,transcriber's ,note3 ,images taken from the #ahfh edition1 found at ,books4,google4com41 is the source of the text used for this ebook4 ,unclear or missing punctuation marks were corrected by reference to the #ahed edition of this work4 ,superscripts are preceded by a caret 771 e4g4 #b;a1 #b7superscript a74 ,greek and ,hebrew words are transcribed using the ,unicode format4 ,pg #a ,,clark',s ,,foreign ,,theological ,,library ,,second ,,series4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,hengstenberg's ,christology of the ,old ,testament4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,edinburgh3 ,t4 ,t4 ,,clark1 #ch1 ,,george ,,street4 ,,london3 ,j4 ,,gladding4 ,,dublin3 ,,john ,,robertson ,,co4 ,,mdccclxviii4 ,pg #b ,,murray ,,and ,,gibb1 ,,edinburgh1 ,,printers ,,to ,,her ,,majesty',s ,,stationery ,,office4 ,pg #c ,,christology ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament1 ,,and ,a ,,commentary ,,on ,,the ,,messianic ,,predictions ,,by ,e4 ,w4 ,,hengstenberg1 ,,dr4 ,,and ,,prof4 ,,of ,,theol4 ,,in ,,berlin4 ,,second ,,edition1 ,,greatly ,,improved4 ,translated from the ,german1 ,,by ,,the ,,rev4 ,,theodore ,,meyer4 ,,volume ,i4 ,,edinburgh3 ,t4 ,,and ,t4 ,,clark1 #ch1 ,,george ,,street4 ,,london3 ,,hamilton1 ,,adams1 ,,co4 ,,dublin3 ,,john ,,robertson ,,co4 ,,mdccclxviii4 ,pg #d ,blank page ,pg #e ,,list ,,of ,,contents4 ,page ,translator's ,preface1 #g ,author's ,preface1 #i ,the ,messianic ,prophecies in the ,pentateuch1 #aa ,the ,protevangelium1 #ad ,the ,blessing of ,noah upon ,shem and ,japheth1 ,gen4 ix4 #ah-bg1 #cj ,the ,promise to the ,patriarchs1 ,gen4 xii4 #a-c1 #df ,the ,blessing of ,jacob upon ,judah1 ,gen4 xlix4 #h-aj1 #eg ,balaam's ,prophecy1 ,num4 xxiv4 #ag-ai1 #ih ,moses' ,promise of the ,prophet1 ,deut4 xviii4 #ae-ai1 #ajd ,the ,angel of the ,lord in the ,pentateuch and ,book of ,joshua1 #aae ,gen4 xvi4 #ac1 #aag ,gen4 xviii4 and xix41 #aai ,gen4 xxxi4 #aa seqq41 #abb ,gen4 xxxii4 #bd1 #abc ,gen4 xlviii4 #ae1 #af1 #abe ,exod4 xxiii4 #bj1 #ba1 #abf ,exod4 xxxii4 and xxxiii41 #abg ,joshua v4 and vi41 #abh ,the ,promise in #b ,sam4 vii41 #acj ,messianic ,psalms1 #adi #b ,sam4 xxiii4 #a-g1 #aeb ,the ,song of ,solomon1 #aei ,messianic ,predictions in the ,prophets1 #afb ,the ,prophet ,hosea4 ,general ,preliminary ,remarks1 #afe ,the ,section1 ,chap4 i4-iii41 #ahd ,chap4 i4-ii4 #c1 #aig ,chap4 ii4 #d-be1 #bcj ,chap4 iii41 #bgc ,the ,prophet ,joel4 ,general ,preliminary ,remarks1 #bia ,chap4 i4-ii4 #ag1 #cjb ,on chap4 ii4 #bc1 #cbe ,chap4 iii41 #cca ,the ,prophet ,amos4 ,general ,preliminary ,remarks1 #ceb ,chap4 ix41 #cfc ,the ,prophecy of ,obadiah1 #cii ,the ,prophet ,jonah1 #djg ,pg #f ,the ,prophet ,micah4 ,general ,preliminary ,remarks1 #dac ,chap4 i4 and ii41 #dbd ,chap4 iii4 and iv41 #ddj ,chap4 v4 #a1 #dgi ,history of the ,interpretation4 #a4 ,among the ,jews1 #dij #b4 ,among the ,christians1 #dii ,the ,quotation in ,matt4 ii4 #f1 #ejd ,chap4 v4 #b-ad1 #eac ,chap4 vi4 and vii41 #eba ,pg #g ,,translator',s ,,preface4 ,the ,translator avails himself of his privilege of offering a few prefatory words1 chiefly in order to express the deep obligation under which he lies to the ,rev4 ,john ,laing1 ,librarian in the ,new ,college1 ,edinburgh1 for the valuable assistance which he afforded to him in the translation of this work4 ,any observation on the work itself or its ,author would be superfluous1 if not presumptuous1 considering the high position which ,dr ,hengstenberg holds as a ,biblical ,scholar4 ,high1 however1 as this position is1 the ,translator feels confident that it will be raised by the present work1 the ,author's latest and first2 and not only revering ,dr ,hengstenberg as a beloved ,teacher1 but being under many obligations to him for proofs of personal kindness and friendship1 the ,translator sincerely rejoices in this prospect4 ,as regards the translation itself1 it was the ,translator's aim to bring out fully the ,author's meaning4 ,this object1 which ought to be the first in every translation1 has been kept steadily in view1 and preferred to all others4 ,in rendering ,dr ,hengstenberg's translation of ,scripture-passages1 the expressions in our ,authorized ,version have1 as far as possible1 been retained4 ,wherever the division of the text in the latter differed from that of the original text1 it has been added in a parenthesis2 an exception in this respect having been made in quotations from the ,psalms only1 in which this difference is almost constant1 the inscriptions not being counted in our ,english ,version1 while they are in the ,hebrew ,text4 ,edinburgh1 ,january #ahed4 ,pg #h ,blank page ,pg #i ,,the ,,author',s ,,preface4 ,the first edition of the ,christology1 although the impression was unusually large1 had been for years out of print4 ,it was impossible that the work could appear a second time in its original form4 ,the first volume of it--written twenty-five years ago--was a juvenile performance1 to which the ,author himself had become rather a stranger2 and the succeeding volumes required references to1 and comparisons with1 a large number of publications which subsequently appeared4 ,but for the remodelling and revising which these circumstances rendered necessary1 the ,author could not find leisure1 because new tasks were ever and anon presenting themselves to him2 and these he felt himself1 as it were1 involuntarily impelled to undertake4 ,but now he is led to believe that he could no longer delay4 ,a powerful inclination urges him to comment on the ,gospel of ,st ,john2 but he thinks that the right to gratify this inclination must first be purchased by him by answering a call which proceeds from the more immediate sphere of his vocation1 and which he is the less at liberty to disregard1 as manifold facts give indication that the ,christology has not yet completed its course4 ,the ,author dislikes to return to regions which have been already visited by him4 ,he prefers the opening up to himself of paths which are new4 ,it cost him therefore1 at first1 no little struggle to devote himself for years to the work of mere revision and emendation2 but very soon1 even here1 he learned the truth of the proverb3 ,if there be obedience in the heart1 love will soon enter4 ,the arrangement in the present edition differs from that which was adopted in the former4 ,it bears a closer resemblance to that which has been followed in the ,commentaries on the ,psalms1 ,revelation1 and the ,song of ,solomon4 ,the work opens with a discussion and commentary on the particular ,messianic prophecies1 in their historical order and connection4 ,the general investigations with which1 in the first edition1 the work commenced1 are1 in the present edition1 to appear in the form ,pg #ajof comprehensive treatises1 at the close4 ,the latter have thus obtained a more solid foundation2 while the objections which might be raised against this arrangement will have force only until the completion of the whole1 which1 if it please the ,lord1 will not be very long delayed4 ,the reader will then1 of course1 be at liberty1 before he enters upon the particular portions1 to go over1 cursorily in the meantime1 the closing treatises1--the proper study of which will be appropriate1 however1 only after he has made himself acquainted with the particular portions of the main body of the work4 ,the matter of the two sections of the first part has been entirely rewritten4 ,that of the two last parts appears more as a revisal only1--so executed1 however1 that not a single line has been reprinted without a renewed and careful examination4 ,the ,author shall take care that the new edition shall not exceed the former one in size4 ,the space intended to be occupied by the enlarged discussions1 and by the new investigations1 will be gained by omissions4 ,these1 however1 will be limited to such matters as now clearly appear to be superfluous2 so that the old will not retain any value when compared with the new edition4 ,the ,author1 had he pursued his usual method of representation1 would have curtailed many points1 particularly the history of the interpretation4 ,but the mode of treating the subject which he had previously adopted1 is not without its advantages1 and has a certain right to be retained4 ,the former character of the work1 in so far as the avoidance of everything properly ascetic is concerned1 has been1 in the present edition1 also retained4 ,scientific ,theology is at present threatened by serious dangers in our ,church4 ,works of an immediately practical interest more and more exclusively occupy the noblest minds1 since the problems which present themselves in this field are indeed unfathomable4 ,but the ,lord of the ,church will take care that an excellent gift1 which ,he has bestowed upon ,german ,christendom especially1 shall not1 for any length of time1 continue to be neglected4 ,if such were to be the case1 a more general decay would be gradually brought on2 and even those interests would be injured to which at present1 with a zeal1 noble indeed1 but little thoughtful1 solid theological learning is sacrificed4 ,not unto us1 ,o ,lord1 not unto us1 but to ,thy name give glory4 ,pg #aa ,,the ,,messianic ,,prophecies ,,in ,,the ,,pentateuch4 ,in the ,messianic prophecies contained in ,genesis we cannot fail to perceive a remarkable progress in clearness and definiteness4 ,the first ,messianic prediction1 which was uttered immediately after the fall of ,adam1 is also the most indefinite4 ,opposed to the awful threatening there stands the consolatory promise1 that the dominion of sin1 and of the evil arising from sin1 shall not last for ever1 but that the seed of the woman shall1 at some future time1 overthrow their dreaded conqueror4 ,with the exception of the victory itself1 everything is here left undetermined4 ,we are told neither the mode in which it is to be achieved1 nor whether it shall be accomplished by some peculiarly gifted race1 or family of the progeny of the woman1 or by some single individual from among her descendants4 ,there is nothing more than a very slight hint that the latter will be the case4 ,after the destruction of a whole sinful world1 when only ,noah with his three sons had been left1 the general promise is1 to a certain extent1 defined4 ,deliverance is to come from the descendants of ,shem2 ,japhet shall become a partaker of this deliverance2 ,ham is passed over in silence4 ,the prophecy becomes still more definite when the ,lord begins to prepare the way for the appearance of this deliverance1 by separating from the corrupt mass a single individual--,abraham--in order to make him the depositary of ,his revelations4 ,the ,lord1 moreover1 according to the good pleasure of ,his will1 further specifies which of the descendants of ,abraham1 to the exclusion of all the rest1 is to inherit this dignity1 with all its accompanying blessings4 ,from among the posterity of ,shem1 the ,lord sets apart first the family of ,abraham1 then that of #ab ,isaac1 and lastly that of ,jacob1 as the family from which salvation is to come4 ,yet even these predictions1 distinct though they be when compared with those previously uttered1 are still very indefinite when compared with those subsequently given1 and when seen in the light of the actual fulfilment4 ,even in these1 the blessing only is foretold1 but not its author4 ,it still remained a matter of uncertainty whether salvation should be extended to all the other nations of the earth through a single individual1 or through an entire people descended from the ,patriarchs4 ,the former is obscurely indicated2 but the mode in which the blessing was to be imparted was left in darkness4 ,this obscurity is partially removed by the last ,messianic prophecy contained in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj4 ,after what had previously taken place1 we might well expect that the question as to which of ,jacob's twelve sons should have the privilege of becoming the source of deliverance to the whole earth1 would not be left undetermined2 nor could we imagine that ,jacob1 when1 just before his death1 and with the spirit of a prophet1 he transferred to his sons the promises which had been given to his ancestors and himself1 should have passed over in silence the most important part of them4 ,on the contrary1 by being transferred to ,judah1 the promise of the ,messiah acquires not only the expected limitation1 but an unexpected increase of clearness and precision4 ,here1 for the first time1 the person of the ,messiah is brought before us2 here also the nature of ,his kingdom is more distinctly pointed out by ,his being represented as the peaceful one1 and the peacemaker who will unite1 under ,his mild sceptre1 all the nations of the whole earth4 ,judah is1 in this passage1 placed in the centre of the world's history2 he shall obtain dominion1 and not lose it until it has been realized to its fullest extent by means of the ,shiloh descending from him1 to whom all the nations of the earth shall render a willing obedience4 ,the subject-matter of the last four books of the ,pentateuch would naturally prevent us from expecting that the ,messianic prophecies should occupy so prominent a place in them as they do in ,genesis4 ,the object contemplated in these books is rather to prepare effectually the way for the ,messiah1 by laying the theocratic institutions on a firm foundation1 and by establishing the law which is intended to produce the knowledge of sin1 and ,pg #acto settle discipline1 and by means of which the image of ,god is to be impressed on the whole national life4 ,if the hope of the ,messiah was to be realized in a proper manner1 and to produce its legitimate effect1 it was necessary that the people should first be accustomed to this new order of life2 that1 for the present1 their regards should not be too much drawn away from this their proximate and immediate vocation4 ,yet1 even in the last four books there are not wanting allusions to ,him who1 as the end of the law1 was1 from the very beginning1 to be set before the eyes of the people4 ,in ,num4 xxiv4 #ag-ai1 ,balaam beholds an ,israelitish kingdom raised absolutely above the kingdoms of the world1 extending over the whole earth1 and all-powerful2 and he sees it in the form of an ideal king1 with reference to ,jacob's prophecy contained in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 according to which the kingdom rising in ,judah shall find its full and final realization in the person of one king--the ,messiah4 ,we have here the future ,king of the ,jews saluted from the midst of the heathen world1 corresponding to the salutation of the manifested one by the wise men from the ,east3 compare ,matt4 ii4 #a1 #b4 ,from the whole position of ,moses in the economy of the revelations of ,god1 it is1 a priori1 scarcely conceivable that he should have contented himself with communicating a prophecy of the ,messiah uttered by a non-,israelite4 ,we expect that1 as a prefiguration of the testimony which1 in the presence of the chief among the apostles1 he bore to the ,messiah after ,he had appeared 7compare ,matt4 xvii4 #c71 he should1 on his own behalf1 testify his faith in ,him1 and direct the people to ,him4 ,this testimony we have in ,deut4 xviii4 #ae-ai4 ,it is natural that ,moses' attestation should have reference to ,christ in so far as ,he is his antitype4 ,he bears witness to ,christ as the true ,prophet1 as the ,mediator of the divine revelation--thus enlarging the slender indications of ,christ's prophetical office given in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj4 ,a new and important feature of ,messianic prophecy is here1 for the first time1 brought forward2 and because of this1 the character of the prophecy is that of a germ4 ,behind the person of the future ,prophet1 which is as yet ideal1 the real person of ,him who is the ,prophet in an absolute sense1 is1 in the meantime1 concealed4 ,it is reserved for the future development ,pg #adof the prophetic prediction to separate that which is here beheld as still blended in a single picture4 ,finally1 the doctrine of the ,divine ,mediator of the unseen ,god1 of the ,angel of the ,lord1 or of the ,logos1 which forms the theological foundation for the ,christology1 is already found pervading the ,books of ,moses4 ,after this survey1 we now proceed to an exposition of the particular passages4 ,,the ,,protevangelium4 ,as the mission of ,christ was rendered necessary by the fall of man1 so the first dark intimation of ,him was given immediately after the fall4 ,it is found in the sentence of punishment which was passed upon the tempter4 ,gen4 iii4 #ad1 #ae4 ,a correct understanding of it1 however1 can be obtained only after we have ascertained who the tempter was4 ,it is1 in the first place1 unquestionable that a real serpent was engaged in the temptation2 so that the opinion of those who maintain that the serpent is only a symbolical signification of the evil spirit1 cannot be admitted4#a ,there must be unity and uniformity in the interpretation of a connected passage4 ,but the allegorical interpretation of the whole is rendered impossible by the following considerations3--,the passage stands in a book of a strictly historical character2 it is connected with what follows1 where the history of the same pair who1 in this section appear as actors1 is carried forward2 the condition of mankind announced to them in this passage as a punishment1 actually exists2 there is the absence of every indication from which it might be inferred that the author intended to write an allegory1 and not a history2 there exist various passages of the ,new ,testament 7e4g41 #b ,cor4 xi4 #c2 #a ,tim4 ii4 #ac1 #ad2 ,rom4 v4 #ab71 in which the context of the passage before us is referred to as a real historical fact2--and there are the embarrassment1 ambiguity1 and arbitrariness shown by the allegorical interpreters whenever they attempt to exhibit the truth intended to be conveyed2 whereas perspicuity is a characteristic essential to an allegory4--,the subtlety of the ,pg #ae serpent1 pointed out in chap4 iii4 #a1 is a natural attribute of that animal2 and the comparison1 in this respect1 of the serpent with the other beasts1 clearly indicates that a real serpent is spoken of4 ,to such an one the denunciation of the punishment must necessarily1 in the first instance1 be referred4 ,the last two reasons also exclude the opinion that ,satan assumed merely the semblance of a serpent4 ,the serpent itself cannot1 however1 have acted independently2 it can only have served as an instrument to the evil spirit4 ,the position which the serpent would occupy1 in the event of our considering it as the self-acting1 independent seducer1 would be in direct contradiction to the position assigned to the animal creation throughout ,holy ,scripture--especially in the history of the creation--and would break down the limits which1 according to it1 separate man and beast4 ,by such an assumption we should be transferred from the ,israelitish territory--which is distinguished by the most sharply defined limitations of the respective spheres of ,god1 angels1 men1 and beasts--to the heathenish1 were these are all mixed up together1 and where all the distinctions disappear in the confusion4 ,such a fact would be altogether isolated and without a parallel in ,holy ,scripture4 ,nor is it legitimate to adduce the argument1 that the conditions and circumstances of the paradisaic period were different from those of subsequent times4 ,it is indeed true1 according to the statements contained in the ,mosaic account itself1 that the animal world of that time was different from that of the present2 but whatever1 and how great soever1 this difference may have been1 it had no reference to the fundamental relation of the beasts2 and hence we cannot1 from it1 explain the high intellectual powers with which the serpent appears endowed1 and by the abuse of which it succeeded in seducing men4 ,man1 as the only being on earth created in the likeness and image of ,god1 is1 in ,gen4 i41 strictly distinguished from all other living beings1 and invested with the dominion over them4 ,into man alone did ,god breathe the breath of life 7ii4 #g72 and1 according to ii4 #ai1 #bj1 man recognises the great gulf which is fixed betwixt him and the world of beasts4 ,this gulf would be entirely filled up1 the serpent would altogether step beyond the sphere appointed by the ,creator to the world of beasts1 if there were no background in ,gen4 iii4 #a-e4 ,further1 ,the words ,pg #af of the serpent are an effect of wickedness3 they raise in man doubts as to the love of ,god1 in order thereby to seduce him to apostasy1 and bring about the execution upon him of the fearful threatening1 ,on the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die4 ,the serpent does not stand in the truth2 it speaks lies2 it represents to man as the highest good1 that which in truth is the highest evil4 ,such language cannot proceed spontaneously from a being1 the creation of which falls within the work of the six days during which the whole animal creation was made4 ,for everything created within this space of time was good1 according to the remark constantly repeated in the history of creation4 ,to this we must add the nature of the curse itself1 in which a higher reference to an invisible author of the temptation shines clearly through the lower reference to the visible one2 and1 further1 the remark in iii4 #a1 ,now the serpent was more subtle1 etc41 evidently points to something beyond the natural subtlety of the serpent1 as the result of which the subsequent words cannot be understood1 but behind which we may discover the intimation3 let him who reads1 understand4 ,the view1 that the serpent was the sole independent agent in this transaction1 is thus refuted by internal reasons4 ,it is set aside by the testimony of tradition also4 ,it was an opinion universally prevalent among the ,jews1 that ,satan himself had been active in the temptation of the first man4 ,it is found in ,philo2 and in the ,book of ,wisdom1 ii4 #bd1 it is said1 ,by the envy of ,satan1 death came into the world4 ,in the later ,jewish writings1 ,sammael1 the head of the evil spirits1 is called the old serpent1 or simply serpent1 because in the form of a serpent he tempted ,eve4 7,see the passage in ,eisenmenger's entdecktes ,judenthum i4 ,s4 #hbb47 ,in the sacred books of the ,persians also1 the agency of ,satan in the fall of our first parents is taught4 ,according to the ,zendavesta 7ed4 by ,kleuker1 ,th4 #c1 ,s4 #hd1 #he71 the first men1 ,meshia and ,meshianeh1 were created by ,god in a state of purity and goodness1 and destined for happiness1 on condition of humility of heart1 obedience to the requirements of the law1 and purity in thoughts1 words1 and actions4 ,but they were deceived by ,ahriman1 this mischievous one who from the beginning sought only to deceive1 were induced to rebel against ,god1 and forfeited their happiness by the eating of fruits4 ,according to the same book 7,th4 iii4 ,pg #ag ,s4 #fb71 ,ahriman in the form of a serpent springs down from heaven to earth2 and another evil spirit is called 7,th4 ii4 ,s4 #bag7 the serpent--,dew4 7,compare ,rhode1 die heilige ,sage des ,zendvolkes1 ,s4 #cib47 ,these facts prove that at the time when the ,persian religion received ,jewish elements 7compare ,stuhr1 die ,religionssysteme des ,orientes1 ,s4 #cgc71 and hence1 soon after the captivity1 the doctrine of ,satan's agency in the temptation of our first parents was prevalent among the ,jews4 ,but of decisive weight upon this point is the evidence furnished by the ,new ,testament4 ,we must here above all consider the important testimony supplied by the fact of the history of the first and second ,adam being parallel 7,rom4 v4 #ab sqq42 #a ,cor4 xv4 #de sqq471--a testimony1 the weight and importance of which have1 in modern times1 been again pointed out by ,hahn in his ,dogmatik4 ,the necessity of ,christ's temptation by the prince of this world1 in order that ,he1 by ,his firm resistance1 might deprive him of his dominion over mankind1 indicates that ,adam was assailed by the same tempter1 and1 by being overcome1 laid the foundation of that dominion4 ,among the express verbal testimonies of the ,new ,testament1 we must first consider the declarations of the ,lord ,himself2 and among these the passage ,john viii4 #dd requires1 above all1 to be examined4 ,in that passage the ,lord says3 1 4 1 4 1 4 ,there is1 indeed1 an element of truth in the opinion1 that ,satan is in this passage called the murderer of men from the beginning1 with reference to the murder by ,cain--an opinion lately brought forward again by ,nitzsch1 ,lcke1 and others4 ,this is evident from a comparison of #a ,john iii4 #ab1 #ae1 and of ,rev4 xii4 #c4 7,see my commentary on this passage47 ,moreover1 the words in ver4 #dj1 ,ye seek to kill ,me1 have a more direct parallelism in ,cain's murder of his brother1 than in the death which ,satan brought upon our first parents2 although it is altogether wrong to maintain1 as ,lcke does1 that ,satan at that time committed only a spiritual murder1 which could not have come under notice4 ,bodily death also came upon mankind through the ,pg #ah temptation4 7,compare ,gen4 ii4 #ag1 iii4 #ai2 ,wisd4 ii4 #bd2 ,rom4 v4 #ab47 ,but when the reference to ,cain's slaying his brother is brought forward as the sole1 or even as the principal one1 we must absolutely reject it4 ,cain's murder of his brother comes into consideration only as an effect of the evil principle which was introduced into human nature by the first temptation2 as1 indeed1 it appears in the book of ,genesis itself as the fruit of the poisonous tree1 the planting of which is detailed in chap4 iii4 ,the same murderous spirit which impelled ,satan to bring man under the dominion of death by the lie1 ,ye shall not surely die1 was busy in ,cain also1 and seduced him to slay his pious brother4 ,the following reasons forbid an exclusive reference to the deed of ,cain3--#a4 ,the murdering of man by ,satan is brought into the closest connection with his lie4 ,in connection with ,cain's deed1 however1 there was not even the appearance of falsehood2 while1 in the case before us1 lies1 false and deceitful promises of high blessings to be attained1 and the raising of suspicions against ,god1 were the very means by which he seduced man1 and brought him under the power of sin4 ,the words of ,jesus1 when they are understood according to their simple meaning1 carry us back to an event in the primitive times1 in which murder and the spirit of falsehood went hand in hand4 #b4 ,the co-operation of ,satan in ,cain's deed is not expressly mentioned in ,genesis4 ,that there was any such we can with certainty infer1 only if this event be viewed in close connection with what ,satan did against our first parents1--if1 behind the serpent1 ,satan be concealed4 ,whensoever ,jesus has to deal with ,jews1 ,he does not teach any mysterious doctrines1 but makes an open appeal to the events narrated in ,scripture4 #c4 ,the words1 ,ye are of your father the devil1 point to the seed of the serpent spoken of in ,gen4 iii4 #ae4 #d4 ,the words1 ,from the beginning1 direct to an event which happened at the first beginnings of mankind1 and in which our first parents took a part4 ,whatever this may be1 the event in question must be the first in which the devil manifested himself as the murderer of man4 ,now1 as by the ,jews of that time the temptation of the first man1 in consequence of which death entered the world1 was attributed to sin--and this appears not only from what has been already said1 but also from a passage in the ,sohar ,chadash1 referred to by ,tholuck1 in which the wicked are ,pg #ai called ,the children of the old serpent which has slain ,adam and all who are descended from him--it is evident that1 by the murderer of men from the beginning1 ,jesus can mean only the first tempter of men4 ,that the words1 from the beginning1 refer to the fall of the first man1 is also clearly shown by the parallel passages #a ,john iii4 #h1 and ,rev4 xii4 #i1 xx4 #b4 #e4 ,jesus says3 ,satan stands not in the truth1 does not move in its element1 because there is no truth in him4 ,this points to a well-known event1 in which ,satan displayed his lying nature2 and such is found only in the account of man's fall4 #f4 ,jesus calls ,satan not only a liar1 but1 by way of emphasis1 ,he designates him as the father of lies4 ,but ,satan can be designated thus1 only with reference to a lie of his which is charged against him by ,scripture1 and which preceded all lies on earth4 ,now that is the lie of which we have an account in ,gen4 iii4 #d1 #e4 ,the words1 and the father of it1 correspond with the words1 from the beginning4 ,another declaration of our ,lord is found in ,st ,matthew xiii4 #ch3 7i4e41 mali1 masculinum1 according to ,bengel71 compared with ver4 #ci3 4 ,the children of the wicked one1 or of the devil1 who are spoken of in this passage1 are the seed of the serpent who is mentioned in ,gen4 iii4 #ae1 and to whom allusion is made in the words also4 ,less incontrovertible is the passage in ,st ,matthew xxiii4 #cc1 where the ,lord addressed the ,pharisees as 1 4 7,compare ,matt4 xii4 #cd1 iii4 #g47 ,olshausen1 in his commentary on ,matt4 iii4 #g1 gives it as his opinion that the serpent designates the diabolic nature4 ,but1 according to ,matt4 xii4 #cd1 the point of comparison is only the wickedness 7 71 and it is quite sufficient to refer it to ,ps4 cxl4 #d1 where ,david says of the future enemies of his dynasty and family foreseen by him1 ,they have sharpened their tongues like a serpent2 adders' poison is under their lips 7compare also ,ps4 lviii4 #e2 ,deut4 xxxii4 #cc2 ,isa4 lix4 #e71--;a passage to which special allusion is made in the words1 1 ,matt4 xii4 #cd1 and in the connection of serpents with vipers1 which would be strange when referred to the history of the fall of the first man4 ,let us now turn from the ,lord to ,his disciples4 ,just as is done in the account of the transaction itself1 ,paul1 in #b ,cor4 ,pg #bj xi4 #c 7 71 places the invisible cause of the temptation in the background1 and speaks of the visible one only4 ,but that behind the serpent he beholds ,satan1 appears immediately from ver4 #ad and #ae3 4 1 where the is explained by ,bengel3 ,transformat se3 ,prsens1 i4e41 solet se transformare4 ,fecit id jam in ,paradiso4 ,the ,apostle alludes to an event narrated in ,scripture1 where ,satan shows himself in this character4 ,but such an occurrence is not found anywhere else than in ,gen4 iii4 #d1 #e1 the only passage where ,satan represents himself as the friend and saviour of men4 ,we have here the explanation of the in ver4 #c4--;,in ,rom4 xvi4 #bj1 the words1 1 contain an allusion to ,gen4 iii4 #ae1 too plain to be mistaken4 ,the ,apostle recognises1 in the promise of the victory over the serpent given there1 a pledge of the victory over ,satan4 ,the words of ,paul to ,elymas in ,acts xiii4 #aj1 ,o thou child of the devil1 likewise contain a distinct reference to that which1 in the history of man's fall1 is written concerning the serpent4 ,in the charge of subtlety1 mischief1 and enmity to all righteousness which he brings against him1 there is an evident allusion to ,genesis4 ,in #a ,john iii4 #h1 1 1 allusion is made to a most heinous sin committed by ,satan at the first beginnings of the human race4 ,but of such a sin there is no account1 unless ,satan be concealed behind the serpent4--,in ,rev4 xii4 #i 7comp4 xx4 #b71 ,satan is called the great dragon1 and the old serpent2 the last of which designations refers to the passage now under consideration4 ,the agency of ,satan in the fall of man has been controverted1 on the plea that1 had such been in operation1 it ought to have been mentioned4 ,but the absence of any such mention may be explained on the ground that it is not the intention of the holy writers to give any information respecting the existence of the devil1 but rather to give an account of his real manifestation1 to which1 afterwards1 the doctrine connected itself4 ,the judgment of the reader should not1 as it were1 be ,pg #ba anticipated4 ,the simple fact is communicated to him1 in order that1 from it1 he may form his own opinion4 ,further1--,it has been asserted that1 in the entire ,old ,testament1 and until the time of the ,babylonian captivity1 no trace of an evil spirit is to be found1 and that1 hence1 it cannot be conceived that his existence is here presupposed4 ,but this assertion may now be regarded as obsolete and without foundation4 ,closely connected with the affirmation1 to which allusion has just been made1 is the opinion which assigns the ,book of ,job to the time of the captivity1 an opinion which is now almost universally abandoned4 ,this book must necessarily have been written before the time of the captivity1 because ,jeremiah refers to it1 both in his ,prophecies 7e4g41 ,jer4 xx4 #ae sq41 which passage evidently rests on ,job iii47 and in his ,lamentations4 7,compare1 for a fuller discussion of this subject1 ,kper's ,jeremias libror4 ,sacrorum interpres atque ,vindex7 ,the reference in ,amos iv4 #c to ,job ix4 #h1 and several allusions occurring in the ,prophecies of ,isaiah 7e4g41 chap4 xl4 #b and lxi4 #g1 which refer to the issue of ,job's history1 which is here viewed as a prophecy of the future fate of the ,church2 the peculiar use of in xl4 #b1 which alludes to ,job vii4 #a2 chap4 li4 #i1 which rests on ,job xxvi4 #ac71 lead us still farther back4 ,the assertion of those also who feel themselves compelled to acknowledge the pre-exilic origin of the book1 but who maintain1 at the same time1 that the ,satan of this book is not the ,satan of the later books of the ,old ,testament1 but rather a good angel who only holds an odious office1 is more and more admitted to be futile2 so that we must indeed wonder how even ,beck 7,lehrwissenschaft i4 ,s4 #bdi7 could be carried away by it1 and could make the attempt to support this pretended fact by the supposition1 that the apostasy of part of the angels from ,god1 and their kingdom of darkness1 are ever advancing and progressing4 ,the principal evil spirit is1 in ,zech4 iii4 #a1 introduced as the adversary of the holy ones of ,god2 and this very name is sufficient to contradict such a supposition1 for the name is descriptive of the wickedness of the character4 ,he who1 under all circumstances1 is an adversary1 must certainly carry the principle of hatred in his heart4 ,he moves about on the earth for the purpose of finding materials for his accusations1 and grounds on which he may raise suspicions4 ,it is a characteristic ,pg #bb feature1 that he whose darkness does not comprehend the light1 knows of no other piety but that which has its origin in the hope of reward4 ,it is quite evident that it is the desire of his heart to destroy ,job by sufferings4 ,the only circumstance which seems to give any countenance to the supposition is1 that he appears in the midst of the angels1 before the throne of ,god4 ,but this circumstance is deprived of all its significancy1 if the fact be kept in view--which1 indeed1 is most evident--that the book is1 from beginning to end1 of a purely poetical character4 ,the form of it is easily accounted for by the intention to impress this most important thought3 that ,satan stands in absolute dependence upon ,god2 that1 with all his hatred to the children of ,god1 he can do nothing against them1 but must1 on the contrary1 rather subserve the accomplishment of the thoughts of ,god's love regarding them4--,isaiah likewise points to evil spirits in chap4 xiii4 #ba1 xxxiv4 #ad4 7,compare my ,comment4 on ,rev4 xviii4 #b47--;,but even in some passages of the ,pentateuch itself1 the doctrine regarding ,satan is brought before us4 ,it is true that it has been erroneously supposed to be contained in ,deut4 xxxii4 #ag 7compare on this opinion1 my ,comment4 on ,ps4 cvi4 #cg72 but only bigotry and prejudice can refuse to admit that1 under the ,asael1 to whom1 according to ,lev4 xvi41 a goat was sent into the wilderness1 ,satan is to be understood4 7,the arguments in support of this view will be found in the author's ,egypt and the ,books of ,moses1 p4 #afh ff47#b ,but we must advert to two additional considerations4 ,first1--,to every one who is in the least familiar with the territory ,pg #bc of divine revelation1 and who has any conception of the relation in which the ,books of ,moses stand to the whole succeeding revelation1 it will1 a priori1 be inconceivable1 that a doctrine which afterwards occupies so prominent a position in the revealed books should not have already existed1 in the germ at least1 in the ,books of ,moses4 ,secondly1--,we should altogether lose the origin and foundation of the doctrine concerning ,satan1 if he be removed from1 or explained away in1 the history of the fall4 ,that the first indication of this doctrine cannot by any means be found in the ,book of ,job1 has already been pointed out by ,hofmann1 who remarks in the ,schriftbeweis i4 ,s4 #cgh1 that ,satan appears in this book as a well-known being1 as much so as are the sons of ,god4 ,nor is ,lev4 xvi4 an appropriate place for introducing1 for the first time1 this doctrine into the knowledge of the people4 ,the doctrinal essence of the symbolical action there prescribed is this3--that ,satan1 the enemy of the ,congregation of ,god1 has no power over those who are reconciled to ,god2 that1 with their sins forgiven by ,god1 they may joyfully appear before1 and mock and triumph over1 him4 ,the whole ritual must have had in it something altogether strange for the ,congregation of the ,lord1 if they had not already known of ,satan from some other source4 ,the questions3 ,who is ,asael8 ,what have we to do with him8 must have forced themselves upon every one's mind4 ,it is not the custom of ,scripture to introduce its doctrines so abruptly1 to prescribe any duty which is destitute of the solid foundation of previous instruction4 ,if thus we may consider it as proved1 7#a7 that the serpent was an agent in the temptation1 and 7#b7 that it served only as an instrument to ,satan1 the real tempter1--then we have also thereby proved that the curse denounced against the tempter must have a double sense4 ,it must1 in the first place1 refer to the instrument2 but1 in its chief import1 it must bear upon the real tempter1 for it was properly he alone who had done that which merited the punishment and the curse4 ,let us now1 upon this principle1 proceed to the interpretation of our passage4 ,it is said in ver4 #ad3 ,and ,jehovah ,elohim said unto the serpent1 ,because thou hast done this1 thou shalt be cursed above all cattle and above every beast of the field2 upon thy belly shalt thou go1 and dust thou shalt eat all the days of thy life4--,if we do not ,pg #bd look beyond the serpent1 these words have in them something incomprehensible1 inasmuch as the serpent is destitute of that responsibility which alone could justify so severe a sentence4 ,there is no difficulty attached to the idea that the serpent must suffer4 ,it shares this fate along with all the other irrational earthly creation1 which is made subject to vanity 7,rom4 viii4 #bj71 and which must accompany man1 for whose sake it was created1 through all the stages of his existence4 ,but the question here at issue is not about mere suffering1 but about well-merited punishment4 ,the serpent is not1 like the whole remaining earth1 cursed for the sake of man 7,gen4 iii4 #ag71 but it is cursed because it has done this4 ,punishment presupposes being created in the image of ,god1 and1 according to chap4 i41 such a creation is peculiar only to man4 ,but as soon as we assume the co-operation of an invisible author of the temptation1 by whom the serpent was animated1 everything which is here threatened against the visible instrument acquires a symbolical meaning4 ,the degradation inflicted upon the latter1--the announcement of the defeat which it is to sustain in the warfare with man1--represent in a figure the fate of the real tempter only4 ,the instrument used by him in the temptation is at the same time the symbol of the punishment which he is destined to endure4 ,although it be said that the serpent should be cursed above all cattle1 etc41 this does not necessarily imply that the other animals are also cursed1 any more than the words1 subtle above all the beasts1 imply that all other beasts are subtle4 ,it is certainly not always necessary that the whole existing difference should be pointed out4 ,the sense is simply3 ,thou shalt be more cursed than all cattle4 ,in a similar manner it is said1 in the song of ,deborah1 concerning ,jael1 ,blessed above women shall ,jael be1 ,judges v4 #bd2 for this does not imply that all other women are blessed1 but means only that1 whether they be blessed or not1 ,jael1 at all events1 is the most blessed4 ,the eating of dust must not be interpreted literally1 as if the serpent were to feed upon dust2 but1 since it is to creep on the ground1 it cannot be but that it swallow dust along with its food4 ,thus we find in ,ps4 cii41 in the prayer of the afflicted1 ver4 #aj1 ,for ,i have eaten ashes like bread1 used of occasional swallowing of ashes4 ,as an expression of deepest humiliation1 the ,pg #be licking of dust is used in ,mic4 vii4 #ag1 where it is said of the enemies of the ,church1 ,they shall lick dust like the serpent4 ,in ,is4 xlix4 #bc1 compared with ,ps4 lii4 #i1 the licking up the dust of the feet is likewise inflicted upon the humbled enemies4 ,if1 undoubtedly1 there be1 even in these passages1 a slight reference to the one before us1 the allusion to it is still plainer in ,is4 lxv4 #be1 where it is said1 ,and dust shall be the serpent's meat4 ,of the denunciation in ,gen4 iii4 #ad1 #ae1 the eating of dust alone shall remain1 while the bruising of the heel shall come to an end4 ,and while all other creatures shall escape from the doom which has come upon them in consequence of the fall of man1 the serpent--the instrument used in the temptation--shall1 agreeably to the words in the sentence of punishment1 ,all the days of thy life1 remain condemned to a perpetual abasement1 thus prefiguring the fate of the real tempter1 for whom there is no share in the redemption4 ,the opinion which has been again of late defended by ,hofmann and ,baumgarten1 that the serpent had before the fall the same shape as after it1 only that after the fall it possesses as a punishment what before the fall was its nature1 stands plainly opposed to the context4 ,even a priori1 and in accordance with ,satan's usual mode of proceeding1 it is probable that he1 who loves to transform himself into an angel of light1 should have chosen an attractive and charming instrument of temptation4 ,this view loses all that is strange in it1 if only we consider the change of the serpent1 not as an isolated thing1 but in connection with the great change which1 after the fall of man1 affected the whole nature 7comp4 ,gen4 i4 #ca1 according to which the entire animal creation had1 previously to the fall1 impressed upon it the image of man's innocence and peace1 and the law of destruction did not pervade it1 ,gen4 iii4 #ag2 ,rom4 viii4 #bj72 and if only we keep in mind that1 before the fall1 the whole animal world was essentially different from what it is now1 so that we cannot by any means think of forming to ourselves a distinct ,image of the serpent1 as ,luther and others have done4 ,the serpent is thus1 by its disgusting form1 and by the degradation of its whole being1 doomed to be the visible representative of the kingdom of darkness1 and of its head1 to whom it had served as an instrument4 ,but the words1 when applied to the head himself1 give expression to the idea3 extreme contempt1 ,pg #bf shame1 and abasement shall be thy lot4 ,thus ,calmet remarks on this passage3 ,this enemy of mankind crawls1 as it were1 on his belly1 on account of the shame and disgrace to which he is reduced4 ,satan imagined that1 by means of the fall of man1 he would enlarge his kingdom and extend his power4 ,but to the eye of ,god the matter appeared in a totally different light1 because1 along with the fall1 ,he beheld the redemption4 ,ver4 #ae4 ,and ,i will put enmity between thee and the woman1 and between thy seed and her seed2 and it shall bruise thy head1 and thou shalt bruise its heel4 ,in the two other passages where the word occurs 7,ps4 cxxxix4 #aa compare my commentary on that passage and ,job ix4 #ag71 it undeniably signifies3 to crush1 to bruise4 ,this signification1 therefore1 which is confirmed by the ,chaldee ,paraphrast1 and which ,paul also follows in ,rom4 xvi4 #bj 71 whilst the ,,lxx4 have 71 must here also be retained4 ,it is only in appearance that1 in the second passage referred to1 the signification to crush seems to be inappropriate2 for there1 to crush is used in the sense of to destroy1 to annihilate1 just as in ,jonah iv4 #g1 to strike is used of the sting of an insect1 because its effect is similar to that produced by a stroke4 ,the words and are a second accusative governed by the verb1 whereby the place of the action is more distinctly marked out4 ,that by head and heel--a majus and a minus--a victory of mankind over the seed of the serpent should be signified1 was seen by ,calvin1 who says1 ,meanwhile we see how graciously the ,lord deals even in the punishment of men1 inasmuch as ,he does not give the serpent power to do more than wound the heel1 while to man is given the power of wounding its head4 ,for the words 'head' and 'heel' point out only what is superior and what is inferior4 ,that these words are by no means intended to describe the mutual antipathy between men and serpents1 is rendered evident by the consideration1 that1 if such were the intention1 no special punishment would be denounced against the serpent1 while1 according to the context1 such denunciation is certainly designed by the writer4 ,the words treat of the punishment of the serpent2 it is only in ver4 #af that the sentence against man is proclaimed4 ,it is true that the bite of a serpent is dangerous when it is applied even to the heel1 for the poison thence penetrates the whole body2 but to this fact in natural history there is here ,pg #bg no allusion1 nor is the biting of the serpent at all the point here in question4 ,the contrast between head and heel is simply that which exists between the noble and less noble parts1--those parts of which the injury is commonly curable or incurable4 ,the objection3 ,the serpent creeps1 man walks upright2 if then an enmity exists between them1 how can it be otherwise than that man wounds its head1 and that it wounds his heel8 entirely overlooks the consideration1 that1 according to ver4 #ad1 it is in consequence of the divine curse that the serpent creeps in the dust4 ,in this degraded condition--a condition which is not natural1 but inflicted as a punishment--it is implied that the serpent can attack man at his heel only4 ,this plain connection between ver4 #ae and #ad is evidently overlooked by those who hold the opinion1 that this mutual enmity is pernicious equally to man and serpent4 ,the very circumstance that the serpent is condemned to go on its belly1 and to eat dust1 whilst man retains that erect walk in which the image of ,god is reflected1 paves the way for the announcement of the victory in ver4 #af4 ,experience bears ample witness to the truth of the divine sentence1 that there shall1 in future1 be enmity between the seed of the serpent and mankind1 in so far as this sentence refers to the instrument of the temptation2 for abhorrence of the serpent is natural to man4 ,thus ,calvin remarks3 ,it is in consequence of a secret natural instinct that man abhors them2 and as often as the sight of a serpent fills us with horror1 the recollection of our apostasy is renewed4 ,but1 in the fate of the serpent which is here announced1 there is an indication of the doom of the spiritual author of the temptation4 ,it has been objected that any reference to ,satan is inadmissible1 because the seed of the serpent here spoken of cannot designate wicked men1 who are children of the devil2 for these1 too1 belong to the seed of the woman1 and cannot1 therefore1 be put in opposition to it4 ,but against this objection ,storr1 in his treatise1 de ,protevangelio1 remarks3 ,we easily see that many of the seed of the woman likewise belong to the seed of the serpent2 but they have become unworthy of that name1 since they apostatized to the common enemy of their race4 ,it is quite true that1 by the seed of the woman1 her whole progeny is designated2 but they who enter into communion ,pg #bh with the hereditary enemy of the human race are viewed as having excommunicated themselves4 ,compare ,gen4 xxi4 #ab1 where ,isaac alone is declared to be the true descendant of ,abraham1 and his other sons are1 as false descendants1 excluded4 ,moreover1 not only wicked men1 but also the angels of ,satan 7,matt4 xxv4 #da2 ,rev4 xii4 #g-i71 belong to the seed of the serpent4 ,the greater number of the earlier ,christian interpreters were of opinion that1 by the seed of the woman1 the ,messiah is directly pointed at4 ,but to this opinion it may be objected1 that it does violence to the language to understand1 by the seed of the woman1 any single individual2 and the more so1 since we are compelled to understand1 by the seed of the serpent1 a plurality of individuals1 viz41 the spiritual children of ,satan1 the heads and members of the kingdom of darkness4 ,further1--,as far as the sentence has reference to the serpent1 the human race alone can be understood by the seed of the woman2 and to this1 therefore1 the victory over the invisible author of the temptation must also be adjudged4 ,the reference to the human race is also indicated by the connection between her seed in this verse1 and the words1 ,thou shalt bring forth sons1 in ver4 #af4 ,finally1--,as the person of the ,messiah does not yet distinctly appear even in the promises to the ,patriarchs1 this passage cannot well be explained of a personal ,messiah2 inasmuch as1 by such an explanation1 the progressive expansion of the ,messianic prophecy in ,genesis would be destroyed4 ,if1 however1 by the seed of the woman we understand the entire progeny of the woman1 we obtain the following sense3 ,it is true that thou hast now inflicted upon the woman a severe wound1 and that thou and thine associates will continue to assail her3 but1 notwithstanding thine eager desire to injure1 thou shalt be able to inflict on mankind only such wounds as are curable2 while1 on the contrary1 the posterity of the woman shall1 at some future period1 vanquish thee1 and make thee feel all thy weakness4 ,this interpretation is found as early as in the ,targum of ,jonathan1 and in that of ,jerusalem1 where1 by the seed of the woman1 are understood the ,jews1 who1 at the time of the ,messiah1 shall overcome ,sammael4 ,thus1 too1 does ,paul explain it in ,rom4 xvi4 #bj1 where the promise is regarded as referring to ,christians as a body4 ,it has found1 subsequently1 an able defender ,pg #bi in ,calvin#c and1 in modern times1 in ,herder4#d ,the treatise of ,storr1 too 7in the ,opusc4 ii471 is devoted to its defence4 ,even according to this interpretation1 the passage justly bears the name of the ,protevangelium1 which has been given to it by the ,church4 ,it is only in general terms1 indeed1 that the future victory of the kingdom of light over that of darkness is foretold1 and not the person of the ,redeemer who should lead in the warfare1 and bestow the strength which should be necessary for maintaining it4 ,anything beyond this we are not even entitled to expect at the first beginnings of the human race2 a gradual progress is observable in the kingdom of grace1 as well as in that of nature4 ,it is certainly1 however1 not a matter of chance that the posterity of the woman is not broken up into a plurality1 but that1 in order to designate it1 expressions in the singular 7 and 7 are chosen4 ,this unity1 which1 in the meanwhile1 it is true1 is only ideal1 was chosen with regard to the person of the ,redeemer1 who comprehends within ,himself the whole human race4 ,and it is not less significant1 and has certainly a deeper ground1 that the victory over the serpent is assigned to the seed of the woman1 not to the posterity of ,adam2 and though1 indeed1 ,pg #cj the circumstance that the woman was first deceived may have been the proximate cause of it1 yet it cannot be exclusively referred to1 and derived from1 it4 ,by these remarks we come still nearer to the view of the ancient ,church4 ,footnote #a3 ,so1 e4g4 ,cramer in the ,nebenarbeiten zur ,theologischen ,literatur1 ,st4 #b4 ,footnote #b3 ,the positive reasons by which ,i there proved the reference to ,satan1 have not been invalidated by the objections of ,hofmann in his ,schriftbeweis i4 #cgi4 ,he says3 ,as an adjective formed in a manner similar to 7,num4 xxi4 #f7 must have an intransitive signification1 it cannot mean separated1 but according to its derivation from 1 it means3 altogether gone away4 ,but this argument has no force4 ,the real import of the form of the word is gradation1 and frequent repetition4 ,instances of a passive signification are given in ,ewald's ,lehrbuch der ,hebr4 ,sprache1 #aeg c43 compare1 e4g41 ,deut4 xxxii4 #e4 ,there is so much the stronger reason for adopting the passive signification1 that in ,arabic also1--which alone can be consulted1 as the comparison with the ,hebrew has no sure foundation on which to rest1--the root has the signification3 remotus1 sepositus fuit1 and the participle3 a ceteris se sejungens4 ,compare ,egypt and the ,b4 ,m41 p4 #afi4 ,footnote #c3 ,he says1--,this1 therefore1 is the sense of the passage3 ,the human race1 whom ,satan had endeavoured to destroy1 shall at length be victorious4 ,but1 meanwhile1 we must bear in mind the mode in which1 according to ,scripture1 that victory is to be achieved4 ,according to his own pleasure1 ,satan has1 through all centuries1 led captive the sons of men1 and even to this day he continues that sad victory4 ,but1 since a stronger one has come down from heaven to subdue him1 the whole ,church of ,god shall1 under her ,head1 and like ,him1 be victorious4 ,footnote #d3 ,briefe das ,studium der ,theologie betr4 ii4 ,s4 #bbe 7,tb4 #ahjh73 ,the serpent had injured them2 it had become to them a symbol of evil1 of seduction1 and at the same time of ,god's curse1 of contempt and punishment4 ,to men the encouraging prospect was held out1 that they1 the seed of the woman1 were stronger and nobler than the serpent1 and all evil4 ,they should tread upon the head of the serpent1 while the latter should be able to avenge itself only by a slight wound in their heel4 ,in short1 the good should gain the ascendancy over the evil4 ,such was the prospect4 ,how clear or how obscure it was to the first human pair1 it is not our present purpose to inquire4 ,it is enough that the noblest warrior against evil1 the most valiant bruiser of the serpent's head from among the descendants of ,eve1 was comprehended in this prospect1 and indeed pre-eminently referred to4 ,thus1 then1 only an outline1 as it were1 was given to them in a figure1 the import of which only future times saw more clearly developed4 ,,the ,,blessings ,,of ,,noah ,,upon ,,shem ,,and ,,japheth4 7,gen4 ix4 #ah-bg47 ,ver4 #bj4 ,and ,noah began and became an husbandman1 and planted vineyards4--,this does not imply that ,noah was the first who began to till the ground1 and1 more especially1 to cultivate the vine2 for ,cain1 too1 was a tiller of the ground1 ,gen4 iv4 #b4 ,the sense rather is1 that ,noah1 after the flood1 again took up this calling4 ,moreover1 the remark has not an independent import2 it serves only to prepare the way for the communication of the subsequent account of ,noah's drunkenness4 ,by this remark1 a defence of ,noah on account of his drunkenness is entirely cut off4 ,against such a defence ,luther expressed himself in very strong terms3 ,they1 says he1 who would defend the ,patriarch in this1 wantonly reject the consolation which the ,holy ,ghost considered to be necessary to the ,church--the consolation1 namely1 that even the greatest saints may1 at times1 stumble and fall4#a ,ver4 #ba4 ,and he drank of the wine1 and was drunken2 and he was uncovered within his tent4 ,ver4 #bb4 ,and ,ham1 the father of ,canaan1 saw the nakedness of his father1 and told his two brethren without4--,david is reproved in #b ,sam4 xii4 #ad1 for having given occasion to the enemies of ,god to blaspheme4 ,the same reproof might justly be administered to ,noah also4 ,ham rejoiced to find a nakedness in him whose reproving earnestness had often been a burden to his sinful soul4 ,luther remarks3 ,there is no doubt ,pg #ca that he 7,noah7 must have done much which was offensive to his proud1 high-minded1 and presumptuous son4444 ,for this reason we must not regard this deed of ,ham as mere child's play1 as an action destitute of all significance2 but as the result of the bitterest hatred and resentment of ,satan1 by which he prepares and excites his members against the true ,church1 and specially against those who are in the ministry4 ,let them1 therefore1 give earnest heed as to whether1 either in their persons or in their offices1 they give any occasion for blasphemy4 ,we have in this history an example of divine terrors and judgment1 that we may take warning from the danger of ,ham1 and not venture to be rash in judging1 though we should see that a secular or ecclesiastical authority1 or even our parents1 do err and fall4 ,ver4 #bc4 ,and ,shem and ,japheth took the garment4--,luther says3 ,such an outward and lovely reverence they could not have shown to their father1 if they had not1 inwardly and in their hearts1 been rightly disposed towards ,god1 and had not considered their father as a high priest and king set over them by divine appointment4 ,the mode of expression indicates that the real impulse proceeded from ,shem1 and that1 as a prefiguration of what was to take place1 ,japheth only showed susceptibility for the good1 and a willingness to join with him4 ,it is true that the singular is not1 by itself1 decisive4 ,when the verb precedes1 it is not absolutely necessary that it should agree with the subject in gender and number2 but the use of the singular is1 nevertheless1 remarkable4 ,if ,shem and ,japheth had been equally active1 the latter also would1 at once1 have been present to the mind of the writer4 ,under these circumstances1 there is the less reason for supposing that the use of the singular can be merely accidental1 especially as the words1 and he told his two brethren without1 immediately precede4 ,but all doubt is removed by a second allusion1 which goes hand in hand with the first1 and which is contained in the following verse4 ,ver4 #bd4 ,and ,noah awoke from his wine1 and knew what his younger son had done unto him4--,that ,ham was older than ,japheth1 appears from the circumstance that the order in which the sons of ,noah are introduced is uniformly thus3 ,shem1 ,ham1 ,japheth2 or1 beginning1 as in chap4 x41 from the youngest1 ,pg #cb ,japheth1 ,ham1 ,shem1--where1 however1 in ver4 #ba1 the words added immediately after ,shem--the elder brother of ,japheth1 expressly indicate that1 for a certain purpose1 the writer has proceeded in order from the youngest to the oldest4 ,it is altogether in vain that some have attempted to prove from chap4 xi4 #aj 7according to which ,shem was1 two years after the flood1 only a hundred years old71 compared with chap4 v4 #cb 7according to which ,noah began to beget when he was five hundred years old71 that ,shem was not the first-born4 ,the words in chap4 v4 #cb are3 ,and ,noah was five hundred years old1 and ,noah begat ,shem1 ,ham1 and ,japheth4 ,that the chronology can here be determined in a way which only approximates to the truth1 is implied1 as a matter of course1 in the statement1 that all the three sons were begotten when ,noah was five hundred years of age2 nothing more is meant than that ,noah begat them after he had finished his fifth1 or at the beginning of his sixth1 century4 7,compare ,ranke's ,untersuchungen47 ,it is just an indefinite statement of time which points forward to another genealogy1 in which the details will be given with greater precision4 ,ham everywhere stands between the two2 but that1 nevertheless1 he is1 in this passage1 called the younger son1 can be explained only on the ground that1 in the case before us1 ,shem and ,ham are the two more especially noticed--,shem as positively good1 and ,ham as positively evil1 while ,japheth only takes part with ,shem4 ,we have thus laid an excellent foundation for the right understanding of the subsequent prophetic utterance of ,noah--for the announcement1 namely1 of ,japheth's dwelling in the tents of ,shem4 ,ver4 #be4 ,and he said1 ,cursed be ,canaan2 a servant of servants shall he be to his brethren4--,luther says3 ,good old ,noah1 who is regarded by his son as a foolish and stupid old man1 deserving only of mockery1 appears here in truly prophetic majesty1 and announces to his sons a divine revelation of what shall come to pass in future days2 thus verifying what ,paul says in #b ,cor4 xii41 that ,god's strength is made perfect in weakness4 ,according to the opinion now current1 ,canaan is said to mean lowland1 and to be transferred from the land to the people1 and from the people to the pretended ancestor4 ,but this opinion is shown to be untenable by the considerations1 that1 according to historical tradition1 ,canaan appears first as ,pg #cc the name of the ancestor2--that the verb is never used of natural lowness1 but always of humiliation2--that in our passage1 where the name first occurs1 it stands in connection with servitude2--that the masculine form of the noun 7on the adjective termination an1 compare ,ewald's ,lehrb4 d4 ,heb4 ,spr4 #afc1 b47 is not applicable to the country2--that the country ,canaan is so far from being a lowland1 that it appears1 everywhere in the ,pentateuch1 as a land of hills 7see ,deut4 xi4 #b1 iii4 #be1 where the land itself is even called1 that goodly mountain72#b--;and1 finally1 that1 from all appearance1 ,canaan is primarily the name1 not of the country1 but of the people--the former being called 1 the land of ,canaan4 ,the real etymology of the name is almost expressly given in ,judges iv4 #bc2 1 and ,god bowed down1 or humbled1 on that day ,jabin the king of ,canaan4 ,compare also ,deut4 ix4 #c1 where1 in reference to the ,canaanites1 it is said1 1 ,he will humble or subdue them2 and ,nehem4 ix4 #bd3 ,thou bowedest down before them the inhabitants of the land--the ,canaanites4 ,our passage also proceeds upon this interpretation of the name4 ,we are the rather induced to assume a connection betwixt the name ,canaan1 and the words1 a servant of servants shall he be1 as in the case of ,japheth also there is certainly an allusion to the signification of the name1 and probably in the case of ,shem also4 ,perhaps even the name ,ham1 i4e41 the blackish one1 may be connected with the character which he here displays--a suggestion which we do not here follow up4 ,we refer1 however1 for an analogy1 to what has been remarked in our ,commentary on the ,psalms1 in the ,introduction of ,ps4 vii4 ,canaan means3 the submissive one4 ,it is a name which the people themselves1 on whose monuments it appears1 would never have appropriated to themselves 7just as in the case of the ,egyptians also1 on which point ,gesenius in the ,thesaurus1 and my work ,egypt1 etc41 p4 #baj1 may be compared71 unless it had been proper to them from their very origin4 ,ham gave this name to his son from the obedience which he demanded1 but ,pg #cd did not himself yield4 ,the son was to be the servant of the father 7for the name suggests servile obedience71 who was as despotical to his inferiors as he was rebellious against his superiors4 ,when the father gave that name to his son1 he thought only of submissiveness to his orders2 but ,god1 who1 in ,his mysterious providence1 disposes of all these matters1 had another submissiveness in view4 ,but why is ,canaan cursed and not ,ham8 ,for an answer to this question1 we are at liberty neither to fall back upon the sovereign decree of ,god1 as ,calvin does1 nor to say with ,hofmann3 ,canaan is the youngest son of ,ham 7,gen4 x4 #f72 and because ,ham1 the youngest son of ,noah1 had caused so much grief to the father1 he1 in return1 is to experience great grief from his youngest son4 ,this latter view rests upon false historical suppositions4 ,we have already proved that ,ham was not the youngest son of ,noah2 and it by no means follows from ,gen4 x4 #f1 that ,canaan was the youngest son of ,ham4 ,canaan's name is mentioned last among the sons of ,ham1 because the whole account of ,ham's family was to be combined with the detailed enumeration of ,canaan's descendants1 who stood in so important a relation to ,israel4 ,the boundary line as regards ,shem is formed1 quite naturally1 by that branch of ,ham's family which stood in so important a relation to the main branch of the family of ,shem4 ,but1 as little reliance can be placed upon the theological grounds of that conjecture2 for the question at issue is not the withdrawal of outward advantages4 ,canaan is cursed1 and it is just the sting of his servitude that it is the consequence of the curse4 ,it would indeed sadly affect the biblical doctrine of recompense1 if cursing and blessing were dependent upon such external reasons as1 in the case before us1 upon the circumstance that ,canaan was so unfortunate as to be the youngest son4 ,the right answer to the question is without doubt this3--,ham is punished in his son1 just as he himself had sinned against his father4 ,he is punished in this son1 because he followed most decidedly the example of his father's impiety and wickedness4 ,to this view we are led by the whole doctrine of ,holy ,scripture concerning the visitation of the guilt of the fathers upon the children4 7,compare the author's ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pentateuch1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cgc47 ,pg #ce ,to this view we are also led by the passage in ,gen4 xv4 #af3 ,but in the fourth generation they shall come hither again1 for the iniquity of the ,amorites is not yet full4 ,according to this passage1 the curse on ,canaan can be realized upon him1 only when his own iniquity has been fully matured4 ,this his iniquity is presupposed by his curse4 ,if he were to be punished on account of the guilt of the father1--a guilt in which he had no share1--then indeed no delay would have been necessary4 ,to this view we are farther led by what is reported in ,genesis concerning the moral depravity of ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 which1 in the development of the sinful germ inherent in the race1 had outrun all others1 and were1 therefore1 before all others1 overtaken by punishment4 7,to this view we are further led by what is reported in ,genesis concerning the moral depravity of ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 which1 in the development of the sinful germ inherent in the race1 had outrun all others1 and were therefore1 before all others1 overtaken by punishment7 ,to this view we are led1 further1 by ,lev4 xviii4 and the parallel passages1 where the ,canaanites appear as a nation of abominations which the land spues out2 and1 finally1 by what ancient heathen writers report regarding the deep corruption of the ,phnicians and ,carthaginians4 ,the remainder of ,ham's posterity are passed over in silence2 it is only in the sequel that we expect information regarding them4 ,but the foreboding arises1 that their deliverance will be more difficult of accomplishment than that of ,japheth1 although the circumstance that ,canaan is singled out from among them affords us decided hope for the rest4 ,but not even the exclusion of ,ham is to be considered as an unavoidable fate resting upon him4 ,heathenism alone knows such a curse4 ,the subjective conditions of the curse imply the possibility of becoming free from it4 ,to this1 there is an express testimony in the circumstance1 that the promise to the ,patriarchs is not limited4 ,david received the remnant of the ,canaanitish ,jebusites into the congregation of the ,lord4 7,compare remarks on ,zech4 ix4 #g47 ,and1 in the ,gospels1 the ,canaanitish woman appears as a representative of her nation1 and as a proof the possibility1 granted to them1 of breaking through the fetters of the curse4 7,compare also the remarkable passage1 ,ezek4 xvi4 #df47 ,pg #cf ,the curse is contrasted with the blessing pronounced on ,shem and ,japheth1 and the second member of ver4 #be is1 in vers4 #bf1 #bg1 used as a repetition in reference to each of the two brethren1 who were1 in it1 viewed together4--7,tuch47 ,ver4 #bf4 ,and he said3 ,blessed be ,jehovah1 the ,god of ,shem2 and ,canaan shall be a servant to them4--,the ,patriarch ,noah1--a just man1 and one who walked before ,god 7,gen4 vi4 #i71--;a man raised on high1 as ,david says of himself in #b ,sam4 xxiii4 #a1--;a man whose utterances are not mere individual wishes1 but1 at the same time1 prophecies1--sees such rich blessings in store for his son1 that1 instead of announcing them to him1 he immediately breaks out into the praise of ,god1 who is the ,author of them1 and from whom the piety of ,shem1#c the foundation of this salvation1 was derived1 just as ,moses1 in ,deut4 xxx4 #bj1 instead of blessing ,gad1 blesses him by whom ,gad is enlarged4 ,the manner in which ,god is here spoken of indicates1 indirectly1 what that is in which the blessing consists4 ,first1--,god is not called by the name ,elohim 7which is expressive of merely the most general outlines of ,his nature71 but by the name ,jehovah1 which has reference to ,his manifested personality1 to ,his revelations1 and to ,his institutions for salvation4#d ,secondly1--,jehovah is called the ,god of ,shem1--the first passage of ,holy ,scripture in which ,god is called the ,god of some person4 ,both these circumstances indicate that ,god is to enter into an altogether peculiar relation to the descendants of ,shem2 that ,he will reveal ,himself to them2 establish ,his kingdom among them1 and make them partakers of both ,his earthly and ,his heavenly blessings4 ,thus ,luther says3 ,this is indeed perceptible and clear1 that he thus binds closely together ,god and his son ,shem1 and1 as it were1 commits the one to the other4 ,in this1 he indeed indicates the mystery of which ,paul treats in ,rom4 xi4 #aa sq41 and ,christ1 in ,john iv4 #bb1 that salvation cometh from the ,jews1 but that1 nevertheless1 the heathen shall become partakers of it4 ,for ,pg #cg although ,shem alone be the real root and trunk1 yet into this tree the ,gentiles are1 as a strange branch1 graffed1 and enjoy the fatness and sap which are in the elect tree4 ,this light ,noah1 through the ,holy ,spirit1 sees1 and although he speaks dark words1 he yet prophesies very plainly1 that the kingdom of the ,lord ,jesus ,christ shall be planted in the world1 and shall grow up among the race of ,shem1 and not among that of ,japheth4 ,as yet ,shem and ,japheth were on an equal footing4 ,in the preceding part of the narrative1 nothing had been communicated by which ,god had1 in ,his relation to ,shem1 given up ,his nature as ,elohim1 and had become his ,god4 ,it is only by anticipation1 then1 that ,god can1 in ,his relation to ,shem1 be designated as ,jehovah1 and as the ,god of ,shem4 ,the thought can1 when fully brought out1 be this alone3 ,blessed be ,god1 who will1 in future1 reveal ,himself as ,jehovah1 and as the ,god of ,shem4 ,if it be overlooked that1 in this appellation of ,god1 there is implied the indirect designation of the blessings which are to be conferred on ,shem 7just as in ,gen4 xxiv4 #bg the words1 ,blessed be ,jehovah1 the ,god of my master ,abraham1 imply the thought3 because ,he has manifested ,himself as ,jehovah1 and as the ,god of my master2 which thought is then further carried out in the subsequent words3 ,and who hath not left destitute my master of ,his mercy and ,his truth2--and just as it is also in the utterance of ,zacharias in ,luke i4 #fh1 where the words1 ,blessed be the ,lord 1 the ,god of ,israel1 imply the thought3 because ,he has manifested ,himself as the ,lord in the ,new ,testament1 is used where the ,old has ,jehovah1 the ,god of ,israel71--if this be overlooked1 we obtain only a weak and inadequate thought1 very unsuitable to the context1 the purport of which evidently is to celebrate ,shem1 and to mark him out as worthy of his name4 ,so it is according to ,hofmann1 who1 in the words1 ,blessed--,shem1 finds only an expression of gratitude for the gift of this good son1 and who limits the announcement of blessings to the single one--that ,canaan shall be ,shem's servant4 ,against this feeble interpretation we must adduce these considerations also3 that nowhere does the gift of the good son form1 even indirectly1 the subject in question2--that thus we should lose the opposition of the curse and the blessing 7which requires that1 under ,pg #ch the ,blessed be ,jehovah1 we should have concealed the ,blessed be ,shem71 just as we should1 the contrast between ,jehovah here and ,elohim in the following verse2--and1 lastly1 that what1 in the following verse1 is said of ,japheth's dwelling in the tents of ,shem1 would thus be deprived of its necessary foundation4 ,it is said3 ,canaan shall be a servant to them4 ,the suffix 1 which cannot be used for the singular1 any more than can the suffix 1 for which it is only the fuller poetical form 7the instances of a different use1 adduced by ,ewald1 #bdg1 d41 can easily be explained in accordance with the rule71 indicates that the announcement has no reference to the personal relation of ,shem and ,ham1 but that they come into view solely as the heads of families4 ,ver4 #bg4 ,may ,god enlarge ,japheth1 and may he dwell in the tents of ,shem2 and ,canaan shall be a servant to them4--,these words1 in the first instance1 contain the blessing pronounced upon ,japheth2 but they entitle us to infer from them1 at the same time1 a glorious blessing destined for ,shem1 which is the source of blessing to ,japheth also4 ,they thus complete the promise of the preceding verse1 which directly refers to ,shem4 ,the first clause of this verse has received a great variety of interpretations4 ,the word 1 which refers to1 and is explanatory of1 the name 7i4e4 ,japheth71 is the future apoc4 ,hiphil of 4 ,the ,piel of this verb has in ,hebrew commonly the signification3 to persuade1 or prevail upon any one to do anything4 ,hence many interpreters translate with ,calvin3 ,may ,god allure ,japheth that he may dwell in the tents of ,shem4 ,luther also1 in his ,commentary1 thus explains it3 ,god will kindly speak to ,japheth2 while1 in his translation1 he has3 ,may ,god enlarge ,japheth4--,but to this interpretation it has been rightly objected1 that the verb is found only in ,piel1 not in ,hiphil1 with the signification to persuade2 that1 commonly1 it signifies to persuade only in a bad sense2 and that1 in this sense1 it is never construed with 1 but always with the accusative4--,all interpreters now agree that 7in conformity with the ,,lxx4 1 the ,vulgate dilatet ,deus ,japhet1 and ,onkelos7 must be derived from in its primary signification1 to be wide1 large1 in which it is found in ,prov4 xx4 #ai 7where ,pg #ci is accusative denoting the place71 and which signification is the common one in ,aramaic4 ,but they then again disagree1 inasmuch as some think of a local extension3 ,god shall give to ,japheth a numerous posterity1 which shall take possession of extended territories2 while others find here expressed the idea of general prosperity3 ,god shall prosper ,japheth1 shall bring him into a free and unstraitened position4 ,both of these views partake of alike mistake from regarding the words per se1 and as disconnected from the following announcement of ,japheth's dwelling in the tents of ,shem4 ,it must also be objected to them1 that in the case of ,shem1 only one feature of the blessing is pointed out1 viz41 that ,god will be to him ,jehovah1 his ,god2 and so1 likewise1 only one feature of the curse in the case of ,ham4 ,when those words are isolated1 separated from what follows1 and understood of extension1 this difficulty arises1 that ,ham enjoys this extension in common with ,japheth1 as is shown by a glance at ,gen4 x4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we understand them as expressive of prosperity 7according to ,hofmann3 general prosperity in the affairs of outward life71 this explanation is destitute of a sufficient foundation1 and there is nothing reported in the sequel regarding the fulfilment of such a promise4 ,to this we must further add1 that the verb is1 on account of its immediate nearness to the proper name1 too little expressive1 and that1 hence1 we must expect to find its meaning more fully brought out in what follows4 ,but if it be acknowledged that the extension appears here as a blessing1 in so far only as it leads to the dwelling in the tents of ,shem1 mentioned in the subsequent clause of the verse1 and that the blessing can consist in nothing else1 there is then no essential difference betwixt the two interpretations4 ,but we decide in favour of the latter view1 because the corresponding verb 1 to make wide1 to enlarge1 when construed with 1 is always used in the signification3 to bring into a free1 unstraitened1 easy1 happy position4 7,see1 e4g41 ,gen4 xxvi4 #bb2 ,ps4 iv4 #b2 ,prov4 xviii4 #af2 #b ,sam4 xxii4 #bj47 ,even when followed by an accusative1 the verb is found with this signification in ,deut4 xxxiii4 #bj3 ,blessed be ,he that enlargeth ,gad4 7,in this passage1 too1 the word has been understood as denoting extension2 and ,deut4 xii4 #bj1 xix4 #h1 have been appealed to in support of the opinion2 but this appeal is inadmissible1 because ,pg #dj extension of the borders is the thing which is there spoken of4 ,the allusion to the signification of the name ,gad good luck ,gen4 xxx4 #aa3 ,and ,leah said1 ,for good luck2#e and she called his name ,gad1 is favourable to our view1 as well as the circumstance1 that in this case the subsequent words are only an expansion of the general thought1 and more closely determine the happiness4 ,jehovah1 who enlarges ,gad1 according to the words which follow1 ,he dwelleth like a lion1 and teareth the arm with the crown of the head1 is contrasted with the enemies who wish to drive him into a strait4 ,if room be made for him1 he becomes happy1 as it were1 by enlargement47 ,to understand of prosperity and happiness1 is countenanced also by the consideration that1 in such circumstances1 the name ,japheth appears much more appropriate in the mouth of ,noah1 by whom it was uttered at a time when extension could be but little thought of1 and that it corresponds much better with the name ,shem4 ,elohim is to enlarge ,japheth4 ,elohim here stands in strict contrast with ,jehovah1 the ,god of ,shem4 ,it is only by dwelling in the tents of ,shem1 that ,japheth passes over into the territory of ,jehovah1--up to that time1 he belongs to the territory of ,elohim4 ,but ,elohim leads him to ,jehovah4 ,it is a contrast in all respects similar to that which we have in ,gen4 xiv41 where1 in verse #ai1 ,melchizedek speaks of the most high ,god1 whose priest he is1 according to verse #bj2 while ,abraham1 on the contrary1 speaks1 in verse #bb1 of ,jehovah the most high ,god4 ,there is a difference of opinion regarding the determination of the subject in the second clause of the verse3 and he shall dwell in the tents of ,shem4 ,according to a very ancient interpretation1 ,elohim is to be supplied as such2 from which the following sense would be obtained3 ,god shall indeed enlarge and prosper ,japheth1 but ,he shall dwell in the tents of ,shem4 ,pg #da ,the inferior blessing of ,japheth would thus be contrasted with the superior one of ,shem1 among whose posterity ,god should1 by ,his gracious presence1 glorify ,himself1--first in the tabernacle1 then in the temple1 and lastly1 should1 in the highest sense1 dwell by the incarnation of ,his ,son4 ,thus ,onkelos3 ,god shall extend ,japheth1 and ,his ,shechinah shall dwell in the tents of ,shem4 ,the ancient book ,breshith ,rabba remarks on this passage3 ,the ,shechinah dwells only in the tents of ,shem4 7,see ,schttgen1 de ,messia1 p4 #dda47 ,theodoret also 7,interrog4 #eh in ,genesin7 advances this explanation1 and ably brings out this sense4 ,it has of late been again defended by ,hofmann and ,baumgarten4 ,but against this view there are decisive arguments1 which show that ,japheth alone can be the subject4 ,to mention only a few3--,it cannot be doubted that it is on purpose that ,noah1 when speaking of ,shem1 has chosen the name ,jehovah1 and that1 as soon as he comes to ,japheth1 he makes use of the name ,elohim4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 suppose that here1 where1 according to this interpretation1 he would just touch upon the essential point in the peculiar relation of ,jehovah to the descendants of ,shem--the ,israelites1 he should have made use of the general name of ,elohim1 as in the case of ,japheth4 ,the subject--,jehovah--could not in this case have been omitted before 4 ,further1--,by such an interpretation we are involved in inextricable difficulties as regards the last clause of the verse4 ,the words1 ,and ,canaan shall be a servant to them1 can neither be referred to ,shem alone--for1 in that case1 they would be an useless repetition1 as in ver4 #be ,canaan had been doomed to be a servant to his brethren--nor can they be referred to ,shem and ,japheth at the same time2 the analogy of the in the preceding verse1 where the plural referred to the plurality represented by the one ,shem1 forbids this4 ,if1 then1 the last clause can refer to ,japheth only1 the clause in which the dwelling in the tents of ,shem is spoken of1 must likewise be referred to ,japheth4 ,to these arguments we may further add1 that there is something altogether strange in the expression3 ,god shall dwell in the tents of ,shem4 ,there is1 in ,holy ,scripture1 frequent mention of ,god's dwelling in ,his tabernacle1 on ,his holy hill1 in ,zion1 in the midst of the children of ,israel4 ,believers also are said to dwell in the tabernacle or temple of ,god2 but nowhere is ,pg #db ,god spoken of as dwelling in the tents of ,israel4 ,further1--,if we refer the second clause to ,shem1 the first1 in its detached position1 would be too general1 too indefinite1 and too loose to admit of the blessing of ,japheth being concluded with it4 ,we must not1 moreover1 lose sight of the consideration1 that when we refer the second clause also to ,japheth1 there springs up a beautiful connection between the relation of ,shem and ,japheth to each other in the present1 and during their future progress4 ,as the reaction against the corruption of ,ham had originated with ,shem1 and ,japheth had only joined him in it2 so in future also1 the real home of piety and salvation will be with ,shem1 to whom ,japheth1 in the felt need of salvation1 shall come near4 ,finally1--,the analogy of the promise made to the ,patriarch1 according to which all the nations of the earth shall be blessed by the seed of ,abraham1 is in favour of our referring the second clause to ,japheth4 ,and if the ,lord1 alluding to our passage1 says1 in ,luke xvi4 #i1 ,make to yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness1 that when ye fail they may receive you into everlasting habitations 7 71 ,he expresses the view which we are now defending4 ,for1 in that passage1 it is not ,god who receives1 but man3 they who1 by their prayers1 are more advanced1 come to the help of those who have made less progress2 those who have already attained to the enjoyment of salvation1 make them partakers who stand in need of salvation4 ,of those who correctly consider ,japheth to be the subject1 several 7,j4 ,d4 ,michaelis1 ,vater1 ,gesenius1 ,winer1 ,knobel7 give the translation3 and he shall dwell in renowned habitations4 ,but it is quite evident that this sense is admissible only as a secondary one3 as such1 we must indeed admit it in a context in which the appellative signification of the proper names is never lost sight of4 ,that is here1 however1 primarily a proper name1 is shown by the preceding verse4 ,the translation1 ,japheth shall dwell in the tents of ,shem1 is1 then1 the correct one4 ,but now the question is1--,how are these words to be understood8 ,according to the views of many interpreters1 it is intimated by ,japheth's dwelling in the tents of ,shem1 that the true religion would be preserved among the posterity of ,shem1 and would pass over from them to the descendants of ,japheth1 who should be received into the community ,pg #dc of the worshippers of the true ,god4 ,so ,jonathan explained its meaning3 ,the ,lord shall make glorious the end of ,japheth2 his sons shall be proselytes1 and shall dwell in the schools of ,shem4 ,so also ,jerome3 ,since it is said1 ,and he shall dwell in the tents of ,shem1 this is a prophecy concerning us1 who1 after the rejection of ,israel1 enjoy the instruction and knowledge of the ,scriptures4 ,augustine also 7c4 ,faustum xii4 #bd7 understands by the tents of ,shem1 the churches which the apostles1 the sons of the prophets1 have built up4 ,but although this explanation be1 in the main1 correct1 it cannot1 per se1 satisfy us4 ,it must be reconciled with that other explanation given by ,bochart 7,phaleg4 iii4 #a c4 #adg sqq471 ,calmet1 ,clericus1 and others1 according to which the passage is to be understood literally1 as foretelling that the posterity of ,japheth should1 at some future time1 gain possession of the country belonging to the descendants of ,shem1 and should reduce them to subjection4 ,the phrase1 and they dwelt in their tents1 is1 in #a ,chron4 v4 #aj1 used to express the relation of conquerors and conquered4 ,there is no parallel passage which could indubitably prove that dwelling in the tents of some one could ever1 by itself1 denote spiritual communion with him4 ,if ,shem had come to ,japheth with the announcement of salvation only1 it is not likely that a dwelling of ,japheth in the tents of ,shem would have been spoken of4 ,even the last clause of the verse--and ,canaan shall be a servant to them--when compared with the preceding verse1 according to which ,canaan is1 in the first place1 to be ,shem's servant only1 supposes that ,japheth will step beyond his borders1 and will invade the territory naturally belonging to ,shem4 ,if ,japheth assume the dominion of ,shem over ,canaan1 he must then dwell in the tents of ,shem in a sense different from the merely spiritual one4 ,finally--,even in other passages of the ,pentateuch1 an invasion of ,shem's territory by ,japheth is foretold4 ,in ,num4 xxiv4 #bd1 ,balaam says3 ,and ships shall come from the coast of ,chittim and shall afflict ,asshur1 and shall afflict ,eber1 and he also shall perish4 ,we have here 7compare my monography on ,balaam7 the announcement of a future conquest of the ,asiatic kingdoms by nations from ,europe1 such as was historically realized in the ,asiatic dominion of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,pg #dd ,on the other hand1 however1 it must not by any means be supposed that ,noah should1 in favour of ,japheth1 have weakened the power of the brilliant promise given to ,shem by the announcement of such a sad event2 for it is evidently his intention to exalt ,shem above his brethren1 as highly as he had excelled them both in his piety towards his father4 ,the difficulties which stand in the way of either explanation are easily removed by the following consideration4 ,the occupation of the land of ,shem by ,japheth is the condition of ,japheth's dwelling in the tents of ,shem4 ,why this dwelling is a blessing to ,japheth--,god shall enlarge ,japheth1 and he shall dwell1 etc4--appears from what precedes1 according to which1 ,god reveals ,himself to ,shem as ,jehovah1 and becomes his ,god4 ,to be received into the fellowship of ,jehovah--to find ,him in the tents of ,shem--constitutes the blessing promised to ,japheth4 ,but if such be the case1 there can be no more room for speaking of an announcement of any event adverse to ,shem4 ,underneath the adversity1 joy is hidden4 ,it will here be fulfilled in its highest sense1 that the conquered give laws to the conquerors4 ,and ,canaan shall be a servant to them4 ,the servitude of ,canaan was completed by ,japheth1 among whose sons 7,gen4 x4 #b7 ,madai also appears2 so that even the ,medo-,persian kingdom is one of ,japheth's4 ,phnicia was completely overthrown by him4 ,haughty ,tyrus fell to the ground4 ,zech4 ix4 #c1 #d1 when announcing the ,greek dominion 7compare ver4 #ac71 says3 ,and ,tyrus did build herself a stronghold1 and heaped up silver like dust1 and fine gold as the mire of the streets4 ,behold1 the ,lord will cast her out1 and ,he will smite her power in the sea1 and she shall be devoured with fire4 ,the objection raised by ,tuch and ,hofmann1 that the ,greeks and ,romans made ,shem also their servant1 is1 after what has been remarked1 destitute of all weight1 inasmuch as the servitude then had reference only to the lower territory4 ,shem and ,judah were not injured in that which1 in ver4 #bf1 had been pointed at as their chief and peculiar good4 ,on the contrary1 it shone out1 on that occasion1 in its highest glory4 ,canaan1 however1 lost that upon which he set the highest value4 ,in the case of ,canaan1 the servitude was the consequence of the curse2 but in the case of ,shem1 the outward servitude was a consequence of ,pg #de the blessing1 the most emphatic verification of the words3 ,blessed be ,jehovah1 the ,god of ,shem4 ,it must indeed fill us with adoring wonder when we see how clearly and distinctly the outlines of the world's history1 as well as of the history of ,salvation1 are here traced4 ,this1 says ,calvin1 is indeed a support to our faith of no common strength1 that the calling of the ,gentiles was not only predestined in ,god's eternal decree1 but also publicly proclaimed by the mouth of the ,patriarch2 so that we are not required to believe that by a sudden and fortuitous event merely1 the inheritance of eternal life was proclaimed to all men in common4 ,it is not a matter of chance that this prophecy was given immediately after the deluge1 which stands out as so great an event in the history of the fallen human race1--the first event1 indeed1 subsequent to the fall1 with which the ,protevangelium was connected4 ,a new period begins with the calling of ,abraham1 and in it we obtain another link in the chain of the prophecies1--a link which fits as exactly into that which is now under consideration1 as did this into the ,protevangelium4 ,the import of this prophecy is3 ,the kingdom of ,god shall be established in ,shem1 and ,japheth shall be received into its community4--,the meaning of the prophecy which is now to engage our attention is3 ,by the posterity of the ,patriarchs all the nations of the earth shall be blessed4 ,the promise to the ,patriarchs differs1 however1 from the prophecy upon which we have just commented1 not only in the natural progress--that from among the descendants of ,shem a narrower circle is separated--but in this circumstance also1 that in the former the blessing is extended to all the nations of the earth1 while in the latter ,ham is passed over in silence4 ,this difference1 however1 has its main foundation in the historical circumstances of the latter prophecy2 although1 it is true1 the complete silence which is observed regarding him1 calls forth apprehensions about his being less susceptible of salvation1 or1 at least1 of his not occupying any prominent position in the development of the kingdom of ,god4 ,here1 where the object was to punish ,ham for his wickedness1 not the prosperous1 but the adverse events impending upon him in his posterity1 are brought prominently out2 while1 on the other hand1 to ,shem and ,japheth blessings alone are foretold4 ,footnote #a3 ,the object of this event1 as pointed out by ,calvin1 viz41 that ,god intended to give to all coming ages1 in the person of ,noah1 a warning and an exhortation to temperance1 would likewise be frustrated by this unwarrantable apology4 ,footnote #b3 ,the reverse is the case with reference to ,aram1 which is essentially a lowland1 while these critics would have us to believe that it means highland4 7,compare ,baur on ,amos1 ,s4 #bbi47 ,footnote #c3 ,bochart remarks3 ,he cursed the guilty one in his own person1 because the source and nourishment of evil is in man himself4 ,but1 rejoiced at ,shem's piety1 he rather blessed the ,lord1 because he knew that ,god is the ,author of everything which is good4 ,footnote #d3 ,with reference to the difference between these two names1 compare the disquisitions in the author's ,genuineness of the ,pent41 vol4 i4 p4 #bac ff4 ,footnote #e3 ,our ,english authorized version translates the first clause of this verse thus3 ,and ,leah said1 ,a troop cometh1--a rendering which cannot be objected to on etymological grounds1 and which receives some support from ,gen4 xlix4 #ai4 ,the ancient versions1 however1 are quite unanimous in assigning to the in the signification of fortune1 good luck2 and render it either3 in or for good luck2 luckily1 happily 7so the ,,lxx4 et ,vulg471 or1 following ,onkelos and the ,mazorets3 good luck has come4--7,tr47 ,pg #df ,,the ,,promise ,,to ,,the ,,patriarchs4 ,a great epoch is1 in ,genesis1 ushered in with the history of the time of the ,patriarchs4 ,luther says3 ,this is the third period in which ,holy ,scripture begins the history of the ,church with a new family4 ,in a befitting manner1 the representation is opened in ,gen4 xii4 #a-c by an account of the first revelation of ,god1 given to ,abraham at ,haran1 in which the way is opened up for all that follows1 and in which the dispensations of ,god are brought before us in a rapid survey4 ,abraham is to forsake everything1 and then ,god will give him everything4 ,gen4 xii4 #a4 ,and the ,lord said unto ,abraham1 ,get thee out of thy country1 and from thy hone1 and from thy father's house1 into a land that ,i will show thee4 ,ver4 #b4 ,and ,i will make of thee a great nation1 and ,i will bless thee1 and make thy name great2 and thou shalt be a blessing4 ,ver4 #c4 ,and ,i will bless them that bless thee1 and him who curseth thee ,i will curse3 and in thee all the families of the earth shall be blessed4 ,into a land that ,i will show thee4 ,from what follows1 it appears that1 in the very same revelation1 the country was afterwards more definitely pointed out2 for ,abraham1 without having received any new revelation1 goes to ,canaan1 ,for the sake of brevity1 the writer gives the details only afterwards1 when he has occasion to report how they were carried out4 ,the land which ,god will show to ,abraham1 stands contrasted with that in which he is at home1--in which he and his whole being had taken root4 ,this contrast points out the greatness of the sacrifice which ,god demands of ,abraham4 ,with a like intent we have the accumulation of expressions--out of thy land1 etc4--corresponding to a similar one when the command was given to sacrifice ,isaac 7,gen4 xxii4 #b71 and forming the condition of the promise which follows4 ,this promise is intended to make the sacrifice a light thing to ,abraham1 by pointing out what he is to receive if he give up everything which stands in the way of his living to ,god4 ,a similar call comes to all who feel impelled to renounce the world in order to serve ,god4 ,this call to ,abraham is peculiar only as to its form2 as to its essence1 it is ever repeating itself4 ,this will appear the more distinctly1 when we inquire into the true reason of the outward separation here demanded of ,pg #dg ,abraham4 ,it can be ,intended only as a means of the internal separation4 ,in the circle in which he lived1 sin had already made a mighty progress1 as appears from ,josh4 xxiv4 #b1--;a passage which shows us that idolatry had already made its way into the family of ,abraham4 ,in order to withdraw him from the influences of this corruption1 ,abraham is removed from the circle in which he had grown up1 and in which he had hitherto moved4 ,that the special thing here demanded is only the result of the general duty of renunciation and self-denial1 which is here1 in ,abraham1 laid upon the whole ,church1 appears from the circumstance1 that the promise was renewed at a subsequent period1 when1 with a willing heart1 he had offered up his son ,isaac as a spiritual sacrifice to his ,god4 ,the carnal1 ungodly love to ,isaac is thus placed on a level with the attachment to the land1 etc41 which came betwixt him and his ,god4 ,the general idea1 that self-renunciation lies at the foundation1 is brought out in ,psalm xlv4 #aa4 ,the words1 ,and thou shalt be a blessing1 imply more than the words1 ,i will bless thee3 they are intentionally placed in the centre of the whole promise4 ,abraham shall1 as it were1 be an embodied blessing--himself blessed1 and the cause of blessing to all those who bless him--to all the generations of the earth who shall1 at some future period1 enter into this loving and grateful relation to him4 ,on the ground of ,abraham's self-denial1 and unreserved surrender1 blessing is poured out upon him1 blessing also on his account and through him4 ,the blessing connected with him begins with himself1 and extends over all the families of the earth4 ,and ,i will bless them that bless thee1 and him that curseth thee ,i will curse4 ,the blessing is based upon the turning to ,him who has appointed ,abraham for a blessing1 as we may learn from the example of ,melchizedek1 ,gen4 xiv4 #ai4 ,they who bless are themselves not far from the kingdom of ,god2 blessing1 therefore1 is the preparatory step towards being blessed4 7,compare ,matt4 x4 #dj-db47 ,and in thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed4 ,luther says3 ,now there follows the right promise1 which ought to be written in golden letters1 and proclaimed in all lands1 and for which we ought to praise and glorify4 ,the promise stands here in close connection with the ,mosaic ,pg #dh history of the creation4 ,according to that1 man1 as such1 bears upon him the impress of the divine image4 ,gen4 i4 #bf1 and is the depository of the divine breath4 ,gen4 ii4 #g4 ,from such a beginning1 we cannot conceive of any limitation of salvation which is not1 at the same time1 a means of its universal extension4 ,it must therefore be in entire accordance with the nature of the thing1 that even here1 where the setting apart of a particular chosen race takes its rise1 there should be an intimation of its universally comprehensive object4 ,there is1 in the circumstance of families being spoken of1 a distinct reference to the history of creation2 everywhere corresponds exactly with our word family4 ,it is everywhere used only of the subdivisions in the greater body of the nation or tribe4 ,the expression1 then1 points to the higher unity of the whole human race1 as it has its foundation in the fact that all partake in common of the divine image4 ,the announcement of the blessing in this passage leads us back to the curse pronounced in consequence of sin1 ,gen4 iii4 #ag3 ,cursed is the ground 7,adamah7 for thy sake4 7,compare ,gen4 v4 #bi47 ,this curse is1 at some future time1 to be abolished by ,abraham4 ,we can account for the mention of the families of the ,adamah only by supposing that a reference to this passage was fully intended2 for it was just the ,adamah 7primarily1 land7 which had there been designated as the object of the curse4 ,in announcing that all the families shall be blessed in ,abraham1 the writer refers also to the judgment described in ,gen4 xi41 by which the family of mankind1--which1 according to the intention of ,god1 ought to have been united1--was dispersed and separated4 ,when viewed in this connection1 we expect that the blessing will manifest itself in the healing of the deep wound inflicted upon mankind1 in the re-establishment of the lost unity1 and in the gathering again of the scattered human race around ,abraham as their centre4 ,beyond this1 no other disclosure about the nature of this salvation is given4 ,but that it consisted essentially in the union with ,god accomplished through the medium of ,abraham1 and that everything else could be viewed as emanating only from this source1 was implied simply in the circumstance1 that all the blessing which ,abraham enjoyed for himself had its origin in ,pg #di this1 that he could call ,god his ,god2 just as1 in ,gen4 ix41 it had been declared as the blessing of ,shem1 that ,jehovah should be his ,god1 and as the blessing of ,japheth1 that he was called to become a partaker of this blessing4 ,the blessings which were either bestowed upon or promised to the ,patriarchs and their descendants1 had for their object the advancement of knowledge and the practice of true religion1 and had been bestowed or promised only under this condition 7compare ,gen4 xvii4 #a1 xvii4 #ag-ai1 xxii4 #af-ah1 xxvi4 #e72 they could not hence expect anything else than that their posterity would1 in so far1 be the cause of the salvation of the heathen nations1 that the latter should1 by means of the former1 be made partakers of the blessings of true religion4 ,with regard to the manner in which this blessing was to come to the ,gentiles1 no intimation was given by the words themselves4 ,the person of the ,redeemer is not yet brought before us in them2 the indication of that was reserved for a later stage in the progress of revelation4#a ,the last clause of ver4 #c cannot1 by any means1 take away from the import of the preceding one2 the announcement of the blessing which1 through ,abraham1 is to come upon all the families of the earth1 does not repeal the foregoing one1 according to which all shall be cursed who curse him4 ,this view is confirmed by an allusion to this announcement in ,zech4 xiv4 #af-ai1 where the words1 the families of the earth1 must be regarded as a quotation4 ,in ver4 #af1 the prophet says that all the ,gentiles shall go up to ,jerusalem to celebrate the ,feast of ,tabernacles2 but then1 in vers4 #ag-ai1 he intimates the punishment of those who should refuse to go up4 ,luther says3 ,if you wish to ,pg #ej comprehend in a few words the history of the ,church from the time of ,abraham down to our days1 then consider diligently these four verses4 ,for in them you will find the blessing2 but you will see also1 that those who curse the ,church are cursed1 in turn1 by ,god2 so that they must perish1 while the eternal seed of the ,church stands unmoved and unshaken4 ,for which reason1 this text agrees with the first promise given in ,paradise1 concerning the seed which is to bruise the serpent's head4 ,for the ,church is not without enemies1 but is assailed and harassed so that she groans under it2 but yet1 by this seed1 she is invincible1 and shall at length be victorious1 and triumphant over all her enemies1 in eternity4 ,references to this fundamental prophecy are found in other parts of the ,old ,testament1 besides the passage just quoted from ,zechariah4 ,in the #bhth verse of ,ps4 xxii41 which was written by ,david1 it is said3 ,all the ends of the world shall remember1 and turn unto the ,lord2 and all the families of the ,gentiles shall worship before ,thee4 ,the realization of the blessing announced in ,genesis1 to all the families of the earth1 appears in this psalm as being connected with the wonderful deliverance of the just4 ,another reference is in ,ps4 lxxii41 which was written by ,solomon4 ,in ver4 #ag of this psalm it is said of ,solomon's great ,antitype3 ,and they shall bless themselves in ,him1 all nations shall bless ,him4 ,in these words the realization of the ,abrahamitic blessing is distinctly connected with the person of the ,redeemer4 ,among the ,new ,testament references1 the most remarkable is in ,john viii4 ,there1 in ver4 #ec1 the ,jews say to ,christ3 ,art thou greater than our father ,abraham1 which is dead8 ,whom makest thou thyself8 ,jesus1 in ver4 #ef1 answers3 ,your father ,abraham rejoiced to see ,my day2 and he saw it1 and was glad1 ,in ver4 #eg the ,jews reply3 ,thou art not yet fifty years old1 and hast thou seen ,abraham8 ,in ver4 #eh ,jesus thus says to them3 ,verily1 verily1 ,i say unto you1 ,before ,abraham was1 ,i am4 ,let us here1 in the first place1 consider only the declaration of ,jesus1 that ,abraham rejoiced to see ,his day1 and was glad4 ,it is altogether out of the question to think of any such explanation of this as the one given by ,lcke1 after the example of ,lampe namely3 that ,abraham1 in the heavenly life1 as a blessed ,pg #ea spirit with ,god1 saw the day of the ,lord1 and in heaven rejoiced in the fulfilment4 ,for it is the custom of ,jesus to argue with the ,jews from ,scripture2 and ,he cannot1 therefore1 here be appealing to an assumed fact which could not be proved from it4 ,the answer of the ,jews1 in ver4 #eg1 is likewise opposed to such an explanation1 inasmuch as it proceeds from a supposition which ,jesus had acknowledged to be true1 namely1 that the question at issue was a meeting of ,christ with ,abraham not mentioned in history2 and in ver4 #eh ,christ sets aside their argument1 ,thou art not yet fifty years old4 ,but ,lcke must himself bear testimony against his own interpretation1 inasmuch as1 according to it1 he is obliged to speak of the very foolish question of the adversaries4#b ,jesus saw ,abraham1 and ,abraham saw ,jesus4 ,not the person1 but the day of ,christ1 was future to ,abraham4 ,and this can be explained only by ,jesus' being concealed behind ,jehovah who appeared to him1 and gave him the promise1 that in him and his seed all the nations of the earth should be blessed4 ,this blessing of all the families of the earth is the day of ,jehovah1--the day when ,he will be glorified on the earth4 ,the key to the right understanding of this is furnished by the doctrine of the ,angel of the ,lord1 which meets us as early as in ,genesis4 ,from the passages in which1 at the appearances and revelations of ,jehovah1 the mediation of the ,angel is expressly mentioned1 we infer that it 7the mediation7 took place even when ,jehovah by ,himself is spoken of2 and the more so1 since1 even in the former series of passages1 the simple name of ,jehovah is commonly varied by that of the ,angel of ,jehovah4 ,the ,evangelist ,john's whole doctrine of the ,logos points to the personal identity of ,jesus with the ,angel of the ,lord4 ,not less so does the passage1 ,john xii4 #da2 and there is unquestionably a purpose which cannot be misunderstood in the fact1 that1 throughout the discourses of ,jesus1 as reported by ,john1 the declaration that ,god sent ,him occurs with such frequency and regularity4 ,but we can scarcely conceive of any other purpose than that of marking out ,jesus as the ,angel or ,messenger of ,jehovah spoken of in the writings of the ,old ,testament4 ,compare1 e4g41 xii4 #dd1 ,pg #eb #de3 ,jesus cried and said1 ,he that believeth on ,me1 believeth not on ,me1 but on ,him that sent ,me2 and he that seeth ,me1 seeth ,him that sent ,me4 ,so also iv4 #cd1 v4 #bc1 #bd1 #cj1 #cg1 vi4 #ch-dj1 vii4 #af1 #bh1 #cc1 viii4 #af1 #ah1 #bf1 #bi1 ix4 #d1 xii4 #di1 xiii4 #bj1 xiv4 #bd1 xv4 #ba1 xvi4 #e4 ,let us now1 in addition1 turn to the words1 ,abraham rejoiced to see 7literally1 that he might see7 ,my day4 ,it cannot be liable to any doubt1 that these words express the heartfelt1 joyful desire of ,abraham to see that day1 and that ,bengel correctly explains it by the words3 gestivit cum desiderio4 ,it is true1 signifies1 by itself1 only to rejoice2 but it has added to it the idea of joyful desire by its being connected with 4 ,the words now under consideration are expressive of ,abraham's joy and longing in the spirit for the manifestation of the day of ,jehovah and of ,christ1 while those in the last clause of the verse express the gratification of this longing1 which was produced by his receiving the promise that all the families of the earth should be blessed4 ,the ardent desire of ,abraham to see the day of ,christ implies that he already knew ,christ1 which can be the case only on the supposition of ,christ's concealment in ,jehovah4 ,this longing desire is not expressly mentioned in ,genesis1 but it is most intimately connected with all living faith1 and must necessarily precede such divine communications4 ,the seed of the divine promises is everywhere sown only in a well prepared soil4 ,that the promise in #b ,sam4 vii4 was to ,david1 in like manner1 a gratification of his anxious desire--an answer to prayer--we are not1 it is true1 expressly told in the historical record2 and yet1 that it was so1 is evident from the words of ,ps4 xxi4 #c3 ,thou hast given him his heart's desire1 and hast not withholden the request of his lips4 ,there is here1 then1 express mention made of that which is a matter of course1 and which forms the necessary condition of that which was reported in ,genesis4 ,we are furnished by the ,book of ,genesis itself with the right explanation of what is meant by the day of ,christ1 about which interpreters have so frequently erred4 ,it is not the time of ,his first appearing1 but1 in accordance with the ,new ,testament mode of expression 7e4g41 ,phil4 i4 #aj71 the time of ,his glorification4 ,the day of ,christ is the time when the promise1 ,in thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed1 shall be fulfilled4 ,pg #ec ,peter quotes this promise in ,acts iii4 #be1 #bf4 ,among the families of the earth he enumerates1 first and chiefly1 the people of the ,old ,testament dispensation2 and he does so with perfect propriety1 since there is no warrant whatever for limiting it to the ,gentiles4 ,paul probably refers to this promise when1 in ,rom4 iv4 #ac1 he speaks of a promise given to ,abraham and his seed that he should be the heir of the world4 ,a blessing imparted to the whole world is a spiritual victory obtained over the world4 ,the world is1 in a spiritual sense1 conquered by ,abraham and his seed4 ,express references are found in ,gal4 iii4 #h1 #ad1 #af4 ,the same promise is repeated to ,abraham in ,gen4 xviii4 #ah4 ,instead of the 7the families of the earth71 the 7the nations of the earth7 are there mentioned2 the family-connection is lost sight of1 and the comprehensiveness only--the catholic character of the blessing--is prominently brought out4 ,this promise is a third time repeated to ,abraham in chap4 xxii4 #ah1 on a very appropriate occasion1 even that on which1 by his endurance of the greatest trial1 and by his willingness to sacrifice to ,god even what was dearest to him1 he had proved himself a worthy heir of it4 ,it is certainly not a matter of mere accident that this promise is just three times given to ,abraham4 ,there is in this a correspondence with the three individuals to whom the same promise is addressed4 ,abraham1 however1 as the first of them1 and as the father of the faithful1 could not be put on the same footing with the others4 ,instead of in thee1 or by thee 771 we read in xxii4 #ah1 in or by thy seed 774 ,the same promise is confirmed to ,isaac in chap4 xxvi4 #ad1 and it is transferred to ,jacob in chap4 xxviii4 #ad4 ,but while1 in the first and second passages1 it is said1 by thee1 and in the third and fourth1 by thy seed1 we read1 in the passage last mentioned1 by thee and thy seed4 ,this evidently shows that1 in those passages where we find by thee standing alone1 we are not at liberty to explain it as meaning simply3 by thy seed4 ,it is not only the seed of ,abraham1 but ,abraham himself also1 who is to be the medium of blessing to the nations1 as the foundation-stone of the large building of the ,church of ,god1 as the father of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ according to the flesh1 and as the father of all believers4 ,there is a deep reason for the fact that1 wherever the posterity ,pg #ed of the ,patriarchs are spoken of as the instruments of blessing1 the singular is always used4 ,this circumstance is pointed out by ,paul in ,gal4 iii4 #af4 ,the ,apostle does not in the least think of maintaining that1 by seed1 only a single individual could be signified4 ,such an opinion1 no one who understood ,hebrew could for a moment entertain2 and ,rom4 iv4 #ac shows that ,paul was indeed very far from doing so4 ,the further development of the promise 7which took place within the limits of ,genesis itself1 in chap4 xlix4 #aj71 as well as its fulfilment 7it is1 indeed1 with reference to the promise now under consideration that the lineal descent of ,christ from ,abraham is established at the commencement of ,matthew's ,gospel71 showed that the real cause of the salvation bestowed upon the ,gentiles was not the seed of ,abraham as a whole1 but one from among them1 or rather ,he1 in whom this whole posterity was comprehended and concentrated4 ,now1 all to which ,paul intends to draw our attention is the fact1 that the ,lord1 who1 when ,he gave the promise1 had already in view its fulfilment which ,he had ,himself to accomplish1 did not unintentionally choose an expression which1 besides the comprehensive meaning which would most naturally suggest itself to the ,patriarchs1 admitted also of the more restricted one which was confirmed by the fulfilment4 ,in the ,protevangelium1 and in the promise of the ,prophet in ,deut4 xviii41 we have a case quite analogous to this2 and in #b ,sam4 vii4 there is likewise a case which is1 to a certain extent1 parallel4 ,in two passages out of the five--in chap4 xxii4 #ah and xxvi4 #d--the ,hithpael of the verb instead of the ,niphal is found4 ,we meet with it also again in the derived passage in ,ps4 lxxii4 #ag1 where it is said of the great ,king to come1 ,and they shall bless themselves in ,him1 all nations shall bless ,him4 ,in xxii4 #ah and xxvi4 #d1 we shall be allowed to translate only thus3 ,they shall bless themselves in thy seed4 ,for the ,hithpael of always signifies to bless oneself2 and the person from whom the blessing is derived 7,isa4 lxv4 #af2 ,jer4 iv4 #b71 or whose blessing is desired1 is connected with it by means of the preposition 4 7,compare ,gen4 xlviii4 #bj3 ,in thee shall ,israel bless1 saying1 ,god make thee as ,ephraim and as ,manasseh47 ,from the nature of the case1 it is evident that only the latter can be meant here4 ,this is shown also by the derived passage ,pg #ee in ,ps4 lxxii4 #ag1 where the words1 they shall bless themselves in ,him1 are explained by the subsequent expression1 they shall bless ,him4 ,but it is certainly not accidental that the ,hithpael is on both sides inclosed by the ,niphal1 and that the latter stands not only twice at the beginning1 but also at the end4 ,hence we are not at liberty to force upon the ,hithpael the signification of the ,niphal2 but the passages in which the ,hithpael occurs must be supplemented from the real fundamental passages4 ,to bless oneself in is the preparatory step to being blessed by4 ,the acknowledgment of the blessing calls forth the wish to be a partaker of it4 7,compare ,isa4 xlv4 #ad1 where1 in consequence of the rich blessings poured out upon ,israel1 the nations make the request to be received among them47 ,oftentimes in the ,psalms utterance is given to the expectation that1 through the blessing resting on the people of ,god1 the ,gentiles will be allowed to seek communion in it4 7,see my ,commentary on ,ps4 vol4 iii4 p4 lxxvii47 ,but especially in ,ps4 lxxii4 does it clearly appear how blessing oneself in is connected with being blessed by4 ,the very same people who bless themselves in the glorious ,king to come1 hasten to ,him to partake in the fulness of the blessings which ,he dispenses4 ,he has dominion from sea to sea2 they that dwell in the wilderness bow before ,him2 all kings worship ,him2 all nations serve ,him4 ,several commentators 7,clericus1 ,gesenius1 de ,wette1 ,maurer1 ,knobel1 and1 in substance1 ,hofmann also7 attempt to explain the fundamental passage by the derived ones1 and force upon ,niphal the signification of ,hithpael2 so that the sense would be only that a great and1 as it were1 proverbial happiness and prosperity belonged to ,abraham3 ,holding up this name as a pattern1 most of the eastern nations will comprehend all blessings in these or similar words3 ',god bless thee as ,he blessed ,abraham4' ,but this explanation is1 according to the usus loquendi1 incorrect1 inasmuch as the ,niphal is used only in the signification to be blessed1 and never means to bless oneself1 or to have or find one's blessing in something4 ,to a difference in the significations of the ,niphal and the ,hithpael1 we are led also by the circumstance that the ,hithpael is connected only with the seed--they shall bless themselves in thy seed1--and the ,niphal only with the person of the ,patriarch3 ,pg #ef they shall be blessed in thee1 and in thee and thy seed4 ,the ,patriarchs themselves are the source of blessing1 but1 if these nations blessed themselves1 they wish for themselves the blessing of their descendants exhibited before their eyes4 ,the reference in ,zech4 xiv4 #ag1 #ah to the promise made to the ,patriarchs presupposes the ,messianic character1 and the passive signification of 4 ,in like manner1 all the quotations of it in the ,new ,testament rest on the passive signification4 ,it is from this view of it that the ,lord says that ,abraham saw ,his day2 that1 in ,rom4 iv4 #ac1 ,paul finds1 in this promise1 the prophecy of ,his conquering the world2 and that1 in ,gal4 iii4 #ad1 he speaks of the blessing of ,abraham upon the ,gentiles through ,christ ,jesus4 ,gal4 iii4 #h and ,acts iii4 #be render by 4 ,the explanation1 they shall wish prosperity or happiness to each other1 is destructive of the gradation1 so evident in the fundamental passage1--blessing for1 on account of1 and by ,abraham2 it cannot account for the constant1 solemn repetition of this proclamation which everywhere appears as the acme of the promises given to the ,patriarch2 it destroys the correspondence existing between this blessing upon all the families of the earth1 and the curse which1 after the fall1 was inflicted upon the earth2 it does away with the contrast1 so clearly marked1 between the union of the families of the earth effected by the blessing1 and their dispersion1 narrated in chap4 xi42 it demolishes the connection existing between the prophecy of ,japheth's dwelling in the tents of ,shem 7ix4 #bg71 on the one hand1 and the ,ruler proceeding from ,judah1 to whom shall be the obedience of the nations 7xlix4 #aj71 on the other2 and it severs all the necessary connecting links which unite these prophecies with one another4 ,another attempt to deprive this promise of its ,messianic character--that1 namely1 made by ,bertholdt 7de ortu theol4 ,vet4 ,hebr4 p4 #ajb7 and others1 who would have us to understand1 by the families and nations of the earth1 the ,canaanitish nations--does not require any minute examination1 as the weakness of these productions of rationalistic tendency are so glaringly manifest4 ,footnote #a3 ,herder says1 in his ,briefe das ,studium der ,theol4 betr4 ii4 ,s4 #bgh3 ,if1 in ,abraham's descendants1 all the nations of the earth were to be blessed1 ,abraham might and should have conceived of this blessing in all its generality1 so that everything whereby his nation deserved well of the nations of the earth1 was implied in it4 ,if1 then1 ,christ also belongs to the number of those noble individuals who deserved so well1 the blessing refers to ,him1 not indirectly1 but directly2 and if ,christ be the chief of all this number1 it then most directly1 and in preference to all others1 refers to ,him2--although1 in this germ1 ,abraham did not distinctly perceive ,his person1 did not1 nor could1 except by special revelation1 in this bud1 so plainly discover the full growth of ,his merits4 ,footnote #b3 ,even in this he was preceded by ,lampe1 who remarks3 ,christ had spoken of seeing the day2 the ,jews speak about seeing the person4 ,he had spoken of ,abraham's seeing2 they speak of ,christ's seeing4 ,pg #eg ,,the ,,blessing ,,of ,,jacob ,,upon ,,judah4 7,gen4 xlix4 #h-aj47 ,ver4 #h4 ,judah1 thou1 thy brethren shall praise thee2 thy hand shall be on the neck of thine enemies2 before thee shall bow down the sons of thy father4 ,ver4 #i4 ,a lion's whelp is ,judah2 from the prey1 my son1 thou goest up2 he stoopeth down1 he coucheth as a lion1 and as a full-grown lion1 who shall rouse him up8 ,ver4 #aj4 ,the sceptre shall not depart from ,judah1 nor lawgiver from between his feet1 until ,shiloh come1 and unto ,him the people shall adhere4 ,thus does dying ,jacob1 in announcing what shall befall his sons in the end of the days 7ver4 #a71 speak to ,judah1 after having dismissed those of his sons to whom1 in the name of the ,lord1 he must tell hard things--things which did not1 however1 exclude them from the salvation common to all of them 7ver4 #bh71 although their shadow made the light of ,judah shine so much the more brightly4#a ,in ver4 #h everything depends upon a right determination of the meaning of the name ,judah4 ,being formed from the ,future in ,hophal1 it signifies3 ,he 7viz41 ,god7 shall be praised4 ,this explanation rests upon ,gen4 xxix4 #ce1 where ,leah1 after the birth of ,judah1 says1 ,now will ,i praise the ,lord2 and then follow the words3 therefore she called his name ,judah4 ,it rests likewise on the common use of the verb 1 the ,hiphil of which is1 according to ,maurer1 almost constantly used of praising ,god1 and is1 as it were1 set apart and sanctified for that purpose4 ,after having enumerated a multitude of passages1 ,gesenius says1 in his ,thesaurus3 ,in all these passages it refers ,pg #eh to the praise of ,god1 and it is only rarely 7,gen4 xlix4 #h compared with ,job xl4 #ad7 that it refers to the praise of men4 ,even these few exceptions are such only in appearance4 ,in ,job xl4 #ad1 he whom ,god will praise is not an ordinary man1 but a god-man4 ,by the subsequent words in ,gen4 xlix4 #h1 ,before thee shall bow down1 something divine is ascribed to ,judah2 we need not therefore be astonished that1 by the word 1 he is raised above the merely human standing4 ,they only who do not know the ,lion of the tribe of ,judah1 have any reason to explain away1 by a forced exposition1 the slight allusion to a superhuman dignity of the tribe of ,judah4 ,the greater number of expositors1 referring to the subsequent words1 thy brethren shall praise thee1 explain the name by the expression1 blessed one4 ,but1 even though we should retain the sure explanation which has been given above1 the idea now mentioned falls very naturally in with it4 ,he who1 in the fullest sense1 is a ,god's-praise 7,gottlob71 whose very existence becomes the cause of exclaiming1 1 praise be to ,god1 will assuredly receive praise from the brethren4--,judah thou stands 7according to ,gen4 xxvii4 #cf2 ,matt4 xvi4 #ah7 either for1 ,thou art ,judah1 i4e41 thou art rightly called so1 or1 according to ,gen4 xxiv4 #fj1 for1 ,thou ,judah1 i4e41 ,i have something particular to tell thee 7compare the emphatic ,i in ,gen4 xxiv4 #bg74--,on the expression1 ,thine hand shall be in the neck of thine enemies1 i4e41 thou shalt put to flight all thine enemies1 and press them hard while they are fleeing1 compare ,exod4 xxiii4 #bg1 ,i will make all thine enemies 7turn their7 backs unto thee1 and ,ps4 xviii4 #da1 where ,david says1 in the name of his family1 in which ,judah centred1 as did ,israel in ,judah1 ,thou hast given me mine enemies 7to be7 a back4 ,if1 however1 we inquire how this prophecy was fulfilled1 we must not overlook the circumstance that the subjects of it are sinful men1 and that1 for this reason1 ,god could never give up the right of visiting their iniquity1--a right which has its foundation in ,his very nature4 ,three sentences of condemnation precede the blessing upon ,judah1 and this indicates that ,judah too will be weighed in the balance of justice4 ,the excellency of dignity and the excellency of power1 which1 in ver4 #c1 were taken from ,reuben1 are here adjudged to ,judah4 ,the circumstance of his being the first-born could not protect the former against the loss of his privileges2 ,pg #ei and just as little will the divine election deliver ,judah from a visitation for his sins1 although1 by that election1 the total loss of his privileges is rendered impossible4 ,these two ordinations--the election and the visitation of sin in the elect--stand by the side of each other2 and the latter could not be stayed1 even at the time when ,judah had reached its height in the ,lion from out of his tribe2 for although the ,shepherd was blameless1 yet the flock was not so4 ,the ordination of election is1 however1 far from being thereby darkened2 it only shines by a brighter light4 ,often painful indeed were the defeats which ,judah had to sustain2 often enough--as during the centuries which elapsed between the destruction of ,david's kingdom and the coming of ,christ--was the promise1 ,thy hand shall be in the necks of thine enemies1 reversed4 ,but when we behold ,judah ever and anon returning and rising to the dignity here bestowed upon him1--when the advance then always keeps equal pace with the preceding depths of humiliation 7we need think only of ,david's time1 and compare it with the period of the ,judges71--then indeed it appears all the more clearly1 that the hand of ,god is ever active in bringing this promise to a sure and firm fulfilment4 ,in the history of the world there is only one power--that of ,judah--in which1 notwithstanding all defeats1 the promise1 ,thy hand shall be in the necks of thine enemies1 is ever1 after all1 fulfilled anew2 only one power1 the victorious energy of which may indeed be overcome by sleep1 but never by death2 only one power which can speak as does ,david in the name of his family in ,ps4 xviii4 #ch-dj3 ,i pursue mine enemies and overtake them1 ,i do not return till they are consumed2 ,i crush them1 and they cannot rise3 they fall under my feet4 ,and ,thou girdest me with strength for the war1 ,thou bowest down those that rise against me4--,luther remarks on this passage3 ,these promises must be understood in spirit and faith4 ,this may be seen from the history of ,david1 where it often appears as if ,god had altogether forgotten him1 and what ,he had promised to him4 ,after he had already been elected1 he was1 for ten years1 not able to obtain a fixed place1 or residence in the whole kingdom2 and when at last he took hold of the reins of government1 he fell into great1 grievous1 heinous sin1 and was sore vexed when he had to bear the punishment of it4 ,therefore these two things--promise and ,pg #fj faith--must always be combined2 and it is necessary that a man who has a divine promise know well the art which ,paul teaches in ,rom4 iv4 #ah1 to believe in hope even against hope4--,the kingdom of ,israel1 too1 was assailed by so great weakness1 and pressed down by so many burdens1 that it appeared as if every moment it would fall2 and this was especially the case when sin1 and punishment in consequence of sin1 broke in upon them1 as1 for instance1 after ,david's adultery with ,bathsheba1 and oftentimes besides4 ,yet1 even in all such temptations1 it always remains1 on account of the promise4--,it must be carefully observed that the words1 ,thy hand shall be in the neck of thine enemies1 are placed between1 ,thy brethren shall praise thee1 and ,before thee shall bow down the sons of thy father1 and that1 immediately after this1 ,judah's victorious power against the enemies of ,god's people is again pointed out4 ,this teaches us that the exalted position which ,judah1 when compared with his brethren1 occupies1 rests mainly on this3--that he is their fore-champion in the warfare against the world1 and that ,god has endowed him with conquering power against the enemies of ,his kingdom4 ,the history of ,david is best calculated to show and convince us1 how closely these two things are connected with each other4 ,that he was called to verify the truth of the promise given to ,judah1 ,thy hand shall be in the neck of thine enemies1 was first seen in his victory over ,goliath the ,philistine1 fore-champion of the world's power4 ,after ,david's word had been fulfilled1 ,the ,lord who delivered me out of the paw of the lion1 and out of the paw of the bear4 ,he will deliver me out of the hand of this ,philistine1 and the ,philistines had fled1 seeing that their champion was dead 7#a ,sam4 xvii4 #cg-ea71 then also were fulfilled the other words3 ,thy brethren shall praise thee1 the sons of thy father shall bow before thee4 ,and it came to pass as they came1 when ,david was returned from the slaughter of the ,philistine1 that the women came out of all the cities of ,israel1 singing and dancing1 to meet ,king ,saul1 with tabrets1 with joy1 and with instruments of music4 ,and the women answered one another as they played1 and said1 ,saul has slain his thousands1 and ,david his ten thousands4--,and in ,sam4 xviii4 #af1 it is said3 ,but all ,israel and ,judah loved ,david1 because he went out and came in before them2--and in #b ,sam4 v4 #b1 when the ten tribes acknowledged ,pg #fa ,david as their king1 they said3 ,also in time past1 when ,saul was king over us1 thou wast he that leddest out and broughtest in ,israel4 ,david would never have succeeded in overcoming the jealousy and envy of the other tribes1 unless the promise1 ,thy hand shall be in the neck of thine enemies1 had been fulfilled in him4--,before ,judah shall how down the sons of his father4 ,i have already remarked1 in my commentary on ,rev4 xix4 #aj1 that there is very little ground for the common distinction between religious and civil 7bowing down1 worship74 ,the true distinction is between that which is given to ,god1 either directly or indirectly1 in those who bear ,his image1 in the representatives of ,his gifts and offices1--and that which is exacted apart from1 and against ,god4 ,the ,god of ,scripture demands to be honoured in those who bear ,his image1 who hold ,his offices1--in father and mother and old men 7,lev4 xix4 #cb71 in princes 7,exod4 xxii4 #bh71 in the office of the judge 7,deut4 i4 #ag2 ,exod4 xxi4 #f1 xxii4 #g1 #h74 ,it is wicked to refuse this honour1 and its natural expression in the bowing of the body1 under the pretext1 that it is due to ,god alone4 ,it is to be refused only where there is some danger that1 thereby1 any independent honour would be ascribed to the mere vessel of the divine glory4 ,in what the consists1 which ,judah is to receive from his brethren1 we see distinctly from ,isa4 xlv4 #ad1 where the heathen1 at the time of the salvation1 fall down before ,israel3 ,thus saith the ,lord1 ,the labour of ,egypt and merchandise of ,ethiopia1 and the ,sabeans1 men of stature1 shall come over unto thee1 and be thine3 they shall go behind thee2 in chains they shall walk2 and they shall fall down before thee1 and they shall make supplication unto thee 7saying74 ,only in thee is ,god1 and there is no ,god else4 ,the ground of ,judah's adoration on the part of his brethren is this3--that ,god's glory is visibly upon him1 that by glorious deeds and victories the seal is impressed upon him3 with us is ,god 7,immanuel74 ,and this found its most glorious fulfilment in the ,lion of the tribe of ,judah1 in ,christ1 of whom it is said in ,phil4 ii4 #i-aa3 ,wherefore ,god has highly exalted ,him1 and given ,him a name which is above every name2 that at the name of ,jesus every knee should bow1 of all those who are in heaven1 and on earth1 and under the earth2 and that every tongue should ,pg #fb confess that ,jesus ,christ is the ,lord1 to the glory of ,god the ,father4 ,that1 in its final accomplishment1 this prophecy referred to ,christ1 was known to ,jacob as certainly as he makes ,judah centre in the ,shiloh4 ,this ,solomon also knew1 when1 in ,ps4 lxxii4 #aa 7compare ,ps4 xlv4 #ab71 he ascribes to his great ,antitype what is here ascribed to ,judah3 ,all kings shall worship ,him1 and all nations shall serve ,him4 ,the consequence of the worship by kings and nations is the worshipping by the sons of the father4 ,jacob thus transfers to ,judah that which ,isaac had promised to him3 ,people shall serve thee1 and nations shall worship thee3 be lord over thy brethren1 and thy mother's sons shall worship before thee3 ,gen4 xxvii4 #bi4 ,in ver4 #i ,judah is first designated a young lion1--a name which is intended to indicate1 that the victorious power ascribed to ,judah exists1 as yet1 only in the germ4 ,it required that centuries should pass away before he grew up to be a lion1 a full-grown lion4 ,by the long period which thus intervened between the promise and its fulfilment1 the divine election is the more strikingly manifested4 7,several interpreters have been of opinion that there is no difference between the young lion1 the lion1 and the full-grown lion4 ,but it is shown by ,ezek4 xix4 #c--;,and she brought up one of her 1 and it became a 1 and it learnt to tear prey1--that is a young lion not yet able to catch prey4#b7 ,in the words1 ,from the prey1 my son1 thou art gone up1 the prey is the terminus a quo3 for with is always used of the place from which it is gone up 7see ,josh4 iv4 #ag1 x4 #i2 ,song of ,sol4 iv4 #b73 the terminus ad quem is the usual abode1 as is shown by what follows4 ,the residence of the conqueror and ruler is conceived of as being elevated4 ,joseph1 according to ,gen4 xlvi4 #ca1 goes up to ,pharaoh1 and in ver4 #bi of the same chapter he goes up to meet his father4 ,the expression to go up is commonly used of those who come from ,pg #fc other countries to ,canaan4 ,but the going up in the passage under review implies also the going down into the lower regions to seek for prey1 just as in ,ps4 lxviii4 #ai1 where it is said of the ,lord1 after ,he had fought for ,his people1 and had been victorious1 ,thou hast ascended on high1 ,thou hast led captivity captive3 ,thou hast received gifts for men2 yea1 for the rebellious also1 that the ,lord ,god might dwell among them4 ,to dwell means there1 that1 after having accomplished all this1 thou mayest dwell gloriously1 and be inaccessible to the vengeance of the conquered1 in thy usual place of abode4 ,the sense is the same in the passage before us4 ,luther is therefore wrong in explaining it thus3 ,thou hast risen high1 my son1 by great victories1--as are others also who translate it1 ,from the prey thou growest up4 ,such a view of this clause would1 moreover1 break up the connection1 and all that follows would appear without preparation4#c ,the words1 ,he stoopeth down1 he croucheth as a lion1 and as a full-grown lion2 who shall rouse him up8 contain a transition and allusion to what we are subsequently told concerning ,shiloh4 ,even here we are presented with a picture of peace1--a peace1 however1 which is not to the prejudice of victorious power1 as in the case of ,issachar 7vers4 #ad1 #ae71 but