,illustration3 ,,fossil ,,man ,,of ,,mentone4 7,from ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,october1 #ahgd47 ,,was ,,man ,,created8 ,,by ,,henry ,a4 ,,mott1 ,,jr41 ,e4,m41 ,,ph4,d41 ,,etc41 ,member of the ,american ,chemical ,society1 ,member of the ,berlin ,chemical ,society1 ,member of the ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences1 ,member of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,member of the ,american ,pharmaceutical ,association1 ,fellow of the ,geographical ,society1 ,etc41 ,etc4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,chemists' ,,manual1 ,,adulteration ,,of ,,milk1 ,,artificial ,,butter1 ,,testing ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,rifles ,,by ,,firing ,,under ,,water1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,griswold ,,company1 #aej ,,nassau ,,street4 #ahhj4 ,,copyright ,,by ,,henry ,a4 ,,mott1 ,,jr41 #ahhj4 ,,trow',s ,,printing ,,and ,,bookbinding ,,co41 #bje-bac ,east #abth ,st41 ,,new ,,york4 ,electrotyped by ,,smith ,,mcdougal1 #hb ,beekman ,street1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,preface4 ,this work was originally written to be delivered as a lecture2 but as its pages continued to multiply1 it was suggested to the author by numerous friends that it ought to be published in book-form2 this1 at last1 the author concluded to do4 ,this work1 therefore1 does not claim to be an exhaustive discussion of the various departments of which it treats2 but rather it has been the aim of the author to present the more interesting observations in each department in as concise a form as possible4 ,the author has endeavored to give credit in every instance where he has taken advantage of the labors of others4 ,this work is not intended for that class of people who are so absolutely certain of the truth of their religion and of the immortality that it teaches1 that they have become unqualified to entertain or even perceive of any scientific objection2 for such people may be likened unto those who1 ,seeing1 they see1 but will not perceive2 and hearing1 they hear1 but will not understand4 ,this work is written for the man of culture who is seeking for truth--believing1 as does the author1 that all truth is ,god's truth1 and therefore it becomes the duty of every scientific man to accept it2 knowing1 however1 that it will surely modify the popular creeds and methods of interpretation1 its final result can only be to the glory of ,god and to the establishment of a more exalted and purer religion4 ,all facts are truths2 it consequently follows that all scientific facts are truths--there is no half-way house--a statement is either a truth or it is not a truth1 according to the law of non-contradiction4 ,if1 therefore1 we find tabulated amongst scientific facts 7or truths7 a statement which is not a fact1 it is not science2 but all statements which are facts it naturally follows are truths1 and as such must be accepted1 no matter how repulsive they may at first seem to some of our poetical imaginings and pet theories4 ,we cannot help but sympathize with the feelings which prompted ,president ,barnard to write the following lines1 still we will see he was too hasty3 ,much as ,i love truth in the abstract1 he says1 ,i love my hope of immortality more4 99 99 99 ,he maintained that it is better to close one's eyes to the evidences than to be convinced of the truth of certain doctrines which he regards as subversive of the fundamentals of ,christian faith4 ,if this 7is all7 is the best that science can give me1 then ,i pray no more science4 ,let me live on in my simple ignorance1 as my fathers lived before me2 and when ,i shall at length be summoned to my final repose1 let me still be able to fold the drapery of my couch about me1 and lie down to pleasant1 even though they be deceitful1 dreams4#a ,the limitations to the acceptance of truth that ,president ,barnard makes is wrong2 for1 as ,professor ,winchell has said1 we think it is a higher aspiration to wish to know 'the truth and the whole truth4' ,at the same time1 we have not the slightest apprehension that the whole truth can ever dissipate our faith in a future life4#b ,let us ,prove all things and hold fast unto that which is good1 recognizing the fact that the truth-seeker is the only ,god-seeker4 ,,author ,,january #be1 #ahhj4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page ,,preface v1 vi ,,chart ,,of ,,man',s ,,development #aj-ac ,,protoplasm #ah ,,cells #bj ,,life #bb ,,vital ,,force #bd ,,analysis ,,of ,,man #bf ,,unity ,,of ,,organic ,,and ,,inorganic ,,nature #bh ,,spontaneous ,,generation #cj ,,the ,,coming ,,into ,,existence ,,of ,,man #cc ,,evolution #eh ,,theories ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,formation #fd ,,the ,,bible #gj ,,kant',s ,,cosmogony #gf1 #hf ,,nature ,a ,,perpetual ,,creation #hb ,,laws ,,of ,,evolution #ij ,,survival ,,of ,,the ,,fittest #ib ,,rudimentary ,,organs #id ,,reproduction ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,eggs #ii ,,double-,,sexed ,,individuals #ii ,,inheritance #ajj ,,artificial ,,monsters #ajf ,,acquired ,,qualities #ajf ,,geological ,,record #ajh ,,ontogeny #aaj ,,the ,,attributes ,,of ,,man #aae ,,muscular ,,force #aaf ,,thought ,,force #aah ,,the ,,attributes ,,of ,,animals #abb ,,the ,,attributes ,,of ,a ,,savage #abf ,,language #abh ,,faith #acj ,,true ,,conscience #acb ,,belief ,,in ,,god #acf ,,proof ,,of ,,the ,,existence ,,of ,,god #ach ,,unity ,,of ,,all ,,nature #adj ,,soul #adc ,,the ,,finite ,,senses ,,of ,,man #add ,,the ,,unseen ,,universe #adh ,,manifestations ,,of ,,god #aej ,,hope ,,of ,,immortality #adb-aea ,,was ,,man ,,created8 ,,haeckel',s ,,chart ,,of ,,man',s ,,development1 ,arranged by ,,henry ,a4 ,,mott1 ,jr41 ,ph4 ,d4 #i4 ,americans4 7,indians47 ,esquimaux4 ,,hyperboreans4 ,magyars4 #h4 ,arctic ,men4 ,fins4 ------------ ,tungusians4 ,calmucks4 ,tartars4 ,samoides4 ----------------------------- ----- ,altaians4 ,uralians4 ------------------------ ,japanese4 ,chinese4 ,siamese4 ,tibet4 ,ural-,altaians4 ,coreans4 -------------- ,indo-,chinese4 ,coreo-,japanese4 ----------------------------------- ,indo-,germanians4 ,semites4 ,basques4 ,caucasians4 -------------------------------- #ab4 ,mediteranese4 ,singalese4 ,fulatians4 ,,deccans4 ,,dongolese4 #aj4 ,dradidas4 #aa4 ,nubians4 -------------- ,polynesians4 ,madagascars4 ,euplocomi4 #d4 ,negroes4 -------- #c4 ,kaffirs4 ,sundanesians4 ------- #g4 ,mongols #f4 ,malays ,,eriocomi4 -------------------------- ,promalays4 #b4 ,hottentots #a4 ,papuans4 #e4 ,australians4 ---------- ---- ,,euthycomi4 ,,lophocomi4 -------------- ,,lissotrichi 7straight-haired7 ,,ulotrichi 7woolly-haired74 ---------------------- ,,alali 7speechless men74 ,,pithecanthropi 7ape-like men74 ,v ,,primeval ,,men4 ,satyrus ,engeco ,gorilla 7,orang74 ,hylobates 7,chimpanzee74 7,gorilla74 7,gibbon74 --------------- --------------------- ,african ,asiatic 7,man-like ,apes74 7,man-like ,apes74 ------------------------------------- ,nasalis ,,anthropoides ,semnopithecus 7,nose ,apes74 7,man-like ,apes74 7,tall ,apes74 ------------- ,arctopitheci ,labidocera ,cercopithecus ,cynocephalus 7,silk-,apes74 7,clutch-tails74 7,sea-,cat74 7,pavian74 ---------------- ----------------------- ,aphyocera ,catarrhina ,menocerca 7,flap-tails74 7,tailed1 ,narrow-nosed ,apes74 ,platyrhin ,catarrhin 7,flat-nosed ,apes74 7,narrow-nosed74 -------------------------------- ,simi 7,apes74 ,brachytarsi 7,lemurs74 -------------- ,proboscidea ,pinnipedia 7,elephants74 7,marine ,animals ,lamnungia of ,prey74 7,rock-,conies74 ,nycterides 7,bats74 ,carnivora ------------- 7,land ,animals ,pterocynes of ,prey74 ,chelophora 7,flying ,foxes74 7,pseudo-hoofed74 ,carnaria ,chiroptera 7,animals ,rodentia 7,flying ,animals74 of ,prey74 7,gnawing ,animals74 ------------------ ,leptodactyla 7,fingered ,insectivora ,animals74 7,insect ,eaters74 ----------- ---------------------------------- ,,prosimi ,sarcoceta 7,true ,whales74 ,,prosimi 7,brought forward17 7,semi-,apes74 ,sirenia 7,sea-,cows74 ,cetacea 7,whales74 ,ungulata ,edentata ,deciduata 7,hoofed ,animals74 7,poor in teeth74 7,deciduous ,animals74 ------------------------ ,indeciduous 7,indeciduata74 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,placentalia 7,placental ,animals74 ,marsupialia ,marsupialia ,botanophaga ,zoophaga 7,herbivorous 7,carnivorous ,marsupials74 ,marsupials74 --------------------------------------- ,ornithostoma ,marsupialia 7,beaked ,animals74 7,marsupial74 ---------------------------------- ,,promammalia 7,glacal ,animals74 ,,mammalia 7,mammals74 ,aves 7,birds74 ,reptilia 7,reptiles74 ------------------------ ,teleostei ,halisauria 7,osseous ,fish74 7,sea-,dragons74 ,amniota 7,amnion ,animals74 ,dipneusta 7,mud-,fish74 ,amphibia 7,batrachians74 ,ganoidei 7,ganoid ,fish74 ------------------------------- ,amphipneumones 7,vertebrate ,animals1 breathing through lungs74 -------------------------------- ,,selachii 7,primeval ,fish74 ,,pisces 7,fishes74 ,amphirrhina ,cyclostoma 7,double ,nostrils74 7,round-mouthed74 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,monorrhina 7,single-nostriled74 ,craniota 7,animals with ,skulls74 ,leptocardia 7,tube-hearted74 ,thaliacea4 ---------------- 7,sea-,barrels74 ,ascidi4 ,acrania --------------- 7,skull-less ,animals74 ,tunicata ,vertebrata 7,tunicate ,animals74 7,vertebrate ,animals74 ---------------------------- ,vermes 7,worms74 ,zoophytes 7,animal ,trees74 ---------- ,protozoa 7,primeval ,animals74 ,,animal ,,monera4 ,,vegetable ,,monera4 ,,neutral ,,monera4 ---------------------------------------- ,,archigonic ,,monera 7,pieces of ,protoplasm which have originated by ,spontaneous ,generation47 ,,was ,,man ,,created8 ,,what ,,science ,,can ,,answer4 ,the object of science is not to find out what we like or what we dislike--the object of science is ,truth4 ,in the discussion of the subject1 ,was ,man ,created8 our object will be--not to study the many ways ,god might have created him1 but the way he actually did create him1 for all ways would be alike easy to an ,omnipotent ,being4 ,let us look at man and ask the question3 ,what is there about him which would need an independent act of creation any more than about the mountain of granite or the atom of sand8 ,the answer comes back3 ,besides life1 man has many mental attributes4 ,let us direct our attention at first to the grand phenomena of life1 and then to man's attributes4 ,to discover the nature of life1 to find out what life really is1 it would be folly to commence by comparing man1 the perfection of living beings1 with an inorganic or inanimate substance like a brick1 to discover the hidden secret2 for1 as ,professor ,orton says3#c ,that only is essential to life which is common to all forms of life4 ,our brains1 stomach1 livers1 hands and feet are luxuries4 ,they are necessary to make us human1 but not living beings4 ,instead of man1 then1 it will be necessary for us to take the simplest being which possesses such a phenomena2 and such are the little homogeneous specks of protoplasm1 constituting the ,group ,monera1 which are entirely destitute of structure1 and to which the name ,cytode has been given4 ,in the fresh waters in the neighborhood of ,jena minute lumps of protoplasm were discovered by ,haeckel1 which1 on being examined under the most powerful lens of a microscope1 were seen to have no constant form1 their outlines being in a state of perpetual change1 caused by the protrusion from various parts of their surface of broad lobes and thick finger-like projections1 which1 after remaining visible for a time1 would be withdrawn1 to make their appearance again on some other part of the surface4 ,to this little mass of protoplasm ,haeckel has given the name ,protanba primitiva4 ,these little lumps multiply by spontaneous division into two pieces1 which1 on becoming dependent1 increase in size and acquire all the characteristics of the parent4 ,from this illustration1 it will be seen that reproduction is a form of nutrition and a growth of the individual to a size beyond that belonging to it as an individual1 so that a part is thus elevated into a 7new7 whole4 ,it is to this simple state of the monera the fertilized egg of any animal is transformed--the germ vesicle2 the original egg kernel disappears1 and the parent kernel 7cytococcus7 forms itself anew2 and it is in this condition1 a non-nucleated ball of protoplasm1 a true cytod1 a homogeneous1 structureless body1 without different constituent parts1 that the human child1 as well as all other living beings1 take their first steps in development4 ,no matter how wonderful this may seem1 the fact stares us in the face that the entire human child1 as well as every animal with all their great future possibilities1 are in their first stage a small ball of this complex homogeneous substance4 ,whether we consider a mere infinitesimal ovoid particle which finds space and duration enough to multiply into countless millions in the body of a living fly1 and then of the wealth of foliage1 the luxuriance of flower and fruit which lies between this bald sketch of a plant and the gigantic pine of ,california1 towering to the dimensions of a cathedral spire1 or the ,indian fig which covers acres with its profound shadow1 and endures while nations and empires come and go around its vast circumference1 or we look at the other half of the world of life1 picturing to ourselves the great finner whale1 hugest of beasts that live or have lived1 disporting his eighty or ninety feet of bone1 muscle1 and blubber1 with easy roll1 among the waves in which the stoutest ship that ever left dock-yard would founder hopelessly1 and contrast him with the invisible animalcule1 mere gelatinous specks1 multitudes of which could in fact dance upon the point of a needle with the same ease as the angels of the schoolman could in imagination2--with these images before our minds1 it would be strange if we did not ask what community of form or structure is there between the fungus and the fig-tree1 the animalcule and the whale8 and1 fortiori1 between all four8 ,notwithstanding these apparent difficulties1 a threefold unity--namely1 a unity of power or faculty1 a unity of form1 and a unity of substantial composition--does pervade the whole living world4#d ,and this unit is ,protoplasm4 ,so we see it is necessary for us to retreat to our protoplasm as a naked formless plasma1 if we would find freed from all non-essential complications the agent to which has been assigned the duty of building up structure and of transforming the energy of lifeless matter into the living4 ,even ,goethe 7in #ahjg7 almost stated this when he said3 ,plants and animals1 regarded in their most imperfect condition1 are hardly distinguishable4 ,this much1 however1 we may say1 that from a condition in which plant is hardly to be distinguished from animal1 creatures have appeared1 gradually perfecting themselves in two opposite directions--the plant is finally glorified into the tree1 enduring and motionless2 the animal into the human being of the highest mobility and freedom4 ,let us examine for a moment this substance ,protoplasm1 and see in what way it differs from inorganic matter1 or in what way the animate differs from the inanimate--the living from the dead4 ,felix ,dujardin1 a ,french zoologist 7#ahce7 pointed out that the only living substance in the body of rhizopods and other inferior primitive animals1 is identical with protoplasm4 ,he called it sarcode4 ,hugo von ,mohl 7#ahdf7 first applied the name protoplasm to the peculiar serus and mobile substance in the interior of vegetable cells2 and he perceived its high importance1 but was very far from understanding its significance in relation to all organisms4 ,not1 however1 until ,ferdinand ,cohn 7#ahej7 and more fully ,franz ,unger 7#ahee7 had established the identity of the animate and contractile protoplasm in vegetable cells and the sarcode of the lower animals1 could ,max ,shultz in #ahef-fa elaborate the protoplasm theory of the sarcode so as to proclaim protoplasm to be the most essential and important constituent of all organic cells1 and to show that the bag or husk of the cell1 the cellular membrane and intercellular substance1 are but secondary parts of the cell1 and are frequently wanting4 ,in a similar manner ,lionel ,beale 7#ahfb7 gave to protoplasm1 including the cellular germ1 the name of germinal matter1 and to all the other substance entering into the composition of tissue1 being secondary1 and produced the name of formed matter4 ,wherever there is life there is protoplasm2 wherever there is protoplasm1 there1 too1 is life4 ,the physical consistence of protoplasm varies with the amount of water with which it is combined1 from the solid form in which we find it in the dormant state to the thin watery state in which it occurs in the leaves of valisneria4 ,as to its composition1 chemistry can as yet give but scanty information2 it can tell that it is composed of carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 sulphur1 and phosphorus1 and it can also tell the percentage of each element1 but it cannot give more than a formula that will express it as a whole1 giving no information as to the nature of the numerous albuminoid substances which compose it4 ,edward ,cope1 in his article on ,comparative ,anatomy1#e gives the formula for protoplasm 7as a whole71 ,c#bd;,h#ag,n#c,o#h ,s and ,p1 in small quantities under some circumstances4 ,it is therefore1 he says1 a nitryl of cellulose3 ,c#bd;,h#bj,o#b #c,,nh#c4 ,according to ,mulder the composition of albumen1 one of the class of protein substances to which protoplasm belongs1 is #aj7;,c#dj;,h#ca,n#e,o#ab7 ,s#b,p4 ,protoplasm is identical in both the animal and vegetable kingdom2 it behaves the same from whatever source it may be derived towards several re-agents1 as also electricity4 ,is it possible1 then1 that the protoplasm which produces the mould is exactly the same composition as that which produces the human child8 ,the answer is ,,yes1 so far as the elements are concerned1 but the proportions of carbon1 hydrogen1 etc41 must enter into an infinite number of diverse stratifications and combination in the production of the various forms of life4 ,professor ,frankland1 speaking of protein1 for instance1 says it is capable of existing under probably at least a thousand isomeric forms4 ,protoplasm may be distinguished under the microscope from other members of the class to which it belongs1 on account of the faculty it possesses of combining with certain coloring matters1 as carmine and aniline2 it is colored dark-red or yellowish-brown by iodine and nitric acid1 and it is coagulated by alcohol and mineral acids as well as by heat4 ,it possesses the quality of absorbing water in various quantities1 which renders it sometimes extremely soft and nearly liquid1 and sometimes hard and firm like leather4 ,its prominent physical properties are excitability and contractility1 which ,khne and others have especially investigated4 ,the motion of protoplasm in plants was first made known by ,bonaventure ,corti a century ago in the ,charoe plants2 but this important fact was forgotten1 and it had to be discovered by ,treviranus in #ahjg4 ,the regular motion of the protoplasm1 forming a perfect current1 may be seen in the hairs of the nettle1 and weighty evidence exists that similar currents occur in all young vegetable cells4 ,if such be the case1 says ,huxley1 the wonderful noonday silence of a tropical forest is1 after all1 due only to the dullness of our hearing1 and could our ears catch the murmur of these tiny maelstroms1 as they whirl in innumerable myriads of living cells1 which constitute each tree1 we should be stunned as with a roar of a great city4 ,one step higher in the scale of life than the monera is the vegetable or animal cell1 which arose out of the monera by the important process of segregation in their homogeneous viscid bodies1 the differentiation of an inner kernel from the surrounding plasma4 ,by this means the great progress from a simple cytod 7without kernel7 into a real cell 7with kernel7 was accomplished4 ,some of these cells at an early stage encased themselves by secreting a hardened membrane2 they formed the first vegetable cells1 while others remaining naked developed into the first aggregate of animal cells4 ,the vegetable cell has usually two concentric coverings--cell-wall and primordial utricle4 ,in animal cells the former is wanting1 the membrane representing the utricle4 ,as a general fact1 also1 animal cells are smaller than vegetable cells4 ,their size#f varies greatly1 but are generally invisible to the naked eye1 ranging from #a_/ejj to #a_/ajjjj of an inch in diameter4 ,about four thousand of the smallest would be required to cover the dot put over the letter i in writing4 ,the shape of cells varies greatly2 the normal form1 though1 is spheroidal as in the cells of fat1 but they often become#g many-sided--sometimes flattened as in the cuticle1 and sometimes elongated into a simple filament as in fibrous tissue or muscular fibre4 ,the cell1 therefore1 is extremely interesting1 since all animal and vegetable structure is but the multiplication of the cell as a unit1 and the whole life of the plant or animal is that of the cells which compose them1 and in them or by them all its vital processes are carried on4 ,it may sound paradoxical to speak of an animal or plant being composed of millions of cells2 but beyond the momentary shock of the paradox no harm is done4 ,the cell1 then1 can be regarded as the basis of our physiological idea of the elementary organism2 but in the animal as well as in the plant1 neither cell-wall nor nucleus is an essential constituent of the cell1 inasmuch as bodies which are unquestionably the equivalents of cells--true morphological units--may be mere masses of protoplasm1 devoid alike of cell-wall or nucleus4 ,for the whole living world1 then1 the primary and a mental form of life is merely an individual mass of protoplasm in which no further structure is discernible4 ,well1 then1 has protoplasm been called the universal concomitant of every phenomena of life4 ,life is inseparable from this substance1 but is dormant unless excited by some external stimulant1 such as heat1 light1 electricity1 food1 water1 and oxygen4 ,although we have seen that the life of the plant as well as of the animal is protoplasm1 and that the protoplasm of the plant and that of the animal bear the closest resemblance1 yet plants can manufacture protoplasm out of mineral compounds1 whereas animals are obliged to procure it ready made1 and hence in the end depend on plants4 ,without plants1 says ,professor ,orton1 animals would perish2 without animals1 plants had no need to be4 ,the food of a plant is a matter whose energy is all expended--is a fallen weight4 ,but the plant organism receives it1 exposes it to the sun's rays1 and in a way mysterious to us converts the actual energy of the sunlight into potential energy within it4 ,it is for this reason that life has been termed bottled-sunshine4 ,the principal food of the plant consists of carbon united with oxygen to form carbonic acid1 hydrogen united with oxygen to form water1 and nitrogen united with hydrogen to form ammonia4 ,these elements thus united1 which in themselves are perfectly lifeless1 the plant is able to convert into living protoplasm4 ,plants are1 says ,huxley1 the accumulators of the power which animals distribute and disperse4 ,boussengault found long since that peas sown in pure sand1 moistened with distilled water and fed by the air1 obtained all the carbon necessary for their development1 flowering1 and fructification4 ,here we see a plant which not only maintains its vigor on these few substances1 but grows until it has increased a millionfold or a million-millionfold the quantity of protoplasm it originally possessed1 and this protoplasm exhibits the phenomena of life4 ,this and other proof led ,m4 ,dumas to say3 ,from the loftiest point of view1 and in connection with the physics of the globe1 it would be imperative on us to say that in so far as their truly organic elements are concerned1 plants and animals are the offspring of the air4 ,schleiden1#h speaking of the haymakers of ,switzerland and the ,tyrol1 says3 ,he mows his definite amount of grass every year on the ,alps1 inaccessible to cattle1 and gives not back the smallest quantity of organic substance to the soil4 ,whence comes the hay1 if not from the atmosphere4 ,it has been seen1 then1 that plants can manufacture protoplasm1 a faculty which animals are not possessed of2 they at best can only convert dead protoplasm into living protoplasm4 ,thus when vegetable or meat is cooked their protoplasm dies1 but is not rendered incompetent of resuming its old functions as a matter of life4 ,if ,i1 says ,huxley1 should eat a piece of cooked mutton1 which was once the living protoplasm of a sheep1 the protoplasm1 rendered dead by cooking1 will be changed into living protoplasm1 and thus ,i would transubstantiate sheep into man2 and were ,i to return to my own place by sea and undergo shipwreck1 the crustacean might and probably would return the compliment1 and demonstrate our common nature by turning my protoplasm into living lobster4 ,as has been said before1 where there are life manifestations there is protoplasm4 ,life is regarded by one class of thinkers as the principle or cause of organization2 and according to the other1 life is the product or effect of organization4 ,we must1 however1 agree with ,professor ,orton1 who says3 ,life is the effect of organization1 not the result of it4 ,animals do not live because they are organized1 but are organized because they are alive4 ,in whatever way it is looked at1 life is but a forced condition4 ,the more advanced thinkers1 then1 in science to-day1 says ,barker1 therefore look upon the life of the living form as inseparable from its substance1 and believe that the former is purely phenomenal and only a manifestation of the latter4 ,during the existence of a special force as such1 they retain the term only to express the sum of the phenomena of living beings4 ,the word life must be regarded1 then1 as only a generalized expression signifying the sum-total of the properties of matter possessing such organization4 ,in what manner1 then1 does this matter1 possessing the phenomena of life1 differ from inorganic matter1 or in what manner does living matter differ from matter not living8 ,the forces which are at work on the one side are at work on the other4 ,the phenomena of life are all dependent upon the working of the same physical and chemical forces as those which are active in the rest of the world4 ,it may be convenient to use the terms vitality and vital force to denote the cause of certain groups of natural operations1 as we employ the names of electricity and electrical force to denote others2 but it ceases to do so1 if such a name implies the absurd assumption that either electricity or vitality is an entity1 playing the part of a sufficient cause of electrical or vital phenomena4 ,a mass of living protoplasm is simply a machine of great complexity1 the total result of the work of which1 or its vital phenomena1 depend on the one hand upon its construction1 and on the other upon the energy supplied to it2 and to speak of vitality as anything but the names of a series of operations is as if one should talk of the horologity of a clock4#i ,when hydrogen and oxygen are united by an electrical spark water is produced2 certainly there is no parity between the liquid produced and the two gases4 ,at #cb ,f41 oxygen and hydrogen are elastic gaseous bodies1 whose particles tend to fly away from one another2 water at the same temperature is a strong though brittle solid4 ,such changes are called the properties of water4 ,it is not assumed that a certain something called acquosity has entered into and taken possession of the oxide of hydrogen as soon as formed1 and then guarded the particles in the facets of the crystal or amongst the leaflets of the hoar-frost4 ,on the contrary1 it is hoped molecular physics will in time explain the phenomena4 ,what better philosophical status1 says ,huxley1#aj has vitality than acquosity4 ,if the properties of water may be properly said to result from the nature and disposition of its molecules1 ,i can find no intelligible ground for refusing to say that the properties of protoplasm result from the nature and disposition of its molecules4 ,to distinguish the living from the dead body1 ,herbert ,spencer says1 the tree that puts out leaves when the spring brings change of temperature1 the flower which opens and closes with the rising and setting of the sun1 the plant that droops when the soil is dry and re-erects itself when watered1 are considered alive because of these produced changes2 in common with the zoophyte1 which contracts on the passing of a cloud over the sun1 the worm that comes to the ground when continually shaken1 and the hedgehog which rolls itself up when attacked4 ,seeds of wheat produced antecedent to the ,pharaohs1 says ,bastain1#aa remaining in ,egyptian catacombs through century after century display of course no vital manifestations1 but nevertheless retain the potentiality of growing into perfect plants whenever they may be brought into contact with suitable external conditions4 ,we must presume that either 7#a7 during this long lapse of centuries the 'vital principle' of the plant has been imprisoned in the most dreary and impenetrable of dungeons1 whither no sister effluence from the general 'soul of nature' could affect it2 or else 7#b7 that the germ of the future living plant is there only in the form of an inherited structure1 whose molecular complexities are of such a kind that1 after moisture has restored mobility to its atoms1 its potential life may pass into actual life4 ,some of the lowest forms of animals and plants have such a tenacity to life that their vital manifestation may be kept in abeyance for five1 ten1 fifteen1 or even twenty years4 ,though not living any more than the wheat1 they also retain the potentiality of manifestation of life2 and for each alike1 in order that this potentiality may pass into actuality1 the first requisition is water with which to restore them to that possibility of molecular rearrangement under the influence of incident forces1 of which the absence of water had deprived them1 and without which1 life in any real sense is impossible4 ,,analysis ,,of ,a ,,man4 7,,by ,,prof4 ,,miller47 ,a man #e feet #h inches high1 weighing #aed pounds4 lbs4 oz4 grs4 ,oxygen #aaa #j #j ,hydrogen #ad #j #j ,carbon #ba #j #j ,nitrogen #c #aj #j ,inorganic elements in the ash3 ,phosphorus #a #b #hh ,calcium #b #j #j ,sulphur #j #j #bai ,chlorine #j #b #dg #a ounce #dcg grains4 ,sodium #j #b #aaf ,iron #j #j #ajj ,potassium #j #j #bij ,magnesium #j #j #ab ,silica #j #j #b ,total #aed #j #j ,the quantity of the substances found in a human body weighing #aed pounds3 lbs4 oz4 grs4 ,water #aaa #j #j ,gelatin #ae #j #j ,albumen #d #c #j ,fibrine #d #d #j ,fat #ab #j #j ,ashes #g #i #j ,total #aed #j #j 7,from the ,,chemists' ,,manual47 ,professor ,owen#ab says3 ,there are organisms 7vibrieo1 rotifer1 macrobiotus1 etc47 which we can devitalize and revitalize--devive and revive--many times4 ,as the dried animalcule manifest no phenomena suggesting any idea contributing to form the complex one of 'life' in my mind1 ,i regard it to be as completely lifeless as is the drowned man1 whose breath and heat have gone1 and whose blood has ceased to circulate4 99 99 99 ,the change of work consequent on drying or drowning forthwith begins to alter relations or compositions1 and in time to a degree adverse to resumption of the vital form of force1 a longer period being needed for this effect in the rotifer1 a shorter one in the man1 still shorter it may be in the amoeba4 ,there is1 says ,dumas1#ac an eternal round in which death is quickened and life appears1 but in which matter merely changes its place and form4 ,let us now compare the inorganic world with the organic--the inanimate with the animate--and see if there does exist an inseparable boundary between them4 ,the fundamental properties of every natural body are matter1 form1 and force4 ,one important point to be noticed is1 that the elements which compose all animate bodies are the very elements that help to build up the inanimate bodies4 ,no new elements appear in the vegetable or animal world which are not to be found in the inorganic world4 ,the difference between animate and inanimate bodies1 therefore1 is certainly not in the elements which form them1 but in the molecular combination of them2 and it is to be hoped that molecular physics will1 at some not far distant time1 enlighten us as to the peculiar state of aggregation in which the molecules exist in living matter4 ,as to the form1 it is impossible to find any essential difference in the external form and inner structure between inorganic and organic bodies--for the simple monad1 which is as much a living organism as the most complex being1 is nothing but a homogeneous1 structureless mass of protoplasm4 ,but just as the inorganic substance1 according to well-defined laws1 elaborates its structure into a crystal of great beauty1 so does the protoplasm elaborate itself into the most beautiful of all structures--the cell unit4 ,just as gold and copper crystallizes in a geometrical form1 a cube--bismuth and antimony in a hexagonal1 iodine and sulphur in a rhombic form--so we find among radiolaria1 and among other protista and lower forms1 that they may be traced to a mathematical1 fundamental form1 and whose form in its whole1 as well as in its parts1 is bounded by definite geometrically determinable planes and angles4 ,now1 as to the forces of the two different groups of bodies4 ,surely the constructive force of a crystal is due to the chemical composition1 and to its material constitution4 ,as the shape of the crystal and its size are influenced by surrounding circumstances1 there is1 therefore1 an external constructive force at work4 ,the only difference between the growth of an organism and that of a crystal is1 that in the former case1 in consequence of its semi-fluid state of aggregation1 the newly added particles penetrate into the interior of the organism 7inter-susception71 whereas inorganic substances receive homogeneous matter from without1 only by opposition or an addition of new particles to the surface4 ,if we1 then1 designate the growth and the formation of organisms as a process of life1 we may with equal reason apply the same term with the developing crystal4 ,it is for these and other reasons1 demonstrating as they do the unity of organic and inorganic nature1 the essential agreement of inorganic and organic bodies in matter1 form1 and force1 which led ,tyndall#ad to say3 ,abandoning all disguise1 the confession that ,i feel bound to make before you is1 that ,i prolong the vision backward across the boundary of experimental evidence1 and discern in that matter which we in our ignorance1 and notwithstanding our professed reverence for its ,creator1 have hitherto covered with opprobrium1 the promise and potency of every form and quality of life4 ,returning now to our protoplasm1 let us ask the question3 ,where did it come from8 or1 ,how did it come into existence8 ,though chemical synthesis has built up a number of organic substances which have been deemed the product of vitality1 yet1 up to the present day1 the fact stands out before us that no one has ever built up one particle of living matter1 however minute1 from lifeless elements4 ,the protoplasm of to-day is simply a continuation of the protoplasm of other ages1 handed down to us through periods of undefinable and indeterminable time4 ,the question of where protoplasm came from--how it arose--chemistry is unable to answer2 but the question is answered1 probably1 by spontaneous generation4 ,only the merest particle of living protoplasm was necessary to be formed from lifeless matter in the beginning2 for1 in the eyes of any consistent evolutionist1 any further independent formation would be sheer waste1 as the hypothesis of evolution postulates the unlimited1 though perhaps not1 indefinite modifiability of such matter4 ,as we have seen that there exists no absolute barrier between organic and inorganic bodies1 it is not so difficult to conceive that the first particle of protoplasm may have originated1 under suitable conditions1 out of inorganic or lifeless matter4 ,but the causes which have led to the origination of this particle1 it may be said1 we know absolutely nothing--as in the formation of the crystal and the cell--the ultimate causes remain in both cases concealed from us4 ,at the time in the earth's history when water1 in a liquid state1 made its appearance on the cooled crust of the earth1 the carbon probably existed as carbonic acid dispersed in the atmosphere2 and from the very best of grounds1 it is reasonable to assume that the density and electric condition of the atmosphere were quite different1 as also the chemical and physical nature of the primeval ocean was quite different4 ,in any case1 therefore1 even#ae if we do not know anything more about it1 there remains the supposition1 which can at least not be disputed1 that at that time1 under conditions quite different from those of to-day1 a spontaneous generation1 which is now perhaps no longer possible1 may have taken place4 ,this point is now conceded by most all of the advanced scientists of the day1 and is absolutely necessary for the completion of the hypothesis of evolution4 ,the answer may come to this--,well1 suppose the first protoplasm did originate by spontaneous generation1 where did the elements or force come from which compose it8 ,science has nothing to do with the coming into existence of matter or force1 for she proves both to be indestructible2 when they disappear1 they do so only to reappear in some other form4 ,the coming into existence of matter and force1 as also the ultimate cause of all phenomena1 is beyond the domain of scientific inquiry4 ,science has only to do with the coming in of the form of matter1 not the coming in of its existence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,a ,moneron 7,protamoeba7 in act of reproduction2 ,a1 the whole ,moneron1 which moves like ordinary ,amoeba1 by means of variable processes3 ,b1 a contraction around its circumference parts it into two halves2 ,c1 the two halves separate1 and each now forms independent individuals4 7,much enlarged47--,haeckel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4--,a1 is a crawling ,amoeba 7much enlarged74--,haeckel4 ,the whole organism has the form-value of a naked cell and moves about by means of changeable processes1 which are extended from the protoplasmic body and again drawn in4 ,in the inside is the bright-colored1 roundish cell-kernel or nucleus4 ,b1 ,egg-cell of a ,chalk ,sponge 7,olynthus74--,haeckel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,iii4--,represents the next higher stage1 ,mulberry-germ or ,morula 7,synamoeba74--,haeckel4 ,,the ,,coming ,,into ,,existence ,,of ,,man1 ,,by ,,the ,,slow ,,process ,,of ,,development4 ,it is necessary now to take up the little mass of living matter1 admitting its coming into existence by spontaneous generation as probable1 and so probable that it almost amounts to a certainty1 and follow it through the many changes it is about to make under the influence of the laws which govern evolution until it has culminated in man1 and these laws still acting on the brain of man1 perfecting it1 and leading him on to the comprehension of a grander and nobler conception of the ,almighty and of his works4 ,the start1 then1 must be made with a homogeneous mass of protoplasm1 such as the existing ,protamoeba primitiva of the present day1 which is a structureless organism without organs1 and which came into existence during the ,laurentian period4 ,it is to this simplified condition1 as ,i have previously stated1 all fertilized eggs return before they commence to develop4 ,the first process of adaptation effected by the monera must have been the condensation of an external crust1 which1 as a protecting covering1 shut in the softer interior from the hostile influences of the outer world4 ,as soon as1 by condensation of the homogeneous moneron1 a cell-kernel arose in the interior1 and a membrane arose on the surface1 all the fundamental parts of the unit were then furnished4 ,such a unit was an organism1 similar to the white corpuscle of the blood1 and called amoeb4 ,here we have two different stages of evolution2 the protoplasma 7better plasson7 of the cytod undergoes differentiation1 and is split up into two kinds of albuminous substances--the inner cell-kernel 7nucleus7 and the outer cell-substance 7protoplasma74 ,edward von ,benden1 in his work upon ,gregarin1 first clearly pointed out this fact1 that we must distinguish thoroughly between the plasson of cytods and the protoplasm of cells4 ,an irrefutable proof that such single-celled primval animals like the amoeba really existed as the direct ancestors of man1 is furnished1 according to the fundamental law of biogeny1 by the fact that the human egg is nothing more than a simple cell4 ,the next step taken in advance is the division of the cell in two2--there arise from the single germinal spot two new kernel specks1 and then1 in like manner1 out of the germinal vesicle two new cell-kernels4 ,the same process of cell-division now repeats itself several times in succession1 and the products of the division form a perfect union4 ,this organism may be called a community of amoeb 7synamoeb74 ,from the community of amoeba morula1 now arose ciliated larv4 ,the cells lying on the surface extended hair-like processes or fringes of hair1 which1 by striking against the water1 kept the whole body rotating--the lanceolate animals or amphioxus were thus first produced4 ,here we find from the synamoeb which crept about slowly at the bottom of the ,laurentian primeval ocean by means of movements like those of an amoeba1 that the newly-formed plana by the vibrating movements of the cilia1 the entire multicellular body acquired a more rapid and stronger motion1 and passed over from the creeping to the swimming mode of locomotion4 ,the plana consisted1 then1 of two kinds of cells--inner ones like the amoeb1 and external ciliated cells4 ,the ancestors of man1 which possessed the form value of the ciliated larva1 is1 of course1 extinct at the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,the ,norwegian ,flimmer-ball 7,magosphoera ,planula71 swimming by means of its vibratile fringes2 seen from the surface4--,haeckel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4--,the same in section4 ,the pear-shaped cells are seen bound together in the centre of the gelatinous sphere by a thread-like process4 ,each cell contains both a kernel and a contractile vesicle4 7,,plan,a ,,series47--,haeckel4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 ,,iii ,,and ,,iv4--,represents ,,gastr,a ,,series4 ,the body consists merely of a simple primitive intestine1 the wall of which is formed of two primary germ-layers4--,haeckel4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 ,i and ,,ii4--,represents the next higher stage 7,tubularia74 ,fig4 ,i1 a simple ,gliding ,worm 7,rhabdocoelum72 m1 mouth2 sd1 throat-epithelium2 sm1 throat-muscles2 d1 stomach-intestine2 nc1 kidney-ducts2 nm1 opening of the kidneys2 au1 eye2 na1 nose-pit4 ,fig4 ,,ii1 the same ,gliding ,worm1 showing the remaining organs2 g1 brain2 au1 eye2 na1 nose-pit2 n1 nerves2 h1 testes2 male symbol1 male opening2 female symbol1 female opening2 e1 ovary2 f1 ciliated outer-skin4--,haeckel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,iii4--,represents ,soft ,worms 7,scolecida7 and is a young ,acorn ,worm 7,balanoglossus71 after ,agassiz4 r1 acorn-like proboscis2 h1 collar2 k1 gill-openings and gill-arches of the anterior intestine1 in a long row1 one behind the other1 on each side2 d1 digestive posterior intestine1 filling the greater part of the body cavity2 v1 intestinal vessel1 lying between two parallel folds of the skin2 a1 anus4 ,out of the planula1 then1 develops an exceedingly important animal form--the gastrula 7that is1 larva with a stomach or intestine71 which resembles the planula1 but differs essentially in the fact that it encloses a cavity which opens to the outside by a mouth4 ,the wall of the progaster 7primary stomach7 consists of two layers of cells3 an outer layer of smaller ciliated cells 7outer skin or ectoderm71 and of an inner layer of large non-ciliated cells 7inner skin or entoderm74 ,this exceedingly important larval form1 the gastrula1 makes its appearance in the ontogenesis of all tribes of animals4 ,these gastrada must have existed during the older primordial period1 and they must have also included the ancestors of man4 ,a certain proof of this is furnished by the amphioxus1 which1 in spite of its blood relationship to man1 still passes through the stage of the gastrula with a simple intestine and a double intestinal wall4#af ,by motion of the cilia or fringes of the skin-layer1 the gastra swam freely about in the ,laurentian ocean4 ,the development of the gastra now deviated in two directions--one branch of gastrads gave up free locomotion1 adhered to the bottom of the sea1 and thus1 by adopting an adhesive mode of life1 gave rise to the proascus1 the common primary form of the animal plants 7zoophyta74 ,the other branch was originated by the formation of a middle germ-layer or muscular layer1 and also by the further differentiation of the internal parts into various organs2 more especially1 the first formation of a nervous system1 the simplest organs of sense1 the simplest organs for secretion 7kidneys71 and generation 7sexual organs7--this branch is the prothelmis1 the common primary worms 7vermes74 ,like the turbellaria of the present day1 the whole surface of their body was covered with cilia1 and they possessed a simple body of an oval shape1 entirely without appendages4 ,these acoelomatous worms did not as yet possess a true body cavity 7coelom7 nor blood4 ,no member of the next higher animals are in existence1 neither are there any fossil remains1 owing to the soft nature of their body4 ,they are therefore called soft worms1 or scoleceda4 ,they developed out of the turbellaria of the sixth stage by forming a true body cavity 7a coelom7 and blood in their interior4 ,the nearest still living coelomati is probably the acorn worms 7balanoglossus74 ,the form value of this stage must1 moreover1 have been represented by several different intermediate stages4 ,out of the four different groups of the worm tribe1 the four higher tribes of the animal kingdom were developed--the star-fishes 7echinoderma7 and insects 7arthropoda7 on the one hand1 and the molluscs 7mollusca7 and vertebrated animals 7vertebrata7 on the other4 ,out of certain coelomati1 the most ancient skull-less vertebrata were directly developed4 ,among the coelomati of the present day1 the ascidians are the nearest relatives of this exceedingly remarkable worm1 which connect the widely differing classes of invertebrate and vertebrate animals4 ,to these animals have been given the name of sack-worms 7himatega74 ,they