresham     
,college1 and was the  immediate        

predecessor of ,newton himself in the   
presidential chair of the  ,royal       
,society4 ,now1 at the very close of the
 seventeenth century1 ,boyle  is        
recently dead1 but ,hooke1 ,wren1       
,halley1 and ,newton still survive3     
some of them are scarcely past their    
prime4 ,it is a wonderful galaxy of     
stars of the first magnitude1 and even  
should no other such names come  in     
after-time1 ,england's place among the  
scientific constellations is  secure4   
,but now as we turn to the souvenirs of 
,cooke and ,wollaston and ,davy  the    
scene shifts by a hundred years4 ,we are
 standing now in the closing  epoch of  
the eighteenth century4 ,these again are
 troublous times4 ,the  great new colony
 in the ,west has just broken off from  
the parent swarm4  ,now all ,europe is  
in turmoil4 ,the ,french war-cloud casts
 its ominous  shadow everywhere4 ,even  
in ,england mutterings of the ,french   
,revolution  are not without an echo4   
,the spirit of war is in the air4 ,and  

yet1 as  before1 the spirit of science  
also is in the air4 ,the strain of the  
political relations does not prevent a  
perpetual exchange of courtesy  between 
scientific men and scientific bodies of 
various nations4 ,davy's  dictum that   
science knows no country is perpetually 
exemplified in  practice4 ,and at the   
,royal ,society1 to match the great     
figures that were  upon the scene a     
century before1 there are such men as   
the eccentric  ,cavendish1 the profound 
,wollaston1 the marvellously versatile  
,priestley1  and the equally versatile  
and even keener-visioned ,rumford4      
,here1 too1  are ,herschel1 who is      
giving the world a marvellous insight   
into the  constitution of the universe2 
and ,hutton1 who for the first time     
gains a  clear view of the architecture 
of our earth's crust2 and ,jenner1 who  
is  rescuing his fellow-men from the    
clutches of the most deadly of plagues2 
to say nothing of such titanic          
striplings as ,young and ,davy1 who are 

just entering the scientific lists4     
,with such a company about us we are    
surely justified in feeling that the    
glory of ,england as a scientific       
centre has not dimmed in these first    
hundred and thirty years of the  ,royal 
,society's existence4    ,and now1 as we
 view the radiometer1 the scene shifts  
by yet another  century1 and we come out
 of cloud-land and into our own proper  
age4 ,we  are at the close of the       
nineteenth century--no1 ,i forget1 we   
are fairly  entering upon the twentieth4
 ,need ,i say that these again are      
troublous  times8 ,man still wages      
warfare on his fellow-man as he has done
 time  out of mind2 as he will do--who  
shall say how long8 ,but meantime1 as   
of yore1 the men of science have kept   
steadily on their course4 ,but  recently
 here at the ,royal ,society were seen  
the familiar figures of  ,darwin and    
,lyell and ,huxley and ,tyndall4 ,nor   
need we shun any comparison  with the   
past while the present lists can show   

such names as ,wallace1  ,kelvin1       
,lister1 ,crookes1 ,foster1 ,evans1     
,rayleigh1 ,ramsay1 and ,lock-yer4      
,what revolutionary advances these names
 connote6 ,how little did those  great  
men of the closing decades of the       
seventeenth and eighteenth  centuries   
know of the momentous truths of organic 
evolution for which  the names of       
,darwin and ,wallace and ,huxley stand6 
,how little did  they know a century    
ago1 despite ,hutton's clear prevision1 
of these  marvellous slow revolutions   
through which1 as ,lyell taught us1 the 
earth's crust had been built up6 ,not   
even ,jen-ner could foresee a  century  
ago the revolution in surgery which has 
been effected in our  generation through
 the teachings of ,lister4    ,and what 
did ,rumford and ,davy know of energy in
 its various  manifestations as compared
 with the knowledge of to-day1 of       
,crookes  and ,rayleigh and ,ramsay and 
,kelvin8 ,what would ,joseph ,priestley1
 the  discoverer of oxygen1 and         

,cavendish1 the discoverer of nitrogen1 
think could they step into the          
laboratory of ,professor ,ramsay and see
  test-tubes containing argon and helium
 and krypton and neon and zenon8  ,could
 they more than vaguely understand the  
papers contributed in recent  years to  
the ,royal ,society1 in which ,professor
 ,ramsay explains how these  new        
constituents of the atmosphere are      
obtained by experiments on liquid  air4 
,here1 says ,professor ,ramsay1 in      
effect1 in a late paper to the  society1
 is the apparatus with which we liquefy 
hydrogen in order to  separate neon from
 helium by liquefying the former while  
the helium  still remains gaseous4      
,neon1 helium1 liquid air1 liquid       
hydrogen--these  would seem strange     
terms to the men who on discovering     
oxygen and  nitrogen named them         
dephlogisticated air and phlogisti-cated
 air  respectively4    ,again1 how      
elementary seems the teaching of        
,her-schel1 wonderful though  it was in 

its day1 when compared with our present 
knowledge of the  sidereal system as    
outlined in the theories of ,sir ,norman
 ,lock-yer4  ,herschel studied the      
sun-spots1 for example1 with assiduity1 
and even  suggested a possible          
connection between sun-spots and        
terrestrial  weather4 ,so far1 then1 he 
would not be surprised on hearing the   
announcement of ,professor ,lockyer's   
recent paper before the ,royal  ,society
 on the connection between sun-spots and
 the rainfall in ,india4  ,but when the 
paper goes on to speak of the actual    
chemical nature of the  sun-spots1 as   
tested by a spectroscope2 to tell of a  
cool stage when  the vapor of iron      
furnishes chief spectrum lines1 and of a
 hot stage  when the iron has presumably
 been dissociated into unknown          
proto-iron  constituents--then indeed   
does it go far beyond the comprehension 
of the  keenest eighteenth-century      
intellect1 though keeping within the    
range of  understanding of the mere     

scientific tyro of to-day4    ,or yet   
again1 consider a recent paper          
contributed by ,professor ,lockyer  to  
the ,royal ,society1 entitled ,the ,new 
,star in ,perseus3 ,preliminary         
,note--referring to the new star that   
flashed suddenly on the vision of  the  
terrestrial observers at more than first
 magnitude on ,february #bb1  #aija4    
,this star1 the paper tells us1 when    
studied by its spectrum1  is seen to be 
due to the impact of two swarms of      
meteors out in  space--swarms moving in 
different directions with a differential
  velocity of something like seven      
hundred miles a second4 ,every          
astronomer of to-day understands how    
such a record is read from the          
displacement of lines on the spectrum1  
as recorded on the photographic         
negative4 ,but imagine ,sir ,william    
,herschel1 roused from a century's      
slumber1 listening to this paper1 which 
involves a subject of which he  was the 
first great master4 ,ebulae1 he might   

say2 yes1 they were a  specialty of     
mine2 but swarms of meteors--,i know    
nothing of these4 ,and  'spectroscopes1'
 'photographs'--what1 pray1 are these8  
,in my day there  were no such words or 
things as spectroscope and photograph2  
to my mind  these words convey no       
meaning4    ,but why go farther8 ,these 
imaginings suffice to point a moral that
 he  who runs may read4 ,of a truth the 
march of science still goes on as it    
has gone on with steady tread throughout
 the long generations of the  ,royal    
,society's existence4 ,if the society   
had giants among its members  in the    
days of its childhood and adolescence1  
no less are there giants  still to keep 
up its fame in the time of its maturity4
 ,the place of  ,england among the      
scientific constellations is secure     
through tradition1  but not through     
tradition alone4          ,,iii4 ,,the  
,,royal ,,institution ,,and ,,the       
,,low-,,temperature ,,researches        
,,foundation ,,and ,,founder    ,,george

 ,,the ,,third1 by the ,grace of ,god   
,king of ,great ,britain1 ,france1  and 
,ireland1 ,defender of the ,faith1 etc41
 to all to whom these presents  shall   
come1 greeting4 ,whereas several of our 
loving subjects are  desirous of forming
 a ,public ,institution for diffusing   
the knowledge and  facilitating the     
general introduction of ,useful         
,mechanical ,inventions  and            
,improvements2 and for teaching1 by     
,courses of ,philosophical ,lectures    
and ,experiments1 the ,application of   
,science to the ,common ,purposes of    
,life1 we do hereby give and            
grant--multifarious things which need   
not  here be quoted4 ,such are the      
opening words of the charter with which1
 a  little more than a century ago1 the 
,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain  
came into existence and received its    
legal christening4 ,if one reads on  he 
finds that the things thus graciously   
given and granted1 despite  all the     
official verbiage1 amount to nothing    

more than royal sanction  and approval1 
but doubtless that meant more in the way
 of assuring  popular approval than     
might at first glimpse appear4 ,so1 too1
 of the  list of earls1 baronets1 and   
the like1 who appear as officers and    
managers of the undertaking1 and who are
 described in the charter as  our right 
trusty and right well-beloved cousins1  
our right trusty  and well-beloved      
counsellors1 and so on1 in the skilfully
 graduated  language of diplomacy4 ,the 
institution that had the ,king for      
patron and  such notables for officers  
seemed assured a bright career from the 
very  beginning4 ,in name and in        
personnel it had the flavor of          
aristocracy1  a flavor that never palls 
on ,british palate4 ,and right well the 
institution has fulfilled its promise1  
though in a far different way  from what
 its originator and founder anticipated4
    ,its originator and founder1 ,i say1
 and say advisedly2 for1 of course1     
here1 as always1 there is one man who is

 the true heart and soul of the         
movement1 one name that stands1 in      
truth1 for the whole project1 and to    
which all the other names are mere      
appendages4 ,you would never suspect    
which name it is1 in the present case1  
from a study of the charter1  for it    
appears well down the file of graded    
titles1 after cousins and  counsellors  
have had their day1 and is noted simply 
as our trusty  and well-beloved         
,benjamin1 ,count of ,rumford1 of the   
,holy ,roman ,empire4  ,little as there 
is to signalize it in the charter1 this 
is the name of  the sole projector of   
the enterprise in its incipiency1 of the
  projector of every detail1 of the     
writer of the charter itself even4 ,the 
establishment thus launched with royal  
title might with full propriety  have   
been called1 as indeed it sometimes is  
called1 the ,rumford  ,institution4     
,the man who thus became the founder of 
this remarkable institution was  in many
 ways a most extraordinary person4 ,he  

was an ,american by birth1  and if not  
the most remarkable of ,americans1 he   
surely was destined to  a more          
picturesque career than ever fell to the
 lot of any of his  countrymen of like  
eminence4 ,born on a ,massachusetts     
farm1 he was a  typical down-east       
,yankee1 with genius added to the usual 
shrewd1  inquiring mind and native      
resourcefulness4 ,he was self-educated  
and  self-made in the fullest sense in  
which those terms can be applied4 ,at   
fourteen he was an unschooled           
grocer-lad--,benjamin ,thompson by      
name--in  a little ,new ,england        
village2 at forty he was a world-famous 
savant1  as facile with ,french1        
,italian1 ,spanish1 and ,german as with 
his native  tongue2 he had become       
vice-president and medallist of the     
,royal  ,society1 member of the ,berlin 
,national ,academy of ,science1 of the  
,french  ,institute1 of the ,american   
,academy of ,science1 and ,i know not   
what other  learned bodies2 he had been 

knighted in ,great ,britain after       
serving  there as under-secretary of    
state and as an officer2 and he had     
risen  in ,bavaria to be more than half 
a king in power1 with the titles1 among 
others1 of privy councillor of state1   
and head of the war department1         
lieutenant-general of the ,bavarian     
armies1 holder of the ,polish order of  
,st4 ,stanislas and the ,bavarian order 
of the ,white ,eagle1 ambassador to     
,england and to ,france1 and1 finally1  
count of the ,holy ,roman ,empire4      
,once1 in a time of crisis1 ,rumford was
 actually left at the head of  a council
 of regency1 in full charge of ,bavarian
 affairs1 the elector  having fled4 ,the
 ,yankee grocer-boy had become more than
 half a king4    ,never1 perhaps1 did a 
man of equal scientific attainments     
enjoy a  corresponding political power4 
,never was political power wielded more 
justly by any man4    ,for in the midst 
of all his political and military       
triumphs1 ,rumford  remained at heart to

 the very end the scientist and         
humanitarian4 ,he  wielded power for the
 good of mankind2 he was not merely a   
ruler but  a public educator4 ,he taught
 the people of ,bavaria economy and     
,yankee  thrift4 ,he established        
kitchens for feeding the poor on a plan 
that was  adopted all over ,europe2 but1
 better yet1 he created also workshops  
for  their employment and               
pleasure-gardens for their recreation4  
,he actually  banished beggary from the 
principality4    ,it was in the hope of 
doing in some measure for ,london what  
he had done  for ,munich that this      
large-brained and large-hearted man was 
led to the  project of the ,royal       
,institution4 ,he first discussed his   
plans with a  committee of the ,society 
for ,alleviating the ,condition of the  
,poor1 for  it was the poor1 the lower  
ranks of society1 whom he wished chiefly
 to  benefit4 ,but he knew that to      
accomplish his object1 he must work     
through  the aristocratic channels2     

hence the name of the establishment and 
the  charter with its list of notables4 
,the word institution was selected  by  
,rumford1 after much deliberation1 as1  
on the whole1 the least  objectionable  
title for the establishment1 as having a
 general  inclusiveness not possessed by
 such words as school or college4 ,yet  
in  effect it was a school which        
,rumford intended to found--a school for
  the general diffusion of useful       
knowledge4 ,there were to be classes    
for mechanics1 and workshops1 kitchens1 
and model-rooms1 where the  application 
of science to the useful purposes of    
life might be  directly and practically 
taught2 also a laboratory for more      
technical  investigations1 with a       
professor in charge1 who should also    
deliver  popular lectures on science4   
,finally1 there was to be a scientific  
library4    ,all these aims were put    
into effect almost from the beginning4  
,the  necessary funds were supplied     
solely by popular subscription and by   

the  sale of lecture tickets 7as all    
funds of the institution have been ever 
since71 and before the close of the year
 #ahjj ,rumford's dream had become  an  
actuality--as this practical man's      
dreams nearly always did4 ,the new      
machine did not move altogether without 
friction1 of course1 but on the  whole  
all went well for the first few years4  
,the institution had found  a local     
habitation in a large building in       
,albemarle ,street1 the same  building  
which it still occupies1 and for a time 
,rumford lived there and  gave the      
enterprise his undivided attention4 ,he 
appointed the brilliant  young ,humphry 
,davy to the professorship of chemistry1
 and the even  more wonderful ,thomas   
,young to that of natural philosophy4   
,he saw the  workshops and kitchens and 
model-rooms in running order--the entire
  enterprise fully launched4 ,then other
 affairs1 particularly an  attachment   
for a ,french lady1 the widow of the    
famous chemist ,lavoisier  7whom he     

subsequently married1 to his sorrow71   
called him away from  ,england never to 
return4 ,and the first chapter in the   
history of the  ,royal ,institution was 
finished4      ,,method ,,and ,,result  
,rumford1 the humanitarian1 gone1 a     
curious change came over the spirit  of 
the enterprise he had founded4 ,the     
aristocrats who at first were  merely   
ballast for the enterprise now made     
their influence felt4 ,with  true       
,british reserve1 they announced their  
belief that the education of  the masses
 involved a dangerous political         
tendency4 ,hence the mechanics'  school 
was suspended and the workshops and     
kitchens abolished2 in  a word1 the     
chief ends for which the institution was
 founded were  annulled4 ,the library   
and the lectures remained1 to be sure1  
but they  were for the amusement of the 
rich1 not for the betterment of the     
poor4  ,it was the ,west ,end that made 
a fad of the institution and a society  
function of the lectures of ,sydney     

,smith and of the charming youth ,davy4 
,thus the institution came to justify   
its aristocratic title and its  regal   
patronage2 and the poor seemed quite    
forgotten4    ,but indeed the           
institution itself was poor enough in   
these days1 after  the first flush of   
enthusiasm died away1 and it is but fair
 to remember  that without the support  
of its popular lectures its very        
existence  would have been threatened4  
,nor in any event are regrets much in   
order  over the possible                
might-have-beens of an institution whose
 laboratories  were the seat of the     
physical investigations of ,thomas      
,young1 through  which the wave theory  
of light first gained a footing1 and of 
the  brilliant chemical researches of   
,davy1 which practically founded the    
science of electro-chemistry and gave   
the chemical world first knowledge  of a
 galaxy of hitherto unknown elements4   
,through the labors of  these men1 and  
through the popular lecture-courses     

delivered at the  institution by such   
other notables of science as ,wollaston1
 ,dalton1 and  ,rum-ford1 the enterprise
 had become world-famous before the     
close of the  first decade of its       
existence4    ,from that day till this  
the character of the ,royal ,institution
 has  not greatly changed4 ,the         
enterprise shifted around during its    
earliest  years1 while it was gaining   
its place in the scheme of things2 but  
once  that was found1 like a true       
,british institution it held its course 
with  an inertia that a mere century of 
time could not be expected to alter4    
,rumford was the sole founder of the    
enterprise1 but it was ,davy who  gave  
it the final and definitive cast4 ,he it
 was who established the  tradition that
 the ,royal ,institution was to be      
essentially a laboratory  for brilliant 
original investigations1 the            
investigator to deliver  a yearly course
 of lectures1 but to be otherwise       
untrammelled4 ,it  occupied1 and has    

continued to occupy1 the anomalous      
position of a  school to which pupils   
are on no account admitted1 and whose   
professors  teach nothing except by a   
brief course of lectures to which       
whoever  cares to pay the admission     
price may freely enter4    ,but the     
marvellous results achieved at the      
,royal ,institution have more  than     
justified the existence of so anomalous 
an enterprise4 ,superlatives  are always
 dangerous1 but it may well be doubted  
whether there is  another single        
institution in the world where so many  
novel original  discoveries in physical 
science have been made as have been     
brought to  light in the laboratories of
 the building on ,albemarle ,street     
during  this first century of its       
occupancy2 for practically all that is  
to  be credited to ,thomas ,young1      
,humphry ,davy1 ,michael ,faraday1 and  
,john  ,tyndall1 not to mention living  
investigators1 is to be credited also to
  the ,royal ,institution1 whose        

professorial chairs these great men have
  successively occupied4 ,davy spent    
here the best years of his youth  and   
prime4 ,faraday1 his direct successor1  
came to the institution in a            
subordinate capacity as a mere boy1 and 
was the life of the institution  for    
half a century4 ,tyndall gave it forty  
years of service4 ,what wonder1  then1  
that the ,briton speaks of the          
institution as the ,pantheon of         
,science8    ,if you visit the ,royal   
,institution to-day you will find it in 
most  exterior respects not unlike what 
it presumably was a century ago4 ,its   
long1 stone front1 dinged with age1 with
 its somewhat ,pantheon-like  colonnade1
 has an appearance of dignity rather    
than of striking  impressiveness4 ,the  
main entrance1 jutting full on the      
sidewalk1 is at  the street level1 and  
the glass door gives hospitable glimpses
 of the  interior4 ,entering1 one finds 
himself in a main central hall1 at the  
foot of the main central staircase4 ,the

 air of eminent respectability  so      
characteristic of the ,british          
institution is over all2 likewise  the  
pervasive hush of ,british reserve4 ,but
 you will not miss also the  atmosphere 
of sincere if uneffusive ,british       
courtesy4    ,at your right1 as you     
mount the stairway1 is a large statue of
 ,faraday2  on the wall right ahead is a
 bronze medallion of ,tyndall1 placed   
beneath  a large portrait of ,davy4 ,at 
the turn of the stairs is a marble bust 
of  ,wollaston4 ,farther on1 in hall and
 library1 you will find other busts of  
,faraday1 other portraits of ,davy2     
portraits of ,faraday everywhere1  and  
various other busts of notables who have
 had connection with the  institution4  
,you will be shown the lecture-hall     
where ,davy1 ,faraday1  and ,tyndall    
pronounced their marvellous discourses2 
the arrangement1 the  seats1 the        
cushions even if appearances speak      
truly1 and certainly the  lecture-desk  
itself1 unchanged within the century4   

,you may see the crude  balance1 clumsy 
indeed to modern eyes1 with which ,davy 
performed his  wonders4 ,the names and  
the memories of three great men--,davy1 
,faraday1 and ,tyndall--will be         
incessantly before you1 and the least   
impressionable person could not well    
escape a certain sense of  consecration 
of his surroundings4 ,the hush that is  
over everything seems  but fitting4     
,all that is as it should be4 ,but there
 are other memories connected with      
these surroundings which are not so     
tangibly presented to the senses4  ,for 
where1 amid all these busts and         
portraits1 is the image of that  other  
great man1 the founder of the           
institution1 the sole originator  of the
 enterprise which has made possible the 
aggregation of all  these names and     
these memories8 ,where are the          
remembrances of  that extraordinary man 
whom the original charter describes as  
our  well-beloved ,benjamin1 ,count of  
,rumford8 ,well1 you will find a        

portrait  of him1 it is true1 if you    
search far enough1 hung high above a    
doorway  in a room with other portraits4
 ,but one finds it hard to escape the   
feeling that there has been just a      
trifling miscarriage of justice in  the 
disposal4 ,doubtless there was no such  
intention1 but the truth seems  to be   
that the glamour of the newer fame of   
,faraday has dazzled a little  the eyes 
of the rulers of the institution of the 
present generation4  ,but that1 after   
all1 is a small matter about which to   
quibble4 ,there is  glory enough for all
 in the ,royal ,institution1 and the    
disposal of busts  and portraits is     
unworthy to be mentioned in connection  
with the lasting  fame of the great men 
who are here in question4 ,it would     
matter little  if there were no portrait
 at all of ,rumford here1 for all the   
world  knows that the ,royal            
,institution itself is in effect his    
monument4 ,his  name will always be     
linked in scientific annals with the    

names of ,young1  ,davy1 ,faraday1 and  
,tyndall4 ,and it is worthy such        
association1 for  neither in native     
genius nor in realized accomplishments  
was ,rumford  inferior to these         
successors4      ,,from ,,liquid        
,,chlorine ,,to ,,liquid ,,hydrogen     
,nor is it merely by mutual association 
with the history of the ,royal          
,institution that these great names are 
linked4 ,there was a curious  and even  
more lasting bond between them in the   
character of their  scientific          
discoveries4 ,they were all pioneers in 
the study of those  manifestations of   
molecular activity which we now1        
following ,young  himself1 term energy4 
,thus ,rumford1 ,davy1 and ,young stood 
almost alone  among the prominent       
scientists of the world at the beginning
 of the  century in upholding the idea  
that heat is not a material substance--a
  chemical element--but merely a        
manifestation of the activities of      
particles of matter4 ,rumford's papers  

on this thesis1 communicated to  the    
,royal ,society1 were almost the first  
widely heralded claims for this  then   
novel idea4 ,then ,davy came forward in 
support of ,rumford1 with  his famous   
experiment of melting ice by friction4  
,it was perhaps  this intellectual      
affinity that led ,rumford to select    
,davy for  the professorship at the     
,royal ,institution1 and thus in a sense
 to  predetermine the character of the  
scientific work that should be          
accomplished there--the impulse which   
,davy himself received from  ,rum-ford  
being passed on to his pupil ,faraday4  
,there is1 then1 an  intangible but none
 the less potent web of association     
between the  scientific work of ,rumford
 and some of the most important         
researches  that were conducted at the  
,royal ,institution long years after his
 death2  and one is led to feel that it 
was not merely a coincidence that some  
of ,faraday's most important labors     
should have served to place on a firm   

footing the thesis for which ,rumford   
battled2 and that ,tyndall should  have 
been the first in his beautiful book    
called ,heat1 a ,mode of  ,motion1 to   
give wide popular announcement to the   
fact that at last the  scientific world 
had accepted the proposition which      
,rumford had vainly  demonstrated       
three-quarters of a century before4     
,this same web of association extends   
just as clearly to the most  important  
work which has been done at the ,royal  
,institution in the  present generation1
 and which is still being prosecuted    
there--the  work1 namely1 of ,professor 
,james ,dewar on the properties of      
matter at  excessively low temperatures4
 ,indeed1 this work is in the clearest  
sense  a direct continuation of         
researches which ,davy and ,faraday     
inaugurated  in #ahbc and which ,faraday
 continued in #ahdd4 ,in the former year
 ,faraday1  acting on a suggestion of   
,davy's1 performed an experiment which  
resulted  in the production of a clear  

yellow oil which was presently proved to
  be liquid chlorine4 ,now chlorine1 in 
its pure state1 had previously been     
known 7except in a forgotten experiment 
of ,northmore's7 only as a gas4  ,its   
transmutation into liquid form was      
therefore regarded as a very  startling 
phenomenon4 ,but the clew thus gained1  
other gases were  subjected to similar  
conditions by ,davy1 and particularly by
 ,faraday1  with the result that several
 of them1 including sulphurous1         
carbonic1  and hydrochloric acids were  
liquefied4 ,the method employed1 stated 
in  familiar terms1 was the application 
of cold and of pressure4 ,the results   
went far towards justifying an          
extraordinary prediction made by that   
extraordinary man1 ,john ,dalton1 as    
long ago as #ahja1 to the effect that   
by sufficient cooling and compressing   
all gases might be transformed  into    
liquids--a conclusion to which ,dalton  
had vaulted1 with the  sureness of      
supreme genius1 from his famous studies 

of the properties of  aqueous vapor4    
,between ,dalton's theoretical          
conclusion1 however1 and experimental   
demonstration there was a tremendous    
gap1 which the means at the  disposal of
 the scientific world in #ahbc did not  
enable ,davy and ,faraday  more than    
partially to bridge4 ,a long list of    
gases1 including the  familiar oxygen1  
hydrogen1 and nitrogen1 resisted all    
their efforts  utterly--notwithstanding 
the facility with which hydrogen and    
oxygen  are liquefied when combined in  
the form of water-vapor1 and the        
relative  ease with which nitrogen and  
hydrogen1 combined to form ammonia1     
could  also be liquefied4 ,davy and     
,faraday were well satisfied of the     
truth of  ,dalton's proposition1 but    
they saw the futility of further efforts
  to put it into effect until new means 
of producing1 on the one hand1  greater 
pressures1 and1 on the other1 more      
extreme degrees of cold1  should be     
practically available4 ,so the          

experiments of #ahbc were  abandoned4   
,but in #ahdd ,faraday returned to them1
 armed now with new weapons1 in the  way
 of better air-pumps and colder freezing
 mixtures1 which the labors  of other   
workers1 chiefly ,thilorier1 ,mitchell1 
and ,natterer1 had made  available4     
,with these new means1 and without the  
application of any  principle other than
 the use of cold and pressure as before1
 ,faraday now  succeeded in reducing to 
the liquid form all the gases then known
 with  the exception of six2 while a    
large number of these substances were   
still further reduced1 by the           
application of the extreme degrees of   
cold now attained1 to the condition of  
solids4 ,the six gases which still      
proved intractable1 and which hence came
 to be spoken of as permanent  gases1   
were nitrous oxide1 marsh gas1 carbonic 
oxide1 oxygen1 nitrogen1  and hydrogen4 
,these six refractory gases now became a
 target for the experiments of a  host  
of workers in all parts of the world4   

,the resources of mechanical  ingenuity 
of the time were exhausted in the effort
 to produce low  temperatures on the one
 hand and high pressures on the other4  
,thus  ,andrews1 in ,england1 using the 
bath of solid carbonic acid and ether   
which ,thilorier had discovered1 and    
which produces a degree of cold  of--#hj
 ,centigrade1 applied a pressure of five
 hundred atmospheres1 or  nearly four   
tons to the square inch1 without        
producing any change of  state4         
,natterer increased this pressure to two
 thousand seven hundred  atmospheres1 or
 twenty-one tons to the square inch1    
with the same  negative results4 ,the   
result of ,andrews' experiments in      
particular was  the final proof of what 
,cagniard de la ,tour had early         
suspected  and ,faraday had firmly      
believed1 that pressure alone1          
regardless of  temperature1 is not      
sufficient to reduce a gas to the liquid
 state4 ,in  other words1 the fact of a 
so-called critical temperature1 varying 

for different substances1 above which a 
given substance is always a gas1        
regardless of pressure1 was definitively
 discovered4 ,it became clear1  then1   
that before the resistant gases would be
 liquefied means of  reaching extremely 
low temperatures must be discovered4    
,and for this1  what was needed was not 
so much new principles as elaborate and 
costly machinery for the application of 
a principle long familiar--the          
principle1 namely1 that an evaporating  
liquid reduces the temperature of  its  
immediate surroundings1 including its   
own substance4    ,ingenious means of   
applying this principle1 in connection  
with the means  previously employed1    
were developed independently by ,pictet 
in ,geneva  and ,cailletet in ,paris1   
and a little later by the ,cracow       
professors  ,wroblewski and ,olzewski1  
also working independently4 ,pictet1    
working on  a commercial scale1 employed
 a series of liquefied gases to gain    
lower  and lower temperatures by        

successive stages4 ,evaporating         
sulphurous acid  liquefied carbonic     
acid1 and this in evaporating brought   
oxygen under  pressure to near its      
liquefaction point2 and1 the pressure   
being  suddenly released 7a method      
employed in ,faraday's earliest         
experiments71  the rapid expansion of   
the compressed oxygen liquefies a       
portion of  its substance4 ,this result 
was obtained in #ahgg by ,pictet and    
,cailletet  almost simultaneously4      
,cailletet had also liquefied the newly 
discovered  acetylene gas4 ,five years  
later ,wroblewski liquefied marsh gas1  
and the  following year nitrogen2 while 
carbonic oxide and nitrous oxide yielded
  to ,olzewski in #ahhd4 ,thus forty    
years of effort had been required to    
conquer five of ,faraday's refractory   
gases1 and the sixth1 hydrogen1  still  
remains resistant4 ,hydrogen had1       
indeed1 been seen to assume the  form of
 visible vapor1 but it had not been     
reduced to the so-called  static        

state--that is1 the droplets had not    
been collected in an  appreciable       
quantity1 as water is collected in a    
cup4 ,until this should  be done1 the   
final problem of the liquefaction of    
hydrogen could not be  regarded as      
satisfactorily solved4    ,more than    
another decade was required to make this
 final step in the  completion1 of      
,faraday's work4 ,and1 oddly enough1 yet
 very fittingly1  it was reserved for   
,faraday's successor in the chair at the
 ,royal  ,institution to effect this    
culmination4 ,since #ahhd ,professor    
,dewar's  work has made the ,royal      
,institution again the centre of        
low-temperature  research4 ,by means of 
improved machinery and of ingenious     
devices for  shielding the substance    
operated on from the accession of heat1 
to which  reference will be made more in
 detail presently1 ,professor ,dewar was
  able to liquefy the gas fluorine1     
recently isolated by ,moussan1 and the  
recently discovered gas helium in #ahig4

 ,and in ,may1 #ahih1 he was able to    
announce that hydrogen also had yielded1
 and for the first time in  the history 
of science that99 elusive substance1    
hitherto permanently  gaseous1 was held 
as a tangible liquid in a cuplike       
receptacle2 and this  closing scene of  
the long struggle was enacted in the    
same laboratory in  which ,faraday      
performed the first liquefaction        
experiment with chlorine  just          
three-quarters of a century before4     
,it must be noted1 however1 that this   
final stage in the liquefaction         
struggle was not effected through the   
use of the principle of  evaporating    
liquids which has just been referred to1
 but by the  application of a quite     
different principle and its elaboration 
into a  perfectly novel method4 ,this   
principle is the one established long   
ago  by ,joule and ,thomson 7,lord      
,kelvin71 that compressed gases when    
allowed  to expand freely are lowered in
 temperature4 ,in this well-known       

principle the means was at hand greatly 
to simplify and improve the  method of  
liquefaction of gases1 only for a long  
time no one recognized  the fact4       
,finally1 however1 the idea had occurred
 to two men almost  simultaneously and  
quite independently4 ,one of these was  
,professor  ,linde1 the well-known      
,german experimenter with refrigeration 
processes2  the other1 ,dr4 ,william    
,hampson1 a young ,english physician4   
,each of these  men conceived the       
idea--and ultimately elaborated it in   
practice--of  accumulating the cooling  
effect of an expanding gas by allowing  
the  expansion to take place through a  
small orifice into a chamber in which   
the coil containing the compressed gas  
was held4 ,in ,dr4 ,hampson's words3    
,the method consists in directing all   
the gas immediately after its  expansion
 over the coils which contain the       
compressed gas that is on its  way to   
the expansion-point4 ,the cold developed
 by expansion in the first  expanded gas

 is thus communicated to the oncoming   
compressed gas1 which  consequently     
expands from1 and therefore to1 a lower 
temperature  than the preceding portion4
 ,it communicates in the same way its   
own  intensified cold to the succeeding 
portion of compressed gas1 which1 in    
its turn1 is made colder1 both before   
and after expansion1 than any  that had 
gone before4 ,this intensification of   
cooling goes on until the               
expansion-temperature is far lower than 
it was at starting2 and if  the         
apparatus be well arranged the effect is
 so powerful that even the  smaller     
amount of cooling due to the free       
expansion of gas through a              
throttle-valve1 though pronounced by    
,siemens and ,coleman incapable  of     
being utilized1 may be made to liquefy  
air without using other  refrigerants4  
,so well is this principle carried out  
in ,dr4 ,hamp-son's apparatus for       
liquefying air that compressed air      
passing into the coil at ordinary       

temperature without other means of      
refrigeration begins to liquefy in      
about six minutes--a result that seems  
almost miraculous when it is  understood
 that the essential mechanism by which  
this is brought about  is contained in a
 cylinder only eighteen inches long and 
seven inches in  diameter4    ,as has   
been said1 it was by adopting this      
principle of self-intensive             
refrigeration that ,professor ,dewar was
 able to liquefy hydrogen4 ,more        
recently the same result has been       
attained through use of the same        
principle by ,professor ,ramsay and ,dr4
 ,travers at ,university ,college1      
,london1 who are to be credited also    
with first publishing a detailed        
account of the various stages of the    
process4 ,it appears that the use of    
the self-intensification principle alone
 is not sufficient with hydrogen  as it 
is with the less volatile gases1        
including air1 for the reason  that at  
all ordinary temperatures hydrogen does 

not cool in expanding1  but actually    
becomes warmer4 ,it is only after the   
compressed hydrogen  has been cooled by 
immersion in refrigerating media of very
 low  temperature that this gas becomes 
amenable to the law of cooling on       
expansion4 ,in the apparatus used at    
,university ,college the coil of        
compressed hydrogen is passed           
successively through 7#a7 a jar         
containing  alcohol and solid carbonic  
acid at a temperature of--#hj           
,centigrade2 7#b7  a chamber containing 
liquid air at atmospheric pressure1 and 
7#c7  liquid air boiling in a vacuum    
bringing the temperature to perhaps     
#bjej  ,centigrade before entering the  
,hampson coil1 in which expansion and   
the self-intensive refrigeration lead to
 actual liquefaction4 ,with this        
apparatus ,dr4 ,travers succeeded in    
producing an abundant quantity of       
liquid hydrogen for use in the          
experiments on the new gases that were  
first discovered in the same laboratory 

through the experiments on  liquid      
air--gases about which ,i shall have    
something more to say in  another       
chapter4      ,,principles ,,and        
,,experiments    ,at first blush it     
seems a very marvellous thing1 this     
liquefaction  of substances that under  
all ordinary conditions are gaseous4 ,it
 is  certainly a little startling to    
have a cup of clear1 water-like liquid  
offered one1 with the assurance that it 
is nothing but air2 still more  so to   
have the same air presented in the form 
of a white avalanche  snow4 ,in a       
certain sense it is marvellous1 because 
the mechanical  difficulties that have  
been overcome in reducing the air to    
these  unusual conditions are great4    
,yet1 in another and broader view1 there
  is nothing more wonderful about liquid
 air than about liquid water1 or  liquid
 mercury1 or liquid iron4 ,long before  
air was actually liquefied1  it was     
perfectly understood by men of science  
that under certain  conditions it could 

be liquefied just as surely as water1   
mercury1 iron1  and every other         
substance could be brought to a similar 
state4 ,this  being known1 and the      
principles involved understood1 had     
there been  nothing more involved than  
the bare effort to realize these        
conditions  all the recent              
low-temperature work would have been    
mere scientific  child's-play1 and      
liquid air would be but a toy of        
science4 ,but in point  of fact there   
are many other things than this         
involved2 new principles  were being    
searched for and found in the course of 
the application of  the old ones2 new   
light was being thrown into many dark   
corners2 new  fields of research1 some  
of them as yet barely entered1 were     
being  thrown open to the investigator2 
new applications of energy1 of vast     
importance not merely in pure science   
but in commercial life as well1  were   
being made available4 ,that is why the  
low-temperature work must be  regarded  

as one of the most important scientific 
accomplishments of our  century4    ,at 
the very outset it was this work in     
large measure which gave the  final     
answer to the long-mooted question as to
 the nature of heat1  demonstrating the 
correctness of ,count ,rumford's view   
that heat is  only a condition not      
itself a substance4 ,since about the    
middle of the  century this view1 known 
as the mechanical theory of heat1 has   
been the  constant guide of the         
physicists in all their experiments1 and
 any  one who would understand the      
low-temperature phenomena must keep this
  conception of the nature of heat      
clearly and constantly in mind4 ,to     
understand the theory1 one must think of
 all matter as composed  of minute      
isolated particles or molecules1 which  
are always in  motion--vibrating1 if you
 will4 ,he must mentally magnify and    
visualize these particles till he sees  
them quivering before him1  like        
tuning-forks held in the hand4          

,remember1 then1 that1 like the         
tuning-fork1 each molecule would1 if    
left to itself1 quiver less and  less   
violently1 until it ran down altogether1
 but that the motion thus  lessening is 
not really lost4 ,it is sent out in the 
form of ether waves1  which can set up  
like motion in any other particles which
 they reach1 be  they near or remote2 or
 it is transmitted as a direct push--a  
kick1  if you will--to any other        
particle with which the molecule comes  
in  physical contact4    ,but note now1 
further1 that our molecule1 while       
incessantly giving out  its energy of   
motion in ether waves and in direct     
pushes1 is at the same  time just as    
ceaslessly receiving motion from the    
ether waves made by  other atoms1 and by
 the return push of the molecules       
against which it  pushes4 ,in a word1   
then1 every molecule of matter is at    
once a centre  for the distribution of  
motion 7sending out impulses which      
affect1  sooner or later1 every other   

atom of matter in the universe71 and1   
from  the other point of view1 also a   
centre for the reception of motion from 
every direction and from every other    
particle of matter in the universe4     
,whether any given molecule will on the 
whole gain motion or lose it  depends   
clearly on the simple mechanical        
principles of give and take4    ,from   
equally familiar mechanical principles1 
it is clear that our  vibrating         
molecule1 in virtue of its vibrations1  
is elastic1 tending to  be thrown back  
from every other molecule with which it 
comes in contact1  just as a vibrating  
tuning-fork kicks itself away from      
anything it  touches4 ,and of course the
 vigor of the recoil will depend upon   
the  vigor of the vibration and the     
previous movements4 ,but since these    
movements constitute temperature1 this  
is another way of saying that  the      
higher the temperature of a body the    
more its molecules will tend to  spring 
asunder1 such separation in the         

aggregate constituting expansion  of the
 mass as a whole4 ,thus the familiar    
fact of expansion of a body  under      
increased temperature is explained4     
,but now1 since all molecules are       
vibrating1 and so tending to separate1  
it is clear that no unconfined mass of  
molecules would long remain in          
contiguity unless some counter influence
 tended to draw them together4  ,such a 
counter influence in fact exists1 and is
 termed the force of  cohesion4 ,this   
force is a veritable gravitation        
influence1 drawing every  molecule      
towards every other molecule4 ,possibly 
it is identical with  gravitation4 ,it  
seems subject to some law of decreasing 
in power with  the square of the        
distance2 or1 at any rate1 it clearly   
becomes less  potent as the distance    
through which it operates increases4    
,now1 between this force of cohesion    
which tends to draw the molecules       
together1 and the heat vibrations which 
tend to throw the molecules  farther    

asunder1 there seems to be an incessant 
battle4 ,if cohesion  prevails1 the     
molecules are held for the time into    
relatively fixed  system1 which we term 
the solid state4 ,if the two forces     
about balance  each other1 the molecules
 move among themselves more freely but  
maintain  an average distance1 and we   
term the condition the liquid state4    
,but if  the heat impulse preponderates1
 the molecules 7unless restrained from  
without7 fly farther and farther        
asunder1 moving so actively that when   
they collide the recoil is too great to 
be checked by cohesion1 and this        
condition we term the gaseous state4    
,now after this statement1 it is clear  
that what the low-temperature  worker   
does when he would liquefy a gas is to  
become the champion of the  force of    
cohesion4 ,he cannot directly aid it1   
for so far as is known it  is an        
unalterable quantity1 like gravitation4 
,but he can accomplish the  same thing  
indirectly by weakening the power of the

 rival force4 ,thus1  if he encloses a  
portion of gas in a cylinder and drives 
a piston down  against it1 he is        
virtually aiding cohesion by forcing the
 molecules  closer together1 so that the
 hold of cohesion1 acting through a less
  distance1 is stronger4 ,what he       
accomplishes here is not all gain1      
however1 for the bounding molecules1    
thus jammed together1 come in  collision
 with one another more and more         
frequently1 and thus their  average     
activity of vibration is increased and  
not diminished2 in  other words1 the    
temperature of the gas has risen in     
virtue of the  compression4 ,compression
 alone1 then1 will not avail to enable  
cohesion  to win the battle4    ,but the
 physicist has another resource4 ,he may
 place the cylinder of gas  in a cold   
medium1 so that the heat vibrations sent
 into it will be less  vigorous than    
those it sends out4 ,that is a blow the 
molecule cannot  withstand4 ,it is quite
 impotent to cease sending out the      

impulses  however little comes in       
return2 hence the aggregate motion      
becomes less  and less active1 until    
finally the molecule is moving so       
sluggishly  that when it collides with  
its fellow cohesion is able to hold it  
there4  ,cohesion1 then1 has won the    
battle1 and the gas has become a liquid4
    ,such1 stated in terms of the       
mechanical theory of heat1 is what is   
brought to pass when a gas is liquefied 
in the laboratory of the  physicist4 ,it
 remains only to note that different    
chemical substances  show the widest    
diversity as to the exact point of      
temperature at which  this balance of   
the expansive and cohesive tendencies is
 affected1 but  that the point1 under   
uniform conditions of pressure1 is      
always the same  for the same substance4
 ,this diversity has to do pretty       
clearly with the  size of the individual
 molecules involved2 but its exact      
explanation is  not yet forthcoming1    
and1 except in a general way1 the       

physicist  would not be able to predict 
the critical temperature of any new gas 
presented to him4 ,but once this has    
been determined by experiment1 he       
always knows just what to expect of any 
given substance4 ,he knows1 for         
example1 that in a mixture of gases     
hydrogen would still remain gaseous     
after all the others had assumed the    
liquid state1 and most of them the      
solid state as well4    ,these          
mechanical conceptions well in mind1 it 
is clear that what the  would-be        
liquefier of gases has all along sought 
to attain is merely  the insulation of  
the portion of matter with which he     
worked against the  access of           
heat-impulse from its environment4 ,it  
is clear that were any  texture known   
which would permit a heat-impulse to    
pass through it in  one direction only1 
nothing more would be necessary than to 
place a  portion of gas in such a       
receptacle of this substance1 so faced  
as to  permit egress but not entrance of

 the heat1 and the gas thus enclosed1   
were it hydrogen itself1 would very soon
 become liquid and solid1  through      
spontaneous giving off of its energy1   
without any manipulation  whatever4     
,contrariwise1 were the faces of the    
receptacle reversed1 a  piece of iron   
placed within it would be made red-hot  
and melted though  the receptacle were  
kept packed in salt and ice and no heat 
applied  except such as came from this  
freezing mixture4 ,one could cook a     
beefsteak with a cake of ice had he but 
such a material as this with  which to  
make his stove4 ,not even ,rumford or   
our modern ,edward ,atkinson  ever      
dreamed of such economy of fuel as that4
    ,but1 unfortunately1 no such        
substance as this is known1 nor1 indeed1
 any  substance that will fully prevent 
the passage of heat-impulses in either  
direction4 ,hence one of the greatest   
tasks of the experimenters has  been to 
find a receptacle that would insulate a 
cooled substance even  partially from   

the incessant bombardment of            
heat-impulses from without4  ,it is     
obvious that unless such an insulating  
receptacle could be  provided none of   
the more resistent gases1 such as       
oxygen1 could be  long kept liquid1 even
 when once brought to that condition1   
since an  environment of requisite      
frigidity could not practicably be      
provided4    ,but now another phase of  
the problem presents itself to the      
experimenter4 ,oxygen has assumed the   
quiescent liquid state1 to be  sure1 but
 in so doing it has fallen below the    
temperature of its cooling  medium2     
hence it is now receiving from that     
medium more energy of  vibration than it
 gives1 and unless this is prevented    
very soon its  particles will again have
 power to kick themselves apart and     
resume the  gaseous state4 ,something1  
then1 must be done to insulate the      
liquefied  gas1 else it will retain the 
liquid state for too short a time to be 
much experimented with4 ,how might such 

insulation be accomplished8    ,the most
 successful attack upon this important  
problem has been made by  ,professor    
,dewar4 ,he invented a receptacle for   
holding liquefied gases  which1 while   
not fulfilling the ideal conditions     
referred to above1 yet  accomplishes a  
very remarkable degree of heat          
insulation4 ,in consists of  a glass    
vessel with double walls1 the space     
between which is rendered  a vacuum of  
the highest practicable degree4 ,this   
vacuum1 containing  practically no      
particles of matter1 cannot1 of course1 
convey  heat-impulses to or from the    
matter in the receptacle with any degree
  of rapidity4 ,thus one of the two     
possible means of heat transfer is shut 
off and a degree of insulation afforded 
the liquefied substance4 ,but  of course
 the other channel1 ether radiation1    
remains4 ,even this may be  blocked to a
 large extent1 however1 by leaving a    
trace of mercury vapor  in the vacuum   
space1 which will be deposited as a fine

 mirror on  the inner surface of the    
chamber4 ,this mirror serves as an      
admirable  reflector of the heat-rays   
that traverse the vacuum1 sending more  
than half of them back again4 ,so1 by   
the combined action of vacuum and       
mirror1 the amount of heat that can     
penetrate to the interior of the        
receptacle is reduced to about          
one-thirtieth of what would enter an    
ordinary vessel4 ,in other words1 a     
quantity of liquefied gas which would   
evaporate in one minute from an ordinary
 vessel will last half an hour  in one  
of ,professor ,dewar's best vacuum      
vessels4 ,thus in one of these  vessels 
a quantity of liquefied air1 for        
example1 can be kept for a  considerable
 time in an atmosphere at ordinary      
temperature1 and will  only volatilize  
at the surface1 like water under the    
same conditions1  though of course more 
rapidly2 whereas the same liquid in an  
ordinary  vessel would boil briskly     
away1 like water over a fire4 ,only1 be 

it  remembered1 the air in boiling is at
 a temperature of about one  hundred and
 eighty degrees below zero1 so that it  
would instantly freeze  almost any      
substance placed into it4 ,a portion of 
alcohol poured on its  surface will be  
changed quickly into a globule of ice1  
which will  rattle about the sides of   
the vessel like a marble4 ,that is not  
what one  ordinarily thinks of as a     
boiling temperature4    ,if the vacuum  
vessel containing a liquefied gas be    
kept in a cold  medium1 and particularly
 if two vacuum tubes be placed together1
 so that  no exposed surface of liquid  
remains1 a portion of liquefied air1 for
  example1 may be kept almost           
indefinitely4 ,thus it becomes possible 
to utilize the liquefied gas for        
experimental investigation of the       
properties of matter at low temperatures
 that otherwise would be quite          
impracticable4 ,great numbers of such   
experiments have been performed in  the 
past decade or so by all the workers    

with low temperatures already           
mentioned1 and by various others1       
including1 fittingly enough1 the  holder
 of the ,rumford professorship of       
experimental physics at ,harvard1       
,professor ,trowbridge4 ,the work of    
,professor ,dewar has perhaps been the  
most comprehensive and varied1 but the  
researches of ,pictet1 ,wroblewski1  and
 ,olzewski have also been important1 and
 it is not always possible  to apportion
 credit for the various discoveries     
accurately1 since  the authorities      
themselves are in unfortunate           
disagreement in several  questions of   
priority4 ,but in any event1 such       
questions of exact  priority have no    
great interest for any one but the      
persons directly  involved4 ,we may     
quite disregard them here1 confining    
attention to the  results themselves1   
which are full of interest4    ,the     
questions investigated have to do with  
the physical properties1  such as       
electrical conductivity1 magnetic       

condition1 light-absorption1  cohesion1 
and chemical affinities of matter at    
excessively low  temperatures4 ,it is   
found that in all these regards most    
substances are  profoundly modified when
 excessively cooled4 ,thus if a piece of
 any pure  metal is placed in an        
electric circuit and plunged into liquid
 air1 its  resistance to the passage of 
the electricity steadily decreases as   
the  metal cools1 until at the          
temperature of the liquid it is very    
trifling  indeed4 ,the conclusion seems 
to be justified that if the metal could 
be  still further cooled until it       
reached the theoretical absolute zero1  
or absolutely heatless condition1 the   
electrical resistance would also  be    
nil4 ,so it appears that the heat       
vibrations of the molecules of a  pure  
metal interfere with the electrical     
current4 ,the thought suggests  itself  
that this may be because the ether waves
 set up by the vibrating  molecules     
conflict with the ether strain which is 