which1 on the contrary1 preserves it undiminished4 ,if the promise1 ,from the prey1 my son1 thou art gone up1 found its first glorious1 although only preliminary1 fulfilment in the reign of ,david 7compare the enumeration of his victories in #b ,sam4 viii471 the words1 ,he stoopeth down1 he coucheth1 etc41 are the most appropriate inscription for the portal of ,solomon's reign4 ,but1 in ,christ1 the pre-eminence in the reign both of war and peace is united4--,that is not the lioness1 but only the poetical designation of the lion1 appears from just the very passage which is so commonly adduced in support of the former signification1 viz41 ,job iv4 #aa2 for the sons of the lion spoken of in that passage are the sons of the wicked 7compare ,job xxvii4 #ad74 ,a parallel to the words in ver4 #aj1 ,the sceptre shall not depart from ,judah1 is formed by the departing of the sceptre from ,egypt1 in ,zech4 x4 #aa3 ,and the pride of ,assyria shall ,pg #fd be brought down1 and the sceptre of ,egypt shall depart away4 ,all dominion of the world over the people of ,god is only temporary2 and so also1 the dominion of the people of ,god over the world1 as it centres in ,judah1 can sustain only a temporary interruption3 its departure is everywhere in appearance only2 and when it departs1 it is only that it may return with enhanced weight4--,the sceptre is the emblem of dominion4 ,the words1 ,a sceptre rises out of ,israel 7,num4 xxiv4 #ag71 are explained in chap4 xxiv4 #ai by the words1 ,dominion shall come out of ,jacob4 ,the question as to the subjects of this dominion must be determined from the preceding words2 for there shall not depart from ,judah what ,judah1 according to these words1 possesses4 ,hence they are 7#a7 the brethren of ,judah1 and 7#b7 the enemies of ,israel4 ,the latter can the less properly be excluded1 because of these alone the whole of the preceding verse treated4 ,in the words of ,balaam1 in ,num4 xxiv4 #ag 7which refer to the passage under consideration71 ,there cometh a star out of ,jacob1 and a sceptre riseth out of ,israel1 and smiteth the territories of ,moab1 and destroyeth all the sons of the tumult1 there is viewed1 in the sceptre1 only the victorious and destructive power which he shall display in his relation to the world2 but the subjects of dominion are1 in that passage1 according to ver4 #ai1 the heathens also4 ,the sceptre is pre-eminently an ensign of kings4 ,hence1 to the sceptre and star out of ,israel 7,num4 xxiv4 #ag7 corresponds1 in ver4 #g1 his king3 ,and his king shall be higher than ,agag1 and his kingdom shall be exalted1--i4e41 not merely a single royal person1 but the ,israelitish kingdom4 ,but we can here the less legitimately separate sceptre and kingdom from each other1 because1 even in the earlier promises made to the ,patriarch1 there is the prophecy of the rising of a kingdom among their descendants1--of a kingdom1 too1 that shall extend beyond the boundary of that posterity itself4 7,compare ,gen4 xvii4 #f1 ,kings shall come out of thee2 ver4 #af1 ,and she shall become nations4 ,icings of nations shall be of her4 ,see also ,gen4 xxxv4 #aa47 ,in vol4 ii4 of the ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pentateuch1 p4 #aff f41 we detailed the natural foundations which there existed for foreseeing the establishment of a kingdom in ,israel4 ,it is evident that the promise which was formally given to the whole posterity of the ,patriarchs1 is here appropriated specially to ,judah1 who1 for ,pg #fe the benefit of the whole people1 is to have the sceptre4#d ,from what has been remarked1 it appears that the fulfilment of this prophecy began first with ,david2 up to that time ,judah had been only a lion's whelp4 ,in the person of ,saul1 as ,calvin remarks1 there was an abortive effort2 but there came out at length in ,david1 under the authority and legitimate arrangement of ,god1 the sovereignty of ,judah1 according to the prophecy of ,jacob4 ,it also appears1 from what has been observed1 that ,reinke1 ,s4 #de of his ,monography1 ,die ,weissagung ,jacobs ber ,schilo1 ,mnster #ahdi 7a work written with great diligence71 is mistaken in determining the sense to be1#e that ,judah as a tribe would not perish1 and his superiority not cease1 until out of him ,shiloh1 etc42 and that he is wrong1 too1 in maintaining1 ,s4 #acc1 that the continuance of the royal dignity1 and the superiority over all the tribes until the time of ,christ1 were not required by these words4 ,from the remarks which we have made1 even more than that is required1--the continuance1 namely1 of ,judah's dominion over the ,gentiles2 for otherwise it would be necessary to make a violent separation of these words from the preceding ones4 ,that which has given rise to such interpretations and assertions1 viz41 the apparent difficulty encountered in pointing out the fulfilment1#f is by no means removed by such an explanation4 ,for1 if we look to the surface only1 what had been left of the superiority of the tribe of ,judah1 at the time when ,christ appeared8 ,but if we look deeper1 we shall find no reason for such feeble interpretations4 ,the fulness of strength which1 notwithstanding the deepest humiliation1 still dwelt in the sceptre of ,judah at the time when ,christ appeared1 is made manifest by the very appearance of ,christ--the ,lion of the tribe of ,judah4 ,although faint-heartedness1 perceiving only what is immediately before the eyes1 might have said1 ,the sceptre has departed from ,pg #ff ,judah1 to every one who was not blinded it must have been evident1 at the very moment when ,christ appeared1 that the sceptre had not departed from ,judah4 ,we must not allow ourselves to be perplexed by any events and arguments adduced to prove that the sceptre has departed from ,judah2 for the very same events and arguments would militate against the eternal dominion of his house which had been promised to ,david1 and would therefore make us doubtful of that also4 ,all these events and arguments lose their significancy1 when we remark1 that this departing is only an apparent1 not a definitive one2--that ,god never1 by ,his promises1 binds the hands of ,his punitive justice2--that ,his election goes always hand-in-hand with the visitation of the sins of the elected2 but that1 in the end1 the election will stand in all its validity4#a ,to ,judah applies exactly what in ,ps4 lxxxix4 #ca-ce is said of ,david3 ,if his children forsake ,my law1 and walk not in ,my judgments2 if they break ,my statutes1 and keep not ,my commandments2 then will ,i visit their transgression with the rod1 and their iniquity with stripes4 ,nevertheless1 ,my loving-kindness will ,i not utterly take from him1 nor suffer ,my faithfulness to fail4 ,my covenant will ,i not break1 nor alter the thing that is gone out of ,my lips4 ,but the greater the degradation that had come upon ,judah1 the more consoling is this promise4 ,if we see that neither the decline of ,david's and ,judah's dominion after ,solomon1 nor the apparently total disappearance of ,david's kingdom which took place after the ,chaldee catastrophe1 and continued for centuries2 nor the altogether comfortless condition 7when ,pg #fg looking only at what ,is visible7 which ,jeremiah describes in the words3 ,judah is captive in affliction and great servitude3 she dwelleth among the heathen1 and findeth no rest4 ,the anointed of the ,lord1 who was our consolation1 is taken in their pits1 he of whom we said1 ,under his shadow we shall live among the heathen4 ,slaves are ruling over us1 and there is none to deliver us from their hand2--if we see that all these things did not prevent the fulfilment of the words1 ,the sceptre shall not depart from ,judah until ,shiloh come2--that1 notwithstanding all these things1 it most gloriously manifested itself in the appearance of ,christ1 that the dominion remained still with ,judah2--why should we be dismayed though the river of the kingdom of ,god should sometimes lose itself in the sand8 ,why should we not be firmly confident that in due time it shall spring forth again with its clear and powerful waters8--,but the ,jews are not benefited by this distinction betwixt the definitive departing of the sceptre1 and one which is merely temporary4 ,the latter must necessarily be distinguished from the former by this3--that even in the times of abasement1 there must be single symptoms which still indicate the continuance of the sceptre2 and this was evidently the case in the times before ,christ4 ,in ,jehoshaphat1 ,uzziah1 and ,hezekiah1 the sceptre of ,judah brought forth new leaves2 after their return from the captivity1 the place1 at least1 was pointed out by ,zerubbabel1 which the ,davidic kingdom would1 at some future period1 again occupy4 ,the victories of the times of the ,maccabees1 though they themselves were not of the tribe of ,judah1 served to manifest clearly that the lion's strength and the lion's courage had not yet departed from ,judah4 ,it is not without significance that ,judas ,maccabeus had his name thus4 ,and under all these events the family of ,david always remained distinct1 and capable of being traced out4 ,but nothing of all this is to be found with the ,jews during the #ahjj years after ,christ2 and hence the vanity of their hope that1 in some future time1 it will be made evident by the appearance of ,shiloh1 that the supremacy and dominion of ,judah are not lost4 ,along with the sceptre which shall not depart from ,judah1 the lawgiver is mentioned1 for whom many would1 quite arbitrarily1 substitute the commander's staff4 ,is4 xxxiii4 #bb is explanatory of this passage2 ,for the ,lord our ,judge1 the ,pg #fh ,lord our ,lawgiver1 the ,lord our ,king1 ,he will save us--where the lawgiver is put on a level with the judge and king4 ,gesenius translates it by3 our commander4 ,the lawgiver shall not depart from between his feet4 ,this is a poetical expression for from him4 ,he is1 as it were1 to have the lawgiver wherever he moves or stands4 ,explanatory of this is the passage in ,judges v4 #bg1 where1 in the ,song of ,deborah1 it is said of ,jael1 ,he bowed between her feet1 he fell1 he lay down4 ,that which any one has between his feet1 is accordingly his territory on which he moves1 that within his reach4 ,in the latter passage the prose expression would have been1 beside her1 and in the passage under consideration1 from him4#h ,sceptre and lawgiver shall not depart from ,judah until ,shiloh come4 ,here everything depends upon fixing the derivation and signification of this word4 ,there cannot be any doubt1 and1 indeed1 it is now almost universally admitted1 that it is derived from 1 to rest4 ,in the first edition of this work1 the author gave it as his opinion1 that its formation was analogous to that of 1 tumult of war1 from 1 to be troubled1 1 smoke1 from 1 from 2 and many 7,hofmann1 ,kurtz1 ,reinke7 have stedfastly maintained this opinion even until now4 ,but the author must confess that the objections raised against this derivation by ,tuch are well-founded4 ,in the first place1 ,tuch remarks1 it is well known that forms like do not constitute any special class in the etymology1 but have originated from ,piel forms 7,ewald1 ,lehrb4 d4 ,hebr4 ,spr4 #aef b71 as is very clearly shown by 1 being found by the side of 4 ,but the o in the final syllable of these words is not an o unchangeable1 according to the rules of etymology1 and could1 therefore1 not remain in a root 2 and there is not found1 in general1 any form of a root analogous to 4 ,but far more decisive is another reason4 ,the nomina ,gentilia 7#b ,sam4 xv4 #ab71 7#a ,kings ,pg #fi xi4 #bi1 xii4 #ae71 lead us from the supposed form to the substantive termination which a liquida may drop1 and express the remaining vowel by 4 7,compare ,ewald1 #afc47 ,now that ,shiloh is an abbreviation of ,shilon is proved1 not only by the nomen gentile1 but also by the fact1 that the ruins of the town which received its name from the ,shiloh in our passage1 are1 up to the present moment1 called ,seilun1 and that ,josephus writes ,silo as well as ,silun1 7compare ,robinson1 ,travels iii4 #a1 p4 #cje72 and1 finally1 by the analogy of the name 1 which is formed after the manner of 1 and likewise shortened from 4 ,we must confess that ,tuch is right also when he asserts3 ,that it is quite impossible to give the word the signification of an appellative noun1 since it is only in proper names1 in which the signification of the suffix of derivation is of less consequence1 that on is shortened into o4 ,the only exception is that of 1 hell1 in ,prov4 xxvii4 #bj2 but even this is only an apparent exception1 and is quite in accordance with the rule laid down1 inasmuch as hell is1 in this passage1 personified1--as is frequently the case in other passages4 7,compare ,rev4 ix4 #aa47 ,but this case very plainly shows that we are not at liberty to apply1 as ,tuch does1 the measure of our proper names to those of ,scripture1 which are used in a more comprehensive sense4 ,the ,samaritan translation is1 therefore1 right in retaining the ,shiloh4 ,as the passage under review is the first in which the person of the ,redeemer meets us1 so ,shiloh is also the first name of the ,redeemer1--a name expressive of ,his nature1 and quite in correspondence with the names in ,is4 ix4 #e1 and with the name ,immanuel in ,is4 vii4 #ad4 ,with respect to the signification of the name1 the termination on1 according to ,ewald1 #afc1 forms adjectives and abstract nouns4 ,the analogy of the name 1 which is formed after the manner of 1 indicates that it has here an adjective signification1 and1 like ,solomon1 ,shiloh denotes the man of rest1 corresponds to the ,prince of ,peace in ,is4 ix4 #e1 and1 viewed in its character of a proper name1 is like the ,german ,friedrich ,frederick1 i4e41 rich in peace1 the ,peaceful one4 ,to ,shiloh the nations shall adhere4 ,the word is commonly understood as meaning obedience4#i ,but it does not ,pg #gj denote every kind of obedience1 but only that which is spontaneous1 and has its root in piety4 ,this is clearly shown by the only passage in which1 besides the one under consideration1 the word is found1 ,prov4 xxx4 #ag3 ,an eye that mocketh at his father1 and despises the of his mother4#aj ,to this view we are led also by the ,arabic1 where the word ,arabic3 99991 does not denote obedience in general1 but willing obedience1 docility1 in the viii4 sq4 dicto audientem se prbuit more discipuli4 7,compare ,camus in ,schulten1 on ,prov4 l4 c47 ,cognate is ,arabic3 99991 to take care1 to guard oneself1 specially of the conflict with the higher powers of life1 in the viii4 semet custodivit ah aliqua re1 et absolute timuit coluitque ,deum1 pius fuit4 ,from it is derived pius in ,prov4 xxx4 #a1 where the son of ,jakeh speaks to ,with me is ,god1 and ,i prevail 7,heb4 ,itheal and ,ucal47 ,luther1 although he has misunderstood the right meaning of ,shiloh1 has yet beautifully comprehended the sense of the whole passage4 ,this is a golden text1 he says1 and well worthy of remembrance1 namely3 that the kingdom of ,christ will not be such a kingdom as that of ,david was1 of whom it is said1 #a ,chron4 xxviii4 #c1 that he was a man of war and had shed much blood4 ,the kingdom of ,shiloh1 which succeeded it1 is not a kingdom so powerful and bloody1 but consists in this1--that the word1 by which it is ruled or administered1 is heard1 believed1 and obeyed4 ,all will be done by means of preaching2 and this will just be the sign by which the kingdom of ,christ is distinguished from the other kingdoms of this world1 which are governed by the sword and by physical power4 ,to this point also ,luther draws attention1 that our prophecy affords a powerful support to the ministers of the ,word3 ,it will be done by the proclamation of the promise1 and ,shiloh will be ,pg #ga present with it1 and will be efficient and powerful through our tongue and mouth4 ,that by the nations are not meant either the ,canaanites in particular1 or the tribes of ,israel1 but the nations in general1 appears1 partly1 from the connection with what precedes--those who now willingly obey are evidently the enemies spoken of in vers4 #h1 #i1--;and1 partly1 from the reference to the earlier promises of ,genesis1 all of which refer to nations in general4 ,if a limitation had been intended1 an express indication of it would have been necessary4 ,the analogy of the parallel ,messianic passages likewise militates against such a limitation2 e4g41 ,ps4 lxxii4 #h3 ,he shall have dominion from sea to sea1 and from the river unto the ends of the earth4 7,compare also ,is4 xi4 #aj47 ,in the ,shiloh1 the whole dignity of ,judah as ,lord and ,ruler is to be concentrated4 ,it hence follows1 that the nations who will not willingly obey ,him as ,shiloh1 must experience the destructive power of ,his sceptre 7,num4 xxiv4 #ag2 ,ps4 ii4 #i71 and that behind the attractive kingdom of peace1 there is concealed the destructive dominion of the lion4 ,several interpreters have determined the sense as follows3--,the dominion of ,judah should continue until the appearing of ,shiloh2 but that then he should lose it4#aa ,we1 on the contrary1 conceive the sense to be this3 ,that the tribe of ,judah should not lose the dominion until he attain to its highest realization by ,shiloh1 who should be descended from him1 and to whom all the nations of the earth should render obedience4 ,against this interpretation no difficulty can be raised from the 4 ,it is true that this term has always a reference to the terminus ad quem only1 and includes it2 but it is as certain that1 very frequently1 a terminus ad quem is mentioned which is not intended to be the last1 but only one of special importance2 so that what lies beyond it is lost sight of4 7,compare the author's ,dissert4 on the ,genuin4 of ,daniel1 pp4 #ee-ef47 ,if ,pg #gb only sceptre and lawgiver were secured to ,judah up to the time of ,shiloh's coming1 then1 as a matter of course1 they were so afterwards4 ,that1 previous to the coming of ,shiloh1 great dangers would threaten the sceptre of ,judah1 is indicated by ,jacob1 since he lays so much stress upon the sceptre's not departing until that time4 ,hence we expect circumstances that will almost amount to a departing of the sceptre4 ,but the positive reason for this interpretation is1 that if1 according to the other opinion1 ,judah were told that the dominion of his tribe were1 at some future period1 to cease1 this would not be in harmony with the tone of the remainder of the address to ,judah1 which is altogether of a cheerful character4 ,and then1--,jacob would1 in that case1 not have allowed the ,messianic promise to remain in its indefinite state2 from former analogies1 we should have been induced to expect that he would transfer it to one of his sons4 ,and finally1--from the analogy of the other ,messianic prophecies1 as well as from history1 it seems not to be admissible to contrast the dominion of ,judah with the kingdom of the ,messiah4 ,the dominion of ,judah does not by any means terminate in ,christ2 it rather centres in ,him4 ,we are not expressly told that the ,shiloh will be descended from ,judah2 but this is supposed to be self-evident1 and is not1 therefore1 expressly mentioned4 ,if it were otherwise1 the ,shiloh would not have been alluded to in connection with ,judah at all4 ,a restriction of the promise to ,judah1 such as would take place if the ,shiloh did not belong to him1 is the less legitimate1 inasmuch as1 in vers4 #h1 #i1 victory and dominion1 without any limitation1 are promised to ,judah4 ,having thus adduced the positive arguments in support of our view of this passage1 let us now further examine the opinions of those who differ from us4 ,here1 then1 we must first of all consider those which are at one with us in the acknowledgment that this passage contains the promise of a personal ,messiah4 #a4 ,some interpreters 7,jonathan1 ,luther1 ,calvin1 ,knapp1 ,dogm47 are of opinion that is compounded of the noun 1 child1 and the suffix of the third person3 ,until his 7i4e41 ,judah's7 son or descendant1 the ,messiah1 shall come4 7,luther1 somewhat differently47 ,but this supposed signification of ,pg #gc is destitute of any tenable foundation4 ,that by such an explanation1 moreover1 there is a dissolution of the connection betwixt the ,shiloh in this passage1 and ,shiloh the name of a place1 which is written in precisely the same manner1 is decisive against both the view just given forth and that which follows4 #b4 ,others 7the last of them4 ,sack in the second edition of his ,apolog47 suppose the word to be erroneously pointed4 ,they propose to read 1 compounded of for 1 and the suffix for 4 ,they suppose the language to be elliptical3 ,until ,he come to whom the dominion or sceptre belongs1 or is due4 ,the principal argument in support of this exposition is1 that most of the ancient translators seem to have followed this punctuation4 ,it is true that this is doubtful as regards ,onkelos and the ,targum of ,jerusalem1 which translate1 ,donec veniat ,messias1 cujus est regnum2 for we may well suppose that here is simply rendered by 1 while the following clause adds a complement from ,ezek4 xxi4 #cb1 which is founded upon the passage now under review4 ,but it is certain that the ,,lxx4 supposed the punctuation to be 4 ,they translate3 7,thus read the two oldest manuscripts--the ,vatican and ,alexandrian4 ,the other reading1 1 has no doubt crept in from the later ,greek translations1 notwithstanding the charge which ,justinus ,dial4 c4 ,tryph4 #abj raises against the ,jews1 that they had substituted the for the earlier 4 ,comp4 ,stroth in ,eichhorn's ,repert4 ii4 #ie2 ,hohne's edition of the ,,lxx47 ,aquila and ,symmachus1 who translate1 1 as well as the ,syriac and ,saadias1 who translate1 ,ille cujus est1 follow the same reading4 ,but the defenders of this exposition are wrong in inferring1 from the circumstance of the ancient translations having followed this punctuation1 that it was generally received4 ,had such been the case1 how could it be explained that it should no more be found in any of our manuscripts8 ,for the circumstance that forty manuscripts collected by de ,rossi have written without a 1 cannot be considered as of great weight2 since it is merely a defective way of writing1 occurring frequently in similar words4 ,but if we consider the fact1 which may be established upon historical grounds1 that the ,jews watched with most anxious care the uncorrupted preservation of the received ,pg #gd text of ,holy ,scripture1 according to its consonants and pronunciation2 that they did not even venture to receive into the text any emendation1 though it should have recommended itself as in the highest degree probable2 while1 on the other hand1 the ancient ,jewish and ,christian translators took great liberties in this respect1 and1 in the manifold perplexities into which1 owing to their insufficient resources and knowledge1 they fell1 helped themselves as best they could2--it will certainly appear to us most probable1 that even the ancient translators found our vocalization of the word as the received one1 but felt themselves obliged to depart from it1 because they could1 in accordance with it1 give no suitable derivation2 whilst the punctuation adopted by them agreed perfectly with the traditional reference of the passage to the ,messiah4 ,but if this be the case1 the authority of the ancient translations can here be of no greater weight than that of any modern interpreter2 and1 in the case under review1 we are at liberty to urge all those considerations which are1 in general1 advanced against any change in the vocalization1 unless there be most urgent reasons for it4 ,the ancient translators1 moreover1 can have less weight with us1 because we can distinctly perceive that a misapprehension of ,ezek4 xxi4 #cb 7#bg7--on which passage we shall afterwards comment--gave rise to their error4 ,against this explanation it may be further urged1 not only that the prefix occurs nowhere else in the ,pentateuch--an objection which is not in itself sufficient1 since it occurs so early as in the song of ,deborah1 ,judges v4 #g--;but also1 that the supposed ellipsis would be exceedingly hard4 7,compare ,stange1 ,theol4 ,symm4 i4 ,s4 #bch ff47 ,before we pass on to a consideration of the non-,messianic interpretation1 we shall first state the reasons which bear us out in assuming that the passage under review contains a prophecy of a personal ,messiah4 ,it is certainly1 with respect to this1 a matter of no slight importance that1 with a rare agreement1 exegetical tradition finds a promise to this effect here expressed2 and this circumstance has a significance so much the greater1 the less that this agreement extends to the interpretation of the particulars1 especially as regards the ,shiloh4 ,how manifold soever these differences may be1 all antiquity agrees in interpreting this passage of a personal ,messiah2 and we could scarcely conceive of such an agreement1 ,pg #ge unless there had been some objective foundation for it4 ,as regards1 first1 the exegetical tradition of the ,jews1--how far soever we may follow it1 it finds1 in ver4 #aj1 the ,messiah4 ,thus the ,,lxx4 explained it2 for1 that by what is destined to ,judah 7 7 they understood nothing else than the sending of the ,messiah1 is shown by the words following-- 1--which can refer only to the ,messiah4 7,compare ,is4 xlii4 #d according to the ,,lxx47 ,in the same manner the passage was understood by ,aquila1 the ,chaldee ,paraphrasts1 the ,targum of ,onkelos1 of ,jonathan1 and of ,jerusalem1 the ,talmud1 the ,sohar1 and the ancient book of ,breshith ,rabba4 ,several even of the modern commentators1 e4g41 ,jarchi1 have retained this explanation1 although a strong doctrinal interest1 to which others yielded1 tempted them to give another interpretation to this passage1 which occupied so prominent a place in the polemics of the ,christians4 7,compare the passage in ,raim4 ,martini ,pug4 ,fid4 ed4 ,carpzov2 ,jac4 ,alting's ,shiloh1 ,franc4 #affj1 #dto also in the opp4 t4 v42 ,schttgen1 hor4 ,hebr4 ii4 p4 #adf2 and1 most completely1 in ,jac4 ,patriarch4 de ,schiloh vatic4 a depravatione ,clerici assertum1 op4 ,seb4 ,edzardi1 ,londini #afih1 p4 #ajc sq47 ,the ,samaritans1 too1 understood the passage as referring to the ,messiah4 7,compare ,samarit4 ,briefwechsel1 communicated by ,schnurrer in ,eichhorn's ,repert4 ix4 ,s4 #bg47 ,it is true that from other passages 7,epist4 ,samarit4 ad ,jobum ,ludolfum1 in ,eichhorn's ,repert4 xiii4 ,s4 #bha-i1 compared with de ,sacy de ,vers4 ,samarit4 ,arab4 ,pentateuchi in ,eichhorn's ,biblioth4 x4 ,s4 #ed7 it appears that1 in accordance with their doctrine of a double ,messiah--one who had already appeared1 and one who was still to come--they referred our passage1 partly to the former1 and denied its reference to the real ,messiah4 ,but this is of no importance4 ,for1 as ,gesenius also has remarked 7,carmina ,samaritana1 p4 #ge71 the doctrine of a double ,messiah is of recent origin with the ,samaritans as well as with the ,jews2 and hence1 it is very probable that the reference to the real ,messiah was1 formerly1 the generally prevailing one1 which was1 even afterwards1 to a large extent retained1 as is shown by the passage first quoted4--,finally1 ,in the ,christian ,church the ,messianic interpretation has been the prevailing one ever since the earliest times4 ,we find it as early as ,justin ,martyr4 ,pg #gf ,the ,greek and ,latin ,fathers agree in it4 7,compare the statements in ,reinke47 ,even ,grotius could not but admit that this passage referred to the ,messiah2 and ,clericus stands quite alone and isolated1 in his time1 as an objector against the ,messianic interpretation of it4 ,but even in the ,canon itself1 this passage is understood of a personal ,messiah4 ,david1 ,solomon1 ,isaiah1 ,ezekiel1 look upon it in this light4 7,concerning this point1 compare the inquiries in the subsequent portions of this work47 ,the entire relation of the ,pentateuch to the succeeding sacred literature1 and the circumstance that the former constitutes the foundation of the latter1 and contains1 in the germ1 all that is afterwards more fully developed1 entitle us to expect1 that the ,messianic idea has also found its expression in those books4 ,the more prominent the place occupied1 in the later books1 by the announcement of a personal ,messiah1 the more unlikely it will be to him who has acquired right fundamental views regarding the ,pentateuch1 to conceive that this announcement should be wanting in it--the announcement1 especially1 of the ,messiah in ,his kingly office2 for it is this office of the ,messiah which1 in the ,old ,testament1 generally takes a prominent place1 and is1 before all others1 represented in the subsequent books4 ,but there cannot be any doubt1 that the promise of a personal ,messiah in ,his kingly office1 if it be found in the ,old ,testament at all1 must exist in the passage which we are now considering4 ,the promises which first were given to ,jacob's parents1 and thereafter transferred to him1 included two things3--first1 a numerous progeny1 and the possession of ,canaan for them2--and secondly1 the blessing which1 through them1 was to come upon all nations4 ,how1 then1 could it be expected that ,jacob1 in transferring these blessings to his sons1 and while in spirit seeing them already in possession of the promised land1 and describing the places of abode which they would occupy1 and what should befall them1 should have entirely lost sight of the second object1 which was much the more important1 and as often repeated8 ,is it not1 on the contrary1 probable that1 as formerly1 from among the sons of ,abraham and ,isaac1 so now1 from among the sons of ,jacob1 he should be pointed out who should1 according to the will of ,god1 become the depositary of this ,pg #gg promise1 which was acquiring more and more of a definite shape8 ,the contrary of this we can the less imagine1 because1 according to ver4 #b1 ,jacob is to tell his sons that which shall befall them at the end of the days4 ,the expression1 the end of the days1 is always used of that only which lies at the end of the course which is seen by the speaker4 7,compare my work on ,balaam1#ab p4 #dfe f47 ,accordingly1 it indicates1 in this passage1 that ,jacob's announcement must comprehend the whole of the future sphere which was accessible to him4 ,but if we do not admit the reference1 in this passage1 to the ,messiah1 then a whole territory of future time1 notoriously accessible to ,jacob1 is left untouched by his announcement4--,from the beginning of ,genesis1 we find the expectation of an universal salvation2 and at every new separation1 the depositary of this salvation1 and its mediator for the whole remaining world1 are regularly pointed out4 ,at first1 salvation is promised to the whole human race1 then to the family of ,shem1 then to ,abraham1 then to ,isaac1 then to ,jacob4 ,now that the patriarchal trias1 since ,jacob1 has extended into a dodekas forming the historical transition from the family of the promise to the nation of the promise1 the question arises1 from which of the twelve tribes salvation1 i4e41 the victory of mankind1 and the blessing of the nations1 is to come4 7,delitzsch1 ,prophetische ,theologie1 ,s4 #bic47 ,should ,genesis become to such a degree inconsistent with itself as not to answer a question which itself has called forth8 ,but that answer is contained in the passage under consideration1 only if ,shiloh be taken for the personal name of the ,redeemer4 ,unless we have recourse to artificial explanations1 the announcement of ,judah's being the bearer of salvation is to be found in our passage1 only when1 at the same time1 the first indication of the person of the ,messiah is perceived in it4 ,if the reference of the passage to a personal ,messiah be explained away1 we should certainly be at a loss to discover where the fundamental prophecy of such an one could possibly be found4 ,we should then1 in the first place1 be thrown upon the ,messianic ,psalms1 especially ,ps4 ii4 and cx4 ,but as it is the office of prophecy only to introduce to the knowledge of the congregation ,pg #gh truths absolutely new1 it would subvert the whole relation of psalm-poetry to prophecy1 if in these psalms we were to seek for the origin of the expectations of a personal ,messiah4 ,these psalms become intelligible1 only if in ,shiloh we recognise the first name of the ,messiah4 ,the passage in question1 in combination with the prophetical announcement of the eternal dominion of the house of ,david1 afforded the complete objective foundation for the subjective poetry of the ,psalms4 ,the eternity of dominion here promised to ,judah was1 as we learn from #b ,sam4 vii41 transferred to ,david4 ,the exalted person in whom1 according to our passage1 the dominion of ,judah was to culminate1 must then necessarily belong to the house of ,david4 ,further1--,if the passage under review be understood of the ,messiah1 we have an excellent fountainhead for all the prophecies of a personal ,messiah2 in its significant1 enigmatical1 and expressive brevity1 it is most suitable for such a purpose4 ,but if its reference to the ,messiah be explained away1 we are deprived altogether of a suitable starting-point4 ,in the ,davidic psalms1 the ,messianic prophecy already more strongly resembles a stream than a fountain4 ,so great is the weight of these reasons for the ,messianic interpretation1 that we might reasonably have expected that such expositors at least as stand on the ground of positive ,christianity should abandon it only from overwhelming reasons1 or1 at least1 from such only as are in the highest degree probable4 ,but in this expectation we have been disappointed4 ,the most superficial objections have been considered sufficient by ,hofmann1 ,kurtz1 and others1 to induce them to disregard the consensus of the whole ,christian ,church4 ,we cannot1 indeed1 but be astonished at this4 ,kurtz1 following the example of ,hofmann1 says3 ,the organic progress of prophecy1 and its correlative connection with history1 which must be maintained in all its stages1 forbid us1 most decidedly1 to assign to the expectation of a personal ,messiah1 a period so early as that of the ,patriarchs4 ,the clearly expressed aim of the whole history of this period is the expansion into a great nation2 its whole tendency is directed towards the growth of the multiplicity of a people from the unity of the ,patriarchs4 ,as long as the subject of the history was the increase into a nation1 the idea of a single personal ,saviour ,pg #gi could not1 by any means1 take root4 ,such could occur only after they had actually expanded into a great nation in history1 and the necessity had been felt of concentrating the multiplicity of the expanded1 into the unity of a single1 individual1 i4e41 after one had appeared as the deliverer and saviour1 as the leader and ruler of the whole nation4 ,it is therefore only after ,moses1 ,joshua1 and ,david1 that the expectation of a personal ,messiah could arise4--,do you mean to teach ,god wisdom8 we might ask1 in answer to such argumentation4 ,to chain prophecy to history in such a manner1 is in reality nothing short of destroying it4 ,how much soever people may choose to varnish it1 this is but another form of ,naturalism1 against the influence of which no one is secure1 because it is in the atmosphere of our day4 ,men who occupy a ground of argumentation so narrow-minded and trifling1--who would rather shape history than heartily surrender themselves to it1 and find out1 meditate upon1 and follow the footsteps of ,god in it1--will be compelled to erase even the promise in ,gen4 xii4 #c1 ,in thee all the families of the earth shall be blessed1 yea1 even the words1 ,i will make of thee a great nation1 with which the promise begins2 for even that violates the natural order4 ,but the historical point of connection for the announcement of a personal ,messiah1 which here at once1 like a flash of lightning1 illuminates the darkness1 is not at all wanting to such a degree as is commonly asserted4 ,on the contrary1 if the blessing upon the heathen be allowed to stand1 the expectation of a personal ,saviour must necessarily arise from a consideration of the known events of history1 and meet the immediate revelation of such an one by ,god4 ,the whole history of the time of the ,patriarchs bears a biographical character4 ,single individuals are1 in it1 the depositaries of the divine promises1 the channels of the divine life4 ,all the blessings of salvation which the congregation possessed at the time when ,jacob's blessing was uttered1 had come to them through single individuals4 ,why1 then1 should the highest ,salvation come to them in any other way8 ,why should not ,abraham be as fit a type of the ,messiah as ,moses1 ,joshua1 and ,david1--,abraham1 of whom ,god1 in ,gen4 xx4 #g1 says to ,abimelech1 the heathen king1 ,now therefore restore the man his wife1 for he is a prophet2 and if he prays for thee1 thou shalt live8 ,or why not ,joseph1 who1 according to ,gen4 xlvii4 #ab1 nourished ,pg #hj his father and his brethren1 and all his father's household1 and whom the grateful ,egyptians called the ,saviour of the ,world8 ,just as untenable is a second argument against the ,messianic explanation1--namely1 that there is no parallelism between the two clauses1 until ,shiloh comes1 and to ,him shall be the obedience of the nations1 but only a pure progress of thought4 ,the laws of parallelism are not iron fetters2 and1 moreover1 the parallelism in substance fully exists here1 if only it be acknowledged that does not signify any kind of obedience1 but only a willing surrender4 ,the words1 until ,shiloh comes1 and to ,him shall be the obedience of the nations1 are identical in meaning with1 until ,he cometh1 who bringeth rest1 and whom the nations shall willingly obey4 ,the second member thus serves to explain the first2 the sense would be substantially preserved although one of the members were wanting4 ,the parallelism is slightly concealed only by the circumstance that the words run1 to ,him the obedience of the nations1--instead of1 ,he to whom shall be the obedience of the nations4 ,let us now take a survey of the principal non-,messianic interpretations4 ,a suspicion as to their having any foundation at all in the subject itself must surely be raised by their variety and multiplicity1 as well as by the circumstance1 that they who object to the ,messianic explanation can never1 in any way1 succeed in uniting with each other1 but that1 with them1 one interpretation is sure to be overthrown by another4 ,such is1 in every case1 a sure indication of error4 ,moreover1 it is possible1 in every case1 to trace out some interest1 apart from the merits of the question1 which has led to the objections against the ,messianic interpretation4 ,with the ,jews1 it was because they were driven to a strait by the argumentation of the ,christians1 that the ,messiah must long ago have come1 since sceptre and lawgiver had long ago departed from ,judah4 ,the rationalistic interpreters have evidently been determined by their antipathy to any ,messianic prophecies in the ,old ,testament4 ,hofmann and his followers do not in the least conceal that they are guided by their principle of a concatenation of prophecy with history4 ,the opinion1 according to which it is maintained that ,shiloh is the name of the well-known locality in ,ephraim1 has found not a few defenders4 ,among these1 several1 and last of all ,pg #ha ,bleek1 in the ,observ42 ,hitzig1 on ,ps4 li4 #b2 ,diestel1 der ,segen ,jacobs1 translate3 ,until he or they come to ,shiloh4 ,the sense is thus supposed to be3 ,judah will be the leader of the tribes1 in the journey to ,canaan1 until they come to ,shiloh4 ,there1 in consequence of the tribes being dispersed to the boundaries assigned to them1 he would then lose his leadership4#ac ,but such an explanation is1 in every point of view1 inadmissible4 ,it is very probable that the town ,shiloh did not exist at all1 under this name1 at the time of ,jacob4 ,the name nowhere occurs in the ,pentateuch2 and the ,book of ,joshua 7as we shall show at a subsequent time7 contains traces1 far from indistinct1 that it arose only after the occupation of the land by the ,israelites4 ,but even supposing that the town of ,shiloh already existed tit the time of ,jacob1 yet the abrupt mention of a place so little known would be something strange and unaccountable4 ,it would be out of the range of ,jacob's visions1 which nowhere regard mere details1 but have everywhere for their object only the future in its general outlines4 ,further1--,the temporary limitation thus put to the superiority of ,judah would be in glaring contradiction to vers4 #h and #i1 where ,judah is exalted to be the ,lion of ,god without any limitation as to time4 ,and1 finally1--,up to the time of their arrival in ,shiloh1 ,judah was never in possession of the sceptre and lawgiver2--and this reason would alone be sufficient to overthrow the opinion which we are now combating4 ,we have already proved that1 by these terms1 royal power and dominion are designated1 and that1 for this reason1 the beginning of the fulfilment cannot be sought for in any period previous to the time of ,david4 ,but even if we were to come down to the mere leadership of ,judah1 we could demonstrate that even this did not belong to him4 ,his marching in front of the others cannot1 even in the remotest degree1 be considered as a leadership4 ,moses1 who belonged to another tribe1 had been solemnly called by ,god to the chief command4 ,nor was ,joshua ,pg #hb of the tribe of ,judah4 ,in him1 on the contrary1 there appeared the germ of ,ephraim's superiority1 which continued through the whole period of the ,judges1 and which came to an end only by ,david's having been raised to the royal dignity4 7,compare my commentary on ,ps4 lxxviii47 ,others 7,tuch1 ,maurer7 give the explanation3 ,as long as they come to ,shiloh4 ,this1 according to them1 the poet meant to be identical with3 in all eternity4 ,they think that his 7the poet's7 meaning was1 that the holy tabernacle1 which at his time 7,tuch assigns the composition of ,jacob's blessing to the period of ,samuel7 was at ,shiloh1 would remain there to all eternity4 ,to this exposition it would be alone sufficient to object that1 according to it1 the phrase 1 which uniformly means only until1 is taken in the signification as long as4 ,further1--,history plainly enough shows how little the sanctuary was considered to be bound to ,shiloh2 to which place it had been brought1 not in consequence of an express divine declaration1 but only in accordance with ,joshua's own views4 ,when the ark of the covenant was carried away by the ,philistines1 this was considered as an express declaration of ,god1 that ,he would no longer dwell in ,shiloh4 ,how different was the case as regards ,jerusalem6 ,notwithstanding the destruction by the ,chaldees1 the city continued to be the seat of the sanctuary4 ,further1--,this view implies a strange blending of gross error--viz41 the supposition that the sanctuary would remain for ever in ,shiloh--and of true prophecy1 viz41 the announcement1 uttered at the time of ,ephraim's leadership1 of the dominion of the tribe of ,judah1 which was first realized in ,david's royalty4 ,the only ground in support of the ,ephraimitic ,shiloh--the fact1 namely1 that ,shiloh1 wherever else it occurs in the ,old ,testament1 always signifies the name of the place--we hope to invalidate by and by2 when it will be seen that the town received its name only on the ground of the passage now under consideration4 ,other opponents of the ,messianic interpretation take ,shiloh as a nomen appellativum1 in the signification of rest4 ,they translate either1 ,until rest cometh and people obey him 7thus ,vater1 ,gesenius1 ,knobel71 or1 ,until he comes 7or1 they come7 to rest 7thus ,hofmann1 ,kurtz1 and others74 ,by rest1 they understand either the political rest enjoyed under ,david and ,solomon1 or they find here expressed the idea of eternal rest in ,pg #hc the expected ,messianic time4 ,thus do ,gesenius1 ,hofmann1 and ,kurtz understand it4 ,the last-named determines the sense thus3 ,judah shall remain in the uninterrupted possession of a princely position among his brethren1 until through warfare and by victory he shall have realized the aim1 object1 and consummation of his sovereignty in the attained enjoyment of happy rest and undisturbed peace1 and in the willing and joyful obedience of the nations4 ,but this explanation is to be suspected1 simply from the circumstance1 that1 in whatever other place ,shiloh occurs1 it is used as a nomen proprium2 while it is entirely overthrown by the circumstance1 that1 according to its form1 as already deduced1 ,shiloh can be nothing else than a nomen proprium4#ad ,we here only remark1 by way of anticipation1 that ,david1 ,solomon1 ,isaiah1 and ,ezekiel bear testimony against this explanation4 ,an interpretation which dissevers the connection betwixt ,shiloh and ,shiloh1 betwixt ,shiloh and ,solomon1 betwixt ,shiloh and the ,prince of ,peace1 betwixt ,shiloh and ,him whose is the judgment1 must be1 thereby1 self-condemned4 ,against the explanation1 ,until he comes to rest1 it may also be urged1 that the ,accusative could not here stand after a verb of motion2 it was too natural to consider ,shiloh as the subject4 ,if it had been intended in any other sense1 a preposition would have been absolutely requisite4 ,we further remark1 that vers4 #aa and #ab1 which ancient and modern interpreters1 e4g41 ,kurtz1 have attempted to bring into artificial connection with ver4 #aj1 simply finish the picture of ,judah's happiness by a description of the luxurious fulness of his rich territory 7,tuch74 ,their tenor is quite different from that which precedes1 where a pre-eminence was assigned to ,judah2 for they contain nothing beyond a simple1 positive declaration4 ,what is in them assigned to ,judah1 belongs to him only as a part of the whole1 as a fellow-heir of the country flowing with milk and honey1 and corresponds entirely with the blessings upon the other sons1 which are1 almost all of them1 only individual applications of the general blessing4 ,it is evidently parallel to what1 in vers4 #be1 #bf1 is said of ,joseph1 and in ver #bj of ,asher4 ,that which ,jacob here assigns to ,judah1 was ,pg #hd formerly1 in ,gen4 xxvii4 #bh1 assigned by ,isaac to ,jacob1 and in him to the whole people3 ,god give thee of the dew of heaven1 and the fatness of the earth1 and plenty of corn and wine4 ,hence1 it is not at all necessary to examine history for the purpose of ascertaining whether ,judah was distinguished above the other tribes1 by plenty of wine and milk4 ,we need not lose much time in discussing the attempts which have been made to assign the blessing of ,jacob to a later period4 ,the futility of all of them is proved by the circumstance1 that we have not here before us any special predictions1 such as are peculiar to vaticinia post eventum1 but general prophetical outlines1 individual applications of the general blessings1 exemplifications4 ,whatever seems1 at first sight1 to be different1 melts away while handling it4 ,thus1 for example1 the blessings which ,israel enjoyed by his dwelling on the sea-side1 are pointed out in the blessing upon ,zebulun1 because he had his name from the dwelling1 ,gen4 xxi4 #bj4 ,that ,zebulun is here viewed only as a part of the whole1 appears from the fact that1 afterwards1 he did not live by the sea at all4 ,in the case of ,issachar1 it was the individuality of the ancestor ,jacob which gave him occasion to describe1 from his own example1 the dangers of an indolent rest4 ,history does not say anything of ,issachar alone having yielded to these dangers in a peculiar degree4 ,in the case of ,joseph1 the events personal to the son are transferred to the tribe1 and in the tribe1 to the whole nation4 ,in an inimitable manner the tender love of the father towards his son and provider meets us here4 ,the only thing which goes beyond the human sphere of ,jacob1 is the prediction by which ,judah is placed in the centre of the world's history4 ,but it is just this which1 even in its beginnings1 goes beyond the time at which this pretended vaticinium post eventum is placed by ,tuch1 ,bleek1 and ,ewald2 for1 by this assumption of theirs1 they are necessarily limited to the time before ,david1 if they wish to avoid the insurmountable difficulties which arise from what is said of ,levi and of ,joseph4 ,but to the man who looks deeper1 vers4 #h-aj are just the seal of the divinity1 and hence of the genuineness also1 of this prophecy1 and1 with all his heart1 he will hate such miserable conjectures4#ae ,pg #he ,let us now follow through history ,jacob's blessing upon ,judah4 ,from this inquiry it will appear how deep has been the impression made by it upon the people of the covenant4 ,on this occasion also1 it will be seen still more distinctly what the right is which rationalistic criticism has to declare this fundamental prophecy to be the recent production of an obscure poet4 ,the chain-like character of ,holy ,scripture will be seen in a very striking light4 ,in ,num4 ii4 regulations are laid down respecting the order in which the tribes are to encamp about the tabernacle1 and in which they are to set forth4 ,on the east side1 towards which the entrance of the sanctuary is directed1 and hence in the front1 ,judah1 as the principal tribe1 is encamped2 and the two sons of his mother--,issachar and ,zebulun--who were born immediately after him1 pitch next to him4 ,on the south side there is the camp1 with the standard1 of ,reuben2 and next to him are his brother ,simeon1 who was born immediately after him1 and ,gad1 one of the sons of his mother's maid4 ,the west side is assigned to the sons of ,rachel1 with ,ephraim at their head4 ,and1 finally1 on the north side1 the three other sons of the maids1 viz41 ,dan1 ,asher1 and ,naphtali1 have their position4 ,in the same order as they encamp they are also to set forth4 7,baumgarten47 ,judah is the chief tribe on the chief side4 ,this distinction ,pg #hf is not based on the deeds hitherto performed by ,judah1 nor is it the result of any revelation which ,moses received upon the subject4 ,it is regarded as a matter of course4 ,and yet1 there must necessarily have been some foundation for such a distinction1 because1 otherwise1 it would have called forth the opposition of the other tribes1 especially of that of ,ephraim4 ,such a foundation1 however1 is afforded only by the blessing of ,jacob1 in which the tribe of ,judah appears as the leading one4 ,the complete realization of this prediction is left1 indeed1 in the hand of ,god2 but the bearer of honours so great1 even although future1 must1 in the prospect of that future1 enjoy1 even in the present1 a certain distinction2 such distinction1 however1 as does not at all imply sovereignty4 ,but we are compelled to have recourse to ,genesis1 and especially to chap4 xlix41 the more because the whole arrangement of the camp has evidently its foundation in ,genesis1 and the key to a whole series of facts in it can be found only in chap4 xlix4 ,if we ask why it is that the tribes of ,issachar and ,zebulun are subordinate to ,judah2 that ,reuben1 ,simeon1 and ,gad1 that ,ephraim and ,benjamin1 that ,dan1 ,asher1 and ,naphtali are encamped by each other2 it is in ,genesis alone that we are furnished with the answer4 ,the position which ,reuben occupies specially points to ,gen4 xlix4 ,as the first-born1 he ought to stand at the head2 but here we find him occupying the second place4 ,in ,gen4 xlix4 ,jacob says to him1 on account of his guilt1 ,thou shalt not excel2 and the excellency of dignity1 and the excellency of power1 which up to that time he had possessed1 are transferred to ,judah4 ,yet ,moses has so much regard to his original dignity1 that he places him immediately after ,judah2 the utterance of ,jacob did not entitle him to assign to him a lower position4 ,further1--,the reason why ,dan stands at the head of the sons of the maids is explained only in ,gen4 xlix4 #af-ah1 where ,dan is specially distinguished among them1 and where it is specially said of him1 ,dan shall judge his people4 ,if the blessing of ,jacob be the production of a later time1 then the order of the encampment1 which rests upon it1 must necessarily be so also2 but such an idea will at once be discarded by every man of sound judgment4 ,even they who refuse to acknowledge ,moses as the author of the ,pentateuch1 admit that ,pg #hg those regulations which bear reference only to the condition of things in the wilderness must have originated from him4 ,but exactly the same order which ,moses in ,num4 ii4 prescribes for the encampment and setting forth of the tribes1 is found again in chap4 vii41 where there is described the offerings which the princes of the tribes offered at the dedication of the altar4 ,every prince has here a day to himself1 and here also does ,judah occupy the first place3 ,and he that offered his offering the first day was ,nahshon1 the son of ,amminadab1 of the tribe of ,judah4--,if any one should venture to set down this chapter also1 with all its details1 as a fabrication of later times1 he would only betray an utter absence of all scientific judgment4 ,according to ,num4 x4 #ad1 ,judah led the march when they set forth from ,sinai4 ,balaam's prophecies1 the genuineness of which is proved by so many weighty arguments 7compare the enumeration of them in my work on ,balaam71 rest1 in general1 on the fundamental prophecies of ,genesis1 but especially on the blessing of ,jacob upon ,judah4 ,in ,num4 xxiii4 #bd1 ,balaam says3 ,behold1 a people1 like a full-grown lion he rises1 and like a lion he lifts himself up4 ,not shall he lie down until he eat of the prey1 and drink the blood of the slain4 ,this conclusion of ,balaam's second prophecy1 which at once demolishes ,balak's vain hopes of victory1 by pointing out the dreadful power of ,israel1 unconquerable by all his enemies1 and crushing them all1 has an intentional reference to ,gen4 xlix4 #i1--;a reference specially suitable for such a conclusion4 ,what was there ascribed to ,judah is here transferred to ,israel1 whose fore-champion ,judah is4 ,dost thou think1 says ,balaam to ,balak1 of being able to overcome them1 to stop them in their course towards the mark held out to them8 ,behold1 according to an old revelation of their ,god1 they are a people destroying their enemies with the lion's strength4 ,therefore1 get thee out of their way1 lest such a fate befall thee4 ,in ,num4 xxiv4 #i1 ,balaam says1 ,he couches1 he lies as a lion1 and as a great lion1 who shall stir him up8 ,as in the preceding prophecy he had pointed out ,israel's dreadful power which secures to him victory in the battle1 so here he shows how1 even after having finished the battle1 this power so intimidates his enemies1 that they do not venture to disturb his peace4 ,pg #hh ,that which ,jacob had said of ,judah1 is1 with intended literality1 here transferred to ,israel4 ,in ,num4 xxiv4 #ag1 we read3 ,i see him1 but not now2 ,i behold him1 but not nigh3 a star goeth out of ,jacob1 and a sceptre riseth out of ,israel1 and smiteth the borders of ,moab1 and destroyeth all the sons of the tumult4--,as the two preceding utterances carry us back to ,gen4 xlix4 #i1 so this one refers to ver4 #aj1 where the sceptre1 the emblem of dominion1 denotes1 just as it does in this passage1 dominion itself1 and where to ,judah1 and in him to all ,israel1 the kingdom is promised which shall at last be consummated in the ,shiloh4 ,the meaning of the words1 ,a sceptre riseth out of ,israel1 is explained in ver4 #ai by the words1 ,dominion shall come out of ,jacob4 ,jacob has in view the internal relations among his descendants1 and hence he speaks specially of ,judah2 but ,balaam1 in accordance with his object1 speaks of ,israel only4 ,jacob points1 at the close1 to ,shiloh's just and peaceful dominion2 but ,balaam1 who has to do with the enraged and obstinate enemies of ,israel1 points out1 from among the effects produced by the star and sceptre1 only the victorious might1 and destructive power which these will display in the conflict with the enemies of ,israel4 ,in the blessing of ,moses1 ,deut4 xxxii4 #g1 it is said of ,judah3 ,hear1 ,lord1 the voice of ,judah1 and bring him unto his people2 with his hands he fights for himself1 and be ,thou an help to him from his enemies4 ,even the remarkable brevity of this utterance points back to the blessing of ,jacob4 ,with this brevity1 the length of the blessing upon ,levi1 who had been treated too summarily by ,jacob1 forms a striking contrast4 ,in the case of ,reuben also1 the attempt to pour oil into the wounds then inflicted is visible4 ,the whole announcement is based upon the supposition that ,judah is the fore-champion of ,israel2 and this supposition refers us back to ,gen4 xlix4 ,this appears especially in the words1 ,bring him to his people1 on which light is thrown only by ,gen4 xlix4 ,it is for his people that ,judah engages in foreign wars1 and the ,lord1 fulfilling the words1 ,from the prey1 my son1 thou goest up1 brings him safely to his people4#af ,pg #hi ,there can be no doubt that in ,shiloh1 as the name of a place1 there is a reference to ,gen4 xlix4 #aj4 ,they who rightly denied that ,shiloh could1 in that passage1 be understood as the name of the place1 could1 nevertheless1 not feel satisfied as long as they allowed a twofold ,shiloh to exist unconnected with each other4 ,the agreement in the very rare and peculiar form1 which nowhere else occurs1 cannot well be a matter of accident4 ,in the ,pentateuch1 ,shiloh does not occur at all as the name of a place4 ,in the passage where ,shiloh is first mentioned--in ,josh4 xvi4 #f--;another name is beside it1 and prefixed to it4 ,according to that passage1 the former name was ,taanah4 7,they who are of opinion that this place was different from ,shiloh1 can find no support from the authority of ,eusebius2 it is not said ,taanah by ,shiloh1 but ,taanath-,shiloh47 ,after that place had become the seat of the ,sanctuary1 the holy name ,shiloh took the place of the former natural one4 ,the reason why this name was given to it is indicated in ,josh4 xviii4 #a3 ,and the whole congregation of the children of ,israel assembled together at ,shiloh1 and set up the tabernacle of the congregation there2 and the land was subdued before them4 ,compare also xxi4 #dd1 xxii4 #d1 where it is remarked that at that time the ,lord gave them rest round about4 7,see ,bachiene1 ,palestina ii4 #c1 ,s4 #dji ff47 ,in the subjection of the country1--in the rest which the ,lord had given them from all round about1 they saw an earnest of1 and a prelude to1 the obedience of the nations in general1 and to the state of perfect rest which should take place at some future time with the appearing of ,shiloh4 ,victory1 peace6 7,siegfried67 such was the watchword corresponding to the elevated consciousness of the people4 ,it is an elevation quite similar to that which we so often perceive in the ,psalms4 ,sometimes there rises the hope that the ,gentiles shall1 at some future period1 be received among the people of ,god--a hope based upon the experience of the ,lord's victorious power in the present1 in which faith perceives a pledge of the future subjection of the world's power under ,his sceptre4 ,thus1 in vers4 #bi-cb of ,ps4 lxviii41 which was composed by ,david on the occasion of his having1 by the help of the ,lord1 conquered his most dangerous enemies1 the ,aramites and ,ammonites2 in ,ps4 xlvii41 written on the occasion of ,jehoshaphat's victory over several heathen nations2 and in ,ps4 lxxxvii41 composed on the ,pg #ij ground of the joyful events under ,hezekiah1 the germ of the hope for the conversion of the heathen1 which had all along lain dormant in the people1 was developed4#ag ,after the main power of the ,canaanites had been broken by the expeditions of all ,israel under ,joshua1 ,judah begins1 at the command of ,god1 to expel the ,canaanites from the territory assigned to him4 ,in ,judges i4 #a1 #b1 we read3 ,and the children of ,israel asked the ,lord1 ,who shall go up for us against the ,canaanites at the beginning to fight against them8 ,and the ,lord said1 ,judah shall go up2 behold1 ,i deliver the land into his hands4 ,they were concerned to find out the tribe who1 by the decree of ,god1 had been destined to be the fore-champion for his brethren1 and with whom they might be sure of a happy commencement of the war4 ,the short answer1 ,judah shall go up1 would scarcely have been justified1 had it not had a foundation in a previous declaration of ,god's will4 ,it indicates that ,jacob's blessing upon ,judah still possessed its power4 ,in like manner1 in the war against ,benjamin1 according to divine direction1 ,judah goes up first to the battle1 forms the vanguard4 ,judges xx4 #ah4 ,the intentional identity of the expression used here and in chap4 i41 leads us to the supposition that the words1 ,judah shall go up1 have1 in both passages1 the same foundation4 ,from both of these events1 we are led to expect that ,judah may be called to occupy a still more important position4 ,the announcement of ,jacob regarding ,judah1 to which the words1 ,judah shall go up1 refer1 finds1 in these events1 evidently but a poor beginning of its complete fulfilment4 ,all1 however1 which was required in the meantime1 was the indication1 by gentle touches1 of the position which ,judah was called to occupy in future times4 ,it is just ,god's way to take time in carrying out ,pg #ia ,his elections2 all human conditions must first disappear4 ,after these two intimations1 at the end of the time of ,joshua 7for ,judges i4 #a1 #b1 belongs to that period2 the words1 ,and it came to pass after the death of ,joshua1 do not refer to what follows immediately after1 but only to the contents of the book as a whole71 and at the beginning of the time of the ,judges1 ,judah retires out of view4 ,during the whole period of the ,judges1 ,ephraim held the supremacy4 ,under ,david1 the validity of the election suddenly appeared1 and the announcement of ,jacob found a glorious fulfilment2 but again1 such an one only as pointed to a still more glorious fulfilment in the future4 ,before this took place1 however1--before ,shiloh came1 to whom the obedience of the people was promised1 the lamp of ,judah was once more to be extinguished1 so that1 to human eyes1 it should be invisible for many centuries4 ,in #a ,chron4 xxviii4 #d1 ,david says3 ,and the ,lord ,god of ,israel chose me out of all the house of my father to be king over ,israel for ever2 for ,he hath chosen ,judah to be the ruler1 and in the house of ,judah1 the house of my father1 and in the house of my father4 ,he liked me to make me king over all ,israel4 ,david here points to an event by which ,judah was raised to be the ruling tribe2 and such an election is nowhere else to be found than in ,gen4 xlix4 ,we cannot for a moment suppose that ,judah was elected only in1 and with1 the election of ,david4 ,against such a supposition militates the fact1 that even the election of ,david's house is represented in history as being distinct from the election of ,david himself2 for in #a ,sam4 xvi4 the decree of ,god is first made known1 that one of ,jesse's sons is to be king2 and it is only afterwards that we are told which of them is to be chosen4 ,the expression too1 ,he hath chosen ,judah to be the ruler1 is decisive against it2 for this expression has an evident reference to the sceptre and lawgiver in ,gen4 xlix4 ,but if any doubt should still remain1 it would be entirely removed by the parallel passage in #a ,chron4 v4 #b1 where1 in the words1 ,for ,judah was mighty among his brethren1 and of him the prince was to come1 there is an allusion1 which cannot be mistaken1 to ,gen4 xlix4 ,there cannot be a doubt that ,david gave to his son the name ,solomon1 because he hoped that1 in his just and peaceful reign1 he would be a type of the ,shiloh whom the nation should willingly ,pg #ib obey1 just as1 in his own reign1 there had been the first grand fulfilment of what ,jacob had prophesied of ,judah's lion-courage1 and lion-strength1--of ,judah's sceptre and lawgiver4 ,we have here the counterpart of the fact1 that the children of ,israel1 after the first occupation of the country1 gave to the seat of the sanctuary the name of ,shiloh4 ,in the case of ,solomon1 both the name and the substance point to ,shiloh4 ,with regard to the name1 three out of the four letters of which the name consists1 are common to it with ,shiloh4 ,the signification is precisely the same2 so also is the form4 ,in as well as in we meet with the very rare case of the at the end being thrown off4 ,in ,ewald's ,grammar1 #afc1 these two names are1 for this reason1 pointed out and placed immediately beside each other4 ,and1 with regard to the agreement in the substance1 we refer to #a ,chron4 xxii4 #i1 where ,nathan says to ,david3 ,behold1 a son shall be born to thee1 who shall be a man of rest1 and ,i will give him rest from all his enemies round about2 for his name shall be ,solomon1 and ,i will give peace and quietness unto ,israel in his days4 ,we refer1 further1 to #a ,kings v4 #d1 where ,solomon says to ,hiram3 ,and now the ,lord my ,god hath given me rest round about2 there is neither adversary nor evil obstacle4 ,we refer1 finally1 to #a ,kings v4 #d1 #e 7iv4 #bd1 #be73 ,he had dominion over all the region on the other side of the river1 from ,tiphsah even to ,gaza1 over all the kings on the other side of the river1 and he had peace from all his servants round about4 ,and ,judah and ,israel dwelt safely1 every man under his vine and fig-tree1 from ,dan even to ,beersheba1 all the days of ,solomon4#ah ,but if any further doubt should remain as regards the typical relation in which ,solomon stands to ,shiloh1 it would be removed by ,ps4 lxxii41 which discards the very idea that ,solomon could be anything more than a type1--that any hope had ever been entertained of his being himself the ,shiloh4 ,even ,david's ,messianic ,psalms bear witness against such an opinion4 ,in harmony with the words of our ,lord in ,matt4 xii4 #db1 ,a ,pg #ic greater than ,solomon is here1 ,solomon ,in this ,psalm points beyond himself4 ,in his own just and peaceful dominion1 he beholds a type of the kingdom of the ,prince of ,peace1 who1 by ,his justice and love1 shall obtain dominion over the world1 and whom all kings shall worship1 and all the heathen shall serve4 ,how closely this ,psalm is connected with ,gen4 xlix4 is pointed out by ,ezekiel1 in a passage of which we shall immediately treat4 ,in ver4 #i of ,ps4 lx41 which was composed by ,david1 the words1 ,judah is my lawgiver--equivalent to1 ,judah is my1 i4e41 ,israel's ruling tribe--point to ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 according to which the lawgiver shall not depart from ,judah2 just as ver4 #ac1 ,give us help from the enemy1 alludes to ,deut4 xxxiii4 #g1 where it is said of ,judah1 ,be thou a help to him from his enemies1 and ver4 #ad1 to ,num4 xxiv4 #ah4 ,that the ,prince of ,peace spoken of in ,is4 ix4 #e1 under whom there is no end to the increase of government and of peace1 refers to the ,peaceful ,one1 to whom the nations render obedience1 will not be doubted by those who have recognised the connection in which ,solomon and ,ps4 lxxii4 stand to the ,shiloh4 ,nor will such fail to recognise an allusion to the ,shiloh in all the other passages of the ,prophets1 in which the ,messiah is described as the ,author of rest and peace2 e4g41 ,mic4 iv4 #a-d2 ,is4 ii4 #b-d2 ,zech4 ix4 #aj2 and the less so1 the more clearly it appears1 from passages of ,ezekiel1 what influence ,gen4 xlix4 exercised over the prophetic consciousness4 ,isaiah significantly alludes to it in other passages also4 ,in chap4 xxix4 #a1 #b1 he says3 ,woe to ,ariel1 7i4e41 ,lion of ,god71 the city where ,david encamped6 ,add ye year to year1 let the feasts revolve4 ,and ,i distress ,ariel1 and there shall be heaviness and affliction1 but it shall be unto me as ,ariel2--the meaning of which is3 ,jerusalem will1 in times to come1 endure heavy affliction 7through ,asshur71 but the world-conquering power of the kingdom of ,god will manifest itself in her deliverance4 ,the name ,ariel is emphatically placed at the beginning1 and1 in it1 the ,prophet gives to the congregation of ,god a guarantee for her deliverance4 ,that which ,jacob had said of ,judah1 who1 to him1 appeared as the invincible lion of ,god1 is here applied to ,zion1 the city where ,david encamped1 the centre of the kingdom of ,judah4 ,ezekiel1 in his lamentation over the princes of ,israel who1 ,pg #id in his time1 were standing just at the brink of the abyss1 says in chap4 xix4 #b3 ,thy mother was a lioness1 who lay down among lionesses1 and brought up her whelps among young lions4 ,the mother is the congregation of ,judah4 ,the image of the lion points to the blessing of ,jacob1 and its fulfilment in history4 ,judah once couched in a threatening position1 endangering his adversaries1#ai in the midst of lions1 i4e41 among the other powerful kingdoms fond of conquests4 7,hvernick47 ,in ,ezek4 xxi4 #ae1 #ah 7#aj-ae71 the ,lord1 with an evident allusion to ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 announces the 7temporary7 destruction of the sceptre of ,his son 7i4e41 ,israel or ,judah71 a sceptre which despises all other sceptres4 ,in vers4 #cj-cb 7#be-bg7 of the same chapter1 ,ezekiel foretells1 in the name of the ,lord1 a complete overturning of all relations1 a total revolution1 in which the ,davidic kingdom especially is brought down1 a condition of affairs in which rest and safety will not anywhere be found4 ,this state of things is to continue until ,he comes to whom is the judgment2 to ,him ,i will give it4 ,the reference of this passage to ,gen4 xlix4 cannot be mistaken4 ,it was recognised1 indeed1 by the ancient translators2 only that most of them erroneously found in it an explanation instead of an allusion4 ,instead of the words1 to whom is the judgment1 we should1 from the expression used in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 ,until ,shiloh cometh1 have expected1 to whom is peace2 but ,ezekiel has filled up ,gen4 xlix4 #aj from ,ps4 lxxii4 #a-e1 where judgment and righteousness appear as the basis of the peace which the ,anointed ,one shall bring4 ,and peace occupies the background in ,ezekiel also4 ,the advent of ,him to whom is the judgment1 in contrast with the injustice and wickedness of those who were hitherto the bearers of the sceptre1 puts an end to strife1 confusion1 and destruction4 ,that1 in like manner1 in ,gen4 xlix41 the judgment occupies the background1 we see plainly1 from the commentary upon that passage furnished by ,ps4 lxxii41 as well as from ,is4 ix4 and ii4 ,in ,ps4 lxxii41 peace comes into consideration1 only in so far as it is a product and consequence of justice1 which is an attribute of the ,king1 and is by him ,pg #ie infused into the life of the nation4 ,in vers4 #a-ej1 the thought is3 ,god gives righteousness to ,his ,king1 and in consequence of it1 righteousness and the fear of ,god become indigenous to the people1 and these again bring peace in their train4 ,every word in ,ezekiel is taken from ,gen4 xlix4 and ,ps4 lxxii4 ,from the latter are taken the words1 judgment1 and ,i will give it4 7,compare ,ps4 lxxii4 #a3 ,give the ,king thy judgments47 ,the combination of these two passages points out their close connection1 and indicates that ,ps4 lxxii4 is to be viewed as a comment4 ,onkelos1 who thus translates the passage in ,gen4 xlix41 ,until ,messiah comes1 to whom the kingdom is due1 and ,him the people shall obey1 has very properly only supplemented the declaration of ,jacob from ,ezekiel1 or1 at least1 has taken thence the explanation of ,shiloh4 ,but1 at the same time1 the words 1 which1 on the basis of ,ps4 lxxii41 ,ezekiel puts in the place of 1 allude to the letters of the latter word which forms the initials of the words in ,ezekiel4 ,that is the main letter in 1 is shown by the common abbreviation of it into 2 and that the in is unessential1 is proved by the circumstance that the name of the place is often written 1 and that even in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 a number of manuscripts have this orthography4 ,from the allusion to a prophecy so well known1 and so frequently used1 the brevity of the prophecy in ,ezekiel is to be explained4 ,it forms a most powerful conclusion and resting-point for the prophetic discourse4 7,hvernick47 ,there cannot be any doubt that ,ezekiel found in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 the prophecy of a personal ,messiah4 ,they1 therefore1 who assert that no such prophecy is contained in our passage1 must1 at the same time1 assert that ,ezekiel misunderstood it2 yea1 even more1 that1 even as early as at that period1 a false view of that passage was generally prevalent4 ,for1 the manner in which ,ezekiel alludes to it presupposes that1 at that time1 the view which found in it a personal ,messiah was generally held4 ,if we observe still further1 that ,ezekiel connected the allusion to ,ps4 lxxii4 with that to ,gen4 xlix41 we cannot hesitate for a moment to admit that he understood the name ,shiloh to be ,rest-maker1 ,peace-maker2 only1 that on the ground of ,ps4 lxxii41 he mentions the cause instead of the effect4 ,he had1 moreover1 the stronger reason for designating the bearer of peace as the bearer of judgment1 ,pg #if because1 in his time1 the want of judgment had evidently produced the absence of peace1 and the general confusion1 misery1 and destruction4 ,as in ,gen4 xlix4 the ,patriarch sees a light rising at a far distance1 and spreading its brightness over the darkness of centuries1 so in ,ezekiel also1 the same ray of glorious hope lightens through the dark night of confusion and unutterable misery in which he sees himself enveloped4 ,kurtz1 ,s4 #bff1 has altogether denied the connection of the passage in ,ezekiel with ,gen4 xlix4 ,these two passages are1 as he thinks1 altogether different1 inasmuch as ,ezekiel announces destruction and desolation which shall continue until ,he comes to whom is the judgment1 while ,gen4 xlix41 when understood of a personal ,messiah1 announces dominion which shall continue until ,shiloh comes4 ,but ,ezekiel does not contradict ,gen4 xlix4 #aj4 ,he gives only the supplement necessary for preventing this passage from being considered as a permission to sin1 and from becoming a support of false security4 ,ezekiel1 too1 assumes a continuation of the dominion4 ,if that were not concealed behind the destruction1 how could the coming of ,him to whom is the judgment be pointed out as the limit of that destruction8 ,the tree indeed is cut down1 but the root remains in its full vigour4 ,when ,jacob announces that the sceptre shall not depart until ,shiloh1 the prince of peace1 cometh1 he can thereby mean only that it would not depart definitively2 for1 otherwise1 he would have belied his own experience4 ,from the way by which the ,lord had led him1 he had sufficiently learnt that ,god's promises to sinful men must be taken cum grano salis2 that they never exclude the visitation of the elect on account of their sins1 and that it is only in the end that ,god will bring all to a glorious fulfilment4 ,when he went to ,mesopotamia1 ,god had said to him1 ,i am with thee1 and ,i will keep thee in all places whither thou goest1 ,gen4 xxviii4 #ae2 and yet the deceit which he had practised upon his father and brother was recompensed to him there by the deceit of ,laban1 and he was obliged to say1 ,in the day the drought consumed me1 and the frost by night1 and my sleep departed from mine eyes1 ,gen4 xxxi4 #dj4 ,when he came from the land of the two rivers1 ,god blessed him and gave him the honourable name of ,israel1 ,gen4 xxxii42 and yet ,pg #ig he had soon thereafter to experience grievous distress on account of ,dinah and ,joseph2 and in chap4 xxxvii4 #cd1 #ce1 we are told concerning him3 ,and ,jacob rent his clothes1 and put sackcloth upon his loins1 and mourned for his son many days4 ,and all his sons and all his daughters rose up to comfort him2 but he refused to be comforted1 and he said1 ,i shall go down into the grave unto my son in sorrow4 ,in the kingdom of ,god there are no other promises than such as resemble those rivers which flow alternately above and below ground1 since it is certain that all the subjects of the promises are affected by sin4 ,ezekiel xliii4 #ae likewise refers to the blessing of ,jacob upon ,judah4 ,the altar for the burnt-offerings in the new temple is first called ,harel the mountain of ,god1 and afterwards ,ariel the ,lion of ,god1--indicating that what had been promised to ,judah in ,gen4 xlix41 viz41 the ,lion's nature and invincible power1 victorious over all enemies1 has its root in the altar1--in the circumstance that the people of ,god are a people whose sins are forgiven1 who dedicate themselves to ,god1 and give ,him thanks and praise4 ,a very remarkable reference to ,gen4 xlix4 meets us at the very threshold of the ,new ,testament4 ,in ,luke ii4 #ac1 #ad1 the heavenly host praise ,god1 saying3 ,glory be to ,god in the highest1 and on earth peace4 ,the words1 glory or praise be to ,god1 are an allusion to ,judah1 and to the glorious things foretold in ,gen4 xlix4 of him who centres in ,christ4 ,christ is the true ,judah1--,he by whom ,god is glorified1 ,john xiv4 #ac4 ,the words1 on earth peace1 contain the explanation of the name ,shiloh1 the first name under which the ,saviour is celebrated in the ,old ,testament4 ,as the words with which the ,saviour is first introduced into the world allude to ,gen4 xlix41 so the ,lord ,himself1 before ,his departure1 alludes to this fundamental ,messianic prophecy in ,john xiv4 #bg3 ,peace ,i leave with you4 ,my peace ,i give unto you2 and in xvi4 #cc3 ,these things ,i have spoken unto you1 that in ,me ye might have peace4 ,so also1 after ,his resurrection1 ,christ says1 in the circle of ,his disciples1 ,peace be unto you1 ,john xx4 #ai1 #ba1 #bf4 ,the last book of the entire ,holy ,scripture--the ,apocalypse ,pg #ih--likewise points back to the remarkable prophecy of ,christ at the close of its first book4 ,in ,rev4 v4 #e1 we read3 ,and one of the elders saith unto me1 ,weep not3 behold1 the ,lion of the tribe of ,judah1 the ,root of ,david1 hath prevailed4 ,the designation of ,christ as the ,lion of the tribe of ,judah1 rests on ,gen4 xlix4 #i4 ,judah appears there as a lion1 in order to denote his warlike and victorious powers4 ,but ,judah himself1 according to the blessing of dying ,jacob1 is at some future period to centre in the ,messiah4 ,as a type1 he had formerly centred already in ,david1 in whom the lion-nature of the tribe of ,judah was manifested4 ,this allusion shows that even what ,is said in vers4 #h1 #i1 found its complete fulfilment only in ,christ1 and that vers4 #h1 #i1 are parallel to the entire ver4 #aj1 and not to its first half only4 ,bengel remarks on ,rev4 v4 #f3 ,the elder had pointed ,john to a ,lion1 and yet ,john beheld a ,lamb4 ,the ,lord ,jesus is called a ,lion only once in this prophecy1 and that1 at the very beginning1 before the appellation ,lamb appears4 ,this indicates that as often as the ,lamb is remembered1 we should also remember ,him as the ,lion of the tribe of ,judah4 ,as the designation of ,christ as the ,lion refers to what1 in the blessing of ,jacob1 is said of the lion-nature of the tribe of ,judah1 so1 in the ,lamb--the emblem of innocence1 justice1 silent patience and gentleness--the name ,shiloh is embodied4 ,footnote #a3 ,luther says3 ,no doubt the sons of ,jacob will have waited with anxious desire1 and with weeping and groaning1 for what their father had yet to say2 for1 after having heard curses so hard and severe1 they were very much confounded and afraid4 ,and ,judah1 too1 will certainly not have been able to refrain from weeping1 and will have been afraid1 when thinking of what should now become of him4 ,there will have arisen in his heart very sad recollections of his sins1 of his whoredom with ,thamar1 and of the advice which he had given to sell ,joseph4 ,certainly1 ,i should have died with sorrow and tears4 ,but there soon follow a fine dew and a lovely balm1 refreshing the heart again4 ,footnote #b3 ,bochart says3 ,when the whelp of a lion is weaned1 and begins to go out for prey1 and to seek his own food without the help of his mother1 he then ceases to be a 1 and is called a 4 ,deut4 xxxiii4 #bb must1 therefore1 not be translated1 ,dan is a lion's whelp leaping from ,bashan--as if the were already active--but thus1 ,dan is a lion's whelp2 he shall leap 7i4e41 after he shall have grown up7 from ,bashan4 ,dan is in that place styled a lion's whelp1 just as is ,judah in ,gen4 xlix4 #i1 because1 as yet1 he is only a candidate for future victories4 ,footnote #c3 ,the ,,lxx4 translate1 1 from a shoot1 my son1 thou hast grown up4 ,they explain by an inappropriate reference to ,ezek4 xvii4 #i1 where it is used of a fresh green leaf4 ,footnote #d3 ,calvin says3 ,this dignity is bestowed upon ,judah only with a view to benefit the whole of the people4 ,footnote #e3 ,in the first edition of this work1 the author had likewise maintained that view4 ,footnote #f3 ,it was this difficulty which led ,grotius to adopt the feeble exposition1 ,that teachers out of ,judah's posterity would lead the people until the times of the ,messiah1 who would be the highest leader and commander of ,jews and ,gentiles4 ,footnote #g3 ,calvin says3 ,if any one should object1 that the words of ,jacob convey a different meaning1 we would answer him1 that whatever promises ,god gave concerning the outward condition of the ,church1 they were so far limited that ,god might1 in the meantime1 exercise ,his judgments in the punishment of men's sins1 and prove the faith of ,his people4 ,and indeed it was not a light trial when1 at the third succession1 the tribe of ,judah was deprived of the greater part of his territory4 ,a more severe one followed when1 before the eyes of the father1 the sons of the king were slain1 his own eyes put out1 and himself was carried to ,babylon1 and given over to servitude and exile along with the whole royal family4 ,but the heaviest trial of all came1 when the people returned to their land1 and were so far from seeing their expectations fulfilled1 that they were1 on the contrary1 subjected to a sad dispersion4 ,but even then1 the saints beheld with the eye of faith the sceptre hidden under ground2 neither did their hearts fail1 nor their courage give way1 so that they desisted not from continuing their course4 ,footnote #h3 ,many expositors1 following the ,,lxx4 7 71 the ,vulgate 7de femore ejus71 and the ,chaldee ,paraphrast1 understand this expression as a designation of origin and production4 ,but in that case1 we must assume a very hard ellipsis1 viz41 he who is to proceed4 ,moreover1 this explanation is destructive of the parallelism1 according to which1 from between his feet must correspond with from ,judah4 ,footnote #i3 ,the signification1 expectation1 given to this word by the ,,lxx4 7 71 ,jerome1 and other translators1 is founded upon the erroneous derivation of the word from 4 ,in the other passage 7,prov4 xxx4 #ag71 where the ,,lxx4 translate1 the age of his mother1 they have confounded the root with 1 to be blunted4 ,footnote #aj3 ,gousset says3 ,the word can signify something good only1 on account of the passage1 ,prov4 xxx4 #ag1 namely1 something which adorns the relation of the son to his mother1 the despising of which is a crime on the part of the son1 and which deserves that he should be sent 4 ,and not less so from its being used in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj in reference to the ,shiloh1 where1 thereby1 not one or a few1 but all the nations without exception1 are bound to ,him by a tie similar to that which exists betwixt mother and son4 ,footnote #aa3 ,thus ,luther says3 ,this sceptre of ,judah shall continue1 and shall not be taken from him1 till the hero come2 but when ,he comes1 then the sceptre also shall depart4 ,the kingdom or sceptre has fallen2 the ,jews are scattered throughout the whole world1 and1 therefore1 the ,messiah has certainly come2 for1 at ,his appearing1 the sceptre should be taken from ,judah4 ,footnote #ab3 ,in the volume containing the ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of ,daniel1 etc4 ,edinburgh1 ,t4 and ,t4 ,clark4 ,footnote #ac3 ,delitzsch 7who had formerly been a defender of the explanation of a personal ,messiah7 differs1 in his ,commentary on ,genesis1 from this view1 only in so far1 that he supposes that1 while ,judah's dominion over the tribes comes to an end in ,shiloh1 his dominion over the nations dates from that period4 ,but this explanation must be objected to on the ground1 that the dominion bestowed upon ,judah is not merely a dominion over the tribes1 but over the world4 ,footnote #ad3 ,knobel knows of no other expedient by which to escape from the force of this argument1 than by changing the punctuation4 ,he proposes to read 1 a word which nowhere occurs4 ,footnote #ae3 ,the rationalistic objection1 that at so great an age1 and on the brink of the grave1 man is not wont to compose poems1 may be refuted by a reference to the history of the ancient ,arabic poetry4 ,the ,arabic poets before the time of ,mohammed often recited long poems extempore1--so natural to them was poetry4 7,compare ,tharaph ,moallakah1 ed4 ,reiske1 p4 xl42 ,antar ,moallakah1 ed4 ,menil4 p4 #ah47 ,the poet ,lebid1 who attained to the age of #aeg years 7compare ,reiske prolegg4 ad ,thar4 ,moall4 p4 xxx42 ,de ,sacy1 ,memoires de l',academie des inscriptions1 p4 #djc ff471 composed a poem when he was dying2 compare ,herbelot ,bibl4 ,or4 p4 #eac4 ,the poet ,hareth was #ace years old when he recited extempore his ,moallakah1 which is still extant2 compare ,reiske l4c4 ,the objection1 too1 that it is inconceivable how the blessing spoken by ,jacob could have been handed down verbatim to ,moses1 finds its best refutation in the history of ,arabic poetry4 ,the art of writing was introduced among the ,arabs only a short time before ,mohammed4 7,compare de ,sacy l4c4 pp4 #cjf1 #cdh2 ,amrulkeisi ,moall4 ed4 ,hengstenberg1 p4 #c47 ,up to that time1 even the longest poems1 of which some consisted of more than a hundred verses1 were preserved by mere oral tradition 7compare ,nuweiri in ,rosenmller1 ,zoheiri ,moall4 p4 #aa72 and the internal condition of those which have been preserved to us bears the best testimony to their having been faithfully handed down4 ,but in the case before us1 something altogether different from a poem was concerned4 ,footnote #af3 ,onkelos paraphrases these words very correctly1 thus3 ,hear1 ,o ,lord1 the prayers of ,judah when he goes out to war1 and bring him safely back to his people4 ,footnote #ag3 ,it is probable also1 that in the passage1 ,josh4 xvi4 #f1 where ,shiloh occurs for the first time as the name of a place1 and which we have already discussed1 there is not1 as we assumed1 a connection of the former name with the latter1 but the complete appellation1 of which the latter--,shiloh--is only an abbreviation4 ,from the well ascertained and common signification of the verb 1 we are entitled to explain ,taanath-,shiloh3 the futurity1 or the appearance of ,shiloh4 ,shiloh shall come6 ,such was the watchword at that time4 ,the word would then correspond to the of the fundamental passage4 ,footnote #ah3 ,that there exists a connection between ,shiloh and ,solomon has often been guessed at and expressed2 but expositors have not succeeded well in determining it more closely4 ,the ,samarit4 ,arab4 ,translation here says expressly3 ,until ,solomon cometh4 7,comp4 ,lib4 ,genes4 sec4 ,arab4 ,pent4 ,samarit4 vers4 ed4 ,kuenen4 ,leyden1 #ea47 ,footnote #ai3 ,kimchi says3 ,as long as the ,jews were doing the will of ,god1 they could lie down like the lion without fear4 ,,balaam',s ,,prophecy4 7,numb4 xxiv4 #ag-ai47 ,carried by the ,spirit into the far distant future1 ,balaam sees here how a star goeth out of ,jacob and a sceptre riseth out of ,israel1 and how this sceptre smiteth ,moab1 by whose enmity the ,seer had been brought from a distant region for the destruction of ,israel4 ,and not ,moab only shall be smitten1 but its southern neighbour1 ,edom1 too shall be subdued1 whose hatred against ,israel had already been prefigured in its ancestor1 and had now begun to display ,itself2 and ,in general1 all the enemies of the ,pg #ii people of ,god shall be cast down to the ground by the ,ruler out of ,jacob4 ,ver4 #ag4 ,i see him1 but not now2 ,i behold him1 but not nigh4 ,a star goeth out of ,jacob1 and a sceptre riseth out of ,israel1 and smiteth the borders of ,moab1 and destroyeth all the sons of the tumult4 ,ver4 #ah4 ,and ,edom shall be a possession1 and ,seir shall be a possession--his enemies1 and ,israel acquireth might4 ,ver4 #ai4 ,and a ,ruler shall come out of ,jacob1 and destroyeth what remaineth out of the city4 ,the star is1 in ,scripture1 the symbol of the splendour of power4 ,the sceptre leads us back to ,gen4 xlix4 #aj2 and1 in general1 the announcements of ,balaam have1 throughout1 the promises and hopes of the ,patriarchs for their foundation4 ,as in the fundamental passage1 so here also1 the sceptre1 the symbol of dominion1 stands for dominion itself4 ,the substance of the two figurative expressions is briefly stated in ver4 #ai1 in the words1 ,they shall rule out of ,jacob1 which are tantamount to1 ,a ,ruler shall come out of ,jacob4 ,a difference of opinion exists regarding the glorious ,king who is here announced4 ,from the earliest times1 the ,jews understood thereby the ,messiah1 either exclusively1 or1 at least1 principally1 so as to admit of a secondary reference to ,david4 ,onkelos translates3 ,when a ,king shall rise out of ,jacob1 and out of ,israel ,messiah shall be anointed2--,jonathan3 ,when a valiant ,king shall rise out of the house of ,jacob1 and out of ,israel1 ,messiah1 and a strong ,sceptre shall be anointed4 ,the ,book of ,sohar remarks on the words1 ,i see him1 but now3 ,this was in part fulfilled at that time2 it will be completely fulfilled in the days of ,messiah4 7,compare the passages in ,jos4 de ,voisin1 in the ,prooem4 on ,r4 ,martini ,pugio fid4 p4 #fh2 ,r4 ,martini iii4 #c1 c4 #aa2 ,schttgen1 ,jesus ,messias1 ,s4 #aea47 ,how widely this opinion was spread among the ,jews1 is sufficiently apparent from the circumstance1 that the renowned pseudo-,messiah in the time of ,hadrian adopted1 with reference to the passage under review1 the surname ,barcochba1 i4e41 ,son of the ,star4--,from the ,jews1 this interpretation very soon passed over to the ,christians1 who rightly found a warrant for it in the narrative of the star of the wise men from the ,east4 ,cyril of ,jerusalem defended the ,messianic interpretation against ,julian4 7,compare ,julian1 ed4 ,spanh4 p4 #bfc c4 ,see other passages ,pg #ajj from the fathers of the ,church in ,calov47 ,according to ,theodoret 7,quest4 #dd in ,numb471 there were1 indeed1 some to whom ,balaam appeared to have foretold nothing concerning our ,saviour2 but this opinion was rejected as profane4 ,the ,messianic interpretation has1 in a narrower and wider sense--i4e41 as referring in the first instance to ,david1 but in the highest and proper sense to ,christ--become the prevailing one in the ,evangelical ,church also4 ,it was defended even by such interpreters as ,calvin and ,clericus1 who1 as to other passages1 differed from the prevailing ,messianic interpretation4 7,compare especially ,mieg1 de ,stella et ,sceptro ,baleamitico in the ,thes4 ,nov4 p4 #dbc sqq41 and ,boullier1 ,dissert4 ,syll4 ,amsterdam #agej1 ,diss4 ,i47 ,on the other hand1 the ,messianic interpretation found a zealous and ingenious opponent1 first in ,verschnir in the ,bibl4 ,brem4 nova1 reprinted in his ,opusc4 ,he was joined by the rationalistic interpreters1 who maintained an exclusive reference to ,david4 ,but ,rosenmller and ,baumgarten-,crusius 7bibl4 ,theol4 ,s4 #cfi7 returned to the ,messianic interpretation4 ,the question at issue is chiefly this3--,whether by the star and sceptre some single ,israelitish king is designated1 or rather1 an ideal person--the personified ,israelitish kingdom4 ,the latter view ,i proved1 in my work on ,balaam1 to be the correct one1 for the following reasons3--#a4 ,the reference to a certain ,israelitish king is against the analogy of the other prophecies of the ,pentateuch4 ,a single person1 especially a single king of future time1 is nowhere announced in it1--except the ,messiah1 whose announcement1 however1 is different from that of ,david4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the rise of the kingdom in ,israel is announced as early as in the promise to the ,patriarchs1 on which all of ,balaam's declarations rest throughout4 ,it is only to this that the words1 ,a star goeth out of ,jacob1 and a sceptre riseth out of ,israel1 can refer1--according to the analogy of ,gen4 xvii4 #f3 ,kings shall come out of thee2 ver4 #af3 ,and she shall become nations1 kings of people shall be of her2 and xxxv4 #aa3 ,kings shall come out of thy loins4 #b4 ,the reference to a single king would be against the analogy of ,balaam's prophecies1 inasmuch as these nowhere refer to a single individual4 #c4 ,the sceptre does not1 in itself1 lead us to think of an individual1 since it does not designate a ruler1 but dominion in general4 ,but that which especially militates against the reference ,pg #aja to an individual is the comparison with the fundamental passage1 ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 in which ,judah1 and in him all ,israel1 does not receive the promise of a single king1 but of the kingdom which shall at last be consummated in the ,shiloh4 #d4 ,in favour of this general interpretation is also ver4 #ai1 in which the words1 ,and dominion shall come out of ,jacob1 or literally1 ,they shall rule out of ,jacob1 may be considered as just a commentary on the words1 ,a sceptre riseth out of ,israel4 ,so also is ver4 #g1 ,more elevated than ,agag be his king1 where the king of ,israel is an ideal person--the personification of the kingdom4 ,agag1 i4e41 the fiery one1 is not a proper name1 but a surname of all ,amalekite kings4 ,the ,amalekite kingdom--which here represents the world's power1 opposed to the kingdom of ,god1 because at the time of the ,seer the ,amalekites were the most powerful among the people who were hostile to ,israel 7compare ver4 #bj1 where they are called the beginning of the heathen nations1 i4e41 the most powerful of them7--is here put in opposition to the ,israelitish kingdom1 and the latter will show itself superior to all worldly power4 ,the arguments which thus prove the reference of ,balaam's prophecy to an ,israelitish kingdom1 disprove also1 not only the exclusive reference to ,david1 but also the exclusive reference to ,christ2 although they imply at the same time that the prophecy1 in its final reference1 has ,christ for its subject4 ,the ,israelitish kingdom1 indeed1 attained to the full height of its destiny only in and with the ,messiah2 without the ,messiah1 the ,israelitish kingdom is a trunk without a head4 ,the prophecy thus centres in ,christ4 ,we are1 however1 not entitled to suppose that the prophet himself was not aware of this2 on the contrary1 we cannot but assume that ,balaam must have known it4 ,it is with intention that he does not speak of a plurality of ,israelitish kings4 ,the ,israelitish kingdom1 on the contrary1 appears to him in the from of an ideal king1 because he knows that1 at some period1 it will find ,its full realization in the person of one king4 ,for the same reason1 ,moses also describes the prophetic order1 in the first instance1 as an ideal prophet4 ,that ,balaam knew that the ,israelitish kingdom would centre in the ,messiah1 is shown by the reference which his prophecy has to that of dying ,jacob1 in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 from which the figure of the sceptre is borrowed4 ,according to the latter passage1 the whole dignity of ,judah as ,pg #ajb ruler and lord over the whole heathen world is to centre in one elevated individual--the ,shiloh4 ,as to the letter1 ,balaam's prophecy falls short of the prophecy to which it refers1 and on which it is founded1 in two points4 ,instead of ,judah1 it mentions ,israel2 and instead of the invincible kingdom which is at last to centre in the ,messiah1 it represents the invincible kingdom only in general4 ,but in both cases1 this generality is easily accounted for by the external direction of ,balaam's prophecy3 a more definite tendency was of importance only for those who were within4 ,we are fully entitled to suppose that ,balaam himself knew what was contained in the fundamental passage4 ,to the same result we are led by the contents of the prophecy itself4 ,balaam here brings into view an ,israelitish kingdom1 all-powerful on earth1 and raised absolutely above the world's power4 ,he does not stop with the victory over ,moab and ,edom--even this victory appears to him as an absolute and lasting one1 and hence1 essentially different from the temporary submission to ,david--but1 from the particular1 which only serves to exemplify the idea in reference to the historical relations existing at the present1 he passes on1 in ver4 #ai1 to the general1 the total overthrow of the whole hostile world's power4 ,indeed1 such a progress is probably found even in ver4 #ag itself4 ,if at the close of it we read1 ,and destroyeth all the sons of the tumult1 the word all1 which is wanting in ,jer4 xlviii4 #de1 indicates that by the sons of the tumult we are to understand not only the ,moabites1 but the whole species to which they belonged1 the whole heathen world1 whose nature is restlessness1 desire for strife1 and the spirit of conquest1--the opposites of meekness and gentleness1 which are the virtues characteristic of the subjects of the kingdom of ,god4 ,in ver4 #ah1 the particular is likewise followed by the general4 ,but while ver4 #ag and #ah contain1 in each of the two particular features1 a previous short allusion to the general1 ver4 #ai most expressly and intentionally reduces the particular to the general4 ,the absolute elevation above the world's power1 attributed by ,balaam to the ,israelitish kingdom1 leads not only beyond the idea of a single king of the ordinary stamp1 but also beyond that of the entire ordinary kingdom4 ,the objections urged against the ,messianic interpretation are based either on a misunderstanding1 or upon a superficial view of the passage4 ,they who maintain that the judging activity of ,pg #ajc the ,messiah is here brought forward in a manner too one-sided1 forget that this part only could here be treated of4 ,as ,balaam's discourse formed the answer to ,balak's message--,come1 curse me this people2 peradventure we shall prevail to smite them and drive them out of the land1--its natural subject was3 ,israel's position towards their enemies2 and ,balaam had expressly stated1 in ver4 #ad1 that he would treat of that subject4 ,balaam had to do with an enemy of ,israel1 and his chief aim was to represent to him the vanity of all his hostile efforts4 ,the partial view arises1 therefore1 from the nature of the case2 and only in that case could doubts arise as to the ultimate reference to the ,messiah1 if the other view were altogether denied4 ,but such is by no means the case2 for the words in ver4 #i1 ,blessed is he that blesseth thee1 distinctly point it out4 ,they who object to the ,messianic interpretation on the ground that1 at the time of ,christ1 the ,moabites had disappeared from the stage of history1 overlook the circumstance1 that the ,moabites here1 as well as in ,is4 xi41 where the complete destruction of ,moab is likewise assigned to the times of the ,messiah1 are viewed only in their character as enemies to the congregation of ,god4 ,if the prophecy were fulfilled upon the ,moabites1 even at the time when they still existed as a nation1 not as ,moabites1 but as the enemies of the people of ,god2 then the limit of their national existence cannot be the limit of the fulfilment of the prophecy4 ,a case quite analogous is found in ,mic4 v4 #d1 #e1 where the prophet characterizes the enemies of the kingdom of ,god at the time of the ,messiah by the name of ,asshur1 although it appears1 from other passages1 that he distinctly knew that ,asshur must1 long ere that time1 have disappeared from the scene of history4 ,the ,messianic character of the prophecy being thus established1 it will be impossible to misunderstand the internal relation between the star of ,balaam and the star of the wise men from the ,east4 ,the star of ,balaam is the emblem of the kingdom which will rise in ,israel4 ,the star of the ,magi is the symbol of the ,ruler in whom the kingly power appears concentrated4 ,the appearance of the star embodying the image of the prophet1 indicates that the last and highest fulfilment of his prophecies is now to take place4 ,pg #ajd ,,moses' ,,promise ,,of ,,the ,,prophet4 7,deut4 xviii4 #ae-ai47 ,ver4 #ae4 ,a prophet from the midst of thee1 of thy brethren1 like unto me1 ,jehovah thy ,god will raise up3 unto him ye shall hearken4 ,ver4 #af4 ,according to all that thou desiredst of ,jehovah thy ,god in ,horeb1 in the day of the assembly1 when thou didst say1 ,i will not hear any farther the voice of ,jehovah my ,god1 and will not see this great fire any more1 that ,i die not4 ,ver4 #ag4 ,then ,jehovah said unto me4 ,they have well spoken4 ,ver4 #ah4 ,a prophet ,i will raise them up from among their brethren1 like unto thee2 and ,i will put ,my words into his mouth1 and he shall speak unto them all that ,i shall command him4 ,ver4 #ai4 ,and it shall come to pass1 that whosoever will not hearken unto ,my words which he shall speak in ,my name1 ,i will require it of him4 ,if we leave out of view the unfortunate attempts of those who would understand by the prophet here promised1 either ,joshua--as is done by ,abenezra1 ,bechai1 and von ,ammon 7,christol4 ,s4 #bi7--or ,jeremiah--as is the case in ,baal ,hatturim and ,jalkut out of the book ,pesikta1 and in ,abarbanel--we may reduce the expositions of this passage to three classes4 #a4 ,several consider the prophet as a collective noun1 and understand thereby the prophets of all times4 ,such was the opinion of ,origen 7c4 ,celsum i4 #i1 #e1 ,mosh471 of the ,arabic translator1 and of most of the modern ,jewish interpreters1--especially ,kimchi1 ,alshech1 and ,lipman 7,nizachon #acg72 while ,abenezra and ,bechai conjoin this view with that according to which ,jeremiah is meant4 ,among recent expositors1 it is defended by ,rosenmller1 ,vater1 ,baumgarten-,crusius 7,bibl4 ,theol4 ,s4 #cfi71 and others4 #b4 ,some see in it an exclusive reference to ,christ1--a view which has been held by most interpreters in the ,christian ,church1 and from the earliest times4 ,it is found as early as in ,justin ,martyr1 ,tertullian1 ,athanasius1 ,eusebius 7,demonstr4 iii4 #b1 ix4 #aa71 ,lactantius 7iv4 #ag71 ,augustine 7c4 ,faustum1 xvi4 c4 #ae1 #ah1 #ai71 and ,isidore of ,pelusium 7c4 iii4 ep4 #di74 ,it was held by ,luther 7t4 #c4 ,jen4 ,lat4 f4 #abc71 became the prevailing one in the ,lutheran ,church1 and was ,pg #aje approved of by most of the ,reformed interpreters4 ,among its earliest defenders1 the most eminent are ,deyling 7,misc4 ii4 #age71 ,frischmuth 7in the ,thesaurus theol4-philol4 i4 #ced71 and ,hasaeus 7in the ,thes4 theol4-philol4 nov4 i4 ,s4 #dci47 ,in recent times it has been defended by ,pareau 7in the ,inst4 interpr4 ,v4 ,t4 p4 #ejf71 by ,knapp 7,dogm4 ii4 #ach74 #c4 ,others have steered a middle course1 inasmuch as they consider the prophet to be a collective noun1 but1 at the same time1 maintain that only by the mission of ,christ1 in whom the idea of the prophetic order was perfectly realized1 the promise was completely fulfilled4 ,thus did ,nicolaus de ,lyra1 ,calvin1 several ,roman ,catholic interpreters1 ,grotius1 ,clericus1 and others4 ,in favour of the ,messianic interpretation1 the authority of tradition has been1 first of all1 appealed to4 ,it is true that modern ,jewish interpreters differ from it2 but this has been the result of polemical considerations alone4 ,it can be satisfactorily proved that the ,messianic interpretation was the prevailing one among the older ,jews4 #a ,mac4 xiv4 #da--;,also that the ,jews and priests resolved that ,simon should be commander and high priest for ever1 until a credible prophet should arise1--has been frequently appealed to in proof of this1 but erroneously4 ,for1 that by the credible prophet1 i4e41 one sufficiently attested by miracles or fulfilled prophecies1 we are not to understand the prophet promised by ,moses 7as was done by ,luther1 and many older expositors who followed him71 is shown1 partly by the absence of the article1 and partly by the circumstance that a credible prophet is spoken of4 ,the sense is rather this3 ,simon and his family should continue to hold the highest dignity until ,god ,himself should make another arrangement by a future prophet1 as there was none at that time 7comp4 ,ps4 lxxiv4 #i3 ,there is no more any prophet71 and thus put an end to a state of things which1 on the one hand1 was in contradiction to the law1 and1 on the other1 to the promise1--a state of things unto which they had been led by the force of circumstances1 and which could1 at all events1 be only a provisional one4 7,compare ,j4 ,d4 ,michaelis on that passage47 ,it is not on the passage under review that the expectation of a prophet there rests1 but rather on ,mal4 iii4 #a1 #bc1 where a prophet is promised as the precursor of the ,messiah4 ,but the ,new ,testament furnishes sufficient materials for proving the ,pg #ajf ,messianic interpretation4 ,the very manner in which ,peter and ,stephen quote this passage shows that the ,messianic interpretation was1 at that time1 the prevailing one4 ,they do not deem it at all necessary to prove it2 they proceed on the supposition of its being universally acknowledged4 ,it was1 no doubt1 chiefly our passage which ,philip had in view when1 in ,john i4 #df1 he said to ,nathanael3 1 4 ,for1 besides the passage under consideration1 there is only one other personal ,messianic prophecy in the ,pentateuch1 namely1 ,gen4 xlix4 #aj2 and the marks of the ,shiloh did not so distinctly appear in ,jesus1 as did those of the ,prophet4 ,the mention of the person of ,moses#a 7which in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj is less concerned71 and of the law1 clearly point to the passage under review4 ,after the feeding of the five thousand1 the people say1 in ,john vi4 #ad3 1 4 ,the ,messianic interpretation was1 accordingly1 not peculiar to a few learned men1 but to the whole people4 ,even with the ,samaritans the ,messianic explanation was the prevailing one1--based1 no doubt1 upon the tradition which had come to them from the ,jews4 ,the ,samaritan woman says1 in ,john iv4 #be3 1 1 4 ,now1 as the ,samaritans acknowledged only the ,pentateuch1 there is no other passage than that under review from which the idea of the ,messiah as a divinely enlightened teacher1 which is here expressed1 could have been derived4 ,the last words agree in a remarkable manner with ,deut4 xviii4 #ah3 ,and he shall speak unto them all that ,i shall command him4 ,that too great weight1 however1 must not be attached to tradition1 is shown by ,john i4 #ba1 and vii4 #dj1 #da2 for these passages clearly prove that there were also many who thought it possible that ,deut4 xviii4 contained not only the announcement of the ,messiah1 but of some distinguished prophet also1 besides ,him1 who should be ,his precursor or companion4 ,at the same time1 we must not overlook the circumstance that1 in both passages1 the people are at a loss1 and are thereby induced to deviate from the prevailing ,pg #ajg opinion4 ,their uncertainty and wavering1 however1 is only about the person4 ,in this they agree1 notwithstanding1 that in ,deut4 xviii4 they find the announcement of one distinguished person4 ,but the ,messianic interpretation may appeal1 with still greater confidence1 to the direct evidence of the ,new ,testament4 ,the declaration of the ,lord in ,john v4 #de-dg is here to be noticed above all3 1 1 4 1 4 1 2--,it is clear that the ,lord must here have had in view a distinct passage of the ,pentateuch1--a clear and definite declaration of ,moses4 ,dexterous explanations 7,bengel3 ,nunquam non2 ,tholuck3 ,the prophetical and typical element implied in the whole form of worship7 are of no apologetic value1 and it is not possible summarily1 on such grounds1 to call the enemies before the judgment-seat of ,god4 ,it was not enough to allude1 in a way so general1 to what could not be at once perceptible2 greater distinctness and particularity would have been required4 ,but if a single declaration--a direct ,messianic prophecy--form the question at issue1 our passage only can be meant2 for it is the only prophecy of ,christ which ,moses1 on whose person great stress is laid1 uttered in his own name4 ,moreover1 ,christ would more readily expect that the ,jews would acknowledge our prophecy to be fulfilled in ,him1 than the prophecy in ,gen4 xlix41 which refers rather to the ,messiah in glory4 ,the preceding words of ,jesus likewise contain references to the passage now under consideration4 ,ver4 #ch--;,and ye have not ,his word abiding in you2 for whom ,he hath sent1 ,him ye believe not1--contains an allusion to ,deut4 xviii4 #ah3 ,and ,i will put ,my words into his mouth1 and he shall speak unto them all that ,i shall command him2 so that whosoever rejects the ,ambassador of ,god1 rejects ,his word at the same time4 ,john v4 #dc--;,i am come in ,my ,father's name1 and ye receive ,me not1--acquires both its significance and earnestness from its reference to ver4 #ai of our passage3 ,whosoever will not hearken unto ,my words1 which he shall speak in ,my name1 ,i will require it of him4 ,further1--,the point at issue in this discourse of ,christ is an accusation of the ,jews against ,christ1 ,pg #ajh that ,he had violated the ,mosaic law4 7,compare ,john v4 #aj-af1 and v4 #ah1 which states the second apparent violation of the law47 ,it was thus highly appropriate that ,jesus should throw back upon the ,jews the charge which they brought against ,him1 and should prove to them that it was just they who were in fatal opposition to the enactments of the ,mosaic law4 ,finally1--,it is this same ,moses in whom they trusted1 whom they considered as their patron1 and whom to please the more1 they were so zealous for his law against ,jesus1--it is this same ,moses whom ,jesus represents as their accuser4 ,and he is such an accuser as renders every other superfluous1 so that ,christ did not need specially to come forward in such a character4 ,the accusation of ,moses must1 then1 according to this declaration1 and in accordance with what follows1 refer to the cause of ,christ4 ,but the passage under review is the only ,messianic prophecy of a threatening character which the ,pentateuch contains1--the only one in which divine judgments are threatened to the despisers of the ,messiah1--the only ,mosaic foundation for the denunciation3 ,woe to the people that despiseth thee4 ,if it be denied that ,christ refers to it1--if its ,messianic character be not acknowledged1 the first words of ,christ are destitute of foundation4 ,but if it be thus undeniable that ,christ declared ,himself to be the prophet of our passage1 it must be considered an indirect attack upon ,his divinity to say1 as ,dr ,lcke does1 that ,christ did so by way of adaptation to the interpretation of that time4 ,it is just this appeal which forms the pith of ,christ's discourse2 it is the real death-blow inflicted by ,him upon ,his adversaries4 ,if this blow was a mere feint1 ,his honour is endangered1--which may ,god forbid6--,the ,lord further marks ,himself out as the prophet announced by ,moses1 and that1 too1 in a very distinct manner1 in ,john xii4 #dh-ej1--;a passage which is evidently based upon vers4 #ah and #ai of the text under review4 7,compare ,john xiv4 #bd-ca47--,to this we may add1 further1 that1 according to ,st ,luke xxiv4 #dd1 the ,lord ,himself explains to ,his disciples the prophecies in the ,pentateuch concerning ,him2 and we cannot well expect that ,christ should have made no reference to a passage which one of the ,apostles points out as being of greater weight than all others4 ,this is done by ,peter in ,acts iii4 #bb1 #bc4 ,the manner in which he quotes it1 entirely excludes the notion that ,moses was ,pg #aji speaking of ,christ1 only in so far as ,he belonged to the collective body of the prophets4 ,peter says expressly1 that ,moses and the later prophets foretold 2 and the words1 1 show that he did not understand the singular in a collective sense4 ,the circumstance that ,stephen1 in ,acts vii4 #cg1 likewise refers the passage to ,christ1 would not be1 in itself1 conclusive1 because ,stephen's case is different from that of the ,apostles4 ,but we must not overlook the passage ,matt4 xvii4 #e1 according to which1 at ,christ's transfiguration1 a voice was heard from heaven which said3 1 4 ,as the first part of this declaration is taken from the ,messianic prediction in ,is4 xlii41 so is the second from the passage under consideration2 and1 by this use of its words1 the sense is clearly shown4 ,it is a very significant fact1 that our passage is thus connected just with ,is4 xlii4--the first prophetic announcement in which it is specially resumed1 and in which the prophetic order itself is the proclaimer of the ,prophet4 ,and it is not less significant that this reference to our text1 with which all the other announcements by ,isaiah concerning the ,great ,prophet to come are so immediately connected1 should precede chapters xlix41 l41 and lxi4 ,it thus serves as a commentary upon the declaration of ,moses4 ,the beginning and the outlines receive light from the progress and completion4 ,he1 however1 who believes in ,christ1 will1 after these details1 expect that internal reasons also should prove the reference to ,christ2 and this expectation is fully confirmed4 ,that ,moses did not intend by the word prophet1 to designate a collective body merely1 but that he had at least some special individual in view1 appears1 partly1 from the word itself being constantly in the singular1 and1 partly1 from the constant use of the singular suffixes in reference to it2 while1 in the case of collective nouns1 it is usual to interchange the singular with the plural4 ,the force of this argument is abundantly evident in the fact1 that not a few of even non-,messianic interpreters have been thereby compelled to make some single individual the subject of this prophecy4 ,but we must hesitate the more to adopt the opinion that stands here simply in the singular instead of the plural1 because neither does this word anywhere else occur as a collective noun1 nor is the prophetic order ever ,pg #aaj spoken of in the manner alleged4 ,the expectation of a ,messiah was already at that time current among the people4 ,in what way1 then1 could they understand a promise1 in which one individual only was spoken of1 except by referring it1 at least chiefly1 to the one whom they expected8--,hofmann 7,weissagung und ,erfllung i4 ,s4 #bec7 objects that the prophet here spoken of was1 in no respect1 different from the king in ,deut4 xvii4 #ad-bj4 ,but the king mentioned there is no collective noun4 ,an individual who1 in future times1 should first attain to royal dignity1 forms there the subject throughout4 ,this appears especially from ver4 #bj1 where he and his sons are spoken of4 ,the first king is held up as an example1 to show in him what was applicable to the royal dignity in general4 ,on the other hand1 it is in favour of our view1 that1 in the verses immediately preceding 7vers4 #h-ac71 the priests are1 at first1 spoken of only in the plural1 although the priestly order had much more of the character of a collective body than the prophetic order4 ,a comparison between this prophecy and that of the ,shiloh in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj is likewise in favour of the ,messianic interpretation4 ,even there4 ,his prophetic office is alluded to in the kingly office4 ,the ruler out of ,judah is the ,peaceful ,one1 to whom the nations yield a spontaneous obedience1 an obedience flowing from a pious source1--and ,he rules not by compulsion1 but by the word4 ,the prophet is moreover contrasted with a single individual--with ,moses2 and this compels us to refer the prophecy to some distinguished individual4 ,in ver4 #ae1 ,moses promises to the people a prophet like unto himself2 and thus also does the ,lord say1 in ver4 #ah3 ,a prophet like unto thee ,i will raise up4 ,we cannot for a moment suppose that this likeness should refer to the prophetic calling only1--to the words3 ,i will put ,my words into his mouth1 and he shall speak unto them all that ,i shall command him4 ,it must at the same time be implied in it1 that the future prophet shall be as thoroughly competent for his work1 as ,moses was for that which was committed to him4 ,if it were not so1 the promise would be deficient in that consolatory and elevating character which1 according to the context1 it is evidently intended to possess4 ,if we were to paraphrase thus1 ,the ,lord will raise up a prophet1 inferior1 indeed1 to myself1 ,pg #aaa but yet the bearer of divine revelations1 we should at once perceive how unsuitable it were4 ,further1--,it is quite evident that the ,prophet here is the main instrument of divine agency among the ,covenant-people of the future1--that ,he is the real support and anchor of the kingdom of ,god4 ,but now the difficulties of the future were1 as ,moses himself saw1 so great1 that gifts in any way short of those of ,moses would by no means have been sufficient4 ,moses foresees that the spirit of apostasy1 which1 even in his time1 began to manifest itself1 would1 in future times1 increase to a fearful extent4 7,compare especially ,deut4 xxxii47 ,against this1 ordinary gifts and powers would be of no avail4 ,a successful and enduring reaction could be brought about only by one who should be1 for the more difficult circumstances of the future1 such as ,moses was for his times4 ,but--and this circumstance is of still greater weight--it forms the task of the future to translate the whole heathen world into the kingdom of ,god4 ,in it1 ,japheth is to dwell in the tents of ,shem2 all the nations of the earth are to become partakers in the blessing resting on ,abraham4 ,in the view of such a task1 a prophet of ordinary dimensions1 as well as the collective body of such1 would dwindle down to the appearance of a dwarf4 ,they would have been less than ,moses4 ,in ,deut4 xxxiv4 #aj1 it is said1 ,there arose not a prophet since in ,israel like unto ,moses1 whom the ,lord knew face to face2--a passage which not only plainly refers to the experience acquired at that time1 but which expresses also what might be expected of that portion of the future which was more immediately at hand4 ,when ,miriam and ,aaron said1 ,doth the ,lord indeed speak only by ,moses1 doth ,he not speak by us also8 the ,lord immediately1 ,num4 xii4 #f-h1 reproves their presumption of thinking themselves like unto ,moses1 as respects the prophetical gift1 in these words3 ,if some one be your prophet1--i4e41 if some one be a prophet according to your way1 with prophets of your class1--,i1 the ,lord1 make myself known unto him in a vision1 in a dream ,i speak unto him4 ,not so my servant ,moses2 in all ,my house he is faithful4 ,mouth to mouth ,i speak to him1 and face to face1 and not in dark speeches2 and the appearance of the ,lord he beholds4 ,moses1 as a prophet1 is here contrasted with the whole order of prophets of ordinary gifts4 ,a higher dignity among them is claimed for him on the ground that not some special mission1 ,pg #aab but the care of the whole economy of the ,old ,testament1 was entrusted to him2 compare ,heb4 iii4 #e4 ,his is a specially close relation to the ,lord1 a specially high degree of illumination4 ,the collective body of ordinary prophets cannot1 therefore1 by any possibility be the prophet who is like unto ,moses1 as completely equal to the task of the future as ,moses was for that of his day4 ,but the greater the work of the future1 the more necessary is it that the prophet of the future1 in order to be like unto ,moses1 should1 in his whole individuality1 and in all his gifts1 be far superior to him2 compare ,heb4 iii4 #f4 ,finally1--,the common prophetic order itself refuses the honour of being the prophet like unto ,moses4 ,the prophecies of ,isaiah1 in chapters xlii41 xlix41 l41 and lxi41 are based upon our passage1 and in all of them the ,messiah appears as the prophet 4 ,it is to ,him that the mission is entrusted of being the restorer of ,jacob1 and the salvation of the ,lord1 even unto the end of the world4 ,whilst these reasons demand the reference of this prophecy to ,christ1 there are1 on the other hand1 weighty considerations which make it appear that a reference to the prophetic order of the ,old ,testament cannot be excluded4 ,these considerations are1 #a4 ,the wider context4 ,deuteronomy is distinguished from the preceding books by this1 that provisions are made in it for the time subsequent to the death of ,moses1 which was now at hand4 ,from chap4 xvii4 #h1 the magistrates and powers--the superiors1 to whose authority in secular and spiritual affairs the people shall submit--are introduced4 ,first1 the civil magistrates are brought before them1 xvii4 #h-bj2 and then the ecclesiastical superiors1 chap4 xviii4 ,vers4 #a-h treat of the priests as the ordinary servants of the ,lord in spiritual things4 ,everywhere else1 offices1 institutions1 orders1 are spoken of4 ,in such a connection1 it is not probable that the prophet should be only an individual2 and the less so1 because evidently the prophet1 as the organ of the immediate revelation of ,god1 is placed by the side of the priests1 the teachers of the law 7compare xvii4 #aj1 #aa1 #ah2 xxxiv4 #aj71 as their corrective1 as a thorn in their flesh1 to make up for their inability4 ,it is true that this wider connection is also against those who would here exclude ,christ4 ,if it be certain that ,moses already knew the ,messianic promises 7compare the remarks on ,gen4 xlix471 then1 just in this context1 the reference ,pg #aac to ,christ1 the head of the authorities of the future1 could not be wanting4 #b4 ,an exclusive reference to ,christ is opposed by the more immediate context4 ,this connection is twofold4 ,in ver4 #ae1 ,moses first utters the promise in his own name1 and here it stands connected with what precedes4 ,moses had forbidden to the people the use of all the means by which those who were given to idolatry endeavoured to penetrate the boundaries of human knowledge3 ,thou shalt not do so1 is his language2 for that which these are vainly seeking after in this sinful manner1 shall1 in reality1 be granted to thee by thy ,god4 ,here1 it was not only appropriate to remind them of the ,messiah1 inasmuch as ,his appearance1 as being the most perfect revelation of ,god1 satisfies most perfectly the desire after higher communications2 but it would have been very strange if here1 where so suitable an opportunity presented itself1 the founder of the ,old ,economy had omitted all reference to the founder of the ,new ,economy1 and had limited himself to the intervening1 more imperfect divine communications4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it would have been as strange if ,moses had taken no notice of them at all1--if1 supposing that a series of false prophets would appear1 he had been satisfied to lay down in chap4 xiii4 #b sqq4 the distinctive marks of true and false prophets1 and had then1 in the passage under review1 referred to the divine revelations to be expected in the distant future1 without noticing those to be expected in the more immediate future1--thus neglecting to employ means peculiarly fitted for gaining admission for his exhortations4 ,the word in ver4 #ad is especially opposed to such a view4 ,and thou 7shalt7 not 7do7 so1 ,jehovah thy ,god gave thee4 ,j4 ,d4 ,michaelis says3 ,what ,he gave to the ,israelites is specified in vers4 #ae and #ah4 ,the past tense suggests the idea of a gift which had already taken its beginning in the present4--,the promise stands in a different connection in ver4 #ah4 ,moses had already given it in his own name in ver4 #ae4 ,in order to give it greater authority1 he reports1 in the following verses1 when and how he had received it from ,god4 ,it was delivered to him on ,sinai1 where ,god had directly revealed ,himself to the people at the promulgation of the ,law1 partly in order to strengthen their confidence in ,moses the mediator1 and ,pg #aad partly to show them the folly of their desiring any other mode of divine communication4 ,but the people were seized with terror before the dreadful majesty of ,god1 and prayed that ,god would no longer speak to them directly1 but through a mediator1 as ,he had hitherto done2 compare ,exod4 xx42 ,deut4 v4 ,the ,lord then said to ,moses1 ,they have well spoken2 a prophet1 etc4 ,the words here1 in ver4 #ag1 agree very well with ,deut4 v4 #bh4 ,the agreement in the words indicates that here we have an addition to that which is there communicated regarding what was spoken by ,god on that occasion4 ,there1 we are told only what had an immediate reference to the present--viz41 the appointment of ,moses as mediator2 here1 we are told what was at that time fixed in reference to the future of the people4 ,we cannot fail to perceive that here1 if ever1 a divine revelation was appropriate concerning the coming of ,christ1 who1 as the ,mediator between ,god and man1 veiled ,his ,godhead1 and in human form1 brought ,god nearer to man4 ,but we should1 at the same time1 expect here an allusion to the inferior messengers of ,god1 who were to precede ,him4 #c4 ,the exclusive reference to the ,messiah is inconsistent with vers4 #bj-bb4 ,the marks of a false prophet are given in them4 ,if1 however1 that which precedes had no reference at all to true prophets1 it would be almost impossible to trace any suitable connection of the thoughts4 #d4 ,if the passage were referred to ,christ exclusively1 the prophetic institution would then be without any legitimate authority2 and from the whole character of the ,mosaic legislation1 as laying the foundation for the future progress and development of the ,theocracy1 we could not well conceive that so important an institution should be deficient in this point4 ,moreover1 the whole historical existence of the prophetic order necessarily presupposes such a foundation4 ,deut4 xiii4 #b sq4 was not fitted to afford such a foundation1 as it refers1 only indirectly and by implication1 to true prophets4 #e4 ,finally1--,there are not wanting slight hints in the ,new ,testament that the reference to ,christ is not an exclusive one4 ,these are found in ,luke xi4 #ej1 #ea3 444 444 4 ,the emphatic repetition of in that passage shows plainly its connection ,pg #aae with the words1 ,i will require it of him1 in the passage under review2 just as the 1 which1 according to #b ,chron4 xxiv4 #bb1 the prophet ,zechariah1 who was unjustly slain1 uttered when dying1 alludes not only to ,gen4 ix4 #e1 but to our passage also4 ,but here we must remark that1 in consequence of the sin committed against the ,prophet --,christ--vengeance for the crimes committed against the inferior prophets is executed at the same time1 so that1 in the first instance1 ,his blood is required1 and1 on this occasion1 all the blood also which was formerly shed4 ,but how can these two facts be reconciled3--that ,moses had1 undeniably1 the ,messiah in view1 and that1 notwithstanding1 there seems at the same time to be a reference to the prophets in general8 ,the simplest mode of reconciling them is the following4 ,the prophet here is an ideal person1 comprehending all the true prophets who had appeared from ,moses to ,christ1 including the latter4 ,but ,moses does not here speak of the prophets as a collective body1 to which1 at the close1 ,christ also belonged1 as it were1 incidentally1 and as one among the many1--as ,calvin and other interpreters mentioned above suppose2 but rather1 the plurality of prophets is1 for this reason only1 comprehended by ,moses in an ideal unity1 that1 on the authority of ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 and by the illumination of the ,holy ,spirit1 he knew that the prophetical order would1 at some future time1 centre in a real person1--in ,christ4 ,but there is so much the more of truth in thus viewing the prophetic order as a whole1 since1 according to #a ,peter i4 #aa1 the ,spirit of ,christ spoke in the prophets4 ,thus1 in a certain sense1 ,christ is the only ,prophet4 ,footnote #a3 ,lampe says3 ,he has preserved to us not only what1 in ,paradise1 and afterwards to and through the ,patriarchs1 had been told about this ,redeemer2 but he himself1 under divine inspiration1 has prophesied of ,him1--especially in ,deut4 xviii4 #ae-ah4 ,,the ,,angel ,,of ,,the ,,lord ,,in ,,the ,,pentateuch1 ,,and ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,joshua4 ,the ,new ,testament distinguishes between the hidden ,god and the revealed ,god--the ,son or ,logos--who is connected with the former by oneness of nature1 and who from everlasting1 and even at the creation itself1 filled up the immeasurable distance between the ,creator and the creation2--who has been the ,mediator in all ,god's relations to the world2--who at all times1 and even before ,he became man in ,christ1 has been the light of ,pg #aaf the world1--and to whom1 specially1 was committed the direction of the economy of the ,old ,covenant4 ,it is evident that this doctrine stands in the closest connection with the ,christology1--that it forms1 indeed1 its theological foundation and ground-work4 ,until the ,christology has attained to a knowledge of the true divinity of the ,saviour1 its results cannot be otherwise than very meagre and unsatisfactory4 ,wheresoever the true state of human nature is seen in the light of ,holy ,scripture1 no high expectations can be entertained from a merely human ,saviour1 although he were endowed even with as full a measure of the gifts of the ,spirit of ,god as human nature1 in its finite and sinful condition1 is able to bear4 ,but unless there exist in the one divine ,being itself1 such a distinction of persons1 the divinity of the ,saviour cannot be acknowledged1 without endangering the unity of ,god which the ,scriptures so emphatically teach4 ,if1 however1 there be such a distinction1--if the ,word be indeed with ,god1 we cannot avoid ascribing to ,god the desire of revealing ,himself2 nor1 in such a case1 can we conceive that ,he should content ,himself with inferior forms of revelation1 with merely transitory manifestations4 ,we can recognise in these only preparations1 and preludes of the highest and truest revelation4 ,the question then is1 whether any insight into this doctrine is to be found as early as in the ,books of the ,old ,testament4 ,sound ,christian ,theology has discovered the outlines of such a distinction betwixt the hidden and the revealed ,god1 in many passages of the ,old ,testament1 in which mention is made of the ,angel or ,messenger of ,god4 ,the general tenor of these passages will be best exemplified by the first among them1--the narrative of ,hagar in ,gen4 xvi4 ,in ver4 #g1 we are told that the ,angel of ,jehovah found ,hagar4 ,in ver4 #aj1 this ,angel ascribes to ,himself a divine work1 viz41 the innumerable increase of ,hagar's posterity4 ,in ver4 #aa1 ,he says that ,jehovah had heard her distress4 ,he thus asserts of ,jehovah what1 shortly before4 ,he had said of ,himself4 ,moreover1 in ver4 #ac1 ,hagar expresses her astonishment that she had seen ,god1 and yet had remained alive4--,the opinion that these passages form the ,old ,testament foundation for the ,proemium of ,st ,john's ,gospel1 has not remained uncontroverted4 ,from the very times of the ,church-fathers it has been asserted by many1 that where the ,pg #aag ,angel of the ,lord is spoken of1 we must not think of a person connected with ,god by unity of nature1 but of a lower angel1 by whom ,god executes ,his commands1 and through whom ,he acts and speaks4 ,the latest defenders of the view are ,hofmann in ,weissagung und ,erfllung and in the ,schriftbeweis and ,delitzsch in his commentary on ,genesis4--,others are of opinion1 that the ,angel of ,jehovah is identical with ,jehovah ,himself1--not denoting a person distinct from ,him1 but only the form in which ,he manifests ,himself4 ,we shall not here discuss the question in its whole extent2 we shall1 in the meantime1 consider only what the principal passages of the ,pentateuch and of the adjacent ,book of ,joshua teach upon this point1 and how far their teaching coincides with1 or is in opposition to1 these various views4 ,for it is only to this extent that the inquiry belongs to our present object4 ,in ,gen4 xvi4 #ac1 these words are of special importance3 ,and she called the name of the ,lord who spoke unto her1 ,thou art a ,god of sight3 for she said1 ,do ,i now 7properly here1 in the place where such a sight was vouchsafed to me7 still see after my seeing8 ,do ,i see is equivalent to1 ,do ,i live1 because death threatened1 as it were1 to enter through the eyes4 7,compare the expression1 ,mine eyes have seen1 in ,is4 vi47 is the pausal form for 2 see ,job xxxiii4 #ba1 where1 however1 the accent is on the penultimate4 ,then follows ver4 #ad3 ,they called the well1 ,well of the living sight2 i4e41 where a person had a sight of ,god1 and remained alive4 ,hagar must have been convinced that she had seen ,god without the mediation of a created angel2 for1 otherwise1 she could not have wondered that her life was preserved4 ,man1 entangled by the visible world1 is terrified when he comes in contact with the invisible world1 even with angels4 7,compare ,dan4 viii4 #ag1 #ah2 ,luke ii4 #i47 ,but this terror rises to fear of death only when man comes into contact with the ,lord ,himself4 7,compare the remarks on ,rev4 i4 #ag47 ,in ,gen4 xxxii4 #ca--;a passage which bears the closest resemblance to the one now under review1 and from which it receives its explanation--it is said3 ,and ,jacob called the name of the place ,peniel1 for ,i have seen ,god face to face1 and my life has been preserved4 ,in ,exod4 xx4 #ai1 the children of ,israel said to ,moses1 ,speak thou with us1 and we will hear2 and let not ,god speak with us1 ,pg #aah lest we die2 compared with ,deut4 v4 #ba3 ,now therefore why should we die8 for this great fire will consume us2 if we hear the voice of the ,lord our ,god any more1 