originated out of the worms of the seventh stage by the formation of a dorsal nerve marrow 7medulla tube71 and by the formation of the spinal rod 7chorda dorsalis7 which lies below it4 ,it is just the position of this central spinal rod or axial skeleton1 between the dorsal marrow on the dorsal side and the intestinal canal on the ventral side1 which is most characteristic of all vertebrate animals1 including man1 but also of the larv of the ascidia4 ,we now come to the second half of the series of human ancestors4 ,the skull-less animal lancelet1 which is still living1 affords a faint idea of the members of this group 7acrania74 ,since this little animal1 in its earliest embryonic state1 entirely agrees with the ascidia1 and in its further development shows itself to be a true vertebrate animal1 it forms a direct transition from the vertebrata to the invertebrata4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,appendicularia1 seen from the left side1 m1 mouth2 k1 gill intestine2 o1 oesophagus2 v1 stomach2 a1 anus2 n1 nerve ganglia 7upper throat-knots72 g1 ear vesicle2 f1 ciliated groove under the gill2 h1 heart2 e1 ovary2 c1 notochord2 s1 tail4--,haeckel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4--,represents ,sack ,worms 7,himatega71 and is the structure of an ,ascidian1 seen from the left4 sb1 gill-sac2 v1 stomach2 i1 large intestine2 c1 heart2 t1 testes2 vd1 seed duct2 o1 ovary2 o'1 matured eggs in the body cavity4 ,after ,milne-,edwards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,iii4--,represents the ,,acrania ,,series4 ,lancelet 7,amhioxus ,lanceolatus71 twice the actual size1 seen from the left4 a1 mouth-opening1 surrounded by cilia2 b1 anal-opening2 c1 ventral-opening 7,porus abdominalis72 d1 gill-body2 e1 stomach2 f1 liver-coecum2 g1 large intestine2 h1 coelum2 i1 notochord 7under it the aorta72 k1 arches of the aorta2 l1 main gill-artery2 m1 swellings on its branches2 n1 hollow vein2 o1 intestinal vein4--,haeckel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,represents the ,,monorhina ,,series4 ,lamprey 7,petromyzon ,americanus7 from the ,atlantic--,orton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4--,represents the ,selachii4 ,shark 7,carcharias vulgaris7 from the ,atlantic--,orton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,iii4--,represents the ,mud-fish 7,dipneusta74 ,lepidosiren annecteus1 one-fourth natural size2 ,african rivers4--,orton4 ,form a link between typical fishes and the ,amphibians4 ,at this stage1 most probably1 the separation of the two sexes began4 ,the simpler and most ancient form of sexual propagation is through double-sexed individuals 7hermaphroditismus74 ,it occurs in the great majority of plants1 but only in a minority of animals2 for example1 in the garden-snails1 leeches1 earth-worms and many other worms4 ,every single individual among hermaphrodites produces within itself materials of both sexes--egg and sperm4 ,in most of the higher plants every blossom contains both the male organs 7stamen and anther7 and the female organs 7style and germ74 ,every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual gland eggs1 and in another sperm4 ,many hermaphrodites can fructify themselves2 in others1 however1 copulation and reciprocal fructification of both hermaphrodites are necessary for causing the development of the eggs4 ,this latter case is evidently a transition to sexual separation 7gonoehorismus74 ,out of the members of the last group arose animals with skulls or craniata1 having round mouths1 and which are divided into hags and lampreys4 ,the hags 7myxinoides7 have long cylindrical worm-like bodies4 ,the lampreys 7petromyxontes7 includes those well known nine eyes common at the seaside4 ,these single-nostril animals 7monorrhina7 arose during the primordial period out of the skull-less animals by the anterior end of the dorsal marrow developing into the brain1 and the anterior end of the dorsal skull into the skull4 ,by the division of the single nostril of the members of the last group into two lateral halves1 by the formation of a sympathetic nervous system1 a jaw skeleton1 a swimming bladder and two pairs of legs 7breast fins or fore-legs1 and ventral fins or hind-legs71 arose the primval fish 7selachii71 which is best represented by the still-living shark 7squalacei74 ,out of the primval fish arose the mud-fish 7dipneusta71 which is very imperfectly represented by the still-living salamander fish2 the primval fish adapting itself to land1 and by the transforming of the swimming bladder into an air-breathing lung1 and of the nasal cavity 7which was now open into the mouth cavity7 into air-passages4 ,their organization might1 in some respect1 be like the ceratodus and proloptems2 but this is not certain4 ,the dipneusta is an intermediate stage between the selachii and amphibia4 ,out of the dipneusta arose the class of amphibia1 having five toes 7the pentadactyla74 ,the gill amphibians are man's most ancient ancestors of the class amphibia4 ,besides possessing lungs as well as the mud-fish1 they retain throughout life regular gills like the still-living proteus and axolotl4 ,most gilled batrachia live in ,north ,america4 ,the paddle-fins of the dipneusta changed into five-toed legs1 which were afterwards transmitted to the higher vertebrata up to man4 ,the gilled amphibia 7sozobrachia7 of the last group finally lost their gills but retained their tail1 and tailed amphibians 7sozura7 were produced1 such as the salamander and newt of the present day4 ,out of the sozura originated the primval amniota 7protamnia7 by the complete loss of the gills by the formation of the amnion of the cochlea1 and of the round window in the auditory organ1 and of the organ of tears4 ,out of the protamnia originated the primary mammals 7promammalia74 ,the most closely related were the ornithostoma2 they differed through having teeth in their jaws4 ,no fossil remains of the primary mammals have as yet been found1 although they lived during the trias period--they possessed a very highly developed jaw4 ,from the primary mammal arose the pouched animals 7marsupialia74 ,numerous representatives of this group still exist3 kangaroos1 pouched rats and pouched dogs4 ,the marsupial animals developed1 very probably1 in the mesolithic epoch 7during the ,jura7 out of the cloacal animals2 by the division of the cloaca into the rectum and the urogenital sinus1 by the formation of a nipple on the mammary gland1 and the partial suppression of the clavicles4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 ,i and ,,ii4--,the ,ceratodus ,forsteri occur in the swamps of ,southern ,australia4 ,form transition between fishes and ,amphibia4--,haeckel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,represents the ,gilled ,amphibians 7,soyobranchia74 ,the ,axolotl 7,siredon pisciforme71 after ,tegetmeier4 ,the ordinary form with persistent branchi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4--,proteus ,anguinus4 ,europe4--,orton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,iii4--,represents the ,tailed ,amphibians 7,soyura74 ,great ,water-,newt 7,triton cristatus71 after ,bell4 ,from the marsupialia originated a most interesting small group of semi-apes 7prosimi71 for they are the primary forms of genuine apes and consequently of man4 ,they developed out of handed or ape-footed marsupials 7pedumana71 of rat-like appearance1 by the formation of a placenta1 the loss of the marsupium and the marsupial bones1 and by the higher development of the commissures of the brain4 ,the still-living short-footed semi-ape 7brachytarsi71 especially the muki1 indie and lori1 possess possibly a faint resemblance4 ,out of the semi-apes developed two classes of genuine apes2 but as the narrow-nosed or catarrhini class are the only ones related to man1 the others will not be considered4 ,these narrow-nosed apes originated by the transformation of the jaw1 and by the claws on the toes changing into nails4 ,the still-living long-tail nose-apes and holy apes 7semnopithecus7 probably resembled the oldest ancestors of this group4 ,the tailed apes by the loss of their tail and some of their hair covering1 and by the excessive development of that portion of their brain above the facial portion of the skull1 developed into the man-like apes 7anthropoides7--such as the gorilla and chimpanzee of ,africa1 and the orang and gibbon of ,asia4 ,the human ancestors of this group existed during the miocene period4 ,from the anthropoides developed the ape-like men 7pithecanthropi7 during the tertiary period4 ,the speechless primval men 7alali71 then1 is the connecting link between the man-like apes and man4 ,the fore-hand of the anthropoides became the human hand1 their hinder-hand a foot for walking4 ,they did not possess the articulate human language of words and the higher developments1 as consciousness and the formation of ideas must have been very imperfect4 ,out of the pithecanthropi men developed genuine man1 by the development of the animal language of sounds into a connected or articulate language of words--the brain also developed higher and higher4 ,this transition took place1 probably1 at the beginning of the quaternary period1 or possibly in the tertiary4 ,we have now very briefly reviewed the principal outlines of the ancestors of man1 showing that man has developed from the little mass of protoplasm1 as have all animals and plants4 ,he therefore was not spontaneously created1 but was developed4 ,the question is often asked by simple-minded people1 with much delight1 ,why do we not behold the interesting spectacle of the transformation of a chimpanzee into a man1 or conversely of a man by retrogression into an orang8--it only shows that they are not acquainted with the first principles of the ,doctrine of ,descent4 ,not one of the apes1 says ,schmidt1 can revert to the state of his primordial ancestors1 except by retrogression--by which a primordial condition is by no means attained--he cannot divest himself of his acquired characters fixed by heredity1 nor can he exceed himself and become man2 for man does not stand in the direct line of development from the ape4 ,the development of the anthropoid apes has taken a lateral course from the nearest human progenitors1 and man can as little be transformed into a gorilla as a squirrel can be changed into a rat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,salamandra ,maculata4--,haeckel4 ,the ,water ,newts and ,salamanders were the next higher stage after the ,proteus and the ,axolotl4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,represents ,primval ,amniota 7,protamnia74 ,lizard 7,lacerta71 after ,orton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4--,represents ,primary ,mammals 7,promammalia74 ,,amniota ,,series4 ,duck-billed ,platypus 7,ornithorhynchus paradoxus74--,haeckel4 ,feeling evidently1#ag says ,haeckel1 rather than understanding1 induces most people to combat the theory of their 'descent from apes4' ,it is simply because the organism of the ape appears a caricature of man1 a distorted likeness of ourselves in a not very attractive form2 because the customary sthetic ideas and self-glorification of man are touched by this in so sensitive a point1 that most men shrink from recognizing their descent from apes4 ,it seems much pleasanter to be descended from a more highly developed divine being1 and hence1 as is well known1 human vanity has from the earliest times flattered itself by assuming the original descent of the race from gods or demi-gods4 ,,evolution4 ,in the last chapter a description was given of the various stages in man's development1 from the microscopic monad up4 ,it will be necessary now to describe briefly the various laws which have governed this evolutionary chain from the monad to man4 ,but before proceeding directly to the subject1 let us look at the doctrine of evolution as a whole1 and trace it first in the formation of the world4 ,the doctrine of evolution is also called the theory of development--it must not1 however1 be confused with ,darwinism--for they are not exactly synonymous4 ,darwinism is an attempt to explain the laws or manner of evolution4 ,strictly speaking1 only the theory of selection should be called ,darwinism1 which was established in #ahei4 ,the theory of descent1 or transmutation theory1 or doctrine of filiation1 should properly be called ,lamarckism1 who for the first time worked out the theory of descent as an independent scientific theory of the first order1 and as the philosophical foundation of the whole science of biology4 ,according to the theory of development 7evolution7 in its simplest form1 says ,henry ,hartshorne1#ah the universe as it now exists is a result of 'an immense series of changes1' related to and dependent upon each other as successive steps1 or rather growths1 constituting a progress2 analogous to the unfolding or evolving of the parts of a growing organism4 ,herbert ,spencer defined evolution as consisting in a progress from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous1 from general to special1 from the simple to the complex2 and this process is considered to be traceable in the formation of worlds in space1 in the multiplication of the types and species of plants and animals on the globe1 in the origination and diversity of languages1 literature1 arts and sciences1 and in all changes of human institutions and society4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,skeleton of ,platypus4--,haeckel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,represents ,pouched ,animals 7,marsupialia74 ,kangaroo4 7,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,feb41 #ahgf47 ,let us now apply this theory of evolution to the physical world4 ,no determined opposition by the mass of people is likely to be manifested to the doctrine of evolution as applied to the physical world1 or even to the vegetable or animal world up to man2 but the minute man is included--then is a voice raised up against it1 and it was for this reason that ,darwin in his first work on the ,theory of ,descent did not mention man as being included in the evolutionary series4 ,he knew too well the foolish human weakness that existed4 ,in a recent work by ,prof4 ,challes1 he states that he regards the material universe as a vast and wonderful mechanism of which the least wonderful thing is its being so constructed that we can understand it4 ,the following is a brief description of the various theories of the world's formation3 ,first ,theory4--,by the first theory the world is supposed to have existed from eternity under its actual form4 ,aristotle embraced this doctrine1 and conceived the universe to be the eternal effect of an eternal cause2 maintaining that not only the heavens and the earth1 but all animate and inanimate beings1 are without beginning4 ,to use ,huxley's illustration3 ,if you can imagine a spectator on the earth1 however far back in time1 he would have seen a world essentially similar1 though not perhaps in all its details1 to that which now exists4 ,the animals which existed would be the ancestors of those which now exist1 and like them2 the plants in like manner would be such as we have now1 and like them2 and the supposition is that1 at however distant a period of time you place your observer1 he would still find mountains1 lands1 and waters1 with animal and vegetable products flourishing upon them and sporting in them just as he finds now4 ,this theory being perfectly inconsistent with facts1 had to be abandoned4 ,second ,theory4--,the second theory considers the universe eternal1 but not its form4 ,this was the system of ,epicurus and most of the ancient philosophers and poets1 who imagined the world either to be produced by fortuitous concourse of atoms existing from all eternity1 or to have sprung out of the chaotic form which preceded its present state4 ,third ,theory4--,by this theory the matter and form of the earth is ascribed to the direct agency of a spiritual cause4 ,it is needless to say that this last theory has for its basis the popular account1 generally credited to ,moses in the first chapter of ,genesis4 ,i say popular1 for it certainly is not a scientific account1 nor was it the intention of the writer to make it so4 ,the supposed object was to show the relation between the ,creator and his works4 ,if it had been an ultimate scientific account1 the ablest minds of to-day would be unable to comprehend it1 as science is progressive and constantly changing2 in fifty thousand years to come1 it would still appear utterly absurd4 ,it cannot be said for this fact that the account is any the less true because it is not presented in scientific phraseology2 for instance1 when we remark in popular language the sun rises1 who shall say that though the expression is not astronomically true1 we do not1 for all practical purposes1 utter as important a truth1 as when we say1 ,the earth by its revolution brings us to that point where the sun becomes visible8 ,the language1 also1 in which the writer wrote was very imperfect2 it had no equivalent to our word air or atmosphere1 properly speaking1 for they knew not the words4 ,their nearest approaches1 according to ,j4 ,pye ,smith1 were with words that denoted watery vapor condensed1 and thus rendered visible1 whether floating around them or seen in the breathing of animals2 and words for smoke from substances burning2 and for air in motion1 wind1 a zephyr whisper or a storm4 ,it must also be remembered1 that the ,hebrews had no term for the abstract ideas which we express by 'fluid' or 'matter4' ,if the writer had designed to express the idea1 ',in the beginning ,god created matter1' he could not have found words to serve his purpose 7,phin74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,skeleton of ,kangaroo4 7,popular ,science ,monthly47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,represents ,semi-,apes 7,prosimi74 ,the ,slow ,loris1 after ,tickel and ,alp4 ,miln-,edwards4 7,natural ,history1 by ,duncan47 ,it is unnecessary to state how the ,bible1 which contains the so-called ,mosaic account1 is regarded by the different church denominations1 as undoubtedly that is familiar to every one4 ,but with respect to the view entertained by the scientist and critical school of ,biblical scholars1 represented chiefly by modern ,germans1 ,i may state briefly3 ,they regard the ,bible as the human record of a divine revelation2 not absolutely infallible1 since there is no book written in any human language but must partake in a measure of the imperfections of that language4 ,many of this school1 while admitting the ,bible to contain the record of a true supernatural revelation1 do not consider it to be without positive error of historical fact1 not without false coloring from popular legend and tradition1 but nevertheless a record as good as human hands could make a truly divine revelation4#ai ,there is1 though1 a class of thinkers that altogether reject the ,bible2 that is to say1 refuse to believe it to be a divine revelation4 ,hume1 whom ,huxley calls the most acute thinker of the eighteenth century1 thus ends one of his essays3 ,if we take in hand any volume of divinity or school metaphysics1 for instance1 let us ask1 ,does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number8 ,no4 ,does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence8 ,no4 ,commit it1 then1 to the flames1 for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion4 ,to this ,huxley says3 ,permit me to enforce this wise advice1 ,why trouble ourselves about matters of which1 however important they may be1 we do know nothing1 and can know nothing8 ,we live in a world which is full of misery and ignorance1 and the plain duty of each and all of us is to try to make the little corner he can influence somewhat less miserable and somewhat less ignorant than it was before he entered it4 ,to do this effectually1 it is necessary to be fully possessed of only two beliefs3 the first1 that the order of nature is ascertainable by our faculties to an extent which is practically unlimited2 the second1 that our volitions count for something as a condition of the course of events4 ,each of these beliefs can be verified experimentally1 as often as we like to try4 ,each1 therefore1 stands upon the strongest foundation upon which any belief can rest1 and forms one of our highest truths4 ,the first words in the ,mosaic account are3#bj ,in the beginning ,god created the heaven and the earth4#ba ,it is seen1 then1 that the so-called revelation points to a beginning4 ,the beginning referred to is an absolute beginning1 for we find3 ,in the beginning was the ,word1 and the ,word was with ,god1 and the ,word was ,god4#bb 99 99 99 ,all things were made by ,him2 and without ,him was not anything made that was made4#bc ,science points also to a beginning4 ,geology points to a time when man did not inhabit the earth2 when for him there was a beginning4 ,so1 too1 for lower organisms2 so1 too1 for the rocky minerals2 so1 too1 for the round world itself4 ,but the beginning that science points to is not an absolute beginning4 ,science has to start from some point1 and that point must have a scientific foundation--the foundation of science is matter1 which is inseparable from form and force4 ,natural science teaches that matter is eternal and imperishable2 for experience has never shown us that even the smallest particle of matter has come into existence or passed away4 ,a naturalist1 says ,haeckel1 can no more imagine the coming into existence of matter than he can imagine its disappearance1 and he therefore looks upon the existing quantity of matter in the universe as a given fact4 ,the creation of matter1 if1 indeed1 says ,haeckel1#bd it ever took place1 is completely beyond human comprehension1 and can therefore never become a subject of scientific inquiry4 ,we can as little imagine a first beginning of the eternal phenomena of the motion of the universe as of its final end4#be ,it is evident1 then1 that the absolute beginning of the universe and its absolute end are not questions of science1 and can be known only as revealed by faith4 ,paul says3 ,by faith we understand that the world was framed by the word of ,god1 so that things which are seen were not made of things which appeared4#bf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,represents ,tailed ,apes 7,menocerca74 ,proboscis ,monkey 7,presbytes larvatus74 7,mammalia47--,louis ,figuier4 ,the natives of ,borneo pretend that these monkeys1 or1 as sometimes called1 ,kahan1 are men who have retired to the woods to avoid paying taxes2 and they entertain the greatest respect for a being who has found such ready means of evading the responsibilities of society4--,figuier4 ,illustration3 ,,gibbon4 ,,orang4 ,,chimpanzee4 ,,gorilla4 ,,man4 ,,fig4 ,i4--,photographically reduced from diagrams of the natural size 7except that of the ,gibbon1 which was twice as large as nature71 drawn by ,waterhouse ,hawkins1 from specimens in the museum of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons4 7,huxley's ,man's ,place in ,nature47 ,if1 therefore1 science makes the history of creation its highest and most difficult and most comprehensible problem1 it must deal with the coming into being of the form of natural bodies4 ,let us look for a minute at ,kant's ,cosmogony1 or1 as ,haeckel says1#bg ,kant's ,cosmological ,gas ,theory3 ,this wonderful theory1 says ,haeckel1 harmonizes with all the general series of phenomena at present known to us1 and stands in no irreconcilable contradiction to any one of them4 ,moreover1 it is purely mechanical and monistic1 makes use exclusively of the inherent forces of eternal