regarded by some  theorists as          
constituting the electrical current4    
,but this simple  explanation falters   
before further experiments which show1  
paradoxically  enough1 that the         
electrical resistance of carbon exactly 
reverses what  has just been said of    
pure metals1 becoming greater and       
greater as the  carbon is cooled4 ,if an
 hypothesis were invented to cover this 
case  there would still remain a puzzle 
in the fact that alloys of metals  do   
not act at all like the pure metals     
themselves1 the electrical  resistance  
of such alloys being1 for the most part1
 unaffected by  changed temperature4 ,on
 the whole1 then1 the facts of          
electrical  conduction at low           
temperatures are quite beyond the reach 
of present  explanation4 ,they must     
await a fuller knowledge of molecular   
conditions  in general than is at       
present available--a knowledge to which 
the  low-temperature work itself seems  
one of the surest channels4    ,even    

further beyond the reach of present     
explanation are the facts as to         
magnetic conditions at low temperatures4
 ,even as to the facts themselves       
different experimenters have differed   
somewhat1 but the final conclusion  of  
,professor ,dewar is that1 after a      
period of fluctuation1 the power of  a  
magnet repeatedly subjected to a        
liquid-air bath becomes permanently     
increased4 ,various substances not      
markedly magnetic at ordinary           
temperatures become so when cooled4     
,among these1 as ,professor ,dewar      
discovered1 is liquid oxygen itself4    
,thus if a portion of liquid air be     
further cooled until it assumes a       
semi-solid condition1 the oxygen may  be
 drawn from the mass by a magnet1       
leaving a pure nitrogen jelly4 ,these   
facts are curious enough1 and full of   
suggestion1 but like all other          
questions having to do with magnetism1  
they hold for the present  generation   
the double fascination of insoluble     

mystery4 ,to be sure1 one  may readily  
enough suggest that if magnetism be     
really a whirl in the  ether1 this whirl
 is apparently interfered with by the   
waves of radiant  heat2 or1 again1 that 
magnetism is presumably due to molecular
 motions  which are apparently          
interfered with by another kind of      
molecular  motions which we call heat   
vibrations2 but there is a vagueness    
about  the terms of such guesses that   
leaves them clearly within the category 
of explanations that do not explain4    
,when it comes to the phenomena of      
light1 we can1 as is fitting1 see  our  
way a little more clearly1 since1 thanks
 to ,thomas ,young and his  successors1 
we know pretty definitely what light    
really is4 ,so when  we learn that many 
substances change their color utterly at
 low  temperatures--red things becoming 
yellow and yellow things white1  for    
example--we can step easily and surely  
to at least a partial  explanation4 ,we 
know that the color of any object       

depends simply  upon the particular     
ether waves of the spectrum which that  
particular  substance absorbs2 and it   
does not seem anomalous that molecules  
packed  close together at--#ahj of      
temperature should treat the ether waves
  differently than when relatively wide 
apart at an ordinary temperature4  ,yet1
 after all1 that may not be the clew to 
the explanation4 ,the packing  of the   
molecules may have nothing to do with   
it4 ,the real explanation  may lie in   
the change of the ether waves sent out  
by the vibrating  molecule2 indeed1 the 
fact that the waves of radiant heat and 
those of  light differ only in amplitude
 lends color to this latter supposition4
  ,so the explanation of the changed    
color of the cooled substance is at     
best a dubious one4    ,another         
interesting light phenomenon is found in
 the observed fact that  very many      
substances become markedly              
phosphorescent at low temperatures4     
,thus1 according to ,professor ,dewar1  

gelatine1 celluloid1 paraffine1  ivory1 
horn1 and india-rubber become distinctly
 luminous1 with a bluish  or greenish   
phosphorescence1 after cooling to--#ahj 
and being stimulated  by the electric   
light4 ,the same thing is true1 in      
varying degrees1  of alcohol1 nitric    
acid1 glycerine1 and of paper1 leather1 
linen1  tortoise-shell1 and sponge4     
,pure water is but slightly luminous1   
whereas  impure water glows brightly4   
,on the other hand1 alcohol loses its   
phosphorescence when a trace of iodine  
is added to it4 ,in general1  colored   
things are but little phosphorescent4   
,thus the white of egg is  very         
brilliant but the yolk much less so4    
,milk is much brighter than  water1 and 
such objects as a white flower1 a       
feather1 and egg-shell  glow            
brilliantly4 ,the most remarkable       
substances of all1 says ,professor      
,dewar1 whom ,i am all along quoting1   
are the platinocyanides among  inorganic
 compounds and the ketonic compounds    

among organic4 ,ammonium                
platinocyanide1 cooled while stimulated 
by arc light1 glows fully  at--#ahj2 but
 on warming it glows like a lamp4 ,it   
seems clear1  ,professor ,dewar adds1   
that the substance at this low          
temperature must  have acquired         
increased power of absorption1 and it   
may be that at  the same time the factor
 of molecular friction or damping may   
have  diminished4 ,the cautious terms in
 which this partial explanation is      
couched suggest how far we still are    
from a full understanding of the        
interesting phenomena of                
phosphorescence4 ,that a molecule should
 be  able to vibrate in such a way as to
 produce the short waves of light1      
dissevered from the usual linking with  
the vibrations represented by  high     
temperature1 is one of the standing     
puzzles of physics4 ,and the            
demonstrated increase of this capacity  
at very low temperatures only  adds to  
the mystery4    ,there are at least two 

of the low-temperature phenomena1       
however1  that seem a little less       
puzzling--the facts1 namely1 that       
cohesion and  rigidity of structure are 
increased when a substance is cooled and
 that  chemical activity is very greatly
 reduced1 in fact almost abolished4     
,this is quite what one would expect a  
priori--though no wise man would  dwell 
on his expectation in advance of the    
experiments--since the whole  question  
of liquids and solids versus gases      
appears to be simply a  contest between 
cohesive forces that are tending to draw
 the molecules  together and the heat   
vibration which is tending to throw them
 apart4  ,as a substance changes from   
gas to liquid1 and from liquid to solid1
  contracting meantime1 simply through  
the lessening of the heat  vibrations of
 its molecules1 we might naturally      
expect that the solid  would become more
 and more tenacious in structure as its 
molecules came  closer and closer       
together1 and at the same time became   

less and less  active1 as happens when  
the solid is further cooled4 ,and for   
once  experiment justifies the          
expectation4 ,professor ,de-war found   
that the  breaking stress of an iron    
wire is more than doubled when the wire 
is cooled to the temperature of liquid  
air1 and all other metals are  largely  
strengthened1 though none other to quite
 the same degree4  ,he found that a     
spiral spring of fusible metal1 which at
 ordinary  temperature was quickly drawn
 out into a straight wire by a weight   
of one ounce1 would1 when cooled to     
-#ahb deg1 support a weight of two      
pounds1 and would vibrate like a steel  
spring so long as it was cool4  ,a bell 
of fusible metal has a distinct metallic
 ring at this low  temperature2 and     
balls of iron1 tin1 lead1 or ivory      
cooled to -#ahb  deg and dropped from a 
height1 in all cases have the rebound   
greatly  increased4 ,the flattened      
surface of the lead is only one-third   
what it  would be at ordinary           

temperature4 ,these conditions are due  
solely to  the cooling1 and persist only
 while the low temperature lasts4    ,if
 this increased strength and hardness of
 a contracted metal are  what one would 
expect on molecular principles1 the     
decreased chemical  activity at low     
temperatures is no less natural-seeming1
 when one  reflects how generally       
chemical phenomena are facilitated by   
the  application of heat4 ,in point of  
fact1 it has been found that at the     
temperature of liquid hydrogen          
practically all chemical activity  is   
abolished1 the unruly fluorine making   
the only exception4 ,the  explanation   
hinges on the fact that every atom1 of  
any kind1 has  power to unite with only 
a limited number of other atoms4 ,when  
the  affinities of an atom are          
satisfied1 no more atoms can enter into 
the  union unless some atoms already    
there be displaced4 ,such displacement  
takes place constantly1 under ordinary  
conditions of temperature1  because the 

vibrating atoms tend to throw themselves
 apart1 and other  atoms may spring in  
to take the places just vacated--such   
interchange1  in fact1 constituting the 
essence of chemical activity4 ,but when 
the  temperature is reduced the         
heat-vibration becomes insufficient to  
throw the atoms apart1 hence any unions 
they chance to have made are  permanent1
 so long as the low temperature is      
maintained4 ,thus it is that  substances
 which attack one another eagerly at    
ordinary temperatures  will lie side by 
side1 utterly inert1 at the temperature 
of liquid air4    ,under certain        
conditions1 however1 most interesting   
chemical experiments  have been made in 
which the liquefied gases1 particularly 
oxygen1 are  utilized4 ,thus ,olzewski  
found that a bit of wood lighted and    
thrust into  liquid oxygen burns as it  
would in gaseous oxygen1 and a red-hot  
iron  wire thrust into the liquid burns 
and spreads sparks of iron4 ,but more   
novel still was ,dewar's experiment of  

inserting a small jet of ignited        
hydrogen into the vessel of liquid      
oxygen2 for the jet continued to  burn1 
forming water1 of course1 which was     
carried away as snow4 ,the idea  of a   
gas-jet burning within a liquid1 and    
having snow for smoke1 is  not the least
 anomalous of the many strange          
conceptions that the  low-temperature   
work has made familiar4      ,,practical
 ,,results ,,and ,,anticipations        
,such are some of the strictly          
scientific results of the               
low-temperature  work4 ,but there are   
other results of a more directly        
practical  kind--neither more important 
nor more interesting on that account1 to
  be sure1 but more directly appealing  
to the generality of the  non-scientific
 public4 ,of these applications1 the    
most patent and the  first to be made   
available was the one forecast by ,davy 
from the very  first--namely1 the use of
 liquefied gases in the refrigeration of
  foods4 ,long before the more resistant

 gases had been liquefied1 the more     
manageable ones1 such as ammonia and    
sulphurous acid1 had been utilized  on a
 commercial scale for refrigerating     
purposes4 ,to-day every  brewery and    
every large cold-storage warehouse is   
supplied with such  a refrigerator      
plant1 the temperature being thus       
regulated as is not  otherwise          
practicable4 ,many large halls are      
cooled in a similar manner1  and thus   
made comfortable in the summer4 ,ships  
carrying perishables  have the safety of
 their cargoes insured by a refrigerator
 plant4 ,in all  large cities there are 
ice manufactories using the same method1
 and of  late even relatively small     
establishments1 hotels1 and apartment   
houses  have their ice-machine4 ,it     
seems probable that before long all such
  buildings and many private dwellings  
will be provided with a cooling         
apparatus as regularly as they are now  
equipped with a heating  apparatus4     
,the exact details of the various       

refrigerator machines of course vary1   
but all of them utilize the principles  
that the laboratory workers first       
established4 ,indeed1 the entire        
refrigerator industry1 now assuming     
significant proportions1 may be said to 
be a direct outgrowth of that  technical
 work which ,davy and ,faraday          
inaugurated and prosecuted at the       
,royal ,institution--a result which     
would have been most gratifying to the  
founder of the institution could he have
 forecast it4 ,the usual means  of      
distributing the cooling fluids in the  
commercial plants is by  the familiar   
iron pipes1 not dissimilar in appearance
 7when not in  operation7 to the        
familiar gas1 water1 and steam pipes4   
,when operating1  however1 the pipes    
themselves are soon hidden from view by 
the thick  coating of frost which forms 
over them4 ,in a moist beer-cellar  this
 coating is often several inches in     
thickness1 giving a very  characteristic
 and unmistakable appearance4           

,another commercial use to which        
refrigerator machines are now put is in 
the manufacture of various drugs1 where 
absolute purity is desirable4  ,as      
different substances congeal at         
different temperatures1 but the same    
substances at uniform pressure always at
 the same temperature1 a  means is      
afforded of freeing a drug from         
impurities by freezing1 where  sometimes
 the same result cannot be accomplished 
with like thoroughness  by any other    
practicable means4 ,indeed1 by this     
means impurities have  been detected    
where not previously suspected4 ,and    
,professor ,ramsay has  detected some   
new elementary substances even1 as      
constituents of the  air1 which had     
previously not been dissociated from the
 nitrogen with  which they are usually  
mixed4    ,such applications of the     
refrigerator principles as these1       
however1  though of vast commercial     
importance1 are held by many enthusiasts
 to  be but a bagatelle compared with   

other uses to which liquefied gases  may
 some time be put4 ,their expectations  
are based upon the enormous             
potentialities that are demonstrably    
stored in even a tiny portion of1  say1 
liquefied air4 ,these are1 indeed1 truly
 appalling4 ,consider1 for  example1 a  
portion of air at a temperature above   
its critical point1 to  which1 as in    
,thilorier's experiments1 a pressure of 
thirty-one tons to  the square inch of  
the encompassing wall is being applied4 
,recall that  action and reaction are   
equal1 and it is apparent that the gas  
itself is  pushing back--struggling     
against being compressed1 if you        
will--with an  equal power4 ,suppose the
 bulk of the gas is such that at this   
pressure  it occupies a cubical space   
six inches on a side--something like the
  bulk of a child's toy balloon1 let us 
say4 ,then the total outward  pressure  
which that tiny bulk of gas exerts1 in  
its desperate molecular  struggle1 is   
little less than five thousand tons4 ,it

 would support an  enormous building    
without budging a hair's-breadth4 ,if   
the building  weighed less than five    
thousand tons it would be lifted by the 
gas2 if  much less it would be thrown   
high into the air as the gas expanded4  
,it  gives one a new sense of the power 
of numbers to feel that infinitesimal   
atoms1 merely by vibrating in unison1   
could accomplish such a result4    ,but 
now suppose our portion of gas1 instead 
of being placed under our  hypothetical 
building1 is plunged into a cold medium1
 which will permit  its heat-vibrations 
to exhaust themselves without being     
correspondingly  restored4 ,then1       
presently1 the temperature is lowered   
below the critical  point1 and1 presto6 
the mad struggle ceases1 the atoms lie  
amicably  together1 and the gas has     
become a liquid4 ,what a transformed    
thing  it is now4 ,instead of pressing  
out with that enormous force1 it has    
voluntarily contracted as the five      
thousand tons pressure could not  make  

it do2 and it lies there now1 limpid and
 harmless-seeming1 in the  receptacle1  
for all the world like so much water4   
,and1 indeed1 the comparison with water 
is more than superficial1 for  in a cup 
of water also there are wonderful       
potentialities1 as every  steam-engine  
attests4 ,but an enormous difference1   
not in principle but  in practical      
applications1 exists in the fact that   
the potentialities  of the water cannot 
be utilized until relatively high       
temperatures are  reached4 ,costly fuel 
must be burned and the heat applied to  
the water  before it can avail to do its
 work4 ,but suppose we were to place our
  portion of liquid air1 limpid and     
water-like1 in the cylinder of a        
locomotive1 where the steam of water    
ordinarily enters4 ,then1 though no     
fuel were burned--though the entire     
engine stood embedded in the snow  of an
 arctic winter--it would be but a few   
moments before the liquid air  would    
absorb even from this cold medium heat  

enough to bring it above  its critical  
temperature2 and1 its atoms now dancing 
apart once more and  re-exerting that   
enormous pressure1 the piston of the    
engine would be  driven back and then   
the entire cylinder burst into fragments
 as the  gas sought exit4 ,in a word1   
then1 a portion of liquid air has a     
store  of potential energy which can be 
made kinetic merely by drawing upon  the
 boundless and free supply of heat which
 is everywhere stored in the  atmosphere
 we breathe and in every substance about
 us4 ,the difficulty  is1 not to find   
fuel with which to vaporize it1 as in   
case of water1  but to keep the fuel    
from finding it whether or no4 ,were    
liquid air in  sufficient quantities    
available1 the fuel problem would cease 
to  have any significance4 ,but of      
course liquid air is not indefinitely   
available1 and exactly here comes the   
difficulty with the calculations  of    
many enthusiasts who hail liquefied gas 
as the motive power of the  near future4

 ,for of course in liquefying the air   
power has been applied1  for the moment 
wasted1 and unless we can get out of the
 liquid more  energy than we have       
applied to it1 there is no economy of   
power in  the transaction4 ,now the     
simplest study of the conditions1 with  
the  mechanical theory of matter in     
mind1 makes it clear that this is       
precisely what one can never hope to    
accomplish4 ,action and reaction are    
equal and in opposite directions at all 
stages of the manipulation1 and  hence1 
under the most ideal conditions1 we must
 expect to waste as much  work in       
condensing a gas 7in actual practice    
more7 as the condensed  substance can do
 in expanding to the original volume4   
,those enthusiasts  who have thought    
otherwise1 and who have been on the     
point of perfecting  an apparatus which 
will readily and cheaply produce liquid 
air after  the first portion is         
produced1 are really but following the  
old  perpetual-motion-machine           

will-o'-the-wisp4    ,it does not at all
 follow from this1 however1 that the    
energies of  liquefied air may not be   
utilized with enormous advantage4 ,it is
 not  always the cheapest form of       
power-transformer that is the best for  
all  purposes1 as the use of the        
electrical storage battery shows4 ,and  
so it  is quite within the possibilities
 that a multitude of uses may be  found 
for the employment of liquid air as a   
motive power1 in which its  condensed   
form1 its transportability or other     
properties will give  it precedence over
 steam or electricity4 ,it has been     
suggested1 for  example1 that liquefied 
gas would seem to afford the motive     
power par  excellence for the           
flying-machine1 once that elusive       
vehicle is well in  harness1 since one  
of the greatest problems here is to     
reduce the weight  of the motor         
apparatus4 ,in a less degree the same   
problem enters into  the calculations of
 ships1 particularly ships of war2 and  

with them also  it may come to pass that
 a store of liquid air 7or other gas7   
may come  to take the place of a far    
heavier store of coal4 ,it is even      
within the  possibilities that the      
explosive powers of the same liquid may 
take the  place of the great magazines  
of powder now carried on war-ships2 for1
  under certain conditions1 the         
liquefied gas will expand with explosive
  suddenness and violence1 an explosion 
being in any case only a very  sudden   
expansion of a confined gas4 ,the use of
 the compressed air in the  dynamite    
guns1 as demonstrated in the ,cuban     
campaign1 is a step in this  direction4 
,and1 indeed1 the use of compressed air 
in many commercial  fields already      
competing with steam and electricity is 
a step towards  the use of air still    
further compressed1 and cooled1         
meantime1 to a  condition of liquidity4 
,the enormous advantages of the air     
actually  liquefied1 and so for the     
moment quiescent1 over the air merely   

compressed1 and hence requiring a       
powerful retort to hold it1 are patent  
at a glance4 ,but1 on the other hand1   
the difficulty of keeping it liquid  is 
a disadvantage that is equally patent4  
,how the balance will be struck  between
 these contending advantages and        
disadvantages it remains for  the       
practical engineering inventors of the  
future--the near future1  probably--to  
demonstrate4    ,meantime there is      
another line of application of the ideas
 which the  low-temperature work has    
brought into prominence which has a     
peculiar  interest in the present       
connection because of its singularly    
,rumfordian  cast1 so to speak1 ,i mean 
the idea of the insulation of cooled or 
heated  objects in the ordinary affairs 
of life1 as1 for example1 in cooking4   
,the subject was a veritable hobby with 
the founder of the ,royal  ,institution 
all his life4 ,he studied the           
heat-transmitting and  heat-reflecting  
properties of various substances1       

including such  directly practical      
applications as rough surfaces versus   
smooth  surfaces for stoves1 the best   
color for clothing in summer and in     
winter1 and the like4 ,he promulgated   
his ideas far and wide1 and             
demonstrated all over ,europe the       
extreme wastefulness of current methods 
of using fuel4 ,to a certain extent his 
ideas were adopted everywhere1  yet on  
the whole the public proved singularly  
apathetic2 and1 especially  in ,america1
 an astounding wastefulness in the use  
of fuel is the general  custom now as it
 was a century ago4 ,a ,french cook will
 prepare an  entire dinner with a       
splinter of wood1 a handful of charcoal1
 and a  half-shovelful of coke1 while   
the same fuel would barely suffice to   
kindle the fire in an ,american         
cook-stove4 ,even more wonderful is the 
,german stove1 with its great bulk of   
brick and mortar and its glazed  tile   
surface1 in which1 by keeping the heat  
in the room instead of  sending it up   

the chimney1 a few bits of compressed   
coal do the work of  a hodful4    ,it is
 one merit of the low-temperature work1 
,i repeat1 to have called  attention to 
the possibilities of heat insulation in 
application to the  useful purposes of  
life4 ,if ,professor ,dewar's vacuum    
vessel can reduce  the heat-transmitting
 capacity of a vessel by almost         
ninety-seven per  cent41 why should not 
the same principle1 in modified form1 be
 applied  to various household          
appliances--to ice-boxes1 for example1  
and  to cooking utensils1 even to ovens 
and cook-stoves8 ,even in the           
construction of the walls of houses the 
principles of heat insulation  might    
advantageously be given far more        
attention than is usual at  present2 and
 no doubt will be so soon as the        
,european sense of economy  shall be    
brought home to the people of the land  
of progress and  inventions4 ,the       
principles to be applied are already    
clearly to hand1  thanks largely to the 

technical workers with low temperatures4
 ,it  remains now for the practical     
inventors to make the application to the
  useful purposes of life4 ,the         
technical scientists1 ignoring the      
example  which ,rumford and a few others
 have set1 have usually no concern with 
such uninteresting concerns4    ,for the
 technical scientists themselves1       
however1 the low-temperature  field is  
still full of inviting possibilities of 
a strictly technical  kind4 ,the last   
gas has indeed been liquefied1 but that 
by no means  implies the last stage of  
discovery4 ,with the successive conquest
 of  this gas and of that1 lower and    
lower levels of temperature have been   
reached1 but the final goal still lies  
well beyond4 ,this is the north  pole of
 the physicist's world1 the absolute    
zero of temperature--the  point at which
 the heat-vibrations of matter are      
supposed to be  absolutely stilled4     
,theoretically this point lies #bgbj    
below the  ,centigrade zero4 ,with the  

liquefaction of hydrogen1 a temperature 
of  about -#bec deg or -#bed deg        
,centigrade has been reached4 ,so the   
gap  seems not so very great4 ,but like 
the gap that separated ,nansen from the 
geographical pole1 it is a very hard    
road to travel4 ,how to compass it  will
 be the study of all the low-temperature
 explorers in the immediate  future4    
,who will first reach it1 and when1 and 
how1 are questions for  the future to   
decide4    ,and when the goal is        
reached1 what will be revealed8 ,that is
 a question  as full of fascination for 
the physicist as the north-pole mystery 
has ever been for the generality of     
mankind4 ,in the one case as in  the    
other1 any attempt to answer it to-day  
must partake largely of the  nature of a
 guess1 yet certain forecasts may be    
made with reasonable  probability4 ,thus
 it can hardly be doubted that at the   
absolute zero all  matter will have the 
form which we term solid2 and1 moreover1
 a degree  of solidity1 of tenacity and 

compactness greater than ever otherwise 
attained4 ,all chemical activity will   
presumably have ceased1 and any         
existing compound will retain unaltered 
its chemical composition so  long as    
absolute zero pertains2 though in many1 
if not in all cases1  the tangible      
properties of the substance--its color1 
for example1 and  perhaps its           
crystalline texture--will be so altered 
as to be no longer  recognizable by     
ordinary standards1 any more than one   
would ordinarily  recognize a mass of   
snowlike crystals as air4    ,it has1   
indeed1 been suggested that at absolute 
zero all matter may take  the form of an
 impalpable powder1 the forces of       
cohesion being destroyed  with the      
vibrations of heat4 ,but experiment     
seems to give no warrant to  this       
forecast1 since cohesion seems to       
increase exactly in proportion  to the  
decrease of the heat-vibrations4 ,the   
solidity of the meteorites  which come  
to the earth out of the depths of space1

 where something  approaching the zero  
temperature is supposed to prevail1 also
  contradicts this assumption4 ,still   
less warrant is there for a visionary   
forecast at one time entertained that at
 absolute zero matter will  utterly     
disappear4 ,this idea was suggested by  
the observation1 which  first gave a    
clew to the existence of the absolute   
zero1 that a gas at  ordinary           
temperatures and at uniform pressure    
contracts by #a-bg #b;d of  its own bulk
 with each successive degree of lowered 
temperature4 ,if this  law held true for
 all temperatures1 the gas would        
apparently contract to  nothingness when
 the last degree of temperature was     
reached1 or at least  to a bulk so      
insignificant that it would be          
inappreciable by standards  of sense4   
,but it was soon found by the           
low-temperature experimenters  that the 
law does not hold exactly at extreme    
temperatures1 nor does it  apply at all 
to the rate of contraction which the    

substance shows after  it assumes the   
liquid and solid conditions4 ,so the    
conception of the  disappearance of     
matter at zero falls quite to the       
ground4    ,but one cannot answer with  
so much confidence the suggestion that  
at  zero matter may take on properties  
hitherto quite unknown1 and making  it1 
perhaps1 differ as much from the        
conventional solid as the solid  differs
 from the liquid1 or this from the gas4 
,the form of vibration  which produces  
the phenomena of temperature has1       
clearly1 a determining  share in the    
disposal of molecular relations which   
records itself to our  senses as a      
condition of gaseousness1 liquidity1 or 
solidity2 hence it  would be rash to    
predict just what inter-molecular       
relations may not  become possible when 
the heat-vibration is altogether in     
abeyance4 ,that  certain other forms of 
activity may be able to assert          
themselves in  unwonted measure seems   
clearly forecast in the phenomena of    

increased  magnetism1 and of            
phosphorescence at low temperatures     
above outlined4  ,whether still more    
novel phenomena may put in an appearance
 at the  absolute zero1 and if so1 what 
may be their nature1 are questions that 
must await the verdict of experiment4   
,but the possibility that this may      
occur1 together with the utter novelty  
of the entire subject1 gives  the       
low-temperature work precedence over    
almost every other subject  now before  
the world for investigation 7possible   
exceptions being  radio-activity and    
bacteriology74 ,the quest of the        
geographical pole is  but a child's     
pursuit compared with the quest of the  
absolute zero4 ,in  vital interest the  
one falls as far short of the other as  
the cold of  frozen water falls short of
 the cold of frozen air4    ,where1     
when1 and by whom the absolute zero will
 be first reached are  questions that   
may be answered from the most unexpected
 quarter4 ,but it  is interesting to    

know that great preparations are being  
made today in  the laboratories of the  
,royal ,institution for a further attack
 upon the  problem4 ,already the        
research equipment there is the best in 
the world  in this field1 and recently  
this has been completely overhauled and 
still further perfected4 ,it would not  
be strange1 then1 in view of past       
triumphs1 if the final goal of the      
low-temperature workers should be  first
 reached in the same laboratory where   
the outer territories of  the unknown   
land were first penetrated              
three-quarters of a century ago4  ,there
 would seem to be a poetic fitness in   
the trend of events should it  so       
transpire4 ,but of course poetic fitness
 does not always rule in the  land of   
science4          ,,iv4 ,,some          
,,physical ,,laboratories ,,and         
,,physical ,,problems      ,,sir        
,,norman ,,lockyer ,,and ,,solar        
,,chemistry    ,,sir ,,norman ,,lockyer 
is professor of astronomical physics and

 director  of the solar observatory at  
the ,royal ,college of ,science in      
,south  ,kensington4 ,here it is that   
his chief work has been done for some   
thirty  years past4 ,the                
foundation-stone of that work is        
spectroscopic study of  the sun and     
stars4 ,in this study ,professor        
,lockyer was a pioneer1 and he  has for 
years been recognized as the leader4    
,but he is no mere observer2  he is a   
generalizer as well2 and he long since  
evolved revolutionary  ideas as to the  
origin of the sidereal and solar        
systems4    ,for a man whose chief      
occupation is the study of the sun and  
stars1  smoky1 foggy1 cloudy ,london may
 seem a strange location4 ,i asked      
,professor ,lockyer about this1 and his 
reply was most characteristic4  ,the    
fact is1 he said1 the weather here is   
too fine from one point of  view3 my    
working staff is so small1 and the      
number of working nights so  large1 that
 most of the time there is no one about 

to do anything during  the day4 ,then1  
another thing1 here at ,south           
,kensington ,i am in touch  with my     
colleagues in the other                 
departments--physics1 chemistry1 and so 
forth--and can at once draw upon their  
special knowledge for aid on any        
obscure point in their lines that may   
crop up4 ,if we were out in the  country
 this would not be so4 ,you see1 then1  
that it is a choice between  weather and
 brains4 ,i prefer the brains4          
,professor ,lockyer went on to state1   
however1 that he is by no means         
altogether dependent upon the           
observations made at ,south ,kensington4
 ,for  certain purposes the ,royal      
,observatory at ,greenwich is in        
requisition1  and there are three       
observatories at different places in    
,india at which  photographs of the     
sun-spots and solar spectra are taken   
regularly4  ,from these combined sources
 photographs of the sun are forthcoming 
practically every day of the year2 to be

 accurate1 on three hundred and  sixty  
days out of the three hundred and       
sixty-five4 ,it was far  otherwise when 
,professor ,lockyer first began his     
studies of the sun1 as  observations    
were then made and recorded on only     
about one-third of the  days in each    
year4    ,exteriorly the observatory at 
,south ,kensington is not at all such a 
place as one might expect to find4 ,it  
is1 in ,professor ,lockyer's own  words1
 little more than a collection of sheds1
 but within these  alleged sheds may be 
found an excellent equipment of         
telescopes1 both  refracting and        
reflecting1 and of all other things     
requisite to the  peculiar study which  
forms the subject of special research   
here4    ,i have had occasion again and 
again to call attention to this         
relatively  meagre equipment of the     
,european institutions1 but in no case1 
perhaps1  is the contrast more striking 
between the exterior appearance of a    
famous scientific institution and the   

work that is being accomplished  within 
it than is shown in the case of the     
,south ,kensington observatory4  ,it    
should be added that this remark does   
not apply to the chief building  of the 
,royal ,college of ,science itself4     
,the theories for which ,professor      
,lockyer has so long been famous are    
well known to every one who takes much  
interest in the progress of  scientific 
ideas4 ,they are notably the theory that
 there is a direct  causal association  
between the prevalence of sun-spots and 
terrestrial  weather2 the theory of the 
meteoritic origin of all members of the 
sidereal family2 and the dissociation   
theory of the elements1 according  to   
which our so-called elements are really 
compounds1 capable of being  dissociated
 into simpler forms when subjected to   
extreme temperatures1  such as pertain  
in many stars4 ,as ,i have said1 these  
theories are by no  means new4          
,professor ,lockyer has made them       
familiar by expounding them  for a full 

quarter of a century or more4 ,but if   
not new1 these theories  are much too   
important to have been accepted at once 
without a protest  from the scientific  
world4 ,in point of fact1 each of them  
has been met  with most ardent          
opposition1 and it would1 perhaps1 not  
be too much to  say that not one of them
 is1 as yet1 fully established4 ,it is  
of the  highest interest to note1       
however1 that the multitudinous         
observations  bearing upon each of these
 topics during the past decade have     
tended1 in  ,professor ,lockyer's       
opinion1 strongly to corroborate each   
one of these  opinions4    ,two or three
 years ago ,sir ,norman ,lockyer1 in    
association with his son1  communicated 
to the ,royal ,society a paper in which 
the data recently  obtained as to the   
relation between sun-spots and the      
weather  in ,india--the field of        
observations having been confined to    
that  territory--are fully elaborated4  
,a remarkable feature of the recent     

work in that connection has been the    
proof1 or seeming proof1 that the       
temperature of the sun fluctuates from  
year to year4 ,at times when the        
sun-spots are numerous and vigorous in  
their action1 the spectrum of  the      
elements in these spots becomes changed4
 ,during the times of minimum  sun-spot 
activity the spectrum shows1 for        
example1 the presence of large          
quantities of iron in these spots--of   
course in a state of vapor4 ,but in     
times of activity this iron disappears1 
and the lines which previously  vouched 
for it are replaced by other lines      
spoken of as the enhanced  lines of     
iron--that is to say1 the lines which   
are believed to represent  the unknown  
substance or substances into which the  
iron has been  decomposed2 and what is  
true of iron is true of various other   
elements  that are detected in the      
sun-spots4 ,the explanation of this     
phenomena1  if ,professor ,lockyer reads
 the signs aright1 is that during times 

of  minimum sun-spot activity the       
temperature of the sun-spots is         
relatively  cool1 and that in times of  
activity the temperature becomes greatly
  increased4 ,one must come1 therefore1 
to speaking of hot spots and cool  spots
 on the sun2 although the cool spots1 it
 will be understood1  would hardly be   
considered cool in the terrestrial      
sense1 since their  temperature is      
sufficient to vaporize iron4    ,now the
 point of the recent observations is    
that the fluctuations in  the sun's     
heat1 due to the periodic increase and  
subsidence of sun-spot                  
disturbances--such fluctuations having  
been long recognized as having  regular 
cyclic intervals of about eleven        
years--are instrumental in  effecting   
changes in the terrestrial weather4     
,according to the paper  just mentioned1
 it would appear to be demonstrated that
 the periods  of decreased rainfall in  
,india have a direct and relatively     
unvarying  relationship to the          

prevalence of the sun-spots1 and that1  
therefore1 it  has now become possible1 
within reasonable limits1 to predict    
some years  in advance the times of     
famine in ,india4 ,so important a       
conclusion as  this is certainly not to 
be passed over lightly1 and all the     
world1  scientific and unscientific     
alike1 will certainly watch with acute  
interest for the verification of this   
seemingly startling practical  result of
 so occult a science as solar           
spectroscopy4    ,the theory of the     
decomposition of the elements is closely
 bound up with  the meteoritic theory4  
,in a word1 it may be said of each that 
,professor  ,lockyer is firmly convinced
 that all the evidence that has         
accumulated  in recent years is so      
strongly in favor as to bring these     
theories  almost to a demonstration4    
,the essence of the meteoritic theory1  
it  will be recalled1 is that all stars 
have their origin in nebulae which      
consist essentially of clouds of        

relatively small meteorites4 ,it will be
  recalled further that ,professor      
,lockyer long ago pointed out that      
stars pass through a regular series of  
changes as to temperature1 with         
corresponding changes of structure1     
becoming for a time hotter and  hotter  
until a maximum is reached1 and then    
passing through gradual  stages of      
cooling until their light dies out      
altogether4 ,very recently  ,professor  
,lockyer has been enabled1 through      
utilization of the multiform  records   
accumulated during years of study1 to   
define the various typical  stages of   
the sidereal evolution2 and not merely  
to define them but  to illustrate them  
practically by citing stars which belong
 to each  of these stages1 and to give  
them yet clearer definition by naming   
the  various elements which the         
spectroscope reveals as present in each4
    ,his studies have shown that the    
elements do not always give the same    
spectrum under all conditions2 a result 

quite at variance with the  earlier     
ideas on the subject4 ,even in the      
terrestrial laboratory it  is possible  
to subject various metals1 including    
iron1 to temperatures  attained with the
 electric spark at which the spectrum   
becomes different  from that1 for       
example1 which was attained with the    
lower temperature  of the electric arc4 
,through these studies so-called        
series-spectra  have been attained for  
various elements1 and a comparison of   
these  series-spectra with the spectra  
of various stars has led to the         
conclusion that many of the unknown     
lines previously traced in the  spectra 
of such stars are due to the            
decomposition products of familiar      
elements2 all of which1 of course1 is   
directly in line of proof of the        
dissociation hypothesis4    ,another    
important result of ,professor          
,lockyer's very recent studies has  come
 about through observation of the sun in
 eclipse4 ,a very interesting  point at 

issue all along has been the question as
 to what layers of the  sun's atmosphere
 are efficient in producing the         
so-called reverse lines  of the         
spectrum4 ,it is now shown that the     
effect is not produced1 as  formerly    
supposed1 by the layers of the          
atmosphere lying just above the  region 
which ,professor ,lockyer long ago named
 the chromosphere1 but by  the gases of 
higher regions4 ,reasoning from analogy1
 it may be supposed  that a             
corresponding layer of the atmosphere of
 other stars is the  one which gives us 
the reverse spectrum of those stars4    
,the exact  composition of this layer of
 the sidereal atmosphere must1 of       
course1  vary with the temperature of   
the different stars1 but in no case can 
we expect to receive from the           
spectroscope a full record of all the   
substances that may be present in other 
layers of the atmosphere or in  the body
 of the star itself4 ,thus1 for example1
 the ordinary ,freuenhofer  spectrum of 

the sun shows us no trace of the element
 helium1 though  through other          
observations at the time of eclipse     
,professor ,lockyer had  discovered that
 element there1 as we have seen1 some   
thirty years before  anything was known 
of it on the earth4    ,in a recent     
eclipse photographs were taken of the   
spectra of the lower  part of the sun's 
atmosphere by itself1 and it was found  
that the  spectrum of this restricted   
area taken by itself gave the lines     
which  specialize the spectra of so     
different a star as ,procyon4 ,i        
recognize  in the result1 says          
,professor ,lockyer1 a veritable        
,rosetta ,stone which  will enable us to
 read the celestial hieroglyphics       
presented to us in  stellar spectra1 and
 help us to study the spectra and to get
 at results  much more distinctly and   
certainly than ever before4    ,but the 
most striking confirmation which the    
meteoritic hypothesis has  received has 
come to hand through study of the       

spectrum of the new star  which appeared
 in the constellation ,perseus in       
,february1 #aija1 and which  was so     
widely heralded everywhere in the public
 press4 ,this star was  discovered on   
the morning of ,february #bb;d by       
star-gazers in ,scotland1  and in       
,america almost simultaneously4 ,it had 
certainly not been  visible a few hours 
before1 and it had blazed up suddenly to
 a greater  brilliancy than that of a   
first-magnitude star4 ,at first it was  
bluish-white in color1 indicating an    
extremely high temperature1 but  it     
rapidly subsided in brilliancy and      
assumed a red color as it cooled1       
passing thus1 in the course of a few    
days1 through stages for which  ordinary
 stars require periods of many millions 
of years4    ,the most interesting      
feature of the spectrum of this new star
 was the  fact that it showed both light
 and dark lines for the same substances1
  the two lying somewhat apart4 ,this   
means1 being interpreted1 that some     

portions of a given substance are giving
 out light1 thus producing  the bright  
lines of the spectrum1 and that other   
portions of the same  substance are     
stopping certain rays of transmitted    
light1 thus producing  the dark lines4  
,the space between the bright and dark  
lines1 being  measured1 indicated that  
there was a differential motion between 
the  two portions of substance thus     
recorded of something like seven hundred
  miles a second4 ,this means1 according
 to theory--and it seems hardly         
possible to explain it otherwise--that  
two sidereal masses1 one at least  of   
which was moving at an enormous rate of 
speed1 had collided1 such  collision1 of
 course1 being the cause of the         
incandescence that made the  mass       
suddenly visible from the earth as a new
 star4    ,new stars are by no means    
every-day affairs1 there having been but
  thirty-two of them recorded in the    
world's history1 and of these only  two 
have exceeded the present one in        

brilliancy4 ,as a mere spectacle1       
therefore1 this new star was of great   
interest2 but a far greater  importance 
attaches to it through the fact that it 
conforms so admirably  to the course    
that meteoritic hypothesis would predict
 for it4 ,that is  what confounds my    
opponents1 said ,professor ,lockyer1 in 
talking to me  about the new star4 ,most
 of those who oppose my theory have not 
taken  the trouble to make observations 
for themselves1 but have contented      
themselves with falling back apparently 
on the postulate that because  a theory 
is new it must be wrong4 ,then1 outside 
the scientific world1  comparatively few
 people appreciate the extreme parsimony
 of nature4  ,they expect1 therefore1   
that when such a phenomenon as the      
appearance of  a new star occurs1 the   
new-comer will establish new rules for  
itself and  bring chaos into the        
scientific world4 ,but in point of fact 
nature never  does things in two ways if
 she can possibly do them in one1 and   

the  most striking thing about the new  
stars is that all the phenomena they    
present conform so admirably to the laws
 built up through observation of  the   
old familiar stars4 ,as to our          
particular theories1 we here at ,south  
,kensington--it will be understood that 
this use of the editorial we  is merely 
a modest subterfuge on the part of      
,professor ,lockyer--have  no regard for
 them at all simply as ours4 ,like all  
scientists worthy the  name1 we seek    
only the truth1 and should new facts    
come along that seem  to antagonize our 
theory we should welcome them as eagerly
 as we welcome  all new facts of        
whatever bearing4 ,but the truth is that
 no such new  facts have appeared in all
 these years1 but that1 on the contrary1
 the  meteoritic hypothesis has received
 ever-increasing support from most      
unexpected sources1 from none more      
brilliantly or more convincingly than   
from this new star in ,perseus4 ,and ,i 
suspect that as much as this at         

least--if not indeed a good deal        
more--will be freely admitted by every  
candid investigator of ,sir ,norman     
,lockyer's theory4      ,,sir ,,william 
,,ramsay ,,and ,,the ,,new ,,gases      
,the seat of ,sir ,william ,ramsay's    
labors is the ,university ,college1     
,london4 ,the college building itself1  
which is located on ,gower ,street1  is1
 like the ,british ,museum1 reminiscent 
or rather frankly duplicatory  in its   
columned architecture of the classical4 
,interiorly it is like  so many other   
,european institutions in its relative  
simplicity of  equipment4 ,one finds1   
for example1 ,professor ,ramsay and ,dr4
 ,travers  generating the hydrogen for  
their wonderful experiments in an old   
beer-cask4 ,professor ,ramsay himself is
 a tall1 rather spare man1 just         
entering the gray stage of life1 with   
the earnest visage of the scholar1  the 
keen1 piercing eye of the               
investigator--yet not without a twinkle 
that justifies the lineage of the canny 

,scot4 ,he is approachable1  affable1   
genial1 full of enthusiasm for his work1
 yet not taking it with  such undue     
seriousness as to rob him of human      
interest--in a word1 the  type of a man 
of science as one would picture him in  
imagination1 and  would hope1 with      
confident expectation1 to find him in   
reality4    ,i have said that the       
equipment of the college is somewhat    
primitive1 but  this must not be taken  
too comprehensively4 ,such instances as 
that  of the beer-cask show1 to be sure1
 an adaptation of means to ends on      
economical lines2 yet1 on the other     
hand1 it should not be forgotten  that  
the beer-cask serves its purpose        
admirably2 and1 in a word1 it may  be   
said that ,professor ,ramsay's          
laboratory contains everything that  is 
needed to equip it fully for the special
 work to which it has been  dedicated   
for some years past4 ,in general1 it    
looks like any other  laboratory--glass 
tubes1 ,bunsen burners1 retorts and jars

 being in  more or less meaningless     
tangles2 but there are two or three bits
 of  apparatus pretty sure to attract   
the eye of the casual visitor which     
deserve special mention4 ,one of these  
is a long1 wooden1 troughlike  box which
 extends across the room near the       
ceiling and is accessible by  means of  
steps and a platform at one end4        
,through this boxlike tube the  chief   
expert in spectroscopy 7,dr4 ,bay-ley7  
spies on the spectrum of  the gas1 and  
learns some of its innermost secrets4   
,but an even more  mystifying apparatus 
is an elaborate array of long glass     
tubes1 some of  them carried to the     
height of several feet1 interspersed    
with cups of  mercury and with          
thermometers of various sizes and       
shapes4 ,the technical  scientist would 
not make much of this description1 but  
neither would an  untechnical observer  
make much of the apparatus2 yet to ,dr4 
,travers1 its  inventor1 it is capable  
of revealing such extraordinary things  

as the  temperature of liquid           
hydrogen--a temperature far below that  
at which  the contents of even an       
alcoholic thermometer are solidified2 at
 which1  indeed1 the prime constituents 
of the air suffer a like fate4 ,the     
responsible substance which plays the   
part of the familiar mercury1 or        
alcohol1 in ,dr4 ,travers's marvellous  
thermometer is hydrogen gas4  ,the      
principle by which it is utilized does  
not differ1 in its rough  essentials1   
from that of ordinary thermometers1 but 
the details of its  construction are    
much too intricate to be elaborated     
here4    ,but if you would see the most 
wonderful things in this laboratory--or 
rather1 to be quite accurate1 ,i should 
say1 if you would stand in the  presence
 of the most wonderful things--you must 
go with ,professor  ,ramsay to his own  
private laboratory1 and be introduced to
 some little  test-tubes that stand     
inverted in cups of mercury decorating a
 shelf at  one end4 ,you would never    

notice these tubes of your own accord   
were  you to browse ever so long about  
the room4 ,even when your attention  is 
called to them you still see nothing    
remarkable4 ,these are ordinary         
test-tubes inverted over ordinary       
mercury4 ,they contain something1 since 
the mercury does not rise in them       
completely1 but if that something be    
other than ordinary air there is nothing
 about its appearance1 or rather  lack  
of appearance1 to demonstrate it4 ,but  
your interest will hardly  fail to be   
arrested when ,professor ,ramsay1       
indicating one and another of  these    
little tubes1 says3 ,here you see1 or   
fail to see1 all the krypton  that has  
ever been in isolated existence in the  
world1 and here all the  neon1 and here1
 again1 all the zenon4    ,you will     
understand1 of course1 that krypton1    
neon1 and zenon are the  new gases of   
the atmosphere whose existence no one   
suspected until  ,professor ,ramsay     
ferreted them out a few years ago and   

isolated them4 ,in  one sense there     
should be nothing mysterious about      
substances that every  air-breathing    
creature on the globe has been imbibing 
pretty constantly  ever since lungs came
 into fashion4 ,but in another view the 
universal  presence of these gases in   
the air makes it seem all the more      
wonderful  that they could so long have 
evaded detection1 considering that      
chemistry has been a precise science for
 more than a century4 ,during  that time
 thousands of chemists have made        
millions of experiments in the  very    
midst of these atmospheric gases1 yet   
not one of the experimenters1  until    
recently1 suspected their existence4    
,this proves that these gases  are no   
ordinary substances--common though they 
be4 ,personally ,i have  examined many  
scientific exhibits in many lands1 but  
nowhere have ,i seen  anything that     
filled my imagination with so many      
scientific visions as  these little     
harmless test-tubes at the back of      