then we shall die4 7,compare also ,deut4 xviii4 #af47 ,and it is ,jehovah who1 in ,exod4 xxxiii4 #bj1 says1 ,there shall no man see ,me and live4 ,israel's ,lord and ,god is1 in the absolute energy of ,his nature1 a consuming fire1 ,deut4 iv4 #bd4 7,compare ,deut4 ix4 #c2 ,is4 xxxiii4 #ad3 ,who among us would dwell with the devouring fire8 who among us would dwell with everlasting burning8 ,heb4 xii4 #bi47 ,it is not the reflected light1 even in the most exalted creatures1 nor the sight of the saints of whom it is said1 ,behold1 ,he puts no trust in ,his servants1 and ,his angels ,he chargeth with folly1--but the sight of the thrice ,holy ,one1 which makes ,isaiah exclaim1 ,woe is me1 for ,i am undone2 for ,i am a man of unclean lips1 and dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips4 ,so much then is clear1--that the opinion which considers the ,angel of the ,lord to be a created angel is overthrown by the first passage where that angel is mentioned1 if the exposition which we have given of vers4 #ac1 #ad--;an exposition which is now generally received1 and which was last advanced by ,knobel--be correct4 ,but ,delitzsch gives another exposition3 ,thou art a ,god of sight1 i4e41 one whose all-seeing eye does not overlook the helpless and destitute1 even in the remotest corner of the wilderness4 ,against this we remark1 that never denotes the act of seeing1 but the sight itself4 ,have ,i not even here 7even in the desert land of destitution7 looked after ,him who saw me8 ,well of the living one who seeth me1 i4e41 of the omnipresent divine providence4 ,in opposition to this exposition1 however1 we must remark1 that ,god is nowhere else in ,genesis called the ,living ,one4 ,but our chief objection is1 that these expositions destroy the connection which so evidently exists between our passage and those already quoted1--especially ,gen4 xxxii4 #ca2 ,exod4 xxxiii4 #bj4 7,compare1 moreover1 ,jud4 xiii4 #bb3 ,and ,manoah said unto his wife1 ,we shall surely die1 because we have seen ,god47 ,it has been asked4 ,why should the ,logos have appeared first to the ,egyptian maid8 ,but the low condition of ,hagar cannot here come into consideration2 for the appearance is in reality intended1 not for her1 but for ,abraham4 ,immediately ,pg #aai before1 in chap4 xii4 #g1 it is said1 ,and the ,lord appeared unto ,abraham2 and immediately after1 in chap4 xvii4 #a1 ,and when ,abraham was ninety years old and nine1 the ,lord appeared to him2 the appearance of the ,lord ,himself is mentioned in order that every thought of a lower angel may be warded off4 ,the passage under consideration1 then1 contains the indication1 that such appearances must only be conceived of as manifestations of the ,deity ,himself to the world4 ,just as our passage is preserved from erroneous interpretations by such passages as ,gen4 xii4 #g1 xvii4 #a1 so these receive from ours1 in return1 their most distinct definition4 ,we learn from this1 that wherever appearances of ,jehovah are mentioned1 we must conceive of them as effected by the mediation of ,his ,angel4 ,there is no substantial difference betwixt the passages in which ,jehovah ,himself is mentioned1 and those in which the ,angel of ,jehovah is spoken of4 ,they serve to supplement and to explain one another4 ,the words1 ,in ,his ,angel1 in chap4 xvi4 #g1 furnish us with the supplement to the succeeding statement1 ,and ,jehovah appeared to him 7so1 e4g41 also in chap4 xviii4 #a71 just as the writer in ,gen4 chap4 ii4 iii4 makes use of the name ,jehovah-,elohim1 in order that henceforth every one may understand that where only ,jehovah is spoken of4 ,he is yet personally identical with ,elohim4 ,let us now turn to ,gen4 xviii4 xix4 ,according to ,delitzsch4 all the three men who appeared to ,abraham were finite spirits made visible4 ,hofmann 7,schriftb4 ,s4 #hg7 says3 ,jehovah is present on earth in ,his angels1 in the two with ,lot1 as in the three with ,abraham4 ,we1 however1 hold fast by the view of the ancient ,church1 that in chap4 xviii4 the ,logos appeared accompanied by two inferior angels4 ,abraham's regards are1 from the very first1 involuntarily directed to one from among the three1 and whom he addresses by 1 ,o ,lord 7xviii4 #c72 the two others are considered by him as companions only4 ,but ,lot has to do with both equally1 and addresses them first by 1 my ,lords4--,in chap4 xviii41 it is always one only of the three who speaks2 the two others are mute2#a while in chap4 xix4 everything comes from the two ,pg #abj equally4 ,he with whom ,abraham has to do1 always1 and without exception1 speaks as ,god ,himself2 while the two with whom ,lot has to do speak at first1 as 1 distinguishing themselves from the ,lord who sent them 7compare ver4 #ac72 and it is only after they have thus drawn the line of separation between themselves and ,jehovah1 that they appear1 in vers4 #ba1 #bb1 as speaking in ,his name4 ,they do so1 moreover1 only after ,lot1 in the anxiety of his heart and in his excitement1 had previously addressed1 in them1 ,him who sent them1 and with whom he desired to have to do as immediately as possible4 ,the scene bears1 throughout1 a character of excitement1 and is not fitted to afford data for general conclusions4 ,we cannot infer from it that it was1 in general1 customary to address1 in the angels1 the ,lord who sent them1 or that the angels acted in the name of the ,lord4 ,in chap4 xviii41 from ver4 #a1 where the narrative begins with the words1 ,and ,jehovah appeared unto him1 ,moses always speaks of him with whom ,abraham had to do as ,jehovah only1 excepting where he introduces the three men4 7,he with whom ,abraham has to do is called1 not fewer than eight times1 ,jehovah1 and six times 47 ,but in chap4 xix41 ,jehovah1 who is concealed behind the two angels1 appears only twice in the expression1 ,and ,he said1 in vers4 #ag1 #ba1 for which ver4 #ac suggests the supplement3 through ,his two angels4--,even in ver4 #af1 the narrative distinguishes ,jehovah from the two men1--and all this in an exciting scene which must have influenced even the narrator4 ,if he who spoke to ,abraham was an angel like the other two1 we could scarcely perceive any reason why he should not have taken part in the mission to ,sodom2 but if he was the ,angel of the ,lord 1 the reason is quite obvious2 it would have been inconsistent with divine propriety4--,in chap4 xviii4 ,moses speaks of three men2 it is evidently on ,pg #aba purpose that he avoids speaking of three angels4 ,in chap4 xix4 #a1 on the contrary1 we are at once told3 ,and there came the two angels4 7,compare ver4 #ae47 ,the reason why in chap4 xviii4 the use of the name angels is avoided can only be1 because it might easily have led to a misunderstanding1 if the ,angel of the ,lord had been comprehended in that one designation along with the two inferior angels1 although it would not1 in itself1 have been inadmissible4--,if we suppose that he1 with whom ,abraham had to do1 was some created angel1 we cannot well understand how1 in chap4 xviii4 #ag seq41 the judgment over ,sodom could1 throughout1 be ascribed to him4 ,he could not1 in the name of the ,lord1 speak of that judgment1 as not he1 but the two other angels who went to ,sodom1 were the instruments of its execution4 ,hence it only remains to ascribe the judgment to him as the causa principalis4--,if the three angels were equals1 it would be impossible to explain the adversative clause in chap4 xviii4 #bb3 ,and the men turned from thence and went to ,sodom2 but ,abraham stood yet before the ,lord4 ,jehovah and the two angels are here contrasted4 ,it is true that1 in the two angels also1 it is ,jehovah who acts4 ,this is evident from xviii4 #ba3 ,i will go down and see--where the going down does not refer to descending to the valley of ,jordan1 the position of which was lower 7thus ,delitzsch72 but1 according to xi4 #g1 it refers to a descent from heaven to earth4 ,that ,jehovah1 though on earth1 should declare ,his resolution to go down1 as in xi4 #g1 may be explained from the in ,john iii4 #ac4 ,god1 even when ,he is on earth1 remains in heaven1 and it is thence that ,he manifests ,himself4 ,moreover1 the words immediately following show in what sense this going down is to be understood1--that it is not in ,his own person1 but through the medium of ,his messengers4 ,the resolution1 ,i will go down1 is carried into effect by the going down of the angels to ,sodom4 ,by the ,jehovah who1 from ,jehovah out of heaven1 caused brimstone and fire to rain upon ,sodom and ,gomorrah 7xix4 #bd71 we are not at liberty to understand the two angels only1#b but1 ,pg #abb agreeably to the views of sound ,christian expositors generally1 ,christ1--with this modification1 however1 that the two angels are to be considered as ,his servants1 and that what they do is ,his work also4 ,it is true that the angels say1 in xix4 #ac1 ,we will destroy1 etc42 but much more emphatically and frequently does he with whom ,abraham has to do1 ascribe the work of destruction to himself4 7,compare xviii4 #ag1 where ,jehovah says1 ,how can ,i hide from ,abraham that thing which ,i am doing8 vers4 #bd-bh1 etc47 ,if in xix4 #bd there be involved the contrast between1 so to speak1 the heavenly and earthly ,jehovah1--between the hidden ,god and ,him who manifests ,himself on earth1--then so much the more must we seek the latter in chap4 xviii41 as in ver4 #bb1 compared with ver4 #ba1 the angels are distinctly pointed out as ,his ,messengers4 ,delitzsch asserts that in ,heb4 xiii4 #b1 the words1 1 clearly indicate that all three were finite spirits made visible4 ,this assertion1 however1 which was long before made by the ,socinian ,crellius1 has been sufficiently refuted by ,ode de ,angelis1 p4 #ajja4 ,the author of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews intends to connect the events which happened to ,abraham and ,lot equally--2 and for this reason he did not go beyond what was common to them both4 ,moreover1 the ,angel of the ,lord is likewise comprehended in the appellation angels1 for the name has no reference to the nature1 but to the mission4 ,footnote #a3 ,the words in ver4 #i1 ,and they said to him1 are to be understood only thus3--that one spoke at the same time in the name of the others2 in the question thus put1 it is1 in the first instance1 only the general relation of the guests to the hostess that comes into consideration4 ,that such is the case1 appears from ver4 #aj1 where the use of the plural could not be continued1 because a work was on hand which was peculiar to the one among them1 and in which the others were not equally concerned4 ,if the words in ver4 #i were spoken by all the three1 then the one in ver4 #aj ought to have been singled out thus3 ,and one from among them thus spoke4 ,on account of the suffix in 1 ,and the door was behind him1 the in ver4 #aj can be referred only to the one1 and not to the ,jehovah concealed behind all the three4 ,this shows how the preceding1 ,and they said1 is to be understood4 ,footnote #b3 ,delitzsch says3 ,as the two are really sent to destroy ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 it is evident that ,jehovah1 in ver4 #bd1 who causes brimstone and fire to rain from ,jehovah out of heaven1 is viewed as being present in the two on earth1 but in such a manner that1 nevertheless1 ,his real judicial throne is in heaven4 99 99 99 99 99 ,of no less importance and significance is the passage ,gen4 xxxi4 #aa seq4 ,according to ver4 #aa1 the ,angel of ,god1 1 appears to ,jacob in a dream4 ,in ver4 #ac1 the same person calls himself the ,god of ,bethel1 with reference to the event recorded in chap4 xxviii4 #aa-bb4 ,it cannot be supposed that in chap xxviii4 the mediation of a common angel took place1 who1 however1 had not been expressly mentioned2 for ,jehovah is there contrasted with the angels4 ,in ver4 #ab1 we read3 ,and behold the angels of ,god ascending and descending on it4 ,in ver4 #ac1 there is another sight3 ,and behold ,jehovah stood by him and said1 ,i am ,jehovah1 the ,god of ,abraham thy father1 and the ,god of ,isaac2 the land whereon thou liest1 to thee will ,i give it1 and to thy seed4 ,pg #abc ,this passage is also in so far of importance1 because1 agreeably to what has been remarked in p4 #aai1 it follows from it that even there1 where ,jehovah simply is mentioned1 the mediation through ,his ,angel is to be assumed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,he with whom ,jacob wrestles1 in ,gen4 xxxii4 #bd1 makes himself known as ,god1 partly by giving him the name ,israel1 i4e41 one who wrestles with ,god1 and partly by bestowing a blessing upon him4 ,jacob calls the place ,peniel1 i4e41 face of ,god1 because he had seen ,god face to face1 and wonders that his life was preserved4 ,the answer which ,elohim gives here to ,jacob's question regarding ,his name1 remarkably coincides with that which in ,judges xiii4 #ag1 #ah1 is given by the ,angel of the ,lord to a similar question4 ,in ,hosea xii4 #d 7comp4 the remarks on this passage in the ,author's ,genuineness of the ,pentateuch1 vol4 i4 p4 #abh ff471 he who wrestled with ,jacob is called ,elohim1 as in ,genesis2 but in ver4 #e1 he is called 1 a word which is more distinctly defined by the preceding ,elohim2 so that we can1 accordingly1 think only of the ,angel of ,god4 ,as it was certainly not the intention of the prophet to state a new historical circumstance1 the mention of the ,angel must be founded upon the supposition1 that all revelations of ,god are made by the mediation of ,his ,angel1--a supposition which we have already proved to have its foundation in the book of ,genesis itself4 ,delitzsch says1 ,s4 #bef1 ,jehovah reveals ,himself in the 1 but just by means of a finite spirit becoming visible1 and therefore in a manner more tolerable to him who occupies a lower place of communion with ,god4 ,and similarly1 ,hofmann expresses himself1 ,s4 #cce3 ,it is quite the same thing whether it be said1 he saw ,god1 or an angel1 as is testified by ,hosea also2 and nowhere have we less right to explain it as if it were an appearance of ,god the ,son1 in contrast with the appearance of an angel4 ,but since it is an essentially different matter1 whether ,jacob wrestled with ,god ,himself1 or1 in the first instance1 with an ordinary angel merely1 we have1 as regards this opinion1 only the choice between accusing the prophet ,hosea1 who brought in the angel1 of an ,euhemerismus1 or of raising against sacred history the charge that it cannot be relied on1 because it omitted so important ,pg #abd a circumstance4 ,the name ,israel1 by which1 at the same time1 the innermost nature of the ,covenant-people was fixed1 and the divine law of their history was established 7,delitzsch71 is1 in that case1 a falsehood4 ,jacob has overcome omnipotence1 and1 in this one adversary1 all others who might oppose him1--as he is expressly assured in ver4 #bi3 ,thou hast wrestled with ,god and with men1 and hast prevailed4 ,can ,god invest a creature with omnipotence8 ,jacob would certainly not have gone so cheerfully to meet ,esau1 if in ,him over whom he prevailed with weeping and supplication1 he himself had recognised only an angel1 and not ,jehovah the ,god of hosts1 as ,hosea1 in ver4 #f1 calls the very same1 of whom in ver4 #e he had spoken as the angel4 ,the consolatory import of the event for the ,church of all times is destroyed1 if ,jacob had to do with a created angel only4 ,with such an one1 ,jacob had not to reckon on account of his sinfulness1 and it is just the humiliating consciousness of this his sinfulness which forms the point at issue in his wrestling4 ,moreover1 with such a view1 the ,new ,testament ,antitype would be altogether lost4 ,jesus1 the true ,israel1 does not wrestle with an angel1--such an one only appears to strengthen ,him in ,his struggle1 ,luke xxii4 #dc--;but with ,god1 ,heb4 v4 #g4--,the occurrence would1 according to this opinion1 furnish a strong argument for the worship of angels3 ,he wept and made supplication unto him1 ,hos4 xii4 #e 7compare ,deut4 iii4 #bc74 ,the 1 mentioned in ,col4 iv4 #ab1 in allusion to our passage1 would1 in that case1 besides ,god1 have the angels for its object4 ,if an ordinary angel were here to be understood1 we must likewise believe that an angel is spoken of in ,gen4 xxxv4 #i seq4 ,for1 of the same angel with whom ,jacob wrestled1 ,hosea says that ,jacob found him in ,bethel3 ,and he wrestled with the ,angel and prevailed1 he wept and made supplication unto him2 he found him in ,bethel1 and there he spake with us4 7,tarnov3 ,nobiscum qui in lumbis ,jacobi hrebamus47 ,then1 it must have been a common angel1 too1 who appeared to ,jacob in ,gen4 xxviii4 #aj ff42 for chap4 xxxv4 #i1 compared with ver4 #g1 does not allow us to doubt of the identity of him who appeared on these two occasions4 ,but such an idea cannot be entertained for a moment2 for in chap4 xxviii4 #ac1 ,jehovah is contrasted with the angels ascending and descending on the ladder4 ,pg #abe ,in ,gen4 xlviii4 #ae1 #af1 we read of ,jacob3 ,and he blessed ,joseph1 and said1 ,the ,god before whom my fathers ,abraham and ,isaac did walk1 and the ,god which fed me all my life long unto this day1 the ,angel which redeemed me from all evil1 bless the lads4 ,in this passage1 ,god first appears1 twice in the indefiniteness of ,his nature1 and then1 specially1 as the ,angel concerned for ,jacob and his posterity4 ,by the ,angel1 we cannot here understand a divine emanation and messenger1 because no permanent character belongs to such2 while here the whole sum of the preservations of ,jacob1 and of the blessings upon ,ephraim and ,manasseh1 is derived from the ,angel4 ,and just as little can we thereby understand a created angel1 according to the view of ,hofmann1 who1 in ,s4 #hg1 says3 ,jacob here makes mention of ,god1 not thrice1 but twice only2 first as the ,god of his fathers1 and then as the ,god of his own experience1 but in such a way that in ver4 #af he names1 instead of ,god1 the ,angel who watched over him2 and he does so for the purpose of denoting the special providence of which he had been the object4 ,the analogy of the threefold blessing of ,aaron in ,num4 vi4 #bd-bf would lead us to expect that the name of ,god should be three times mentioned4 ,no created angel could in this manner be placed by the side of ,god1 or be introduced as being independent of1 and co-ordinate with1 ,him4 ,such an angel can only be meant as is connected with ,god by oneness of nature1 and whose activity is implied in that of ,god4 ,the singular is here of very special significance4 ,it indicates that the ,angel is joined to ,god by an inseparable oneness1 and that his territory is just as wide as that of ,elohim4#a ,if by the angel we understand some created one1 we cannot then avoid the startling inference1 that ,god is1 in all ,his manifestations1 bound ,pg #abf absolutely to the mediation of the lower angels4 ,in the history upon which ,jacob looks back1 the inferior angels do not appear at all as taking any part in all the preservations of ,jacob4 ,twice only are they mentioned in his whole history1--in chap4 xxviii4 #ab1 and xxxii4 #b4 ,lastly1--,the angel cannot well be a collective noun2 for we nowhere meet with the ideal person of the angel1 as comprehending within himself a real plurality4 7,compare remarks on ,ps4 xxxiv4 #h47 ,we should therefore be compelled to think of ,jacob's protecting angel4 ,but this1 again1 would be in opposition to the fact1 that ,scripture nowhere says anything of the guardian angels of any individual4 ,moreover1 it is a plurality of angels that in xxviii4 #ab1 xxxii4 #b1 serves for the protection of ,jacob1 and we nowhere find the slightest trace of one inferior angel being attached to ,jacob for his protection4 ,footnote #a3 ,this significance of the singular was pointed out as early as in the third century by ,novatianus1 who1 de ,trinitate c4 xv4 7p4 #ajaf in ,ode71 says3 ,so constant is he in mentioning that ,angel whom he had called ,god1 that even at the close of his speech he again refers1 in an emphatic manner1 to the same person1 by saying1 ',god bless these lads4' ,for had he intended that some other angel should be understood1 he would have used the plural number in order to comprehend the two persons4 ,but since1 in his blessing1 he made use of the singular1 he would have us to understand that ,god and the ,angel are quite identical4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,exod4 xxiii4 #bj1 #ba1 ,jehovah says to the children of ,israel3 ,behold1 ,i send an angel before thee1 to keep thee in the way1 and to bring thee into the place which ,i have prepared4 ,beware of him1 and obey his voice2 do not rebel against him1 for he will not pardon your transgressions3 for ,my name is in him4 ,as the people are here told to beware of the ,angel1 because he will not pardon their transgressions1 so ,joshua xxiv4 #ai warns them as regards the most high ,god3 ,ye will not be able to serve ,jehovah3 for ,he is a holy 7i4e41 a glorious1 exalted7 ,god2 ,he is a jealous ,god2 ,he will not forgive your transgressions nor your sins4 ,the energetic character of the reaction proceeding from the angel against all violations of ,his honour1 is founded upon the words1 ,for ,my name is in him4 ,by the name of ,god all ,his deeds are understood and comprehended1 ,his glory testified by history1 the display and testimony of ,his nature which history gives4 7,compare the remarks in my commentary on ,ps4 xxiii4 #b1 xlviii4 #aa1 lxxxiii4 #ag-ai1 lxxxvi4 #aa47 ,my name is him2 i4e41 according to ,calvin1 ,my glory and majesty dwell in him4 ,compare here what in the ,new ,testament is said of ,christ3 1 ,john v4 #ai2 1 ,john v4 #bc2 1 ,john x4 #cj2 1 ,pg #abg ,john x4 #ch2 1 ,john xiv4 #aj2 1 ,john xvii4 #ba2 1 ,col4 ii4 #i4--;,it is impossible that the name of ,god could be communicated to any other1 ,is4 xlii4 #h4 ,the name of ,god can dwell in ,him only1 who is originally of the same nature with ,god4 99 99 99 99 99 ,after ,israel had contracted guilt by the worship of the golden calf4 ,he who had hitherto led them--,jehovah the ,angel of ,jehovah--says1 in ,exod4 xxxii4 #cd1 that ,he would no more lead them ,himself1 but send before them ,his ,angel1 3 ,for ,i 7myself7 will not go up in the midst of thee1 for thou art a stiff-necked people1 lest ,i consume thee in the way2 xxxiii4 #c1 compared with xxiii4 #ba4 ,the people are quite inconsolable on account of this sad intelligence1 ver4 #d4 ,the threatening of the ,lord becomes unintelligible1 and the grief of the people incomprehensible1 if by the ,angel in chap4 xxiii4 an ordinary angel be understood4 ,but everything becomes clear and intelligible1 if we admit that in chap4 xxiii4 there is an allusion to the ,angel of the ,lord 1 who is connected with ,him by oneness of nature1 and who1 because the name of ,god is in ,him1 is as zealous as ,himself in inflicting punishment as well as in bestowing salvation2 whilst in chap4 xxxii4 #cd1 the allusion is to an inferior angel1 who is added to the highest revealer of ,god as ,his companion and messenger1 and who appears in the ,book of ,daniel under the name of ,gabriel1 while the ,angel of the ,lord appears under the name of ,michael4 ,on account of the sincere repentance of the people1 and the intercession of ,moses1 the ,lord revokes the threatening1 and says in xxxiii4 #ad1 ,my face shall go4 ,but ,moses said unto ,him1 ,if ,thy face go not1 carry us not up hence4 ,that 1 face1 signifies here the person1 is granted by ,gesenius3 ,the face of some one means often his personal presence1--himself in his own person4 ,a similar use of the word occurs in #b ,sam4 xvii4 #aa3 ,thy face go to battle 7,michaelis3 ,thou thyself be present1 not some commander only72 and in ,deut4 iv4 #cg1 where means in1 or with1 his personal presence3 ,he ,pg #abh brought them out with ,his face1 with ,his mighty power out of ,egypt4 ,the state of things has in xxxiii4 #ad1 #ae1 evidently become again what it was in xxiii4 #bj1 #ba4 ,the face of the ,lord in the former passage1 is the ,angel of the ,lord in the latter4 ,hence1 we cannot here admit the idea of some inferior angel2 we can think only of that ,angel who is connected with the ,lord by oneness of nature4 ,the connection between the face of the ,lord in xxxiii4 #ad1 #ae1 and the ,angel in whom is the name of the ,lord1 in xxiii41 becomes still more evident by ,is4 lxiii4 #h1 #i3 ,and ,he 7,jehovah7 became their ,saviour4 ,in all their affliction 7they were7 not afflicted1 and the ,angel of ,his face saved them2 in ,his love and in ,his pity ,he redeemed them1 and ,he bore and carried them all the days of old4 ,the ,angel of the face1 in this text1 is an expression which1 by its very darkness1 points back to some fundamental passage--a passage1 too1 in the ,pentateuch--as facts are alluded to1 of which the authentic report is given in that book4 ,the expression1 ,angel of the face1 arose from a combination of ,exod4 xxiii4 #bj--;from which the ,angel is taken--and ,exod4 xxxiii4 #ad1 whence he took the face4 ,to explain ,angel of the face by the angel who sees ,his face1 as several have done1 would give an inadequate meaning2 for by the whole context1 an expression is demanded which would elevate the angel to the height of ,god4 ,now1 as in ,exod4 xxxiii4 #ad1 the face of ,jehovah is tantamount to ,jehovah in ,his own person1 the ,angel of the face can be none other than ,he in whom ,jehovah appeal's personally1 in contrast with inferior created angels4 ,the ,angel of the face is the ,angel in whom is the name of the ,lord4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when ,joshua was standing with the army before ,jericho1 in a state of despondency at the sight of the strongly fortified city1 a man appeared to him1 with his sword drawn2 and when he was asked by ,joshua1 ,art thou for us or for our adversaries8 he answers1 in chap4 v4 #ad1 ,nay1 for ,i am the ,captain of the host of ,jehovah1 1 now ,i have come4 ,this ,captain claims for himself divine honour1 in ver4 #ae1 precisely in the same manner as the ,angel of ,jehovah in ,exod4 iii41 by commanding ,pg #abi ,joshua to put off his shoes1 because the place on which he stood was holy4 ,in chap4 vi4 #b he is called ,jehovah4 ,for it is evident that we are not to think of another divine revelation there given to ,joshua in any other way--as some interpreters suppose2 because1 in that case1 the appearance of the ,captain1 who only now gives command to ,joshua1 would have been without an object4 ,in chap4 v4 the directions would be wanting2 in chap4 vi4 we should have no report of the appearance4 ,there can be no doubt that1 by the host of the ,lord1 the heavenly host is to be understood2 and ,hofmann 7,s4 #bia7 has not done well in reviving the opinion of some older expositors 7,calvin1 ,masius7 which has been long ago refuted1 viz41 that the host of the ,lord is ,israel standing at the beginning of his warfare1 and in asserting that the prince of this host is some inferior angel4 ,the ,israelites cannot be the host of the ,lord1 that explanation is excluded by the comparison with the host of the ,lord mentioned at the very threshold of revelation1 in ,gen4 ii4 #a2 that which is commonly 7,gen4 xxxii4 #b2 #a ,kings xxii4 #ai2 ,neh4 ix4 #f2 ,ps4 ciii4 #ba1 cxlviii4 #b1 compared with #b ,kings vi4 #bg7 so called1 infinitely surpasses the earthly one in glory1 and of it the ,lord has the name ,jehovah ,zebaoth4 ,it is only in two isolated passages of the ,pentateuch that the appellation which properly belongs to the heavenly hosts of ,god is transferred to the earthly ones2 and that is done in order to point out their correspondence1 and thereby to elevate the mind4 ,in the first of these passages1 ,exod4 vii4 #d1 the host of the ,lord is not spoken of absolutely1 but it is expressly said what host is intended3 ,and ,i bring forth ,my host4 ,my people1 the children of ,israel4 ,the second passage1 in ,exod4 xii4 #da1 is similarly qualified1 and refers to the first4 ,according to this view of ,hofmann1 the words1 now ,i have come1 are quite inexplicable4#a ,the ,captain of the host of the ,lord expresses ,himself in such a manner as if1 by ,his coming1 everything were accomplished4 ,but if he was only the commander of ,israel--an inferior ,pg #acj angel--his coming was no guarantee for success1 for his limited power might be checked by a higher one4 ,but if the ,captain of the host of ,jehovah be the ,prince of angels1 we cannot by any means refer the divine honour which ,he demands and receives1 to ,him who sent ,him1 in contrast with ,him who is sent2 the higher the dignity1 the more necessary is the limitation4 ,if the honour be ascribed to ,him1 ,he must be a partaker of a divine nature4 ,jesus not at all indistinctly designates ,himself as the ,captain of the ,lord's host spoken of in our passage1 in ,matt4 xxvi4 #ec3 1 2 ,this passage alone would be sufficient to refute the view which conceives of the ,angel of the ,lord as a mere emanation and messenger4 ,it also overthrows the opinion that he is an inferior angel1 inasmuch as the ,angel of the ,lord here appears as raised above all inferior angels4 ,thus there existed1 even in the time of ,moses1 the most important foundation for the doctrine concerning ,christ4 ,he who knows the general relation which the ,pentateuch bears to the later development of doctrine1 will1 a priori1 think it impossible that it should have been otherwise2 and1 instead of neglecting these small beginnings1 appearing1 as it were1 in the shape of germs1 he will cultivate them with love and care4 ,it is only at a late period1 in ,malachi iii4 #a1 that the doctrine of the ,angel of the ,lord is expressly brought into connection with that of ,christ4 ,but a knowledge of the divine nature of the ,messiah is found at a much earlier period2 and we can certainly not suppose that the doctrine of the ,angel of the ,lord1 and that of a truly divine ,saviour1 should have existed by the side of each other1 and yet that manifold forebodings regarding their close obvious connection should not have been awakened in the mind4 ,footnote #a3 ,seb4 ,schmid says3 ,i have now come with my heavenly host to attack the ,canaanites1 and to help thee and thy people4 ,be thou of good cheer2 prepare thyself for war along with me1 and ,i will now explain to thee in what manner thou must carry it on2 vi4 #b ff4 ,,the ,,promise ,,in #b ,,samuel1 ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,the ,messianic prophecy1 as we have seen1 began at a time long anterior to that of ,david4 ,even in ,genesis1 we perceived ,pg #aca it1 increasing more and more in distinctness4 ,there is at first only the general promise that the seed of the woman should obtain the victory over the kingdom of the evil one2--then1 that the salvation should come through the descendants of ,shem2--then1 from among them ,abraham is marked out1--of his sons1 ,isaac1--from among his sons1 ,jacob1--and from among the twelve sons of ,jacob1 ,judah is singled out as the bearer of dominion1 and marked out as the person from whom1 at length1 should proceed the glorious ,king whose peaceful dominion is destined to extend over all the nations of the earth4 ,whilst1 hitherto1 the tribe only had been pointed out1 in the midst of which an imperishable dominion should be established1 and out of which the ,saviour was at last to come1--under ,david another feature was added by the determination of the family4 ,this was done in the prophetic announcement which the ,lord1 by the prophet ,nathan1 addressed in #b ,sam4 vii4 to ,david1 when he had adopted the resolution of building to the ,lord a fixed temple1 instead of the moveable tabernacle which had hitherto been used4 ,ver4 #a4 ,and it happened when the king sat in his house1 and the ,lord had given him rest from all his enemies round about4 ,ver4 #b4 ,and the king said unto ,nathan the prophet1 ,see1 now1 ,i dwell in a house of cedar1 and the ark of ,god dwelleth within curtains4 ,the question here is3--,to what time is the occurrence to be assigned8 ,the answer is3--,to the time not long after ,david had obtained the dominion over all ,israel4 ,to this opinion we are led by the position which the report occupies in the ,books both of ,chronicles and of ,samuel4 ,the supposition is so very probable1 that nothing short of very cogent reasons could induce us to abandon it4 ,a narrative1 in which ,david's accession to the throne is followed by the conquest of ,jerusalem1 and this by the building of his palace1--and this again by the bringing up of the ark of the covenant1--and this1 still further1 by ,david's anxiety for a fixed sanctuary1 evidently agrees with the order in which these events followed each other4 ,we can the less entertain any doubt concerning it1 because we are expressly told1 that the wars and victories of ,david reported in chap4 viii4 were subsequent to what is reported in chap4 vii42 compare viii4 #a4 ,that the conquest of ,jerusalem and the ,pg #acb building of his palace belong to the period soon after his accession to the throne1 is both evident1 and generally acknowledged2 but that ,david's anxiety for a fixed sanctuary was awakened in him soon after the completion of his palace1 is expressly stated in #a ,chron4 xvii4 #a4 ,instead of in ver4 #a of our passage1 we find there 1 when1 or as soon as he dwelt4 ,we cannot well think of any later period1 as ,david's zeal for the building of the house of the ,lord was closely connected with the question regarding the duration of his own family1 which was so readily suggested by the fate of ,saul1 and which must necessarily have engaged his attention at a very early period4 ,if he obtained the divine sanction for the building of the temple1 that question also was thereby answered4 ,further1--,it appears from ver4 #ab1 that ,solomon was not yet born at the time when ,david received the promise4 ,the circumstance1 too1 that there are so many allusions to it in the ,psalms of ,david1 proves that this promise had been already given to him at the beginning of his reign4--,one circumstance only has been adduced against assigning to it so early a period1 viz41 that the event is here placed within the time when the ,lord had given ,david rest from all his enemies round about4 ,but there is not one word which affirms that this rest was a definitive one2 while1 on the other hand1 the contrary is alluded to by the circumstance that the ,books of ,chronicles make no mention at all of ,david's rest from his enemies1 and is distinctly indicated by viii4 #a4 ,in #a ,chron4 xiv4 #ag it is said1 after the account of ,david's victory over the ,philistines 7on which event the ,books of ,samuel report previous to chap4 vii41 viz4 in v4 #ag-be73 ,and the name of ,david went out into all lands1 and the ,lord gave his fear upon all the heathen4 ,this previous result was so much the more important1 as the ,philistines had been1 for a long time1 the most dangerous enemies of ,israel1 and ,david himself may have considered it as a definitive one1--may have imagined this truce to be a peace1--may not have been aware that he had yet to bear the burden of the most trying wars4 ,looking1 then1 to the passage in ,deut4 xii4 #aj1 #aa--;in which the choice of a place where the ,lord will cause ,his name to dwell1 is connected with the giving of rest from all enemies round about--he might think that the present circumstance formed a call upon him to erect a sanctuary to ,pg #acc the ,lord4#a ,but the issue 7compare viii4 #a7 soon made it manifest to him1 that the supposition on which he proceeded was an erroneous one4 ,we have a tacit correction of ,david's mistake in #a ,kings v4 #ag1 #ah3 ,thou knowest how that ,david my father could not build an house unto the name of the ,lord his ,god1 for the wars with which they surrounded him1 until the ,lord put them under the soles of his feet4 ,and now the ,lord my ,god hath given me rest on every side1 and there is neither adversary nor evil occurrence4 ,it was only under ,solomon that the period provided for by ,deut4 xii4 really arrived4 7,compare #a ,chron4 xxii4 #ai47 ,ver4 #c4 ,and ,nathan said to the king1 ,go1 do all that is in thine heart1 for the ,lord is with thee4 ,ver4 #d4 ,and it came to pass that night that the word of the ,lord came unto ,nathan1 saying3 ,ver4 #e4 ,go and tell ,my servant ,david1 ,thus saith the ,lord1 ,shalt thou build ,me a house to dwell in8 ,in ver4 #e the question is stated1 the answer to which is the point at issue4 ,in ver4 #f1 the exposition begins with 1 which refers to the whole of it1 and not merely to the clause which immediately follows4 ,hitherto1 the ,lord has not had a fixed temple 7ver4 #f71 nor has any such been wished for or desired by ,him 7ver4 #g74 ,by the grace of ,god1 ,david has been raised to be ruler over the people 7ver4 #h71 and the ,lord has helped him gloriously 7ver4 #i71 and1 through him1 ,his people 7ver4 #aj74 ,this mercy the ,lord had already bestowed upon him1 that1 since the beginning of the period of the ,judges1 it was through him1 first of all1 that the people had obtained rest from all their enemies round about2 but to this favour the ,lord is now adding another1 by announcing to him that ,he would make him an house 7ver4 #aa74 ,when ,david dies1 his seed shall occupy the throne1 and be established in the kingdom 7ver4 #ab74 ,it is he who shall build an house for the ,lord who will establish for ever the throne of his kingdom1 vers4 #ac-af4 ,david's zeal for the house of the ,lord is thus acknowledged 7compare ,ps4 cxxxii4 #a71 and so also is the correctness of his supposition1 that the building of the fixed temple is intimately ,pg #acd connected with his being raised to be ruler over ,israel4 ,the first answer of ,nathan remains correct2 it is only more distinctly and closely defined and modified4 ,david is to build the house1--not1 however1 in his own person1 but in his seed1 and after the ,lord has begun to fulfil ,his promise1 that ,he would make him an house4 ,but why was it that ,david himself was not permitted to build the house to the ,lord8 ,in this passage we obtain no answer4 ,in ,solomon's message to ,hiram 7#a ,kings v4 #ag7 an external reason only is stated--viz41 that1 by his numerous wars1 ,david had been prevented from building a house to the ,lord4 ,there was a deeper reason than this2 but the heathen could not comprehend it4 ,it is contained in the words which1 according to #a ,chron4 xxviii4 #c1 ,david spoke to the people3 ,and ,god said unto me1 ,thou shalt not build an house for ,my name1 because thou hast been a man of war1 and hast shed blood2 and in the words of the ,lord which1 according to #a ,chron4 xxii4 #h1 ,david repeated to ,solomon3 ,thou hast shed blood abundantly1 and hast made great wars2 thou shalt not build an house unto ,my name1 because thou hast shed much blood upon the earth in ,my sight1--a disclosure which ,david could have obtained only at a later period1 and as a supplement to the divine communication which had been made to him through ,nathan4 ,for it is only after the revelation in #b ,sam4 vii4 that ,david had to carry on his most bloody wars4 ,we must not1 by any means1 entertain the idea that these words express anything blameworthy in ,david1 and that the permission to build the temple was refused to him on account of his personal unworthiness4 ,david stood in a closer relation to ,god than did ,solomon4 ,his wars were wars of the ,lord1 #a ,sam4 xxv4 #bh4 ,it is in this light that ,david himself regarded them2 and that he was conscious of his being divinely commissioned for them1 is seen1 e4g41 from ,ps4 xviii43 it was the ,lord who taught his hands to war 7ver4 #ce7 and who gave him vengeance1 and subdued the people unto him1 ver4 #dh4 ,the passages #a ,chron4 xxii4 #h1 xxvii4 #c1 do not1 in themselves1 contain one reproachful word against ,david4 ,on the contrary1 the words1 in ,my sight1 in the former of these passages1 rather lead us to suppose that ,david is1 in his wars1 to be considered only as a servant of the ,lord 7,michaelis3 ,in ,my sight--i4e41 who am1 as it were1 the ,pg #ace highest judge1 and the commander74 ,the reason is rather of a symbolical character4 ,how necessary soever1 under certain conditions1 war may be for the kingdom of ,god1--as indeed the ,saviour also says that 7in the first instance7 ,he had not come to send peace1 but a sword1--it is after all only something accidental1 and rendered needful by human corruption4 ,the real nature of the kingdom of ,god is peace4 ,even in the ,old ,testament1 the ,lord of the ,church appears as the ,prince of ,peace1 ,is4 ix4 #e4 ,according to ,luke ix4 #ef1 the ,son of ,man is not come to destroy men's lives1 but to save them4 ,in order to impress upon the mind this view of the nature and aim of the ,church1 the ,temple--the symbol of the ,church--must not be built by ,david the man of war1 but by ,solomon1 the peaceful1 the man of rest1 #a ,chron4 xxii4 #i4 ,ver4 #f4 ,for ,i have not dwelt in any house from the day that ,i brought up the children of ,israel out of ,egypt even to this day1 and have walked in a tent and in a tabernacle4 ,ver4 #g4 ,in all that ,i have walked among the children of ,israel1 have ,i spoken one word with any of the tribes of ,israel whom ,i commanded to feed ,my people ,israel1 saying4 ,why build ye ,me not a house of cedar8 ,according to several interpreters1 these words are intended as a consolation to ,david for the delay in building the temple1 and convey this sense3 that ,god did not require the temple1 that the building of it was of no consequence1--as sufficiently appears from the circumstance of ,his not having hitherto urged it4 ,but such a view would ill agree with the great importance which ,david continues1 even afterwards1 to ascribe to the building of the temple1--with the grand efforts of ,solomon towards it1--and with the exulting words which are uttered by the latter1 in #a ,kings viii4 #ac1 after the work has been accomplished3 ,i have built ,thee an house to dwell in1 a settled place for ,thee to abide in for ever4 ,a comparison of #a ,kings viii4 #af-bj furnishes us with a clue to the right interpretation4 ,in that passage1 the period before ,david is contrasted with that during which ,david lived4 7,compare the 1 now1 in ver4 #h47 ,hitherto1 everything in the government had borne a provisional character1 and1 hence1 the sanctuary also4 ,but now that1 after the unsettled state of things under ,pg #acf the ,judges and ,saul1 the definitive government has been called into existence with ,david1 to whom the ,lord will make an house1 the definitive sanctuary also shall be built1--only1 that it shall not be founded by ,david1 but by his seed4#b ,the words1 ,i have walked--literally1 ,i have been walking1 ,i have continued walking--in a tent and in a tabernacle1 indicate not only that the ,lord dwelt in a portable sanctuary1 but also1 that the place of this sanctuary was oftentimes changed1 from one station to another in the wilderness1 then to ,gilgal1 ,shiloh1 ,nob and ,gibeon4 ,this changing of the place of the tabernacle is still more distinctly pointed out1 in the parallel passage in #a ,chron4 xvii4 #e3 ,and ,i have been from tent to tent1 from tabernacle to tabernacle2 i4e41 ,i went from one tent into the other1 e4g41 from the dwelling-place of ,shiloh into that of ,nob1--a mode of expression which pays no attention to the circumstance whether or not the tent was materially the same4 ,instead of1 ,with any of the tribes of ,israel1 we find in #a ,chron4 xvii4 #f1 ,with any of the judges of ,israel1--a parallel passage which very well explains the main text4 ,the tribes come into consideration through their judges1 who1 in the ,book of ,judges1 always appear as judges in ,israel1 and procured a temporary ,pg #acg superiority to the tribe from which they proceeded4#c ,the 1 which has been doubted1 is rendered certain by #a ,kings viii4 #af4 7,compare1 moreover1 ,ps4 lxxviii4 #fg1 #fh47--,the reason why no such word came to any one of these tribes is1 that the superiority of none of them was permanent2 the election of all of them was merely temporary4 ,the continuance of the tent-temple was intended to indicate that the state of things was1 in general1 provisional only1 and that a new order of things was at hand4 ,the creation of a settled sanctuary was to be coincident with the establishment of an abiding kingdom1 to which the grace of ,god was vouchsafed4 ,it was an evil omen for ,saul that the erection of a fixed sanctuary was not even mooted under him4 ,the close of ,ps4 lxxviii4 likewise points out the intimate connection of the kingdom and the sanctuary4 ,ver4 #h4 ,and now1 thus shalt thou say unto ,david ,my servant3 ,thus saith the ,lord1 of hosts1 ,i took thee from the sheep-cote1#d from behind the sheep1 to be ruler over ,my people1 over ,israel4 ,ver4 #i4 ,and ,i was with thee whithersoever thou wentest1 and have cut off all thine enemies from before thee1 and have made thee a great name like unto the name of the great men that are upon the earth4 ,ver4 #aj4 ,and ,i gave room unto ,my people ,israel1 and planted them1 and they dwell in their place1 and they shall no more be frightened1 and the sons of wickedness shall afflict them no more as heretofore4 ,seven divine benefits are here enumerated1--one in ver4 #h1 which forms the foundation of all the others1 and three in each of the two following verses1--in ver4 #i1 what the ,lord has given to ,david1--in ver4 #aj1 what1 through him1 ,he has given to ,israel4 ,these benefits are so many symptoms that a definitive order of things has now taken the place of the provisional one1 and that1 hence1 the moveable sanctuary will now be soon followed by the settled one4 ,in the first member of ver4 #aj1 there is an enumeration of the benefits which the ,pg #ach people have already received through ,david2 in the second and third members1 an enumeration of the benefits to be constantly bestowed upon them through him4 ,a commentary upon it is formed by ,ps4 lxxxix4 #bb-bd1 in which it is said of ,david3 ,with whom ,my hand shall be continually4 ,mine arm also shall strengthen him4 ,the enemy shall not exact upon him1 nor the son of wickedness afflict him4 ,and ,i crush his enemies before him1 and will smite those who hate him4 ,ver4 #aa4 ,and since the day that ,i commanded judges over ,my people ,israel1 ,i have given thee rest from all thine enemies4 ,and the ,lord telleth thee1 that the ,lord will make thee an house4 ,the first part of this verse comprehends all the benefits formerly enumerated2--the second adds another1 which1 however1 is closely connected with the previous ones4 ,the circumstance that the ,lord first gave rest to ,david1 and1 in him1 to the people1 was a sign of his election which could not but manifest itself afterwards in the care for his house4 ,the promise1 ,the ,lord will make thee an house1 was to ,david an answer to prayer1 as is shown by ,ps4 xxi4 #c1 #e1 lxi4 #f1 cxxxviii4 #c4 ,even the thought of building the temple was a question put to the ,lord1 as to whether ,he would1 in harmony with ,his past conduct1 give a duration to his house1 different from that of the house of ,saul4 ,ver4 #ab4 ,and when thy days be fulfilled1 and thou shalt sleep with thy fathers1 ,i shall cause thy seed to rise up after thee which shall proceed out of thy bowels1 and ,i will establish his kingdom4 ,the does not signify the beginning of existence1 but the elevation to the royal dignity4 1 seed1 denotes the posterity1 which1 however1 may consist of one only1 or be represented by a single individual4 ,in the parallel passage1 #a ,chron4 xvii4 #aa1 the words run thus3 ,thy seed which shall be of thy sons1 i4e41 who shall be one of thy sons 7,luther74 ,the truth of the promise1 ,i shall establish his kingdom1 became manifest1 e4g41 in the vain machinations of ,adonijah4 ,that the fulfilment of this promise must be sought in the history of ,solomon1 in whom the difference between the house of ,david and that of ,saul first became evident 7instead of1 ,i establish1 in ver4 #ab1 we find1 in the second member of ver4 #ac1 ,i establish for ever71 is seen from #a ,kings viii4 #bj1 where ,solomon says1 ,and the ,lord hath performed ,his word which ,pg #aci ,he spake2 for ,i am risen up in the room of ,david my father1 and sit on the throne of ,israel1 as the ,lord promised4 7,compare #a ,kings ii4 #ab3 ,and ,solomon sat upon the throne of ,david his father1 and his kingdom was established greatly47 ,ver4 #ac4 ,he shall build an house for ,my name1 and ,i establish the throne of his kingdom for ever4 ,the general establishment which was spoken of in ver4 #ab precedes the building of the temple2 the eternal establishment mentioned in ver4 #ac follows the building of the temple1 or is coincident with it4 ,it is evident1 that the first clause of the verse refers1 in the first instance1 to the building of the temple which was undertaken by ,solomon4 7,compare #a ,kings v4 #ai1 where ,solomon says1 ,behold1 ,i purpose to build an house unto the name of the ,lord my ,god1 as the ,lord spake unto ,david my father1 saying4 ,thy son whom ,i will set upon thy throne in thy stead1 he shall build the house unto ,my name47 ,we shall not1 however1 be at liberty to confine ourselves to what ,solomon1 as an individual1 did for the house of the ,lord4 ,the building of the house here goes hand in hand with the eternity of the kingdom4 ,we expect1 therefore1 that the question is not about a building of limited duration4 ,if a building of only a limited duration were meant1 such1 surely1 might have been erected long ago1 even in the period of the ,judges4 ,the contrary1 however1 is quite distinctly brought out in #a ,kings viii4 #ac1 where1 at the dedication of the temple1 ,solomon says1 ,i have built ,thee an house to dwell in1 a fixed place for ,thee to abide in for ever4 ,if1 then1 with the eternity of the kingdom of ,david's house the eternity of the temple to be built by him be closely bound up1 the destruction of the latter can be only temporary1 and the consequence of the apostasy and punishment of the ,davidic race1--of which vers4 #ad and #ae treat4 ,or1 if it be definitive1 it can concern the form only4 ,if the building of the temple fall into ruins1 it is only the ,davidic race from which its restoration can proceed2 the local relation of the royal palace to the temple prefigured their close union4 ,hence1 the building of the temple by ,zerubbabel was likewise comprehended in the words1 ,he shall build an house for ,my name4 ,it was impossible that the second temple could be reared otherwise than under the direction of ,david's family4 ,but we must go still farther4 ,the essence of the temple consists in its being a symbol1 an outward ,pg #adj representation of the kingdom of ,god under ,israel4 ,the real import of our passage then is1--that henceforth the kingdom of ,david and the kingdom of ,god should be closely and inseparably linked together4 ,as the third phase1 therefore1 in the fulfilment of our prophecy1 ,john ii4 #ai must come under consideration3 1 4 7,regarding the sense of this passage1 and the symbolical meaning of the tabernacle and temple1 compare ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pent4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ead ff47 ,house of ,god is1 in ver4 #ad of the parallel text1 used of the ,church1 and in parallelism with kingdom of ,god1--a sense in which it occurs as early as in ,num4 xii4 #g4e ,this usus loquendi is quite common in the ,new ,testament2 compare #a ,tim4 iii4 #ae2 #b ,cor4 vi4 #af2 ,heb4 iii4 #f4 ,in the first two phases of the temple of ,solomon1 the house consists in the first instance of ordinary stones1--although1 even at that time1 the spiritual is concealed behind the material2 but in its third phase1 the material is altogether thrown off1 and the house is entirely spiritual--consisting of living stones1 #a ,pet4 ii4 #e4--,that the expression1 for ever1 in the second clause of the verse1 is to be taken in its strict and full sense1 is proved not only by the threefold repetition1 but also by a comparison with the numerous secondary passages1 in which the duration of the ,davidic dominion appears as absolutely unlimited4 ,in ,ps4 lxxxix41 for example1 where the promise is repeated1 for ever corresponds with1 as the days of heaven in ver4 #cj1--with as the sun in ver4 #cg1--;and with as the moon in ver4 #ch4 ,the final fulfilment of this promise is pointed out by the words of the angel to ,mary1 in ,luke i4 #cb1 #cc3 7compare ver4 #i here71 7compare ver4 #ad71 4 1 4 ,ver4 #ad4 ,and ,i will be a father to him1 and he shall be a son to ,me4 ,if he commit sin1 ,i will chastise him with the rod of men1 and with the stripes of the children of men4 ,ver4 #ae4 ,and ,my mercy shall not depart away from him1 as ,i caused it to depart away from ,saul1 whom ,i put away before thee4 ,pg #ada ,wheresoever ,god is1 in the ,old ,testament1 designated as ,father1 there is a reference to the deepest intensity of ,his love1--a love which is similar to that of a father towards his son4 7,compare remarks on ,ps4 ii4 #g47 ,sonship to ,god has this significancy here also1 as is shown by what immediately follows1 where1 in explanation of it1 the promise of indestructible love is connected with it4 ,but this relationship1 in its highest and closest form1 cannot exist betwixt ,god and a mere man4 ,it is only when the ,davidic family is viewed as centring in ,christ1 that the words can acquire their full truth4 ,to this1 the quotation in ,heb4 i4 #e points3 1 1 2 1 2 ,the depth of meaning which is contained in these words appears plainly from their expansion in ,ps4 lxxxix4 #bf3 ,and ,i place his hand on the sea1 and his right hand on the rivers4 ,he shall call ,me thus3 ,thou art my ,father1 my ,god1 and the rock of my salvation4 ,and ,i will also make him ,my first-born1 the highest of the kings of the earth4 ,the sonship accordingly implies the dominion over the world1 which in ,ps4 ii4 #g-i appears1 indeed1 as inseparably connected with it4--,if the race of ,david commit sin1 it shall be chastened with the rods of men1 and with the stripes of the children of men4 ,ps4 xvii4 #d distinctly and unambiguously designates corrupt actions--walking in the ways of transgressors--as the works of men4 7,compare #a ,sam4 xxiv4 #aj2 ,hos4 vi4 #g2 ,job xxxi4 #cc1 xxiii4 #ab47 ,hence1 the rods of men1 and the stripes of the children of men1 are punishments to which all men are subject1 because they are sinners1 and at which no man needs to be surprised4 ,grace is not to free the ,davidic family from this common lot of mankind1 is not to afford to them the privilege of sinning4 ,the mitigation only follows in ver4 #ae1 in which the close resumes the beginning3 ,i will be a father to him4 ,but this mitigation must not be misunderstood by being conceived of as referring to the individuals4 ,such a conception of it would be opposed to the nature of the thing itself1 would be in opposition to #a ,chron4 xxviii4 #i1 where ,david says to ,solomon1 ,if thou seek ,him1 ,he will be found of thee2 and if thou forsake ,him1 ,he will cast thee off for ever3 and would be against history1 which shows that the rebellious members of the ,davidic dynasty were visited with destroying ,pg #adb judgments4 ,the contrast is rather thus to be understood3 sin is to be visited upon the individuals1 while the grace abides continually upon the race1--so that the divine promise is raised to an absolute one4 ,the commentary on it is furnished by ,ps4 lxxxix4 #ca seq43 ,if his children forsake ,my law1 and walk not in ,my judgments 444 then ,i will visit their transgression with the rod1 and their iniquity with stripes4 ,but ,my loving-kindness will ,i not withdraw from him1 nor will ,i break ,my faithfulness4--,the words from if he commit sin to children of men are awanting in the parallel passage4 ,this omission is intended to make the continuance of the mercy appear the more distinctly1 and to show1 as indeed is the case1 that the main stress is to be laid upon it4 ,we cannot for a moment conceive that any unworthy motive prompted this omission2 for the ,chronicles were written at a time when the chastening rod of the ,lord had already fallen heavily upon the ,davidic race4 ,there would have been stronger reasons for adding the words than for omitting them1 inasmuch as1 under these circumstances1 they were full of consolation4 ,it is just upon these words that the penman of ,ps4 lxxiv4 dwells at particular length4 ,ver4 #af4 ,and thine house and thy kingdom shall be sure for ever before thee1 thy throne shall be firm for ever4 ,the extent to which this prophecy of ,nathan bears the character of a fundamental one1 appears from the circumstance that almost every word of the verse under review has called forth an echo in later times4 sure1 certain1 constant1 occurs again in ,ps4 lxxxix4 #bi1 compared with ver4 #ch1 and in ,is4 lv4 #c4 ,the sure 7constant7 mercies of ,david1 spoken of in the last of these passages1 shall be bestowed upon the people of the covenant1 in the coming of ,christ1 by which the perpetuity of the house of ,david was most fully manifested4 ,the 1 constant1 firm1 occurs in ,mic4 iv4 #a1 and the 1 for ever1 in ,ps4 lxxii4 #ag1 lxxxix4 #cg1 xlv4 #g1 and cx4 #d4 ,the saying of the people in ,john xii4 #cd1 1 refers1 in the first instance1 to our passage1 and all the other texts quoted may be considered as a commentary4 ,it is certainly not the result of mere accident1 that the twelve verses of ,nathan's prophecy are divided into two sections of seven and of five verses respectively1 and that the former again is subdivided into sections of three and four verses4 ,its closing ,pg #adc words1 ,the ,lord will make thee an house1 are farther expanded in vers4 #ab-af4 ,we subjoin to the exposition of ,nathan's prophecy1 that of ,david's prayer of thanks1 because1 by means of the thanks1 the promise itself is more clearly brought out4 ,the ,lord has done great things for ,his servant in his low estate1 and has promised things still more glorious1 vers4 #ah-ba4 ,by doing such glorious things to ,his servant1 ,he has manifested ,himself as a faithful ,god1 in harmony with ,his revelations in ancient times1 vers4 #bb-bd4 ,the thanksgivings for the promise are followed in vers4 #be-bi by a prayer for its fulfilment1 intermingled with expressions of hope4 ,as the promise was expressed in twelve verses1 so are the thanks4 ,these twelve verses are again divided into seven and five1 and the seven into four and three4 ,the name of ,jehovah occurs twelve times4 ,ten times is the address directed to ,jehovah4 ,once ,he is addressed by the simple name of ,jehovah1 six times by that of ,adonai ,jehovah1 twice by that of ,jehovah ,elohim1 and once by that of ,jehovah ,zebaoth4 ,the address1 ,adonai ,jehovah1 occurs at the beginning and the close4 ,the third division first takes up the name of ,god which is used in the second1 and returns1 at the close1 to that which is used in the first division4 ,in the parallel passage in ,chronicles1 ,jehovah occurs seven times1 and ,elohim three times4--,ten times the servant of the ,lord is mentioned in ,david's prayer1 and seven times1 the house of ,david4 ,the servant of the ,lord occurs three times in vers4 #ah-ba1 and seven times in vers4 #be-bi2 the house of ,david twice in #ah-ba1 and five times in vers4 #be-bi4 ,in vers4 #bb-bd1 where the manifestation of the mercies to ,david are brought into connection with the glorious revelations of ,god in ancient times1 neither the servant nor the house is mentioned4 ,ver4 #ah4 ,and ,king ,david came and sat before the ,lord1 and said3 ,who am ,i1 ,lord ,jehovah1 and what my house 7literally1 who my house1--the house being conceived of as an ideal person71 that ,thou hast brought me hitherto8 ,moses also was sitting in long-continued prayer1 ,exod4 xvii4 #ab4 ,david1 as a true descendant of ,jacob 7,gen4 xxxii4 #aj71 acknowledges his unworthiness of the great mercies bestowed upon him4 ,the comparison of ,ps4 cxliv4 #c is still more striking ,pg #add than that of ,ps4 viii4 #e2 for1 in the former1 the words1 ,lord1 what is man1 that ,thou takest knowledge of him2 the son of mortal man1 that ,thou hast regard to him8 were uttered in praise of the adorable mercy which the ,lord had shown to his house4 ,ver4 #ai4 ,and this is yet too little in ,thy sight1 ,lord ,jehovah2 and ,thou speakest also to the house of ,thy servant of things far distant2 and this is the law of man1 ,lord ,jehovah4 ,the word has only the signification of law4 ,gesenius1 in assigning to it the signification of mos1 consuetudo1 has no other warrant for it than our passage4 ,the law of any one is the law which has been given for him1 or which concerns him2 compare ,lev4 vi4 #b 7#i73 ,this is the law of the burnt-offering2 ,lev4 xiii4 #g3 ,this is the law for her that hath born2 ,lev4 xiv4 #b3 ,this shall be the law of the leper1 etc4 ,hence the law of man can only be the law regulating the conduct of man4 ,man is commanded in the law3 ,thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself2 compare ,mic4 vi4 #h3 ,he hath showed1 ,o man1 what is good2 and what doth the ,lord require of thee but to do justice1 and to love kindness1 and to walk humbly before thy ,god8 ,the fact that ,god should1 in ,his conduct towards poor mortals1 follow the rule which ,he hath given to men for their conduct towards one another1 and that ,he shows ,himself to be full of mercy and love1 cannot but fill him who knows ,god and himself with adoring wonder4 ,the words in ,ps4 xviii4 #cf are parallel3 ,thou givest me the shield of ,thy salvation1 and ,thy right hand holdeth me up1 and ,thy meekness 7the parallel passage in #b ,sam4 has3 ',thy being low'7 maketh me great4 ,in the parallel passage in ,chronicles the words are these3 ,and ,thou hast regarded me according to the law of man 7concerning compare remarks on ,song of ,sol4 i4 #aj71 ,thou height1 ,jehovah ,god4 ,the essential agreement of the sense of the parallel passage with that of the fundamental passage1 may be applied as a test to prove the correctness of our exposition4 ,to regard some one is used for to visit some one1 to have intercourse with some one2 compare #b ,sam4 iii4 #ac1 xiii4 #e1 xiv4 #bd1 #bh2 #b ,kings viii4 #bi4 ,the words1 ,thou height 7,god is represented as personified height in ,ps4 xcii4 #i3 ,and ,thou art a height for evermore1 ,o ,lord71 bring out still more prominently the contrast with human lowness1 which was already implied in the names of ,pg #ade ,god1 ,adonai ,jehovah1 and ,jehovah ,elohim1 and serves therefore to show still more distinctly the condescension of ,god1 whose revelation on this occasion was a prelude to 4 ,luther has introduced into the main text a direct allusion to the incarnation of ,god in ,christ4 ,he translates1 ,this is the manner of a man who is ,god the ,lord2 and adds1 in a marginal note1 the following remark3 ,this means1 ,thou speakest to me of such an eternal kingdom1 in which no one can be king unless he be ,god and man at the same time1 because he is to be my son and yet a king for evermore--which belongs to ,god alone4 ,but this single circumstance is sufficient to overthrow this view3--that in the preceding1 as well as in the subsequent context1 ,adonai ,jehovah is always used in the vocative sense4 ,ver4 #bj4 ,and what shall ,david say more unto ,thee8 7,in the parallel passage3 ',as regards the honour for ,thy servant4'7 ,and ,thou knowest ,thy servant1 ,lord ,jehovah4 ,it is not necessary that ,david should make many words1 in order to express his thanks1 as his thankful heart lies open before ,god4 ,in ,ps4 xl4 #aj1 ,david also appeals to the testimony of the ,omniscient as regards his thankful heart3 ,i preach righteousness in the great congregation2 lo1 ,i will not refrain my lips1 ,o ,lord1 ,thou knowest1--knowest how with my whole heart ,i am thankful for ,thy great mercy4 ,it is1 in general1 ,david's practice to appeal to ,god1 the ,searcher of hearts2 compare1 e4g41 ,ps4 xvii4 #c4 ,ver4 #ba4 ,for ,thy word's sake1 and according to ,thine own heart1 hast ,thou done all these great things to make ,thy servant know them4 ,in #a ,chron4 xvii4 #ai1 the words run thus3 ,lord1 on account of ,thy servant1 and according to ,thine own heart1 hast ,thou done all these great things1 to make known all the glorious things4 ,hence1 by the word1 a promise given to ,david can alone be intended1--a word formerly spoken to ,david1 which contained the germ of the present one4 ,there is1 no doubt1 a special allusion to the word in #a ,sam4 xvi4 #ab3 ,and the ,lord said4 ,arise and anoint him1 for this is he4 7,compare #b ,sam4 xii4 #g2 ,ps4 lxxxix4 #ba2 ,acts xiii4 #bb47 ,according to ,thine heart3 ,the ,lord is merciful and gracious1 slow to anger and ,pg #adf plenteous in mercy1 ,ps4 ciii4 #h4 ,all these great things1--i4e4 the promise of the eternal dominion of his house4 and --words in which ,david takes special delight--never mean greatness1 but always great things4 7,compare remarks on ,ps4 lxxi4 #ba1 cxlv4 #c47 ,the words1 ,to make know1 etc41 indicate that the making refers1 in the meantime1 only to the divine decree4 ,ver4 #bb4 ,wherefore ,thou art great1 ,lord ,god3 for there is none like ,thee1 neither is there any ,god besides ,thee1 according to all that we have heard with our ears4 ,wherefore--in the first instance1 on account of the great things which ,thou hast done unto me4 ,according to all1 etc41 i4e41 as this is confirmed by all1 etc4 ,of this ,david has been reminded anew by his personal experience4 ,just as he does here1 ,david1 in ,ps4 xl4 #f1 rises from his personal experience to the whole series of ,god's glorious manifestations in the history of ,his people4 ,as to the words1 ,there is none like ,thee1 neither is there any ,god besides ,thee1 compare the fundamental passages ,exod4 xv4 #aa2 ,deut4 iii4 #bd1 iv4 #ce4 ,ver4 #bc4 ,and where is there a nation on earth like ,thy people ,israel1 for whose sake ,god went to redeem them for a people to ,himself1 and make ,him a name1 and to do for you great things1 and terrible things for ,thy land1 putting away from before ,thy people1 whom ,thou redeemedst to ,thee out of ,egypt1 heathen and their gods8 ,we must here compare the fundamental passages1 ,deut4 iv4 #g1 #cd1 xxxiii4 #bi1 in which that which ,israel has received from his ,god is praised1 as being without precedent and parallel4 ,in and the address is1 with poetical liveliness1 directed to ,israel4 ,for you great things--instead of1 ,to do for them great things1 as the ,lord has done for you4 ,the phrase means1 literally1 only1 away from before ,thy people2 putting must be supplied from the preceding 1 and from a comparison of the fundamental passages1 ,exod4 xxiii4 #bh1 #bi1 xxxiv4 #aa2 ,deut4 xxxiii4 #bg1 to which the concise expression refers4 ,the text in ,chronicles1 which expressly adds what we have here to supply1 1 to drive out before1 is1 in this case also1 merely a parallel passage which1 by the addition of a word1 serves as a commentary4 ,ver4 #bd4 ,and ,thou hast confirmed to ,thyself ,thy people ,pg #adg ,israel to be a people for ever1 and ,thou1 ,lord1 art become their ,god4 ,ver4 #be4 ,and now1 ,jehovah ,god1 the word that ,thou hast spoken concerning ,thy servant1 and concerning his house1 establish it for ever1 and do as ,thou hast said4 ,praise and thanks for the promise are followed by the prayer for its fulfilment4 ,ver4 #bf4 ,and let ,thy name be magnified for ever1 so that it may be said1 ,jehovah ,zebaoth 7is7 ,god over ,israel4 ,and the house of ,thy servant shall be firm before ,thee4 ,let ,thy name be magnified1 instead of1 ,give cause for its being glorified2 compare ,ps4 xxxv4 #bg1 xl4 #ag4--;,is ,god over ,israel1 i4e41 proves ,himself to be such1 by protecting the house of the king1 on whom the salvation of ,israel depends4 ,in ,chronicles it is thus expressed3 ,jehovah ,zebaoth1 the ,god of ,israel1 is ,god for ,israel1 i4e44 ,he fulfils to ,israel what ,he promised 7,jarchi74 ,the prayer for the establishment of ,david's house is expressed in the form of confidence1 in the conviction based upon the word of ,god1 that such is according to the will of ,god4 ,ver4 #bg4 ,for ,thou1 ,jehovah ,zebaoth1 ,god of ,israel1 hast opened the ear of ,thy servant1 saying1 ,i will build thee an house4 ,therefore ,thy servant found 7in7 his heart to pray this prayer unto ,thee4 7,otherwise1 his heart would have failed him2 he would have had neither the desire nor the courage47 ,ver4 #bh4 ,and now1 ,lord ,jehovah1 ,thou art ,god1 and ,thy words are truth1 and ,thou hast promised unto ,thy servant these good things4 ,ver4 #bi4 ,and now let it please ,thee to bless the house of ,thy servant1 that it may continue for ever before ,thee2 for ,thou1 ,lord ,jehovah1 hast spoken1 and1 by ,thy blessing1 the house of ,thy servant shall be blessed for ever4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to whom does this promise refer1 which ,david received through ,nathan8 ,some ,rabbins1 and ,grotius1 would fain restrict it to ,solomon and his more immediate posterity4 ,this opinion1 however1 is refuted by the single circumstance1 that they are compelled to assume merely a long duration of time1 instead of the eternity which is here promised to the house of ,david4 ,and that such cannot be the meaning of the words for ever1 is abundantly confirmed by a comparison with ,pg #adh ,ps4 lxxxix4 #cj1 ,and ,i place his seed for ever1 and his throne as the days of heaven4 ,in these words of the ,psalm there is a reference to ,deut4 xi4 #ba1 where the people of the ,lord are promised a duration as the days of heaven and of earth4 ,an absolute perpetuity is everywhere ascribed to the people of ,god4 ,if1 then1 the house of ,david is placed on the same level as they1 its perpetuity must likewise be absolute4 ,further1--with such a view1 it is impossible to comprehend what ,david here says in his prayer1 regarding the greatness of the promise1 and also what he says in ,ps4 cxxxviii4 #b3 ,for ,thou hast magnified ,thy word above all ,thy name4 ,the giving of the promise is there placed on a loftier elevation than all the former deeds of the ,lord4 ,others--as ,calovius--would refer the promise to ,christ alone4 ,but vers4 #ad1 #ae are decisive against this view2 for1 according to them1 ,god will not1 by a total rejection1 punish the posterity of ,david1 if they commit sin1--from which the reference is evident to a posterity merely human1 and hence sinful4 ,according to ver4 #ac1 ,david's posterity is to build a temple to the ,lord1--a declaration which1 with reference to ,david's plan of building a temple to the ,lord1 can1 in the first instance1 be understood in no other way than as relating to the earthly temple to be built by ,solomon4 ,to this consideration it may be added1 that1 in #a ,chron4 xxii4 #i seqq41 ,david himself refers this announcement primarily to ,solomon1 and that ,solomon1 in #a ,kings v4 #e seqq41 and in #b ,chron4 vi4 #g seqq41 refers it to himself4 ,nor is there entire soundness in the view of those who1 following ,augustine 7de ,civitate ,dei xvii4 #h1 #i71 assume the existence of a double reference1--to ,solomon and his earthly successors on the one hand1 and to ,christ on the other4 ,thus ,brentius3 ,solomon is not altogether excluded1 but ,christ is chiefly intended4 ,it is true that these interpreters are substantially right in their view2 but they err as to the manner in which they give expression to it4 ,the promise has not a reference to two subjects simultaneously4#f ,it views ,david's house as an ideal unity4 ,pg #adi ,the promise is given to the house of ,david1 vers4 #aa1 #af1 #ai1 #be1 #bf1 #bg1 #bi2 to his seed1 ver4 #ab4 ,it is to the house of ,david that the absolute perpetuity of existence1 the unchangeable possession of the grace of ,god--a relation to ,god similar to that of a son to his father--and the inseparable connection of their dominion with the kingdom of ,god in ,israel1 are guaranteed4 ,footnote #a3 ,seb4 ,schmid says3 ,he thought that this duty was imposed upon him by the ,word of ,god4 ,for1 as the state enjoyed peace1 the royal palace was finished1 and his family established1 there seemed to be nothing wanting but to build a temple to the ,lord4 ,footnote #b3 ,in #a ,kings viii4 #af1 ,solomon thus reports what1 in #b ,sam4 vii41 had been spoken to ,david1 in reference to the house of the ,lord3 ,since the day that ,i brought up ,my people ,israel out of ,egypt1 ,i chose no city out of all the tribes of ,israel to build an house that ,my name might be in it2 and ,i chose ,david to be over ,my people ,israel4 ,the comment on this passage is given by the parallel one1 #b ,chron4 vi4 #e1 #f3 ,i did not choose any man to be a ruler over ,my people ,israel4 ,and ,i have chosen ,jerusalem that ,my name might be there1 and ,i have chosen ,david to be over ,my people ,israel4 ,since ,david resided in ,jerusalem1 the election of ,david1 announced in #b ,sam4 vii41 implies also the choice of ,jerusalem as the place of the sanctuary4 ,hence1 we must add to #a ,kings viii4 #af1 the supplement3 ,and in connection with this choice1 ,david 7the ,davidic dynasty7 is to build ,me an house at the place of his residence4 ,the ,vulgate translates very correctly3 ,sed elegi4 ,solomon then continues1 ,ver4 #ag3 ,and it was in the heart of ,david my father 7namely1 before he received this divine revelation7 to build an house for the name of the ,lord1 the ,god of ,israel4 ,ver4 #ah4 ,and the ,lord said unto ,david my father1 ,whereas it was in thine heart to build an house unto ,my name1 thou didst well that it was in thine heart4 ,ver4 #ai4 ,and thou shalt not build the house2 but thy son that shall come forth out of thy loins1 he shall build the house unto ,my name4 ,footnote #c3 ,seb4 ,schmid says3 ,he rightly considers the tribes and the judges as one4 ,for the tribes are viewed in the judges who had sprung from them1 and vice versa1 the judge1 in his paternal tribe4 ,and that the matter is thus to be understood1 is clear1 because1 in ,chronicles1 where the judge is spoken of1 he is introduced in the plural3 ',why have ye not built ,me an house1' etc48 viz41 thou1 judge1 with thy tribe4 ,footnote #d3 ,that 1 properly habitation1 abode1 is used here1 as frequently1 of the sheep-cote1 is shown by ,ps4 lxxxviii4 #gj1 which is based upon our passage4 ,footnote #e3 ,michaelis says3 ,just as in the preceding verses also1 the house of ,david did not mean a heap of stones and wood brought together1 but a congregation of people4 ,footnote #f3 ,this mistake was corrected by ,seb4 ,schmid4 ,he says3 ,the promises here given to ,david have1 of course1 a reference to ,solomon2 but not such as if they were to be fulfilled only in the person of ,solomon1 and not also in his posterity1 and1 most of all1 in the ,messiah to be descended from ,david and ,solomon4 ,there is no direct mention of the person of the ,messiah2 and yet the words1 when considered in their full import1 point1 indirectly1 to ,him4 ,the absolute perpetuity of the race can be conceived of1 only when at last it centres in some superhuman person4 ,but still more decisive is the connection in which this promise stands to ,gen4 xlix4 ,the dominion which is there promised to ,judah is here transferred to ,david4 ,it is then to ,david's race that the exalted individual must belong1 in whom1 according to ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 ,judah's dominion is to centre at some future period4 ,that ,david really connected the promise which he received with ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 is shown by #a ,chron4 xxviii4 #d 7compare p4 #ia71 and also by the name1 ,solomon1 which he gave to his son2 compare ibid4 ,that ,solomon also founded his hopes regarding the future upon a combination of ,gen4 xlix4 and #b ,sam4 vii41 is shown by ,ps4 lxxii41 which was composed by him2 compare pp4 #ia1 #ib4 ,but1 as respects this combination1 ,david was not left to himself4 ,he received further light from the source from which the promise had come to him4 ,although his mission was not properly a prophetic one1--although1 in the main1 it belonged to him to describe poetically what had come to him through prophetic inspiration1 yet prophetic inspiration and sacred lyric are frequently commingled in him4 ,the man who is the sweet psalmist of ,israel claims a in #b ,sam4 xxiii4 #a1 and1 in ver4 #b1 says that the ,spirit of ,god spake by him1 and ,his word was upon his tongue4 ,in ,acts ii4 #cj1 #ca1 ,peter declares that1 by the divine promise1 ,david received1 first the impulse1 and afterwards further illumination1 by the prophetic spirit dwelling in him4 ,the latter declaration1 moreover1 rests on the testimony of the ,lord ,himself1 in ,matt4 xxii4 #dc1 where ,he says that in ,ps4 cx41 ,david had spoken 1 i4e41 seized with the ,holy ,spirit4 ,it is true that1 in a series of ,psalms1 ,david is not any more ,pg #aej explicit and definite than the fundamental prophecy1 but speaks only of the grace which the ,lord had conferred upon the ,davidic race by the promise of a dominion which should outlast all earthly things4 ,thus it is in ,ps4 xviii41 where1 in the presence of the congregation1 he offers those thanks which previously he had1 as it were1 privately expressed1 for the glorious promise made to him2--in ,ps4 xi41 where1 in the name of the people1 he expresses thankful joy for this same promise2--in ,ps4 lxi4 and in the cycle of ,psalms from ,ps4 cxxxviii4 to cxlv4--the prophetic legacy of ,david--in which1 at the beginning1 in ,ps4 cxxxviii41 he praises the ,lord for ,his promise of eternal mercy given to him1 and then1 with the torch of promise1 lightens up the darkness of the sufferings that are to fall upon this house1--,psalms with which ,ps4 lxxxix4 and cxxxix41 which were composed at a later period1 and by other writers1 are closely connected4 ,but there are other ,psalms 7ii4 and cx47 in which ,david1 with a distinctness which can be accounted for only by divine revelation1 beholds the ,messiah in whose coming the promise in #b ,sam4 vii4 should find its final and complete fulfilment4 ,whilst ,david1 in these ,psalms1 represents the ,messiah as his antitype1 as the mighty conqueror1 who will not rest until ,he shall have subjected the whole earth to ,his sway1 ,solomon1 in ,ps4 lxxii41 represents ,him as the true ,prince of ,peace1 and ,his dominion1 as a just and peaceful rule4 ,the circumstances of the time of ,solomon form1 in a similar way1 the foundation for the description of the ,messiah in ,ps4 xlv41 which was written by the sons of ,korah4 ,a personal ,messianic element is contained in some of those ,davidic ,psalms also which refer to the ideal person of the righteous one1 whose image we at last find fully portrayed in the ,book of ,wisdom4 ,in these the sufferings of the righteous one in a world of sin are described1 as well as the glorious issue to which he attains by the help of the ,lord4 ,after his own experience1 ,david could not have doubted that1 notwithstanding the glorious promise of the ,lord1 severe sufferings were impending over his family1 and over ,him in whom that family was1 at some future time1 to centre4 ,but his own experience likewise promised a glorious issue to these sufferings4 ,the ,psalms in which1 besides the reference to the righteous one1 and to the ,pg #aea people1 the allusion to the afflictions of the ,davidic race1 and to the suffering ,messiah1 most plainly appear1 are the xxii41 the cii41 and the cix4 ,there cannot be any doubt that the ,messianic promise made considerable progress in the time of ,david4 ,it is1 in itself1 a circumstance of great importance that the eyes of the people were henceforth directed to a definite family2 for1 thereby1 their hopes acquired greater consistency4 ,further1--,the former prophecies were1 all of them1 much shorter1 and more in the shape of hints2 but1 now1 their hopes could become detailed descriptions1 because a substratum was given to them in the present4 ,the ,messiah had been foretold to ,david as a successor to his throne1--as a ,king4 ,hence it was1 that1 in the view of ,david himself and of the other psalmists1 the earthly head of the ,congregation of the ,lord formed the substratum for the future ,saviour4 ,the naked thought now clothed itself with flesh and blood4 ,the hope gained thereby in clearness and distinctness1 as well as in practical significance4 ,the slight hint of a higher nature of the ,messiah1 given in ,gen4 xlix4 #h1 forms the main ground for the advancing and more definite knowledge1 which we find in the days of ,david and ,solomon4 ,grand and lofty expectations could1 henceforth1 not fail to be connected with the promise in #b ,sam4 vii4 #ad1 ,i will be a father to him1 and he shall be a son to ,me1 and with the prophecy of the absolute perpetuity of dominion1 in the same passage4 ,in ,ps4 ii4 #ab1 the ,messiah appears as the ,son of ,god 1--as ,he1 in whom to trust is to be saved1 and whose anger brings destruction4 ,in ,ps4 cx4 #a1 ,he appears as the ,lord of the ,congregation and of ,david himself1--as sitting at the right hand of omnipotence1 and as invested with a full participation in the divine power over heaven and earth4 ,in ,ps4 lxxi4 eternity of dominion is ascribed to ,him4 ,in ,ps4 xlv4 #g1 #h1 ,he is called ,god1 ,elohim4 ,among the offices of ,christ1 it is especially the ,regal office on which a clear light has been shed4 ,the ,messiah appears prominently as ,he who has dominion from sea to sea1 and from the river unto the ends of the earth1 ,ps4 lxxii4 #h4 ,in ,ps4 cx41 however1 the office of the ,messiah as the eternal ,high ,priest is first revealed to the congregation4 ,he appears as the person who atones for whatever sins cleave to ,his people1 as their ,intercessor ,pg #aeb and ,advocate with ,god1 and as the ,mediator of the closest communion with ,god4 ,we have here the outlines1 for the filling up of which ,isaiah was1 at a later period1 called4 ,the ,prophetic office of the ,saviour does not distinctly appear in the ,psalms4 ,it was reserved for ,isaiah to bring out into a clearer light the allusion given1 on this subject1 by ,moses1 after it had been taken up again1 for the first time since ,moses' day1 by the prophet ,joel4 ,it was quite natural that ,david1 who himself was exercised and proved by the cross1 should be the first to introduce to the knowledge of the ,church a suffering ,messiah4 ,but the doctrine has with him still the character of a germ2 he still mixes up the references to the ,messiah with the allusions to ,his types4 ,it was from these that ,david rose to ,him2 it was from their destiny that ,david1 by the ,holy ,spirit1 inferred what would befall ,him4 ,nowhere1 however1 has ,david directly and exclusively to do with a suffering ,messiah1 as had1 afterwards1 the prophet ,isaiah4 ,in all that respects the ,psalms1 we must content ourselves with merely a passing glance1 lest we encroach too much upon the territory which belongs to the ,commentary on the ,psalms4 ,but the last words of ,david1 preserved to us in the ,books of ,samuel1 we shall make the subject of a more minute consideration1 inasmuch as they form a connecting link between the two classes of ,psalms which rest on the promise in #b ,sam4 vii41 viz41 those referring to ,david's house and family1 and those relating to the personal ,messiah4 ,the ruler among men whom we meet in these last words1 is1 in the first instance1 an ideal person1--viz41 the ,davidic race conceived of as a person2 but the ideal points to the real person1 in whom all that had been foretold of the ,davidic family should1 at some future period1 find its full realization4 ,it is with a view to this person1 that the personification has been employed4 #b ,,samuel ,,xxiii4 #a-g4 ,the last words of ,david are comprehended in seven verses2 and these1 again1 are subdivided into sections of five and two ,pg #aec verses respectively4 ,first1 there is a description of the fulness of blessings which the dominion of the just ruler shall carry along with it1 and then of the destruction which shall overtake hostile wickedness4 ,it is not by accident that these last words are not found in the collection of ,psalms4 ,the reason is indicated by the ,there is a prophetic element in the lyric poetry of ,david wheresoever it refers to the future destiny of his house2 but this prophetic element rises1 here1 at the close of his life1 to pure prophetic inspiration and utterance1 which stand on an equal footing with the prophecy of ,nathan in #b ,sam4 vii41 and claim an equal authority4 ,ver4 #a4 ,and these are the last words of ,david4 ,david1 the son of ,jesse1 prophesies1 and the man prophesies who was raised up on high1 the anointed of the ,god of ,jacob1 and sweet in the ,psalms of ,israel4 ,it is substantially the same thing1 whether we understand3 the last words of ,david or the latter words of ,david--later in reference to xxi4 #a4 ,for even ,ps4 xviii41 which precedes in chap4 xxii41 belongs1 according to its inscription and contents1 to the last times of ,david2 it is1 as it were1 a grand ,hallelujah with which he withdraws from the scene of life4 ,but1 at all events1 there is a closer connection with that ,psalm2 in it1 too1 ,david has in view the future destiny of his race1 and we have here1 in the last words1 the prophetic conclusion of the lyrical effusion there4 ,from this connection with chap4 xxii41 the closer limitation of the words follows4 ,we learn from it that holy words only can be meant4 ,the solemn introduction1 and the parallelism with the blessings of ,jacob and ,moses1 fully agree with and confirm this our introductory remark regarding the chronological position of these words4--,there can be no doubt that1 in this introduction1 there is a reference to ,balaam's prophecy in ,num4 xxiv4 #c1--;and this goes far to prove how much ,david was occupied with the views which men of ,god had formerly opened up into future times3--,and he took up his parable and said3 ,balaam the son of ,beor prophesies1 and the man who had his eyes shut1 prophesies3 ,he prophesies who hears the words of ,god1 who sees the vision of the ,almighty1 falling down and having his eyes open4 ,the remarks which we made on that passage find here also a strict application3 ,pg #aed ,balaam begins with a simple designation of his person1 and then1 in the following members1 adds designations of such qualities of this person as here come into consideration1 and serve for affording a foundation to the with which he opens his discourse4 ,as always has the signification1 word of ,god1 revelation1 it can here be ascribed to ,david1 as it was in the fundamental passage to ,balaam1 only in as far as the word has been received by1 and communicated to1 him4 ,the 1 upon1 over1 stands here for on high1#a--those over whom ,david has been raised up being omitted in order to express the absolute sovereignty bestowed upon ,david1 more1 however1 in his posterity1 than in his own person4 7,compare ,ps4 xviii4 #dd3 ,thou makest me the head of the heathen2 and in ver4 #dh3 ,god who avengeth me1 and subdueth people under me47 ,he who was raised up on high--,with the exception of the bodily ancestor and the lawgiver1 of none under the ,old ,testament could this be with so much truth affirmed1 as of ,david1 the founder of the royal house1 which1 in all eternity1 was to be the channel of blessings for the ,congregation of the ,lord1 and to which1 at last1 all power in heaven and on earth was to be given4 ,the anointed of the ,god of ,jacob--,such is ,david1 not only as an individual1 but also as the representative of his race2 compare ,ps4 xviii4 #ea4 ,he is pre-eminently the anointed1 the ,christ of ,god4-- plur4 signifies1 according to derivation and usage1 not song or hymn in general1 but the hymn in the higher strain1 the skilful1 solemn song of praise2 compare my commentary on ,song of ,sol4 ii4 #ab4 ,david's ,psalms are called of ,israel1 because he sang them as the organ of the congregation1 and because they were appointed to be used in public worship2 compare ,comment1 on ,psalms1 vol4 iii4 p4 vi4 ,sweet in ,psalms of ,israel here finds its place only on the supposition that ,david1 in his ,psalms1 spoke in the ,spirit1 ,matt4 xxii4 #da-df2 compare ,commentary on ,psalms1 vol4 iii4 p4 vii4 viii4 ,the most distinguished excellence in poetry which is ,pg #aee merely human cannot form a foundation for the assertion in ver4 #b4 ,but if1 on the other hand1 ,david be an often times tried organ of the ,spirit for the ,church1 it cannot surprise us that in ver4 #b he even declares that1 in the ,spirit1 he there foretells the future4 ,thus the in our verse also has a good foundation4 ,ver4 #b4 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord spake to me1 and ,his word is upon my tongue4 ,that refers to the communication which ,david promulgates in the sequel1 and not to other revelations which he had formerly received1 appears from its relation to the in ver4 #a4 ,we should lose the new revelation announced in ver4 #a1 if ver4 #b1 and1 hence1 ver4 #c also--for the there evidently resumes the --refer to divine revelations which ,david1 or1 as ,thenius supposes1 even some other person1 had formerly received4-- is not through me1 for in that case the ,participle would have been used instead of the ,preterite2 nor in me1 for that is contradicted by the parallel passages in which occurs with 2 but into me1 which is stronger than to me1 and marks the deeply penetrating power of the revelation by the ,spirit2 compare remarks on ,hosea i4 #b4 ,such being the case1 the ,preterite is quite in its proper place2 for the inward revelation1 the precedes the communication--the 4 7,on the whole verse1 #a ,pet4 i4 #aa1 #b ,pet4 i4 #ba1 are to be compared47 ,ver4 #c4 ,the ,god of ,israel said1 the ,rock of ,israel spake to me3 a ,ruler over men--just2 a ,ruler--fear of ,god4 ,the omission of the verb1 will be or rise1 is quite suited to the concise and abrupt style of the divine word4 ,the mention of ,god1 the ,rock of ,israel1 shows that the revelation has a reference to what is done for the good of the people of ,god1--of ,his ,church4 ,for her good1 the glorious ,ruler shall be raised4 7,compare the words1 1 in ,luke i4 #ed1 as also ver4 #fh1 and ii4 #cb47 ,the appellation4 ,rock of ,israel1 indicates ,god's immutability1 trustworthiness1 and inviolable faithfulness2 compare my comment1 on ,psalm xviii4 #c1 #cb-dg4 ,the connection betwixt ,ps4 xviii4 and the last words of ,david here also clearly appears4 ,the fundamental passage is ,deut4 xxxii4 #d4--,that men must be conceived of as the subjects of dominion1 is proved by ,ps4 xviii4 #dd1 where ,david is made the head of nations1 and people whom he has not known ,pg #aef serve him1--and by ver4 #de1 where the sons of the stranger do homage to him1--and by ver4 #dh3 ,who subdues people under me4--,a ,ruler--fear of ,god1 i4e41 a ,ruler who shall1 as it were1 be fear of ,god itself--personified fear of ,god4 ,we must here compare the expression1 ,this man is the peace1 ,mic4 v4 #d1 and1 as to the substance of the expression4 ,is4 xi4 #b1 ,and the ,spirit of the ,lord rests upon him 444 the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the ,lord4 ,we might be disposed to refer this exclusively to the person of the ,messiah1 especially when those ,psalms are compared which refer to a personal ,messiah4 ,but ,ps4 xviii4--which here receives1 as it were1 its prophetic seal--and especially the relation of ver4 #c and #d to ver4 #e1 where ,david speaks of his house1 prove that the ,ruler here is1 primarily1 only an ideal person1 viz41 the seed of ,david spoken of in ,ps4 xviii4 #ea4 ,things so glorious can1 however1 be ascribed to it only with a reference to the august personage in whom that seed will centre at the end of days1--the righteous ,branch1 whom the ,lord will raise up unto ,david 7,jer4 xxiii4 #e71 who executeth judgment and righteousness on earth1 ,jer4 xxxiii4 #ae4 ,david knew too well what human nature is1 and what is in man1 to have expected any such thing from the collective body1 as such4 ,ver4 #d4 ,and as the light of the morning when the sun riseth1 a mourning without clouds2 by brightness1 by rain1--grass out of the earth4 ,in the first hemistich we have to supply3 will be ,his appearance in its loveliness and saving importance4 ,the morning elsewhere also1 especially in the ,psalms 7compare remarks on ,ps4 lix4 #ag2 ,song of ,sol4 iii4 #a71 is used as the emblem of salvation4 ,the condition of men before the appearance of the ,ruler among them1 is1 in its destitution1 like dark night4--,the brightness is that of the ,ruler1 as the spiritual ,sun1 the ,sun of ,salvation4 7,compare ,mal4 iii4 #bj iv4 #b1 where righteousness is represented as the sun rising to those who fear ,god47 ,the rain--the warm1 mild rain1 not the winter's rain which1 in the ,song of ,sol4 ii4 #aa1 and elsewhere1 occurs as an emblem of affliction and judgment--is the emblem of blessing 7compare ,is4 xliv4 #c1 where rain is explained by blessing74 ,the grass1 which springs up out of the earth by means of sunshine and rain1 is emblematical of the fruits and effects of salvation4 ,pg #aeg 7,compare ,is4 xlv4 #h1 where1 in consequence of the rain of salvation pouring down from the skies1 the earth brings forth salvation and righteousness47 ,the passage in ,ps4 lxxii4 #f is parallel1 where ,solomon says of his ,antitype1 ,he shall come down like rain upon the mown grass1 as showers watering the earth4 ,the figure of the rain making fresh grass to spring up is there likewise employed to designate the blessings of the ,messianic time4 ,ver4 #e4 ,for is not thus my house with ,god8 ,for ,he has made with me an everlasting covenant1 ordered in all things and kept2 for all my salvation1 and all pleasure1--should ,he not make it to grow8 ,the special revelation which ,david received at the close of his life 7compare the remarks on in ver4 #a7 is here connected with the fundamental promise in #b ,sam4 vii41 which was thereby anew confirmed to him4 ,those who1 like ,de ,wette and ,thenius1 mistake the correct sense of vers4 #c and #d1 are not a little perplexed by the for at the beginning of this verse1 and attempt in vain to account for it4--,thus1 i4e41 as it had been told in what precedes4--1 prepared1 ordered1 forms the contrast to what is only half finished1 indefinite1 depending upon circumstances and conditions1 admitting of provisions and exceptions4 ,the extent to which all interposing obstacles were excluded1 or rather1 had been considered and calculated upon beforehand1 appears especially from #b ,sam4 vii4 #ad1 #ae1 according to which1 even the most fatal of all interpositions--the apostasy of the bearers of the covenant--should not destroy the covenant1--should not annul the gracious promise made to the race4 ,kept1 i4e41 firm1 inviolable1 because given by ,him who keepeth covenant and mercy1 ,deut4 vii4 #i2 ,dan4 ix4 #d4 ,in #a ,kings viii4 #be1 ,solomon prays1 ,and now1 ,lord ,god of ,israel1 keep with ,thy servant ,david my father what ,thou promisedst him when ,thou saidst4 ,there shall not be cut off unto thee a man from ,my sight to sit on the throne of ,israel4 ,the second for points out the cause of kept4 ,all pleasure1 i4e41 all that is well-pleasing to me1 all that my heart desires4 ,the preceding serves the purpose of qualifying it more definitely4 ,the object of ,david's desires is1 accordingly1 his salvation1 the glory of his house4 ,ver4 #f4 ,and wickedness1 like thorns1 they will all be driven away2 for not will any one take them into his hands4 ,the subject treated of in this verse is3 the ,ruler among men ,pg #aeh in ,his relation to ,his enemies4 ,to those ,he is as formidable as ,his appearance is blessed to those who surrender themselves to ,him4 ,in ,ps4 xviii4 also1 there is a celebration of the indomitable power which the ,lord grants to ,david1 ,his anointed1 and to his seed against all their enemies2 compare ver4 #ch3 ,i pursue mine enemies and overtake them1 and do not turn again till they are consumed2 ver4 #ci1 ,i crush them and they cannot rise1 they fall under my feet4 ,in the cycle of ,psalms from cxxxviii4 to cxlv41 ,david likewise speaks of the dangers which threaten his house from enemies1 and the leading thought of ,ps4 ii4 is3 the ,messiah as the conqueror of ,his enemies4 ,the eyes of ,david were the more opened to this circumstance1 the more he himself had had to contend against adversaries4-- always means unworthiness in a moral point of view1 wickedness1 vileness4 ,wickedness is here used in the concrete sense the wicked ones1 the sons of wickedness1 ,deut4 xiii4 #ad4 ,the wicked ones1 the enemies of the ,church1 are compared to the thorns1 on account of their pricking nature2 and therefore their end is like that of thorns1 they will be thrown aside like them4 ,in ,ezek4 xxiv4 #bh1 after the judgment upon the neighbouring people has been proclaimed1 it is said1 ,and there shall remain no more a pricking brier everywhere round about the house of ,israel1 where their enemies are1 nor a grieving thorn2 compare ,num4 xxxiii4 #ee2 ,song of ,sol4 ii4 #b2 ,is4 xxvii4 #d2 ,nahum i4 #aj4--1 the ,partic4 ,hoph4 of 1 thrust out1 put to flight 7compare ,ps4 xxxvi4 #ab71 cannot be applied to the thorns1 but only to the men4 ,like thorns1 i4e41 so that they become like thorns1 of which the land is cleared4 ,for not will any one take them into his hands--,michaelis3 ,intractabiles sunt4 ,ver4 #g4 ,and if any one toucheth them1 he is filled with iron1 and the staff of a spear2 and they shall be utterly burnt with fire where they dwell4 ,the two members of vers4 #f and #g stand in an inverted relation to each other4 ,in ver4 #f1 we have1 first1 the punishment described1 and then their hostile nature1 by which the punishment was called forth4 ,in ver4 #g1 we have1 first1 the cause1 and then the consequence4 ,the thought in the first member is3 every touch of them bears a hostile character4 ,iron--instead of weapons fabricated of iron2 comp4 #a ,sam4 xvii4 #g2 ,job xx4 #bd1 xli4 #ai compared with vers4 #ah1 #bj2 ,jer4 xv4 #ab4 ,pg #aei 1 literally1 in the dwelling 7compare ,ps4 xxiii4 #f1 xxvii4 #d2 ,deut4 xxx4 #bj7 instead of where they dwell1 shows that in their own borders they shall be visited and overtaken by retribution4 cannot have the signification1 without delay1 ascribed to it by ,thenius4 ,footnote #a3 1 below1 beneath1 under1 is often used adverbially1 e4g4 ,gen4 xlix4 #be4 1 in the signification on high1 occurs also in ,hosea xi4 #g1--less certainly in ,hos4 vii4 #af4 ,for1 according to #b ,chron4 xxx4 #i1 that passage may be explained2 they return1 not to1 i4e41 there is the mere commencement of conversion1 but not the attainment of the end4 ,on ,deut4 xxviii4 #cf is to be compared4 ,,the ,,song ,,of ,,solomon4 ,an important link in the chain of the ,messianic hopes is formed by the ,song of ,solomon4 ,it is intimately associated with ,ps4 lxxii41 which was written by ,solomon1 and represents the ,messiah as the ,prince of ,peace1 imperfectly prefigured by ,solomon as ,his type4 ,as in this ,psalm1 so also in the ,song of ,solomon1 the coming of the ,messiah forms the subject throughout1 and ,he is introduced there under the name of ,solomon1 the ,peaceful ,one4 ,his coming shall be preceded by severe afflictions1 represented under the emblems of the scorching heat of the sun1 of winter1 of rain1 of dark nights1 and of the desert4 ,connected with this coming is the reception of the heathen nations into ,his kingdom1 and this1 through the medium of the old ,covenant-people4 ,thus far the first part1 down to chap4 v4 #a4 ,the subjects contained in the second part are1 the sin of the daughter of ,zion against the heavenly ,solomon and the judgment2 then1 repentance and reunion1 which will be accomplished by the co-operation of the daughters of ,jerusalem1 i4e41 of the very heathen nations who had formerly received salvation through them2 the complete re-establishment of the old relation of love1 in consequence of which the daughter of ,zion again occupies the centre of the kingdom of ,god2 and the indissoluble nature of this covenant of love now anew entered into1 in contrast with the instability of the former4 ,the ,song of ,solomon does not1 strictly speaking1 possess a prophetical character4 ,it does not communicate any new revelations2 like the ,psalms1 it only represents1 in a poetical form1 things already known4 ,it sufficiently appears from our former statement1 that1 in the first part of this book1 not one feature occurs which did not form a part of those ,messianic prophecies ,pg #afj which we can prove to have been known at the time of ,solomon4 ,in the second part1 however1 it is somewhat different4 ,no corresponding parallel can be adduced from any former time to the view1 that a great part of the people would reject the salvation offered to them in ,christ1 and1 thereby1 draw down judgment upon themselves4 ,yet1 all that the book under consideration contains upon this point1 is only the application of a general truth1 the knowledge of which the ,covenant-people had received at the very beginning of their history4 ,a consideration of human nature in general1 and more especially of ,israel's character1 as it had been deeply and firmly impressed upon the people by the ,mosaic law1 joined to the ample experience which history had afforded in this respect1 sufficiently convinced those who were more enlightened1 that it could not be by any means expected--that1 indeed1 it was even impossible--that1 at the coming of the ,messiah1 the whole people would sincerely and heartily receive ,him1 and do homage to ,him4 ,and there existed1 on the other hand1 at the time of ,solomon also1 the foundation for the doctrine of the final restoration of the people4 ,for1 even in the ,pentateuch1 the election of ,israel by ,god is represented as irrevocable and absolute1 and which1 therefore1 must at last triumph over all apostasy and ,covenant-breaking on the part of the people4 ,the ,song of ,solomon1 then1 is no apocalypsis1 no revelation of mysteries till then unknown4 ,there is in it no such disclosure as is1 e4g41 that in #b ,sam4 vii41 on the descent of the ,messiah from ,david2 or1 as is that in ,mic4 v4 #a 7#b71 on ,his being born at ,bethlehem2 or even as is that in ,is4 liii4 on ,his office as a ,high ,priest1 and ,his vicarious satisfaction4 ,but1 nevertheless1 we must not imagine the case to have been thus1 that the contents of the ,song of ,solomon could have originated merely from reflection on the part of ,solomon4 ,the truths hitherto revealed had too much of the character of mere germs to allow us to suppose that from them1 and in such a way1 we could account for the clearness and certainty with which they have been blended into one whole4 ,another element1 moreover1 must be joined to the historical ground--viz41 an elevated condition of the soul1 a being in the ,spirit1--a breathing of the divine ,spirit upon the human4 ,history bears witness that such prophetic states1 in the wider sense1 were not strange to ,solomon4 ,it twice ,pg #afa reports about the ,lord's having appeared to him1 #a ,kings iii4 #e1 ix4 #b4 ,from such an elevated state of soul1 his dedicatory prayer1 in #a ,kings viii41 and ,ps4 lxxii41 also originated4 ,we must content ourselves with these hints as regards ,solomon's ,song4 ,as it moves throughout on ,messianic ground1 the ,author must consider his commentary on this book 7,berlin1 #ahec7 as an appendix to the ,christology4 ,pg #afb ,,messianic ,,predictions ,,in ,,the ,,prophets4 ,after the time of ,solomon1 the ,messianic prediction was for a considerable time discontinued4 ,it was first resumed1 and farther expanded1 by the ,canonical prophecy which began under ,uzziah4 ,there cannot be any doubt that that which appears as an interval was really such4 ,there is no ground for the supposition that any important connecting links have been lost4 ,the ,messianic prediction in the oldest canonical prophets is immediately connected with that which existed previously at the time of ,david and ,solomon4 ,it is not a matter of chance that1 whilst the blossom of prophetism appeared as early as ,samuel1 the canonical prophetism took its rise at a much later date4 ,nor is it the result of accident1 that we do not possess any written prophecies1 either by ,elijah1 who1 at the transfiguration of the ,lord1 appeared as the representative of all the ,old ,testament prophets1 or by ,elisha4 ,nor is it merely accidental that1 at the time of ,uzziah1 there appears all at once1 and simultaneously1 a whole series of prophets4 ,all these things are connected with the circumstance1 that it was only at that time that great events for the ,covenant-people were in preparation1--that1 only then1 those catastrophes were impending which were to be brought about by the ,asiatic kingdoms1 and which kept equal pace with the sin of ,israel1 the measure of which was being more and more filled up4 ,canonical prophecy is closely linked with these catastrophes4 ,it is called to disclose to the ,church the meaning of these judgments1 and1 thereby1 to secure to them their effects in all time coming4 ,the ,messianic predictions uttered by the prophets are likewise closely connected with the announcement of these judgments4 ,whilst false security was shaken by the threatenings1 despondency--which is as ,pg #afc hostile to true conversion--was prevented by pointing to the future coming of the ,saviour4 ,the prophets do not deliver the ,messianic prediction in its whole compass1 any more than do the writers of the ,messianic ,psalms4 ,on the contrary1 it is always only certain individual aspects which they exhibit4 ,the writers of the ,messianic ,psalms take up those features which presented points of contact with their own lives and their own experiences1 or at least the circumstances of their times4 ,this is quite in keeping with the more subjective origin of ,psalm-poetry4 ,thus ,david describes the suffering ,messiah surrounded by powerful enemies1 and who1 after severe struggles1 at length obtains victory and dominion4 ,to ,solomon1 ,he appears as the ,ruler of a great and peaceful kingdom1 and he beholds the most distant nations reverentially offering presents to ,him and doing ,him allegiance4 ,but the ,prophets1 in pointing out this or that feature1 are not so much guided by their own experience1 disposition of mind1 and peculiar circumstances1 as by the wants of those whom they are addressing1 and by the effect which they are anxious to produce on them4 ,when they have to do with pusillanimity1 desponding at the sight of the heathen world as it seems to be all-powerful1--they then represent the ,messiah as the invincible conqueror of the heathen world1 who shall subject the whole earth to the kingdom of ,god4 ,when they have to deal with pride1 trusting in imaginary prerogatives of the ,covenant-people1 and boldly challenging the judgments of ,god upon the heathen1--they then represent the ,messiah as ,him who shall make a great separation among the ,covenant-people themselves1 and who shall be a consolation to the godly1 while ,he brings inexorable judgments upon the wicked when they have to do with those who mourn in ,zion1 who through the inflicted judgments of the ,lord have been brought to a deep sorrow on account of their sins1--they then represent the ,messiah as ,him who shall one day take away the sins of the land1 who is to bear their griefs and carry their sorrows4 ,now1 as canonical prophecy extends over several centuries1 during which circumstances1 wants1 and dispositions the most diverse1 must have taken place1 and as the ,messianic prophecy is in harmony with these1 it displayed1 more and more fully1 its riches1 and did so in a manner far more effective and vivid than it could possibly have ,pg #afd done had it been proclaimed in the form of a discussion or treatise4 ,as the ,messiah was thus represented from the most various points of view1 and in the way of direct perception1 and divine confidence1--as ,he was thus everywhere pointed out as the end of the development4 ,he could not but become more and more the soul of the nation's life4 ,in the ,messianic announcements by the prophets1 no such gradual progress in clearness and distinctness can be traced1 as in those of the ,pentateuch4 ,the assertion that there existed with them at first1 only a general hope of better times1 unconnected with any person1 rests on the unfounded hypothesis that ,joel is the oldest among all the prophets1--and at the same time on the erroneous assumption that he was ignorant of a personal ,messiah1--and1 further1 on the incorrect supposition that the prophets1 who write only what presents itself immediately to their view1 have not in their creed all that they omit to say4 ,it is1 moreover1 opposed by the prospect of a personal ,messiah held out in the ,pentateuch1 the ,psalms1 and the ,song of ,solomon4 ,how very slender is the ground for inferring that1 because many essential points are not touched upon by ,hosea1 ,joel1 and ,amos1 they1 therefore1 did not know them1 is shown by the fact that neither do several among the later prophets--as ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel--touch upon them1 although the previous more distinct prophecies of ,isaiah were certainly known and acknowledged by them4 ,we must never forget that it is from above that each of the prophets received his share of the prophetic spirit1 and that this depended partly upon the measure of his receptivity1 which might have been greater with the former than with the latter prophets1--and1 partly1 upon the wants and capacities of those for whom the prophecy was destined4 ,a central position1 as regards the ,messianic predictions1 is occupied by ,isaiah4 ,even his ,messianic prophecies1 however1 when viewed detached and isolated1 bear the character of onesidedness4 ,he nowhere gives us a complete image of the ,messiah4 ,but1 whilst the other prophets were permitted to give only single disclosures1 he gives us1 in the whole body of his ,messianic prophecies1 the materials for a full and entire image1 although not the image itself4 ,the ,fathers of the ,church have1 therefore1 rightly designated him as the ,evangelist among the prophets4 ,but the transition to him from the ,psalms and ,pg #afe the ,song of ,solomon could not be ,immediate4 ,hosea1 ,joel1 ,amos1 ,obadiah1 ,jonah1 and ,micah form1 as it were1 the connecting links4 ,proceeding from the ,messianic promise1 in the shape which it had received at the time of ,david and ,solomon1 they give it a standing in the prophetic message1 and infuse into it new life by means of the connection into which it is brought by them1 and supplement it by adding single new features4 ,it is our intention to give an exposition of the ,messianic passages in the prophets1 according to their chronological order4 ,in placing ,hosea at the head1 we follow the example of those who collected the ,canon1 and who1 regarding not so much the succession of years as that of the governments1 may have assigned the first place to ,hosea1 because he is the most important among the prophets at the time of ,jeroboam in ,israel1 and of ,uzziah in ,judah1 or because he really appeared first1 and the prophecy in chap4 i4-iii4 is the beginning of written prophecies4 ,the latter supposition most naturally suggests itself2 the analogies are in its favour1 and no decisive argument has been brought forward against it4 ,,the ,,prophet ,,hosea4 ,,general ,,preliminary ,,remarks4 ,that the kingdom of ,israel was the object of the prophet's ministry is so evident1 that upon this point all are1 and cannot but be1 agreed4 ,but there is a difference of opinion as to whether the prophet was a fellow-countryman of those to whom he preached1 or was called by ,god out of the kingdom of ,judah4 ,the latter has been asserted with great confidence by ,maurer1 among others1 in his ,observ4 in ,hos41 in the ,commentat4 ,theol4 ii4 i4 p4 #bic4 ,but the arguments by which he supports this view will not stand the test4 ,he appeals 7#a7 to the inscription4 ,the circumstance that1 in this1 there is mention made of the kings of ,judah under whom ,hosea exercised his ministry1--that they are mentioned at all1--and that they are mentioned first and completely1 while only one of the kings of ,israel is named1 ,pg #aff proves1 according to him--especially on a comparison with the inscription of ,amos--that the prophet acknowledged the kings of ,judah as his superiors4 ,but this mode of argumentation entirely overlooks the position which the pious in ,israel generally1 and the prophets especially1 occupied in reference to ,judah4 ,they considered the whole separation--the civil as well as the religious--as an apostasy from ,god4 ,and how could they do otherwise1 since the eternal dominion over the people of ,god had been granted1 by ,god1 to the house of ,david8 ,the closeness of the connection between the religious and the civil sufficiently appears from the fact1 that ,jeroboam and all his successors despaired of being able to maintain their power1 unless they made the breach1 in religious matters also1 as wide as possible4 ,the chief of the prophets in the kingdom of the ten tribes--,elijah--by taking twelve stones according to the number of the tribes of ,israel 7#a ,kings xviii4 #ca71 plainly enough declared1 that he considered the separation as one not consistent with the idea of the ,jewish kingdom1 and that therefore1 in reality1 it must at some future period be done away with2 that he considered the government in ,israel as existing de facto1 but not de jure4 ,by none do we find this view so distinctly brought out as by ,hosea4 ,they have set up kings1 and not by ,me--says the ,lord by him1 chap4 viii4 #d--they have made princes1 and ,i knew it not4 ,in his view1 then1 the whole basis of the government in ,israel is ungodliness4 ,because they have chosen kings and princes without ,god1 and against the will of ,god1 they shall be taken from them by ,god1 chap4 iii4 #d4 ,salvation cannot come to the people until ,israel and1 ,judah set over themselves one head1 ii4 #b 7i4 #aa71 until the children of ,israel seek ,jehovah their ,lord1 and ,david their king1 iii4 #e4 ,these two things are1 in his view1 intimately connected2 no true return to the invisible head of the ,theocracy is possible without1 at the same time1 a return to the visible one--the house of ,david4 ,what1 at some future time1 the mass of the people1 when converted1 were to do1 the converted individual must do even now4 ,he even now recognised the kings of the tribe of ,judah as truly his sovereigns1 although he yielded civil obedience to the rulers of ,israel1 until ,god should again abolish the government which ,he gave to the people in wrath1 and set ,pg #afg up in opposition to the government of the house of ,david in ,his anger1 on account of their apostasy4 ,from all this1 it clearly appears that1 in order to account for the peculiarity of the inscription1 we need not have recourse to the conjecture1 that ,hosea was a native of ,judah4 ,one might1 with as much reason1 maintain that all the prophets in the kingdom of ,israel1 who rejected the worship of the calves--and hence all the prophets without exception--were natives of the kingdom of ,judah4 ,for the worship of the calves is quite on a par with the apostasy from the anointed of ,god4 ,hosea mentions1 first and completely1 the kings of the legitimate family4 ,he then further adds the name of one of the rulers of the kingdom of ,israel1 under whom his ministry began1 because it was of importance to fix precisely the time of its commencement4 ,uzziah1 the first in the series of the kings of ,judah mentioned by him1 survived ,jeroboam nearly twenty-six years2 compare ,maurer1 l4 c4 p4 #bhd4 ,now1 had the latter not been mentioned along with him1 the thought might easily have suggested itself1 that it was only during the latter period of ,uzziah's reign that the prophet entered upon his office2 in which case all that he said about the overthrow of ,jeroboam's family would have appeared to be a vaticinium post eventum1 inasmuch as it took place very soon after ,jeroboam's death4 ,the same applies to what was said by him regarding the total decay of the kingdom which was so flourishing under ,jeroboam2 for1 from the moment of ,jeroboam's death1 it hastened with rapid strides towards its destruction4 ,if1 therefore1 it was to be seen that future things lie open before ,god and ,his servants before they spring forth 7,is4 xlii4 #i71 it was necessary that the commencement of the prophet's ministry should be the more accurately determined2 and this is effected by the statement1 that it happened within the period of the fourteen years during which ,uzziah and ,jeroboam reigned contemporaneously4 ,that this is the main reason for mentioning ,jeroboam's name1 is seen from the relation of ver4 #b to ver4 #a4 ,the remark there made1--that ,hosea received the subsequent revelation at the very beginning of his prophetic ministry1 corresponds with the mention of ,jeroboam's name in ver4 #a4 ,but this is not all2 nor can we say that1 had it not been for this reason1 ,hosea would not have mentioned any king of ,israel at all1 in order that1 from the outset1 he might exhibit ,pg #afh his disposition4 ,there was a considerable difference between ,jeroboam and the subsequent kings4 ,cocceius remarked very strikingly3 ,the other kings of ,israel are not considered as kings1 but as robbers4 ,jeroboam possessed a quasi legitimacy4 ,the house of ,jehu1 to which he belonged1 had opposed the extreme of religious apostasy4 ,it was1 to a certain degree1 acknowledged1 even by the prophets4 ,jeroboam had obtained the throne1 not by usurpation1 but by birth4 ,he was the last king by whom the ,lord sent deliverance to the people of the ten tribes2 compare #b ,kings xiv4 #bg3 ,and the ,lord would not blot out the name of ,israel from under heaven2 and ,he saved them by the hand of ,jeroboam1 the son of ,joash4 7#b47 ,the internal reason adduced by ,maurer 7,s4 #bid7 is equally insignificant4 ,the morum magistri1 he says1 are wont more slightly to reprove1 in the case of strangers1 that which they severely condemn in their own people2 but ,hosea rebukes with as much severity the inhabitants of ,judah1 when he comes to speak of them1 as he does the ,israelites4 ,but no certain inferences can be drawn from such commonplaces2 for1 in this way we might as reasonably infer1 that ,isaiah and the writer of the ,books of ,kings were natives of the kingdom of the ten tribes1 because they censure the sins of the ,israelites as severely as they do those of the inhabitants of ,judah4 ,to this commonplace we might as easily oppose another equally true1 viz41 the morum magistri1 from a partiality for their own people1 are wont to judge more leniently of their faults than of those of strangers4 ,such maxims require to be applied with the utmost caution1 even in the territory to which they belong1 because one consideration may be so easily outweighed by another4 ,here1 however1 its application is altogether out of the question4 ,the prophets1 as the instruments of the ,spirit1 spoke pure and plain truth without any regard to persons4 ,whether ,hosea was a native of ,judah or of ,israel1 he would express himself in the same way concerning the inhabitants of ,judah4 ,he would severely rebuke their sins1 and at the same time readily acknowledge1 as he does1 their advantages1--for ,salvation cometh of the ,jews4 ,if1 then1 these be the arguments in favour of the ,judean origin of ,hosea1 it readily appears that the probabilities of such an origin1 compared with that of his ,israelitish descent1 are not ,pg #afi even in the proportion of one to a hundred4 ,the prophets were almost more numerous in the kingdom of ,israel than in that of ,judah2 and yet the entire history knows of only two instances of prophets being sent from the kingdom of ,judah to that of ,israel1 viz41 the prophet spoken of in #a ,kings xiii4 and ,amos4 ,and the former of these even scarcely belongs to this class1 inasmuch as he received only a single mission into the kingdom of ,israel1 and that1 at a time when the prophetic institution was not as yet organized there4 ,in the case of ,amos likewise1 it is manifest not only that he was only an exception to the rule1--as appears from the transactions with the priest ,amaziah1 reported in ,amos vii4 7compare especially ver4 #ab71--;but still more plainly1 from the mention in the inscription of his having been a native of ,judah4 ,with regard to the time of the prophet1 the inscription places his ministry in the reigns of the kings ,uzziah1 ,jotham1 ,ahaz1 and ,hezekiah4 ,a long period is1 no doubt1 thus assigned to it1--a period embracing at least twenty-six years of ,uzziah's reign1 and1 in addition1 the sixteen years of that of ,jotham1 the sixteen years during which ,ahaz reigned1 and at least one or two years of the reign of ,hezekiah1 making1 at the lowest calculation1 a period of sixty years in all4 ,this exceedingly long duration of the prophet's ministry might easily excite suspicion regarding the genuineness and correctness of the inscription2 but such suspicion is at once set at rest by the fact1 that the statements contained in the book itself lead us to assume a period equally extended4 ,the beginning of the prophet's ministry cannot be assigned to any later period2 for1 in chap4 i4 #d1 the fall of ,jeroboam's house1 which took place soon after his death1 is announced as a future event4 ,moreover1 the condition of the kingdom appears still1 throughout the whole first discourse1 as a very flourishing one4 ,nor can the end of his ministry be assigned to any earlier period4 ,for in chap4 x4 #ad1 an expedition of ,shalman or ,shalmaneser against the kingdom of ,israel 7,vitringa1 ,proleg4 in ,is4 p4 #f7 is described as being already past1 and a second invasion is threatened4 ,but the first expedition of ,shalmaneser1 reported in #b ,kings xvii4 #a seqq41 is almost contemporaneous with the beginning of ,hezekiah's reign4 ,for it was directed against ,hoshea1 king of ,israel1 who began his reign in the twelfth ,pg #agj year of that of ,ahaz1 which lasted sixteen years4 ,the exact harmony of the passage in ,hosea with that in #b ,kings xvii4 is very evident4 ,in #b ,kings xvii4 #c1 it is said3 ,against him came up ,shalmaneser1 king of ,assyria1 and ,hoshea became his servant and gave him tribute4 ,this was the first expedition of ,shalmaneser4 ,then followed the second expedition1 which was caused by the rebellion of ,hoshea1--in consequence of which ,samaria was taken and the people carried away4 ,in ,hos4 x4 #ad1 #ae1 it is said3 ,and tumult ariseth against thy people1 and all thy fortresses shall be spoiled1 as ,shalman spoiled ,beth-arbel in the day of battle2 the mother was dashed in pieces upon 7her7 children4 ,so shall he do unto you1 ,bethel1 because of your great wickedness in the dawn of the morning1 destroyed1 destroyed shall be the king of ,israel4 ,hosea here declares that the beginning of the destruction by ,shalmaneser is the prophecy of the end of the kingdom of ,israel4 ,the morning dawn is the time of apparently reappearing prosperity1 when1 according to ,cocceius1 a time of peace begins to shine4 ,in ,amos iv4 #ac1 v4 #h1 the prosperity again dawning upon the kingdom of ,israel is likewise expressed by morning and morning dawn4 ,the identity of ,beth-arbel and ,arbelah in ,galilee can the less be doubted1 because recent researches have rendered it certain that this place1 now called ,irbid1 was an important fortress4 7,compare ,mnchener gelehrte ,anzeigen #ahcf1 ,s4 #hgj ff42 ,robinson1 iii4 #b1 p4 #ecd2 v4 ,raumer1 ,s4 #ajh47 ,the use of ,beth-arbel1 instead of the more common ,arbelah1 as well as that of ,shalman instead of ,shalmaneser1 belongs to the higher style4 ,at the first expedition1 the decisive battle had1 no doubt1 taken place at ,arbelah4 ,they who disconnect this passage from #b ,kings xvii4 do not know what to make of it4 ,simson complains of the darkness resting on the passage under consideration4--,but ,hos4 xii4 #b 7#a7 likewise leads us to the very last times of the kingdom of ,israel1--those times when ,hoshea endeavoured to free himself from the ,assyrian servitude by the help of ,egypt4 ,ephraim feedeth on wind1 and followeth after the east-wind2 he daily increaseth lies and desolation2 and they do make a covenant with ,assyria1 and oil is carried into ,egypt4 ,their sending oil to ,egypt1 notwithstanding the covenant made with ,assyria1 is the lie1 which goes hand in hand with desolation1 while they imagine thereby to ,pg #aga work deliverance4 ,this explanation has been already given by ,j4 ,h4 ,manger1 of whose ,commentarius in ,hoseam1 ,campen1 #aghb--;a commentary in many respects excellent--most of the recent commentators1 and1 lastly1 ,simson1 have1 to their great disadvantage1 not availed themselves4 ,manger says3 ,these words refer to the ambassadors who were sent with splendid presents by king ,hoshea to the king of ,egypt1 in order to win him over to himself1 and induce him to assist him against the ,assyrians1 to whom he had become subject by a solemn treaty4--,to the last times of the kingdom of ,israel we are likewise led by what occurs in other passages concerning the relation of ,israel to ,egypt and ,asshur4 ,the matter has been falsely represented by very many as if two parties among the people were spoken of1--an ,assyrian and an ,egyptian party4 ,nor is it so1 that the whole people turn at one time to ,egypt in order to free themselves from the ,assyrians1 and at another time to ,assyria to assist them against ,egypt4 ,the position is rather thus3 ,the people1 heavily oppressed by ,asshur1 at one time seek help from ,egypt against ,asshur1 and1 at another1 attempt to conciliate the latter4 ,precisely thus is the situation described in vii4 #aa3 ,they call to ,egypt1 they go to ,asshur4 ,that by which ,israel was threatened1 was1 according to viii4 #aj1 the burden of the king of princes1 the king of ,asshur1 ver4 #i4 ,this they seek to turn off1 partly by artifices1 and partly by calling to their help the king of ,egypt4 ,asshur alone is the king warrior 7,jareb71 v4 #ac1 x4 #f2 he only has received the divine mission to execute judgment2 compare xi4 #e3 ,he1 i4e41 ,israel1 shall not return to the land of ,egypt1 and ,asshur1 he is his king4 ,as an ally not to be trusted1 ,egypt is described in vii4 #af1 where1 after the announcement of their destruction on account of their rebellion against the ,lord1 it is said3 ,this shall be their derision on account of the land of ,egypt1 i4e41 thus they shall be put to shame in the hope which they place on ,egypt4 ,is4 xxx4 #a-e is quite analogous4 ,in that passage the prophet announces that ,judah's attempt to protect themselves against ,asshur by means of ,egypt would be vain2 compare1 especially1 ver4 #c3 ,and the fortress of ,pharaoh shall be your shame1 and the trust in the shadow of ,egypt1 your confusion2 and ver4 #e3 ,not for help nor for profit1 but for shame and for reproach4 ,such historical circumstances1 ,pg #agb however1 had not yet occurred under ,menahem4 ,at that time1 ,israel was not yet placed in the midst betwixt ,asshur and ,egypt4 ,it is expressly mentioned in #b ,kings xv4 #bj1 that the invasion of ,pul was only transitory1 and that not conquest1 but spoil1 was its aim4 ,the real commencement of the ,assyrian oppression is formed by the invasion of ,tiglathpileser at the time of ,ahaz4 ,isaiah1 in chap4 vii41 points out the pernicious consequences of ,ahaz's calling the ,assyrians to his assistance against ,syria and ,israel4 ,the very fact of this war carried on against ,judah by ,syria and ,ephraim shows1 that up to that time1 ,asshur had not laid his hand upon these regions4 ,it was only with the invasion under ,ahaz that there was any display of ,asshur's tendency to make permanent conquests on the other side of ,euphrates1 which could not fail to bring about the conflict with the ,egyptian power4--,king ,jareb1--such had already become the historical character of the king of ,asshur1 at the time when ,hosea wrote2 but prior to the times of ,ahaz and ,hezekiah1 he did not stand out as such4 ,there is no decisive weight to be attached to what ,simson advances in order to prove that we must fix an earlier date4 ,he argues thus3 ,gilead1 which1 according to #b ,kings xv4 #bi1 was taken and depopulated by ,tiglathpileser1 whom ,ahaz had called to his assistance1 appears in vi4 #h1 xii4 #ab 7#aa7 to be still in the possession of ,israel4 ,hence1 the ministry of the prophet cannot have extended beyond the invasion of ,judah by the ,syrians and ,ephraim4 ,but since the book gives the sum and substance of ,hosea's prophecies during a prolonged period1 there must necessarily occur in it references to events which already belonged to the past1 at the time when the prophet wrote4 ,in chap4 i4 #d1 even the overthrow of the house of ,jeroboam appears as being still future4 ,but even although we could not establish1 from other sources1 the statement contained in the inscription1 the inscription itself would nevertheless be a guarantee for it2 and the more so1 because there are other analogies in favour of so long a duration of the prophetic office1 which was sometimes entered upon even in early youth4 ,the inscription has the same authority in its favour as every other part of the book2 and it is hardly possible to understand the levity with which it has1 in recent times1 been pretty generally designated as spurious1 or1 at least1 suspicious4 ,pg #agc ,it is altogether impossible to sever it from the other parts of the book4 ,there must certainly have been some object in view when1 in ver4 #b1 it is expressly remarked1 that what follows took place at the beginning of ,hosea's ministry4 ,but such an object it will be possible to point out1 only in the event of its being more accurately determined at what time this beginning took place--viz41 still under the reign of ,jeroboam1 when the state of things as it appeared to the eye did not yet offer any occasion for such views of the future as are opened up in the first three chapters4 ,ver4 #a cannot1 therefore1 be regarded as an addition subsequently made1 unless the words in ver4 #b1 from to be so likewise4 ,but these again are most closely connected with what follows by the ,future with ,vav convers41 which never can begin a narrative4 ,there remains1 therefore1 only this alternative3--either to regard the whole as having been written at a later period1 or to claim for ,hosea the inscription also4 ,we cannot agree with the view of ,simson1 that the remark by which the beginning of the book is assigned to the beginning of the prophet's ministry1 originated from a chronological interest only2 and we can the less do so1 because the prophet does not pay any attention to chronology in any other place1 but is anxious to give only the sum and substance of what he had prophesied during a series of years4 ,the only exception which he makes in this respect must have originated from strong reasons2 and such do not exist1 if the inscription in ver4 #a1 or the mention of the kings in it1 be spurious4 ,the mention of the beginning in ver4 #b would1 in that case1 be so much the more groundless1 as we could know nothing at all regarding the length of his ministry4 ,much more fruitful1 certainly1 than all such vain doubts1 are the reflections of ,calvin on the long duration of the prophet's ministry3 ,how grievous is it to us when ,god requires our services for twenty or thirty years2 and1 especially1 when we have to contend with ungodly people1 who would not willingly take upon them the yoke1 yea1 who even obstinately resist us6 we then wish to be freed at once1 and to become pensioned soldiers4 ,but1 seeing this prophet's long protracted ministry1 let us take from it an example of patience1 that we may not despair although the ,lord should not at once free us from our burden4 ,many interpreters have zealously attempted to determine the ,pg #agd particular portions of this lengthened period to which the particular portions of this book belong4 ,but such an undertaking is wholly vain in the case before us1 as well as in that of ,micah1 and most of the minor prophets generally4 ,the supposition upon which it rests is false--viz41 that the collection consists of a number of single1 detached portions4 ,we do not possess the whole of ,hosea's prophecies1 but only the substance of their essential contents1--a survey which he himself gave towards the end of his ministry4 ,this appears 7#a7 from the in the inscription4 ,in itself1 this would not be a decisive argument1 as the prophet might also have comprehended in an ideal unity1 discourses outwardly distinct2 but1 nevertheless1 as long as no reason appears for the contrary1 it is more naturally referred to a continuous discourse with an external unity also4 7#b47 ,it appears from the entire omission of all chronological data4 ,the only exception is in ver4 #b2 but this exception serves only to strengthen the argument drawn from the omission everywhere else4 7#c47 ,it is proved by the absence of all certain indications about the beginning and ending of the particular portions4 ,there occur1 just as in the second part of ,isaiah1 new starting points only2 but1 with these exceptions1 the discourse always moves on in the same manner4 7#d47 ,it is seen from the indefiniteness and generality of the historical references1 which must necessarily arise if the prophet referred1 in like manner1 to the whole of this lengthened period4 ,that the facts1 upon which the last two arguments rest1 really exist1 is made sufficiently apparent from the immense diversity of opinions as to the number and extent of the particular portions1 and as to the time of their composition4 ,there are not even two of the more important interpreters who agree in the main points alone4 ,such a diversity does not exist in reference to any of the prophetical books which actually consist of detached prophecies4 7#e47 ,the style and language are too much the same throughout the whole1 to admit of the idea that any long period could have elapsed between the particular prophecies4 ,this1 indeed1 is only a subordinate argument2 but it acquires its full importance1 when connected with the foundation of the third and fourth proofs4 ,it now only remains to give a survey of the historical circumstances at the time of the prophet4 ,this is the more necessary1 as a knowledge of these is required for the exposition of ,pg #age the ,messianic prophecies1 not only of ,hosea1 but also of ,amos1 his contemporary4 ,the kingdom of ,israel carried within it1 from its very commencement1 a twofold element of destruction--viz41 the establishment of the worship of the calves1 and the rebellion against the dynasty of ,david4 ,with regard to the former1--the consequence of this apparently so much isolated