matter1 and entirely excludes every supernatural process1 every prearranged and conscious action of a personal creator4 ,compare this last statement with the following3 ,i will1 however1 says ,haeckel1#bh not deny that ,kant's grand cosmogony has some weak points4 99 99 99 ,a great unsolved difficulty lies in the fact that the cosmological gas theory furnishes no starting-point at all in explanation of the first impulse which caused the rotary motion in the gas-filled universe4 ,whewell#bi has pointed out1 that the nebular hypothesis is null without a creative act to produce the inequality of distribution of cosmic matter in space4 ,it is seen1 then1 that according to ,kant's theory we are to suppose that millions of years ago there appeared a nebulous mass possessing a rotary motion1 and unequally distributed through space4 ,this is what science calls a beginning1 and may assert that every physical event of a hundred million of ages existed potentially in that nebulous mass4 ,but this is really no explanation of the ultimate and real cause of anything4 ,reason demands the cause of this beginning1 the source that gave to the nebulous mass its rotary motion2 the power that distributed the matter in space2 the antecedents of the cosmical vapor4 ,in absence of antecedents1 what was the cause of this fire-mist--of these forces active in it8 ,reason will never remain satisfied until these questions are answered4 ,but physical science can trace the thread no further back1 and must be dumb to all ulterior inquiries4 ,it is true1 then1 as physicists assert1 that their science does not mount actually to ,god4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,represents ,man-like ,apes 7,anthropoides74 ,the ,male ,gorilla4 7,natural ,history1 by ,duncan47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4--,represents ,ape-like ,men 7,pithecanthropi74 ,imaginative4 7,from ,scientific ,american47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,iii4--,men 7,homines74 ,from ,woolly-haired ,men developed the ,papuans4 7,scientific ,american1 ,march #aa1 #ahgf47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,the ,monkey ,men of ,dourga ,strait4 7,natural ,history1 by ,rev4 ,dr4 ,wood47 ,to ,god then1 in strict accordance with our reason1 is to be attributed not only the origination of matter1 but all its future developments4 ,when ,i speak of matter1 it must be understood that ,i mean force2 for if matter were not force1 and immediately known as force1 it could not be known at all1 could not be rationally inferred4 ,the operation of force could furnish no evidence of the existence of forceless matter4 ,if force is not matter1 then force can exist and operate without matter2 its existence and operation are no evidence of the existence of matter4 ,and as matter is forceless1 it can itself give no evidence of its own existence1 for that would be an exercise of force4 ,if force cannot exist and operate without matter1 then force depends for its existence and operation on the forceless1 which destroys itself2 or force depends for its existence on matter as some property or force1 and so matter and force are identified1 and force depends on itself only1 as it must4#cj ,the idea1 then1 that force is an attribute of matter and inherent in it1 is absurd1 for there is not a shadow of evidence that force is or can be an attribute of matter4 ,we have no knowledge of the origin of any force save of that which emanates from human volition4 ,all our knowledge of force presents it as an effort of intelligent will4 ,we are driven1 says ,winchell1 by the necessary laws of thought1 to pronounce those energies styled gravitation1 heat1 chemical affinity and their correlates1 nothing less than intelligent will4 ,but as it is not human will which energizes in whirlwind and the comet1 it must be divine will4 ,in all cases1 the creative power of ,god is an act of power1 and the power does not perish with its inception1 but continues to operate until the act is reversed and undone2 so that everything that ,god has created constitutes a positive and intrinsic force1 though borrowed from ,him4 ,every incident runs back to ,god as its originator and real cause4 ,the true philosophical doctrine makes ,god distinct from all his works1 and yet acting in them4 ,this doctrine has been held by the greatest thinkers the world has ever produced1 such as ,descartes1 ,lerbrisky1 ,berkeley1 ,herschel1 ,faraday1 and a multitude of others4 ,it seems to be required1 says ,dr4 ,mc,cosh1 by that deep law of causation which not only prompts us to seek for a law in everything but an adequate cause1 to be found only in an intelligent mind4 ,our greatest ,american thinker1 ,jonathan ,edwards1 says ,dr4 ,mc,cosh1 7whom ,i can claim as my predecessor17 maintains that1 as an image in a mirror is kept up by a constant succession of rays of light1 so nature is sustained by a constant forth-putting of the divine power4 ,in this view ,nature is a perpetual creation4 ,god is to be seen not only in creation at first1 but in the continuance of all things4 ,they continue to this day according to ,thine ordinances4 ,returning now to the history of the creation given by ,moses1 ,haeckel says1 ,although ,moses looks upon the results of the great laws of organic development as the direct actions of a constructing ,creator1 yet in his theory there lies hidden the ruling idea of a progressive development and a differentiation of the originally simple matter4 ,we can therefore bestow our just and sincere admiration on the ,jewish lawgiver's grand insight into nature1 without discovering in it a so-called 'divine revelation4' ,that it cannot be such is clear from the fact that two great fundamental errors are asserted in it1 namely1 first the geocentric error1 that the earth is the fixed central point of the whole universe1 round which the sun1 moon and stars move2 and secondly1 the anthropocentric error that man is the premeditated aim of the creation of the world1 for whose service alone all the rest of nature is said to have been created4 ,the former of these errors was demolished by ,copernicus' ,system of the ,universe in the beginning of the sixteenth century1 the latter by ,lamarck's ,doctrine of ,descent in the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,australian ,savage4--,orton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4--,skull of ,orang-utan 7,simia satyrus74--,orton4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,iii4--,skull of ,chimpanzee 7,troglodytes niger74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,iv4--,skull of ,gorilla4--,duncan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,v4--,skull of ,european4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,vi4--,skull of ,negro4--,orton4 ,prof4 ,huxley1 in his lecture on ,evidences of ,evolution1 spoke of the ,mosaic account as ,milton's hypothesis4 ,first1 because1 says ,huxley1 we are now assured upon the authority of the highest critics1 and even of dignitaries of the church1 that there is no evidence whatever that ,moses ever wrote this chapter1 or knew anything about it2 and second1 as this hypothesis is presented in ,milton's work on ,paradise ,lost1 it is appropriate to call it the ,miltonic ,hypothesis4 ,in the ,miltonic account1 says ,huxley1 the order in which animals should have made their appearance in the stratified rocks would be this3 ,fishes1 including the great whale1 and birds2 after that all the varieties of terrestrial animals4 ,nothing could be further from the facts as we find them4 ,as a matter of fact we know of not the slightest evidence of the existence of birds before the jurassic and perhaps the triassic formations4 ,if there were any parallel between the ,miltonic account and the circumstantial evidence1 we ought to have abundant evidence in the devonian1 the silurian1 and carboniferous rocks4 ,i need not tell you that this is not the case1 and that not a trace of birds makes its appearance until the far later period which ,i have mentioned4 ,and again1 if it be true that all varieties of fishes1 and the great whales and the like1 made their appearance on the fifth day1 then we ought to find the remains of these things in the older rocks--in those which preceded the carboniferous epoch4 ,fishes1 it is true1 we find1 and numerous ones2 but the great whales are absent1 and the fishes are not such as now live4 ,not one solitary species of fish now in existence is to be found there1 and hence you are introduced again to the difficulty1 to the dilemma1 that either the creatures that were created then1 which came into existence the sixth day1 were not those which are found at present1 or are not the direct and immediate predecessors of those which now exist2 but in that case you must either have had a fresh species of which nothing has been said1 or else the whole story must be given up as absolutely devoid of any circumstantial evidence4 ,it is for these and many other reasons that ,i feel bound to omit the ,mosaic account1 no matter how near some portions of it coincide with the facts the earth has opened out to the scientist4 ,,kant',s ,,cosmogony4 ,it is maintained by ,kant's ,cosmogony that every substance1 be it solid or liquid1 constituting the entire universe1 was1 inconceivable ages ago1 in their homogeneous gaseous or nebulous condition4 ,owing to an impulse being given to the nebulous mass1 it acquired a rotary movement1 which divided the nebulous mass up into a number of masses which1 owing to the rotation1 acquired greater density than the remaining gaseous mass1 and then acted on the latter as central points of attraction4 ,our solar system was thus a gigantic gaseous or nebulous ball1 all the particles of which revolved around a common central point--the solar nucleus4 ,this nebulous ball assumed by its continual rotation a more or less flattened spheroidal form4 ,by the continual revolution of this mass1 under the influence of the centripetal and centrifugal forces1 a circular nebular ring separated 7like the present ring around ,saturn7 from the rotating ball4 ,in time the nebulous ring condensed to a planet1 which began to revolve around its own axis4 ,when the centrifugal force became more powerful than the centripetal force in the planet1 rings were formed1 which1 in turn1 formed planets which revolved around their axes1 as also around their planets1 as the latter moved around the sun1 and thus arose the moons1 only one of which moves around our earth1 while four move around ,jupiter and six around ,uranus4 ,this order of things was repeated over and over again until thereby arose the different solar systems--the planets rotating around their central suns1 and the satellites or moons moving around their planets4 ,by a continuous increasing of refrigeration and condensation1 a fiery fluid or molten state occurred in these rotating bodies4 ,they then emitted an enormous amount of heat by rapid condensation1 and the rotating bodies--suns1 planets1 and moons--soon became glowing balls of fire1 emitting light and heat4 ,the #a_/ajjj part of a pound of magnesium wire1 burning in the open air1 will give a light which will last during one second1 and can be seen at a distance of thirty miles2 imagine1 then1 what the light would be from these huge balls of fire floating through space4 ,the earth forms a small part--nay1 even the sun whose mass is equal to #ced1icf earths like ours1 is but an infinitesimal portion of the whole4 ,by the continual emitting of heat1 however1 these fiery balls had a crust form on the outside1 which enclosed a fiery fluid nucleus4 ,the crust for a time must have been a smooth sheet1 but afterward very uneven1 having protuberances and cavities form over its surface1 owing to the molten mass within becoming condensed and contracted2 the crust not following this change sufficiently close1 must have fallen in1 and thus produced the cavities4 ,illustration3 ,mongolian4 ,illustration3 ,malay4 ,illustration3 ,ethiopian4 ,illustration3 ,american ,indian4 ,illustration3 ,,facial ,,angle1 by ,prof4 ,nelson ,sizer4 #a1 ,snake2 #b1 ,dog2 #c1 ,elephant2 #d1 ,ape2 #e1 ,human ,idiot2 #f1 ,the ,bushman2 #g1 ,the ,uncultivated2 #h1 ,the ,improved2 #i1 ,the ,civilized2 #aj1 ,the ,enlightened2 #aa1 ,the ,caucasian 7highest type74 ,illustration3 ,caucasian 7after ,van ,evrie74 ,illustration3 ,head of ,nose-,ape 7after ,brehm74 ,illustration3 ,julia ,pastrana 7,photographed by ,hintye74 ,illustration3 ,living ,idiot 7on ,blackwell's ,island74 ,all the time1 by the condensation1 the diameter of the earth was being diminished4 ,the irregular cooling of the crust caused irregular contractions on the surface1 and as the diameter of the molten mass within was continually diminishing1 many elevations and depressions were caused1 which were the foundations of mountains and valleys4 ,after the temperature of the earth had been reduced by the thickening of the crust--when it became sufficiently cool--the water which existed in steam was condensed and precipitated1 falling in torrents1 washing down the elevations1 filling the depressions with the mud carried along1 and depositing it in layers4 ,it was not until the earth became covered with water that life was possible in any form1 as both animals and plants consist to a very great extent of water4 ,at this stage in the history of the earth1 then1 the little mass of protoplasm1 which we have spoken so much about1 came into existence in all probability1 as has been stated1 by spontaneous generation4 ,,laws ,,of ,,evolution4 ,let us now examine some of the laws of evolution1 as also some of the connecting links which blend one stage of man's development with another1 which at first thought would seem unexplainable4 ,haeckel#ca summarizes the inductive evidences of ,darwinism as follows3 #a4 ,paleontological series 7phylogeny72 #b4 ,embryological development of the individual 7ontogeny72 #c4 ,the correspondence in the terms of these two series2 #d4 ,comparative anatomy 7typical forms and structures72 #e4 ,correspondence between comparative anatomy and ontogeny2 #f4 ,rudimentary organs 7dipeliology72 #g4 ,the natural system of organisms 7classification72 #h4 ,geographical distribution 7chorology72 #i4 ,adaptation to the environment 7oecology72 #aj4 ,the unity of biological phenomena4 ,it will of course be impossible to consider even hastily all of the inductive evidence belonging to the several groups mentioned above1 for the scope of this work would not permit of it4 ,only such facts as present themselves most forcibly to the mind will be considered4 ,darwinism1 as has already been stated1 is not the doctrine of evolution2 it is1 however1 a successful attempt to explain the law or manner of evolution4 ,the law of natural selection1 pointed out by ,darwin1 is called by ,herbert ,spencer1 ,the struggle for existence4 ,darwin discovered that natural selection produces fitness between organisms and their circumstances1 which explains the law of the survival of the fittest4 ,it is a well-known fact that man can1 by pursuing a certain method of breeding or cultivation1 improve and in various ways modify the character of the different domestic animals and plants4 ,by always selecting the best specimen from which to propagate the race1 those features which it is desired to perpetuate become more and more developed2 so that what are admitted to be real varieties sometimes acquire1 in the course of successive generations1 a character as strikingly distinct1 to all appearances1 from those of the varieties1 as one species is from another species of the same genus4 ,it is evident that both natural and artificial selection depends on adaptation and inheritance4 ,the difference between the two forms of selection is that1 in the first case1 the will of man makes the selection according to a plan1 whereas in natural selection the struggle for life and the survival of the fittest acts without a plan other than that the most adaptable organism shall survive which is most fit to contend with the circumstances under which it is placed4 ,natural selection acts1 therefore1 much more slowly than artificial selection1 although it brings about the same end4 ,adaptation in the struggle for life is an absolute necessity4 ,in every act of breeding1 a certain amount of protoplasm is transferred from the parents to the child1 and along with it there is transferred the individual peculiar molecular motion4 ,adaptation or transmutation depends upon the material influence which organism experiences from its surroundings1 or its conditions of existence2 while the transmission from inheritance is due to the partial identity of producing and produced organisms4 ,organized beings1 as a rule1 are gifted with enormous powers of increase4 ,wild plants yield their crop of seed annually1 and most wild animals bring forth their young yearly or oftener4 ,should this process go on unchecked1 in a short time the earth would be completely overrun with living beings4 ,it has been calculated that if a plant produces fifty seeds 7which is far below the reproductive capacity of many plants7 the first year1 each of these seeds growing up into a plant which produces fifty seeds1 or altogether two thousand five hundred seeds the next year1 and so on1 it would under favorable conditions of growth give rise in nine years to more plants by five hundred trillions than there are square feet of dry land upon the surface of the earth4 ,slow-breeding man has been known to double his number in twenty-five years1 and according to ,euler1 this might occur in little over twelve years4 ,but assuming the former rate of increase1 and taking the population of the ,united ,states at only thirty millions1 in six hundred and eighty-five years their living progeny would have each but a square foot to stand upon1 were they spread over the entire globe1 land and water included4 ,but millions of species are doing the same thing1 so that the inevitable result of this strife cannot be a matter of chance4 ,evidently those individuals or varieties having some advantage over their competitors will stand the best chance to live1 while those destitute of these advantages will be liable to destruction4 ,nature may be said 7metaphorically7 to choose 7like the will of man in artificial selection7 which shall be preserved and which destroyed4 ,that portion of the theory of development which maintains the common descent of all species of animals and plants from the simplest common origin1 ,i have already stated with full justice should be called ,lamarckism4 ,progress is recognized by all scientists to be a law of nature4 ,some of the more important facts which sustain the theory of development1 ,i propose now to present as briefly as possible4 ,,rudimentary ,,organs4 ,one of the strongest arguments in favor of the hypothesis of a genetic connection among all animals 7including man71 at least among all those belonging to the same great types1 is the presence of rudimentary parts4 ,by rudiments in anatomy are meant organs or structures imperfectly developed1 so as to be almost or entirely without functional use4 ,each of them represents in germ1 as it were1 in one animal 7or plant71 that which is perfect and useful in another type4 ,for a few examples3 ,the little fold of caruncle at the inner margin of the eye in man1 represents the nictitating membrane of birds4 ,eyes which do not see form a striking example4 ,these are found in very many animals which live in the dark1 as in caves or underground4 ,their eyes are often perfectly developed but are covered by a membrane1 so that no ray of light can enter and they can never see4 ,such eyes1 without the function of sight1 are found in several species of moles and mice which live underground1 in serpents and lizards1 in amphibious animals 7proteus1 ccilia7 and in fishes2 also in numerous invertebrate animals which pass their lives in the dark1 as do many beetles1 crabs1 snails1 worms1 etc4 ,other rudimentary organs are the wings of animals which cannot fly4 ,for example1 the wings of the running birds1 like the ostrich1 emeu1 cassowary1 etc41 the legs of which become exceedingly developed4 ,the muscles which move the ears of animals are still present in man1 but of course are of no use2 by continual practice persons have been able to move their ears by these muscles4 ,the rudiment of the tail of animals which man possesses in his #c-e tail vertebr1 is another rudimentary part--in the human embryo it stands out prominently during the first two months of its development2 it afterwards becomes hidden4 ,the rudimentary little tail of man is irrefutable proof that he is descended from tailed ancestors4 ,in woman the tail is generally1 by one vertebra1 longer than in man4 ,there still exists rudimentary muscles in the human tail which formerly moved it4 ,another case of human rudimentary organs1 only belonging to the male1 and which obtains in like manner in all mammals1 is furnished by the mammary glands on the breast1 which1 as a rule1 are active only in the female sex4 ,however1 cases of different mammals are known1 especially of men1 sheep and goats1 in which the mammary glands were fully developed in the male sex1 and yield milk as food for their offspring4 ,the vermiform appendix of the large intestine in man1 is another illustration of a part which has no use1 but in one marsupial is three times the length of its body4 ,the rudimentary covering of hair over certain portions of the body1 is not without interest4 ,over the body we find but a scanty covering1 which is thick only on the head1 in the armpits1 and on some other parts of the body4 ,the short hairs on the greater part of the body are entirely useless1 and are the last scanty remains of the hairy covering of our ape ancestors4 ,both on the upper and lower arm the hairs are directed toward the elbow1 where they meet at an obtuse angle--this striking arrangement is only found in man and the anthropoid apes1 the gorilla1 chimpanzee1 orang1 and several species of gibbons4 ,the fine short hairs on the body become developed into thickset1 long1 and rather coarse dark hairs1 when abnormally nourished near old-standing inflamed surfaces4#cb ,the fine wool-like hair or so-called lanugo with which the human foetus1 during the fifth and sixth months1 is thickly covered1 offers another proof that man is descended from an animal which was born hairy1 and remained so during life4 ,this covering is first developed during the fifth month1 on the eyebrows and face1 and especially around the mouth1 where it is much longer than that on the head4 ,three or four cases have been recorded of persons born with their whole bodies and faces thickly covered with fine long hairs4 ,prof4 ,alex4 ,brandt compared the hair from the face of a man thus characterized1 aged thirty-five1 with the lanugo of a foetus1 and finds it quite similar in texture4 ,eschricht#cc has devoted great attention to this rudimentary covering1 and has thrown much light on the subject4 ,he showed that the female as well as the male foetus possessed this hairy covering1 showing that both are descended from progenitors1 both sexes of whom were hairy4 ,eschricht also showed1 as stated above1 that the hair on the face of the fifth month foetus is longer on the face than on the head1 which indicates that our semi-human progenitors were not furnished with long tresses1 which must therefore have been a late acquisition4 ,the question naturally arises1 is there any explanation for the loss of hair covering8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,the ,hairy-,faced ,burmese ,family4 7,from ,scientific ,american1 ,feb4 #bj1 #ahge47 ,darwin is of the opinion that the