,professor ,ramsay's desk4  ,perhaps ,i 
shall attempt to visualize some of these
 imaginings before  finishing this      
paper1 but for the moment ,i wish to    
speak of the modus  operandi of the     
discovery of these additions to the list
 of elements4    ,the discovery of argon
 came about in a rather singular way4   
,lord  ,rayleigh1 of the ,royal         
,institution1 had noticed in experiments
 with  nitrogen that when samples of    
this element were obtained from         
chemicals1  such samples were uniformly 
about one per cent1 lighter in weight   
than similar quantities of nitrogen     
obtained from the atmosphere4  ,this    
discrepancy led him to believe that the 
atmospheric nitrogen must  contain some 
impurity4    ,curiously enough1 the     
experiments of ,cavendish1 the          
discoverer of  nitrogen--experiments    
made more than a century ago--had seemed
 to show  quite conclusively that some  
gaseous substance different from        
nitrogen  was to be found mixed with the

 samples of this gas as he obtained it  
from the atmosphere4 ,this conclusion of
 ,cavendish1 put forward indeed  but    
tentatively1 had been quite ignored by  
his successors4 ,now1  however1 it      
transpired1 by experiments made jointly 
by ,lord ,rayleigh  and ,professor      
,ramsay1 that the conclusion was quite  
justified1 it being  shown presently    
that there actually exists in every     
portion of nitrogen1  as extracted from 
the atmosphere1 a certain quantity of   
another gas1  hitherto unknown1 and     
which now received the name of argon4   
,it will  be recalled with what         
astonishment the scientific and the     
unscientific  world alike received the  
announcement made to the ,royal ,society
 in #ahie  of the discovery of argon1   
and the proof that this hitherto        
unsuspected  constituent of the         
atmosphere really constitutes about one 
per cent1 of  the bulk of atmospheric   
nitrogen1 as previously estimated4      
,the discovery here on the earth of a   

substance which ,professor ,lockyer  had
 detected as early as #ahfh in the sun1 
and which he had provisionally  named   
helium1 excited almost equal interest2  
but this element was found  in certain  
minerals1 and not as a constituent of   
the atmosphere4    ,having discovered so
 interesting a substance as argon1      
,professor  ,ramsay and his assistants  
naturally devoted much time and         
attention to  elucidating the           
peculiarities of the new substance4 ,in 
the course of  these studies it became  
evident to them that the presence of    
argon alone  did not fully account for  
all the phenomena they observed in      
handling  liquefied air1 and in #ahih   
,professor ,ramsay was again able to    
electrify  his audience at the ,royal   
,society by the announcement of the     
discovery1  in pretty rapid succession1 
of three other elementary substances as 
constituents of the atmosphere1 these   
three being the ones just referred      
to--krypton1 neon1 and zenon4    ,it is 

a really thrilling experience1 standing 
in the presence of the  only portions of
 these new substances that have been    
isolated1 to hear  ,professor ,ramsay   
and ,dr4 ,travers1 his chief assistant1 
tell the story  of the discovery--how   
they worked more and more eagerly as    
they found  themselves1 so to say1 on a 
warmer scent1 following out this clew   
and that until the right one at last    
brought the chase to a successful       
issue4 ,it was on a ,sabbath morning in 
,june1 if ,i remember rightly1  when we 
finally ran zenon down1 says ,dr4       
,travers1 with a half smile2  and       
,professor ,ramsay1 his eyes twinkling  
at the recollection of this  very       
unorthodox procedure1 nods assent4 ,and 
have you got them all  now8 ,i queried1 
after hearing the story4 ,yes2 we think 
so1 replied  ,professor ,ramsay4 ,and ,i
 am rather glad of it1 he adds1 with a  
half  sigh1 for it was wearisome even   
though fascinating work4 ,just how      
wearisome it must have been only a      

professional scientific investigator    
can fully comprehend2 but the           
fascination of it all may be            
comprehended  in some measure by every  
one who has ever attempted creative work
 of  whatever grade or in whatever      
field4    ,i have just said that the    
little test-tubes contain the only bit  
of  each of the substances named that   
has ever been isolated4 ,this statement 
might lead the untechnical reader to    
suppose that these substances1 once     
isolated1 have been carefully stored    
away and jealously guarded1 each  in its
 imprisoning test-tubes4 ,jealously     
guarded they have been1 to be  sure1 but
 there has not been1 by any means1 the  
solitary confinement  that the words    
might seem to imply4 ,on the contrary1  
each little whiff  of gas has been      
subjected to a variety of               
experiments--made to pass  through      
torturing-tubes under varying conditions
 of temperature1 and  brought purposely 
in contact with various other           

substances1 that its  physical and      
chemical properties might be tested4    
,but in each case the  experiment ended 
with the return of the substance1 as    
pure as before1 to  its proper tube4    
,the precise results of all these       
experiments have been  communicated to  
the ,royal ,society by ,professor       
,ramsay4 ,most of these  results are of 
a technical character1 hardly appealing 
to the average  reader4 ,there is one   
very salient point1 however1 in regard  
to which all  the new substances1       
including argon and helium1 agree2 and  
it is that  each of them seems to be1 so
 far as present experiments go1         
absolutely  devoid of that fundamental  
chemical property1 the power to combine 
with  other elements4 ,all of them are  
believed to be monatomic--that is  to   
say1 each of their molecules is composed
 of a single atom4 ,this1  however1 is  
not an absolutely novel feature as      
compared with other  terrestrial        
elements1 for the same thing is true1   

for example1 of such a  familiar        
substance as mercury4 ,but the          
incapacity to enter into chemical       
combinations seems very paradoxical2    
indeed it is almost like saying  that   
these are chemical elements which lack  
the most fundamental of  chemical       
properties4    ,it is this lack of      
combining power1 of course1 that        
explains the  non-discovery of these    
elements during all these years1 for the
  usual way of testing an element is to 
bring it in contact with other          
substances under conditions that permit 
its atoms to combine with  other atoms  
to the formation of new substances4 ,but
 in the case of new  elements such      
experiments as this have not proved     
possible under any  conditions as yet   
attained1 and reliance must be had upon 
other physical  tests--such as variation
 of the bulk of the gas under pressure1 
and  under varying temperatures1 and a  
study of the critical temperatures  and 
pressures under which each gas becomes a

 liquid4 ,the chief reliance1  however1 
is the spectroscope--the instrument     
which revealed the presence  of helium  
in the sun and the stars more than a    
quarter of a century  before ,professor 
,ramsay ferreted it out as a terrestrial
 element4  ,each whiff of colorless gas 
in its test-tube interferes with the    
light  passing through it in such a way 
that when viewed through a prism it     
gives a spectrum of altogether unique   
lines1 which stamp it as krypton1  neon1
 or zenon as definitely as certain      
familiar and more tangible  properties  
stamp the liquid which imprisons it as  
mercury4      ,,queries ,,suggested ,,by
 ,,the ,,new ,,gases    ,suppose that a 
few years ago you had asked some        
chemist1 ,what are the  constituents of 
the atmosphere8 ,he would have          
responded1 with entire  confidence1     
,oxygen and nitrogen chiefly1 with a    
certain amount of  water-vapor and of   
carbonic-acid gas and a trace of        
ammonia4 ,if  questioned as to the chief

 properties of these constituents1 he   
would  have replied1 with equal         
facility1 that these are among the most 
important elements2 that oxygen might   
almost be said to be the  life-giving   
principle1 inasmuch as no air-breathing 
creature could get  along without it for
 many moments together2 and that        
nitrogen is equally  important to the   
organism1 though in a different way1    
inasmuch as it is  not taken up through 
the lungs4 ,as to the water-vapor1 that1
 of course1  is a compound of oxygen and
 hydrogen1 and no one need be told of   
its  importance1 as every one knows that
 water makes up the chief bulk of       
protoplasm2 carbonic-acid gas is also a 
compound of oxygen1 the other  element  
this time being carbon1 and it plays a  
quite different rle in  the economy of  
the living organism1 inasmuch as it is  
produced by the  breaking down of       
tissues1 and must be constantly exhaled 
from the lungs  to prevent the poisoning
 of the organism by its accumulation2   

while  ammonia1 which exists only in    
infinitesimal quantities in the air1 is 
a  compound of nitrogen and hydrogen1   
introducing1 therefore1 no new  element4
    ,if one studies somewhat attentively
 the relation which these elements      
composing the atmosphere bear to the    
living organism he cannot fail to  be   
struck with it2 and it would seem a safe
 inductive reasoning from the           
stand-point of the evolutionist that the
 constituents of the atmosphere  have   
come to be all-essential to the living  
organism1 precisely because  all their  
components are universally present4     
,but1 on the other hand1  if we consider
 the matter in the light of these       
researches regarding the  new gases1 it 
becomes clear that perhaps the last word
 has not been said  on this subject2 for
 here are four or five other elementary 
substances  which1 if far less abundant 
than oxygen and nitrogen1 are no less   
widely  distributed and universally     
present in the atmosphere1 yet no one of

  which apparently takes any chemical   
share whatever in ministering to the    
needs of the living organism4 ,this     
surely is an enigma4    ,taking another 
point of view1 let us try to imagine the
 real status of  these new gases of the 
air4 ,we think of argon as connected    
with nitrogen  because in isolation     
experiments it remains after the oxygen 
has been  exhausted1 but in point of    
fact there is no such connection between
  argon and nitrogen in nature4 ,the    
argon atom is just as closely in        
contact with the oxygen in the          
atmosphere as with the nitrogen2 it     
simply repels each indiscriminately4    
,but consider a little further2  the    
argon atom not only repels all advance  
on the part of oxygen and  nitrogen1 but
 it equally holds itself aloof from its 
own particular  kindred atoms4 ,the     
oxygen or nitrogen atom never rests     
until it has  sought out a fellow1 but  
the argon atom declines all fellowship4 
,when  the chemist has played his tricks

 upon it1 it finds itself crowded       
together with other atoms of the same   
kind2 but lift up the little  test-tube 
and these scurry off from one another in
 every direction1 each  losing its      
fellows forever as quickly as possible4 
,as one ponders this one is almost      
disposed to suggest that the atom of    
argon 7or of krypton1 helium1 neon1 or  
zenon1 for the same thing applies  to   
each and all of these7 seems the most   
perfect thing known to us in  the world1
 for it needs no companionship1 it is   
self-sufficing4 ,there  is something    
sublime about this magnificient         
isolation1 this splendid  self-reliance1
 this undaunted and undauntable         
self-sufficiency--these  are traits     
which the world is wont to ascribe to   
beings more than  mortal4 ,but let us   
pause lest we push too far into the old1
 discredited  territory of metaphysics4 
,,professor ,j4 ,j4 ,,thompson ,,and    
,,the ,,nature ,,op ,,electricity       
,many fascinating questions suggest     

themselves in connection with these     
strange1 new elements--new1 of course1  
only in the sense of human              
knowledge--which all these centuries    
have been about us1 yet which have      
managed until now to keep themselves as 
invisible and as intangible as  spirits4
 ,have these celibate atoms remained    
thus always isolated1 taking  no part in
 world-building8 ,are they destined     
throughout the sweep of  time to keep up
 this celibate existence8 ,and why do   
these elements alone  refuse all        
fellowship1 while the atoms of all the  
other seventy-odd  known elements seek  
out mates under proper conditions with  
unvarying  avidity8    ,it is perhaps   
not possible fully to answer these      
questions as yet1 but  recent studies in
 somewhat divergent fields give us      
suggestive clews to  some of them4 ,i   
refer in particular to the studies in   
reference to the  passage of electricity
 through liquids and gases and to the   
observations  on radioactivity4 ,the    

most conspicuous worker in the field of 
electricity is ,professor ,j4 ,j4       
,thompson1 who for many years has had   
charge of the ,cavendish laboratory at  
,cambridge4 ,in briefly reviewing       
certain phases of his work we shall find
 ourselves brought into contact  with   
some of the same problems raised by     
workers in the other fields of  physics1
 and shall secure some very interesting 
bits of testimony as to  the solution of
 questions already outlined4    ,the    
line of observation which has led to the
 most striking results has  to do1 as   
already suggested1 with the conduction  
of electricity through  liquids and     
gases4 ,it has long been known that many
 liquids conduct  electricity with      
relative facility4 ,more recently it has
 been observed  that a charge of        
electricity carried by any liquid bears 
a curious  relation to the atomic       
composition of that liquid4 ,if the atom
 in  question is one of the sort that   
can combine with only a single other    

atom 7that is to say1 a monovalent      
atom71 each atom conveys a unit  charge1
 which is spoken of as an ion of        
electricity4 ,but if a divalent  atom is
 in question the charge carried is      
double1 and1 similarly1 a  trivalent    
atom carries a triple charge4 ,as there 
are no intermediate  charges it is      
obvious that here a very close relation 
is suggested  between electrical units  
and the atomic units of matter4         
,this1 however1 is only a beginning4    
,far more interesting are the results   
obtained by the study of gases in their 
relation to the conduction  of          
electricity4 ,as is well known1 gases   
under ordinary conditions are           
nonconductors4 ,but there are various   
ways in which a gas may be changed  so  
as to become a conductor2 for example1  
by contact with incandescent  metals or 
with flame1 or by treating with         
ultra-violet light1 with  ,rntgen rays1 
or with the rays of a radio-active      
substance4 ,now the  all-important      

question is as to just what change has  
taken place in the  gas so treated to   
make it a conductor of electricity4 ,i  
cannot go into  details here as to the  
studies that have been addressed to the 
answer  of this question1 but ,i will   
briefly epitomize what1 for our present 
purpose1 are the important results4     
,first and foremost of these is the     
fact that a gas thus rendered conductive
 contains particles that can  be        
filtered out of it by passing the gas   
through wool or through water4  ,these  
particles are the actual agents of      
conduction of electricity1  since the   
gas when filtered ceases to be          
conductive4 ,but there is  another way  
in which the particles may be           
removed--namely1 by action  of          
electricity itself4 ,if the gas be      
caused to pass between two metal        
plates1 one of them insulated and       
attached to an electrometer1 a charge   
of positive electricity at high         
potential sent through the other plate  

will drive part of the particles against
 the insulated plate4 ,this  proves that
 the particles in question are          
positively electrified4  ,the amount of 
the charge which they carry may be      
measured by the  electrometer4    ,the  
aggregate amount of the electrical      
charge carried by these minute          
particles in the gas being known1 it is 
obvious that could we know the  number  
of particles involved the simplest      
calculation would determine  the charge 
of each particle4 ,professor ,thompson  
devised a singularly  ingenious method  
of determining this number4 ,the method 
was based on  the fact discovered by ,c4
 ,t4 ,r4 ,wilson that charged particles 
acted as  nuclei round which small drops
 of water condense much as dust         
particles  serve the same purpose4 ,in  
dust-free air1 says ,professor          
,thompson1  as ,aitken showed1 it is    
very difficult to get a fog when damp   
air is  cooled1 since there are no      
nuclei for the drops to condense round4 

,if  there are charged particles in     
dust-free air1 however1 the fog will be 
deposited round these by                
super-saturation far less than that     
required to  produce any appreciable fog
 when no charged particles are present4 
,thus1 in sufficiently supersaturated   
damp air a cloud is deposited on  these 
charged particles and they are thus     
rendered visible4 ,this is the  first   
step towards counting them4 ,the drops  
are1 however1 far too small  and too    
numerous to be counted directly4 ,we    
can1 however1 get their  number         
indirectly as follows3 suppose we have a
 number of these  particles in dust-free
 air in a closed vessel1 the air being  
saturated  with water-vapor2 suppose now
 that we produce a sudden expansion of  
the  air in the vessel2 this will cool  
the air1 it will be supersaturated  with
 vapor1 and drops will be deposited     
round the charged particles4 ,now  if we
 know the amount of expansion produced  
we can calculate the cooling  of the    

gas1 and1 therefore1 the amount of water
 deposited4 ,thus we know  the volume of
 water in the form of drops1 so that if 
we know the volume  of one drop we can  
deduce the number of drops4 ,to find the
 size of a  drop1 we make use of the    
investigations made by ,sir ,george     
,stokes on the  rate at which small     
spheres fall through the air4 ,in       
consequence of  the viscosity of the air
 small bodies fall exceedingly slowly1  
and the  smaller they are the slower    
they fall4 99    ,professor ,thompson   
gives us the formula by which ,stokes   
made his  calculation4 ,it is a         
relatively simple algebraic one1 but    
need not be  repeated here4 ,for us it  
suffices that with the aid of this      
formula1  by merely measuring the actual
 descent of the top of a vapor cloud1   
,professor ,thompson was able to find   
the volume of the drops and thence  the 
number of particles4 ,the number of     
particles being known1 the  charge of   
electricity carried by each could be    

determined1 as already  suggested4      
,experiments were made with air1        
hydrogen1 and carbonic acid1  and it was
 found that the particles had the same  
charge in all of these  gases4 ,a strong
 argument1 says ,professor ,thompson1 in
 favor of  the atomic character of      
electricity4 ,when we add that the      
charge in  question was found to be the 
same as the unit charge of an ion in a  
liquid1 it will be seen that the        
experiment has other points of interest 
and suggestiveness4    ,even more       
interesting in some regards were the    
results of computation  as to the actual
 masses of the charged particles in     
question4 ,professor  ,thompson found   
that the carrier of a negative charge   
could have only  about one-thousandth   
part of the mass of a hydrogen atom1    
which latter  had been regarded as the  
smallest mass able to have an           
independent  existence4 ,professor      
,thompson gave the name corpuscle to    
these units  of negative electricity2   

they are now more generally termed      
electrons4  ,these corpuscles1 he says1 
are the same however the electrification
  may have risen or wherever they may be
 found4 ,negative electricity in a  gas 
at a low pressure has thus a structure  
analogous to that of a gas1  the        
corpuscles taking the place of the      
molecules4 ,the 'negative electric      
fluid1' to use the old notation1        
resembles the gaseous fluid with a      
corpuscular instead of a molecular      
structure4' ,professor ,thompson does   
not hesitate to declare that we now know
 more about 'electric fluid'  than we   
know about such fluids as air or        
water499#c99 ,the results of his        
studies lead him1 he declares1 to a view
 of electrification which  has a        
striking resemblance to that of         
,franklin's ,one ,fluid ,theory of      
,electricity4 ,instead of taking1 as    
,franklin did1 the electric fluid  to be
 positive electricity1 he says1 we take 
it to be negative4 ,the  'electric      

fluid' of ,franklin corresponds to an   
assemblage of corpuscles1  negative     
electrification being a collection of   
these corpuscles4 ,the  transference of 
electrification from one place to       
another is effected  by the motion of   
corpuscles from the place where there is
 a gain of  positive electrification to 
the place where there is a gain of      
negative4 ,a positively electrified body
 is one that has lost some of its       
corpuscles499#d99 ,according to this    
view1 then1 electricity is not a form   
of energy but a form of matter2 or1 to  
be more precise1 the electrical         
corpuscle is the fundamental structure  
out of which the atom of matter  is     
built4 ,this is a quite different view  
from that scarcely less recent  one     
which regards electricity as the        
manifestation of ether strain1  but it  
must be admitted that the corpuscular   
theory is supported by a  marvellous    
array of experimental evidence1 though  
it can perhaps hardly  be claimed that  

this brings the theory to the plane of  
demonstration4  ,but all roads of       
physical science of late years have     
seemed to lead  towards the electron1 as
 will be made further manifest when we  
consider  the phenomena of              
radio-activity1 to which we now turn4   
,,radio-,,activity    ,in #ahif1        
something like a year after the         
discovery of the ,x-ray1  ,niewenglowski
 reported to the ,french ,academy of    
,sciences that the  well-known chemical 
compound calcium sulphide1 when exposed 
to sunlight1  gave off rays that        
penetrated black paper4 ,he had made his
 examinations  of this substance1 since1
 like several others1 it was known to   
exhibit  strong fluorescent or          
phosphorescent effects when exposed to  
the cathode  rays1 which are known to be
 closely connected with the ,x-rays4    
,this  discovery was followed very      
shortly by confirmatory experiments made
 by  ,becquerel1 ,troost1 and ,arnold1  
and these were followed in turn by the  

discovery of ,le ,bon1 made almost      
simultaneously1 that certain bodies     
when acted upon by sunlight give out    
radiations which act upon a             
photographic plate4 ,these              
manifestations1 however1 are not the    
effect of  radio-activity1 but are      
probably the effects of short           
ultra-violet  light waves1 and are not  
produced spontaneously by the           
substances4 ,the  radiations1 or        
emanations1 of the radio-active         
substances1 on the other  hand1 are     
given out spontaneously1 pass through   
substances opaque to  ordinary light1   
such as metal plates1 act upon          
photographic plates1 and  discharge     
electrified bodies4 ,the substances     
uranium1 thorium1 polonium1  radium1 and
 their compounds are radioactive1 radium
 being by far the  most active4    ,the 
first definite discovery of such a      
radio-active substance was made  by ,m4 
,henri ,becquerel1 in #ahif1 while      
making some experiments upon  the       

peculiar ore pitch-blende4 ,pitch-blende
 is a heavy1 black1  pitchy-looking     
mineral1 found principally at present in
 some parts of  ,saxony and ,bohemia on 
the ,continent1 in ,cornwall in ,great  
,britain1 and  in ,colorado in ,america4
 ,it is by no means a recently          
discovered mineral1  having been for    
some years the source of uranium and its
 compounds1  which1 on account of their 
brilliant colors1 have been used in     
dye-stuffs and some kinds of stained    
glass4 ,it is a complex mineral1        
containing at least eight or ten        
elements1 which can be separated from   
it only with great difficulty and by    
complicated chemical processes4         
,becquerers discovery was brought about 
by a lucky accident1 although1  like so 
many other apparently accidental        
scientific discoveries1 it was  the     
outcome of a long series of scientific  
experiments all trending in  the same   
direction4 ,he had found that uranium1  
when exposed to the sun's  rays1        

appeared to possess the property of     
absorbing them and of then  acting upon 
a photographic plate4 ,since            
pitch-blende contained uranium1  or     
uranium salts1 he surmised that a       
somewhat similar result might be        
obtained with the ore itself4 ,he       
therefore prepared a photographic plate 
wrapped in black paper1 intending to    
attempt making an impression on the     
plate of some metal body interposed     
between it and the pitch-blende4 ,for   
this purpose he had selected a key2 but 
as the day proved to be cloudy  he put  
the plate1 with the key and pitch-blende
 resting upon it1 in  a dark drawer in  
his desk1 and did not return to the     
experiment for  several days4 ,upon     
doing so1 however1 he developed the     
plate without  further exposure1 when to
 his astonishment he found that the     
developed  negative showed a distinct   
impression of the key4 ,clearly this was
 the  manifestation of a property       
heretofore unknown in any natural       

substance1  and was strikingly similar  
to the action of the ,roentgen rays4    
,further  investigations by ,lord       
,kelvin1 ,beattie1 ,smolan1 and         
,rutherford confirmed  the fact that1   
like the ,roentgen rays1 the uranium    
rays not only acted  upon the           
photographic plate but discharged       
electrified bodies4 ,and what  seemed   
the more wonderful was the fact that    
these ,becquerel rays1 as  they were now
 called1 emanated spontaneously from the
 pitch-blende4  ,but although this      
action is analogous to the ,roentgen    
rays1 at least as  regards its action   
upon the photographic plate and its     
influence on  the electric field1 its   
action is extremely feeble in           
comparison1 the  ,roentgen rays         
producing effects in minutes1 or even   
seconds1 which  require days of exposure
 to uranium rays4 ,the discovery of the 
radio-active properties of uranium was  
followed about two years later by  the  
discovery that thorium1 and the minerals

 containing thorium1  possess properties
 similar to those of uranium4 ,this     
discovery was  made independently and at
 about the same time by ,schmidt and    
,madame  ,skaldowska ,curie4 ,but the   
importance of this discovery was soon   
completely overshadowed by the discovery
 of radium by ,madame ,curie1  working  
with her husband1 ,professor ,pierre    
,curie1 at the cole  ,polytechnique in  
,paris4 ,madame ,curie1 stimulated by   
her own discoveries  and those of the   
other scientists just referred to1 began
 a series of  examinations upon various 
substances by numerous complicated      
methods  to try and find a possible new 
element1 as certain peculiarities of the
  substances found in the pitch-blende  
seemed to indicate the presence of  some
 hitherto unknown body4 ,the search     
proved a most difficult one  on account 
of the peculiar nature of the object in 
question1 but the  tireless enthusiasm  
of ,madame ,curie knew nothing of       
insurmountable  obstacles1 and soon drew

 her husband into the search with her4  
,her first  discovery was that of the   
substance polonium--so named by ,madame 
,curie  after her native country1       
,poland4 ,this proved to be another of  
the  radio-active substances1 differing 
from any other yet discovered1 but      
still not the sought-for element4 ,in a 
short time1 however1 the two  ,curies   
made the great discovery of the element 
radium--a substance  which1 according to
 their estimate1 is some one million    
eight hundred  thousand times more      
radioactive than uranium4 ,the name for 
this element1  radium1 was proposed by  
,madame ,curie1 who had also suggested  
the term  radio-activity4    ,the       
bearing of the discovery of radium and  
radioactivity upon theories  of the atom
 and matter will be considered in a     
moment2 first the more  tangible        
qualities of this wonderful substance   
may be briefly referred  to4 ,the fact  
that radio-active emanations traverse   
all forms of matter  to greater or less 

depth--that is1 pass through wood and   
iron with  something the same ease that 
light passes through a                  
window-glass--makes  the subject one of 
greatest interest2 and particularly so  
as the  demonstration of this fact is so
 tangible4 ,while the rays given out by 
radium cannot1 of course1 be seen by the
 unaided eye1 the effects of  these rays
 upon certain substances1 which they    
cause to phosphoresce1  are strikingly  
shown4 ,one of such substances is the   
diamond1 and a  most striking           
illustration of the power of radium in  
penetrating opaque  substances has been 
made by ,mr4 ,george ,f4 ,kunz1 of the  
,american ,museum  of ,natural ,history4
 ,mr4 ,kunz describes this experiment as
 follows3    ,radium bromide of three   
hundred thousand activity was placed in 
a  sealed glass tube inside a rubber    
thermometer-holder1 which was tightly   
screwed to prevent any emanation of any 
kind from passing through the  joints4  
,this was placed under a heavy silver   

tureen fully one-sixteenth  of an inch  
in thickness2 upon this were placed four
 copper plates1 such  as are used for   
engraving2 upon these a heavy graduated 
measuring-glass  #aj cm4 in diameter2   
this was filled with water to a depth of
 six inches4  ,a diamond was suspended  
in the water and immediately            
phosphoresced4  ,whenever the tube of   
radium was drawn away more than two or  
three feet  the phosphoresce ceased2    
whenever it was placed under the tureen 
the  diamond immediately phosphoresced  
again4 ,this experiment proves that the 
active power of the radium penetrated   
the following substances3    ,glass in  
the form of a tube1 sealed at both ends2
 the rubber  thermometer-holder2 silver 
tureen2 four copper plates2 a glass vase
 or  measuring-glass one-quarter of an  
inch in thickness2 three inches of      
water4 ,there is no previously known    
substance or agent1 whether it be  even 
light or electricity1 that possesses    
such wonderfully penetrative            

powers499#e99      ,,the ,,nature ,,of  
,,emanations ,,from ,,radio-,,active    
,,bodies    ,what1 then1 is the nature  
of these radiations8 ,are they actually 
material particles hurled through the   
ether8 ,or are they like light--and     
possibly the ,roentgen rays--simply     
undulations in the ether8 ,as yet this  
question is an open one1 although       
several of the leading investigators    
have postulated tentative hypotheses    
which at least serve as a working  basis
 until they are either confirmed or     
supplanted4 ,on one point1  however1    
there seems to be unanimity of          
opinion--there seems to be  little      
question that there are at least three  
different kinds of rays  produced by    
radio-active substances4 ,according to  
,sir ,william ,crookes1  the first of   
these are free electrons1 or matter in  
an ultra-gaseous  state1 as shown in the
 cathode stream4 ,these particles are   
extremely  minute4 ,they carry a        
negative charge of electricity1 and are 

identified  with the electric corpuscles
 of ,thompson4 ,rays of the second kind 
are  comparable in size to the hydrogen 
atom1 and are positively electrified4   
,these are easily checked by material   
obstructions1 although they render  the 
air a conductor and affect photographic 
plates4 ,the third are very  penetrating
 rays1 which are not deflected by       
electricity and which are  seemingly    
identical with ,roentgen rays4          
,professor ,e4 ,rutherford has  named   
these rays beta 7,b71 alpha 7a71 and    
gamma 7v7 rays respectively4  ,of these 
the beta rays are deviated strongly by  
the magnetic field1 the  alpha much less
 so--very slightly1 in fact--while the  
gamma rays are not  affected at all4    
,the action of these three different    
sets of rays upon  certain substances is
 not the same1 the beta and gamma rays  
acting  strongly upon barium            
platinocyanide1 but feebly on ,sidot's  
blende1  while the alpha rays act       
exactly the reverse of this1 acting     

strongly on  ,sidot's blende4    ,if a  
surface is coated with ,sidot's blende  
and held near a piece of  radium        
nitrate1 the coated surface begins to   
glow4 ,if now it is examined  with a    
lens1 brilliant sparks or points can be 
seen4 ,as the radium is  brought closer 
and closer these sparks increase in     
number1 until1 as ,sir  ,william        
,crookes says1 we seem to be witnessing 
a bombardment of flying  atoms hurled   
from the radium against the surface of  
the blende4 ,a little  instrument called
 a spinthariscope1 devised by ,dr4      
,crookes and on sale  at the instrument 
and optical-goods shops1 may be had for 
a trifling  sum4 ,it is fitted with a   
lens focused upon a bit of ,sidot's     
blende and  radium nitrate1 and in a    
dark room shows these beautiful         
scintillations  like a shower of stars4 
,a still less expensive but similar     
device  is now made in the form of a    
microscopic slide1 to be used with the  
ordinary lens4    ,as we said a moment  

ago1 radium appears to be an elementary 
substance1  as shown by its             
spark-spectrum being different from that
 of any other  known substance--the     
determinative test as fixed by the      
,international  ,chemical ,congress4 ,a 
particle of radium free from impurities 
should1  therefore1 according to the    
conventional conception of an element1  
remain unchanged and unchangeable4 ,if  
any such change did actually take  place
 it would mean that the conception of   
the ,daltonian atom as  the ultimate    
particle of matter is definitively      
challenged from a new  direction4 ,this 
is precisely what has taken place4 ,in  
,july of #aijc ,sir  ,william ,ramsay   
and ,mr4 ,soddy1 in making some         
experiments with radium1  saw produced1 
apparently from radium emanations1      
another quite different  and distinct   
substance1 the element helium4 ,the     
report of such a  revolutionary         
phenomenon was naturally made with      
scientific caution4  ,though the        

observation seemed to prove the actual  
transformation of one  element into     
another1 ,professor ,ramsay himself was 
by no means ready to  declare the       
absolute certainty of this4 ,yet the    
presumption in favor  of this           
interpretation of the observed phenomena
 is very strong2 and so  cautious a     
reasoner as ,professor ,rutherford has  
declared recently that  there can be no 
doubt that helium is derived from the   
emanations of  radium in consequence of 
changes of some kind occurring in       
it499#f99    ,in order to explain the   
presence of helium in radium on ordinary
  chemical lines1 says ,professor       
,rutherford1 it has been suggested that 
radium is not a true element1 but a     
molecular compound of helium with  some 
substance known or unknown4 ,the helium 
compound gradually breaks  down1 giving 
rise to the helium observed4 ,it is at  
once obvious that  this postulated      
helium compound is of an entirely       
different character to  any other       

compound previously observed in         
chemistry4 ,weight for weight1  it emits
 during its change an amount of energy  
at least one million  times greater than
 any molecular compound known4 ,in      
addition1 it must  be supposed that the 
rate of breaking up of the helium       
compound is  independent of great ranges
 of temperature--a result never before  
observed in any molecular change4 ,the  
helium compound in its breaking  up must
 give rise to the peculiar radiations   
and also pass through the  successive   
radio-active change observed in         
radium4444 ,on the other  hand1 radium1 
as far as it has been examined1 has     
fulfilled every  test required of an    
element4 ,it has a well-marked and      
characteristic  spectrum1 and there is  
no reason to suppose that it is not an  
element in  the ordinarily accepted     
sense of the term499#g99      ,,the     
,,source ,,of ,,energy ,,of             
,,radio-,,activity    ,in #aijc ,messrs4
 ,curie and ,laborde99#h99 made the     

remarkable announcement  that a crystal 
of radium is persistently warmer than   
its surrounding  medium2 in other words1
 that it is perpetually giving out heat 
without  apparently becoming cooler4 ,at
 first blush this seemed to contradict  
the  great physical law of the          
conservation of energy1 but physicists  
were  soon agreed that a less           
revolutionary explanation of the        
phenomenon is  perfectly tenable4 ,the  
giving off of heat is indeed only an    
additional  evidence of the dissipation 
of energy to which the radio-active atom
  is subjected4 ,and no one now believes
 that radio-activity can persist        
indefinitely without actually exhausting
 the substance of the atom4 ,even  so1  
the evidence of so great a capacity to  
give out energy is startling1  and has  
given rise to various theories 7all as  
yet tentative7 in  explanation4 ,thus   
,j4 ,perrin99#i99 has suggested that    
atoms may consist of  parts not unlike a
 miniature planetary system1 and in the 

atoms of the  radio-elements the parts  
more distant from the centre are        
continually  escaping from the central  
attraction1 thus giving rise to the     
radiations4 ,monsieur and ,madame ,curie
 have suggested that the energy may  be 
borrowed from the surrounding air in    
some way1 the energy lost by  the atom  
being instantly regained4 ,pilipo       
,re199#aj99 in #aijc1 advanced the      
theory that the various parts of the    
atom might at first have been free      
particles constituting an extremely     
tenuous nebula4    ,these parts         
gradually becoming collected around     
condensed centres have  formed what we  
know as the atoms of elements1 the atom 
thus becoming  like an extinct sun of   
the solar system4 ,from this point of   
view the  radio-active atoms represent  
an intermediate stage between nebulae   
and chemical atoms1 the process of      
contraction giving rise to the heat     
emissions4    ,lord ,kelvin has called  
attention to the fact that when two     

pieces of  paper1 one white and the     
other black1 are placed in exactly      
similar  glass vessels of water and     
exposed to light1 the temperature of the
  vessel containing the black paper is  
raised slightly higher than the  other4 
,this suggests the idea that in a       
similar manner radium may keep  its     
temperature higher than the surrounding 
air by the absorption of  other         
radiations as yet unknown4    ,professor
 ,j4 ,j4 ,thompson believes that the    
source of energy is in the  atom itself 
and not external to it4 ,the reason1 he 
says1 which  induces me to think that   
the source of the energy is in the atom 
of  radium itself and not external to it
 is that the radio-activity of          
substances is in all cases in which we  
have been able to localize it a         
transient property4 ,no substance goes  
on being radio-active very long4  ,it   
may be asked1 how can this statement be 
reconciled with the fact  that thorium  
and radium keep up their activity       

without any appreciable  falling off    
with time4 ,the answer to this is that1 
as ,rutherford and  ,soddy have shown in
 the case of thorium1 it is only an     
exceedingly small  fraction of the mass 
which is at any one time radio-active1  
and that  this radio-active portion     
loses its activity in a few hours1 and  
has to  be replaced by a fresh supply   
from the non-radio-active               
thorium499#aa99    ,if ,professor       
,thompson's view be correct1 the amount 
of potential energy  inherent in the    
atom must be enormous4                  
,,radio-,,activity ,,and ,,the          
,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,atom    ,but   
whatever the source of the energy       
displayed by the radio-active           
substances1 it is pretty generally      
agreed that the radio-activity of  the  
radio-elements results in the disruption
 of their atoms4 ,since all  substances 
appear to be radio-active in a greater  
or less degree1  it would seem that1    
unless there be a very general          

distribution  of radio-active atoms     
throughout all substances1 all atoms    
must be  undergoing disruption4 ,since  
the distribution of radio-active matter 
throughout the earth is so great1       
however1 it is as yet impossible to     
determine whether this may not account  
for the radio-activity of all           
substances4    ,as we have just seen1   
recent evidence seems to point to the   
cause of the  disruption of radio-active
 atoms as lying in the atoms themselves4
 ,this  view is quite in accord with    
modern ideas of the instability of      
certain  atoms4 ,it has been suggested  
that some atoms may undergo a slower    
disintegration without necessarily      
throwing off part of their systems  with
 great velocity4 ,it is even possible   
that all matter may be  undergoing      
transformation1 this transformation     
tending to simplify  and render more    
stable the constituents of the earth4   
,the radio-active  bodies1 however1 are 
the only ones that have afforded an     

opportunity for  studying this          
transformation4 ,in these the rapidity  
of the change would  be directly        
proportionate to their radioactivity4   
,radium1 according  to the recent       
estimate of the ,curies1 would be       
disintegrating over  a million times    
more rapidly than uranium4 ,since the   
amount of  transformation occurring in  
radium in a year amounts to from #a-bjjj
  to #a-aj1jjj of the total amount1 the 
time required for the complete          
transformation of an atom of uranium    
would be somewhere between two  billion 
and ten billion years--figures quite    
beyond the range of human               
comprehension4    ,various hypotheses   
have been postulated to account for the 
instability  of the atom4 ,perhaps the  
most thinkable of these to persons not  
specially trained in dealing with       
abstruse subjects is that of ,professor 
,thompson4 ,it has the additional merit1
 also1 of coming from one of the        
best-known investigators in this        

particular field4 ,according to this    
hypothesis the atom may be considered as
 a mass of positively and  negatively   
charged particles1 all in rapid motion1 
their mutual forces  holding them in    
equilibrium4 ,in case of a very complex 
structure of  this kind it is possible  
to conceive of certain particles        
acquiring  sufficient kinetic energy to 
be projected from the system4 ,or the   
constraining forces may be neutralized  
momentarily1 so that the particle  is   
thrown off at the same velocity that it 
had acquired at the instant  it is      
released4 ,the primary cause of this    
disintegration of the atom  may be due  
to electro-magnetic radiation causing   
loss of energy of the  atomic system4   
,sir ,oliver ,lodge suggests that this  
instability of the atom may be the      
result of the atom's radiation of       
energy4 ,lodge considered the simple    
case of a negatively charged electron   
revolving round an atom of  mass        
relatively large but having an equal    

positive charge and held in  equilibrium
 by electrical forces4 ,this system will
 radiate energy1 and  since the         
radiation of energy is equivalent to    
motion in a resisting  medium1 the      
particle tends to move towards the      
centre and its speed  consequently      
increases4 ,the rate of radiation of    
energy will increase  rapidly with the  
speed of the electron4 ,when the speed  
of the electron  becomes very nearly    
equal to the velocity of light1         
according to ,lodge1  the system is     
unstable4 ,it has been shown that the   
apparent mass of an  electron increases 
very rapidly as the speed of light is   
approached1 and  is theoretically       
infinite at the speed of light4 ,there  
will be at this  stage a sudden increase
 of the mass of the revolving atom1 and1
 on the  supposition that this stage can
 be reached1 a consequent disturbance of
  the balance of forces holding the     
system together4 ,lodge considers it    
probable that under these conditions the

 parts of the system will break  asunder
 and escape from the sphere of one      
another's influence4    ,it is probable1
 adds ,rutherford1 that the primary     
cause of the  disintegration of the atom
 must be looked for in the #a ss of     
energy of  the atomic system due to     
electro-magnetic radiation499#ab99      
,several methods have been devised for  
testing the amount of heat given  off by
 radium and its compounds1 and for      
determining its actual rise  in         
temperature above that of the           
surrounding atmosphere4 ,one of these   
methods is to place some substance1 such
 as barium chloride1 in a  calorimeter1 
noting at what point the mercury remains
 stationary4 ,radium  is then           
introduced1 whereupon the mercury in the
 tube gradually rises1  falling again   
when the radium is removed4 ,by careful 
tests it has  been determined that a    
gram of radium emits about twenty-four  
hundred  gram-calories in twenty-four   
hours4 ,on this basis a gram of radium  

in a  year emits enough energy to       
dissociate about two hundred and        
twenty-five  grams of water4    ,what   
seems most remarkable about this        
constant emission of heat by the  radium
 atom is that it does not apparently    
draw upon external sources  for it1 but 
maintains it by the internal energy of  
the atom itself4 ,this  latent energy   
must be enormous1 but is only manifested
 when the atom  is breaking up4 ,in this
 process of disruption many of the      
particles are  thrown off2 but the      
greater part seem to be stopped in their
 flight in  the radium itself1 so that  
their energy of motion is manifested in 
the  form of heat4 ,thus1 if this       
explanation is correct1 the temperature 
of  the radium is maintained above that 
of surrounding substances by the        
bombardment of its own particles4 ,since
 the earth and the atmosphere  contain  
appreciable quantities of radio-active  
matter1 this must play  a very important
 part in determining the temperature of 

the globe--so  important a part1 indeed1
 that all former estimates as to the    
probable  length of time during which   
the earth and sun will continue to      
radiate  heat are invalidated4 ,such    
estimates1 for example1 as that of ,lord
  ,kelvin as to the probable heat-giving
 life of the sun must now be  multiplied
 from fifty to five hundred times4      
,in like manner the length of time that 
the earth has been sufficiently  cool to
 support animal and vegetable life must 
be re-estimated4 ,until  the discovery  
of radium it seemed definitely          
determined that the earth  was gradually
 cooling1 and would continue to cool1 un
 til1 like the  moon1 it would become   
too cold to support any kind of         
vegetable or  animal life whatever4 ,but
 recent estimates of the amount of      
radio-active  matter in the earth and   
atmosphere1 and the amount of heat      
constantly  given off from this source1 
seem to indicate that the loss of heat  
is 7for the moment7 about evenly        

balanced by the heat given out by       
radio-active matter4 ,thus at the       
beginning of the new century we see  the
 phenomenon of a single discovery in    
science completely overturning  certain 
carefully worked out calculations1      
although not changing the  great        
principles involved4 ,it is but the     
repetition of the revolutionary  changes
 that occur at intervals in the history 
of science1 a simple  discovery setting 
at naught some of the most careful      
calculations of a  generation4          
,v4 ,,the ,,marine ,,biological         
,,laboratory ,,at ,,naples      ,,the   
,,aquarium    ,,many tourists who have  
gone to ,naples within recent years will
 recall  their visit to the aquarium    
there among their most pleasant         
experiences4  ,it is1 indeed1 a place   
worth seeing4 ,any ,neapolitan will     
direct you to  the beautiful white      
building which it occupies in the public
 park close  by the water's side4 ,the  
park itself1 statue-guarded and         

palm-studded1  is one of the show-places
 of the city2 and the aquarium building1
  standing isolated near its centre1 is 
worthy of its surroundings4 ,as  seen   
from the bay1 it gleams white amid the  
half-tropical foliage1  with the        
circling rampart of hills1 flanked by   
,vesuvius itself1 for  background4 ,and 
near at hand the picturesque cactus     
growth scrambling  over the walls gives 
precisely the necessary finish to the   
otherwise  rather severe type of the    
architecture4 ,the ensemble prepares one
 to be  pleased with whatever the       
structure may have to show within4      
,it prepares one also1 though in quite  
another way1 for a surprise2 for  when  
one has crossed the threshold and narrow
 vestibule1 while the gleam  of the     
outside brightness still glows before   
his eyes1 he is plunged  suddenly into  
what seems at first glimpse a cavern of 
,egyptian darkness1  and the contrast is
 nothing less than startling4 ,to add to
 the effect1  one sees all about him1   

near the walls of the cavern1 weird     
forms of  moving creatures1 which seem  
to be floating about lazily in the air1 
in  grottos which glow with a dim light 
or sparkle with varied colors4 ,one  is 
really looking through glass walls into 
tanks of water filled with  marine life2
 but both glass and water are so        
transparent that it is  difficult at    
first glimpse to realize their presence1
 unless a stream of  water1 with its    
attendant bubbles1 is playing into the  
tanks4 ,and even  then the effect is    
most elusive2 for the surface of the    
water1 which  you are looking up to from
 below1 mirrors the contents of the     
tanks so  perfectly that it is difficult
 to tell where the reality ends and the 
image begins1 were it not that the      
duplicated creatures move about with    
their backs downward in a scene all     
topsy-turvy4 ,the effect is most        
fantastic4    ,more than that1 it is    
most beautiful as well4 ,you are1 in    
effect1 at the  bottom of the ocean--or 

rather1 at the bottom of many oceans in 
one4 ,no  light comes to you except     
through the grottos about you--grottos  
haunted  by weird forms of the deep1    
from graceful to grotesque1 from almost 
colorless to gaudy-hued4 ,to your       
dilated pupils the light itself has  the
 weird glow of unreality4 ,it is all    
like the wonders of the ,arabian        
,nights made tangible or like a strange 
spectacular dream4 ,if one were in  a   
great diving-bell at the bottom of the  
veritable ocean he could hardly  feel   
more detached from the ordinary aerial  
world of fact4    ,as one recovers his  
senses and begins to take definite note 
of things  about him he sees that each  
one of the many grottos has a different 
set  of occupants1 and that not all of  
the creatures there are as unfamiliar   
as at first they seemed4 ,many of the   
fishes1 for example1 and the  lobsters1 
crabs1 and the like1 are familiar enough
 under other  conditions1 but even these
 old acquaintances look strange under   

these  changed circumstances4 ,but for  
the rest there are multitudes of forms  
that one had never seen or imagined1 for
 the sea hides a myriad of  wonders     
which we who sail over its surface1 and 
at most glance dimly  a few feet into   
its depths1 hardly dream of4 ,even      
though one has seen  these strange      
creatures preserved in museums1 he does 
not know  them1 for the alleged         
preservation there has retained little  
enough of  essential facis of the real  
creature1 which the dead shell can no   
more  than vaguely suggest4    ,here1   
however1 we see the real thing4 ,each   
creature lives and moves in a  habitat  
as nearly as may be like that which it  
haunted when at  liberty1 save that     
tribes that live at enmity with one     
another are here  separated1 so that the
 active struggle for existence1 which   
plays  so large a part in the wild life 
of sea as well as land1 is not          
represented4 ,for the rest the creatures
 of the deep are at home in these       

artificial grottos1 and disport         
themselves as if they desired no other  
residence4 ,for the most part they pay  
no heed whatever to the human           
inspectors without their homelike       
prisons1 so one may watch their         
activities under the most favorable     
conditions4    ,it is odd to notice how 
curiously sinuous are all the movements1
 not  alone of the fish1 but of a large 
proportion of the other forms of  moving
 life of the waters4 ,the curve1 the    
line of beauty1 is the symbol  of their 
every act2 there are no angles in their 
world4 ,they glide  hither and yon1     
seemingly without an effort1 and always 
with wavy1  oscillating gracefulness4   
,the acme of this sinuosity of movement 
is  reached with those long-drawn-out   
fishes the eels4 ,of these there are    
two gigantic species represented        
here--the conger1 a dark-skinned1       
rather ill-favored fellow1 and the      
beautiful ,italian eel1 with a  velvety1
 leopard-spotted skin4 ,these creatures 

are gracefulness itself4  ,they are     
ribbon-like in tenuousness1 and to      
casual glance they give the  impression 
of long1 narrow pennants softly waving  
in a gentle breeze4  ,the great         
conger--five or six feet in length--has1
 indeed1 a certain  propensity to extend
 himself rigidly in a fishlike line and 
lie  immovable1 but the other species is
 always true to his colors1 so to       
say--his form is always outlined in     
curves4    ,the eels attract their full 
share of attention from the visitors1   
but  there is one family of creatures   
which easily holds the palm over all    
the others in this regard4 ,these are   
the various representatives of the      
great cult of squids and cuttle-fishes4 
,the cuttle-fish proper--who1  of       
course1 is no fish at all--is shaped    
strangely like a diminutive  elephant1  
with a filmy1 waving membrane along its 
sides in lieu of legs4  ,like the other 
members of his clan1 he can change his  
color variously4  ,sometimes he is of a 

dull brown1 again prettily mottled2     
then1 with  almost kaleidoscopic        
suddenness1 he will assume a garb       
beautifully  striped in black and white1
 rivalled by nothing but the coat of the
  zebra4 ,the cuttle-fish is a sluggish 
creature1 seeking out the darker        
corners of his grotto1 and often lying  
motionless for long periods  together4  
,but not so the little squid4 ,he does  
not thrive in captivity1  and           
incessantly wings his way back and      
forth1 with slow1 wavy  flappings of his
 filmy appendages1 until he wears       
himself out and dies  unreconciled4     
,in marked contrast with both           
cuttle-fish and squid is their cousin   
the  octopus--a creepy1 crawly creature1
 like eight serpents in one--at once    
the oddest and the most fascinating     
creature in the entire aquarium4 ,you   
will find a crowd almost always before  
his grotto watching his curious  antics4
 ,usually slow and deliberate in        
movement1 he yet has capacity  for a    

certain agility4 ,now and again he dives
 off suddenly1 head first1  through the 
water1 with the directness if not quite 
with the speed of an  arrow4 ,a moment  
later1 tired of his flight1 he sprawls  
his eight webbed  legs out in every     
direction1 breaking them seemingly into 
a thousand  joints1 and settles back    
like an animated parachute awreck4 ,then
  perchance he perches on a rock        
knowingly1 with the appearance of       
owl-like wisdom1 albeit his head looks  
surprisingly like a frog's4 ,anon  he   
holds his head erect and stretches out  
his long arms in what is most  palpably 
a yawn4 ,then1 for pure diversion1 he   
may hold himself  half erect on his     
umbrella frame of legs and sidle along a
 sort of  quadrille--a veritable eight  
hands in round4    ,but all the while he
 conveys distinctly the impression of a 
creature to  the last degree blas4 ,even
 when a crab is let down into his grotto
 by  an attendant for the edification of
 the visitors the octopus seems to      

regard it with only lukewarm interest4  
,if he deigns to go in pursuit1  it is  
with the air of one who says1 ,anything 
to oblige1 rather than  of eagerness for
 a morsel of food4 ,yet withal1 even    
though unhurried1  he usually falls upon
 the victim with surprising sureness of 
aim1  encompassing it in his multiform  
net4 ,or perhaps1 thinking the game     
hardly worth so much effort1 he merely  
reaches out suddenly with one  of his   
eight arms--each of which is a          
long-drawn-out hand as well--and  grasps
 the victim and conveys it to his       
distensible maw without so much  as     
changing his attitude4    ,all this of  
the giant octopus--brown and warty and  
wrinkled and blas4  ,but the diminutive 
cousin in the grotto with the           
jellyfishes is a bird  of quite another 
feather4 ,physically he is constructed  
on the same model  as the other1 but his
 mentality is utterly opposed4 ,no grand
 rles for  him2 his part is comedy4 ,he 
finds life full of interest4 ,he is     

satisfied  with himself and with the    
world4 ,he assumes an aspect of positive
  rakishness1 and intelligence1 so to   
say1 beams from his every limb4 ,all    
day long he must be up and doing4 ,for  
want of better business he will  pursue 
a shrimp for hours at a time with the   
zest of a true sportsman4  ,now he darts
 after his intended prey like a         
fox-hound4 ,again he resorts  to        
finesse1 and sidles off1 with eyes fixed
 in another direction1 like  a master of
 stratagem4 ,to be sure1 he never       
catches the shrimp--but what  of that8  
,the true sportsman is far removed from 
the necessity for mere  material profit4
 ,i half suspect that little octopus    
would release the  shrimp if once he    
caught him1 as the true fisherman throws
 back the  excess of his catch4 ,it is  
sport1 not game1 that he covets4        
,,the ,,laboratory ,,and ,,its ,,founder
    ,when one has made the circuit of   
the aquarium he will have seen and      
marvelled at some hundreds of curious   

creatures utterly unlike anything  to be
 found above water4 ,brightly colored   
starfishes1 beautiful  sea-urchins1     
strange stationary ascidians1 and       
flower-like sea-anemones1  quaint       
sea-horses1 and filmy1 fragile          
jellyfishes and their multiform         
kin--all seem novel and wonderful as one
 sees them in their native  element4    
,things that appear to be parts of the  
rocky or sandy bed of the  grottos      
startle one by moving about1 and thus   
discovering themselves  as living       
creatures1 simulating their environment 
for purposes of  protection4 ,or perhaps
 what seems to be a giant snail suddenly
 unfurls  wings from its seeming shell1 
and goes waving through the water1 to   
the  utter bewilderment of the beholder4
 ,such freaks as this are quite  the    
rule among the strange tribes of the    
deep1 for the crowding of  population   
there makes the struggle for existence  
keen1 and necessitates  all manner of   
subterfuges for the preservation of     

species4    ,each and every one of the  
thirty-odd grottos will repay long      
observation1 even on the part of the    
most casual visitor1 and when one  has  
seen them all1 he will know more at     
first hand of the method of life  of the
 creatures of the sea than all the books
 could teach him4 ,he will  depart fully
 satisfied1 and probably1 if he be the  
usual sight-seer1  he will never suspect
 that what he has seen is really but an 
incidental  part of the institution     
whose building he has entered4 ,even    
though he  note casually the inscription
 ,stazione ,zologica above the entrance1
  he may never suspect that the aquarium
 he has just visited is only an         
adjunct--the popular exhibit1 so to     
speak--of the famous institution  of    
technical science known to the          
,english-speaking world as the ,marine  
,biological ,laboratory at ,naples4 ,yet
 such is the fact4 ,the aquarium  seems 
worthy enough to exist by and for       
itself4 ,it is a great popular  educator

 as well as amuser1 yet its importance  
is utterly insignificant  compared with 
the technical features of the           
institution of which it is  an adjunct4 
,this technical department1 the         
biological laboratory proper1 has its   
local habitation in the parts of the    
building not occupied by the            
aquarium--parts of which the general    
public1 as a rule1 sees nothing4  ,there
 is1 indeed1 little to see that would   
greatly interest the casual  inspector1 
for in its outward aspects one          
laboratory is much like  another1 a     
seeming hodgepodge of water-tanks1 glass
 jars of specimens1  and tables for     
microscopes4 ,the real status of a      
laboratory is not  determined by the    
equipment4    ,and yet it will not do to
 press this assertion too far1 for in   
one sense  it is the equipment of the   
,naples laboratory that has made it what
 it  is4 ,not1 however1 the equipment in
 the sense of microscopes and other     
working paraphernalia4 ,these1 of       

course1 are the best of their kind1 but 
machinery alone does not make a great   
institution1 any more than  clothes make
 the man4 ,the all-essential and        
distinctive equipment of  the laboratory
 reveals itself in its personnel4 ,in   
the present case1 as  always in a truly 
great institution of any kind1 there is 
one dominating  personality1 one moving 
spirit4 ,this is ,dr4 ,anton ,dohrn1    
founder of the  laboratory1 and still   
its controller and director1 in name and
 in fact4    ,more than twenty-five     
years ago ,dr4 ,dohrn1 then a young man 
fresh from  the universities of his     
native ,germany1 discovered what he felt
 to be  a real need in the biological   
world4 ,he was struck with the fact that
  nowhere in the world could be found an
 establishment affording good           
opportunities for the study of marine   
life4 ,water covers three-fifths of  the
 earth's surface1 as everybody knows1   
and everywhere this water teems  with   
life1 so that a vast preponderance of   

the living things of the  globe find    
their habitat there4 ,yet the student   
who might desire to make  special       
studies of this life would find himself 
balked at the threshold  for want of    
opportunity4    ,it was no great thing  
to discover this paucity1 which1 indeed1
 fairly  beckoned the discoverer4 ,the  
great thing was to supply the           
deficiency1  and this was what ,dr4     
,dohrn determined to do4 ,he selected   
,naples as the  best location for the   
laboratory he proposed to found1 because
 of its  climate and its location beside
 the teeming waters of the              
,mediterranean4  ,he organized a        
laboratory2 he called about him a corps 
of able  assistants2 he made the ,marine
 ,biological ,laboratory at ,naples     
famous1  the ,mecca of all biological   
eyes throughout the world4 ,it was not  
all  done in a day4 ,it was far enough  
from being done without opposition and  
discouragement2 but these are matters of
 history which ,dr4 ,dohrn now  prefers 

not to dwell upon4 ,suffice it that the 
result aimed at was  finally achieved1  
and in far greater measure than could at
 first be  hoped for4    ,and from that 
day till this ,naples has been the      
centre of that branch  of biological    
inquiry which has for its object the    
investigation of  problems best studied 
with material gathered from the sea4    
,and this1  let me hasten to add1       
includes far more than a mere study of  
the life  histories of marine animals   
and plants as such4 ,it includes        
problems of  cell activity1 problems of 
heredity1 life problems of many kinds1  
having  far wider horizons than the mere
 question as to how a certain fish or   
crustacean lives and moves and has its  
being4    ,dr4 ,dohrn's chief technical 
associates are all ,germans1 like their 
leader1 but1 like him also1 all gifted  
with a polyglot mastery of  tongues that
 has stood them in good stead in their  
intercourse with the  biologists of many
 nationalities who came to work at the  

laboratory4 ,i  must not pause to dwell 
upon the personnel of the staff in      
general1  but there is one other member 
who cannot be overlooked even in the    
most  casual survey of the work of the  
institution4 ,one might almost as well  
forget ,dr4 ,dohrn himself as to        
overlook ,signor ,lo ,bianco1 chief of  
the  collecting department4 ,signor     
,bianco it is who1 having expert        
knowledge  of the haunts and habits of  
every manner of marine creature1 can    
direct  his fishermen where to find and 
how to secure whatever rare specimen any
  worker at the laboratory may desire4  
,he it is1 too1 who1 by studying old    
methods and inventing new ones1 has     
learned how to preserve the delicate    
forms for subsequent study in lifelike  
ensemble that no one else can  quite    
equal4 ,signor ,bianco it is1 in short1 
who is the indispensable  right-hand man
 of the institution in all that pertains
 to its practical  working outside the  
range of the microscope4 ,each night    