transgression of a ,mosaic ordinance extended much further than would appear upon a superficial view4 ,in this case also it was seen that a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump4 ,of far higher importance than the low conceptions of ,god produced by this symbolical representation of ,him1 was another aspect of the transaction4 ,the prohibition of image-worship in the ,pentateuch was as distinct and clear as it was possible to make it4 ,the kings of ,israel were far from rejecting it2 but still1 how difficult soever it may appear1 they found out an interpretation by which they evaded the application of it to their institution4 ,such a course once entered upon1 could only lead them further and further astray4 ,as1 in so important a case1 they had1 in opposition to their own better convictions1 allowed themselves to pervert and explain away the law--asserting1 probably1 that it was given only on account of the coarse sensuality of former generations--the same was done in other things also1 as often as it was called for by the disposition of the corrupted heart4 ,all unfaithfulness which is known to be so1 and yet is cherished1 and excused to the conscience and before men1 must draw after it entire ruin1 in a community1 not less than in an individual4 ,as a reason for this ruin1 it is very strikingly said in #b ,kings xvii4 #i3 ,and they covered 7this is the only ascertained signification of 7 words that were not so1 over the ,lord their ,god2 i4e41 they ventured1 by a number of perversions and false interpretations of ,his word1 to veil its true form4 ,to this1 the following consideration must be added3--,that first change of the religious institutions proceeded from the political power which secured to itself1 for the future1 an absolute influence upon the religious affairs1 by subjecting to its control the ecclesiastical power1 which had hitherto been independent of it4 ,those ,levites who1 having no regard to the miserable sophisms invented by the king as an excuse1 declared against the worship of calves1 were expelled1 and1 in their stead1 creatures of the king ,pg #agf were made ministers of the sanctuary4 ,this became now the king's sanctuary 7compare the remarkable passage1 ,amos vii4 #ac71 and all the ecclesiastical affairs were1 in strict contradiction to the ,mosaic law1 submitted to his arbitrary power4 ,the consequences of this must necessarily have been all the sadder1 the worse the kings were2 and they must inevitably have become so1 because of the bad foundation on which the royal power rested4 ,image-worship was very speedily followed by idolatry1--which is1 however1 in like manner1 not to be looked upon in the light of an undisguised opposition to the true ,god4 ,such an opposition took place during the reign of only one king--,ahab--under whom the matter was carried to an extreme4 ,holy ,scripture1 however1 with a total disregard of the whole multitude of miserable excuses ordinarily made1 designates as direct apostasy from ,god1 everything which was substantially such1 although it did not outwardly manifest itself as such4 ,externally1 they remained faithful to ,jehovah2 they celebrated ,his feasts1--they offered the sacrifices prescribed in the ,pentateuch1--they regulated1 in general1 all the religious institutions according to the requirements there laid down1 as may be proved from the ,books of ,kings1 and1 still more plainly1 from ,amos and ,hosea4 ,but in all this they discovered a method by which light and darkness1 the worship of idols with that of the ,lord1 might be combined4 ,nor was this discovery so very difficult1 since their eye was not single4 ,they had before them the examples of heathen nations1 who were quite prepared reciprocally to acknowledge their deities1 in all of whom they recognised only different forms of manifestation of one and the same divine being2 and they were quite willing to extend this acknowledgment even to the ,god of ,israel also1 as long as they did not meet with intolerance on the part of those who professed to worship ,him1 and were therefore not roused to the practice of intolerance in return4 ,this reciprocal recognition of their deities by the nations in the midst of whom the ,israelites lived1 is sufficiently evident from the circumstance1 that they all called their highest deity by the same name--,baal--and expressed1 by some epithet1 only the form of manifestation peculiar to each4 ,now1 the ,israelites imagined that they might be able1 at one and the same time1 to satisfy the demands of their ,god1 and to propitiate ,pg #agg the idols of the neighbouring mighty nations--especially of the ,phnicians--if they removed the wall of separation betwixt the two4 ,jehovah and ,baal were1 in their view1 identical as to their essence4 ,the former was that mode of manifestation peculiar to them1 and the main object of their worship according to the method prescribed by ,himself in ,his revelation4 ,but the latter was not to be neglected2 inasmuch as they imagined that they might thereby become partakers of the blessings which this form of manifestation of the deity was able to bestow4 ,and thus to ,jehovah they gave the name of ,baal also1 ,hos4 ii4 #ah 7#af72 they celebrated the days appointed by ,jehovah1 ver4 #ac 7#aa71 but those also devoted to ,baalim1 ver4 #ae 7#ac74 ,in this way we receive an explanation of the fact which1 at first sight1 is so startling1 viz41 that according to ,hosea and ,amos1 all is filled with the service of ,baal2 while the ,books of ,kings would lead us to think that1 with the reign of ,ahab1 the dominion of this worship had ceased4 ,but it was only its hostile opposition to the worship of ,jehovah that had disappeared1 while a far more dangerous religious compromise took its place4 ,no doubt can be entertained as to the party on whose side lay the advantage in this compromise4 ,it was plainly on that side on which it always lies1 whensoever the heart is divided betwixt truth and falsehood4 ,externally1 the worship of ,jehovah remained the prevailing one2 but1 inwardly1 idolatry obtained almost the sole dominion4 ,if only the limits betwixt the two religions were removed1 that religion would of course come with the highest recommendation1 the spirit of which was most in accordance with the spirit of the people4 ,but1 owing to the corrupt condition of human nature1 this would not be the strict religion of ,jehovah1 which1 as coming from ,god1 did not bring ,god down to the level of human debasement1 but demanded that man should be raised to ,his elevation1--which placed the holiness of ,god in the centre1 and founded upon it the requirement that its possessors should be holy2--but it would be the soft1 sensual1 idolatrous doctrine which flattered human corruption1 because from that it had its origin4 ,thus the ,jehovah of the ,israelites became in reality what they sometimes called ,him by way of alternation--a ,baal4 ,and the matter was now much more dangerous than if they had deserted ,him ,pg #agh externally also1 inasmuch as they now continued to trust in ,his covenant and promises1 and to boast of their external services1--thus strengthening themselves in their false security4 ,the natural consequence of this apostasy from the ,lord was a frightful corruption of manners4 ,the next result of spiritual adultery was the carnal one4 ,voluptuousness formed the fundamental characteristic of the ,asiatic religions in general1 and1 in particular1 of those with which the ,israelites came in contact4 ,but the pernicious influence extended still further over the whole moral territory4 ,where there is no holy ,god1 neither will there be any effort of man after holiness4 ,all divine and human laws will be trampled under foot4 ,all the bonds of love1 law1 and order1 will be broken4 ,and1 as such1 the condition of the country in a moral point of view is described by its two prophets throughout4 ,compare1 e4g41 ,hosea iv4 #a1 #b3 ,there is no truth1 nor mercy1 nor knowledge of ,god in the land4 ,swearing1 and lying1 and killing1 and stealing1 and committing adultery--they break through1 and blood toucheth blood4 ,there then followed1 from the moral corruption1 the internal dissolution of the state1 and its external weakness4 ,the supernatural consequences of the apostasy from the ,lord1 were the severe punishments which ,he inflicted upon the people4 ,with whomsoever ,god has entered into a closer connection1 whomsoever ,he thinks worthy of ,his grace1 in him the ,lord will be glorified by the infliction of punishment upon him1 if1 through his own guilt4 ,he has not been glorified by sanctification in him4 ,just because ,israel formed part of the ,covenant-people1 they could not be allowed to continue to retain the outward appearance of it1 when1 inwardly1 they did not retain a vestige4 ,as the second element of the ruin1 we mentioned the rebellion against the dynasty of ,david4 ,their dominion rested on divine right1 while the new ,israelitish kingdom rested upon the sandy foundation of human caprice4 ,the first king had raised himself to the throne by his own power and prudence1 and through the favour of the people4 ,whosoever had the same means at his disposal1 imagined that these gave him the right to do likewise4 ,and thus dynasty supplanted dynasty1 regicide followed regicide4 ,in the bloody struggles thereby occasioned1 the people became more and more lawless4 ,sometimes interregna1 ,pg #agi and periods of total anarchy took place2 and by these internal struggles the power to resist external enemies was more and more broken4 ,no king was able to stop this source of mischief1 for such an effort would have required him to lay aside his position as a king4 ,and as little was any one able to put a stop to that source of evil formerly mentioned3 for1 if the religious wall of partition which was erected between ,israel and ,judah were once removed1 the civil one likewise threatened to fall4 ,such were1 in general1 the circumstances under which ,hosea1 like the other prophets of the kingdom of ,israel1 appeared4 ,there cannot be any doubt that these were much more difficult than those of the kingdom of ,judah4 ,there1 too1 the corruption was indeed very great2 but it was not so firmly intertwined with the foundation of the whole state4 ,thorough-going reforms1 like those under ,hezekiah and ,josiah1 were possible4 ,the interest of a whole tribe was closely bound up with the preservation of true religion4 ,the reign of ,jeroboam ,,ii41 which was externally so prosperous1 and in which ,hosea entered upon his prophetic ministry1 had still more increased the apostasy from the ,lord1 and the corruption of manners1 and thus laid the foundation for the series of disastrous events which began soon after his death1 and which1 in quick succession1 brought the people to total ruin4 ,the prosperity only confirmed them still more in their security4 ,instead of being led to repentance by the unmerited mercy of ,god 7compare #b ,kings xiv4 #bf1 #bg71 they considered this prosperity as a reward of their apostasy1 as the seal by which ,jehovah-,baal confirmed the rectitude of their ways4 ,the false prophets1 too1 did what was in their power to strengthen them in their delusion1 whilst the true prophets preached to deaf ears4 ,immediately after the death of ,jeroboam1 it soon became apparent on which side the truth lay4 ,there followed an interregnum of from eleven to twelve years4#a ,after the termination ,pg #ahj of it1 ,zachariah1 the son of ,jeroboam1 succeeded to the throne2 but he was murdered by ,shallum1 after a short reign of six months1 #b ,kings xv4 #aj4 ,shallum1 after he had reigned only one month1 was slain by ,menahem1 ver4 #ad4 ,menahem reigned ten years at ,samaria4 ,under him1 the catastrophe was already preparing which brought the kingdom to utter destruction4 ,he became tributary to the ,assyrian king ,pul1 vers4 #ai-ba4 ,he was succeeded by his son ,pekahiah1 in the fiftieth year of ,uzziah4 ,after a reign of two months1 he was slain by ,pekah1 the son of ,remaliah1 who held the government for twenty years 7ver4 #bg71 and1 by his alliance with the kings of ,syria against his brethren the people of ,judah 7comp4 ,is4 vii471 hastened on the destruction of ,israel4 ,the ,assyrians1 under ,tiglathpileser1 called to his assistance by ,ahaz1 even at that time carried away into captivity part of its citizens1--the tribes who lived on the other side of the ,jordan4 ,in the fourth year of ,ahaz1 ,pekah was slain by ,hoshea1 who1 after an interregnum of eight years1 began to reign in the twelfth year of ,ahaz1 xvii4 #a4 ,he became tributary to ,shalmaneser2 and the end of his government of nine years was also the end of the kingdom of the ten tribes4 ,his having sought for an alliance with ,egypt drew down1 upon himself and his people1 the vengeance of the king of ,assyria4 ,we have already proved that the historical references in the prophecies of ,hosea extend to the time when the last king of ,israel attempted to secure himself against ,asshur1 by the alliance with ,egypt4 ,it is very probable that the book was written at ,pg #aha that time4 ,at the time when the sword of the ,lord was just being raised to inflict upon ,israel the death-blow1 ,hosea wrote down the sum and substance of what he had prophesied during a long series of years1 beginning in the last times of ,jeroboam1 when1 to a superficial view1 the people were in the enjoyment of the fullest prosperity4 ,when at the threshold of their final fulfilment1 he condensed and wrote down his prophecies1 just as1 in the annus fatalis1 the fourth year of ,jehoiakim1 ,jeremiah1 according to chap4 xxv41 gave a survey of what he had prophesied over ,judah during twenty-three years4 ,in the prophecies of ,hosea1 as in those of ,amos1 the threatening character prevails4 ,the number of the elect in ,israel was small1 and the judgment was at hand4 ,in ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel1 too1 the prophecies1 previous to the destruction1 are mainly minatory4 ,it was only after the wrath of ,god had been manifested in deeds1 that the stream of promise brake forth without hindrance4 ,hosea1 nevertheless1 does not belie his name1 by which he had been dedicated to the helping and saving ,god1 and which he had received1 non sine numine4 71 properly the ,inf4 ,abs4 of 1 is1 in substance1 equivalent to ,joshua1 i4e41 the ,lord is help47 ,zeal for the ,lord fills and animates him1 not only in the energy of his threatenings1 but also in the intensity and strength of his conviction of the pardoning mercy and healing love of the ,lord1 which will1 in the end1 prevail4 ,in this respect1 ,hosea is closely connected with the ,song of ,solomon--that link in the chain of ,holy ,scripture into which he had1 in the first instance1 to fit4 ,there are in ,hosea undeniable references to the ,song of ,solomon4 7,compare my ,comment4 on the ,song of ,solomon1 on chap4 i4 #d1 ii4 #c47 ,it is certainly not by accident that the brighter views appear with special clearness at the beginning1 in chap4 i4 #c 7compare ii4 #a-c1 #af-be i4 #aj1 ii4 #a1 #ad-bc1 iii4 #e71 and at the close1 xiv4 #b-aj 7#a-i71 where the fundamental thought is expressed in ver4 #d 7#c73 ,for in ,thee the fatherless findeth mercy4 ,but even in the darker middle portions1 they sometimes suddenly break through2 compare v4 #ae1 vi4 #c1 where the subject is3 ,he teareth and ,he healeth us2 ,he smiteth and ,he bindeth up2 vi4 #aa1 where1 after the threatening against ,israel1 we suddenly find the words3 ,nevertheless1 ,o ,judah6 ,he grants thee a harvest1 when ,i 7i4e41 the ,lord7 return to the prison of ,my people4 7,judah is ,pg #ahb here mentioned as the main portion of the people1 in whom mercy is bestowed upon the whole1 and in whose salvation the other tribes also share47 ,compare also xi4 #h-aa1 where we have this thought3 ,after wrath1 mercy2 the ,covenant-people can never1 like the world1 be altogether borne down by destructive judgments2 xiii4 #ad1 where the strong conviction of the absolutely imperishable nature of the ,congregation of the ,lord finds utterance in the words1 ,i will ransom them from the hand of hell2 ,i will redeem them from death3 ,o death6 where is thy plague8 ,o hell6 where is thy pestilence8 repentance is hid from ,mine eyes4 ,simson is perplexed by the sudden transition of the discourse1 in this passage1 from threatening to promise1--and this without even any particle to indicate the mutual relation of the sentences and thoughts4 ,but the same phenomenon occurs also in vi4 #aa 7compare ,micah ii4 #ab1 #ac71 where1 likewise1 several expositors are perplexed by the suddenness and abruptness of the transition4 ,it is explained from the circumstance1 that behind even the darkest clouds of wrath which have gathered over the ,congregation of the ,lord1 there is1 nevertheless1 concealed the sun of mercy4 ,in the prophets1 it sometimes breaks through suddenly and abruptly2 but in this they are at one with history1 in which the deepest darkness of the night is oftentimes suddenly illuminated by the shining of the ,lord3 ,and at midnight there was a cry made3 ,behold1 the bridegroom cometh4 ,the sum and substance of ,hosea's prophetic announcement is the following3--,israel falls1 through ,asshur3 ,judah1 the main tribe1 shall be preserved from destruction in this catastrophe4 7,the prophet's tender care for ,judah is strikingly brought out in his exhortation to ,israel1 in iv4 #ae1 that they should desist from their compromises in religion1 and that1 if they chose to commit sin1 they should rather desert the ,lord altogether1 lest by their hypocrisy ,judah also should be seduced and infected47 ,but at a later period1 ,judah too is to fall under the divine judgment 7ii4 #b i4 #aa1 where it is supposed that ,judah shall also be carried away into captivity2 v4 #e3 ,israel and ,ephraim fall by their iniquity1 ,judah also falleth with them2 v4 #ab3 ,i am unto ,ephraim as a moth1 and to the house of ,judah as rottenness2 compare also xii4 #a1 #c71 although the immediate instruments of the judgment upon ,judah are not mentioned ,pg #ahc by ,hosea4 ,but the judgments which the two houses of ,israel draw upon themselves by their works 7ii4 #b i4 #aa1 iii4 #e1 indicate that even ,judah will1 at some future time1 rebel against the house of ,david7 shall be followed by the deliverance to be accomplished by grace4 ,judah and ,israel shall1 in the future1 be again gathered together under one head1 ii4 #b 7i4 #aa72 a glorious king out of ,david's house not only restores what was lost1 but also raises the ,congregation of the ,lord to a decree of glory never before conceived of1 iii4 #e3 ,afterwards shall the children of ,israel return and seek the ,lord their ,god1 and ,david their ,king1 and shall fear the ,lord and ,his goodness in the latter days4 ,the peculiarity of the ,messianic prophecies of ,hosea1 as compared with those of the time of ,david and ,solomon1 consists in the connection of the promise with threatenings of judgments1 and in the ,messiah's appearing as the light of those who walk in the deepest darkness of the divine judgments4 ,it was necessary that this progress should have been made in the ,messianic announcements1 before the breaking in of the divine judgments2 for1 otherwise1 the hope of the ,messiah would have been extinguished by them1 because it was but too natural to consider the former as1 in fact1 an annihilation of these dreamy hopes4 ,but now there was offered to the elect a staff on which they might support themselves1 and walk with confidence through the dark valley of the shadow of death4 ,the ,book of ,hosea may be divided into two parts1 according to the two principal periods of the prophet's ministry1--under ,jeroboam1 when the external condition was as yet prosperous1 and the bodily eye did not as yet perceive anything of the storms of divine wrath which were gathering1--and under the following kings1 down to ,hosea1 when the punishment had already begun1 and was hastening1 by rapid strides1 towards its consummation4--,another difference1 although a subordinate one1 is this3--that the first part1 which comprehends the first three chapters1 contains prophecies connected with a symbol1 while the second part contains direct prophecies which have no such connection4 ,a similar division occurs in ,amos also1--with this difference1 that there1 the symbolical prophecies form the conclusion4 ,the first part may be considered as a kind of outline1 which all the subsequent prophecies served to fill up2 just ,pg #ahd as may the #fth chapter in ,isaiah1 and the first and second in ,ezekiel4 ,we shall give a complete exposition of this section1 as it will afford us a vivid view of the whole position of ,hosea1 and as it is just there that the ,messianic announcement meets us in its most developed form4 ,footnote #a3 ,ewald1 ,thenius1 and others1 will not grant that such an interregnum took place4 ,as numbers were originally expressed by letters1 in which an interchange might easily happen1 we cannot deny the possibility of such an error having occurred in #b ,kings xiv4 #bc4 ,it is quite possible that the duration of ,jeroboam's reign was there originally stated at fifty-two or fifty-three1 instead of forty-one years4 ,but strong reasons would be required for rendering such a supposition admissible1--the more so1 as the interchange would not have been limited to one letter1 as ,thenius supposes1 but must have extended to both4 ,but no such reasons exist4 ,the silence of the ,books of ,kings upon the subject of this interregnum cannot be urged as a reason1 since these books are so exceedingly short as regards the history of the last times of the kingdom of ,israel4 ,sacred historiography has no interest in the details of this process of decay1 which began with the death of ,jeroboam1--which also is represented by ,amos as if it were the day of ,israel's death 7,amos vii4 #aa3 ,jeroboam shall die by the sword1 and ,israel shall be led away captive out of their own land71 although bare existence is still1 for some time1 spared4 ,by the rejection of this interregnum1 ,hosea's ministry would be shortened by twelve years2 but this gain--if such it be--can be purchased only at the expense of a most improbable extension of the duration of ,jeroboam's reign4 ,simson1 ,s4 #bja1 has defended the interregnum4 ,,the ,,section ,,chap4 ,i4-,,iii4 ,the question which here above all engages our attention1 and requires to be answered1 is this3 ,whether that which is reported in these chapters did1 or did not1 actually and outwardly take place4 ,the history of the inquiries connected with this question is found most fully in ,marckius's ,diatribe de uxore fornicationum1 ,leyden1 #afif1 reprinted in the ,commentary on the ,minor ,prophets by the same author4 ,the various views may be divided into three classes4 #a4 ,it is maintained by very many interpreters1 that all the events here narrated took place actually and outwardly4 ,this opinion was advanced with the greatest confidence by ,theodoret1 ,cyril of ,alexandria1 and ,augustine from among the ,fathers of the ,church2 by most interpreters belonging to the ,lutheran and ,reformed ,churches 7e4g4 ,manger72 most recently1 by ,stuck1 ,hofmann 7,weissag u4 ,erf4 ,s4 #bjf71 and1 to a certain extent1 by ,ewald also1 who supposes a free representation of an event actually experienced by the prophet4 #b4 ,others consider it as a parabolical representation4 ,thus does ,calvin1 who expressly opposes the supposition not only of an external1 but also of an internal event4 ,he explains it thus3 ,when the prophet began to teach1 he commenced thus3 ,the ,lord has placed me here as on a stage1 that ,i might tell you1 ,i have taken a wife1 etc4 ,entirely similar was the opinion of the ,chaldee ,paraphrast1 by whom the words1 ,go1 etc41 are thus paraphrased3 ,go and prophesy against the inhabitants of the adulterous city4 ,of a like purport is the view held1 from among recent interpreters1 by ,rosenmller1 ,hitzig 7that which the prophet describes as actual1 is only a fiction71 ,simson and others4 ,the strange opinion of ,luther1 which1 out of too great respect1 was adopted by a few later theologians 7,osiander1 ,pg #ahe ,gerhard1 ,tarnovius71 is only a modification of this4 ,it is to the effect1 that the prophet had only ascribed to his own chaste wife the name and works of an adulteress1 and1 hence1 had performed with her1 before the people1 a kind of play4 7,compare1 against this view1 ,buddeus1 de peccatis typicis in the ,misc4 s4 t4 i4 p4 #bfb47 ,the same opinion is expressed by ,umbreit3 ,his own wife is implicated in the general guilt1 and hence she is a representative of the whole people4 ,in opposition to this view1 compare ,simson's ,commentary4 #c4 ,others suppose that the prophet narrates events which took place actually1 indeed1 but not outwardly4 ,this opinion was1 considering the time at which it was advanced1 very ably defended by ,jerome in ,epist4 ad ,pammachium1 and in his commentary on chap4 i4 #h4 ,according to ,rufinus1 all those in ,palestine and ,egypt who respected the authority of ,origen1 asserted that the marriage took place only in spirit4 ,the difficulties attaching to the first view were made especially obvious by the ridicule of the ,manicheans 7,faustus and ,secundinus in ,augustine1 t4 vi4 p4 #ege7 on this narrative4 ,the most accomplished ,jewish scholars 7,maimonides in the ,more ,nebuch4 p4 ii4 c4 #df1 ,abenezra1 ,kimchi7 support this opinion4 ,some new arguments in defence of it have been adduced by ,marckius4 ,of these three views3--actually and outwardly2 neither outwardly nor actually2 actually1 but not outwardly1--the second must be at once rejected4 ,those who hold it supply1 ,god has commanded me to tell you4 ,but there is not the slightest intimation of such an ellipsis2 and those interpreters have no better right to supply it in this1 than in any other narrative4 ,there is before us action1 and nothing but action1 without any intimation whatsoever that it is merely an invention4 ,but the following arguments are decisive in favour of the third1 and against the first view4 #a4 ,the defenders of an outward transaction rely1 in support of their view1 upon the supposition1 that their interpretation is most obvious and natural2--that they are thus1 as it were1 in the possession of the ground1 and in a position from which they can be driven only by the most cogent reasons2--that if the transaction had been internal1 it would have been necessary for the prophet to have expressly marked it as such4 ,but precisely the reverse of all this is the case4 ,the most obvious supposition ,pg #ahf is1 that the symbolical action took place in vision4 ,if certain actions of the prophets1 especially seeing1 hearing1 and their speaking to the ,lord1 etc41 must be conceived of as having taken place inwardly1 unless there be distinct indications of the opposite1 why not the remainder also8 ,for the former presupposes that the world in which the prophets move1 is altogether different from the ordinary one2 that it is not the outward1 but the spiritual world4 ,it is certainly not a matter of chance1 that the seeing in the case of the prophets must be understood spiritually2 and if there be a reason for this1 the same reason entitles us to assert that the walking1 etc41 also took place inwardly only4 ,by what right could we make any difference between the actions of others1 described by the prophet1 and his own8 ,vision and symbolical action are not opposed to each other2 the former is only the genus comprehending the latter as a species4 ,by this we do not at all mean to assert1 that all the symbolical actions of the prophets took place in inward vision only4 ,an inward transaction always lay at the foundation2 but sometimes1 and when it was appropriate1 they embodied it in an outward representation also 7#a ,kings xx4 #ce seq41 xxii4 #aa2 ,jer4 xix4 xxviii42 and a similar remarkable instance from modern times1 in ,croesi ,hist4 ,quakeriana1 p4 #ac74 ,for this very reason1 however1 this argument cannot be altogether decisive by itself2 but it furnishes1 at least1 a presumptive proof1 and that by no means unimportant4 ,if regularly and naturally the transaction be internal only1 then the opposite requires to be proved in this case4 ,if this had been admitted1 no attempt would have been made elsewhere also1 e4g41 ,is4 xx41 by false and forced interpretations to explain away the supposition of a merely internal transaction4 #b4 ,no one will certainly venture to assert that a merely internal transaction would have missed its aim1 since there exists a multitude of symbolical actions1 in regard to which it is undeniable1 and universally admitted1 that they took place internally only4 ,for the inward action1 being narrated and committed to writing1 retained the advantage of vividness and impressiveness over the naked representation of the same truth4 ,sometimes1 in the case of actions concentrated into a single moment1 this advantage may be still further increased by the inward transaction being represented outwardly also4 ,but1 here1 just the ,pg #ahg opposite would take place4 ,we have here before us a symbolical transaction which1 if it had been performed outwardly1 would have continued for several years4 ,the separation of the single events would have prevented its being taken in at a single view1 and have thus deprived it of its impressiveness4 ,but1 what is still more important1 the natural substratum would have occupied the attention so much more than the idea1 that the latter would have been thereby altogether overlooked4 ,the domestic affairs of the prophet would have become the subject of a large amount of tittle-tattle1 and the idea would have been remembered only to give greater point to the ridicule4 #c4 ,the command of ,god1 when considered as referring to an outward transaction1 cannot be1 by any means1 justified4 ,this is most glaringly obvious1 if we understand this command1 as several do1 to mean that the prophet should beget children with an unchaste woman1 and without legitimate marriage4 ,every one will sympathize with the indignation expressed by ,buddeus 7l4 c4 p4 #bjf7 against ,thomas ,aquinas1 who1 following this view1 maintains that the law of ,god had been1 in this special case1 repealed by ,his command4 ,god ,himself cannot set us free from ,his commands2 they are an expression of ,his nature1 an image of ,his holiness4 ,to ascribe arbitrariness to ,god in this respect1 would be to annihilate the idea of ,god1 and the idea of the ,law at the same time4 ,this view1 it is true1 is so decidedly erroneous as to require no further refutation2 but even the opinion of ,buddeus and others presents insurmountable difficulties4 ,they suppose that the prophet had married a woman who was formerly unchaste4 ,in opposition to this1 ,calvin very strikingly remarks3 ,it seems not to be consistent with reason1 that ,god should spontaneously have rendered ,his prophet contemptible2 for how could he ever have appeared in public after such ignominy had been inflicted upon him8 ,if he had married such a wife1 as here described1 he ought rather to have hidden himself all his lifetime than have assumed the prophetic office4 ,in ,lev4 xxi4 #g the law forbids the priests to take a wife that is a whore1 or profane4 ,that which1 according to the letter1 referred to the priests only1 is applicable1 in its spirit1 to the prophets also1--yea1 to them in a higher degree1 as will be seen immediately1 when the ordinance is reduced to its idea4 ,the latter is easily inferred from the reason stated1 ,pg #ahh viz41 that the priests should be holy to their ,god4 ,the servants of ,god must represent ,his holiness2 they are1 therefore1 not allowed1 by so close a contact with sin1 to defile or desecrate themselves either inwardly or outwardly4 ,although the inward pollution may be prevented in individual cases by a specially effective assistance of divine grace1 yet there always remains the outward pollution4 ,it is inconceivable that1 at the very commencement of his ministry1 ,god should have commanded to the prophet anything1 the inevitable effect of which was to mar its successful execution4 ,several--and especially ,manger--who felt the difficulties of this interpretation1 substituted for it another1 by which1 as they imagined1 all objections were removed4 ,the prophet1 they say1 married a person who had formerly been chaste1 and fell only after her marriage4 ,this view is no doubt the correct one1 as is obvious from the relation of the figure to the reality4 ,according to ver4 #b1 it is to be expressed figuratively that the people went a-whoring from ,jehovah4 ,the spiritual adultery presupposes that the spiritual marriage had already been concluded4 ,hence1 the wife can be called a whoring wife1 only on account of the whoredom which she practised after her marriage4 ,this is confirmed by chap4 iii4 #a1 where the more limited expression to commit adultery is substituted for to whore1 which has a wider sense1 and comprehends adultery also4 ,the former unchastity of the wife would be without any meaning1 yea1 would be in direct contradiction to the real state of the case4 ,for before the marriage concluded at ,sinai1 ,israel was devoted to the ,lord in faithful love2 comp4 ,jer4 ii4 #b3 ,i remember thee1 the kindness of thy youth1 the love of thine espousals1 thy walking after ,me in the wilderness1 in a land not sown4 ,compare also ,ezek4 xvi41 where ,israel1 before her marriage1 appears as a virgo intacta4 ,but how correct soever this view may be--and every other view perverts the whole position--it is1 nevertheless1 erroneous to suppose that thereby all difficulties are removed4 ,all which has been urged against the former view1 may be urged here also4 ,it might have been better for the prophet to have married one who was previously unchaste1 in the hope that her subsequent better life might wipe out her former shame1 than one previously chaste1 who was required to become unchaste1 and to remain so for a long time1 because1 ,pg #ahi otherwise1 the symbolical action would have lost all its significance4 ,the objection brought forward1 that whatever is unbecoming as an outward action1 is so likewise though it were only an internal action1 can scarcely be meant to be in earnest4 ,for1 in this case1 every one knew that the prophet was a mere type2 and1 with regard to his wife1 this circumstance was so obvious1 that mockery certainly gave way to shame and confusion4 ,but a marriage outwardly entered into is never purely typical4 ,it has always its significance apart from the typical import1 and must be justifiable1 independently of its typical character4 ,ridicule would1 in this case1 have been not only too obvious1 but to a certain extent also well founded4 #d4 ,if the action had taken place only outwardly1 it would have been impossible to explain the abrupt transition from the symbolical action to the mere figure1 and again to the entirely naked representation as we find it here1 and vice versa4 ,in the first chapter1 the symbolical action is pretty well maintained2 but in the prophecy ii4 #a-c 7i4 #aj-;ii4 #a71 which belongs to the same section1 it is almost entirely lost sight of4 ,as the corporeal adultery1 and rejection in consequence of it1 were to be the type of the spiritual adultery and rejection1 so the receiving again of the wife1 rejected on account of her faithlessness1 but now reformed1 was to typify the ,lord's granting mercy to the people4 ,but of this1 not a trace is found4 ,and yet1 we are not at liberty to say that the ground of it lies in a difference betwixt the type and the thing typified1--in the circumstance that the wife of the prophet did not reform4 ,if there existed such a difference1 the type could not have been chosen at all4 ,the contrary appears also from ii4 #i 7#g74--;,in the whole second section1 ii4 #d-be 7ii4 #b-bc71 regard is indeed had to the symbolical action2 but in a manner so free1 that it dwindles away to a mere figure1 from behind which the thing itself is continually coming into view4 ,in chap4 iii4 the symbolical action again acquires greater prominence4 ,these phenomena can be accounted for1 only if the transaction be viewed as an inward one4 ,in the case of an outward transaction1 the transition from the symbolical action to the figure1 and from the figure to the thing itself1 would not have been so easy4 ,the substratum of the idea is1 in that case1 far more material1 and the idea itself too closely bound to it4 ,pg #aij #e4 ,when the transaction is viewed as an outward one1 insurmountable difficulties are presented by the third chapter2 and the argument drawn from this would1 in itself1 be quite sufficient to settle the question3 ,then the ,lord said unto me4 ,go again1 love a woman beloved of her friend and an adulteress4 ,interpreters who have adopted that view1 find themselves here in no little embarrassment4 ,several suppose that the woman1 whom the prophet is here commanded to love1 is his former wife1 ,gomer1--with her he should get reconciled4 ,but this is quite out of the question4 ,in opposition to it1 there is1 first1 the indefinite signification by 2 then1 in ver4 #b1 there is the purchase of the woman1--which supposes that she had not yet been in the possession of the husband2 and1 further1 the words1 beloved of her friend1 and an adulteress1 can1 according to a sound interpretation1 mean only1 who1 although she is beloved by her faithful husband1 will yet commit adultery2 so that1 if it be referred to the reunion with ,gomer1 we should be compelled to suppose that1 after being received again1 she again became unfaithful1--and in favour of this opinion1 no corresponding feature can be pointed out in the thing typified4 ,lastly1--,the word love cannot mean love again1 restitue amoris signa4 ,for the love of the prophet to his wife must correspond with the love of ,god to the people of ,israel4 ,that this love1 however1 cannot be limited to the love which ,god will show to the ,congregation after her conversion1 is seen from the additional clause1 ,and they turn themselves to other gods1 and love grape-cakes4 ,hence it appears that the love of ,god continues even during the unfaithfulness1 and consequently1 also1 the love of the prophet1 by which it is typified4--,equally untenable is the other opinion1 that the prophet is here called upon1 by his entering into a new marriage1 to prefigure the relation of ,god to the ,covenant-people a second time4 ,in that case1 it is supposed either that ,gomer had been rejected1 because she would not return1 or that she had died4 ,in either case1 however1 she would not have been chosen by ,god to be a type of the people of ,israel4 ,the ground of this choice can be no other than the correspondence with the antitype4 ,but this would be wanting just in the most important point4 ,if the ungodly part of the nation were not to be deprived of all hope1 nor the pious of all consolation1 it was of special importance to ,pg #aia point out that even the rejected congregation would receive mercy2 that the ,lo-,ruhamah should be the ,ruhamah4 ,just the reverse of all this1 however1 would1 according to this view1 have been typified4 ,two different women would1 quite naturally1 suggest the thought of two different nations4 ,moreover1 the non-conversion of ,gomer would be in direct opposition to the prophet's own expressions4 ,there cannot be any doubt1 that her relation to the prophet still lies at the foundation of the description in ii4 #d seqq4 ,for they are her three children whose former names1 announcing disaster1 are changed1 in ver4 #be 7#bc71 into such as are significant of salvation4 ,in vers4 #d-f 7#b-d7 the whole relation1 as previously described1 is presupposed4 ,but now1 she who1 in ver4 #i 7#g71 says1 ,i will go and return to my first husband1 for then was it better with me than now1 is the same who said in ver4 #g 7#e71 ,i will go after my lovers that give me my bread and my water1 my wool and my flax4 ,to the same result we are also led by the showing of mercy to her children1 announced in the first section1 ii4 #a-c 7i4 #aj-;ii4 #a71 where the prophet alludes to their names2 and still more distinctly in the second section2 compare ver4 #be 7#bc74 ,but now1 the showing of mercy to the children cannot be conceived of without the conversion of the mother1 and mercy being subsequently shown to her also4 ,as they are to be rejected on account of the unfaithfulness of the mother 7compare ii4 #f #d1 and1 specially1 the at the commencement of ver4 #g71 so the ground of their being received into favour can only be the faithfulness of the mother4 ,being begotten in adultery1 they stand in connection with the prophet only through the mother2 as soon as he has rejected the mother1 he has nothing further to do with them4--,the supposition that ,gomer had died1 is evidently the result of an embarrassment which finds itself compelled to invent such fictions4--,finally1--,several interpreters1 after the example of ,augustine1 suppose that no marriage at all is here spoken of1 but only a certain kindness which the prophet should manifest to some woman1 in order to encourage her conversion4 ,but this opinion is contradicted by these circumstances3--that the prophet's love towards the woman must necessarily be of the same extent1 and of the same nature1 as the love of ,god towards the people of ,israel1 since the and the exactly correspond with each other2 that only conjugal love is suitable to ,pg #aib the image2 that this view falls1 of itself1 to the ground when is referred to the prophet1 as it must be2 that1 in such circumstances1 no satisfactory account can be given of the purchase of the woman1 etc4 ,to all these suppositions there is1 moreover1 the common objection that1 according to them1 no account can be given of the omission of very important circumstances which the prophet leaves to his hearers and readers to supply from the preceding symbolical action4 ,two things only are pointed out1 viz41 the appropriation of the woman by the prophet1 ver4 #b1 and the course which he pursues for her reformation1 ver4 #c4 ,every intervening circumstance--the criminal1 long-continued unfaithfulness of the wife--is passed over in silence4 ,if we suppose an outward action1 this circumstance cannot be accounted for4 ,for we are not at liberty to draw1 from the first case1 any inference bearing upon the second4 ,the latter would again have required a complete account4 ,but if we suppose an inward transaction1 everything is easily explained4 ,the question as to whether it was ,gomer1 or some other person1 does not come up at all4 ,if ,gomer was only an ideal person1 that which applied to her was equally applicable to the second ideal wife of the prophet2 since both typified the same thing1 and without having an independent existence of their own1 came into consideration as types only4 ,thus1 very naturally1 the second description was supplemented from the first1 and the prophet was allowed abruptly to point out those circumstances only which were of special importance in the case before him4 #f4 ,if the whole be viewed as an outward transaction1 there arises a difficulty1 by no means inconsiderable1 as regards the children mentioned in chap4 i4 ,these had been begotten in adultery4 ,even although the mother did reform1 they could yet never be considered by the prophet as1 in the full sense1 his own4 ,there would then arise a great difference between the type and the thing typified4 ,but if we suppose a transaction merely inward1 this difficulty vanishes4 ,the physical impossibility then no longer comes into consideration4 ,that which is possible in the thing typified1 viz41 that those who formerly were not children of ,god1 become children of ,god1 is transferred to the type4 ,in point of fact1 the mother does not exist beside1 and apart from1 the children2 she stands related to them as the whole to the parts2 and hence it is1 that in ii4 #be 7#bc71 the ,pg #aic mother and children are imperceptibly blended in the prophet's description4 #g4 ,we are led to the idea of a mere inward transaction by the symbolical names of the first wife1 and of her father4 ,on the other hand1 if such a symbolical signification could not be proved1 this might be used as an argument for the literal interpretation1--although1 indeed1 it would be only a single argument which would be obliged to yield to other counter-arguments4 ,for it may well be conceived that the prophet1 in order to give to the inward transaction more of the appearance of an outward one1 should have chosen names usual at that time2 just as1 in a similar manner1 poetry would not be satisfied with invented names used only in certain formulas and proverbs1 but makes use of names which would not1 at once1 be recognised by every one as mere fictions4-- can only mean completion in the passive sense4 ,for ,segolate-forms in o are only used to express passive and intransitive notions1 and the verb is found in the ignification to be completed1 in ,ps4 vii4 #aj1 xii4 #b4 ,the sense in which the woman1 the type of the ,israelitish people1 is called completion1--i4e41 one who1 in her whoredom1 had proceeded to the highest pitch1--is so obvious from the context1 as to render nugatory the argument which ,maurer 7p4 #cfj7 has drawn from the omission of express statements on this point1 in order thereby to recommend his own interpretation1 which is altogether opposed to the laws of the language4 ,a significant proper name can1 in any case1 convey only an allusion2 but such an allusion was here quite sufficient1 inasmuch as the mention of the wife's whoredom had preceded4 ,compare1 moreover1 ,zech4 v4 #e-aa1 where the thought1 that ,israel had filled up the measure of their sins1 is represented by a woman sitting in an ,ephah4 ,hofmann explains the name ,gomer by end1 utmost ruin3 ,by luxury1 ,israel has become wanton1 and hence it must come to an end1 to utter ruin4 ,but this interpretation is at variance with the context1 from which it must necessarily be derived2 for it is not the punishment1 but the guilt which is spoken of in the context4 1 ,completion 7compare the 1 perfectus1 absolutus1 in ,ezra vii4 #ab71 is equivalent to 1 a wife of whoredom4 ,the can only mean1 daughter of the two fig-cakes1 filia deliciarum deliciis ,pg #aid dedita4 ,the word daughter serves to indicate every relation of dependence and submission3 ,gesenius1 ,thesaurus1 p4 #bbj4 ,fig-cakes were considered as one of the greatest dainties2 compare ,faber on ,harmar4 i4 p4 #cbj ff4 ,sensuality was the ground of the ,israelites' apostasy from the severe and strict religion of ,jehovah to the idolatry of their neighbours1 which was soft1 sensual1 and licentious4 ,the occasion which had called it forth with their neighbours was one which rendered them favourably disposed towards it4 ,the masculine form can offer no difficulty as to the derivation from 1 fig-cake2 for the masculine form of the plural occurs also in #a ,sam4 xxv4 #ah2 #a ,chron4 xii4 #dj4 ,as little difficulty can arise from the ,dual form1 which may be explained from the circumstance that fig-cakes commonly consisted of a double layer of figs1 or of double cakes 7,hesych4 --which ,greek word is a corruption of the ,hebrew -- 71 and the ,dual is used in reference to objects which are commonly conceived of as a whole1 consisting of two parts1 even when several of them are spoken of4 ,that this explanation of the ,dual is correct1 is proved from the circumstance1 that it occurs also as the name of a ,moabitish town1 ,beth-,dibhlathaim1 ,jer4 xlviii4 #bb1 and ,dibhlathaim1 ,num4 xxxiii4 #df1 which1 probably1 was famous for its fig-cakes4--,there existed another special reason for the prophet's choosing the ,dual in the masculine form1 viz41 that there was the analogy of other proper names of men--as ,ephraim1 etc4--in its favour2 and such an analogy was required1--for1 otherwise1 the name would not have been1 as it was intended to be1 a riddle4 ,our whole exposition1 however1 which was already in substance1 although without proper foundation and justification1 advanced by ,jerome1 is raised above the condition of a mere hypothesis1 by its being compared with chap4 iii4 ,there1 the words1 ,they turn themselves to other gods1 and love grape-cakes1 are a mere paraphrasis of ,gomer ,bath ,dibhlaim4 ,it scarcely needs to be remarked1 that the difference betwixt grape-cakes and fig-cakes does not here come into consideration at all1 inasmuch as both belonged to the choicest dainties2 and it is as evident1 that to love1 and to be the daughter of1 express the same idea4 ,but if thus the symbolical signification of the name be established1 the correctness of the supposition of a merely internal transaction is established ,pg #aie at the same time4 ,the symbolical names of the children alone could not have furnished a sufficient foundation for this supposition4 ,against this an appeal might1 with the most perfect propriety1 have been made to ,shear-,jashub1 and ,maher-shalal-hash-baz1 neither of whom can1 by any means1 have been an ideal person4 ,the prophet gave them these names2 but the matter is quite different in the case of the wife1 who already had her name when the prophet took her4 ,all that we can grant to ,hofmann is1 that such a providential coincidence was possible2 but probable it could be1 only if other decisive arguments favoured the view of the transaction having been an outward one4 ,if the name were not symbolical--if it belonged to the real wife of the prophet1 it cannot be easily explained1 why he did not afterwards mention the name of his second wife also1 but content himself with the general term1 a wife4 #h4 ,a main argument against the literal interpretation is further furnished by iii4 #b4 ,the verse is commonly translated3 ,and then ,i bought her to me for fifteen pieces of silver1 and an homer of barley1 and a lethech of barley2 and is explained from the custom prevalent in the ,east of purchasing wives from their parents4 ,but it is very doubtful whether the verb has the signification to purchase4 ,there is no necessity for deviating from the common signification to dig1 in ,deut4 ii4 #f3 ,and water also ye shall dig from them for money1 and drink 7compare ,exod4 xxi4 #cc72 the existing wells were not sufficient for so great a multitude1 compare ,gen4 xxvi4 #ai1 #ba1 #bb4 ,to this philological reason1 we must further add1 that the circumstance would be here altogether destitute of significance1 while every other feature in the description is full of meaning4 ,we base our interpretation upon the supposition1 already sufficiently established by ,j4 ,d4 ,michaelis1 that the whole purchase-money amounted to thirty shekels1 of which the prophet paid one-half in money1 and the other half in the value of money4 ,according to ,ezek4 xlv4 #aa1 the homer contained ten ephahs1 and a lethech was the half of an homer4 ,we have thus fifteen pieces of silver1 and also fifteen ephahs2 and the supposition is very probable that1 at that time1 an ephah of barley cost a shekel1--the more so1 as according to #b ,kings vii4 #a1 #af1 #ah1 in the time of a declining famine1 and only relative cheapness1 two-thirds of an ephah of barley cost a shekel4 ,we are unable ,pg #aif to say with certainty1 why one-half was paid in money1 and the other half in natural productions2 but a reason certainly exists1 as no other feature is without significance4 ,perhaps it was determined by custom1 that the sum by which servants were purchased was paid after this manner4 ,the lowness of their condition was thereby indicated2 for barley1 vile hordeum1 was1 in all antiquity1 very little esteemed4 ,upon this estimate of it was based its use at the jealousy offering 7,num4 v4 #aa seqq42 compare ,bhr's ,symb4 ii4 ,s4 #dde71 and the symbolical use of the barley-bread in ,judg4 vii4 #ac4 ,the statement of the sum leads us1 involuntarily1 to think of slaves or servants4 ,it is the same sum which was commonly given for a man-servant1 or a maid-servant1 as is expressly mentioned in ,exod4 xxi4 #cb2 compare the remarks on ,zech4 xi4 #ab4 ,and this opinion is confirmed by the use of 4 ,the ears of a servant who was bound to his master to perpetual obedience1 were bored2 compare ,exod4 xxxi4 #e1 #f2 ,deut4 xv4 #ag1 where it is added3 ,and also unto thy maid-servant thou shalt do likewise4 ,in conformity with the custom of omitting the special members of the body1 in expressions frequently occurring1 it is said simply to bore4 ,the meaning then is3 ,i made her my slave4 ,it was not a free woman1 then1 whom the prophet desired in marriage1 but a servant1 whom he was obliged1 previous to marriage1 to redeem from servitude2 who was therefore under a double obligation to him1 and over whom he had a double claim4 ,the reference to the thing to be typified is quite apparent4 ,it was not a free1 independent people whom the ,lord chose1 but a people whom ,he was obliged first to redeem from vile servitude1 before ,he entered into a nearer relation to them4 ,this redemption appears1 throughout1 as a ransoming from the house of bondage1--and the wonderful dealings of the ,lord1 as the price which ,he paid4 ,compare1 e4g41 ,deut4 vii4 #h3 ,but because the ,lord loved you1 and because ,he kept ,his oath which ,he had sworn to your fathers1 ,he has brought you out with a mighty hand1 and redeemed thee 77 from the house of bondmen 7 71 from the hand of ,pharaoh1 king of ,egypt4 ,see also ,deut4 ix4 #bf4 ,it is upon this redemption that the exhortation to the people is founded--that1 as the ,lord's servants1 they should serve ,him alone2 comp41 e4g41 the introduction to the ,decalogue4 ,thus1 we have here also a feature so evidently typical1 ,pg #aig so plainly transferred from the thing typified to the type1 that we cannot any longer think of an outward transaction4 ,this argument1 however1 is1 in the main point1 quite independent of the philological interpretation of 4 ,even if it be translated ,i bought her to me1 the circumstance1 notwithstanding1 always remains1 that the wife was redeemed from slavery1 unless there be a denial of the connection of the sum mentioned with ,exod4 xxi4 #cb1 and ,zech4 xi4 #ab1 where the thirty pieces of silver likewise appear as the estimate of a servant's value2 and this circumstance evidently suggests the inward character of the transaction4 ,the first germs of the representation of ,god's relation to ,israel under the figure of marriage1 are found so early as in the ,pentateuch1 ,exod4 xxxiv4 #ae1 #af2 ,lev4 xx4 #e1 #f1 xvii4 #g2 ,num4 xiv4 #cc--where idolatry1 and apostasy from the ,lord in general1 are represented as whoredom--,deut4 xxxii4 #af1 #ba2 compare the author's ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pent4 vol4 i4 p4 #ajg ff42 and commentary on the ,song of ,solomon1 ,s4 #bfa4 ,but it was only through the ,song of ,solomon that it became quite a common thing to represent the higher love under the figure of the lower4 ,it is not through accident that this representation appears so prominent just in ,hosea1 where it not only pervades the first three chapters1 but returns continually in the second part also4 ,hosea1 being one of the oldest prophets1 was specially called to fit1 as a new link1 into the ,song of ,solomon1 which was the last link in the chain of ,sacred ,literature4 ,there are1 moreover1 in the details1 other undeniable references to the ,song of ,solomon1 which coincide with this connection with it1 as regards the fundamental idea4 ,the basis1 however1 for this whole figurative representation is ,gen4 ii4 #bd1 where marriage appears as the most intimate of all earthly relations of love1 and must1 for this very reason1 have a character of absolute exclusiveness4 ,,chap4 ,i4-,,ii4 #c 7,,ii4 #a74 ,the section chap4 i4-iii4 is distinguished from the other prophecies by this1--that1 in it1 the relation of the ,lord to the ,pg #aih people of ,israel ,is represented1 throughout1 under the figure and symbol of marriage1 whilst this same mode of representation is soon relinquished wherever else it occurs in the book4 ,by this closer limitation1 the objections of ,bckel and ,stuck to the common division of the collection into two parts1 are set aside4 ,this first portion may be divided into three parts1 which are1 in one respect1 closely connected1 as is shown by the ,fut4 with the ,vav ,conv4 in iii4 #a1 and likewise by the fact that this chapter requires to be supplemented from the two preceding ones1 while1 in another respect1 they may be considered as wholes1 complete in themselves4 ,they do not1 by any means1 so distribute the contents among themselves1 as that the first describes the apostasy2 the second1 the punishment2 and the third1 the return and restoration2 but each of them contains all these three features1 and yet in such a manner1 that here the one feature1 and there the other1 is more fully expanded2 so that the whole description is complete1 only when all the three parts are taken together4 ,in the portion now before us1 the covenant relation into which the ,lord entered with ,israel is typified by a marriage which the prophet contracted at the command of the ,lord2 the apostasy of the people1 and especially of the ten tribes1 to whom the prophet was sent in the first instance1 is typified by the adultery of the wife1 by the divine punishment1 and the unpropitious names which he gives to the children born by the adulterous wife4 ,in chap4 ii4 #a-c1 there follows the announcement of salvation more directly1 and only with a simple allusion to the symbol4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ver4 #a4 ,the word of the ,lord that came unto ,hosea1 the son of ,beeri1 in the days of ,uzziah1 ,jotham1 ,ahaz1 ,hezekiah1 kings of ,judah1 and in the days of ,jeroboam1 the son of ,joash1 king of ,israel4 ,ver4 #b4 ,at the beginning when the ,lord spake to ,hosea1 the ,lord said to ,hosea3 ,go take unto thee a wife of whoredoms1 and children of whoredoms2 for the land is whoring away from the ,lord4 is never a noun--not even in ,jer4 v4 #ac--;but always the #c;d pers4 ,pret4 ,piel4 ,the status constr4 is explained by the fact1 that the whole of the following sentence is treated as one substantive idea3 the beginning of the ,lord hath spoken1 ,pg #aii etc41 for the beginning of speaking4 1 the day of the ,lord spoke1 instead of1 the day on which the ,lord spoke4 ,similar constructions occur also in ,is4 xxix4 #a1 and ,jer4 xlviii4 #f4--,the ,fut4 with ,vav ,conv41 1 and then ,he spoke1 carries forward the discourse1 as if there had preceded3 the ,lord began to speak to ,hosea4 ,there is here a constructio ad sensum4 ,it is intentionally1 and in order the more distinctly to point out the idea of the beginning1 that the prophet has made use of the noun 1 not of the verb4 ,the construction of with 1 with the signification to speak to some one1 may be explained thus3--that the words are1 as it were1 put into the mind of the hearer in order that they may remain there4 ,several interpreters erroneously translate1 spoke through3 others1 following ,jerome 7the last is ,simson71 spoke in2 as if thereby the act of speaking were to be designated as an inward one4 ,the difference between outward and inward speaking disappears in the vision2 and1 for this reason1 we cannot imagine that there is any intention of here noticing it particularly4 ,everything which takes place in the vision is substantially1 indeed1 internal1 but in point of form it is external4 ,moreover1 with several times occurs in other passages also1 where the signification1 to speak to some one1 is alone admissible4 ,thus #a ,sam4 xxv4 #ci1 where ,simson's explanation1 ,david sent and ordered to speak about ,abigail1 is set aside by ver4 #dj4 ,the analogy of the construction of the verbs of hearing and seeing with is likewise in favour of our explanation4#a--;,a wife of whoredoms and children of whoredoms4 ,the wife belongs to whoredoms in so far as she is devoted to them2 the children1 in ,pg #bjj so far as they proceed from them4 ,for we cannot suppose that the children themselves are described as given to whoredom4 ,such a thought would here be altogether out of place4 ,for whoredom is here only the general designation of adultery1 as1 by way of applying it to the case in question1 it is immediately subjoined1 away from ,jehovah4 ,the subject of consideration is only the relation of the wife and children to the prophet1 as the type of the ,lord2 and with this view1 it is only the origin of the children from an adulterous wife which can be of importance4 ,that this alone is regarded1 appears from ii4 #f 7#d71 compared with ver4 #g 7#e74 ,that the children1 as children of whoredoms1 deserve no compassion1 is founded upon the fact that their mother plays the harlot4 is stronger than 2 it expresses the idea that the woman is given1 soul and body1 to whoredoms4 ,the same emphasis is expressed also by the analogous designations3 man of blood1 of deceit1 etc4--,calvin says1 ,she is called a wife of whoredoms1 because she was long accustomed to them1 gave herself over to the lusts of all indiscriminately1 did not prostitute herself once1 or twice1 or to a few1 but to the debauchery of every one4 ,it is not without reason that take is connected with the children also4 ,the prophet shall1 as it were1 receive and take1 along with the wife1 those who1 without his agency1 have been born of her4 ,it is self-evident1 and has been1 moreover1 formerly proved1 that we cannot speak of children who were previously born of the prophet's wife2 but that1 on the contrary1 the children are they whose birth is narrated in ver4 #d seqq4 ,and that we cannot consider these children as children of the prophet1 as is done by several interpreters 7,drus43 ,accipe uxorem et suscipe ex e liberos71 is obvious from their being designated children of whoredoms2 from the word take itself1 which is expressive of the passive conduct of the prophet2 from the fact that1 in the subsequent verses1 the conceiving and bearing of the wife are alone constantly spoken of1 but never1 as in ,is4 viii4 #c1 the begetting by the prophet2 and1 finally1 from the relation of the type to the thing typified4 ,by the latter1 it is absolutely required that children and mother stand in the same relation of alienation from the legitimate husband and father4 ,the words in ver4 #c1 ,she bare him a son1 are not indeed in opposition to it1 for these words are only intended to mark the deceit of the wife who ,pg #bja offers to her husband the children begotten in adultery1 as if they were his1 and1 at the same time1 to bring out the patience and forbearance of the husband who receives them1 and brings them up as if they were his1 although he knows that they are not4 ,in like manner1 the ,lord treated1 for centuries1 the rebellious ,israelites as if they were ,his children1 and granted to them the inheritance which was destined only for the children1 along with so many other blessings1 until at length ,he declared them to be bastards1 by carrying them away into captivity4 ,the last words state the ground of the symbolical action4 ,the causal is explained from the fact that the import of a symbolical action is also its ground4 ,the ,inf4 absol4 preceding the tempus finitum gives special emphasis to the verbal idea4 ,the prophet thereby indicates that1 in using the expression to whore1 he does so deliberately1 and because it corresponds exactly to the thing1 and wishes us to understand it in its full strength and compass4 ,in calling the thing by its right name1 he silences1 beforehand1 every attempt at palliating and extenuating it4 ,of such palliations and extenuations the ,jews had abundance4 ,they had not the slightest notion that they had become unfaithful to their ,god1 but considered their intercourse with idols as trifling and allowable attentions which they paid to them4--,manger understands by whoredoms1 their placing1 at the same time1 their confidence in man2 but from what follows1 where idolatry alone is constantly spoken of1 it is obvious that this is inadmissible4 ,if this special thing be reduced to its idea1 it is true that trusting in men is1 then1 not less comprehended under it than idolatry1 inasmuch as this idea is the turning away from ,god to that which is not ,god4 ,and1 from this dependence of what is special upon the idea1 it follows that the description has its eternal truth1 and does not become antiquated1 even where the folly of gross idolatry has been long since perceived4--1 the definite land1 the land of the prophet1 the land of ,israel4--,concerning the last words1 ,ps4 lxxiii4 #bg may be compared1 where occurs with a similar signification4 ,this phrase contains an allusion to the common expression1 to walk with1 or after1 ,god2 compare #b ,kings xxiii4 #c4 ,according to ,calvin1 the spiritual chastity of the people of ,god consists in their following the ,lord4 ,ver4 #c4 ,and he went and took ,gamer the daughter of ,dibhlaim1 and she conceived and bare him a son4 ,pg #bjb ,many interpreters suppose that1 by the three children1 three different generations are designated1 and the gradual degeneracy of the people1 which sinks deeper and deeper4 ,but this opinion must certainly be rejected4 ,there is no gradation perceptible4 ,on the contrary1 the announcement of the total destruction of the kingdom of ,israel is connected immediately with the name of the first child1 ver4 #d4 ,nor is it legitimate to say1 as ,rckert does1 that the three children are a designation of the conditions in which the ,israelites would be placed in consequence of their apostasy from the ,lord4 ,for1 how could mercy be shown to conditions8 ,the right view rather is1 that the wife and children are both the people of ,israel1 viewed only in different relations4 ,in the first designation1 they are viewed as a unity2 in the latter1 as a plurality proceeding from1 and depending upon1 this unity4 ,the circumstance that the prophet mentions the birth of children at all1 and the birth of three only1 is accounted for by their names4 ,the children exist only that they may receive a name4 ,the three names must1 therefore1 not be considered separately1 but must be viewed together4 ,in that case they present a corresponding picture of the fate impending upon ,israel4 ,the circumstance that the mother and sons are distinguished in ,hosea1 rests upon the ,song of ,solomon4 7,compare the more copious remarks in my commentary on the ,song of ,sol4 iii4 #d3 ,by the mother1 the people is designated according to its historical continuity1--by the daughter or sons1 according to its existence at any moment47 ,ver4 #d4 ,and the ,lord said unto him1 ,call his name ,jezreel2 for yet a little 7while71 and ,i visit the blood of ,jezreel upon the house of ,jehu1 and cause to cease the kingdom of the house of ,israel4 ,the name ,jezreel is1 by most expositors1 explained in this passage as meaning3 ,god disperses4 ,this they maintain to be its real signification1 according to the etymology1 and that all the rest is only an allusion4 ,but this exposition is erroneous1 as ,manger has correctly perceived4 ,for1 #a4 ,no instance occurs where the verb has this signification4 ,when applied to men1 it is always used only in a good sense3 compare ii4 #be1 ,ezek4 xxxvi4 #i1 and the subsequent remarks on ,zech4 x4 #i4 ,the idea of scattering is not at all the fundamental one2 so that the signification1 to disperse1 is much further from the fundamental ,pg #bjc signification than might1 at first sight1 appear4 #b4 ,the subsequent words must be considered as an explanation of the name ,jezreel1 as is obvious from the corresponding explanations of the names ,lo-,ruhamah in ver4 #f1 and ,lo-,ammi in ver4 #i1 which are intimately connected with these names4 ,but in this explanation1 not even a single word is said on the subject of the dispersion of the people of ,israel4 ,the circumstance that1 in this explanation1 ,jezreel occurs as a proper name1 without any regard being paid to its appellative signification#b--;an allusion to which occurs only in the announcement of the salvation--shows that here too it must be viewed in the same way4 ,the correct view is this4 ,jezreel was the place where the last great judgment of ,god upon the kingdom of ,israel had been executed4 ,the apostasy from the ,lord1 and the innocent blood of ,his servants1 shed by ,jezebel and the whole house of ,ahab1 had been there avenged upon them by ,jehu1 the founder of the dynasty which was reigning at the time of the prophet4 ,at the command of ,god1 ,jehu is anointed as king by one of the sons of the prophets sent by ,elisha1 #b ,kings ix4 ,in vers4 #f-i the ,lord says to him through the latter3 ,i anoint thee king over the people of the ,lord1 over ,israel4 ,and thou shalt smite the house of ,ahab thy master2 and ,i avenge the blood of ,my servants the prophets1 and the blood of all the servants of the ,lord at the hand of ,jezebel1 and the whole house of ,ahab shall perish4 ,and ,i give the house of ,ahab like the house of ,jeroboam the son of ,nebat1 and like the house of ,baasha the son of ,ahijah4 ,the execution corresponded with the command4 ,when ,jehu approached ,jezreel1 ,joram the son of ,ahab went out against him1 and met him in the portion of ,naboth the ,jezreelite1 ver4 #ba4 ,appealing to the declaration of the ,lord1 ,pg #bjd ,surely ,i have seen the blood of ,naboth1 and the blood of his sons1 and ,i will requite thee in this portion of ground 7ver4 #bf71 ,jehu orders the corpse of the slain king to be cast thither4 ,at ,jezreel1 ,jezebel too found a disgraceful death4 ,thither1 as to the central point of vengeance1 were sent the heads of the seventy royal princes1 who had been slain1 x4 #a-aj1 and there ,jehu slew all that remained of the house of ,ahab1 ver4 #aa4--,the royal house1 and1 along with it1 all ,israel1 are now anew to become a ,jezreel2 i4e41 the same divine punitive justice which1 at that time1 was manifested at ,jezreel1 is to be exhibited anew4 ,the reason why this should be1 is stated in the explanation4 ,the house of ,jehu1 and all ,israel1 shall become a ,jezreel1 in as far as punishment is concerned1 because they have become a ,jezreel with respect to guilt1 and because1 as in former times at ,jezreel1 so now again1 blood that has been shed cries to the ,lord for vengeance4 ,where a new carcase is1 there the eagles must anew be gathered together4--,it must have1 already appeared from this1 how we understand the words1 ,i visit the blood of ,jezreel1 used in the explanation of the name of ,jezreel1 in the verse under consideration4 ,according to the prophet's custom of designating1 by the name of an old thing1 any new thing which is substantially similar to it1 the new guilt is marked by the name of the old2 and it is marked as blood1 because the former guilt was pre-eminently blood-guiltiness2#c and as the blood of ,jezreel1 because the former blood-guiltiness had been especially contracted there1 and it was there where the punishment was executed4 ,the deep impression1 which just this mode of representation must have produced1 must not be overlooked4 ,the sins formerly committed at ,jezreel were acknowledged as such by the whole people1 and especially by the royal house1 whose whole rights were based upon this acknowledgment4 ,the recollection of the fearful punishment was still in the minds of all2 but they did not by any means imagine that they were implicated in the same guilt1 and had to expect the same punishment4 ,that which they considered as already ,pg #bje absolutely past1 the prophet1 by a single word1 brings again into the present1 and the immediate future4 ,by a single word of dreadful sound he terrified and aroused them out of their self-deception 7which will not recognise its own sin in the picture of the sins of others71 and out of their carnal security4 ,entirely analogous are #b ,kings ix4 #ca1 where ,jezebel says to ,jehu1 ,hast thou peace1 ,zimri1 murderer of his master8 which ,schmid well explains by--,it is time for thee to desist1 that thou mayest not experience the same punishment as ,zimri2 ,zech4 v4 #aa1 where the prophet mentions ,shinar as the place of ,israel's future banishment2 and x4 #aa1 where he calls their future oppressors by the names of ,asshur and ,egypt1 and describes a new passing through the ,red ,sea4 ,in ,revelation1 the degenerate church is called by the names of ,sodom and ,egypt 7xi4 #ah72 the true ,church1 by ,jerusalem2 ,rome1 by ,babylon4--,the explanation which we have given will be its own defence against the current1 and evidently erroneous1 expositions4 ,many interpreters understand1 by the blood of ,jezreel1 the slaughter of the family of ,ahab which was accomplished there by ,jehu4 ,it is1 indeed1 quite correct to say that a deed objectively good does not thereby become one which is subjectively so4 ,that which has been willed and commanded by ,god may itself become an object of divine punishment1 if it be not performed from love and obedience to ,god1 but from culpable selfishness4 ,but that ,jehu was actuated by motives so bad1 is sufficiently obvious from the circumstance1 that he himself did the very thing which he had punished in the house of ,ahab4 ,calvin rightly remarks3 ,that slaughter is1 as far as ,god is concerned1 a just vengeance2 but1 as far as ,jehu is concerned1 it is open murder4 ,but yet1 this deed cannot be regarded as the principal crime of ,jehu and his family4 ,we must not overlook other crimes far more heinous1 and consider the guilty blood shed by them as the sole ground of their punishment4 ,that this was indeed considered as guilt1 but only as a lower degree of it1 is clearly seen from #a ,kings xvi4 #g1 where destruction is announced to ,baasha1 who had destroyed the house of ,jeroboam ,i41 on account of all the evil which he did in the sight of the ,lord1 in provoking ,him to anger with the works of his hands1 so that he may be like the house of ,jeroboam1 and because he killed him4 ,the main crime is1 that ,baasha had become like the house of ,jeroboam4 ,pg #bjf ,what he perpetrated against this house is the minor crime1 and becomes a crime only through the former4--,it is worthy of notice that the blood of ,jezreel exactly corresponds1 according to our explanation1 with the expression1 so that he may be like the house of ,jeroboam4 ,it may be further noticed1 that1 in the deed of ,jehu1 every better feeling cannot be excluded4 ,if the command of ,god had been used by him merely as a pretext1 we could not account for the praise and the promises given to him on account of this very deed1 #b ,kings x4 #cj4 ,it is true that the limitation of the promise shows that pure motives alone did not prevail with him4#d--,the bloody deed to which the house of ,jehu owed its elevation nowhere else appears as the cause of the catastrophe which befell this house4 ,that which he had done against the house of ,ahab1 whose sins were crying to heaven for vengeance far more than those of ,baasha1 is1 in #b ,kings x4 #cj1 #ca1 represented as his merit4 ,his guilt consisted in his not departing from the ways of ,jeroboam1 and in his making ,israel to sin4 ,it is this guilt alone which1 in the ,book of ,kings1 is charged against all the members of his family1--against ,jehoahaz1 the son of ,jehu1 in #b ,kings xiii4 #b2 against ,jehoash1 in #b ,kings xiii4 #aa2 against ,jeroboam1 in #b ,kings xiv4 #bd2 against ,zechariah1 under whom the catastrophe took place1 in #b ,kings xv4 #i3 ,and he did that which was evil in the eyes of the ,lord1 as his fathers had done1 and departed not from the sins of ,jeroboam the son of ,nebat1 who had made ,israel to sin4 ,according to the context1 we must1 in the first place1 think of the religious guilt2 the blood of ,jezreel1 in the verse under consideration1 must correspond with the whoredoms in ver4 #b4--,moreover1 the extension of the punishment to all ,israel could not1 according to this explanation1 be understood2 for the deed was only that of ,jehu and his assistants4 ,how1 then1 could not only the house of ,jehu be punished1 but also ,pg #bjg the kingdom of the house of ,israel be destroyed1 and its bow broken in the valley of ,jezreel8 ,according to another interpretation still more prevalent1 the blood of ,jezreel denotes all the evil deeds committed by the ,israelitish kings in ,jezreel4 ,but this interpretation is sufficiently invalidated by the single circumstance1 that the residence of the family of ,jehu1 which1 after all1 alone comes into consideration in this place1 was1 from the very beginning1 not ,jezreel1 but ,samaria2 compare #b ,kings x4 #cf1 xiii4 #aj1 xiv4 #bc4 ,two particulars are contained in the announcement of punishment4 ,first1--,the whole house of ,jehu1 and then all ,israel1 are to become a ,jezreel as regards punishment1 as they are even now in point of guilt2 and1 in this announcement1 the significant paronomasia must not be overlooked between ,israel--the designation of the dignity of the people1 and ,jezreel--that which is base in deeds and condition4 ,calvin makes prominent the last-mentioned feature only3 ,you are1 he explains1 a degenerate people1 you differ in nothing from your king ,ahab4 ,we cannot1 however1 follow him in this explanation2 the words1 ,i cause to cease the kingdom of the house of ,israel1 cannot1 as several interpreters suppose1 mean merely1 ,i will put an end to the dominion of the family of ,jehu over ,israel4 ,that these words rather announce the cessation of every native regal government1 and hence of the entire national independence1 is so evident1 that it stands in need of no proof4 ,both of these features are1 in their fulfilment1 separated indeed by a long period of time 7see the ,introduction72 but they are nevertheless closely connected4 ,with the ruin of the house of ,jehu1 the strength of the kingdom of ,israel was broken2 from that time it was only a living corpse4 ,the fall of the house of ,jehu was the beginning of the end1--the commencement of the process of putrefaction4 ,the omission1 in the inscription1 of all mention of any of the kings after ,jeroboam1 coincides with the circumstance that the fall of the house of ,jehu is connected with the fall of the kingdom4 ,with regard1 however1 to the former event1 ,hosea had an earlier prophecy before him4 ,it had been prophesied to ,jehu 7#b ,kings x4 #cj7 that his children should sit on the throne until the fourth generation4 ,now1 since ,jeroboam was the great-grandson of ,jehu1 the glory of ,pg #bjh this family must come to an end with his son4 ,but at no period did the house of ,jehu1 and the kingdom of ,israel1 seem to be so far from destruction as under the reign of ,jeroboam2 and1 hence1 it was time that the forgotten prophecy should be revived1 and1 at the same time1 expanded4 ,ver4 #e4 ,and it shall come to pass at that day1 that ,i break the bow of ,israel in the valley of ,jezreel4 ,of this1 ,calvin gives the following paraphrase3 ,ye are puffed up with pride2 ye oppose your fierceness to ,god1 because ye excel in weapons and strength2 because ye are warlike men1 ye believe that ,god can do nothing against you4 ,but surely your bows shall not prevent ,his hands from destroying you4--,in the valley of ,jezreel1 ,israel shall become1 as to punishment1 what they already are1 as to guilt1 viz41 a ,jezreel4 ,the verse is a further expansion of the last words of the preceding one1 to which the words1 at that day1 refer4 ,he whose bow is broken is defenceless and powerless2 compare ,gen4 xlix4 #bd2 #a ,sam4 ii4 #d2 ,jer4 xlix4 #ce4 ,it is evident that we can here think only of the defeat of ,israel by the ,assyrians1 the consequence of which was the total overthrow of the kingdom of ,israel4 ,but it is not to be overlooked1 that the ,assyrians1 who in the second section of ,hosea are frequently mentioned in express terms1 as the instruments of ,god's punishment1 are not spoken of at all as such in the first section1 which belongs to the reign of ,jeroboam4 ,amos likewise abstains from mentioning any name of the enemies4 ,the ,assyrians had not at that time appeared on the historical horizon4 ,but the prophecy was to evince itself as such1 by the fact of the announcement of the judgment at a time when its instruments were not as yet prepared2 just as ,elijah1 in #a ,kings xviii4 #da1 hears the rushing of the rain before there was even a cloud in the sky4--,we are not told in the historical books at what place ,israel was defeated by the ,assyrians4 ,jerome1 in his remarks on our passage1 says that it took place in the valley of ,jezreel4 ,it is very probable1 however1 that this is only an inference clothed in the garb of history4 ,but even apart from the passage under review1 the matter is very probable4 ,the valley of ,jezreel or ,esdrelon is the largest1 and at the same time the most fertile1 plain of ,palestine4 ,the brook of ,kishon1 which is1 next to ,jordan1 the most important river of ,palestine1 waters and fructifies it1 and1 ,pg #bji with its tributaries1 flows through it in all directions4 7,ritter1 ,s4 #fhi47 ,in all the wars which were carried on within the territories of the ten tribes1 especially when the enemies came from the ,north1 it was the natural battle-field4 ,it was1 in the first centuries1 the station of a legion 7 72 it is the place where the troops of ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,vespasian1 ,justinian1 the ,sultan ,saladdin1 and many other conquering armies were encamped1 down to the unsuccessful expedition of ,buonaparte1 whose success in ,syria here terminated4 ,clarke found erected here the tents of the troops of the ,pacha of ,damascus4 ,in later times1 it was the scene of the skirmishes between the parties of hostile hordes of ,arabs and ,turkish pachas4 ,in the political relations of ,asia ,minor1 it is to this locality that there must be ascribed the total devastation and depopulation of ,galilee1 which once was so flourishing1 full of towns1 and thickly populated4 7,ritter1 ,erdk4 #a ,ausg4 ii4 ,s4 #chg47 ,we may add1 that1 in the same plain also1 the battle was fought in which ,saul and ,jonathan perished 7for the plain of ,esdrelon is bounded on the south-east by the mountains of ,gilboa71 and so likewise was the battle between ,ahab and the ,syrians4 ,to it also belonged the plain near the town of ,megiddo1 where ,josiah1 in the battle against ,pharaoh-,necho1 was mortally wounded4 ,compare ,rosenmller1 ,alt4 ii4 #a1 p4 #adi4 ,ver4 #f4 ,and she conceived again1 and bare a daughter4 ,and ,he said to him1 ,call her name ,lo-,ruhamah 7i4e41 one who has not obtained mercy73 for ,i will not continue any more to have mercy upon the house of ,israel2 for ,i will take away from them4--,interpreters ask why the second child was a female2 and this question is by no means an idle one1 since the prophet everywhere else adheres closely to the subject-matter1 and adds no feature1 merely for the sake of giving vividness to the picture4 ,we cannot for a moment suppose1 as ,jerome and others do1 that the female child denotes a more degraded generation4 ,for why1 then1 is the third again a male child8 ,the supposition proceeds from the altogether unfounded notion that the three children denote different generations4 ,the reason must1 on the contrary1 be sought for in the name4 ,schmid says3 ,it seems to have reference to the weakness of the sex4 ,for the female sex ,pg #baj finds greater sympathy than the male4 ,the verb does not denote any kind of love1 but only the love of him who is high to him who is low1 of the strong to the weak2 and hence the ,,lxx41 whom ,peter follows in #a ,pet4 ii4 #aj 7 71 render the word more accurately than ,paul1 in ,rom4 ix4 #be 7 74 ,hence it is never used of man's love to ,god1 but only of the love of ,god to man1--of ,his mercy4 ,the only passage which seems to contradict this1 ,ps4 xviii4 #b1 is not to the purpose1 as1 there1 the ,kal is used4 ,but the female sex1 being weaker1 stands in greater need of the compassion of men1 than does the male4 ,is4 ix4 #af4 ,the female child places the neediness and helplessness of the people in more striking contrast with the refusal of help from ,him who alone can bestow it4 ,the is either ,participle in ,pual which has cast off the 1 or the #c;d fem4 ,pret4 in pause2 thus ,cocceius1 who explains it by3 ,she has not obtained mercy4 ,it is in favour of the latter view1 that according to ,ewald1 #caj b1 does not often stand before a ,participle4 ,the words1 ,i will not continue1 refer to the former great manifestations of divine mercy1 and especially the last under ,jeroboam1 which the people still1 at that time1 enjoyed2 compare #b ,kings xiii4 #bc3 ,and the ,lord was gracious unto them1 and had mercy upon them1 and turned towards them because of ,his covenant with ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 and would not destroy them1 neither cast them from ,his presence4 ,upon this contrast1 also1 rests the mild expression1 ,i will not have mercy1--an expression which1 in virtue of this contrast1 becomes stronger than any other4 ,several interpreters here lay peculiar stress upon the circumstance1 that the house of ,israel is spoken of4 ,this1 the kingdom of ,israel1 they say1 as an independent state1 is given over to everlasting destruction2 it is only single individuals who shall obtain mercy after they have joined the house of ,david4 ,but the supposition that house of ,israel is used in this sense1 is altogether unfounded4 ,the house is equivalent to the family2 and the prophets speak of a house of ,israel after the destruction1 no less than before it4 ,the words in ii4 #f 7#d71 ,i will not have mercy upon her children1 and the circumstance that she who is here called ,lo-,ruhamah is afterwards called ,ruhamah1 also militate against referring house of ,israel to the state4 ,the right view rather is1 that the denial of mercy ,pg #baa must not be understood absolutely1 but relatively4 ,it is not for ever that mercy shall be denied to them1 but for a time1--until ,god's punitive justice shall have been satisfied4 ,just as ,israel shall not always remain ,jezreel1 ,lo-,ammi shall1 at some future time1 become again ,ammi4--,the last words are1 by the greater number of recent interpreters1 almost unanimously explained3 ,that ,i should forgive them4 ,but1 in that case1 we can perceive no reason why the ,inf4 abs4 should be placed before the tempus finitum4 ,why should the verbal idea here be rendered so emphatic8 ,in addition to this1 the extreme feebleness of the sense would be remarkable4 ,nothing would be said that would not be already implied in the words1 ,i will not continue any more to have mercy4 ,but1 on the other hand1 we obtain a very suitable sense if we translate thus3 ,i will take away from them4 ,the object is not mentioned1 just because every thing is to be understood4 ,the prominence given to the verbal idea is then accounted for from its being contrasted with the having mercy1 which implies giving4 ,there is then1 moreover1 a very striking contrast with the standing phrase 1 or also simply 3 ,i shall take away from them1 not1 however1 as hitherto1 their guilt 7compare ,amos vii4 #h71 but all that they have4 ,calvin had previously directed attention to the circumstance that the following verse also is in favour of the translation by tollere3 ,servare et tollere inter se opponit propheta4 ,chap4 v4 #ad may also be compared1 where is used in a similar manner1 the object being likewise omitted3 ,i will tear and go away1 ,i will take away1 and there is none that delivereth4 ,ver4 #g4 ,and ,i will have mercy upon the house of ,judah1 and ,i save them by the ,lord their ,god2 and ,i do not save them by bow1 and by sword1 and by war1 and by horses1 and by horsemen4 ,several interpreters suppose that mercy is here promised to ,judah as a consolation to ,israel1 inasmuch as the latter should partake in it4 ,but this view is erroneous4 ,from the antithesis to ver4 #f1 it is evident that mercy is here promised to ,judah for the time when ,israel shall not find mercy2 and we are not at liberty to anticipate the time described in ii4 #a-c1 when both become partakers of mercy4 ,this is apparent also from the circumstance that in vers4 #h1 #i1 the threatening of punishment ,pg #bab to ,israel is still continued4 ,it can then only be the intention of the prophet1 by describing the mercy which ,judah their brethren should experience1 to sharpen the goad1 more effectually to rouse ,israel from their false security1 and to direct their attention to the bad foundation of the entire constitution of their political and ecclesiastical affairs1 in consequence of which they considered as legitimate that which1 in ,judah1 was only an abuse4 ,as the showing of mercy to ,judah runs parallel with the withholding of it from ,israel1 we can1 primarily and chiefly1 think only of the different fates of the two1 during the ,assyrian dominion4 ,the wonderful deliverance of ,judah on that occasion is foretold by ,isaiah1 xxxi4 #h1 in a similar manner3 ,and ,asshur falls through the sword not of a man1 and the sword not of a man devours him4 ,we must not1 however1 limit ourselves to this event2 a preference of ,judah over ,israel1 a remnant of divine mercy appeared1 even when they were carried away into captivity4 ,during its continuance1 they were not altogether deprived of marks of the continuance of the divine election4 ,prophets continued to labour among them1 as immediate ambassadors of ,god4 ,wonderful events showed them in the midst of the ,gentiles the superiority of their ,god1 and prepared the way for their deliverance4 ,they maintained1 in a far greater degree1 their national constitution2 and1 lastly1 their affliction lasted for a far shorter time than did that of the ,israelites4 ,contrary to all human expectation1 their affairs soon took a favourable turn1 in which only a comparatively small number of their ,israelitish brethren partook1 while1 for the rest1 the withholding of mercy continued4 ,but it is just by means of this contrast with the lot of ,judah1 that the announcement of the lot of ,israel appears in its true light4 ,without this contrast1 one might have imagined1 that the announcement of the prophet did not go beyond his human vision4 ,it would1 of course1 appear highly probable that a kingdom so weak as that of ,israel1--weak1 especially when compared with those great ,asiatic kingdoms which were great already1 and yet were continually striving after enlargement1--a kingdom1 moreover1 placed in the midst between these kingdoms1 and their natural enemy and rival1 ,egypt--should not have been able to maintain its existence for any length of time4 ,but this probability existed in a far higher decree in the case of the kingdom of ,pg #bac ,judah1 which was smaller and weaker still1 and which had suffered much through ,jehoash the father of ,jeroboam 7#b ,kings xiv4 #ac71 under the latter of whom1 the splendour and glory of ,israel had been so greatly increased4 ,but that which prevented this probability from becoming a reality lay altogether beyond the sphere of human calculation1 as ,hosea himself here so emphatically expresses4 ,and by such help1 the kingdom of ,israel would have been delivered1 no less than the kingdom of ,judah4 ,it is true that this prediction of ,hosea is no prediction of some accidental event1 but has its foundation in the idea4 ,the lots of ,israel and ,judah could not be otherwise than so different1 after their different position in reference to the ,covenant-,god was once fixed4 ,nor is this prediction one which has ceased after its first and literal fulfilment1 but is constantly and anew realizing itself4 ,the proceeding of ,god towards the different ,churches and ,states is regulated by their conduct towards ,him4 ,the history of the world is a judgment of the world4 ,but even to know this truth is1 in itself1 a supernatural gift2 and they only are able to use it with safety1 to whom ,god has given an insight into the mysteries of ,his government of the world4 ,this becomes very evident1 if we observe how often the predictions of those who knew the truth in general1 down to ,bengel and his followers1 have been put to shame by the result4 ,god's ways are not our ways4 ,no one knows them except ,himself1 and those to whom ,he will reveal them4 ,the extent to which the prophecy rests on the idea is1 moreover1 clearly seen by the words1 ,and ,i save them by ,jehovah their ,god4 ,here we have the ground of their deliverance4 ,jehovah is the ,god of ,judah1 and1 hence1 the source of their salvation1 which does not cease to flow although all human sources be dried up4 ,the reason why ,israel does not obtain mercy must then be1 that ,jehovah is not their ,god4 ,that this contrast is implied here1 is confirmed by iii4 #e3 ,afterwards shall the children of ,israel return and seek the ,lord their ,god1 and ,david their king4 ,that which in aftertimes they shall seek1 and thereby obtain salvation1 they must have lost now2 and this loss must be the source of their affliction4 ,calvin makes the following pertinent remark3 ,the antithesis between the false gods and ,jehovah must here be kept in mind4 ,jehovah was the ,god of the house of ,judah2 and hence1 it is just as if the prophet had said1 ',ye ,pg #bad indeed profess the name of ,god1 but ye worship the devil1 and not ,god4 ,ye have no part in ,jehovah4 ,he resides in ,his temple1 and has pledged ,his faithfulness to ,david when ,he commanded him to build ,him a temple on ,mount ,zion2 but from you1 the true ,god has departed6' 7,compare ,amos ii4 #h1 where the prophet speaks of the god of the ten tribes as one who belongs to them alone1 and with whom he has nothing to do47 ,in contrast with ,him who alone could grant help1 and whom ,israel did not possess1 but ,judah did1 the prophet enumerates1 in the remaining part of the verse under consideration1 the aids which could not afford any real help1 in which ,israel was1 at that time1 much richer than ,judah1 and in which they placed a false confidence4 ,compare x4 #ac3 ,thou didst trust in thy way1 in the multitude of thy mighty men2 ,ps4 xx4 #h2 ,mic4 v4 #i seqq42 and ,deut4 xxxiii4 #bi1 where the ,lord is spoken of as the only true bulwark and armour3 ,happy art thou1 ,israel3 who is like unto thee8 a people saved by the ,lord1 the shield of thy help1 thy proud sword3 thine enemies shall be liars unto thee1 and thou shalt tread upon their high places4 ,calvin says1 ,god does not require any other aids2 ,his own strength is quite sufficient4 ,the sum and substance is therefore this1 that although the weakness of the kingdom of ,judah excites the contempt of all1 this shall be no obstacle to its deliverance by the grace of ,god1 although there be no help at all from men4--,the prophet has1 at the same time1 before his eyes the great events of former history1 where1 when all human resources failed1 the power of ,god had shown itself to be alone quite sufficient4--,we cannot assert with ,gesenius1 that war should here be quite identical with weapons of war2 it rather comprehends everything which is required for war1 viz41 the prudence of the commanders1 the valour of the heroes1 the strength of the army1 etc4 ,heroes and horsemen are1 however1 specially mentioned1 because in ancient times the main strength of the armies lay in these4 ,even ,mahommed thought himself entitled to hold up a victory which he had obtained without cavalry--by infantry alone--as a miracle wrought immediately by ,god2 comp4 ,abulf4 vit4 ,moh4 pp4 #gb1 #ia4 ,ver4 #h4 ,and she weaned ,lo-,ruhamah1 and conceived1 and bare a son4 ,ver4 #i4 ,and ,he said1 ,call his name1 ,lo-,ammi 7i4e41 not ,pg #bae my people72 for you are not ,my people1 and ,i1 not will ,i be yours4 ,as the prophet everywhere else adheres closely to his subject-matter1 as1 indeed1 he allows the figure to recede behind the subject of his discourse1 but never the opposite1 we cannot well imagine that the weaning is mentioned merely for the purpose of making the description more graphic4 ,calvin says1 ,i do not doubt that the prophet intends here to commend the ,lord's long-continued mercy and forbearance towards that people4 ,the unfaithfulness of the wife1 and the forbearance of the prophet1 do indeed continue for years4 ,but it is better to suppose that the mention of the weaning is intended to separate the territory of ,lo-,ruhamah from the following birth1 and to call forth the idea that1 now1 there may follow one of better import4--,the literal translation of the close of the verse is1 ,and ,i will not be to you--equivalent to1 ,i will not any longer belong to you4 ,we cannot assume1 as ,manger does1 that has been here left out1 nor1 as others do1 that it must be supplied4 ,since it is ,god who speaks1 to you1 or yours1 is sufficiently definite4 ,similar is ,ezek4 xvi4 #h3 ,and ,i entered into a covenant with thee1 and thou becamest ,mine1 2 ,ps4 cxviii4 #f3 ,the ,lord is mine1 1 ,i will not fear4 ,the explanation given by some1 ,i shall not be among you1 is too limited4 ,it is the highest happiness to possess ,god ,himself1 with all ,his gifts and blessings1 and the greatest misery to lose ,him4 ,the fulfilment of this threatening is reported in #b ,kings xvii4 #ah3 ,and the ,lord was very angry with ,israel1 and removed them out of ,his sight2 and there was none left but the tribe of ,judah alone2 comp4 also ,is4 vii4 ,the first three verses of the following chapter ought to have been connected with the first chapter2 for they contain the announcement of salvation which is necessary to complete the first prophecy4 ,chap4 ii4 #a4 ,and the number of the children of ,israel shall be as the sand of the sea1 which is not measured nor numbered4 ,and it shall come to pass1 in the place where it was said unto them1 ,not my people ye1 it shall be said unto them4 ,sons of the living ,god4 ,the first point which requires to be determined1 is the subject of the verse4 ,every other reference except that to the ,pg #baf ten tribes is here out of the question2 inasmuch as the same who1 in the preceding verse1 were called ,lo-,ammi1 are now to be called sons of the living ,god4 ,several of the ancient expositors here assume a sudden transition to the ,christian ,church2 but such would be a salto mortale4 ,nor are we to understand by the children of ,israel1 all the descendants of ,jacob2 for the children of ,judah are distinguished from them in ver4 #b4 ,substantially1 however1 those too are included1 as appears from this very verse2 for both shall then form one nation of brethren4 ,but here the prophet views only one portion1 because to this only did the preceding threatening1 and the mission of the prophet in general1 refer4 ,from this1 also1 it may be explained how the prophet may apply to the part the promises of ,genesis1 which there refer to the whole4 ,the reference to these promises1 in the first part of the verse1 cannot be at all mistaken4 ,compare especially1 as agreeing most literally1 the passage in ,gen4 xxii4 #ag3 ,i will multiply thy seed as the stars of heaven1 and as the sand which is on the shore of the sea2 and xxxii4 #ac 7#ab73 ,i make thy seed as the sand of the sea1 which is not numbered for multitude4 ,a similar literal reference is in ,jer4 xxxiii4 #bb3 ,as the host of heaven is not numbered1 neither the sand of the sea measured2 so will ,i multiply the seed of ,david ,my servant4 ,now1 the reference here cannot be accidental4 ,it supposes that these promises were at that time generally known in the kingdom of ,israel4 ,they served to strengthen the ungodly in their false security4 ,relying on them1 they charged the prophets with making ,god a liar in thus announcing the impending destruction of the kingdom1 inasmuch as the prophecy had not yet been fulfilled in all its extent4 ,the prophet1 however1 by his almost literal repetition of the promise1 shows that thereby his threatenings are not excluded--teaches that the visitation of which he had spoken would be such that1 nevertheless1 ,god would not forget ,his word2 that the rejection of the people would be such that1 nevertheless1 its election should stand firm and sure1--and1 finally1 that the adoption should not be invalid by which ,he had chosen ,abraham's progeny as ,his people 7,calvin74--,the case is quite analogous1 when corrupted ,christian churches harden themselves in trusting in the promise that the ,lord would be with them all the days1 and that the gates of hell should not prevail against ,his ,church4 ,the ,pg #bag ,lord knoweth how to execute ,his judgments so that ,his promises shall not suffer thereby1 yea1 that their fulfilment is thereby rendered possible4 ,the relation of our passage to ,is4 x4 #bb requires further to be considered3 ,for though thy people ,israel be as the sand of the sea1 the remnant only shall return4 ,here1 too1 the reference to the promises in ,genesis cannot be mistaken4 ,but there is this difference1--that in the time of ,isaiah1 the people1 viewing the partial fulfilment of the promises of ,god in their then prosperous condition1 as a sure pledge of divine mercy1 founded thereupon their false security4 ,to this1 however1 the prophet replies1 that even the perfect fulfilment would give no warrant for it4 ,in ,hosea1 however1 they rely on the perfect fulfilment1 which had1 as yet1 no existence at all4 ,but ,hosea has in view the godly as much as the ungodly4 ,to the former he shows that here also there would be a fulfilment of what is written in ,num4 xxiii4 #ai3 ,god is not a man1 that ,he should lie2 neither the son of man1 that ,he should repent4 ,should ,he say1 and not do it2 and speak1 and not fulfil it8 ,moreover1 we cannot fail to see that1 in the verse under review1 as also in ver4 #b1 there is an allusion to the first child1 ,jezreel1--that in the second member of the verse there is an allusion to ,lo-,ammi1 and in ver4 #c1 to ,lo-,ruhamah4 ,but the name ,jezreel is now taken in a good sense1 probably in the sense in which it was first given to the valley 7compare remarks on i4 #d71 and also to the town by its founders4 ,jezreel means ,god sows4 ,the founders of the town thereby expressed the hope that ,god would cause an abundant harvest to proceed from a small sowing--a glorious end from a small beginning4 ,thus ,god will now sow the small seed of ,israel1 and an infinitely rich harvest shall be gained from this sowing2 compare remarks on ver4 #be4--;,but if now we seek for the historical reference of the announcement1 we are compelled to go back to the sense of those declarations in ,genesis4 ,by many1 these are referred merely to the bodily descendants of the ,patriarchs2 by many1 also1 to their spiritual descendants1 their successors in the faith4 ,but the latter reference is altogether arbitrary2 and the former could be well-founded only1 if the ,congregation of the ,lord had been destined solely for the natural descendants1 and if all the ,gentiles had been refused admittance into it4 ,but that such is not the case1 is evident from the command to circumcise every bondservant2 ,pg #bah for1 by circumcision1 a man was received among the people of ,god4 ,this appears1 further1 from the command in ,exod4 xii4 #dh1 that every stranger who wished to partake of the ,passover must be previously circumcised2 and this implies that strangers might partake in the sign and feast of the covenant if they wished2 compare ,michaelis1 ,mos4 ,recht4 ,th4 iv4 #ahd4 ,this appears1 moreover1 from ,deut4 xxiii4 #a-h1 where the ,edomites and ,egyptians are expressly declared to be capable of being received into the ,congregation of the ,lord4 ,it appears1 still further1 from the circumstance that1 in the same passage1 the command to exclude the ,ammonites and ,moabites is founded upon a special reason4 ,and1 finally1 it appears from the ,jewish practice at all times4 ,but the heathens who were received among the people of ,god were considered as belonging to the posterity of the ,patriarchs1 as their sons by adoption4 ,how indeed could it be otherwise1 since1 by intermarriage1 every difference must have very soon disappeared8 ,they were called children of ,israel1 and children of ,jacob1 no less than were the others4 ,it now appears to what extent the promise to the ,patriarchs refers to the ,gentiles also--viz41 in so far as they became believers in the ,god of ,israel1 and joined themselves to ,israel4 ,compare ,is4 xliv4 #e3 ,one shall say1 ,i am ,jehovah's1 and another shall call the name of ,jacob1 and another shall write with his hand4 ,unto the ,lord6 and boast of the name of ,israel4 ,such an eager desire of the ,gentiles towards the kingdom of ,god regularly took place1 either when the ,god of ,israel had revealed ,himself by specially distinguishing manifestations of ,his omnipotence and glory1 as1 e4g41 in the deliverance from the ,egyptian and ,babylonish captivities1 in both of which events we find a number of those who had previously been heathens1 1 in the train of the ,israelites2--or when a feeling of the vanity of the idols of the heathen world had been awakened with special vividness1 as in the times after ,alexander the ,great1 in which ,roman and ,greek heathenism became more and more effete1 and rapidly hastened on towards ruin4 ,in the time of ,christ1 both of these causes co-operated4 ,if there were soundness in the opinion now generally prevalent1 according to which the ,church of the ,new ,testament stands quite independent of the ,congregation of ,israel1 having originated from a free and equal union of believers from ,israel1 and of those from among the ,gentiles1 ,pg #bai then indeed the promise now before us would have no longer any reference to ,new ,testament times4 ,the ,new ,testament ,church would be a generation altogether different1 and no longer acknowledge ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob as their fathers4 ,but1 according to the constant doctrine of the ,old as well as of the ,new ,testament1 there is only one ,church of ,god from ,abraham to the end of the days--only one house under two dispensations4 ,john the ,baptist proceeds upon the supposition that the members of the ,new ,testament also must be children of ,abraham1 else the covenant and promise of ,god would come to nought4 ,but as the bodily descent from ,abraham is no security against the danger of exclusion from his posterity--of which ,ishmael was the first example--and as1 so early as in the ,pentateuch1 it is said1 with reference to every greater transgression1 ,this soul is cut off from its people1 so1 on the other hand1 ,god1 in the exercise of ,his sovereign liberty1 may give to ,abraham1 in the room of his degenerate children after the flesh1 adopted children without number1 who shall sit down with him1 and ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 in the kingdom of ,god1 whilst the sons of the kingdom are cast out4--,after these remarks on the promise to the ,patriarchs1 there can be no longer any difficulty in making out the historical reference of the announcement before us4 ,it cannot refer to the bodily descendants of ,abraham1 as such1 any more than the promise of a son to ,abraham was fulfilled in the birth of ,ishmael1 or than the ,arabs stand related to the promise of the innumerable multitude of his descendants1--a promise which is repeated1 in the same extent1 to ,isaac and ,jacob1 although they were not the ancestors of the ,arabs4 ,degenerate sons are not a blessing2 they are no objects of promise1 no sons in the full sense4 ,every one is a son of ,abraham1 only in so far as he is a son of ,god4 ,for this reason the phrases sons of ,israel and sons of the living ,god are1 in the passage before us1 connected with each other4 ,not as though the corporeal descent were altogether a matter of indifference4 ,the corporeal descendants of the ,patriarchs had the nearest claims to becoming their children in the full sense4 ,it was to them that the means of becoming so were first granted4 ,to them pertained the covenants1 the promises1 and the adoption1 ,rom4 ix4 #d4 ,but all these external advantages were of no avail to them when they allowed them to ,pg #bbj remain unused2 in these circumstances1 neither the promise to ,abraham1 nor the announcement before us1 had any reference to them4 ,both of them would have remained to this day unfulfilled1 although the unconverted children of ,israel had increased so as to have become the most populous nation on the face of the whole earth4 ,it thus appears that the announcement before us was first truly realized in the time of the ,messiah2 inasmuch as it was at that time that the family of the ,patriarchs was so mightily increased2 and that it will yet be more fully realized1 partly by the reception of an innumerable multitude of adopted sons1 and partly by the elevation of those who were sons only in a lower sense1 to be sons in the highest4 ,that which occurred at the time after the ,babylonish captivity1 when the ,lord stirred up a number of ,israelites to return to ,palestine1 we can regard as only an insignificant prelude2 partly because this number was too small to correspond1 even in any degree1 to the infinite extent of the promise1 and partly because there were among them certainly a few only who1 in the fullest sense1 deserved the name of ,children of ,israel4 ,israel--which is the higher name1 and has reference to the relation to ,god--is here used emphatically1 as appears especially from a comparison with ver4 #d1 where it is taken from the degenerate children1 and exchanged for the name ,jezreel4--,in the second part of the verse1 we must first set aside the false interpretation of by instead of1 which is given by ,grotius and others4 ,it has arisen from an inappropriate reference to the ,latin1 which has1 however1 no support in the ,hebrew usus loquendi4 ,the words can only mean 7compare ,lev4 iv4 #bd1 #cc2 ,jer4 xxii4 #ab2 ,ezek4 xxi4 #ce2 ,neh4 iv4 #ad73 in the place where1 or1 more literally still1 in the place that--the wider designation instead of the narrower4 ,the status constr4 is explained by the circumstance that the whole succeeding sentence together expresses only one substantive idea1 equivalent to3 in the place of the being said unto them4 ,the place may here be1 either that where the people first received the name ,lo-,ammi1 i4e41 ,palestine1 or the place of the exile1 where they first felt the full meaning of it1--the misery being a sermo realis of ,god4 ,decisive in favour of the latter reference is the following verse1 where the 1 the land of the exile1 corresponds with in the verse before us4 7,according to ,jonathan1 the sense is3 ,in the place to ,pg #bba which they have been carried away among the ,gentiles47 ,it is intentionally that both times the ,future is used1 which is to be understood as the ,present4 ,the difference of time being thus disregarded1 the contrast becomes so much the more striking4--,by people and children of ,god1 the same thing is expressed according to different relations4 ,the ,israelites were the people of ,god1 inasmuch as ,he was their ,king2 and children of ,god1 in as far as ,he was their ,father1--their ,father1 it is true1 in the first place1 not1 as in the ,new ,testament 7,john i4 #ab1 #ac71 in reference to the spiritual generation1 but in relation to heart-felt love1 similar to the love of a father for a son4 ,with regard to the ,old ,testament idea of son ship to ,god1 compare the remarks on ,ps4 ii4 #g4 ,in this relation1 sometimes all ,israel is personified as the son of ,god2 thus1 e4g41 ,exod4 iv4 #bb3 ,thus thou shalt say unto ,pharaoh3 ,my son4 ,my first-born is ,israel4 ,sometimes the ,israelites are also called the children or sons of ,god2 e4g41 ,deut4 xiv4 #a3 ,ye are children to the ,lord your ,god 7compare also ,deut4 xxxii4 #ai71 although not every single individual could on this account be called son of ,god4 ,in this sense1 that designation is never used1 evidently because the sonship under the ,old ,testament does not rest so much on the personal relation of the single individual to ,god1--as is the case in the ,new ,testament1--but the individual rather partakes in it only as a part of the whole4 ,but there is an easy transition from the sonship as viewed in the ,old ,testament1 to the sonship as seen in the ,new4 ,the former1 in its highest perfection1 cannot exist at all without the latter4 ,it is only when its single members are born of ,god1 that the ,congregation can be regarded and treated as the child of ,god in the full sense of the word1 and that the whole fulness of ,his love can be poured out upon it2 for this is the only way of attaining to likeness with ,god1 which is the condition of admission to the rights of children4 ,hence it appears that the under the ,old ,testament was an actual prophecy of the times of the ,new ,testament2 and from it1 it follows also that the announcement under consideration has its ultimate reference to these times4 ,earlier fulfilments--especially at the return from the ,babylonish captivity--are not to be excluded1 inasmuch as the idea comprehends in it everything in which it is1 even in the least degree1 realized2 but they can be considered ,pg #bbb only as a slight prelude to ,its real fulfilment1 which takes place only when the reality fully coincides with the idea2 so that we are not at liberty to limit ourselves to the commencement of the ,messianic time1 but must include the ,messianic time in its last consummation4--,another question still remains3--,why is ,god here called the living8 ,plainly1 to point out the antithesis of the true ,god to dead idols1 which cannot love1 because they do not live2 and thus to bring out the greatness of the privilege of being the child of such a ,god4 ,the same antithesis is found in ,deut4 xxxii4 #c seqq43 ,where are now their gods1 the rock in whom they trusted1 which did eat the fat of their sacrifices1 and drank the wine of their drink-offerings8 ,let them rise up and help you2 let it be a covering to you4 ,see now that ,i1 ,i am ,he1 and not is a ,god beside ,me4 ,i kill and ,i make alive4 ,i wound and ,i heal4 ,this antithesis still continues2 the world has only changed its idols4 ,it still always seeks the life from the dead1 from the gross idol of sin up to the refined idol of a self-made abstract god1 whether he be formed from logical notions or from emotions and feelings4 ,but how much soever they may strive to give life to their idols1 they remain dead1 although they should even attain to a semblance of life4 ,the true ,god1 on the contrary1 lives and continues to live1 how much soever they may strive to slay ,him4 ,he manifests ,himself as the living one1 either by smiting and killing them1 if they continue in their impenitence1 or by healing and quickening them1 if they become ,his children4--,finally1--we must still consider the two citations1 in the ,new ,testament1 of the passage before us4 ,one in #a ,pet4 ii4 #aj1 1 1 1 must certainly strike us1 inasmuch as this epistle1 on conclusive grounds 7compare ,steiger ,s4 #ad ff471 cannot be considered as being addressed to ,jewish ,christians exclusively4 ,but still more striking is the second quotation in ,rom4 ix4 #be1 #bf3 1 1 4 1 1 4 ,here our passage is not only alluded to1 but expressly quoted1 and1 in opposition to the ,jews1 the calling of the ,gentiles is proved from it4 ,but how can a passage which1 according to the whole context1 can refer to ,israel only1 be applied ,pg #bbc directly to the ,gentiles8 ,the answer very readily suggests itself when we reduce the prophecy to its fundamental idea4 ,this is none other than that of divine mercy1 which may indeed1 by apostasy and unfaithfulness1 be prevented from manifesting itself1 but can never be extinguished1 because it has its foundation in ,god's nature4 ,compare ,jer4 xxxi4 #bj3 ,is ,ephraim a dear son to ,me1 a child of joy8 ,for as often as ,i speak of him1 ,i must still remember him4 ,therefore ,my bowels sound for him1 ,i will have mercy upon him1 saith the ,lord4 ,now1 in the same manner as this truth was realized in the restoration of the children of ,israel to be again the children of ,god1 so it is in the reception of the ,gentiles4 ,it is not at all a mere application1 but a real proof which here forms the question at issue4 ,it is because ,god had promised to receive again the children of ,israel1 that ,he must receive the ,gentiles also2 for otherwise that divine decree would have its foundation in mere caprice1 which cannot be conceived to have any existence in ,god4 ,although the ,gentiles are not so near as ,israel1 yet ,he must satisfy the claims of those who are more remote1 just because ,he acknowledges the claims of those who are near4 ,the necessity of going back to the fundamental idea appears in the promises as well as in the commandments4 ,we cite only one instance which is especially fitted to serve as a parallel to the case before us4 ,there is no doubt1 and prejudice alone could have denied1 that in the ,pentateuch1 by friend and brother the ,israelite is to be understood throughout2 it is in the ,new ,testament that the command of ,christian brotherly love is given4 ,after having commended truthfulness1 ,paul adds3 ,because ye are members of one another--a reason which can refer to those only who have ,christ as their common head4 ,from this limitation1 can anything be inferred to the prejudice of love towards the whole human race1 or of the duties towards all without any distinction8 ,just the reverse4 ,it is just because the ,israelite is bound to love the ,israelite1 and the ,christian the ,christian1 that he should embrace all men in love4 ,if the special relation to ,god as the common ,redeemer afford the foundation for the special love1 then the general relation to ,god as the ,creator and ,preserver must also afford the foundation of universal love2 just as from the command to honour father and mother1 it necessarily follows that we must also ,pg #bbd honour uncle and aunt1 king and magistrate4 ,this is the only correct view of the laws and prophecies2 and if it be consistently followed out1 it will make water to flow out of the rock1 and will create streams in the wilderness4 ,ver4 #b4 ,and the children of ,judah and the children of ,israel assemble themselves together1 and set over themselves one head1 and go up out of the land2 for great is the day of ,jezreel4 ,the words1 ,they appoint themselves a king1 appear strange at first sight4 ,for it is not1 in general1 the union of ,judah and ,israel which the prophet expects from better times2--a perverse union of both1 one1 it may be1 in which the house of ,judah shall also give up ,jehovah his ,god1 and ,david his ,king1 only in order to be able to live on a right brotherly footing with ,israel1 would have been anything but a progress and a blessing2--but such a union as has for its foundation the return of ,israel to the true ,god1 and to the ,davidic dynasty4 ,this appears clearly from iii4 #e4 ,the difficulty is removed by a comparison with the passage of the ,pentateuch to which the prophet seems to allude3 ,thou shalt set over thee a king1 whom the ,lord thy ,god shall choose1 ,deut4 xvii4 #ae4 ,the prophet seems to have these words before his eyes1 as it appears elsewhere also1 where he describes the hitherto opposite conduct of the ,israelites2 compare the remarks on iii4 #d4 ,from these it appears that the election of the king by ,god1 who had promised eternal dominion to the house of ,david1 and his election by the people1 do not in the least exclude one another4 ,on the contrary1 it is because ,god had elected the king1 that now the people also elect him4 ,calvin remarks3 ,there appears to be transferred to men what properly belongs to ,god alone--viz41 the appointment of a king2 but the prophet expresses1 by this word1 the obedience of faith2 for it is not enough that ,christ be given1 and placed before men as a ,king1 but they must also acknowledge and reverently receive ,him as a ,king4 ,from this we infer1 that when we believe the ,gospel1 we choose1 as it were by our own vote1 ,christ as our ,king4 ,that the prophet understands the setting of a head in this sense1 appears also from the circumstance that the whole verse is based upon the reference to the ,exodus from ,egypt1 which is now to be repeated4 ,to this the words1 ,they assemble themselves together1 likewise refer2 for the departure from ,egypt was preceded by the assembling together of the ,pg #bbe whole people4 ,the mention of a head refers back to ,moses4 ,in his case1 as well as that of ,david subsequently1 the election by the people was only the acknowledgment of his having been divinely called4--,another question is1 ,how are the words1 ,they go up out of the land1 to be understood8 ,there can be no doubt that by land1 the land of captivity is designated4 ,for the words are borrowed from ,exod4 i4 #aj1 where ,pharaoh says1 ,when there falleth out any war1 they will join our enemies1 and fight against us1 and go up out of the land1 4 ,the prophet1 moreover1 is his own interpreter in ii4 #ag1 where he expressly compares this new going up to the promised land with the former going up from ,egypt3 ,as in the day when she went up out of the land of ,egypt2 just as1 in other passages1 he describes their being carried away1 under the figure of their being carried away to ,egypt--,assyria being considered as another ,egypt4 ,compare viii4 #ac3 ,now will ,he remember their iniquity and visit their sins2 they shall return to ,egypt2 ix4 #c3 ,they shall not dwell in the ,lord's land1 and ,ephraim returns to ,egypt4 7,compare1 on this passage1 the ,author's ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pentateuch1 vol4 i4 p4 #aba ff47 ,moreover1 in the other prophets also1 the going up from1 or deliverance out of1 ,egypt1 forms throughout the basis of the second great deliverance4 ,and this is quite natural2 for both of those events stand in the closest actual connection with each other2--both proceeded from the same ,divine ,being2 and the former was a prophecy by fact1 and a pledge of the latter4 ,the deliverance of the people of ,god from ,egypt sealed their election2 and from the latter the new deliverance necessarily followed2--a relation which repeats itself in individuals also4 ,from this we may explain the fact that in the ,psalms1 they who celebrate ,god's former mercies1 prove from them to ,him and to themselves1 throughout1 that ,he must now also be their helper4 ,it is then by no means a mere external similarity which induces the prophets ever and anon to refer to the deliverance from ,egypt 7compare the passages ,mic4 ii4 #ab1 #ac2 ,jer4 xxiii4 #g1 #h1 which bear so close a resemblance to the passage before us71 any more than that the ,passover is a mere memorial4 ,such cannot occur in the true religion which has a living ,god1 and hence knows nothing of anything absolutely past4 ,ewald's ,pg #bbf exposition1 that they go up out of the country for the purpose of further conquest1 and that of ,simson1 that they go up to ,jerusalem1 sever the three events which1 as the example of previous history shows1 are evidently so closely allied2 and these expositors1 moreover1 give1 by an addition of their own1 that definiteness to the words1 ,and they shall go up out of the land1 which they can obtain only by a reference to the history of the past4 ,in their ambiguity1 they almost expressly point to such a commentary4--,the article in 1 the 7i4e41 the definite7 land1 is explained from the circumstance that1 in the previous context1 there had been an indirect allusion to their being carried away into a strange land4 ,if ,israel was no more the people of ,god1--if they no longer enjoyed ,his mercy1 then it is supposed that they could not remain in the land which they had received only as the people of ,god1 and had hitherto retained only through ,his mercy4 ,but1 primarily1 the article refers to the place where it was said unto them1 in the preceding verse4--,that along with the children of ,israel1 the children of ,judah also assemble themselves and go up1 implies a fact which the prophet had not expressly mentioned1 because it did not stand immediately connected with his purpose--viz41 that ,judah too should be carried into captivity4 ,it thus supplements chap4 i4 #g1 by showing that the mercy there promised to the inhabitants of ,judah is to be understood relatively only4 ,such suppositions1 indeed1 show very plainly how distinctly the future lay before the eyes of the prophet4#e--,with regard1 now1 to the historical reference1--it must1 in the first place1 be remarked1 that whatever is here determined concerning it1 must be applicable to all other ,pg #bbg parallel passages also1 in which a future reunion of ,israel and ,judah1 and their common return to the promised land1 are announced2 e4g41 ,jer4 iii4 #ah3 ,in those days the house of ,judah shall walk with the house of ,israel1 and they come together out of the land of the north to the land that ,i have given to their fathers2 l4 #d3 ,in those days the children of ,israel shall come1 they and the children of ,judah together1 weeping shall they come and seek the ,lord their ,god4 ,compare also ,is4 xi42 ,ezek4 xxxvii4 #ai1 #bj4 ,in the passage under consideration1 several interpreters1 as ,theodoret1 think of the return from ,babylon1 and refer the one head to ,zerubbabel4 ,now we certainly cannot deny that1 in that event1 there is a small beginning of the fulfilment4 ,but if that had been the entire fulfilment1 ,hosea would more resemble a dreamer and an enthusiast than a true prophet of the living ,god4 ,the objection which immediately presents itself--viz41 that1 after all1 the greatest portion of the ten tribes1 and a very considerable part of ,judah1 remained in captivity--is by no means the strongest4 ,although the whole both of ,judah and ,israel had returned1 the real and final fulfilment could not be sought for in that event4 ,it is not the renewed possession of the country1 as such1 which the prophet promises1 but rather a certain kind of possession1--such a possession as that the land is completely the land of ,god1 partaking in all the fulness of ,his blessings1 and thus a worthy residence for the people of ,god1 and for their children4 ,one may be in ,canaan1 and yet1 at the same time1 in ,babylon or in ,assyria4 ,had not the threatened punishment of ,god been indeed as fully executed upon those who1 during the ,assyrian and ,babylonish captivities1 wandered about the country in sorrow and misery1 as upon those who were carried away8 ,can the circumstance that ,jews are even now living in ,jerusalem in the deepest misery1 be adduced as a proof that the loss of the promised land1 with which the people were threatened1 had not been completely fulfilled8 ,it is true that1 during the times of the ,old ,covenant1 there existed a certain connection betwixt the lower and the higher kinds of possession4 ,as soon as the people ceased to be the people of the ,lord1 they lost with the former1 after being often previously warned by the decrease of it1 the latter also4 ,as soon as they obtained again the lower kind of possession1 which could happen only in the case of a ,pg #bbh return to the ,lord1 they recovered1 to a certain degree1 in proportion to the earnestness and sincerity of their conversion1 the higher kind of possession also4 ,a commencement of the fulfilment must1 therefore1 be at all events assumed in the return from the ,babylonish captivity2 but a very feeble commencement only4 ,just as the conversion was very superficial1 so was the degree of the higher kind of possession but a very small one4 ,the manifestations of mercy were very sparing2 the condition of the new colony was1 upon the whole1 very poor2 they did not possess the land as a free property1 but only under the dominion of a foreigner4 ,that which was1 in one respect1 the termination of the captivity1 was1 in another1 much rather a continuation of it4 ,it was certainly not the true ,canaan which they possessed1 any more than one still possesses the beloved object while he embraces only his corpse4 ,where the ,lord is not present with ,his gifts and blessings1 there ,canaan cannot be4 ,it was just as the land of the presence of the ,lord1 that it was so dear and valuable to all believers4--,from what has now been said1 it appears that1 as regards the historical reference1 we need not limit ourselves to the times of the ,old ,covenant1 nor dream of a return of ,israel to ,canaan to take place at some future time4 ,luther's explanation1 ,they will go up from this place of pilgrimage to the heavenly father-land1 is quite correct1--not indeed according to the letter1 but according to the spirit4 ,it is not the form1 but the essence of the divine inheritance1 which the prophet has in view4 ,the form is a different one under the ,new ,covenant1 where the whole earth has become a ,canaan2 but the essence remains4 ,to cling here to the form1 would be just as absurd as if one1 who1 for ,christ's sake1 has forsaken all1 were to upbraid ,him because he had not received again1 according to the letter of ,his promise1 precisely an hundred-fold1 lands1 brothers1 sisters1 mothers1 etc41 ,mark x4 #cj4 ,the words of ,god1 which are spirit and life1 must be understood with spirit and life4--,suppose that the children of ,israel were1 at some future time1 to return to ,canaan1 this would have nothing to do with our prophecy4 ,in a religious point of view1 it would be a matter of no consequence1 and could not serve to prove the ,covenant-faithfulness of ,god4 ,under the ,new ,covenant it finds its fulfilment1 that ,canaan must1 even in the ,north1 bloom joyfully around the beloved4 ,the three stations ,pg #bbi--;,egypt1 the wilderness1 and ,canaan--will continue to exist for ever2 but we go from the one to the other only with the feet of the spirit1 and not1 as in the ,old ,covenant1 with the feet of the body at the same time4 ,the grossly literal explanation which knows not to separate the thought from its drapery1 the essential from the accidental1 agrees1 just in the main point1 with the allegorical explanation--viz41 in interpolating1 instead of interpreting4--,the fulfilment of the prophecy before us is1 therefore1 a continuous and progressive one1 which will not cease until ,god's whole plan of salvation be consummated4 ,it began at ,babylon1 and was carried forward at the appearance of ,christ1 whom many out of ,judah and ,israel set over themselves as their head1 to be their common leader to ,canaan4 ,it is1 even now1 realized every day before our eyes in every ,israelite who follows their example4 ,it will1 at some future time1 find its final fulfilment in the last and greatest manifestation of ,god's ,covenant-faithfulness towards ,israel1 which1 happily1 is as strongly guaranteed by the ,new as it is by the ,old ,testament4--,the last words of the verse have been already explained1 substantially1 in ver4 #a4 ,the name ,jezreel is here used with a reference to its appellative signification4 ,israel appears here 7compare ver4 #be #bc1 which serves as a commentary and as a refutation of differing interpretations7 as a seed which is sown by ,god in fruitful land1 and which shall produce a rich harvest4 ,the figure appears1 with a somewhat different turn1 in ,jer4 xxxi4 #bg2 ,ezek4 xxxvi4 #i1 where the house of ,israel1 and the house of ,judah1 appear as the soil in which the seed is sown by ,god4 ,analogous is also ,ps4 lxxii4 #af3 ,they of the city shall flourish up like the grass of the earth4--,the is explained by the circumstance that the sowing1 which can take place only in the land of the ,lord 7compare ver4 #be71 supposes the going up from the land of the captivity4 ,but if the day of sowing be great1 if it be regarded by ,god as high and important1 then the going up1 which is the condition of sowing1 must necessarily take place4 ,ver4 #c4 ,say ye unto your brethren1 ,my people 7,ammi72 and to your sisters1 ,who has obtained mercy 7,ruhamah74 ,the words1 ,my people1 are a concise expression for3 ,you whom the ,lord has called4 ,my people4 ,the mention of the brothers and sisters is explained by the reference to the ,pg #bcj male and female members of the prophet's family4 ,the phrase1 ,say ye1 is in substance equivalent to3 ,then will ye be able to say4 ,the prophet sees before him the people of the ,lord who have experienced mercy2 and calls upon the members to salute one another joyfully with the new name given to them by ,god4 ,such is the simple meaning of the verse1 which has been darkened by a multitude of forced interpretations4 ,footnote #a3 ,in ,hab4 ii4 #a1 where the prophet is standing upon his watch1 and watches to see what the ,lord will say unto him1 it would be rather strange to translate in me4 ,there is nothing else to lead us to conceive that the apparition of angels in ,zech4 is internal4 ,but ,num4 xii4 #h is quite decisive4 ,the ,lord there says1 with reference to ,his relation to ,moses1 ,mouth to mouth ,i speak to him 772 and immediately afterwards it is said1 ,wherefore1 then1 were ye not afraid to speak to ,my servant 771 to ,moses8 ,it is evident that the cannot be explained by in in the one case1 and by through in the other4 ,it is remarkable1 however1 that with occurs very frequently when the ,lord ,himself1 or1 as in ,zechariah1 the ,angel1 speaks4 ,this may1 perhaps1 be explained from the circumstance1 that the heavenly discourses have an especially penetrating power1 and sink very deeply into the heart4 ,footnote #b3 ,this is very natural1 for the proper name has originally a cheering signification4 ,it is apparent from the remarks of ,schubert 7,reise iii4 ,s4 #afd-aff71 and of ,ritter 7,erdkunde #af1 i4 ,s4 #fic71 on the natural condition of the plain of ,jezreel1 how it happened that it received this name1 which means3 ,god sows4 ,schubert calls the soil of ,jezreel a field of corn1 the seed of which is not sown by any man's hand1 the ripe ears of which are not reaped by any reaper4 ,the various kinds of corn appeared to him to be wild plants2 the mules walked in them with half their bodies covered by them2 the ears of wheat were sown by themselves4 ,all travellers1 says ,ritter1 agree in their descriptions of the extraordinary beauty and fertility of the plain4 ,footnote #c3 ,this transference was so much the more natural1 as1 under the government of the house of ,jehu1 guilt had certainly been frequently concentrated in the form of blood-guiltiness4 ,compare ,is4 i4 #ba1 where the prophet1 in order to mark out the reigning sin in its highest degree1 represents ,jerusalem as being full of murderers4 ,footnote #d3 ,hitzig is of opinion that the prophet cannot blame him for the death of ,joram and ,jezebel1 but may well do so for the murder of ,ahaziah1 king of ,judah1 and of his brethren1 and for the carnage described in #b ,kings x4 #aa4 ,but ,ahaziah was not killed at ,jezreel3 compare #b ,kings ix4 #bg2 #b ,chron4 xxii4 #i4 ,and the carnage in #b ,kings xii4 likewise took place at ,jezreel to a small extent only1 in so far1 namely1 as it concerned the princes of the house of ,ahab1 who still remained in ,jezreel4 ,compare ,thenius on this passage4 ,footnote #e3 ,that the carrying away of ,judah1 which is here supposed1 is a total and future one1 and not1 as ,hofmann 7,weiss4 u4 ,erf4 i4 ,s4 #baj7 asserts1 one which is partial and already past 7,joel iv4 iii4 #b-h2 ,amos i4 #f1 #i71 appears from the analogy of the children of ,israel1--from the reference to the type of the ,egyptian conditions1--from a comparison of chap4 v4 #e1 #ab1 xii4 #a-c1--;from the fact that the carrying away is placed in the view of the whole people as early as in the ,pentateuch1 e4g41 ,deut4 xxviii4 #cf1 iv4 #bf1 #bg1--;and1 finally1 from the fact1 that the other prophets also1 even from the most ancient times1 manifest a clear knowledge of the catastrophe which threatened ,judah also2 compare1 e4g41 ,amos ii4 #d1 #e4 ,moreover1 in ,is4 xi4 #aa1 #ab1 also1 the return of ,judah is prophesied1 although no express announcement of the carrying away precedes4 ,in like manner1 in ,amos ix4 #aa1 the restoration of the fallen tabernacle of ,david is foretold1 although no express mention is made of its fall4 ,,chap4 ,,ii4 #d-be 7#b-bc74 ,the significant couple--,rckert remarks--disappears in the thing signified by it2 ,israel itself appears as the wife of whoredoms4 ,this is the only essential difference between this and the preceding sections2 and it is the less marked1 because even there1 in the last part of it1 the symbolical action passed over into a mere figure4 ,with this exception1 this section also contains the alternation of punishment and threatening1 and of promise1--the latter beginning with ver4 #af 7#ad74 ,the features of the image1 which were less attended to in the preceding portion1 but are here more carefully portrayed1 are the rejection of the unfaithful wife1 and her gradual restoration4 ,calvin says3 ,after ,god has laid open their sins before men4 ,he adds some consolation1 and tempers the severity1 lest they should despair4 ,but then ,he returns again to threatenings1 and ,he must do so necessarily2 for though men may have been terrified by the fear of punishment1 yet they do not recover1 and become wise for ever4 ,by a new impetus as it were1 says ,manger1 he suddenly returns to expand the same argument1 and sets out again from things more sad4 ,ver4 #d4 ,contend with your mother1 contend2 for she is not my wife1 and ,i am not her husband3 and let her put away her whoredoms from her face1 and her adultery from her breasts4 ,calvin is of opinion that a contrast is here intended1 inasmuch as the ,israelites were striving with ,god1 and attributed to ,him the cause of their misfortune3 ,do not contend with ,me1 but rather with your mother1 who1 by her adultery1 has brought down righteous punishment upon herself and upon you4 ,but this interpretation is inadmissible2 because it proceeds ,pg #bca from the unfounded supposition that the divorce is to be considered as having already taken place outwardly1 whilst the contending here clearly appears as one by which divorce may yet be averted4 ,the words1 ,contend with your mother1 rather mean1 on the contrary1 that it is high time to call her to account1 if they would not go to destruction along with her4 ,from this1 however1 we are not entitled to infer that the moral condition of the children was better than that of the mother4 ,without any regard to their moral condition1 the prophet only wishes to say that their interest required them to do this4 ,if it were not his intention just to carry out the image of adultery1 he might as well have called upon the mother to contend against the children1 as it is said in ,is4 li4 #a3 ,behold1 for your iniquities you have been sold1 and for your transgression your mother has been put away4 ,in point of fact1 the mother has no standing-place apart from the children4 ,vitringa says3 ,one and the same people is called 'mother' when viewed in their collective character2 and 'children' when viewed in the individuals who are born of that people4 ,for a people is born from the people4 ,for the whole people is considered according to that which is radical in it1 which constitutes its nature and substance1--and1 in this respect1 it is called the 'mother of its citizens4' ,but we are as little entitled to infer from this exhortation1 that a reform1 and an averting of the threatened judgments1 may still be hoped for4 ,this is opposed by what follows1 where the wife appears as incorrigible1 and her rejection as unavoidable4 ,the fundamental thought is1 on the contrary1 only this3--that a reform is necessary if the threatened judgments are to be averted4 ,that this necessity1 however1 would not become a reality1 the prophet foresaw2 and for this reason he speaks unconditionally in the sequel4 ,but from this again it must not be inferred that1 in that case1 his exhortations and threatenings would be altogether in vain4 ,though no reform was to be expected from the people1 single individual might1 nevertheless1 be converted4 ,at the same time1 it was of great importance for the future1 that before the calamity should break in1 a right view of it should be opened up to the whole people4 ,it is of great importance1 that if any one be smitten1 he should know for what reason4 ,the instructions in the doctrines of ,christianity1 which a criminal has received in childhood1 may ,pg #bcb often seem for a long series of years to have been altogether in vain2 but afterwards1 notwithstanding1 when punishment has softened his heart1 they bring forth their fruits4--,in the words1 ,for she is not my wife1 and ,i am not her husband1 the ground of the exhortation is stated4 ,even for this reason1 the words cannot be referred to the external dissolution of the marriage1 to the punishment of the wife2 they signify rather the moral dissolution of the marriage--the guilt of the wife--and are equivalent to3 our marriage is dissolved de facto4 ,but in the case of the spiritual marriage1 this dissolution de facto is always1 sooner or later1 according to the greater or smaller measure of ,god's forbearance1 followed by the dissolution de jure2 or1 to speak without figure1 wherever there is sin1 punishment will always follow4 ,god bears with much weakness on the part of ,his people2 but wherever1 through this weakness1 the relation to ,him is essentially dissolved1 ,he there annuls the relation altogether4 ,the applies to spiritual marriages also4 ,the surrender of the main faculties and powers of our nature to something which is not ,god1 stands on a par with carnal adultery4 ,thus1 then1 the connection betwixt contend and for clearly appears4--,many interpreters1 viewing the clause beginning with as parenthetical1 would connect the last words of the verse with 3 ,contend with your mother that she may put away4 ,but the words are rather to be considered as parallel with the first member2 for contend1 etc41 is equivalent to3 seek to bring your mother to a better way1 or3 let your mother reform herself4 ,her crime is designated first as whoredom1 and then as adultery4 ,the relation in which the two stand to one another is plainly seen from chap4 i4 #b1 where the notion of adultery is paraphrased by3 whoring away from the ,lord4 ,by whoredom1 the genus--carnal crimes in general--is designated2 by adultery1 the species1 or carnal crime by which the sacred rights of another person are1 at the same time1 violated4 ,the idea of whoredom1 when transferred to a spiritual relation1 implies chiefly the worldliness of those with whom ,god has not entered into any special relation2 whilst the idea of adultery implies the worldliness of individuals and communities with whom ,god has entered into a special marriage1 and whose apostasy is1 for this reason1 far more culpable4 ,leaving out of ,pg #bcc view the more aggravating circumstance1 the prophet first speaks of whoredom in the case of the children of ,israel also4--,the reason why the whoredom is here attributed to the face1 and the adultery to the breasts1 is well given by ,manger3 ,we need not have any difficulty about seeing adultery attributed to the very face and breasts4 ,there is a certain expressiveness in this conciseness which demonstrates1 as it were before our eyes1 that1 in her whole deportment1 the wife was given over to sensuality1 and that her whole aim was only to excite to it1 and to practise it4 ,for the face is1 with women1 the sign of dissolute lasciviousness--as ,horace expresses it in his ,odes1 ,i4 #ai3-- ,urit grata protervitas ,et vultus nimium lubricus aspici4 ,ezekiel1 too1 in chap4 xxiii4 #c1 speaks of 'the pressed breasts of ,israel in ,egypt4' ,schmid states as the reason why just the face and breasts are mentioned1 that ,scripture1 in order not to offend modesty1 forbears to mention the worse and grosser deeds of fornication4 ,but this is very little in harmony with the manner of ,scripture--as may be seen from a comparison of ,ezek4 xvi4 and xxiii41 and of ver4 #ab of the chapter before us4 ,the reason rather is1 that those parts are here specially to be mentioned1 in which the whoring nature openly manifests itself2 so that the highest degree of impudence is thereby expressed4 ,this then shows that there is no longer any halting1 no longer any struggle of the better against the evil principle4 ,such an impudent whore he resembles who1 without shame or concern1 publicly exhibits his devotedness to the world4 ,in this way has ,calvin also explained it4 ,there is no doubt1 says he1 that the prophet here expresses the impudence of the people1 who in their hardihood1 in their contempt of ,god1 in their sinful superstitions1 and in every kind of wickedness1 had gone to such lengths1 that they were like whores who do not conceal their turpitude1 but publicly prostitute themselves1 yea1 try to exhibit the signs of their wickedness in their eyes1 as well as in their whole body4 ,ver4 #e4 ,lest ,i strip her naked and expose her as in the day of her birth1 and make her like the wilderness1 and set her like dry land1 and slay her by thirst4 ,in the marriage here spoken of1 there was this peculiarity1 that the husband first redeemed the wife from a condition the ,pg #bcd most wretched and miserable1 before he united himself to her2 and hence became her benefactor1 before he became her husband4 ,compare iii4 #b1 where the ,lord redeems the wife from slavery2 and ,ezek4 xvi4 #d1 where the people appear as a child exposed1 naked1 and covered with filth1 upon whom the ,lord has mercy1--whom ,he provides with precious clothing and splendid ornaments1 and destines for ,his spouse4 ,during the marriage1 the husband continues his liberality towards his wife4 ,but now1 the gifts1 all of which had been bestowed upon her only with a view to the marriage which was to take place or was already entered upon1 are to cease1 because the marriage-tie has been broken by her guilt4 ,she now returns to the condition of the deepest misery in which she had been sunk before her union to the ,lord4--,there is1 in this1 an allusion to that which1 in the case of actual marriage1 the husband was bound to give to his wife1 viz41 clothing and food2 compare ,is4 iv4 #a4 ,if ,god withdraws ,his gifts1 the consequences are infinitely awful1 because1 altogether unlike the natural husband1 ,he has everything in ,his possession2 if ,he does not give anything to drink4 ,he then slays by thirst4 ,if we keep in view this aggravation of the punishment1 which has its ground only in the person of the husband1 it is evident that we have here before us only a reference to the withdrawal of the marriage-gifts which is the consequence of the divorce1 and not1 as several interpreters--e4g41 ,manger--suppose1 to a punishment of adultery1 alleged by them to have been common at that time1 that the wife was stripped of her clothes1 exposed to public mockery1 and killed by hunger and thirst4 ,the eternal and universal truth which1 in the verse before us1 is expressed with a special reference to ,israel1 is1 that all the gifts of ,god are bestowed upon individuals1 as well as upon whole nations1 either in order to lead them to the communion of life with ,him1 or because this communion already exists2 just as our ,saviour says that to him who has successfully sought for the kingdom of heaven1 all other things shall be added1 without any labour on his part4 ,if we overlook the truth that the gifts of ,god have this object--if they be not received and enjoyed as the gifts of ,god--if the spiritual marriage be refused1 or if1 having been already entered into1 it be broken1--sooner or later the gifts will be withdrawn4--,the word naked properly includes a whole clause3 ,i shall strip ,pg #bce her so that she shall become naked4 ,the verb 1 to place1 to set1 has the secondary signification of public exhibition2 compare ,job xvii4 #f4 ,the literal translation ought to be1 ,i shall expose her as the day of her birth2 and we must assume that there is here the occurrence of one of those numerous cases1 in which the comparison is merely alluded to1 without being carried out2 compare1 e4g41 ,like the day of ,midian1 ,is4 ix4 #c2 ,their heart rejoiceth like wine1 ,zech4 x4 #g4 ,the tertium comparationis between the day of her birth and her future condition is only the entire nakedness2 compare ,job i4 #ba4 ,any allusion to the filth1 etc41 is less obvious2 the prophet would have been required to give an intimation of this in some manner4 ,the two parts of the first hemistich of the verse correspond with each other2 just as do the three parts of the second hemistich4 ,in the first1 the withdrawal of clothing1 and nakedness2 in the second1 the withdrawal of food1 and hunger and thirst4 ,it is questionable whether the mention of the birth-day here belongs merely to the imagery1 is a mere designation of entire nakedness1 because man is never more naked than when he comes into the world2 or whether it is to be understood as belonging to the thing itself1 and refers to the condition of the people in ,egypt to which they are now to be reduced4 ,in favour of the latter explanation1 there is not only the comparison of the parallel passage in ,ezekiel1 but1 still more1 the purely matter-of-fact character of the entire description4 ,israel is1 in this section1 not compared to a wife1 so that figure and thing would be co-ordinate1 but appears as the wife herself4 ,ver4 #ag also is in favour of this interpretation4--,the words1 ,i make her like the wilderness1 which1 by ,hitzig and others1 are erroneously referred to the country instead of the people1 are pertinently explained by ,manger3 ,the prophet depicts a horrible and desperate condition1 where everything necessary for sustaining life is awanting1--where she has to endure a thirst peculiar to an altogether uncultivated and sunburnt wilderness4 ,the comparison appears so much the more suitable1 when we remark that wilderness and desert are here personified1 and appear as hungry and thirsty4 ,this1 however1 was too poetical for several prosaic interpreters4 ,hence they would in both instances supply a after the 1 as in the wilderness ,i place her in the condition in which she was formerly1 in the ,pg #bcf wilderness4 ,but it is self-evident that such a supplying of the is inadmissible4 ,if we were to receive this interpretation1 we must rather assume that here also there is merely a comparison intimated3 as the wilderness1--for1 as she was in the wilderness4 ,but even then1 the interpretation cannot1 for another reason1 be admitted4 ,the impending condition of the people did not1 in the least1 correspond to what it was in the wilderness4 ,the natural condition of the wilderness was not then seen in all its reality2 the people of the ,lord received bread from heaven1 and water from the rock4 ,it has its antitype rather in such a condition as that which is to follow upon the punishment1 ver4 #af4 ,the ,article indicates that1 by the wilderness1 we are here to understand1 specially1 the ,desert of ,arabia1--the desert 4 ,but that this comes into consideration only as one especially desolate1 and not as the former abode of the ,israelites1 appears from the following--in dry land1 without the ,article1 and not1 as otherwise we would expect1 in the dry land4 ,finally1--,we have a parallel to this in the threatening in ,deut4 xxviii4 #dh3 ,and thou servest thine enemy whom the ,lord thy ,god will send upon thee1 in hunger1 and in thirst1 and in nakedness1 and in great want4 ,ver4 #f4 ,and ,i will not have mercy upon her children1 for they are children of whoredoms4 ,it appears from ver4 #g1 that the children are to be repudiated on account of their origin 7compare the remarks on i4 #b71 and not on account of their morals4 ,michaelis says1 ,they have the same disposition1 and follow the same course as their adulterous mother2 for a viper bringeth forth a viper1 and a bad raven lays a bad egg4 ,the cause of their rejection is1 that they are children of whoredoms4 ,that they are such1 is proved by the circumstance that their mother is whoring4 ,compare also v4 #g3 ,they have become faithless to the ,lord1 for they have born strange children4 ,in point of fact1 however1 a sinful origin and a sinful nature are identical4 ,ver4 #g4 ,for their mother has been whoring1 she who bore them has been put to shame2 for she has said1 ,i will go after my lovers1 the givers of my bread and my water1 of my wool and my flax1 of my oil and my drink4 is explained in a two-fold way4 ,the common explanation is3 ,she has practised what is disgraceful1 she has acted ,pg #bcg shamefully4 ,others1 on the contrary1 explain3 ,she has been put to shame1 she has been disgraced4 ,in this latter way it is explained by ,manger1 who remarks1 that this word is stronger than 2 that it implies not only an accusation of vile whoredom1 but also that she has been convicted of this crime1 and as it were apprehended in flagranti2 so that1 even if she were yet impudent enough1 she could no longer deny it1 but must sink down in confusion and perplexity4 ,this latter exposition is1 without doubt1 the preferable one2 for1 #a4 never occurs in the first-mentioned signification4 ,winer contents himself with quoting the passage before us4 ,gesenius refers1 moreover1 to ,prov4 x4 #e4 ,but the of that passage is evidently a son bringing disgrace upon his parents1--in xxix4 #ae is added1--or making them ashamed1 disappointing their hopes4 ,on the other hand1 the signification1 to be put to shame1 to be convicted of a disgraceful deed1 is quite an established one4 ,compare1 e4g41 ,jer4 ii4 #bf3 ,as the disgrace of a thief when he is found1 thus the whole house of ,israel is put to shame2 ,jer4 vi4 #ae3 ,they are put to shame1 for they have committed abomination2 they shamed not themselves1 they felt no shame2 compare also ,jer4 viii4 #i4 ,in all these passages1 signifies the shame forced upon those who have no sense of shame4--#b4 ,the signification1 to act disgracefully1 does not admit of a regular grammatical derivation4 ,gesenius refers to analogies such as 12 but these would be admissible only if the ,kal signified1 to be infamous1 while it means only to be ashamed4 ,being derived from 1 the verb can mean only to put to shame1 in which signification it occurs1 e4g41 in #b4 ,sam4 xix4 #f4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the signification1 to be put to shame1 can be well defended4 ,as the ,hiphil cannot have an intransitive signification1 it must1 with this signification1 be considered as derived from 1 pudorem1 ignominiam contraxit1--a view which is favoured by ,jer4 ii4 #bf4--,the lovers are the idols2 compare the remarks on ,zech4 xiii4 #f4 ,the confirms the statement1 that she who bare them has been whoring1 and has been put to shame by a further exposure of the crime and its origin4 ,the same delusion which appears here as the cause of the spiritual adultery1 is stated as such also in ,jer4 xlix4 #ag1 #ah4 ,jeremiah there warns the people not to contract sin by idolatry1 because that was the cause of all their present misery1 and would bring upon them ,pg #bch greater misery still4 ,but they answer him1 that they would continue to offer incense and drink-offerings to the ,queen of heaven1 as they and their fathers had formerly done in their native land2 for1 since we left off to do so1 we have wanted all things1 and were consumed by hunger and sword4 ,the antithesis in ,jer4 ii4 #ac of the fountain of living waters1 and the broken cisterns that hold no water1 has reference likewise to this delusion4 ,but that which is the cause of the gross whoredom1 is the consequence of the refined one4 ,the inward apostasy must already have taken place1 when one speaks as the wife does in the verse before us4 ,as long as man continues faithfully with ,god in communion of life1 he perceives1 by the eye of faith1 the hand in the clouds from which he receives everything1 which guides him1 and upon which everything--even that which is apparently the most independent and powerful--depends4 ,as soon as1 through unbelief1 he has lost this communion with ,god1 and heaven is shut against him1 he allows his eye to wander over every visible object1 looks out for everything in the world which appears to manifest independence and superior power1 makes this an object to which he shows his love1 soliciting its favour1 and making it his god4 ,in thus looking around1 the ,israelites would1 necessarily and chiefly1 have their eyes attracted by the idols4 ,for they saw the neighbouring nations wealthy and powerful2 and these nations themselves derived their power and wealth from the idols4 ,to these also the ,israelites now ascribed the gifts which they had hitherto received2 and this so much the rather1 because it was easier to satisfy the demands of these idols1 than those of the true ,god1 who requires just that which it is most difficult to give--the heart1 and nothing else4 ,and1 being determined not to give it to ,him1 they felt deeply that they could expect no good from ,him4 ,whatever good ,he had still left to them1 they could consider as only a gift of unmerited mercy1 and destined to lead them to repentance1--a consideration which makes a natural man recoil and draw back1 inasmuch as1 in his relation to ,god1 he always thinks only of merit4 ,that which we thus perceive in them is even now repeated daily4 ,we need only put in the place of idols1 the abstract ,god of the ,rationalists and ,deists1 man's own power1 or the power of other men1 and many other things besides1 and it will at once be seen that the words1 ,i will go after my lovers that give me my ,pg #bci bread1 etc41 are1 up to the present moment1 the watch-word of the world4--,bread and water signify the necessaries of life2 oil and 7strong7 drink1 those things which serve rather for luxuries4--,my bread1 etc41 is an expression of affection1 indicating that she regards these as most necessary1 and to be sought after1 in preference to everything else4 ,ver4 #h4 ,therefore1 behold1 ,i hedge up thy way with thorns1 and ,i wall her wall1 and her paths she shall not find4 ,the apostate woman is first addressed3 thy way2 but the discourse then passes to the third person1--her wall1 her paths4 ,we must not conceive of this1 as if the wife were to be shut up in a two-fold way3--first1 by a hedge of thorns1 and then1 by a wall2 but the same thing is expressed here by a double figure1 as is also done in ,is4 v4 #e4 ,first1 the shutting up is alone spoken of2 it is afterwards brought into connection with the effects to be thereby produced2 and because she is enclosed by a wall1 she cannot find her path4 ,i wall her wall is tantamount to1 ,i make a wall for her4 ,the words of the husband in the verse under consideration form an evident contrast to those of the wife in the preceding verse4 ,schmid says3 ,the punishment is by the law of retaliation4 ,she had said1 ',i will go to my lovers2' but ,god threatens1 on the contrary1 that ,he will obstruct the way so that she cannot go4 ,the points to the unexpectedness of the result4 ,the wife imagined that she would be able to carry out her purpose with great safety and ease2 it does not even occur to her to think of her husband1 who had hitherto allowed her1 from weakness1 as she imagines1 to go on her way undisturbed2 but she sees herself at once firmly enclosed by a wall4--,there can be no doubt1 that1 by the hedging and walling about1 severe sufferings are intended1 by which the people are encompassed1 straitened1 and hindered in every free movement4 ,for sufferings regularly appear as the specific against ,israel's apostasy from their ,god4 ,compare1 e4g41 ,deut4 iv4 #cj3 ,in the tribulation to thee1 and when all these things come upon thee1 thou returnest in the end of the days to the ,lord thy ,god1 and hearest ,his voice2 ,hosea v4 #ae3 ,i will go and return to ,my place till they become guilty2 in the affliction to them1 they will seek ,me4 ,the figure of enclosing has elsewhere also1 undeniably1 the meaning of inflicting sufferings4 ,thus in ,job iii4 #bc3 ,to the man whose way is hid1 ,pg #bdj and whom ,god has hedged in round about2 xix4 #h3 ,he hath fenced up my way and ,i cannot pass1 and upon my paths ,he sets darkness2 ,lam4 iii4 #g3 ,he hath hedged me about1 and ,i cannot get out2 ,he hath made my chain heavy2 compare also ibid4 ver4 #i2 ,ps4 lxxxviii4 #i4--,the object of the walling about is to cut her off from the lovers2 the infliction of heavy sufferings is to put an end to idolatrous tendencies4--,the words1 thy way1 clearly refer to1 ,i will go after my lovers1 in ver4 #g2 and by her paths which she cannot find1 her whole previous conduct in general is indeed to be understood1 but chiefly1 from the connection with ver4 #g1 her former intercourse with idols4 ,but here the question arises3--,how far is the remedy suited for the attainment of this end8 ,we can by no means think of an external obstacle4 ,outwardly1 there was1 during the exile1 and in the midst of idolatrous nations1 a stronger temptation to idolatry than they had in their native land4 ,hence1 we can think of an internal obstacle only2 and then again we can think only of the absolute incapacity of the idols to grant to the people consolation and relief in their sufferings4 ,if this incapacity has been first ascertained by experience1 we begin to lose our confidence in them1 and seek help where alone it can be found4 ,as early as in ,deut4 xxxii4 we are told how misery proves the nothingness of false gods1 and shows that the ,lord alone is ,god2 compare especially ver4 #cf sqq4 ,jeremiah says in ii4 #bh1 ,and where are thy gods that thou hast made thee8 ,let them arise and help thee in the time of trouble4 ,that which the gods cannot turn away1 they cannot have sent2 and if the suffering be sent by the ,lord1 it is natural that help should be sought from ,him also4 ,compare vi4 #a3 ,come and let us return unto the ,lord1 for ,he hath torn and ,he healeth us1 ,he smiteth and ,he bindeth us up4 ,ver4 #i4 ,and she runs after her lovers and shall not overtake1 and she seeks them and shall not find2 then she saith3 ,i will go and return to my first husband1 for it was better with me then than now4 has1 in ,piel1 not a transitive1 but an intensive meaning4 ,calvin remarks3 ,by the verb1 insane fervour is indicated1 as indeed we see that idolaters are like madmen2 it shows that such is the perverseness of their hearts1 that they will not at once return to a sound mind4 ,the distress at first only increases ,pg #bda the zeal in idolatry2 compare ,jer4 xliv4 #ag4 ,every effort is made to move the idols to help4 ,but if help be1 notwithstanding1 refused--and how could it be otherwise1 since they from whom it is sought are ,elilim1 i4e41 nothings8--they by and by begin to bethink themselves1 and to recover their senses4 ,they discover the nothingness of their idols1 and return to the true ,god4 ,this apostasy and return are in a touching manner described by our prophet in xiv4 #b-d also4 ,the words1 ,i will go and return to my first husband1 form a beautiful contrast to1 ,i will go after my lovers1 in ver4 #g4 ,this statement of the result shows that ,god's mercy is then greatest and most effective1 just when it seems to have disappeared altogether1 and when ,his punitive justice seems alone to be in active exercise4 ,for the latter is by no means to be excluded1 inasmuch as there is no suffering which does not1 at the same time1 proceed from it1 and no punishment which is inflicted solely on account of the reformation4 ,ver4 #aj4 ,and she1 she does not know that ,i gave her the corn1 and the must1 and the oil1 and silver ,i multiplied unto her1 and gold which upon ,baal they spent4 ,the prophet1 starting anew1 here returns to a description of her guilt and punishment2 and it is only from ver4 #af that he expands what1 in ver4 #i1 he had intimated concerning her conversion1 and her obtaining mercy4 ,the words1 ,she saith1 in that verse1 belong thus to a period more remote than the words1 ,she does not know1 in the verse before us4 ,the things which are here enumerated were1 in the case of ,israel1 in a peculiar sense1 the gift of ,god4 ,he bestowed them upon the ,congregation as her ,covenant-,god1 as her husband4 ,they are thus announced as early as in the ,pentateuch2 compare1 e4g41 ,deut4 vii4 #ac3 ,and ,he loveth thee1 and blesseth thee1 and multiplieth thee1 and blesseth the fruit of thy womb1 and the fruit of thy land1 thy corn1 thy must1 and thy oil2 xi4 #ad3 ,and ,i give the rain of your land in due season1 and thou gatherest in thy corn1 thy must1 and thy oil4 ,it is certainly not accidental that ,hosea enumerates the three objects1 just in the same order in which they occur in these two passages4 ,by the celebration of the feasts1 and by the offering of the first-fruits1 the ,israelites were to give expression to the acknowledgment1 ,pg #bdb that they derived these gifts of ,god from ,his special providence--from the covenant relation4 ,the relative clause is subjoined1 as is frequently the case1 without a sign of its relation1 and without a pron4 suff41 which is manifest from the preceding substantive4 ,several interpreters1 from the ,chaldee ,paraphrast down to ,ewald1 give the explanation1 which they have made for a ,baal1 i4e41 from which they have made images of ,baal1 and appeal to viii4 #d3 ,their silver and their gold they have made into idols for themselves4 ,but we must object to this opinion on the following grounds4 #a4 1 with following1 is a religious terminus technicus1 with the sense of1 to make to any one1 to appropriate1 to dedicate1 as appears from its frequent repetition in ,exod4 x4 #be sqq41 and also from the fact that is frequently omitted4 ,the phrase is used with a reference to idolatry in #b ,kings xvii4 #cb2 #b ,chron4 xxiv4 #g4--b4 ,it cannot be proved that 1 in the singular and with the ,article1 could be used for statues of ,baal4--#c4 ,by this explanation we lose the striking contrast between that which the ,israelites were doing1 and that which they were to do4 ,that which the ,lord gave to them1 they consecrated to ,baal1 instead of to ,him1 to whom alone these embodied thanks were due4 ,and1 not satisfied in withdrawing from the true ,god the honour and thanks which were due to ,him1 they transferred them to ,his enemy and worthless rival1--a proceeding which bears witness to the deep corruption of human nature1 and which1 up to the present day1 is continually repeated1 and must be so1 because the corruption remains the same4 ,it is substantially the same thing that the ,israelites dedicated their gold to ,baal1 and that our great poets consecrate to the world and its prince the rich intellectual gifts which they have received from ,god4 ,the words1 and she knew not1 in both cases show that they are equally guilty and equally culpable4 ,he who bestows the gifts has not concealed ,himself2 but they on whom they are bestowed have shut their eyes1 that they may not see ,him to whom they are unwilling to render thanks4 ,they would fain wish that their liberal benefactor were utterly annihilated1 in order that they may not be disturbed in the enjoyment of ,his gifts by a disagreeable thought of ,him1--in order that they may freely use and dispose of them1 without being obliged to fear their loss1--and in order that they may be able to devote them1 without any ,pg #bdc obstruction1 to a god who is like themselves1 who is only their own self viewed objectively 7ihr objectivirtes ,ich74 ,parallel to the passage before us1 and1 it may be1 formed after it1 is ,ezek4 xvi4 #ag1 #ah3 ,and thou didst take thy ornament of ,my gold and of ,my silver which ,i gave thee1 and madest to thyself images of men1 and didst commit whoredom with them4 ,and thou tookest thy broidered garments1 and coveredst them1 and ,my fat and ,mine increase thou gavest before them4 ,hitzig understands1 by the ,baal here1 the golden calf1 appealing to the fact that the real worship of ,baal had been abolished by ,jehu4 ,but no proof at all can be adduced for the assertion that the name of ,baal had been transferred to the golden calf4 ,it is self-evident1 and is confirmed by #b ,kings xiii4 #f1 xvii4 #af 7in the latter of which passages the worship of ,baal appears as a continuous sin in the kingdom of the ten tribes71 that the destruction of the heathenish worship by ,jehu was not absolute4 ,but so much is certain1 that by the mention of ,baal1 the sin is here designated only with reference to its highest point1 and that1 in substance1 the service of the calves is here included4 ,in #a ,kings xiv4 #i1 it is shown that the sin of worshipping ,jehovah under the image of calves is on a par with real idolatry2 and in #b ,chron4 xi4 #ae1 the calves are put on a footing with the goat-deities of ,egypt4 ,ver4 #aa4 ,therefore ,i return1 and take ,my corn in its time1 and ,my must in its season1 and take away ,my wool and ,my flax to cover her nakedness4 stands here with great emphasis4 ,it points to the eternal law of ,god's government of the world1 according to which ,he is sanctified upon them1 in whom ,he has not been sanctified2 and this so much the more1 the closer was ,his relation to them1 and the greater were ,his gifts4 ,from him who is not thereby moved1 they will be taken away2 and nothing but his natural poverty and nakedness is left to him who was formerly so richly endowed4 ,and well is it with him if they be taken from him at a time when he is able still to recognise the giver in ,him who taketh away1 and may yet deeply repent of his unthankfulness1 and return to ,him1 as is said of ,israel in iii4 #e4 ,if such be done1 it is seen that the ungrateful one has not yet become an object of divine justice alone1 but that divine mercy is still in store for him4 ,the longer ,god allows ,his ,pg #bdd gifts to remain with the ungrateful1 the darker are their prospects for the future4 ,that which ,he gave in mercy1 ,he1 in such a case1 allows to remain only in anger4 ,the words are commonly explained by expositors1 ,i shall take again1 inasmuch as two verbs are frequently found together which1 in their connection1 are independent of each other--the one indicating only an accessory idea of the action4 ,but this mode of expression occurs in general far more rarely than is commonly assumed2 and here the explanation1 ,i will return and take1 is to be preferred without any hesitation4 ,scripture says1 that ,god appears even when ,he manifests ,himself only in the effects of ,his omnipotence1 justice1 and love1--a mode of expression which is explained by that large measure of faith which perceives1 behind the visible effect1 the invisible ,author of it2 compare1 e4g41 ,gen4 xviii4 #aj1 where the ,lord says to ,abraham1 that ,he would return to him at the same period in the following year2 whereas ,he did not return in a visible form1 as then1 but only in the fulfilment of ,his promise4 ,thus ,god had formerly appeared to ,israel as the ,giver2 and now that they did not acknowledge ,him as such4 ,he returns as the ,god that takes away4 ,she did not know that ,i gave1 therefore ,i shall return and take4 ,that the words were to be thus understood1 the prophet1 as it appears1 intended to indicate by the change of the tenses4 ,it is quite natural that a verb1 used as an adverb1 should be as closely as possible connected with that verb which conveys the principal idea2 and it would scarcely be possible to find a single instance--at all events there are not many instances--where1 in such a case1 a difference of the tense takes place4 ,altogether analogous is ,jer4 xii4 #ae3 ,and it shall come to pass after ,i have destroyed them1 1 ,i will return and have compassion on them2 where the sense would be very much weakened if we were to translate1 ,i shall again have compassion4 ,there appears to be the same design in the change of the tenses in iii4 #e also4 ,what is there said of ,israel forms a remarkable parallel to what is here said of ,god4 ,god had formerly come1 giving--,israel1 taking2 ,god now returns1 taking--,israel giving1--a relation which opens up an insight into the whole economy of the sufferings4--,my corn1 etc41 forms a contrast to ver4 #g1 where ,israel had spoken of all these things as theirs4 ,whatever ,god gives1 always remains ,pg #bde ,his own1 because ,he gives only as a loan1 and on certain conditions4 ,if any one should consider himself as the absolute master of it1 ,he makes him feel his error by taking it away4--,in its time and in its season are added1 because it was then1 ordinarily1 that ,god had appeared as giving1 and because then they therefore confidently expected ,his gifts4 ,but now ,he appears at once as taking1 because they were already so sure of the expected gifts that they held them1 as it were1 already in their hands2 just as if1 at ,christmas--which corresponds to the harvest1 the ordinary season of ,god's granting gifts--parents should withdraw from their children the accustomed presents1 and put a rod in their place4 ,it is better thus to understand the expression1 in its time1 etc41 than to follow ,jerome1 who remarks1 that it is a severe punishment1 if at the time of harvest the hoped-for fruits are taken away1 and wrested from our hands2 for if1 even at the time of the harvest1 there be a want of all things1 how will it be during the remaining time of the year4--,the words1 to cover1 etc41 are very concise1 but without any grammatical ellipsis1 instead of1 which hitherto served to cover her nakedness4 ,as to the sense1 the ,,lxx4 are correct in translating1 4 ,for that which had hitherto been1 is mentioned by the prophet only for the purpose of drawing attention to what in future will not be4--,it is the ,lord who must cover the nakedness2 and this leads us back to the natural poverty of man1 who has not1 in the whole world1 a single patch or shred--not even so much as to cover his shame1 which is here specially to be understood by nakedness4 ,the same thought which is so well calculated to humble pride--what have we that we have not received1 and that the ,giver might not at any moment take back8--occurs also in ,ezek4 xvi4 #h3 ,i spread out ,my wings over thee1 and covered thy nakedness4 ,ver4 #ab4 ,and now ,i will uncover her shame before the eyes of her lovers1 and none shall deliver her out of ,my hands4 ,the is best explained by decay1 corpus multa stupra passum4 ,being a femin4 of a ,segholate-form1 its signification can be derived only from the ,kal2 but always signifies to be faded1 weak1 feeble2 in ,piel it means1 to make weak1 to declare as weak1 to disgrace1 to despise4 ,as the signification of ,kal does not ,pg #bdf imply the ,idea of ignominy1 we cannot explain the noun1 as several interpreters do1 by turpitudo1 ignominia4 ,the of the ,,lxx4 is probably a free translation of the word according to our view4-- is constantly used for coram1 inspectante aliquo1 properly1 belonging to the eyes of some one1 and cannot therefore be explained here by to the eyes1 as if she were uncovered to1 or for1 the lovers alone2 these1 on the contrary1 are mentioned only as fellow-witnesses4 ,but in what respect do they come into consideration here8 ,several interpreters are of opinion that their powerlessness1 and the folly of trusting in them1 are intended to be here pointed out4 ,thus ,calvin says3 ,the prophet alludes to the impudent women who are wont1 even by terror1 to prevent their husbands from using their rights4 ,he says1 therefore1 this shall not prevent me from chastising thee as thou deservest4 ,thus also ,stuck1 who subjoins to the phrase her lovers3 who1 if they had the strength1 might be a help to her4 ,but it is altogether erroneous thus to understand the verse4 ,the words1 ,before the eyes of the lovers1 rather mean1 that the ,lord would make her an object of disgust and horror even to those who formerly sought after her4 ,the idea is this3 ,whosoever forsakes ,god on account of the world1 shall1 by ,god1 be put to shame1 even in the eyes of the world itself1 and all the more1 the more nearly he formerly stood to ,him4 ,this idea is here expressed in a manner suited to the figurative representation which pervades the whole section4 ,jerome says3 ,all this is brought forward under the figure of the adulterous woman1 who1 after she has been taken in the very act1 is exposed and disgraced before the eyes of all4 ,the uncovering1 as guilt1 is followed by the uncovering1 as punishment2 and every one 7and her lovers first7 turns away with horror from the disgusting spectacle4 ,they now at once see her who1 hitherto1 had made a show with the apparel and goods of her lawful husband1 in her true shape as a withered monster4 ,that this explanation is alone the correct one1 appears from the parallel passages3 compare1 e4g41 ,nah4 iii4 #e3 ,behold1 ,i come upon thee1 saith the ,lord of hosts1 and uncover thy skirts upon thy face1 and make the heathen to see thy nakedness1 and kingdoms thy shame4 ,and it cometh to pass1 all that see thee shall flee from thee3 ,lam4 i4 #h3 ,jerusalem hath committed sin1 therefore she has ,pg #bdg become a reproach2 all that honoured her1 despise her1 for they have seen her nakedness2 she sigheth and turneth away2 ,jer4 xiii4 #bf3 ,and ,i also 7as thou hast formerly uncovered7 uncover thy skirts over thy face1 and thy shame shall be seen2 ,ezek4 xvi4 #cg1 #da2 ,is4 xlvii4 #c4--;,but now1 it might seem that1 according to this explanation1 not the idols1 but only the nations serving them1 can be understood by the lovers4 ,but this is only in appearance4 ,in order to make the scene more lively1 the prophet ascribes to the 1 to them who are nothing1 life and feeling4 ,if they had these1 they would act just as it is here described1 and as their worshippers really acted afterwards4--,the second member of the verse1 ,and none shall deliver1 etc41 is in so far parallel to the first1 as both describe the dreadfulness of the divine judgment4 ,parallel is v4 #ad3 ,for ,i will be as one who roars to ,ephraim1 and as a lion to the house of ,judah3 ,i will tear and go away1 ,i will take away1 and there is no deliverer4 ,ver4 #ac4 ,and ,i make to cease all her mirth1 her feast1 and her new-moon1 and her sabbath1 and all her festival time4 ,the feasts served a double purpose4 ,they were days of sacred dedication1 and days of joy2 compare ,num4 x4 #aj4 ,israel had violated them in the former character--just as at present the sacred days have1 throughout the greater part of ,christendom1 the name only by way of catachresis--and1 as a merited punishment1 they were taken away by ,god in the latter character4 ,they had deprived the festival days of their sacredness2 by ,god1 they are deprived of their joy fulness4 ,the prophet1 in order to intimate that he announces the cessation of the festival days as days of gladness1 premises all her mirth1 to which all that follows stands in the relation of species to genus4 does not here denote joyful time3 it might1 indeed1 according to its formation1 have this signification3 but it is never found with it4 ,it here means joy itself4 7,compare the parallel passages1 ,jer4 vii4 #cd2 ,lam4 i4 #d3 ,the ways of ,zion do mourn1 because none come to the feasts2 ,amos viii4 #aj3 ,and ,i will turn your feasts into mourning1 and all your songs into lamentation2 ,lam4 v4 #ae2 ,is4 xxiv4 #h1 #aa47 ,the three following nouns were very correctly distinguished by ,jerome4 1 feast1 is the designation of the three annual principal festivals4 ,in addition to these1 there was in every month the ,pg #bdh feast of the new-moon2 and in every week1 the ,sabbath4 ,this connection is a standing one1 which1 even in the ,new ,testament 7compare ,col4 ii4 #af71 still reverts4 ,the words1 all her festival time1 comprehend the single species in the designation of the genus4 ,that properly signifies appointed time1 then1 more specially1 festival time1 feast1 appears from ,lev4 xxiii4 #d3 ,these are the of the ,lord1 the sacred assemblies which you shall call 1 in their appointed time4 ,that the feasts are not a single species co-ordinate with the new-moons and ,sabbaths1 but the genus1 appears from the fact that in ,lev4 xxiii4 the ,sabbath opens the series of the 4 ,in a wider sense1 the new-moons also belonged to the 1 although they are not enumerated among them in ,lev4 xxiii4 on account of their subordinate character4 ,in ,num4 x4 #aj1 ,is4 i4 #ad1 ,ezra iii4 #e1 the new-moons are mentioned along with the only as the species by the side of the genus4 ,but we are at liberty to think only of the feasts appointed by ,god2 for1 otherwise1 there would be no room for the application of the lex talionis3--,god takes from the ,israelites only what they had taken from ,him4 ,the days of the ,baalim are afterwards specially mentioned in ver4 #ae4 ,the days of ,god are taken from them2 for the days of the ,baalim they are punished4 ,this much1 however1 appears from the passage before us--and it is placed beyond any doubt by several other passages in ,hosea as well as in ,amos--that1 outwardly1 the worship1 as regulated by the prescriptions of the ,pentateuch1 had all along continued4 7,for the arguments in proof of this assertion1 the author's ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pentateuch1 vol4 i41 are to be compared47 ,ver4 #ad4 ,and ,i make desolate her vine and fig-tree1 whereof she said1 ,they are the wages of whoredom to me1 that my lovers have given me2 and ,i make them a forest1 and the beasts of the field eat them4 ,the vine and fig-tree1 as the two noblest productions of ,palestine--,ispahan1 in the ,excerpta ex vita ,saladini1 p4 #aj1 calls them ambos ,francorum oculos--are here also connected with each other1 as is commonly done in threatenings and promises1 as the representatives of the rich gifts of ,god1 wherewith ,he has blessed this country4-- is often placed before an entire sentence1 to mark it out as being relative in general4 ,pg #bdi ,it is the looser1 instead of the closer connection1 of which4-- wages of prostitution1 instead of which1 in ix4 #a and other passages1 the form occurs1 requires a renewed investigation4 ,it is commonly derived from 1 to which the signification largiter donavit1 dona distribuit1 is ascribed4 ,but opposed to this1 there is the fact that the root is1 neither in ,hebrew1 nor in any of the dialects1 found with this signification4 ,it has in ,hebrew1 ,arabic1 and ,syriac1 the signification to laud1 to praise1 to recount4 ,but besides this 1 there occurs another 1 not with the general signification to give1 but in the special one1 to give a reward of whoredom2 in which signification it cannot be a primitive word1 but derived from 1 in the passage under consideration1 and in ,ezek4 xvi4 #cd4 ,the supposition of a primitive verb 1 with the signification to give1 is also opposed by the circumstance that the noun which is said to be derived from it never occurs with the general signification gift1 but always with the special one1 reward of prostitution4 is rather derived from the first pers4 ,fut4 ,kal of the verb 1 a ,i will-give-thee1 similar to our forget-me-not4 ,the whore asks1 in ,gen4 xxxviii4 #af1 7what wilt thou give me871 and the whoremonger answers1 7,i will give thee71 ver4 #ah4 ,from this there originated1 in the language of the brothel1 a base word for such base traffic4 ,the sacred writers are not ashamed or afraid to use it4 ,they speak1 throughout1 of common things in a common manner2 for the vulgar word is the most suitable for the vulgar thing4 ,the morality of a people1 or of an age1 may be measured by their speaking of vulgar things in a vulgar manner1 or the reverse4 ,wherever1 in the language1 the fille de joie or ,freudenmdchen has taken the place of the whore1 a similar change will1 in reality1 have taken place4 ,whatsoever the people of ,israel imagined that they received from their idols1 they certainly will not have designated as a reward of prostitution1 but as a reward of true love4 ,but the prophet at once destroys all their pleasant imaginings by putting into their mouths the corresponding expression1--an expression which must certainly have sounded very rudely and vulgarly in their tender ears2 for the tongue and the ear become more tender1 in the same degree in which the heart becomes more vulgar4 ,she who imagined herself so tender and affectionate sees herself ,pg #bej at once addressed as a common prostitute4 ,the sweet proofs of the heartfelt mutual love which her lovers gave her are called wages of whoredom4 ,this is indeed a good corrective for our language1 for our whole view of things1 for our own hearts1 which are so easily befooled4 ,all love of the world1 all striving after its favour1 every surrender to the spirit of the age1 is whoredom4 ,a reward of whoredom1 which must not be brought into the temple of the ,lord 7for it is an abomination unto the ,lord thy ,god1 ,deut4 xxiii4 #ai71 is everything which it offers and gives us in return4 ,like a reward of whoredom1 it will melt away2 of wages of whoredom she has collected1 and to wages of whoredom it shall return4--,this derivation from the ,future has a great many analogies in its favour2 among others1 the whole class of nouns with prefixed1 in which it is quite evident 7although this has been so often overlooked7 that they have arisen from the ,fut4 ,if the in these forms originated from the ,hiphil1 how could it be explained that they are more frequently connected with ,kal8 ,even the very common occurrence of the formation from the ,future in the case of proper names1 induces us to expect1 a priori1 that it will be more frequent in appellative names than is commonly supposed4 ,the occurrence of the phrase 1 in the passages quoted1 is also in favour of this derivation4 ,by it1 the interchange of the two forms and is easily accounted for4 ,in the latter of these forms1 the ,nun which prevails in 1 but which had been dropped at the beginning1 again reappears4 ,a variation in the form is1 moreover1 quite natural in a word which originated from common life1 which is entirely destitute of accurate analogies1 and is therefore1 as it were1 without a model2 for the other nouns of this class are formed from the #c;d pers4 of the ,fut4--,as regards1 now1 the substance3--,egotism1 and selfishness arising out of it1 are the ground of all desire for the love of that which is not ,god1 especially in the case of those who have already known the true ,god2 for where this is not the case1 there may be1 even in idolatry1 a better element1 which seeks for a false gratification only because it does not know the true one4 ,from this1 however1 it appears1 that the idolatry of the ,israelites 7and this is only a species of the idolatry of all those who have had opportunity to know the true ,god1 and of whom it is true that the last is worse than the first7 was ,pg #bea much lower than that of the ,gentiles1 whose poets and philosophers1 in part1 zealously opposed the dispositions which are here expressed2 compare the passages in ,manger4 ,egotism is here1 as it always is1 folly2 for it trusts in him who himself possesses only borrowed and stolen goods1 which the lawful owner may1 at every moment1 take away from him4 ,and in order that such folly may appear as such1 and very glaringly too4 ,he appears here indeed1 and takes what ,he had in reality given out of ,his mercy1 but what1 according to their imagination1 they had received from the idols as a reward4--,the suffix in refers to the vine and fig-tree4 ,the gardens of vines and fig-trees carefully tended1 hedged and enclosed round about1 are to be deprived of hedges1 enclosures1 and culture 7 1 ,clem4 ,alex4 ,paed4 i4 #a1 p4 #aae ,sylb471 to be changed into a forest1 and given over to the ravages of wild beasts2 for the words and eat them are by no means to be referred to the fruits only4 ,the same image of an entirely devastated country is found in ,is4 vii4 #bc ff42 ,mic4 iii4 #ab4 ,ver4 #ae4 ,and ,i visit upon her the days of the ,baalim1 to whom she burnt incense1 and put on her ring and her ornament1 and went after her lovers1 and forgat ,me1 saith the ,lord4 ,the days of the ,baalim are the days consecrated to their worship1 whether they were specially set apart for that purpose1 or whether they were originally devoted to the worship of the ,lord1 whom they sought to confound with ,baal4 ,manger1 and with him1 most interpreters1 are wrong in understanding by the days of ,baal1 all the time--certainly a very long one--in which that forbidden worship flourished in this nation4 ,such would be too indefinite an expression4 ,when days of the ,baalim are spoken of1 every one must think of days specially consecrated to them1--their festivals4 ,to this must be added1 moreover1 the reference to the days of the ,lord in ver4 #ac4 ,in ver4 #aj1 however1 only one ,baal1 1 is spoken of2 here there are several4 ,this may be reconciled by the supposition that one and the same ,baal was worshipped according to his various modes of manifestation which were expressed by the epithets4 ,but the plural may also be explained--and this seems to be preferable--from #a ,kings xviii4 #ah1 where ,baalim is tantamount to ,baal and his associates 7compare ,dissertations on the ,gen4 of the ,pent4 vol4 i4 p4 #afe72 or from ,lev4 xvii4 #g1 where denotes the ,goat-idol1 ,pg #beb and others of his kind4 ,the calves1 the worship of which was1 at the time of ,hosea1 the prevailing one throughout the kingdom of the ten tribes1 are1 in that case1 comprehended in the ,baalim4--,in the words1 ,and she put on her ring and ornament1 the figurative mode of expression has been overlooked by most interpreters4 ,misled by the 1 which refers directly to the spiritual adulteress1 they imagined that the wearing of nose-rings1 and other ornaments1 in honour of the idols1 was here spoken of4 ,a more correct view was held by the ,chaldee who thus paraphrases3 ,the ,congregation of ,israel was like a wife who deserted her husband1 and adorned herself1 and ran after her lovers4 ,thus the ,congregation of ,israel was pleased to worship idols1 and to neglect ,my worship4 ,a great many false interpretations have had their origin in the circumstance1 that they could not comprehend this liberty of the sacred writers1 who at one time speak plainly of the spiritual antitype1 and at another time transfer to it the peculiarities of the outward type4 ,had this been kept in view1 it would not1 e4g41 have been asserted1 that ,david had1 in ,ps4 xxiii4 #e1 relinquished the image of the good shepherd1 because he does not speak of a trough which the actual good shepherd places before his sheep1 but of a table1 placed before them by the spiritual good ,shepherd4 ,in the passage under consideration1 the denotes an action performed by her who is an adulteress in a spiritual point of view4 ,in the words1 ,she puts on1 etc41 her conduct is described under the figure of that of her outward type4 ,the actual correspondence is to be found in her efforts of making herself agreeable1--in the employing of every means in order to gain her spiritual lovers4 ,the putting on of precious ornaments comes into view1 only in so far as it is one of these efforts1 and1 indeed1 a very subordinate one4 ,the burning of incense1 the offering of sacrifices1 etc41 are1 in this respect1 of far greater importance4 ,the correctness of our interpretation is confirmed by those parallel passages also1 in which the same figurative mode of expression occurs4 ,thus1 e4g41 ,is4 lvii4 #i3 ,thou lookest upon the king 7the common translation1 thou goest to the king1 cannot be defended on philological grounds7 in oil 7i4e41 smelling of ointment71 and multipliest thy perfume1--evidently a figurative designation1 taken from a coquetish woman1 to express the employing of all means in1 order to gain favour2--,is4 iv4 #cj3 ,pg #bec ,and thou desolate one1 what wilt thou do8 ,for thou puttest on thy purple1 for thou adornest thyself with golden ornaments1 for thou rentest thine eyes with painting4 ,in vain thou makest thyself fair2 the lovers despise thee1 they seek thy life4 ,in ,ezek4 xxii4 #dj-db1 ,jerusalem washes and paints herself1 expecting her lovers1 and decks herself with ornaments2 then she sits down upon a stately couch2 a table is prepared before her1 upon which she places the incense of the ,lord1 and ,his oil4 ,in this last feature in ,ezekiel1 the type disappears behind the thing typified1 although not so completely as is the case in the passage under consideration1 in the words1 ,she burns incense4--,from what has been remarked1 it appears that1 in substance1 ,hos4 iv4 #ac1 ,they sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains and bum incense upon the hills1 is entirely parallel4 ,the two clauses1 ,she went after her lovers1 and she forgat ,me1 both serve to represent the crime in a more heinous light4 ,sin must certainly have already poisoned the whole heart1 if occasion for its exercise be spontaneously sought after4 ,in reference to the latter1 ,calvin remarks3 ,just as when a wife has for a long time lived with her husband1 and has been kindly and liberally treated by him1 and then prostitutes herself to lovers1 and does not entertain or retain any more love for him2 such a depravity is nothing less than brutish4 ,ver4 #af4 ,therefore1 behold1 ,i allure her1 and lead her into the wilderness and speak to her heart4 ,the consolation and promise here begin with as great abruptness as in the first section4 ,it is reported how the ,lord gradually leads back ,his unfaithful wife to reformation1 and to reunion with ,him1 the lawful husband4 ,great difficulty has been occasioned to interpreters by the at the commencement4 ,very easily1 but at the same time very inconsiderately1 the difficulty is got over by those who give it the signification1 utique1 profecto2 but this cannot be called interpreting4 ,it must be1 above all1 considered as settled and undoubted1 that can here have that signification only which it always has2 and this all the more1 that in vers4 #h and #ae it occurred in the same signification4 ,this being taken for granted1 the therefore might be referred to the words of the wife in ver4 #i1 ,i will go and return to my first husband1 and all which follows be considered as only a kind of parenthesis4 ,that the ,lord begins again to show ,himself ,pg #bed kind to ,his wife would then have its foundation in this3--that in her the first symptoms of a change of character manifested themselves4 ,but this supposition is1 after all1 too forced4 ,these words are too far away as that the prophet could have expected to be understood1 in thus referring to them in a manner so indefinite4 ,several interpreters follow the explanation of ,tarnovius3 ,therefore1 because she is not corrected by so great calamities1 ,i will try the matter in another and more lenient way1 by kindness4 ,but the prophet could not expect that his hearers and readers should themselves supply the thought1 which is not indicated by anything1--the thought1 namely1 because that former method was of no avail1 or rather1 because it alone did not suffice2 for it was by no means wholly in vain4 ,when the ,lord had hedged up her way with thorns1 the woman speaks3 ,i will go and return2 and where tribulations are of no avail--tribulations through which we must enter the kingdom of ,god--nothing else will4 ,the severity of ,god must precede ,his love4 ,and even though this train of thought should have occurred to them1 they had no guarantee for its correctness4 ,it is most natural to take the as being simply co-ordinate with the in vers4 #h and #aa4 ,the because1 which1 in all the three places1 corresponds to the therefore1 is the wife's apostasy4 ,because she has forgotten ,god1 ,he recalls ,himself to her remembrance1 first by the punishment1 and then1 after this has attained its end1--after the wife has spoken3 ,i will go and return1--by proofs of ,his love4 ,the leading to ,egypt1 into the wilderness1 into the land of ,canaan1 rests on her unfaithfulness as its foundation4 ,without it1 the ,congregation would have remained in undisturbed possession of the promised land4 ,by it1 ,god is induced1 both according to ,his justice and ,his mercy1 to take it from her1 to lead her back into the wilderness1 and thence to the promised land4--1 in the ,piel1 is a verbum amatorium2 it signifies to allure by tender persuasion4 ,there is to be a repetition of the proceeding of ,god1 by which ,he formerly1 in ,egypt1 allured the people to ,himself1 and induced them to follow ,him into the wilderness1 from the spiritual and bodily bondage in ,egypt4 ,after the sufferings1 there always follows the alluring4 ,god first takes away the objects of sinful love1 and then ,he comes alluring and persuading us that we should choose1 for the object of our love4 ,him who alone is worthy of1 and entitled to1 love4 ,he is not ,pg #bee satisfied with the strict prosecution of ,his right1 but endeavours to make duty sweet to us1 and1 by ,his love1 to bring it about that we perform it from love4 ,after ,he has thus allured us4 ,he leads us from ,egypt into the wilderness4--,the words1 ,i lead her into the wilderness1 have been very much misunderstood by interpreters4 ,according to ,manger1 the wilderness here is that through which the captives should pass on their return from ,babylon4 ,but one reason alone is sufficient to refute this opinion1--namely1 that on account of the following verse1 by the wilderness 7the article must not be overlooked71 only that wilderness can be understood which separates ,egypt from ,canaan4 ,others 7,ewald1 ,hitzig71 following ,grotius1 understand by the wilderness1 the ,assyrian captivity4 ,kuehnl has acquired great merit for this exposition1 by proving from a passage in ,herodotus1 that there were1 at that time1 uncultivated regions in ,assyria6 ,the same reason which militates against the former interpretation is opposed to this also4 ,to this it may be further added1 that1 according to it1 we can make nothing of the alluring4 ,the ,israelites were not allured into captivity by kindness and love2 they were driven into it against their will1 by ,god's wrath4 ,moreover1 what according to this interpretation is to be done with the in ver4 #ag8 ,did1 perhaps1 the vineyards of ,canaan begin immediately beyond ,assyria1 or does not even this rather lead us to the ,arabian desert8 ,it is certain1 then1 that this desert is the one to be thought of here1 and1 in addition1 that it can only be as an image and type that the prophet here represents the leading through the wilderness1 as a repetition of the former one in its individual form2 inasmuch as it was1 substantially1 equal with it4 ,for they who returned from the ,assyrian captivity could not well pass through the literal ,arabian desert2 and the comparison expressed in the following verse1 ,as in the day when she went up from the land of ,egypt1 shows that here also a decurtata comparatio must take place4 ,but1 now1 all depends upon determining the essential feature1 the real nature and substance1 of that first leading through the wilderness2 because the leading spoken of in the verse before us must have that essential feature in common with it4 ,the principal passage--which must guide us in this investigation1 and which is proved to be such by the circumstance that the ,lord ,himself referred ,pg #bef to it when ,he was spiritually led through the wilderness1 an event which1 for a sign1 outwardly also took place in the wilderness--is ,deut4 viii4 #b-e3 ,and thou shalt remember all the way which the ,lord thy ,god led thee these forty years in the wilderness1 to afflict thee and to prove thee1 to know what was in thy heart1 whether thou wouldst keep ,his commandments1 or no4 ,and ,he afflicted thee1 and suffered thee to hunger1 and fed thee with the manna which thou knewest not1 neither did thy fathers know1 that ,he might make thee know that man doth not live by bread only1 but by everything which proceedeth out of the mouth of the ,lord doth man live4 ,thy raiment waxed not old upon thee1 neither did thy foot swell these forty years4 ,and thou knowest in thine heart1 that as a father chasteneth his son1 so the ,lord thy ,god chasteneth thee4 ,the essential feature in the leading through the wilderness is1 accordingly1 the temptation4 ,by the wonderful manifestations of the ,lord's omnipotence and mercy1 on the occasion of ,israel's deliverance from ,egypt1 a heartfelt love to ,him had been awakened in the people4 7,compare the tender expression of it in the ,song in ,exod4 xv42 and also the passage in ,jer4 ii4 #b3 ,i remember thee1 the kindness of thy youth1 the love of thine espousals1 thy going after ,me in the wilderness in a land not sown1--which cannot but refer to the very first time of the abode in the wilderness1 before the giving of the law on ,sinai1 as is evident from the mention of the youth and espousals2 for the latter ceased on ,sinai1 where the marriage took place47 ,the whole conduct of the people at the giving of the law1--their great readiness in promising to do all that the ,lord should command1--likewise bear testimony to this love4 ,the ,lord's heartfelt delight in ,israel during the first period of their marching through the wilderness1 of which ,hosea speaks in ix4 #aj1 likewise presupposes this love4 ,thus the first station was reached4 ,the people now hoped to be put in immediate possession of the inheritance promised to them by the ,lord4 ,but1 because the ,lord knew the condition of human nature4 ,his way was a different one4 ,a state of temptation and trial succeeded that of entire alienation from ,god4 ,the first love is but too often--nay1 it is1 more or less1 always--but a flickering flame4 ,sin has not been entirely slain2 it has been only subdued for a moment1 and only wants a favourable opportunity ,pg #beg to regain its old dominion4 ,it would never be thoroughly destroyed1 if ,god allowed this condition always to continue2 if by always putting on new fuel1 if by uninterrupted proofs of ,his love4 ,he were to keep that fire burning continually4 ,if the love of the feelings and imagination is to become a cordial1 thorough moral love1 it requires to be tried1 in order that thus it may recognise its own nothingness hitherto1 and how necessary it is that it should take deeper root4 ,the means of this trial are ,god's afflicting us1 concealing ,himself from us1 leading us in a way different from that which we expected1 and1 apparently1 forsaking vis4 ,but because ,he is the merciful ,one who will not suffer us to be tempted above that we are able1--because ,he ,himself has commanded us to pray1 ,lead us not into temptation1 i4e41 into such an one as we are not able to bear1 and would thereby become a temptation inwardly1--,he makes ,his gifts to go by the side of ,his chastisements4 ,he who suffered ,israel to hunger1 gave them also to eat4 ,he who suffered them to thirst1 gave them also to drink4 ,he who led them over the burning sand1 did not suffer their shoes to wax old4 ,but this counterpoise to tribulation becomes1 in another aspect1 a new temptation4 ,as ,satan tries to overthrow us by pleasure as well as by pain2 so ,god proves us by what ,he gives1 no less than by what ,he takes away4 ,in the latter case1 it will be seen whether we love ,god without ,his gifts2 in the former1 whether we love ,him in ,his gifts4 ,this second station is1 to many1 the last2 the bodies of many fall in the wilderness4 ,but while a multitude of individuals remain there1 the ,congregation of ,god always passes over to the third station1--the possession of ,canaan4 ,the state of temptation is1 to her1 always a state of sifting and purification at the same time4 ,that which is to the individual a calamity1 is to her a blessing4--,that we have thus correctly defined the nature and substance of the leading through the wilderness1 is confirmed by the temptation of ,christ also1 which immediately succeeded the bestowal of the ,spirit1 which again corresponded to the first love4 ,that this temptation of ,christ corresponded to the leading through the wilderness--in so far as it could do so in the case of ,him who was tempted in all things1 yet without sin2 while in our case1 there is no temptation1 even when resisted ,pg #beh victoriously1 that is without sin--appears sufficiently from its two external characteristics1 viz41 the stay in the wilderness1 and the forty days2 but still more so1 from the internal feature1--the fact that the ,saviour1 in order to show the tempter that ,he recognised in ,his own case a repetition of the stay in the wilderness1 opposed ,him with a passage taken from the locus classicus concerning it1 already quoted4--,we now1 moreover1 cite the parallel passages which serve as an explanation of the passage under consideration1 and as a confirmation of the explanation which we have given4 ,the most important is ,ezek4 xx4 #cd-ch3 ,and ,i bring you out from the nations1 and gather you out of the countries wherein ye are scattered1 with a mighty hand and with a stretched-out arm1 and with fury poured out4 ,and ,i bring you into the wilderness of the nations1 and there will ,i plead with you face to face2 like as ,i pleaded with your fathers in the wilderness of the land of ,egypt1 so will ,i plead there with you1 saith the ,lord ,god4 ,and ,i cause you to pass under the rod1 and bring you into the bond of the covenant1 and purge out from among you the rebels1 and them that transgress against ,me2 out of the land of your pilgrimage 7the standing designation of ,egypt in the ,pentateuch7 ,i will bring them forth1 and into the land of ,israel they shall not come1 and ye shall know that ,i am the ,lord4 ,here also1 the stay in the wilderness appears as a state of trial1 lying in the middle between the abode among the nations 7corresponding to the bondage in ,egypt1 which was so not merely bodily1 but spiritual also71 and the possession of ,canaan4 ,and the result of this trial is a different one1 according to the different condition of the individuals4 ,some shall be altogether destroyed2 even the appearance of the communion with the ,lord1 which they hitherto maintained by having come out of the land of pilgrimage along with the others1 shall be taken away2 whilst the others1 by the very means which brought about the destruction of the former1 shall be confirmed in their communion with the ,lord1 and be more closely united to ,him4 ,hosea1 who1 in consequence of the personification of the ,congregation of ,israel1 has the whole more in view1 regards chiefly the latter feature4 ,a very remarkable circumstance in ,ezekiel1 however1 requires to be still more minutely considered2 because it promotes essentially the right understanding of the passage before us4 ,what is meant ,pg #bei by the wilderness of the nations8 ,several interpreters think that it is the wilderness between ,babylon and ,judea4 ,thus1 for example1 ,manger3 ,i am disposed to think that the desert of ,arabia itself is here called the wilderness of the nations1 on account of the different nomadic tribes which are accustomed to wander through it4 ,rosenmller says3 ,he seems to speak here of those vast solitudes which the ,jews had to pass through1 on their way from ,babylon to ,judea4 ,but this ,i am disposed to think1 and this he seems1 on the part of these interpreters1 show that they themselves felt the insufficiency of their own explanation4 ,that nomadic tribes are straying through that wilderness1 is not at all essential1 and can therefore not be mentioned here1 where only the essential feature--the nature and substance of the leading through the wilderness--are concerned4 ,and we cannot at all perceive why just the wilderness between ,babylon and ,judea should be called the wilderness of the nations4 ,it was no more travelled by nomadic tribes than was any other wilderness4 ,and just as little was it characteristic of it1 that it bordered upon the territories of various nations 7,hitzig74 ,such a designation would throw us upon the territory of mere conjecture1 on which we are1 in ,holy ,scripture1 never thrown1 except through our own fault4 ,but it is quite decisive that the words1 ,i bring you out of the wilderness of the nations1 stand in a close relation to the words1 ,i bring you out from the nations4 ,from this it appears that the nations1 to which the ,israelites are to be brought1 cannot be any other than those1 out of the midst of whom they are to be led4 ,in the first leading out of the ,israelites1 the two spiritual conditions were separated externally also4 ,the first belonged to ,egypt2 the second1 to the wilderness4 ,but it shall not be thus1 in this announced repetition of the leading4 ,it is only spiritually that the ,israelites1 at the commencement of the second condition1 shall be led out from among the nations1 in the midst of whom they1 outwardly1 still continue to be4 ,the wilderness is in the second ,egypt itself4 ,the stay in the wilderness is repeated as to its essence only1 and not as to its accidental outward form2 just as in ,zech4 x4 #ab1 the words1 ,and he passeth through the sea1 which apparently might imply a repetition of the outward form merely1 are limited to the substance by the subjoined affliction4 ,from this we obtain for our passage 7,hitzig likewise ,pg #bfj remarks3 ,ezek4 xx4 #cd-ch seems to depend on ,hosea ii4 #af7 the important result1 that the leading of ,god which is here announced1 is not limited to a definite place1 and as little1 to a definite time4 ,and what is true of the leading through the wilderness1 must necessarily apply to the leading into ,canaan also4 ,just as ,egypt might begin1 and actually did begin1 even in ,palestine1 inasmuch as ,israel was there in a condition of heavy spiritual and bodily bondage2--just as1 spiritually1 they might already be in the wilderness1 though1 outwardly1 they were still under ,asshur2 so1 the stay in the wilderness might1 relatively1 have still continued in ,canaan1 even although--which did not happen--the whole people should have returned thither with ,zerubbabel4 ,what is it that makes ,canaan to be ,canaan1 the promised land1 the land of the ,lord8 ,it is just this3--that the ,lord is there present with all ,his gifts and blessings4 ,but such was by no means the case in the new colony4 ,because the spiritual condition of those who had returned was in conformity with the second--in part1 even with the first--rather than with4 the last station1 their outward condition was so likewise4 ,john the ,baptist symbolized this continuation of the condition of the wilderness1 by his appearing in the wilderness1 with the preaching of repentance1 and with4 the announcement1 that now the introduction to the true ,canaan was near at hand4 ,by proclaiming himself as the voice crying in the wilderness1 announced by ,isaiah1 he showed with sufficient plainness how false was that carnal view which1 without being able to distinguish the thought from its drapery1 understood1 and still understands1 by the wilderness spoken of in this prophecy1 some piece of land1 limited as to space1 and then murmured that the actual limit did not correspond with the fancied one4--,as in the case of ,israel1 so in ours also1 these conditions are distinguished1 not absolutely1 but relatively only4 ,even he who has1 in one respect1 been already led through to ,canaan1 remains1 in another respect1 in the wilderness still4 ,canaan1 in the full sense1 does not belong to the present world1 but to the future1 as regards both the single individual1 and the whole ,church4--,another parallel passage is ,jer4 xxxi4 #a1 #b3 ,at this time1 saith the ,lord1 will ,i be the ,god of all the families of ,israel1 and they shall be ,my people4 ,thus saith the ,lord1 ,the people who have escaped from the sword find mercy in the wilderness2 ,pg #bfa ,i go to give rest to ,israel4 ,in ,rev4 xii4 #f1 #ad1 the wilderness likewise designates the state of trial and temptation4-- 1 properly to speak over the heart1 because the words fall down upon the heart1 signifies an affectionate and consolatory address2 compare ,gen4 xxxiv4 #c 7,and he loved the damsel1 and spoke over the heart of the damsel71 l4 #ba2 ,is4 xl4 #b4 ,here they signify that the wife is comforted after she had been so deeply cast down by the consciousness of her former unfaithfulness1 and by the experience of its bitter consequences4 ,the view of those who would here think only of the comforting words of the prophets is much too limited1--although these words are1 of course1 included4 ,we must chiefly think of the sermo realis of the ,lord1 of all the proofs of affectionate and tender love1 whereby ,he gives rest to the weary and heavy-laden1 and brings it about1 that those who were formerly unfaithful1 but who now suffer themselves to be led by ,him out of the spiritual bondage into the spiritual wilderness1 can now put confidence in ,him2 just as1 formerly4 ,he comforted ,israel in the wilderness1 in the waste and desolate land1 in the land of drought and of the shadow of death 7,jer4 ii4 #f71 and affectionately cared for all their wants1 in order that they might know that ,he is the ,lord their ,god1 ,deut4 xxix4 #d1 #e4 ,ver4 #ag4 ,and ,i give her her vineyards from thence1 and the valley of ,achor 7trouble7 for a door of hope2 and she answers thither as in the days of her youth1 and as in the day when she came up out of ,egypt4 ,the same faithful love which led into the wilderness1 now leads into ,canaan also2 and the entrance into the promised land is immediately followed by the possession of all its gifts and blessings1 which now legitimately belong to the faithful wife 7her vineyards71 whilst1 formerly1 they were taken from the unfaithful wife by the giver1 ver4 #ad4 with of the person1 always means to give to some one4 ,hence ,simson is wrong in giving the explanation3 ,and ,i make her of it1 viz41 the wilderness1 her vineyards2 for the valley of ,achor was not situated in the wilderness1 but in ,canaan2 compare ,is4 lxv4 #aj4 ,the signification to give is here suited to the second member of the verse also4 ,the valley of ,achor is given to her in its quality as a valley of hope4 ,the vineyards are mentioned with reference to ver4 #ad1 where the devastation of the vine is ,pg #bfb threatened4 ,they are brought under notice as the noblest possession1 as the finest ornament of the cultivated land1 in contrast with the barren wilderness4 1 properly from thence1 is correctly explained by ,manger3 ,as soon as she has come out of that wilderness4 ,the explanation of ,rdiger and others1 ,from that time1 is unphilological2 is never an adverb of time4--,according to the opinion of many interpreters 7,calvin1 ,manger1 and others71 the valley of ,achor here comes into consideration only because of its fruitfulness1 and its situation at the entrance of the promised land1 but not with any reference to the event which1 according to ,josh4 vii41 happened there4 ,but the circumstance that here1 as in the whole preceding context1 the prophet1 in almost every word1 has before his eyes the former leadings of ,israel1 compels us1 almost involuntarily1 to have respect to that event4 ,and1 in addition1 there is a still more decisive argument4 ,it cannot be denied that there is a contrast between what the valley of ,achor is by nature1 and what it is made by the ,lord2 there is too plain a contrast between the hope and the affliction4 ,but if thus the meaning of the name is brought into view1 then certainly there must also be a reference to the event to which it owed its name4 ,but in order to have a right understanding of this reference1 we must find out what was the essential feature in the event1 the repetition of which is here announced4 ,the people1 when they were entering into ,canaan1 were immediately deprived of the enjoyment of the divine favour by the transgression of an individual--,achan--which was only a single fruit from the tree of the sin which was common to all4 ,but ,god ,himself1 in ,his mercy1 made known the means by which the lost favour might be recovered2 and thus the place1 which seemed to be the door of destruction1 became the door of hope2 compare ,schultens on ,harari iii4 p4 #ahj4 ,the remembrance of this event was perpetuated by the name of the place2 compare ver4 #be3 ,and ,joshua said4 ,why hast thou troubled us8 ,the ,lord shall trouble thee this day4 ,therefore the name of the place was called4 ,the valley of ,achor1 unto this day4 ,this particular dealing of ,god1 however1 is based upon ,his nature1 and must1 therefore1 repeat itself when ,israel again comes into similar circumstances1--must be repeated1 in general1 whensoever similar conditions arise4 ,even they who have already entered the ,pg #bfc promised land1 who have already come to the full enjoyment of salvation 7full1 in so far as it is considered as a whole1 and designated as the last station2 but as this last station again has several steps and gradations1 this fulness can be relative only4 ,if it were absolute1 if nothing more of the wilderness were left1 then1 of course1 the case here in question could no more occur2 for a salvation absolutely full presupposes a righteousness absolutely full72--even they who have already come to the full enjoyment of salvation1 and to a degree of righteousness corresponding to this salvation1 require still the mercy of ,god2 for1 without it1 they would soon lose their salvation again4 ,this mercy1 however1 is vouchsafed to them in abundant measure4 ,the whole manner in which ,god leads those who have obtained mercy1 is a changing of the valley of trouble into a door of hope4 ,he will order all things in such a way1 that the bond of union betwixt ,him and those for whom all things must work together for good1 instead of being broken by sin--as it would be if ,he were justice alone--is only the more strengthened4 ,the same idea occurs again in ver4 #ba4 ,the new marriage-covenant is there founded not on justice only1 but on mercy also4--,the words are commonly explained1 ,she sings there1 or1 ,she there raises alternative songs4 ,but both of these interpretations are unphilological4 ,for #a4 does not signify there1 but thither4 ,those passages which have been appealed to for the purpose of proving that it may also sometimes signify there1 or at yonder place1 all belong to the same class4 ,the opposite of the construction of the verbs of motion with takes place in them4 ,as1 in these verbs1 the idea of rest is1 for the sake of brevity1 omitted1 so here1 that of motion4 ,thus1 e4g41 ,jer4 xviii4 #b1 ,go down to the potter's house1 and thither will ,i cause thee to hear ,my voice1 is a concise mode of expression for1 ,i will send ,my voice thither1 and cause thee to hear there2 #a ,chron4 iv4 #da1 ,which were found thither1 instead of1 which were found there when they came thither4 ,we might1 in the case of the passage under consideration1 most easily concede what we are contending against1 that is used instead of 1 as a kind of grammatical blunder2 but that the writer knew the difference between these two forms clearly appears from the close of the verse1 where1 certainly1 he would not have put for 4 ,these are the instances adduced by ,winer4 ,gesenius1 further1 refers ,pg #bfdto ,is4 xxxiv4 #ae3 ,thither makes her nest2 but the making of the nest implies the placing of it4 ,ewald1 moreover1 appeals to ,ps4 cxxii4 #e3 ,thither sit the thrones for judgment4 ,it is true that never signifies to sit down1 but it frequently implies it4 ,he appeals1 further1 to the ,song of ,solomon viii4 #e3 ,thither thy mother brought thee forth2 which is tantamount to--there she brought thee forth1 and put thee down4 ,but can so much the less signify there1 that the instances alleged for the weakening of the locale in other passages1 will not stand the test4 ,ewald appeals to ,ps4 lxviii4 #g3 ,god makes the solitary to dwell 2 which1 however1 does not mean in the house1 as ,ewald translates1 but into the house--,he leads them thither1 and makes them to dwell there4 ,the idea of motion being sufficiently indicated by the itself1 no other designation was required in poetry1 which delights in brevity4 ,further--,hab4 iii4 #aa3 ,sun and moon stand 1 towards their habitation1 i4e41 go into their habitation and stand there4 #b4 ,the verb signifies neither to begin the discourse1 nor to sing1 nor to sing alternately1 nor to correspond1 nor to be favourably disposed 7,ewald71 nor to obey 7,hitzig71 but always1 and everywhere1 to answer4 ,all these explanations will lose their plausibility1 if we only consider1 that it is not always necessary that a question be expressed by words1 but that it may be implied in the thing itself--especially in the case of the lively ,orientals1 for whom things1 even the most mute1 have a language4 ,as examples1 we cite only #a ,sam4 xxi4 #ab3--;,did they not answer to him in dances1 saying1 ,saul has slain his thousands1 but ,david his ten thousands6 ,similarly also xxix4 #e4 ,that even here1 the signification to answer ought to be retained1 is plain from xviii4 #g1 compared with ver4 #f4 ,the coming together of ,david and ,saul was a silent question as to which was the greater4 ,ps4 cxlvii43 ,answer the ,lord with praise4 ,the real addresses of the ,lord were ,his blessings2 compare vers4 #b-f1 #h ff4 ,by everything which ,god gives ,he asks4 ,what art thou doing to ,me1 since ,i am doing that to thee8 is often used of ,god1 although no formal question or prayer preceded2 but the very relation itself implies prayer and asking4 ,it is in this sense that even the ravens are said to cry to ,god4 ,it is in this sense that ,god answers ,his people before they cry to ,him4 ,he who has nothing1 prays by this very circumstance1 even without words1 ,pg #bfeyea1 even without the gestures and posture of one who is praying4 ,since1 in these remarks1 we have already refuted the arguments which seemed most plausible1 we may pass over other objections which are less to the purpose4 ,there is only the passage ,exod4 xv4 #ba1 which requires to be specially noticed1 as it is in that passage that the signification to sing alternately is supposed1 beyond any doubt1 to be2 and many interpreters assume that there is a verbal reference to it in the passage under consideration4 ,and then ,miriam answered to them 71 i4e41 to the men71 ,sing ye to the ,lord1 ,moses sings first with the children of ,israel1 ver4 #a1 and then ,miriam the prophetess took1 etc41 and answered4 ,the signification to answer1 is here quite evident4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it appears that that passage has not the slightest relation to the one under consideration1 inasmuch as there is not1 in the latter1 any mention of a first choir1 to which the second answers4--,from what has been hitherto remarked1 it is settled that the translation1 ,and she answers thither1 is alone admissible4 ,but now1 since no verbal question or address has preceded here1 the question arises3--,which address by deeds called forth the answer8 ,to this question an answer is readily suggested by the reference of to the preceding 4 ,the address must have come from that place to which the answer is sent2 hence1 it can consist only in the giving of the vineyards1 and of the good things of the promised land generally4 ,on entering into it1 she is welcomed by this affectionate address of the ,lord1 her husband1 and there she answers it4 ,the following words1 ,as in the days1 etc41 show what that is in which the answer consists4 ,if1 at that time1 ,israel answered the ,lord by a song of praise1 full of thanks for the deliverance from ,egypt1 now also they will answer ,him by a song of praise1 for being led into ,canaan4 ,if history had given any report of a hymn of praise sung by ,israel when they entered into ,canaan1 the prophet would have referred to it2 but as it was1 he could only remind them of that hymn4 ,and although the occasion on which it was sung did not altogether correspond1 it must be borne in mind1 that in this hymn 7compare ver4 #ab ff47 the passing through the ,red ,sea is represented as a preparatory step1 and as prefiguring the occupation of ,canaan--the latter being contained in it as in a germ4 ,it is1 moreover1 self-evident that the essential fundamental thought is ,pg #bffonly that of the cordial and deep gratitude of the redeemed1--that the form only is borrowed from the previous manifestation of this thankfulness4 ,an image altogether similar1 and arising from the same cause1 is found in ,is4 xii4 also1 where the reference to ,moses' hymn of thanks is manifested by employing the very words2 and likewise in ,is4 xxvi42 and1 further1 in ,hab4 iii4 and ,rev4 xv4 #c4-- and are ,nominatives1 not ,accusatives2 which latter could not be made use of here1 because the discourse is not of an action extending through the whole period1 but of one happening at a particular point of that period4 ,the comparison is here also merely intimated1 because the tertium comparationis is abundantly evident from what precedes3 ,as the days of her youth1 instead of1 ,as she once answered in the days of her youth4 ,ver4 #ah4 ,and it shall be at that day1 saith the ,lord1 thou shalt call ,me1 ,my husband1 and shall call ,me no more1 ,my ,baal4 ,the full performance of her duties corresponds with the full admission to her rights4 ,the prophet expresses this thought1 by announcing the removal of the two forms in which the apostasy of the people from the true ,god--the violation of the marriage-covenant which rested on exclusiveness--was at that time manifested4 ,one of these was the mixing up of the religion of ,jehovah with heathenism1 according to which they called the true ,god ,baal1 and worshipped ,him as ,baal2 the other was still grosser--was pure idolatry4 ,the abolition of the former 7compare above1 p4 #agf f47 is predicted in this verse2 the abolition of the latter1 in the verse following4 ,both are in a similar way placed beside each other in ,zech4 xiv4 #i3 ,in that day shall there be one ,lord1 and ,his name one2 where the first clause refers to the abolition of polytheism1 and the second to the abolition of the mixing of religion--of the hidden apostasy--which1 without venturing to forsake the true ,god entirely and openly1 endeavours to mix up and identify ,him with the world4 ,to the fundamental thought there are several parallels2 e4g41 ,deut4 xxx4 #e ff43 ,and the ,lord thy ,god bringeth thee into the land which thy fathers possessed2 and the ,lord thy ,god circumciseth thine heart1 and the heart of thy seed1 to love the ,lord thy ,god with all thine heart1 and with all thy soul1 that thou mayest live4 ,this passage shows that the verse before us1 no less than that which precedes1 contains a promise1 and that the calling1 and the calling no more1 is a work of divine ,pg #bfg;grace4 ,to this we are led also by the words1 ,i shall take away1 in ver4 #ai1 as well as by the other parallel passages3--,jer4 xxiv4 #g3 ,and ,i give them an heart to know ,me1 that ,i am the ,lord2 and they shall be a people to ,me1 and ,i will be a ,god to them1 for they shall return to ,me with their whole heart2 ,ezek4 xi4 #ai3 ,and ,i give them one heart1 and a new spirit ,i put within them1 and take the stony heart out of their flesh2 compare further ,zech4 xiii4 #b4 ,another interpretation of the verse recommends itself by its apparent depth4 ,according to it1 is to be taken as an appellative noun1 the marriage-,lord1 in contrast with 1 husband1 and that the people are henceforth to be altogether governed by love4 ,but this interpretation must be objected to1 for a whole multitude of reasons4 ,there is1 first of all1 the relation of this verse to the following one1 which does not allow that 1 which there occurs as a proper name1 should in this place be taken as an appellative4 ,there is1 then1 the arbitrariness in defining the relation between and 1 the former of which as little exclusively expresses the relation of love1 as the latter excludes it4 7,compare ,is4 liv4 #e1 #f1 lxii4 #d2 #b ,sam4 xi4 #bf47 ,further1 it is incorrect to say that properly means ,lord2 it means possessor4 ,still further1--,there is the unsuitableness of the thought1 which would be without any analogy in its favour throughout ,scripture4 ,and1 lastly1 the relation of love to ,god cannot1 even in its highest consummation1 do away with reference to ,him1 etc4 ,ver4 #ai4 ,and ,i take away the names of the ,baalim out of her mouth1 and they shall no more be remembered by their name4 ,the people are to conceive such an abhorrence of idolatry1 that they shall be afraid of being defiled even by pronouncing the name of the idols4 ,the words are borrowed from ,exod4 xxiii4 #ac3 ,ye shall not make mention of the name of other gods1 neither shall it be heard out of thy mouth4 ,the special expression of the idea must1 as a matter of course1 be referred back to this idea itself1 viz41 the abhorrence of the former sin and1 hence1 such a mention cannot here be spoken of as1 like that in the passage before us1 has no reference to that sin4 ,ver4 #bj4 ,and ,i make a covenant for them in that day with the beasts of the field1 and with the fowls of heaven1 and with the creeping things of the earth2 and bow1 and sword1 and war ,i break out of the land1 and make them to dwell in safety4 ,pg #bfh ,on the expression1 ,i make a covenant1 ,manger remarks1 ,the cause is here put for the effect1 in order to inspire with greater security4 ,for the benefit of ,israel1 ,god makes a covenant with the beasts1 i4e41 ,he imposes upon them obligations not to injure them4 ,the phrase is frequently used of a transaction betwixt two parties1 whereby an obligation is imposed upon only one of the parties1 without the assumption of any obligation by the other4 ,a somewhat different turn is given to the image in ,job v4 #bc1 where1 by the mediation of ,god1 the beasts themselves enter into a covenant with ,job after his restoration4 never means worm1 but always what moves and creeps1 both small and great1 as1 in ,ps4 civ4 #be1 is subjoined by way of explanation4 ,the three classes stand in the same order in ,gen4 ix4 #b4 ,the normal order there established1 ,and the fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast1 etc41 returns1 after the removal of the disturbance which has been produced by sin4 ,upon the words1 ,i break1 etc41 ,manger makes the very pertinent remark3 ,it is an emphatic and expressive brevity1 according to which breaking out of the land all instruments of war1 and war itself1 means that ,he will break them and remove them out of the land4 ,it is self-evident that war can here1 as little as anywhere else1 mean weapons of war4 ,the prophet1 as it appears1 had in view the passage ,lev4 xxvi4 #c ff43 ,if ye will walk in ,my statutes1 and keep ,my commandments and do them1 ,i will give you your rains in due season1 and the land shall yield her increase1 and the trees of the field shall yield their fruit4444 ,and ,i give peace in the land1 and you dwell1 and there is none who makes you afraid2 and ,i destroy the wild beasts out of the land1 and the sword shall not enter into your land4 ,it is so much the more obvious that we ought to assume a reference to this passage1 as ,ezekiel also1 in xxxiv4 #be ff41 copies it almost verbatim4 ,on account of the fatal ,if1 that promise had hitherto been only very imperfectly fulfilled2 and frequently just the opposite of it had happened4 ,but now that the condition is fulfilled1 the promise also shall be fully realized4 ,but we must observe1 with reference to it1 that1 when we look to the present course of the world1 this hope remains always more or less ideal1 because in reference to the condition also1 the idea is not yet reached by the reality4 ,the idea is this3--,as evil is1 as a ,pg #bfipunishment1 the inseparable concomitant of sin1 so prosperity and salvation are the inseparable companions of righteousness4 ,this is realized even in the present course of the world1 in so far as everything must serve to promote the prosperity of the righteous4 ,but the full realization belongs to the 1 where1 along with sin1 evil too 7which is here still necessary even for the righteous1 in order to purify them7 shall be extirpated4 ,parallel are ,is4 ii4 #d1 xi4-xxxv4 #i2 ,zech4 ix4 #aj4 ,ver4 #ba4 ,and ,i betroth thee to ,me for eternity2 and ,i betroth thee to ,me in righteousness and judgment1 and in loving-kindness and mercy4 ,ver4 #bb4 ,and ,i betroth thee to ,me in faithfulness1 and thou knowest the ,lord4 ,the word 1 to espouse 7compare ,deut4 xx4 #g1 where it is contrasted with 71 has reference to the entrance into a marriage entirely new1 with the wife of youth1 and is1 for this reason1 chosen on purpose4 ,just as if 7so ,calvin remarks7 the people had never violated conjugal fidelity1 ,god promises that they should be ,his spouse1 in the same manner as one marries a virgo intacta4 ,it was indeed a great mercy if the unfaithful wife was only received again4 ,justly might she have been rejected for ever2 for the only valid reason for a divorce existed1 inasmuch as she had lived in adultery for years4 ,but ,god's mercy goes still further4 ,the old offences are not only forgiven1 but forgotten4 ,a relation entirely new begins1 into which there enter1 on the one side1 no suspicion and no bitterness1 and on the other1 no painful recollections1 such as may pass into similar human relationships1 where the consequences of sin never disappear altogether1 and where a painful remembrance always remains4 ,the same dealing of ,god is still repeated daily2 every believer may still say with exultation3 ,old things are passed away2 behold1 all things are become new4 ,it is the greatness of this promise which occasions the direct address1 whilst hitherto the ,lord had spoken of the wife in the third person4 ,she shall hear face to face1 the great word out of ,his mouth1 in order that she may be assured that it is she whom it concerns2 and in order to express its greatness1 its joyfulness1 and the difficulty of believing it1 it is repeated three times4 ,calvin says3 ,because it was difficult to deliver the people from fear and despair1 and because they could not but be ,pg #bgj;aware how grievously they had sinned1 and in how many ways they had alienated themselves from ,god1 it was necessary to employ many consolations1 that thus their faith might be confirmed4 ,one likes to hear the repetition of the intelligence of a great and unexpected good fortune which one has some difficulty in realizing4 ,and what could a man1 despairing on account of his sins1 less readily realize than the greatest of all miracles--viz41 that all his sins should be done away with1 at once and for ever8 ,but the repetition is1 in this case1 so much the more full of consolation1 that1 each time1 it is accompanied with the promise of some new blessing2 that1 each time1 it opens up some new prospect of new blessings from this new connection4 ,first1 there is the eternal duration1--then1 as a pledge of this1 the attributes which ,god would display in bestowing it1--and1 finally1 there are the blessings which ,he would impart to ,his betrothed4 ,the points back to the painful dissolution of the former marriage-covenant3 ,this new one shall not be liable to such a dissolution2 for the mountains shall depart1 and the hills be removed1 but ,my kindness shall not depart from thee1 neither shall the covenant of ,my peace be removed1 saith the ,lord3 ,is4 liv4 #aj4 ,the attributes which ,god will display towards the wife1 and the conduct which she shall observe towards ,him through ,his mercy1 are connected with 1 ,i betroth thee to ,me1 by means of 1 which is often used to mark the circumstances on which some action rests4 ,thus1 in the case before us1 the betrothment rests upon what ,god vouchsafes along with it1 inasmuch as thereby only does it become a true betrothment4 ,that the accompanying gifts must be thus distributed--as we have done--first1 the faithful discharge of all the duties of a husband on ,his part1 and then1 the inward communication of strength to her for the fulfilment of her obligations2 and that we are neither at liberty to refer1 as do some interpreters1 everything to one of the two parties1 nor to assume1 as others do1 that everything refers to both at the same time--is proved not only by the intervening repetition of ,i betroth thee to ,me1 but also by the internal nature of the gift's mentioned4 1 mercy1 cannot be spoken of in the relation of the wife to ,god1 nor knowledge of ,god1 in the relation of ,god to the wife4 ,the four manifestations of ,god which are mentioned here form ,pg #bga a double pair1--righteousness and judgment1 loving-kindness and mercy4 ,the two are frequently connected in a similar way2 e4g41 ,is4 i4 #bg3 ,zion shall be redeemed in judgment1 and her inhabitants in righteousness4 ,they are distinguished thus3--the former1 1 designates the being just1 as a subjective attribute1 with the dispositions and actions flowing from it2 the latter1 1 denotes the objective right4#a ,a man can give to another his right or judgment1 and yet not be righteous2 but ,god's righteousness1 and ,his doing right in reference to the ,congregation1 consists in this3--that ,he faithfully performs the obligations which ,he took upon ,himself when ,he entered into covenant with her4 ,this1 however1 is not sufficient4 ,the obligations entered into are reciprocal4 ,if1 then1 the covenant be violated on the part of the ,congregation1 what hope is left for her8 ,in order the more to relieve and comfort the wife1 who1 from former experience1 knew full well what she might expect from righteousness and judgment alone1 the ,lord adds a second pair1--loving-kindness and mercy1 the former being the root of the latter1 and the latter being the form in which the former manifests itself1 in the relation of an omnipotent and holy ,god to weak and sinful man4 1 properly love1 man may also entertain towards ,god2 although even this word is very rarely used in reference to man1 because ,god's love infinitely exceeds human love2 but ,god only can have 1 mercy1 upon man4 ,but still a distressing thought might1 and must be entertained by the wife4 ,god's mercy and love have their limits2 they extend only to the one case which dissolves even human marriage--the type of the heavenly marriage1 the great mystery which the ,apostle refers to ,christ and the ,church4 ,what1 then1 if this case should again occur8 ,her heart1 it is true1 is now filled with pure love2 but who knows whether this love shall not cool1--whether she shall not again yield to temptation8 ,a new consolation is applied to the new distress4 ,god ,himself will bestow what it is not in the power of man to bestow--viz41 faithfulness towards ,him 7compare used of human faithfulness1 in ,hab4 ii4 #d2 ,jer4 v4 #c1 vii4 #bh2 the faithfulness in this verse forms the contrast to the whoredom in i4 #b71 ,pg #bgb;and the knowledge of ,him4 ,thou knowest the ,lord is tantamount to--in ,my knowledge4 ,the knowledge of ,god is here substantial knowledge4 ,whosoever thus knows ,god cannot but love ,him1 and be faithful to ,him4 ,all idolatry1 all sin1 has its foundation in a want of the knowledge of ,god4 ,ver4 #bc4 ,and it comes to pass in that day1 ,i will hear1 saith the ,lord2 ,i will hear the heavens1 and they shall hear the earth2 ,ver4 #bd4 ,and the earth shall hear the corn1 and the must1 and the oil2 and they shall hear ,jezreel 7i4e41 him whom ,god sows74 ,the promise in this passage forms the contrast to the threatening in ,deut4 xxviii4 #bc1 #bd3 ,and thy heaven that is over thy head shall be brass1 and the earth that is under thee shall be iron4 ,the ,lord will give for the rain of thy land1 dust1 and dust shall come down from heaven upon thee4 ,the second is1 by most interpreters1 considered as a resumption of the first4 ,but we obtain a far more expressive sense1 if we isolate the first 1 ,i shall hear1 namely1 all prayers which will be offered up unto ,me by you1 and for you4 ,parallel1 among other passages1 is ,is4 lviii4 #i1 where the reformed people are promised3 ,then shalt thou call1 and the ,lord shall answer2 thou shalt cry1 and ,he shall say4 ,here ,i am4 ,by a bold prosopopia1 the prophet makes heaven to pray that it might be permitted to give to the earth that which is necessary for its fruitfulness1 etc4 ,hitherto they have been hindered from fulfilling their destination1 since ,god was obliged to withdraw ,his gifts from the unworthy people1 ii4 #aa2 but now1 since this obstacle has been removed1 they pray for permission to resume their vocation4 ,the prophets in this manner give1 as it were1 a visible representation of the idea1 that there is in the whole world no good independent of ,god1--nothing which1 in accordance with its destination1 is not ours1 and would indeed be ours1 if we stood in the right relation to ,him1--nothing that is not ,his1 and that will not be taken away from us1 if we desire the gift without the ,giver4 ,calvin remarks3 ,the prophet shows where and when the happiness of men begins1 viz41 when ,god adopts them1 when ,he betrothes ,himself to them1 after having put away their sins4444 ,he teaches1 also1 in these words1 that the heavens do not become dry by some secret instinct2 but it is when ,god withholds ,his grace1 that there is no rain by which the heavens water the earth4 ,god1 then1 here shows ,pg #bgcplainly that the whole order of nature 7as men are wont to say7 is so entirely in ,his hand1 that not one drop of rain shall fall from heaven unless by ,his will1--that the whole earth would produce no grass1--that1 in short1 all nature would be sterile1 unless ,he made it fruitful by ,his blessing4 ,ver4 #be4 ,and ,i sow her unto ,me in the land1 and ,i have mercy upon her 'who had not obtained mercy' 7,lo-,ruhamah72 and ,i say to 'not ,my people' 7,lo-,ammi71 ,thou art ,my people1 and they say to ,me1 ,my ,god4 ,the three symbolical names of the children of the prophet here once more return4 ,the femin4 suffix in 1 referring to 1 need not at all surprise us2 for1 in the whole passage before us1 the sign disappears in the thing signified4 ,in point of fact1 however1 ,jezreel is equivalent to ,israel to be sowed anew4 7,it is not the ,israel to be planted anew1 which is a figure altogether different2 the sowing has always a reference to the increase47 ,footnote #a3 ,in our authorized version is almost constantly rendered by judgment1 although evidently in the sense pointed out by the author1--for which reason1 this rendering has been retained here4--,tr4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the significant couple returns for a new reference 7,rckert74 ,first1 in vers4 #a-c1 the symbolical action is reported4 ,at the command of the ,lord1 the prophet takes a wife1 who1 notwithstanding his affectionate and faithful love1 lives in continued adultery4 ,he does not entirely reject her2 but1 in order that she may come to recovery and repentance1 he puts her into a position where she must abstain from her lovers4 ,the interpretation of the symbol is given in ver4 #d3 ,israel1 forsaken by the world1 shall spend a long time in sad seclusion4 ,a glance into the more distant future1 without any symbolical imagery1 forms the conclusion4 ,the punishment will at length produce conversion4 ,israel returns to the ,lord his ,god1 and to ,david his king4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ver4 #a4 ,then said the ,lord unto me1 ,go again1 love a ,pg #bgdwoman beloved of her friend1 and an adulteress1 as the ,lord loveth the sons of ,israel1 and they turn to other gods and love grape-cakes4 ,the right point of view for the interpretation of this verse has been already1 in many important respects1 established2 compare p4 #ahc sqq4 ,we here take for granted the results there obtained4 ,it is of great importance1 for an insight into the whole passage1 to remark1 that the symbolical action in this section1 just as in that to which chap4 i4 belongs1 embraces the entire relation of the ,lord to the people of ,israel1 and not1 as some interpreters assume1 one portion only1 viz41 the time from the beginning of the captivity4 ,this false view--of which the futility was first completely exposed by ,manger--has arisen from the circumstance1 that the prophet1 in narrating the execution of the divine commission1 omits very important events4 ,in the expectation that every one would supply them1 partly from the commission itself1 and partly from the preceding portions1 where they had been treated of with peculiar copiousness1 he rather at once passes from the first conclusion of the marriage1 to that point which1 in this passage1 forms his main subject1 namely1 the disciplinary punishment to which he subjects his wife1--the ,lord1 ,israel4 ,the prophet's aim and purpose is to afford to the people a right view of the captivity so near at hand2 to lead them to consider it neither as a merely accidental event1 having1 no connection at all with their sins2 nor as a pure effect of divine anger1 aiming at their entire destruction2 but rather as being at the same time a work of punitive justice1 and of corrective love4 ,between the second verse1 ,i purchased her to me1 etc41 and the third1 ,then ,i said unto her1 etc41 we must supply4 ,and ,i took her in marriage and loved her2 but she committed adultery4 ,that this is the sound view1 appears clearly from ver4 #b4 ,according to the right exposition 7compare p4 #aie sqq471 this verse can be referred only to the first beginning of the relation betwixt the ,lord and the people of ,israel--to that only by which ,he acquired the right of property in this people1 on delivering them from ,egypt4 ,this is confirmed1 moreover1 by the second half of the verse under consideration3 ,as the ,lord loveth1 etc4 ,here the love of the ,lord to ,israel in its widest extent is spoken of4 ,every limitation of it to a single manifestation--be it a ,pg #bgerenewal of love after the apostasy1 or the corrective discipline inflicted from love--is quite arbitrary2 and the more so1 because1 by the addition1 ,and they turned1 etc41 the love of ,god is represented as running parallel with the apostasy of the people4 ,the same result is obtained from a consideration of the first half4 ,for what entitles us to explain love by love again1 or even by restitue amoris signa as is done by those who hold the opinion1 already refuted1 that the woman is ,gomer8 ,the word love corresponds exactly with as the ,lord loveth4 ,if the latter must be understood of the love of the ,lord in its whole extent1--if it does not designate merely the manifestation of love1 but love itself1--how can a more limited view be taken of the former love8 ,how could we explain1 as is done by those who defend the reference to a new marriage1 the words1 ,beloved of her friend1 and an adulteress1 as referring to a former marriage of the wife1 and as tantamount to--who was beloved by her former husband1 and yet committed adultery8 ,in that case1 there would be the greatest dissimilarity betwixt the type and the antitype4 ,who1 in that case1 is to be the type of the ,lord8 ,is it to be the former husband1 or the prophet8 ,if the figure is at all to correspond with the reality1--the first member with the second1 the can be none other than the prophet himself4--,let us now proceed to particulars1 1 love1 is stronger than 1 take1 in chap4 i4 #b4 ,there1 marriage only was spoken of2 here1 marriage from love and in love4 ,this is still more emphatically pointed out by the subsequent words 1 and contrasted with the conduct of the wife1 which is indicated by 1 so that the sense is this3 ,in love take a wife who1 although she is beloved by thee1 her friend1 commits adultery1 and with whom--,i tell it to thee beforehand--thou wilt live in a constant antagonism of love1 and of ingratitude1 the grossest violation of love4 ,the word love has a reference to the love preceding and effecting the marriage2 the word beloved1 to the love uninterruptedly continuing during the marriage1 and notwithstanding the continued adultery1 unless we should say--and it is quite admissible--that love implies1 at the same time1 to take out of love1 and to love constantly4 ,instead of beloved by thee it is said1 beloved by her friend4 ,many have been thereby misled2 but it only serves to make the contrast more ,pg #bgfprominent4#a has only one signification--that of friend4 ,it never1 by itself1 means fellow-man1 never fellow-,jew1 never one with whom we have intercourse4 ,the ,pharisees were quite correct in understanding it as the opposite of enemy4 ,in their gloss1 ,matt4 v4 #dc1 1 there was one thing only objectionable--the most important1 it is true--that by the friend1 they understood only him whom their heart1 void of love1 loved indeed2 not him whom they ought to have loved1 because ,god had united him to them by the sacred ties of friendship and love4 ,thus1 what ought to have awakened them to love1 just served them as a palliation for their hatred4 ,now this signification1 which alone is the settled one1 is here also very suitable4 ,he whom the wife criminally forsakes1 is not a severe husband1 but her loving friend1 whom she herself formerly acknowledged as such1 and who always remains the same4 ,entirely parallel is ,jer4 iii4 #bj3 ,as a wife is faithless towards her friend1 so have ye been faithless to ,me2 compare ver4 #d3 ,hast thou not formerly called me4 ,my father1 friend of my youth art thou8 ,compare also ,song of ,sol4 v4 #af4 ,the correct meaning was long ago seen by ,calvin3 ,there is1 says he1 an expressiveness in this word4 ,for often1 when women prostitute themselves1 they complain that they have done it on account of the too great severity of their husbands1 and that they are not treated by their husbands with sufficient kindness4 ,but if a husband delight in having his wife with him1 if he treat her kindly and perform the duties of a husband1 she is then less excusable4 ,hence1 it is this most heinous ingratitude of the people that is here expressed1 and set in opposition to the infinite mercy and kindness of the ,lord4 ,for a still better insight into the meaning of the first half of this verse1 we subjoin the paraphrasis by ,manger3 ,seek thee a wife in whom thou art to have thy delight1 and whom thou art to treat with such love1 that1 even if she1 by her unfaithfulness1 violate the sacred rights of matrimony1 and thou1 for that reason1 canst no longer live with her1 ,pg #bggshe shall still remain dear to thee1 and shall be willingly received again into thy favour1 as soon as she shall have reformed her life4--,in the second half of the verse1 there is a verbal agreement with passages of the ,pentateuch1 so close that it cannot certainly be accidental4 ,compare on 1 ,deut4 vii4 #h1 1--an agreement which undoubtedly deserves so much more attention1 that we have already established the relationship of the passage with ver4 #b4 ,on 1 compare ,deut4 xxxi4 #ah3 ,i will hide ,my face in that day for all the evil they are doing1 for they turn to other gods1 --4 1 grape-cakes1 has1 as to its substance1 been already explained1 p4 #aid sqq4 ,it is the result of an entire misunderstanding1 that some interpreters should here think of the love of feasting and banqueting4 ,others 7as ,gesenius7 are anxious to prove that such cakes were used at the sacrifices which were offered to idols4 ,the grape-cakes are rather idolatry itself2 but the expression1 ,they love grape-cakes1 adds an essential feature to the words1 ,they turn to other gods4 ,it points1 namely1 to the sinful origin of idolatry4 ,earnest and strict religion is substantial and wholesome food2 but idolatry is soft food1 which is sought only by the dainty and squeamish4 ,that which is true of idolatry1 is true also of the service of sin1 and of the world in general1 which1 in ,job xx4 #ab1 appears under the image of meat which is1 in the mouth1 as sweet as honey from the comb1 but which is1 in the belly1 changed into the gall of asps4 ,in the symbolism of the law1 honey signified the lust of the world2 compare my work ,die ,opfer der ,heil4 ,schrift1 ,s4 #dd4 ,it is only the derivation of 1 the signification of which is sufficiently established by parallel passages1 which requires investigation4 ,we have no hesitation in deriving it from 1 fire2 hence it means properly1 that which has been subjected to fire 7compare 7 that which has been baked1 cakes4 ,the derivation from 1 to found1 has of late become current2 but the objections to it are3--partly1 that the transition from founding1 to cake1 is by no means an easy one2 partly and mainly1 that there is not the slightest trace of this root elsewhere in ,hebrew4 ,it is asserted1 indeed1 that itself is found in ,is4 xvi4 #g1 with a signification which renders necessary the derivation from the verb 4 ,but1 even in that passage1 the signification of ,pg #bgh cakes must be retained4 ,the following reasons are in favour of it1 and against the signification ruins1 adopted by ,gesenius1 ,winer1 and ,hitzig4 #a4 ,the signification cakes deserves1 ceteris paribus1 a decided preference1 because it is established by the other passages4 ,it is only for reasons the most cogent that we can grant that one and the same word has two meanings1 and these not at all connected with each other4 #b4 ,the transition from the meaning foundation1 which alone can be derived from the verb 1 to that of ruins1 is by no means so easy as those critics would represent it4 ,with respect to a rebuilding1 for which the ruins' afford the foundation1 they might1 it is true1 be called foundations1 compare ,is4 lviii4 #ab1 but not where destruction only is concerned4 ,who would speak of howling over foundations1 instead of howling over ruins8 #c4 ,the context is quite decisive4 ,if we translate by ruins1 the subsequent is quite inexplicable4 ,this little word1 upon which so much depends1 performs also the office of a guide3 ,for this reason ,moab howls1 for ,moab altogether does he howl1 for the cakes of ,kirhareseth you do sigh1 wholly afflicted2 for the vineyards of ,heshbon are withered1 the vine of ,sibmah1 the grapes of which intoxicated the lord of the nations1 etc4 ,then1 ver4 #i1 ,therefore ,i weep with ,jaeser for the vine of ,sibmah4 ,if there be no more grapes1 neither are there any more grape-cakes4 ,the destruction of the vineyards is therefore the cause of the howling for the cakes4 ,that such cakes1 moreover1 were prepared in many places in ,moab1 sufficiently appears from the name of the place ,dibhlathaim1 i4e41 town of cakes4 ,it may be remarked further1 that we are not entitled to assume a sing4 as given by lexicographers along with 2 likewise forms the plural 4 ,ver4 #b4 ,and ,i bought her to me for fifteen pieces of silver1 and a homer of barley1 and a lethech of barley4 ,compare the explanation of this verse1 p4 #aie sqq4 ,ver4 #c4 ,and ,i said unto her4 ,thou art to sit for me many days3 thou art not to whore1 and thou art not to belong to a man2 and so ,i also to thee4 ,the sitting has the accessory idea of being forsaken and solitary1 which may be explained from the circumstance1 that he who is not invited to go with us is left to sit4 ,thus1 e4g41 ,gen4 xxxviii4 #aa3 ,sit as a widow in thy fathers house1 until ,shelah ,pg #bgimy son be grown2 ,is4 xlvii4 #h1 where ,babylon says1 ,i shall not sit as a widow1 etc4 ,the ,fut4 in this and the following verses must not be taken in an imperative sense1 as meaning1 thou shalt sit for me1 thou shalt not whore2 the explanation given in ver4 #d1 and in the parallel passage in chap4 ii4 #h1 #i1 are alike opposed to it4 ,the husband will not subject his wife to a moral probation1 but he will lock her up1 so that she must sit solitary1 and cannot whore4 ,with reference to this4 ,manger strikingly remarks3 ,there is1 in that very severity1 the beginning of leniency2 'sit for me1' i4e41 ,i who have been so unworthily treated by thee1 and who yet am thy most affectionate husband1 and who1 though now at a distance from thee1 will not altogether forget thee4 ,the indicates that the sitting of the wife must have reference to the prophet4 ,quite similar is ,exod4 xxiv4 #ad3 ,and he said unto the elders1 1 ,sit ye here for us until we return to you4 ,the phrase itself1 which must not be explained by to sit in expectation of some one1 does not indicate in what way the sitting has reference to him4 ,the issue of the whole proceeding1 described in ver4 #e1 clearly shows1 however1 that it is not inflicted by him as a merited punishment1 as an effect of his just indignation1 but rather that we must think chiefly of his compassionate love1 which makes use of these means in order to render the reunion possible4--,the distinction between to whore1 and to belong to a man1 is obvious3 the former denotes vagos et promiscuus amores2 the other1 connubial connection with a single individual2 compare1 e4g41 ,ezek4 xvi4 #h2 ,lev4 xxi4 #c4 ,but the question is1--,who is to be understood by the man8 ,several refer it to the prophet exclusively4 ,thus ,jerome says1 ,thou shalt not shamefully prostitute thyself with other lovers1 nor be legally connected with me1 the man to whom thou art married4 ,others admit1 at least1 a co-reference to the prophet the ,lord4 ,by the words1 ,thou art not to whore1 they say that the intercourse with the lovers is excluded2 but1 by1 ,thou art not to belong to a man1 the intercourse with the husband also2 so that the sense would be1 ,thou shalt not have connubial intercourse either with me1 or with any other man4 ,but the correct view is to refer both to the intercourse with the lovers2 and so1 indeed1 that the former designates the giving of herself up1 now to one1 then to another2 while the latter points to her entering ,pg #bhj;into a firm relation to a single individual2 just as1 in point of fact1 the relation of ,israel to the idols hitherto was a whoring4 ,according as it suited their inclination1 they made1 now this1 and then that1 god of the neighbouring nations an object of their worship2 whilst a marriage connection would have been formed1 if they had entered with any one of them into a permanent and exclusive connection1 similar to that which had heretofore existed between them and the ,lord4 ,this explanation is required by the words1 ,and so ,i also to thee1 at the close of the verse4 ,if the words1 ,thou shalt not belong to any man1 referred to the prophet1 then thou shalt not have any intercourse with me would imply1 ,i shall not have any intercourse with thee2 and did not require any new mention to be made4--,the questions1 however1 now arise3--,by what means was the state of things corresponding to the figure to be brought about8 ,by what is adulterous ,israel to be prevented from whoring1 and from belonging to any man8 ,by what means is idolatry to be extirpated from among the people8 ,the answer has been already given in our remarks on chap4 ii4 #h1 #i4 ,the idols manifest themselves to ,israel in their supposed gifts4 ,if these were taken from them1--if they were entirely stripped1 and plunged into want and misery1 they could not fail to recognise the vanity of all their previous efforts1 along with the vanity of the object of their worship1 while their love to him could not but vanish4 ,the absolute inability of the idols to afford consolation and help to the people in their sufferings must have put an end to their showing them allegiance4--,the last words1 ,and ,i also to thee1 are explained by the greater number of interpreters to mean1 ,i also will be thine4 ,manger explains them thus3 ,i will not altogether break the tie of our love1 nor marry another wife2 but ,i will remain thine1 will at last receive thee again into my favour1 and restore thee to the position of my wife4 ,de ,wette interprets them thus3 ,but then ,i will come to thee2 ,umbreit3 ,and ,i also only to thee2 ,ewald3 ,and yet ,i am full of love towards thee4 ,but the words1 ,and ,i also to thee1 are rather tantamount to--,i will conduct myself in a similar manner towards thee4 ,now two things may constitute this equality of conduct4 ,either it is conceived thus3--that the prophet is placed in parallelism with the wife4 ,the latter has lost all claims upon the prophet2 she has violated connubial ,pg #bha;fidelity1 and1 hence1 has no title to demand that he should observe it4 ,but that which she cannot demand from him1 he does1 from the necessity of his nature4 ,he promises to her that1 during the proceeding which has commenced against her1 he would not enter into any new connection2 and by holding out to her the hope of her returning1 at some future period1 to her old relation to him1 he makes it more easy for her to break off the sinful connections which have destroyed it4 ,without a figure3 ,the ,lord1 from ,his forbearance and mercy1 waits for the reformation of those who hitherto were ,his people2 does not drive them to despair by receiving another people in their place4 ,or1 ,the prophet is placed in parallelism with the other man4 ,as the wife does not enter into any relation with that man1 so the prophet also abstains from any nearer intercourse with her4 ,the latter explanation 7adopted by ,simson and ,hitzig7 is to be preferred4 ,the exclusiveness cannot in the same sense be applicable to the prophet1 representing the ,lord1 as to the wife1 representing the people4 ,so early as in ,deut4 xxxii4 #ba1 we read3 ,they have moved ,me to jealousy with that which is not ,god1 they have provoked ,me to anger with their vanities2 and ,i will move them to jealousy with those which are not a people1 ,i will provoke them to anger with a foolish nation1 ,after all that had1 in the ,song of ,solomon1 been predicted regarding the reception of the ,gentile nations into the kingdom of ,god and ,christ1 and about the receiving again into it of ,israel1 to be effected by their instrumentality 7compare my ,comment4 on ,song of ,sol41 ,s4 #bci71 the thought suggested by the former view would be quite incomprehensible4 ,quite decisive1 however1 is ver4 #d1 in which the thought1 which is here in a symbolical garb1 is expressed in plain language4 ,there1 however1 not only the intercourse with the idols1 but the connection with ,jehovah also1 appears to be intermitted4 ,the reason why the prophet does not enter into a closer connection with the wife is1 that her repentance is more of a negative1 than of a positive character4 ,by want and isolation1 her hard heart is to be broken1 true repentance to be called forth1 and the flame of cordial conversion and love to her husband1 whose faithful love she had so ill requited1 to be enkindled in her4 ,in favour of the explanation given by us1 and in opposition to that first mentioned1 the is decisive4 ,against this1 that other explanation1 ,pg #bhb;in its various modifications1 tries its strength in vain4 ,i also will be thine1 or will adhere to thee1 would require in the preceding context1 ,thou shalt be mine1 or adhere to me2 but of this1 there is no trace4 ,it is only in ver4 #e that1 with an after1 the conversion is reported4 ,in favour of that false interpretation it is said1 and with some plausibility1 that the explanation would otherwise be more extended than the symbol3 ,the latter would contain the outward dealing only2 while the former1 in ver4 #e1 would contain at the same time its salutary effect4 ,but1 even according to this explanation1 the words would not correspond with ver4 #e4 ,here1 the showing of mercy would be announced without the mention1 even by a word1 of the sincere return to the husband--and this1 altogether apart from the 1 would be quite unsuitable1 and would1 moreover1 be opposed by the analogy of chap4 ii4 #i--while1 in ver4 #e1 not the showing of mercy1 but only the reformation1 would form the subject4 ,in that case1 it ought not to have been said1 ,they shall return to the ,lord1 but rather1 ,the ,lord shall return to them4 ,but this plausible reason falls to the ground1 along with the unfounded supposition that the two last verses contain the explanation4 ,the correct view is1 that the explanation is limited to ver4 #d4 ,ver4 #e must be considered as an appendix1 in which1 without any figurative covering1 the effect is described which will be produced upon the nation by these outward dealings4 ,the symbol and its explanation extend only as far as the main object of the prophet in the section under review1--that object being to present the impending captivity in its true light1 and thereby to secure against levity and despair when it should appear4 ,ver4 #d4 ,for many days the children of ,israel shall sit without a king1 and without a prince1 and without a sacrifice1 and without a pillar1 and without an ,ephod and ,teraphim4 is used because the reason of the performance of the symbolical action lies in its signification4 ,concerning 1 see the remarks on ver4 #c2 compare1 moreover4 ,lament1 i4 #a3 ,how does the city sit solitary that was full of people6 she has become as a widow4--,the question is1 whether1 by the religious objects here mentioned1 such only are to be understood as belonged to the worship of the idols1 or such also as belonged to the worship of ,jehovah4 ,the following furnishes the reply4 ,the only ,pg #bhc;can be considered as belonging exclusively to the idolatrous worship4 ,such pillars always occur only as being consecrated to the idols--especially to ,baal4 ,it cannot be proved in any way that1 contrary to the express command in ,lev4 xxvi4 #a1 ,deut4 xvi4 #bb1 they were1 in the kingdom of ,israel1 consecrated to the ,lord also2 compare #b ,kings iii4 #b1 xvii4 #aj1 x4 #bf-bh4 ,on the other hand1 among the objects mentioned1 there is also one1 the 1 the mantle for the shoulders of the high priest1 on which the ,urim and ,thummim were placed1 which must be considered as belonging exclusively to the worship of ,jehovah2 at least there is not the smallest trace to be found that it was part of any idolatrous worship4 ,it is true that ,gesenius1 in the ,thesaurus1 p4 #ace1 gives s4 v4 1 under #b1 the signification statua1 simulacrum idoli1 and1 besides the passages under consideration1 refers to ,jud4 viii4 #bg1 xvii4 #e1 xviii4 #ad1 #ag4 ,but one requires only to examine these passages a little more minutely1 to be convinced that the metamorphosis of ,jehovah into an idol is as little justified as the changing of the mantle into a statue4 ,from the personal character of ,gideon1 who was so zealous for the ,lord against the idols1 we cannot at all think of idolatry in ,jud4 viii4 #bg4 ,in the ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pentateuch1 vol4 ii4 p4 #hj1 it has been proved that the ,ephod of ,gideon was a precious imitation of that of the high priest4 ,in chap4 xvii4 #e1 we need only to consider these words3 ,and the man ,micah had an house of ,god1 and made an ,ephod and ,teraphim1 and consecrated one of his sons1 and he became a priest to him4 ,afterwards1 ,micah took a ,levite for a priest4 ,but for what reason should he have been better suited for that purpose than any other man8 ,the answer is given in ver4 #ac3 ,then said ,micah1 ,now ,i know that ,jehovah will do me good1 for the ,levite has become a priest to me4 ,the ignorant man knows after all thus much1 that the ,levites alone are the only legitimate servants of ,jehovah1 and he rejoices1 therefore1 that he had now remedied the former irregularity4 ,jud4 xviii4 #ad does not require any particular illustration1 for it is the same ,ephod which is spoken of in that passage2 but we must still direct attention to vers4 #e and #f of that chapter4 ,then they 7the ,danites7 said unto him 7the ,levite71 ,ask ,god1 we pray thee1 in order that we may know whether our way in which we go shall be prosperous4 ,and the priest said unto them1 ,go in ,pg #bhdpeace1 before ,jehovah is the way wherein ye go4 ,here1 then1 we have a revelation given to the priest1 as is alleged1 by means of ,ephod and ,teraphim2 and this revelation is not ascribed to the idols1 but to ,jehovah1 whom alone the ,levite wished to serve4 ,from this it appeal's that the graven image and the molten image--which1 besides ,ephod and ,teraphim1 according to ver4 #ad1 exist in the house of ,micah--must be considered as representations of ,jehovah1 similar to the calves in the kingdom of the ten tribes4 ,in vol4 ii4 pp4 #gh1 #gi1 of my ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pentateuch1 it has been demonstrated that the ,ephod of ,micah was1 along with the ,teraphim1 an apeing of the high-priestly ,ephod with the ,urim and ,thummim4 ,the four objects mentioned in ,judges xvii4 and xviii4 are such as were separable although connected1 and connected although separable4 ,the molten work is the pedestal under the image2 the image is clothed with the ,ephod1 and in the ,ephod were the ,teraphim1 from whom information and good counsel for the future were expected4 ,for1 that this is the object of the whole contrivance1 is plain from chap4 xviii4 #e1 #f1 where the priest asks counsel of ,god for the ,danites4--,with regard to the other two objects mentioned in the verse before us1 viz41 the sacrifice and ,teraphim1 a reference1 at least exclusive1 to idolatrous worship1 cannot be by any means maintained4 ,as sacrifices are mentioned in the widest generality1 without any limitation in the preceding context1 there is certainly nothing which could in the least entitle us to exclude the sacrifices which were offered to ,jehovah4 ,the ,teraphim are intermediate deities1 by means of which the future is to be disclosed 7compare the remarks on ,zech4 x4 #b72 they might be brought into connection with every religious system1 but are found only once in connection with any other religion than that of ,jehovah1--and this in a case where a non-,israelite is spoken of4 ,it is true1 however1 that1 in substance1 the ,teraphim belong to the side of idolatry2 for1 wherever they occur within the religion of ,jehovah1 they belong to a degenerate condition of it only1 which is on a par with idolatry4 ,it would appear that they are here contrasted with the ,ephod1 as the illegal means for ascertaining the future1 in opposition to the legal means4 ,that the ,ephod was used for discovering the divine will1 is seen from #a ,sam4 xxiii4 #i1 xxx4 #g4 ,the ,teraphim1 in like manner1 served to explore ,pg #bhethe future4 ,a closer connection of the two seems to be indicated by the circumstance that is omitted before 4--,but how can we account