absence of hair on the body is1 to a certain extent1 a secondary sexual character2 for1 in all parts of the world1 women are less hairy than men4 ,he says3 ,therefore we may reasonably suspect that this character has been gained through sexual selection4 ,as the body in woman is less hairy than in man1 and as this character is common to all races1 we may conclude that it was our female semi-human ancestors who were first divested of hair4 ,professor ,grant ,allen#cd has given much study to the subject of the loss of hair in the human being2 and his investigations are worthy of careful consideration4 ,he shows conclusively that those parts of an animal which are in constant contact with other objects are specially liable to lose their hair4 ,this is noticeable on the under surface of the body of all animals which habitually lie on the stomach4 ,the soles of the feet of all mammals where they touch the ground are quite hairless2 the palms of the hands in the quadrumana present the same appearance4 ,the knees of those species which frequently kneel1 such as camels and other ruminants1 are apt to become bare and hard-skinned4 ,the friction of the water has been the means of removing the hair from many aquatic mammals--the whales1 porpoises1 dugongs1 and manatees are examples4 ,as the back of man forms the specially hairless region of his body1 we must conclude that it is in all probability the first part which became entirely denuded of hair4 ,the gorilla1 according to ,professor ,gervais1 is the only mammal which agrees with man in having the hair thinner on the back1 where it is partly rubbed off1 than on the lower surface4 ,du ,chaillu states that he has himself come upon fresh traces of a gorilla's bed on several occasions1 and could see that the male had seated himself with his back against a tree-trunk4 ,he also says3 ,in both male and female the hair is found worn off the back2 but this is only found in very old females4 ,this is occasioned1 ,i suppose1 by their resting at night against trees1 at whose base they sleep4 ,the gorilla has only very partially acquired the erect position1 and probably sits but little in the attitude common to man4 ,in man the case is different2 in proportion as his progenitors grew more and more erect1 he must have lain less and less upon his stomach1 and more and more upon his back or sides1 and this is seen in the savage man during his lazy hours--who stretches himself on the ground in the sun1 with his back propped1 where possible1 by a slight mound or the wall of his hut4 ,the continual friction of the surface of the back would arrest the growth of hair2 for hair grows where there is normally less friction1 and vice vers4 ,as man became more and more hairless1 especially among savage and naked races1 we should conclude that such a modification would be considered a beauty1 and women would select such men in preference to more hairy individuals4 ,the ,new ,zealand proverb is3 ,there is no woman for a hairy man4 ,sexual selection1 then1 would play a very important part2 and the difficulty of understanding how man became divested of hair is readily explained4 ,haeckel says3 ,even if we knew absolutely nothing of the other phenomena of development1 we should be obliged to believe in the truth of the theory of descent1 solely on the ground of the existence of rudimentary organs4 ,,reproduction ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,eggs4 ,it might be thought there existed a missing link between animals which lay eggs and those which do not2 this1 however1 is done away with in many instances--one1 for example1 is found in our commonest indigenous snake4 ,the ringed snake lays eggs which require three weeks time to develop2 but when it is kept in captivity1 and no sand is strewn in the cage1 it does not lay eggs1 but retains them until the young ones are developed4 ,this only shows how powerfully influences affect the habit of animals4 ,,double-,,sexed ,,individuals4 ,another difficulty might be supposed to arise between animals which produce themselves other than by sexual reproduction4 ,this has already been slightly touched upon2 and it has been shown that numerous plants and animals propagate themselves through their double-sexed organs4 ,it occurs in a great majority of plants1 but only in a minority of animals2 for example1 the garden-snail1 leeches1 earth-worms1 and many other worms4 ,every garden-snail produces in one part of its sexual gland eggs1 and in another part sperm4 ,parthenogenesis offers an interesting form of transition from sexual reproduction to the non-sexual formation of germ-cells 7which most resembles it74 ,it has been demonstrated to occur in many cases among insects1 especially by ,seebold's excellent investigations4 ,among the common bees1 a male individual 7a drone7 arises out of the eggs of the queen1 if the eggs have not been fructified2 a female 7a queen or working bee71 if the egg has been fructified4 ,gonochorismus or sexual separation1 which characterizes the more complicated of the two kinds of sexual reproduction1 has evidently been developed from the condition of hermaphroditism at a late period of the organic history of the world4 ,in this case the female individual in both animal and plant produces eggs or egg-cells4 ,in animals1 the male individual secretes the fructifying sperm 7sperma72 in plants1 the corpuscles1 which correspond to the sperm4 ,,inheritance4 ,the remarkable facts of inheritance1 extending to the reproduction of unimportant peculiarities of parts or organs 7rudimentary parts7 mentioned above1 and the occasional outbreak of ancestral characters that have been dormant through several generations 7some of which ,i will mention further on71 might be thought perfectly unexplainable2 but they are readily accounted for by the supposition that each part of an organism contributes its constituent and effective molecules to the germ and sperm particles4 ,mr4 ,sorby made numerous investigations with relation to the number of molecules in the germinal matter of eggs1 and the spermatic matter supplied by the male4 ,omitting the alkali1 ,mr4 ,sorby takes the formula1 ,c#gb;,h#aab,n#ah,,so#bb1 as representing the composition of albumen4 ,in a #a_/bjjj of an inch cube1 he reckons-- ,albumen #ah1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj molecules4 ,water #iib1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj -------------------------------- #a1jaj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj molecules4 ,or1 in a sphere of the same diameter1 #ecj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj of the two components4 ,taking a single mammalian spermatozoon1 having a mean diameter of #a_/fjjj of an inch2 it might contain two and a half million of such gemmules4 ,if these were lost1 destroyed1 or fully developed at the rate of one in each second1 this number would be exhausted in about one month2 but since a number of spermatozoa appears to be necessary to produce perfect fertilization1 it is quite easy to understand that the number of gemmules introduced into the ovum may be so great that the influence of the male parent may be very marked1 even after having been1 as regards particular character1 apparently dormant for many years4 ,the germinal vesicle of a mammalian ovum being about #a_/ajjj of an inch1 mean diameter1 might contain five hundred million of gemmules1 which1 if used up at the rate of one per second1 would last more than seventeen years4 ,if the whole ovum1 about #a_/aej in diameter1 were all gemmules1 the number would be sufficient to last1 at this rate1 one per second for #e1fjj years6 ,this1 however1 is not probable2 but ,mr4 ,sorby's remarks has completely removed all doubt as to its physical possibility from the ,darwinian theory2 and they prompt us1 says ,slack1 to a wonderful conception of the powers residing in minute quantities of matter4 ,the laws of inheritance are divisible into two series1 conservative and progressive transmission2 the laws of adaptation to direct 7active7 or indirect 7potential7 adaptation4 ,external causes often influence the reproductive system1 especially in organism propagating in a sexual way4 ,this can be strikingly shown in artificially produced monstrosities4 ,monstrosities can be produced by subjecting the parental organism to certain extraordinary conditions of life2 and curiously enough1 such an extraordinary condition of life does not produce a change of the organism itself1 but a change in its descendants4 ,the new formation exists in the parental organism only as a possibility 7potential72 in the descendants it becomes a reality 7actual74 ,most commonly1 monstrosities with very abnormal forms are sterile1 but there are instances where they reproduce their kind and become a species4#ce ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire1 who perhaps made the deepest investigations ever conducted into the nature and causes of their production1 first conceived the idea of artificially producing them1 and to this end he began modifications of the physical conditions of the evolution of the chicken during natural and artificial incubation4 ,he determined the fact that monsters could be produced in this way1 but scarcely carried his investigation further4 ,this work has been taken up by ,m4 ,dareste1 and he has lately published a volume in ,paris which recounts the results of a quarter of a century's experimenting4 ,eggs1 he states1 were submitted to incubation in a vertical instead of a horizontal position2 they were covered with varnish in certain places so as to stop or modify evaporation and respiration4 ,the evolution of the chick was rendered slower by a temperature below that of the normal heat of incubation4 ,finally1 eggs were warmed only at one point1 so that the young animal1 during development1 was submitted at different parts to variable temperatures4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,these perturbations resulted in the most curious and unlooked for deformities in the embryo1 some being not alone peculiar to the bird1 but being similar to those which have been recognized in many other animals1 and even in the human species4 ,the data obtained have been deemed so important that ,m4 ,dareste has recently received the ,lacaze prize for physiology from the ,french ,academy of ,sciences4 ,it would be impossible to review even a fraction of the many forms of monstrosities which ,m4 ,dareste has discovered4 ,those that we give will1 however1 suffice to convey an idea of the wonderful variations produced4 ,fig4 #a is a chick embryo with the encephalon entirely outside the head1 the heart1 liver1 and gizzard outside the umbilical opening1 right wing lifted up beside the head1 and the development of the left one stopped4 ,in ,fig4 #b the encephalon is herniated and marked with blood spots1 the eye is rudimentary and replaced by a spot of pigment1 the upper beak is shorter than the lower one1 while the heart1 liver1 etc41 are all outside4 ,in ,figs4 #c and #d the head is compressed1 eyes well developed1 but in the back instead of in the sides of the head2 the body is bent1 abdominal intestines not closed1 heart largely developed and herniated4 ,the literal references to the foregoing are3 am1 amnion2 al1 allantois2 v1 vitellus2 h1 encephalon2 i1 eye2 c1 heart2 f1 liver2 g1 gizzard2 ms1 upper1 and mi1 lower member4 ,the commonest case of monstrosity observed by ,m4 ,dareste has been that of the head protruding from the navel1 and the heart or hearts above the head4 ,this is a most extraordinary and new monster1 and1 if it persist1 a chicken with its heart on its back1 like a hump1 may be expected4 ,a curious fact discovered is the duplicity of the heart at the beginning of incubation1 two hearts1 beating separately1 being clearly seen4 ,another anomaly consists in heads with a frontal swelling1 which is filled by the cerebral hemispheres4 ,m4 ,dareste's artificial monsters are all produced from the single germ or cicatricule 7as the white circular spot seen in the yellow of the egg1 and from which the embryo springs1 is termed74 ,he has not yet been able to determine artificially the production of monsters1 the origin of which takes place in a peculiar state of the cicatricule before incubation4 ,but having submitted to incubation some #aj1jjj eggs1 he has obtained several remarkable examples of double monstrosities in process of formation1 some representations of which are given herewith4 ,fig4 #e shows three embryos1 all derived from a single cicatricule4 ,fig4 #f represents three embryos from two cicatricules4 ,on one side of the line of junction are two imperfectly developed embryos1 one having no heart4 ,the single embryo on the other side is generally normal1 but has a heart on the right side4 ,in ,fig4 #g are twins1 one well formed1 the heart circulating colorless blood1 the other having no heart and a rudimentary head4 ,fig4 #h exhibits a double monster with lateral union4 ,the heads are separate1 and there are three upper and three lower members1 those of the latter on the median line belonging equally to each of the pair4 ,,acquired ,,qualities4 ,when an organism has been subjected to abnormal conditions in life it can transmit any peculiarity it may have acquired4 ,this is1 however1 not always possible1 otherwise descendants of men who have lost their arm or leg would be born without the corresponding arm or leg--this shows that some acquired qualities are more easily transmitted than others--although there are cases1 as1 for instance1 a race of dogs without tails has been produced by cutting off the tails of both sexes of the dog1 during several generations4 ,a few years ago1 says ,haeckel1 a case occurred on an estate near ,jena in which1 by the careless slamming of a stable-door1 the tail of a bull was wrenched off1 and the calves begotten by this bull were all born without a tail4 ,this is certainly an exception2 but it is very important to note the fact that under certain unknown conditions such violent changes are transmitted in the same manner as many diseases4 ,the transmission of diseases such as consumption1 madness1 and albinism form examples4 ,albinoes are those individuals who are distinguished by the absence of coloring matter from their skins2 they are of frequent occurrence among men1 animals and plants4 ,among many animals1 such as rabbits and mice1 albinoes with white fur and red eyes are so much liked that they are propagated4 ,this would be impossible were it not for the law of the transmission of adaptations4 ,hornless cattle have descended from a single bull born in #aggj of horned parents1 but whose absence of horns was the result of some unknown cause4 ,the law of interrupted or latent transmission1 as illustrated in grandchildren who are like the grandparents1 but quite unlike the parents4 ,animals often resume a form which have not existed for many generations4 ,one of the most remarkable instances of this kind of reversion1 or atavism1 is the fact that in some horses there sometimes appear singular dark stripes similar to those of the zebra1 quagga1 and other wild species of ,african horse4 ,nutrition directly modifies adaptation1 as is well illustrated by animals which have been bred for domestic or other purposes4 ,if a farmer is breeding for fine wool he gives much different food to the sheep than he would if he wished to obtain flesh or an abundance of fat4 ,even the bodily form of man is quite different according to its nutrition4 ,food containing much nitrogen produces little fat1 that containing little nitrogen produces a great deal of fat4 ,people who by means of ,banting's system1 at present so popular1 wish to become thin1 eat only meat and eggs--no bread1 no potatoes4 ,man can breed for milk in cattle1 for feathers in pigeons1 for colored flowers in plants1 and1 in fact1 for almost any desirable quality4 ,,geological ,,record4 ,the ,geological ,record 7palontology7 furnishes weighty evidence of man's descent2 for the circumstantial evidence derived from this source is written without the possibility of a mistake1 with no chance of error1 on the stratified rocks4 ,it is true that the geological record must be incomplete1 because it can only preserve remains found in certain favorable localities1 and under particular conditions2 that this valuable record must be destroyed by processes of denudation1 and obliterated by processes of metamorphosis1 it cannot be doubted4 ,beds of rock of any thickness1 crammed full of organic remains1 may yet1 says ,huxley1 by the percolation of water through them1 or the influence of subterranean heat 7if they descend far enough toward the centre of the earth71 lose all trace of these remains1 and present the appearance of beds of rock formed under conditions in which there was no trace of living forms4 ,such metamorphic rocks occur in formations of all ages2 and we know with perfect certainty1 when they do appear1 that they have contained organic remains1 and that those remains have been absolutely obliterated4 ,if we look at the geological record1 we find3 ,,the ,,first ,,epoch4--,the ,archilithic1 or ,primordial ,epoch1 constitutes the ,age of ,skull-less ,animals and ,sea-weed ,forests1 and is made up of the ,laurentian1 ,cambrian1 and ,silurian ,period4 ,,the ,,second ,,epoch4--,the ,palolithic1 or ,primary ,epoch1 constitutes the ,age of ,fishes and ,fern ,forests1 and is made up of the ,devonian1 ,coal1 and ,permian ,period4 ,,the ,,third ,,epoch4--,the ,mesolithic1 or ,secondary ,epoch1 constitutes the ,age of ,reptiles and ,pine ,forests1 ,conifer1 and is made up of the ,triassic1 ,jurassic1 and ,chalk ,period4 ,,the ,,fourth ,,epoch4--,the ,cnolithic1 or ,tertiary ,epoch1 constitutes the ,age of ,mammals and ,leaf ,forests1 and is made up of the ,eocene1 ,miocene1 and ,phocene ,period4 ,,the ,,fifth ,,epoch4--,the ,anthropolithic1 or ,quaternary ,epoch1 constitutes the ,age of ,man and ,cultivated ,forests1 and is made up of the ,glacial and ,postglacial ,period1 and the ,period of ,culture4 ,during the archilithic epoch the inhabitants of our planet1 as has been already stated1 consisted of skull-less animals1 or aquatic forms4 ,no remains of terrestrial animals or plants1 dated from this period1 have as yet been found4 ,the archilithic period was longer than the whole long period between the close of the archilithic and the present time2 for if the total thickness of all sedimentary strata be estimated as about one hundred and thirty thousand feet1 then seventy thousand feet belong to this epoch4 ,it was during this epoch that the little mass of protoplasm1 which has been so often spoken of1 came into existence4 ,it has been stated above that palontology is quite deficient4 ,this is not only true of the record1 but of the lack as yet of sufficient investigations4 ,the greatest fields of investigation in this department have never been explored4 ,the whole of the petrifactions accurately known do not probably amount to a hundredth part of those which1 by more elaborate explorations1 are yet to be discovered4 ,the most ancient of all distinctly preserved petrifactions is the ,eozoon ,canadense1 which was found in the lowest ,laurentian strata in the ,ottawa formation4 ,probably no discovery in palontology ranks higher than the discovery of the descendants of the horse4 ,the horse1 for example1 as far as his limbs and teeth go1 differs far more from extant graminivora than man differs from the ape4 ,had not fossil ungulates been found1 which demonstrate the common origin of the horse with didactyles and multidactyles1 some would have deemed the horse a special miraculous creation4 ,but now the links are complete1 and the descent of the horse is found to follow exactly what the doctrine of evolution could have predicted4 ,,ontogeny4 ,it has been stated that the palontological record is quite incomplete1 owing to many facts1 some of which have been mentioned2 fortunately1 the history of the development of the organic individual1 or ontogeny1 comes in to fill up many deficiencies4 ,ontogeny is a repetition of the principal forms through which the respective individuals have passed from the beginning of their tribe1 and its great advantage is that it reveals a field of information which it was impossible for the rocks to retain2 for the petrification of the ancient ancestors of all the different animal and vegetable species1 which were soft1 tender bodies1 was not possible4 ,the annexed plate illustrates the dog1 rabbit1 and man in their first stages of development4 ,illustrations of a fish1 an amphibious animal1 a reptile1 a bird1 or any mammal1 could also be given2 for all vertebrate animals of the most different classes1 in their early stages of development1 cannot be distinguished1 and the nearer the animal approaches man in the ascending scale1 the longer does this similarity continue to exist--when reptiles and birds are distinctly different from mammals1 the dog and the man are almost identical4 ,the gill-arches of the fish exist in man1 in dogs1 in fowls1 in reptiles1 and in other vertebrate animals during the first stages of their development4 ,man also possesses1 in his first stages1 a real tail1 as well as his nearest kindred--the tailless apes 7orang-outang1 chimpanzee1 gorilla71 and vertebrate animals in general4 ,the tail1 as has been stated1 man still retains1 though hidden as a rudiment4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,human ,embryo4--,ecker4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,ii4--,embryo of ,dog4--,bischoff4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,,iii4--,dog ,embryo4--,huxley4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 ,,iv1 ,v1 and ,,vi4--,embryo of ,rabbit in three stages of development4--,haeckel4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 ,,vii1 ,,viii1 and ,,ix4--,embryo of ,man in three stages of development4--,haeckel4 v1 fore brain2 z1 twix brain2 m1 middle brain2 h1 hind brain2 n1 after brain2 r1 spinal marrow2 e1 nose2 a1 eye2 o1 ear2 k1 gillarches2 g1 heart2 w1 vertebral column2 f1 fore limbs2 b1 hind limbs2 s1 tail4 ,man presents in his earliest stages of embryonic growth1 a skeleton of cartilage1 like that of the lamprey2 also1 five origins of the aorta and five slits on the neck1 like the lamprey and the shark4 ,later1 he has but four aortic origins1 and a heart now divided into two chambers1 like bony fishes2 the optic lobes of his brain also having a very fish-like predominance in size4 ,three chambers of the heart and three aortic origins follow1 presenting a condition permanent in the batrachia2 then two origins with enlarged hemispheres of the brain1 as in reptiles4 ,four heart chambers and one aortic root on each side1 with slight development of the cerebellum1 agree with the characters of the crocodiles1 and immediately present the special mammalian conditions1 single aortic root1 and the full development of the cerebellum4 ,later comes that of the cerebrum1 also in its higher mammalian or human traits4 ,at no time in the development of the egg1 save at the start1 do the embryos of the various vertebra assume the exact or entire characteristics of one another1 but they assimilate so closely that it requires the eye of the expert to distinguish them2 and1 as has already been stated1 the more closely an animal resembles another1 the longer and the more intimately do their embryos resemble one another2 so that1 for example1 the embryo of the snake and of a lizard remain like one another longer than do those of a snake and of a bird2 and the embryo of a dog and of a cat remain like one another for a far longer period than do those of a dog and a bird1 or a dog and an opossum1 or