,signor ,lo ,bianco  directs his band of
 fishermen as to what particular        
specimens are most  to be sought after  
next day to meet the needs of the       
workers in the  laboratory4 ,before     
sunrise each day1 weather permitting1   
the little  scattered fleet of boats is 
far out on the ,bay of ,naples2 for the 
surface collecting1 which furnishes a   
large share of the best material1  can  
be done only at dawn1 as the greater    
part of the creatures thus  secured sink
 into the retirement of the depths      
during the day1 coming  to the surface  
to feed only at night4 ,you are not     
likely to see the  collecting party     
start out1 therefore1 but if you choose 
you may see  them return about nine or  
ten o'clock by going to the dock not far
  from the laboratory4 ,the boats come  
in singly at about this hour1 their     
occupants standing up to row1 and       
pushing forward with the oars1 after    
the awkward ,neapolitan fashion4 ,many  
of the fishermen are quaint  enough in  

appearance2 some of them have grown old 
in the service of the  laboratory4 ,the 
morning's catch is contained in glass   
jars placed  in baskets especially      
constructed for the purpose4 ,the       
baskets have  handles1 but these are    
quite superfluous except to lift them   
from the  boats1 for in the transit to  
the laboratory the baskets are carried1 
as almost everything else is carried in 
,naples1 on the head4 ,to the  novitiate
 it seems a striking risk to pile       
baskets of fragile glass and  even more 
fragile specimens one above another1 and
 attempt to balance  the whole on the   
head1 but nothing could be easier1 or   
seemingly more  secure1 for these       
experts4 ,arrived at the laboratory1 the
 jars are  turned over to ,signer ,lo   
,bianco and his assistants1 who sort the
  material1 and send to each            
investigator in the workrooms whatever  
he may  have asked for4    ,of course   
surface-skimming is not the only method 
of securing material  for the           

laboratory4 ,the institution owns a     
steam-launch named the  ,johannes       
,mller1 in honor of the great           
physiologist1 which operates  a powerful
 dredge for securing all manner of      
specimens from the  sea-bottom4 ,then   
ordinary lines and nets are more or less
 in requisition  for capturing fish4    
,and in addition to the regular corps of
 collectors1  every fisherman of the    
neighborhood has long since learned to  
bring  to the laboratory all rare       
specimens of any kind that he may chance
 to  capture4 ,so in one way and another
 the institution makes sure of having   
in tribute all that the richly peopled  
waters of the ,mediterranean can  offer4
 ,and this well-regulated system of     
collecting1 combined with the  richness 
of the fauna and flora of the ,bay of   
,naples1 has no small share  in the     
success of the marine laboratory4 ,but  
these1 of course1 were  factors that    
,dr4 ,dohrn took into account from the  
beginning4    ,indeed1 it was precisely 

with an eye to these important factors  
that  ,naples was selected as the site  
of the future laboratory in the days    
when the project was forming4    ,the   
,bay of ,naples is most happily located 
for the needs of the  zoologist4 ,it is 
not too far south to exclude the fauna  
of the temperate  zone1 yet far enough  
south to furnish a habitat for many     
forms of  life almost tropical in       
character4 ,it has1 in short1 a most    
varied and  abundant fauna4 ,and1 on the
 other hand1 the large colony of        
,neapolitan  fishermen made it certain  
that skilled collectors would always be 
at  hand to make available the wealth of
 material4 ,it requires no technical    
education to appreciate the value of    
this to the original investigator1      
particularly to the student of life     
problems4 ,a skilful worker may do  much
 with a single specimen1 as1 for        
example1 ,johannes ,mller did half a    
century ago with the one available      
specimen of amphioxus1 the lowest of    

vertebrates1 then recently discovered4  
,what ,mller learned from that one      
specimen seems almost miraculous4 ,but  
what if he had had a bucketful of  the  
little boneless creatures at his        
disposal1 as the worker at ,naples  now 
may have any day for the asking8        
,when it comes to problems of           
development1 of heredity1 a profusion   
of material is almost a necessity4 ,but 
here the creatures of the sea  respond  
to the call with amazing proficiency4   
,most of them are1 of  course1          
oviparous1 and it is quite the rule for 
them to deposit their  eggs by hundreds 
of thousands1 by millions even4         
,everybody knows1 since  ,darwin taught 
us1 that the average number of offspring
 of any given  species of animal or     
plant bears an inverse proportion to the
 liability  of that species to juvenile 
fatalities4 ,when1 therefore1 we find a 
fish  or a lobster or other pelagic     
creature depositing innumerable eggs1 we
  may feel perfectly sure that the vast 

majority of the eggs themselves1  or the
 callow creatures that come out of them1
 will furnish food for  their neighbors 
at an early day4 ,it is an unkind world 
into which  the resident of the deep is 
born4 ,but his adversity is his human   
contemporary's gain1 and the biologist  
will hardly be blamed1 even by  the most
 tender-hearted anti-vivisectionist1 for
 availing himself freely  of material   
which otherwise would probably serve no 
better purpose than  to appease the     
appetite of some rapacious fish4        
,their abundance is not the only merit1 
however1 of the eggs of pelagic         
creatures1 in the eyes of the biologist4
 ,by equal good-fortune it  chances that
 colorless things are at a premium in   
the sea1 since to  escape the eye of    
your enemy is a prime consideration4 ,so
 the eggs in  question are usually      
transparent1 and thus1 shielded from the
 vision  of marine enemies1 are         
beautifully adapted for the observation 
of the  biologist4 ,as a final merit1   

they are mostly of convenient size for  
manipulation under the microscope4 ,for 
many reasons1 then1 the marine  egg     
offers incomparable advantages to the   
student of cell life1 an egg  being the 
typical cell4 ,and since nowadays the   
cell is the very focus of  attention in 
the biological world1 the importance of 
marine laboratories  has been enhanced  
proportionately4    ,but of course not  
all the work can be done with eggs or   
with living  specimens of any kind4 ,it 
is equally important on occasion to     
examine  the tissues of adult specimens1
 and for this1 as a rule1 the tissues   
must first be subjected to some         
preserving and hardening process        
preliminary to the cutting of sections  
for microscopical examination4  ,this is
 done simply enough in the case of some 
organisms1 but there is  a large class  
of filmy1 tenuous1 fragile creatures in 
the sea population  of which the        
jellyfish may be mentioned as familiar  
examples4 ,such  creatures1 when treated

 in an ordinary way1 by dropping them   
into  alcohol1 shrivel up1 coming to    
resemble nothing in particular1 and     
ceasing to have any value for the study 
of normal structures4 ,how to  overcome 
this difficulty was one of the problems 
attacked from the  beginning at the     
,naples laboratory4 ,the chief part of  
the practical work  of these experiments
 fell to the share of ,signor ,lo       
,bianco4 ,the success  that attended his
 efforts is remarkable4 ,to-day you may 
see at the  laboratory all manner of    
filmy1 diaphanous creatures preserved in
  alcohol1 retaining every jot of their 
natural contour1 and thus offering      
unexampled opportunities for study en   
masse1 or for being sectioned  for the  
microscope4 ,the methods by which this  
surprising result has been  accomplished
 are naturally different for different  
creatures2 ,signor ,lo  ,bianco has     
written a book telling how it all has   
been done4 ,perhaps the  most important 
principle involved with a majority of   

the more tenuous  forms is to stupefy   
the animal by gradually adding small    
quantities of  a drug1 such as chloral1 
to the water in which the creature is   
detained4  ,when by this means the      
animal has been rendered so insensible  
that  it responds very sluggishly to    
stimuli1 it is plunged into a toxic     
solution1 usually formaline1 which kills
 it so suddenly that its muscles  in    
their benumbed state have not time to   
contract4    ,any one who has ever tried
 to preserve a jellyfish1 for example1  
by  ordinary methods will recall the    
sorry result1 and be prepared to        
appreciate ,signor ,lo ,bianco's        
wonderfully beautiful specimens4        
,naturalists have come from all over the
 world to ,naples to learn just  how the
 miracle is accomplished1 for it must be
 understood that the  mere citation of  
the modus operandi by no means enables  
the  novitiate to apply it successfully 
at once4 ,in the case of some of the    
long-drawn-out forms of clustered       

ascidians and the like1 the delicacy  of
 manipulation required to make          
successful preservations raises the     
method as practised at ,naples almost to
 the level of a fine art4 ,it is  a boon
 to naturalists everywhere that the     
institution here is able  sometimes to  
supply other laboratories less favorably
 situated with  duplicates from its     
wealth of beautifully preserved         
specimens4      ,,methods ,,and         
,,results    ,these1 then1 are some of  
the material conditions that have       
contributed  to make the results of the 
scientific investigations at the ,naples
  laboratory notable4 ,but of course1   
even with a superabundance of  material1
 discoveries do not make themselves4    
,who uses this material8  is1 after all1
 the vital question4 ,and in this regard
 the laboratory  at ,naples presents1   
for any one who gets at its heart1 so to
 speak1 an  ensemble that is distinctive
 enough2 for the men who work in the    
light  and airy rooms of the laboratory 

proper have come for the purpose from   
all corners of the civilized globe1 and 
not a few of them are men of  the       
highest distinction in their various    
lines of biological science4  ,a large  
proportion are professors in colleges   
and universities of their  various      
countries2 and for the rest there is    
scarcely one who is not  in some sense  
master of the biological craft4 ,for it 
must be understood  that this laboratory
 at ,naples is not intended as a        
training-school for  the apprentice4 ,it
 offers in the widest sense a university
 course in  biology1 and that alone4    
,there is no instructor here who shows  
the  new-comer how to use the           
microscope1 how to utilize the material1
 how  to go about the business of       
discovery4 ,the worker who comes to     
,naples  is supposed to have learned all
 these things long before4 ,he is       
merely asked1 then1 what class of       
material he desires1 and1 this being    
furnished him1 he is permitted to go his

 own way unmolested4 ,he may work  much 
or little1 or not at all2 he may make   
epochal discoveries or no  discoveries  
of any sort1 and it will be all one to  
the management4 ,no  one will ask him1  
in any event1 what he has done or why he
 has not done  otherwise4 ,in a word1   
the worker in the laboratory here1 while
 being  supplied with opportunities for 
study such as he could hardly find      
elsewhere1 retains all the freedom of   
his own private laboratory4    ,little  
wonder1 then1 that it is regarded as a  
rare privilege to be  allowed to work in
 this laboratory4 ,fortunately1 however1
 it is a  privilege that may be obtained
 by almost any earnest worker who1      
having  learned the technique of the    
craft elsewhere1 desires now to         
prosecute  special original studies in  
biology4 ,most of the tables here are   
leased  in perpetuity1 for a fixed sum  
per annum1 by various public or private 
institutions of different countries4    
,thus1 for example1 ,america has the    

right of use of several tables1 the     
,smithsonian ,institution leasing one1  
,columbia ,university another1 a woman's
 league a third1 and so on4 ,any        
,american desiring to work at ,naples   
should make application to one of  these
 various sources1 stating the exact time
 when he would like to  go1 and if there
 be a vacancy for that time the properly
 accredited  applicant is almost sure to
 receive the privilege he asks for4     
,failing  in this1 however1 there is    
still a court of last appeal in ,dr4    
,dohrn  himself1 who may have a few     
unoccupied tables at his disposal1 and  
who  will surely extend the courtesy of 
their occupancy1 for a reasonable       
period1 to any proper applicant1 come he
 whence he may4    ,thus it chances that
 one finds men of all nations working in
 the ,naples  laboratory--biologists    
from all over ,europe1 including        
,russia1 from  ,america1 from           
,australia1 from ,japan4 ,one finds     
women also1 but these1  ,i believe1 are 

usually from ,america4 ,biologists who  
at home are at the  head of fully       
equipped laboratories come here to      
profit by the wealth  of material1 as   
well as to keep an eye upon the newest  
methods of their  craft1 and to gain the
 inspiration of contact with other      
workers in  allied fields4 ,many of the 
,german university teachers1 for        
example1 make  regular pilgrimages to   
,naples during their vacations1 and more
 than one  of them have made the        
original investigations here that have  
given them  an international reputation4
    ,as to the exact methods of study   
employed by the individual workers      
here1 little need be said4 ,in this     
regard1 as in regard to instrumental    
equipment1 one biological laboratory is 
necessarily much like another1  and the 
general conditions of original          
scientific experiment are pretty  much  
the same everywhere4 ,what is needed is1
 first1 an appreciation of  the logical 
bearings of the problem to be solved2   

and1 secondly1 the  skill and patience  
to carry out long lines of experiments1 
many of which  necessarily lead to no   
tangible result4 ,the selection of      
material for  the experiments planned1  
the watching and cultivating of the     
living  forms in the laboratory tanks1  
the cutting of numberless filmy sections
  for microscopical examination--these  
things1 variously modified for each     
case1 make up the work of the laboratory
 student of general biology4  ,and just 
in proportion as the experiments are    
logically planned and  carefully        
executed will the results be valuable1  
even though they be but  negative4 ,just
 in proportion as the worker1 by        
inclusion and exclusion1  attains       
authentic results--results that will    
bear the test of  repetition--does his  
reputation as a dependable working      
biologist become  established4    ,the  
subjects attacked in the marine         
laboratory first and last are           
practically coextensive with the range  

of general biology1 bacteriology        
excepted4 ,naturally enough1 the life   
histories of marine forms of  animals   
and plants have come in for a full share
 of attention4 ,but1 as ,i  have already
 intimated1 this zoological work forms  
only a small part of  the investigations
 undertaken here1 for in the main the   
workers prefer  to attack those general 
biological problems which in their      
broader  outlines apply to all forms of 
living beings1 from highest to lowest4  
,for example1 ,dr4 ,driesch1 the        
well-known ,leipzig biologist1 spends   
several months of each year at the      
laboratory1 and has made here most of   
those studies of cell activities with   
which his name is associated4  ,the past
 season he has studied an interesting   
and important problem of  heredity1     
endeavoring to ascertain the respective 
shares of the male and  female parents  
in the development of the offspring4    
,the subjects of his  experiments have  
been various species of sea-urchins1 but

 the principles  discovered will        
doubtless be found to apply to most1 or 
perhaps all1  forms of vertebrate life  
as well4    ,while these studies were   
under way another developmental problem 
was  being attacked in a neighboring    
room of the laboratory by ,professor    
,kitasato1 of the ,university of ,tokio1
 ,japan4 ,the subjects this time were   
the embryos of certain fishes1 and the  
investigation had to do with  the       
development of instructive monstrosities
 through carefully designed  series of  
injuries inflicted upon the embryo at   
various stages of its  development4     
,meantime another stage of the          
developmental history of  organic       
things--this time a microscopical detail
 regarding the cell  divisions of       
certain plants--has been studied by     
,professor ,mottier1  of ,indiana2 while
 another ,american botanist1 ,professor 
,swingle1 of  the ,smithsonian          
,institution1 has been going so far     
afield from  marine subjects as to      

investigate the very practical subject  
of the  fertilization of figs as        
practised by the agriculturists about   
,naples4    ,even from these few        
citations it will appear how varied are 
the lines of  attack of a single        
biological problem2 for here we see1 at 
the hands  of a few workers1 a great    
variety of forms of life--radiates1     
insects1  vertebrates1 low marine plants
 and high terrestrial ones--made to     
contribute to the elucidation of various
 phases of one general topic1  the      
all-important subject of heredity4 ,all 
these studies are conducted  in absolute
 independence1 and to casual inspection 
they might seem to  have little affinity
 with one another2 yet in reality they  
all trench  upon the same territory1 and
 each in its own way tends to throw     
light  upon a topic which1 in some of   
its phases1 is of the utmost practical  
importance to the human family4 ,it is a
 long vault from the embryo of  an      
obscure sea-weed to the well-being of   

man1 yet it may well happen--so  wide in
 their application are the general life 
principles--that study of  the one may  
point a practical moral for the other4  
,indeed1 it constantly happens that the 
student of biology1 while  gazing       
through his microscope1 hits upon       
discoveries that have the most          
far-removed implications4 ,thus a few   
years ago it was discovered that  when a
 cell is about to bisect itself and     
become two cells1 its nucleus  undergoes
 a curious transformation4 ,within the  
nuclear substance little  bodies are    
developed1 usually threadlike in form1  
which take on a deep  stain1 and which  
the biologist calls chromosomes4 ,these 
chromosomes vary  in number in the cells
 of different animals1 but the number is
 always  the same for any given species 
of animal4 ,if one were to group animate
  beings in classes according to this   
very fundamental quality of the  cells  
he would have some very curious         
relations established4 ,thus1 under  the

 heading creatures whose cells have     
twenty-four chromosomes1 one  would find
 beings so different as the mouse1 the  
salamander1 the trout1  and the lily1   
while the sixteen-chromosome group would
 introduce the  very startling          
association of the ox1 the guinea-pig1  
the onion1 and man  himself4 ,but       
whatever their number1 the chromosomes  
are always exactly  bisected before the 
cell divides1 one-half being apportioned
 to each of  the two cells resulting    
from the division4    ,now the          
application is this3 ,it was the study  
of these odd nuclear  structures and    
their peculiar manouvrings that1 in     
large measure1 led  ,professor ,weismann
 to his well-known theory of heredity1  
according  to which the acquired traits 
of any being are not transmissible to   
the  offspring4 ,professor ,weismann    
came to believe that the apportionment  
of the nuclear substance1 though        
quantitatively impartial1 is sometimes  
radically uneven in quality2 in         

particular1 that the first bisection  of
 the egg-cell1 which marks the beginning
 of embryonic development1  produces two
 cells utterly different in             
potentiality1 the one containing  the   
body plasm1 which is to develop the main
 animal structures1 the  other          
encompassing the germ plasm1 by which   
the racial integrity is  to be          
preserved4 ,throughout the life of the  
individual1 he believed1  this isolation
 continued2 hence the assumed lack of   
influence of  acquired bodily traits    
upon the germ plasm and its engendered  
offspring4  ,hence1 also1 the           
application of the microscopical        
discovery to the  deepest questions of  
human social evolution4    ,every one   
will recall that this theory1 born of   
the laboratory1 made  a tremendous      
commotion in the outside world4 ,its    
application to the  welfare and progress
 of humanity gave it supreme interest1  
and polemics  unnumbered were launched  
in its favor and in its condemnation4   

,eager  search was made throughout the  
fields of botany and zoology for new    
evidence pro or con4 ,but the definitive
 answer came finally from the  same     
field of exploration in which the theory
 had been originated--the  world of the 
cell--and the ,marine ,biological       
,laboratory was the seat of  the new    
series of experiments which demonstrated
 the untenability of the  ,weismannian  
position4 ,most curious experiments they
 were1 for in effect  they consisted of 
the making of two or more living        
creatures out of one1  in the case of   
beings so highly organized as the       
sea-urchins1 the  little fishlike       
vertebrate1 amphioxus1 and even the     
lower orders of true  fishes4 ,of course
 the division of one being to form two  
is perfectly  familiar in the case of   
those lowly1 single-celled creatures    
such as the  protozoa and the bacteria1 
but it seems quite another matter when  
one  thinks of cutting a fish in two and
 having two complete living fish        

remaining4 ,yet this is virtually what  
the biologists did4    ,let me hasten to
 add that the miraculous feat was not   
accomplished  with an adult fish4 ,on   
the contrary1 it is found necessary to  
take the  subject quite at the beginning
 of its career1 when it consists of an  
egg-cell in the earliest stages of      
proliferation4 ,yet the principle is    
quite the same1 for the adult organism  
is1 after all1 nothing more  than an    
aggregation of cells resulting from     
repeated divisions 7growth              
accompanying7 and redivisions of that   
original egg-cell4 ,considering  its    
potentialities1 the egg-cell1 seemingly1
 is as much entitled to be  considered  
an individual as is the developed       
organism4 ,yet it transpires  that the  
biologist has been able so to manipulate
 a developing egg-cell1  after its      
bisection1 that the two halves fall     
apart1 and that each half  7now become  
an independent cell7 develops into a    
complete individual1  instead of the    

half-individual for which it seemed     
destined4 ,a  strange trick1 that1 to   
play with an individual ,ego1 is it not8
  ,the traditional hydra with its       
reanimating heads was nothing to this   
scientific hydra1 which1 when bisected  
bodily1 rises up calmly as two  whole   
bodies4    ,but even this is not the    
full measure of the achievement1 for it 
has  been found that in some cases the  
experiment may be delayed until the     
developing egg has made a second        
bisection1 thus reaching the four-cell  
stage1 when four completely formed      
individuals emerge from the  dismembered
 egg4 ,and in the case of certain       
medusae1 success has  attended          
experiments made at the eight-cell and  
even at the sixteen-cell  stage of      
development1 the creature which had got 
thus far on its career  in single       
blessedness becoming eight or sixteen   
individuals at the wave  of the         
enchanted wand--that is to say1 the     
dissecting-needle--of  the biologist4   

,all of which savors of conjury1 but is 
really only  matter-of-fact biological  
experiment--experiment1 however1 of     
which  the implications by no means     
confine themselves to matters of fact   
biological4 ,for clearly the fact that  
the separated egg-cells grow into       
complete individuals shows that         
,weismann's theory1 according to which  
one of the cells contained only body    
plasm1 the other only germ plasm1  is   
quite untenable4 ,thus the theory of the
 non-transmissibility of  acquired      
characters is deprived of its supposed  
anatomical support and  left quite in   
the air1 to the imminent peril of a     
school of sociologists  who had built   
thereon new theories of human progress4 
,also the question  of the multiplied   
personalities clearly extends far beyond
 the field  of the biologist1 and must  
be turned over to the consideration of  
the  psychologist--if1 indeed1 it does  
not fall rather within the scope of  the
 moralist4    ,but though it thus often 

chances that the biologist1 while gazing
  stoically through his microscope1 may 
discover things in his microcosm  that  
bear very closely upon the practical    
interests of the most  unscientific     
members of the human family1 it would be
 a mistake to  suppose that it is this  
class of facts that the worker is       
particularly  seeking4 ,the truth is    
that1 as a rule1 the pure biologist is  
engaged in  work for the love of it1 and
 nothing is further from his thoughts   
than  the practical bearings or remote  
implications of what he may discover4   
,indeed1 many of his most hotly pursued 
problems seem utterly divorced  from    
what an outsider would call practical   
bearings1 though1 to be  sure1 one can  
never tell just what any new path may   
lead to4 ,such1 for  example1 is the    
problem which1 next to questions of cell
 activities1  comes in for perhaps as   
large a share of attention nowadays as  
any other  one biological               
topic2--namely1 the question as to just 

which of  the various orders of         
invertebrate creatures is the type from 
which  vertebrates were evolved in the  
past ages--in other words1 what         
invertebrate creature was the direct    
ancestor of the vertebrates1  including 
man4 ,clearly it can be of very little  
practical importance to  man of to-day  
as to just who was his ancestor of      
several million years  ago4 ,but just as
 clearly the question has interest1 and 
even the layman  can understand         
something of the enthusiasm with which  
the specialist  attacks it4    ,as yet1 
it must be admitted1 the question is not
 decisively answered1  several rival    
theories contending for supremacy in the
 case4 ,one of  the most important of   
these theories had its origin at the    
,naples  laboratory2 indeed1 ,dr4 ,dohrn
 himself is its author4 ,this is the    
view  that the type of the invertebrate 
ancestor is the annelid--a form whose   
most familiar representative is the     
earth-worm4 ,the many arguments for  and

 against accepting the credentials of   
this unaristocratic ancestor  cannot be 
dwelt upon here4 ,but it may be         
consolatory1 in view of the  very       
plebeian character of the earth-worm1 to
 know that various of the  annelids of  
the sea have a much more aristocratic   
bearing4 ,thus the  filmy and delicately
 beautiful structures that decorate the 
pleasant  home of the quaint little     
seahorse in the aquarium--structures    
having  more the appearance of miniature
 palm-trees than of animals--are really 
annelids4 ,one can view ,dr4 ,dohrn's   
theory with a certain added measure  of 
equanimity after he learns this1 for the
 marine annelids are seen1  some of     
them1 to be very beautiful creatures1   
quite fitted to grace  their            
distinguished offspring should they make
 good their ancestral  claims4    ,these
 glimpses will suffice1 perhaps1 to give
 at least a general idea of  the manner 
of thing which the worker at the marine 
laboratory is seeking  to discover when 

he interrogates the material that the   
sea has given  him4 ,in regard to the   
publication of the results of work done 
at the  ,naples laboratory1 the same    
liberal spirit prevails that actuates   
the  conduct of the institution from    
first to last4 ,what the investigator   
dis99 covers is regarded as his own     
intellectual property1 and he  is       
absolutely free1 so far as the          
management of this institution is       
concerned1 to choose his own medium in  
giving it to the world4 ,he may1  and   
often does1 prefer to make his          
announcements in periodicals or books   
issued in his own country and having no 
connection whatever with the  ,naples   
laboratory4 ,but1 on the other hand1 his
 work being sufficiently  important1 he 
may1 if he so desire1 find a publisher  
in the institution  itself1 which issues
 three different series of important    
publications1  under the editorship of  
,professor ,mayer4    ,one of these1    
entitled ,mittheilungen aus der         

,zoologische ,station  zu ,neapel1      
permits the author to take his choice   
among four  languages--,german1         
,english1 ,french1 or ,italian4 ,it is  
issued  intermittently1 as occasion     
requires4 ,the second set of            
publications  consists of ponderous     
monographs upon the fauna and flora of  
the ,gulf  of ,naples4 ,these are       
beautifully illustrated in color1 and   
sometimes a  single volume costs as much
 as seventeen thousand dollars to issue4
 ,of  course only a fraction of that sum
 is ever recovered through sale of the  
book4 ,the third publication1 called    
,zoologischen ,jahresbericht1 is a      
valuable rsum of biological literature  
of all languages1 keeping the  worker at
 the laboratory in touch with the       
discoveries of investigators  elsewhere4
    ,the latter end is attained further 
by the library of the institution1      
which is supplied with all the          
periodicals of interest to the biologist
  and with a fine assortment of         

technical books4 ,the library-room1     
aside  from its printed contents1 is of 
interest because of its appropriate     
mural decorations1 and because of the   
bronze portrait busts of the two  patron
 saints of the institution1 ,von ,baer  
and ,darwin1 which look down            
inspiringly upon the reader4    ,all in 
all1 then1 it would be hard to find a   
deficiency in the ,stazione  ,zoologica 
as an instruement of biological         
discovery4 ,a long list might be  cited 
of the revelations first brought to     
light within its walls4 ,and  yet1 as it
 seems to me1 the greatest value of this
 institution as an  educational factor  
in science--as a biological lever of    
progress--does  not depend so much upon 
the tangible revelations of fact that   
have come  out of its laboratories as   
upon other of its influences4           
,scientific  ideas1 like all other forms
 of human thought1 move more or less in 
shoals4 ,very rarely does a great       
discovery emanate from an isolated      

observer4 ,the man who cannot come in   
contact with other workers in  kindred  
lines becomes more or less insular1     
narrow1 and unfitted for  progress4     
,nowadays1 of course1 the free          
communication between different         
quarters of the globe takes away        
somewhat from the insularity of any     
quarter1 and each scientist everywhere  
knows something of what the  others are 
doing1 through wide-spread publications4
 ,but this can never  altogether take   
the place of personal contact and the   
inspirational  communication from man to
 man4 ,hence it is that a rendezvous1   
where all  the men of a craft go from   
time to time and meet their fellows from
 all  over the world1 has an influence  
for the advancement of the guild  which 
is enormous and unequivocal1 even though
 difficult of direct  demonstration4    
,this feature1 then1 it seems to me1    
gives ,dr4 ,dohrn's laboratory its      
greatest value as an educational factor1
 as a moving force in the  biological   

world4 ,it is true that the new-comer   
there is likely to be  struck at first  
with a sense of isolation1 and to wonder
 at the seeming  exclusiveness of the   
workers1 the self-absorption of each and
 every  one4 ,outside the management1   
whom he meets necessarily1 no one pays  
the slightest attention to him at first1
 or seems to be aware of his  existence4
 ,he is simply assigned to a room or    
table1 told to ask for  what he wants1  
and left to his own devices4 ,as he     
walks along the  hallways he sees tacked
 on the doors the cards of biologists   
from all  over the world1 exposing names
 with which he has long been familiar4  
,he understands that the bearers of the 
names are at work within the  designated
 rooms1 but no one offers to introduce  
him to them1 and  for some time1        
perhaps1 he does not so much as see     
them1 nor would he  recognize them if he
 did4 ,he feels strange and isolated in 
the midst of  this stronghold of his    
profession4    ,but soon this feeling   

leaves him4 ,he begins to meet his      
fellow-workers  casually here and       
there--in the hallways1 at the          
distributing-tanks1 in  the library4    
,there are no formal gatherings1 and    
there are some workers  who never seem  
to affiliate at all with the others2 but
 in the long-run1  here as elsewhere1   
kindred spirits find one another out2   
and even the  unsocial ones take their  
share1 whether or no1 in the indefinable
 but  very sensible influence of massed 
numbers4 ,presently some one suggests   
to the new-comer that he join some of   
the others of a ,wednesday or  ,saturday
 evening1 at a rendezvous where a number
 of them meet regularly4  ,he goes1     
under escort of his sponsor1 and is     
guided through one of those  narrow1    
dark1 hill-side streets of ,naples where
 he would hardly feel  secure to go     
alone1 to a little wine-shop in what    
seems a veritable  dungeon--a place     
which1 if a stranger in ,naples1 he     
would never even  remotely think of     

entering4 ,but there he finds his       
confrres of the  laboratory gathered    
about a long table1 with the most       
conglomerate  groups of ,neapolitans of 
a seemingly doubtful class at their     
elbows4  ,each biologist has a caraffa  
of light wine on the table before him1  
and all are smoking4 ,and1 staid men of 
science that they are1 they are         
chattering away on trivial topics with  
the animation of a company of           
school-boys4 ,the stock language is     
probably ,german1 for this bohemian     
gathering is essentially a ,german      
institution2 but the ,germans are       
polyglots1 and you will hardly find     
yourself lost in their company1         
whatever your native tongue4    ,your   
companions will tell you that for years 
the laboratory fraternity  have met     
twice a week at this homely but         
hospitable establishment4 ,the  host1   
honest ,dominico ,vincenzo ,bifulco1    
will gladly corroborate the  statement  
by bringing out for inspection a great  

blank-book in which  successive         
companies of his guests from the        
laboratory have scrawled  their names1  
written epigrams1 or made clever        
sketches4 ,that book will  some day be  
treasured in the library of a           
bibliophile1 but that will not  be until
 ,bifulco is dead1 for while he lives he
 will never part with it4    ,one comes 
to look upon this bohemian wine-shop as 
an adjunct of the  laboratory1 and to   
feel that the free-and-easy meetings    
there are  in their way as important for
 the progress of science as the private 
sances of the individual workers in the 
laboratory itself4 ,not because         
scientific topics are discussed here1   
though doubtless that sometimes         
happens1 but because of that vitalizing 
influence of the contact of  kindred    
spirits of which ,i am speaking1 and    
because this is the one  place where a  
considerable number of the workers at   
the laboratory meet  together with      
regularity4    ,the men who enter into  

such associations go out from them      
revitalized1  full of the spirit of     
propaganda4 ,returned to their own      
homes1 they  agitate the question of    
organizing marine laboratories there2   
and it is  largely through the efforts  
of the graduates1 so to say1 of the     
,naples  laboratory that similar        
institutions have been established all  
over the  world4    ,thanks largely to  
the original efforts of ,dr4 ,dohrn1    
nearly  all civilized countries with a  
coast-line now have their marine        
laboratories4 ,france has half a dozen1 
two of them under government  control4  
,russia has two on the ,black ,sea and  
one on the ,french  ,mediterranean      
coast4 ,great ,britain has important    
stations at ,st4  ,andrews1 at          
,liverpool1 and at ,plymouth4 ,the      
,scandinavian peninsula has  also three 
important stations4 ,germany shows a    
paucity by comparison1  which1 however1 
is easily understood when one reflects  
that the  mother-laboratory at ,naples  

is essentially a ,german institution    
despite  its location4    ,the ,american
 stations are located at ,woods' ,holl  
and at ,cold ,spring  ,harbor1 on       
opposite coasts of ,long ,island ,sound4
 ,the ,japanese station is  an adjunct  
of ,tokio ,university4 ,for the rest1   
the minor offspring of  the ,naples     
laboratory are too numerous to be cited 
here4 ,nor can ,i enter  into any       
details regarding even the more         
important ones4 ,each in its way  enters
 into the same general line of work1    
varying the details according  to the   
bent of mind of individual directors and
 the limitations of  individual         
resources4 ,but in the broader outlines 
the aim of all is the  same1 and what we
 have seen at ,naples is typical of what
 is best in all  the others4            
,,vi4 ,,ernst ,,haeckel ,,and ,,the     
,,new ,,zoology      ,,the ,,dream      
,,city    ,,the train crept on its      
tortuous way down the picturesque valley
 of the  little ,saale4 ,at last we saw1

 high above us1 on a jutting crag1 three
  quaint old castles1 in one of which1  
as we knew from our ,baedeker2  ,goethe 
at one time lived4 ,we were entering the
 region of traditions4  ,soon we knew we
 should be passing that famous          
battle-field on which  ,napoleon1 in    
#ahjf1 sealed the fate of ,germany for a
 generation4 ,but this  spot1 as seen   
from the car window1 bore no emblem to  
distinguish it1 and  before we were     
quite sure that we had reached it we had
 in point of fact  passed on1 and the   
train was coming to a stop4 ,jena6      
called the guard1  and the scramble for 
luggage began1 leaving us for the moment
 no place  for other thoughts than to   
make sure that all our various parcels  
were  properly dragged out along with   
ourselves4 ,for a wonder no ,dienstman  
appeared to give us aid--showing how    
unexpected is the arrival of any        
wayfarer at this untoward season--and   
for a moment one seemed in danger  of   
being reduced to the unheard-of         

expedient of carrying one's own         
satchel4 ,but1 fortunately1 one is      
rescued from this most un-,german       
predicament by the porter of a waiting  
hotel omnibus1 and so at last we  have  
time to look about us1 and to awaken to 
a realizing sense that we  have reached 
the land of traditions2 that we have    
come to ,mecca2 that we  are in the     
quondam home of ,guericke1 ,fichte1     
,goethe1 ,schiller1 ,oken1 and          
,gagenbaur2 in the present home of      
,haeckel4    ,the first glimpse of a    
mountain beaming down at us from across 
the way  was in admirable conformity    
with our expectations1 but for the rest1
 the  vicinage of the depot presented a 
most distressing air of modernity4 ,a   
cluster of new buildings--some of them  
yet unfinished--stared back at us  and  
the mountain with the most barefaced    
aspect of cosmopolitanism4 ,was  this1  
then1 ,jena1 the home of traditions8 ,or
 were we entering some ,iowa  village1  
where the first settlers still live who 

but yesterday banished  the prairie-dog 
and the buffalo8    ,but this           
disappointment and its ironical         
promptings were but fleeting4  ,five    
minutes' drive and we were in the true  
,jena with the real flavor of           
mediaeval-ism about us4 ,here is the    
hostelry where ,luther met the ,swiss   
students in #aebb4 ,there is nothing in 
that date to suggest our ,iowa  village1
 nor in the aspect of the hostelry      
itself1 thank fortune4 ,and  there rises
 the spire of the city church1 up the   
hill yonder1 which was  aging1 as were  
most of the buildings that still flank  
it1 when ,luther  made that memorable   
visit4 ,america was not discovered1 let 
alone ,iowa1  when these structures were
 erected4 ,now1 sure enough1 we are in  
the  dream city4    ,a dream city it    
truly seems1 when one comes to wander   
through its  narrow1 tortuous streets1  
between time-stained walls1 amid its    
rustic  population4 ,coming from        
,berlin1 from ,dresden1 from            

,leipzig--not to  mention ,america--one 
feels as if he had stepped suddenly back
 two or  three centuries into the past4 
,there are some evidences of modernity  
that mar the illusion1 to be sure2 but  
the preponderance of the  old-time      
emblems is sufficient to leave the mind 
in a delightful glow  of reminiscences4 
,as a whole1 the aspect of the central  
portion of the  village--of the true    
,jena--cannot greatly have changed since
 the days  when ,luther stopped here on 
his way to ,wittenberg2 surely not since
  #affb1 when the mighty young          
,leibnitz1 the ,aristotle of ,germany1  
came to  ,jena to study under ,weigel1  
the most famous of ,german              
mathematicians  of that century4 ,here  
and there an old house has been         
demolished1 to be  sure2 even now you   
may see the work of destruction going   
on1 as a  new street is being cut       
through a time-honored block close to   
the old  church4 ,but in the main the   
old thoroughfares run hither and        

thither1  seemingly at random1 as of    
old1 disclosing everywhere at their     
limits  a sky-line of picturesque       
gables1 and shut in by walls that often 
are  almost canon-like in narrowness2   
while the heavy1 buttressed doors and   
the small1 high-placed windows speak of 
a time when every house partook  of the 
nature of the fortress4    ,the footway 
of the thoroughfares has no doubt vastly
 changed1 for it is  for the most part  
paved now--badly enough1 to be sure1    
yet1 after  all1 paved as no city was in
 the good old days when garbage filled  
the streets and cleanliness was an      
unknown virtue4 ,the ,jena streets of   
to-day are very modern in their         
cleanliness2 yet a touch of medievalism 
is retained in that the main work of    
cleaning is done by women4 ,but1 for    
that matter1 it seems to the casual     
observer as if the bulk of all the  work
 here were performed by the supposedly  
weaker sex4 ,certainly woman  is here   
the chief beast of burden4 ,in every    

direction she may be seen1  in rustic   
garb1 struggling cheerily along under   
the burden of a gigantic  basket        
strapped at her back4 ,you may see the  
like anywhere else in  ,germany1 to be  
sure1 but not often elsewhere in such   
preponderant  numbers4 ,and scarcely    
elsewhere does the sight jar so little  
on one's  ,new-,world sensibilities as  
in the midst of this mediaeval setting4 
,one  is even able to watch the old     
women sawing and splitting wood in the  
streets here1 with no thought of        
anything but the picturesque-ness of    
the incident4    ,if one follows a band 
of basket-laden women1 he will find that
 their  goal is that focal-point of     
every old-time city1 the market-place4  
,there  arrived1 he will witness a scene
 common enough in ,europe but hardly to 
be duplicated anywhere in ,america4     
,hundreds of venders of meat1 fish1     
vegetables1 cloths1 and household       
utensils have their open-air booths     
scattered all across the wide space1 and

 other hundreds of purchasers  are there
 as well4 ,quaint garbs and quainter    
faces are everywhere1  and the whole    
seems quite in keeping with the         
background of  fifteenth-century houses 
that hedges it in on every side4 ,could 
,john the  ,magnanimous1 who rises up in
 bronze in the midst of the assembly1   
come  to life1 he would never guess that
 three and a half centuries have  passed
 since he fell into his last sleep4     
,this same ,john the ,magnanimous it was
 who founded the institution which      
gives ,jena its fame and distinguishes  
it from all the other quaint  hypnotic  
clusters of houses that nestle similarly
 here and there in  other picturesque   
valleys of the ,fatherland--,i mean1 of 
course1 its  world-renowned university4 
,it is but a few minutes' walk from the 
market-place1 past the home where       
,schiller once lived and through the    
street scarcely more than arms'-breadth 
wide beyond1 to the site of  the older  
buildings of the university4 ,inornate1 

prosaic buildings they  are1 unrelieved 
even by the dominant note of            
picturesqueness2 rescued1  however1 from
 all suggestion of the commonplace by   
the rugged ruins of  the famed          
powder-tower jutting out from the crest 
of the hill just  above1 by the spire of
 the old church which seems to rise from
 the  oldest university building itself1
 and by the mountain peaks that jut up  
into view far beyond4    ,if you would  
enter one of the old buildings there is 
naught to hinder4  ,go into one of the  
lecture-halls which chances at the      
moment to be  unoccupied1 and you will  
see an array of crude old benches for   
seats  that look as if they might have  
been placed there at the very inaugural 
of the institution4 ,the boards that    
serve for desks1 if you scan them       
closer1 you will find scarred all over  
with the marks of knives1 showing  how  
some hundreds of successive classes of  
listeners have whiled away  the weary   
lecture-hours4 ,not a square inch can   

you find of the entire  desk surface    
that is un-scarred4 ,if one would woo a 
new sensation1 he  has but to seat      
himself on one of these puritanical old 
benches and  conjure up in imagination  
the long series of professors that may  
have  occupied the raised platform in   
front1 recalling the manner of thought  
and dogma that each laid down as verity4
 ,he of the first series appears  in the
 garb of the sixteenth century1 with    
mind just eagerly striving to  peer a   
little way out of the penumbra of the   
,renaissance4 ,the students  who carve  
the first gashes in the new desks will  
learn1 if perchance  they listen in     
intervals of whittling1 that this ,world
 on which they  live is perhaps not     
flat1 but actually round1 like a ball4  
,it is  debatable doctrine1 to be sure1 
but we must not forget that ,signor     
,columbus1 recently dead1 found land off
 to the west which is probably a  part  
of the ,asiatic continent4 ,if the earth
 be indeed a ball1 then the  sun and    

stars whirl clear around it in          
twenty-four hours1 travelling  thus at  
an astonishing speed1 for the sphere in 
which they are fastened  is situated    
hundreds of miles away4 ,the sun must be
 a really great ball  of fire--perhaps a
 mile even in diameter4 ,the moon1 as is
 plain to see1  is nearly as large4 ,the
 stars1 of course1 are only sparks1     
though of  great brilliancy4 ,they are  
fixed in a different sphere from that of
 the  sun4 ,in still other spheres are  
the moon1 and a small set of large stars
  called planets1 of which latter there 
are four1 in order that1 with the  sun1 
the moon1 and the other stars1 there may
 be made seven orders of  heavenly      
bodies--seven being1 of course1 the     
magic number in accordance  with which  
the universe is planned4    ,this is1 in
 substance1 the whole subject of        
astronomy1 as that first  professor must
 have taught it1 even were he the wisest
 man of his time4  ,of the other        
sciences1 except an elementary          

mathematics1 there was  hardly so much  
as an inkling taught that first class of
 students4 ,you  will find it appalling1
 as you muse1 to reflect upon the       
amazing mixture  of utter ignorance and 
false knowledge which the learned       
professor of  that day brought to the   
class-room1 and which the educated      
student  carried away along with his    
degree4 ,the one and the other knew     
,greek1  ,latin1 and ,bible history and 
doctrine4 ,beyond that their minds were 
as the minds of babes4 ,yet no doubt the
 student who went out from the          
,university of ,jena in the year #aeej  
thought himself upon the pinnacles  of  
learning4 ,so he was in his day and age1
 but could he come to life  to-day1 in  
the full flush of his scholarship1      
yonder wood-vender1 plying  her saw out 
here in front of the university         
building1 would laugh in  derision at   
his simplicity and ignorance4 ,so it    
seems that1 after all1  the subjects of 
,john the ,magnanimous have changed more

 than a little  during the three hundred
 and odd years that ,john himself1 done 
in  bronze1 has been standing out there 
in the market-place4      ,,the ,,career
 ,,of ,a ,,zoologist    ,had one time   
for it1 there would be real interest in 
noting the steps  by which the mental   
change in question has been brought     
about2 in  particular to note the share 
which the successive generations of     
,jena  professors have taken in the     
great upward struggle4 ,but we must  not
 pause for that here4 ,our real concern1
 despite the haunting  reminiscences1 is
 not with the ,jena of the past1 but    
with the ,jena of  to-day2 not with     
ghosts1 but with the living personality 
who has made  the ,jena of our          
generation one of the greatest centres  
of progress in  human thought in all the
 world4 ,jena is ,jena to-day not so    
much because  ,guericke and ,fichte and 
,hegel and ,schiller and ,oken taught   
here in the  past1 as because it has for
 thirty-eight years been the seat of the

  labors of ,germany's greatest         
naturalist1 one of the most             
philosophical  zoologists of any country
 or any age1 ,professor ,ernst ,haeckel4
 ,it is of  ,professor ,haeckel and his 
work that ,i chiefly mean to write1 and 
if ,i  have dwelt somewhat upon ,jena   
itself1 it is because this quaint1      
retired  village has been the theatre of
 ,haeckel's activities all the mature   
years of his life1 and because the work 
he has here accomplished could  hardly  
have been done so well elsewhere2 some  
of it1 for reasons ,i shall  presently  
mention1 could hardly have been done    
elsewhere at all--at  least in another  
university4    ,it was in #ahfa that    
young ,dr4 ,haeckel came first to ,jena 
as a teacher4  ,he had made a tentative 
effort at the practice of medicine in   
,berlin1  then very gladly had turned   
from a distasteful pursuit to the field 
of  pure science4 ,his first love1      
before he took up the study of medicine1
  had been botany1 though pictorial art1