for this strange intermingling of what belonged to the idols with what belonged to ,jehovah1 since it cannot but be done intentionally8 ,it points to the dark mixture which at that time existed among the people1 and is a kind of ironical reflection upon it4--,the ,lord makes them disgusted with idolatry1 and all that belongs to it1 through ,his visitations1 in which they seek in vain the help of the idols1 and become thoroughly acquainted with their vanity2 compare remarks in ver4 #c4 ,at the same time1 however1 all the pledges of ,his grace are taken from them1 so that they get into an altogether isolated position4 ,he withdraws from them their independent government1 the altar and priesthood--the former as a just punishment for their rebellion against the dynasty ordained by ,god 7compare chap4 viii4 #d71 of which1 first ,israel1 and then ,judah1 had made themselves guilty4--,as regards the historical reference of this prophecy1 interpreters are divided1 and refer it either to the ,assyrian1 the ,babylonish1 or the ,romish exile4 ,the greater number of them1 however1 refer it exclusively to the last4 ,this is especially the case with the ,jewish interpreters2 e4g41 ,kimchi1 who says3 ,these are the days of the exile1 in which we are now2 we have neither an ,israelitish king nor an ,israelitish prince1 but are under the dominion of the ,gentiles and their kings4 ,the principal defenders of a direct reference to the ,assyrian captivity1 are ,venema 7,dissert4 p4 #bcb7 and ,manger4 ,the decision depends chiefly upon what we are to understand by the children of ,israel4 ,if these are the whole people1 it is arbitrary to assign any narrower limits to the ,word of ,god1 than to ,his deed4 ,the prophecy must1 in that case1 comprehend everything in which the idea is realized2 and this so much the more1 as the spiritual eye of the prophet1 directed to the idea only1 does not generally regard the intervals which1 in the fulfilment1 lie between the various realizations of the idea4 ,but now1 ver4 #e would seem to lead us to entertain the opinion1 that1 in the first instance1 the prophet has in view the children of ,israel in the more limited sense only4 ,the words1 ,they shall return and seek ,david their king1 imply a reference to the then existing apostasy of the ten tribes from the dynasty of ,david4 ,but the future apostasy of the sons of ,judah also from ,pg #bhf;,david their king may be as well presupposed here1 as1 in chapter ii4 #b1 their being carried away2 and this so much the rather1 as in chap4 ii4 #b1 the words1 ,they appoint themselves a king1 suggest that the sons of ,judah also1 no less than the sons of ,israel1 are without a head1 and hence have apostatized from ,david the king4 ,and it is so much the more natural to adopt such a supposition1 as the ,song of ,solomon had already described so minutely the rebellion of the whole people against the glorious descendant of ,david--the heavenly ,solomon--to which the apostasy of the ten tribes from the house of ,david was only a prelude4 ,considering the whole relation in which ,hosea stands to the ,song of ,solomon1 we could scarcely imagine that1 in this respect1 he should not have alluded to1 and resumed its contents4 ,in the whole third chapter there is nothing which refers exclusively to the ten tribes4 ,chap4 iii4 #b has reference to all ,israel4 ,throughout the whole ,book of ,hosea also1 as well as by the second ,israelitish prophet ,amos 7compare the remarks on ,amos1 chap ix471 ,judah and ,israel are viewed together1 both as regards apostasy and punishment 7v4 #e1 #ab1 viii4 #ad1 x4 #aa1 etc471 and as regards salvation1 vi4 #a-d1 etc4 ,of special importance is the comparison of the remarkable prophecy of ,azariah in #b ,chron4 xv4 #b-d1 which was uttered at the time of ,asa1 king of ,judah1 and which so nearly coincides with the one before us1 that the idea suggests itself of an allusion to it by ,hosea3 ,hear ye me1 ,asa1 and all ,judah and ,benjamin3 ,the ,lord will be with you1 if you are with ,him2 and if ye seek ,him1 ,he will be found of you2 and if ye forsake ,him1 ,he will forsake you4 ,and many days will be to ,israel when there is no true ,god1#b and no teaching priest1#c and no law4 ,then they return in their trouble unto ,jehovah the ,god of ,israel1 and they seek ,him1 and ,he is found of them4 ,if the fundamental prophecy refer to all ,israel1 the same must be the case with the prophecy under consideration4 ,the condition in which the ,jews are1 up to the present day1 is described in both of these prophecies with remarkable clearness2 and hence we may most confidently entertain ,pg #bhgthe hope1 that there shall be a fulfilment also of that which1 in them as well as in the ,song of ,solomon1 has been foretold regarding the glorious issue of these dealings of ,god4 ,ver4 #e4 ,afterwards shall the children of ,israel return and seek the ,lord their ,god1 and ,david their king1 and shall tremble to the ,lord and to ,his goodness in the end of the days4 must not by any means be regarded as modifying 1 so that both the verbs would constitute only one verbal idea4 ,this must be objected to1 not only from the arguments already stated in the remarks on chap4 ii4 #aa1 but1 most decidedly1 on account of the parallel passage1 chap4 ii4 #i1 ,i will go and return to my first husband4 ,compare chap4 vi4 #a3 ,come and let us return unto the ,lord2 v4 #ae1 where the ,lord says1 ,i will go and return to ,my place until they become guilty and seek ,my face2 in their affliction they will seek ,me2 ,jer4 l4 #d3 ,in those days1 and in that time1 saith the ,lord1 the children of ,israel shall come1 they and the children of ,judah together1 weeping will they come1 and seek the ,lord their ,god1--a passage which1 like ,jer4 xxx4 #i1 points to the one before us in a manner not to be mistaken2 ,is4 x4 #ba3 ,the remnant shall return1 the remnant of ,jacob1 unto the mighty ,god4 ,the text1 and the parallel passages1 most clearly indicate what is to be considered as the object of their return1 namely1 the ,lord their ,god1 and ,david their king1 from whom they had so shamefully apostatized2 so that those interpreters who here think of a return to ,canaan do not deserve a refutation4 ,the words1 ,jehovah their ,god1 at the same time lay open the delusion of the ,israelites 7who imagined that they could still possess the true ,god1 in the idol which they called ,jehovah71 and rebuke their ingratitude4 ,calvin says1 ,god had offered ,himself to them1 yea4 ,he had had familiar intercourse with them1--,he had1 as it were1 brought them up on ,his bosom just as a father does his sons4 ,the prophet1 therefore1 indirectly rebukes1 in these words1 their stupendous wickedness4 ,the ,god of the ,israelites1 as well as the ,god of the ,jews after they had rejected ,christ1 stood to the ,god of ,israel in the same relation as does the ,god of the ,deists and ,rationalists to the ,god of the ,christians4 ,the question here arises4 ,who is to be understood here by ,david their king8 ,some interpreters refer it1 after the example of ,theodoret 7t4 ii4 p4 #b1 p4 #acbf71 to ,pg #bhh,zerubbabel3 but by far the greater number of them1 following the ,chaldee 7,and they shall obey the ,messiah1 the son of ,david their king71 understand1 thereby1 the ,messiah4 ,it is true that the latter exposition is quite correct as to its substance1 but not as to the form in which it is commonly expressed4 ,from the words1 ,they shall return and seek1 it is evident that the ,messiah is here not called ,david as an individual1 as is done in other passages1 e4g41 ,jer4 xxx4 #i4 ,for the return presupposes their having been there formerly1 and their having departed2 just as the seeking implies neglecting4 ,the expression1 their king1 also requires special attention4 ,in contrast to the king in ver4 #d 7compare viii4 #d1 ,they have made a king1 and not by ,me1 a prince1 and ,i knew it not71 it shows that the subject of discourse is not by any means a new king to be elected1 but such an one as the ,israelites ought to obey1 even now1 as the king ordained for them by ,god4 ,the sound view is this3 ,by the king ,david the whole ,davidic house is to be understood1 which is here to be considered as an unity1 in the same manner as is done in #b ,sam4 vii41 and in a whole series of ,psalms which celebrate the mercies shown1 and to be shown1 to ,david and his house4#d ,these mercies are most fully concentrated in ,christ1 in whose appearance and everlasting dominion the promises given to ,david were first to be fully realized4 ,the prophet mentions the whole--the ,davidic family--because it was only thus that the contrast between the apostasy and the return could be fully brought out2 but that1 in so doing1 he has ,christ especially in view--that he expected a return of the children of ,israel to ,david in ,christ1 is shown by the term 1 which1 in the prophets1 never occurs in any other sense than the times of the ,messiah4 7,compare1 regarding this expression1 the remarks on ,amos ix4 #a47 ,this reason is alone sufficient to refute the reference to ,zerubbabel2 although so much must indeed be conceded1 that the circumstance of part of the citizens of the kingdom of the ten tribes adhering to him1 the descendant of the house of ,david1 may be considered as a prelude of that general return4 ,the close connection betwixt the seeking of ,jehovah their ,god and ,david their king1 likewise claims our attention4 ,david and his family had been elected by ,god to be the mediator between ,him and the ,pg #bhi people--the channel through which all ,his blessings flowed clown upon the people--the visible image of the invisible ,king1 who1 at the end of the days1 was1 in ,christ1 most perfectly to reflect ,his glory4 ,the ,israelites1 in turning away from ,david their king1 turned away1 at the same time1 from ,jehovah their ,god1--as was but too soon manifested by the other signs of apostasy from ,him1 by the introduction of the worship of calves1 etc4 ,he who refuses to acknowledge ,god in that which ,he has ,himself declared to be ,his visible image 7from ,christ down to every relation which represents ,him in any respect1 e4g41 that of the father to the son1 of the king to the subject71 will soon cease to acknowledge ,himself4 ,but as1 first1 the ten tribes1 and afterwards1 the entire people1 apostatized from ,god1 by apostatizing from ,david1 so1 by their apostasy from him1 they excluded themselves from all participation in the privileges of the people of ,god1 which could flow to them only through him4 ,it is only when they return to ,david by returning to ,christ1 that1 from their self-made ,god1 they come to the true ,god1 and within the sphere of ,his blessings4 ,that the same thing is repeated among ourselves in the case of those who have forsaken ,christ their ,king1 and yet imagine still to possess ,god1 and that it is only by their returning to the brightness of ,his glory that they can attain to a true union with the ,lord their ,god1 and to a participation in the blessings which ,he bestows1--all this is so obvious as to require nothing beyond a simple suggestion4 ,a perfectly sound interpretation of this passage is to be found in ,calvin1 who remarks3 ,david was1 as it were1 a messenger of the ,lord1 and1 hence1 that defection of the ten tribes was tantamount to a rejection of the living ,god4 ,the ,lord had1 on a former occasion1 said to ,samuel 7#a ,sam4 viii4 #g71 ',they have not rejected thee1 but they have rejected ,me4' ,but how much more was this applicable in the case of ,david1 whom ,samuel had anointed at the command of ,god1 and whom the ,lord had adorned with so many glorious attributes1 that they could not reject his rule without1 at the same time1 publicly rejecting1 to a certain extent1 the ,lord ,himself6 ,it is true1 indeed1 that ,david was then dead2 but ,hosea here represents1 in his person1 his everlasting dominion1 which the ,jews knew would last as long as the sun and moon4 ,the expression1 ,pg #bij ,they tremble to the ,lord1 graphically describes the disposition of heart in him1 who1 trembling with terror and anxiety on account of the surrounding danger and distress1 flees to ,him who can alone afford help and deliverance4 ,that we must thus explain it1--that we cannot entertain the idea of any trembling which proceeds from the inconceivable greatness of the blessing--a disposition of heart so graphically described by ,claudian in the words1 ,horret adhuc animus1 manifestaque gaudia differt ,dum stupet et tanto cunctatur credere voto1-- and that we can as little think of a fearing or trembling which is the consequence of the knowledge of deep sinfulness and unworthiness1 is shown by the parallel passage in chap4 xi4 #aa3 ,they tremble as a bird out of ,egypt1 and as a dove out of the land of ,assyria4 ,the bird and the dove are here an emblem of helplessness4 ,substantially parallel is also chap4 v4 #ae3 ,in their affliction they will seek ,me4 ,their trembling is not voluntary2 it is forced upon them by the ,lord4 ,but that they tremble to the ,lord--that1 through fear1 they suffer themselves to be led to the ,lord--is their free act1 although possible only by the assistance of grace4 ,the manner in which the words1 and to ,his goodness1 are to be understood1 is most plainly shown by the words1 ,i will return to my first husband1 for it was better with me then than now1 chap4 ii4 #i4 ,along with the ,lord1 they have lost ,his goodness also1 and the gifts flowing from it4 ,but distress again drives them to seek the ,lord1 and ,his goodness1 which is inseparable from ,himself4 ,this explanation is confirmed by other parallel passages also2 e4g41 ,jer4 xxxi4 #ab3 ,and they come and exult on the height of ,zion1 and flow together to the goodness of the ,lord 7 71 to corn1 and must1 and oil1 and lambs1 and cattle2 ver4 #ad3 ,my people shall be satisfied with ,my goodness4 ,compare also ,ps4 xxvii4 #ac1 xxxi4 #bj2 ,zech4 ix4 #ag4 ,we would therefore object to the opinion of several interpreters1 who would explain as being equivalent to 1 to ,his manifestation in the ,angel of the ,lord1 the 1 by whom ,his glory and goodness are made known4 ,footnote #a3 ,it is quite impossible to refer to the adulterers1 and for this reason3--that it is always ,israel's love to the idols that is spoken of1 but never the love of the idols to ,israel4 ,in the explanation given in the words immediately following1 it is not the idols that take the initiative2 it is ,israel who turns to other gods4 ,footnote #b3 ,j4 ,d4 ,michaelis remarks3 ,in the present captivity they do not1 indeed1 worship idols1 but nevertheless they do not know1 nor worship1 the true ,god1 since they reject the ,son1 without whom the ,father will not be worshipped1 ,john xvii4 #c2 #a ,john ii4 #bc2 #b ,john #i4 ,footnote #c3 ,the priest here corresponds with the ,ephod in ,hosea4 ,footnote #d3 ,in #a ,kings xii4 #af1 also1 ,david stands for the ,davidic dynasty4 ,pg #bia ,,the ,,prophet ,,joel4 ,,preliminary ,,remarks4 ,the position which has been assigned to ,joel in the collection of the ,minor ,prophets1 furnishes an external argument for the determination of the time at which ,joel wrote4 ,there cannot be any doubt that the ,collectors were guided by a consideration of the chronology4 ,the circumstance1 that they placed the prophecies of ,joel just between the two prophets who1 according to the inscriptions and contents of their prophecies1 belonged to the time of ,jeroboam and ,uzziah1 is thus equivalent to an express testimony that he also lived1 and exercised his ministry1 during that time4 ,by this testimony we have1 in the meanwhile1 obtained a firm standing-point2 and it must remain firm1 as long as it is not overthrown by other unquestionable facts1 and the ,collectors are not convicted of an historical error4 ,but1 as regards the latter point1 there is the greater room for caution1 because all the other statements which they have made are1 upon a careful examination1 found to stand the test2 for none of the other ,minor ,prophets is found to occupy a place to which he is not entitled4 ,but no such facts are to be found2 on the contrary1 everything serves to confirm their testimony4 ,it will not be possible to assign the prophecies of ,joel to a later period2 for ,amos places at the head of one of his prophecies one of the utterances of ,joel 7compare ,amos i4 #b with ,joel iv4 #af iii4 #af71 as the text1 as it were1 on which he is to comment4 ,that we are not thereby precluded from considering the two prophets as contemporaneous1 is shown by the altogether similar case of ,isaiah1 in his relation to ,micah4 ,isaiah1 too1 borrows1 in chap4 xiii4 #f1 a sentence from ,joel i4 #ae1 the peculiarity of which proves that the coincidence is not accidental4 ,such verbal repetitions must not be1 by any means1 considered as unintentional reminiscences4 ,they served to exhibit that the prophets acknowledged one another as the organs of the ,holy ,spirit1--to testify the 1 the want of which in the times after ,ezra and ,nehemiah is mentioned by ,josephus as one of the reasons why none of the writings of ,pg #bibthat period could be acknowledged as sacred4 7,see the ,author's ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of ,daniel1 p4 #aii47 ,further1--,the description of the threatening judgment in chap4 i4 and ii4 is1 in ,joel1 kept just in that very same generality in which we find it in the oldest prophecies that have been preserved to us1 viz41 in ,amos1 in the first chapters of ,isaiah and of ,hosea2 whilst in later times1 the threatening is1 throughout1 particularized by the express mention of the instruments who were1 in the first instance1 to serve for its fulfilment1 viz41 the ,assyrians and ,babylonians4 ,that which ,judah had to suffer from the former was so severe1 that ,joel1 in chap4 iv4 #d ff4--where he mentions1 although1 as it were1 only in the way of example1 nations with which ,judah had hitherto already come into hostile contact--would scarcely have passed them over in silence1 in order to mention only the far lesser calamity inflicted by other nations4 ,but just as little can we think of an earlier period4 ,it is certainly not accidental1 that among all the prophets whose writings have been preserved to us1 no one appeared at an earlier period2 any more than it is accidental1 that no prophecies are extant of the distinguished men of ,god in earlier times1 of whom the historical books make mention1 especially ,elijah and ,elisha4 ,it was only when the great divine judgments were being prepared1 and were approaching1 that it was time1 through their announcement1 to waken from the slumber of security those who had forgotten ,god1 and to open the treasures of hope and consolation to the faithful4 ,formerly1 the living1 oral word of the prophets was the principal thing2 but now that ,god opened up to them a wider view1--that their calling had regard not only to the present1 but also to the future time1 the written word was raised to an equal dignity4 ,nothing1 then1 but the most cogent reasons could induce us to make1 in the case of ,joel only1 an exception to so established a rule4 ,but we cannot acknowledge as such1 what ,credner 7in his ,comment4 on ,joel1 p4 #da sqq47 has brought forward to prove that ,joel committed to writing his prophecies as early as under the reign of ,joash1 i4e41 about #hgj-fe ,b4,c41 or from seventy to eighty years earlier than any of the other prophecies which have come down to us4 ,if we do not allow ourselves to be carried away by the multitude of his words1 we shall find that the only remaining plausible argument is--that the ,syrians of ,damascus ,pg #bic;are not mentioned among the enemies of the ,covenant-people1 as they are in ,amos4 ,from this1 ,credner infers that ,joel must have prophesied before the first inroad of the ,syrians on ,judea1 which1 according to #b ,kings xii4 #ah ff42 #b ,chron4 xxiv4 #bc ff41 took place under ,jehoash4 ,but we need only look at that passage1 in order to be convinced that the mention of that event could not be expected in ,joel4 ,the expedition of the ,syrians was not directed against ,judea1 but against the ,philistines4 ,it was only a single detached corps which1 according to ,chronicles1 incidentally1 and on their return1 made an inroad on ,judah2 but ,jerusalem itself was not taken4 ,this single act of hostility could not but be soon forgotten in the course of time4 ,it was of quite a different character from that of the ,phnicians and ,philistines mentioned by ,joel1 which were only particular outbreaks of the hatred and envy which they continually cherished against the ,covenant-people1 and which1 as such1 were preeminently the object of punitive divine justice4 ,but on what ground does the supposition rest1 that ,joel must necessarily mention all those nations1 with which the ,covenant-people came1 at any time1 into hostile contact8 ,the context certainly does not favour such an idea4 ,the mention of former hostile attacks in chap4 iv4 7iii47 #d-h is altogether incidental1 as ,vitringa1 in his ,typ4 ,doctr4 ,proph4 p4 #ahi sqq41 has admitted3 ,the prophet1 says he1 was describing the heavy judgments with which ,god would1 after the effusion of the ,spirit1 successively1 and especially in the latter days1 visit the enemies of the ,church1 and overthrow them1 on account of the injuries which they had inflicted upon it4 ,and while he was doing so1 those injuries presented themselves to his mind1 which in his own time1 and in the immediate past1 were inflicted upon the ,jewish people--a portion of the universal ,church--by the neighbouring nations1 the ,tyrians1 ,sidonians1 and ,philistines4 ,to them he addresses his discourse in passing 7in transitu71 and announces to them1 in the name of ,god1 that they themselves also would not remain unpunished4 ,the correctness of ,vitringa1 with his in transitu1 is proved by the 1 as well as by the circumstance1 that vers4 #i ff4 are closely connected with ver4 #c2 so that vers4 #d ff4 form a real parenthesis4 ,how entirely out of place would here have been any mention of the ,syrians6 ,there was necessarily something required which was very striking1 and ,pg #bidwhich1 having but recently occurred1 was still vividly remembered4 ,but the matter was altogether different in the case of ,amos4 ,joel has to do with the enemies of ,judah only2 ,amos1 with those of the kingdom of ,israel also1 among whom the ,syrians were the most dangerous4 ,hence1 he begins with them at once4 ,the crime with which he charges them in chap4 i4 #c1 that they had threshed the inhabitants of ,gilead with threshing instruments of iron1 concerns the kingdom of ,israel only4 ,the same applies to the ,ammonites and ,moabites also1 who1 in like manner1 are mentioned by ,amos1 and not by ,joel4 ,the ,ammonites are charged in ,amos i4 #ac with ripping up the women with child of ,gilead1 that they might enlarge their border2 and the crime of the ,moabites1 rebuked in chap4 ii4 #a1 occurred1 very probably1 during the time of1 or after1 the expedition against them1 mentioned in #b ,kings iii4--the real instigator of which was the king of ,israel4 ,we must indeed be astonished that ,hitzig1 ,ewald1 ,meier1 ,baur1 and others1 after the example of ,credner1 have likewise declared in favour of the view that the prophecies of ,joel were composed under ,joash4 ,none of the arguments1 however1 by which they attempt to support their view1 can stand examination4 ,there is nowhere1 as yet1 the slightest allusion to the ,assyrians1 says ,ewald4 ,but neither is any such found in ,amos1 nor in the first part of ,hosea4 ,an irruption1 however1 such as former times had not known1--an overflowing1 as it were1 by the heathen1 such as could by no means proceed from the small neighbouring nations1 but from extensive kingdoms only1 is here also brought into view4 ,joel is1 in this respect1 in strict agreement with ,amos1 who embodies his prophecy concerning this event1 in chap4 vi4 #ad1 in these words3 ,for1 behold1 ,i raise up against you1 ,o house of ,israel1 ,gentile people1 saith the ,lord1 the ,god of hosts1 and they shall afflict you from ,hamath unto the river of the wilderness4 ,there breathes here still the unbroken warlike spirit of the times of ,deborah and ,david1 ,ewald further remarks4 ,but is there in the fourth 7third7 chapter any trace of self-help on the part of the people8 ,judgment upon the ,gentiles is executed without any human instrumentality1 by ,god1--not by ,his earthly1 but by ,his heavenly heroes1 who are sent down ,pg #bie;from heaven to earth1 and who make short work with these fancied earthly heroes4 ,compare chap4 iv4 7iii47 #aa-ac1 where the address is directed to the heavenly ministers of ,god1 at the head of whom the ,angel of the ,covenant must be supposed to be3 ,ps4 ciii4 #bj2 ,rev4 xix4 #ad4 ,such a victory of the kingdom of ,god1 all the prophets announce1--not only ,isaiah and ,micah1 but also ,ezekiel1 e4g41 in chap4 xxxviii4 and xxxix4 ,we perceive here the prophetic order in ,jerusalem1 still in the same ancient greatness as when ,nathan and ,gad may have exercised their office at the time of ,david4 ,a whole people1 without contradicting or murmuring1 still depend upon the prophet4 ,he desires the observance of a grievous ordinance1 and willingly it is performed2 his word is still like a higher command which all cheerfully obey4 ,nor is any discord to be seen in the nation1 nor any wicked idolatry or superstition2 the ancient simple faith still lives in them1 unbroken and undivided4 ,so ,ewald still further remarks4 ,but this argument rests upon a false supposition2 a conversion of the people at the time of the prophet is not at all spoken of4 ,the pretended repentance is to take place in future1--which1 according to chap4 i4 #d1 we must conceive of as being still afar off1 namely1 in the time after the divine judgments have broken in4 ,and as to a progress in the apostasy of the people1 it can scarcely be proved that such took place in the time betwixt ,joash and ,uzziah4 ,between these two1 we do not find any new stage of corruption4 ,the idolatry of ,solomon1 and the abominations of ,athaliah1 had exercised their influence1 even as early as under ,joash4 ,how deep the rent was which1 even then1 went through the nation1 is shown by the fact1 that1 according to #b ,chron4 xxiv4 #ag1 #ah1 after the death of ,jehoiada1 ,joash gave way to the urgent demands of the prince's of ,judah1 and allowed free scope to idolatry4 ,moreover1 the threatening announcement of a judgment1 which is to extend even to the destruction of the temple1 proves how deep the apostasy was at the time of ,joel4 ,where a judgment is thus threatened1 which1 in its terrors1 far surpasses all former judgments1 the ancient faith certainly cannot have been very vigorous4 ,the ,messianic idea appears here in its generality and indefiniteness1 without being as yet concentrated in the person of an ideal king1 ,hitzig remarks4 ,but if this argument were at all ,pg #bif valid1 we should have to go back even beyond the time of ,joash4 ,solomon1 ,david1 and ,jacob already knew the personal ,messiah4 ,the prophets1 however1 do not everywhere proclaim everything which they know4 ,even in ,isaiah1 there occur long ,messianic descriptions1 in which the ,messiah ,himself is not to be found4 ,in ,joel1 moreover1 everything is collected around the person of the ,teacher of righteousness4 ,joel1 it is further remarked1 must have prophesied at a time when the ,philistine and other nations1 who had become so haughty under ,jehoram1 had but lately ventured upon destructive plundering expeditions as far as ,jerusalem1 #b ,chron4 xxi4 #aj ff4 ,this argument would be plausible1 if the injuries inflicted by the ,philistines and the inhabitants of ,tyrus had not appeared in equally lively colours before the mind of ,amos 7chap4 i4 #f-aj71 who1 at all events1 prophesied between seventy and eighty years after these events4 ,it is just this fact which should teach caution in the application of such arguments4 ,the recollection of such facts could not be lost1 as long as the disposition continued from which they originated4 ,it was as if they had happened in the present2 for1 under similar circumstances1 similar events would have again immediately taken place4 ,the passage chap4 iv4 #ai1 ,egypt shall be a desolation1 and ,edom shall be a desolate wilderness1 for the violence against the children of ,judah1 because they have shed innocent blood in the land1 shows also how lively was the recollection of injuries sustained long ago4 ,egypt and ,edom in that passage are mentioned individually1 in order to designate the enemies of the people of ,god in general1 and yet with an allusion to deeds perpetrated by the ,egyptians and ,edomites properly so called4 ,as the suffix in must be referred to the sons of ,judah--for we have no historical account of a bloody deed perpetrated against ,judah by the ,edomites in their own land1 and it was the land of ,judah which was invaded and devastated by the host of locusts--we can think1 in the case of the ,egyptians1 only of the invasion under ,rehoboam 7#a ,kings xiv471 and in the case of the ,edomites1 only of the great carnage which they made in ,judah1 during the time at which ,david carried on war with ,aram in ,arabia and on the ,euphrates1--probably at a time when he had sustained heavy losses in that warfare2 compare my ,comment4 on ,ps4 xliv4 and lx4 ,of any ,pg #big similar later occurrence there is no account extant4 ,it is only by a fanciful exposition that the innocent blood can be found in #b ,kings viii4 #bj-bb4 ,the ,edomites at that time kept only a defensive position1 and did not come into the land of ,judah4 ,the innocent blood implies a war of conquest1 and a hostile inroad4 ,in chap4 iv4 7iii47 #d-g1 ,joel promises a return to the citizens of ,judah1 who had been carried away by the ,philistines under ,jehoram2 and1 hence1 an age cannot have elapsed since that event4 ,thus ,meier argues4 ,but the words1 ,behold1 ,i raise them out of the place whither ye have sold them1 contain no special prediction1 but only the application of the general truth1 that ,god gathers together the dispersed of ,judah1 and brings back again the exiled of ,israel2 and it is only requisite to compare concerning them4 ,gen4 xv4 #af1 ,in the fourth generation they shall come hither again1 and l4 #bd1 ,god will visit you1 and bring you out of this land4 ,we thus arrive at the conclusion that ,joel occupies the right place in the ,canon4 ,the assertion that ,joel belonged to the priestly order1 is as baseless as the similar one regarding ,habakkuk1 and as the supposition that the author of the ,chronicles was a musician4 ,the book contains a connected description4 ,it begins with a graphic account of the ruin which ,god will bring upon ,his apostate ,congregation1 by means of foreign enemies4 ,these latter represent themselves to the prophet in his spiritual vision as an all-destroying swarm of locusts4 ,the fundamental thought is this3--,wheresoever the carcase is1 there will the eagles be gathered together1--wherever corruption manifests itself in the ,congregation of the ,lord1 punishment will be inflicted4 ,because ,god has sanctified ,himself in the ,congregation1 and has graciously imparted to her ,his holiness4 ,he must therefore sanctify ,himself upon her1--must manifest ,his holiness in her punishment1 if she has become like the profane world4 ,he cannot allow that1 after the ,spirit has departed1 the dead body should still continue to appear as ,his kingdom1 but strips off the mask of hypocrisy from ,his degenerate ,church1 by representing her outwardly as that which1 by her guilt1 she has become inwardly4 ,this thought commonly appears in a special ,pg #bih application1 by the mention of the name of the particular people whom the ,lord is1 in the immediate future1 to employ for the realization of it4 ,in the case before us1 however1 ,he is satisfied with pointing to the dignity and power inherent in ,him4 ,the enemies are designated only as people from the ,north4 ,but it was from the ,north--from ,syria--that all the principal invasions of ,palestine proceeded4 ,hence there is no reason either to think of one of them exclusively1 or to exclude one4 ,on the contrary1 the comprehensive character of the description distinctly appears in i4 #d4 ,it is there1 at the very threshold1 intimated1 that the heathenish invasion will be a fourfold one1--that ,israel shall become the prey of four successive extensive empires4 ,joel's mission fell at the commencement of the written prophecy2 and in harmony with this1 he gives only an outline of that which it was reserved for the later prophets to fill up1 and to carry out in its details1 by the mention of the name of each single empire1 as the times moved on4 ,it was enough that ,joel prophesied the destruction by these great empires1 even before any one of them had appeared on the stage of history1 and that he was enabled to point even to the fourfold number of them4 ,the threat of punishment1 joined with exhortations to repentance1 to which the people willingly listened1 and humbled themselves before the ,lord1 continues down to chap4 ii4 #ag4 ,with this is connected the proclamation of salvation--which extends down to chap4 iii4 #b 7ii4 #bi74 ,the showing of mercy begins with the fact1 that ,god sends the ,teacher of righteousness4 ,he directs the attention of the people to the design of their sufferings1 and invites the weary and heavy laden to come to the ,lord1 that ,he may refresh them4 ,his voice is heard by those who are of a broken heart2 and there then follows rich divine blessing1 with its consummation--the outpouring of the ,spirit4 ,both--the sending of the ,teacher of righteousness1 and the outpouring of the ,spirit--had their preliminary fulfilments2 the first of which took place soon after the commencement of the devastation by the locusts1 in the time of the ,assyrians1--a second1 after the destruction by the ,babylonians had come upon the people1--a third1 after the visitation by the ,greek tyranny under the ,maccabees4 ,but the chief reference of the prophecy is1 throughout1 to ,christ1 and to the vouchsafement ,pg #bii of the blessing1 and to the outpouring of the ,spirit1 originating in ,his mediation4 ,the announcement of salvation for the ,covenant-people is1 in the third and last part1 followed by the opposite of it1 viz41 the announcement of judgments upon the enemies of the ,congregation of ,god4 ,their hatred of it1 proceeding from hatred to ,god1 is employed by ,him1 indeed1 as a means of chastising and purifying ,his ,church2 but it does not1 for that reason1 cease to be an object of ,his punitive justice4 ,the fundamental idea of this part of the book is expressed in #a ,pet4 iv4 #ag by the words3 ,for the time is come that judgment must begin at the house of ,god4 ,and if it first begin at us1 what shall the end be of them that obey not the ,gospel of ,god8 ,and if the righteous scarcely be saved1 where shall the ungodly and the sinner appear8 ,the description bears here also1 as in the second and first parts1 a comprehensive character4 ,that which1 in the course of history1 is realized in a long series of single acts of divine interposition against the enemies of the ,church1 is here brought together in a single scene4 ,the overthrow of ,assyria1 ,babylon1 the ,persian and ,grecian monarchies1 is comprehended in this prophecy4 ,but its final fulfilment must be sought for only in the ,messianic time4 ,this is sufficiently evident from the relation of this part1 to the second4 ,having given ear to the ,teacher of righteousness1 and the ,spirit having been poured out upon her1 the ,congregation has become an object of the loving providence of ,god4 ,from this flows the judgment upon her enemies4 ,if1 then1 the promise of the ,teacher of righteousness and of the outpouring of the ,spirit be1 in substance1 ,messianic1 so1 the judgment too must1 in substance1 bear a ,messianic character4 ,the same appears from iv4 7iii47 #ah1 according to which passage1 simultaneously with the judgments1 there cometh forth1 from the house of the ,lord1 a fountain which watereth the valley of ,shittim--the waters of salvation which water the dry land of human need4 7,compare the remarks on ,ezek4 xlvii12 ,zech4 xiv4 #h2 and my ,comment4 on ,revel4 xxii4 #a47 ,this feature1 however1 clearly points to the ,messianic time4 ,we must here1 however1 avoid confounding the substance with the form1--the idea with the temporary clothing which the prophet puts upon it1 in accordance with the nature of prophetic ,pg #cjj vision1 in which1 necessarily1 all that is spiritual must be represented in outward sketches and forms4 ,this form is as follows3--,in the place nearest to the temple1 and which was able to contain a great multitude of people1 in the valley of ,jehoshaphat1 all nations are gathered4 7,the valley very probably received its name from the appellation which1 in the passage under consideration1 the prophet gives to it1 in order to mark its destination2 for ,jehoshaphat means1 the ,lord judges1 or ,valley of ,judgment4#a7 ,the ,lord1 enthroned in the temple1 exercises judgment upon them4 ,in this manner--in outward forms of perception--the idea is brought out1 that the judgment upon the ,gentiles is an effect of the kingdom of ,god2 that they are not punished on account of their violation of the natural law1 but because of the hostile position which they had occupied against the teachers of ,god's revealed truth1--against the ,lord ,himself who is in ,his ,church4 ,every violation of the natural law may be pardoned to those who have not stood in any other relation to ,god1 even although they should have ,pg #cja proceeded to the most fearful extent in depravity4 ,they who were once disobedient1 when the long-suffering of ,god waited in the days of ,noah1 were not as yet given over to complete condemnation1 but were kept in prison until ,christ came and preached to them4 ,this was the iniquity of ,sodom3 fulness of bread1 and abundance of peace1 were in her and her daughters2 yet the hand of the poor and needy they did not assist2 but they were haughty and committed abomination before the ,lord3 therefore ,he took them away as ,he saw good4 ,but1 nevertheless1 the ,lord will1 at some future time1 turn the captivity 7the misery7 of this ,sodom and her daughters1 and they shall be restored as they were before1--not corporeally1 for their seed is utterly rooted out from the earth1 and even their place is destroyed1 but spiritually2 compare ,ezek4 xvi4 #di ff4 ,but1 on the other hand1 far more severe punishments are inflicted upon those who have rejected1 not the abstract1 but the concrete ,god1--not the ,god who is shut up in the heavens1 but the ,god who powerfully manifests ,himself on earth1 in ,his ,church4 ,it is true1 that as long as this revelation is still an imperfect one--as it was under the ,old ,testament dispensation--and hence the guilt of rejecting ,him less1 mercy may still be shown4 ,external destruction does not involve spiritual ruin4 ,moab1 indeed1 is destroyed1 so that it is no longer a people1 because it has exalted itself against the ,lord2 yet1 in the latter days ,i will turn the captivity of ,moab1 saith the ,lord1 ,jer4 xlviii4 #dg4 ,but when the revelation of the grace of ,god has become perfect1 ,his justice also will be perfectly revealed against all who reject it1 and rise in hostility against those who are the bearers of it3 ,their worm shall not die1 neither shall their fire be quenched1 and they shall be an abhorring unto all flesh1 ,is4 lxvi4 #bd4 ,these remarks contain the key to all which the ,lord declares as to the future judgment which1 in its completion1 belongs only to the future world4 ,it is not the world as such1 but that world to which the ,gospel has been declared1 and in the midst of which the ,church has been founded1 which forms the object of it2 compare ,matt4 xxiv4 #ad4 ,footnote #a3 ,hofmann 7,weissag4 u4 ,erfl4 i4 ,s4 #bjc7 has revived the explanation1 according to which the valley of ,jehoshaphat is to be understood as the valley in which1 under ,jehoshaphat1 judgment was executed upon several ,gentile nations4 ,but this locality1 the desert of ,thekoa1 which was about three hours distance from ,jerusalem 7compare my ,comment4 on the ,psalms1 in the ,introduction to ,ps4 xlvi4 xlviii4 lxxxiii471 is at too great a distance from the temple1 where1 according to vers4 #af and #ag1 the ,lord holds ,his judgment upon the nations4 ,tradition has rightly perceived that the valley of ,jehoshaphat can be sought for only in the immediate vicinity of the temple4 ,in favour of the valley of ,jehoshaphat now so called1 at the high east brink of ,moriah1 the temple-hill 7,ritter1 ,erdk4 xv4 #a1 ,s4 #eei2 xvi4 #a1 ,s4 #cbi71 is also ,zech4 vi4 #a-h 7compare the remarks on that passage74 ,from the circumstance that there is1 first1 the mention of the name1 and1 then1 the statement of its signification1 ,and ,i gather all nations1 and bring them down into the valley of ,jehoshaphat1 and plead with them there1 ,hofmann infers that the name must have already existed as a proper name4 ,there is1 however1 an analogy in ,num4 xx4 #a3 ,and the people encamped at ,kadesh2--but the place received the name ,kadesh only because of the event to be subsequently related3 previous to that1 its name was ,barnea4 7,compare ,dissert4 on ,gen4 of the ,pent4 vol4 ii4 p4 #caj ff47 ,the two theological names of the place1 which arose only from the event recorded in ,num4 xx41 occur even as early as ,gen4 xiv4 #g4 ,the natural name of the valley of ,jehoshaphat is1 moreover1 in all likelihood1 ,king's ,dale2 compare ,gen4 xiv4 #ag2 #b ,sam4 xviii4 #ah2 and ,thenius on this passage4 ,pg #cjb ,,joel ,i4-,,ii4 #ag4 ,we shall not dwell here for any length of time upon the history of the expositions of this passage4 ,it has been given with sufficient minuteness by ,pococke and ,marckius among older writers1 and by ,credner among the more modern4 ,we content ourselves with remarking that the figurative exposition is the more ancient1 having been adopted by the ,chaldee ,paraphrast1 and by the ,jews mentioned by ,jerome1 and that we cannot by any means1 as ,credner does1 derive it from doctrinal considerations only2 for many1 with whom such considerations weighed1 as ,bochart1 ,pococke1 and ,j4 ,d4 ,michaelis1 do not approve of it2 whilst1 on the other hand1 there are among its defenders not a few who were guided by just the opposite motives1 such as ,grotius1 ,eckermann1 ,berthold 7,einl4 ,s4 #afjg ff471 and ,theiner4 ,two preliminary questions1 however1 require to be answered1 before we can proceed to the main investigation4 #a4 ,does ,joel here describe a present1 or a future calamity8 ,the former has been asserted1 in former times1 by ,luther and ,calvin 7compare1 especially1 his commentary on chap4 i4 #d71 and in more recent times1 with special confidence1 by ,credner4 ,but there is nothing to favour this view4 ,the frequent use of the ,preterites would prove something in support of it1 provided only we were not standing on prophetical ground4 ,they are1 moreover1 found quite in the same manner in chap4 iv4--in that portion which1 by all interpreters unanimously1 is referred to the future4 ,and yet1 if this view were to be acknowledged as sound1 it ought to commend itself by stringent considerations1 inasmuch as the prophetic analogy is1 a priori1 against it4 ,there is not found anywhere in the prophets so long and so detailed a description of the present or the past4 ,but1 moreover1 if we once give up the reference to the future1 we could think of the past only2 for in chap2 ii4 #ah1 #ai1 the description of the salvation following upon the misery1 is connected with the preceding context by the ,future with vav conversivum4 ,if1 then1 the scene of inward vision be forsaken1 and everything referred to external reality1 the calamity described in the preceding context must likewise be viewed as one already entirely past1 and the salvation as already actually existing4 ,it can be proved1 however1 ,pg #cjc from the contents1 by incontrovertible special reasons1 that the reference to the future is alone the correct one4 ,the day of the ,lord is several times spoken of as being at hand1 which may be explained from the circumstance1 that ,god's judgment upon ,his ,church is a necessary effect of ,his justice1 which never rests1 but always shows itself as active4 ,when1 therefore1 its object--the sinful apostasy of the people--is already in existence1 its manifestation must also of necessity be expected2 and although not the last and highest manifestation1 yet such an one as serves for a prelude to it4 ,the day of the ,lord is1 therefore1 continually coming1 is never absolutely distant2 and its being spoken of as at hand is a necessary consequence of the saying1 ,whereseover the carcase is1 there will the eagles be gathered together1--a declaration founded upon the divine nature1 and therefore ever true4 7,compare my ,commentary on the ,apocalypse i4 #a47 ,this designation is first found in i4 #ae3 ,alas6 for the day1 for the day of the ,lord is at hand1 and as a destruction from the ,almighty does it come4 ,here1 two expedients for evasion have been tried4 ,justi maintained that the day is at hand was equivalent to the day is there1--an opinion which does not deserve any further refutation4 ,holzhausen1 ,credner1 and ,hitzig suppose that1 by the day of the ,lord1 we are not to understand the devastation by the locusts1 but some severe judgment1 to which that served as a prelude4 ,this supposition is1 however1 opposed1 first of all1 by the verbal parallel passage in ,isa4 xiii4 #f3 ,howl ye1 for the day of the ,lord is at hand2 it cometh as a destruction from the ,almighty1--where the day of the ,lord cannot be any other than that which is described in the preceding context4 ,but this opinion is further opposed by the circumstance1 that1 in the subsequent context1 there is not the slightest trace of any other judgment than that of the devastation by the locusts2 on the contrary1 with its termination1 the whole period of suffering comes to an end1 as regards the ,covenant-people1 and the time of blessing upon them and of judgment upon their enemies begins4 ,but the necessity for understanding1 by the day of the ,lord at hand1 the devastation by the locusts1 and hence1 for viewing the latter as still future1 is even more clearly seen from the second passage1 chap4 ii4 #a1 #b3 ,blow ye the trumpet in ,zion1 and sound an alarm in ,my holy mountain2 let all the ,pg #cjd inhabitants of the land tremble1 for the day of the ,lord hath come1 for nigh at hand1 a day of darkness and gloominess1 a day of clouds and fogs1 as the morning-red spread upon the mountains1 a people numerous and strong2 there hath not been the like from eternity1 neither shall there be any more after it1 even through the years of all generations4 ,that1 by the day of the ,lord1 which the prophet1 from the standing-point of his inward vision1 here speaks of as having already come1 and as being in reality nigh at hand1 we must understand the same day as that which is minutely described in the preceding and subsequent context1 viz41 the devastation by the locusts1 appears1 in the first place1 from the verbal parallel passage1 ,ezek4 xxx4 #b1 which likewise speaks of one day only3 ,thou son of man1 prophesy and say4 ,thus saith the ,lord1 ,howl ye1 woe for the day6 ,for the day is near1 a day to the ,lord1 a day of clouds1 the time of the heathen it shall be4 ,but what places the matter beyond all doubt are the words3 ,a people numerous and strong4 ,these words1 by which1 according to what follows1 the locusts only can be understood1 form an explanatory apposition to the day of the ,lord1 the day of darkness1 etc4 ,to this we may further add1 that1 by the last words1 this judgment is represented as the most formidable1 and the last by which ,judea shall be visited2 so that we cannot by any means think of a subsequent later day of the ,lord4 #b4 ,are the different names of the locusts designations of various species of locusts1 or are these1 beside the common name of the locusts1 only poetical names1 which denote the qualities coming into consideration8 ,credner has attempted to prove the former4 ,he maintains that ,joel's description has to do with two generations of locusts1--the first belonging to the end of one year1--the second1 to the beginning of the year following4 ,the latter he thinks to be the offspring of the former4 ,in accordance with this hypothesis1 he explains the different names1 is1 according to him1 the migratory locust1 which visits ,palestine chiefly in autumn2 1 elsewhere the general name of locusts1 here the young brood2 1 the young locust in the last stage of its transformation1 or between the third and fourth casting of the skin2 1 the perfect locust1 proceeding from the last transformation1 and1 hence1 as the brood proceeded from the 1 would be the same 4 ,pg #cje ,it forms a general argument against this hypothesis1 that1 according to it1 the prophet should enter so deeply and minutely into the natural history of locusts1 that a ,professor of that science might learn from him4 ,there is nothing analogous to this1 either in ,scripture generally1 or in the ,prophets particularly4 ,the difficulty1 moreover1 increases1 when we assume--what has been already proved--that the description refers to the future4 ,the religious impression which the prophet has1 after all1 solely in view1 would not gain1 but suffer by such a minute detail in the description of a future natural event1--especially such as a devastation by locusts4 ,a closer examination proves that the whole explanation of the names of the locusts1 upon which the hypothesis is built1 is untenable4 ,it appears1 then1 that the prophet knows of only one kind of locusts1 which he divides into four hosts2 and that1 with the exception of 1 the names are not those of natural history1 but poetical1 and taken from the qualities of the locusts4 ,let us first demonstrate that the interpretation of 1 upon which ,credner founds that of the other names1 is inadmissible4 ,this interpretation1 he maintains 7,s4 #bie71 is put beyond all doubt by the passage1 ,nah4 iii4 #af3 ,the casts its skin and flies away4 ,the merchants1 who constituted the principal part of the population of ,nineveh1 are1 according to him1 compared to a which flies away1 after having cast his skin for the third or last time4 ,but this passage of ,nahum1 when minutely examined and correctly interpreted1 is by itself sufficient to refute that opinion concerning the 4 ,in ver4 #ae1 it is said concerning ,nineveh3 ,there shall the fire devour thee1 the sword shall cut thee off1 it shall eat thee up1 as the licker 773 make thyself many as the lickers1 make thyself many as the locusts4 ,ver4 #af3 ,thou hast multiplied thy merchants like the stars of heaven2 lickers broke through and flew away4 ,ver4 #ag3 ,thy princes are like locusts1 and thy captains are as a host of grasshoppers1 which camp on the hedges in the day of cold4 ,the sun has risen1 and they flee away1 and their place is not known where they are4 ,this passage just proves that must be winged locusts4 ,the inhabitants of ,nineveh are numerous like the locusts2 numerous are her rich merchants2 but suddenly there cometh upon them a numberless host of locusts1 who rob ,pg #cjf them of everything1 and fly away4 ,they who rob and fly away1 in ver4 #af1 are not the merchants1 but the enemies4 ,this becomes quite evident from the comparison of ver4 #ae1 where quite the same antithesis is found between--,the sword shall eat thee up as the lickers 7,nominat471 and ,make thyself many as the lickers4 ,the verb 1 in its common signification1 irruit1 invasit ad praedam agendam1 is here1 in reference to the merchants1 very significant4 ,but what is decisive against the explanation of ,credner is this3--that the signification to cast the skin cannot be established at all1 and that the whole sense is utterly unsuitable4 ,for the discourse is not here1 by any means1 of mercenaries or foreign traders1 but of the native merchants of ,nineveh1 just as1 in the subsequent verses1 the discourse is about her own nobles4 ,how then could that image be suitable1 which must certainly denote a safe transition from one state into a better8--,credner moreover refers to ,jer4 li4 #bg1 where to the quality 1 horridus1 is ascribed4 ,this1 according to him1 is to be referred to the rough1 horn-like coverings of the wings of the young locusts4 ,but1 according to the context1 and to the analogy of the parallel passage1 li4 #ad1 we should rather expect that horrid is here a designation of the multitude4 7,compare the of the ,,lxx47 ,but it is still more natural to give to the signification of awful1 terrible4 7,compare ,ps4 cxix4 #abj1 where the verb occurs with the meaning to shudder47--,that by 1 not the young brood1 but the winged locusts are to be understood1 appears also from a comparison of ,ps4 cv4 #cd with ,exod4 x4 #ab ff4 ,in ,exod4 a single army of flying locusts overspread ,egypt2 the ,psalmist1 in recalling this event to memory1 says3 ,he spake1 and the locusts came1 and without number4 ,from this passage1 especially when compared with ,ps4 lxxvii4 #df1 where1 instead of 1 is interchanged with 1 which alone is found in ,exod41 it is very clearly seen that 1 the licker1 is nothing else than a poetical epithet of the locusts4 ,it never occurs1 indeed1 in prose2 and this can be the less accidental1 as 1 the gnawer1 is also never found in prose writings1 and only once1 in the prayer of ,solomon1 #a ,kings viii4 #cg--;as that which it is in reality1 as a mere attribute to 4 ,that has its name from the eating1 is shown by ,nah4 iii4 #ae3 ,the sword shall eat thee up as the 4 ,and1 in addition to this1 we may ,pg #cjg further urge1 that the exposition of is altogether fictitious1 and contradicted by all the passages2--that the prophet in ii4 #be inverts the order1 and puts the last1 from which it is certainly to be safely inferred that the arrangement in i4 #d is not a chronological one2--that ,credner himself1 by his being obliged to grant that and do not signify a particular kind of locusts1 raises suspicions against his interpreting the two other names of particular kinds2--and that if this interpretation were to be considered as correct1 and must denote the locusts as fully grown4 ,but that is by no means the case4 ,the origin of the name is1 moreover1 clearly shown by ,amos iv4 #i3 ,your vineyards1 your fig-trees1 and your olive-trees1-- devours them4 ,as regards the corn1 other divine means of destruction had been mentioned immediately before2 the trees alone then remained for the locusts1 and they received a name corresponding to this special destination1 viz41 1 the gnawer4--,the verb is1 in ,deut4 xxviii4 #ch1 used of the devouring of the locusts1 and never occurs excepting where the locusts are viewed in this capacity4 7,besides the passages already quoted1 compare ,is4 xxxiii4 #d47 ,the following also may be considered4 ,the description of the ravages of the second brood is1 according to ,credner1 to begin in chap4 ii4 #d4 ,but the suffix in ver4 #d refers directly to the winged locusts spoken of in vers4 #a-c2 and in the verb they are the subject4 ,and now1 every one may judge what value is to be attached to a hypothesis which has everything against it1 and nothing in its favour1 and the essential suppositions of which--such as the departure of the swarms1 their leaving their eggs behind1 their death in the ,red ,sea--are1 as the author of the hypothesis himself confesses1 passed over in silence by the prophet4 ,we may now proceed to the solution of our proper problem4 ,there are no general reasons1 either against the figurative1 or against the literal interpretation2 neither of them has any unfavourable prejudice which can be urged against it4 ,a devastation by real locusts is threatened1 in the ,pentateuch1 against the transgressors of the law1 ,deut4 xxviii4 #ch1 #ci2 against the ,egyptians1 the ,lord actually made use of this1 among other methods of punishment2 and a devastation in ,israel by locusts is1 in ,amos iv4 #i1 represented as an effect of divine anger4--,pg #cjh,on the other hand1 figurative representations of that kind are of very common occurrence4 ,in ,isaiah1 e4g41 the invading ,assyrians and ,egyptians appear1 in a continuous description1 as swarms of flies and bees4 ,the comparison of hostile armies with locusts is very common1 not only on account of their multitude 7from which circumstance the locusts received their name in ,hebrew71 but also on account of the sudden surprise1 and the devastation3 compare ,judges vi4 #e2 ,jer4 xlvi4 #bc1 li4 #bg2 ,judith ii4 #aa4 ,several times a hostile invasion also is represented under the image and symbol of the plague of the locusts4 ,in ,nah4 iii4 #ae-ag1 the ,assyrians appear in the form of locusts1--and that this is not only on account of their numbers1 but also on account of the devastations which they make1 is shown by the comparison with the in ver4 #ae2--;and just in the same manner are the enemies described who accomplish their overthrow4 ,and1--what is completely analogous1--in ,amos vii4 #a-c1 the prophet beholds the approaching divine judgment under the image of a swarm of locusts1 just as1 in ver4 #d1 under that of a fire1 and in ver4 #g1 under that of a plumb-line4 ,all these three images are in substance identical2 their meaning is expressed in ver4 #i by the words3 ,the high places of ,isaac shall be desolate1 and the sanctuaries of ,israel shall be destroyed4 ,the locusts denote destroying hostile armies2 the fire denotes war2 and the plumb-line1 the destruction to be accomplished by the enemies4 ,it was so much the more natural to represent the divine judgment under the image of a devastation by locusts--as is done also in ,rev4 ix4 #c ff4--because1 formerly1 it had actually manifested itself in this way in ,egypt4 ,the figurative representation had therefore a significant substratum in the history of the past4 ,but it is1 throughout1 the custom of the prophets to describe the future under the image of the analogous past1 which1 as it were1 is revived in it4--,it ought to be still further remarked1 that we must1 a priori1 be the less indisposed to admit a detailed symbolical representation in ,joel1 as the two prophets1 betwixt whom he is placed1 have likewise such symbolical portions4 ,the decision depends1 therefore1 upon the internal character of the description itself4 ,an allegory must betray itself as such1 by significant hints2 where these are wanting1 it is arbitrary to assume its existence4 ,following the order of the ,pg #cji text1 we shall bring together everything of this kind which we find in it4 ,the words1 even1 of the introduction1--,hath any such thing happened in your days1 and in the days of your fathers8 ,of it you shall tell your sons1 and your sons to their sons1 and their sons to the succeeding generation1--scarcely permit us to think of a devastation by locusts in the literal sense4 ,it could only be by means of the grossest exaggeration--which1 if it were far from any prophet1 was certainly so from the simple and mild ,joel--that he could represent1 as the greatest disaster which ever befell1 or should ever befall the nation1 a devastation by locusts which was1 after all1 only a transitory evil4 ,for it is the greatness of the disaster which is implied in the call to relate it to the latest posterity2 no later suffering should be so great as to cause this one to be forgotten4 ,we must not overlook the expression in ver4 #f3 ,for a nation 77 has come up over my land4 ,nation1 according to most interpreters1 is thought to signify the mere multitude2 but in that case1 would certainly have been used1 as is done in ,prov4 xxx4 #be1 #bf1 concerning the ants4 ,in there is implied not only the idea of what is hostile--this ,credner too acknowledges--but also of what is profane4 ,this1 indeed1 is the principal idea2 and1 on this account1 even the degenerate ,covenant-people several times receive the name 4 ,that this principal idea is here likewise applicable1 is evident from the antithesis3 ,over my land4 ,it is true1 that the suffix cannot be referred to ,jehovah1 as is done by ,j4 ,h4 ,michaelis and others1 although the antithesis would thus most strikingly appear2 but as little can we refer it1 as is done by modern interpreters1 to the prophet as an individual2 for1 in this case the antithesis would be lost altogether4 ,the comparison of vers4 #g and #ai clearly shows that1 according to a common practice 7compare the ,introduction to ,micah1 and the whole prophecy of ,habakkuk71 the prophet speaks in the name of the people of ,god4 ,a strange1 unheard-of event6 ,a heathen host has invaded the land of the people of ,god6 ,the antithesis is in ii4 #ah3 ,then the ,lord was jealous for ,his land1 and spared ,his people4 ,we do not think that the prophet loses sight of his image4 ,he designates the locust as the heathen host2 but he would not have chosen this designation1 which1 when literally ,pg #caj understood1 is very strange1 unless the matter had induced him to do so4 ,if it be understood figuratively1 ,amos vi4 #ad entirely harmonizes with it4--,in the same verse 7,joel i4 #f7 it is said3 ,his teeth1 the teeth of a lion1 cheek teeth of a lion to him2 on which ,rev4 ix4 #h is to be compared4 ,this comparison is quite suitable to figurative locusts1 to furious enemies 7compare ,is4 v4 #bi2 ,nah4 ii4 #ab1 #ac2 ,jer4 ii4 #ae1 iv4 #g1 xlix4 #ai2 ,ezek4 xxxii4 #b2 ,dan4 vii4 #d71 but not to natural locusts2 for the lion cannot possibly be the symbol of mere voracity4 ,it is remarkable1 that in the description of the locusts in this verse1 and throughout1 their flying is not mentioned at all4 ,it is only in chap4 ii4 #b1 ,day of darkness and gloominess1 day of clouds and thick darkness1 that ,credner supposes such an allusion to exist4 ,the darkness is1 according to him1 in consequence of the swarm of locusts coming up in the skies4 ,but the incorrectness of such a supposition is immediately perceived1 upon a comparison of chap4 ii4 #aj4 ,before the host1 and before it arrives1 the earth quakes1 the heavens tremble1 sun and moon cover themselves with darkness1 and the stars withdraw their shining4 ,it is only after all this has happened1 that the ,lord approaches at the head of ,his host4 ,it is not from this host1 therefore1 that the darkness can proceed4 ,on the contrary1 the darkening of the heavens1 as is quite conclusively shown by the numerous almost literally agreeing parallel passages 7compare the remarks on ,zech4 xiv4 #f71 is the symbol of the anger of ,god1 the sign that ,he approaches as a ,judge1 and an ,avenger4 ,but in what way could the omission of every reference to the flying of the locusts1 in a description so minute1 be accounted for other than this3 that the reality presented nothing corresponding to this feature8 ,it is only the heaviest and most continuous suffering1 and not a transitory plague by locusts1 which can justify the call in i4 #h3 ,howl like a virgin girded with sackcloth for the husband of her youth4 ,this verse forms the transition to ver4 #i1 where the sacrifice in the house of ,jehovah appears as cut off1 and connects ,joel with ,hosea1 in whom the image1 of which the outlines only are given here1 appears finished4 ,zion has also lost the friend of her youth--the ,lord2 compare ,prov4 ii4 #ag3 ,who forsaketh the friend of her youth1 and forgot the covenant of her ,god2 ,is4 liv4 #f2 ,jer4 ii4 #b1 iii4 #d4--,of great ,pg #caa importance for the question under consideration are ver4 #i3 ,the meat-offering and drink-offering are cut off from the house of the ,lord2 and ver4 #ac3 ,gird yourselves and lament1 ye priests1 howl ye ministers of the altar1 come1 spend all night in sackcloth1 ye ministers of my ,god2 for the meat-offering and drink-offering are withholden from the house of your ,god4 ,it is quite inconceivable that the want of provisions1 resulting from a natural devastation by real locusts1 could have been the reason that the meat-offering and drink-offering1 which1 in a material point of view1 were of so little value1 should have been withheld from the ,lord2 inasmuch as the cessation of it appears in these passages as the consummation of the national calamity4 ,during the siege of ,jerusalem by ,pompey1 the legal sacrifices existed1 according to ,josephus 7,arch4 xiv4 #d1 #c71 even amidst the greatest dangers to life1 during the irruption of the enemies into the city1 and in the midst of the carnage4 ,it is true that1 during the last siege by the ,romans1 when matters had come to an extremity1 ,johannes ordered the sacrifices to be discontinued4 ,but this was done1 not from want of materials1 but because there were none to offer them--from 1 as ,josephus says 7,bell4 ,jud4 vi4 #b1 #a2 compare ,reland in ,havercamp on this passage7--and to the great dissatisfaction of the people in the city1 4 ,the national view is expressed in what ,josephus says on this occasion to ,johannes1 to whom he had been sent by ,titus on account of this event3 ,if any man should rob thee of thy daily food1 thou1 most wicked man1 wouldst certainly consider him as thine enemy4 ,dost thou then think that thou wilt have for thine associate in this war1 ,god1 whom thou hast robbed of ,his eternal worship8 ,but the sound explanation readily suggests itself1 as soon as it is admitted that behind the locusts the ,gentiles are concealed4 ,in that case1 ,dan4 ix4 #bg1 where the destroyer makes sacrifice and oblation to cease1 is parallel4 ,the destruction of the temple is also announced by the contemporary ,amos in chap4 ix42 compare ii4 #e3 ,and ,i send fire upon ,judah1 and it devours the palaces of ,jerusalem4 ,of a similar purport1 in the time after ,joel1 is the passage in ,micah1 chap4 iii4 #ab4 ,the words in ver4 #ae--,woe1 for the day1 for the day of the ,lord is at hand1 and as destruction from the ,almighty does it come1--point to something infinitely higher than a mere ,pg #cab desolation by locusts in the literal sense4 ,this appears from a comparison of ,is4 xiii4 #f1 where they are taken1 almost verbatim1 from ,joel1 and used with a reference to the judgment of the ,lord upon the whole earth4 ,this is granted even by ,credner himself1 when he makes the vain attempt 7compare ,s4 #cde7 to refer them to a judgment different from the devastation by the locust4 ,the same is the case with ,maurer and ,hitzig4 ,how1 indeed1 is it at all conceivable that a national calamity1 so small and transient as a devastation by real locusts would have been1 should have been considered by the prophet as the day of the ,lord of the people in the city1 1 as the conclusion and completion of all the judgments upon the ,covenant-people8 ,a conception like this would imply such low notions of ,god's justice1 and such a total misapprehension of the greatness of human guilt1 as we find in none of the ,old ,testament prophets1 and1 generally1 in none of the writers of ,holy ,scripture4 ,that which the men of ,god under the ,old ,testament1 from the first--,moses--to the last1 announce1 is the total expulsion of the people from the country which they defiled by their sins4 ,the image suddenly changes in vers4 #ai and #bj3 ,to thee1 ,o ,lord1 do ,i cry4 ,for fire devoureth the pastures of the wilderness1 and flame burneth all the trees of the field4 ,even the beasts of the field desire for ,thee2 for the fountains of waters are dried up1 and fire devoureth the pastures of the wilderness4 ,the divine punishment appears under the image of an all-devouring fire4 ,now1 since we cannot here think of a literal fire1 it is certain that1 in the preceding verses also1 a figurative representation prevails4 ,holzhausen and ,credner 7,s4 #afc71 and others1 attempt to evade this troublesome inference1 by asserting that fire and flame are here used instead of the heat of the sun1 scorching everything4 ,but this assertion is1 at all events1 expressed in a distorted and awkward manner4 ,fire and flame are never used of the heat of the sun4 ,according to this view1 it ought rather to be said that the prophet represents the consuming heat1 under the image of fire poured down from heaven4 ,but even this cannot be entertained4 ,for the parallel passage chap4 ii4 #c1 ,before him fire devoureth1 and after him flame burneth1 shows that the fire1 being immediately connected with the locusts1 cannot be a cause of destruction independent of1 and co-ordinate with1 them4 ,that the locusts are the sole cause of ,pg #cac the devastation1 and that there is not another cause besides them1 viz41 the heat1 is evident also from the words3 ,as the garden of ,eden is the land before them1 and behind them a desolate wilderness1 and nothing is left by them4 ,the burning anger of ,god is represented under the image of a consuming and destroying fire1 with a reference to the destruction of ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 in which the divine wrath really manifested itself in that way4 ,under the image of fire1 war also1 one of the principal punishments of ,god1 is often represented4 ,thus1 fire means the fire of war in ,num4 xxi4 #bh3 ,amos i4 #d1 #g1 #aj1 etc42 ,jer4 xlix4 #bg2 ,rev4 viii4 #h1 #aj4 ,on the latter of these passages1 my ,commentary may be compared4 ,if1 then1 the fire spoken of in this passage mean likewise the fire of war1 and the locusts1 the heathen enemies1 the difficulty presented by the connection of these two things is solved4 ,the comparison of ,amos vii4 here serves as a key4 ,in vers4 #a-c1 the divine punishment is represented by the prophet under the image of a great army of locusts laying waste the country1 which is just beginning to recover under ,jeroboam ,,ii4 after the former calamities inflicted by the ,syrians2 and then in ver4 #d1 under the image of a great fire devouring the sea 7i4e41 the world71 and eating up the holy land4 ,this analogy is so much the more important1 the more impossible it is to overlook1 in other passages also1 the points of agreement betwixt ,joel and ,amos4 ,but the symbolical representation goes still further2 it extends even to the details4 ,the beasts of the field are the barbarous1 heathen nations4 ,in ver4 #ai1 the desolations are described which the fire of war accomplishes among ,israel2 in ver4 #bj1 those which it effects among the ,gentiles3 compare the antithesis between the beasts of the field and the sons of ,zion in ii4 #bb4 ,in ,is4 lvi4 #i1 the beasts of the field likewise occur as a figurative designation of the heathen4 ,in ,jer4 xiv4--a prophecy which has been distorted by expositors through a too literal interpretation--the image is1 in vers4 #e1 #f1 individualized by the mention of particular wild beasts--the hind and the wild ass4 ,joel himself indicates that the beasts in this description must1 in general1 be understood figuratively1 by using in ver4 #ah the word 1 which can be explained only by become guilty1 suffer punishment4 7,compare ,is4 xxiv4 #f3 ,therefore curse devoureth the land1 and they that dwell in it become guilty2 and ,pg #cad ,hos4 xiv4 #a47 ,the word 1 which is never used of beasts1 likewise leads us to think of men4 ,how do the beasts groan1 is explained by ,all the merry-hearted do groan1 in ,is4 xxiv4 #g4 ,the words 1 in which there is an evident allusion to ,ps4 xlii4 #b1 must likewise appear strange1 if the description be understood literally4 ,but what is decisive in favour of the figurative interpretation is ii4 #bb3 ,be not afraid1 ye beasts of the field1 for the pastures of the wilderness are green with grass1 for the tree beareth her fruit1 the fig-tree and vine do yield their strength4 ,the object of joy is here described1 first1 figuratively1 and then1 literally4 ,the pastures of the wilderness are green with grass1 i4e41 the tree1 etc4 ,it is only thus that the can be accounted for2 it states the reason1 only when the pastures of the wilderness are not understood literally4 ,the fruits of the trees are mentioned here as the ordinary food of the beasts of the field4 ,hitzig1 it is true1 remarks on this3 ,that many beasts of the field feed upon fruits of trees which they gather up1 and that1 e4g41 foxes eat grapes also4 ,but the point at issue here is the ordinary food2 and ,gen4 i4 #bi1 #cj1 where the trees are given to man1 and the grass to the beasts1 is decisive as to the literal or figurative interpretation4 ,under the image of unclean beasts--especially wild beasts--the ,gentiles appear also in ,acts xi4 #f4--,nor can the rivers of water 7ver4 #bj7 be understood literally4 ,the water of rivers1 brooks1 and fountains1 is1 in ,scripture1 the ordinary figure for the sources of sustenance1 of thriving1 wealth1 and prosperity2 compare remarks on ,rev4 viii4 #aj4 ,chap4 ii4 #b is to be considered as indicating the reason which induced ,joel to choose this figurative representation4 ,the words1 ,there hath not been anything the like from eternity1 neither may there be any more after it1 even to the years of all generations1 are borrowed1 almost verbally1 from ,exod4 x4 #ad4 ,the prophet thereby indicates that he transfers the past1 in its individual definiteness1 to the future1 which bears a substantial resemblance to it4 ,what was then said of the plague of locusts especially1 is here applied to the calamity thereby prefigured4 ,from among all the judgments upon the ,covenant-people 7for these alone are spoken of71 this judgment is the highest and the last2 and such the prophet could say1 only if the whole sum of divine judgments1 up to their consummation1 represented ,pg #cae itself to his inner vision under the image of the devastation by locusts4 ,the absurdities into which men are led by the hypothesis of a later origin of the ,pentateuch1 are here seen in a remarkable instance--viz41 in the assertion of ,credner1 that the passage in ,exodus is an imitation of that of ,joel4 ,the verse immediately following1 ,as the garden of ,eden 7i4e41 ,paradise7 the land is before him1 has an obvious reference to ,genesis1 not only to ,gen4 ii4 #h1 but also to xiii4 #aj1 where the vale of ,siddim1 before the divine judgment1 is compared to the garden of ,jehovah--to ,paradise4 ,in chap4 ii4 #f it is said1 ,before him nations tremble4 ,that the mention of the nations here is but ill adapted to the literal interpretation1 appears from the circumstance1 that while ,credner understands by the 1 ,judah and ,benjamin1 ,hitzig attempts to explain it by people4 ,but if1 by the locusts1 the heathen conquerors are designated1 the is quite in its place4 ,when the powerful heathen empires overflowed the land1 ,israel always formed only a part of a large whole of nations2 compare i4 #ai1 ii4 #bb4 ,amos describes how the fire of war and of the desire of conquest raged1 not only in ,israel1 but among all the nations round about1 and consumed them4 ,in addition to ,amos chap4 i4 compare especially ,amos vii4 #d1 #e1 where1 as objects of hostile visitation1 are pointed out1 first1 the sea1 i4e41 the world1 and then1 the heritage of the ,lord4 ,according to ,is4 x4 #f1 the mission of ,asshur was a very comprehensive one4 ,in ,habakkuk and ,jer4 chap4 xxv4 the judgments which the ,chaldeans inflicted upon ,judah1 appear only as a part of a universal judgment upon all nations4 ,according to chap4 ii4 #g-i1 the locusts take the city by storm4 ,they cannot be warded off by force of arms4 ,they climb the wall4 ,they fill the streets1 and enter by force into the houses4 ,peal locusts are not dangerous to towns1 but only to the fields4 ,in chap4 ii4 #aa1 every feature is against the literal explanation4 ,and the ,lord giveth ,his voice before ,his army2 for ,his camp is very numerous1 for he is strong that executeth ,his word2 for the day of the ,lord is great and very terrible1 who can comprehend it8 ,there is not the remotest analogy in favour of the supposition which would represent an army of locusts as the host and camp of ,god1 at the head of which ,he ,pg #caf ,himself marches as a general1 and before which ,he causes ,his thunders to resound like trumpets4 ,it is true that1 in some ,arabic writer1 this is mentioned as a ,mosaic command3 ,you shall not kill locusts1 for they are the host of ,god1 the ,most ,high2 see ,bochart ii4 p4 #dhb1 ed4 ,rosenmller iii4 p4 #cah4 ,but who does not see that this sentence owes its origin to the passage under consideration8 ,is4 xiii4 #b-e1 where the ,lord marches at the head of a great army to destroy the whole earth1 may here be compared2 and on ,joel ii4 #aj1 ,before him the earth quaketh1 the heavens tremble1 the sun and the moon mourn1 and the stars withdraw their shining1 ,is xiii4 #aj and ,jer4 iv4 #bh may be compared1 where1 in the view of threatening hostile inundation1 the earth laments1 and the heavens above mourn4 ,in ii4 #ag1 ,give not ,thine heritage to reproach1 that the heathen should rule over them 7 71 the prophet drops the figure altogether1 and allows the reality--the devastation of the country by heathen enemies--to appear in all its nakedness4 7,it is worthy of notice that by the term in this verse1 our remarks on in ii4 #f receive a confirmation47 ,the defenders of the literal explanation have tried a twofold mode of escaping from this difficulty4 ,michaelis explains thus3 ,spare ,thy people1 and deliver them from that plague of locusts4 ,for if they should continue to swarm any longer1 the greatest famine would arise1 and ,thy people1 in order to satisfy the cravings of hunger1 would be compelled to flee into the territories of heathen nations to serve them for bread1 and to submit not only to their sway1 but to ignominy4 ,but every one must at once see how far-fetched this explanation is4 ,in all history we do not find any instance in which a devastation by locusts--which affects the produce of one year only1 and even this never completely and throughout the whole country--has reduced a people to the necessity of placing themselves under the dominion of foreign nations4 ,modern interpreters--and especially ,credner--take refuge in another explanation3 ,give not up ,thine heritage to the mockery of heathens over them4 ,they assert that the signification to mock is required by the parallelism4 ,but we cannot see how1 and why4 ,the ignominy of ,israel consisted just in this1 that they1 the heritage of the ,lord1 were brought under the dominion of the ,gentiles1 ,it is ,just by the parallelism that the signification to rule is required4 ,for it is the heritage ,pg #cag of the ,lord1 and the dominion of the ,gentiles1 which form a striking contrast1 and not their mockery4 ,the very same contrast is implied in ver4 #ah1 in the words3 ,then the ,lord was jealous for ,his land4 ,in these1 the prophet reports the manner in which the ,lord put away that glaring contradiction4 ,they are not natural locusts1 but only the heathen enemies1 who can be the objects of the jealousy of the ,lord2 ,his land4 ,his people1 ,he cannot give up as a prey to heathen nations4 ,but further--and this alone is sufficient to settle the question--the explanation is altogether unphilological4 ,the verb never has the signification to mock2 the phrase 1 to form a proverb1 is altogether peculiar to ,ezekiel1 in whose prophecies it several times occurs4 ,in the other books1 nothing occurs which would be1 even in the smallest degree1 to the purpose1 except that in the ancient language of the ,pentateuch occurs once1 in ,num4 xxi4 #bg1 in the signification poets4 ,the verb with means always1 and without exception1 to rule over--properly1 to rule by entering into any one4 ,thus it occurs especially in that passage which the prophet had in view1 ,deut4 xv4 #e1 #f3 ,if thou wait hearken unto the voice of ,jehovah thy ,god 444 thou shalt rule over many nations1 and they shall not rule over thee1 4 ,compare also the very similar passages1 ,ps4 cvi4 #da3 ,and ,he gave them into the hand of the heathen1 and they that hated them ruled over them1 2 and ,lament1 v4 #h3 ,servants rule over us1 4 ,that it is from prejudice alone that the selection of the signification to mock can be accounted for1 appears also from the circumstance that all the old ,translators 7the ,,lxx41 ,jonath41 ,syr41 ,vulg47 render it by to rule4 ,more than one proof is offered by ver4 #bj3 ,and ,i will remove from you the ,northman1 and will drive him into the land dry and desolate2 his van into the fore sea1 and his rear into the hinder sea2 and his stench shall come up1 and his ill-savour shall arise1 for he has magnified to do4 #a4 ,if we understand this literally1 and refer it to real locusts1 then the designation by 1 i4e41 one from the ,north1 a ,northman1 is inexplicable4 ,it is true that there is no foundation for the common assertion1 that locusts move only from the ,south to the ,north 7compare ,credner1 ,s4 #bhd72 but in all history there is not one instance known of locusts having come ,pg #cah to ,palestine from the ,north--from ,syria4 ,but even although occasionally single swarms1 after having come to ,syria from their native country1 the hot and dry ,south1 may have strayed thence to ,palestine1 such is not conceivable of so enormous a swarm as is here described1 which1 with youthful strength1 devastated the whole of ,palestine from one end to the other4 ,is it1 moreover1 probable that the prophet1 who1 as we have already seen1 prophesies things future1 would mention a circumstance so accidental as the transient abode of a swarm of locusts in ,syria8 ,such a residence1 besides1 would not justify the assertion4 ,the termination added to common names1 indicates origin and descent4 ,an inhabitant of a town1 for example1 who should reside for a short time in a village1 could not for that reason be called a 4--,finally--,the native country of the real locusts is plainly enough indicated by the words3 ,and ,i will drive him into the land dry and desolate4 ,who does not see that1 by these words1 the hot and dry southern countries are marked out1 and that the prophet expresses the thought1 ,the enemies will be driven back to the place whence they came1 by mentioning the country from which the real locusts used to come8 ,our opponents are here greatly embarrassed4 ,some explain3 ,the locusts marching northward1--,hezel and ,justi1 without the slightest countenance from the usus loquendi3 ,the dark and fearful host4 ,this opinion was approved of by ,gesenius in the ,thesaurus2 but in opposition to it ,hitzig may be compared1 who himself gives the explanation1 ,the ,typhonic4 ,v4 ,cln 7de ,joelis aetate1 ,marb4 #ahaa1 p4 #aj74 ,ewald and ,meier propose a change in the text4 ,with the reasons preventing us from referring the expression to the locusts ,in a literal sense1 we may combine the fact that the ,north is constantly mentioned as the native land of the most dangerous enemies of ,israel1 viz41 the ,assyrians and ,chaldeans4 ,and although this designation be4 ,in a geographical point of view4 ,inaccurate1 this is outweighed by the circumstance1 that enemies always ,invaded ,palestine from ,syria1 after having previously made that land a part of their dominions4 ,compare ,zeph4 ii4 #ac3 ,and the ,lord stretches out ,his hand over the ,north1 and destroys ,assyria1 and makes ,nineveh a desolation--a dry wilderness2 ,jer4 i4 #ad3 ,and the ,lord said unto me1 ,out of the ,north the evil shall break forth upon all the inhabitants of the land2 ,jer4 iii4 #ah1 where ,pg #cai the land of the ,north is mentioned as the land of the captivity of ,judah and ,israel2 ,jer4 iv4 #f1 vi4 #a1 #bb1 x4 #bb1 xlvi4 #bd1 where the people of the ,north form the antithesis to ,egypt1 the ,african power2 and ,zech4 ii4 #aj4 ,jerome long ago remarked3 ,the prophet mentions the ,north1 that we might not think of real locusts1 which are wont to come from the ,south1 but might1 by the locusts1 understand the ,assyrians and ,chaldeans4 #b4 ,that we have here to do with a poetical description1 and not with one of natural history1 appears from a designation of the places to which the locusts are to be driven4 ,among these1 the dry and hot southern country--the ,arabian desert--is first mentioned2 then1 the anterior sea1 i4e41 the ,dead ,sea1 situated eastward of ,jerusalem2 and lastly1 the hinder1 or ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,that1 according to the view of the prophet1 the dispersion in these different directions was to take place in a moment1 appears from the circumstance that1 according to his description1 the van of the same army is driven into one sea1 and the rear1 into the other sea4 ,now1 every one very easily sees that this is a physical impossibility1 inasmuch as opposite winds cannot blow at the same time4 ,credner's explanation1 according to which the of the locusts is intended to be the swarm of those who first invaded ,palestine1 while is their brood1 deserves mention in so far only as it affords a proof of the greatness of the absurdities into which one may be deluded1 after he has once adopted a groundless hypothesis4 #c4 ,the words1 ,for he has magnified to do1 state the reason of the destruction of the locusts4 ,they are punished in this manner1 because they have committed sin by their proud haughtiness4 ,because they have magnified to do1 the ,lord now magnifies ,himself to do against them1 ver4 #ba2 ,he glorifies ,himself in their destruction1 since1 at the time of their power1 they glorified themselves1 and trampled ,god under foot4 ,but sin and punishment necessarily imply responsibility2 and it would be indeed difficult to prove that1 in the way of a poetical figure1 any prophet would ascribe such to irrational creatures2 while1 as regards the heathen enemies of ,israel1 the thought here expressed is of constant occurrence4 ,in chap4 ii4 #be1 ,and ,i restore to you the years 77 which the locusts have eaten1 etc41 several years of calamity are spoken of4 ,but we cannot agree with ,ewald in thinking that ,pg #cbj the land was1 for several years1 laid waste by locusts3 we are prevented from doing so by the single word in chap4 i4 #d4 ,bochart rightly remarks3 ,the produce of the new year cannot be called the residue of the former year4 ,that word is much more applicable to the fruits of some fields1 which are passed by1 or to the residue left in a field1 which should be eaten up in the same year4 ,as little can we suppose1 with ,ewald1 that the plural is here used with reference to the effects produced1 by the devastation of one year1 upon the ensuing years2 for it is not a possible loss which is here spoken of1 but one which has actually taken place4 ,the prophet then passes1 here also1 from the image to the thing itself1--to the hostile invasions extending over longer periods1 which he describes under the image of a devastation by locusts which1 at one time1 took place4 ,very strong arguments in favour of the figurative explanation are furnished1 in addition1 by chap4 iv4 7iii474 ,the whole announcement of punishment and judgment upon the heathen nations has sense and meaning1 only when1 in the preceding context1 there has been mention made of the crime which they committed against the ,lord and ,his people4 ,in that case1 we have before us the three main subjects of prophecy1--,god's judgments upon ,his people by heathen enemies1 their obtaining mercy1 and the punishment of the enemies4 ,at the very beginning of chap4 iv4 7iii47 the sufferings of ,israel1 described in chap4 i4 and ii41 and the judgment upon the heathen1 are brought into the closest connection4 ,according to chap4 iv4 #a1 #b1 the gathering of the ,gentiles is to take place at a time when the ,lord will return to the captivity of ,judah and ,jerusalem1 i4e41 according to the constant usus loquendi 7compare my ,commentary on ,ps4 xiv4 #g71 when ,he will grant them1 mercy1 and deliver them from their misery4#a ,but that this misery can be none other than that described in chap4 i4 and ii4 appears simply from the fact1 that this has been declared to be the close of all the judgments of ,god4--,we must1 further1 not overlook the article ,pg #cba in in chap4 iv4 #b1 and1 accordingly1 must not translate1 ,i will gather all nations1 but all the nations4 ,and how could this be explained in any other way than--all the nations which are spoken of in the preceding chapters under the image of locusts8 ,but of special importance is the second part of the verse3 ,and ,i plead there with them concerning ,my people1 and ,my heritage ,israel1 whom they have scattered among the nations1 and distributed ,my land4#b ,it is quite impossible that there should here be the mention of anything which happened before the time of ,joel4 ,whatever period we may assign to him1 he belongs1 at all events1 to a time in which a scattering of ,israel among the ,gentiles1 and a distribution of their land1 had not as yet taken place4 ,credner1 indeed1 believes that the calamities under ,jehoram are sufficient to account for these expressions4 ,at that time1 he says1 the ,edomites revolted from ,judah2 ,libnah1 which belonged to ,judah ,in the stricter sense1 rebelled2 the ,arabs and ,philistines invaded the kingdom and plundered its capital2 those inroads did then not terminate without a diminution of the territory of ,judah4 ,but all this is irrelevant2 the discourse concerns the distribution of the land of the ,lord4 ,the rebellion of a heathen tributary people does not1 therefore1 here come under consideration4 ,just as little can we see what ,libnah has to do here4 ,it belonged1 it is true1 to the kingdom of ,judah2 but the heathen nations had nothing to do with its rebellion2--for this1 according to #b ,kings viii4 #bb1 and #b ,chron4 xxi4 #aj1 proceeded from the inhabitants1 who were dissatisfied with the bad government of the king1 and was speedily brought to a close4 ,it cannot then be proved1 that even some small portion of the territory was lost at that time2 far less1 that the whole country was apportioned anew4 ,it is quite the same as regards the dispersion among the ,gentiles4 ,the invasion of the ,philistines cannot ,pg #cbb here come into consideration1 because1 in ver4 #d1 these enemies are expressly distinguished from those who had effected the dispersion of the people1 and the distribution of the land3 ,and ye also1 what have ye to do with ,me1 ,o ,tyre and ,sidon1 and all the borders of ,palestine8 ,the prophet can thus not be speaking of something which had taken place at his time2 but as little can he speak of something still future1 which had not been touched upon by him when he threatened punishment upon the ,covenant-people2 for the devastation by the locusts appears as the highest and last calamity of the future4 ,nothing1 therefore1 remains but to suppose1 that under the image of the devastation by locusts1 the devastation of the country by heathen enemies1 and the dispersion of its inhabitants1 are described1--a supposition which is confirmed by the great resemblance of the passage under consideration to chap4 ii4 #ag-ai4 ,vatke 7,theol4 des ,a4 ,th4 i4 ,s4 #dfb7 founded upon the fact that the general exile is here predicted1 the assertion that ,joel had prophesied only after the captivity4 ,no one1 of course1 has been willing to agree with him in this2 but as long as the devastation by the locusts is understood literally1 it will not be possible to undermine the grounds upon which he supports his views4 ,it is altogether in vain that people spend their labour in disputing the fact1 so obvious and evident1 that the discourse here concerns the total occupation of the land by the heathen1 the total carrying away of its inhabitants4 ,it may be further remarked1 that this passage at the same time considerably strengthens the proof already adduced1 that ,joel foretells future things in chap4 i4 and ii4 ,a devastation by the locusts is described in these chapters2 but the substance of this figure does not refer to the time of ,joel4 ,finally--,we must still direct attention to the words in iv4 #ag3--;,and ,jerusalem shall be a sanctuary1 and there shall no strangers pass through her any more4 ,this promise stands in evident contrast to the former threatening1 and becomes intelligible only by it4 ,in it1 therefore1 the strangers must be represented under the figure of the locusts4 ,and now1 after all these single proofs have been enumerated--proofs which1 if necessary1 might easily have been strengthened and increased--let us look back to this survey of the contents of the book1 and we shall see how1 according to our view1 ,pg #cbc and according to it alone1 the prophecy of ,joel forms an harmonious1 complete1 and well finished whole1 and that the prophet adheres closely to the outlines already given by ,moses1 with the filling up and finishing of which all other prophets also are employed4 ,and let us1 finally1 add1 that exegetical tradition also bears a favourable testimony to the figurative interpretation4 ,we need not spend much time in considering the arguments advanced against the figurative interpretation by ,credner 7,s4 #bg ff471 ,hitzig1 and others4 ,they all rest upon an almost incomprehensible ignoring of the nature of poetry1 of the metaphor1 and of the allegory4 ,thus1 e4g41 ,credner says1 ,what man of sound sense will ever be able to say of horses1 horsemen and warriors1 that they resemble horses and horsemen8 ,who has ever seen horses and horsemen climbing over walls8 ,what shall we say concerning chap4 ii4 #bj8 ,do land armies ever perish in the sea1 and1 moreover1 in two different seas8 ,what is the use of foretelling1 in chap4 ii4 #bb1 #bc1 the ceasing of the drought1 if the prophet here thought of real enemies8 ,but in opposition to all these and similar objections1 let us simply keep in mind1 that the prophet does not by any means view the enemies as such1 and only incidentally compares them with locusts2 but that in his inward vision they represented themselves to him as locusts4 ,it is just the characteristic feature of the allegory1 that the image becomes in it substantial1 and has the thing represented1 not beside it1 but in1 with1 and under it4 ,but it is just for this reason that many a feature must be introduced which does not belong to the real subject1 i4e41 the figure1 but to the ideal only1 i4e41 the thing represented thereby4 ,it is for this very reason also1 that the metaphor1 raised to the ideal subject1 may again be compared with the real subject4 ,after all this we may well judge what right ,ewald has to call the figurative explanation an error1 which1 in consideration of our present knowledge1 becomes from day to day less pardonable4 ,we remark further1 that1 in chap4 i4 #d1 it is distinctly indicated that ,israel's visitation by the world's power will not be a simple one1 but will present various aspects3 ,that which the gnawer has left1 the locust devoureth2 and that which the locust hath left1 the licker devoureth2 and that which the licker hath left1 the eater devoureth4 ,the opinion has been entertained1 that the prophet does not say1 one cloud of locusts after ,pg #cbd another1 or swarms of locusts of every description have come up2 but1 on the contrary1 that they are all contemporary1 and that all of them devour the same things4 ,but a succession is quite obvious4 ,the four parties do not devour at the same time2 but the second devours what the first has left4 ,it is true that the succession appears as very rapid2 but that is a peculiarity belonging only to the vision4 ,if there be at all a succession of those extensive empires representing the world's power1 there must in reality be considerable intervals between them4 ,the question then arises1 however1 whether the number four is to be considered as a round number1 so that the thought would only be this1 that several nations are to visit the people of the ,lord1 or whether1 on the contrary1 importance is to be attached to the number four as such4 ,according to ,jerome1 the ,jews followed the latter view4 ,in accordance with their view1 the first swarm denotes the ,assyrians1 together with the ,chaldeans2 the second1 the ,medo-,persians2 the third1 the ,grecian kingdoms2 the fourth1 the ,romans4 ,the analogies of the four horns in ,zech4 ii4 #a-d 7i4 #ah-ba71 the four beasts in ,daniel1 the seven heads of the beast in ,revelation--denoting the seven phases of the world's power opposed to ,god--are decisive in favour of the latter view2 compare my ,commentary on ,rev4 xii4 #ah1 xiii4 #a4 ,now1 if we follow this view at all1 we must1 in determining the four swarms1 certainly assent to the opinion of the ,jews1 as given in ,jerome2 and this so much the more1 as the four swarms are1 in that case1 exactly parallel to the four beasts in ,daniel1 which denote the ,chaldean1 ,medo-,persian1 ,grecian1 and ,roman monarchies4 ,the fact that the ,assyrians are taken together with the ,chaldeans can be the less strange1 because1 so early as in the prophecy of ,balaam1 ,asshur and ,babylon are comprehended under the common name 1 i4e41 that which is on the other side1--the power on the other side of the ,euphrates2 and are contrasted with the new empire which pressed on from the ,west--from ,europe4 7,compare my ,dissertation on ,balaam1 p4 #eic ff47#c ,it was the less possible to ascribe to the ,assyrians an independent position here1 as ,joel has to do mainly with ,judah1 upon which no judgment of real importance was inflicted by the ,assyrians4 ,footnote #a3 ,the well ascertained usus loquendi must be here the less given up1 as1 in the preceding context1 to which this verse carries us back1 we are1 it is true1 told that the ,lord will return and bestow mercy2 but the bringing back of the people is as little spoken of as the carrying of them away1 inasmuch as the express mention of which did not suit the image of the devastation by locusts4 ,footnote #b3 means1 not to divide among themselves1 but to effect a new division1 to apportion the land anew1 as1 e4g41 ,asshur distributed the territory of the ten tribes among the ,aramean ,colonists1 is used of the distribution of the land by ,joshua1 in ,josh4 xiii4 #g1 xix4 #ea4 ,in ,mic4 ii4 #d1 when the captivity was impending1 the people1 in anticipation of it1 utter their lamentation in the words1 ,he distributes our fields2 compare ,ps4 lx4 #h4 ,footnote #c3 ,in the volume containing the ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of ,daniel1 etc41 published by ,t4 and ,t4 ,clark4 ,pg #cbe ,,on ,,chapter ,,ii4 #bc4 ,and1 ye sons of ,zion1 exult and rejoice in ,jehovah your ,god2 for ,he giveth you the ,teacher of righteousness1 and then ,he poureth down upon you rain1 the former rain and the latter rain1 for the first time4 ,the words1 ,in ,jehovah your ,god1 are an addition peculiar to the sons of ,zion4 ,in reference to the earth1 which the locusts had devastated1 it was in ver4 #ba said only1 ,fear not1 exult and rejoice4 ,in reference to the beasts1 i4e41 to the heathen world1 which was kept in subjection by the conquerors of the world1 but which is delivered by the great deeds of the ,lord1 it is in ver4 #bb said only3 ,fear not4 ,they are only the sons of ,zion who know and love the ,author of ,salvation1 and who receive from ,him special gifts1 besides the general ones4 ,there is considerable difference in the interpretations of this verse4 ,the words1 1 are1 by the greater number of interpreters1 translated1 ,the ,teacher of righteousness4 ,thus1 ,jonathan1 the ,vulgate1 ,jarchi1 ,abarbanel1 ,grotius1 and almost all the interpreters of the early ,lutheran ,church translate them4 ,others take in the signification of rain1 and as qualifying its nature more accurately4 ,even in ancient times1 this explanation was not at all uncommon4 ,among the ,rabbinical interpreters1 it was held by ,kimchi1 ,abenezra1 ,s4 ,b4 ,melech1 who explain it of a timely rain4 ,calvin1 who rendered the by justa mensura1 defends it with great decision1 and declares the other explanations to be forced1 and unsuitable to the connection4 ,it is translated by rain in the ,english#a and ,genevan versions1 and by many ,calvinistic interpreters1 who differ1 however1 in the translation of 1 and render it either3 ,in right time1 or in right measure1 or in the right place1 or for ,his righteousness1 or according to your righteousness4 ,marckius is of opinion that rain is necessarily required by the context2 but that1 on account of 1 this rain must be understood spiritually of the ,messiah with ,his saving doctrine1 and ,his ,spirit4 ,among the interpreters of the ,lutheran ,church1 ,seb4 ,schmid thinks of a rain in due season4 ,pg #cbf ,among modern interpreters1 the explanation by rain has become altogether so prevalent1 that it is considered scarcely of any importance even to mention the other4 is explained by ,eckermann3 ,in proof of ,his good pleasure2 by ,ewald1 ,meier1 and ,umbreit3 ,for justification2 by ,justi3 ,for fruitfulness2 and by the others 7,rosenmller1 ,holzhausen1 ,credner1 ,rckert1 ,maurer1 and ,hitzig7 by3 ,in right measure4 ,we consider this explanation to be decidedly erroneous1 and the other to be the sound one2 and this for the following reasons3--#a4 ,the great difference1 on the part of the defenders of the current opinion1 as regards the explanation of certainly indicates1 with sufficient clearness1 that1 by this addition1 a considerable obstruction is put in its way4 ,the most current explanation1 by justa mensura1 in right measure1 sufficiently1 is certainly quite untenable4 ,even the fact1 that it is not but which is used here1 must excite suspicion4 7,on the difference betwixt these two words1 compare ,ewald in the first edition of his ,grammar1 ,s4 #cab-ac47 ,but what is quite decisive is the fact that these two words1 which occur with such extraordinary frequency1 are never found in a physical1 but always in a moral sense only4 ,the only passage in which1 according to ,winer1 signifies rectitude in a physical sense1 is ,ps4 xxiii4 #c3 which1 according to him1 means3 ,straight1 right ways4 ,but that verse runs thus3 ,he restoreth my soul1 ,he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for ,his name's sake4 ,the path is a spiritual one2 it is righteousness itself1 which consists in the actual declaration of being just1 and in justification1 which are implied in the gift of salvation4 ,with regard to 1 ,holzhausen 7,s4 #abj7 maintains that it is used of a measure which has its due size in ,lev4 xix4 #ce1 #cf4 ,the words are these3 ,ye shall not do unrighteousness in judgment1 in measure1 in division4 ,balances of righteousness1 weights of righteousness1 ephas of righteousness1 shall ye have3 ,i am the ,lord your ,god who brought you out of the land of ,egypt4 ,even the contrast--so evident--with the unrighteousness1 shows distinctly that balances1 measures1 and weights of righteousness are here such as belong to righteousness--are in harmony with it4 ,even the root never occurs in a physical sense1 but always1 only in a moral sense4 ,to this it must be added1 that the explanation1 ,teacher of righteousness1 ,pg #cbg is recommended by the parallel passage in ,hos4 x4 #ab1 where1 also1 teaching occurs in connection with righteousness3 1 ,and the ,lord will come and teach you righteousness4 ,this parallel passage is also opposed to ,ewald's explanation1 for justification1--the only explanation among those mentioned to which1 it must be admitted1 no philological objection can be raised4 ,but the thought1 ,the early rain an actual justification of ,israel1 would be rather strange1 and so much the more so1 because the wrath of ,god had not manifested itself in a drought and want of water1 but rather in the sending of the army of locusts4 #b4 ,that the giving of the 1 in the first hemistich of the verse1 must denote a divine blessing different from the giving of the in the second1 is evident for this reason3--that1 otherwise1 there would arise a somewhat meaningless tautology4 ,they who assigned to in the first hemistich1 the signification of rain in general1 have felt how very unsuitable is the twofold mention of the early rain4 ,to this must be added the use of the ,fut4 with ,vav convers41 4 ,by this form1 an action is denoted which follows from the preceding one2 but according to the current explanation1 one and the same action would here be expressed1 only in different words4 ,it cannot be denied1 indeed1 that the form occurs by no means rarely in a weakened sense1 and is used only to express a connection2 and that for this reason1 this argument is not1 per se1 conclusive4 ,yet the original signification so generally holds1 that we can abandon it only for distinct and forcible reasons4 ,in addition to this1 it must be considered that the addition of to the second distinctly marks out the latter as being different in its meaning from the former4 ,it must also be kept in mind that it is one of the peculiarities of ,joel to use the same words and phrases1 after brief intervals1 in a different sense2 compare ,credner's remarks on ii4 #bj1 iii4 #e4 #c4 ,the explanation by ,teacher is far more obvious for the reason that always occurs with the signification of teacher 7even in ,ps4 lxxxiv4 #g1 where the right translation is3 ,with blessing also the teacher covereth himself71 and never with that of rain1 or early rain4 ,this is rather the meaning of 2 and the verb also never occurs in ,hiphil1 as it does in ,kal1 with the signification to sprinkle1 to water4 ,pg #cbh ,by this we are led to the supposition that ,joel1 in the second hemistich1 made use of the uncommon form with the meaning of early rain1 solely on account of the resemblance of the sound to the occurring immediately before1 with its usual signification2 and that1 at the same time1 he added for the purpose of avoiding ambiguity4 ,what serves to confirm this supposition1 is the circumstance that ,jeremiah1 alluding to the passage under consideration1 has1 in chap4 v4 #bd1 put in the place of 2 which proves that the second in ,joel ii4 #bc has originated only from its connection with the first1 which is altogether wanting in ,jeremiah4 #d4 ,a causal connection1 similar to that which exists here betwixt the sending of the ,teacher of righteousness and the pouring out of the rain1 occurs also in that passage of the ,pentateuch which the prophet seems to have had in view1 viz41 ,deut4 xi4 #ac1 #ad3 ,and it shall come to pass1 if ye shall hearken unto my commandments which ,i command you this day1 that ye love the ,lord your ,god1 and serve ,him with all your heart and with all your soul1 that ,i will give you the rain of your land in due season1 the first rain and the latter rain 7 71 and thou shalt gather in thy corn1 and thy must1 and thine oil4 ,here1 as well as there1 the righteousness of the people is the antecedens2 the divine mercies and blessings are the consequens4 ,since the former does not exist1 ,god begins the course of ,his mercies by sending ,him who calls it forth4 ,this remark removes1 at the same time1 the objection1 that the mention of the ,teacher of righteousness is unsuitable in a connection where the prophet speaks of temporal blessings only1 and rises to spiritual blessings only afterwards1 in chap4 iii4 ,there existed for the ,covenant-people no benefits which were purely temporal2 these were always1 at the same time1 signs and pledges of the divine favour1 which depended upon the righteousness of the people1 and this1 in turn1 upon the divine mission of a ,teacher of righteousness4 #e4 ,the is also in favour of our explanation4 ,it stands in close relation to in chap4 iii4 #a1 ii4 #bh4 ,the sending of the ,teacher of righteousness has two consequences2--first1 the pouring out of the temporal rain--an individualizing designation of every kind of outward blessings1 and chosen with a reference to the passage of the ,pentateuch which we have just ,pg #cbi cited1 but with special reference to the description of the calamity1 under the figure of a devastation by locusts2--and1 secondly1 the outpouring of the spiritual rain--the sending of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,it needs only the pointing out of this reference1 which has been overlooked by interpreters1#b to set aside the manifold and different explanations of which are1 all of them1 unphilological1 or give an unsuitable sense4#c ,but if any doubt should still remain1 it would be removed by a parallel passage in ,isaiah1 which depends upon the text under review1 in a manner not to be mistaken1 and which1 therefore1 must be regarded as the oldest commentary upon it4 ,isaiah is describing the condition of the people subsequent to their having obtained mercy1 after a long time of deep misery1 in chap4 xxx #bj3 ,and the ,lord gives you the bread of adversity1 and the water of affliction2 and then thy teacher 7 is singular7 shall no longer hide himself1 and thine eyes shall see thy teacher2 ,ver4 #ba3 ,and thine ears hear a word behind thee1 ,this is the way1 walk ye in it2 do not turn to the right hand1 nor to the left4 ,accordingly1 after they have put away what was evil1 ver4 #bb3 ,the ,lord giveth the rain of thy seed1 with which thou sowest thy land1 etc41 ver4 #bc4 ,the teacher is not a human teacher1 but ,god4 ,human teachers had not concealed themselves2 but that the ,lord had concealed ,himself1 is affirmed in the preceding verses4 ,the words1 ,behind thee 7ver4 #ba71 suggest the idea of a teacher of such a glory that they could not look in his face 7compare ,rev4 i4 #aj72 and the words1 ,thine eyes see thy teacher1 ver4 #bj1 imply the idea of the high majesty of the teacher1 and suggest the idea of a revelation of the glory of the ,lord2 compare ,is4 xl4 #e1 lii4 #h4 ,the ,lord must first manifest ,himself as a ,teacher1 before ,he appears as a ,saviour4 ,in ,isaiah1 the ,lord ,himself appears as the ,teacher2 as also in ,hos4 x4 #ab3 ,it is time to seek the ,lord1 till ,he ,pg #ccj come and teach you righteousness2 while in ,joel1 on the contrary1 it is the ,lord who giveth the ,teacher4 ,both may be reconciled by the consideration1 that in the ,teacher whom the ,lord gives1 the glory of the ,lord becomes manifest4 ,it now only remains to inquire who is to be understood by the ,teacher of righteousness4 7,teacher of righteousness is equivalent to3 ,teaching them how they should fear the ,lord1 #b ,kings xvii4 #bh47 ,it is referred to the ,messiah1 not only by almost all those ,christian interpreters who follow this explanation1 with the exception of ,grotius1 who conjectures that ,isaiah or some other prophet is to be thereby understood2 but also1 after the example of ,jonathan1 by several ,jewish commentators2 e4g41 ,abarbanel1 who says3 ,this teacher of righteousness1 however1 is the ,king ,messiah1 who will show the way in which we must walk1 and the works which we must do4 ,even on account of the article1 it is not possible to refer it to a single human teacher2 and this argument may1 at the same time1 be added to those which oppose the explanation of by an early rain4 ,there can be only the choice betwixt the ,messiah as the long promised ,teacher 1 and the ideal teacher1--the collective body of all divine teachers4 ,but the latter view requires to be somewhat raised1 before it can be allowed to enter into the competition4 ,that we have not here before us an ordinary collective body1 is shown by the parallel passage in ,isaiah1 according to which the glory of the ,lord is to be manifested in the ,teacher4 ,and this is as little applicable to a plurality of human teachers1 as to a single individual4 ,it is further proved by the fundamental passage in ,deut4 xviii4 #ah1 #ai1 where1 indeed1 the prophetic order is comprehended in an ideal person4 ,this1 however1 has its reason only in the circumstance1 that the idea of prophetism was1 at some future time1 to find its realization in a real person4 ,it is further seen from the state of the ,messianic hopes at the time of ,joel1 and from the exceeding greatness of what is here connected with the appearance of the ,teacher of righteousness4 ,in addition to the allusion in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj and ,deut4 xviii41 the ,messiah appears as a ,teacher in the ,song of ,solomon also1 chap4 viii4 #b2 and in ,is4 lv4 #d3 ,behold1 ,i give ,him for a witness to the people1 for a prince and a lawgiver to the people2 as also in those passages of the second part of ,isaiah1 in which ,he is declared to be the ,prophet 4 ,pg #cca ,when thus understood1 the explanation of the ideal teacher may be preferable to the reference to ,christ exclusively4 ,in favour of such a reference1 there is the comprehensive character and the ideal import which are1 in general1 peculiar to the prophecies of ,joel4 ,such a reference is1 moreover1 favoured by the expression itself1 which points out only that which ,christ has in common with the former servants of ,god1 viz41 the teaching of righteousness1 and especially by a comparison with the fundamental passages1 ,deut4 xviii4 ,footnote #a3 ,the ,english version has a teacher of righteousness1 as a marginal reading4--,tr4 ,footnote #b3 ,since the appearance of the first edition of this work1 it has been acknowledged also by ,ewald1 ,meier1 and ,umbreit4 ,footnote #c3 ,hitzig explains it3 ,in the first month4 ,but altogether apart from the consideration that it is only in a chronological connection that in the first can stand for in the first month1 this explanation is objectionable on the ground that the early rain and the latter rain cannot1 by any means1 belong to the same month4 ,there is the less difficulty in explaining it by first1 as undeniably occurs1 several times1 in this signification2 compare1 e4g41 ,zech4 xii4 #g4 ,,exposition ,,of ,,chap4 ,,iii4 7,,ii4 #bh-cb47 ,ver4 #a4 ,and it shall come to pass1 afterwards1 ,i will pour out ,my ,spirit upon all flesh2 and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy2 your old men shall dream dreams1 and your young men shall see visions4 ,the communication of the ,spirit of ,god was the constant prerogative of the ,covenant-people4 ,indeed1 the very idea of such a people necessarily requires it4 ,for the ,spirit of ,god is the only inward bond betwixt ,him and that which is created2 a ,covenant-people1 therefore1 without such an inward connection1 is an impossibility4 ,as a constant possession of the ,covenant-people1 the ,spirit of ,god appears in ,isaiah lxiii4 #aa1 where the people1 in the condition of the deepest abandonment1 say1 in the remembrance of the divine mercies1 ,where is ,he that put ,his ,holy ,spirit within him8 ,but it was peculiar to the nature of the ,old ,testament dispensation1 that the effusion of the ,spirit of ,god was less rich4 ,his effects less powerful1 and a participation in them less general4 ,it was only after ,god's relation to the world had been changed by the death of ,christ that the ,spirit of ,christ could be bestowed1--a higher power of the ,spirit of ,god1 standing to ,him in the same relation as the ,angel of the ,lord to the incarnate ,word4 ,the conditions of the bestowal of the ,holy ,spirit were1 under the ,old ,testament1 far more difficult to obtain4 ,the view of ,christ in ,his historical personality1 in ,his life1 suffering1 and death1 was wanting4 ,god1 although infinitely nearer to the ,jews than to the ,gentiles1 yet ever remained a ,god relatively ,pg #ccb distant4 ,since the procuring cause of the mercy of ,god--the merit of ,christ--was not yet so clearly seen1 it was far more difficult to lay hold of it1 and the by-path of legalism was far nearer4 ,it was thus only upon a few--especially upon the prophets--that the direct possession of the ,spirit of ,god was concentrated2 while the greater number1 even among those of a better disposition1 enjoyed a spiritual life derived only from a union with them1 and hence it was less strong4 ,it arose from the nature of the case that1 at some future time1 there must take place a richer and more powerful effusion of the ,spirit of ,god2 and it was just for this reason that it was the desire of ,moses1 that such might take place1 and that the whole people might prophesy4 ,num4 xi4 #bi1 besides expressing such a desire1 is1 at the same time1 a prophecy4 ,he wished nothing else than that the people of ,god might attain to such a degree as to realize the idea of a people of ,god2 and this must come to pass at some future time1 because the omnipotent and faithful ,god could not leave ,his work unfinished4 ,but ,moses himself immediately subjoins the prophecy to the wish1 as a clear proof1 that behind the wish the prophecy is concealed3 ,would ,god that all the ,lord's people were prophets6 for the ,lord will give ,his ,spirit upon them1 etc42 which is equivalent to3 ,at some future time1 the whole people of the ,lord shall be prophets1 not against1 but agreeably to1 my wish2 for1 etc4 ,it is this promise of ,moses which is here resumed by ,joel1 with whom1 subsequently4 ,is4 in chap4 xxxii4 #ae1 ,until the ,spirit be poured upon us from on high2 chap4 xi4 #i1 liv4 #ac2 ,jer4 xxxi4 #cc1 #cd2 ,ezek4 xxxvi4 #bf ff41 and ,zech4 xii4 #aj1 connect themselves4 ,the ultimate reference of the promise is to the ,messianic time2 but the reference to the preparatory steps must not1 for this reason1 be by any means excluded4 ,the announcement of the pouring out of the ,spirit rests upon the insight into the nature of ,god's relation to ,his kingdom4 ,god's judgments1 in which ,he draws near to ,his people1 in which the abstract ,god becomes a concrete ,god1 excite in the people a longing for a union with ,him4 ,teachers sent by ,god give a right direction to this longing1 and then an outpouring of the ,spirit takes place4 ,this proceeding does1 and must continually1 repeat itself in the history of the ,covenant-people4 ,the perfect fulfilment at the time of ,christ could ,pg #ccc not at all have taken place1 unless the imperfect fulfilment had already pervaded their whole earlier history2 and that there is1 in the prophecy under consideration1 no reference at all to such imperfect fulfilments1 could be maintained only1 if there existed in the text any hint that the prophet intended to speak of only the last realization of the idea4 ,but as the exclusion of all the preliminary stages is entirely arbitrary1 it is just as arbitrary to separate1 from the events which make up the main fulfilment in the ,messianic time1 one particular event1 viz41 that which took place on the first day of ,pentecost4 ,it is only to a certain extent that we can affirm that the prophecy found its final fulfilment in this event1 viz41 in as far as it formed the pledge of it1--in as far as the whole succeeding development and progress were already contained in it1--in as far as ,joel's prophecy in words was then changed into an infinitely more powerful prophecy in deeds4 ,it is from overlooking the relation of the prophecy to the thought which animates it1 and from the error arising from this1 viz41 that the fulfilment must necessarily fall within a particular1 limited period1 that the various opposite interpretations had their rise 7compare the copious enumeration and representation of these in ,dresde1 ,comparatio ,joelis de ,effusione ,spir4 ,s4 vatic4 c4 ,petrina interpret4 ,wittemb4 #aghb1 ,spec4 #b71 all of which are partially true1 and are false only by their one-sidedness and exclusiveness4 #a4 ,several interpreters think of an event at the time of ,joel4 ,thus ,rabbi ,moses ,hakkohen1 according to ,abenezra1 ,teller on ,turrettine de interpret4 p4 #ei1 ,cramer on the ,scythische ,denkmler1 p4 #bba4--b4 ,others insist on an exclusive reference to the first ,pentecost4 ,thus do almost all the ,fathers of the ,church--among whom1 however1 ,jerome 7on ,joel iii4 #a7 felt the great difficulties in the way of this view1 arising from the context--and most of the later ,christian interpreters4--#c4 ,others would refer it at the same time to the events in ,joel's time1 and to those at the first ,pentecost4 ,of this opinion are ,ephraem ,syr41 ,grotius1 and ,turrettine4--#d4 ,others place the fulfilment altogether in the future4 ,thus did the ,jews as early as in the time of ,jerome1 and afterwards ,jarchi1 ,kimchi1 and ,abarbanel4--#e4 ,others1 finally1 find in the first ,pentecost the beginning only of the fulfilment1 and regard it as pervading the whole ,christian time4 ,thus1 e4g41 ,calovius 7,bibl4 illustr4 ad4 h4 l47 says3 ,although ,pg #ccd that prophecy began to be fulfilled in a remarkable manner on that feast of the ,pentecost1 yet its reference is not to that solemn event only1 but to the whole state of these last1 or ,new ,testament times1 just after the manner of other general promises4 ,these last words show that ,calovius was very near the truth4 ,but if the promise be a general one1 by what are we entitled to place the beginning of its fulfilment only at the times of the ,new ,testament1 and to exclude all of that same gift which ,god bestowed in ,old ,testament times8 ,the insufficiency of the foundation for such a limitation in the text itself is proved by the following confession of ,dresde 7l4 c4 p4 #h71 who even believes himself obliged to defend such a limitation from the authority of the ,apostle ,peter1 and to whom it did not at all occur1 that any other reference than to some particular event was even possible3 ,it appears1 therefore1 he says1 that the prophecy1 considered in itself1 is so expressed1 that no one1 except the first author of the prophecy1 will be able convincingly to define the exact event to which it really refers4 ,we shall afterwards see that the testimony of the ,new ,testament to which ,dresde here alludes1 does not by any means demand such a limitation4 ,we have seen that ,joel points to a fourfold oppression of ,israel by the world's power4 ,the main fulfilment we must then expect at the time of the fourth2 but this can scarcely be the first fulfilment2 for we cannot imagine that the former calamities should have passed over the people altogether without effect2 and the divine gift of the ,spirit goes always hand in hand with the susceptibility of the people4 ,by proving that fourfold oppression1 we have also furnished the proof that the prophecy of the outpouring of the ,spirit has a comprehensive character4--,from the already established reference of the to the in chap4 ii4 #bc1 it is obvious that it is not so much a determination of the succession of time1 as of a succession in point of importance1 which is thereby given4 ,among the two effects of the mission of the ,teacher of righteousness1 first1 the lower1 and then1 the higher1 presents itself to the view of the prophet4 ,the determination of time is not the essential point2 that serves only to illustrate the internal relation of these two events1 the gradation of these divine blessings2 although we are able to demonstrate that1 even as regards time1 the prophecy was fulfilled in this order4 ,for after the destruction by the ,pg #cce ,chaldeans1 the temporal blessings were restored to the people1 before the main fulfilment of the promise of the outpouring of the ,holy ,spirit took place2 compare ,ps4 cvii4 #cc-db with ,joel ii4 #be-bg4--,the words1 ,i shall pour out1 refer to the rain in ver4 #bc4 ,the idea of copiousness1 opposed to the former scantiness1 is indeed implied in it4 ,yet it must not be exclusively considered2 the qualities of the rain alluded to in ver4 #bd ff4--viz41 the quickening of what was previously dead1 the fructifying power--must not be overlooked4--,the words1 ,upon all flesh1 are1 by most of the ,jewish interpreters 7e4g41 ,kimchi1 ,abenezra2 compare ,lightfoot and ,schttgen on ,acts ii4 #af1 #ag71 referred to the members of the ,covenant-people only2 but by the ,christian interpreters1 whom even ,abarbanel joins1 to all men4 ,so1 still1 does ,steudel in the ,tbinger ,pfingst-,programm1 #ahbj1 p4 #aa4 ,but in this latter explanation1 one thing has been overlooked--as1 among the older interpreters1 has been well shown by ,calvin1#a and among the more recent1 by ,tychsen 7progr4 ad h4 l4 p4 #e7--viz41 that the subsequent words1 ,your sons1 your daughters1 your old men1 your young men1 the servants1 the handmaids1 contain a specification of the 2 so that the all1 by which it is qualified1 does not do away with the limitation to a particular people1 but only with the limits of sex1 age1 and rank1 among the people themselves4 ,the participation of the ,gentiles in the outpouring of the ,holy ,ghost did not1 in the first instance1 come into consideration in this place1 inasmuch as the threatening of punishment1 with which the proclamation of salvation is connected1 had respect to the ,covenant-people only4 ,credner has been led into a strange error1 by pressing the words without any regard to the connection4 ,he imputes to the prophet the monstrous idea1 that the ,spirit of ,god1 the fountain of all which is good and great1 well pleasing to ,god1 and divine1 is to be poured out upon all animals also1 even upon the locusts4--,the foundation for the promise of the ,holy ,spirit is formed by ,gen4 ii4 #g1 compared with i4 #bf4 ,it supposes that the spirit of man1 as distinguished from all other living things ,pg #ccf on earth1 is a breath from ,god4--,there is here1 moreover1 the same contrast betwixt and as in ,gen4 vi4 #c and ,is4 xxxi4 #c3 ,the ,egyptians are men1 and not ,god2 their horses are flesh1 and not spirit4 7,compare other passages in ,gesenius' ,thesaurus1 s4 v4 p4 #bdi47 ,flesh1 in this contrast1 signifies human nature with respect to its weakness and helplessness2 the spirit is the principle of life and strength4 ,as your sons1 etc41 is a specification of all flesh1 so1 the words1 ,they prophesy1 they dream dreams1 they see visions1 are a specification of3 ,i pour out ,my ,spirit4 ,from this1 it is evident that the particular gifts do not here come into consideration according to their individual nature1 but according to that essential character which is common to them as effects of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,hence it is obvious also1 that we are not at liberty to ask why it is just to the sons and daughters that the prophesying is ascribed1 etc4 ,the prophet1 whose object it is only to individualize and expand the fundamental thought1 i4e41 the universality of the effects of the ,spirit1 chooses for this purpose the extraordinary gifts of the ,spirit1#b because these are more obvious than the ordinary ones2 and from among the extraordinary ones1 again1 those which were common under the ,old ,testament2 without thereby excluding the others1 or1 as regards the real import1 adding anything to the declaration1 ,i will pour out ,my ,spirit4 ,this appears also from ver4 #b1 where1 in reference to the servants and handmaids1 the expression returns to the former generality4 ,in distributing the gifts of the ,spirit among the particular classes1 the prophet has been as little guided by any internal considerations1 as1 e4g41 ,zechariah1 when in chap4 ix4 #ag he uses the words1 ,corn maketh the young men grow up1 and must1 the maids4 ,the remark made by ,credner and ,hitzig1 after the example of ,tychsen1 that visions are ascribed to vigorous youth1 but dreams to feebler age1 appears at once1 from an examination of the historical ,pg #ccg instances1 and from the comparison of ,num4 xii4 #f1 to be unfounded4 ,your sons and your daughters prophesy1 etc41 is equivalent to3 ,your sons and your daughters1 your old men and your young men1 prophesy1 have divine dreams 7a limitation to such is implied in their being the effects of the outpouring of the ,spirit71 and see visions2 and this again is equivalent to3 ,they will enjoy the ,spirit of ,god1 with all ,his gifts and blessings4 ,in this1 and in no other way1 has the passage been constantly understood among the ,jews4 ,if it had been otherwise1 how could ,peter have so confidently declared the events on the feast of ,pentecost1 where there occurred neither dreams nor visions1 to be a fulfilment of the prophecy of ,joel8 ,it is implied1 however1 in the nature of the case1 that1 in the principal fulfilments of the prophecy of ,joel1 the extraordinary gifts of the ,spirit should be accompanied by the ordinary ones2 for the former are the witnesses and means of the latter1 although1 at the same time1 the basis also on which they rest2 so that times like those which are described in #a ,sam4 iii4 #a1 where the ,word of ,god is precious in the country1 and there is no prophecy spread abroad1 must necessarily be poor in the ordinary gifts of grace also4 ,it is not in the essence1 but only in the form of manifestation1 that the extraordinary gifts differ from the ordinary ones1--just as ,christ's outward miracles differ from ,his inward ones4 ,ver4 #b4 ,and upon the servants also1 and upon the handmaids1 ,i will pour out ,my ,spirit in those days4 ,credner refers this to the ,hebrew prisoners of war1 living as servants and handmaids among heathen nations1 far away from the ,holy ,land4 ,but if the prophet had this in view1 he must necessarily have expressed himself with greater distinctness4 ,moreover1 the relation to the preceding verse requires that1 as the difference of sex and age was there done away with1 so no allowance should here be made for the difference of rank4 ,the shows that the extension of the gifts of the ,spirit even to servants and handmaids1 who1 to the carnal eye1 appeared to be unworthy of such distinction1 is to be considered as something unexpected and extraordinary4 ,that there is very little correctness in the assertion of ,credner1 that there could have been scarcely any doubt as regards the participation of the ,hebrew ,pg #cch slaves1 is sufficiently shown by the fact1 that ,jewish interpreters have attempted1 in various ways1 to lessen the blessing here promised to the servants and handmaids4 ,even the translation of the ,,lxx4 by1 1 may be considered as such an attempt4 ,in the place of the servants of men1 who appeared to them unworthy of such honour1 they put the servants of ,god4 ,abarbanel asserts that the ,spirit of ,god here means something inferior to the gift of prophecy1 which is bestowed only upon the free people4 ,instead of regarding the ,spirit of ,god as the root and fountain of the particular gifts mentioned in the preceding verse1 he sees in ,him only an isolated gift1--that of an indefinite knowledge of ,god4 ,but such a view is opposed even by the relation of the words1 ,i will pour out ,my ,spirit1 in ver4 #b1 to the same words in ver4 #a2 and also by ,is4 xi4 #b1 where ,spirit of ,god is likewise used in a general sense1 and comprehends within itself all that follows4 ,it is not without design that the fact is so prominently brought out in the ,new ,testament1 that the ,gospel is preached to the poor1 and that ,god chooses that which is mean and despised in the eye of the world4 ,the natural man is always inclined to suppose that that which is esteemed by the world must be so by ,god also4 ,this is sufficiently evident from the deep contempt of the ,pharisees for the 2 compare1 e4g41 ,john vii4 #di4 ,ver4 #c4 ,and ,i give wonders in the heavens1 and on earth2 blood1 and fire1 and vapour of smoke4 ,the mercy bestowed upon the ,congregation of ,god is accompanied by the judgment upon her enemies4 ,since the ,congregation has again become the object of ,his favour1 especially in consequence of the ,holy ,spirit being poured out upon her1 it cannot be but that ,he will protect her against the persecution of the world1 and avenge her upon it4 ,in vers4 #c and #d1 the precursors of the judgment 7before cometh1 ver4 #d7 are described1 and in chap4 iv4 throughout1 the judgment itself4 ,there is here an allusion to an event of former times1 and which is now to be repeated on a larger scale1 viz41 the plagues inflicted upon ,egypt in consequence of the same law4 ,the prophet had specially in view the passage1 ,deut4 vi4 #bb3 ,and the ,lord gave signs and wonders1 great and sore1 upon ,egypt1 upon ,pharaoh1 and upon all his household before our eyes4--,the wonders are divided ,pg #cci into those which are in heaven1 and those which are on earth2 then those which are on earth are in this verse designated individually2 and afterwards1 in ver4 #d1 those which are in heaven4 ,with regard to the former1 many interpreters 7the last of whom is ,credner7 understand by the blood1 bloody defeats of the enemies of ,israel2 by fire and smoke1 their towns and habitations consumed by fire4 ,but this interpretation cannot be entertained4 ,the very designation by indicates that we have here to think of extraordinary phenomena of nature1 the symbolical language of which is interpreted by the evil conscience1 which recognises in them the precursors of coming judgment4 ,this is confirmed also by the more particular statement of the signs in heaven1 in ver4 #d2 for the signs on earth must certainly be of the same class as these4 ,it is confirmed likewise by a comparison with the type of former times1 which we have pointed out2 for it is from this1 that the blood is directly taken4 ,the first plague is thus announced in ,exod4 vii4 #ag3 ,behold1 ,i smite with the rod in mine hand upon the waters in the river1 and they are turned into blood4 ,jalkut ,simeoni 7in ,schttgen1 p4 #baj7 remarks3 ,the ,lord brought blood upon the enemies in ,egypt3 thus also shall it be in future times2 for it is written1 ,i will give wonders1 blood and fire4 ,the same is the case as respects the fire4 ,exod4 ix4 #bd3 ,and there came hail1 and fire mingled with the hail4 ,it is more natural to suppose that the prophet borrowed these features1 as1 in the former description of the judgment upon ,israel1 the plague of the locusts lies at the foundation1 and as the contents of the following verse have likewise their prototype in those events4 ,compare ,exod4 x4 #ba3 ,and the ,lord said unto ,moses1 ,stretch out thine hand toward the heaven1 and let there be darkness over the land of ,egypt4 ,that it is not real blood which is here meant1 but that only which1 by its blood-red colour1 reminds of blood 7comp4 e4g41 ,waters red as blood1 #b ,kings iii4 #bb71 is shown by the fundamental passage1 ,exod4 vii4 #ag1 where the water which had become red is called simply blood2 compare my work on ,egypt and the ,books of ,moses1 p4 #ajf4 ,blood brings into view the shedding of blood2 the fiery phenomena announce that the fire of the anger of ,god1 and the fire of war1 will be enkindled2 compare remarks on i4 #ai1 #bj4--,the word requires a renewed investigation4 ,interpreters ,pg #cdj uniformly explain it by pillars1--a signification which is altogether destitute of any foundation2 for the ,chaldee 1 to which they refer1 is not found with the signification pillar4 ,such a meaning is quite inappropriate in the single passage quoted by ,buxtorf2 the signification smoke1 or cloud of smoke1 is necessarily required in that place4 ,as little are we at liberty to appeal to 1 palm1 with which has nothing at all to do4 ,the 1 which would be without any analogy if derived from 7compare ,ewald on ,song of ,sol4 iii4 #f71 requires the derivation from 4 ,the word is a noun formed from the #c;d pers4 