even those of a dog and a monkey4 ,surely it must be admitted that the short brief history given by the development of the egg1 is far more wonderful than phylogeny or the long and slow history of the development of the tribe1 which has taken thousands of years4 ,compare this time with the time required for the development of the smallest mammals--the harvest mice which develops in three weeks1 or the smallest of all birds1 the humming-bird1 which quits the egg on the twelfth day1 or with man who passes through the whole course of his development in forty weeks1 or with the rhinoceros who requires #a-a_/b years1 or the elephant who requires ninety weeks4 ,how insignificant are these various periods to the long period originally required2 yet in these short periods the whole phylogeny is run through in the ontogeny or the history of the development of the egg4 ,,the ,,attributes ,,of ,,man4 ,we must now consider briefly some of the attributes of man1 and see if he really possesses attributes which are in no inferior degree possessed by animals4 ,before proceeding directly to the consideration of the attributes of man1 it will be best to show the correlation that exists between what are called man's vital forces and the physical forces of nature4 ,to do this let us choose three forms of its manifestation3 these shall be heat evolved within the body2 muscular energy or motion2 and lastly1 nervous energy or that form of force which1 on the one hand1 stimulates a muscle to contract1 and on the other appears in forms called mental4 ,it will not take any extensive argument to demonstrate that the heat of the body does not differ from heat from any other source4 ,it is known that the food taken into the body contains potential energy1 which is capable of being in part converted into actual heat by oxidation2 and since we know that the food taken into the body is oxidized by the oxygen of the air supplied by the lungs1 the heat of the body must be due to the slow oxidation of the carbon1 perhaps also hydrogen1 sulphur1 and phosphorus in the food4 ,now since this so-called vital heat is developed by oxidation1 is recognized by the same tests and applied to the same purposes as any other heat1 it is as truly correlated to the other forces as when it has a purely physical origin4 ,the amoeboid activity of a white blood corpuscle is stimulated within certain limits by heat4 ,hatching of eggs and the germination of seeds may be likewise hastened or retarded by access or deprivation of heat4 ,it was considerations such as these which led to the doctrine of correlation of the vital and physical forces4 ,with respect to the muscular force exerted by an animal1 it was supposed that it was created by the animal4 ,dr4 ,frankland#cf says to this3 ,an animal can no more generate an amount of force capable of moving a grain of sand1 than a stone can fall upwards or a locomotive drive a train without fuel4 ,as the amount of ,,co#b exhaled by the lungs is increased in the exact ratio of work done by the muscle1 it cannot be doubted that the actual force of the muscle is due to the converted potential energy of the food4 ,since every exertion of a muscle and nerves involves the death and decay of those tissues to a certain extent1 as shown by the excretions1 ,prof4 ,orton#cg has been led to say3 ,an animal begins to die the moment it begins to live4 ,a muscle1 says ,barker1#ch is like a steam-engine1 is a machine for converting the potential energy of carbon into motion2 but unlike a steam-engine1 the muscle accomplishes this conversion directly1 the energy not passing through the intermediate stages of heat4 ,for this reason the muscle is the most economical producer of mechanical force known4 ,the muscles which give the downward stroke of the wing of a bird are fastened to the breastbone1 and their power in proportion to the weight of the bird is as #aj1jjj to #a4 ,this great power is needed1 for the air is #ggj times lighter than water2 the hawk being able to travel #aej miles an hour4 ,the last of the so-called vital forces under consideration1 is that produced by the nerves and nervous centres4 ,barker says3 ,in the nerve which stimulates a muscle to contract1 this force is undeniably motion1 since it is propagated along this nerve from one extremity to the other4 ,this force has been likened unto electricity1 the gray or cellular matter being the battery1 the white or fibrous matter the conductors4 ,du ,bois ,reymond#ci has demonstrated that this force is not electricity1 though by showing that its velocity is only ninety-seven feet a second4 ,the velocity varies1 though1 in different animals2 it is1 according to ,prof4 ,orton1#dj more rapid in warm-blooded than in cold-blooded animals1 being nearly twice as fast in man as in the frog4 ,wheatstone1 by his method1 gives the velocity of electricity in copper wire at #fb1jjj geographical miles per second2 but as neither ,fizeau1 ,gould1 ,gonnelle and others could arrive at the same result1 the method was shown to be incorrect1 and it remained for ,dr4 ,siemen#da to discover the true method1 which gives the velocity just one-half that of ,wheatstone's estimate1 or #ca1jjj geographical miles per second4 ,in the opinion of ,bence ,jones1 the propagation of a nervous impulse is a sort of successive molecular polarization1 like magnetism4 ,but that this agent is a force as analogous to electricity as is magnetism1 is shown not only by the fact that the transmission of electricity along a nerve will cause the contraction of a muscle to which it leads1 but also by the important fact discovered by ,marshall1 that the contraction of a muscle is excited by diminishing its normal electrical current1#db a result which could take place only with a stimulus1 says ,barker1 closely allied to electricity4 ,nerve force must therefore be transmuted potential energy4 ,prof4 ,huxley says1#dc the results of recent inquiries into the structure of the nervous system of animals1 converge toward the conclusion that the nerve-fibres which we have hitherto regarded as ultimate elements of nervous tissue1 are not such1 but are simply the visible aggregations of vastly more attenuated filaments1 the diameter of which dwindles down to the limits of our present microscopic vision1 greatly as these have been extended by modern improvements of the microscope2 and that a nerve is1 in its essence1 nothing but a linear tract of specially modified protoplasm between two points of an organism1 one of which is able to affect the other by means of the communication so established4 ,hence it is conceivable that even the simplest living being may possess a nervous system4 ,herbert ,spencer#dd says all direct and indirect evidence justifies us in concluding that the nervous system consists of one kind of matter4 ,in the gray tissue this matter exists in masses containing corpuscles1 which are soft and have granules dispersed through them1 and which1 besides being thus unstably composed1 are placed so as to be liable to disturbances to the greatest degree4 ,in the white tissue this matter is collected together in extremely slender threads that are denser1 that are uniform in texture1 and that are shielded in an unusual manner from disturbing forces1 except at their two extremities4 ,the last consideration is that form of force 7thought power7 which appears in manifestations called mental4 ,it must be noticed at the outset1 that every external manifestation of thought force is a muscular one1 as a word spoken or written1 a gesture1 or an expression of the face always takes place2 hence this force must be intimately correlated to nerve force4 ,it is very certain1 then1 that thought force is capable in external manifestations of converting itself into actual motion4 ,but here the question arises1 can it be manifested inwardly without such a transformation of energy8 ,or is the evolution of thought entirely independent of the matter of the brain8 ,this question can be answered by actual experiment1 strange as it may appear4 ,experiments have demonstrated that any change of temperature within the skull was soonest manifested externally in that depression which exists just above the occipital protuberance4 ,here ,lombard#de fastened to the head at this point two little bars1 one made of bismuth1 the other of an alloy of antimony and zinc1 which were connected with a delicate galvanometer2#df to neutralize the result of a gradual rise of temperature over the whole body1 a second pair of bars1 reversed in direction1 was attached to the leg or arm1 so that if a like increase of heat came to both1 the electricity developed by one would be neutralized by the other1 and no effect would be produced by the needle unless only one was affected4 ,by long practice it was ascertained that a mental torpor could be induced1 lasting for hours1 in which the needle remained stationary4 ,but let a person knock on the door outside of the room1 or speak a single word1 even though the experimenter remained absolutely passive1 the reception of the intelligence caused the needle to swing twenty degrees4 ,in explanation of this production of heat1 says ,barker1#dg the analogy of the muscle at once suggests itself4 ,no conversion of energy is complete1 and as the heat of muscular action represents force which has escaped conversion into motion1 so the heat evolved during the reception of an idea is energy which has escaped conversion into thought1 from precisely the same cause4 ,dr4 ,lombard's experiments have shown that the amount of heat developed by the recitation to one's self of emotional poetry1 was in every case less when recitation was oral2 this is of course accounted for by the muscular expression4 ,chemistry teaches that thought-force1 like muscle-force1 comes from the food1 and demonstrates that the force evolved by the brain1 like that produced by the muscle1 comes not from the disintegration of its own tissue1 but is the converted energy of burning carbon4#dh ,can we longer doubt1 says ,barker1#di that the brain too1 is a machine for the conversion of energy8 ,can we longer refuse to believe that even thought force is in some mysterious way correlated to the other natural forces8 and this even in the face of the fact that it has never yet been measured4#ej ,have we not a right to ask 'why a special force 7vital force7 should be needed to effect the transformation of physical forces into those modes of energy which are active in the manifestation of living beings1 while no peculiar force is deemed necessary to effect the transformation of one mode of physical force into any other mode of physical force8 ,richard ,owen says3#ea ,in the endeavor to clearly comprehend and explain the functions of the combination of forces called 'brain1' the physiologist is hindered and troubled by the views of the nature of those cerebral forces which the needs of dogmatic theology have imposed on mankind4 99 99 99 ,religion1 pure and undefiled1 can best answer how far it is righteous or just to charge a neighbor with being unsound in his principles who holds the term 'life' to be a sound expressing the sum of living phenomena1 and who maintains these phenomena to be modes of force into which other forms of force have passed from potential to active states1 and reciprocally1 through the agency of the sums or combinations of forces impressing the mind with the ideas signified by the terms 'monad1' 'moss1' 'plant1' or 'animal4' ,we have now shown that the very forces which give vent to the attributes of man1 are correlated to the physical forces4 ,let us now consider his attributes as manifested by his mental powers4 ,there is no doubt the difference between the mental faculties of the ape and that of the lowest savage1 who cannot express any number higher than four and who uses hardly any abstract terms for common objects or for the affections1#eb is still very great and would still be great1 says ,darwin1 even if one of the higher apes had been improved or civilized as much as a dog has been in comparison with its parent form1 the wolf or jackal4 ,but when we examine the interval of mental power between one of the lowest fishes1 as a lamprey or a lancelet1 and one of the higher apes1 and recognize the fact that this interval is filled up by numberless gradations1 it does not become so difficult to understand the interval between an ape and man1 which is not by far so great4 ,as in finding out what is peculiar to a living body in distinction to a body not living1 we found it absurd to take man as the perfection of the animal scale--the microscopic monad possessing life as well as him--so in the case of man's mental attributes1 which have always been increasing1 always perfecting1 since the first genuine man came into existence1 it would be equally absurd to compare the intellectual man of to-day with an ape to see what attributes he possesses which the ape does not possess2 but if we go down in the scale and compare the savage with the ape1 the difficulty is not by far so great4 ,it will be found on close examination1 though1 that man and the higher animals1 especially the primates1 have many instincts in common4 ,all1 says ,darwin1 have the same senses1 intuitions and sensations2 similar passions1 affections1 and emotions2 even the more complex ones1 such as jealousy1 suspicion1 emulation1 gratitude and magnanimity2 they practice deceit and are revengeful2 they are sometimes susceptible to ridicule and even have a sense of humor2 they feel wonder and curiosity2 they possess the same faculties of imitation1 attention1 deliberation1 choice1 memory1 imagination1 the association of ideas1 and reason1 though in very different degrees4 ,the individuals of the same species graduate in intellect from absolute imbecility to high excellence2 they are also liable to insanity1 though far less often than in the case of man4#ec ,nevertheless1 in the face of these facts1 many authors have insisted that man is divided by an inseparable barrier from all the lower animals in his mental faculties4 ,it only shows the improper or imperfect consideration of the subject they have under discussion4 ,it may be thought at first that some of the mental attributes mentioned above are not possessed by animals4 ,i therefore will briefly consider a few of the more complex ones4 ,we can dismiss the consideration of such attributes as happiness1 terror1 suspicion1 courage1 timidity1 jealousy1 shame1 and wonder1 as well-known attributes4 ,curiosity in animals is often observed4 ,an instance mentioned by ,brehm will serve to illustrate3 ,brehm gives a curious account of the instinctive dread which his monkeys exhibited for snakes2 but their curiosity was so great that they could not desist from occasionally satiating their horror in a most human fashion1 by lifting up the lid of the box in which the snakes were kept4 ,imitation is also found among the action of animals1 especially among monkeys1 which are well known to be ridiculous mockers4 ,it is unnecessary to refer to the faculty of attention1 as it is common to almost all animals1 and the same may be said of memory as for persons or places4 ,one would hesitate to believe an animal possesses imagination1 but such is the case4 ,dreaming1 it will be admitted1 gives us the best notion of this power4 ,now as dogs1 cats1 horses1 and probably all the higher animals1 even birds1 have vivid dreams--this is shown by their movements and the sounds uttered--we must admit1 says ,darwin1 they possess some power of imagination4 ,there must be something special which causes dogs to howl in the night1 and especially during moonlight1 in that remarkable and melancholy manner1 called baying4 ,all dogs do not do so2 and1 according to ,housyeau1#ed they do not look at the moon1 but at some fixed point near the horizon4 ,housyeau thinks that their imaginations are disturbed by the vague outlines of the surrounding objects1 and conjure up before them fantastic images2 if this be so1 their feelings may almost be called superstitious4 ,the next mental faculty is reason1 which stands at the summit2 but still there are few persons who will deny that animals possess some power of reasoning4 ,a few illustrations will be all that is necessary to satisfy the inquiring mind on this point4 ,reugger1 a most careful observer1 states that when he first gave eggs to his monkey in ,paraguay they smashed them1 and thus lost much of their contents2 afterward they gently hit one end against some hard body1 and picked off the bits of shell with their fingers4 ,after cutting themselves once with any sharp tool1 they would not touch it again1 or would handle it with the greatest caution4 ,lumps of sugar were often given them1 wrapped up in paper2 and ,reugger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper1 so that in hastily unfolding it they got stung2 after this had once happened1 they afterward first held the packet to their ears to detect any movement within4 ,the following cases relating to dogs are described by ,darwin3 ,mr4 ,colquhoun winged two wild ducks1 which fell on the farther side of a stream2 his retriever tried to bring over both at once1 but could not succeed2 she then1 though never before known to ruffle a feather1 deliberately killed one1 brought over the other1 and returned for the dead bird4 ,colonel ,hutchinson relates that two partridges were shot at once--one being killed1 the other wounded2 the latter ran away1 and was caught by the retriever1 who1 on her return1 came across the dead bird2 she stopped1 evidently greatly puzzled1 and after one or two trials1 finding she could not take it up without permitting the escape of the winged bird1 she considered a moment1 then deliberately murdered it by giving it a severe crunch1 and afterward brought away both together4 ,this was the only known instance of her ever having wilfully injured any game4 ,here we have reason1 though not quite perfect2 for the retriever might have brought the wounded bird first1 and then returned for the dead one1 as in the case of the two wild ducks4 ,i give the above cases as resting on the evidence of two independent witnesses2 and because in both instances the retrievers1 after deliberation1 broke through a habit which was inherited by them 7that of not killing the game retrieved71 and because they show how strong their reasoning faculty must have been to overcome a fixed habit4#ee ,it has often been said that no animal uses any tool1 but this can be so easily refuted on reflection1 that it is hardly worth while considering2 for illustration1 though1 the chimpanzee in a state of nature cracks nuts with a stone2 ,darwin saw a young orang put a stick in a crevice1 slip his hand to the other end1 and use it in a proper manner as a lever4 ,the baboons in ,abyssinia descend in troops from the mountains to plunder fields1 and when they meet troops of another species a fight ensues4 ,they commence by rolling great stones at their enemies1 as they often do when attacked with fire-arms4 ,the ,duke of ,argyll remarks that the fashioning of an implement for a special purpose is absolutely peculiar to man2 and he considers this forms an immeasurable gulf between him and the brutes4 ,this is no doubt1 says ,darwin1 a very important distinction2 but there appears to me much truth in ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock's suggestion1#ef that when primeval man first used flint-stones for any purpose1 he would have accidentally splintered them1 and would then have used the sharp fragments4 ,from this step it would be a small one to break the flints on purpose1 and not a very wide step to fashion them rudely4 ,the later advance1 however1 may have taken long ages1 if we may judge by the immense interval of time which elapsed before the men of the neolithic period took to grinding and polishing their stone tools4 ,in breaking the flints1 as ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock likewise remarks1 sparks would have been emitted1 and in grinding them heat would have been evolved2 thus the two usual methods of 'obtaining fire may have originated4' ,the nature of fire would have been known in many volcanic regions where lava occasionally flows through forests4 ,it becomes a difficult task to determine how far animals exhibit any traces of such high faculties as abstraction1 general conception1 self-consciousness1 mental individuality4 ,there can be no doubt1 if the mental faculties of an animal can be improved1 that the higher complex faculties such as abstraction and self-consciousness have developed from a combination of the simpler ones2 this seems to be well illustrated in the young child1 as such faculties are developed by imperceptible degrees4 ,these high faculties are very sparingly possessed by the savage2 as ,buchner#eg has remarked1 how little can the hard-worked wife of a degraded ,australian savage1 who uses very few abstract words and cannot count above four1 exert her self-consciousness or reflect on the nature of her own existence4 ,if there exist a class of people so inferior in their mental faculties as these1 it is not difficult for us to understand how the educated animal who possesses memory1 attention1 association1 and even some imagination and reason1 can become capable of abstraction1 c41 in an inferior degree even to the savage4 ,it certainly cannot be doubted that an animal possesses mental individuality--as when a master returns to a dog which he has not seen for years1 and the dog recognizes him at once4 ,one of the chief distinctions between man and animals is the faculty of language4 ,let us look at this for a moment4 ,the essential differences1 says ,prof4 ,whitney1 which separate man's means of communication in kind as well as degree from that of the other animals is that1 while the latter is instinctive1 the former is in all its parts arbitrary and conventional4 ,no man can become possessed of any language without learning it2 no animal 7that we know of7 has any expression which he learns1 which is not the direct gift of nature to him4 ,any child of parents living in a foreign country grows up to speak the foreign speech1 unless carefully guarded from doing so2 or it speaks both this and the tongue of its parent with equal readiness4 ,a child must learn to observe and distinguish before speech is possible1 and every child begins to know things by their name before he begins to call them4 ,if it were not for the added push1 says ,prof4 ,whitney1 given by the desire of communication1 the great and wonderful power of the human soul would never move in this particular direction2 but when this leads the way1 all the rest follows4 ,no philologist now supposes that any language has been deliberately invented2 it has been slowly and unconsciously developed by many steps4 ,there can be no question that language owes its origin to the imitation and modification of various natural sounds1 the voices of other animals1 and man's own instinctive cries1 aided by signs and gestures2 and this is the opinion of ,max ,mller4 ,and ,prof4 ,whitney remarks that spoken language began1 we may say1 when a cry of pain1 formally wrung out by real suffering1 and seen to be understood and sympathized with1 was repeated in imitation1 no longer as a mere instinctive utterance1 but for the purpose of intimating to another4 ,darwin says that the early progenitor of man probably first used his voice in producing true musical cadences1 that is1 in singing1 as do some gibbon-apes at the present day4 ,it is therefore probable that the imitation of musical cries by articulate sounds may have given rise to words expressive of very complex emotions4 ,the nearest approach to language are the sounds uttered by birds4 ,all that sing exert their power instinctively1 but the actual song1 and even the call notes1 are learned from their parents or foster-parents4 ,these sounds are no more innate than language is in man1 as has been proved by ,davies ,barrington4#eh ,the first attempt to sing may be compared to the imperfect endeavor in a child to babble4 ,prof4 ,whitney says1 if the last transition forms of man could be restored1 we should find the transition forms toward our speech to be1 not at all a minor provision of natural articulate signs1 but an inferior system of conventional signs1 in tone1 gesture1 and grimace4 ,as between these three natural means of expression1 it is simply by a kind of process of natural selection and survival of the fittest that the voice has gained the upper hand1 and come to be so much the most prominent that we give the name of language 7tonguiness7 to all expression4 ,a single utterance or two at first had to do the duty of a whole clause2 afterward man learned to piece together parts of speech1 and thus arose sentences4 ,although no language1 as has already been said1 has been deliberately invented1 still each word may not be unfitly compared to an invention2 it has its own place1 mode1 and circumstances of devisal1 its preparation in the previous habits of speech1 its influence in determining the after progress of speech development2 but every language in the gross is an institution1 on which scores or hundreds of generations and unnumbered thousands of individual workers have labored4#ei ,there is no question at all but that the mental powers in the earliest progenitors of man must have been more highly developed than in the ape1 before even the most imperfect form of speech could have come into use2 but the constant advancement of this power would have reacted on the mind to enable it to carry on longer trains of thought4 ,a complex train of thought1 says ,darwin1 can no more be carried on without the aid of words1 whether spoken or silent1 than a long calculation without the use of figures in algebra4 ,it appears also that even an ordinary train of thought almost requires or is greatly facilitated by some form of language2 for the dumb1 deaf1 and blind girl1 ,laura ,bridgman1 was observed to use her fingers while dreaming4#fj ,nevertheless a long succession of vivid ideas may pass through the mind1 without the aid of any form of language1 as we may infer from the movements of dogs during their dreams4 ,the struggle for existence is going on in every language2 one after another will be swept out of existence1 and the languages best fitted for the practical uses of the masses of people will alone survive4 ,max ,mller has well remarked3 ,a struggle for life is constantly going on amongst the words and grammatical forms in each language4 ,the better the shorter2 the easier forms are constantly gaining the upper hand1 and they owe their success to their own inherent virtue4#fa ,it must not be thought for a moment that that which distinguishes a man from the lower animals is the understanding of articulate sounds--for1 as every one knows1 dogs understand many words and sentences2 and ,darwin says1 at this stage they are at the same stage of development as infants1 between the ages of ten and twelve months1 who understand many words and sentences1 but still cannot utter a single word4 ,it is not the mere articulation which is our distinguishing character2 for parrots and other birds possess the power4 ,nor is it the mere capacity of connecting definite sounds with definite ideas2 for it is certain that some parrots1 which have been taught to speak1 connect unerringly words with things1 and persons with events4 ,the lower animals1 as has already been stated1 differ from man solely in his almost infinitely larger power of associating together the most diversified sounds and ideas2 and this obviously depends on the high development of his mental powers4 ,we now come to the consideration of a very delicate subject--a subject which is certainly at best very unsatisfactory to handle1 as far as popular sentiment is concerned2 for1 no matter how successfully it may be handled1 according to one class of thinkers1 to another class of more orthodox thinkers it would be entirely at fault4 ,the subject is1 ,man's ,moral ,sense1 ,belief in ,god1 ,religion1 ,conscience1 and ,hope of ,immortality4 ,it has been stated by some writers that where faith commences science ends4 ,how erroneous is such a statement as this6 for1 as ,krauth has said1 ,the great body of scientific facts is actually the object of knowledge to a few1 and is supposed to be a part of the knowledge of the many1 only because the many have faith in the statements of the few1 though they can neither verify them1 nor even understand the processes by which they are reached4#fb ,we believe1 says ,lewes1 that the sensation of violet is produced by the striking of the ethereal waves against the retina more than seven hundred billions of times in a second4 99 99 99 ,these statements are accepted on trust by us who know that there are thinkers for whom they are irresistible conclusions4 ,it is evident that it is to faith that science owes1 to a very great extent1 her progress and development2 for it is impossible for man to prove by experimental demonstration all the facts of science1 and since a certain number of facts have got to be accepted before a new experiment can be attempted1 he has to accept on faith that such and such a statement is a fact1 because such and such a scientist has claimed to have demonstrated it4 ,we are not responsible for the fact1 says ,krauth1 that under the conditions of knowledge we know1 or in defect of them do not know2 we are responsible if1 under the conditions of a well-grounded faith1 we disbelieve4#fc ,let us look1 then1 at the belief in ,god4 ,the question under consideration at first will not be whether there exists a ,god1 the creator and ruler of the universe--for this will be afterward considered--but is there any evidence that man was aboriginally endowed with the ennobling belief in the existence of an ,omnipotent ,god4 ,schweinfurth relates that the ,niam-niam1 that highly interesting dwarf people of ,central ,africa1 have no word for ,god1 and therefore1 it must be supposed1 no idea2 and ,moritz ,wagner has given a whole selection of reports on the absence of religious consciousness in inferior nations4 ,the idea that conscience is a sort of permanent inspiration or dwelling of ,god in the soul1 ,i think1 on consideration1 any reasonable man will not assume4 ,it is a purely human faculty1 says ,savage1 like the faculty for art or music2 and it gets its authority1 as they do by being true1 and just in so far as it is true4 ,consciousness is our own knowledge of ourselves and of the relation between our own faculties and powers4 ,conscience is our recognition of the relations1 as right or wrong1 in which we stand to those about us1 ,god and our fellows4 ,con-scio is to know with1 in relation4 ,there is such a thing1 of course1 as a false conscience and a true conscience4 ,all the false conscientiousness grows out of the fact that men suppose they stand in certain relationships that do not really exist4 ,thus they imagined duties that are not duties at all4 ,the virtues which must be practised by rude men1 so that they can hold together in tribes1 are of course important4 ,no tribe could hold together if robbery1 murder1 treachery1 etc41 were common2 in other words1 there must be honor among thieves4 ,a ,north-,american ,indian is well pleased with himself1 and is honored by others1 when he scalps a man of another tribe2 and a ,dyak cuts off the head of an unoffending person1 and dries it as a trophy4 ,the murder of infants has prevailed on the largest scale throughout the world1 and has been met with no reproach2 but infanticide1 especially of females1 has been thought to be good for the tribe1 or at least not injurious4 ,suicide during former times was not generally considered as a crime1 but rather1 from the courage displayed1 as an honorable act2 and it is still practised by some semi-civilized and savage nations without reproach1 for it does not obviously concern others of the tribe4 ,it has been recorded that an ,indian ,thug conscientiously regretted that he had not robbed and strangled as many travelers as did his father before him4#fd ,see how weak the conscience of even more highly civilized men are in their dealings with the brute creation2 how the sportsman delights in hunting-scenes1 ,spanish bull-fights1 cock-fights1 etc42 how indignant was the sensitive ,cowper1 if any one should needlessly set foot upon a worm6 ,the rights of the worm are as sacred in his degree as ours are1 and a true conscience will recognize them4 ,what1 then1 is a true conscience8 ,savage states in a few words1 it is one that knows and is adjusted to the realities of life4 ,when men know the truth about ,god1 about themselves--body and mind and spirit--about the real relations of equity in which they stand to their fellow-men in state and church and society1 and when they appreciate these1 and adjust their conscience to them1 then they will have a true conscience4 ,an absolutely true conscience1 of course1 cannot exist so long as our knowledge of the reality of things is only partial4 ,it is evident1 then1 that the conscience of man depends on his education and environments1 and therefore is the subject of improvement4 ,it becomes1 then1 the duty of every man to search for truth1 for his conscience is not infallible1 and by so doing he will bring it to accord with the real facts of ,god4 ,throw away1 says ,savage1 prejudice and conceit1 seek to make your conscience like the magnetic needle4 ,the needle ever and naturally seeking the unchanging pole4 ,as conscience1 then1 is but a faculty capable of development1 it is not so difficult to understand a race of people whose conscience was in just the first stages of development2 and1 finally1 a race which did not possess this faculty at all1 as in the inferior nations which ,wagner speaks of4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 ,i4--,butcher's ,shop of the ,anziques1 ,anno #aeih4 7,from ,man's ,place in ,nature1 by ,huxley47 ,what kind of conscience and intelligence had the people near ,cape ,lopez1 called the ,anziques1 which ,m4 du ,chaillu describes4 ,they had incredible ferocity2 for they ate one another1 sparing neither friends nor relations4 ,their butcher-shops were filled with human flesh1 instead of that of oxen or sheep1 for they ate the enemies they captured in battle4 ,they fattened1 slayed1 and devoured their slaves also1 unless they thought they could get a good price for them2 and moreover1 for weariness of life or desire for glory 7for they thought it a great thing and a sign of a generous soul to despise life71 or for love of their rulers1 offered themselves up for food4 ,there were1 indeed1 many cannibals1 as in the ,east ,indies and ,brazil and elsewhere1 but none such as these1 since the others only ate their enemies1 but these their own blood relations4 ,there is therefore1 combining the fact mentioned by ,wagner with the fact that some nations have no idea of one or more gods1 not even a word to express it 7proving that they have no idea71 ,i say1 there is therefore no evidence that man was aboriginally endowed with any such belief as the existence of an ,omnipotent ,god2 and in this assertion almost all the learned men concur4 ,if1 however1 says ,darwin1 we include under the term religion1 the belief in unseen or spiritual agencies1 the case is wholly different2 for this belief seems to be universal with the less civilized races4 ,nor is it difficult to understand how it arose4 ,the savage has a stronger belief in bad spirits than in good ones4 ,the same high mental faculties which first led man to believe in unseen spiritual agencies1 then in fetishism1 polytheism1 and ultimately in monotheism1 would infallibly lead him1 as long as his reasoning powers remained poorly developed1 to very strange superstitions and customs4 ,many of these are terrible to think of3 such as the sacrifice of human beings to a blood-loving god1 the trial of innocent persons by the ordeal of poison1 of fire1 of witchcraft1 etc42 yet it is well occasionally to reflect on these superstitions1 for they show us what an infinite debt of gratitude we owe to the improvement of our reason1 to science1 and to our accumulated knowledge4#fe ,as ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock has well observed3 ,it is not too much to say that the possible dread of unknown evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life1 and embitters every pleasure4 ,these miserable and indirect consequences of our highest faculties may be compared with the incidental and occasional mistakes of the instincts of the lower animals4 ,the belief1 then1 of the existence of an ,omnipotent ,god came with the development of the mental faculties2 and although there does exist such a belief in the minds of men whose conscience is in a normal condition1 still there are temptations to unbelief1 and these have led men to atheism4 ,i cannot think of an atheist unless ,i associate in my thoughts the words3 ,the ruling passion1 be it what it may-- ,the ruling passion conquers reason still4 ,the atheist has decided not to believe in the existence of a ,god1 unless he can see ,him and understand ,him2 in other words1 the finite would comprehend the infinite4 ,following the logical method of reasoning of an atheist1 the simple fact of seeing ,god in no way ought to prove his existence4 ,for when you say you see a person1 and that you have not the least doubt about it1 ,i answer1 that what you are really conscious of is an affection of your retina4 ,and if you urge that you can check your sight of the person by touching him1 ,i would answer1 that you are equally transgressing the limits of fact2 for what you are really conscious of is1 not that he is there1 but that the nerves of your hand have undergone a change4 ,all you hear and see and touch and taste and smell are mere variations of your own condition1 beyond which1 even to the extent of a hair's-breadth1 you cannot go4 ,that anything answering to your impression exists outside of yourself is not a fact1 but an inference1 to which all validity would be denied by an idealist like ,berkeley1 or by a skeptic like ,hume4#ff ,thomas ,cooper#fg said3 ,i do not say--there is no ,god2 ,but this ,i say--,i ,,know ,,not4 ,mr4 ,bradlaugh says3 ,the atheist does not say1 ',there is no ,god'2 but he says1 ,i know not what you mean by ,god2 ,i am without idea of ,god2 the word ',god' is to me a sound conveying no clear or distinct affirmation4 ,i do not deny ,god1 because ,i cannot deny that of which ,i have no conception1 and the conception of which1 by its affirmer1 is so imperfect that he is unable to define it to me4 ,austin ,holyoake#fh says3 ,the only way of proving the fallacy of atheism is by proving the existence of a ,god4 ,if it is logical proof that is wanted1 there is plenty4 ,the following arguments1 although not all meeting my approbation1 are still of interest3 ,the ,ontological ,argument has been presented in different forms4 #a4 ,anselm1#fi ,archbishop of ,canterbury 7#ajic-aaji71 states this argument thus3 ,we have an idea of an infinitely perfect being4 ,but real existence is an element of infinite perfection4 ,therefore an infinitely perfect being exists2 otherwise the infinitely perfect1 as we conceive it1 would lack an essential element of perfection4 #b4 ,descartes#gj 7#aeif-afej7 states the argument thus3 ,the idea of an infinitely perfect being which we possess could not have originated in a finite source1 and therefore must have been communicated by an infinitely perfect being4 #c4 ,dr4 ,samuel ,clark#ga 7#agje7 argues that time and space are infinite and necessarily existent1 but they are not substances4 ,therefore there must exist an eternal and infinite substance of which they are properties4 #d4 ,cousin#gb maintained that the idea of the finite implies the idea of the infinite as inevitably as the idea of the me implies that of the not me4 ,the ,cosmological ,argument may be stated thus3 ,every new thing and every change in a previously existing thing must have a cause sufficient and pre-existing4 ,the universe consists of a series of changes4 ,therefore the universe must have a cause exterior and anterior to itself4 ,the ,teleological ,argument1 or argument from design or final causes1 is as follows3 ,design1 or the adaptation of means to effect an end1 implies the exercise of intelligence and free choice4 ,the universe is full of traces of design4 ,therefore the ,first ,cause must have been a personal spirit4 ,the ,moral ,argument may be thus stated3 ,in looking at the works of ,god there is1 says ,rev4 ,dr4 ,hopkins1 ,i suppose1 evidence enough1 especially if interpreted by the moral consciousness1 to prove to a candid man the being of ,god4 ,the educated man is a religious being4 ,the instinct of prayer and worship1 the longing for and faith in divine love and help1 are inseparable from human nature under normal conditions1 as known in history4 ,it is evident from the above that it is not for logical reasoning or arguments that the atheist is led to say1 that up to this moment the world has remained without knowledge of a ,god4#gc ,it is from the folly of his heart2 and1 as ,solomon says1 that though you bray him and his false logic in the mortar of reason1 among the wheat of facts1 with the pestle of argument1 yet will not his folly depart from him4#gd ,i fully agree with ,hobbes when he says1 where there is no reason for our belief1 there is no reason we should believe1 but ,i think the several arguments given above1 which could be greatly expanded1 affords sufficient reason for a perfect belief in an ,infinite ,god4 ,for-- ,god is a being1 and that you may see ,in the fold of the flower1 in the leaf of the tree1 ,in the storm-cloud of darkness1 in the rainbow of life1 ,in the sunlight at noontide1 in the darkness of night1 ,in the wave of the ocean1 in the furrow of land1 ,in the mountain of granite1 in the atom of sand2 ,gaze where ye may from the sky to the sod-- ,where can you gaze and not see a ,god4 ,yes1 the infinite ,god must include all4 ,if he is not in the dust of our streets1 in the bricks of our house1 in the beat of our hearts1 then he is not infinite1 but is finite1 having boundaries4 ,yes1 ,god's power it was that set the nebulous mass into vibration1 and caused the world to be formed2 it was ,his force which first shaped the atoms into molecules1 and then into more complex chemical products1 till finally organizable protoplasm was reached1 which1 by evolution1 climbed up to man4 ',tis ,god we see in the family1 in society1 in the state1 in all religions1 up to the highest outflowings of ,christianity4 ',tis ,him we see in art1 literature1 and science2 and so proclaims ,evolution4 ,god is the universal causal law2 ,god is the source of all force and all matter4 ,for us1 says ,haeckel1 all nature is animated1 i4 e41 penetrated with ,divine spirit1 with law1 and with necessity4 ,we know of no matter without this ,divine spirit4 ,the ultimate repulsion1 constituting the extension and impenetrability of the atoms of matter1 says ,dr4 ,samuel ,brown1 could be conceived of in no other way than as the persistent existence of the will of ,god himself1 in whom we live and move and have our being1 and which1 if but for an instant withdrawn1 the whole material universe and its forces in all their vastness1 glory1 and beauty1 would collapse and sink in a moment into their original nothingness4 ,the advancement of science1 instead of depriving man of his ,god1 only deprives men of their earlier and ruder conceptions of ,deity1 only to impart a larger and grander thought of ,him4 ,it is true1 in the educational process some few minds have lost sight of ,him altogether1 but these are the exceptional1 and therefore notable instances2 with the great body of men1 the conception of ,god has steadily enlarged with the progress of science4#ge ,if science can demonstrate that ,evolution is true1 then it is ,god's truth1 and as such it is man's religious duty to accept it2 if he rejects it1 superstitiously or unreasonably1 he not only defrauds himself but insults the ,author of truth4 ,what1 then1 has science demonstrated8 ,science has demonstrated the ,,unity ,,of ,,the ,,forces3 ,light1 heat1 electricity1 magnetism1 motion1 are all correlated to one another1 and are all mutually convertible one into another4 ,heat may be said to produce electricity--electricity to produce heat2 magnetism to produce electricity--electricity1 magnetism1 and so on for the rest4 ,,unity ,,of ,,matter ,,and ,,force4--,for if matter were not force1 and immediately known as force1 it could not be known at all--could not be rationally inferred4 ,,unity ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,substance ,,in ,,all ,,organic ,,and ,,animal ,,bodies4--,a unity of power or faculty1 a unity of form1 and a unity of substantial composition4 ,,unity ,,of ,,animate ,,and ,,inanimate ,,nature ,,in ,,matter1 ,,form1 ,,and ,,force4 ,,unity ,,of ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,development4--,hence we can proclaim the unity of all nature and of her laws of development4 ,in the beautiful words of ,giordano ,bruno3 ,a spirit exists in all things1 and no body is so small but contains a part of the divine substance within itself1 by which it is animated4 ,hence we arrive at the sublime idea1 since we can in no other way account for the ultimate cause of anything1 that it is ,god's spirit which pervades and sustains all nature4 ,by this admission we are not led to say3 ,there is no ,god but force2 but rather1 ,there is no force but ,god4 ,god is infinite1 and therefore includes nature2 but is nature all8 ,it is all that our finite minds can discover1 'tis true2 but can there not exist another nature or world unknown to us2 and if so1 since ,god is infinite1 he will include that world also4 ,let us look to this and see what science can answer4 ,it will be necessary for us to consider before proceeding1 what is meant by the term soul2 and this becomes a somewhat difficult task1 as the term has been variously applied to signify the principle of life in an organic body1 or the first and most undeveloped stages of individualized spiritual being1 or finally1 all stages of spiritual individuality1 incorporeal as well as corporeal4#gf ,the popular belief is1 that the soul is not material but substantial1 a divine gift to the highest alone of ,god's creatures2 but scientific men1 such as ,carl ,vogt1 ,moleschott1 ,bchner1 ,schmidt1 ,haeckel1 consider the phenomena of the soul to be functions of the brain and nerves4 ,schmidt says3 ,the soul of the new-born infant is1 in its manifestations1 in no way different from that of the young animal4 ,these are the functions of the infantine nervous system1 with this they grow and are developed together with speech4 ,the idea of the immortality of the soul was not aboriginal with mankind1 as ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock has shown that the barbarous races possess no clear belief of this kind1 and ,rajah ,brook1 at a missionary meeting in ,liverpool1 told his hearers there that the ,dyaks1 a people with whom he was connected1 had no knowledge of ,god1 of a soul1 or of any future state4 ,darwin remarks1 that man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen1 though not through his own exertions1 to the very summit of the organic scale2 and the fact of his having thus risen1 instead of having been aboriginally