 then as later1 competed with  science  
for his favorable attention4 ,but the   
influence of his great  teacher1        
,johannes ,mller1 together with his     
medical studies1 had turned  his        
attention more directly to the animal   
rather than vegetable life1  and when he
 left medicine it was to turn explicitly
 to zoology as a life  study4 ,here he  
believed he should find a wider field   
than in art1 which  he loved almost as  
well1 and which1 it may be added1 he has
 followed all  his life as a dilettante 
of much more than amateurish skill4 ,had
 he so  elected1 ,haeckel might have    
made his mark in art quite as definitely
  as he has made it in science4 ,indeed1
 even as the case stands1 his           
draughtsman's skill has been more than a
 mere recreation to him1 for  without   
his beautiful drawings1 often made and  
reproduced in color1 his  classical     
monographs on various orders of living  
creatures would have  lacked much of    
their present value4    ,moreover1 quite

 aside from these merely technical      
drawings1 ,professor  ,haeckel has made 
hundreds of paintings purely for        
recreation and the  love of it1         
illustrating--and that too often with   
true artistic feeling  for both form and
 color--the various lands to which his  
zoological  quests have carried him1    
such as ,sicily1 the ,canaries1 ,egypt1 
and ,india4  ,from ,india alone1 after a
 four-months' visit1 ,professor ,haeckel
 brought  back two hundred fair-sized   
water-colors1 a feat which speaks at    
once  for his love of art and his       
amazing industry4    ,i dwell upon this 
phase of ,professor ,haeckel's character
 and temperament  from the very outset  
because ,i wish it constantly to be     
borne in mind1  in connection with some 
of the doctrines to be mentioned        
presently1 that  here we have to do with
 no dry-as-dust scientist1 cold and     
soulless1 but  with a broad1 versatile1 
imaginative mind1 one that links the    
scientific  and the artistic            

temperaments in rarest measure4 ,charles
 ,darwin1 with  whose name the name of  
,haeckel will always be linked1 told    
with regret  that in his later years he 
had become so steeped in scientific     
facts  that he had lost all love for or 
appreciation of art or music4 ,there has
  been no such mental warping and       
atrophy in the mind of ,ernst ,haeckel4 
,yet there is probably no man living    
to-day whose mind contains a larger     
store of technical scientific facts than
 his1 nor a man who has enriched        
zoology with a larger number of new     
data1 the result of direct personal     
observation in field or laboratory4     
,how large ,haeckel's contribution in   
this last regard has been can be  but   
vaguely appreciated by running over the 
long list of his important              
publications1 though the list includes  
more than one hundred titles1  unless it
 is understood that some single titles  
stand for monographs  of gigantic       
proportions1 which have involved years  

of labor in the  production4 ,thus the  
text alone of the monograph on the      
radiolarians1  a form of microscopic    
sea-animalcule 7to say nothing of the   
volume of  plates71 is a work of three  
gigantic volumes1 weighing1 as          
,professor  ,haeckel laughingly remarks1
 some thirty pounds1 and representing   
twelve  years of hard labor4 ,this      
particular monograph1 by-the-bye1 is    
written  in ,english 7of which1 as of   
several other languages1 ,professor     
,haeckel  is perfect master71 and has a 
history of more than ordinary interest4 
,it  appears that the radiolarians were 
discovered about a half-century  ago by 
,johannes ,mller1 who made an           
especial-study of them1 which was       
uncompleted at the time of his death in 
#aheh4 ,his monograph1 describing  the  
fifty species then known1 was published 
posthumously4 ,haeckel1  on whom the    
mantle of the great teacher was to fall1
 and who had been  ,mller's last pupil1 
took up the work his revered master had 

left  unfinished as his own first great 
original ,arbeit4 ,he went to ,messina  
and was delighted to find the sea there 
replete with radiolarians1 of  which he 
was able to discover one or two new     
species almost every day1  until he had 
added one hundred and fifty all told to 
,mller's list1 or  more than triple the 
whole number previously known4 ,the     
description of  these one hundred and   
fifty new radiolarians constituted      
,haeckel's first  great contribution to 
zoology1 and won him his place as       
teacher at ,jena  in #ahfa4             
,henceforth ,haeckel was1 of course1    
known as the greatest authority  on this
 particular order of creatures4 ,for    
this reason it was that  ,professor     
,murray1 the naturalist of the famous   
expedition which the  ,british          
government sent around the world in the 
ship ,challenger1  asked ,haeckel to    
work up the radiolarian material that   
had been gathered  during that voyage4  
,murray showed ,haeckel a little bottle 

containing  water1 with a deposit of    
seeming clay or mud in the bottom4 ,that
  mud1 he said1 was dredged up from the 
bottom of the ocean1 and every  particle
 of it is the shell of a radiolarian4   
,impossible1 said  ,haeckel4 ,yet true1 
replied ,murray1 as the microscope will 
soon prove  to you4    ,so it did1 and  
,professor ,haeckel spent twelve years  
examining that mud  under the           
microscope1 with the result that1 before
 he had done1 he had  discovered no     
fewer than four thousand new species of 
radiolarians1 all  of which1 of course1 
had to be figured1 described1 and       
christened4  ,think of baptizing four   
thousand creatures1 finding a new1      
distinct1 and  appropriate ,latin name  
for each and every one1 and that1 too1  
when the  creatures themselves are of   
microscopic size1 and the difference    
between  them often so slight that only 
the expert eye could detect it4 ,think1 
too1 of the deadly tedium of labor in   
detecting these differences1  in        

sketching them1 and in writing out1 to  
the length of three monster  volumes1   
technical dissertations upon them4      
,to the untechnical reader that must    
seem a deadly1 a veritably  mind-sapping
 task4 ,and such1 indeed1 it would prove
 to the average  zoologist4 ,but with   
the mind of a ,haeckel it is far        
otherwise4 ,to him a  radiolarian1 or   
any other creature1 is of interest1 not 
so much on its  own account as for its  
associations4 ,he sees it not as an     
individual  but as a link in the scale  
of organic things1 as the bearer of a   
certain  message of world-history4 ,thus
 the radiolarians1 insignificant        
creatures  though they seem1 have really
 taken an extraordinary share in        
building  up the crust of the earth4    
,the ooze at the bottom of the sea1     
which finally becomes metamorphosed into
 chalk or stone1 is but the  aggregation
 of the shells of dead radiolarians4 ,in
 the light of such a  rle the animalcule
 takes on a new interest4    ,but even  

greater is the interest that attaches to
 every creature in  regard to the       
question of its place in the organic    
scale of evolution4  ,what are the      
homologies of this form and that8 ,what 
its probable  ancestry8 ,what gaps does 
it bridge8 ,what can it tell us of the  
story of  animal creation8 ,these and   
such like are the questions that have   
been  ceaselessly before ,haeckel's mind
 in all his studies of zoology4 ,hence  
the rich fountain of philosophical      
knowledge that has welled up from  what 
otherwise might have been the most      
barren of laboratory borings4  ,thus    
from a careful investigation of the     
sponge ,haeckel was led to  his famous  
gastrula theory1 according to which the 
pouchlike  sponge-animalcule--virtually 
a stomach without members--is the type  
of  organism on which all high organisms
 are built1 so to speak--that is1  out  
of which all have evolved4    ,this     
gastrula theory1 now generally accepted1
 is one of ,haeckel's two  great        

fundamental contributions to the        
evolution philosophy with the  history  
of which his life work is so intimately 
linked4 ,the other  contribution is the 
theory1 even more famous and now equally
 undisputed1  that every individual     
organism1 in its em-bryological         
development1  rehearses in slurred but  
unmistakable epitome the steps of       
evolution by  which the ancestors of    
that individual came into racial being4 
,that is  to say1 every mammal1 for     
example1 originating in an egg stage1   
when it  is comparable to a protozoon1  
passes through successive stages when it
  is virtually in succession a gastrula1
 a fish1 and an amphibian before  it    
attains the mammalian status1 because   
its direct ancestors were in            
succession1 through the long geological 
ages1 protozoons1 gastrulae1  fishes1   
amphibians before the true mammal was   
evolved4 ,this theory cast  a flood of  
light into many dark places of the      
,darwinian philosophy4 ,it  was         

propounded in #ahff in ,professor       
,haeckel's great work on morphology1    
and it has ever since been a guiding    
principle in his important              
philosophical studies4    ,it was       
through this same work on morphology    
that ,haeckel first came  to be         
universally recognized as the great     
continental champion of  ,darwinism--the
 ,huxley of ,germany4 ,like ,huxley1    
,haeckel had at once made  the logical  
application of the ,darwinian theory to 
man himself1 and he  sought now to trace
 the exact lineage of the human family  
as no one had  hitherto attempted to    
fathom it4 ,utilizing his wide range of 
zoological  and anatomical knowledge1 he
 constructed a hypothetical tree of     
descent--or1 if you prefer1 ascent--from
 the root in a protozoon to  the topmost
 twig or most recent offshoot1 man4     
,from that day till this  ,haeckel's    
persistent labors have been directed    
towards the perfection of  that         
genealogical tree4    ,this work on     

morphology was much too technical to    
reach the general  public1 but in #ahfh 
,haeckel prepared1 at the instigation of
 his friend  and confrre ,gagenbaur1    
what was practically a popular          
abridgment of  the technical work1 which
 was published under the title of ,the  
,natural  ,history of ,creation4 ,this  
work created a furor at once4 ,it has   
been  translated into a dozen languages1
 and has passed through nine editions   
in the original ,german4 ,through it the
 name of ,haeckel became almost  a      
household word the world over1 and      
subject for mingled applause  and       
opprobrium--applause from the           
unprejudiced for its great merit2       
opprobrium from the bigoted because of  
the unprecedented candor with  which it 
followed the ,darwinian hypothesis to   
its logical goal4    ,the same complete 
candor of expression has marked every   
stage of the  unfolding of ,professor   
,haeckel's philosophical pronouncements4
 ,this  fact is the more remarkable     

because ,professor ,haeckel is1 so far  
as ,i am  aware1 the only scientist of  
our generation who has felt at liberty  
to  announce1 absolutely without        
reserve1 the full conclusions to which  
his  philosophy has carried him1 when   
these conclusions ran counter to the    
prevalent prejudices of his time4 ,some 
one has said that the ,german           
universities are oases of freedom4 ,the 
remark is absolutely true of  ,jena4 ,it
 is not true1 ,i believe1 in anything   
like the same degree of any  other      
,german university1 or of any other     
university in the world4 ,one  thing    
before others that has endeared ,jena to
 ,haeckel1 and kept him  there in the   
face of repeated flattering calls to    
other universities1 is  that full       
liberty of spirit has been accorded him 
there1 as he knew it  would not be      
accorded elsewhere4 ,when a man comes   
into the atmosphere  of ,jena1 says     
,professor ,haeckel1 he perforce begins 
to think--there  is no escape from it4  

,and he is free to let his thoughts     
carry  him whithersoever they honestly  
may4 ,my beliefs1 he added1 are         
substantially the beliefs of my         
colleagues in science everywhere1 as ,i 
know from private conversations2 but    
they1 unlike myself1 are not free  to   
speak the full truth as they see it4 ,i 
myself would not be tolerated           
elsewhere1 as ,i am well aware4 ,had ,i 
desired to remain in ,berlin1 for       
example1 ,i must have kept silent4 ,but 
here in ,jena one is free4    ,and he   
smiles benignly as he says it4 ,the     
controversies through which he  has     
passed and the calumnies of which he has
 been the target have left  no scars    
upon this broad1 calm spirit4           
,,haeckel ,,as ,,man ,,and ,,teacher    
,it is indeed a delightful experience to
 meet ,professor ,haeckel in the  midst 
of his charming oasis of freedom1 his   
beloved ,jena4 ,to reach his  laboratory
 you walk down a narrow lane1 past      
,schiller's house1 and  the garden where

 ,schiller and ,goethe used to sit and  
where now the  new observatory stands4  
,haeckel's laboratory itself is a simple
 oblong  building of yellowish brick1   
standing on a jutting point of land high
  above the street-level4 ,entering it1 
your eye is first caught by a set  of   
simple panels in the wall opposite the  
door bearing six illustrious  names3    
,aristotle1 ,linne1 ,lamarck1 ,cuvier1  
,mller1 ,darwin--a ,greek1  a ,swede1   
two ,frenchmen1 a ,german1 and an       
,englishman4 ,such a list is            
significant2 it tells of the            
cosmopolitan spirit that here holds     
sway4    ,the ground-floor of the       
building is occupied by a lecture-room  
and by  the zoological collection4 ,the 
latter is a good working-collection1 and
  purports to be nothing else4 ,of      
course it does not for a moment compare 
with the collections of the museums in  
any large city of ,europe or  ,america1 
nor indeed is it numerically comparable 
with many private  collections1 or      

collections of lesser colleges in       
,america4 ,similarly1  when one mounts  
the stairs and enters the laboratory    
proper1 he finds a  room of no great    
dimensions and nowise startling in its  
appointments4 ,it  is admirably lighted1
 to be sure1 and in all respects        
suitably equipped  for its purpose1 but 
it is by no means so large or so        
luxurious as the  average college       
laboratory of ,america4 ,indeed1 it is  
not to be mentioned  in the same breath 
with the laboratories of a score or two 
of our  larger colleges4 ,yet1 with     
,haeckel here1 it is unquestionably the 
finest  laboratory in which to study    
zoology that exists in the world to-day1
 or  has existed for the last third of a
 century4    ,haeckel himself is        
domiciled1 when not instructing his     
classes1 in a  comfortable but plain    
room across the hall--a room whose      
windows look  out across the valley of  
the ,saale on an exquisite mountain     
landscape1  with the clear-cut mountain 

that ,schiller's lines made famous at   
its  focus4 ,as you enter the room a    
big1 robust man steps quickly forward to
  grasp your hand4 ,six feet or more in 
height1 compactly built1 without        
corpulence2 erect1 vigorous1 even       
athletic2 with florid complexion and    
clear1 laughing1 light-blue eyes that   
belie the white hair and whitening      
beard2 the ensemble personifying at once
 kindliness and virility1  simplicity   
and depth1 above all1 frank1 fearless   
honesty1 without a  trace of pose or    
affectation--such is ,ernst ,haeckel4   
,there is something  about his simple1  
frank1 earnest1 sympathetic1 yet robust1
 masculine  personality that reminds one
 instinctively1 as does his facial      
contour  also1 of ,walt ,whitman4    ,a 
glance about the room shows you at once 
that it is a place for study1  and also 
that it is the room of the most         
methodical of students4  ,there are     
books and papers everywhere1 yet not the
 slightest trace of  disorder4 ,clearly 

every book and every parcel of papers   
has a place1  and is kept in that place4
 ,the owner can at any moment lay his   
hand upon  anything he desires among all
 these documents4 ,this habit of        
orderliness  has had no small share1 ,i 
take it1 in contributing to ,professor  
,haeckel's success in carrying forward  
many lines of research at the same      
time1 and carrying all to successful    
terminations4 ,then there goes with  it1
 as a natural accompaniment1 a          
methodical habit of working1  without   
which no single man could have put      
behind him the multifarious             
accomplishments that stand to ,professor
 ,haeckers credit4    ,orderliness is   
not a more pronounced innate gift with  
,professor ,haeckel  than is the gift of
 initial energy to undertake and carry  
on work which  leads to                 
accomplishment--a trait regarding which 
men1 even active men1  so widely differ4
 ,but ,professor ,haeckel holds that    
whatever his normal  bent in this       

direction1 it was enormously            
strengthened in boyhood by the  precepts
 of his mother--from whom1 by-the-bye1  
he chiefly inherits his  talents4 ,my   
mother1 he says1 would never permit me  
to be idle for a  moment4 ,if ,i stood  
at a window day-dreaming1 she would     
always urge me  to be up and doing4     
',work or play1' she would urge1 'but do
 not stand  idle4' ,through this        
reiterated admonition1 physical activity
 became a  life-long habit with me1 and 
work almost a necessity of my being4 ,if
  ,i have been able to accomplish my    
full share of labors1 this is the       
reason4 ,i am never idle1 and ,i        
scarcely know the meaning of ennui4     
,this must not be interpreted as        
meaning1 however1 that ,professor       
,haeckel  takes up a task and works at  
it all day long unceasingly4 ,that is   
not  the ,german method of working1 and 
in this regard ,professor ,haeckel is  a
 thorough ,german4 ,when ,i was a young 
man1 he says1 ,i at one time1  thanks to

 the persuasions of some ,english       
friends1 became a convert to  the       
,english method of working1 and even    
attempted to introduce it into          
,germany4 ,but ,i soon relinquished it1 
and lapsed back into our ,german        
method1 which ,i am convinced will      
produce better results for the average  
worker4 ,the essential of this method is
 the long midday rest1 which  enables   
one late in the afternoon to begin what 
is virtually a new  day's-work1 and     
carry it out with vigor and without     
undue fatigue4  ,thus ,i1 who am an     
early riser1 begin work at five in      
summer and six in  winter1 after the    
customary light breakfast of coffee and 
rolls4 ,i do  not take a second         
breakfast at ten or eleven1 as many     
,germans do1 but  work continuously     
until one o'clock1 when ,i have dinner4 
,this1 with  me1 as with all ,germans1  
is the hearty meal of the day4 ,after   
dinner ,i  perhaps take a half-hour's   
nap2 then read the newspaper1 or chat   

with my  family for an hour1 and perhaps
 go for a long walk4 ,at about four1    
like  all ,germans1 ,i take my cup of   
coffee1 but without cake or other food4 
,then1 at four1 having had three full   
hours of brain-rest and diversion1  ,i  
am ready to go to work again1 and can   
accomplish four hours more of  work     
without undue fatigue4 ,at eight ,i have
 my rather light supper1 and  after that
 ,i attempt no further work1 giving the 
evening to reading1  conversation1 or   
other recreation4 ,i do not retire till 
rather late1 as  ,i require only five or
 six hours' sleep4    ,such is the      
method of labor division that enables   
not ,professor ,haeckel  only1 but a    
host of other ,german brain-workers to  
accomplish enormous  labors1 yet to     
thrive on the accomplishment and to     
carry the ruggedness  and health of     
youth far into the decades that are too 
often with our own  workers given over  
to decrepitude4 ,haeckel at sixty-five  
looks as if he  were good for at least a

 score of years of further effort4 ,and 
should he  fulfil the promise of his    
present rugged-ness1 he will do no more 
than  numbers of his colleagues in      
,german universities have done and are  
doing4 ,when one runs over the list of  
octogenarians1 and considers at  the    
same time the amount of the individual  
output of the best ,german  workers1 he 
is led to feel that ,professor ,haeckel 
was probably right in  giving up the    
continuous-day method of labor and      
reverting to the ,german  method4    ,in
 addition to the original researches    
that ,professor ,haeckel has  carried   
out1 to which ,i have already made some 
reference1 there has1  of course1 been  
all along another large item of         
time-consumption to be  charged up to   
his duties as a teacher4 ,these1 to be  
sure1 are somewhat  less exacting in the
 case of a ,german university professor 
than they  are in corresponding         
positions in ,england or ,america4      
,thus1 outside the  hours of teaching1  

,professor ,haeckel has all along been  
able to find  about eight hours a day   
for personal1 original research4 ,when  
he told  ,professor ,huxley so in the   
days of their early friendship1 ,huxley 
exclaimed3 ,then you ought to be the    
happiest man alive4 ,why1 ,i can find   
at most but two hours a day to use for  
myself4    ,so much for the difference  
between ,german methods of teaching1    
where the  university professor usually 
confines his contact with the pupils to 
an  hour's lecture each day1 and the    
,english system1 according to which the 
lecturer is a teacher in other ways as  
well4 ,yet it must be added that  in    
this regard ,professor ,haeckel is not  
an orthodox ,german1 for his  contact   
with his students is by no means        
confined to the lecture-hour4  ,indeed1 
if one would see him at his best1 he    
must go1 not to the  lecture-hall1 but  
to the laboratory proper during the     
hours when  ,professor ,haeckel         
personally presides there1 and brings   

knowledge and  inspiration to the eager 
band of young dissectors who gather     
there4 ,it  will perhaps seem strange to
 the reader to be told that the hours on
  which this occurs are from nine till  
one o'clock of a day which is  perhaps  
not devoted to class-room exercises in  
any other school of  ,christendom       
whatever--namely1 the ,sabbath4 ,it is  
interesting to reflect  what would be   
the comment on such a procedure in      
,london1 for example1  where the        
underground railway trains even must    
stop running during the  hours of       
morning service4 ,but ,jena is not      
,london1 and1 as ,professor  ,haeckel   
says1 ,in ,jena one is free4 ,it pleases
 us to have our ,sabbath  service in our
 tabernacle of science4    ,all         
questions of time aside1 it is a favored
 body of young men who  occupy the      
benches in the laboratory during        
,professor ,haeckel's unique            
,sunday-morning service4 ,each student  
has before him a microscope and a       

specimen of the particular animal that  
is the subject of the morning's  lesson4
 ,let us say that the subject this      
morning is the crawfish4 ,then  in      
addition to the specimens with which the
 students are provided1 and  which each 
will dissect for himself under the      
professor's guidance1  there are        
scattered about the room1 on the various
 tables1 all manner  of specimens of    
allied creatures1 such as crabs1        
lobsters1 and the like4  ,there are     
dissected specimens also of the         
crawfish1 each preparation  showing a   
different set of organs1 exhibited in   
preserving fluids4 ,then  there are     
charts hung all about the room          
illustrating on a magnified  scale1 by  
diagram and picture1 all phases of the  
anatomy of the subjects  under          
discussion4 ,the entire atmosphere of   
the place this morning smacks  of the   
crawfish and his allies4    ,the session
 begins with a brief off-hand discussion
 of the general  characteristics and    

affinities of the group of arthropoda1  
of which the  crawfish is a member4     
,then1 perhaps1 the professor calls the 
students  about him and gives a         
demonstration of the curious phenomena  
of  hypnotism as applied to the         
crawfish1 through which a living        
specimen1  when held for a few moments  
in a constrained attitude1 will pass    
into  a rigid trance1 and remain        
standing on its head or in any other    
grotesque position for an indefinite    
period1 until aroused by a blow  on the 
table or other shock4 ,such are some of 
the little asides1 so to  speak1 with   
which the virile teacher enlivens his   
subject and gives it  broad1 human      
interest4 ,now each student turns to his
 microscope and his  individual         
dissection1 and the professor passes    
from one investigator  to another with  
comment1 suggestion1 and criticism2     
answering questions1  propounding       
anatomical enigmas for                  
solution--enlivening1 vivifying1        

inspiring the entire situation4    ,as  
the work proceeds1 ,professor ,haeckel  
now and again calls the  attention of   
the entire class to some particular     
phase of the subject  just passing under
 their individual observation1 and in   
the most  informal of talks1 illustrated
 on blackboard and chart1 clears up  any
 lurking mysteries of the anatomy1 or   
enlivens the subject with an  incursion 
into physiology1 embryology1 or         
comparative morphology of the  parts    
under observation4 ,thus by the close of
 the session the student  has something 
far more than a mere first-hand         
knowledge of the anatomy  of the        
crawfish--though that in itself were    
much4 ,he has an insight  also into a   
half-dozen allied subjects4 ,he has     
learned to look on the  crawfish as a   
link in a living chain--a creature with 
physiological1  psychological1          
ontological affinities that give it a   
human interest not  hitherto suspected  
by the novitiate4 ,and when the entire  

series of  ,sunday-morning services has 
been carried through1 one order after   
another of the animal kingdom being     
similarly made tribute1 the favored     
student has gone far towards the goal of
 a truly philosophical zoology1  as     
different from the old-time dry-bones   
anatomy as the living crawfish  is      
different from the dead shell which it  
casts off in its annual  moulting time4 
,,the ,,new ,,zoology    ,what1 then1 is
 the essence of this philosophical      
zoology of which  ,haeckel is the       
greatest living exponent and teacher and
 of which his  pupils are among the most
 active promoters8 ,in other words1 what
 is the  real status1 and the import and
 meaning1 the raison d'tre1 if you      
will1 of the science of zoology to-day8 
,to clear the ground for an answer to   
that question1 one must glance          
backward1 say half a century1 and note  
the status of the zoology of that  day1 
that one may see how utterly the point  
of view has changed since  then2 what a 

different thing zoology has become in   
our generation from  what it was1 for   
example1 when young ,haeckel was a      
student at ,jena back  in the fifties4  
,at that time the science of zoology was
 a conglomeration  of facts and         
observations about living things1       
grouped about a set of  specious and    
sadly mistaken principles4 ,it was held1
 following ,cuvier1  that the beings of 
the animal kingdom had been created in  
accordance  with five preconceived      
types3 the vertebrate1 with a spinal    
column2  the articulate1 with jointed   
body and members1 as represented by the 
familiar crustaceans and insects2 the   
mollusk1 of which the oyster and  the   
snail are familiar examples2 the        
radiate1 with its axially  disposed     
members1 as seen in the starfish2 and   
the low1 almost formless  protozoon1    
most of whose representatives are of    
microscopic size4 ,each  of these       
so-called classes was supposed to stand 
utterly isolated from  the others1 as   

the embodiment of a distinct and        
tangible idea4 ,so1 too1  of the lesser 
groups or orders within each class1 and 
of the still more  subordinate groups1  
named technically families1 genera2 and1
 finally1  the individual species4 ,that
 the grouping of species into these     
groups  was more or less arbitrary was  
of course to some extent understood1 yet
  it was not questioned by the general  
run of zoologists that a genus1  for    
example1 represented a truly natural    
group of species that had been  created 
as variations upon one idea or plan1    
much as an architect  might make a      
variety of houses1 no one exactly like  
any other1 yet all  conforming to a     
particular type or genus of             
architecture--for example1  the ,gothic 
or the ,romanesque4 ,that each of the   
groups defined by the  classifiers had  
such status as this was the stock       
doctrine of zoology1  as also that the  
individual species making up the groups1
 and hence  the groups themselves1      

maintained their individual identity    
absolutely  unaltered from the moment of
 their creation1 throughout all         
successive  generations1 to the end of  
their racial existence4    ,such being  
the fundamental conception of zoology1  
it remained only for  the investigator  
to study each individual species with an
 eye to  its affinities with other      
species1 that each might be assigned by 
a  scientific classification to the     
particular place in the original scheme 
of creation which it was destined to    
occupy4 ,once such affinities  had been 
correctly determined and interpreted for
 all species1 the  zoological           
classification would be complete for all
 time4 ,a survey of  the completed      
schedule of classification would then   
show at a glance the  details of the    
preconceived system in accordance with  
which the members  of the animal kingdom
 were created1 and zoology would be a   
finished  science4    ,in the           
application of this relatively simple   

scheme1 to be sure1 no end  of          
difficulties were encountered4 ,each    
higher animal is composed of so  many   
members and organs1 of such diverse     
variations1 that naturalists  could     
never agree among themselves as to just 
where a balance of  affinities between  
resemblances and differences should be  
struck2  whether1 for example1 a given  
species varied so much from the type    
species of a genus--say the genus       
,gothic house--as to belong properly  to
 an independent genus--say ,romanesque  
house2 or whether1 on the other  hand1  
its divergencies were still so          
outweighed by its resemblances as  to   
permit of its retention as an aberrant  
member of genus number one4  ,perpetual 
quibbling over these matters was quite  
the order of the day1  no two           
authorities ever agreeing as to details 
of classification4 ,the  sole point of  
agreement was that preconceived types   
were in question--if  only the          
zoologists could ever determine just    

what these types were4  ,meantime1 the  
student who supposed classifications to 
be matters of  moment1 and who          
laboriously learned to label the animals
 and birds  of his acquaintance with an 
authoritative ,latin name1 was          
perpetually  obliged to unlearn what he 
had acquired1 as a new classifier       
brought new  resources of hair-splitting
 pursuit of a supposed type or ideal to 
bear  on the subject4 ,where1 for       
example1 our great ornithologists of the
  early part of the century1 such as    
,wilson and ,audubon1 had classed all   
our numerous hawks in a genus falco1    
later students split the group up  into 
numerous genera--just how many it is    
impossible to say1 as no two            
authorities agreed on that point4       
,wilson1 could he have come back a      
generation after his death1 would have  
found himself quite at a loss to        
converse with his successors about the  
birds he knew and loved so  well1 using 
their technical names--though the birds 

themselves had not  changed4            
,notwithstanding all the differences of 
opinion about matters of detail1        
however1 there was1 nevertheless1       
substantial agreement about the  broader
 outlines of classifications1 and it    
might fairly enough  have been hoped    
that some day1 when longer study had led
 to finer  discrimination1 the mysteries
 of all the types of creation would  be 
fathomed4 ,but then1 while this hope    
still seemed far enough from            
realization1 ,charles ,darwin came      
forward with his revolutionizing        
doctrine--and the whole time-honored    
myth of types of creation  vanished in  
thin air4 ,it became clear that the     
zoologists had been  attempting a task  
utterly ,sisyphean4 ,they had sought to 
establish  natural groups where groups  
do not exist in nature4 ,they were      
eagerly  peering after an ideal that had
 no existence outside their imagination4
  ,their barriers of words could not be 
made to conform to barriers of  nature1 

because in nature there are no barriers4
    ,what1 then1 was to be done8 ,should
 the whole fabric of classification  be 
abandoned8 ,clearly not1 since there can
 be no science without  classification  
of facts about labelled groupings1      
however arbitrary4  ,classifications    
then must be retained1 perfected2 only  
in future it must  be remembered that   
any classification must be more or less 
arbitrary1  and in a sense false2 that  
it is at best only a verbal convenience1
 not  the embodiment of a final ideal4  
,if1 for example1 we consider the very  
natural group of birds commonly called  
hawks1 we are quite justified  in       
dividing this group into several genera 
or minor groups1 each  composed of      
several species more like one another   
than like the members  of other groups  
of species--that is1 of other genera4   
,but in so doing we  must remember that 
if we could trace the ancestry of our   
various species  of hawks we should find
 that in the remote past the differences

 that now  separate the groups had been 
less and less marked1 and originally    
quite non-existent1 all the various     
species having sprung from a common     
ancestor4 ,the genera of to-day are     
cousin-groups1 let us say2 but the      
parents of the existing species were of 
one brood1 brothers and sisters4  ,and  
what applies to the minor groups called 
genera applies also1 going  farther into
 the past1 to all larger groups as well1
 so that in the last  analysis1 all     
existing creatures being really the     
evolved and modified  descendants of one
 primordial type1 it may be said that   
all animate  creation is but a single   
kind4 ,in this broadened view the       
details of  classification ceased to    
have the importance once ascribed to    
them1 and  the quibblings of the        
classifiers seem amusing rather than    
serious4  ,yet the changed point of view
 left the subject by no means barren of 
interest4 ,for if the multitudinous     
creatures of the living world are  but  

diversified twig-lets of a great tree of
 ascent1 spread by branching  from a    
common root1 at least it is worth       
knowing what larger branches  each group
 of twiglets--representing a genus1 let 
us say--has sprung  from4 ,in           
particular1 since the topmost twig of   
the tree is represented  by man himself 
and his nearest relatives1 is it of     
human interest to  inquire just what    
branches and main stems will be come    
upon in tracing  back the lineage of    
this particular offshoot4 ,this attempt 
had1 perhaps1  no vast1 vital importance
 in the utilitarian sense in which these
 terms  are oftenest used1 but at least 
it had human interest4 ,important or    
otherwise1 it was the task that lay open
 to zoology1 and apparently its  only   
task1 so soon as the ,darwinian         
hypothesis had made good its status4    
,the man who first took this task in    
hand1 and who has most persistently  and
 wisely followed it1 and hence the man  
who became the recognized  leader in the

 field of the new zoology1 was1 as ,i   
have already  intimated1 ,professor     
,haeckel4 ,his hypothetical tree of     
man's lineage1  tracing the ancestry of 
the human family back to the earliest   
geological  times and the lowest orders 
of beings1 has been familiar now for    
just  a third of a century4 ,it was at  
first confessedly only a tentative      
genealogy1 with many weak limbs and     
untraced branches4 ,it was perfected    
from time to time1 as new data came to  
hand1 through studies of  paleontology1 
of embryology1 and of comparative       
anatomy4 ,it will be of  interest1 then1
 to inquire just what is its status     
today and to examine  briefly ,professor
 ,haeckel's own most recent             
pronouncement regarding it4    ,perhaps 
it is not worth our while here to go too
 far down towards the  root of the      
genealogical tree to begin our inquiry4 
,so long as it is  admitted that the    
remote ancestry is grounded in the      
lowest forms of  organisms1 it perhaps  

does not greatly matter to the average  
reader that  there are dark places in   
the lineage during the period when our  
ancestor  had not yet developed a spinal
 column--when1 in other words1 he had   
not  attained the dignity of the lowest 
fish4 ,neither1 perhaps1 need we  mourn 
greatly that the exact branch by which  
our reptilian or amphibian              
non-mammalian ancestor became the first 
and most primitive of mammals is  still 
hidden in unexplored recesses of early  
strata4 ,the most patrician  monarch of 
to-day would not be greatly disturbed as
 to just who were his  ancestors of the 
days of the cave-dweller4 ,it is when we
 come a little  nearer home that the    
question begins to take on its seemingly
 personal  significance4 ,questions of  
grandparents and great-grandparents     
concern  the patrician very closely4    
,and so all along1 the question that has
  interested the average casual         
investigator of the ,darwinian theory   
has been the question as to man's       

immediate ancestor--the parents and     
grandparents of our race1 so to speak4  
,hence the linking of the word  monkey  
with the phrase ,darwinian theory in the
 popular mind2 and  hence1 also1 the    
interpretation of the phrase missing    
link in relation  to man's ancestry1 as 
applying only to our ancestor and not to
 any other  of the gaps in the          
genealogical chain4    ,what1 then1 is  
the present status of ,haeckel's        
genealogical tree  regarding man's most 
direct ancestor8 ,prom what non-human   
parent did the  human race directly     
spring8 ,that is a question that has    
proved itself of  lasting1 vital human  
interest4 ,it is a question that long   
was answered  only with an hypothesis1  
but which ,professor ,haeckel to-day    
professes  to be able to answer with a  
decisive and affirmative citation not of
  theories but of facts4 ,in a word1 it 
is claimed that man's immediate         
ancestor is now actually upon record1   
that the much-heralded missing  link is 

missing no longer4 ,the principal single
 document1 so to  speak1 on which this  
claim is based consists of the now      
famous skull and  thigh-bone which the  
,dutch surgeon1 ,dr4 ,eugene ,dubois1   
discovered in the  year #ahia in the    
tertiary strata of the island of ,java4 
,tertiary strata1  it should be         
explained1 had never hitherto yielded   
any fossils bordering  on the human     
type1 but this now famous skeleton was  
unmistakably akin  to the human4 ,the   
thigh in particular1 taken by itself1   
would have  been pronounced by any      
competent anatomist to be of human      
origin4  ,unquestionably the individual 
who bore it had been accustomed to take 
an erect attitude in walking4 ,and yet  
the skull was far inferior in size  and 
shape to that of any existing tribe of  
man--was1 indeed1 rather of  a simian   
type1 though1 on the other hand1 of     
about twice the capacity  of any        
existing ape4 ,in a word1 it seemed     
clear that the creature whose  part     

skeleton had been found by ,dr4 ,dubois 
was of a type intermediate  between the 
lowest existing man and the highest     
existing man-apes4 ,it  was1 in short1  
the actual prototype of that            
hypothetical creature which  ,haeckel1  
in his genealogical tree1 had christened
 pithecanthropus1 the  ape-man4 ,as such
 it was christened ,pithecanthropus     
erectus1 the erect  ape-man4    ,now the
 discovery of this remarkable form did  
not make ,professor ,haeckel  any more  
certain that some such form had existed 
than he was thirty  years before when he
 christened a hypothetical subject with 
the title  now taken by a tangible      
claimant4 ,but1 after all1 there is     
something  very taking about a prophecy 
fulfilled1 and so the appearance of     
,pithecanthropus erectus created no     
small sensation in the zoological       
world4 ,he was hailed by ,haeckel and   
his followers as the veritable  missing 
link1 and as such gained immediate      
notoriety4 ,but1 on the  other hand1 a  

reactionary party at once attacked him  
with the most  bitter animadversions1   
denouncing him as no true ancestor of   
man with  a bitterness that is hard to  
understand1 considering that the origin 
of  man from some lower form has long   
ceased to be matter of controversy4     
,pithecanthropus is at least half an    
ape1 they cried1 with the clear         
implication of anything but an ape for  
an ancestor6    ,i confess ,i have      
always found it hard to understand just 
why this  peculiar aversion should      
always be held against the unoffending  
ape  tribe4 ,why it would not be quite  
as satisfactory to find one's ancestor  
in an ape as in the alternative lines   
of1 for example1 the cow1 or the        
hippopotamus1 or the whale1 or the dog  
has always been a mystery4 ,yet  the    
fact of this prejudice holds4 ,probably 
we dislike the ape because  of the very 
patency of his human affinities4 ,the   
poor relation is  objectionable not so  
much because he is poor as because he is

 a  relation4 ,so1 perhaps1 it is not   
the apeness1 so to speak1 of the ape    
that is objectionable1 but rather the   
human-ness4 ,in any event1 the  aversion
 has been matter of common notoriety    
ever since the ,darwinian  theory became
 fully accepted2 it showed itself now   
with renewed force  against poor        
pithecanthropus4 ,a half-score of       
objections were launched  against him4  
,it is needless to rehearse them now1   
since they were all  met valiantly1 and 
the final verdict saw the new-comer     
triumphantly  ensconced in man's        
ancestral halls as the oldest sojourner 
there who  has any title to be spoken of
 as human4 ,he is only half human1 to be
  sure--a veritable ape-man1 as his name
 implies--but exactly therein lies  his 
altogether unique distinction4 ,he is   
the embodiment of that missing  link    
whose nonappearance had hitherto given  
so much comfort to the  sceptical4      
,perhaps some crumbs of comfort may be  
found by the reactionists in the  fact  

that it is not held by ,professor       
,haeckel1 or by any other competent     
authority1 that the link which          
pithecanthropus supplies welds man      
directly with any existing man-ape--with
 gorilla1 chimpanzee1 or orang4  ,it is 
held that these highest existing apes   
are side branches1 so  to say1 of the   
ancestral tree1 who developed1 in their 
several ways1  contemporaneously with   
our direct ancestors1 but are not       
themselves  directly of the royal line4 
,the existing ape that has clung closest
 to  the direct ancestral type of our   
own race1 it appears1 is the gibbon--a  
creature far less objectionable in that 
rle because of the very paucity  of his 
human characteristics1 as revealed to   
the casual observer4  ,gibbon-like      
fossil apes are known1 in strata        
representing a time some  millions of   
years antecedent to the epoch of        
pithecanthropus  even1 which are held to
 be directly of the royal line through  
which  pithecanthropus1 and the         

hypothetical ,homo stupidus1 and the    
known  ,homo neanderthalensis1 and1     
lastly1 proud ,homo sapiens himself have
  descended4 ,thus ,professor ,haeckel  
is able to make the affirmation1 as he  
did recently before the ,international  
,zoological ,congress in ,cambridge1    
that man's line of descent is now       
clearly traced1 from a stage back in    
the ,eocene time when our ancestor was  
not yet more than half arrived to  the  
ape's estate1 down to the time of true  
human development4 ,there no  longer    
exists1 he says1 a 'missing link4' ,the 
phyletic continuity  of the primate     
stem1 from the oldest lemurs down to man
 himself1 is an  historical fact4    ,it
 should1 perhaps1 be added that the     
force of this rather startling          
conclusion rests by no means exclusively
 upon the finding of  pithecanthropus   
and the other fossils1 nor indeed upon  
any  paleontological evidence whatever4 
,these1 of course1 furnish data of  a   
very tangible and convincing kind2 but  

the evidence in its totality  includes  
also a host of data from the realms of  
embryology and  comparative             
anatomy--data which1 as already         
suggested1 enabled ,professor  ,haeckel 
to predicate the existence of           
pithecanthropus long in advance  of his 
actual discovery4 ,whether the more     
remote gaps in the chain of  man's      
ancestry will be bridged in a manner    
similarly in accord with  ,professor    
,haeckel's predications1 it remains for 
future discoveries  of zoologist and    
paleontologist to determine4 ,in any    
event1 the recent  findings have added  
an increment of glory to that           
philosophical zoology  of which         
,professor ,haeckel is the greatest     
living exponent4    ,this tracing of    
genealogies is doubtless the most       
spectacular feature of  the new zoology1
 yet it must be clear that the          
establishment of lines  of evolution is 
at best merely a preparation for the    
all-important  question1 ,why have these

 creatures1 man included1 evolved at    
all8 ,that  question goes to the heart  
of the new zoological philosophy4 ,a    
partial  answer was1 of course1 given by
 ,darwin in his great doctrine of       
natural  selection4 ,but this doctrine1 
while explaining the preservation of    
favorable variations1 made no attempt to
 account for the variations  themselves4
 ,professor ,haeckel's contribution to  
the subject consisted in  the revival of
 the doctrine of ,lamarck1 that         
individual variations1 in  response to  
environmental influences1 are           
transmitted to the offspring1  and thus 
furnish the material upon which1        
applying ,darwin's principle1  evolution
 may proceed4 ,this ,lamarck-,haeckel   
doctrine was under a cloud  for a recent
 decade1 during the brief passing of the
 ,weismannian myth1  but it has now     
emerged1 and stands as the one          
recognized factor in the  origin of     
those variations whose cumulative       
preservation through natural  selection 

has resulted in the evolution of organic
 forms4    ,but may there not be other  
factors1 as yet unrecognized1 that      
supplement  the ,lamarckian and         
,darwinian principles in bringing about 
this  marvellous evolution of beings8   
,that1 it would seem1 is the most vital 
question that the philosophical zoology 
of our generation must hand on  to the  
twentieth century4 ,for today not even  
,professor ,haeckel himself  can give it
 answer4          ,,vii4 ,,some         
,,medical ,,laboratories ,,and ,,medical
 ,,problems      ,,the ,,pasteur        
,,institute    ,,the national egotism   
that characterizes the ,french mind is  
not without  its compensations4 ,it     
leads1 for example1 to the tangible     
recognition  of the merits of the great 
men of the nation and to the            
promulgation  of their names in many    
public ways4 ,thus it would be hard to  
mention a  truly distinguished          
,frenchman of the older generations     
whose name has  not been given to a     

street in ,paris4 ,of the men of science
 thus  honored1 one recalls off-hand the
 names of ,buffon1 ,cuvier1 ,geoffroy   
,saint-,hilaire1 ,pinel1 ,esquirol1     
,lamarck1 ,laplace1 ,lavoisier1 ,arago1 
,claude ,bernard1 ,broca--indeed1 one   
could readily extend the list  to       
tiresome dimensions4 ,moreover1 it is a 
list that is periodically  increased by 
the addition of new names1 as occasion  
offers1 for the  ,parisian authorities  
never hesitate to rechristen a street or
 a portion  of a street1 regardless of  
former associations4    ,one of the most
 recent additions to this roll of fame  
is the name of  ,pasteur4 ,the boulevard
 that bears that famous name is situated
 in a  somewhat out-of-the-way corner of
 the city1 though to reach it one has   
but to traverse the relatively short    
course of the ,avenue de ,breteuil  from
 so central a position as the tomb of   
,napoleon4 ,the ,boulevard  ,pasteur    
itself is a not long but very spacious  
thoroughfare1 which  will some day be   

very beautiful1 when the character of   
its environing  buildings has somewhat  
changed and its quadruple rows of trees 
have had  time for development4 ,at     
present its chief distinction1 in the   
eyes  of most observers1 would probably 
be found in the fact that it is the     
location of the famous fte forain at one
 of the annually recurring  stages of   
the endless itinerary of that noted     
function4 ,during the  period of this   
distinction1 which falls in the month of
 ,may1 the  boulevard becomes           
transformed into a veritable ,coney     
,island of  merry-go-rounds1            
shooting-galleries1 ginger-bread booths1
 and clap-trap  side-shows1 to the      
endless delight of throngs of           
pleasure-seekers4 ,there  is no sight in
 all ,paris worthier inspection for the 
foreigner than the  ,boulevard ,pasteur 
offers at this season1 for one gains a  
deep insight  into the psychology of a  
people through observation of the       
infantile  delight with which the adult 

population here throws itself into the  
spirit of amusements which with other   
nations are for the most part  reserved 
for school-children4 ,only a race either
 in childhood or  senescence1 it would  
seem1 could thus give itself over with  
undisguised  delight to the enchantments
 of wooden horses1 cattle1 cats1 and    
pigs2 to  the catching of wooden fish   
with hooks2 to the shooting at targets  
that  one could almost touch with the   
gun-muzzle1 and to the grave observation
  of sideshow performances that would   
excite the risibilities of the most     
unsophisticated audience that could be  
found in the ,mississippi ,valley4      
,as we move among this light-hearted and
 lightheaded throng we shall  scarcely  
escape a feeling of good-humored        
contempt for what seems an  inferior    
race4 ,it will be wholesome1 therefore1 
for us to turn aside  from the boulevard
 into the ,rue ,dotot1 which leads from 
it near its  centre1 and walk a few     
hundred yards away from the             

pleasure-seekers1  where an evidence of 
a quite different and a no less         
characteristic  phase of the national   
psychology will be before us4 ,for here1
 within  easy sound of the jangling     
discords of the organs that keep time   
for the  march of the cheveaux de bois1 
rises up a building that is in a sense  
the monument of a man who was brother in
 blood and in sentiment to the          
revellers we have just left in the      
boulevard1 yet whose career stamped  him
 as one of the greatest men of genius of
 any race or any time4 ,that  man was   
,louis ,pasteur4 ,the building before us
 is the famous institute  that bears his
 name4    ,in itself this building is a 
simple and unimposing structure1 yet of 
pleasing contour4 ,it is as well placed 
as the surroundings permit1 on a        
grassed terrace1 a little back from the 
street1 where a high iron fence  guards 
it and gives it a degree of seclusion4  
,there are other buildings  visible in  
the rear1 which1 as one learns on       

entering1 are laboratories  and the     
like1 where the rabbits and guinea-pigs 
and dogs that are so  essential to the  
work of the laboratory are kept4 ,on the
 terrace  in front is a bronze statue of
 a boy struggling with a rabid dog--a   
reminder of the particular labor of the 
master-worker which led directly  to the
 foundation of the institution4 ,it will
 be remembered that it  was primarily to
 give ,pasteur a wider opportunity to   
apply his newly  discovered treatment   
for the prevention of rabies that the   
subscription  was undertaken which led  
finally to the erection of the buildings
 before  us and brought the ,pasteur    
,institute in its present form into     
being4  ,of the other aims and objects  
of the institution ,i shall speak more  
at  length in a moment4    ,i have just 
said that the building before us is in  
effect the monument  of the great       
savant4 ,this is true in a somewhat more
 literal sense than  might be supposed1 
for the body of ,pasteur rests in a     

crypt at its base4  ,the personal labors
 of the great discoverer were           
practically ended at  the time when the 
institute was opened in #ahhh1 on which 
occasion1  as will be remembered1 the   
scientific representatives of all       
nations  gathered in ,paris to do honor 
to the greatest ,frenchman of his       
generation4 ,he was spared to the world1
 however1 for seven years more1  during 
which time he fully organized the work  
of the institution along  the lines it  
has since followed1 and was1 of course1 
the animating  spirit of all the labors 
undertaken there by his devoted students
 and  assistants4 ,he is the animating  
spirit of the institution still1 and it 
is fitting that his body should rest in 
the worthy mausoleum within the  walls  
of that building whose erection was the 
tangible culmination  of his life       
labors4 ,the sarcophagus is a shrine    
within this temple of  science which    
will serve to stimulate generations of  
workers here to  walk worthily in the   

footsteps of the great founder of the   
institution4  ,for he must be an        
unimaginative person indeed who1 passing
 beneath that  arch bearing the simple  
inscription ,ici ,repose ,pasteur1 could
 descend  into the simple but impressive
 mausoleum and stand beside the massive 
granite sarcophagus without feeling the 
same kind of mental uplift which  comes 
from contact with a great and noble     
personality4 ,the pretentious  tomb of  
,galileo in the nave of ,santa ,croce at
 ,florence1 and the crowded             
resting-place of ,newton and ,darwin in 
,westminster ,abbey1 have no such       
impressiveness as this solitary vault   
where rests the body of ,pasteur1       
isolated in death as the mightier       
spirits must always be in life4         
,,aims ,,and ,,objects ,,of ,,the       
,,pasteur ,,institute    ,if one chances
 to come to the institute in the later  
hours of the  morning he will perhaps be
 surprised to find a motley company of  
men1  women1 and children1 apparently of

 many nationalities and from varied     
walks of life1 gathered about one of the
 entrances or sauntering near  by4      
,these are the most direct beneficiaries
 of the institution1 the  unfortunate   
victims of the bites of rabid dogs1 who 
have come here to  take the treatment   
which alone can give them immunity from 
the terrible  consequences of that      
mishap4 ,rabies1 or hydrophobia as it is
 more  commonly termed with us1 is well 
known to be an absolutely fatal malady1 
there being no case on record of        
recovery from the disease once fully    
established4 ,even the treatment which  
,pasteur developed and which is  here   
carried out cannot avail to save the    
victim in whom the active  symptoms of  
the malady are actually present4 ,but1  
fortunately1 the  disease is peculiarly 
slow in its onset1 sometimes not        
manifesting  itself for weeks or months 
after the inoculation2 and this delay1  
which  formerly was to the patient a    
period of fearful doubt and anxiety1 now

  suffices1 happily1 for the application
 of the protective inoculations  which  
enable the person otherwise doomed to   
resist the poison and go  unscathed4    
,thus it is that the persons who gather 
here each day to the  number of fifty1  
or even one hundred1 have the appearance
 of and the  feelings of average health1
 though a large proportion of them bear 
in  their systems1 on arrival1 the germs
 of a disease that would bring them     
speedily to a terrible end were it not  
that the genius of ,pasteur had  found a
 way to give them immunity4 ,the number 
of persons who have been  given the     
anti-rabic treatment here is more than  
twenty-five thousand4  ,to have given   
safety to such an army of unfortunates  
is1 indeed1 enough  merit for any single
 institution2 but it must not be        
supposed that this  record is by any    
manner of means the full measure of the 
benefits which  the ,institut ,pasteur  
has conferred upon humanity4 ,in point  
of fact1 the  preparation and use of the

 anti-rabic serum is only one of many   
aims  of the institution1 whose full    
scope is as wide as the entire domain of
  contagious diseases4 ,pasteur's       
personal discoveries had demonstrated   
the relation of certain lower organisms1
 notably the bacteria1 to the           
contagious diseases1 and had shown the  
possibility of giving immunity  from    
certain of these diseases through the   
use of cultures of the  noxious bacteria
 themselves4 ,he believed that these    
methods could be  extended and developed
 until all the contagious diseases1     
which hitherto  have accounted for so   
startling a proportion of all deaths1   
were brought  within the control of     
medical science4 ,his deepest thought in
 founding  the institute was to supply a
 tangible seat of operations for this   
attempted conquest1 where the brilliant 
assistants he had gathered about  him1  
and their successors in turn1 might take
 a share in this great  struggle1       
unhampered by the material drawbacks    

which so often confront  the would-be   
worker in science4    ,he desired also  
that the institution should be a centre 
of education  along the lines of its    
work1 adding thus an indirect influence 
to the  score of its direct             
achievements4 ,in both these regards the
 institution  has been and continues to 
be worthy of its founder4 ,the ,pasteur 
,institute is in effect a school of     
bacteriology1 where each of the         
professors is at once a teacher and a   
brilliant investigator4 ,the chief      
courses of instruction consist of two   
series each year of lectures and        
laboratory demonstrations on topics     
within the field of bacteriology4       
,these courses1 at which all the regular
 staff of the institution assist  more  
or less1 are open to physicians and     
other competent students  regardless of 
nationality1 and they suffice to        
inculcate the principles  of            
bacteriology to a large band of seekers 
each year4    ,but more important1      

perhaps1 than this form of educational  
influence is  the impetus given by the  
institute to the researches of a small1 
select  band of investigators who have  
taken up bacteriology for a life work1  
and who come here to perfect themselves 
in the final niceties of the  technique 
of a most difficult profession4 ,thus   
such men as ,calmette1  the discoverer  
of the serum treatment of               
serpent-poisoning1 and ,yersin1  famous 
for his researches in the prevention and
 cure of cholera by  inoculation1 are   
graduates of the ,pasteur ,institute4   
,indeed1 almost  all the chief laborers 
in this field in the world to-day1      
including the  directors of practically 
all the daughter institutes bearing the 
same  name that are now scattered all   
over the world1 have had at least a     
share of their training in the mother   
institute here in ,paris4    ,of the    
work of the men who form the regular    
staff of the ,pasteur  ,institute only a
 few words need be said here4 ,doctors  