fem4 ,fut4 of this verb with affixed 7compare1 on these nouns1 the remarks on ,hos4 ii4 #ad1 and my work on ,balaam1 p4 #dcd71 and1 as to its form1 it corresponds exactly with 1 derived from the #c;d fem4 ,fut4 of the verb 4 ,there cannot now be any doubt regarding the signification of 4 ,is4 lxi4 #f1 and ,jer4 ii4 #aa1 where and occur in the same verse1 show that it corresponds entirely with 4 ,hence ,ewald 7l4 c47 is wrong in identifying it with 1 the alleged meaning of which is to be high4 ,now in ,hebrew1 and occur only in the derived signification of to transform1 to change1 to exchange2 but the primary signification is furnished by the ,arabic1 where it means3 huc illuc latus1 agitatus fuit1--fluctuavit4 7,compare the thorough demonstration by ,scheid1 ad cant4 ,hisk4 p4 #aei sqq47 can accordingly signify only clouds or vortices4 7,in ,arabic1 means dust agitated by the wind47 ,the connection of this signification with that of palpehrae1 eye-lids1 in which it occurs in the ,talmudic and ,rabbinical languages1 is very obvious4 ,they were so called from their continual motion hither and thither4 ,such a connection1 however1 we must the more easily be able to prove1 because that ,talmudic and ,rabbinical use of the word cannot be derived from any other root than an ancient ,hebrew one4 ,the of the ,,lxx4 likewise leads to our interpretation1 rather than to the prevailing one4 ,the former is1 in the only passage in which occurs1 besides the one under consideration1 and where it likewise occurs in the connection with 1 viz41 in ,song of ,sol4 iii4 #f1 at least as suitable as the latter4 ,we have to think here of such phenomena as those which are described in ,exod4 xix4 #ah3 ,and ,mount ,sinai was altogether on a smoke1 because the ,lord had descended upon ,pg #cda it in fire1 and the smoke thereof ascended as the smoke of a furnace4 ,here1 as well as there1 the fire1 and the accompanying smoke1 represent1 in a visible manner1 the truth that ,god is 1 ,heb4 xii4 #bi4 ,the clouds of smoke are the sad forerunners of the clouds of smoke of the divine judgments upon the enemies1 and of the fire of war1 in the form of which the former commonly appear4 ,compare ,is4 ix4 #ah1 #ai3 ,and they mount up like the lifting up of smoke4444 ,and the people became as the fuel of fire2 no man spareth his brother4 ,the belief--which pervades all antiquity--that the angry ,deity announced the breaking in of judgments through the symbolical language of nature1 is very remarkable4 ,this belief cannot be a mere delusion1 but must have a deep root in the heart4 ,nature is the echo and the reflection of the disposition of man4 ,if there prevail within him a fearful expectation of things to come1 because he feels his own sin1 and that of his people1 all things external harmonize with that expectation2 and1 most of all1 that which is the natural image and symbol of divine punitive justice1 which would not1 however1 be acknowledged as such1 were it not for the interpreting voice within4 ,having regard to this relation of the mind to nature1 ,god1 previous to great catastrophes1 often causes those precursors of them to appear more frequently and vividly1 than in the ordinary course of nature4 ,in a manner especially remarkable1 this took place previous to the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,compare ,josephus1 d4 ,bell4 ,jud4 iv4 #d1 #e4 ,for during the night1 a fearful storm arose1--there arose boisterous winds with the most violent showers1 continual lightnings and awful thunders1 and tremendous noises1 while the earth was shaken4 ,it was1 however1 quite evident that the condition of the universe was put into such disorder for the destruction of men1 and almost every one conjectured that these were the signs of impending calamity4 ,a great number of other signs and precursors are mentioned by him in ,b4 ,j4 vi4 #e1 #c4 ,these will never be altogether absent1 as certainly as punishment never comes without sin1 and sin never exists without the consciousness1 without the expectation1 of deserved judgment4 ,but the chief point in this mode of viewing things1 is not the sign itself1 but the disposition of mind which interprets it1--the consciousness of guilt1 which fills the soul with the thought of an avenging ,god1--the ,pg #cdb condition of filings which brings into view the infliction of the judgment4 ,it is by this that we can account for the circumstance that2 in the ,old ,testament1 the darkening of the sun and moon1 and other things1 frequently appear as direct images of sad and heavy times4 ,ver4 #d4 ,the sun is turned into darkness1 and the moon into blood1 before there cometh the great and terrible day of the ,lord4 ,among all interpreters1 ,calvin has given the most admirable interpretation of this verse3 ,when the prophet says that the sun shall be turned into darkness1 and the moon into blood1 these are metaphorical expressions1 by which he indicates that the ,lord will show signs of ,his wrath to all the ends of the earth1 as if a whole revolution of nature were to take place1 in order that men may be stirred up by terror4 ,for1 as sun and moon are witnesses of ,god's fatherly kindness towards us1 as long as1 in their changes1 they provide the earth with light1 so will they1 on the other hand1 says the prophet1 be the messengers of the angry and offended ,god4--,by the darkness of the sun1 by the bloody appearance of the moon1 by the black cloud of smoke1 the prophet intended to express the idea1 that wheresoever men should turn their eyes1 upwards or downwards1 many things would appear to fill them with terror4 ,hence the language of the prophet amounts to this3--that never had the state of things in the world been so miserable1--that never had there appeared so many and so terrible signs of the anger of ,god4--,we have already seen that the prophet has before his eye the ,egyptian type4 ,the darkness upon the whole land of ,egypt1 while there was light in the dwellings of the ,israelites1 represented1 in a deeply impressive manner1 the anger of ,god in contrast with ,his grace1 of which the symbol is the shining of ,his heavenly lights4 ,the extinction of these is1 in ,scripture1 frequently the forerunner of coming divine judgments1 or an image of those which have been already inflicted2 compare the remarks on ,zech4 xiv4 #f4 ,thus it has already occurred in the ,book of ,joel itself1 in the description of the former judgment2 compare ii4 #b3 ,day of darkness and gloominess1 day of clouds and mist2 ii4 #aj3 ,before ,him quaketh the earth1 and trembleth the heaven2 the sun and the moon mourn1 and the stars withdraw their shining4 ,thus it returns in iv4 ,pg #cdc #ad1 #ae3 ,the day of the ,lord is near in the valley of judgment4 ,the sun and the moon mourn1 and the stars withdraw their shining4 ,the passages in which1 as in the one before us1 the extinction has not a figurative1 but a typical character1 must not be limited to a single phenomenon4 ,everything by which the brightness of the heavenly luminaries is clouded or darkened1 eclipses of the sun or moon1 earthquakes1 thunderstorms1 etc41 fill with fear those in whose hearts the sun of grace has set4 ,ver4 #e4 ,and it comes to pass1 every one who calls on the name of the ,lord is saved2 for in ,mount ,zion and in ,jerusalem shall be such as have escaped1 as the ,lord hath said1 and amongst those who are spared is whomsoever the ,lord calleth4 ,we must first determine the signification of 4 ,the greater number of interpreters explain it by deliverance2 but it means rather that which has escaped4 ,this appears1 #a4 from the form4 ,it is the fem4 of the ,adj4 1 the of which has arisen from by means of lengthening2 hence it is that is thrice formed without 4 ,it is1 then1 an adjective of intransitive signification4 ,now it is true that1 by means of the feminine termination1 adjectives are changed into abstract nouns1 but never into such as indicate an action2 but always into such only for which1 in ,latin and ,greek1 the neuter of the adjective might be used4 ,this1 however1 is here inadmissible4 #b4 ,to this must be added the constant use2 as in ,is4 xxxvii4 #ca1 #cb3 ,and that which has escaped 77 of the house of ,judah1 the remnant1 taketh root downward1 and beareth fruit upward4 ,for out of ,jerusalem shall go forth a remnant 771 and that which has escaped out of ,mount ,zion1--a passage exactly parallel to the one under consideration 7compare also the following words in ,is4 xxxvii4 #cb3 ,for the zeal of the ,lord will do this1 with ,as the ,lord hath said1 here74 ,is4 iv4 #b3 ,to that which has escaped1 with which1 ,that which is left in ,zion1 and that which remaineth in ,jerusalem1 in the following verse1 is identical2 ,is4 x4 #bj3 ,the remnant 77 of ,israel1 and that which has escaped of the house of ,jacob2 ,obad4 ver4 #ag3 ,and upon ,mount ,zion shall be that which has escaped1--which forms an antithesis to ver4 #i3 ,and man shall be cut off from the ,mount of ,esau2 and finally--,gen4 xxxii4 #i 7#h73 ,and the camp which has been left is for ,pg #cdd the escaped4 ,there does not thus remain a single passage in which the signification deliverance is even the probable one4 ,the passages in ,jeremiah1 where occur together 7xlii4 #ag1 xliv4 #ad2 ,lam4 ii4 #b71 show that here is not different from in the subsequent clause of the verse4--,the expression never is used of a merely outward invocation1 but always of such as is the external expression of the faith of the heart2 compare the remarks on ,zech4 xiv4 #i4 ,even on account of this stated condition1 it is not possible to think of the deliverance of the promiscuous multitude of ,israel1 in contrast with that of the ,gentiles2 for the condition is one which is purely internal1 and it affords an important hint for the right understanding of what follows4 ,the by which it is connected remains inexplicable1 if ,mount ,zion and ,jerusalem be considered as a place of safety and deliverance for all who are there externally4 ,the same thing is evident from 4 ,the sense is not by any means that all the inhabitants of ,zion and ,jerusalem shall be delivered2 but that there shall be some who have escaped--viz41 those who call on the name of the ,lord2 while those who do not1 shall be consumed by the divine judgment4 ,the second condition stated by the prophet--that of being called by the ,lord--is in like manner internal4 ,the words have so evident a reference to 1 that we cannot at all suppose1 as ,credner does1 that they refer to other subjects4 ,on the contrary1 they who call on the ,lord1 are also they whom ,he calls from the general calamity into ,his protecting presence2 and the prophet has endeavoured1 by the choice of the words1 to bring out into view the close connection of these two parties4 ,they who call on the ,lord1 and they whom the ,lord calls 7,maurer's explanation3 ,and among those who have escaped is every one who calls on the ,lord compare ,ps4 xiv4 #d1 gives a very feeble tautology71 are the very same upon whom1 according to vers1 #a and #b1 the fulness of the ,spirit has been poured out4--,the words1 ,as the ,lord has said1 indicate1 that the faithful ones may safely take comfort from this promise2 inasmuch as it is not the word of men1 but of ,god4 ,we may see1 from such parallel passages as ,is4 i4 #bj1 xiv4 #e1 lviii4 #ad1 how little reason we have for thinking that the prophet here refers to some other prophecy4 ,that the prophet1 and not the ,lord ,himself1 is speaking in this verse1 ,pg #cde is evident from the words3 ,who calls on the name of the ,lord4 ,it was1 therefore1 very suitable to show1 that it was by ,immediate1 divine commission that the prophet had given utterance to the consolatory promise1 that the people of ,god would escape in these great and heavy judgments which were to come upon the world4 ,that it is very natural for believers to fear that the punishments which threaten the world should fall upon them also who are living in the world1 is shown by ,rev4 vii41 the aim of which is1 throughout1 to allay the anxious fear which might arise in believers when considering the judgments which threaten the world4 ,the relation of the whole verse to what precedes and follows is this3--,in vers4 #c and #d1 the prophet had stated the signs and forerunners of the great and fearful day of the ,lord4 ,now he points to the only1 and the absolutely sure means of standing on that day4 ,then1 in chap4 iv41 which is connected by 1 he describes the judgment itself4 ,if1 now1 we endeavour to discover the historical reference of vers4 #c-e1 we are met by a great variety of opinions4 ,it is referred to the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,chaldeans1 by ,grotius1 ,cramer1 ,turrettine 7de ,scrip1 s4 interpret4 p4 #cca72 among the ,socinians1 in the ,raccovian ,catechism1 p4 #bb1 and by ,oeder2 and among the ,arminians1 by ,episcopius in the ,instit4 ,theol4 p4 #aih4 ,others 7as ,jerome7 think of the resurrection of the ,lord2 others 7as ,luther7 of the outpouring of the ,holy ,spirit2 others 7as ,mnster1 ,capell1 ,lightfoot1 ,dresde1 l4c4 p4 #bb7 of the destruction by the ,romans4 ,it is referred to the judgment upon the enemies of the ,covenant-people soon after the return from the ,babylonish captivity1 by ,ephraem ,syrus2 to the impending overthrow of ,gog1 at the time of the ,messiah1 by the ,jewish interpreters2 to the general judgment1 by ,tertullian1 ,theodoret1 and ,crusius1 ,in ,theol4 ,prophet4 i4 p4 #fba2 and to the destruction of ,jerusalem1 and the general judgment at the same time1 by ,chrysostom and others4 ,the great variety of these references has arisen solely from the circumstance1 that the prophecy has not been reduced to its fundamental idea4 ,this fundamental idea is3--,the manifestation of ,god's punitive justice upon all which is hostile to ,his kingdom1 which runs parallel with the manifestation of ,his grace towards the subjects of ,his kingdom4 ,this idea appears here1 in all its generality1 without any temporal limitation ,pg #cdf whatsoever4 ,not one of these interpretations1 therefore1 can be absolutely right4 ,they differ only in this1 that some of them are altogether false1 inasmuch as they assume a reference to events which do not at all fall under the fundamental idea2 while others are only limited and partial views of the truth4 ,to the first of these classes belong evidently the references to the resurrection1 and to the outpouring of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,it is only by detaching these verses from the following chapter that such a view could arise4 ,these events stand in no relation whatsoever to the animating thought of the passage4 ,there is a certain relation to that thought in the reference to the destruction by the ,chaldeans1 in so far as this was really a manifestation of divine punitive justice4 ,but the reference to this event would be admissible here1 only if the prophet were describing the manifestation of divine punitive justice in general4 ,but such is not the case4 ,the comparison of chap4 i4 and ii4 shows that the subject of the prophecy is rather the manifestation of divine justice in reference to those who are enemies to the kingdom of ,god4 ,the defenders of such a view have altogether misunderstood the structure of the prophecy of ,joel2 for1 otherwise1 they would have seen that that event belongs to the threatening of judgment in chap4 i4 and ii41 where the judgment upon the house of ,god is described2 while1 here1 there is a description of the judgment upon those who are without4 ,the same argument seems1 at first sight1 to apply also to the destruction by the ,romans4 ,but on a closer examination1 there appears to be a difference betwixt these two events1 and one which brings the latter far more within the scope of the prophecy4 ,the destruction by the ,romans was much more intimately connected with a total apostasy and rejection1 than was that by the ,chaldeans4 ,even before the former destruction1 and immediately after the death of ,christ1 the former ,covenant-people had sunk down to the rank of the ,gentiles4 ,they were no more apostate children1 who were1 by means of punishment1 to be brought to reformation1 but enemies1 who were judged on account of their hostile disposition towards the kingdom of ,god4 ,malachi1 in chap4 iii4 #bc 7iv4 #e71 shows that such a time would come when that1 which they imagined to be intended only for the heathen by descent1 should be realized upon ,israel after the flesh4 ,the verbal repetition of the words1 ,before there ,pg #cdg cometh the great and dreadful day of the ,lord1 and their application to the judgment upon ,israel1 can be accounted for only by his intention to oppose the prevailing carnal interpretation of the prophecy under consideration4 ,it will now be seen also1 what the relation is which the phenomena at the death of ,christ1 the darkening of the sun1 the quaking of the earth1 the rending of the rocks 7compare ,matt4 xxvii4 #de1 #ea2 ,luke xxiii4 #dd71 occupy to the passage before us4 ,they were like the here1 actual declarations of the divine wrath1 and forerunners of the approaching judgment2 and they were recognised as such by the guilty1 to whom this symbolical language was interpreted by their consciences2 compare ,luke xxiii4 #dh3 2 1 1 1 4 ,but we must not limit ourselves to the obduracy of the ,covenant-people4 ,this we are taught1 not only by the relation of chap4 i4 and ii4 to iv4 #b1 but1 with especial distinctness1 by the renewal of this threatening in ,rev4 xiv4 #ad-bj1 where the image of the vintage and winepress1 in particular1 is borrowed from ,joel2 see iv4 #ab1 #ac4 ,the objects of judgment are there the heathen nations on account of their hostility to the people of ,god1 who1 by ,christ1 and by the outpouring of the ,spirit procured by ,him1 have fully attained to that dignity4 ,nor is the judgment there an isolated one4 ,on the contrary1 all which1 in history1 is realized in an entire series of judicial acts1 to be at last consummated in the final judgment1 is there comprehended in one great harvest--in one great vintage4 ,we have still to make a few remarks upon the quotation in ,acts ii4 #af ff4 ,nothing but narrow-mindedness and prejudice could deny that ,peter found1 in the miracle of ,pentecost1 an actual fulfilment of the promise in vers4 #a and #b4 ,this becomes probable1 not only from the circumstance1 that the reference of this prophecy to the ,messianic time was the prevailing one among the ,jews 7compare the passages in ,schttgen1 ,s4 #dac71 but also from the translation of by 1 by which1 in the ,new ,testament1 the ,messianic time is always designated4 ,to this must also be added the express declaration in ver4 #ci1 that the promise was unto the generation then present4 ,how could ,peter have uttered such a declaration1 ,pg #cdh if his view had been that the promise had found its fulfilment in a time long gone past8 ,at the same time1 it is equally certain1 that ,peter was so far from considering all the riches of the promise to be completely exhausted by that ,pentecostal miracle1 that he rather considered it to be only a beginning of the fulfilment1--a beginning1 indeed1 which implies the consummation1 as the germ contains the tree4 ,this is quite obvious from ver4 #ch3 4444 4 ,how could ,peter1 referring to the prophecy1 promise the gift of the ,holy ,spirit1 promised in the prophecy to those who should be converted1 if the prophecy was already completely fulfilled8 ,but it is still more apparent from ver4 #ci3 1 1 4 ,the question is1 who are to be understood by those 8 ,no one could have doubted that the ,gentiles are thereby to be understood1 unless two things altogether heterogeneous had been confounded1 viz41 the uncertainty of ,peter concerning the fact of the reception of the ,gentiles into the kingdom of ,god1 and his uncertainty concerning the mode of their reception4 ,considering the condition of the ,old ,testament prophecy1 the latter is easily accounted for2 but the former cannot4 ,to state only one from among the mass of arguments which prove that ,peter could not be ignorant of the fact1 we observe that the very manner in which1 in ,acts iii4 #be1 he quotes the promise given to ,abraham1 that by his seed the nations should be blessed1 proves that he regarded the ,gentiles as partakers of the kingdom of ,christ4 ,this is rendered still more incontrovertible by the in ver4 #bf4 ,to understand1 by 1 foreign ,jews1 is inadmissible1 for the single reason that these were present in great numbers1 and hence1 were included in the term 4 ,now ,peter1 throughout1 addresses all those who were present4 ,how then could he have here confined himself1 all at once1 to a portion of these ,i ,there is1 moreover1 a plain allusion to the close of ,joel iii4 #e1 which the ,,lxx4 translate 4 ,this allusion contains1 at the same time1 a proof of the concurrent reference to the ,gentiles1 which is not in express words contained in the prophecy1 provided we do not put an arbitrary interpretation upon 4 ,attention is thereby directed ,pg #cdi to the fact1 that1 ,in that passage1 salvation1 which requires1 as its condition1 a participation in the outpouring of the ,spirit1 does not depend upon any human cause1 but solely upon the call of ,god--upon ,his free grace4 ,in a manner entirely similar1 does ,st ,paul1 in ,rom4 x4 #ab1 #ac1 prove1 from the beginning of ,joel iii4 #e1 the participation of the ,gentiles in the ,messianic kingdom3 1 4 1 4 ,if the calling on ,god were the condition of salvation1 access to it was as free to the ,gentiles as to the ,jews4 ,but if the prophecy has a distinct reference to the still unconverted ,jews1 their children and the ,gentiles1 it is then evident1 that1 according to the view of the ,apostle1 it did not terminate in that one instance of ,its fulfilment1 but that1 on the contrary1 it extends just as far as the thing promised--as the outpouring itself of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,this clearly appears1 also1 from the allusions to the passage under consideration4 ,in the accounts of later outpourings of the ,spirit2 compare1 e4g41 ,acts x4 #de1 xi4 #ae1 xv4 #h4 ,how1 then1 was it even possible that ,peter should have limited to the few who had already1 at that time1 received the ,spirit1 a prophecy1 in which the idea of generality is1 intentionally1 made so prominent8 ,but1 even if the universal character of the prophecy had been less distinct1 ,peter would certainly not have thought of confining it in such a manner4 ,such a gross and superficial view of the prophecies was far from ,peter1 as well as from the other ,apostles4 ,another question remains to be answered4 ,for what purpose does the ,apostle quote verses #c-e also1 inasmuch as1 apparently1 verses #a and #b alone properly served his purpose2 and what sense did he put upon them8 ,the answer ,is given ,in ver4 #dj3 1 1 4 ,even in the few words ,in which ,luke communicates to us the brief summary of what ,peter spoke ,in this respect1 a reference to the passage under consideration has been preserved to us4 ,peter made use of the threatening which was1 in the first ,instance1 to be fulfilled upon the dark refuse of the ,covenant-people1 ,in order to ,induce them1 by terror1 to seek a participation in the promise which alone could deliver them ,pg #cej from the threatened judgment4 ,that he succeeded in this1 is shown by the words1 1 in ver4 #dc4 ,several interpreters have1 by ver4 #bb1 been led into a total misconception of the sense in which ,peter quotes vers4 #c-e4 ,it is true1 certainly1 that the words are not used without reference to the passage in ,joel4 ,peter directs attention to the circumstance1 that they who1 from their hardness of heart1 do not acknowledge the and with which ,god accompanied the manifestation of ,his grace1 shall be visited by and of a totally different nature1 from the fearful impression of which they shall not be able to escape4 ,but let us now in addition consider some of the particulars4 ,in substance1 the quotation by ,peter agrees with the ,,lxx42 but deviations occur on particular points4 ,at the very beginning1 the ,,lxx41 adhering more closely to the ,hebrew text1 have3 2 whereas ,peter says3 4 ,the reason of this deviation is1 that the ,apostle intends to determine1 by this deviation1 the expression1 which in itself is wider and more indefinite1 in such a manner that the period to which the prophecy specially refers1 and hence also its application to the case in question1 should be rendered more obvious4 ,in a case entirely similar1 ,jeremiah1 in chap4 xlix4 #f1 employs the wider term 1 while in xlviii4 #dg he makes use of the more definite 4 ,by the latter term1 ,kimchi also explains the in the passage before us2 while ,jarchi 7compare ,schttgen1 ,s4 #baj7 explains it by the equivalent term 4 ,the words are wanting in the ,,lxx41 as well as in the original ,hebrew text4 ,they have been taken from ver4 #e1 and1 contrasted with 1 they direct attention to the divine source of prophecy1 and hence to the necessity of its fulfilment4 ,the two members1 1 1 ,peter has reversed2 probably in order to place the young men together with the sons and daughters1 and to assign the place of honour to the old men4 ,in the and 1 ,peter follows the ,,lxx41 and that in a sense which only expressly makes prominent a point really contained in the prophecy1 whether such was intended by the translators1 or not2 for the circumstance that the servants of men were1 at the same ,pg #ceatime1 servants of ,god1 formed the ground of their participation in the promise4 ,the same contrast is found1 e4g41 in #a ,cor4 vii4 #bb1 #bc3 1 4 2 compare ,gal4 iii4 #bh2 ,philem4 #aj4 ,hence it is equivalent to3 ,upon servants and handmaids of men who are1 at the same time1 my servants and handmaids1 and1 therefore1 in spiritual things of equal rank with those who are free4 ,to give prominence to this perfect equality1 is also the design of the additional clause3 1 subjoined after 4 ,the circumstance that ,peter thought it necessary to add this clause1 which1 as we have proved1 quite harmonizes with the design of the prophet1 seems to prove that1 even at his time1 interpretations were current1 in which an attempt was made to diminish1 or altogether to take away1 in the case of servants and handmaids1 their participation in those blessings2--interpretations similar to those of ,abarbanel1 and even of ,grotius1 who thus paraphrases the verse3 ,even to those who seem to be lowest1 ,i will certainly impart1 although not prophesying and dreaming dreams1 yet certain extraordinary and heavenly motions4 ,the antiquity of this false interpretation is attested by ,jerome also1 who probably was1 in this respect1 altogether dependent upon his ,jewish teachers4 ,he interprets1 indeed1 the servants and handmaids spiritually1 and of such as have not the spirit of freedom he says3 ,they shall neither have prophecies1 nor dreams nor visions1 but1 satisfied with the outpouring of the ,holy ,spirit1 they shall possess only the grace of faith and salvation4--,in ver4 #c1 ,peter adds to 1 and to 1 in order to make the contrast more obvious and striking4 ,all the deviations from the ,,lxx41 and the original text1 are thus of the same kind1 and intended to bring out more distinctly what is implied in the passage itself4 ,not one of them need to be accounted for by the circumstance1 that the ,apostle quoted from memory4 ,footnote #a3 ,he says3 ,the sense in which the universality must be understood is clearly indicated by what follows4 ,for1 it is first said1 in general1 ',all flesh1' and afterwards1 a specification is added1 by which the prophet intimates1 that age or sex will not constitute any difference1 but that ,god will bring them all1 without any distinction1 into the communion of ,his grace4 ,footnote #b3 ,the two parallel members prove1 in opposition to ,redslob and others1 that the verb here1 as everywhere else1 has reference to an ecstatic condition1 to the speaking in the ,spirit1 although this is by no means limited to a revelation of the future4 ,the closeness of the connection between prophesying1 dreaming dreams1 and seeing visions1 is evident from ,num4 xii4 #f1 where visions and dreams appear as the two principal forms of revelation to the 4 ,pg #ceb ,,the ,,prophet ,,amos4 ,,general ,,preliminary ,,remarks4 ,it will not be necessary to extend our preliminary remarks on the prophet ,amos1 since on the main point--viz41 the circumstances under which he appeared as a prophet--the introduction to the prophecies of ,hosea may be regarded as having been written for those of ,amos also4 ,for1 according to the inscription1 they belong to the same period at which ,hosea's prophetic ministry began1 viz41 the latter part of the reign of ,jeroboam ,,ii41 and after ,uzziah had ascended the throne in ,judah4 ,the circumstances of the prophet we learn1 generally1 from the words in chap4 i4 #a3 ,who was among the herdmen of ,tekoah4 ,if there existed no other statement than this1 there might be truth in the remark made by many interpreters1 that we cannot1 from his having been a herdman1 infer that he was poor and low4 ,it is shown1 however1 by a statement in chap4 vii4 #ad1 that1 by the herdman1 we are not to understand one who was also possessed of flocks1 or1 like ,david1 the son of such1 but a poor servant herdman4 ,for1 in that passage1 the prophet replies to the command of the priest ,amaziah to get himself out of the country1 to which he did not belong1 and to return to his native land3 ,i am no prophet1 nor the son of a prophet1 but ,i am a herdman2 and such an one as plucketh sycamores4 ,and the ,lord took me from behind the flock1 and the ,lord said unto me4 ,go prophesy unto ,my people ,israel4 ,the fruit of the sycamores1 called and by ,dioscorides1 served as food for only the poorest and meanest4 ,bochart 7,hieroz4 t4 i4 p4 #djg #che ,rosenmller7 remarks3 ,it is the same as if he had said1 that he was a man of the humblest condition1 and born in poor circumstances1 so that he scarcely maintained his life by scanty and frugal fare2 that he had never thought of obtaining the prophetical office in ,israel1 until a higher power1 viz41 divine inspiration1 impelled him to undertake it4#a ,but this passage merits our attention in another ,pg #cec point of view4 ,in what sense is it that ,amos here denies that he is a prophet8 ,it is evidently in a very special sense that he does so4 ,he obviously does not mean thereby to deny that he possessed the gift of prophecy1 or held the prophetical office2 for1 otherwise1 he would himself have furnished weapons to his enemy1 to whom he wishes to prove his right4 ,the following remarks will be found to contain the true answer4 ,it cannot be proved in any way1 that the schools of the prophets1 established by ,samuel at a time when the circumstances of ,judah and ,israel were altogether similar1 were continued in the kingdom of ,judah4 ,every prophet there stands in an isolated position4 ,the entire prophetic order and institute bears rather a sporadic character4 ,but in the kingdom of ,israel1 where the prophetic order occupied a position altogether different from that which it held in the kingdom of ,judah1 inasmuch as1 after the expulsion of the tribe of ,levi1 they had to watch over all the interests of religion1 the schools of the prophets had a very important mission assigned to them4 ,we must not by any means imagine that their constitution was such1 that after a few years' training1 the sons of the prophets attained to perfect independence4 ,the greater number of them remained during all their lifetime in the position of sons4 ,the schools of the prophets were a kind of monasteries4 ,even those who1 in consequence of their peculiar circumstances1 no longer remained there1 but were scattered throughout the country1 continued always under their authority4 ,one needs only to read attentively the histories of ,elijah and of ,elisha1 which afford us the fullest information regarding these institutions1 to be speedily convinced of the soundness of the view which we have here presented4 ,on the subject of the organization of the schools of the prophets in the kingdom of ,israel1 compare ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pentateuch1 i4 p4 #ahe4 f4 ,pg #ced ,but how can ,amos adduce it as a proof of his divine mission1 that he is neither a prophet1 nor1 in the sense explained1 a prophet's son1 i4e41 that he was neither a superior nor an inferior member of the prophetic order8 ,the answer is1--,it was the result of that organization of the prophetic order1 that the relation to the ,lord was one which was more or less mediate4 ,to those who would not acknowledge the immediate divine influence1 some ground was thereby afforded for doing so4 ,their training1 their principles1 the form of their prophecies1 all admitted of a natural explanation4 ,it is true that the spirit which animated them baffled any such attempt2 but that spirit was not so easily perceived4 ,in the case of any one1 then1 who appeared as a prophet1 without standing in that connection1 and yet in the full possession of all prophetic gifts1--in demonstration of the spirit and of power1 a natural explanation was far more difficult2 especially if1 like ,amos1 he was1 by his outward situation1 cut off from all human resources for education4 ,but was ,amos1 for that reason1 an uneducated man8 ,this is a question which one may answer either in the affirmative or negative1 according to what he understands by education4 ,so much is certain1 that he was in possession of the essential part of a true ,israelitish education--viz41 the knowledge of the law4 ,the most intimate acquaintance with the ,pentateuch everywhere manifests itself2 compare in proof of this the ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pentateuch1 i4 p4 #acf ff4 ,there are too many instances1 down to most recent times1 of living piety breaking1 in this respect1 through almost impenetrable barriers1 to allow us to consider this as a strange thing1 and to make it necessary for us to excogitate the various ways and means by which ,amos may have received this education4 ,it is only on the lower ground of the mere forms of language1 that the rank of ,amos not unfrequently appears4 ,in all the higher relations he shows himself a type of the ,apostles1 who1 although they were uneducated fishermen of ,galilee1 exhibit the most distinguishing proofs of true education4 ,amos belonged to that circle of prophets who received a commission to prophesy the ruin which was impending over the ,covenant-people1 before any human probability existed for it4 ,baur1 on ,amos1 ,s4 #fj1 is of opinion that the definiteness with which he prophesies the destruction of the kingdom of ,pg #cee ,jeroboam1 although its power was at that time still flourishing1 leads us to expect that he must have had distinct indications of its speedy decay4 ,in a certain sense we may assent to this opinion4 ,the prophet himself continually points to such indications4 ,these indications are the sins of the people4 ,but if ,baur endeavours to put political indications in the stead of these moral ones2 if he be of opinion that the ,assyrians must1 at that time1 have stood in a threatening attitude in the background1 we must give to his opinion a decided opposition4 ,we can1 in such an assertion1 see only an effect of that naturalistic mode of viewing things1 which would limit the horizon of the prophets to that of their own times4#b ,not the slightest allusion to the ,assyrians occurs4 ,the supposition that ,calneh or ,ktesiphon1 in chap4 vi4 #b1 appears as having already fallen 7through the ,assyrians71 rests upon an incorrect interpretation1 just as does the assertion that ,hamath1 in the same passage1 is supposed to be conquered2 concerning the latter point1 compare ,thenius on #b ,kings xiv4 #bh4 ,in the announcement of the carrying away into captivity beyond ,damascus1 made in chap4 v4 #bg1 there appears nothing more than the knowledge1 that the catastrophe will not be brought about by that heathen power which had hitherto brought ruin upon the kingdom of ,israel ,but1 everywhere1 we may see that the prophet--whom we have no reason to think an especially ingenious politician--appeared at a time when no one expected any danger4 ,amos prophesied at a time when the morning-dawn had risen upon ,israel1 iv4 #ac1 v4 #h2 in the beginning of the shooting up of the grass1 and behold the grass was standing1 after the ,king 7,jehovah7 had caused to be mown1 vii4 #a2 at a time when the prosperity of the kingdom of the ten tribes was again budding forth4 ,in chap4 viii4 #i1 the ,lord threatens that ,he will cause the sun to go down at noon1 and bring darkness over the land in the day of light4 ,in chap4 vi4 #d-f1 the prevailing careless luxury and ,pg #cef joy are graphically described4 ,chap4 v4 #ah implies that the people mocked at the threatening of the coming of the day of the ,lord1 the coming of which could1 therefore1 not have been indicated by any human probability4 ,in chap4 vi4 #a1 the prophet gives utterance to an exclamation of woe over them that are secure in ,zion1 and that trust in the mountain of ,samaria4 ,in chap4 vi4 #ac1 he opposes the delusion of those who rejoice in a thing of nought1 who say1 ,have we not taken to us horns by our own strength8 ,the people in the kingdom of the ten tribes must accordingly have imagined that they were living in the golden age of the fulfilment of ,deut4 xxx4 #ag1 and must not have thought for a moment that the axe was already laid to the root of the tree4 ,but we are not at liberty to seek the fulfilment of the prophecy of ,amos1 only in the visitation by the ,assyrians4 ,that which happens to the people of the ten tribes is1 to the prophet1 only a part of a general visitation1 which comes1 not only upon all the neighbouring nations1 but upon ,judah also1 and which brings utter ruin upon the latter1 chap4 ii4 #d1 #e1 destroying the temple at ,jerusalem1 and driving the house of ,david from the throne1 ix4 #a1 #aa4 ,according to prophecy and history1 however1 this catastrophe came upon ,judah1 not by ,asshur1 but1 in the first instance1 by ,babylon4 ,the prophecy possesses a comprehensive character1 such as we should be led to expect from the close connection of ,amos with ,joel4 ,it comprehends everything which ,judah and ,israel1 along with the neighbouring people1 had to suffer from the rising heathen powers2 compare vi4 #ad1 v4 #bd1 according to which1 judgment shall roll down as waters1 and righteousness as a continual stream4#c ,in the case of ,amos1 also1 interpreters have been at considerable pains in fixing the time and the occasion of the single portions1 but with as little success as in the cases of ,hosea and ,micah4 ,the very inscription proves that we have before us a whole1 composed at one time1 and containing the substance of ,pg #ceg what the prophet had uttered previously1 and in a detached form4 ,according to this inscription1 the book was composed only two years after the prophet's personal ministry in the kingdom of ,israel4 ,but if there were such an interval betwixt the oral preaching of the prophet and its having been committed to writing1 it is1 a priori1 not likely that the latter should have followed the former1 step by step4 ,the words1 ,two years before the earthquake1 cannot be regarded as a chronological date1 intended to fix more definitely the exact time within the more extended period previously stated1 viz41 the days of ,uzziah and ,jeroboam4 ,for such a purpose they are ill suited1 inasmuch as the time of the earthquake is not fixed2 and1 moreover1 any such more definite determination would have been without either significance or interest4 ,this only was of importance1 that the word of the ,lord should have been uttered in the days of ,jeroboam1 and that the prophecy of the destruction should have been delivered at a time when the ,israelites enjoyed an amount of prosperity1 such as they had not known for a long time4 ,it can scarcely be doubted that the earthquake under ,uzziah1 the fearfulness of which is testified by ,zech4 xiv4 #e1 comes under consideration only as the reason for the composition of the book1--for committing to writing what had formerly been delivered orally4 ,the earthquake denotes1 in the symbolical language of ,scripture1 great revolutions1 by which the form of the earth is changed1 and that which is uppermost1 overturned2 compare my remarks on ,rev4 vi4 #ab4 ,to point to such an earthquake had been the fundamental thought of ,amos' oral predictions4 ,by the natural earthquake1 he was induced to commit them to writing1 that they might go side by side with the symbol1 and serve as its interpreter4 ,there is a plan in the arrangement of the book1 which indicates that the book is not a collection of separate discourses1 but that it bears an independent character4 ,it is distinctly divided into two parts1--the first1 made up of naked prophecies1 from chap4 i4 to chap4 vi42 the second1 of such prophecies as are connected with a symbol1 which is always very simple1 and very briefly described1--from chap4 vii4 to chap4 ix4 ,in the first part1 the prophet begins with the announcement of the wrath of the ,lord1 ver4 #b4 ,he then reviews1 in their ,pg #ceh order1 those kingdoms upon which it shall be poured out1 viz41 ,damascus1 ,philistia1 ,tyrus1 ,edom1 ,ammon1 ,moab1 and ,judah3 until at last the storm reaches to ,israel1 and1 according to ,rckert's striking remarks1 remains suspended over it4 ,in addition to ,israel1 there are seven nations1 and the seven are divided into three1 and four2 three not related to the people of the ten tribes1 and four related to them2 the brotherly people of ,judah being introduced after three nations have been mentioned which are more distantly related to ,israel4 ,according to ,rckert1 it is only in chap4 ii4 #f-af that the storm which remained suspended over ,israel is described2 then in chap4 iii4-vi4 there follow four threatening discourses1 which are not connected either with the preceding ones1 or with each other4 ,but the correct view rather is1 that this stationary suspension is described in the whole of the first half1--in the main1 indeed1 even to the end of the book4 ,this is evident from the consideration that1 if such were not the case1 the treatment of the main subject would be1 as regards the extent of the description1 greatly disproportioned to the introduction2 for chap4 i4 to ii4 #e must be considered to be1 throughout1 merely introductory4 ,but as the ground on which we advance this assertion is made in opposition to an unsound view1 it requires a more particular determination4 ,it is assumed by many interpreters1 that in the nations besides ,israel1 the prophet reproves some haughty excesses1 but1 evidently1 only as instances of the immorality prevailing 7,jahn1 ,einl4 #b1 p4 #djd74 ,but this view1 according to which the prophet might1 instead of the various crimes mentioned1 have noticed any other crime1 e4g41 fornication1 idolatry1 etc41 is certainly erroneous4 ,it is rather a theocratic judgment of which he speaks throughout2 they are crimes against the theocracy1 the punishment of which he announces4 ,these he considers as being more heinous than all others2 for the guilt of the latter is diminished by the circumstance of their having been committed against the hidden ,god only1 while the former have been committed against the ,god who has manifested ,himself1 and who is living among ,his people4 ,for so much is evident1 that the main cause of the hatred of all the neighbouring nations against ,israel was1 that ,israel was the people of ,god4 ,for where can an instance be found of a hatred betwixt any ,pg #cei two of them1 so inextinguishable1 and continuing through centuries8 ,how entirely different is1 e4g41 the position of ,edom against ,moab1 from that of ,edom against ,israel8 ,three reasons confirm the correctness of our assertion as to the purely theocratic nature of the judgment4 #a4 ,the general announcement of the judgment4 ,jehovah roareth from ,zion1 and from ,jerusalem ,he giveth ,his voice4 ,the very use of the name ,jehovah here deserves attention4 ,a judgment of a general kind upon the heathen would belong to ,god as ,elohim4 ,it is ,elohim who is the ,god of the heathen1--the ,creator1 ,preserver1 and ,governor of the world1 from whom blessings1 as well as judgments upon it1 proceed4 ,now it might be said that ,jehovah is used in the case of the heathen also1 for the sake of uniformity1 because to ,him belongeth the judgment upon ,judah and ,israel4 ,but that this is not the case1 is seen from the addition3 ,from ,zion1--from ,jerusalem4 ,every general judgment proceeds from heaven2 it is only as a theocratic ,god1 that ,god reigns in ,zion and ,jerusalem4 ,this argument admits of no exception2 all that ,god does from ,zion is theocratic deliverance1 or theocratic judgment4--#b4 ,the nature of the crimes themselves1 which are cited by way of example4 ,it can certainly not be merely accidental1 that they are all such as were committed against the ,covenant-people4 ,there is one only which forms an apparent exception1 viz41 that of the ,moabites1 who are1 in chap4 ii4 #a1 charged with having burned into lime the bones of the king of ,edom4 ,but1 with the consent of the greater number of interpreters1 ,jerome remarks on this3 ,in order that ,god might show that ,he is the ,lord of all1 and that every soul is subject to ,him who formed it4 ,he punishes the iniquity committed against the king of ,edom4 ,but in this remark of ,jerome1 the relation in which ,idumea stood to the ,covenant-people is altogether lost sight of4 ,it is only as a vassal of their kings that the king of ,edom here comes into view4 ,this is sufficiently manifest from #b ,kings iii41 although the event narrated there is different from that which is here alluded to1 of which no record has been preserved in history4#d ,the hatred against the ,covenant-people1 which the ,pg #cfj ,moabites were too weak openly to exhibit1 impelled them to this wicked deed against the king tributary to them4--#c4 ,it must be carefully observed how the prophet1 when coming to ,judah1 introduces us1 at once1 into the centre of theocratic transgression1 the forsaking of the living ,god1 and the serving of vain1 dead idols4 ,it will now be easily seen in what way the portion1 chap4 i4-ii4 #e1 serves as an introduction to what follows4 ,the prophecies against foreign nations do not1 as elsewhere1 serve as a consolation1 or as a proof of the love of ,god towards ,his people1 and of ,his omnipotence1 or as a means for destroying confidence in man's power1 in man's help2 they are1 on the contrary1 intended1 from the very outset1 to give rise in ,israel to the question3 ,if such be done in the green tree1 what shall be done in the dry8 ,that question the prophet answers at large4 ,if severe punishment be inflicted1 even upon those who have trespassed against the living ,god1 with whom they came into contact only distantly1 what will become of those to whom ,he manifested ,himself so plainly and distinctly1--among whom ,he had1 as it were1 gained a form1--before whose eyes ,he had been so evidently set forth8 ,the declaration1 ,you only do ,i know of all the families of the earth2 therefore ,i shall visit upon you all your iniquities 7iii4 #b71 forms the centre of the whole threatening announcement to ,israel4 ,and could it indeed be introduced in any better way than by pointing out1 how even the lowest degree of knowledge was followed by such a visitation8 ,but now1 that which under the ,old ,testament was the highest degree1 becomes1 under the ,new ,testament1 only a preparatory step4 ,the revelation of ,god in ,christ stands in the same relation to that made to ,israel under the ,old ,testament1 as the latter stands to the manifestation of ,his character and nature to the heathen1 who came into connection with the ,covenant-people4 ,thus the fulfilment becomes to us a new prophecy4 ,if the rejection of ,god1 in ,his inferior revelation1 was followed by such awful consequences to the temporal welfare of the people of the ,old ,covenant1 what must be the consequences of the rejection of the highest and fullest revelation of ,god to the temporal and spiritual welfare of the people of the ,new ,covenant8 ,this is a thought which is further expanded in ,heb4 xii4 #ag ff41 and it forms the essential feature of ,pg #cfa the description of the judgment of the world in the ,new ,testament4 ,this judgment has been but too often thus misunderstood1 as if it concerned the world as the world1--a misunderstanding similar to that of the section before us4 ,the ,gospel shall first be preached to every creature1 and according as every one has conducted himself towards the living ,god1 so he shall be judged4--,but it is not to the heathen nations only1 but to ,judah also that1 by way of introduction1 destruction is announced4 ,the circumstance that not even the possession of so many precious privileges1 as the temple and the ,davidic throne1 could ward off the well-merited punishment of sin1 could not but powerfully affect the hearts of the ten tribes4 ,if ,god's justice be so energetic1 what have they to expect8 ,if we continue the examination of ,rckert's view1 it will soon appear that the phrase1 ,hear this word1 in iii4 #a1 iv4 #a1 and v4 #a1 can alone be considered as the foundation on which it rests4 ,but these words do not at all prove a new commencement1 but only a new starting-point4 ,this appears sufficiently from the absence of these words at the alleged fourth threatening discourse in chap4 vi42 and likewise from a comparison of ,hosea iv4 #a and v4 #a3 ,hear the word of the ,lord1 ye children of ,israel1 and ,hear this1 ye priests1 and hearken1 ye house of ,israel1 and give ear1 house of the king2 while nothing similar occurs in the following chapters4 ,that such an exhortation was appropriate1 even in the middle1 is clearly seen from ,amos iii4 #ac4 ,it cannot then1 per se1 prove anything in favour of a new beginning4 ,if it is to be regarded as such1 the discourse must be proved1 by other reasons1 to have been completed4 ,but no such reasons here exist4 ,we might as reasonably assume the existence of ten threatening discourses1 as of four4 ,the circumstance that we can nowhere discover a sure commencement and a clearly defined termination1 shows that we are fully justified in considering the whole first part1 chap4 i4 to vi41 as a connected discourse4 ,the second part1 which contains the visions of the destruction1 is composed1 indeed1 of various portions1--as might have been expected from the nature of the subject4 ,each new vision1 with the discourse connected with it1 must form a new section4 ,chap4 vii41 viii41 and ix41 form each a whole4 ,from the account which is added to the first vision2 and which relates ,pg #cfb to the transactions between ,amos and the high priest ,amaziah1 which were caused by the public announcement of this vision 7chap4 vii4 #ab-ad71 we are led to suppose that these visions were formerly delivered singly1 in the form in which we now possess them4 ,but that1 even here1 we have not before us pieces loosely connected with each other in a chronological arrangement1 is evident from the fact1 that the promises stand just at the end of the whole collection4 ,the prophet had rather to reprove and to threaten than to comfort2 but yet he cannot refrain1 at least at the close1 from causing the sun to break through the clouds4 ,without this close there would be wanting in ,amos a main element of the prophetic discourse1 which is wanting in no other prophet1 and by which alone the other elements are placed in a proper light4 ,it also militates against the supposition of a mere collection1 that in the last vision the prevailing regard to the kingdom of the ten tribes disappears almost entirely1 and that1 like the third chapter of ,hosea1 it relates to the whole of the ,covenant-people1--in agreement with the reference to the earthquake mentioned in the inscription1 which the prophet had experienced in ,judah1 and which brought into view1 not a particular1 but a general1 judgment4 ,the symbolical clothing1 however1 forms the sole difference betwixt the second part and the first4 ,as the real centre and essence of the book the second part cannot be regarded2 the threatening is as clear and impressive in the first part4 ,that which is common to ,amos with the contemporary prophets1 is the absolute clearness with which he foresees that1 before salvation comes1 all that is glorious1 not only in ,israel1 but in ,judah also1 must be given over to destruction4 ,judah and ,israel shall be overflowed by the heathen world1 the ,temple at ,jerusalem destroyed1 the ,davidic dynasty dethroned1 and the inhabitants of both kingdoms carried away into captivity4 ,but afterwards1 the restoration of ,david's tabernacle 7ix4 #aa71 and the extension of the kingdom of ,god far beyond the borders of the heathen world 7ver4 #ab71 take place4 ,the most characteristic point is the emanation of salvation from the family of ,david1 at the time of its deepest abasement4 ,footnote #a3 ,bochart remains unrefuted by the assertions of ,hitzig1 ,baur1 and others1 who make ,amos the owner of a plantation of sycamores1 which1 according to them1 made him a wealthy man4 can be understood only of the plucking1 or gathering of the fruits of the sycamores4 ,the cutting of the bark is by no means obvious1 and is too much the language of natural history4 ,that the prophet's real vocation is designated by 1 and that is not1 by any means1 something independent of1 and co-ordinate with that1 appears from ver4 #ae1 where the is resumed4 ,the fruits of the sycamores may1 occasionally1 not have a disagreeable taste1 for him who eats them only as a dainty2 but they are at all events very poor ordinary food2 compare ,warnekros in ,eichhorn's ,repert4 #aa4 #bef4 ,footnote #b3 ,the groundlessness of such a mode of viewing things is shown by the prophecy of events such as that mentioned in i4 #ae3 ,the people of ,aram are carried away to ,kir1 saith the ,lord2 compare the fulfilment in #b ,kings xvi4 #i4 ,they had originally come from ,kir1 ,amos ix4 #g4 ,this circumstance furnished the natural foundation for the prophecy1 and it was certainly this circumstance also which induced the conqueror to adopt his measures4 ,but the supernatural character of the definite prophecy remains1 nevertheless1 unshaken4 ,footnote #c3 ,caspari in his commentary on ,micah1 ,s4 #fi1 is wrong in remarking3 ,joel beholds the instruments of punitive justice upon ,israel1 as numberless hosts only2 ,amos1 already1 as a single nation4 ,in ,amos vi4 #ad the as little means a single nation1 as it does in the fundamental passage1 ,deut4 xxviii4 #di ff41 beyond the definiteness of which ,amos does not go4 ,footnote #d3 ,scarcely any doubt can1 however1 be entertained that we have here before us a consequence of the war mentioned in #b ,kings iii41 viz41 the vengeance which the ,moabites took for what they suffered on that occasion4 ,pg #cfc ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,the chapter opens with a vision4 ,the temple1 shaken by the ,angel of the ,lord in its very foundations1 falls down1 and buries ,judah and ,israel under its ruins4 ,without a figure1--the breach of the ,covenant by the ,covenant-people brings destruction upon them4 ,the prophet endeavours to strengthen the impression of this threatening upon their mind1 by breaking down the supports of false security by which they sought to evade it4 ,there is no deliverance1 no escape1 vers4 #b-d1 for the ,almighty ,god is the enemy and pursuer1 vers4 #e1 #f4 ,there is no mercy on account of the ,covenant1 for ,israel is no more the ,covenant-people4 ,they shall not1 however1 be altogether destroyed2 but the destruction of the sinful mass shall be accompanied by the preservation of a small number of the godly1 vers4 #g-aj4 ,this great sifting is followed1 however1 by the restoration2 the tabernacle of ,david which is fallen1 the kingdom of ,god among ,israel1 connected with the family of ,david1 shall be raised up again1 ver4 #aa2 rendered glorious by its extension over the heathen1 ver4 #ab2 and blessed with the abundance of the divine gifts1 vers4 #ab-ae4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ver4 #a4 ,i saw the ,lord standing over the altar2 and ,he said1 ,smite the chapiter1 and make the thresholds tremble1 and break them upon the heads of all2 and ,i will kill their remnant by the sword3 he that fleeth away of them shall not flee away1 and he that escapeth of them shall not be delivered4 ,the principal question which here arises is3--,who is here addressed1--to whom is the commission of destruction given by the ,lord8 ,as1 in accordance with the dramatic character of the prophetical discourse1 the person is not more definitely marked out1 we can think of ,him only who1 throughout1 executes ,god's judgments upon the enemies of ,his kingdom4 ,but ,he is the same to whom the preservation and protection of the true members of ,his kingdom are committed1 viz41 the ,angel of the ,lord4 ,it was ,he1 who1 as 1 the destroying ,angel1 smote the first-born of ,egypt1 ,exod4 xii4 #b1 #c1 compared with #ab1 #ac4 ,it was from ,him that the destruction of the ,pg #cfd ,assyrians proceeded1 #b ,kings xix4 #cd1 #ce2 ,is4 xxxvii4 #ce1 #cf4 ,after the numbering of ,israel1 when the anger of the ,lord was kindled against them1 it was ,he who inflicted the punishment1 #b ,sam4 xxiv4 #a1 #ae1 #af4 ,as ,he encampeth round about them who fear the ,lord1 so ,he is1 in regard to the ungodly1 like the wind which carries away the chaff1 ,ps4 xxxiv4 #h1 xxxv4 #e1 #f4--;,in opposition to the objection raised by ,baur1--,that1 with the exception of the passage in ,is4 vi41 nowhere1 in the books composed before the ,chaldee period1 do angels appear to act as mediators in the execution of the divine commands1--it is sufficient to refer to ,joel iv4 7iii47 #i-aa1 and1 as regards the ,angel of the ,lord1 to ,hosea xii4 #e 7#d74 ,but we have1 in addition1 a special reason for thinking here of the ,angel of the ,lord4 ,this is afforded to us by the ninth chapter of ,ezekiel1 which must be considered1 throughout1 as a further expansion of the verse under consideration1 and as the oldest and most trustworthy commentary upon it4 ,in that chapter1 there appear 7at the command of the ,lord who is about to avenge the apostasy of ,his people7 the servants of ,his justice--six in number--and in the midst of them1 a man clothed with linen2--the former1 with instruments of destruction2 the latter1 with writing materials4 ,they step 7the scene is in the temple7 by the side of the brazen altar4 ,thither there comes to them out of the holy of holies1 to the threshold of the temple1 the glory of the ,lord1 and gives to ,him who is clothed with linen the commission to preserve the faithful1 while the others receive a commission to destroy the ungodly1 without mercy4 ,but now1 ,who is the man clothed in linen8 ,none other than the ,angel of the ,lord4 ,this appears from ,daniel x4 #e1 xii4 #f1 #g1 where ,michael the ,angel of the ,lord 7compare ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of ,daniel1 p4 #ace ff47 is designated in the same way1--a remarkable coincidence in these two contemporary prophets1 to which we omitted to direct attention in our work on ,daniel4 ,it is further evident from the subject itself4 ,the dress is that of the earthly high priest 7,theodoret remarks3 ,the dress of the seventh is that of the high priest1 for he was not one of the destroyers1 but the redeemer of those who were worthy of salvation72 compare ,lev4 xvi4 #d1 #bc4 ,it is especially from the former of these passages that the plural is to be accounted for4 ,according to it1 the various parts ,pg #cfe of the high priest's dress are of linen4 ,but the heavenly ,mediator1 ,high ,priest1 and ,intercessor1 is the ,angel of the ,lord2 compare1 e4g41 ,zech4 i4 #ab1 where ,he makes intercession for the ,covenant-people1 and the ,lord answers ,him with good and comfortable words4 ,concerning the earthly high priest as a type of ,christ1 and hence a type of the ,angel of the ,lord1 compare the remarks on ,zech4 iii4 ,but we must not imagine that ,he who is clothed with linen is commissioned solely for the work of delivering the godly1 and hence stands contrasted with the six ministers of justice4 ,on the contrary1 these are rather to be considered as being subordinate to ,him1 as carrying out the work of destruction only by ,his command and authority4 ,from ,him1 punishment no less than salvation proceeds4 ,this is sufficiently evident for general reasons4 ,the punishment and deliverance have both the same root1 the same aim1 viz41 the advancement of the kingdom of ,god4 ,we cannot by any means think of evil angels in the case of the six2 such could be assumed only in opposition to the whole doctrine of ,scripture on the point1 which is always consistent in ascribing the punishment of the wicked to the good angels1 and the temptation of the godly1 with the permission of ,god1 to the evil angels4 ,in proof of this1 we have only to think of ,job's trial1 of ,christ's temptation1 and of the angel of ,satan by whom ,paul was buffeted4 ,this subject has already been very well treated by ,ode1 who1 in his work ,de ,angelis1 p4 #gda ff41 says3 ,god sends good angels to punish wicked men1 and ,he employs evil angels to chasten the godly4#a ,but if this be established1 it is then established at the same time1 that the judgment here belongs to the ,angel of the ,lord4 ,for to ,him1 as the ,prince of the heavenly host1 all inferior angels are subordinate1 so that everything ,pg #cff which they do belongs to ,him4--,to these general reasons1 we may1 however1 add special reasons which are altogether decisive4 ,that ,he who is clothed with linen is closely connected with the six1 is indicated by the number seven4 ,he also appears at the side of the altar1 and comes in the midst of the others1 who follow after ,him1 ver4 #b4 ,but of conclusive significance are the words in chap4 x4 #b and #g3 ,and the ,lord spake unto the man clothed with linen1 and said1 ,go in between the wheels under the cherubim1 and fill ,thine hand with coals of fire from between the cherubim1 and scatter them over the city4 ,and ,he went in1 in my sight4 ,and a cherub stretched forth his hand from between the cherubim1 unto the fire that was between the cherubim1 and took1 and put it into the hands of ,him who was clothed with linen4 ,and ,he took it and went out4 ,the fire here is not the symbolical designation of wrath1 but natural fire2 for it is the setting on fire and burning of the city which is here to be prefigured4 ,the wheels denote the natural powers1--in the first instance1 the wind1 chap4 x4 #ac1 but the fire also2 while the cherubim denote the living creation4 ,the ,angel of the ,lord is here expressly designated as ,he who executeth the judgments of divine justice4 ,the importance of the preceding investigation extends beyond the mere clearing up of the passage under consideration4 ,we have here obtained the ,old ,testament foundation for the ,new ,testament doctrine1 that all judgment has been committed to the ,son1 while the harmony of the two ,testaments is exhibited in a remarkable instance4 ,compare with the already cited ,old ,testament declarations1 such passages as ,matt4 xiii4 #da3 1 1 and xxv4 #ca3 1 ' 1 4 ,in order to be convinced of the identity of the ,angel of the ,lord and ,christ 7compare above1 p4 #ajg sqq4 and ,commentary on ,rev4 i4 p4 #dff71 we may further direct attention to the fact that the ,angel of the ,lord1 who meets us throughout the whole of the ,old ,testament1 suddenly disappears in the ,new ,testament1 and that to ,christ all is ascribed which was in the ,old ,testament attributed to the ,angel of the ,lord4 ,pg #cfg ,a second important question is3--,what is to be understood by the altar1 8 ,several interpreters adopt the opinion of ,cyril1 and think of the altar at ,bethel1 or some other idolatrous altar in the kingdom of ,israel4 ,others 7e4g41 ,marckius7 are of opinion that the article stands here without meaning1 and that it is the intention of the prophet only to represent ,god as appearing on some altar1 leaving it undetermined on which1 in order thereby to indicate that ,he required the blood of many men4 ,but against such expositions the article is conclusive4 ,the altar can be that altar only1 of which every one would think1 if an altar 1 and without a more definite designation1 were spoken of4 ,such was the brazen altar1 or altar of burnt-offering in the outer court of the temple at ,jerusalem4 ,that it was this altar1 and not the altar of incense before the holy of holies1 which received1 in the common language of the people1 the name of the altar1 is easily explained from the circumstance that it stood in a much closer relation to the people than did the other which was withdrawn from their view4 ,on this altar all the sacrifices were offered1 and it must1 throughout1 be understood1 when the altar of the ,lord is spoken of2 compare remarks on ,rev4 vi4 #i4 ,but that which removes all doubt is the comparison with the parallel passage in ,ezekiel4 ,there1 the scene is the temple at ,jerusalem4 ,the ministers of justice step beside the brazen altar4 ,at the threshold of the temple-building proper1 the glory of the ,lord moves toward them4 ,this parallel passage1 moreover1 does not leave any doubt as to the reason why the ,lord appears here beside the altar4 ,jerome remarks on this3 ,they are introduced standing beside the altar1 ready for the order of their commander2 so that they know every one whose sins are not forgiven1 and who is liable1 therefore1 to the sentence of the ,lord1 and to destruction4 ,the ,lord's appearing beside the altar is a visible representation of the truth1 that wheresoever the carcase is1 there will the eagles be gathered together4 ,the altar is the place of transgression2 it is there that there lies accumulated the unexpiated guilt of the whole nation1 instead of the rich treasure of love and faith1 which alone should be there1 embodied in the sacrifice4 ,the ,lord appears at the place of transgression1 in order that ,he may be glorified in the destruction of those who would not glorify ,him in their lives4 ,pg #cfh--,now several interpreters 7e4g41 ,michaelis71 who have correctly defined the meaning of the altar1 would infer from the mention of the temple at ,jerusalem1 that the whole prophecy refers to the kingdom of ,judah4 ,but such an assumption is altogether inadmissible4 ,even the general reason1 that a prophecy which refers exclusively to ,judah cannot be at all expected from a prophet who had received his special mission to ,israel1 militates against it4 ,further1--,the close of this prophecy1 the proclamation of salvation1 belongs1 as we have already proved1 to the whole collection4 ,if this be referred to ,judah alone1 there is then an essential element awanting in that portion which is addressed to ,israel2 we should then have judgment without mercy1 threatening without consolation1--a thing which could not well be conceived of1 and would be without analogy in any of the prophets4 ,to this we must further add the express references1 or co-references to ,israel throughout the whole chapter1--such as the mention of ,carmel in ver4 #c2 of the children of ,israel1 in ver4 #g2 of the house of ,jacob1 in ver4 #h2 of the house of ,israel1 in ver4 #i2 of 1 in ver4 #aa2 of ,my people ,israel1 in ver4 #ad4 ,the whole assumption of an exclusive reference to ,judah owes its origin to the circumstance1 that features which are only symbolical have been erroneously interpreted as actual4 ,but if they be viewed and explained as symbols1 every reason for denying the reference to ,israel is then at once removed4 ,the temple symbolizes the kingdom of ,god2 its falling down upon the people is symbolical of the punishment which is inflicted upon them1 in consequence of this kingdom4 ,the destruction of the temple in the literal sense is not1 primarily1 spoken of2 although the latter1 it is true1 be inseparable from the former4 ,if the ,covenant-people in general were outwardly desecrated1 because they had desecrated themselves inwardly1 then also the outward sanctuary which they had1 by their wickedness1 converted into a den of thieves1 was taken from them2 compare the remarks on ,dan4 ix4 #bg4 ,if ,israel then1 at that time1 still belonged to the kingdom of ,god 7and this can certainly not be doubted1 and is sufficiently proved by the very mission of our prophet to ,israel71 there exists no reason at all for excluding it4 ,for ,israel also1 the temple at ,jerusalem formed the seat and centre from which it was governed1--the place from which blessings and punishments ,pg #cfi proceeded4 ,the prophet indeed1 at the very opening of his prophecies1 describes the ,lord as roaring from ,zion1 and uttering ,his voice from ,jerusalem4 ,on the altar at ,jerusalem the crimes of ,israel were deposited1 no less than those of ,judah2 for there was the place where the people of both kingdoms were to deposit the embodied expression of their godly disposition4 ,it was there1 then1 that1 in reality1 the fruits of the opposite were lying1 although1 as regards the place1 they were offered elsewhere4--,so much indeed is certain1 that the co-reference to ,judah is necessarily required by the symbolical representation4 ,the rejection of ,israel alone could not be symbolized by the destruction of the temple4 ,and no less does this appear from the announcement of salvation4 ,for this does not by any means promise the re-establishment of the ,davidic dominion among the people of ,israel1 but the restoration of the entire fallen ,davidic government4 ,the tabernacle of ,david that is fallen refers to the destroyed temple4 ,both signify1 substantially1 the same thing4 ,with the destruction of the temple1 the ,davidic tabernacle also fell2 and its fall included the overthrow of the kingdom of ,israel2 for1 in this also1 the ,davidic race had still the dominion de jure1 although it was suspended de facto4 ,the passage under consideration is remarkable also1 inasmuch as it furnishes a proof for the custom of designating the kingdom of ,god from its existing seat and centre1 and thus furnishes us1 for other passages also1 with the right of freeing the thought from the figurative clothing4 ,a further reason against referring the altar to the altar at ,bethel1 is1 that the latter enjoyed no such pre-eminence in the kingdom of ,israel4 ,the temple at ,bethel was1 to the ten tribes1 by no means what the temple at ,jerusalem was to ,judah4 ,the law regarding the unity of the place of worship was1 among the ten tribes1 regarded as non-existing4 ,even in the verse immediately preceding1 in viii4 #ad1 ,dan and ,beersheba had been mentioned as the chief seats of the ,israelitish worship2 and in chap4 iv4 #d1 ,gilgal appears beside ,bethel as possessing the same importance4 ,in chap4 v4 #e1 ,bethel1 ,gilgal1 and ,beersheba are mentioned together4 ,hosea1 in chap4 viii4 #aa1 reproves ,israel for having made many altars to sin4 ,hence1 there did not exist in ,israel an altar 4 ,such an altar existed only in ,pg #cgj ,judah4 ,nor had the sanctuary at ,bethel such importance1 as that it could be considered as the spiritual abode of the whole people4--,hofmann 7,weissagung u4 ,erfllung1 ,s4 #bjc7 raises the following objection against the reference to the altar at ,jerusalem3--,the prophet1 it is true1 reproves the sins in ,judah as well as those in ,israel2 but it is only to the kingdom of ,jeroboam that he announces destruction1 while to the house of ,david he promises that ,jehovah would raise it up from its fallen condition4 ,but in opposition to this objection1 we need only refer to ii4 #e3 ,and ,i send fire in ,judah1 and it devours the palaces of ,jerusalem4 ,passages such as i4 #ad1 #ae1 ii4 #c1 absolutely forbid us to make an exception of the palace of the king2 and1 by chap4 vii4 #i1 where destruction is announced to all the sanctuaries of ,isaac1 we have as little warrant for excepting the temple4 ,to assume any such exceptions1 would be contrary to the analogy of all other threatenings4 ,hofmann further objects 7l4 c4 ,s4 #bjd71 ,as the threatening announcement of the prophet had last remained suspended over ,israel1 we are at liberty to think of the altar at ,bethel only4 ,but already1 in the third chapter1 all ,israel is addressed1 according to ver4 #a2 and we may further refer to v4 #be1 where likewise ,israel can mean only the whole people1#b while in vi4 #a1 ,judah is expressly mentioned beside ,israel4 ,the prophet employs1 throughout1 the name of ,israel with a certain ambiguity2 so that it would be vain to attempt to determine whether it be used in the wider1 or in the more limited sense4 ,wherever he wishes to be distinctly understood as speaking of the ten tribes1 he speaks of ,joseph and ,samaria4 ,still less would the prophet have employed the names of ,jacob 7iii4 #ac1 vi4 #h1 vii4 #b1 #f7 and of ,isaac 7vii4 #i1 #af71 which were quite uncommon as a designation of the ten tribes1#c ,pg #cga if it had been of importance1 and intentional on his part strictly to separate the boundaries of ,judah from those of ,israel1 and1 if there were not everywhere here1 only a special application to the ten tribes of that which concerned the whole who were connected by a common fate4 ,but it is especially suitable1 that just the close of the whole should1 in a remarkably distinct manner1 bring into view the two kingdoms1 the destinies of which were so intimately connected4--,hitzig1 further1 with a view to favour the reference to the temple in ,bethel1 adduces the consideration that this vision is connected with the close of viii4 #ad1 and forms a kind of explanation of it4 ,but we have here an entirely new beginning1 just as in chap4 viii4 in its relation to chap4 vii4 ,the three visions are altogether independent of1 and co-ordinate with each other4-- with is commonly used of a prominent position at the side of3 ,gen4 xviii4 #b2 #a ,sam4 iv4 #bj2 compare with #a ,kings xiii4 #a4 ,in ,ezek4 ix4 #a also1 the angels stand at the side of the brazen altar1 can1 of course1 never signify to be suspended4-- is a species of ornament at the top of the pillars2 and 1 the thresholds1 are contrasted with each other1 in order to give expression to the thought that the building was to be shaken1 and destroyed from the highest part of it to the lowest1--from the top to the bottom4 ,the shaking of the thresholds occurs also in ,is4 vi4 to denote that the shaking extended to the deepest foundations4 ,the greater number of interpreters translate3 ,strike the knop so that 444 tremble1 etc42 but the must be viewed rather as co-ordinate with 3 ,and they may tremble1 equivalent to ,make to tremble4--,the suffix in refers to the knops and threshold1 or to the entire building1 which is marked out by the contrast of the highest and lowest portions4 ,according to ,ewald and ,umbreit1 it is intended to refer to the dashed pieces of the altar2 but nothing has been said about the destruction of the altar4 ,in ,ezek4 ix4 #b likewise1 the altar is mentioned1 not because it was to be destroyed1 but only because there the guilt is heaped up4 ,the casting down does not1 in itself1 imply the breaking1 dashing into pieces2 it does so only by its being connected with the following 4 ,the passage in ,jer4 xlix4 #bj is analogous3 ,he shall make their habitation desolate over them2 instead of3 ,he shall thus make it desolate that they are buried beneath its ruins2 ,pg #cgb compare ,jer4 l4 #de4 1 properly understood1 does not mean upon the head2 the head is rather represented as the receptacle of the tumbling ruins2 they fall into their heads and crush them2 compare ,ps4 vii4 #ag4 ,in what precedes1 there is no definite noun to which refers4 ,this is to be explained by the dramatic character of the whole representation which arises necessarily from the opening phrase3 ,i saw4 ,the same reason accounts for the peculiarity of being employed without any designation of person4 ,in his inward vision1 the prophet sees the whole people assembled before the ,lord at the threshold of the temple4 ,the ,lord appears before him as the judge1 at the place of the transgressions1 at the side of the altar4 ,at ,his command1 the whole assembled multitude are buried under the ruins of the temple4 ,from this also it is evident that a destruction of the temple in a literal sense cannot be entertained2 for how could a whole people be buried under its ruins8 ,the same appears also from at the commencement4 ,this1 then1 shows that we have here before us a symbolical representation1 corresponding altogether to that which we have in vii4 #a1 #d1 #g1 viii4 #a4 ,hitherto1 the ,lord speaking to some one1 had given him the commission of destruction4 ,he now continues with3 ,i will kill4 ,this also shows that the one who is addressed is the ,angel of the ,lord4 ,the same occurrence takes place in the greater number of the passages in which the ,angel of the ,lord is spoken of4 ,in the action there is constant alternation2 it is ascribed1 at one time to ,him1 at another1 to ,jehovah4--,several interpreters 7,marckius1 ,de ,wette1 ,rckert1 and others7 explain by posterity2 others1 after the example of the ,chaldee 771 by remnant2 and others1 by lowest of the people4 ,we must here enter into a closer examination of the significations of this word4 ,it is commonly supposed 7compare ,gesenius and ,winer7 that1 primarily and properly1 it signifies the last and extreme part1 and then the end4 ,but that which is supposed to be the derived signification is rather the original and proper one4 ,the form of the word cannot furnish any reason why this should not be the case1 as is evident from what has been remarked by ,ewald3 ,as the feminine termination1 in general1 forms abstract nouns1 so also1 not unfrequently1 abstract nouns are derived from other nouns1 by means of the termination 2 very frequently there is no ,pg #cgc masculine in at all at the foundation1 but serves1 in general1 only as the sign of derivation4 ,the following reasons prove that the signification end is the primary and proper one4 #a4 ,if the contrary were the case1 the masculine would also occur1 and the feminine would be met with as an adjective also4 #b4 forms the constant antithesis to 2 but it is universally admitted that the former is1 originally and properly1 an abstract noun1 and signifies beginning4 ,the signification end must then be retained here also4 ,the word never has another signification 7compare my work on ,balaam1 p4 #dfe ff472 it means only end in ,its various relations4 ,but the posterity cannot here be thought of as the end2 for the whole action is concentrated in one point of time4 ,nor is the word ever used in the sense of posterity4 ,with as little propriety can end mean the lowest of the people2 for one cannot see why just these should be given up to the sword4 ,end1 here1 rather denotes remnant1--all those who1 at the overthrow of the temple1 might escape4 ,these1 the ,lord will pursue with the sword4 ,they who were buried under the temple are the beginning1 2 the latter are the 1 end4 ,corresponding to the shaking of the temple from the knops to the thresholds1 the thought is expressed in this manner1 that from the first to the last1 they should be subjected to the divine punishment4 ,an implied antithesis of quite the same kind1 of to occurs also ,in iv4 #b 7where ,de ,wette and ,rckert have likewise mistaken the sense71 and in viii4 #aj4--,on the last words of the verse1 which are to be considered as a further explanation of1 ,their end1 or remnant1 ,i will kill by the sword1 ,cocceius remarks3 ,this slaughter becomes the more thorough1 inasmuch as even they who flee1 or seemed to have fled1 are not excluded from it4 ,the second member seems to contradict the first2 for if none be allowed to flee away1 how can any have escaped8 ,several ,interpreters have been thereby induced to give to the verb the first time1 the signification to escape1--the second time1 to flee4 ,but the contradiction is quite similar to that which occurs in the preceding context also1 when all are dashed to pieces by the ruins1 and yet a remnant is spoken of4 ,it soon disappears when we consider that it ,is the intention of the prophet to cut off every possible way of escape1 by which carnal security endeavoured to save ,pg #cgd and preserve itself against the impression of his discourse--that it is equivalent to3 ,all shall be buried under the ruins1 and although some should succeed in escaping from this kind of destruction1 yet the sword of divine vengeance would be behind them1 and slay them2 flight shall not be possible to any man2 and even although it might be to some1 it would be of no avail to them1 for ,god would be their persecutor4 ,but another apparent contradiction must not be overlooked4 ,even here1 the destruction is most emphatically described as being quite general2 as such1 it is minutely represented ins vers4 #b-d4 ,one cannot fail to see how anxious the prophet is to cut off1 from every individual1 the idea of the possibility of an escape4 ,on the other hand1 it is announced in ver4 #h1 that the house of ,jacob shall not be utterly destroyed2 according to ver4 #i1 all the godly shall be preserved2 according to ver4 #aj1 the judgment is to be limited to the sinners from among the people1--a limitation which is also presupposed by the description in the #aath and subsequent verses4 ,in iii4 #ab1 the preservation of a small remnant amidst the general destruction had been promised4 ,the greater number of interpreters1 in order to reconcile this apparent contradiction1 assume an hyperbole in vers4 #a-d4 ,but this assumption is certainly erroneous4 ,the ground of this great copiousness1--the reason why the prophet represents the same thought in aspects so various1--is evidently to prevent every idea of an hyperbole1--to show that the words are to be taken in all their strictness of meaning4 ,but the limitation may be arrived at1 and effected in a different1 and legitimate way4 ,there is1 in the nature of ungodliness1 a levity which flatters every individual with the hope of escape1 even although a threatened general calamity should take place4 ,all the possibilities of deliverance are sought after in such a disposition of mind1 and are1 by imagination1 easily changed into probabilities and realities1 because just that is wanting which proves them to be improbable and unreal1 viz41 the consciousness of a living1 omnipotent ,god4 ,thus men free themselves from fear1 and with it1 from the troublesome obligation of escaping from it in another and a legitimate way1 viz41 by true conversion4 ,now1 it is this levity which the prophet opposes4 ,he shows that whatever possibility of deliverance such levity may dream of1 it never would become a reality1 and this ,pg #cge for the simple reason1 that they had not to deal with human antagonists2 from them an escape by human means would be possible1 how powerful and wise soever they might be4 ,but they have to deal with an omnipotent ,god1 who1 being also omnipresent1 can arm all ,his creatures against ,his despisers1 so that they cannot retreat to any place where ,he1 who reigneth absolutely in heaven and on earth1 has not ministers of ,his vengeance4 ,every thought1 then1 of an escape by human means is here cut off4 ,but with this1 every thought of deliverance in any way is taken from the ungodly1 who are told by their own consciences that ,god will not deliver them4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the same consideration could not but administer consolation to the godly4 ,if no one1 should he even hide himself in heaven1 can escape from ,god the ,avenger1 then no one1 were he even in the midst of his enemies1 and were the sword even already lifted up against him1 can be lost from ,god the ,deliverer4--,another question has been asked1 which relates to the historical reference of the threatened punishment4 ,it goes just as far as the thought which lies at its foundation3 ,you only have ,i known of all the families of the earth2 therefore ,i shall visit upon you all your transgressions4 ,those interpreters who think exclusively of either the ,assyrian1 or the ,chaldean1 or the ,roman destruction1 are1 in the same way1 partly right and partly wrong1 at the same time4 ,all these events1 and others besides1 belong essentially to one whole4 ,the difference as to time and circumstances is that which is unessential4 ,that a prophet had exclusively in view any single one from among those divine manifestations of punishment1 can be asserted1 only where he himself has given express declarations to such an effect2 and even then1 the prophecy is limited to that single event1 as to its form only3 its idea is not lost by the single fulfilment4 ,ver4 #b4 ,if they break through into hell1 from thence ,my hand shall take them2 if they ascend up into heaven1 from thence ,i will take them down4 ,the ,future must not1 either here1 or in what follows1 be understood as potentialis3 ,though they should conceal themselves2 but as the real ,future3 ,if they are to conceal themselves4 ,that with the ,future is used only de re dubia1 as ,winer asserts1 is as erroneous as to assert that1 with the ,preterite1 ,pg #cgf it supposes the condition as existing4 ,the correct view has been already given by ,gesenius in the ,thesaurus4 ,by supposing the possibility of a condition1 impossible in reality1 the denial of the consequence becomes so much the more emphatic and expressive4 ,that such a supposition is made here1 is evident from ver4 #d1 where the prophet passes over to the territory of actual possibility1 and where1 therefore1 we cannot translate3 ,though they should go4 ,such a supposition is1 in general1 very frequent4 ,it occurs1 e4g41 ,matt4 v4 #bi1 where ,tholuch 7,comment4 on the ,sermon on the ,mount7 has been led very far astray from the right understanding of 1 4441 by overlooking this usus loquendi4 ,we are not indeed at liberty to translate1 ,though thy right eye should offend thee2 but it must be decided by other arguments1 whether the condition here supposed be one really possible2 and these arguments show that it is only for the sake of greater emphasis that there has here been supposed as possible1 what is impossible4--,heaven and ,sheol form a constant contrast between the highest height and the lowest depth4 ,from a merely imagined possibility1 the prophet descends to the real one4 ,if1 then1 even the former be not able to afford protection1 because ,god's hand reaches even where one has escaped far from any human power1 how much less the latter6-- with the ,accus4 signifies to break through1 ,job xxiv4 #af2 with 1 to make a hole in anything2 thus ,ezek4 viii4 #h1 xii4 #g1 #ab 7 1 to make a hole in the wall74 ,these parallel passages show that the ,sheol must be conceived of as being surrounded with strong walls1--by which is expressed its inaccessibility to all that is living4 ,the fundamental passage is in ,ps4 cxxxix4 #g1 #h3 ,whither shall ,i go from ,thy ,spirit1 and whither shall ,i flee from ,thy presence8 ,if ,i ascend up into heaven4 ,thou art there2 if ,i make my bed in hell1 behold1 ,thou art there4 ,david does not here speak in his own person1 but in that of his whole race4 ,the ,psalm is an indirect exhortation to his successors on the throne1 and at the same time to the people4 ,if you are wicked1 so he here addresses them1 you can never hope to escape from the punishing hand of the ,almighty4 ,and since they have become wicked1 the words of ,david have acquired new emphasis4 ,ver4 #c4 ,and if they hide themselves on the top of ,carmel1 ,pg #cgg from thence ,i will search and take them out2 and if they hide themselves from ,my sight in the bottom1 of the sea1 from thence ,i will command the serpent1 and he bites them4 ,the question here is3--,why is ,carmel specially mentioned8 ,interpreters remind us of the numerous caves of this mountain1 which make it peculiarly suitable for concealment4 ,o4 ,f4 von ,richter1 in the ,wallfahrten im ,morgenlande1 ,s4 #fe1 remarks on this point3 ,the caves are extremely numerous in ,carmel1 especially on the west side4 ,it is said that there are more than a thousand1 and that they were inhabited in ancient times by monks1 to whom1 however1 their origin cannot be ascribed4 ,in one part of the mountain1 called 'the caves of the members of the orders1' #djj are found beside each other4 ,farther down in the hard limestone mountain1 there is one which is distinguished by its size1 about #bj paces long1 and more than #ae broad and high4 ,details still more accurate are given by ,schulz in the ,leitungen des ,hchsten1 ,th4 #e1 ,s4 #ahf1 #cjc4 ,according to him1 the road is pure rock1 and very smooth1 and so crooked1 that those going before cannot see those who follow them4 ,when we were only ten paces distant from each other1 we heard each other's voices1 indeed1 but were invisible to each other1 on account of the winding ways made in consequence of the intervening by-hills4444 ,everywhere there are caves1 and their mouths are often so small that only one man can creep through at a time2 the approaches to them are so serpentine1 that he who is pursued may escape from his pursuer1 and step into such a small opening1 of which there are frequently three or four beside each other1 before his pursuer is aware of it4 ,hence1 if any one should hide himself there1 it is exceedingly difficult1 yea1 even impossible for the eyes of man to discover him who is pursued4 ,but this circumstance alone does not exhaust the case1 even if we still further add that the mountain was then1 as it is now 7,richter1 ,s4 #ff71 covered with trees and shrubberies up to the summit4 ,the expression1 ,in the top1 must not be overlooked1 and the less so1 since it stands in evident antithesis to the bottom of the sea1--like the contrast of height and depth in the preceding verse4 ,heaven and hell are represented on earth by the top of ,carmel1 and the bottom of the sea4 ,the height of ,carmel must1 therefore1 come also into consideration4 ,this1 it is true1 is not very great2 ,buckingham ,pg #cgh estimated it at #aejj feet 7v4 ,raumer1 ,s4 #dj72 but the prophet chose ,carmel in preference to other higher mountains1 partly on account of the peculiarity already stated2 partly1 and especially1 on account of its position in the immediate neighbourhood of the sea1 over which its summit hangs1 and which can be seen to a great distance from it2 compare #a ,kings xviii4 #dc1 #dd4 ,of corporeal things it holds true1 as it does of spiritual things1 that opposites1 placed beside each other1 become thereby more distinct4 ,a lower elevation1 placed by the side of a depth1 appears to the unscientific eye to be much higher than another which is really so4 ,moreover1 the position of ,carmel at the extreme western border of the kingdom of ,israel must also be considered4 ,he who hides himself there1 must certainly be ignorant of any safer place in the whole country2 and if even then there be no more security1 the sea alone is left4-- occurs frequently with the signification to bid1 to command4 ,the word is chosen on purpose to show1 how even the irrational creatures stand in the service of the omnipotent ,god2 so that it requires only a word from ,him to make them the instruments of ,his vengeance4 ,that the prophet had a knowledge of a very dangerous kind of sea-serpents 7of which ,pliny xix4 #d speaks71 need not be supposed on account of the 4 ,that was not of the slightest consequence here4 ,in v4 #ai the serpent occurs in a particularizing representation of the thought that ,god is able to arm all nature against ,his enemies3 ,as if a man flees from the lion1 and a bear meets him2 and he comes home1 and leans his hand on the wall1 and a serpent bites him--just the opposite of the assurance that to those who love ,god1 all things shall work together for good4 ,so early as in ,deut4 xxxii4 #bd1 apostates are threatened with the poison of the serpents of the dust1 besides the teeth of wild beasts2 and what this threatening implied1 might have been well known to ,israel from their former history2 compare ,num4 xxi4 #f3 ,and the ,lord sent against the people serpents1 and they bit the people1 and much people of ,israel died1--a passage to which ,jeremiah alludes in chap4 viii4 #ag1 where he says2 ,for behold ,i send against you serpents1 basilisks1 against which there is no charm1 and they bite you1 saith the ,lord4 ,it is very probable that to this the prophet also alludes in the passage before us4 ,pg #cgi ,ver4 #d4 ,and if they go into captivity before their enemies1 from thence will ,i command the sword1 and it slayeth them2 and ,i set ,mine eyes upon them for evil and not for good4 means the state of exile4 ,the circumstance of their being carried into captivity might awaken the hope that mercy will be granted to them2 for1 according to the natural course of things1 he who is carried away into captivity may be sure of his life2 but nothing can give security before ,god4 ,the last words are strikingly illustrated by ,calvin1 who says3 ,there is an antithesis in this sentence1 inasmuch as ,god had promised that ,he would be the protector of ,his people4 ,but as hypocrites are always apt to appropriate to themselves the promises of ,god1 without having either repentance or faith1 the prophet here declares1 that the eye of ,god would be upon them1 not to protect them1 as was ,his custom1 but rather to add punishments to punishments4 ,and this sentence is worthy of notice1 inasmuch as we are thereby reminded1 that although the ,lord does by no means spare infidels4 ,he yet observes us more closely in order to punish us the more severely1 when ,he sees that we are utterly hardened and incurable4 ,under any circumstances1 the people of the ,lord continue to be the objects of special attention4 ,they are more richly blessed2 but they are also more severely punished4 ,ver4 #e4 ,and the ,lord1 ,jehovah1 of hosts1 who toucheth the earth1 and it melteth1 and all that dwell therein mourn2 and it riseth up wholly like the stream1 and it sinketh down as the stream of ,egypt4 ,the prophet continues to cut off every false hope with which levity flatters itself4 ,how can you think to escape1 since you have the ,almighty ,god for your enemy6 ,the prophet1 remarks ,jerome1 speaks thus1 in order to impress them with the greatness of divine power1 that they might not imagine that ,he would perhaps not do what ,he had threatened1 or that ,his power was not equal to ,his will4 ,similar descriptions of the divine omnipotence1 as opposed to unbelief and weak faith1 are very numerous2 e4g41 iv4 #ac1 v4 #h1 #bg2 ,is4 xl4 #bb1 xlv4 #ab4 ,we are not at liberty to translate3 ,and the ,lord ,jehovah of hosts is ,he who toucheth4 ,it is rather an abrupt mode of speech2 and there must be supplied1 either at the beginning1 ,and who is your enemy8 or at the end1 ,he is your opponent4 ,pg #chj ,this abruptness of language is quite in accordance with the subject1 and belongs1 moreover1 to the characteristic peculiarities of ,amos4 ,altogether similar is v4 #g1 #h1 where ,israel and their ,god are simply placed beside each other1 and every one is left to conclude for himself how such a ,god would act towards such a people3 ,they who turn judgment to wormwood1 and cast righteousness to the earth4 ,making the ,pleiades and ,orion1 and turning the shadow of death into the morning1 and making the day dark with night1 calling1 etc4 ,the accumulated appellations4 ,lord1 ,jehovah1 of hosts1 likewise serve to point out the omnipotence of ,god4 ,the believer accumulates these appellations in his prayer in order to awaken his confidence and hope2 compare1 e4g41 ,is4 xxxvii4 #af1 where ,hezekiah begins his prayer to the ,lord thus3 ,jehovah1 of hosts1 ,god of ,israel1 ,thou who art enthroned on ,cherubim1 ,thou art ,god alone for all the kingdoms of the earth4 ,but these appellations are held up to the unbelievers1 to cast down all their hopes4 ,we have separated1 of hosts1 from the preceding appellation of ,god by a comma4 ,ever since ,gesenius1 in his ,commentary on ,is4 i4 #i1 has asserted that when connected with ,jehovah1 must be considered as a ,genitive depending upon it1 his view has been pretty generally adopted4 ,but it is certainly erroneous4 ,the instances by which ,gesenius endeavours to prove the possibility of such a connection of proper names with appellative names are not to the point4 ,in ,bethlehem ,jehudah it is only by a false interpretation that ,jehudah is considered as standing in the status constr4 with ,bethlehem 7compare the remarks on ,mic4 v4 #a #b72 and with regard to it is to be remarked that1 in consequence of its many divisions1 loses the nature of a proper name4 ,the two words1 ,jehovah ,zebaoth1 can no more be immediately connected with each other than ,jehovah 7which is as perfect a proper name as ever existed7 ever has1 or ever can have1 the article4 ,let us only consider the phrase in ,ps4 lxxx4 #ae1 and elsewhere1 where a status constr4 is out of the question2 and1 further1 the fact that wherever1 as in the case under review1 ,adonai precedes1 the ,mazorets have always given to the points of but never of 2 and let us1 finally1 consider the far more frequent1 full expression1 7e4g41 iii4 #ac1 iv4 #ac1 v4 #ad71 and we shall be convinced1 that even where the ,pg #cha simple occurs1 not indeed is simply to be supplied 7if such were the case1 why is it that never occurs alone871 but that the notion of the ,lord is to be taken from the preceding designations of the sovereignty of ,god4 ,compare on the remarks in my ,commentary on ,ps4 xxiv4 #aj1 where those also are refuted who1 like ,maurer 7in his ,comment4 on ,is4 i4 #i71 maintain that it had simply become a name of ,god4--,the manifestations of ,god's omnipotence are1 after the general intimations of it are given1 just such as might now be expected2 compare viii4 #h4 ,the ,fut4 with ,vav ,conv4 does not here denote the ,past1 ,and it melted1 but only the consequence of the preceding action1 as continuous as that3 ,who toucheth the earth1 and it melteth4 ,a dissolution of the earth is to be thought of1--similar to that condition in which it was before the days of creation1 and similar to its condition during the great flood4 ,such a condition of dissolution takes place also when the earth is visited by mighty kings desirous of making conquests4 ,who toucheth the earth1 and it melteth1--the truth of these words ,israel had first to learn by sad experience when the wild hosts of ,asshur were poured out over the ,west of ,asia4 ,the passage in ,ps4 xlvi4 #g is parallel1 where it is said3 ,the heathen rage1 kingdoms are shaken2 ,he uttereth ,his voice 7which corresponds with1 ',who toucheth the earth1' in the verse before us71 and the earth melteth4 ,the 1 to melt1 to dissolve1 signifies1 in that passage1 the dissolving effect of the divine judgments1 the instruments of which are the conquerors4 ,further1--,ps4 lxx4 #d3 ,the earth and all the inhabitants thereof are melted1--by the success of the conqueror of the world1 the earth is1 as it were1 dissolved1 and sunk back into the chaotic state of primitive time4--,the words1 ,and it riseth up1 are to be explained from the fact that the earth1 changed into a great stream1 cannot be distinguished from the water which covers it4 ,the earth rises up1 it is overflowed1--the earth sinks down1 the water subsides4 ,the last clause of the verse must not be translated--as is done by ,rosenmller1 ,gesenius1 ,maurer--,it is overflowed as by the stream of ,egypt4 ,this explanation is unphilological1 and contrary1 at the same time1 to the parallelism1 which requires that be1 both the times1 understood in the same way4 ,the verb means only to sink1 to sink down1 and is used of the subsiding water1 ,ezek4 xxxii4 #ad2 of the subsiding flame1 ,pg #chb ,num4 xi4 #b2 and of a sinking town1 ,jer4 li4 #fd4 ,the last words thus rather contain the opposite of the clause immediately preceding4 ,but the sinking does not1 by any means1 signify a freedom from the waters1 nor is it to be conceived of as remaining4 ,all which is expressed is the change only1--the ebb takes the place of the flood1 and vice versa4 ,this1 however1 is1 on the dry land1 a very sad condition4 ,the inundation is here an emblem of hostile overflowing4 ,water is frequently an emblem of enemies2 compare ,ps4 xviii4 #ag1 cxliv4 #g4 ,overflowing streams are emblematical of the crowds of nations1 who1 with a view to conquest1 overflow the whole earth4 ,is4 viii4 #g1 #h1 xvii4 #ab2 ,jer4 xlvii4 #b1 xlvi4 #g1 #h1 where ,egypt rises as the ,nile1 just as1 in the case before us1 the earth2 with this difference1 however1 that there the rising is an active1 while here it is a passive one3 ,who is this who riseth like the ,nile1 whose waters are moved as the rivers8 ,egypt riseth up like the ,nile1 and his waters are moved like rivers1 and he saith1 ,i will go up and cover the earth1 ,i will destroy the city and the inhabitants thereof2 ,ezek4 xxxii4 #ad3 ,then will ,i make sink their waters1 and cause their rivers to run like oil1 equivalent to3 ,the conquering power of ,egypt shall cease4 ,amos viii4 #h is a parallel passage1 in which1 after the description of the prevailing sin1 it is said3 ,shall not the earth tremble for this1 and every one mourn that dwelleth therein8 ,and it riseth up wholly like the ,nile1 and is agitated1 and sinketh down like the ,nile of ,egypt4 ,the earthquake is the symbol of great revolutions1 by which that which is highest is turned upside down2 compare ,haggai ii4 #ba1 #bb3 ,i shake the heavens and the earth1 and overthrow the throne of kingdoms1 and destroy the strength of the kingdom of the heathen2 while the overflowing is emblematical of hostile inundation1 of visitation by war1 in which the ebb succeeds the flood1 and vice versa4--,in his negligent mode of writing--which frequently occurs in this book--the prophet wrote instead of 1 corresponding to the in the verse under consideration1 just as in the same verse he wrote instead of 4 ,the ,mazorets1 who everywhere disregarded the peculiarities of the individual writers1 have introduced the common form4 ,ver4 #f4 ,who buildeth ,his upper chambers in the heaven1 and ,his vault--over the earth ,he foundeth it3 who calleth the waters ,pg #chc of the sea1 and poureth them out over the earth--,jehovah ,his name4 ,that is here equivalent to 1 upper chambers 7compare #a ,chron4 xvii4 #ag1 where occurs with the signification high place71 is put almost beyond any doubt by the parallel passage1 ,ps4 civ4 #c3 ,who frameth with the waters ,his upper chambers4 ,the fundamental passage is ,gen4 i4 #g3 ,god made the vault1 and divided between the waters which are under the vault1 and the waters which are above the vault4 ,the waters1 viz41 the upper ones--thus we have remarked in our commentary on that passage from the ,psalms--are the material out of which the structure is reared4 ,to construct1 out of the moveable waters1 a firm palace1 the cloudy sky1 firm as a molten looking-glass 7,job xxxvii4 #ah71 is a magnificent work of divine omnipotence4 ,the palace of clouds1 as the upper part of the fabric of the universe1 gets the name upper chambers of ,god2 the lower part is the earth4 ,as all the other manifestations of divine omnipotence in vers4 #e1 #f1 are such as are to be called into existence now1 the upper chambers and the vault will here come into consideration1 in so far as from thence the torrents of rain are poured forth2 compare ,ps4 civ4 #ac1 according to which the rain cometh from the upper chambers of ,god2 and ,gen4 vii4 #aa3 ,the same day broke forth all the fountains of the great flood 7the last member of our verse71 and the windows of heaven were opened4 ,from the upper chambers of ,god1 whence once1 at the time of the deluge1 the natural rain came down1 the rain of affliction will now descend4---- already occurred1 verbatim1 in v4 #h4 stands in the same relation to 1 as in ver4 #e does to and is equivalent to3 ,upon whose mere word the waters of the sea cover the surface of the earth2 compare ,gen4 vi4 #ag3 ,and1 behold1 ,i do bring the flood of waters upon the earth4 ,the sea is the common emblem of the heathen world2 compare remarks on ,ps4 xciii41 civ4 #f-i4 ,in chap4 vii4 #d1 the great flood is contrasted with the lot in ,deut4 xxxiii4 #i1--the heathen world1 with the people of ,god4 ,the fire of war1 which the ,lord kindles1 devours both in the same way4 ,here1 in contrast with the deluge1 the conquering inundation of the earth proceeds from the midst of the heathen world1 stirred up by the ,lord1 and destroys first of all unfaithful ,israel1 who1 had they been ,pg #chd faithful to the ,covenant1 would have been able to say1 as in ,ps4 xlvi4 #b-d1 ,god is our refuge and strength1 a help in trouble ,he is found very much4 ,therefore will we not fear when the earth is overturned1 and the mountains shake in the midst of the sea2 its waters roar and foam1 mountains tremble by its swelling4 ,ver4 #g4 ,are you not as the sons of the ,cushites unto ,me1 ,o children of ,israel8 saith the ,lord4 ,have not ,i brought up ,israel out of the land of ,egypt1 and the ,philistines from ,caphtor1 and ,aram from ,kir8 ,the prophet here deprives the people of another prop of false security4 ,they boasted of their election1 by which ,god ,himself1 as they imagined1 had bound ,his hands4 ,they considered the pledge of it--the deliverance from ,egypt--as a charter of security against every calamity1 as an obligation to further help in every distress1 which ,god could not retract even if ,he would4 ,a great truth lay at the foundation of this error1--a truth which has been disregarded by the greater number of interpreter's1 who have1 in consequence1 forced upon the prophet a sense which is altogether false4#d ,the election of the people1 and their deliverance from ,egypt1 were actually what they considered them to be4 ,god ,himself had in reality thereby bound ,his hands2 ,he was obliged to deliver the people4 ,he could not cast them off4 ,the election was an act of free grace2 the manifestation of it in deeds was an act of ,his righteousness4 ,the people had a right to remind ,him of ,his duty1 when ,he seemed not to perform it4 ,their election was then a firm anchorage of hope1 a rich source of consolation1 the foundation of all their prayers4 ,but the error consisted in this1 that the election was usurped by those to whom it did not belong1--an error which is continually repeating itself1 and which shows itself in a fearful form1 especially in the case of those who believe in the doctrine of ,predestination4 ,we need1 for example1 refer only to ,cromwell1 who1 in the hour of death1 silenced1 by this false consolation1 all the accusations of his ,pg #che conscience4 1 says the ,apostle1 in ,rom4 ii4 #be1 1 4 ,the deliverance from ,egypt stands on the same footing as circumcision4 ,the former also was profitable2 to those who showed themselves to be children of ,israel1 it afforded the certainty that ,god would prove ,himself to be their ,god4 ,for those1 however1 who had become degenerate1 it entered altogether into the circle of ordinary events4 ,for them1 it became something that had altogether passed away--that did not carry within itself any pledge of renovation4 ,this error is here laid open by the prophet1 as he had already done in v4 #ad3 ,seek good and not evil1 that ye may live1 and thus the ,lord1 the ,god of hosts1 be with you4 ,he directs their attention to the fact1 that1 in the ,covenant-relation1 which rests on reciprocity1 the party who broke the ,covenant had nothing to ask1 nothing to hope for4 ,be not1 etc42 the tertium comparationis is evidently the alienation from ,god4 ,the children of ,israel 7the appellation expressive of their dignity is intentionally chosen in order to make more striking the contradiction between the appearance and the reality7 have become so degenerate1 that they are no more any nearer to ,god than the sons of the ,cushites4 ,those interpreters who regard sin alone as the tertium comparationis 7,cocceius says3 ,ye are so alienated from ,him1 and so unfaithful1 that every one of you may be called a ,cushite71 give too limited a sense to the expression4 ,you are to ,me1 is rather equivalent to1 ,i have not any more concern in you1 you stand not to ,me in any other relation4 ,but why are the ,cushites alone mentioned as an example of a people alienated from ,god8 ,their colour1 perhaps1 is more to be considered in this1 than their descent from ,ham2 the physical blackness is viewed as an emblem of the spiritual4 ,thus they appear in ,jer4 xiii4 #bc3 ,will indeed the ,cushite change his skin1 and the leopard his spots8 will you indeed be able to do good1 who have been taught to do evil8 ,but the fundamental passage is the inscription of ,ps4 vii41 where ,saul1 on account of his black wickedness1 appears under the symbolical name of ,cush4--,the right explanation of these first words furnishes1 at the same time1 the key to the sound interpretation of the words which ,pg #chf follow3 ,it is only for the ,covenant-people that the deliverance from ,egypt is a pledge of grace4 ,but you are no longer the ,covenant-people2 your being brought up out of ,egypt1 therefore1 stands on the same line with the bringing up of the ,philistines from their former dwelling-places in ,caphtor to their present abodes1 and with the bringing up of the ,syrians from ,kir1 in which no one will see a pledge of divine grace1 a preservative against every danger1 and1 especially1 an assurance of the impossibility of a new captivity4 ,the geographical inquiries regarding ,caphtor and ,kir would lead us too far away from the subject which we are here discussing4 ,the view which is now prevalent1 and according to which ,crete is to be understood by the former1 is in contradiction to the old translations1 which have ,cappadocia1 and with ,gen4 x4 #ad1--;as long as1 in that passage1 the ,colchians are to be understood by the ,casluhim4 ,but that point would require a minute investigation1 which may be more suitably carried on at some other place4 ,ver4 #h4 ,behold1 the eyes of the ,lord ,jehovah are upon the sinful kingdom1 and ,i destroy them from off the face of the earth1 saving that ,i will not utterly destroy the house of ,jacob1 saith the ,lord4 ,the sinful kingdom1 whether its name be ,israel or ,judah1 or whether it be called ,egypt or ,edom4 ,the holy ,god has not by any means1 as you in your blindness imagine1 given you a privilege to sin4 ,a difference exists between ,israel and the others in this respect only1 that utter ruin does not take place in the case of the former1 as it does in that of the latter4 ,for the distinction between the people of ,god and other nations consists in this1 that in the former1 there always remains a holy seed1 an 1 which the ,lord must protect1 and make the nursery of ,his kingdom1 according to the same necessity of ,his nature as that by which ,he extirpates the sinners of ,his people4 ,the sinful kingdom forms the contrast with the righteous kingdom2 the article being here used in a generic sense4 ,similar are ,is4 x4 #f3 ,i send him against impious people1 and against the people of ,my wrath 7wheresoever there are such7 ,i give him command2 and ,ps4 xxxiii4 #ab3 ,blessed is the nation whose ,god is the ,lord1 the people whom ,he hath chosen for ,his inheritance2 on which latter passage ,michaelis remarks1 ,blessed is the nation1 whichsoever it may be4 ,the eyes of ,pg #chg the ,lord are open upon the sinful kingdom1 and hence also upon the house of ,jacob2 it must be destroyed as all others are1 but it cannot be destroyed like them1--an idea which is prominently brought out by the prefixed ,infinit4 4 ,that is an erroneous interpretation which understands by the sinful nation1 ,ephraim1 and1 after the example of ,grotius 7,i will destroy the kingdom1 not the people71 assumes that1 by the house1 in contrast with the kingdom1 the people are intended4 ,such a contrast betwixt the house and the kingdom would have required a more distinct intimation4 ,the house of ,jacob1 when referred to the ten tribes1 is identical with the kingdom4 ,they were a house only in so far as they were a kingdom4 ,but it is both against the words 7in ,obad4 ver4 #ag1 house of ,jacob is likewise used of the whole of the nation71 and against the connection1 to refer it to the ten tribes4 ,when1 however1 it is referred to the whole1 a contrast betwixt people and kingdom can the less have place1 as1 according to ver4 #aa1 the kingdom also shall be restored4--,the first part of the verse is almost literally identical with ,deut4 vi4 #ae3 ,for a jealous ,god is ,jehovah1 thy ,god1 in thy midst2 lest the anger of ,jehovah thy ,god be kindled against thee1 and ,he destroy thee from off the face of the earth1 4 ,the prophet says nothing new2 he only resumes the threatening of the revered lawgiver4--,the construction of with is explained by the circumstance that1 according to the context1 the eyes of the ,lord can mean only ,his angry eyes--equivalent to the anger of the ,lord in the passage quoted from ,deuteronomy2 and the verbs and nouns expressive of anger are connected by with the object on which the anger rests2 compare ,ps4 xxxiv4 #ag4 ,ver4 #i4 ,for behold ,i command and shake the house of ,israel among all the nations1 as one shaketh in a sieve1 and not shall anything firm fall to the ground4 ,the figure in this verse is1 upon the whole1 plain2 but some of the particulars require to be explained1 and to be more accurately determined4 ,the signification sieve1 commonly assigned to 1 must be conceded to it4 ,we must1 however1 here understand it of such a sieve as serves similar purposes as a winnowing shovel1 in which the corn is violently shaken1 and thus purified2 and not of a sieve in which1 by mere sifting1 the corn is freed from the dust which has remained after the first ,pg #chh and proper cleansing4 ,the latter is assumed by ,paulsen 7vom ,ackerbau der ,morgenlnder1 ,s4 #add71 and1 along with him1 by the greater number of interpreters4 ,such a sieve--a kind of fan--is mentioned in ,is4 xxx4 #bd1 in addition to the winnowing shovel4 ,it occurs likewise in ,luke xxii4 #ca1 where is vanno agitare4 ,the ,,lxx4 also have here adopted the explanation1 not of an ordinary sieve1 but of an instrument which serves the same purposes as the winnowing shovel3 74 7 1 4 ,hesych4 1 4 ,to this we are likewise led by the verb 1 which is indicative of a violent procedure1 and by the occurrence of the same figure in so many passages of ,scripture2 compare1 e4g41 ,jer4 li4 #b2 ,i will send against ,babylon fanners that shall fan her1 and shall empty her land2 ,jer4 xv4 #g1 and ,matt4 iii4 #ab2 while the use of the ordinary sieve for such a purpose is never mentioned1 nor is it ever employed for a figure4-- is not to be translated1 by all nations1 but1 as the corresponding shows1 in1 or among all nations4 ,the many people are the spiritual sieve1--the means of purging4 ,the ,lord1 whose instruments they are1 employs them for the destruction of the ungodly4 ,they are taken away by ,his secret judgments1 for the execution of which ,he employs the heathen2 compare ver4 #aj4 ,even the godly are violently shaken2 but the hand of the ,lord secretly upholds them that they may not sink1 but that the temptation may serve for their spiritual growth2 compare ,luke xxii4 #ca1 #cb1 where the ,lord distinctly alludes to the passage under consideration4 ,the corn is shaken2 dust and impurity fall to the ground1 the chaff flies into the air4 ,many interpreters ascribe to the signification1 corn2 others1 little stone4 ,but these significations have been both assumed merely for the sake of the context4 1 from 1 colligavit1 constrinxit1 means1 primarily1 that which is tightly bound together2 then1 bundle1 bag2 but here1 as in #b ,sam4 xvii4 #ac1 that which is compact1 firm1 and solid1 as opposed to that which is loose1 dissolved1 and thin4 ,that which is here meant is the solid1 firm corn1 as opposed to the loose chaff1 and the dust which falls to the ground through the sieve4 ,ver4 #aj4 ,by the sword1 shall die all the sinners of ,my people who say1 ,the evil will not come near1 nor advance to us4 ,pg #chi ,in order that the preceding mitigation of the threatening of punishment might not be appropriated by those to whom it did not belong1 the prophet1 before passing on to the further detail of the promise1 once more presents the threatening in all its severity4 ,the sinners who speak1 etc41 are they who usurped the promises of the ,covenant without having truly fulfilled its conditions1--who boasted of1 and trusted in1 their belonging outwardly to the people of ,god 7compare iii4 #b71 and their zeal in the external performance of the duties of worship 7compare v4 #ba-bc72 and who therefore imagined that the judgments of the ,lord could not reach them1 while1 by their sins1 they did all in their power to draw them down upon them1 v4 #ah1 vi4 #c4 ,ver4 #aa4 ,in that day ,i will raise up the tabernacle of ,david that is fallen1 and wall up its breaches1 and raise up its ruins1 and build it as the days of eternity4 ,the words1 ,in that day1 are to be understood quite generally1 viz41 as referring to a time after the divine judgments have broken in and have completed their work upon ,israel4 1 by which ,james renders it in ,acts xv4 #af1 completely expresses the sense4 ,the assertion of ,baur1 ,that the prophet must have conceived of the restoration of the tabernacle of ,david as being near at hand1 because he recognised the instruments of judgment in the invading ,assyrians1 falls to the ground along with the supposition on which it rests4 ,the prophet has nothing at all special to do with the invasion of the ,assyrians4--,the ,partic4 1 according to the usual signification of the ,partic41 expresses a permanent condition4 ,the very expression1 tabernacle1 suggests the idea of a sunken condition of the house of ,david4 ,the prophet sees the proud palace of ,david changed into a humble tabernacle1 everywhere in ruins1 and perforated4 ,the same idea is expressed by a different image in ,is4 xi4 #a4 ,there the house of ,david is called the cut off trunk of ,jesse1 which puts forth a new shoot4 ,hofmann and others are of opinion that the prophet designates the house of ,david as a fallen tabernacle1 on account of its abasement at the time then present4 ,at present1 he says1 the lofty house of ,david is a when compared with the power of ,jeroboam2 but the latter shall fall1 and the former shall raise itself again from its decay4 ,but this designation is certainly not applicable to ,pg #cij the house of ,david under a king like ,uzziah1 nor1 in general1 to the whole time of the existing ,davidic kingdom4 ,the fact that ,amos foresees the deep fall of ,judah1 is placed beyond all doubt even by ii4 #e4 ,it is impossible that the announcement of the restoration which is to follow only after this fall1 should altogether ignore the latter4 ,this is1 moreover1 proved by the parallel passages4 ,the predictions of all the prophets are pervaded by the foresight of the ,messiah's appearing at the time of the deepest debasement of the ,davidic dynasty1 and after the total loss of the royal dignity2 compare the remarks on ,mic4 iv4 #h1 vi4 7#b72 ,is4 xi4 #a1 liii4 #b2 ,ezek4 xvii4 #bb-bd4--;,it might now appear as though the prophet here only supposed the ruin of the house of ,david1 without having1 in the preceding context1 expressly mentioned it2 but such is not the case4 ,the whole of the preceding threatening of punishment relates to the ruin of the house of ,david2 for when the kingdom suffers1 the reigning family cannot but suffer also4 ,this close connection of the two is pointed out by the prophet himself in the subsequent words4 ,the change of the suffixes is there certainly not without a reason4 ,the suffix in refers to the two kingdoms2 that in to ,david2 and that in to the tabernacle1 while the subject of 7ver4 #ab7 is the people4 ,by this it is intimated that ,david1 his tabernacle1 the kingdoms1 and the people1 are in substance one--that one stands and falls with the other4 ,they who overlook the co-reference to ,judah1 in the preceding verses1 do not know what to make of the suffix in 7compare the expression these kingdoms1 used of ,judah and ,israel in vi4 #b71 and1 in their uncertainty1 conjecture sometimes one thing and sometimes another4-- is ,nominat41 not ,accusat4 ,the comparison is merely intimated2 compare remarks on ,hos4 ii4 #ag4 ,the circumstance that the happy days of the times of ,david and ,solomon are here spoken of as days of eternity--of the remotest past 7compare ,mic4 vii4 #ad7--;implies that the prophet sees a long interval between the present and the predicted event4--,the foundation of this prophecy is the promise to ,david in #b ,sam4 vii42 compare especially ver4 #af3 ,and thine house and thy kingdom shall be sure in eternity before thee1 and thy throne shall be firm in eternity4 ,this reference has also been pointed out by ,calvin1 who remarks3 ,when the prophet says1 'as in the days of old1' he confirms ,pg #cia the doctrine that the dignity of the house would not always flow in an equal current1 but that1 nevertheless1 there would always be such a restoration as would make it easily perceptible that ,god's promise of an eternal dominion to ,david had not been in vain4 ,the dominion of ,david had already suffered a considerable shock by the separation of the two kingdoms1 existing at the prophet's time2 but it was in future to sink even far more deeply1 and the people along with it4 ,but1 with all these things1 ,god's promise remains true4 ,the judgments do not shut up the way for ,his mercy1 but rather prepare it4 ,that it was only through the family of ,david that the promised salvation could be imparted to the people1 the prophet plainly declares4 ,if it were not so1 how could he have identified the tabernacle of ,david with the two kingdoms1 and with the people8 ,as to the person of the restorer1 he does not more particularly designate it4 ,the main thing with him1 as with ,hosea 7compare the remarks on ,hos4 ii4 #b1 and iii4 #e71 is to impress upon the people of ,israel the conviction1 that salvation could come to them only from a reunion with ,judah--from their joining again the house of ,david2 compare ,ezek4 xxxvii4 #bb3 ,and ,i make them one nation in the land upon the mountains of ,israel1 and one king shall be king to them all2 and they shall be no more two nations1 and they shall be no more divided into two kingdoms4 ,but if this was sure and established1 there could then be no more any doubt as to the person4 ,it was at that time generally known that the promise given to ,david would be finally fulfilled in the ,messiah2 and it was generally acknowledged by the ancient ,jews1 that the passages under consideration refer to the ,messiah4 ,jerome remarks3 ,the ,jews refer everything which1 in this and the other prophets1 is foretold concerning the building up of ,jerusalem and the temple1 and the happy condition of all things1 to themselves1 and foolishly expect that all shall be fulfilled in a carnal sense4 ,it is from the passage under review that the ,messiah received the name 1 filius cadentium--,he who springs forth from the fallen family of ,david2 compare ,sanhedrin1 fol4 #if1 #b3 ,r4 ,nachman said to ,r4 ,isaac1 ,hast thou heard when is to come8 ,the latter answered3 ,who is he8 ,r4 ,nachman said3 ,the ,messiah4 ,r4 ,isaac3 ,but is the ,messiah thus named8 ,r4 ,nachman3 ,certainly1 in ,amos ix4 #aa3 ,pg #cib ,in that day ,i will raise up the tabernacle of ,david that is fallen4 ,in ,breshith ,rabbah1 sec4 #hh1 we read3 ,who would have expected that ,god should raise up again the fallen tabernacle of ,david8 ,and yet we read in ,amos ix4 #aa1 ',in that day1' etc4 ,and who could have hoped that the whole world could yet become one flock8 ,and yet1 such is declared in ,zeph4 iii4 #i3 ',then will ,i turn to the people in pure lips1 that they all may call upon the name of the ,lord1 and serve ,him with one lip4' ,but all that is prophesied only in reference to the ,messiah4 ,see ,schttgen1 p4 #gj1 and other passages1 especially from the ,sohar1 ibid4 p4 #aaa1 #eff4 ,ver4 #ab4 ,in order that they may possess the remnant of ,edom1 and of all the heathen upon whom ,my name is called1 saith the ,lord that doeth this4 ,calvin remarks on this verse3 ,this main point is plainly declared to us1 that there is here promised an extension of the kingdom under ,christ2 and it is just as if the prophet had said that the ,jews were enclosed within narrow limits1 even when the kingdom of ,david did most flourish1 inasmuch as1 under ,christ1 ,god is to extend their territory1 so that they shall rule far and wide4 ,there is here an evident allusion to the times of ,david1 which1 in the last words of the preceding verse1 formed the subject of discourse4 ,this is quite plain also from the mention of the ,edomites4 ,these had been made subject by ,david2 but afterwards1 availing themselves of the commencing fall of ,david's tabernacle1 they had again freed themselves4 ,not only they1 however1 but all the other heathen nations1 shall be again subjected to the raised up tabernacle of ,david4 ,that former event served as a type and prelude to the latter1 and formed moreover a prophecy of it in deeds1 inasmuch as both rested on the same foundation1 viz41 ,god's protection of ,his ,church1 and ,his care for ,his kingdom4 ,it is for this reason too1 that1 with an allusion to the former event1 the verb is chosen4 ,by this verb1 expression is given only to the fact of their agreement1 and to points in which those events agree2 but it gives no indication of how far they agree1 or in what respects they differ2 this is to be declared in the subsequent words4 ,the prophet1 however1 in speaking only of the remnant of ,edom1 looks back to the threatening in chap4 i4 ,they only who have been preserved in the judgment which is there announced1 are to come ,pg #cic under the blissful dominion of the kingdom of ,david4 ,as ,israel1 so also the ,gentiles1 must be prepared for the coming of the kingdom of ,christ by crushing judgments4 ,the judgment upon ,israel is only a single portion of a great judgment upon all nations4 ,into this connection it is brought by the very opening chapters of this book4 ,in chap4 v4 #h1 vii4 #g1 there is likewise an intimation of great calamities and shakings1 which are to come upon the heathen world4 ,the submission of the remnant of the heathen world1 however1 will not be an abasement1 but1 on the contrary1 an exalting of them2 this is shown by the words1 ,upon whom ,my name is called4 ,these words do not allow us to think of such a relation of ,edom and the other nations to ,israel1 as existed at the time of ,david in the case of the conquered nations4 ,they are never used to designate a form of allegiance to the ,lord so low and false1 but always denote the relation of close and cordial allegiance4 ,the heathen are in future to be considered and treated as those who are consecrated to the ,lord1 and who belong to ,his holy people1--just as ,israel is now considered and treated4 ,compare1 as to the use of these words with reference to ,israel1 ,deut4 xxviii4 #i1 #aj3 ,the ,lord shall raise thee an ,holy people unto ,him1 as ,he hath sworn unto thee 444 and all people of the earth see that the name of the ,lord is called upon thee1 and are afraid of thee4 ,in this verse1 the expression1 ,the name of the ,lord is called upon thee1 corresponds with holy people4 ,jer4 xiv4 #i3 ,and ,thou1 ,o ,lord1 art in the midst of us1 and ,thy name is called upon us4 ,is4 lxiii4 #ai3 ,we are those over whom ,thou hast not reigned from eternity1 and upon whom ,thy name has not been called4 ,as regards the use of these words in reference to the temple1 compare1 further1 ,jer4 vii4 #aj1 #aa3 ,and ye come and stand before ,me in this house1 upon which ,my name is called4 ,is1 perhaps1 this house upon which ,my name is called1 a den of robbers in your eyes8 ,the exceeding greatness of their wickedness is denounced in these words2 and the ground why it is so great1 is not by any means the fact1 that the temple1 as was indeed the case with that at ,bethel1 bore the name of the house of ,god only by the caprice of the people1 but that it really was the house of ,god1 and that ,god1 in ,his gracious condescension1 was there really present1 as a type of ,his dwelling in ,christ2 compare ,deut4 xii4 #e3 ,the place which ,pg #cid the ,lord your ,god shall choose out of all your tribes1 to put ,his name there4 ,finally1 ,these words are used in reference to single individuals1 whom ,god1 in a special sense1 has made ,his own1 ,his representatives1 the bearers of ,his word1 the mediators of ,his revelations1 in ,jer4 xv4 #af3 ,i found ,thy words and ,i did eat them1 and ,thy words became unto me the joy and rejoicing of my heart3 for ,thy name was called upon me1 ,jehovah1 ,god of hosts1 etc41 equivalent to1 ,for ,i was the messenger and representative of ,thee1 the ,almighty ,god4--,hitzig1 ,hofmann1 and ,baur explain the expression1 ,upon whom ,my name is called1 by1 ,upon all the nations who once1 at the time of ,david1 were in subjection to the people of ,god4 ,the use of the ,preterite has been urged in favour of this explanation2 but it is certainly very rash to assert1 on the ground of this1 that this view alone is admissible according to the rules of grammar4 ,the statement of ,ewald1 #ace a1 is exactly applicable to this case3 ,the ,perfectum1 when used with reference to some future event1 either mentioned or conceived of1 may as well indicate the past which then has taken place4 ,the sense might thus be3 ,all the heathen upon whom then ,my name will be called4 ,in the same sense1 the ,preterite is used in another passage1 quoted by ,hofmann for a different purpose--viz41 #b ,sam4 xii4 #bh3 ,in order that ,i may not take 77 the city1 and my name be called 77 upon it4 ,it militates1 however1 against their view1 that the name of the ,lord being called upon any one1 has1 according to all the parallel passages1 a sense too profound to admit of a relation to the ,lord so loose and external being thereby designated4 ,it is used only of such as are received into the condition of the people and sons of ,jehovah1 ,hos4 ii4 #a 7i4 #aj74 ,further1 ,the mere restoration of the ,davidic dominion over the heathen is a very meagre thought1 which is far from coming up to what ,jacob had foretold in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj1 and to what ,david and ,solomon expected of the future2 compare1 e4g41 ,ps4 lxxii4 #aa3 ,and all kings worship ,him1 all the heathen serve ,him4--,the closing words1 ,thus saith the ,lord that doeth this1 are intended to strengthen faith in a promise which appears to be incredible1 by calling attention to the fact1 that the person who promises is also the person who carries it out to its fulfilment2 compare ,jer4 xxxiii4 #b3 ,thus saith the ,lord that makes it1 the ,lord that forms it1 ,pg #cie to carry it out1 the ,lord is ,his name4 ,this closing formula is also very ill suited for so meagre a prediction as that of the restoration of the old borders1 of which ,israel1 under the reign of ,uzziah and ,jeroboam1 was not so very far short4 ,it was1 probably1 solely from a false interpretation of the passage under review1 that an important historical event had its rise4 ,hyrcanus compelled the ,idumeans1 who were conquered by him1 to be circumcised1 and in that way to be incorporated into the ,theocracy2 so that they lost entirely their national existence and name 7,jos4 ,arch4 xiii4 #i1 #a2 ,prideaux ,hist4 des ,juifs1 vol4 v4 p4 #af74 ,this proceeding differed so materially from that which was ordinarily followed--for ,david did not think it at all necessary to adopt a similar proceeding against the ,idumeans1 and the other nations which were conquered by him--that it necessarily requires some special reason to account for it2 and such a reason is furnished by the passage under consideration4 ,hyrcanus washed to be instrumental in the fulfilment of the prophecy contained in it2 but in this he failed4 ,he did not consider1 #a4 ,that the reception of ,edom into the kingdom of ,god is here brought into connection with the restoration of the tabernacle of ,david1 and hence could be brought about only by a king of the house of ,david4 ,he did not consider1 #b4 ,that the matter here in question is not such a reception into the kingdom of ,god as depends upon the will of man1 but a spiritual reception1 which carries along with it the full enjoyment of divine blessings4 ,that it was1 however1 easy for ,hyrcanus to fall into such a mistake1 is shown by the example of ,grotius1 who confined himself to this merely apparent fulfilment1 although he had the real fulfilment before his eyes4 ,by a similar misunderstanding of ,old ,testament prophecies1 other important events also were brought about2 e4g41 according to the express testimony of ,josephus1 the building of the ,egyptian temple1 and1 as we shall afterwards see1 the building of the temple by ,herod4 ,it now only remains to consider the quotation of this passage in the ,new ,testament1 in ,acts xv4 #af1 #ag4 ,olshausen has directed attention to a difficulty regarding it1 which has been overlooked by the greater number of interpreters4 ,he says that one cannot well see how the quotation bears upon the point at issue4 ,both parties were at one as to the duty of admitting the ,gentiles into the kingdom of ,god4 ,the only question was ,pg #cif about the manner of their reception--whether with1 or without1 circumcision--and as to this1 the prophecy1 which confines itself to the fact only1 does not contain any express declaration4 ,but this difficulty has its sole foundation on the erroneous view that ,james was stating two reasons altogether independent of each other2--the first in ver4 #ad1 ,god's declaration by facts1 in ,his having given ,his ,holy ,spirit to the ,gentiles1 without their having been circumcised2 and then1 in vers4 #af1 #ag1 the testimony of the ,old ,testament4 ,but the sound view rather is1 that both together form only one reason4 ,apart from that testimony which ,god1 the ,searcher of hearts1 had given to the ,gentiles by the gift of the ,holy ,spirit1 and by making no difference betwixt them and ,israel1 the prophetic declaration would have been without any significance2 but it acquires this significance when combined with the testimony of ,god4 ,it is now also that the silence of ,james1 in reference to that condition which was demanded by those of a pharisaic tendency1 gains significance4 ,simeon has declared how ,god at first was pleased to take a people for ,his name out of the ,gentiles2 and after the fact of their reception has been so expressively declared1 the ,old ,testament