placed there1 may give hope for a still higher destiny in the distant future4 ,the belief in a future life amongst the civilized race of mankind is almost universally prevalent4 ,the proofs of immortality are various4 ,the desire that man has to live forever and his horror of annihilation is one2 the good suffer in this world and the wicked triumph--this would indicate the necessity of future retribution4 ,the infinite perfectibility of the human mind never reaches its full capacity in this life2 the faculty of insight which sees in an individual all its past history at a glance is the immortal attribute and is continually on the increase2 and it is possible that ,aristotle was right so far as he stated that the lower faculties of the soul1 such as sensation1 imagination1 feeling1 memory1 etc41 are perishable4 ,no matter if this be so or not1 it is certain that in the next life1 where all is perfection1 only the fittest attributes will exist1 the others would have perished4 ,the doctrine of the immortality of the soul has been defended by ,marhemeke1 ,blasche1 ,weisse1 ,hinnichs1 ,fecham1 ,j4 ,h4 ,fichte1 and others4 ,let us look for a moment at the visible universe and see if it is not reasonable1 on a scientific basis1 to admit of the existence of another universe1 although it remains unseen to us4 ,one can not help but be struck with the fact that energy is being dissipated in this visible universe1 that the visible universe is apparently very wasteful4 ,look at the sun which pours her vast store of high-class energy into space1 at the rate of #ahe1jjj miles per second4 ,what will be the result of this8 ,the answer is simple3 ,the inevitable destruction of the visible universe4 ,yes1 just as the visible universe had its beginning it will have its end4 ,but there existed a power before the visible universe came into existence1 and which is acting in the visible universe as the ultimate cause of all phenomena4 ,for we are obliged1 says ,herbert ,spencer in his ,first ,principles1 to regard every phenomenon as a manifestation of some power by which we are acted upon2 though omnipresence is unthinkable1 yet1 as experience discloses no bounds to the diffusion of phenomena1 we are unable to think of limits to the presence of this power1 while the criticisms of science teaches us that this power is incomprehensible4 ,and so we should expect1 for a finite cannot comprehend an infinite4 ,it is for this and other reasons one is led to believe that the visible universe is only an infinitesimal part of that stupendous whole which is alone entitled to be called ,,the ,,universe4#gg ,as there existed an invisible universe before the visible one came into existence1 we can conclude that there still exists an invisible universe now1 and that this invisible universe will still exist when the present visible one has passed away4 ,let us see what light our finite senses can throw on this4 ,it is well known that all our senses have only a certain narrow gauge within which they are able to bring us into sensible contact with the world about us4 ,all outside this range we are unable to reach4 ,for example1 we do not see all forms and colors2 we do not hear all sounds2 we do not smell all odors2 we cannot conscientiously touch all substances2 we cannot taste all flavors4 ,vision depends on the wave motion of light4 ,the length of a wave of mean red light is about #a_/cijjjth of an inch1 that of violet #a_/egejjth of an inch4 ,but the number of oscillations of ether in a second1 necessary to produce the sensation of red1 are #dgg1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1 all of which enter the eye in one second4 ,for the sensation of violet1 the eye must receive #fii1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj oscillations in one second1 as light travels #ahe1jjj miles in one second4 ,but when waves of light having all possible lengths act on the eye simultaneously1 the sensation of white is produced4 ,so1 as has been previously stated1 without eyes the world would be wrapped in darkness1 there being no light and color outside of one's eye4 ,so we see our sense of sight has its limits1 and we know how finite these are4 ,that there are vibrations of the ether on each side of our limits of vision cannot be doubted2 and if our eyes were acute enough to receive them1 we could have the sensation of some color1 which must under present conditions remain forever blank4 ,the owl and bat can see when we cannot2 their eyes can receive oscillations of ether1 which pass by without affecting us4 ,so with sound1 which is a sensation produced when vibrations of a certain character are excited in the auditory apparatus of the ear4#gh ,the longest wave which can give an impression has a length of about #ff ft41 which is equal to #af-a_/b vibrations per second2 when the wave is reduced to three or four tenths of an inch1 equal to from #ch1jjj to #dj1jjj vibrations per second1 sound becomes again inaudible4 ,the piano1 for instance1 only runs between #bg-a_/b vibrations in a second up to #c1ebj4 ,sound travels about #a1jic feet per second1 and the human voice can be heard #dfj feet away1 whilst a rifle can be heard #af1jjj feet 7#c4jb miles71 and very strong cannonading #ege1hdj feet1 or #ij miles4 ,that there are vibrations above and below #af-a_/b and #dj1jjj1 there is no room to doubt1 as there exist ears which can hear them1 such as the hare2 but to us they are as though they did not exist4 ,of all our senses1 the sense of smell far surpasses that of the other sense4 ,valentine has calculated that we are able to perceive about the three one-hundred-millionth of a grain of musk4 ,the minute particle which we perceive by smell1 no chemical reaction can detect1 and even spectrum analysis1 which can recognize fifteen-millionths of a grain1 is far surpassed4 ,but this sense in man is far surpassed by the hound4 ,our sense of taste is also limited1 and as has been already stated1 cannot distinguish all flavors4 ,we can recognize by taste one part of sulphuric acid in #ajjj parts of water2 one drop of this on the tongue would contain #a_/bjjj of a grain 7#c_/djj of a grain7 of sulphuric acid4 ,the length of time needed for reaction in sensation has been determined by ,vintschgau and ,hougschmied1 and in a person whose sense of taste was highly developed1 the reaction time was1 for common salt1 #j4aei second2 for sugar1 #j4afci second2 for acid1 #j4afgf second2 and for quinine1 #j4bcea second4 ,reviewing1 then1 the above1 it is evident there are eyes which can see what we cannot1 there are ears which can hear what we cannot1 and there are animals who can smell and touch what we cannot4 ,for anything we know to the contrary1 then1 says ,savage1 a refined and spiritualized order of existences may be the inhabitants of another and unseen world all about us4 ,as ,milton has said3 ,millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth ,unseen1 both when we wake and when we sleep4 ,if there is a life very much different from and very much higher than our present one1 it is not strange we are ignorant of it4 ,it is impossible to make a person understand anything which is entirely unlike all that has ever been seen or heard1 for every idea in the world that man has came to him by nature4 ,man#gi cannot conceive of anything the hint of which has not been received from his surroundings4 ,he can imagine an animal with the hoof of a bison1 with the pouch of a kangaroo1 with the wings of an eagle1 with the beak of a bird1 and with the tail of a lion2 and yet every point of this monster he borrowed from nature4 ,everything he can think of1 everything he can dream of1 is borrowed from his surroundings--everything4 ,so1 if an angel should come and tell of another life1 it would mean nothing to us1 unless we could translate it into terms of our own experience4 ,we could not understand a 'light that never was on land or sea4' ,our ignorance is not even then a probability against our belief4#hj ,as has already been stated1 the visible universe must have its doom1 must end as it began1 by consisting of a single mass of matter2 but is there not a more primitive state of matter than the matter such as we know it8 ,yes2 and the so-called ether is that matter4 ,it is unlike any of the forms of matter which we can weigh and measure4 ,it is in some respects like unto a fluid1 and in some respects like unto a solid4 ,it is both hard and elastic to an almost inconceivable degree4 ,it fills all material bodies like a sea in which the atoms of the material bodies are as islands1 and it occupies the whole of what we call empty space4 ,it is so sensitive that a disturbance in any part of it causes a 'tremor which is felt on the surface of countless worlds4' ,it exerts frictions2 and although the friction is infinitely small1 yet as it has an almost infinite time to work in1 it will diminish the momentum of the planets1 and diminish their ability to maintain their distance from the sun1 the consequence of which will be the planets will fall into the sun1 and the solar system will end where it begun4#ha ,according to ,sir ,william ,thompson1 the ultimate atoms of matter are vortex rings1 which ,professor ,clifford describes as being more closely packed together 7finer grained7 in ether than in matter4 ,and he says1 whatever may turn out to be the ultimate nature of the ether and of molecules1 we know that to some extent at least they obey the same dynamic laws1 and that they act on one another in accordance with these laws4 ,until therefore it is absolutely disproved1 it must remain the simplest and most probable assumption that they are finally made of the same stuff1 that the material molecule is in some kind of knot or coagulation of ether4#hb ,the molecule of matter such as we know1 then1 may have been1 and very probably was1 produced by evolution from the atoms or vortex rings of ether1 according to the theory advanced by the authors of the work called the ,unseen ,universe1 which ,i have referred to4 ,the world of ether is to be regarded in some sort the obverse complement of the world of sensible matter1 so that whatever energy is dissipated in the one is by the same act accumulated in the other2 or1 as ,fiske describes it1 it is like the negative plate in photography1 where light answers to shadow and shadow to light4 ,every act of consciousness is accompanied by molecular displacements in the brain1 and these of course are responded to by movements in the ethereal world4 ,views of this kind were long ago entertained by ,babbage1 and they have since recommended themselves to other men of science1 and amongst others to ,jevon1 who says3 ,mr4 ,babbage has pointed out that if we had power to follow and detect the manifest effects of any disturbance1 each particle of existing matter must be a register of all that has happened4 99 99 99 ,the air itself is one vast library on whose pages are forever written all that man has ever said or whispered4 ,there in their mutable but unerring characters1 mixed with1 the earliest as well as the latest sighs of mortality1 stand forever recorded vows unredeemed1 promises unfulfilled1 perpetuating in the united movements of each particle the testimony of man's changeful will4#hc ,so thought affects the substance of the present visible universe2 it produces a material organ of memory4 ,but the motions which accompany thought1 say the authors1#hd will also affect the invisible order of things1 and thus it follows that thought conceived to affect the matter of another universe1 simultaneously with this1 may explain a future state4#he ,death1 then1 is for the individual but a transfer from one physical state of existence to another1 according to the authors'#hf idea2 and so1 on the largest scale1 the death or final loss of energy by the whole visible universe has its counterpart in the acquirement of a maximum of life1 the correlative unseen world4 ,according to this theory1 therefore1 as the psychical or spiritual phenomena of the visible world only begins to be manifested with some complex aggregate of material phenomena1 therefore it is necessary for the continuance of mind in a future state to have some sort of material vehicle also1 which the ether is supposed to supply4 ,the essential weakness of such a theory as this1 says ,fiske1 lies in the fact that it is thoroughly materialistic in character4 ,we have reason for thinking it probable that ether and ordinary matter are alike composed of vortex rings in a quasi-frictionless fluid2 but whatever be the fate of this subtle hypothesis1 we may be sure that no theory will ever be entertained in which analysis of ether shall require different symbols from that of ordinary matter4 ,in our authors' theory1 therefore1 the putting on of immortality is in nowise the passage from a material to a spiritual state4 ,it is the passage of one kind of materially conditioned state to another4 ,this theory1 dealing with matter1 should receive support by actual experience1 as matter is a subject of investigation4 ,to accept it1 therefore1 as being possible without any positive evidence for its support1 it remains but a weak speculation1 no matter how ingenious it may seem4 ,to support an after life1 which is not materially conditioned1 ,i agree with ,mr4 ,fiske1 that although it will be unsupported by any item of experience whatever1 it may nevertheless be an impregnable assertion4 ,if all were to agree1 what we call matter is really force1 as it certainly is1 for if matter were not force it would be unthinkable1 being force it becomes thinkable2 this point ,i have touched on before1 but it may be well to elaborate on it a little just here4 ,the great lesson that ,berkeley taught mankind was that what we call material phenomena are really the products of consciousness co-operating with some unknown power 7not material7 existing beyond consciousness4 ,we do very well to speak of matter1 says ,fiske1 in common parlance1 but all that the word really means is a group of qualities which have no existence apart from our minds4 ,the ablest modern thinkers1 then1 believe that the only real things that exist are the mind and ,god1 and that the universe is only the infinitely varied manifestation of ,god in the human conscience4 ,it is evident1 then1 that matter1 the only thing the materialist concedes real existence1 is simply an orderly phantasmagoria2 and ,god and soul1 which materialists regard as mere fictions of the imagination1 are the only conceptions that answer to real existence4#hg ,for instance1 let us see what it is we know about a table4 ,you say you can see it2 ,i can respond that all you are conscious of is that the nerves of your eye have undergone a change4 ,you say1 ,i can check my sight of it by touching it2 to this ,i reply1 all that you are really conscious of is a sensation1 and that something outside of you has produced it4 ,but that all that is outside of me is anything more than the manifestation to me of a power or of ,god1 is an inference and cannot be proven4 ,to constant manifestations of this power1 always assuming the same form and characters which can be studied1 different names have been given2 but that the dust of the street or beat of our heart is anything else but that peculiar manifestation of the infinite ,god1 cannot be contradicted4 ,mr4 ,savage says1 ,the movement of electricity along a telegraph-line is accompanied by certain molecular changes in the wire itself2 but the wire is not electricity1 neither does it produce it4 ,thus modern science has found it utterly impossible to explain mind either as a part or a product of matter4 ,it is perfectly reasonable1 then1 for any man to believe in a purely intellectual and spiritual existence1 apart from any material form or substance4 ,to comprehend the immortal life is an impossibility2 it transcends any earthly experience of man4 ,the caterpillar probably knows nothing about any life higher than that of his toilsome crawling on the ground2 but that is no proof against the fact that we know he is to become a butterfly4 ,the boy knows nothing about manhood1 and cannot know4 ,though he sees men and their labors all about him1 he has and can have no conception whatever of what it means to be a man2 it transcends all experience4#hh ,the existence1 says ,fiske1 of a single soul1 or congeries of psychical phenomena1 unaccompanied by a material body1 would be evidence sufficient to demonstrate this hypothesis4 ,but in the nature of things1 even were there a million such souls round about us1 we could not become aware of the existence of one of them2 for we have no organ or faculty for the perception of soul apart from the material structure and activities in which it has been manifested throughout the whole course of our experience4 ,even our own self-consciousness involves the consciousness of ourselves as partly material bodies4 ,these considerations show that our hypothesis is very different from the ordinary hypothesis with which science deals4 ,the entire absence of testimony does not raise a negative presumption1 except in cases where testimony is accessible4 ,my object has not been to prove the purely spiritual theory of a future life1 but to show that it is a theory that intelligent people can entertain as a foundation for their belief in the hope of immortality4 ,but that the spiritual life instead of the material life is the state in which we can hope for immortality1 ,i think there can be no question2 and such was the opinion of ,paul#hi when he wrote3 ,now this ,i say1 brethren1 that flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of ,god1 neither does corruption inherit incorruption4444 ,so when this corruptible shall have put on incorruption1 and this mortal shall have put on immortality1 then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written1 ',death is swallowed up in victory4' ,o death1 where is thy sting8 ,o grave1 where is thy victory8 ,footnotes3 #a ,the ,law of ,disease1 in ,college ,courant1 ,vol4 ,,xiv4 #b ,winchell4 ,evolution1 p4 #aac4 #c ,comparative ,zoology1 p4 #dc4 #ahgf4 #d ,huxley4 ,physical ,basis of ,life4 #e ,johnson1 ,ency4 #f ,comparative ,anatomy--,orton1 p4 #cb4 #g ,analytical ,anatomy and ,phys4--,cutter1 p4 #af4 #h ,biography of a ,plant4 #i ,see ,huxley--,invertebrate ,animals1 ,anatomy of4 #aj ,phys4 ,basis of ,life4 #aa ,beginnings of ,life1 p4 #ajd1 ,vol4 ,i4 #ab ,monthly ,micros4 ,jour41 ,may #a1 '#fi1 p4 #bid4 #ac ,chem4 and ,phys4 ,balance of ,organic ,nature1 #ahdh1 p4 #dh 7trans474 #ad ,inaugural ,address1 ,aug4 #ai1 #ahgd4 #ae ,haeckel--,hist4 of ,creation4 #af ,see ,haeckel--,evol4 of ,man4 #ag ,evolution of ,man1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dde4 #ah ,johnson's ,cyclopedia1 ,article ,evolution4 #ai ,sumner1 in ,johnson's ,cyc4 #bj ,christian ,union1 ,vol4 ,,xiii1 ,no4 #ag1 p4 #cbb4 #ba ,gen4 i4 #a4 #bb ,st4 ,john i4 #a4 #bc ,st4 ,john i4 #c4 #bd ,hist4 of ,creation1 p4 #h4 #be ,ibid41 p4 #cbd4 #bf ,heb4 xi4 #c4 ,revised ,english ,ed4 #bg ,loc4 cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cbc4 #bh ,loc4 cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cbd4 #bi ,indications of the ,creator4 #cj ,evolution and ,progress1 p4 #bf1 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,i4 ,gill4 #ca ,natrl4 ,schpfungsgesch41 pp4 #fdc-e4 #cb ,paget1 ,lectures on ,surgical ,pathology1 #ahec1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ga4 #cc ,ueber die ,richtung der ,haare am menschlichen ,krper4 #cd ,pop4 ,sci4 ,monthly1 ,june1 #ahgi1 p4 #bej4 #ce ,see ,sci4 ,am41 ,may #ah1 #ahgh4 #cf ,source of ,muscular ,power1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,inst41 ,june #h1 #ahff4 ,am4 ,i4 ,sci41 ,,ii1 xlii1 #cic1 ,nov4 #ahff4 #cg ,comparative ,zoology1 p4 #de4 #ch ,correlation of the ,vital and ,physical ,forces1 p4 #ed4 #ci ,on the time required for the transmission of volition and sensation through the nerves1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,inst4 #dj ,comparative ,zoology1 p4 #afe4 #da ,sci4 ,amer41 ,nov4 #ac1 #ahgf1 p4 #cbh4 #db ,marshall1 ,outline of ,physiology4 ,amer4 ,ed41 #ahfh1 p4 #bbg4 #dc ,macmillon's ,magazine1 ,pop4 ,sci4 ,monthly1 ,april1 #ahgf4 #dd ,principles of ,psychology1 #ahfi1 ,no4 #bj1 p4 #bd4 #de ,j4 ,s4 ,lombard1 ,n4 ,y4 ,med4 ,jour41 ,vol4 ,v1 #aih1 ,june1 #ahfg4 #df ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bc4 #dg ,the apparatus employed is illustrated and fully described in ,brown-,sequard's ,archives de ,phys41 ,vol4 ,i1 #dih1 ,june1 #ahfh4 ,by it the #a-djjjth of a degree ,centigrade may be indicated4 #dh ,l4 ,h4 ,wood1 ,on the influence of mental activity on the excretion of phosphoric acid by the kidneys4 ,proc4 ,conn4 ,med4 ,soc41 ,nov41 #ahfi1 p4 #aig4 #di ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bd4 #ej ,address of ,dr4 ,f4 ,a4 ,p4 ,barnard1 as retiring president1 before the ,am4 ,ass4 for ,adv4 of ,sci41 ,chicago meeting1 ,aug4 #ahfh4 ,thought cannot be a physical force1 because thought admits of no measure4 #ea ,derivation hypothesis of life and species1 forming fortieth chapter of his ,anatomy of ,vertebrates1 republished in ,am4 ,jour4 ,sci41 ,,ii1 xlvii1 #cc1 ,jan4 #ahfi4 #eb ,prehistoric ,times1 p4 #ced1 by ,lubbock4 #ec ,madness in ,animals1 ,jour4 ,mental ,sci41 ,july1 #ahga4 ,dr4 ,w4 ,l4 ,lindsay4 #ed ,facults ,mentales des ,animaux1 #ahgb1 ,tom4 ,,xi1 p4 #aha4 #ee ,primeval ,man1 #ahfi1 pp4 #ade-adg4 #ef ,prehistoric ,times1 #ahfe1 p4 #dgc4 #eg ,conferences ser les ,thorie ,darwinienne1 #ahfi1 p4 #acb4 #eh ,philosoph4 ,trans41 #aggc1 p4 #bfb4 #ei ,prof4 ,whitney1 p4 #cji4 #fj ,phys4 and ,pathol4 of ,mind4 ,dr4 ,maudsley4 #c;d ed41 #ahfh1 p4 #aii4 #fa ,nature1 ,january #f1 #ahgj1 p4 #beg4 #fb ,problems i4 #ba4 #fc ,johnson's ,cyc4 ,article ,faith4 ,c4 ,p4 ,krauth4 #fd ,darwin's ,descent of ,man1 p4 #aag4 #fe ,see ,descent of ,man1 p4 #if4 #ff ,see ,tyndall's ,belfast ,address4 #fg ,purgatory of ,suicides4 #fh ,thoughts on ,atheism1 p4 #d4 #fi ,monologium and ,proslogium4 #gj ,meditations de ,primaphilosophia ,prop4 #b1 p4 #hi4 #ga ,demonstration of the ,being and ,attributes of ,god4 #gb ,elements of ,psychology4 #gc ,thoughts on ,atheism1 by ,holyoake1 p4 #d4 #gd ,proverbs xvii4 #bb4 #ge ,henry ,ward ,beecher4 #gf ,see ,w4 ,t4 ,harris4 ,johnson's ,encyc4 ,soul4 #gg ,unseen ,universe4 #gh ,rood4 ,sound1 ,johnson's ,encyc4 #gi ,see ,r4 ,g4 ,ingersoll's ,lecture on ,hell4 #hj ,savage4 #ha ,the ,unseen ,world4 ,john ,fiske1 p4 #ba4 #hb ,fortnightly ,review1 ,june #ahge1 p4 #ghd4 #hc ,ninth ,bridgewater ,treatise4 #hd ,of the ,unseen ,universe4 #he ,anagram4 ,nature1 ,oct4 #ae1 #ahgd4 #hf ,of the ,unseen ,universe4 #hg ,fiske4 ,unseen ,world1 p4 #eb4 #hh ,savage4 ,relig4 of ,evol41 p4 #bdf4 #hi #a ,corinthians1 xv41 verses #ej-ed 7,part of74 ,revised ,english ,ed41 #ahgg4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,passages in italics are indicated by underscore4 ,passages in bold are indicated by bold4 ,numbers enclosed in brackets are subscripted in the original text4 ,additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as presented in the original text4 ,images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest paragraph break4 ,the following misprints have been addressed3 ,hckel standardized to ,haeckel 7page #eg7 missing the added 7page #ia7 paleontology standardized to palontology 7page #ajh7 cerebelbellum corrected to cerebellum 7page #aac7 ,some quotation marks in the original are not paired4 ,obvious errors have been silently closed1 while those requiring interpretation have been left open4 ,other than the corrections listed above1 printer's inconsistencies in spelling1 punctuation1 hyphenation1 and ligature usage have been retained4