,roux1 ,grancher1  ,metchnikoff1 and    
,chamberland all had the privilege of   
sharing ,pasteur's  labors during the   
later years of the master's life1 and   
each of them is  a worthy follower of   
the beloved leader and at the same time 
a brilliant  original                   
investigator499#a99 ,roux is known      
everywhere in connection with  the serum
 treatment of diphtheria1 which he was  
so largely instrumental  in developing4 
,grancher directs the anti-rabic        
department and allied  fields4          
,metchnikoff1 a ,russian by birth and   
,parisian by adoption1 is  famous as the
 author of the theory that the white    
blood-corpuscles of  the blood are the  
efficient agents in combating bacteria4 
,chamberland  directs the field of      
practical bacteriology in its           
applications to  hygiene1 including the 
department in which protective serums   
are  developed for the prevention of    
various diseases of domesticated        
animals1 notably swine fever and        

anthrax4 ,about one million sheep and   
half as many cattle are annually given  
immunity from anthrax by the  serum here
 produced4    ,of the patient and       
unremitting toil demanded of the        
investigator in  this realm of the      
infinitely little2 of the skill in      
manipulation1 the  fertility of         
resource1 the scrupulous exactness of   
experiment that  are absolutely         
prerequisite to success2 of the dangers 
that attend  investigations which deal  
with noxious germs1 every one who knows 
anything of the subject has some        
conception1 but those alone can have    
full comprehension who have themselves  
attempted to follow the devious  and    
delicate pathways of bacteriology4 ,but 
the goals to which these  pathways lead 
have a tangibility that give them a     
vital interest for all  the world4 ,the 
hopes and expectations of bacteriology  
halt at nothing  short of the ultimate  
extirpation of contagious diseases4 ,the
 way to  that goal is long and hard1 yet

 in time it will be made passable4 ,and 
in our generation there is no company of
 men who are doing more  towards that   
end than the staff of that most famous  
of bacteriological  laboratories the    
,pasteur ,institute4      ,,the         
,,virchow ,,institute ,,of ,,pathology  
,even were the contagious diseases well 
in hand1 there would still  remain a    
sufficient coterie of maladies whose    
origin is not due to the  influence of  
living germs4 ,there are1 for example1  
many diseases of the  digestive1        
nutritive1 and excretory systems1 of the
 heart and arteries1  of the brain and  
nerves1 and various less clearly        
localized abnormal  conditions1 that owe
 their origin to inherent defects of the
  organism1 or to various indiscretions 
of food or drink1 to unhygienic         
surroundings1 to material injuries1 or  
to other forms of environmental  stress 
quite dissociated from the action of    
bacteria4 ,it is true that  one would   
need to use extreme care nowadays in    

defining more exactly the  diseases that
 thus lie without the field of the      
bacteriologist1 as that  prying         
individual seems prone to claim almost  
everything within sight1  and to justify
 his claim with the microscope2 but     
after that instrument  has done its best
 or worst1 there will still remain a    
fair contingent  of maladies that cannot
 fairly be brought within the domain of 
the  ever-present germ4 ,on the other   
hand1 all germ diseases have of course  
their particular effects upon the       
system1 bringing their results within   
the scope of the pathologist4 ,thus     
while the bacteriologist has no  concern
 directly with any disease that is not  
of bacterial origin1 the  pathologist   
has a direct interest in every form of  
disease whatever2  in other words1      
bacteriology1 properly considered1 is   
only a special  department of pathology1
 just as pathology itself is only a     
special  department of general medicine4
    ,whichever way one turns in science1

 subjects are always found thus         
dovetailing into one another and        
refusing to be sharply outlined4        
,nevertheless1 here as elsewhere1 there 
are theoretical bounds that  suffice for
 purposes of definition1 if not very    
rigidly lived up to in  practice2 and we
 are justified in thinking of the       
pathologist 7perhaps  ,i should say the 
pathological anatomist7 as the          
investigator of disease  who is directly
 concerned with effects rather than with
 causes1 who aims  directly at the      
diseased tissue itself and reasons only 
secondarily  to the causes4 ,his problem
 is3 given a certain disease 7if ,i may 
be  permitted this personified form of  
expression71 to find what tissues of    
the body are changed by it from the     
normal and in what manner changed4      
,it requires but a moment's reflection  
to make it clear that a certain  crude  
insight into the solution of this       
problem1 as regards all common          
diseases1 must have been the common     

knowledge of medical men since  the     
earliest times4 ,thus not even medical  
knowledge was needed to  demonstrate    
that the tissues of an in3 flamed part  
become red and  swollen2 and numerous   
other changes of diseased tissues are   
almost  equally patent4 ,but this       
species of knowledge1 based on          
microscopic  inspection1 was very vague 
and untrustworthy1 and it was only after
 the  advent of the perfected           
microscope1 some three-quarters of a    
century  ago1 that pathological anatomy 
began to have any proper claim to       
scientific rank4 ,indeed1 it was not    
until about the year #ahfe that the     
real clew was discovered which gave the 
same impetus to pathology that  the     
demonstration of the germ theory of     
disease gave at about the same  time to 
etiology1 or the study of causes of     
disease4 ,this clew consisted  of the   
final demonstration that all organic    
action is in the last resort  a question
 of cellular activities1 and1           

specifically1 that all abnormal  changes
 in any tissues of the body1 due to     
whatever disease1 can consist  of       
nothing more than the destruction1 or   
the proliferation1 or the  alteration of
 the cells that compose that tissue4    
,that seems a simple enough proposition 
nowadays1 but it was at once            
revolutionary and inspiring in the day  
of its original enunciation some  forty 
years ago4 ,the man who had made the    
discovery was a young ,german           
physician1 professor in the ,university 
of ,freiburg1 by name ,rudolph          
,virchow4 ,the discovery made him       
famous1 and from that day to this the   
name of ,virchow has held somewhat the  
same position in the world  of pathology
 that the name of ,pasteur occupied in  
the realm of  bacteriology4 ,virchow was
 called presently to a professorship in 
the  ,university of ,berlin4 ,in        
connection with this chair he           
established his  famous ,institute of   
,pathology1 which has been the ,mecca of

 all students  of pathology ever since4 
,he did a host of other notable things  
as well1  among others1 entering the    
field of politics1 and becoming a       
recognized  leader there no less than in
 science4 ,indeed1 it seemed during the 
later  decades of his life as if one    
encountered ,virchow in whatever        
direction  one turned in ,berlin1 and   
one feels that it was not without reason
 that  his compatriots spoke of him as  
the man who knows everything4 ,to the   
end he retained all the alertness of    
intellect and the energy of body  that  
had made him what he was4 ,one found him
 at an early hour in the  morning       
attending to the routine of his hospital
 duties1 his lectures1  and clinical    
demonstrations4 ,these finished1 he     
rushed off1 perhaps  to his             
parliamentary duties2 thence to a       
meeting of the ,academy of  ,sciences1  
or to preside at the ,academy of        
,medicine or at some other  scientific  
gathering4 ,and in intervals of these   

diversified pursuits he  was besieged   
ever by a host of private callers1 who  
sought his opinion1  his advice1 his    
influence in some matter of practical   
politics1 of  statecraft1 or of science1
 or who1 perhaps1 had merely come the   
length  of the continent that they might
 grasp the hand of the father of        
pathology4    ,in whatever capacity one 
sought him out1 provided the seeking    
were not  too presumptuous1 one was sure
 to find the great savant approachable1 
courteous1 even cordial4 ,a man of      
multifarious affairs1 he impressed  one 
as having abundance of time for them    
all1 and to spare4 ,there is a          
leisureliness about the seeming habit of
 existence on the ,continent that  does 
not pertain in ,america1 and one felt   
the flavor of it quite as much  in the  
presence of this great worker as among  
those people who from  our stand-point  
seem never really to work at all4 ,this 
is to a certain  extent explained if one
 visited ,virchow in his home1 and found

 to his  astonishment that the          
world-renowned physician1 statesman1    
pathologist1  anthropologist was        
domiciled in a little apartment of the  
most modest  equipment1 up two flights1 
in a house of most unpretentious        
character4  ,everything was entirely    
respectable1 altogether comfortable1 to 
be sure2  but it was a grade of living  
which a man of corresponding position in
  ,america could not hold to without    
finding himself quite out of step with  
his confrres and the subject of endless 
comment4 ,but in this city  of universal
 apartment-house occupancy and          
relatively low average of  display in   
living it is quite otherwise4 ,virchow  
lived on the same  plane1 generally     
speaking1 with the other scientists of  
,europe2 it is  only from the ,american 
standpoint that there is any seeming    
disparity  between his fame and his     
material station in life2 nor do ,i     
claim this  as a merit of the ,american 
stand-point4    ,be that as it may1     

however1 our present concern lies not   
with these  matters1 but with ,virchow  
the pathologist and teacher4 ,to see the
  great scientist at his best in this   
rle1 it was necessary to visit the      
,institute of ,pathology on a ,thursday 
morning at the hour of nine4 ,on  the   
morning of our visit we found the       
students already assembled and  gathered
 in clusters all about the room1        
examining specimens of morbid  anatomy1 
under guidance of various laboratory    
assistants4 ,this was  to give them a   
general familiarity with the appearances
 of the  disease-products that would be 
described to them in the ensuing        
lecture4  ,but what is most striking    
about the room was the very unique      
method of  arrangement of the desk or   
table on which the specimens rested4 ,it
  was virtually a long-drawn-out series 
of desks winding back and forth         
throughout the entire room1 but all     
united into one1 so that a specimen     
passed along the table from end to end  

will make a zigzag tour of the  room1   
passing finally before each person in   
the entire audience4 ,to  facilitate    
such transit1 there was a little iron   
railway all along the  centre of the    
table1 with miniature turn-tables at the
 corners1 along  which microscopes1 with
 adjusted specimens for examination1    
might be  conveyed without danger of    
maladjustment or injury4 ,this may seem 
a  small detail1 but it is really an    
important auxiliary in the teaching  by 
demonstration with specimens for which  
this room was peculiarly  intended4 ,the
 ordinary lectures of ,professor        
,virchow were held in a  neighboring    
amphitheatre of conventional type4      
,of a sudden there was a hush in the hum
 of voices1 as a little1 thin1          
frail-seeming man entered and stepped   
briskly to the front of the  room and   
upon the low platform before the        
blackboard in the corner4 ,a  moment's  
pause for the students to take their    
places1 and the lecturer1  who of course

 was ,virchow himself1 began1 in a      
clear1 conversational  voice1 to        
discourse on the topic of the day1 which
 chanced to be the  formation of clots  
in blood-vessels4 ,there was no         
particular attempt at  oratory2 rather  
the lecturer proceeded as if talking man
 to man1 with  no thought but to make   
his meaning perfectly clear4 ,he began  
at once  putting specimens in           
circulation1 as supplied on his demand  
by his  assistants from a rather        
grewsome-looking collection before him4 
,now  he paused to chaff the assistant  
who was making the labels1 poking       
good-humored jokes at his awkwardness1  
but with no trace of sting4 ,again  he  
became animated1 his voice raised a     
little1 his speech more vehement1  as he
 advanced his own views on some         
contested theory or refuted the         
objections that some opponent had urged 
against him1 always1 however1  with a   
smile lurking about his eyes or openly  
showing on his lips4    ,constantly the 

lecturer turned to the blackboard to    
illustrate with  colored1 crayons such  
points of his discourse as the actual   
specimens in  circulation might leave   
obscure4 ,everything must be made plain 
to every  hearer or he would not be     
satisfied4 ,one can but contrast such   
teaching  as this with the lectures of  
the average ,german professor1 who seems
 not  to concern himself in the least as
 to whether anything is understood by   
any one4 ,but ,virchow had the spirit of
 the true teacher4 ,he had the air  of  
loving his task1 old story as it was to 
him4 ,most of his auditors  were mere   
students1 yet he appealed to them as    
earnestly as if they  were associates   
and equals4 ,he seemed to try to put    
himself on their  level--to make his    
thought near to them4 ,physically he was
 near to them  as he talked1 the        
platform on which he stood being but a  
few inches  in height1 and such physical
 nearness conduces to a familiarity of  
discourse that is best fitted for       

placing lecturer and hearers en         
rapport4 ,all in all1 appealing as it   
does almost equally to ear and  eye1 it 
is a type of what a lecturer should be4 
,not a student there but  went away with
 an added fund of information1 which is 
far more than can  be said of most of   
the lectures in a ,german university4   
,needless to say1 there are other       
departments to the ,institute of        
,pathology4 ,there are collections of   
beautifully preserved specimens for     
examination2 rooms for practical        
experimentation in all phases of the    
subject1 the chemical side included2 but
 these are not very different  from the 
similar departments of similar          
institutions everywhere4 ,what  was     
unique and characteristic about this    
institution was the personality  of the 
director4 ,now he is gone1 but his      
influence will not soon be  forgotten4  
,the pupils of a great teacher are sure 
to carry forward the  work somewhat in  
the spirit of the master for at least a 

generation4      ,,the ,,berlin         
,,institute ,,op ,,hygiene    ,i        
purposely refrain from entering into any
 details as to the character  of the    
technical work done at the ,virchow     
,institute1 because the subject  of     
pathology1 despite its directly         
practical bearings1 is in itself        
necessarily somewhat removed from the   
knowledge of the general reader4  ,one  
cannot well understand the details of   
changes in tissues under  abnormal      
conditions unless one first understands 
the normal conditions  of the tissues   
themselves1 and such knowledge is       
reserved for the  special students of   
anatomy4 ,for the nonprofessional       
observer the  interest of the ,virchow  
,institute must lie in its general scope
 rather  than in the details of the     
subjects there brought under            
investigation1  which latter have1      
indeed1 of necessity1 a somewhat        
grewsome character  despite the         
beneficent results that spring from     

them4 ,it is quite  otherwise1 however1 
with the work of the allied institution 
of which ,i  now come to speak4 ,the    
,institute of ,hygiene deals with topics
 not very  remote from those studied in 
the ,virchow ,institute1 part of its    
work1  indeed1 falling clearly within   
the scope of pathology2 but it differs  
in  being clearly comprehensible to the 
general public and of immediate  and    
tangible interest from the most strictly
 utilitarian stand-point1  hygiene      
being1 in effect1 the tangible link     
between the more abstract  medical      
sciences and the affairs of every-day   
life4    ,the ,institute of ,hygiene has
 also the interest that always attaches 
to  association with a famous name1 for 
it was here that ,professor ,koch made  
the greater part of those investigations
 which made his name the best  known1   
next to that of ,pasteur1 of any in the 
field of bacteriology4  ,in particular1 
the researches on the cholera germ1 and 
those even more  widely heralded        

researches that led to the discovery of 
the bacillus of  tuberculosis1 and the  
development of the remedy tuberculin1 of
 which  so much was at first expected1  
were made by ,professor ,koch in the    
laboratories of the antiquated building 
which was then and is still  the seat of
 the ,institute of ,hygiene4 ,more      
recently ,professor ,koch has  severed  
his connection with the institution     
after presiding over it for  many years1
 having now a semi-private laboratory   
just across from the  ,virchow          
,institute1 in connection with the      
,charit ,hospital2 but one  still thinks
 of the ,institute of ,hygiene as       
peculiarly the ,koch  ,institute without
 injustice1 so fully does its work      
follow the lines  laid out for it by the
 great leader4    ,but however much the 
stamp of any individual personality may 
rest upon  the institute1 it is         
officially a department of the          
university1 just as  is the ,virchow    
,institute4 ,like the latter1 also1 its 

local habitation  is an antiquated      
building1 strangely at variance1        
according to ,american  ideas1 with its 
reputation1 though by no means          
noteworthy in this regard  in the case  
of a ,german institution4 ,it is        
situated in a part of the  city distant 
from any other department of the        
university1 and there is  nothing about 
it exteriorly to distinguish it from    
other houses of the  solid block in     
which it stands4 ,interiorly1 it reminds
 one rather of a  converted dwelling    
than a laboratory proper4 ,its rooms are
 well  enough adapted to their purpose1 
but they give one the impression of  a  
makeshift4 ,the smallest ,american      
college would be ill-satisfied with     
such an equipment for any department of 
its work4 ,yet in these dingy  quarters 
has been accomplished some of the best  
work in the new science  of bacteriology
 that our century will have to boast4   
,the actual equipment of the            
bacteriological laboratory here is not1 

indeed1 quite as meagre as it seems at  
first1 there being numerous  rooms1     
scattered here and there1 which in the  
aggregate give opportunity  for work to 
a large number of investigators1 though 
no single room makes  an impressive     
appearance4 ,there is one room1 however1
 large enough to  give audience to a    
considerable class1 and here lectures   
were given by  ,professor ,koch and     
continue to be given by his successors  
to the special  students of bacteriology
 who come from all over the world1 as   
well as to  the university students who 
take the course as a part of their      
regular  medical curriculum4 ,in regard 
to this feature of its work1 the        
,institute  of ,hygiene differs in no   
essential respect from the ,pasteur     
,institute  and other laboratories of   
bacteriology4 ,the same general routine 
of work  pertains3 the patient          
cultivation of the minute organisms in  
various  mediums1 their careful staining
 by special processes1 and their        

investigation under the microscope mark 
the work of the bacteriologist          
everywhere4 ,many details of the special
 methods of culture or treatment        
originated here with ,professor ,koch1  
but such matters are never kept  secret 
in science1 so one may see them         
practised quite as generally  and as    
efficiently in other laboratories as in 
this one4 ,indeed1 it may  frankly be   
admitted that1 aside from its historical
 associations with  the pioneer work in 
bacteriology1 which will always make it 
memorable1  there is nothing about the  
bacteriological laboratory here to give 
it  distinction over hundreds of similar
 ones elsewhere2 while in point of      
technical equipment1 as already noted1  
it is remarkable rather for what  it    
lacks than for what it presents4    ,the
 department of bacteriology1 however1 is
 only one of several  important features
 of the institute4 ,one has but to      
ascend another  flight of stairs to pass
 out of the sphere of the microbe and   

enter a  department where attention is  
directed to quite another field4 ,we    
have  now come to what may be considered
 the laboratory of hygiene proper1      
since here the investigations have to do
 directly with the functionings  of the 
human body in their relations to the    
every-day environment4  ,here again one 
is struck with the meagre equipment with
 which important  results may be        
attained by patient and skilled         
investigators4 ,in only  one room does  
one find a really elaborate piece of    
apparatus4 ,this  exceptional mechanism 
consists essentially of a cabinet large 
enough to  give comfortable lodgment to 
a human subject--a cabinet with walls of
  peculiar structure1 partly of glass1  
and connected by various pipes with     
sundry mysterious-seeming retorts4 ,this
 single apparatus1 however1 is          
susceptible of being employed for the   
investigation of an almost endless      
variety of questions pertaining to the  
functionings of the human body          

considered as a working mechanism4      
,thus1 for example1 a human subject to  
be experimented upon may remain  for an 
indefinite period within this cabinet1  
occupied in various ways1  taking       
physical exercise1 reading1 engaged in  
creative mental labor1  or sleeping4    
,meantime1 air is supplied for          
respiration in measured  quantities1 and
 of a precisely determined composition1 
as regards  chemical impurities1        
moisture1 and temperature4 ,the air     
after passing  through the chamber being
 again analyzed1 the exact constituents 
added  to it as waste products of the   
human machine in action under varying   
conditions are determined4 ,it will     
readily be seen that by indefinitely    
varying the conditions of such          
experiments a great variety of data  may
 be secured as to the exact             
physiological accompaniments of various 
bodily and mental activities4 ,such data
 are of manifest importance to  the     
physiologist and pathologist on the one 

hand1 while at the same  time having a  
direct bearing on such eminently        
practical topics as the  construction of
 shops1 auditoriums1 and dwellings in   
reference to light1  heat1 and          
ventilation4 ,it remains only for       
practical architecture to  take         
advantage of the unequivocal data thus  
placed at its disposal--an  opportunity 
of which practical architecture1 in     
,germany as elsewhere on  the           
,continent1 has hitherto been very slow 
to avail itself4      ,,the ,,museum    
,,of ,,hygiene    ,the practical lessons
 thus given in the laboratory are       
supplemented in  an even more tangible  
manner1 because in a way more accessible
 to  the public1 in another department  
of the institution which occupies a     
contiguous building1 and is known as the
 ,museum of ,hygiene4 ,this1 unlike  the
 other departments of the institute1 is 
open to the general public  on certain  
days of each week1 and it offers a      
variety of exhibits of  distinctly novel

 character and of high educational      
value4 ,the general  character of the   
exhibits may be inferred from the name1 
but perhaps the  scope is even wider    
than might be expected4 ,in a word1 it  
may be said  that scarcely anything     
having to do with practical hygiene has 
been  overlooked4 ,thus one finds here  
numberless models of dwelling-houses1   
showing details of lighting1 heating1   
and ventilation2 models not  merely of  
individual dwellings1 but also of       
school-buildings1 hospitals1  asylums1  
and even prisons4 ,sometimes the models 
represent merely  ideal buildings1 but  
more generally they reproduce in        
miniature actual  habitations4 ,in the  
case of the public buildings1 the model 
usually includes not merely the         
structures themselves but the           
surroundings--lawns1 drives1 trees1     
out-buildings--so that one can get a    
very good idea of the more important    
hospitals1 asylums1 and prisons of      
,germany by making a tour of the ,museum

 of ,hygiene4 ,regarding the details  of
 structure1 one can actually gain a     
fuller knowledge in many cases  than he 
could obtain by actual visits to the    
original institutions  themselves4      
,the same thing is true of various other
 features of the subjects  represented4 
,thus there is a very elaborate model   
here exhibited of the  famous ,berlin   
system of sewage-disposal4 ,as is well  
known1 the essential  features of this  
system consist of the drainage of sewage
 into local  reservoirs1 from which it  
is forced by pumps1 natural drainage not
  sufficing1 to distant fields1 where it
 is distributed through tile pipes  laid
 in a network about a yard beneath the  
surface of the soil4 ,the  fields       
themselves1 thus rendered fertile by the
 waste products of the  city1 are       
cultivated1 and yield a rich harvest of 
vegetables and grains  of every variety 
suitable to the climate4 ,the visitor to
 this field  sees only rich farms and   
market-gardens under ordinary process of

  cultivation4 ,the system of pipes by  
which the land is fertilized is  as     
fully hidden from his view as are1 for  
example1 the tributary  sewage-pipes    
beneath the city pavements4 ,the average
 visitor to ,berlin  knows nothing1 of  
course1 about one or the other1 and goes
 away1 as he  came1 ignorant of the     
important fact that ,berlin has reached 
a better  solution of the great sewage  
problem than has been attained by any   
other large city4 ,such1 at least1 is   
likely to be the case unless the        
sight-seer chance to pay a visit to the 
,museum of ,hygiene1 in which  case a   
few minutes' inspection of the model    
there will make the matter  entirely    
clear to him4 ,it is to be regretted    
that the authorities  of other large    
cities do not make special visits to    
,berlin for this  purpose2 though it    
should be added that some of them have  
done so1 and  that the ,berlin system of
 canalization has been adopted in       
various  places in ,america4 ,but many  

others might wisely follow their        
example1  notably the ,parisians1 whose 
sewerage system1 despite the boasted    
exhibition canal-sewer1 is1 like so many
 other things ,parisian1 of the  most   
primitive character and a reproach to   
present-day civilization4    ,it may be 
added that there are plenty of things   
exhibited in this museum  which the     
,germans themselves might study to      
advantage1 for it must be  understood   
that the other hygienic conditions      
pertaining to ,berlin are  by no means  
all on a par with the high modern       
standard of the sewerage  system4 ,in   
the matter of ventilation1 for example1 
one may find  admirable models in the   
museum1 showing just how the dwelling   
and shop  and school-room should make   
provision for a proper supply of pure   
air  for their occupants4 ,but if one   
goes out from the museum and searches in
  the actual dwelling or shop or        
school-room for the counterparts of     
these models1 one will be sorely puzzled

 where to find them4 ,the general       
impression which a casual inspection    
will leave in his mind is that the  word
 ventilation must be as meaningless to  
the ,german mind as it is1 for  example1
 to the mind of a ,frenchman or an      
,italian4 ,this probably is not  quite  
just1 since the ,german has at least    
reached the stage of having  museum     
models of ventilated houses1 thus       
proving that the idea does  exist1 even 
though latent1 in his mental equipment1 
whereas the other  continental          
nationalities seem not to have reached  
even this incipient  stage of progress4 
,all over ,europe the people fear a     
current of air as  if veritable miasm   
must lurk in it4 ,they seem quite       
oblivious to any  systematic necessity  
for replenishing the oxygen supply among
 large  assemblies1 as any one can      
testify who has1 for example1 visited   
their  theatres or schools4 ,and as to  
the private dwellings1 after making     
them as nearly air-tight as practicable1

 they endeavor to preserve the  status  
quo as regards air supply seemingly from
 season to season4 ,they  even seem to  
have passed beyond a mere negative      
regard for the subject  of fresh air1   
inasmuch as they will bravely assure you
 that to sleep  in a room with an open  
window will surely subject you to the   
penalty of  inflamed eyes4    ,in a     
country like ,france1 where the open    
fireplace is the usual means  employed  
to modify the temperature 7,i will not  
say warm the room71  the dwellings do of
 necessity get a certain amount of      
ventilation1  particularly since the    
windows are not usually of the best     
construction4  ,but the ,german1 with   
his nearly air-tight double windows and 
his even  more nearly sealed tile stove1
 spends the winter in an atmosphere     
suggestive of the descriptions that     
arctic travellers give us of the  air in
 the hut of an ,eskimo4 ,it is clear1   
then1 that the models in the  ,museum of
 ,hygiene have thus far failed of the   

proselyting purpose  for which they were
 presumably intended4 ,how it has       
chanced that the  inhabitants of the    
country maintain so high an average of  
robust health  after this open defiance 
is a subject which the physiological    
department  of the ,institute of        
,hygiene might well investigate4        
,even though the implied precepts of the
 ,museum of ,hygiene are so largely     
disregarded1 however1 it must be        
admitted that the existence of the      
museum is a hopeful sign4 ,it is a      
valuable educational institution1  and  
if its salutary lessons are but slowly  
accepted by the people1 they  cannot be 
altogether without effect4 ,at least the
 museum proves that  there are leaders  
in science here who have got beyond the 
range of  eighteenth-century thought in 
matters of practical living1 and the    
sign is hopeful for the future1 though  
its promise will perhaps not be         
fulfilled in our generation4            
,,vii4 ,,some ,,unsolved ,,scientific   

,,problems      ,,in recent chapters we 
have witnessed a marvellous development 
in many  branches of pure science4 ,in  
viewing so wonderfully diversified a    
field1  it has of course been impossible
 to dwell upon details1 or even to      
glance at every minor discovery4 ,at    
best one could but summarize the  broad 
sweep of progress somewhat as a battle  
might be described by a  distant        
eye-witness1 telling of the general     
direction of action1 of  the movements  
of large masses1 the names of leaders of
 brigades and  divisions1 but           
necessarily ignoring the lesser         
fluctuations of advance  or recession   
and the individual gallantry of the rank
 and file4 ,in  particular1 interest has
 centred upon the storming of the       
various  special strongholds of ignorant
 or prejudiced opposition1 which at last
  have been triumphantly occupied by the
 band of progress4 ,in each case  where 
such a stronghold has fallen1 the       
victory has been achieved solely        

through the destructive agency of newly 
discovered or newly marshalled          
facts--the only weapons which the       
warrior of science seeks or cares for4  
,facts must be marshalled1 of course1   
about the guidon of a hypothesis1  but  
that guidon can lead on to victory only 
when the facts themselves  support it4  
,once planted victoriously on the       
conquered ramparts the  hypothesis      
becomes a theory--a generalization of   
science--marking a  fresh coign of      
vantage1 which can never be successfully
 assailed unless  by a new host of      
antagonistic facts4 ,such               
generalizations1 with the  events       
leading directly up to them1 have       
chiefly occupied our attention4    ,but 
a moment's reflection makes it clear    
that the battle of science1  thus       
considered1 is ever shifting ground and 
never ended4 ,thus at  any given period 
there are many unsettled skirmishes     
under way2 many  hypotheses are yet only
 struggling towards the stronghold of   

theory1  perhaps never to attain it2 in 
many directions the hosts of            
antagonistic  facts seem so evenly      
matched that the hazard of war appears  
uncertain2  or1 again1 so few facts are 
available that as yet no attack worthy  
the  name is possible4 ,such unsettled  
controversies as these have1 for the    
most part1 been ignored in our survey of
 the field4 ,but it would not be  fair  
to conclude our story without adverting 
to them1 at least in brief2  for some of
 them have to do with the most          
comprehensive and important  questions  
with which science deals1 and the       
aggregate number of facts  involved in  
these unfinished battles is often great1
 even though as yet  the marshalling has
 not led to final victory for any       
faction4 ,in some  cases1 doubtless1 the
 right hypothesis is actually in the    
field1 but its  supremacy not yet       
conclusively proved--perhaps not to be  
proved for many  years or decades to    
come4 ,some of the chief scientific     

results of the  nineteenth century have 
been but the gaining of supremacy for   
hypotheses  that were mere forlorn      
hopes1 looked on with general contempt1 
if at  all heeded1 when the eighteenth  
century came to a close--witness the    
doctrines of the great age of the earth1
 of the immateriality of heat1  of the  
undulatory character of light1 of       
chemical atomicity1 of  organic         
evolution4 ,contrariwise1 the opposite  
ideas to all of these  had seemingly a  
safe supremacy until the new facts drove
 them from the  field4 ,who shall say1  
then1 what forlorn hope of to-day's     
science may  not be the conquering host 
of to-morrow8 ,all that one dare attempt
 is  to cite the pretensions of a few   
hypotheses that are struggling over the 
still contested ground4      ,,solar    
,,and ,,telluric ,,problems    ,our sun 
being only a minor atom of the stellar  
pebble1 solar problems  in general are  
of course stellar problems also4 ,but   
there are certain  special questions    

regarding which we are able to          
interrogate the sun  because of his     
proximity1 and which have1 furthermore1 
a peculiar  interest for the residents  
of our little globe because of our      
dependence  upon this particular star4  
,one of the most far-reaching of these  
is  as to where the sun gets the heat   
that he gives off in such  liberal      
quantities4 ,we have already seen that  
,dr4 ,mayer1 of  conservation-of-energy 
fame1 was the first to ask this         
question4 ,as  soon as the doctrine of  
the persistence and convertibility of   
energy was  grasped1 about the middle of
 the century1 it became clear that this 
was one of the most puzzling of         
questions4 ,it did not at all suffice to
  answer that the sun is a ball of fire1
 for computation showed that1 at  the   
present rate of heat-giving1 if the sun 
were a solid mass of coal1  he would be 
totally consumed in about five thousand 
years4 ,as no such  decrease in size as 
this implies had taken place within     

historic times1  it was clear that some 
other explanation must be sought4       
,dr4 ,mayer himself hit upon what seemed
 a tenable solution at the very  outset4
 ,starting from the observed fact that  
myriads of tiny meteorites  are hurled  
into the earth's atmosphere daily1 he   
argued that the sun  must receive these 
visitants in really enormous            
quantities--sufficient1  probably1 to   
maintain his temperature at the observed
 limits4 ,there was  nothing at all     
unreasonable about this assumption1 for 
the amount of  energy in a swiftly      
moving body capable of being transformed
 into heat  if the body be arrested is  
relatively enormous4 ,thus it is        
calculated  that a pound of coal dropped
 into the sun from the mathematician's  
favorite starting-point1 infinity1 would
 produce some six thousand times  the   
heat it could engender if merely burned 
at the sun's surface4 ,in  other words1 
if a little over two pounds of material 
from infinity  were to fall into each   

square yard of the sun's surface each   
hour1 his  observed heat would be       
accounted for2 whereas almost seven tons
 per  square yard of stationary fuel    
would be required each hour to produce  
the same effect4    ,in view of the     
pelting which our little earth receives1
 it seemed not  an excessive requisition
 upon the meteoric supply to suppose    
that the  requisite amount of matter may
 fall into the sun1 and for a time this 
explanation of his incandescence was    
pretty generally accepted4 ,but soon    
astronomers began to make calculations  
as to the amount of matter which  this  
assumption added to our solar system1   
particularly as it aggregated  near the 
sun in the converging radii1 and then it
 was clear that no such  mass of matter 
could be there without interfering      
demonstrably with the  observed course  
of the interior planets4 ,so another    
source of the sun's  energy had to be   
sought4 ,it was found forthwith by that 
other great  ,german1 ,helmholtz1 who   

pointed out that the falling matter     
through which  heat may be generated    
might just as well be within the        
substance of the  sun as without--in    
other words1 that contraction of the    
sun's heated  body is quite sufficient  
to account for a long-sustained         
heat-supply  which the mere burning of  
any known substance could not approach4 
,moreover the amount of matter thus     
falling towards the sun's centre  being 
enormous--namely1 the total substance of
 the sun--a relatively  small amount of 
contraction would be theoretically      
sufficient to keep  the sun's furnace at
 par1 so to speak4    ,at first sight   
this explanation seemed a little        
puzzling to many laymen  and some       
experts1 for it seemed to imply1 as     
,lord ,kelvin pointed out1  that the sun
 contracts because it is getting cooler1
 and gains heat  because it contracts4  
,but this feat is not really as         
paradoxical as it  seems1 for it is not 
implied that there is any real gain of  

heat in the  sun's mass as a whole1 but 
quite the reverse4 ,all that is sought  
is  an explanation of a maintenance of  
heat-giving capacity relatively         
unchanged for a long1 but not an        
interminable1 period4 ,indeed1  exactly 
here comes in the novel and startling   
feature of4 ,helmholtz's  calculation4  
,according to ,mayer's meteoric         
hypothesis1 there were no  data at hand 
for any estimate whatever as to the     
sun's permanency1 since  no one could   
surmise what might be the limits of the 
meteoric supply4  ,but ,helmholtz's     
estimate implied an incandescent body   
cooling--keeping  up a somewhat equable 
temperature through contraction for a   
time1 but  for a limited time only2     
destined ultimately to become liquid1   
solid2 to  cool below the temperature of
 incandescence--to die4 ,not only so1   
but  it became possible to calculate the
 limits of time within which this       
culmination would probably occur4 ,it   
was only necessary to calculate the     

total amount of heat which could be     
generated by the total mass of our      
solar system in falling together to the 
sun's centre from infinity to  find the 
total heat-supply to be drawn upon4     
,assuming1 then1 that the  present      
observed rate of heat-giving has been   
the average maintained  in the past1 a  
simple division gives the number of     
years for which the  original supply is 
adequate4 ,the supply will be exhausted1
 it will be  observed1 when the mass    
comes into stable equilibrium as a solid
 body1  no longer subject to            
contraction1 about the sun's            
centre--such a body1  in short1 as our  
earth is at present4    ,this           
calculation was made by ,lord ,kelvin1  
,professor ,tait1 and others1  and the  
result was one of the most truly        
dynamitic surprises of the  century4    
,for it transpired that1 according to   
mathematics1 the entire  limit of the   
sun's heat-giving life could not exceed 
something like  twenty-five millions of 

years4 ,the publication of that         
estimate1 with  the appearance of       
authority1 brought a veritable storm    
about the heads  of the physicists4 ,the
 entire geological and biological worlds
 were  up in arms in a trice4 ,two or   
three generations before1 they hurled   
brickbats at any one who even hinted    
that the solar system might be more     
than six thousand years old2 now they   
jeered in derision at the attempt  to   
limit the life-bearing period of our    
globe to a paltry fifteen or  twenty    
millions4    ,the controversy as to     
solar time thus raised proved one of the
 most  curious and interesting          
scientific disputations of the century4 
,the  scene soon shifted from the sun to
 the earth2 for a little reflection     
made it clear that the data regarding   
the sun alone were not  sufficiently    
definite4 ,thus ,dr4 ,croll contended   
that if the parent  bodies of the sun   
had chanced to be flying stars before   
collision1  a vastly greater supply of  

heat would have been engendered than if 
the  matter merely fell together4       
,again1 it could not be overlooked that 
a host of meteors are falling into the  
sun1 and that this source of  energy1   
though not in itself sufficient to      
account for all the heat in  question1  
might be sufficient to vitiate utterly  
any exact calculations4  ,yet again1    
,professor ,lockyer called attention to 
another source of  variation1 in the    
fact that the chemical combination of   
elements  hitherto existing separately  
must produce large quantities of heat1  
it  being even suggested that this      
source alone might possibly account for 
all the present output4 ,on the whole1  
then1 it became clear that the          
contraction theory of the sun's heat    
must itself await the demonstration  of 
observed shrinkage of the solar disk1 as
 viewed by future generations  of       
observers1 before taking rank as an     
incontestable theory1 and that          
computations as to time based solely on 

this hypothesis must in the mean  time  
be viewed askance4    ,but the time     
controversy having taken root1 new      
methods were naturally  found for       
testing it4 ,the geologists sought to   
estimate the period of  time that must  
have been required for the deposit of   
the sedimentary  rocks now observed to  
make up the outer crust of the earth4   
,the amount  of sediment carried through
 the mouth of a great river furnishes a 
clew  to the rate of denudation of the  
area drained by that river4 ,thus the   
studies of ,messrs4 ,humphreys and      
,abbot1 made for a different purpose1   
show that the average level of the      
territory drained by the ,mississippi   
is being reduced by about one foot in   
six thousand years4 ,the sediment  is1  
of course1 being piled up out in the    
,gulf at a proportionate rate4  ,if1    
then1 this be assumed to be an average  
rate of denudation and  deposit in the  
past1 and if the total thickness of     
sedimentary deposits  of past ages were 

known1 a simple calculation would show  
the age of the  earth's crust since the 
first continents were formed4 ,but      
unfortunately  these ifs stand          
mountain-high here1 all the essential   
factors being  indeterminate4           
,nevertheless1 the geologists contended 
that they could  easily make out a case 
proving that the constructive and       
destructive  work still in evidence1 to 
say nothing of anterior revolutions1    
could  not have been accomplished in    
less than from twenty-five to fifty     
millions of years4    ,this computation 
would have carried little weight with   
the physicists  had it not chanced that 
another computation of their own was    
soon made  which had even more startling
 results4 ,this computation1 made by    
,lord  ,kelvin1 was based on the rate of
 loss of heat by the earth4 ,it thus    
resembled the previous solar estimate in
 method4 ,but the result was very       
different1 for the new estimate seemed  
to prove that a period of from  one     

hundred to two hundred millions of years
 has elapsed since the final  crust of  
the earth formed4    ,with this all     
controversy ceased1 for the most        
grasping geologist or  biologist would  
content himself with a fraction of that 
time4 ,but the  case for the geologist  
was to receive yet another prop from the
 studies  of radio-activity1 which seem 
to prove that the atom of matter has in 
store a tremendous1 supply of potential 
energy which may be drawn on  in a way  
to vitiate utterly all the computations 
to which ,i have just  referred4 ,thus a
 particle of radium is giving out heat  
incessantly  in sufficient quantity to  
raise its own weight of water to the    
boiling-point in an hour4 ,the          
demonstrated wide distribution of       
radio-active matter--making it at least 
an open question whether all  matter    
does not possess this property in some  
degree--has led to the  suggestion that 
the total heat of the sun may be due to 
radio-active  matter in its substance4  

,obviously1 then1 all estimates of the  
sun's age  based on the heat-supply must
 for the present be held quite in       
abeyance4  ,what is more to the point1  
however1 is the fact1 which these       
varying  estimates have made patent1    
that computations of the age of the     
earth  based on any data at hand are    
little better than rough guesses4 ,long 
before the definite estimates were      
undertaken1 geologists had proved  that 
the earth is very1 very old1 and it can 
hardly be said that  the attempted      
computations have added much of         
definiteness to that  proposition4 ,they
 have1 indeed1 proved that the period of
 time to be  drawn upon is not infinite2
 but the nebular hypothesis1 to say     
nothing  of common-sense1 carried us as 
far as that long ago4    ,if the        
computations in question have failed of 
their direct purpose1  however1 they    
have been by no means lacking in        
important collateral  results4 ,to      
mention but one of these1 ,lord ,kelvin 

was led by this  controversy over the   
earth's age to make his famous          
computation in which  he proved that the
 telluric structure1 as a whole1 must   
have at least  the rigidity of steel in 
order to resist the moon's tidal pull as
 it  does4 ,hopkins had1 indeed1 made a 
somewhat similar estimate as early as   
#ahci1 proving that the earth's crust   
must be at least eight hundred or  a    
thousand miles in thickness2 but        
geologists had utterly ignored  this    
computation1 and the idea of a thin     
crust on a fluid interior had  continued
 to be the orthodox geological doctrine4
 ,since ,lord ,kelvin's  estimate was   
made1 his claim that the final crust of 
the earth could  not have formed until  
the mass was solid throughout1 or at    
least until  a honeycomb of solid matter
 had been bridged up from centre to     
circumference1 has gained pretty general
 acceptance4 ,it still remains  an open 
question1 however1 as to what proportion
 the lacunas of molten  matter bear at  

the present day to the solidified       
portions1 and therefore  to what extent 
the earth will be subject to further    
shrinkage and  attendant surface        
contortions4 ,that some such lacunae do 
exist is  demonstrated daily by the     
phenomena of volcanoes4 ,so1 after all1 
the  crust theory has been supplanted by
 a compromise theory rather than        
completely overthrown1 and our knowledge
 of the condition of the  telluric      
depths is still far from definite4 ,if  
so much uncertainty  attends these      
fundamental questions as to the earth's 
past and present1  it is not strange    
that open problems as to her future are 
still  more numerous4 ,we have seen how1
 according to ,professor ,darwin's      
computations1 the moon threatens to come
 back to earth with destructive  force  
some day4 ,yet ,professor ,darwin       
himself urges that there are  elements  
of fallibility in the data involved that
 rob the computation of  all certainty4 
,much the same thing is true of perhaps 

all the estimates  that have been made  
as to the earth's ultimate fate4 ,thus  
it has been  suggested that1 even should
 the sun's heat not forsake us1 our day 
will  become month-long1 and then       
year-long2 that all the water of the    
globe  must ultimately filter into its  
depths1 and all the air fly off into    
space1 leaving our earth as dry and as  
devoid of atmosphere as the moon2  and1 
finally1 that ether-friction1 if it     
exist1 or1 in default of that1  meteoric
 friction1 must ultimately bring the    
earth back to the sun4 ,but  in all     
these prognostications there are        
possible compensating factors  that     
vitiate the estimates and leave the     
exact results in doubt4 ,the  last word 
of the cosmic science of our generation 
is a prophecy of  evil--if annihilation 
be an evil4 ,but it is left for the     
science of  another generation to point 
out more clearly the exact terms in     
which  the prophecy is most likely to be
 fulfilled4      ,,physical ,,problems  

,in regard to all these cosmic and      
telluric problems1 it will be seen1     
there is always the same appeal to one  
central rule of action--the law  of     
gravitation4 ,when we turn from         
macrocosm to microcosm it would  appear 
as if new forces of interaction were    
introduced in the powers of  cohesion   
and of chemical action of molecules and 
atoms4 ,but ,lord ,kelvin  has argued   
that it is possible to form such a      
conception of the forms  and space      
relations of the ultimate particles of  
matter that their  mutual attractions   
may be explained by invoking that same  
law of  gravitation which holds the     
stars and planets in their course4      
,what1  then1 is this all-compassing    
power of gravitation which occupies so  
central a position in the scheme of     
mechanical things8    ,the simple answer
 is that no man knows4 ,the wisest      
physicist of  to-day will assure you    
that he knows absolutely nothing of the 
why of  gravitation--that he can no more

 explain why a stone tossed into the    
air falls back to earth than can the boy
 who tosses the stone4 ,but while  this 
statement puts in a nutshell the        
scientific status of explanations  of   
gravitation1 yet it is not in human     
nature that speculative  scientists     
should refrain from the effort to       
explain it4 ,such efforts  have been    
made2 yet1 on the whole1 they are       
surprisingly few in number2  indeed1    
there are but two that need claim our   
attention here1 and one  of these has   
hardly more than historical interest4   
,one of these is the  so-called         
ultramundane-corpuscle hypothesis of ,le
 ,sage2 the other is  based on the      
vortex theory of matter4    ,the theory 
of ,le ,sage assumes that the entire    
universe is filled with  infinitely     
minute particles flying in right lines  
in every direction  with inconceivable  
rapidity4 ,every mass of tangible matter
 in the  universe is incessantly        
bombarded by these particles1 but any   

two  non-contiguous masses 7whether     
separated by an infinitesimal space or  
by  the limits of the universe7 are     
mutually shielded by one another from a 
certain number of the particles1 and    
thus impelled towards one another  by   
the excess of bombardment on their      
opposite sides4 ,what applies to  two   
masses applies also1 of course1 to any  
number of masses--in short1  to all the 
matter in the universe4 ,to make the    
hypothesis workable1 so  to say1 it is  
necessary to assume that the            
ultramundane particles are  possessed of
 absolute elasticity1 so that they      
rebound from one another  on collision  
without loss of speed4 ,it is also      
necessary to assume that  all tangible  
matter has to an almost unthinkable     
degree a sievelike  texture1 so that the
 vast proportion of the coercive        
particles pass  entirely through the    
body of any mass they encounter--a star 
or world1  for example--without really  
touching any part of its actual         

substance4  ,this assumption is         
necessary because gravitation takes no  
account of  mere corporeal bulk1 but    
only of mass or ultimate solidarity4    
,thus a  very bulky object may be so    
closely meshed that it retards          
relatively few of the corpuscles1 and   
hence gravitates with relative          
feebleness--or1 to adopt a more familiar
 mode of expression1 is light in        
weight4    ,this is certainly heaping   
hypotheses together in a reckless way1  
and  it is perhaps not surprising that  
,le ,sage's conception did not at first 
arouse any very great amount of         
interest4 ,it was put forward about  a  
century ago1 but for two or three       
generations remained practically        
unnoticed4 ,the philosophers of the     
first half of our century seem  to have 
despaired of explaining gravitation1    
though ,faraday long  experimented in   
the hope of establishing a relation     
between gravitation  and electricity or 
magnetism4 ,but not long after the      

middle of  the century1 when a new      
science of dynamics was claiming        
paramount  importance1 and physicists   
were striving to express all tangible   
phenomena intenus of matter in motion1  
the theory of ,le ,sage was  revived and
 given a large measure of attention4 ,it
 seemed to have at  least the merit of  
explaining the facts without conflicting
 with any  known mechanical law1 which  
was more than could be said of any other
  guess at the question that had ever   
been made4    ,more recently1 however1  
another explanation has been found which
 also  meets this condition4 ,it is a   
conception based1 like most other       
physical  speculations of the last      
generation1 upon the hypothesis of the  
vortex  atom1 and was suggested1 no     
doubt1 by those speculations which      
consider  electricity and magnetism to  
be conditions of strain or twist in  the
 substance of the universal ether4 ,in a
 word1 it supposes that  gravitation    
also is a form of strain in this        

ether--a strain that may be  likened to 
a suction which the vortex atom is      
supposed to exert on the  ether in which
 it lies4 ,according to this view1      
gravitation is not  a push from without1
 but a pull from within2 not due to     
exterior  influences1 but an inherent   
and indissoluble property of matter     
itself4  ,the conception has the further
 merit of correlating gravitation with  
electricity1 magnetism1 and light1 as a 
condition of that strange  ethereal     
ocean of which modern physics takes so  
much account4 ,but  here1 again1        
clearly1 we are but heaping hypothesis  
upon hypothesis1  as before4 ,still1 an 
hypothesis that violates no known law   
and has the  warrant of philosophical   
probability is always worthy of a       
hearing4 ,but  we must not forget that  
it is hypothesis only1 not conclusive   
theory4    ,the same caution applies1   
manifestly1 to all the other            
speculations  which have the vortex     
atom1 so to say1 for their              

foundation-stone4 ,thus  ,professors    
,stewart and ,tait's inferences as to   
the destructibility  of matter1 based on
 the supposition that the ether is not  
quite  frictionless2 ,professor         
,dolbear's suggestions as to the        
creation of  matter through the         
development of new ether ripples1 and   
the same  thinker's speculations as to  
an upper limit of temperature1 based on 
the  mechanical conception of a limit to
 the possible vibrations of a vortex    
ring1 not to mention other more or less 
fascinating speculations based  on the  
vortex hypothesis1 must be regarded1    
whatever their intrinsic  interest1 as  
insecurely grounded1 until such time as 
new experimental  methods shall give    
them another footing4 ,lord ,kelvin     
himself holds all  such speculations    
utterly in abeyance4 ,the vortex theory1
 he says1  is only a dream4 ,itself     
unproven1 it can prove nothing1 and any 
speculations founded upon it are mere   
dreams about a dream499#a99    ,that    

certainly must be considered an unduly  
modest pronouncement  regarding the only
 workable hypothesis of the constitution
 of matter  that has ever been imagined2
 yet the fact certainly holds that the  
vortex theory1 the great contribution of
 the nineteenth century towards  the    
solution of a world-old problem1 has not
 been carried beyond  the stage of      
hypothesis1 and must be passed on1 with 
its burden of  interesting corollaries1 
to another generation for the           
experimental  evidence that will lead to
 its acceptance or its refutation4 ,our 
century  has given experimental proof of
 the existence of the atom1 but has not 
been able to fathom in the same way the 
exact form or nature of this  ultimate  
particle of matter4    ,equally in the  
dark are we as to the explanation of    
that strange  affinity for its neighbors
 which every atom manifests in some     
degree4  ,if we assume that the power   
which holds one atom to another is the  
same  which in the case of larger bodies

 we term gravitation1 that answer       
carries us but a little way1 since1 as  
we have seen1 gravitation itself  is the
 greatest of mysteries4 ,but again1 how 
chances it that different  atoms attract
 one another in such varying degrees1 so
 that1 for example1  fluorine unites    
with everything it touches1 argon with  
nothing8 ,and how  is it that different 
kinds of atoms can hold to themselves   
such varying  numbers of                
fellow-atoms--oxygen one1 hydrogen two1 
and so on8 ,these  are questions for the
 future4 ,the wisest chemist does not   
know why the  simplest chemical         
experiment results as it does4 ,take1   
for example1 a  water-like solution of  
nitrate of silver1 and let fall into it 
a few  drops of another water-like      
solution of hydrochloric acid2 a white  
insoluble precipitate of chloride of    
silver is formed4 ,any tyro in          
chemistry could have predicted the      
result with absolute certainty4 ,but    
the prediction would have been based    

purely upon previous empirical          
knowledge--solely upon the fact that the
 thing had been done before  over and   
over1 always with the same result4 ,why 
the silver forsook the  nitrogen atom   
and grappled the atom of oxygen no one  
knows4 ,nor can any  one as yet explain 
just why it is that the new compound is 
an insoluble1  colored1 opaque          
substance1 whereas the antecedent ones  
were soluble1  colorless1 and           
transparent4 ,more than that1 no one can
 explain with  certainty just what is   
meant by the familiar word soluble      
itself4 ,that  is to say1 no one knows  
just what happens when one drops a lump 
of salt  or sugar into a bowl of water4 
,we may believe with ,professor ,ostwald
  and his followers that the molecules  
of sugar merely glide everywhere        
between the molecules of water1 without 
chemical action2 or1 on the  other hand1
 dismissing this mechanical explanation1
 we may say with  ,mendeleef that the   
process of solution is the most active  

of chemical  phenomena1 involving that  
incessant interplay of atoms known as   
dissociation4 ,but these two            
explanations are mutually exclusive1 and
  nobody can say positively which one1  
if either1 is right4 ,nor is either     
theory at best more than a half         
explanation1 for the why of the strange 
mechanical or chemical activities       
postulated is quite ignored4 ,how is    
it1 for example1 that the molecules of  
water are able to loosen the            
intermolecular bonds of the sugar       
particles1 enabling them to scamper     
apart8    ,but1 for that matter1 what is
 the nature of these intermolecular     
bonds  in any case8 ,and why1 at the    
same temperature1 are some substances   
held  together with such enormous       
rigidity1 others so loosely8 ,why does  
not  a lump of iron dissolve as readily 
as the lump of sugar in our bowl  of    
water8 ,guesses may be made to-day at   
these riddles1 to be sure1 but  anything
 like tenable solutions will only be    

possible when we know much  more than at
 present of the nature of intermolecular
 forces and of the  mechanism of        
molecular structures4 ,as to this last1 
studies are  under way that are full of 
promise4 ,for the past ten or fifteen   
years  ,professor ,van 't ,hoof of      
,amsterdam 7now of ,berlin71 with a     
company of  followers1 has made the     
space relations of atoms a special      
study1 with  the result that so-called  
stereo-chemistry has attained a firm    
position4  ,a truly amazing insight has 
been gained into the space relations of 
the  molecules of carbon compounds in   
particular1 and other compounds are     
under investigation4 ,but these results1
 wonderful though they seem  when the   
intricacy of the subject is considered1 
are1 after all1 only  tentative4 ,it is 
demonstrated that some molecules have   
their atoms  arranged in perfectly      
definite and unalterable schemes1 but   
just how  these systems are to be       
mechanically pictured--whether as       

miniature  planetary systems or what    
not--remains for the investigators of   
the  future to determine4    ,it        
appears1 then1 that whichever way one   
turns in the realm of the atom  and     
molecule1 one finds it a land of        
mysteries4 ,in no field of science  have
 more startling discoveries been made in
 the past century than here2  yet       
nowhere else do there seem to lie wider 
realms yet unfathomed4      ,,life      
,,problems    ,in the life history of at
 least one of the myriad star systems   
there  has come a time when1 on the     
surface of one of the minor members of  
the  group1 atoms of matter have been   
aggregated into such associations as  to
 constitute what is called living       
matter4 ,a question that at once        
suggests itself to any one who conceives
 even vaguely the relative  uniformity  
of conditions in the different star     
groups is as to whether  other worlds   
than ours have also their complement of 
living forms4  ,the question has        

interested speculative science more     
perhaps in our  generation than ever    
before1 but it can hardly be said that  
much  progress has been made towards a  
definite answer4 ,at first blush the    
demonstration that all the worlds known 
to us are composed of the same  matter1 
subject to the same general laws1 and   
probably passing through  kindred stages
 of evolution and decay1 would seem to  
carry with it the  reasonable           
presumption that to all primary planets1
 such as ours1 a  similar life-bearing  
stage must come4 ,but a moment's        
reflection shows  that scientific       
probabilities do not carry one safely so
 far as  this4 ,living matter1 as we    
know it1 notwithstanding its capacity   
for  variation1 is conditioned within   
very narrow limits as to physical       
surroundings4 ,now it is easily to be   
conceived that these peculiar           
conditions have never been duplicated on
 any other of all the myriad  worlds4   
,if not1 then those more complex        

aggregations of atoms which we  must    
suppose to have been built up in some   
degree on all cooling globes  must be of
 a character so different from what we  
term living matter that  we should not  
recognize them as such4 ,some of them   
may be infinitely  more complex1 more   
diversified in their capacities1 more   
widely  responsive to the influences    
about them1 than any living thing on    
earth1  and yet not respond at all to   
the conditions which we apply as tests  
of  the existence of life4    ,this is  
but another way of saying that the      
peculiar limitations of  specialized    
aggregations of matter which            
characterize what we term  living matter
 may be mere incidental details of the  
evolution of our  particular star group1
 our particular planet even--having some
 such  relative magnitude in the cosmic 
order1 as1 for example1 the exact       
detail of outline of some particular    
leaf of a tree bears to the  entire     
subject of vegetable life4 ,but1 on the 

other hand1 it is also  conceivable that
 the conditions on all planets          
comparable in position to  ours1 though 
never absolutely identical1 yet pass at 
some stage  through so similar an epoch 
that on each and every one of them there
 is  developed something measurably     
comparable1 in human terms1 to what  we 
here know as living matter2 differing   
widely1 perhaps1 from any  particular   
form of living being here1 yet still    
conforming broadly to  a definition of  
living things4 ,in that case the        
life-bearing stage of  a planet must be 
considered as having far more general   
significance2  perhaps even as          
constituting the time of fruitage of the
 cosmic  organism1 though nothing but   
human egotism gives warrant to this     
particular presumption4    ,between     
these two opposing views every one is   
free to choose according  to his        
preconceptions1 for as yet science is   
unable to give a deciding  vote4        
,equally open to discussion is that     

other question1 as to whether  the      
evolution of universal atoms into a     
vital association mass from  which all  
the diversified forms evolved1 or       
whether such shifting from  the         
so-called non-vital to the vital was    
many times repeated--perhaps  still goes
 on incessantly4 ,it is quite true that 
the testimony of our  century1 so far as
 it goes1 is all against the idea of    
spontaneous  generation under existing  
conditions4 ,it has been clearly enough 
demonstrated that the bacteria and other
 low forms of familiar life  which      
formerly were supposed to originate     
spontaneously had a quite  different    
origin4 ,but the solution of this       
special case leaves the  general problem
 still far from solved4 ,who knows what 
are the conditions  necessary to the    
evolution of the ever-present atoms into
 vital  associations8 ,perhaps extreme  
pressure may be one of these conditions2
  and1 for aught any man knows to the   
contrary1 the spontaneous  generation of

 living protoplasms may be taking place 
incessantly at the  bottom of every     
ocean of the globe4    ,this of course  
is a mere bald statement of             
possibilities4 ,it may be met  by       
another statement of possibilities1 to  
the effect that perhaps the  conditions 
necessary to the evolution of living    
matter here may have  been fulfilled but
 once1 since which time the entire      
current of life on  our globe has been a
 diversified stream from that one       
source4 ,observe1  please1 that this    
assumption does not fall within that    
category which  ,i mention above as     
contraband of science in speaking of the
 origin of  worlds4 ,the existence of   
life on our globe is only an incident   
limited  to a relatively insignificant  
period of time1 and whether the exact   
conditions necessary to its evolution   
pertained but one second or a  hundred  
million years does not in the least     
matter in a philosophical  analysis4 ,it
 is merely a question of fact1 just as  

the particular  temperature of the      
earth's surface at any given epoch is a 
question of  fact1 the one condition1   
like the other1 being temporary and     
incidental4  ,but1 as ,i have said1 the 
question of fact as to the exact time of
 origin  of life on our globe is a      
question that science as yet cannot     
answer4    ,but1 in any event1 what is  
vastly more important than this question
  as to the duration of time in which   
living matter was evolved is a          
comprehension of the philosophical      
status of this evolution from the       
non-vital to the vital4 ,if one assumes 
that this evolution was  brought about  
by an interruption of the play of forces
 hitherto working  in the universe--that
 the correlation of forces involved was 
unique1  acting then and then only--by  
that assumption he removes the question 
of the origin of life utterly from the  
domain of science--exactly as the       
assumption of an initial push would     
remove the question of the origin  of   

worlds from the domain of science4 ,but 
the science of to-day most  emphatically
 demurs to any such assumption4 ,every  
scientist with a wide  grasp of facts1  
who can think clearly and without       
prejudice over the  field of what is    
known of cosmic evolution1 must be      
driven to believe  that the alleged wide
 gap between vital and non-vital matter 
is largely  a figment of prejudiced     
human understanding4 ,in the broader    
view  there seem no gaps in the scheme  
of cosmic evolution--no break in the    
incessant reciprocity of atomic actions1
 whether those atoms be floating  as a  
fire mist out in one part of space1 or  
aggregated into the  brain of a man in  
another part4 ,and it seems well within 
the range of  scientific expectation    
that the laboratory worker of the future
 will  learn how so to duplicate        
telluric conditions that the universal  
forces  will build living matter out of 
the inorganic in the laboratory1 as they
  have done1 and perhaps still are      

doing1 in the terrestrial oceans4    ,to
 the timid reasoner that assumption of  
possibilities may seem  startling4 ,but 
assuredly it is no more so than seemed1 
a century ago1  the assumption that man 
has evolved1 through the agency of      
natural  laws only1 from the lowest     
organism4 ,yet the timidity of that     
elder  day has been obliged by the      
progress of the past century to adapt   
its  conceptions to that assured        
sequence of events4 ,and some day1 in   
all  probability1 the timidity of to-day
 will be obliged to take that final     
logical step which to-day's knowledge   
foreshadows as a future if not a        
present necessity4      ,,the           
,,mechanism ,,of ,,the ,,cell           
,whatever future science may be able to 
accomplish in this direction1  however1 
it must be admitted that present science
 finds its hands quite  full1 without   
going farther afield than to observe the
 succession of  generations among       
existing forms of life4 ,since the      

establishment of  the doctrine of       
organic evolution1 questions of         
heredity1 always  sufficiently          
interesting1 have been at the very focus
 of attention of  the biological world4 
,these questions1 under modern          
treatment1 have  resolved themselves1   
since the mechanism of such transmission
 has been  proximately understood1 into 
problems of cellular activity4 ,and much
  as has been learned about the cell of 
late1 that interesting microcosm  still 
offers a multitude of intricacies for   
solution4    ,thus1 at the very         
threshold1 some of the most elementary  
principles of  mechanical construction  
of the cell are still matters of        
controversy4 ,on  the one hand1 it is   
held by ,professor ,o4 ,butschli and his
 followers that  the substance of the   
typical cell is essentially alveolar1 or
 foamlike1  comparable to an emulsion1  
and that the observed reticular         
structure of  the cell is due to the    
intersections of the walls of the minute

 ultimate  globules4 ,but another       
equally authoritative school of workers 
holds to  the view1 first expressed by  
,frommann and ,arnold1 that the         
reticulum is  really a system of        
threads1 which constitute the most      
important basis of  the cell structure4 
,it is even held that these fibres      
penetrate the cell  walls and connect   
adjoining cells1 so that the entire body
 is a  reticulum4 ,for the moment there 
is no final decision between these      
opposing views4 ,professor ,wilson of   
,columbia has suggested that both may   
contain a measure of truth4    ,again1  
it is a question whether the finer      
granules seen within the cell  are or   
are not typical structures1 capable of  
assimilation1 growth1  and division1 and
 hence to be regarded as elementary     
units of structure  standing between the
 cell and the ultimate molecules of     
living matter4  ,the more philosophical 
thinkers1 like ,spencer1 ,darwin1       
,haeckel1  ,michael ,foster1 ,august    

,weismann1 and many others1 believe that
 such  intermediate units must exist1   
whether or not the microscope reveals   
them to view4 ,weismann1 who has most   
fully elaborated a hypothetical  scheme 
of the relations of the intracellular   
units1 identifies the  larger of these  
units not with the ordinary granules of 
the cell1 but  with a remarkable        
structure called chromatin1 which       
becomes aggregated  within the cell     
nucleus at the time of cellular         
division--a structure  which divides    
into definite parts and goes through    
some most suggestive  manoeuvres in the 
process of cell multiplication4 ,all    
these are puzzling  structures2 and     
there is another minute body within the 
cell1 called the  centro-some1 that is  
quite as much so4 ,this structure1      
discovered by  ,van ,beneden1 has been  
regarded as essential to cell division1 
yet some  recent botanical studies seem 
to show that sometimes it is altogether 
wanting in a dividing cell4    ,in a    

word1 the architecture of the cell has  
been shown by modern  researches to be  
wonderfully complicated1 but the        
accumulating  researches are just at a  
point where much is obscure about many  
of  the observed phenomena4 ,the        
immediate future seems full of promise  
of advances upon present understanding  
of cell processes4 ,but for the  moment 
it remains for us1 as for preceding     
generations1 about the most             
incomprehensible1 scientifically        
speaking1 of observed phenomena1 that a 
single microscopic egg cell should      
contain within its substance all the    
potentialities of a highly              
differentiated adult being4 ,the fact   
that  it does contain such              
potentialities is the most familiar of  
every-day  biological observations1 but 
not even a proximal explanation of the  
fact  is as yet attainable4      ,,the  
,,ancestry ,,of ,,the ,,mammals         
,turning from the cell as an individual 
to the mature organism which  the cell  

composes when aggregated with its       
fellows1 one finds the  usual complement
 of open questions1 of greater or less  
significance1  focalizing the attention 
of working biologists4 ,thus the        
evolutionist1  secure as is his general 
position1 is yet in doubt when it comes 
to  tracing the exact lineage of various
 forms4 ,he does not know1 for  example1
 exactly which order of invertebrates   
contains the type from  which           
vertebrates sprang1 though several hotly
 contested opinions1  each exclusive of 
the rest1 are in the field4 ,again1     
there is like  uncertainty and          
difference of opinion as to just which  
order of lower  vertebrates formed the  
direct ancestry of the mammals4 ,among  
the mammals  themselves there are       
several orders1 such as the whales1 the 
elephants1  and even man himself1 whose 
exact lines of more immediate ancestry  
are  not as fully revealed by present   
paleontology as is to be desired4       
,,the ,,new ,,science ,,of              

,,anthropology    ,all these1 however1  
are details that hardly take rank with  
the general  problems that we are       
noticing4 ,there are other questions1   
however1  concerning the history and    
present evolution of man himself that   
are  of wider scope1 or at least        
seemingly greater importance from a     
human  stand-point1 which within recent 
decades have come for the first time    
within the scope of truly inductive     
science4 ,these are the problems of     
anthropology--a science of such wide    
scope1 such far-reaching collateral     
implications1 that as yet its specific  
field and functions are not as  clearly 
defined or as generally recognized as   
they are probably destined  to be in the
 near future4 ,the province of this new 
science is  to correlate the discoveries
 of a wide range of collateral          
sciences--paleontology1 biology1        
medicine1 and so on--from the point  of 
view of human history and human welfare4
 ,to this end all observable  races of  

men are studied as to their physical    
characteristics1 their  mental and moral
 traits1 their manners1 customs1        
languages1 and  religions4 ,a mass of   
data is already at hand1 and in process 
of sorting  and correlating4 ,out of    
this effort will probably come all      
manner of  useful generalizations1      
perhaps in time bringing sociology1 or  
the study  of human social relations1 to
 the rank of a veritable science4 ,but  
great  as is the promise of             
anthropology1 it can hardly be denied   
that the  broader questions with which  
it has to deal--questions of race1 of   
government1 of social evolution--are    
still this side the fixed plane  of     
assured generalization4 ,no small part  
of its interest and importance  depends 
upon the fact that the great problems   
that engage it are as yet  unsolved     
problems4 ,in a word1 anthropology is   
perhaps the most important  science in  
the entire hierarchy to-day1 precisely  
because it is an  immature science4 ,its

 position to-day is perhaps not unlike  
that of  paleontology at the close of   
the eighteenth century4 ,may its promise
  find as full fruition6          ,,ix4 
,,retrospect ,,and ,,prospect      ,,the
 ,,scientific ,,attitude ,,of ,,mind    
,,any one who has not had a rigid       
training in science may advantageously  
reflect at some length upon the meaning 
of true scientific induction4  ,various 
illustrations in our text are meant to  
convey the idea that  logical thinking  
consists simply in drawing correct      
conclusions as to  the probable sequence
 of events in nature4 ,it will soon be  
evident to  any one who carefully       
considers the subject that we know very 
little  indeed about cause and effect in
 a rigid acceptance of these words4 ,we 
observe that certain phenomena always   
follow certain other phenomena1  and    
these observations fix the idea in our  
mind that such phenomena bear  to one   
another the relation of effect and      
cause4 ,the conclusion is a  perfectly  

valid one so long as we remember that in
 the last analysis the  words cause and 
effect have scarcely greater force than 
the terms  invariable antecedent and    
invariable consequent--that is to say1  
they express an observed sequence which 
our experience has never  contradicted4 
,now the whole structure of science     
would be hopelessly undermined  had not 
scientific men come to have the fullest 
confidence in the  invariability of     
certain of these sequences of events4   
,let us1 for  example1 take the familiar
 and fundamental observation that any   
unsupported object1 having what we term 
weight1 invariably falls  directly      
towards the centre of the earth4 ,we    
express this fact in  terms of a        
so-called law of gravitation1 and every 
one1 consciously or  unconsciously1     
gives full deference to this law4 ,so   
firmly convinced  are we that the       
gravitation pull is a cause that works  
with absolute1  unvarying uniformity    
that we should regard it as a miracle   

were any  heavy body to disregard the   
law of gravitation and rise into the air
  when not impelled by some other force 
of which we have knowledge4 ,thanks  to 
,newton1 we know that this force of     
gravitation is not at all confined  to  
the earth1 but affects the whole        
universe1 so that every two bits  of    
matter1 regardless of location1 pull at 
each other with a force  proportionate  
to their mass and inversely as the      
square of their  distance4    ,were this
 so-called law of gravitation to cease  
to operate1 the entire  plan of our     
universe would be sadly disarranged4    
,the earth1 for example1  and the other 
planets would leave their elliptical    
orbits and hurtle  away on a tangential 
course4 ,we should soon be beyond the   
reach of the  sun's beneficent          
influence2 an arctic chill would pervade
 polar and  tropical regions alike1 and 
the term of man's existence would  come 
suddenly to a close4 ,here1 then1 is a  
force at once the most  comprehensible  

and most important from a human         
stand-point that can be  conceived2 yet 
it cannot be too often repeated1 we know
 nothing whatever  as to the nature of  
this force4 ,we do not know that there  
may not be  other starlike clusters     
beyond our universe where this force    
does not  prevail4 ,we do not know that 
there may not come a period when this   
force  will cease to operate in our     
universe1 and when1 for example1 it will
 be  superseded by the universal        
domination of a force of mutual         
repulsion4  ,for aught we know to the   
contrary1 our universe may be a pulsing 
organism1 or portion of an organism1 all
 the particles of which are at  one     
moment pulled together and the next     
moment hurled apart--the moments  of    
this computation being1 of course1      
myriads of years as we human  pygmies   
compute time4    ,to us it would be a   
miracle if a heavy body1 unsupported1   
should fly off  into space instead of   
dropping towards the centre of the      

earth2 yet the  time may come when all  
such heavy objects will thus fly off    
into space1  and when the observer1     
could there be such1 must marvel at the 
miracle  of seeing a heavy object fall  
towards the earth4 ,such thoughts as    
these  should command the attention of  
every student of science who would      
really understand the meaning of what   
are termed natural laws4 ,but1 on  the  
other hand1 such suggestions must be    
held carefully in check by the          
observation that scientific imagining as
 to what may come to pass at  some      
remote future time must in no wise      
influence our practical faith  in the   
universality of certain natural laws in 
the present epoch4 ,we may  imagine a   
time when terrestrial gravitation no    
longer exerts its power1  but we dare   
not challenge that power in the present4
 ,there could be no  science did we not 
accept certain constantly observed      
phenomena as the  effect of certain     
causes4 ,the whole body of science is   

made up solely of  such observations and
 inferences4 ,natural science is so     
called because  it has to do with       
observed phenomena of nature4           
,,natural ,,versus ,,supernatural    ,a 
further word must be said as to this    
word natural1 and its  complementary    
word supernatural4 ,i have said in an   
early chapter that  prehistoric man     
came1 through a use of false inductions1
 to the belief  in supernatural powers4 
,let us examine this statement in some  
detail1  for it will throw much light on
 our later studies4 ,the thing to get   
clearly in mind is the idea that when we
 say natural phenomena we  mean merely  
phenomena that have been observed to    
occur4 ,from a truly  scientific        
stand-point there is no preconception as
 to what manner  of phenomenon may1 or  
may not1 occur4 ,all manner of things do
 occur  constantly that would seem      
improbable were they not matters of     
familiar knowledge4 ,the simplest facts 
in regard to gravitation involve        

difficulties that were stumbling-blocks 
to many generations of thinkers1  and   
which continue stumbling-blocks to the  
minds of each generation of  present-day
 children4    ,thus most of us can      
recall a time when we first learned with
  astonishment that the earth is round  
like a ball2 that there are  people     
walking about on the other side of the  
world with their feet  towards ours1 and
 that the world itself is rushing       
through space  and spinning rapidly     
about as it goes4 ,then we learn1       
further1 that  numberless familiar      
phenomena would be quite different could
 we be  transported to other globes4    
,that1 for example1 a man who can spring
 two  or three feet into the air here   
would be able1 with the same muscular   
exertion1 to vault almost to the        
house-tops if he lived on a small       
planet like the moon2 but1 on the other 
hand1 would be held prone by his  own   
weight if transported to a great planet 
like ,jupiter4    ,when1 further1 we    

reflect that with all our capacity to   
measure  and estimate this strange force
 of gravitation we1 after all1 know     
absolutely nothing as to its real       
nature2 that we cannot even imagine  how
 one portion of matter can act on       
another across an infinite abysm  7or1  
for that matter1 across the smallest    
space71 we see at once that  our most   
elementary scientific studies bring us  
into the presence of  inscrutable       
mysteries4 ,in whatever direction we    
turn this view is  but emphasized4      
,electricity1 magnetism1 the            
hypothetical ether1 the  inscrutable    
forces manifested everywhere in the     
biological field--all  these are1 as    
regard their ultimate nature1 altogether
 mysterious4    ,in a word1 the student 
of nature is dealing everywhere with the
  wonderful1 the incomprehensible4 ,yet 
all the manifestations that he  observes
 are found to repeat themselves in      
certain unvarying sequences4  ,certain  
applications of energy will produce     

certain movements of matter4  ,we may   
not know the nature of the so-called    
cause1 but we learn to  measure the     
result1 and in other allied cases we    
learn to reason back  or infer the cause
 from observation of results4 ,the      
latter indeed is  the essence of        
scientific inquiry4 ,when certain series
 of phenomena have  been classified     
together as obviously occurring under   
the domination  of the same or similar  
causes1 we speak of having determined a 
law of  nature4 ,for example1 the fact  
that any body in motion tends to go on  
at  the same rate of speed in a direct  
line forever1 expresses such a law4     
,the fact that the gravitation pull is  
directly as the mass and inversely  as  
the square of the distance of the bodies
 it involves1 expresses  another such   
law4 ,the fact that the planetary bodies
 of the solar system  revolve in        
elliptical orbits under the joint       
influence of the two laws  just named1  
expresses yet another law4 ,in a word1  

then1 these so-called  laws are nothing 
more than convenient formulae to express
 the  classification of observed facts4 
,,inductive ,,versus ,,deductive        
,,reasoning    ,the ancient thinkers    
indulged constantly in what we now speak
 of  as deductive reasoning4 ,they gave 
heed to what we term metaphysical       
preconceptions as to laws governing     
natural phenomena4 ,the ,greeks1 for    
example1 conceived that the circle is   
the perfect body1 and that the  universe
 is perfect2 therefore1 sun and moon    
must be perfect spheres  or disks1 and  
all the orbits of the heavenly bodies   
must be exactly  circular4 ,we have seen
 that this metaphysical conception1     
dominating the  world for many          
centuries1 exerted a constantly         
hampering influence upon  the progress  
of science4 ,there were numerous other  
instances of the same  retarding        
influence of deductive reasoning4       
,modern science tries to cast  aside all
 such preconceptions4 ,it does not      

always quite succeed1 but  it makes a   
strenuous effort to draw conclusions    
logically from observed  phenomena      
instead of trying to force observations 
into harmony with  a preconeived idea4  
,herein lies the essential difference   
between the  primitive method and the   
perfected modern method4 ,neither the   
one nor  the other is intended to       
transcend the bounds of the natural4    
,that is  to say1 both are concerned    
with the sequence of actual events1 with
 the  observation of actual phenomena2  
but the modern observer has the almost  
infinite advantage of being able to draw
 upon an immense store of  careful and  
accurate observations4 ,a knowledge of  
the mistakes of  his predecessors has   
taught him the value of caution in      
interpreting  phenomena that seem to    
fall outside the range of such laws of  
nature  as experience has seemed to     
demonstrate4 ,again and again the old   
metaphysical laws have been forced aside
 by observation2 as1 for  example1 when 

,kepler showed that the planetary orbits
 are not circular1  and ,galileo's      
telescope proved that the spot-bearing  
sun cannot be a  perfect body in the old
 ,aristotelian sense4    ,new means of  
observation have from time to time      
opened up new fields1  yet with all the 
extensions of our knowledge we come1    
paradoxically  enough1 to realize but   
the more fully the limitations of that  
knowledge4  ,we seem scarcely nearer    
to-day to a true understanding of the   
real  nature of the forces whose        
operation we see manifested about us    
than  were our most primitive ancestors4
 ,but in one great essential we have    
surely progressed4 ,we have learned that
 the one true school is the  school of  
experience2 that metaphysical causes are
 of absolutely no  consequence unless   
they can gain support through tangible  
observations4  ,even so late as the     
beginning of the nineteenth century1 the
 great  thinker1 ,hegel1 retaining      
essentially the ,greek cast of thought1 

could  make the metaphysical declaration
 that1 since seven planets were known1  
and since seven is the perfect number1  
it would be futile to search for  other 
planets4 ,but even as he made this      
declaration another planet was  found4  
,it would be safe to say that no thinker
 of the present day would  challenge    
defeat in quite the ,aristotelian or    
,hegelian manner2 but1  on the other    
hand1 it is equally little open to doubt
 that1 in matters  slightly less        
susceptible of tangible demonstration1  
metaphysical  conceptions still hold    
sway2 and as regards the average minds  
of our  time1 it is perhaps not an      
unfair estimate to say they surely have 
not  advanced a jot beyond the          
,aristotelian stand-point4 ,untrained   
through  actual experience in any field 
of inductive science1 they remain easy  
victims of metaphysical reasoning4      
,indeed1 since the conditions of        
civilization throw a protecting         
influence about us1 and make the        

civilized man less amenable to results  
of illogical action than was the        
barbarian1 it may almost be questioned  
whether the average person of  to-day is
 the equal1 as a scientific reasoner1 of
 the average man of the  ,stone ,age4   
,a few of the more tangible             
superstitions of primitive man have been
  banished from even the popular mind by
 the clear demonstration of  science1   
but a host remains4 ,i venture to       
question whether1 if the test  could be 
made in the case of ten thousand average
 persons throughout  ,christendom1 it   
would not be found that a majority of   
these persons  entertain more utterly   
mistaken metaphysical ideas regarding   
natural  phenomena than they do truly   
scientific conceptions4 ,we pride       
ourselves  on the enlightenment of our  
age1 but our pride is largely based on  
an  illusion4 ,mankind at large is still
 in the dark age4 ,the historian  of the
 remote future will see no radical      
distinction between the  superstitions  

of the thirteenth century and the       
superstitions of the  nineteenth        
century4 ,but he will probably admit    
that a greater change  took place in the
 world of thought between the year #ahei
 and the close  of the nineteenth       
century than had occurred in the lapse  
of two thousand  years before ,if this  
estimate be correct1 it is indeed a     
privilege to  be living in this         
generation1 for we are on the eve of    
great things1  and beyond question the  
revolution that is going on about us    
denotes the  triumph of science and its 
inductive method4 ,just in proportion as
 we  get away from the old metaphysical 
preconceptions1 substituting for them   
the new inductive method1 just in that  
proportion do we progress4 ,the  essence
 of the new method is to have no        
preconceptions as to the  bounds of     
nature2 to regard no phenomenon1 no     
sequence of phenomena1 as  impossible2  
but1 on the other hand1 to accept no    
alleged law1 no theory1  no hypothesis1 

that has not the warrant of observed    
phenomena in its  favor4    ,the great  
error of the untrained mind of the      
primitive man was that he  did not know 
the value of scientific evidence4 ,he   
made wide leaps from  observed phenomena
 to imagined causes1 quite overlooking  
the proximal  causes that were near to  
hand4 ,the untrained observer of to-day 
makes  the same mistake2 hence the      
continued prevalence of those           
superstitious  misconceptions which     
primitive man foisted upon our race4    
,but each new  generation of to-day is  
coming upon the field better trained in 
at least  the rudiments of scientific   
method than the preceding generation1   
and  this is perhaps the most hopeful   
feature of present-day education4 ,some 
day every one will understand that there
 is no valid distinction between  the   
natural and the supernatural2 in fact1  
that no such thing as a  supernatural   
phenomenon1 in the present-day          
acceptance of the word1 can  conceivably

 exist4    ,all conceivable             
manifestations of nature are natural1   
nor can we  doubt that all are reducible
 to law--that is to say1 that they can  
be  classified and reduced to systems4  
,but the scientific imagination1 as     
already pointed out1 must admit that any
 and every scientific law of  our       
present epoch may be negatived in some  
future epoch4 ,it is always  possible1  
also1 that a seeming law of to-day may  
be proved false  to-morrow1 which is    
another way of saying that man's        
classification  improves from generation
 to generation4 ,for a natural law1 let 
it  be repeated1 is not nature's method1
 but man's interpretation of that       
method4      ,,logical ,,induction      
,,versus ,,hasty ,,generalization    ,a 
great difficulty is found in the fact   
that men are forever making             
generalizations--that is1 formulating   
laws too hastily4 ,a few phenomena  are 
observed and at once the                
hypothesis-constructing mind makes a    

guess  as to the proximal causes of     
these phenomena4 ,the guess1 once       
formulated  and accepted1 has a certain 
influence in prejudicing the minds of   
future  observers2 indeed1 where the    
phenomena involve obscure principles the
  true explanation of which is long     
deferred1 a false generalization  may   
impress itself upon mankind with such   
force as to remain a  stumbling-block   
for an indefinite period4 ,thus the     
,ptolemaic conception  of the universe  
dominated the thought of ,europe for a  
thousand years1  and could not be       
substituted by the true theory without a
 fierce  struggle2 and1 to cite an even 
more striking illustration1 the early   
generalizations of primitive man which  
explain numberless phenomena of  nature 
as due to an influence of unseen        
anthropomorphic beings remain  to this  
day one of the most powerful influences 
that affect our race--an  influence from
 which we shall never shake ourselves   
altogether free  until the average      

man--and particularly the average       
woman--learns to be  a good observer and
 a logical reasoner4    ,something      
towards this end is being accomplished  
by the introduction of  experimental    
research and scientific study in general
 in our schools  and colleges4 ,it is   
hoped that something towards the same   
end may be  accomplished through study  
of the history of the development of    
science4  ,scarcely anything is more    
illuminative than to observe critically 
the  mistakes of our predecessors1      
noting how natural the mistakes were and
  how tenaciously they were held to1 how
 strenuously defended4 ,most of  all it 
would be of value to note that the false
 inductions which  have everywhere      
hampered the progress of science have   
been1 from the  stand-point of the      
generation in which they originated1 for
 the most  part logical inductions4 ,we 
have seen that the ,ptolemaic scheme of 
the  universe1 false though it was in   
its very essentials1 yet explained  in  

what may be termed a thoroughly         
scientific fashion the observed         
phenomena4 ,it is one way of expressing 
a fact to say that the sun moves  across
 the heavens from the eastern to the    
western horizon2 and for most  practical
 purposes this assumption answers       
perfectly4 ,it is only when  we endeavor
 to extend the range of theoretical     
astronomy1 and to gain a  correct       
conception of the mechanism of the      
universe as a whole1 that  the          
essentially faulty character of the     
geocentric conception becomes  apparent4
    ,and so it is in many another field2
 the false generalizations and hasty    
inductions serve a temporary purpose4   
,our only quarrel with them is that     
they tend through a sort of inertia to  
go forever unchanged4 ,it requires  a   
powerful thrust to divert the aggregate 
mind of our race from a given  course1  
nor is the effect of a new impulse      
immediately appreciable2 that  is why   
the masses of the people always lag a   

generation or two  behind the advanced  
thinkers4 ,a few receptive minds1       
cognizant of new  observations that     
refute an old generalization1 accept new
 laws1 and1  from the vantage-ground    
thus gained1 reach out after yet other  
truths4  ,but1 for the most part1 the   
new laws thus accepted by the leaders   
remain  unknown to the people at large  
for at least one or two generations4 ,it
  required about a century for the      
heliocentric doctrine of ,copernicus to 
begin to make its way4    ,in this age  
of steam and electricity1 progress is   
more rapid1 and the  greatest scientific
 conception of the nineteenth century1  
the ,darwinian  theory1 may be said to  
have made something that approaches an  
absolute  conquest within less than half
 a century4 ,this seems a marvellously  
sudden conquest1 but it must be         
understood that it is only the crude and
  more tangible bearings of the theory  
that have thus made their way4 ,the     
remoter consequences of the theory are  

not even suspected by the great         
majority of those who call themselves   
,darwinians to-day4 ,it will require  at
 least another century for these ideas  
to produce their full effect4  ,then1 in
 all probability1 it will appear that   
the nineteenth century  was the most    
revolutionary epoch by far that the     
history of thought has  known4 ,and it  
owes this proud position to the fact    
that it was the epoch  in all history   
most fully subject to the dominant      
influence of inductive  science4 ,thanks
 to this influence1 we of the new       
generation are able to  start out on a  
course widely divergent from the path of
 our  ancestors4 ,our leaders of thought
 have struggled free from the bogs  of  
superstition1 and are pressing forward  
calmly yet with exultation  towards the 
heights4          ,,appendix         7p4
 #ie74 ,j4 ,j4 ,thompson1 ,d4,sc41      
,,ll4,d41 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41etc41      
,electricity     and ,matter1 p4 #ge    
ff41 ,new ,york1 #aijd4 ,the ,silli-man 

,lectures1 delivered     at ,yale       
,university1 ,may1 #aijc4       7p4     
#if74 ,ibid41 pp4 #hh1 #hi4 #c 7p- #ig7-
 ,ibid41 p4 #hi4       7p4 #ig74 ,ibid41
 p4 #hg4       7p4 #ajb74 ,george ,f4   
,kunz1 ,radium and its ,wonders1 in the 
,review of     ,reviews for ,november1  
#aijc1 p4 #ehi4       7p4 #aje74 ,e4    
,rutherford1 ,radio-,activity1 p4 #ccj1 
,cambridge1 #aijd4       7p4 #ajf74     
,ibid41 p4 #ccj4       7p4 #ajf74       
,compte ,rendu1 pp4 #acf1 #fgc1 ,paris1 
#aijc4       7p4 #ajf74 ,revue          
,scientifique1 ,april #ac1 #aija4 #aj   
7p4 #ajf74 ,compte ,rendu1     p4 #acf1 
,paris1 #aijc4         7p4 #ajh74 ,j4   
,j4 ,thompson1 ,electricity and ,matter1
 p4 #afb1 ,new ,york1     #aijd4        
7p4 --74 ,e4 ,rutherford1               
,radio-,activity1 p4 #cdj1 ,cambridge1  
#aijd4       7p4 #ahe74 ,dr4 ,duclaux1  
who was one of ,pasteur's chief         
assistants1 and     who succeeded him in
 the directorship of the ,institute1    
died in #aijc4 ,he     held a           

professorship in the ,university of     
,paris during the later years     of his
 life1 and his special studies had to do
 largely with the chemical     side of  
bacteriology4       7p4 #bag74 ,lord    
,kelvin's estimate as quoted was        
expressed to the writer     verbally4 ,i
 do not know whether he has anywhere    
given a similar written     verdict4    
,a ,,list ,,of ,,sources                
,i4--,,period ,,covered ,,by ,,volume   
,i4    ,an ax agoras4 ,see vol4 i41 p4  
#bdj4    ,archimedes4 ,see vol4 i41 p4  
#aif4    ,many of the works of          
,archimedes are lost1 but the following 
have come  down to us3 7#a7 ,on the     
,sphere and ,cylinder2 7#b7 ,the        
,measure of the  ,circle2 7#c7 ,conoids 
and ,spheroids2 7#d7 ,on ,spirals2 7#e7 
,equiponderants  and ,centres of        
,gravity2 7#f7 ,the ,quadrature of the  
,parabola2 7#g7 ,on  ,bodies ,floating  
in ,liquids2 7#h7 ,the ,psammites2 7#i7 
,a ,collection of  ,lemmas4             
,aristarchus4 ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bab4    

,magnitudes and ,distances of the ,sun  
and ,moon is the only surviving work4   
,in the ,armarius of ,archimedes another
 work of ,aristarchus is quoted--the    
one in which he anticipates the         
discovery of ,copernicus4 ,delambre1 in 
his ,histoire de ,vastronomie ancienne1 
treats fully the discoveries of         
,aristarchus4    ,aristotle4 ,see vol4  
i41 p4 #hb4    ,an edition of ,aristotle
 was published by ,aldus1 ,venice1      
#adie-adih1 #e  vols4 ,during the       
following eighty years seven editions of
 the ,greek text  of the entire works   
were published1 and many ,latin         
translations4    ,berosus4 ,see vol4 i41
 p4 #eh4    ,the fragments of ,berosus  
have been trans1 by ,i4 ,p4 ,cory1 and  
included  in his ,ancient ,fragments of 
,phoenician1 ,chaldean1 ,egyptian1 and  
,other  ,writers1 ,london1 #ahbf2 second
 edition1 #ahcb4    ,democritus4 ,see   
vol4 i41 p4 #afa4    ,fragments only of 
the numerous works ascribed to          
,democritus have been  preserved4       

,democriii ,abdereo operum fragmenta1   
,berlin1 #ahdc1 edited by  ,f4 ,g4 ,a4  
,mullach4 ,diodorus ,siculus4 ,see vol4 
i41 p4 #gg4    ,the ,historical         
,library4 ,perhaps the best available   
editions of ,diodorus  are ,wesseling's1
 #b vols42 ,amstel1 #agde2 and          
,dindorf's1 #e vols41 ,leipzig1         
#ahbh-ahca4 ,english trans1 by ,booth1  
,london1 #agjj4 ,diogenes ,laertius4    
,see  vol4 i41 p4 #aba4    ,the ,lives  
and ,opinions of ,eminent ,philosophers 
7trans4 by ,c4 ,d4 ,yonge71  ,london1   
#ahec4    ,eratosthenes4 ,see vol4 i41  
p4 #bbe4    ,the fragments of his       
philosophical works were published at   
,berlin1 #ahbb1  under the title        
,eratosthenica4 ,his poetical works were
 published at  ,leipzig1 #ahgb4 ,euclid4
 ,see vol4 i41 p4 #aic4    ,his         
,elements of ,geometry is still         
available as an ,english school         
text-book4    ,galen 7,claudius         
,galenus74 ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bgb4       
,galen's preserved works are exceedingly

 bulky4 ,the best-known edition is  that
 of ,c4 ,g4 ,kuhn1 in #ba volumes4      
,hero4 ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bdb4    ,the   
,pneumatics of ,hero of ,alexandria1    
from the original ,greek4 ,trans1 by    
,b4 ,woodcroft1 ,london1 #ahea4         
,herodotus4 ,see vol4 i4t p4 #ajc4      
,history4 ,english trans1 by ,beloe1    
#agia and #ahjf4 ,trans1 by ,canon      
,rawlinson1 ,london1 #aheh-ahfj4        
,hipparchus4 ,see vol4 i41 p4 #bcc4     
,the only work of ,hipparchus which has 
survived was published first by         
,vittorius at ,florence1 #aefg4         
,hippocrates4 ,see vol4 i41 p4 #agj4    
,numerous editions have been published  
of the ,hippo-cratic writings1          
including many works not written by the 
master himself4 ,one of the best        
editions is that of ,littr1 ,paris1     
#ahci1 etc4    ,khamurabi1 ,codb op4    
,see vol4 i41 p4 #gf4    ,this famous   
inscription is on a block of black      
diorite nearly eight feet  in height4   
,it was discovered at ,susa by the      

,french expedition under ,m4  de ,morgan
 in ,december1 #aija4    ,leucippus4    
,see vol4 i41 p4 #afa4    ,pliny 7,caius
 ,plinius ,secundus74 ,see vol4 i41 p4  
#bfe4    ,his ,natural ,history is      
available in several ,english editions  
and  reprints4 ,perhaps the best edition
 of the original text is the one        
published by ,julius ,sillig1 #e vols41 
,leipzig1 #ahed-ahei4 ,plutarch4 ,see   
vol4 i41 p4 #aih4    ,life of           
,marcellus1 in ,parallel ,lives4 ,in    
this the mechanical inventions  of      
,archimedes are described4 ,polybius4   
,see vol4 i41 p4 #bja4    ,in his       
,histories ,polybius describes the      
mechanical contrivances and  war-engines
 of ,archimedes1 and also gives an      
account of his death4  ,ptolbmy         
7,claudius ,ptolemaeus74 ,see vol4 i41  
p4 #bfi4    ,geographia 7or ,almagest of
 the ,arabs74 ,the edition published by 
,nobbe1  in #c vols41 ,leipzig1 #ahdb1  
was one of the best complete editions of
 the  ,greek text4 ,the edition         

published in ,didot's ,bibliotheca      
,classicorum  ,grocorum1 ,paris1 #ahhc1 
is excellent4 ,earlier editions contain 
many  errors4    ,strabo4 ,see vol4 i41 
p4 #bee4    ,the ,geography of ,strabo4 
,trans1 by ,h4 ,c4 ,hamilton and ,w4    
,falconer1 #c  vols41 ,london1 #aheg4   
,there are several other editions of    
,strabo's work  available in ,english4  
,tertullian4 ,see vol4 i41 p4 #aie4     
,apologeticus4 ,theophrastus4 ,see vol4 
i41 p4 #ahh4    ,utpivlaroplas1 ,on the 
,history of ,plants4 ,written in #aj    
books4  ,this is one of the earliest    
works on botany which have come to us4  
,it was largely used by ,pliny4 ,in     
complete works1 ,schneider1 ,leipzig1   
#ahah-ahba1 #e vols4 ,on ,plants1 edited
 by ,wimmer1 ,breslau1 #bdg             
#ahdb-ahfb4 ,on ,plants1 edited by      
,slackhouse1 ,oxford1 #ahad4  atria1 ,on
 the ,causes of ,plants1 ,this was      
originally in #h books1 of  which #f are
 now existant4 ,bibliog4 vid4 ,history  
of ,plants4        ,,ii4--,,period      

,,covered ,,by ,,volume ,,ii4           
,albategnius1 ,mohammed bbn ,jabir4 ,see
 vol4 ii41 p4 #ae4    ,the original     
,,ms4 of his principal work1 ,zidje     
,sabt1 is in the ,vatican4 ,a  ,latin   
translation was first published by      
,plato ,tiburtinus at ,nuremberg1  in   
#aecg1 under the title ,de scientia     
stellarunt4 ,various reprints of  this  
have been made4 ,albertus ,magnus4 ,see 
vol4 ii41 p4 #abg4    ,philosophic99    
,naturalis ,isagoge1 ,vienna1 #aead4    
,alhazen 7full name1 ,abu  ,ali         
al-,hasan ,ibn ,alhasan74 ,see vol4 ii41
 p4 #ah4    ,only two of his works have 
been printed1 his ,treatise on ,twilight
  and his ,thesaurus opticae1 these     
being available in ,michael ,casiri's   
,bibliotheca ,arabico-,hispana          
,escuri-alensis1 #b vols41 ,madrid1     
#agfj-aggj4    ,bacon1 ,francis4 ,see   
vol4 ii41 p4 #aib4    ,novum ,organum   
was published in ,london1 #afbj4 ,the   
,letters and ,life of  ,lard ,bacon1 in 
#g vols41 by ,james ,spedding1 appeared 

in #ahfb-ahgd4 ,bacon1  ,roger4 ,see    
vol4 ii41 p4 #dd4    ,only an           
approximate estimate of the number of   
,bacon's works can be given  even now1  
although an infinite amount of time and 
labor has been  spent in collecting     
them4 ,his great work is the ,opus ma   
jus1 the  ,encyclopaedia and the        
,organum of the ,thirteenth ,century4 ,a
 partial list  of some of his other     
works is the following3 ,speculum       
alchemio1 #aeda  7trans1 into ,english72
 ,de mirabili potestate artis et naturo1
 #aedb  7trans1 into ,english1 #afei72  
,libellus de retardants se-nectutis     
accidentibus1 #aeij 7trans1 as ,the     
,cure of ,old4 ,age1 #afhc72 and        
,sanioris medicino ,magistri d4 ,rogeri 
,baconis ,anglici de arte chymio        
scripta1 #afjc4 #bdh    ,boyle1 ,robert4
 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #bje4                
,philosophical ,works1 #c vols41        
,london1 #agch4    ,copernicus1         
,nicolaus4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #ed4    ,ad
 clar4 v4 d4 ,schonerum de libris       

revolutionism eruditiss4 viri et        
mathemattci excellentiss4 ,rev4         
,doctoris ,nicolai ,copernici           
,torunnaei1  ,canonici ,warmiensis1 per 
quemdam juvenem mathematico studio sum1 
,narratio prima1 ,dantzic1 #aedj4 ,this 
was the first published statement  of   
the doctrine of ,copernicus1 and was a  
letter published by ,rheticus4  ,three  
years afterwards ,copernicus's ,de      
orbium colestium revolutionibus1  ,libri
 ,,vi41 was published at ,nuremberg     
7#aedc74    ,descartes1 ,ren4 ,see vol4 
ii41 p4 #aic4    ,trait de ,vhomme      
7,cousins's edition1 in #aa vols41      
,paris1 #ahbd74    ,galilei1 ,galileo4  
,see vol4 ii41 p4 #ia4    ,dialogo dei  
due massimi sistemi del mondo1          
,florence1 #afcb4 ,discorsi e           
dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due 
nuove scienze1 ,leyden1 #afch4          
,gilbert1 ,william 7#aedj-afjc74 ,see   
vol4 ii41 p4 #aac4    ,de magnete1      
magneticisque corporibus1 et de magno   
magnete tellure1  ,london1 #afjj4 ,de   

magnete was trans4 by ,p4 ,fleury       
,motteley1 ,london1 #ahic4  ,guericke1  
,otto von 7#afbj-afhf74 ,see vol4 ii41  
p4 #bac4    ,exprimenta nova1 ut vocant1
 ,magdeburgica de vacuo spatio1         
,amsterdam1  #afgb4 ,in the ,phil4      
,trans1 of the ,royal ,society of       
,london1 ,no4 #hh1 for  #afgb4          
,hales1 ,stephen 7#afgg-agfa74 ,see vol4
 ii41 p4 #bih4    ,statical ,essays1    
comprising ,vegetable ,staticks1        
,london1 #agbg1 and  ,homostatics1      
,london1 #agcc4 ,harvey1 ,william4 ,see 
vol4 ii41 p4 #afi4    ,exercitatio      
anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis1  
,frankfort-on-,main1  #afbh4 ,the ,works
 of1 trans1 by ,robert ,willis1 ,london1
 #ahdg4 ,hauksbeb1  ,francis4 ,see vol4 
ii41 p4 #bei4    ,physico-,mechanical   
,experiments on ,various ,subjects1     
,london1 #agji4 ,this  contains         
descriptions of his various discoveries 
in electricity1 many of  which are given
 in the ,phil4 ,trans4    ,hooee1       
,robert4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #bae4        

,micrographia1 or ,some ,philosophical  
,descriptions of ,some ,minute ,bodies1 
,london1 #affe4 ,an ,attempt to ,prove  
the ,motion of the ,earth1 ,london1     
#afgd4  ,microscopical ,observations1   
,london1 #aghj4 ,most of ,hooke's       
important  discoveries were contributed 
as papers to the ,royal ,society and are
  available in the ,phil4 ,trans4       
,huygens1 ,christian 7#afbi-afie74 ,see 
vol4 ii41 p4 #bah4    ,traite de la     
lumire1 ,leyden1 #afij4 ,complete works 
were published at  ,the ,hague in #ahhh1
 under thetit le ,ouvres compltes1 by   
the ,socit  ,hollandaise des ,sciences4 
,these books have not been translated   
into  ,english4 ,huygens's famous paper 
on the laws governing the collision of  
elastic bodies appeared in the ,phil4   
,trans1 of the ,royal ,society for      
#affi4    ,kepler1 ,johann4 ,see vol4   
ii41 p4 #gj4    ,astronomia nova de     
motibus ,stella ,mortis1 ,leipzig1      
#afji1 contains  ,kepler's two first    
laws2 and ,harmonices mundi1 #afai1     

contains the third  law1 ,phomomenon    
singulare1 seu ,mercurius in sole1      
,leipzig1 #afji4 ,joannis  ,kep,uri     
opera omnia1 in #h vols41 ,frankfort1   
#aheh-ahga4    ,leeuwenhoek1 ,anthony   
van4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #agi4    ,his    
discoveries are mostly recorded in the  
,phil4 ,trans4 of the ,royal  ,society1 
between the years #afgc and #agbc--one  
hundred and twelve papers  in all4 ,his 
discovery of bacteria is recorded in    
,phil4 ,trans1 for #afhc2  and that of  
the discovery of the capillary          
circulation of the blood in  ,phil4     
,trans1 for #agij4    ,li,n,ni,eus1     
,carolus 7#agjg-aggh74 ,see vol4 ii41 p4
 #bii4    ,his ,systema natures was     
published in #agce4 ,tro years later    
7#agcg7  he published ,genera plantarum1
 which is generally considered as the   
starting-point of modern botany4 ,his   
published works amount to more than  one
 hundred and eighty4    ,mariotte1 ,edme
 7died #afhd74 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #baj4  
,essais de physique 7four essays71      

,paris1 #afgf-afgi4 #bej    ,his ,de la 
nature de l'air1 containing his         
statement of the law  connecting the    
volume and pressure of a gas1 is        
contained in the second  essay4         
,newton1 ,sir ,isaac4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 
#bda4    ,philosophies naturalis        
principia mathematica1 completed in     
,july of  #afhg4 ,the first edition was 
exhausted in a few months4 ,there are   
several  translations1 among others one 
by ,andrew ,motte1 ,new ,york1 #ahdh4   
,paracelsus4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #aei4    
,the ,hermetic and ,alchemical ,writings
 of ,paracelsus1 trans1 by ,a4 ,e4      
,waite1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahid4       
,pascal1 ,blaise4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4     
#abb4    ,rcit de la grande exprience de
 ,vquilibre de liqueurs1 ,paris1 #afdh4 
,sawtree1 ,john4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 #abd 
ff4    ,of the ,philosopher's ,stone1   
,london1 #afeb4 ,swammerdam1 ,john4 ,see
 vol4  ii41 p4 #big4    ,bibel der      
,natur1 trans1 into ,german1 ,leipzig1  
#ageb4 ,sydenham1 ,thomas4  ,see vol4   

ii41 p4 #ahi4    ,his first work1       
,methodus curandi febres1 was published 
in #afff4 ,his last  work1 ,processus   
integri1 appeared in #afib4 ,his        
complete works1 in ,latin1  were        
published by the ,sydenham ,society1    
,london1 #ahdd1 which published  also an
 ,english translation by ,pr4 ,r4 ,g4   
,latham in #ahdh4 ,there are  several   
other ,english translations4            
,torricelli1 ,evanoelista4 ,see vol4    
ii41 p4 #abj4    ,opera geometrica1     
,florence1 #afdd4 ,tycho ,brahe4 ,see   
vol4 ii41 p4 #fe4    ,de mundi aetherei 
recentioribus phonomenis1 ,prague1      
#afjc4 ,this has been  trans1 into      
,german by ,m4 ,bruns1 ,karlsruhe1      
#ahid4    ,vinci1 ,leonardo da4 ,see    
vol4 ii41 p4 #dg4    ,leonardo da       
,vinci1 ,artist1 ,thinker1 and ,man of  
,science1 by ,eugene ,muntz1  #b vols41 
,new ,york1 #ahib1 is perhaps the most  
complete treatment of all  phases of    
,leonardo's work as a scientist as well 
as an artist4 ,the older  ,french work1 

,essai sur les ouvrages                 
physico-mathmatiques de ,lonard  de     
,vinci1 by ,j4 ,b4 ,venturi1 ,paris1    
#agig1 is excellent4 ,in ,german1 ,h4   
,grothe's ,leonardo da ,vinci als       
,ingnieur und ,philosophy ,berlin1      
#ahgd1 is  good4        ,,iii4--,,modern
 ,,cosmical ,,and ,,telluric ,,sciences 
,agassiz1 ,l4 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #adg4  
,etudes sur les glaciers1 ,neuchtel1    
#ahdj4 ,arago1 ,franois ,j4 ,d4 ,see    
vol4  ,hi41 p4 #fg4    ,ouvres          
7complete71 if vols41 ,paris1           
#ahed-ahfb4 ,arago's ,meteorological    
,essays1 trans1 into ,english1 ,london1 
#ahee4 ,this has an introduction by     
,humboldt4    ,boscovich1 ,roger        
,joseph4 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #bic4       
,theoria philosophio naturalis redacta  
ad unicam legem virium in natura        
existentium1 ,vienna1 #ageh4 ,bradley1  
,james4 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #ac4         
,concerning an ,apparent ,motion        
,observed in ,sotne of the ,fixed       
,stars1  ,london1 #agdh1 ,phil4 ,trans41

 vol4 xlv41 pp4 #h1i4                   
,cuvier199,baron de4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4  
#ajc4    ,recherches sur les ossements  
fossiles de quadrupdes1 #d vols41       
,paris1  #ahab4 7,the introduction to   
this work was translated and published  
as a  volume bearing title of ,theory of
 the ,earth1 ,new ,york1 #ahah47        
,delambre1 ,jean ,baptiste ,joseph4 ,see
 vol4 iii41 p4 #af4    ,histoire        
d'astronomie1 ,paris1 #ahag-ahba4 ,this 
work contains not only  the history of  
the discoveries in astronomy1 but is    
also a complete  text-book of astronomy 
as understood at this period4           
,falconer1 ,hugh4 ,see vol4 iii41 p4    
#ii4    ,in ,paloontological ,memoirs1  
vol4 ii41 pp4 #eif-eih4 #beb            
,herschbl1 ,william4 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 
#bj ff4    ,on the ,proper ,motion of   
the ,solar ,system1 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4
 #gc1 for  #aghc4 7,this paper was read 
in ,march1 #aghc47 ,the ,constitution of
 the  ,heavens1 ,phil4 ,trans1 for      
#aghe1 vol4 #ge1 p4 #bac4 ,howard1      

,luke4 ,see vol4  iii41 p4 #ahb4        
,philosophical ,magazine1 #ahjc4        
,humboldt1 ,alexander von4 ,see vol4    
iii41 p4  #aib4    ,des lignes          
isothermes et de la distribution de la  
chaleur sur le globe1  published in vol4
 iii41 of ,mmoires de physique et de    
chimie de la  ,socit d',arcueil1 ,paris1
 #ahai4 ,hutton1 ,james4 ,see vol4 iii41
 p4 #agh4    ,theory of ,rain1 in       
,transactions of the ,royal ,society of 
,edinburgh1 #aghh1  vol4 i41 pp4 #ec-ef4
 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #aba4 ,from         
,transactions of the  ,royal ,society of
 ,edinburgh1 #aghh1 vol4 i41 pp4        
#bad-cjd4 ,a paper on the  ,theory of   
the ,earth1 read before the society in  
#agha4    ,kant1 ,immanuel 7i#gbd-ahjd74
 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #bg4    ,allgemeine 
,naturgeschichte und ,thorie des        
,himmels1 #agee4 ,cosmogony1 ed4  and   
trans1 by ,w4 ,hartie1 ,d4,d41 ,glasgow1
 #aijj4    ,laplace1 ,m4 le ,marquis de4
 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #cb4    ,exposition 
du systme du monde1 ,paris1 #agif1 is   

available in ,ouvres  completes1 in #ab 
vols41 ,paris1 #ahbe-ahccja4 vi41 p4    
#dih4 ,lyell1  ,charles4 ,see vol4 iii41
 p4 #hh4    ,principles of ,geology1 #d 
vols41 ,london1 #ahcd4    ,marsh1 ,o4   
,c4 ,see vol4 ,hi41 p4 #ajg4    ,fossil 
,horses in ,america 7reprinted from     
,american ,naturalist1 vol4  viii41     
,may1 #ahgd71 pp4 #bhh1 #bhi4           
,playpair1 ,john4 ,see vol4 iii41 pp4   
#aca1 #afe4    ,illustrations of the    
,huttonian ,theory1 #ahjb4    ,scrope1  
,g4 ,poulett4 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #acb4  
,consideration of ,volcanoes1 ,london1  
#ahbc1 pp4 #bbh-bcd4    ,wells1 ,w4 ,c4 
,see vol4 iii41 p4 #ahe4 ,essay on ,dew1
 ,london1 #ahah4                        
,,iv4--,,modern ,,physical ,,and        
,,chemical ,,sciences    ,black1        
,joseph4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #ab4    ,de  
acido e cibis orlo1 et de magnesia1     
reprinted at ,edinburgh1 #ahed4 ,in     
this he sketched his discovery of       
carbonic acid4 ,later this paper  was   
incorporated in his ,experiments on     

,magnesia1 ,quicklime1 and ,other       
,alkaltne ,substances4    ,bunsen1      
,william4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #fi4        
,cavendish1 ,henry4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4   
#ae4    ,experiments on ,air1 in ,phil4 
,trans41 #aghd1 p4 #aai4 ,this paper    
contains  ,cavendish's discovery of the 
composition of water and of nitric acid4
    ,daguerre1 ,louis ,j4 ,m4 ,see vol4 
iv41 p4 #gj4    ,historique et          
description des procds du daguerrotype  
et du diorama1  ,paris1 #ahci4 7,this   
was translated into ,english47          
,dalton1 ,john4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #dj4  
,on the ,absorption of ,gases by ,water1
 read before the ,literary  and         
,philosophical ,society of ,manchester1 
,october #ba1 #ahjc4 ,this  was         
published in #ahje1 and contains the    
atomic weight of twenty-one  substances1
 some of which were probably added1 or  
corrected1 between the  date of the     
first reading and the publication4      
,davy1 ,sir ,humphry4 ,see vol4 iv41 pp4
 #dh1 #bji4    ,some ,chemical ,agencies

 of ,electricity1 in ,phil4 ,trans1 for 
#ahjf1 vol4  viii4 ,researches1         
,chemical and ,philosophical1 chiefly   
concerning ,nitrous  ,oxide or          
,de-phlogisticated ,nitrous ,air and its
 ,respiration1 ,london1  #ahjj4         
,dewar1 ,james4 ,see vol4 v41 p4 #ci4   
,solid ,hydrogen1 in ,proc4 ,roy4 ,inst1
 for #aijj4 ,the ,nadir of  ,temperature
 and ,allied ,problems  7,bakerian      
,lecture71 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc1  #aija4   
,dufay1 ,cisternay4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4   
#bfg4    ,histoire de l',acadmie ,royale
 des ,sciences1 between #agcc and #agcg1
  contains ,dufay's principal papers4   
,eulbr1 ,leonard 7#agjg-aghc74 ,see vol4
 iii41 p4 #ag4    ,lettres a une        
,princesse d',allemagne sur quelques    
sujets de physique et  de philosophie1  
,st4 ,petersburg1 #agfh4    ,faraday1   
,michael4 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #bda4      
,on the ,induction of ,electric         
,currents1 in ,phil4 ,trans4 of ,royal  
,society  for #ahcb1 pp4 #abf-abh4      
,explication of ,arago's ,magnetic      

,phenomena1 by  ,michael ,faraday1      
,f4,r4,s41 ,phil4 ,trans1 of ,royal     
,society for #ahcb1 pp4  #adf-adi4      
,franklin1 ,benjamin4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4 
#bhf4    ,new ,experiments and          
,observations on ,electricity1 ,london1 
#agfj4    ,galvani1 ,luigi 7#agcg-agih74
 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #bbi4    ,de viribus
 electricitatis in motu musculari       
commentatio1 ,bologna1 #agia4  ,this    
discovery of ,galvani was first brought 
to notice by ,volta's famous  paper to  
the ,royal ,society1 entitled ,an       
,account of some ,discoveries  made by  
,mr4 ,galvani1 of ,bologna1 published in
 the ,phil4 ,trans1 for  #agic1 pp4     
#aj-dd4    ,gay-,lussac1 ,joseph ,louis4
 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #da4    ,mmoire sur  
la combinaison des substances gazeuses1 
,mem4 ,soc4 d',arcueil1  #ahji4         
,halley1 ,edmund4 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #g4
    ,an ,account of ,several            
,extraordinary ,meteors or ,lights in   
the ,sky1 in  ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4      
xxix41 pp4 #aei-afb1 ,london1 #agad4    

,helmholtz1 ,h4 ,l4 ,f4  ,see vol4 iii41
 p4 #bhj4    ,handbuch der              
physiologische ,optik1 ,leipzig1 #ahfg4 
,joule1 ,j4 ,p4 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #bfi4
    ,on the ,calorific ,effects of      
,magneto-,electricity and the           
,mechanical ,value  of ,heat1 in ,report
 of the ,british ,association for the   
,advancement of  ,science1 #ahdc1 vol4  
xii p4 #cc-    ,kirwan1 ,r4 ,see vol4   
iv41 p4 #c ff4    ,an ,essay on         
,phlogiston and the ,constitution of    
,acids1 ,london1 #aghi4  ,this is       
interesting1 written as it was just     
before ,lavoisier's ,elements  treated  
the same subject from the stand-point of
 the anti-phlogistic  chemists4         
,kleist1 ,dean von4 ,see vol4 ii41 p4   
#bhj4    ,in the ,danzick ,memoirs1 vol4
 i4 contains the description given by   
,von  ,kleist of his discovery of the   
,leyden jar4 ,a translation is given    
also  in ,priestley's ,history of       
,electricity4    ,lavoisier1 ,antoine   
,laurent4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #cc4        

,trait lmentaire de chimie1 ,paris1     
#aggd1 trans1 as ,elements of           
,chemistry1 by ,robert ,kerr1 ,london   
and ,edinburgh1 #agij4 ,lister1 ,joseph 
,jackson4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #aac4    ,on
 ,some ,properties in ,achromatic       
,object ,glasses ,applicable to the     
,improvement of the ,microscope1 in     
,phil4 ,trans1 for #ahcj4    ,maxwell1  
,james ,clerk-4 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #de4 
,on the ,motions and ,collisions of     
,perfectly ,elastic ,spheres  in        
,philosophical ,magazine for ,january   
and ,july1 i#hfj4 ,the ,scientific      
,papers  of ,j4 ,clerk-,maxwell1 edited 
by ,w4 ,d4 ,nevin 7#b vols471 vol4 i41  
pp4  #cgb-cgd1 ,cambridge1 #ahif4 ,this 
is a reprint of ,maxwell's prize paper  
of  #ahei4 ,mayer1 ,dr4 ,julius ,robert4
 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #bei4    ,the       
,forces of ,inorganic ,nature1 #ahdb4   
,this is ,mayer's statement of the      
conservation of energy4 ,mendelepp1     
,dmitri ,ivanovitch4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4  
#fh4    ,principles of ,chemistry1 #b   

vols41 ,london1 #ahfh-ahgj4 7,there have
 been  several subsequent editions47    
,oersted1 ,hans ,christian4 ,see vol4   
iii41 p4 #bcf4    ,experiments with the 
,effects of the ,electric ,current on   
the ,magnetic  ,needle1 published at    
,berlin1 #ahaf4    ,priestley1 ,joseph4 
,see vol4 iv41 pp4 #bj1 #cf4            
,experiments and ,observations on       
,different ,kinds of ,air1 #c vols41    
,birmingham1 #agij4 ,history of         
,electricity1 #bef vol4 ii41 p4 #bhj1   
,london1  #agge4 ,the ,doctrine of      
,phlogiston ,established1 #ahjj4        
,ramsay and ,ravlbigh4 ,see vol4 v41 p4 
#hf4    ,on an ,anomaly ,encountered in 
,determining the ,density of ,nitrogen  
,gas1  in ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc1 ,april1    
#ahid4 ,a statement of the properties of
 argon  was made by the discoverers to  
the ,royal ,society1 given in ,phil4    
,trans41  clxxxvi41 p4 #ahg1 ,january1  
#ahie4    ,sc,h,b,b,l,b1 ,karl ,william4
 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #bc4    ,om          
,brunsten1 eller ,magnesia1 och dess    

,egenakaper1 ,stockholm1#aggd4 ,this    
contains his discovery of chlorine4 ,his
 book1 ,chemische ,abhandlung von  der  
,luft und dent ,feuer1 was published in 
#aggg4    ,thompson1 ,benjamin 7,count  
,rumford74 ,see vol4 iii41 p4 #bjh4     
,essays  ,political1 ,economical1 and   
,philosophical 7#b vols471 vol4 ii41 pp4
  #dgj-dic1 ,london1 ,t4 ,cadell1 ,jr41 
and ,w4 ,davies1 #agig4 ,thomson1       
,william  7,lord ,kelvin74 ,see vol4    
iii41 p4 #bgf4    ,on a ,universal      
,tendency in ,nature to the ,dissipation
 of ,mechanical  ,energy1 in            
,transactions of the ,royal ,society of 
,edinburgh1 #aheb4    ,wollaston1       
,william ,hyde4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #da4  
,phil4 ,trans1 for #ahad1 vol4 civ41 p4 
i1 contains a synoptic scale of         
chemical equivalents4 ,this paper was   
confirmatory of ,dalton's theory4       
,young1 ,thomas4 ,see vol4 iii41 p4     
#bah4    ,on the ,colors of ,thin       
,plates ,i4e4 in ,phil4 ,trans1 for     
#ahjb1 pp4 #ce-cg4        ,v4--,,modern 

,,biological ,,sciences    ,avenbruggbr1
 ,lbopold4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #bjj4      
,inventum novum ex percussione thoracis 
humant interni pectoris morbos          
detegendi1 ,vienna1 #agfa4 vot4 ,v4-#ag 
#beg    ,bell1 ,sir ,charles ,see vol4  
iv41 p4 #bdi4    ,an ,exposition of the 
,natural ,system of ,nerves of the      
,human ,body1 being  a ,republication of
 the ,papers delivered to the ,royal    
,society on the  ,subject of the ,nerves
 in #ahaa1 etc4    ,bernard1 ,claude4   
,see vol4 iv41 p4 #acg4    ,,boerhaavb1 
,,hermann4 ,see ,vol4 ,,iv41 p4 #ahb4   
,institutions medicos1 ,leyden1 #agjh2  
and ,de chemie expurgante suos  errores1
 ,lugduni ,batavorum1 #agah4 ,brown1    
,robert4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #aae4    ,on 
the ,organs and ,mode of ,fecundation of
 ,orchideo and ,asclepiadeo1 in         
,miscellaneous ,botanical ,works1       
,london1 #ahff4    ,chambers1 ,robert4  
,see vol4 iv41 p4 #afa4    ,vestiges of 
the ,natural ,history of ,creation1     
,london1 #ahdd 7published  anonymously74

 ,his ,sequel to ,vestiges was published
 a year later4  ,charcot1 ,jean ,martin4
 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #bfi4    ,leons sur  
,us maladies du systme nerveux1 ,paris1 
beginning in #ahgc4  ,cuvier1 ,george1  
,baron de4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #aei4      
,histoire naturelle des animaux sans    
vertbres1 ,paris1 #ahae4 ,systme des    
connaissances positives de ,vhomme1     
,paris1 #ahbj4    ,darwin1 ,erasmus4    
,see vol4 iv41 pp4 #id1 #adg4    ,the   
,botanic ,garden1 ,london1 #agii4 ,the  
,temple of ,nature1 or ,the ,origin  of 
,society1 edition published in ,london1 
#ahjg4 ,darwin1 ,charles4 ,see vol4     
iii41 p4 #ie1 and vol4 iv41 p4 #agc4    
,the ,origin of ,species1 ,london1      
#ahei4    ,pechner1 ,gustav4 ,see vol4  
iv41 p4 #bfc4 ,elemente du              
,psychophysik1 i#hfj4  ,flourens1 ,marie
 ,jean ,pierre4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #bgj4 
,experiences sur le systme nerveux1     
,paris1 #ahbe4 ,cours sur la  gnration1 
,vovologie1 et ,vembryologie1 ,paris1   
#ahcf1 etc4    ,gall1 ,franz ,joseph4   

,see vol4 iv41 p4 #bdh4    ,recherches  
sur le systme nerveux en gnral1 et sur  
celui du cerveau en  particulier1       
,paris1 #ahji4 7,this paper was laid    
before the ,institute of  ,france in    
,march1 #ahjh47 ,goethe1 ,johann        
,wolfgang4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #adj4      
,die ,metamorphose der ,pflanzen1 #agij4
 ,gray1 ,stephen4 ,see vol4 ii4t p4     
#bfb4    ,most of his original papers   
appeared in the ,ph,u4 ,trans1 between  
#agbj and  #agcg4    ,haeckel1 ,ernst   
,heinrich4 ,see vol4 v41 p4 #add4       
,naturlich ,schopfungsgeschichte1 #ahff1
 rewritten in a more popular  style two 
years later as ,natural ,history of     
,creation4 ,some of his more  important 
monographs are3 ,radiolaria 7#ahfb71    
,siphonophora 7#ahfi71  ,monera 7#ahgj71
 ,calcarious ,sponges 7#ahgb71 ,arabian 
,corals 7#ahgf71 another  ,radiolaria1  
enumerating several thousand new        
species1 accompanied by one  hundred and
 forty plates 7#ahhg71 and ,die         
,weltrthsel1 trans1 in #aijj  as ,the   

,riddle of the ,universe4 ,hahnemann1   
,wilhelm von4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4  #ahi4  
,organon der rationellen ,heilkunde1    
,dresden1 #ahaj4 ,hall1 ,marshall1      
,m4,d41  ,f4,r4,s4,l4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 
#bea4    ,on the ,reflex ,functions of  
the ,medulla ,oblongata and the ,medulla
  ,spinalis1 in ,phil4 ,trans1 of ,royal
 ,society1 vol4 xxxiii41 #ahcc4 ,hunter1
  ,john4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #ib4    ,on  
the ,digestion of the ,stomach after    
,death1 first edition1 pp4 #ahc-ahh4    
,jenner1 ,edward4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4     
#aij4    ,an ,inquiry into the ,causes  
and ,effects of the ,variolo ,vaccino1  
,london1  #agii4    ,lannec1 ,ren       
,thophile ,hyacinthe4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 
#bja4    ,trait d'auscultation mdiate1  
,paris1 #ahai4 ,lamarck1 ,jean ,baptiste
 de4  ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #aeb4           
,philosophie zoologique1 #h vols41      
,paris1 #ahja4 ,his famous statement of 
the supposed origin of species occurs on
 p4 #bce of vol4 i41 as follows3        
,everything which nature has caused     

individuals to acquire or lose by  the  
influence of the circumstance to which  
their race is long exposed1  and        
consequently by the influence of the    
predominant employment of such  organ1  
or its constant disuse1 she preserves by
 generation to the new  individuals     
proceeding from them1 provided that the 
changes are  common to the two sexes1 or
 to those which have produced these new 
individuals4    ,libbig1 ,justin4 ,see  
vol4 iv41 p4 #aca4    ,animal           
,chemistry1 ,london1 #ahdc4    ,libbig  
and ,whler4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #ef4      
,the important work of ,liebig and      
,whler appeared until #ahc;a mostly in  
,poggendorff's ,armalen1 but after #ahcb
 most of ,liebig's work appeared in  his
 own ,annalen4 ,about the earliest as   
well as one of his most important       
separate works is ,anleitung zur        
,analyse organischen1 ,korper1 #ahcg4   
,lotze1 ,hermann4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4     
#bfc4    ,medizinische ,psychologie1    
oder ,physiologie der ,seele1 ,leipzig1 

#aheb4    ,mohl1 ,hugo von4 ,see vol4   
iv41 p4 #abe4    ,uber der ,saftbewegung
 im ,innern d4 ,zelle1 ,bot4 ,zei-tung1 
#ahdf4 ,morgagni1  ,giovanni ,battista4 
,see vol4 iv41 p4 #gf4    ,de sedibus et
 causis ntorborum1 #b vols41 ,venice1   
#agfa4    ,oken1 ,lorenz4 ,see vol4 iv41
 p4 #afj4    ,philosophie der ,natur1   
,zurich1 #ahjb4    ,pasteur1 ,louis4    
,see vol4 iv41 pp4 #bag1 #bcc4          
,studies on ,fermentation1 ,london1     
#ahgi4 ,his famous paper on attenuation 
and inoculation was published in the    
,compte ,rendu of the ,academy of       
,science1 ,paris1 #ahha 7vol4 xcii474   
,saint-,hilaire1 ,etienne ,geoffroy4    
,see vol4 iv41 p4 #afj4    ,philosophie 
anatomique1 vol4 i41 ,paris1 #ahah4     
,schwann1 ,theodor4 ,see vol4  iv41 p4  
#aai4    ,mikroskopische ,untersuchungen
 uber die ,ubereinstim-mung in der      
,structur  und dem ,wachsthum der       
,thiere und ,pflanzen1 ,berlin1 #ahci4  
,trans1 by  ,sydenham ,soc41 #ahdg4     
,spencer1 ,herbert4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4   

#bfh4    ,principles of ,psychology1    
,london1 #ahee4 #bfj    ,treviranus1    
,gottfried ,reinhold4 ,see vol4 iv4t p4 
#aei4 ,biologie1 oder  ,philosophie der 
lebenden ,natur1 #ahjb4    ,weber1 ,e4  
,h4 ,see vol4 iv41 p4 #bfc4    ,the     
statement of ,weber's ,law99' was first 
made in articles by ,weber  contributed 
to ,wagner's ,handwrter-buch der        
,physiologie1 but is  again stated and  
elaborated in ,fechner's ,psychophysik4 
7,see ,fechner47  ,weismann1 ,august4   
,see vol4 iv41 p4 #agi4    ,studies in  
the ,theories of ,descent4 ,trans1 by   
,professor ,r4 ,meldola1  ,london1      
#ahhb4 ,the introduction to this work   
was written by ,darwin4  ,wohler1       
,friedrich4 ' 7,see ,liebig and ,whler47
 ,wundt1 ,wilhelm ,max4 ,see  vol4 iv41 
p4 #bfh4    ,grundzuge der              
physiologischen ,psychologie1 #ahgd4    
,many articles by ,wundt  have appeared 
in the ,philosophische ,studien1        
published at ,leipzig4                  
,v4--,,astronomy    ,astronomische ,g es

 disc haft4    ,a quarterly journal of  
astronomy published in ,leipzig4        
,berry1 ,arthur4    ,a ,short ,history  
of ,astronomy1 ,new ,york1 #ahii4       
,bertrand1 ,j4 ,l4 ,f4    ,les          
fondateurs de ,vastronomie modern3      
,copernic1 ,tycho ,brake1 ,kepler1      
,galileo1 et ,newton1 ,paris1 #ahfe4    
,this gives an interesting account of   
the lives and works of these            
philosophers4    ,flammarion1 ,c4       
,vie de ,copernic1 et histoire de la    
dcouverte du systme du monde1  ,paris1  
#ahgb4 ,forster1 ,w4    ,johann ,kepler 
und die ,harmonie der ,sphcren1 ,berlin1
 #ahfb4    ,jensen1 ,p4    ,die         
,kosmologie der ,babylonier1 ,strasburg1
 #ahij4 #bfa    ,lockyer1 ,joseph       
,norman4    ,the ,dawn of ,astronomy2 a 
,study of the ,temple ,worship and      
,mythology of  the ,ancient ,egyptians1 
,london1 #ahid4 ,loom is4    ,history of
 ,astronomy1 ,new ,york1 #ahee4         
,rothmann4    ,history of ,astronomy 7in
 the ,library of ,useful ,knowledge71   

,london1 #ahcd4    ,socit ,astronomique 
de ,france4 ,monthly bulletin1 ,paris4  
,thompson1 ,r4 ,campbell4    ,reports of
 the ,magicians and ,astrologers of     
,nineveh and ,babylon1 p4 #ai1  ,london1
 #aijj4    ,wolf1 ,r4    ,geschichte der
 ,astronomie1 ,munich1 #ahgg4           
,,vi4--,,physics 7,,electricity7        
,annalen der ,physik1 ,leipzig4 ,edited 
by ,dr4 ,paul ,drude4 7,note--,heavy1   
scientific1 up-to-date4 ,is apparently  
under the patronage of all the big      
physicists1 such as ,roentgen1 etc47    
,a tit della ,associazione              
,elethotecnica ,italiana 7at ,rome74 ,a 
large  bi-monthly magazine1 strictly    
technical1 devoted largely to           
theoretical  problems of electricity and
 allied subjects4    ,bulletin          
,international de ,v,electricit et      
,journal de ,v,electricit  runis74 ,a   
semi-monthly four-page paper dealing    
with the technical  application of      
electricity in its various fields4      
,die ,dissozuerung und ,umwandlung      

chemischer ,atome1 by ,dr4 ,johannes    
,stark1  #aijc4 ,price #aej m4 ,a       
comprehensive view of the application of
 the  electron theory to certain        
phenomena4--,nature1 ,may1 #aijd4       
,die ,kathodenstrahlen1 by ,g4 ,c4      
,schmidt1 ,brunswick1 #aijd4    ,a      
concise and complete account of the     
properties of the cathode               
rays4--,nature1 ,june1 #aijd4           
,electrical ,engineer4    ,electrical   
,magazine4    ,electricity4 ,a weekly   
journal1 published by the ,electricity  
,newspaper  ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,devoted  
largely to questions of the practical   
application  of electricity1 but dealing
 also with the theoretical side4        
,elements of ,electro-magnetic ,theory1 
by ,s4 ,j4 ,barnett1 ,le-land ,stanford1
  ,junior1 ,university4 ,macmillan      
,co41 #aijd4    7#c47    ,handbuch der  
,physik1 by ,dr4 ,a4 ,winkelmann1       
,leipzig1 #aijd4 ,an  indispensable     
storehouse of expert                    
knowledge4--,nature1 ,july1 #aijd4      

,hardin4    ,rise and ,development of   
the ,liquefaction of ,gases1 ,new ,york1
 #ahii4    ,la thorie de ,maxwell et les
 oscillations hertziennes1 la ,tlgraphie
  sans flt by ,h4 ,poincar1 ,paris1     
#aijd 7price #b fr474 ,interesting      
studies  of light1 etc4 ,an interesting 
brochure4--,revue ,scientifique1 ,july1 
#aijd4    ,le radium et la radioactivit1
 by ,paul ,besson1 ,paris1 #aijd 7price 
#b  fr4 #ge74 ,a good exposition of the 
known properties of radium1 marred1     
however1 by an attempt to put in accord 
science and religion-- propos  du       
radium6 --,revue ,scientifique1 ,july1  
#aijd4    ,lehrbuch der ,physik1 by ,von
 ,o4 ,d4 ,chwolson1 ,st4 ,petersburg1   
#aijd4 #b  vols4 out4 ,first vol4 covers
 general physics and mechanics4 ,second 
vol4  sound and radiant energy4         
,excellent and quite                    
comprehensive4--,science1  review4      
,park1 ,benjamin4    ,the ,intellectual 
,rise in ,electricity1 ,new ,york1      
#ahie4 ,this is a popular  account of   

the progress in the field of electricity
 from ,gilbert to  ,franklin4    ,radium
 and all ,about ,it1 by ,s4 ,bottone1   
,london1 #aijd4 ,published by           
,whittaker  ,co4 ,price is4 ,an accurate
 account of the most important          
phenomena4--,nature1 ,june1 #aijd4      
,the ,physical ,review4 ,a monthly      
journal of experimental and theoretical 
physics4 ,published for ,cornell        
,university by the ,macmillan ,company4 
#bfc    ,theory of ,heat1 by ,thomas    
,preston1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,second edition just
 out4  ,macmillan  ,co41 #ahe4          
,,vii4-,,chemistry    ,american         
,chemical ,journal4 ,edited by ,ira     
,remsen1 president of ,johns  ,hopkins  
,university4 ,published monthly at      
,baltimore1 ,maryland4 ,price #e  per   
annum4 ,a strictly technical journal4   
,bacon1 ,roger4    ,mirror of ,alchemy1 
and ,admirable ,power of ,art and       
,nature1 ,london1 #aeig4    ,berthblot1 
,p4 ,e4 ,m4    ,introduction a l'tude de
 la chimie des anciens et du moyen age1 

,paris1  #ahhi4    ,les origines de     
l'alchimie1 ,paris1 #ahhe4    ,bulletin 
de la ,socit ,chimique de ,paris4 ,a    
monthly technical journal1  treating all
 phases of the science of chemistry4    
,food ,inspection and ,analysis1 by     
,albert ,e4 ,leach1 ,s4 ,b4 7,john      
,wiley   ,sons1 ,n4 ,y41 #g4ej74 ,note4 
--,this book is designed for the use of 
public  analysts1 health officers1 food 
economists1 etc4    ,hoefer1 ,j4 ,c4 ,f4
    ,histoire de la chimie1 ,paris1     
#ahff-ahfi4 ,this gives biographical    
sketches of many of the great chemists  
as well as the history of the           
development of chemistry4               
,jahresbericht uber die ,fortschritte   
der ,chemie4 ,a journal of the  progress
 in chemistry1 published irregularly in 
,brunswick4    ,kopp1 ,h4    ,geschichte
 der ,chemie 7#d vols471 ,brunswick1    
#ahdc-ahdg4 ,this is an  exhaustive     
history of the development of chemistry4
    ,lehrbuch der ,stereochemie1 by ,a4 
,werner1 ,jena1 #aijd1 price #aj m4     

,should  be in the hands of every       
organic chemist4--,nature for ,august1  
#aijd4    ,lemoine1 ,y4 ,f4    ,la      
vitalism et l'aminisme de ,stahl1       
,paris1 #ahfd4 ,this discusses fully    
,stahl's famous theories of matter and  
life4 ,meyer1 ,e4 von4    ,a ,history of
 ,chemistry from the ,earliest ,times to
 the ,present ,day1  ,london1 #ahih4    
,this treats fully the subject of the   
phlogiston theory and  its influence in 
the development of chemistry4 ,muir1 ,m4
 ,p4    ,story of ,alchemy and the      
,beginnings of ,chemistry1 ,london and  
,new ,york1  #ahii4 ,a popular account  
of the development of the phlogiston    
theory  from alchemy1 giving            
explanations of the curious beliefs and 
methods of  working of the alchemists4  
,rodwell1 ,g4 ,f4    ,the ,birth of     
,chemistry1 ,london1 #ahgd4 ,thompson1  
,c4 ,j4 ,s4    ,the ,mystery and        
,romance of ,alchemy and ,pharmacy1 in  
the ,scientific  ,press1 ,london1 #ahig4
 ,this is very interesting and readable4

 ,thompson1 ,t4    ,the ,history of     
,chemistry1 ,london1 #ahcj1 #ahca4      
,waite1 ,arthur ,edward4    ,lives of   
,alchemisttcal ,philosophers1 ,london1  
#ahhh4 ,a biographical  account of the  
most noted alchemists4 ,this is very    
complete4 ,waite has  also collected a  
list of the principal works of the      
alchemists1 this  list filling about    
thirty pages of fine print4             
,,viii4--,,geology4 ,,biology1          
,,paleontology    ,american ,geologist4 
,american ,museum of ,natural ,history  
,bulletins1 ,new ,york4    ,a merican   
,naturalist4    ,annales de l',institut 
,pasteur 7#ah fr4 per annum74 ,a monthly
 bulletin of  the ,pasteur ,institute1  
containing mostly technical articles1   
but also  articles of interest to       
persons interested in problems of       
immunization  and immune sera4          
,annales des sciences naturelles3       
zoologie et palontologie1 ,paris4       
,annals and ,magazine of ,natural       
,history1 including zoology1 botany1 and

  geology4 ,monthly4 ,london4 ,a        
technical magazine4 ,of little interest 
to  the general reader4    ,archiv fur  
,naturgeschichte4 ,a journal of natural 
history published  bi-monthly at        
,berlin4    ,archiv fur                 
,rassen-und--,gesellschaft--,biologie   
einschliefslich  ,rassen--und           
,gesell4-,hygiene4    ,archives de      
biologie 7quarterly71 ,lige4            
,archives des sciences biologiques4 ,st4
 ,petersburg4 ,five numbers a year4     
,archives ,italiennes de biologie4      
,turin4 ,bi-monthly4    ,biological     
,bulletin of the ,marine ,biological    
,laboratory1 ,wood's ,holl1             
,massachusetts4 ,published monthly by   
the laboratory4 ,managing editor1       
,prank ,r4 ,lillie4 ,scientific and     
technical--very good4    ,biologie      
gnrale des bactries1 by ,e4 ,bodin1     
professor of bacteriology1  ,university 
of ,rennes1 ,paris1 #aijd4 ,price #b    
,it4 #ej4 ,studies of bacteria  in      
general treated in a semi-popular       

manner4 ,some new ideas prepared to     
explain bacterial action in normal      
life--very good4--,revue ,scientifique1 
review1 ,august1 #aijd4    ,biometrika4 
,a journal for the statistical study of 
biological problems  7quarterly71 #cje4 
per annum4 ,edited1 in consultation with
 ,francis  ,galton1 by ,w4 ,f4 ,r4      
,weldon1 ,karl ,pearson1 and ,c4 ,b4    
,davenport4 ,a bulky  journal1          
beautifully illustrated with plates and 
line cuts4 ,largely  technical1 but     
containing many articles of interest to 
general readers  on laws of inheritance1
 hereditary influences1 etc4            
,bulletin of the ,geological ,society of
 ,america4 ,published irregularly at    
,rochester4    ,gcologische und         
,paloontologische ,abhandlungen1 ,jena4 
,johns ,hopkins ,university1 ,memoirs   
from the ,biological  ,laboratory4      
,l'change ,revue ,linnienne1 fonde par  
le ,docteur ,jacquet4 ,directeur1  ,m4  
,pic4 ,a monthly journal of natural     
history1 devoted largely to             

entomology--small and technical4 ,of    
interest to entomologists only4    ,les 
lois naturelles1 par ,flix le ,danteg1  
charge du cours d'embryologie  gnrale   
la ,sorbonne1 ,paris1 #aijd4 ,price #f  
fr4 ,a study in biology4  ,the name     
corresponds exactly with the contents of
 this admirable  work4--,revue          
,scientifique1 review1 ,september1      
#aijd4    ,marine ,biological           
,association of the ,united ,kingdom1   
,plymouth4    ,socit ,dauphinoise       
d',ethnologie et d',anthropologie4      
,quarterly bulletin4  ,grenoble4        
,socit ,zoologique de ,france4 ,monthly 
bulletin4    ,text-book of ,geology1 by 
,sir ,archibald ,geikie1 a vols4 ,fourth
 edition4  #aj4 ,macmillan  ,co41 #aijd4
    ,text-book of ,paleontology         
7,macmillan1 #aijd1 #c71 by ,carl ,a4   
von ,zittel1  ,university of ,michigan4 
,the ,geological ,magazine1 or ,monthly 
,journal of ,geology1 edited by ,henry  
,woodward1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 etc4    
,london1 #ae4 d4 per copy4 ,a high-class

  technical magazine4    ,the ,american 
,journal of ,psychology1 edited by ,g4  
,stanley ,hall1 ,e4 ,c4  ,sanford1 and  
,e4 ,b4 ,titchnener4 ,published at      
,worcester1 ,massachusetts1  monthly4 ,a
 technical journal devoted to           
psychological researches4    ,the       
,naturalist1 ,london4 ,a monthly journal
 for the north of ,england4  ,edited by 
,j4 ,sheppard1 ,p4,g4,s41 and ,t4 ,w4   
,woodhead1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,annual            
subscription1 #fe4 #f;d4 ,a local       
journal1 but containing general articles
  of interest4 ,semi-popular4    ,the   
,quarterly ,journal of ,microscopical   
,science1 edited by ,e4 ,ray            
,lankester1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 
,,ix4--,,medicine    ,american ,journal 
of ,insanity4    ,american ,journal of  
the ,medical ,sciences1 ,philadelphia4  
,annales medico-psychologiques1 ,paris4 
,arbeiten aus dem leaiserlichen         
,gesundheitsamte4 ,a journal of hygiene 
published irregularly at ,berlin4       
,archiv fur ,anatomie und ,physiologic4 

,a semi-monthly journal of the  progress
 in anatomy and physiology1 published at
 ,leipzig4    ,archiv fur die gesammte  
,physiologie1 ,bonn4    ,british        
,medical ,journal1 ,london4    ,immune  
,sera1 by ,professor ,a4 ,wassermann1   
,m4,d41 trans1 by ,charles  ,bolduan1   
,m4,d41 ,new ,york and ,london1 #aijd4  
,we confidently commend this  little    
book to all persons desirous of         
acquainting themselves with the         
essential facts on the subject of immune
 sera4--,nature1 ,july1 #aijd4          
,lancet1 ,london4    ,leclerc1 ,lucien4 
,histoire de la mdecine arabe1 #b vols41
 ,paris1 #ahgf4 ,this work is very      
complete and well written4    ,medical  
,record1 ,new ,york4    ,medical ,times1
 ,new ,york4    ,pagel1 ,julius4        
,einfuhrung in die ,geschichte der      
,medicin1 ,berlin1 #ahih4 ,this is not  
as  exhaustive as ,baas's book1 but is  
written in a much more readable style4  
,park1 ,roswell4    ,epitome of thf     
,history of ,medicine1 ,philadelphia1   

#ahii4    ,paul of ,a,egina4    ,the    
,works of1 published by the ,sydenham   
,society1 ,london1 #ahda1 are well      
worth reading1 as giving a clear        
understanding of the status of medicine 
in the seventh century4    ,sprengal1   
,k4 ,p4 ,j4    ,histoire de la mdecine  
depuis son origine jusqu'au dix-neuvime 
sicle1  #h vols41 ,paris1 #ahae-ahbj4   
,this is a ,french translation of the   
,german  work1 and is more available    
than the original volumes4 ,it is1      
perhaps1  the most exhaustive history of
 medicine ever attempted4    ,the       
,journal of ,hygiene1 edited by ,george 
,h4 ,f4 ,nuttall1 ,m4,d41 ,ph4,d4  ,a   
quarterly journal of hygiene 7#b is4 per
 annum71 containing many  interesting   
articles on subjects connected with     
hygiene and of interest  to general     
readers4    ,the ,journal of            
,physiology1 edited by ,sir ,michael    
,foster1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,m4,d41  ,f4,r4,s41 
and ,j4 ,n4 ,langley1 ,sc4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4
 ,issued quarterly4 ,price ,ss4 ,c4  ,j4

 ,clay  ,sons1 ,london4                 
,x4--,,anthropology ,,and ,,archaeology 
,american ,anthropologist4 ,f4 ,w4      
,hodge1 editor1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4    
,published quarterly for the ,american  
,anthropological ,association 7#d4ej    
per annum74 ,technical 7or              
semi-technical74 ,a medium of           
communication  between students of all  
branches of anthropology4 ,much space   
devoted  to ,indian language1 etc4--2a  
very good journal4 ,american ,journal of
  ,archoology4 ,american ,journal of    
,sociology4    ,archivo per ,v          
antropologia e ,v etnologia1 ,florence4 
,three numbers a  year4 ,a journal      
devoted to anthropology and ethnology4  
,avebury1 ,lord  7,sir ,john ,lubbock74 
,the ,origin of ,civilization and the   
,primitive ,condition of ,man4 ,mental  
and social condition of modern savages4 
,new ,york1 #ahgj4 ,brinton1 ,daniel    
,garrison1 ,m4,d4    ,the ,basis of     
,social ,relation1 a ,study in ,ethnic  
,psycliol-ogy1 edited by  ,l4 ,farrand1 

,new ,york1 #aijb4 ,clodd1 ,edward4     
,myths and ,dreams1 ,london4 #ahhe4     
,story of ,primitive ,man1 #c;d edition1
  ,london1 #ahig4 ,the ,childhood1 of   
tlte ,world4 ,a simple account of man in
  early times4 ,london1 #ahic4 ,dawkins1
 ,w4 ,boyd4    ,early ,man in ,britain1 
,london1 #ahhj4 ,cave ,hunting4         
,researches on the  evidence of caves   
respecting the early inhabitants of     
,europe4 ,london1  #ahgd4 ,dellenbaugh1 
,frederick ,s4    ,the ,north ,americans
 of ,yesterday1 ,new ,york1 #aija4      
,deniker1 ,joseph4    ,races of ,man4   
,an outline of anthropology and         
ethnology4 ,london1 #aijj4  ,grierson1  
,p4 ,j4 ,h4 ,hamilton4    ,the ,silent  
,trade4 ,a contribution to the early    
history of human  intercourse4 ,london1 
#aijc4 ,haeckel1 ,dr4 ,ernst ,heinrich4 
,anthropogenic2 oder                    
,entwickelungsgeschichtc des ,men-schen1
 #dth edition1  #b vols41 ,leipzig1     
#ahia4 #bfi    ,mller1 ,friedrich4      
,ethnographie2 auf ,grund des von ,k4   

von ,scherzer gesammetten ,materials4   
,vienna1 #ahfh4    ,murtillbt1 ,gabriel 
de4    ,le prhistorique antiquit de     
,vhomme4 ,paris1 #ahhc4    ,powell1     
,john ,wesley4    ,relation of          
,primitive ,peoples to ,environment4 ,in
 ,smithsonian  ,institution ,report4    
,washington1 #ahif4 ,reports of         
,american ,ethnology1 in  the annual    
reports of the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of       
,ethnology since #ahgg4    ,quatrepages 
7,a4 de ,q4 de ,brun74    ,histoire     
gnrale des races humaines4 ,paris1      
#ahhi4    ,ratzel1 ,friedrich4    ,the  
,history of ,mankind1 #c vols41 trans1  
by ,a4 ,j4 ,bubler1 ,london1            
#ahif-ahih4    ,revue de l',ecole       
d',anthropologie de ,paris4 ,monthly4   
,published by the  professors4 ,treats  
all phases and branches of anthropology4
    ,science de l'homme et mthode       
anthropologique1 by ,alphonse ,cels1    
,paris  and ,brussels1 #aijd4 #g francs4
 ,as a highly abstract and suggestive   
exposition of the nature and scope of   

anthropology1 this book deserves  a     
place in the library of the             
anthropologist4--,nature1 ,september    
#bd1  #aijd4    ,socit ,acadmique       
d',archologie1 ,paris4