passage1 where this reception is spoken of1 is not cognizant of any other mode4 ,the ,apostle does not content himself with quoting ver4 #ab2 he first cites ver4 #aa1 because it furnished the proof that the declaration contained in ver4 #ab referred to that time4 ,that event1 with which the conversion of the ,gentiles is here immediately connected1 had already taken place in ,christ1 at least as to the germ1 which contained within itself the whole substance which afterwards displayed itself4 ,but it was the main thought only which came into consideration in ver4 #aa1 and therefore it is somewhat abbreviated4 ,in the quotation1 the translation of the ,,lxx4 evidently forms the foundation4 ,the quotation of ver4 #ab agrees1 almost verbatim1 with the ,,lxx4 ,it follows them in their important deviation from the ,hebrew text4 ,instead of1 ,in order that they may occupy the remnant of ,edom1 the ,,lxx4 read1 7instead of ,luke has 1 which is found in the ,cod4 ,alex4 also1 but has very likely come in from ,luke74 ,it is of very little consequence to determine in what manner the translation of the ,,lxx4 arose2 whether they had a different reading1 1 ,pg #cig before them2 or whether they merely read erroneously2 or whether1 according to ,lightfoot 7in his remarks on ,acts xv4 #af1 #ag71 they intentionally thus altered the words2 or whether it was their object to express the sense only generally and approximately 7in the last two cases we should be obliged to suppose that1 by a kind of play1 and in order to represent1 in an outward manner1 the substantial agreement of the thought1 they chose words exactly corresponding to the ,hebrew text1 with the exception of a change of a few letters1--a thing which frequently occurs in the ,talmud1 and even in ,jeremiah when compared with the older prophets72 only1 we must set aside the idea of a really different reading1--a reading resting on the authority of good ,manuscripts1 inasmuch as such an idea would be irreconcilable with the deviations of the ,,lxx4 elsewhere1 and with the unanimity of the ,hebrew ,manuscripts in the passage before us4 ,the assertion of ,olshausen1 however1 that1 in the ,hebrew form1 the passage would not have been suitable for the purpose1 and that therefore it is probable that1 on this occasion1 ,greek must have been spoken in the assembly1 does indeed deserve our attention4 ,whether or not the latter was the case1 we leave undecided4 ,that it was probable1 may be proved from other grounds1 but it by no means follows from the reason stated by ,olshausen4 ,the passage was suited for the proof1 as well according to the ,hebrew text1 as according to the ,alexandrian version2 for the latter is quite correct and faithful in so far as the sense is concerned4 ,the occupying1 in the sense in which it is used by ,amos1 has the seeking for its necessary supposition4 ,for how1 indeed1 can spiritual possession1 spiritual dominion by the people of the ,lord exist1 unless the ,lord has been sought by those who are to be ruled over8 ,compare the declaration3 ,the isles shall wait for ,his law1 ,is4 xlii4 #d4 ,the words1 ,and of all the heathen1 following immediately after ,edom1 evidently prove that ,amos mentions ,edom1 only by way of individualizing2 and the ,idumeans1 especially1 as a people1 only because their former1 specially violent hatred to the ,covenant-people 7compare i4 #aa7 made their future humble submission more evidently a work of the omnipotence of ,god1 and of ,his love watching over ,his people2 and at the same time there may be a reference also to the former subjection by ,david4 ,the ,,lxx4 ,pg #cih have done nothing more1 than at once to substitute for the particular1 the general which comprehends this particular1--a particular which is1 by ,amos too1 designated as a part of the general4#e ,ver4 #ac4 ,behold1 days come1 saith the ,lord1 and the ploughman reacheth to the reaper1 and the treader of the wine-press to him that soweth seed4 ,and the mountains drop must1 and all the hills melt4 ,the fundamental thought in this passage is this3--,wheresoever the ,lord is1 there also is the fulness of ,his gifts4--,the imagery in the first hemistich is taken from ,lev4 xxvi4 #c-e3 ,if ye shall walk in ,my laws1 and keep ,my commandments and do them2 then ,i will give your rains in their seasons1 and the land gives its produce1 and the tree of the field gives its fruit4 ,and your threshing reaches to the vintage1 and the vintage reaches to the sowing time4 ,after the ,lord has purified ,his congregation by ,his judgments1 then the joyful time of blessing1 prophesied by ,his servant ,moses1 shall likewise come4 ,cocceius says3 ,one shall reap1 the other shall immediately plough2 one shall scatter the seeds in the ploughed field1 while another shall1 at the same time1 tread the grapes1--a work is wont to be done at the last time of the year4 ,there shall be continual work1 and continual fruit1 and a fruitfulness such as that in the land of the ,troglodytes which ,scaliger 7,exercit4 #bdi1 #b7 thus describes3 ',throughout the whole year there is sowing and reaping at the same time2 at one place the seed is committed to the fields1 and at another the wheat shoots up1 at another it gets ears1 at another it is reaped1 at another it is collected1 and ,pg #cii brought to the threshing-places1 and thence to the barn4'--,the second hemistich agrees with ,joel iv4 7iii47 #ah 7which is certainly not accidental2 compare the introduction to ,joel73 ,at that time the mountains shall drop must1 and the hills go with milk4 ,from a comparison of this passage it appears that the melting of the hills can mean only their dissolving into rivers of milk1 must1 and honey1 with an allusion to the description of the promised land in the ,pentateuch 7,exod4 iii4 #h7 as a land flowing with milk and honey4 ,ver4 #ad4 ,and ,i turn ,myself to the captivity of ,my people ,israel1 and they build waste cities1 and dwell1 and plant vineyards1 and drink their wine2 and they make gardens and eat their fruit4 ,the captivity is a figure of misery4 ,with reference to compare the remarks on ,joel4 ,ver4 #ae4 ,and ,i plant them in their land1 and they shall no more he plucked up out of their land which ,i have given them1 saith the ,lord thy ,god4 ,compare p4 #bbg seqq4 ,footnote #a3 ,hofmann1 ,schriftbeweis ,i4 ,s4 #cab1 objects3 ,if this were correct1 ,paul ought to have delivered that fornicator at ,corinth 7#a ,cor4 v4 #e71 or ,hymeneus and ,alexander 7#a ,tim4 i4 #bj71 not to ,satan1 but to the good angels4 ,but the individuals mentioned were members of the ,church of ,christ1 and they were delivered to ,satan1 not for their absolute destruction1 but for their salvation3 1 7which of course was still in existence2 and it is just the that separates between the world and the ,church1 compare ,ps4 li4 #ac7 1 4 ,it is1 as in the case of ,job1 a punishment with a view to purification1 for which power is given to ,satan1 ,heb4 xii4 #f4 ,these passages1 then1 serve only to confirm the view which we have expressed4 ,footnote #b3 ,the same is probably the case in vi4 #ad3 ,for behold ,i raise up against you1 ,o house of ,israel1 saith the ,lord ,god of ,hosts1 heathen people2 and they shall afflict you from ,hamath unto the river of the wilderness4 ,the river of the wilderness can here be none other than the river of ,egypt1 which commonly appears as the boundary of the whole4 ,compare #a ,kings viii4 #fe2 #b ,chron4 vii4 #h1 where ,solomon assembles the whole people from ,hamath unto the river of ,egypt2 ,josh4 xv4 #d1 #dg2 #b ,kings xxiv4 #g2 ,is4 xxvii4 #ab4 ,they who think of the boundary of the kingdom of the ten tribes only1 are at a loss1 and have recourse to uncertain conjectures4 ,footnote #c3 ,in ,micah i4 #ae the entire people are called ,jacob4 ,the same occurs also in ,hos4 x4 #aa1 xii4 #c 7#b74 ,footnote #d3 ,hitzig says3 ,with a disposition of mind different from that in iii4 #b1 the prophet says here1 ,you enjoy no privileges with me1 you are to me like all others4 ,a strange disposition of mind indeed for a prophet6 ,an interpretation which results in such thoughts1 which cannot be entertained for a moment1 is self-condemned4 ,footnote #e3 ,whether1 however1 it was ,james or ,luke who quoted these words according to the version of the ,,lxx41 this passage is one of the many hundreds which prove that the violent urging and pressing for an improvement in our 7,german7 authorized version of the ,scriptures1 as it proceeded from von ,meier and ,stier1 is exaggerated4 ,the ,saviour and ,his ,apostles adopted1 without hesitation1 the version current at their time1 when its deviations concerned not the thought but the words4 ,if we proceed upon this principle1 how will the mountain of complaints melt away which has been raised against ,luther's translation of the ,scriptures4 ,but it is true that1 even then1 weighty objections remain4 ,the revision of it is a want of the ,church2 but it is not so urgent that we may not1 and must not1 wait for the time when it may be satisfied without danger4 ,if it were undertaken at present1 the disadvantages would far outweigh the advantages4 ,to everything there is a season2 and it is the duty of the wise steward to find it out1 and to know it4 ,,the ,,prophecy ,,of ,,obadiah4 ,we need not enter into details regarding the question as to the time when the prophet wrote4 ,by a thorough argumentation1 ,caspari has proved1 that he occupies his right position in the ,canon1 and hence belongs to the earliest age of written prophecy1 i4e41 to the time of ,jeroboam ,,ii4 and ,uzziah4 ,as bearing conclusively against those who would assign to him a far later date1 viz41 the time of the exile1 there is not only the indirect testimony borne by the place which this prophecy occupies in the collection of the prophets which is chronologically arranged1 but there are also the following facts2--that those who are to inflict the predicted calamity upon ,judah are not at all more definitely characterized than in the first part of ,hosea1 in ,joel1 and ,amos2--that1 in like manner1 the heathen power from which the overthrow of ,edom is to proceed1 is neither mentioned1 nor more definitely pointed out in any other way2--that ,jeremiah already made use of ,obadiah's prophecy2 and if such be denied1 the older foundation would then be withdrawn from the prophecy of ,jeremiah--which would be contrary ,pg #djj to the analogy of ,jeremiah's prophecies against foreign nations2--and1 finally1 that1 in vers4 #ab-ad1 the prophet exhorts the ,edomites neither to rejoice nor to co-operate in the destruction of ,jerusalem1 because1 otherwise1 they would certainly receive the well-merited reward of such wickedness committed against the ,covenant-people1 to whom they were so nearly related4 ,such an exhortation would have been out of place1 after the wickedness had been committed4--,the view of ,hofmann 7which was revived by ,delitzsch in his treatise1 ,when did ,obadiah prophesy8 ,guerike's ,zeitschrift #ea1 ,hft4 #a7--;according to which the capture of ,jerusalem by the ,philistines and ,arabians under ,jehoram 7#b ,chron4 xxi4 #af ff47 was the occasion of the prophecy before us1 and according to which ,obadiah is thus made the oldest among all the prophets in the ,canon1 and separated by nearly a century from the three prophets who preceded him--overlooks the fact that only cogent reasons could induce us to assume so isolated a position1 since it is certainly not a matter of accident that the written prophecy began its course under the reign of ,jeroboam and ,uzziah4 ,the guilt and punishment of ,edom are1 in like manner1 spoken of in the ,preterite2 and it is inadmissible to understand the ,preterites as historical1 in so far as they refer to the guilt1 and as prophetical1 in so far as they refer to the punishment4 ,the words1 ,day of their destruction1 in ver4 #ab1 are decisive against every other catastrophe upon ,judah1 but that of the ,chaldean4 ,ver4 #bj1 when rightly interpreted1 supposes the carrying away of ,israel and ,judah1 and hence allows us to think only of the ,assyro-,chaldean catastrophe4 ,in ver4 #ba1 ,mount ,zion is forsaken1 and the saviours return to it from the land of captivity4 ,in strict accordance with the position of the book in the ,canon1 is the fact1 that ,obadiah connects himself most closely with ,joel1 and1 excepting him1 among all the prophets1 with ,amos only2 compare ,caspari1 ,s4 #bj ff41 #ce2 ,hvernick1 ,einleitung ,,ii4 ,s4 #cah4 ,of greater importance than the coincidences in particulars1 is the fact that the prophecy of ,obadiah1 upon the whole1 connects itself most closely and immediately with the fourth 7third7 chapter of ,joel--that in the prophecy of ,obadiah1 we have indeed a variation on that chapter4 ,the judgment upon ,judah1 which ,joel announces in the first part1 ,pg #dja is here supposed to have already taken place2 and this might be done so much the rather1 because1 even in ,joel1 the prophetic ,plerophory1 with which rationalistic interpreters are so much puzzled1 has changed the ,future into the ,present and ,past--as1 even there1 the destruction of ,jerusalem1 and the overflowing of the whole country by the heathen1 are represented as already existing4 ,it is only the judgment upon the heathen1 and the restoration of ,israel1 which ,obadiah represents in his prophetic picture4 ,like ,hosea 7in the first three chapters71 ,joel1 and ,amos1 so ,obadiah also1 received the mission to point out the catastrophe threatened by the world's power1 even before the latter existed on the scene of history4 ,it was to the ,covenant-people a source of rich consolation that it was so clearly and distinctly foretold to them1 even before it had an existence1 and the points of view from which it must be regarded were opened up to them4 ,he1 however1 distinctly points to one idea only1 just because there were already predecessors to whose prophecies he could refer4 ,he did not receive the mission to call to repentance1 or to represent the judgment as a well-deserved punishment--although1 indirectly1 in him as well as in ,joel1 these thoughts also occur1 as certainly as the supposed destruction of ,judah and ,israel could only be the punishment of their sin2 he has to point out only the salvation subsequent to the overflowing by the heathen world1 the conquering power of the kingdom of ,god which1 in the end1 will manifest itself1 and deeply to impress upon the ,covenant-people the words3 1 4 ,the glaring contrast betwixt the idea--according to which the kingdom of ,god was to be all prevailing--and the reality1 in which it is pressed into a corner1 shall in future increase still more4 ,even from this corner1 the people of ,god shall be driven4 ,but death is the transition to life2 the uttermost degree of sufferings1 the forerunner of deliverance and salvation4 ,not a restoration only is in store for the people of ,god--they even obtain the dominion of the world2 but to the heathen world1 which is at enmity with ,god1 their exaltation is a forerunner of destruction4 ,all which ,obadiah had to say in reference to the heathen1 ,god-hating world1 and to the form which1 in future1 ,israel's ,pg #djb relation to it would assume1 has been exemplified by him in the case of ,edom4 ,for the fact1 that it is only the heathen power individualized which we have before us1 is shown by the transition to the heathen in general in ver4 #ae1 according to which1 ,edom comes into consideration only as a part of the whole3 ,for near is the day of the ,lord upon all the heathen4 ,so also is it in ver4 #af3 ,for as ye#a have drunk upon ,my holy mountain1 so shall all the heathen drink continually2#b and they drink1 and sup up1 and they are as though they were not4 ,when speaking of the guilt1 he mentions ,edom only2 when speaking of punishment1 he introduces all the heathen at once4 ,according to ver4 #ag1 ,israel shall occupy the possessions of all the heathen4 ,and even the last words of the whole prophecy1 ,and the kingdom shall be the ,lord's1 show that it bears a universal character1--that in the case of ,edom1 we have only a principle exemplified which applies to all the enemies of the kingdom of ,god4 ,the leading thought is3 ,the kingdom of ,god shall obtain universal dominion1 which follows the deepest abasement of the people of ,god1 and of which the fullest and most perfect realization must be sought in ,christ4 ,the animating thought could be so much the better individualized in the case of ,edom1 as its natural relation to ,israel was one of special nearness1 and its hatred specially deep2 and as1 moreover1 it at all times considered itself the rival of ,israel1 of whose advantages it was envious4 ,that which ,amos1 the cotemporary of ,obadiah1 says of ,edom in chap4 i4 #aa--;,he pursues his brother with the sword1 and corrupts his compassions1 and his anger tears perpetually1 and he keeps his wrath for ever--shows how exceedingly well he was fitted to be a representative of the enemies of the kingdom of ,god4 ,it was so much the more obvious thus to represent ,edom as a particular and individualizing exemplification of this principle1 as the prophets of that period had not as yet received any more definite disclosures as to the threatening kingdoms of the future1 while ,edom1 in his ,pg #djc hatred against the people of ,god1 stood before their eyes4 ,the germ of this is to be found in ,joel iv4 7iii47 #ai1 where ,edom already appears as a representative and type of the ,god-hating heathen world1 which is to be judged by the ,lord1 after the judgment upon ,judah4 ,in ,obadiah1 we find a fulness of remarkable glances into the future compressed within a narrow space4 ,the chief events are the following3--#a4 ,the capture of ,jerusalem1 the total carrying away of the entire people1 both of ,judah and ,israel1 to a far distance1 vers4 #bj1 #ba4 #b4 ,the return of ,israel1 the cessation of the separation of the two kingdoms1 ver4 #ah 7compare ,hos4 ii4 #b i4 #aa2 ,amos ix4 #aa1 #ab71 and his elevation to the dominion of the world by the ,saviours1 ver4 #ba4 #c4 ,the judgment upon ,edom by heathen nations1 vers4 #a-i4 ,jeremiah1 in xxvii4 #b ff41 compared with xxv41 more distinctly points out the ,chaldeans as the heathen instruments of the judgment upon ,edom and all the people round about2 and ,matt4 i4 #c1 #d1 shows the weight of the sufferings which were inflicted by them upon ,edom4 #d4 ,the occupation of the land of ,edom by ,judah4 ,one realization of this prophecy took place in the time of the ,maccabees2 but we must not confine ourselves to this4 ,as1 in the main1 ,edom is only a type of the ,god-hating heathen world1 the true and real fulfilment can be sought in ,christ alone4 ,compare the remarks1 p4 #ih1 with reference to ,moab in ,balaam's prophecy4 ,the prophecy of ,obadiah is divided into three parts3--the destruction of ,edom by heathen nations summoned by ,jehovah1 vers4 #a-i2 the cause of it1 his wickedness against ,judah1 vers4 #aj-af2 ,judah1 on the contrary1 rises with ,joseph from this humiliation1 and becomes a conqueror of the world1 vers4 #ag-ba4 ,this last part claims our closer consideration4 ,ver4 #ag4 ,and upon ,mount ,zion shall be they that have escaped1 and it is holy 7compare ,joel iii4 #e1 iv4 #ag ii4 #cb1 iii4 #ag71 and the house of ,jacob occupies their possessions4 ,the suffix in refers to all the heathen in ver4 #af4 ,the kingdom shall be the ,lord's1 according to ver4 #af1 and the dominion of ,his people extends as far as ,his own4 ,we have here the general prophecy2 and in what immediately follows1 the application to ,edom4 ,the first two clauses serve as a foundation for the third4 ,the holiness has1 so to speak1 not only a ,pg #djd defensive1 but also an offensive character4 ,its consequence is the dominion of the world4 ,ver4 #ah4 ,and the house of ,jacob becomes a fire1 and the house of ,joseph a flame1 and the house of ,esau stubble1 and they kindle them1 and devour them2 and there shall not be any remaining to the house of ,esau2 for the ,lord has spoken4 ,besides the whole of the people1 that part of them 7the house of ,joseph1 the people of the ten tribes7 is specially mentioned which one might have expected to be excluded4 ,that there is none remaining to the house of ,esau 7and to all who are like him7 agrees with the declaration uttered by ,joel in iii4 #e 7ii4 #cb73 ,amongst those who are spared1 is whomsoever the ,lord calleth4 ,they1 however1 whom the ,lord calls1 are1 according to the same verse1 they who call on the name of the ,lord4 ,but the characteristic of ,edom is his hatred against the kingdom of ,god1--and that excludes both the calling on the ,lord1 and the being called by the ,lord4 ,the single individual1 however1 may come out of the community of his people1 and enter into the territory of saving grace1 as is shown by the example of ,rahab4 ,in the further description of the conquering power1 which the people of ,god shall1 in future1 exercise1 we are1 in ver4 #ai1 first met by ,judah and ,benjamin4 ,ver4 #ai4 ,and they of the south possess the ,mount of ,esau1 and they from the low region1 the ,philistines2 and they 7i4e41 they of ,judah1 the whole1 of whom they of the ,south and of the low region are parts only7 possess the fields of ,ephraim1 and the fields of ,samaria1 and ,benjamin--,gilead4 ,it is obvious that we have here before us only an individualized representation of the thought already expressed in ,gen4 xxviii4 #ad3 ,and thy seed shall be as the dust of the earth1 and thou shalt break forth to the ,east and to the ,west1 to the ,north and to the ,south2 and in thee1 and in thy seed1 all the families of the earth are blessed2 compare also ,is4 liv4 #c3 ,thou shalt break forth on the right hand and on the left1 and thy seed shall inherit the ,gentiles4-- is the south part of ,judea1 at the borders of ,edom2 the low region on the ,west1 at the borders of the ,philistines4 ,as1 according to the vision of the prophet1 the exaltation of ,judah is preceded by his total overthrow and captivity 7compare vers4 #aa-ad1 #bj1 #ba71 the tribe of ,judah1 which1 before the catastrophe1 was settled in ,pg #dje the ,south and low region1 is here meant4 ,that can be taken only as the sign of the ,accus41 and ,mount of ,esau1 accordingly1 as the object only1 appears from ver4 #bj1 according to which the ,south is vacant4 ,judah thus extends in the ,south1 over ,edom1 in the ,west1 over ,philistia1 in the ,north1 over the former territory of the ten tribes1 and hence also over the territory of ,benjamin1 which formerly lay betwixt ,judah and ,joseph4 ,benjamin is indemnified by ,gilead4 ,the whole of ,canaan comes thus to ,judah and ,benjamin4 ,joseph1 to whose damage1 according to ver4 #ah1 this enlargement of ,judah's territory must lead1 must be transferred altogether to heathenish territory4 ,we expect to find1 in ver4 #bj1 how he is indemnified4 ,ver4 #bj4 ,and the exiles of this host of the children of ,israel 7shall possess7 what are ,canaanites unto ,zarephath1 and the exiles of ,jerusalem that are in ,sepharad shall possess the cities of the ,south4 ,the circumstance that the ,athnach stands below indicates that implies the common property of the exiles of this host1 and of the exiles of ,jerusalem4 ,the ,sons of ,israel1 in this context1 can only be the ten tribes2 for they are here indemnified for their former territory1 which1 according to ver4 #ai1 has become the possession of ,judah4 ,the exiles of this host is equivalent to3 ,this whole host of exiles1--the whole mass of the ten tribes1 carried away according to prophetic foresight 7compare ,amos v4 #bg3 ,and ,i carry you away beyond ,damascus1 saith the ,lord1 the ,god of hosts71 as opposed to a piecemeal carrying away1 such as had once already taken place before the time of the prophet in respect to ,judah1 but not in respect to the children of ,israel2 compare ,joel iv4 7iii47 #f4 ,that the ,canaanites unto ,zarephath--i4e41 the ,phnicians1 whose territory formed part of the promised land1 but had never1 in former times1 come into the real possession of ,israel--are the objects of conquest1 and that1 hence1 we cannot explain as ,caspari does1 ,who are among the ,canaanites1 even unto ,zarephath1 is evident from the circumstance1 that all the neighbouring nations appear as objects of the conquering activity2--that the great mass of the ,israelitish exiles were not among the ,canaanites2--that the could1 in that case1 not have been omitted2--and that the ,south country is too small ,pg #djf a space for the children of ,israel1 and of ,jerusalem together4 ,sepharad1 the very name of which is scarcely known1 is mentioned as a particularizing designation of the utmost distance4 ,the description becomes complete by its returning to the ,south country1 from which it had proceeded4 ,the ,south country penetrates to ,edom2 the inhabitants of ,jerusalem extend beyond the ,south country4 ,ver4 #ba4 ,and saviours go up on ,mount ,zion to judge the ,mount of ,esau1 and the kingdom shall be the ,lord's4 is to be accounted for from the consideration1 that the deliverance and salvation imply the entire overthrow--the total carrying away of the people4 ,the ,saviour is hidden beneath the saviours2 compare ,judges iii4 #i1 #ae2 ,neh4 ix4 #bg4 ,but even here1 everything is connected with human individuals2 and the more glorious the salvation which the prophet beholds in the future1 viz41 the absolute dominion of the ,lord1 and ,his people1 over the world1 the less can it be conceived that the prophet should have expected the realization of it by a collective body of mortal men without a leader4 ,but the plural intimates that the antitype is not without types1--that the head cannot be conceived of without members4 ,in ,jer4 xxiii4 #d1 we read3 ,and ,i raise up shepherds over them which shall feed them2 and immediately afterwards the one good shepherd--,christ--forms the subject of discourse4--,and the kingdom shall be the ,lord's4--,his dominion1 till then concealed1 shall now be publicly manifested1 and the people of the earth shall acknowledge it1 either spontaneously1 or by constraint4 ,the coming of this kingdom has begun with ,christ1 and1 in ,him1 waits for its consummation4 ,the opinion of ,caspari1 that the contents of vers4 #ai and #bj1 as well as the close of this prophecy1 belong altogether to the future1 rests on a false1 literal explanation1 the inadmissibility of which is sufficiently evident from the circumstance that the ,edomites1 ,philistines1 and ,canaanites have long since disappeared from the scene of history2 so that there exists no longer the possibility of a literal fulfilment4 ,footnote #a3 ,the fact that1 everywhere1 the discourse is addressed to the ,edomites1 proves that here also ,edom is addressed4 ,the and the sin this verse1 compared with those in the preceding verse1 likewise suggest this4 ,compare1 moreover1 ,joel iv4 7iii47 #c1 to which passage there is already an allusion in ver4 #aa4 ,footnote #b3 ,namely1 the cup of punishment1 of divine wrath4 ,pg #djg ,,the ,,prophet ,,jonah4 ,it has been asserted without any sufficient reason1 that ,jonah is older than ,hosea1 ,joel1 ,amos1 and ,obadiah1--that he is the oldest among the prophets whose written monuments have been preserved to us4 ,the passage in #b ,kings xiv4 #be1 where it is said1 that ,jonah1 the son of ,amittai the prophet1 prophesied to ,jeroboam the happy success of his arms1 and the restoration of the ancient boundaries of ,israel1 and that this prophecy was confirmed by the event1 cannot decide in favour of this assertion1 because it cannot be proved that the victories of ,jeroboam belonged to the beginning of his reign4 ,on the other hand1 it is opposed1 first1 by the position of the book in the collection of the ,minor ,prophets1 which1 throughout1 is chronologically arranged1 and which is tantamount to an express testimony that ,jonah wrote after ,hosea1 ,joel1 ,amos1 and ,obadiah4 ,then1--the circumstance that ,nineveh is mentioned here1 and that too in a way which implies that1 even at that time1 the hostile relations of the ,assyrians to the ,covenant-people had already begun1 while in the first part of ,hosea1 in ,joel1 ,amos1 and ,obadiah1 no reference to the ,assyrians is as yet found4 ,even ancient interpreters1 as ,chr4 ,b4 ,michaelis1 ,crusius 7in the ,theol4 ,proph4 iii4 ,s4 #ch71 inferred from this mention of ,nineveh1 that the book had been composed in consequence of the first invasion of the ,assyrians under ,menahem1 who ascended the throne #ac years after the death of ,jeroboam ,,ii4 ,finally1--the book begins with and4 ,wherever else1 in the canonical books of the ,old ,testament1 such a beginning occurs1 it indicates a resumption of1 and a junction with1 former links in the chain of sacred literature2 compare ,judges i4 #a2 #a ,sam4 i4 #a2 ,ezek4 i4 #a4 ,that the expression1 ,and it came to pass1 with which the book opens1 is intended to establish the connection with the prophecy of ,obadiah1 which occupies the immediately preceding place in the ,canon1 is intimated by the internal relation of the two books to each other4 ,the prophecy of ,obadiah bears1 throughout1 a hostile aspect to the heathen world2 it appears to him as the object only of ,god's judging activity4 ,jonah1 on the other hand1 received the mission1 distinctly to point out the other aspect of the matter1 and ,pg #djh thereby1 not indeed to correct1 but certainly to supplement his predecessor4 ,the time was approaching when the heathen world was to pour out its floods upon the people of ,god4 ,it was obvious that the position of ,israel towards it became one altogether repulsive1 that the susceptibility of the heathen for salvation was denied1 and ,god's mercy was limited to ,israel4 ,narrow-minded exclusiveness received a powerful support from the oppression and haughtiness of the heathen4 ,whilst other prophets opposed such exclusiveness by their words1 by announcing the extension of salvation to the ,gentiles1 ,jonah received the mission to illustrate1 by a symbolical action1 the capacity of the heathen for salvation1 and their future participation in it4 ,the effect of this must necessarily have been so much the greater1 as the whole of the little book is exclusively devoted to this subject1 as it appeared at the first beginning of the conflict1 and as ,nineveh is mentioned here1 for the first time1 in so peaceable and conciliatory a relation1 and in close harmony and connection with the announcement of the willing submission of the heathen world to the dominion of ,shiloh1 spoken of in ,gen4 xlix4 #aj4 ,it is remarkably impressive to see how spirit here triumphs over nature--a triumph which appears so much the brighter because the prophet himself pays his tribute to nature2 for it was because he listened to the voice of nature1 that1 at first1 he intended to flee to ,tarshish4 ,the reason why the commission of the ,lord was so disagreeable to him1 we learn from chap4 iv4 #b4 ,he was afraid lest the preaching of repentance1 which was committed to him1 might turn away the judgments of the ,lord from ,nineveh1 the metropolis of that country which threatened destruction to ,israel4 ,he knew the deep corruption of his own people1 and foreboded the issue which the extension of the means of grace to the ,gentiles might very easily bring about in the end4 ,but yet1 he felt almost irresistibly impelled to carry out the commission of ,god1 and in order to cut himself off from the possibility of following the voice which called him to the east1 he resolved to go to the far distant west4 ,the voice1 however1 followed him even there2 but the farther he advanced on his journey1 the more difficult it became for him to follow it4 ,at a later period1 when the ,lord granted mercy to ,nineveh1 he was angry and wished to die1 not by any means because he ,pg #dji felt himself injured in his honour as a prophet 7as was erroneously supposed1 even by ,calvin71 but because he grudged to the ,gentiles the mercy which he considered as a prerogative of ,israel only1 and because he was anxious for the destruction of ,nineveh as the metropolis of that kingdom which was destined to be the rod of chastisement for his own people4 ,he was thus actuated by the same ardent love for his people which called forth the wish of ,st ,paul1 that he might become an anathema for his brethren1--by the same disposition of mind which prevailed in the elder brother at the return of the prodigal son 7,luke xv4 #be ff471 and which at first would manifest itself even in ,peter1 ,acts x4 #ad ff4 ,the ,jewish sentence 7,carpzov4 ,introd4 #c1 p4 #adi71 ,jonah was anxious for the glory of the ,son1 but he did not seek the glory of the ,father1 is very significant4 ,jonah exhibits1 in a very striking way1 the thoughts of his old man1 in order that ,israel might recognise themselves in his image4 ,but we are not at liberty to say that the prophet represented the people only4 ,it is true that1 as one of the people1 he also entertained those thoughts2 but1 besides these1 he entertained other thoughts also4 ,the voices of the ,lord which he heard were spiritual2 and such voices can be heard only when there is something akin in the heart4 ,not even with one step did ,jonah touch the territory of the false prophets1 who prophesied out of their own hearts4 ,he retained all his human weakness to himself1 and the ,word of ,god stood by the side of it in unclouded brightness1 and obtained absolute victory4 ,there can be no doubt that we have before us in the ,book of ,jonah the description of a symbolical action1--that his mission to ,nineveh has an object distinct from the mission itself1--that it is not the result attained by it in the first instance which is the essential point1 but that it is its aim to bring to light certain truths1 and in the form of fact1 to prophesy future things4 ,the truths are these3--,first1 that the ,gentiles are by no means so unsusceptible of the higher truth as vulgar prejudice imagined them to be4 ,this was manifested by the conduct of the sailors1 who1 at last1 offer sacrifices and even vows to ,jehovah2 but1 in a more striking manner1 by the deep impression which the discourse of ,jonah produced upon the ,ninevites4 ,in this we have the actual proof of ,ezek4 iii4 #e1 #f1 where the prophet represents his mission as one of peculiar difficulty--more ,pg #daj difficult1 even1 than it would have been if addressed to the ,gentiles3 ,had ,i sent thee to them1 surely they would have hearkened to thee4 ,further1--that it is not in ,his relation to ,israel only1 but in ,his relation to the ,gentiles also1 that the ,lord is gracious and merciful1 slow to anger and of great kindness1 chap4 iv4 #b4 ,the view which these words1 at once1 open up into the future1 is1 that at some future period the ,lord will grant to the ,gentiles the preaching of ,his word1 and admission into ,his kingdom4 ,the glory of ,his mercy and grace would have been darkened1 if the revelation of them had been for ever limited to a particular1 small portion of the human race4 ,nineveh1 the representative of the heathen multitude1 is very significantly called the great city at the very outset1 in i4 #b1 and a great city for ,god1 in iii4 #c1 for which1 as ,michaelis remarks1 ,god specially cared1 on account of the great number of souls2 compare iv4 #aa4 ,if the symbolical and prophetical character of the book be denied1 the fact of its having its place among the prophetical1 and not among the historical1 books1 admits of no explanation at all4 ,for so much is evident1 that this fact cannot be satisfactorily accounted for by the circumstance that the book reports the events which happened to a prophet4 ,the sound explanation has been already given by ,marckius3 ,the book is1 in a great measure1 historical1 but in such a manner1 that in the history itself there is hidden the mystery of the greatest prophecy1 and that ,jonah proves himself to be a true prophet1 by the events which happened to him1 not less than by his utterances4 ,a similar explanation is given by ,carpzovius3 ,by his own example1 as well as by the event itself1 he bore witness that it was the will of ,god that all men should be saved1 and should come to the knowledge of the truth1 #a ,tim4 ii4 #d4 ,we are led to the same conclusion by the representation itself4 ,this differs very widely from that given in the historical books4 ,the objection raised by ,hitzig against the historical truth1--viz41 that the narrative is fragmentary1--that it wants completeness1--that a number of events are communicated only in so far as is required by the object of gaining a foundation for the graphic representation of the doctrinal contents1--cannot be set aside so easily as is done by ,hvernich when he says3 ,pg #daa ,by arguments of a nature so flimsy1 suspicions may be raised against the truth of every historical report4 ,we cannot but confess that1 to the writer1 history is indeed a means only of representing a thought to which he is anxious to give currency in the ,church of ,god4 ,it is just for this reason that he abstains from graphically enlarging1 because that would have been an obstacle to his purpose4 ,the narrative of a symbolical action which took place outwardly1 comes1 in this respect1 under the same law as the narrative of a symbolical action belonging to the internal territory1 and to that of the parable4 ,the narrative would lose the character of perspicuity which is so necessary for the whole matter1 if it were complete in the subordinate circumstances4 ,it also tells in favour of the symbolical character of the history of ,jonah1 that the missionary activity on behalf of the ,gentiles does not properly belong to the vocation of the prophets1 their mission being to the two houses of ,israel only4 ,in the entire history1 not even a single example is to be found of a prophet who1 for the good of the heathen world itself1 went out among them4 ,the history of ,elisha1 in #b ,kings viii4 #g ff41 has1 without sufficient reason1 been adduced by ,hvernick4 ,according to the visions of the prophets themselves1 the conversion of the heathen is not to be accomplished at present1 but in the ,messianic time1 and by the ,messiah ,himself4 ,if1 then1 the book itself is not to stand altogether isolated1 the symbolical character of ,jonah's mission must be acknowledged4 ,but then it is only in the form that it differs from the announcements of the extension of salvation to the heathen also1--announcements which occur in the other prophets also4 ,that which these exhibited in words merely1 is here made conspicuous by deeds4 ,the influence thereby produced upon the heathen appears then only as the means1 while the real purpose is to make an important truth familiar to the ,congregation of ,god1 and1 by a striking fact1 to remove the prejudices which prevailed in it4 ,finally1--,if the symbolical character of the facts be denied1 the mission of ,jonah appears to be almost divested of every aim2 for the good emotions of the crew1 and the repentance of the ,ninevites1 evidently did not lead to any lasting result4 ,if anything else were aimed at than the prefiguring of future events1 the prophet might better have stayed at home2 an unassuming ,pg #dab ministry in some corner among the ,covenant-people would have carried along with it a greater reward4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the symbolical character of the history of ,jonah be admitted1 remarkable parallels in the history of ,jesus present themselves4 ,the ,saviour1 in the days of ,his flesh1 was satisfied with the prophetic intimation of the future farther extension of ,his salvation4 ,that which ,he ,himself did for this extension1 in those particular cases where the faith of non-,israelites obtruded itself upon ,him1 must1 in its isolation1 be viewed as an embodiment of that intimation1--as a prophecy by deeds4 ,he says in ,matt4 xv4 #bd3 ,i am not sent but to the lost sheep of the house of ,israel2 but if1 nevertheless4 ,he purposely makes ,his abode in the territory of ,tyre and ,sidon2 if there ,he hears the prayer of the ,canaanitish woman to heal her daughter1 after having first tried her faith1 then ,his purpose evidently is3 ,that ,his prophecy in words concerning the extension of salvation to the ,gentiles1 might find a support in ,his prophecy in deeds4 ,jesus1 prefiguring the future doings of ,his servants1 passed over the boundaries of the ,gentiles4 ,whilst the ,jews had rejected the salvation offered to them1 and forced ,jesus to retire into concealment1 the heathen woman comes full of faith1 and seeks ,him in ,his concealment4 ,the ,canaanitish woman is a representative of the heathen world1 the future faith of which she was called to prefigure by sustaining the trial4 ,from her example1 the ,apostles were to learn what might be expected from the ,gentiles when the time should arrive for proclaiming the ,gospel to them also4 ,in ,matt4 x4 #e1 #f1 the ,lord speaks to the ,apostles3 ,go not in the way of the ,gentiles1 and into any of the cities of the ,samaritans enter ye not2 but go rather to the lost sheep of the house of ,israel4 ,his own conduct1 however1 as it is reported in ,john iv41 stands in contradiction to this command to ,his ,apostles1 so long as its prophetical significance is not acknowledged4 ,that which was1 on a large scale1 to be done by ,christ in the state of glorification1 was prefigured by ,him1 on a smaller scale1 in the state of humiliation4 ,the ministry of ,christ in ,samaria bears the same relation to the later mission among this people1 that the single instances of ,christ's raising the dead do to the general resurrection4 ,the ,lord afterwards did not foster the germs which had come forth among the ,samaritans2 ,he1 in the meantime1 left them altogether ,pg #dac to their fate4 ,that prelude was quite sufficient for the object which ,he then had in view1 and nothing further could be done without violating the rights of the ,covenant-people1 to which1 in the conversation as recorded by ,john1 the ,lord as expressly pays attention1 as ,he does in ,matt4 x4 ,,the ,,prophet ,,micah4 ,,preliminary ,,remarks4 ,micah signifies3 ,who is like ,jehovah2 and by this name1 the prophet is consecrated to the incomparable ,god1 just as ,hosea was to the helping ,god1 and ,nahum to the comforting ,god4 ,he prophesied1 according to the inscription1 under ,jotham1 ,ahaz1 and ,hezekiah4 ,we are not1 however1 entitled1 on this account1 to dissever his prophecies1 and to assign particular discourses to the reign of each of these kings4 ,on the contrary1 the entire collection forms only one whole4 ,at the termination of his prophetic ministry1 under ,hezekiah1 the prophet committed to writing everything which was of importance for all coming time that had been revealed to him during the whole duration of that ministry4 ,he collected into one comprehensive picture all the detached visions which had been granted to him in manifold repetition2 giving us the sum and substance 7of which nothing has been lost in the case of any of the men inspired by ,god7 of what was spoken at different times1 and omitting all which was accidental1 and purely local and temporary4 ,this view1 which alone is the correct one1 and which contributes so largely to the right understanding of the prophet1 has been already advanced by several of the older scholars4 ,thus ,lightfoot 7,ordo temporum1 opp4 i4 p4 #ii7 remarks3 ,it is easier to conceive that the matter of this whole book represents the substance of the prophecy which he uttered under these various kings1 than to determine which of the chapters of this book were uttered under the particular reign of each of these kings4 ,majus also 7,economia temporum1 p4 #hih7 says3 ,he repeated1 at a subsequent period1 what he had spoken at different ,pg #dad times1 and under different kings4 ,in modern times1 however1 this view had been generally abandoned2 and although1 at present1 many critics are disposed to return to it1 ,hitzig and ,maurer still assert1 that the book was composed at different periods4 ,we shall now endeavour to prove the unity of the book1 first1 from the prophecies themselves4 ,if we were entitled to separate them at all1 according to time and circumstances1 we could form a division into three discourses only2 viz41 chap4 i4 and ii42 chap4 iii4-v42 and chap4 vi4 and vii4 ,for1 #a4 ,each of these discourses forms a whole1 complete in itself1 and in which the various elements of the prophetic discourse--reproof1 threatening1 promise--are repeated4 ,if these discourses be torn asunder1 we get only the lacera membra of a prophetic discourse4 #b4 ,each of these three discourses1 forming an harmonious whole1 begins with 1 hear4 ,that this is not merely accidental1 appears from the beginning of the first discourse1 1 ,hear1 all ye people4 ,these words literally agree with those which were uttered by the prophet's elder namesake1 when1 according to #a ,kings xxii4 #bh1 he called upon the whole world to attend to the remarkable struggle betwixt the true and false prophets4 ,it is evidently on purpose that the prophet begins with the same words as those with which the elder ,micah had closed his discourse to ,ahab1 and1 it may be1 his whole prophetic ministry4 ,by this very circumstance he gives intimation of what may be expected from him1 shows that his activity is to be considered as a continuation of that of his predecessor1 who was so jealous for ,god1 and that he had more in common with him than the mere name4 ,rosenmller 7,prol4 ad ,mich4 p4 #h7 has asserted1 indeed1 that these words are only put into the mouth of the elder ,micah1 and that they are taken from the passage under consideration4 ,but the reason which he adduces in support of this assertion1 viz41 that it cannot be conceived how it could ever have entered the mind of that elder ,micah to call upon all people to be witnesses of an announcement which concerned ,ahab only1 needs no detailed refutation4 ,why then is it that in ,deut4 xxxii4 #a1 ,is4 i4 #b1 heaven and earth are called upon to be witnesses of an announcement which concerned the ,jewish people only8 ,who does not see that1 to the prophet1 ,israel appears as too small an audience ,pg #dae for the announcement of the great decision which he has just uttered2 in the same manner as the ,psalmist 7compare1 e4g41 ,ps4 xcvi4 #c7 exhorts to proclaim to the ,gentiles the great deeds of the ,lord1 because ,palestine is too narrow for them8--,but now1 if it be established that it was with a distinct object that the prophet employed the words1 ,hear ye1 does not the circumstance that they are found at the commencement of the three discourses1 which are complete in themselves1 afford sufficient ground for the assumption1 that it was the intention of the prophet1 not indeed absolutely to limit them to the beginning of a new discourse 7compare1 on the contrary1 iii4 #ia71 but yet1 not to commence a new discourse without them2 so that the want of them is decisive against the supposition of a new section8 #c4 ,as soon as an attempt is made to break up any of these three discourses1 many particular circumstances are at once found1 upon a careful examination1 to prove a connection of the sections so close1 as not to admit of a separation without mutilating them4 ,thus chap4 i4 and ii4 cannot be separated from each other1 for the reason that the promise in ii4 #ab1 #ac1 refers to the threatening in i4 #e4 ,that promise refers to all ,israel1 just as does the threatening in chap4 i42 whilst in the threatening and reproof in chap4 ii4 the eye of the prophet is directed only to the main object of his ministry1 viz41 to ,judah4 ,but even these three divisions1 which hitherto we have proved to be the only divisions that do exist1#b can be considered as such1 in so far only as in them the discourse takes a fresh start1 and enters upon a new sphere4 ,they cannot be considered as complete in themselves1 and separated from one another by the ,pg #daf difference of the periods of their composition2 for even in them there are found traces of a close connection4 ,even the uniform beginning by ,hear may be considered as such4 ,the second discourse in iii4 #a begins with 2 but the ,fut4 with ,vav convers4 always1 and without exception1 connects a new action with a preceding one1 and can never be used where there is an absolutely new commencement4 ,its significance here1 where it is used in the transition from the promise to a new reproof and threatening1 has been very strikingly brought out thus1 by ,ch4 ,bened4 ,michaelis3 ,but while we are yet but too far away from those longed-for times1 which have just been promised1 ,i say in the meanwhile1 viz41 in order to complete the list of the iniquities of evil princes and teachers1 begun in chap4 ii4 ,the words of iii4 #a1 ,hear1 ,i pray you1 ye heads of ,jacob1 and ye princes of the house of ,israel1 have an evident reference to ii4 #ab3 ,i will assemble ,jacob all of thee1 ,i will gather the remnant of ,israel4 ,in the new threatening1 the prophet chooses quite the same designation as in the preceding promise1 in order to prevent the latter from giving support to false security4 ,it is not by any means ,samaria alone1 but all ,israel1 which is the object of divine punishment4 ,it is only a remnant of ,israel that shall be gathered4 ,but the reference to the preceding discourse is still more obvious in ver4 #d3 ,then they shall cry unto the ,lord1 and ,he will not answer2 and may ,he hide#c ,his face from them at this time1 as they have behaved themselves ill towards ,him in their doings4 ,now1 as in vers4 #a-c divine judgments had not yet been spoken of1 the terms then1 and at this time1 can refer only to the threatenings of punishment in ii4 #c ff41 which have a special reference to the ungodly nobles4 ,thus the result presented at the beginning1 is confirmed to us by internal reasons4 ,the inscription#d announces the oracles ,pg #dag of ,god which came to ,micah under the reign of three kings2 while the examination of the contents proves that the collection forms a connected whole1 written uno tenore4 ,how1 now1 can these two facts be reconciled in any other way than by supposing that we have here before us a comprehensive picture of the prophetic ministry of ,micah1 the single component parts of which are at once contemporaneous1 and yet belonging to different periods8 ,this supposition1 moreover1 affords us the advantage of being allowed to maintain all the historical references in their fullest import1 without being led to disregard the one1 while we give attention to the other2 for nothing is1 in this case1 more natural1 than that the prophet connects with one another different prophecies uttered at different times4 ,the weight of these internal reasons is increased1 however1 by external reasons which are equally strong4 ,when ,jeremiah was called to account for his prophecy concerning the destruction of the city1 the elders1 for his justification1 appealed to the ,pg #dah entirely similar prophecy of ,micah in iii4 #ab3 ,therefore shall ,zion for your sake be ploughed as a field1 and ,jerusalem shall become heaps of ruins1 and the mountain of the house as the high places of the forest4 ,in ,jer4 xxvi4 #ah1 #ai1 it is said1 ,micah prophesied in the days of ,hezekiah1 king of ,judah1 and spake to all the people of ,judah1 etc4 ,did ,hezekiah1 king of ,judah1 and all ,judah1 put him to death8 ,did he not fear the ,lord1 and besought the ,lord1 and the ,lord repented ,him of the evil which ,he had pronounced against them8 ,all interpreters admit that this passage forms an authority for the composition of the discourse in iii4-v4 under ,hezekiah2 but we cannot well limit it in this way1 we must extend it to the whole collection4 ,for1 even apart from the reasons by which we proved that the entire book forms one closely connected whole1 it is most improbable that the elders should have known1 by an oral tradition1 the exact time of the composition of one single discourse1 which has no special date at the head of it4 ,is it not a far more natural supposition1 that they considered the collection as a whole1 of which the component parts had1 indeed1 been delivered by the prophet at a former period1 but had been repeated1 and united into one description under ,hezekiah2 and that they mentioned ,hezekiah1 partly because it could not be determined with certainty whether this special prediction had already been uttered under one of his predecessors1 and1 if so1 under which of them2 and partly1 because among the three kings mentioned in the inscription1 ,hezekiah alone formed an ecclesiastical authority8 ,but just as that quotation in ,jeremiah furnishes us with a proof that all the prophecies of ,micah1 which have been preserved to us1 were committed to writing under ,hezekiah1 so we can1 in a similar manner1 prove from ,isaiah1 chap4 ii41 that they were1 at least in part1 uttered at a previous period4 ,the problem of the relation of ,is4 ii4 #b-d to ,micah iv4 #a-c1 cannot be solved in any other way than by supposing1 that this portion of a prophecy which1 in ,jeremiah1 is assigned to the reign of ,hezekiah1 was uttered by ,micah as early as under the reign of ,jotham1 and that soon after it ,isaiah1 by placing the words of ,micah at the head of his own prophecies1 expressed that which had come to him also in inward vision2 for1 being already known to the people1 they could not fail to produce their impression4 ,pg #dai ,every other solution can be proved to be untenable4 #a4 ,least of all is there any refutation needed of the hypothesis which is now generally abandoned1 viz41 that the passage in ,isaiah is the original one2 compare1 against this hypothesis1 ,kleinert1 ,aechtheit des ,jes4 ,s4 #cef2 ,caspari1 ,s4 #ddd4 #b4 ,equally objectionable is another supposition1 that both the prophets had made use of some older prophecy--one uttered by ,joel1 as ,hitzig and ,ewald have maintained4 ,the connection in which these verses stand in ,micah1 is by far too close for such a supposition4 ,we could not1 indeed1 so confidently advance this argument1 if the connection consisted only in what is commonly brought forward1 viz41 that upon the monitory announcement of punishment in chap4 iii41 there follows1 in chap4 iv4 #a ff41 the consolatory promise of a glorious future for the godly1 and that the in ver4 #a evidently connects it with what immediately precedes4 ,but the reference and connection are far more close4 ,the promise in iv4 #a1 #b1 is1 throughout1 contrasted with the threatening in iii4 #ab4 ,the mountain of the house shall become as the high places of the forest1--hence1 despised1 solitary1 and desolate4 ,in iv4 #a1 there is opposed to it1 ,the mountain of the house of the ,lord shall be established on the top of the mountains1 and it shall be exalted above the hills1 and upon it people shall flee together4 ,zion shall be ploughed as a field1 and ,jerusalem become a heap of ruins4 ,contrasted with this1 there is in iv4 #b the declaration3 ,for the law shall go forth of ,zion1 and the word of the ,lord of ,jerusalem4 ,the desolate and despised place now becomes the residence of the ,lord1 from which ,he sends ,his commands over the whole earth1 and of which the brilliant centre now is ,jerusalem4 ,in order to make this contrast so much the more obvious1 the prophet begins1 in the promise1 with just the mountain of the temple1 which1 in the threatening1 had occupied the last place2 so that the opposites are brought into immediate connection4 ,nor is it certainly merely accidental that1 in the threatening1 he speaks of the mountain of the house only1 while1 in the promise1 he speaks of the mountain of the house of the ,lord2 compare ,matt4 xxiii4 #ch1 where your house1 according to ,bengel1 is the house which1 in other passages1 is called the house of the ,lord1 just as the ,lord1 in ,exod4 xxxii4 #g1 says to ,moses1 ,thy people4 ,the temple must have ceased to be the house of the ,lord1 before it would be destroyed2 for ,pg #dbj which reason1 as we are told ,in ,ezekiel1 the ,shechinah removed from it before the ,babylonish destruction4 ,and in point of form1 the in iv4 #a so much the more corresponds with the in iii4 #ab1 as from the latter must be supplied for the last clause of the verse2 compare ,caspari1 ,s4 #dde4 ,that ver4 #e must not be separated from the prophecy which ,isaiah had before him1 is seen from a comparison of ,is4 ii4 #e3 ,o house of ,jacob1 come ye and let us walk in the light of the ,lord4 ,according to the true interpretation1 the light of the ,lord signifies ,his grace1 and the blessings which1 according to what precedes1 are to be bestowed by it2 and to walk in the light of the ,lord1 means to participate in the enjoyment of grace4 ,these words1 accordingly1 are closely related to those in ,mic4 iv4 #e3 ,for all the people shall walk1 every one in the name of his god1 and we will walk in the name of the ,lord our ,god for ever and ever3 i4e41 the fate of the people in the heathen world corresponds to the nature of their gods2 because these are nothing1 they too shall sink down into nothingness1 while ,israel shall partake in the glory of his ,god4 ,there is the same thought1 and in essentially the same dress1 both in ,isaiah and ,micah1--only that the words which in ,micah embody a pure promise1 are transformed by ,isaiah into an exhortation that ,israel should not1 by their own fault1 forfeit this preference over the heathen nations1 that they should not wantonly wander away into dark solitudes1 from the path of light which the ,lord had opened up before them4 ,this transformation in ,isaiah1 however1 may be accounted for by the consideration1 that he was anxious to prepare the way for the reproofs which now follow from ver4 #f2 whilst ,micah1 who had already premised them1 could continue in the promise4 ,it is also in favour of the originality of the passage in ,micah1 that the text which1 in ,isaiah1 appears as a variation1 appears as original in ,micah2 so that both cannot be equally dependent upon a third writer4 #c4 ,there now remains only the view of ,kleinert1 according to which the prophecy of ,micah1 in chap4 iii4-v41 was first uttered under the reign of ,hezekiah2 and1 under the reign of the same king1 but somewhat later1 the prophecy1 in chap4 ii4-iv4 of ,isaiah1 who avails himself of it4 ,but1 upon a closer examination1 this view also proves untenable4 ,isaiah's description of the condition of the people in a moral point of view1 the general spread of idolatry ,pg #dba and vice1 exclude every other period in the reign of ,hezekiah except the first beginning of it1 when the effect and influence of the time of ,ahaz were still felt2 so that even ,kleinert 7p4 #cfd7 is obliged to assume1 that not only the prophecy of ,micah1 but also that of ,isaiah1 were uttered in the first months of the reign of this king4 ,but other difficulties--and these altogether insuperable--stand in the way of this assumption4 ,in the whole section of ,isaiah1 the nation appears as rich1 flourishing1 and powerful4 ,this is most strongly expressed in chap4 ii4 #g3 ,his land is full of silver and gold1 there is no end to his treasure2 his land is full of horses1 and there is no end to his chariots4 ,to this may be added the description of the consequences of wealth1 and of the unbounded luxury1 in iii4 #af ff42 and the threatening of the withdrawal of all power1 and all riches1 as a strong contrast with their present condition1 upon which they1 in their blindness1 rested the hope of their security1 and hence imagined that they stood in no need of the assistance of the ,lord1 iii4 #a ff4 ,now this description is so inapplicable to the commencement of ,hezekiah's reign1 that the very opposite of it should rather be expected4 ,the invasion by the allied ,syrians and ,israelites1 the oppression by the ,assyrians1 and the tribute which they had to pay to them1 the internal administration1 which was bad beyond example1 and the curse of ,god resting on all their enterprises and efforts1 had exhausted1 during the reign of the ungodly ,ahaz1 the treasures which had been collected under ,uzziah and ,jotham1 and had dried up the sources of prosperity4 ,he had left the kingdom to his successors in a condition of utter decay4 ,to these1 other reasons still may be added1 which are in favour of the composition of it under ,jotham1 while they are against its composition under ,hezekiah2 especially the circumstance of their standing at the beginning of the collection of the first twelve chapters 7a circumstance which is of great weight1 inasmuch as these chapters are1 beyond any doubt1 arranged chronologically71 but still more1 the indefiniteness and generality in the threatening of the divine judgments1 which the prophecy of ,micah has in common with the nearly contemporaneous chapters i4 and v4 of ,isaiah1 whilst the threatenings out of the first period of the reign of ,ahaz have at once a far more definite character4 ,by these considerations we are involuntarily led back to a period when ,isaiah still ,pg #dbb pre-eminently exercised the office of exhorting and reproving1 and had not yet been favoured with special revelations concerning the events of a future which1 at that time1 was as yet rather distant1--perhaps as far as the time when ,jotham administered the government for his father1 who was at that time still alive2 compare #b ,kings xv4 #e4 ,by this hypothesis4 ,is4 iii4 #ab is more satisfactorily explained than by any other2 and we are no longer under the necessity of asserting1 that the chronological order is interrupted by chap4 vi42 for this certainly could not have been intended by the collector4 ,the solemn call and consecration of the prophet to his office1 accompanied by an increased bestowal of grace1 must be carefully distinguished from the ordinary ones which were common to him with all the other prophets4 ,but if the prophecy of ,isaiah was uttered as early as under ,jotham 7which has lately been most satisfactorily proved by ,caspari in his ,beitrge zur ,einl4 in das ,buch ,jesaias1 ,s4 #bcd ff471 that of ,micah also must have existed at that time1 and must have been in the mouths of the people4 ,and since its composition is assigned to the reign of ,hezekiah1 it follows that the prophet delivered anew1 under the reign of this king1 the revelations which he had already received at an earlier period4 ,it will not be possible to infer with certainty from vers4 #f1 #g1 as ,caspari does1 that the book was committed to writing before the destruction of ,samaria1 and hence1 before the sixth year of ,hezekiah4 ,since the book gives the sum and substance of what was prophesied under three kings1 all that is implied in vers4 #f1 #g1 is1 that the destruction of ,samaria was foretold by ,micah2 but the prophecy itself may have been committed to writing even after the fulfilment had taken place4 ,but1 on the other hand1 according to the analogy of ,is4 xxxix41 and xiii4 and xiv41 we are led by iv4 #i1 #aj1 to the time of ,sennacherib's invasion of ,judea1 in which the prophetic spirit of ,isaiah likewise most richly displayed itself1 and in which he was privileged with a glance into the far distant future4 ,the exordium in chap4 i4 and ii41 and the close in vi4 and vii41 are distinguished by the generality of the threatening and promise which prevails in them4 ,they have this in common with the first five chapters of ,isaiah1 and thus certainly afford us pre-eminently an image of the prophetic ministry of ,micah1 in the time previous to the ,assyrian invasion2 whilst the main ,pg #dbc body 7especially from iv4 #h7 represents to us particularly the character of the prophecy during the ,assyrian period4 ,we shall now attempt to give a survey of the contents of ,micah's prophecy4 ,upon ,samaria and ,jerusalem--the kingdom of the ten tribes1 and ,judah--a judgment by foreign enemies is to come4 ,total destruction1 and the carrying away of the inhabitants1 will be the issue of this judgment1 and1 as regards ,judah more particularly1 the total overthrow of the dominion of the ,davidic dynasty4 ,samaria is first visited by this judgment4 ,this is indicated by the fact that it is first mentioned in the inscription1 and that in i4 #f1 #g1 the judgment upon ,samaria is1 first of all1 described2 but especially by the circumstance that ,samaria1 in i4 #e1 appears as the chief seat of corruption for the whole people1 whence it flowed upon ,judah also1 i4 #ad1 and particularly1 vi4 #af4 ,we expect that where the carcases first were1 there the eagles would first be gathered together4 ,as the first1 and principal instrument of the destructive judgment upon ,judah1 ,babylon is mentioned in iv4 #aj4 ,as the representative of the world's power1 at the time then present1 ,asshur appears in v4 #d1 #e4 ,if destruction is to fall upon the kingdom of the ten tribes before it falls upon ,judah--which is most distinctly foretold by ,hosea in i4 #d-g--then1 nothing was more obvious than to think of ,asshur as the instrument of the judgment4 ,that to which ,micah1 on this point1 only alludes1 is more fully expanded by ,isaiah4 ,judah is delivered from ,babylon1 but without a restoration of the kingdom1 iv4 #aj1 compared with ver4 #ad 7v4 #a74 ,but a second catastrophe comes upon ,judah1 inasmuch as many heathens gather themselves against ,jerusalem1 with the intention of desecrating it1 but yet in such a manner that1 by the assistance of the ,lord1 it comes forth victoriously from this severe attack1 chap4 iv4 #aa-ac4 ,then follows a third catastrophe1 in which ,judah becomes anew and totally subject to the world's power1 iv4 #ad 7v4 #a74 ,from the deepest abasement1 however1 the ,congregation of the ,lord rises to the highest glory1 inasmuch as the dominion returns to the old ,davidic race1 iv4 #h4 ,from the little ,bethlehem1 the native place of ,david1 where his race1 sunk back again into ,pg #dbd the lowliness of private life1 has resumed its seat1 a new and glorious ,ruler proceeds1 born1 and at the same time eternal1 and clothed with the fulness of the glory of the ,lord1 v4 #a1 #c 7#b1 #d71 by whom ,jacob obtains truth1 and ,abraham mercy1 vii4 #bj1 compared with ,john i4 #ag2 by whom the ,congregation is placed in the centre of the world1 and becomes the object of the longing of all nations1 iv4 #a-c1 delivered from the servitude of the world1 and conquering the world1 v4 #d1 #e 7#e1 #f71 vii4 #aa1 #ab2 and at the same time lowly1 and inspiring the nations with fear1 v4 #f-h 7#g-i74 ,to such a height1 however1 she shall attain after1 by means of the judgment preceding the mercy1 all that has been taken from her upon which she in the present founded the hope of her salvation1 v4 #i-ad 7#aj-ae74 ,footnote #a3 ,it must not1 however1 be overlooked1 that there the term hear is only a resumption of hear in iii4 #a 7and1 to a certain extent1 even of that in i4 #b71 intimating1 that that which they are about to hear1 will concentrate itself in a distinct and powerful expression1--the acme of the whole threatening in iii4 #ab4 ,footnote #b3 ,besides the division into three sections1 there is1 to a certain extent1 a division also into two4 ,by in iii4 #a1 the first and second discourses1 or the exordium and principal part1 are brought into a still closer connection1--a connection founded upon the circumstance that the reproof and threatening of the first part are to be here resumed1 in order that thus a comprehensive representation may be given4 ,it is only in iii4 #ab that the threatening reaches its height4 ,but yet the tripartition remains the prominent one4 ,this cannot be denied without forcing a false sense and a false position upon ii4 #ab1 #ac4 ,footnote #c3 ,the ,fut4 apoc4 forbids us to translate3 ,he will hide4 ,in order to express his own delight in the doings of divine justice1 the prophet changes the prediction into a wish1 just as is the case in ,is4 ii4 #i1 where the greater number of interpreters assume1 in opposition to the rules of grammar1 that stands for 4 ,footnote #d3 ,against the genuineness of the inscription1 doubts have been raised by many1 after the example of ,hartmann1 and last of all by ,ewald and ,hitzig2 but it is established by the striking allusions to1 and coincidences with it1 in the text4 ,with the mention of ,micah's name in the former1 the allusion to this name in the close of the book1 in chap4 vii4 #ah1 corresponds4 ,the circumstance of ,micah being called the ,morasthite1 accounts for the fact that1 in this threatening against the cities of ,judah1 in i4 #ad1 it is ,moresheth alone which is mentioned4 ,in the inscription1 ,samaria and ,jerusalem are pointed out as the objects of the prophet's predictions2 and it is in harmony with this1 that in i4 #f1 #g1 the judgment upon ,samaria is first described1 and then the judgment upon ,judah2 that the prophet--although1 indeed1 he has ,judah chiefly in view--frequently gives attention to the ten tribes also1 and includes them1--as in the promise in ii4 #ab1 #ac1 v4 #a 7#b71 where the ,messiah appears as the ,ruler in ,israel1 and vers4 #f1 #g 7#g1 #h71 of the same chapter2 and that in iii4 #h1 #i1 ,judah is represented as a particular part only of the great whole4 ,finally--,it is peculiar to ,micah1 that he thus views so specially the two capitals2 and this again is in harmony with the inscription1 where just these1 and not ,israel and ,judah1 appear as the subjects of the prophecy4 ,it is in the capitals that ,micah beholds the concentration of the corruption 7i4 #e72 and to them the threatening also is chiefly addressed1 i4 #f1 #g1 iii4 #ab4 ,of the promise1 also1 ,jerusalem forms the centre4--,the statement1 too1 in the inscription--that ,micah uttered the contents of his book under various kings--likewise receives a confirmation from the prophecy4 ,the mention of the high places of ,judah in i4 #e1 and of the walking in the statutes of ,omri1 and in all the works of the house of ,ahab1 refers especially to the time of ,ahaz2 compare #b ,kings xvi4 #d2 #b ,chron4 xxviii4 #d1 #be2 further1 #b ,kings xvi4 #c2 #b ,chron4 xxviii4 #b2 and ,caspari on ,micah1 ,s4 #gd4 ,on the other hand1 the time of ,hezekiah is suggested by v4 #d1 #f 7#e1 #f71 which implies that already1 at that time1 ,asshur had appeared as the enemy of the people of ,god1--and so likewise by the prophecy in iv4 #i-ad4 ,,chap4 ,i4 ,,and ,,ii4 ,the prophet begins with the words3 ,hear1 all ye people1 hearken1 ,o earth and the fulness thereof1 and let the ,lord ,god be witness against you1 the ,lord from ,his holy temple4 ,for1 behold1 the ,lord cometh forth out of ,his place1 and cometh down1 and treadeth upon the high places of the earth4 ,and the mountains are melted under ,him1 and the valleys are cleft1 as wax before the fire1 as waters poured down a steep place4 ,for the transgression of ,jacob is all this1 and for the sins of the house of ,israel4 ,vers4 #b-e4 ,this majestic exordium has been misunderstood in various ways3 ,first1 by those who1 like ,hitzig1 would understand by the people1 in ver4 #b1 the tribes of ,israel4 ,we shall show1 when commenting on ,zech4 xi4 #aj1 that this is altogether inadmissible4 ,but in the present case especially1 this interpretation must be rejected2 partly on account of the reference to the words of the elder ,micah1 and partly on account of the parallel terms1 ,o earth and the fulness thereof1 which1 according to the constant usus loquendi1 lead us far beyond the narrow limits of ,palestine4 ,on the other hand1 they who by the rightly understand the nations of the whole earth1 are mistaken in this1 that they consider them as mere witnesses1 whom the ,lord calls ,pg #dbe up against ,his unthankful people1 instead of considering them as the very same against whom the ,lord bears witness2 and that they come into consideration from this point of view1 clearly appears from the words1 ,the ,lord be witness against you4 ,as regards with following1 compare1 e4g41 ,mal4 iii4 #e4--;,another mistake is committed in the definition of the way and manner of the divine witness4 ,the greater number of interpreters suppose it to be the subsequent admonitory1 reproving1 and threatening discourse of the prophet4 ,thus1 e4g41 ,michaelis1 who explains3 ,do not despise and lightly esteem such a witness1 who by me earnestly and publicly testifies to you ,his will4 ,but in opposition to this view1 it appears from ver4 #c1 that here1 as well as in ,mal4 iii4 #e1 ,and ,i will come near to you in judgment1 and ,i am a swift witness against the sorcerers1 and against the adulterers1 and against those that swear to a lie1 the witness is a real one1--that it consists in the actual attestation of the guilt by the punishment1 viz41 by the divine judgment described in vers4 #c1 #d4 ,the words1 ,the ,lord cometh forth out of ,his place1 and cometh down1 there correspond to1 ,from ,his holy temple1--from which it is evident1 at the same time1 that by the temple1 the heavenly temple must be understood4 ,we have thus1 in vers4 #b-d1 before us the description of a sublime theophany1 not for a partial judgment upon ,judah1 but for a judgment upon the whole world1 the people of which are called upon to gather around their judge--whom the prophet beholds as already approaching1 descending from ,his glorious habitation in heaven1 accompanied by the insignia of ,his power1 the precursors of the judgment--and silently to wait for ,his judicial and penal sentence4#a ,but how is it to be explained that with the words1 ,for the transgression of ,jacob is all this1 etc41 there is a sudden transition to the judgments upon ,israel1 yea1 that the prophet ,pg #dbf goes on as if ,israel alone had been spoken of8 ,only from the relation in which these two judgments stand to one another4 ,for they are perfectly one in substance4 ,they are separated only by space1 time1 and unessential circumstances2 so that we may say that the general judgment appears in every partial judgment upon ,israel4 ,in order to give expression to the thought1 that it is the judge of the world who is to judge ,israel1 the prophets not unfrequently represent the ,lord appearing to judge the whole world2 and in ,israel1 the ,microcosmos1 it was indeed judged4 ,we have a perfectly analogous case1 e4g41 in ,is4 chap4 ii4-iv4 ,it is only by means of a very forced explanation1 that it can be denied that after the prophet has1 by a few bold touches1 from ii4 #f-i1 described the moral debasement of the ,covenant-people1 and marked out pride as its last source1 the last judgment upon the whole earth forms the subject of discourse4 ,in that judgment there will be a most clear revelation of the vanity of all which is created--a vanity which1 in the present course of the world1 is so frequently concealed--and that the ,lord alone is exalted1 and that those who now shut their eyes will then be compelled to acknowledge these truths4 ,that ,isaiah has this general judgment in view1 is too clearly proved by the sublimity of the whole description1 by the express mention of the whole earth1 e4g41 ii4 #ai1 and by not limiting1 in the individualized description in ver4 #ab sqq41 the high and lofty which is to be brought low to ,judah alone1 but by extending it to the whole world4 ,but in iii4 #a ff4 the prophet suddenly passes over to the typical1 penal judgment upon ,judah2 and the 1 at the commencement1 shows that he does not consider this subject as one altogether new1 but as being substantially identical with the preceding subject4 ,this reminds us forcibly of the mode in which1 in the prophecies of our ,lord1 the references to the destruction of ,jerusalem1 and to the last judgment1 are connected with one another4 ,in the burden of ,babylon in chap4 xiii4 likewise1 the judgment of the ,lord upon the whole earth is first described4 ,nor is it only on the territory of prophecy that this close connection of the general judgment with the inferior judgments upon the ,covenant-people appears4 ,in ,ps4 lxxxii4 #h1 e4g41 after the unrighteousness prevailing among the ,covenant-people has been described1 the ,lord is called upon to come to judge1 not them ,pg #dbg alone1 but the whole earth2 compare my ,commentary on ,ps4 vii4 #h1 lvi4 #h1 lix4 #f4 ,the prophet thus passes over1 in ver4 #e1 from the general manifestation of divine justice to its special manifestation among the ,covenant-people1 and mentions here1 as the most prominent points upon which it will be inflicted1 ,samaria and ,jerusalem1 the two capitals1 from which the apostasy from the ,lord spread over the rest of the country4 ,he mentions ,samaria first1 and then1 in vers4 #f1 #g1 he describes its destruction which was brought about by the ,assyrians1 before he makes mention of that of ,jerusalem1 because the apostasy took place first in ,samaria1 and hence the punishment also was hastened on4 ,the latter circumstance1 which is merely a consequence of the former1 is in an one-sided manner made prominent by the greater number of interpreters1 who therein follow the example of ,jerome4 ,it was at the same time1 however1 probably the intention of the prophet to be done with ,samaria1 in order that he might be at liberty to take up exclusively the case of ,judah and ,jerusalem--the main objects of his prophetic ministry4 ,he makes the transition to this in ver4 #h1 by means of the words3 ,on that account ,i will wail and howl1 ,i will go stripped and naked2 ,i will make a wailing like the jackals1 and a mourning like the ostriches4 ,on that account--i4e41 on account of the judgment upon ,judah1 to be announced in the subsequent verses4 ,it is commonly supposed that the prophet here speaks in his own person2 thus1 e4g41 ,rosenmller3 ,the prophet mourns in a bitter lamentation for the number and magnitude of the calamities impending over the ,israelitish people4 ,but the correct view rather is1 that the prophet1 when1 in his inward vision1 he sees the divine judgments not remaining and stopping at ,samaria1 but poured out like a desolating torrent over ,judah and ,jerusalem1 suddenly sinks his own consciousness in that of his suffering people4 ,we have thus here before us an imperfect symbolical action1 similar to that more finished one which occurs in ,is4 xx4 #c1 #d1 and which can be explained only by a deeper insight into the nature of prophecy1 according to which the dramatic character is inseparable from it4 ,the transition from the mere description of what is present in the inward vision only1 to the prophet's own action1 is1 according to this view1 very easy4 ,if we confine ourselves to the passage before us1 the following ,pg #dbh arguments are in favour of our view4 #a4 ,the predicates and cannot be explained upon the supposition that the prophet describes only his own painful feelings on account of the condition of his people4 ,even if stood alone1 the explanation by naked1 in the sense of deprived of the usual and decent dress1 and1 on the contrary1 clothed in dirt and rags1 would be destitute of all proof and authority4 ,no instance whatsoever is found of the outward habit of a mourner being designated as nakedness4 ,but it is still more arbitrary thus to deal with 1 whether it be explained by deprived of his mental faculties on account of the unbounded grief of his soul1--as is done by several ,jewish expositors 7who1 in the explanation of this passage1 would have done much better1 had they followed the ,chaldee1 in whom the correct view is found2 only that he1 giving up the figurative representation1 substitutes the third person for the first1 paraphrasing it thus3 ,on that account they shall wail and howl1 they shall go stripped and naked1 etc471--or by badly clothed1 as is done by the greater number of ,christian expositors4 ,the signification robbed1 plundered1 is the only established one2 compare in ,job xii4 #ag-ai4 ,the parallel passages1 in which nakedness appears as the characteristic feature of the captives taken in war1 show how little we are entitled to depart from the most obvious signification1 in these two words4 ,thus we find immediately afterwards1 in ver4 #aa3 ,pass ye away1 ye inhabitants of ,saphir1 having your shame naked2 on which ,michaelis remarks3 ,with naked bodies1 as is the case with those who are led into captivity after having been stripped of their clothes4 ,thus ,is4 xx4 #c1 #d3 ,and the ,lord said4 ,like as ,my servant ,isaiah walketh naked and barefoot three years1 for a sign and wonder upon ,egypt and ,ethiopia1 so shall the king of ,assyria lead away the prisoners of ,egypt1 and the prisoners of ,ethiopia1 young men and old men1 naked and barefoot2 compare ,is4 xlvii4 #c4--b4 ,the term 1 in ver4 #aj1 is in favour of the supposition1 that the prophet here appears as the representative of the future condition of his people4 ,the ,imperat4 fem4 of the marginal reading is evidently1 as is commonly the case1 only the result of the embarrassment of the ,mazorets4 ,the reading of the text can be pointed as the first person of the ,preterite only2 for the view of ,rosenmller1 who takes it as the ,pg #dbi second person of the ,preterite1 which here is to have an optative signification1 is1 grammatically1 inadmissible4 ,rckert's explanation1 ,in the house of dust 7zu ,staubheim71 ,i have strewed dust upon me1 is quite correct4 ,but if here we must suppose that the prophet suddenly passes over from the address to his unfortunate people1 to himself as their representative1 why should not this supposition be the natural one in ver4 #h also8 ,the correctness of the view which we have given is further strengthened1 if we compare the similar lamentations of the prophets in other passages1 in all of which the same results will be found4 ,in ,jer4 xlviii4 #ca1 e4g41 ,therefore will ,i howl over ,moab1 and cry out over all ,moab1 over the men of ,kir-heres shall he groan1 the he in the last clause sufficiently shows how the ,i in the two preceding clauses1 is to be understood1--especially if ,is4 xvi4 #g1 ,therefore ,moab howleth over ,moab1 be compared4 ,but if this interpretation be correct in ,jeremiah1 it must certainly be correct in ,is4 xv4 #e also3 ,my heart crieth out over ,moab1--a passage which ,jeremiah had in view2 and this so much the more1 that in ,is4 xvi4 #i-aa--where a similar lamentation for ,moab occurs3 ,therefore do ,i bewail as for ,jazer for the vine of ,sibmah2 ,i water thee with my tears1 ,o ,heshbon and ,elealeh4444 ,therefore my bowels sound like a harp for ,moab1 mine inward parts for ,kirhareseth--it is quite unsuitable to think of a lamentation of the prophet1 which is expressive of his own grief4 ,this was seen by the ,chaldee1 who renders my bowels by bowels of the ,moabites1--a view the correctness of which has been strikingly demonstrated by ,vitringa3 ,although1 he says1 the emotion of compassion be by no means unsuitable in the prophet1 yet no one will be readily convinced that the prophet was so much concerned for the vines of ,sibmah and ,jazer1 and for the crops of the summer-fruits of a nation hostile and opposed to the people of ,god1 that it should have been for him a cause for lamentation and wailing4 ,in ,is4 xxi41 in the prophecy against ,babylon1 and in the lamentation in vers4 #c1 #d1 ,therefore are my loins filled with pain1 pangs take hold upon me as the pangs of a woman that travaileth1 etc41 the night of my pleasure has been turned into terror1 it is clearly shown in what sense such lamentations are to be understood4 ,by the night of pleasure1 we can1 especially by a comparison of ,jeremiah1 understand only the night of the capture of ,babylon1 ,pg #dcj in which the whole city was given up to drunkenness and riot4 ,but it is impossible that the prophet should say that this night--the precursor of the long-desired day for ,israel--had been turned for him into terror4 ,either the whole lamentation is without any meaning1 or the prophet speaks in the name of ,babylon1 and that1 not of the ,babylon of the present1 but of the ,babylon of the future4 ,this must be granted1 even by those who assert that this portion was composed at a later period2 so that1 even from this quarter1 the soundness of our view cannot be assailed4 ,in ver4 #i1 the prophet returns to quiet description1 from the symbolical action to which he had been carried away by his emotions4 ,the subject of this description he states in the words3 ,it cometh unto ,judah2 it cometh unto the gate of my people1 unto ,jerusalem4 ,by individualizing1 he endeavours to give a lively view of the thought1 and to impress it4 ,he begins with an allusion to the lamentation of ,david over ,saul and ,jonathan in #b ,sam4 i4 #ag ff41 which is so much the more significant1 that in this impending catastrophe1 ,israel also was to lose his king 7compare iv4 #i71 and that in it ,david was to experience the fate of ,saul4 ,he then indicates the stations by which the hostile army advances towards ,jerusalem1 and describes how1 from thence1 it spreads over the whole country1 even to its southern boundary1 and carries away the inhabitants into exile4 ,but1 in doing so1 he always chooses places1 whose names might1 in some way1 be brought into connection with what they were now suffering2 so that the whole passage forms a chain of paronomasias4 ,these1 however1 are not by any means idle plays4 ,they have1 throughout1 a practical design4 ,the threatening is thereby to be1 as it were1 localized4 ,the thought of a divine judgment could not but be called forth in every one who should think of one of the places mentioned4 ,jerusalem is first spoken of in ver4 #i as the centre of the life of ,judah3 ,the gate of my people1 etc41 being tantamount to the city or metropolis of it4 ,then1 it appears a second time in ver4 #ab1 in the middle between five ,judean places preceding and five following it1--the number ten1 which is the symbolical signification of completeness1 indicating that the judgment is to be altogether comprehensive4 ,the five places mentioned after ,jerusalem are all of them situated to the south of it4 ,that the ,pg #dca five places1 the mention of which precedes that of ,jerusalem1 are all to be sought to the north of it1 and that1 hence1 the judgment advances from the north in geographical order1 as is the case in ,is4 x4 #bh ff4 also1 is evident from the fact that ,beth-,leaphrah1 which is identical with ,ophrah1 is situated in the territory of ,benjamin1 and that ,beth-,haezel1 which is identical with ,azal in ,zech4 xiv4 #e1 was situated in the neighbourhood of ,jerusalem4 ,hence1 we cannot suppose that ,zaanan here is identical with ,zenan1 which is situated in the south of ,jerusalem1 ,josh4 xv4 #cg1 nor ,saphir with ,samir4 ,the question still arises1 ,in what event did the threatening of punishment1 contained in chap4 i41 find its fulfilment8 ,theodoret1 ,cyril1 ,tarnovius1 ,marckius1 ,jahn1 and others1 refer it to the ,assyrian invasion4 ,jerome referred it to the ,babylonish captivity3 ,the same sin1 he says1 yea1 the same punishment of sin which shall overturn ,samaria1 is to extend to ,judah1 yea1 even unto the gates of my city of ,jerusalem4 ,for1 as ,samaria was overturned by the ,assyrians1 so ,judah and ,jerusalem shall be overturned by the ,chaldeans4 ,this opinion was adopted by ,michaelis and others4 ,at first sight1 it would appear as if the circumstance1 that the judgment upon ,judah is brought into immediate connection with that upon ,israel1 favoured the first view4 ,but this argument loses its weight when we remark1 that the events appear to the prophet in inward vision1 and1 therefore1 quite irrespective of their relation in time2 that the continuity of the punitive judgment upon ,israel and ,judah only1 points out distinctly the truth1 that both proceed from the same cause1 viz41 the relation of divine justice to the sin of the ,covenant-people4 ,it is this truth alone which forms the essence and soul of the prophetic threatenings2 and with reference to that1 the difference in point of time1 which is merely accidental1 is altogether kept out of view4 ,another argument in favour of the ,assyrian invasion might be derived from the expression1 to ,jerusalem1 in ver4 #i1 inasmuch as the ,chaldean invasion visited ,jerusalem itself4 ,but1 because the calamity was not by any means to stop at ,judah1 but to overflow even it1 it is shown by the preceding expression1 unto ,judah1 that 7compare on this word1 ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of ,daniel1 p4 #ee seq47 must1 in both cases1 be explained from a tacit antithesis with the expectation1 ,pg #dcb that the judgment would either stop at the boundary of ,judah1 or1 although this should not be the case1 would at least spare the metropolis4 ,the prophet contents himself with representing that this opinion was erroneous4 ,although this passage itself asserts nothing upon the point as to whether ,jerusalem itself is to be thought of as the object of the divine punishment1 or whether it will be spared1 the following reasons show that the former will be the case4 ,even ver4 #e does not admit of our expecting anything else4 ,jerusalem is there marked out as the chief seat and source of corruption in the kingdom of ,judah1 just as is ,samaria in the kingdom of ,israel4 ,the declaration which is there made forms the foundation of the subsequent threatening4 ,how is it possible1 then1 that1 while in the kingdom of ,israel it is concentrated upon ,samaria1 in the kingdom of ,judah the seducer should be altogether passed over1 and punishment announced to the seduced only8 ,that such is not the intention of the prophet1 is clearly seen from ver4 #ab3 ,for evil cometh down from the ,lord upon the gate of ,jerusalem4 ,the alone is sufficient to prevent our limiting the sense of these words1 so that they mean only that evil will come no farther than to the gate of ,jerusalem1 and will stop there4 ,the ,particula causalis proves that they are the ground of the declaration in ver4 #aa1 and that the mourning will not cease at ,beth-,haezel1 the house of stopping2 compare the remarks on ,zech4 xiv4 #e4 ,but1 altogether apart from this connection1 the words themselves furnish a proof4 ,they contain a verbal reference to the description of the judgment upon ,sodom and ,gomorrha1 ,gen4 xix4 #bd4 ,jerusalem is marked out by them as a second ,sodom 7compare ,is4 i4 #aj71 upon which the divine judgments would discharge themselves4 ,as a second mark of this extension to ,jerusalem1 the carrying away of the people into captivity is added 7compare vers4 #aa1 #ae1 #af71 which1 in the promise in chap4 ii4 #ab1 #ac1 is supposed to have taken place4 ,it is not ,israel alone1 but the whole ,covenant-people1 who are in a state of dispersion1 and are gathered from it by the ,lord4 ,now1 both of these marks are not applicable to the ,assyrian invasion2 and if once we suppose the divine illumination of the prophet1 it cannot be regarded as the real object of his threatenings4 ,this1 too1 is equally inadmissible1 if we consider the matter from a merely human point of view4 ,the predictions ,pg #dcc of the prophets with regard to ,assyria are1 from the very outset1 rather encouraging4 ,it is true that they are to be1 in the hand of the ,lord1 a rod of chastisement for ,his people1 but these are never to be altogether given up to them for destruction4 ,by an immediate divine interference1 their plan of capturing ,jerusalem is frustrated4 ,thus the matter is constantly represented in ,isaiah2 thus also in ,hosea i4 #g4 ,we can1 moreover1 adduce proofs from ,micah himself1 that his spiritual eye was not pre-eminently1 or exclusively1 directed to the ,assyrians4 ,in the prophecy from chap4 iii4 to v41 where he describes the judgment upon ,judah in a manner altogether similar to that in which he mentions it here1 he passes over the ,assyrians altogether in silence4 ,babylon is1 in iv4 #aj1 mentioned as the place to which ,judah is to be led into captivity4 ,yet here1 as well as everywhere else in the threatenings and promises of the prophets1 we must beware1 lest1 in referring them to some particular historical event1 we lose sight of the animating idea4 ,if this1 on the other hand1 be rightly understood1 it will be seen that a particular historical event may indeed be pre-eminently referred to1 but that it can never exhaust the prophecy4 ,although1 therefore1 the main reference here be to the destruction by the ,chaldeans1 we must not on that account exclude anything in which the same law of retaliation was manifested1 either before1 as in the invasion of the ,syrians and ,assyrians2 or afterwards1 as in the destruction by the ,romans4 ,the prophet himself points1 in iv4 #aa-ad 7iv4 #aa-v4 #a71 to two other phases of the divine judgment which are to follow upon that by the ,chaldeans4 ,after the prophet has thus hitherto described the impending divine judgment in great general outlines1 he passes on1 in chap4 ii41 to chastise particular vices1 which1 however1 must always be at the same time1 yea1 prominently1 considered as indications of the wholly depraved condition of the nation1 and of the punishments to follow upon it4 ,one feature upon which he here chiefly dwells1 and which must1 therefore1 have been a peculiarly prominent manifestation of the sinful corruption1 consists in the acts of injustice and oppression committed by the great1 the description of which presents striking resemblances to that in ,is4 v4 #h ff4 ,the prophet interrupts this description only in order ,pg #dcd to rebuke the false prophets1 who reproved him for the severity of his discourses1 and asserted that they were unworthy of the merciful ,god4 ,such severity1 answered the prophet1 was true mildness1 because it alone could be the means of warding off the approaching punitive judgment2 that his ,god did not punish from want of forbearance--from want of mercy2 but that the fault was altogether that of the transgressors1 who drew down upon themselves1 by force4 ,his judgments4#b ,the prophecy closes with the promise in vers4 #ab1 #ac4 ,it is introduced quite abruptly1 in order to place it in more striking contrast with the threatening2 just as1 in iv4 #a1 there is a similar abrupt and unconnected contrast between the promise and the threatening4#c ,it is only brief2 far more so than in the subsequent discourses1 and far less detailed than it is in them4 ,the prophet desires first of all to terrify sinners from their security2 and for this reason1 he causes only a very feeble glimmering of hope to fall upon the dark future4 ,ver4 #ab4 ,i will assemble1 surely ,i will assemble1 ,o ,jacob1 thee wholly3 ,i will gather the remnant of ,israel4 ,i will bring ,pg #dce them together as the sheep of ,bozrah2 as a flock on their pasture1 they shall make a noise by reason of men4 ,ver4 #ac4 ,the breaker goeth up before them2 they break through1 pass through the gate and go out1 and their ,king marches before them1 and the ,lord is on the head of them4 ,the remark1 that almost all the features of this description are borrowed from the deliverance out of ,egypt1 will throw much light upon the whole description4 ,in the midst of oppression and misery1 ,israel1 while there1 increased by means of the blessing of the ,lord1 hidden under the cross1 to greater and greater numbers2 compare ,exod4 i4 #ab4 ,when the time of deliverance had arrived1 the ,lord1 who had for a long time concealed ,himself1 manifested ,himself again as their ,god4 ,first1 the people were gathered together1 and then1 the ,lord went before them1--in a pillar of cloud by day1 and in a pillar of fire by night3 ,exod4 xiii4 #ba4 ,he led them out of ,egypt1 the house of bondage3 ,exod4 xx4 #b4 ,so it is here also4 ,ver4 #ab describes the increase and gathering1 and ver4 #ac the deliverance4 ,in both passages1 ,israel's misery is represented under the figure of an abode in the house of bondage1 or in prison1 the gates of which the ,lord opens--the walls of which ,he breaks down4 ,in this allusion to1 and connection with1 the former deliverance1 ,micah agrees with his contemporaries1 ,hosea and ,isaiah4 ,the deeper reason of this lies in the typical import of the former deliverance1 which forms a prophecy by deeds of all future deliverances1 and contains within itself completely their germ and pledge2 compare ,hosea ii4 #a1 #b 7i4 #aj1 #aa72 ,is4 xi4 #aa ff43 ,and the ,lord shall stretch forth ,his hand a second time to redeem the remnant of ,his people4444 ,and ,he sets up an ensign for the nations1 and gathers together the dispersed of ,israel1 and assembles the scattered of ,judah from the four corners of the earth4444 ,and the ,lord smites with a curse the tongue of the ,egyptian sea1 and shakes ,his hand over the river1 in the violence of ,his wind1 and smites it to seven rivers1 so that one may wade through in shoes4 ,and there shall be a highway to the remnant of ,his people1 444 like as it was to ,israel in the day when he came up out of the land of ,egypt4 ,this reference to the typical deliverance clearly shows1 that in the description we have carefully to separate between the thought and the language in which it is clothed4 ,pg #dcf ,ver4 #ab4 ,the ,infin4 absol41 which in both the clauses precedes the tempus finitum1 expresses the emphasis which is to be placed on the gathering1 as opposed to the carrying away1 and the scattering formerly announced2 for the latter1 according to the view of man1 and apart from ,god's mercy and omnipotence1 did not seem to admit of any favourable turn4 ,by ,jacob and ,israel1 several interpreters understand ,judah alone2 others1 the ten tribes alone2 others1 both together4 ,the last view is alone the correct one4 ,this appears from i4 #e1 where1 by ,jacob and ,israel1 the whole nation is designated4 ,the promise in the passage before us stands closely related to the threatening uttered there4 ,all ,israel shall be given up to destruction on account of their sins2 all ,israel shall be saved by the grace of ,god4 ,this assumption is confirmed by a comparison of the parallel passages in ,hosea and ,isaiah1 where the whole is designated by the two parts1 ,judah and ,israel4 ,micah does not notice this division1 because that visible separation1 which even in the present was overbalanced by an invisible unity1 shall disappear altogether in that future1 when there shall be only one flock1 as there is only one ,shepherd4 ,the expression1 remnant of ,israel1 in the second clause1 which corresponds to1 ,o ,jacob1 thee wholly1 in the first1 indicates1 that the fulfilment of the promise1 so far from doing away with the threatening1 rather rests on its preceding realization4 ,the ,congregation of ,god1 purified by the divine judgments1 shall be wholly gathered4 ,divine mercy has in itself no limits2 and those which in the present are assigned to it by the objects of mercy1 shall then be removed4--,the words1 ,i will bring them together1 etc41 indicate equally the faithfulness of the great ,shepherd1 who gathers ,his dispersed flock from all parts of the world1 and the unexpected and wonderful increase of the flock2 compare ,jer4 xxiii4 #c3 ,and ,i will gather the remnant of ,my flock out of all countries whither ,i have driven them1 and lead them back to their pasture-ground1 and they are fruitful and increase2 and xxxi4 #aj3 ,he that scattereth ,israel will gather him and keep him as a shepherd does his flock4--,bozrah we consider to be the name of a capital of the ,idumeans in ,auranitis1 four days' journey from ,damascus4 ,the great wealth of this town in flocks appears from ,is4 xxxiv4 #f 7although a slaughter of men is spoken of in that passage1 yet evidently the wealth of ,bozrah in natural ,pg #dcg flocks is there supposed71 and can with perfect ease be accounted for from its situation4 ,for1 in its neighbourhood1 there begins the immeasurable plain of ,arabia1 which1 on one side1 continues without interruption as far as ,dshof1 into the heart of ,arabia1 while1 towards the ,north1 it extends to ,bagdad1 under the name of ,el ,hamad4 ,its length and breadth are calculated to amount to eight days' journey4 ,it contains many shrubs and blooming plants2 compare ,burkhardt and ,ritter4#d ,several interpreters consider to be an appellative1 and assign to it the signification sheepfold1 cote4 ,but there is no reason whatsoever in favour of such a meaning of ,bozrah1 while there is this argument against it1 that the probable signification of as the name of a town is locus munitus or 4 ,it can hardly be supposed that the word should at the same time have had the significations of fortress and fold4 ,it is1 moreover1 more in harmony with the prophetical character to particularize1 than to use a general term4 ,as is shown1 however1 by the last member 7with which1 according to the accents1 the words1 ,as ,pg #dch a flock on their pasture1 must be connected71 the point of comparison is not the assembling and gathering1 but the multitude1 the crowd1--,as the sheep of ,bozrah being thus tantamount to1 ,so that in multitude they are like the sheep of ,bozrah4 1 from 1 is1 contrary to the general rule1 doubly qualified1 both by the article and by the suffix4 ,this has been accounted for on the ground that the little suffix had gradually lost its power4 ,but it is perhaps more natural to suppose that the article sometimes lost its power1 and coalesced with the noun4 ,the frequent use of the ,status emphaticus in undefined nouns1 in the ,syriac language 7compare ,hofmann1 ,gram4 ,syr41 p4 #bij71 presents an analogy in favour of this opinion4--,the last words graphically describe the noise produced by a numerous1 closely compacted flock4 ,the plur4 of the ,fem4 refers to the sheep4-- denotes the causa efficiens4 ,they make a noise2 and this noise proceeds from the numerous assembled people4 ,the same connection of figure and thing occurs in ,ezek4 xxxiv4 #ca3 ,and ye 77 are ,my flock1 the flock of ,my pasture are ye men2 compare ,ezek4 xxxvi4 #ch4 ,ver4 #ac4 ,the whole verse must be explained by the figure of a prison1 which lies at the foundation4 ,the people of ,god are shut up in it1 but are now delivered by ,god's powerful hand4 ,by the breaker1 many interpreters understand the ,lord ,himself4 ,but if we consider1 that in a double clause1 at the end of the verse1 the ,lord is mentioned as the leader of the expedition if we look to the type of the deliverance from ,egypt1 where ,moses1 as the breaker1 marches in front of ,israel2 and if1 further1 we look to the parallel passage in ,hosea1 where1 with an evident allusion to that type1 the children of ,israel and of ,judah appoint themselves one head2 we shall rather be disposed to understand by the breaker the dux et antesignanus raised up by ,god4 ,with the raising up and equipping of such a leader every divine deliverance commences2 and that which1 in the inferior deliverance1 the typical leaders1 ,moses and ,zerubbabel1 were1 ,christ was in the highest and last deliverance4 ,to ,him the breaker has been referred by several ,jewish interpreters 7compare ,schttgen1 ,hor ii4 p4 #bab72 and if we compare chap4 v41 where that which is here indicated by general outlines only is further expanded and detailed1 we shall have to urge against this interpretation this objection only1 viz41 that it excludes the ,pg #dci typical breakers1--that1 in the place of the ideal person of the breaker1 which presents itself to the internal vision of the prophet1 it puts the individual in whom this idea is most fully realized4--,the words are1 by several interpreters1 referred to the forcing and entering of hostile gates4 ,thus ,michaelis1 whom ,rosenmller follows3 ,no gate shall be so fortified as to prevent them from forcing it4 ,but this interpretation destroys the whole figure1 and violates the type of the deliverance from ,egypt which lies at the foundation4 ,for the gate through which they break is certainly the gate of the prison4--,the three verbs--,they break through1 they pass through1 they go out--graphically describe their progress1 which is not to be stopped by any human power4--,the last words open up the view to the highest leader of the expedition2 compare besides1 ,exod4 xiii4 #ba2 ,is4 lii4 #ab3 ,for ye shall not go out in trembling1 nor shall ye go out by flight4 ,for the ,lord goeth before you1 and the ,god of ,israel closeth your rear2 ,is4 xl4 #aa2 ,ps4 lxxx4 #c4 ,in the exodus from ,egypt1 a visible symbol of the presence of ,god marched before the host1 besides ,moses1 the breaker4 ,on the return from ,babylon1 the ,angel of the ,lord was visible to the eye of faith only1 as formerly when ,abraham's servant journeyed to ,mesopotamia1 ,gen4 xxiv4 #g4 ,at the last and highest deliverance1 the breaker was at once the ,king and ,god of the people4 ,as this prophecy has no limitation at all in itself1 we are fully entitled to refer it to the whole sum of the deliverances and salvation which are destined for the ,covenant-people2 and to seek for its fulfilment in every event1 either past or future1 in the same degree as the fundamental idea--,god's mercy upon ,his people--is manifested in it4 ,every limitation to any particular event is evidently inadmissible2 but1 most of all1 a limitation to the deliverance from the ,babylonish captivity1 which1 especially with regard to ,israel1 can be considered as only a faint prelude of the fulfilment4 ,they1 however1 have come nearest to the truth who assume an exclusive reference to ,christ1--provided they acknowledge1 that the conversion of the first fruits of ,israel1 at the time when ,christ appeared in ,his humiliation1 is not the end of ,his dealings with this people4 ,footnote #a3 ,the reference to the general judgment would indeed disappear1 if we suppose in ver4 #b to be addressed to ,israel4 ,it seems1 indeed1 to be in favour of this supposition1 that1 in #a ,kings xxii4 #bh1 the people alone are called upon as witnesses1 and that in ,deut4 xxxi4 #bh1 xxxii4 #a1 and ,is4 i4 #b1 heaven and earth1 and in ,hos4 vi4 #a1 the mountains also1 are called upon only in order to make the scene more solemn4 ,but the reference of to the nations mentioned immediately before1 is too evident4 ,footnote #b3 ,ver4 #f must be translated thus3 ,not shall ye drop 7prophesy71--they 7the false prophets7 drop2 if they 7the individuals addressed1 the true prophets7 do not drop to these 7the rapacious great71 the ignominy will not cease1 i4e41 the ignominious destruction breaks in irresistibly4 ,the fundamental passage in ,deut4 xxxii4 #b1 and ver4 #aa of the chapter before us1 show that has not the signification1 to talk1 which is assigned to it by ,caspari4 ,the false prophets must be considered as the accomplices of the corrupted great1 especially as to the bulwark which they opposed to the true prophets1 and their influence on the nation1 and on their own consciences1--as indeed material power everywhere seeks for such a spiritual ally4 ,if this be kept in view1 the censure and threatening acquire a still greater unity4 ,footnote #c3 ,to a certain extent1 however1 verse #aa forms the transition3 ,if one were to come1 a wind1 and lie falsely3 ,i will prophesy to thee of wine and of strong drink1--he would be the prophet of this people4 ,such a prophet ,micah1 indeed1 is not2 but although he neither can nor dare announce salvation without judgment1 he has1 in the name of the ,lord1 to announce salvation after the judgment4 ,the very singular opinion1 that in vers4 #ab1 #ac1 the false prophets are introduced as speaking1 is refuted by the single circumstance that1 in ver4 #ab1 the gathering of the remnant of ,israel only is promised1 and hence the judgment is supposed to have preceded4 ,it is no less erroneous if1 instead of considering ver4 #aa as introductory to vers4 #ab1 #ac1 the latter be made to depend upon ver4 #aa1 and be therefore considered as1 to a certain extent1 accidental4 ,footnote #d3 ,after the example of v4 ,raumer1 ,robinson1 ,ritter 7,erdk4 #ad1 #aja71 it has now become customary to distinguish between two ,bozrahs1--one in ,auranitis1 and the other in ,edom4 ,but the arguments adduced for this distinction are not of very great weight4 ,nowhere is a high situation in reality ascribed to the ,bozrah in ,edom4 ,the assertion1 that ,edom was always limited to the territory between the ,dead ,sea and the ,red ,sea1 is opposed to ,gen4 xxxvi4 #ce1 according to which passage1 even in the time before ,moses1 the ,edomitic king1 ,hadad1 smote ,midian in the field of ,moab2 and further1 to ,lam4 iv4 #ba1 according to which ,edom dwells in the land of ,uz1 which can be sought for only in ,arabia ,deserta4 ,we need to think only of that branch of the ,midianites who had gone over to ,arabia ,deserta1 whilst their chief settlement continued in ,arabia ,petra4 ,but the following arguments may be adduced against the distinction4 #a4 ,bozrah is constantly and simply spoken of1 without any further distinctive designation4 #b4 ,the ,edomitic ,bozrah must have been a great and powerful city1 which agrees well with the mighty ruins in ,hauran1 but not with the much more insignificant ruins near ,busseireh in ,dshebal4 #c4 ,it is improbable that so important a city as that of ,bozrah in ,auranitis should never have been mentioned in ,scripture4--,but not satisfied with a double ,bozrah1 even a third1 in ,moab1 has been assumed on the ground of ,jer4 xlviii4 #bd4 ,but it is certainly strange that ,bozrah1 in that passage1 is mentioned as the last of all the ,moabitish towns1 and that1 immediately after its mention1 there follow the words1 ,upon all the cities of the land of ,moab1 far and near4 ,it may be that ,bozrah was conquered by the ,edomites and ,moabites in common1 or that1 in later times1 the latter obtained a kind of possession of the town in common with the former4 ,pg #ddj ,,chap4 ,,iii4-,v4 ,the discourse opens with new reproofs and threatenings4 ,it is first1 in vers4 #a-d1 directed against the rapacious great1 who in ver4 #b are described as murderers of men 7compare ,sirach xxxi4 #ba3 ,he who taketh from his neighbour his livelihood1 killeth him71 and in ver4 #c1 as eaters of men1 because they turn to their own advantage the necessaries of life of which they have robbed the poor4 ,the discourse then passes over to the false prophets1 vers4 #e-g4 ,their character is described as hypocritical1 weak1 and selfish1 and is incidentally contrasted with the character of the true prophet1 as represented by himself1 whose strength is always renewed by the ,spirit of the ,lord1 and who1 in this strength1 serves only truth and righteousness1 and holds up their sins to the people deluded by the false prophets1 ver4 #h4 ,this the prophet continues to do in vers4 #i-ab4 ,the three orders of divinely called rulers1 upon whom the life or death of the ,congregation was depending1--the princes1 the priests1 and the prophets 7compare remarks on ,zech4 x4 #a71--;have become so degenerate1 that they are not at all concerned for the glory of ,god1 but only for their own interest4 ,and while they have thus inwardly apostatized from ,jehovah1 they are strengthened in their false security by the promises which ,god has given to ,his people1 and which they1 altogether overlooking the fact that these are conditional1 referred1 in hypocritical blindness1 to themselves4 ,but ,god will1 in a fearful manner1 punish them for this apostasy1 and frighten them from their security4 ,the ,congregation of the ,lord1 which has been desecrated inwardly1 shall be so outwardly also4 ,zion shall become a corn-field2 ,jerusalem1 the city of ,god1 shall sink into rubbish and ruins2 the ,temple-hill shall again become what it was previous to its being the residence of ,god1 viz41 a thickly wooded hill1 which shall then appear in all its natural lowness1 and be considered as insignificant when compared with the neighbouring mountains4--,in the whole section1 the twelve verses of which are equally divided into three portions of four verses each1 the prophet views chiefly the great1 and the civil rulers4 ,the false prophets1 whom he takes up in the second of these subdivisions 7vers4 #e-h71 come under consideration as their helpers only4 ,in the third subdivision1 ,pg #dda the discourse is again directed to the great alone1 in vers4 #i1 #aj4 ,the two other orders are added to them in vers4 #aa1 #ab only2 and the charges raised against them refer to their relation to the great4 ,the priests are not by any means reproved because they made teaching a profession1 from which they derived their livelihood1 but because1 for bribes1 they interpreted the law in a manner favourable to the rapacious lusts of the great1 and thereby1 no less than the false prophets1 assisted them in their wickedness4--,the charge raised in ver4 #aj against the great1--,building up ,zion with blood1 and ,jerusalem with iniquity1--has been frequently misunderstood4 ,the words must not be explained from ,hab4 ii4 #ab1 but from ,ps4 li4 #bj1 where ,david prays to the ,lord1 ,build ,thou the walls of ,jerusalem1 which he had destroyed by his blood1 ver4 #af4 ,the word building is used ironically by ,micah1 and is tantamount to3 ,ye who are destroying ,jerusalem by blood and iniquity 7compare ver4 #ab3 ',for your sakes ,zion shall be ploughed as a field'71 instead of building it up by righteousness4 ,righteousness builds up1 because it draws down ,god's blessing and protection2 but unrighteousness destroys1 because it calls down the curse of ,god4 ,the unfaithfulness of the ,covenant-people can nevertheless not make void the faithfulness of ,god4 ,the prophet1 therefore1 passes suddenly from threatening to promise4 ,calvin thus expresses the relation of these two3 ,but ,i must now come to the little remnant4 ,hitherto ,i have spoken about the judgment of ,god1 which is near at hand1 upon the king's councillors1 upon the priests and prophets1 upon the whole people in short1 because they are all wicked and ungodly1 because the whole body is pervaded by contempt of ,god1 and by desperate obstinacy4 ,let them receive1 then1 that which they all have deserved4 ,but ,i now gather the children of ,god apart1 for to them too ,i have a message to deliver4 ,the intimate relation of the first part of the promise to the preceding threatening has been already demonstrated1 p4 #dbj4 ,the ,mount of ,zion1 which forms the subject of vers4 #a-g1 shall1 in future1 not only be restored to its former dignity1 but it shall be exalted above all the mountains of the earth4 ,the kingdom of ,god1 which is represented by it1 shall1 by the glory imparted to it by a new revelation of the ,lord 7compare ver4 #g3 ,and ,pg #ddb the ,lord shall be ,king over them on ,mount ,zion71 outshine all the kingdoms of the world1 and exercise an attractive power upon their citizens2 so that they flow to ,zion1 there to receive the commands of the ,lord1 vers4 #a1 #b4 ,by the sway which the ,lord exercises from ,zion1 peace shall have its dwelling in the heathen world1 ver4 #c1 and1 consequently1 the ,congregation of the ,lord ceases to be a prey to injury from the world's power1 ver4 #d;a4 ,how incredible soever it may appear1 this promise shall surely be fulfilled2 for omnipotent faithfulness has given it1 ver4 #d;b1 and has given it indeed for this very purpose2 for it is altogether natural1 and to be expected1 that the glory of the ,lord should in all eternity display itself in ,his dealings with ,his people1 ver4 #e4 ,in vers4 #f1 #g1 the promise receives a new impetus1 by which it connects itself with ver4 #d;a4 ,in that time of mercy1 the ,lord will put an end to all the misery of ,his people4 ,ver4 #a4 ,and it shall come to pass at the end of the days1 that the mountain of the house of the ,lord shall be firmly established on the top of the mountains1 and exalted above the hills1 and people flow unto it4 ,the words1 ,and it shall come to pass1 excite the attention to the great and unexpected turn which things are to take4 ,the expression1 1 is explained by many as meaning3 ,in times to come1 in future4 ,but we have already proved1 in our work on ,balaam1 p4 #dfe seq41 that the right explanation is3 ,at the end of the days4 ,this is the explanation given by the ,,lxx4 also1 who commonly render it by 2 and by the ,chaldee ,paraphrast1 who translates it by 4 ,the reasons which seem1 at first sight1 to favour the signification in future1 are invalidated by these two considerations3--first1 that it is not at all necessary that the end be just absolutely the last1 but only the end of those events which the speaker is reviewing2 and1 second1 that it altogether depends upon the will of the speaker1 what extent he is to assign to the beginning and to the end4 ,the expression is used by the prophets in a manner different from that of the ,pentateuch4 ,the prophets use it almost exclusively with a reference to the ,messianic times1--an usus loquendi which originated in ,deut4 iv4 #cj4 ,they divide the whole duration of the kingdom of ,god into two parts1 the beginning and the end1--the state of humiliation1 and ,pg #ddc the state of glorification4 ,the line of demarcation is formed by the birth of the ,messiah1 according to v4 #b 7#c73 ,he will give them up until she who is bearing brings forth4--,the mountain of the house of the ,lord is1 according to the common usus loquendi1 not ,moriah1 but the whole mountain of ,zion1 of which ,moriah was considered as a part2 compare ,ps4 lxxvi4 #c1 lxxviii4 #fh4 ,in ver4 #h1 the prophet speaks of two parts only1 ,zion and ,jerusalem4 ,in iii4 #ab1 ,zion only1 as the better part1 is first spoken of2 and then1 in the second clause1 ,jerusalem and the mountain of the house1 the latter corresponding to ,zion1 are contrasted with each other1 or ,jerusalem and ,mount ,zion considered in its highest quality as the temple-mountain4--1 fixed1 firmly established1 implies more than1 simply1 placed4 ,it shows that the change is not merely momentary1 but that the temple-mountain shall be exalted for ever1 and that no earthly power shall be able to abase it4 ,it thus goes hand in hand with the declaration in ver4 #g3 ,the ,lord shall be king over them from now until eternity4 ,the same word is used in #a ,kings ii4 #de of the immutable firmness of the throne of ,david3 ,the throne of ,david shall be firmly established before the ,lord for ever2 compare #b ,sam4 vii4 #ab1 #ac4 ,the commentary on is given by ,dan4 ii4 #dd3 ,and in the days of these kings shall the ,god of heaven set up a kingdom which shall not be destroyed in all eternity 444 it shall break in pieces and destroy all these kingdoms1 and it shall stand for ever4 ,that does not mean1 at the head of the mountains1 i4e41 standing at the head1 as the first among them 7as ,hitzig and others think71 but on the summit of the mountains 7the is used in a similar manner in ,judg4 ix4 #g1 compared with #a ,sam4 xxvi1 #ac71 is evident from the fact that 1 in connection with 1 is constantly used of the summit of the mountains1 and1 hence1 cannot be used in a figurative sense1 in this connection4 ,the sense can therefore be this only3 ,zion1 in future1 so pre-eminently stands out from among the other mountains1 that these serve1 as it were1 only for its foundation4 ,now1 the elevation of the temple-mountain is considered1 by several interpreters1 as a physical one4 ,passages from ,jewish commentaries1 in which the expectation is expressed that1 in the days of the ,messiah1 ,jehovah would bring near ,mount ,carmel and ,tabor1 and place ,jerusalem on ,pg #ddd the summit of them1 will be found in ,galatinus1 de ,arcanis ,catholic ,veritatis1 ,l4 v4 c4 #c4 ,the literal explanation has1 in recent times1 been defended by ,hofmann and ,drechsler4 ,but ,caspari1 by pointing out the exact correspondence between the words1 ,the mountain of the house of the ,lord shall be firmly established on the top of the mountains1 and the words in ver4 #b1 ,the law shall go forth of ,zion1 and the word of the ,lord from ,jerusalem1 has proved in a very striking manner that the elevation is a moral one4 ,as #a;b corresponds to #b;a1 so does #a;a to #b;b2 ver4 #a;a is the ground of ver4 #a;b2 ver4 #b;a1 by which ver4 #a;b is further expanded1 is the consequence of #b;b4 ,hence #b;b must be substantially identical with ver4 #a;a2 but #b;b speaks of something that points to the moral height of ,mount ,zion1 and states something upon which it is based4 ,to this it may be added1 that height1 in a moral sense1 is often ascribed to the temple-mountain1 even with reference to the ante-,messianic time1 and that the passage under consideration could be disjoined from these by force only4 ,it is upon such a view of it1 indeed1 that the use of in reference to the journeys to ,jerusalem rests1 just as it is here used in ver4 #b4 ,we may1 moreover1 compare ,ps4 xlviii4 #c2 ,ezek4 xvii4 #bb1 #cc3 ,and ,i plant upon a mountain high and elevated4 ,on the high mountains of ,israel ,i will plant it2 but especially ,ps4 lxviii4 #af3 ,mountain of ,god is the mountain of ,bashan1 the top of mountains is the mountain of ,bashan4 ,ver4 #ag4 ,why do ye tops of mountains insidiously observe the mountain which ,god desireth for ,his residence8 ,yea1 the ,lord will dwell in it for ever4 ,the mountain of ,god is1 in these verses1 an emblem of the kingdoms of the world1 which are powerful through ,god's grace4 ,in ver4 #af1 the ,psalmist declares what the mountain of ,bashan is4 ,in ver4 #ag1 he rejects the unfounded claims which it raises on account of its real advantages4 ,although it be great1 yet ,mount ,zion is infinitely greater1 and vain are all its efforts to overturn this relation4 ,this passage1 then1 leads to another argument against the literal interpretation4 ,we find in it the kingdoms represented under the figure of mountains1#a--;a mode of representation which is of very frequent occurrence in ,scripture2 compare my ,commentary on ,pg #dde ,ps4 lxv4 #g1 lxxvi4 #e2 ,rev4 viii4 #h1 xvii4 #i4 ,the more difficult it was to separate1 according to the ,israelitish conception1 mountain and kingdom1 the more natural it was to find1 in the passage before us1 expression given to the thought1 that the kingdom of ,god would1 in future1 be exalted above all the kingdoms of the world4 ,if we take into account the common practice of employing mountain in a figurative sense1 it is natural to suppose that not the exaltation alone is to be understood figuratively1 but that the mountain itself also is to be regarded chiefly in its symbolical signification1--as the symbol of the kingdom of ,god in ,israel2 although1 in this aspect1 we should expect1 at least in the beginning of the relation1 that the thing itself should still be connected with the symbol2 afterwards they may be disjoined without any hesitation4 ,the deep grief which must1 of necessity1 have been called forth by the announcement in iii4 #ab1 did not regard the mountain as such4 ,it had1 for its real object1 the condition of the kingdom of ,god which was prefigured by the condition of the mountain2 and it is just this to which the consolation has respect4--,but by what means is the exaltation of the temple-mountain to be effected8 ,cocceius has already directed attention to the circumstance1 that it must not be supposed to consist in the flowing of the people unto it2 for that is not the cause1 but the effect4 ,we find the correct answer in ver4 #b3 ,the law goeth forth of ,zion1 and the word of the ,lord from ,jerusalem2 and in ver4 #g3 ,and the ,lord will be king over them on ,mount ,zion4 ,the exaltation will1 accordingly1 be effected by a glorious manifestation of the ,lord within ,his congregation2 in consequence of which1 ,zion becomes the centre of the whole earth4 ,that this manifestation is to take place in ,christ1 is brought out only subsequently2 compare especially1 v4 #a1 #c 7#b-d74 ,a parallel passage is also ,ezek4 xl4 #b1 where ,mount ,zion is likewise seen exalted in the ,messianic time4 ,ver4 #b4 ,and many nations go and say1 ,come and let us go up to the mountain of the ,lord1 and to the house of the ,god of ,jacob1 that ,he may teach us ,his ways1 and that we may walk in ,his path2 for from ,zion the law shall go forth1 and the word of the ,lord from ,jerusalem4 ,from the words1 ,and many nations go1 to paths1 we have an expansion of--,people flow unto it4 ,zech4 viii4 #bj-bc are founded upon1 and serve as a commentary on the passage before ,pg #ddf us4 ,the people go to one another1 and send messengers to one another2 a powerful commotion pervades the heathen world1 which causes them to seek ,zion1 that had formerly been despised by them4 ,it makes no substantial difference whether the going is to be understood physically or spiritually1--whether the people flow to the literal ,mount ,zion1 or to the ,church1 which is thereby prefigured4 ,all that is requisite is1 that the commencement of their going and flowing must belong to a time in which the symbol and the thing symbolized were still connected1--when the literal ,zion was still the seat of the ,church4 ,the plurality of nations forms a contrast with the unity1 but not with the universality1 as is shown by a comparison of the parallel passage in ,isaiah1 where the many people are preceded by the mention of all the heathens 71 i4e41 the whole heathen world7 flow unto it1 instead of--,people flow unto it1 as in ,micah4 ,formerly1 one people only went to ,zion1 in order there to offer to the ,lord their worship1 and to be taught ,his ways1 ,exod4 xxiii4 #ag1 xxxiv4 #bc2 ,deut4 xxxi4 #aj sqq42 now1 many people flow thither4 ,in the anticipation of this future glory of ,mount ,zion1 which will infinitely outshine that of the present1 the sad interval described in iii4 #ab1 during which the mountain of the house is altogether forsaken1 may be more easily borne4 ,the connection of with 1 which is rather uncommon1 may be most simply explained by viewing the instruction as proceeding from its object4 ,the ways of the ,lord are the ways in which ,he would have men to walk1--that mode of life which is well-pleasing to ,him4 ,the contrast of it is walking in one's own ways4 ,is4 liii4 #f1--regulating of one's life according to the desires of one's own corrupt heart4--,the last words1 ,for from ,zion1 etc41 are not to be conceived of as spoken by the people1 stirring up and encouraging one another1 but by the prophet4 ,they state the reason why the people are so anxious to go to ,zion2 and this accounts also for the circumstance that ,zion is so emphatically placed at the beginning4 ,zion shall1 at that time1 be the residence of the true ,god1 and proved to be such by glorious revelations2 and from it ,his commands go forth over the whole earth4 1 to go out1 stands here1 as in ver4 #a1 in the sense of to go forth4 ,as the sphere for the going forth of the law from ,zion is not limited1 it must be considered in as wide an extent as possible2 in harmony with the preceding words1 ,pg #ddg according to which we must think of people1 many nations1 as being comprehended within this sphere4--,we must not overlook the fact that the article is awanting before 1 and that the law is not more strictly defined as the law of ,god4 ,it is intended1 in the first place1 only to indicate that despised and desolate ,zion is to be the seat of legislation for the whole earth4 ,the law itself is then more strictly defined as the word of ,god4 ,many interpreters understand here as meaning religion in general2#b the going forth is explained by them of its spreading itself4 ,from ,zion1 true religion is to extend over all the nations2 and hence it is that to ,zion the eyes of all of them are directed4 ,thus1 e4g41 ,theodoret1 who remarks3 ,this is the preaching of the ,gospel1 which began at ,jerusalem1 and from thence1 as from its source1 flowed over all the earth1 offering drink to those who came to it in faith4 ,but never signifies doctrine1 religion1 any more than does 3 it is always used as meaning law2 and this sense of it can with the less propriety be departed from here1 as the people1 according to what precedes1 flow to ,zion not in order to seek religion in general1 but laws for their conduct in life4 ,but even if we were to follow ,caspari1 and to modify the explanation thus1 ,the law1 which was formerly confined to ,zion1 and hence to a narrow circle1 shall go forth from thence into the wide world1--weighty objections to it would still remain4 ,if to go forth were to be understood as meaning to spread1 the sphere of the going forth would have been more closely determined2 as1 e4g41 in ,is4 xlii4 #a3 ,he shall bring forth judgment to the ,gentiles4 ,in ,is4 li4 #d1 ,law shall go out from ,me1 and ,my judgment ,i will make for a light of the people1 to go out is tantamount to1 to go forth4 ,mine arms shall judge the people1 in li4 #e1 is parallel to it4 in itself does not mean to go forth4 ,further--,the circumstance that the law spreads from ,zion1 does not account sufficiently for the zeal with which the nations flow to ,zion4 ,if it goes out1 there is then no need for their seeking for it at its home4 ,in ,zech4 viii4 #bj-bc1 also1 the thronging of the people to ,zion1 in order to enter there into a closer relation to the ,lord1 forms the subject of discourse4 ,zion1 as the place where the ,lord of ,pg #ddh the whole earth issues ,his orders1 as if from ,his residence 7,is4 xi4 #aj71 forms an appropriate contrast to ,zion shall be ploughed as a field1--a suitable parallel to the exaltation of the temple-mountain above all the mountains of the earth1 to which the prophet here returns1 after having1 in the first part of the verse1 expanded the thought3 ,people flow unto it2 and to vers4 #g1 #h also1 where ,zion appears likewise as the seat of dominion4 ,ver4 #c4 ,and ,he judges among many people1 and rebukes strong nations1 even unto a distance4 ,and they heat their swords into ploughshares1 and their spears into pruning-knives2 nation shall not lift up a sword1 against nation1 neither shall they learn war any more4 ,it appears strange to us that here we see ourselves transferred all at once to the sphere of the general description of the ,messianic time2 for1 according to the whole context1 and to the contrast with chap4 iii41 we expect such predictions as will serve especially for the consolation of the daughter of ,zion1 whose heart had been pierced by the announcement that the mountain of the house should become a wooded hill1 and that she herself should be given into the power of the ,gentiles4 ,but this difficulty is removed by remarking that this verse only prepares the way for ver4 #d1 where there is a representation of the advantage which accrues to the daughter of ,zion from the spirit of peace1 which1 through the powerful influence of ,zion's ,god1 has become prevalent in the heathen world4 ,it is from failing to perceive the connection of the two verses1 that the remark of ,hitzig has arisen3 ,it is very probable that ,micah1 if he had been the 7original7 author1 would rather have mentioned the change and restoration of ,jerusalem1 than the change of the arms4--,the subject is the ,lord4 ,that it was through ,christ1 who as early as in the ,song of ,solomon appears as the true ,solomon1 that the ,lord would carry out what is here announced1 the prophet could1 according to his plan1 detail only afterwards4 ,in chap4 iv4 #a-g1 he describes how ,zion is glorified by what the ,lord does from thence2 in ver4 #h1 by the restoration of the dominion of the ,davidic race2 and in v4 #a ff41 by the appearance of the ,messiah4 ,it is especially from v4 #c 7#d71 according to which the ,messiah stands and feeds in the strength of the ,lord1 in the majesty of the name of the ,lord ,his ,god1--and from v4 #d 7#e71 according ,pg #ddi to which ,he is the ,peace1 that we infer with certainty that the judging also shall be done by ,his mediation4 ,in ,isaiah we meet the person of the ,messiah in the prophecy of chap4 iv41 which1 along with that in chap4 ii41 belongs to one discourse1 and supplements it4 ,the judging and rebuking 7 with 1 to rebuke1 to reprove7 refer to the strifes among the nations which hitherto could not be allayed1 because there was wanting the counterpoise to selfishness which was productive of wrong4 ,but such a counterpoise is now given in the word of ,god1 which1 carried home by ,his ,spirit1 penetrates deeply into the heart4--,strong nations1 who were hitherto most ready to seize the sword4 ,the words1 ,and they beat1 etc41 refer to ,joel iv4 7iii47 #aj1 where the heathen beat their ploughshares into swords1 their pruning-knives into spears2 and they do so to the prejudice of the people of ,god1 which the prophet1 although apparently he speaks in general terms1 has specially in view4 ,by this allusion ,micah indicates that1 with reference to the disposition of the heathen world1 ,joel has spoken a word1 true1 indeed1 but giving only a partial view4 ,the words of ,justinus in the ,dialogus cum ,tryphone--,for1 having learned the fear and worship of ,god from the ,law and ,gospel which came to us through the ,apostles from ,jerusalem1 we have fled for refuge to the ,god of ,jacob1 and the ,god of ,israel2 and we1 who formerly were filled with war and murder1 and every wickedness1 have put away the instruments of war from the whole earth1 and have1 every one of us1 changed the swords into ploughshares1 and the spears into agricultural implements1 and cultivate the fear of ,god1 justice1 brotherly love1 faith1 hope1 etc41--show that1 even soon after the appearance of ,christ1 it was held that the fulfilment of this prophecy had commenced4 ,but it was acknowledged by the prophet also1 that even after the appearance of the salvation1 this description would1 in the meantime1 give only a partial exhibition of the truth2 inasmuch as not every one will submit to the judging activity of the ,lord1 how powerful soever may be the effect of the new principle which entered into the life of the nations2 for in v4 #d1 #e 7#e1 #f7 he speaks of the nations which1 in the ,messianic time1 attack the people of ,god2 in ver4 #h 7#i71 of their adversaries and enemies2 and in ver4 #ad 7#ae71 of such as do not hear4 ,but the ,pg #dej imperfect fulfilment is a pledge and guarantee for that which is perfect1 as it will take place when1 by the last judgment1 they have been removed who have obstinately preserved within themselves the spirit of strife and hatred4 ,according to the predictions of the prophets--compare especially ,is4 xi4 #f1 #g--peace shall1 at some future period1 be extended even to the irrational creation1 and the strife which has come upon earth by the fall1 shall entirely cease from it4 ,ver4 #d4 ,and they sit every man under his vine1 and under his fig-tree1 and none maketh them afraid2 for the mouth of the ,lord of hosts hath spoken it4 ,this verse contains a description of the happy consequences which the peaceful influence which goes forth from the ,lord to the heathen world1 shall have upon ,israel4 ,for ,israel is the subject in 1 and the verse does not at all pretend to give a description of a ,solomonic time for all the nations4 ,this is shown by what is stated1 in the following verse1 as to the ground of this happy change1 as well as by a comparison of the fundamental passages4 ,lev4 xxvi4 #f3 ,and ,i give peace in the land1 and ye lie down1 and none maketh you afraid2 and #a ,kings v4 #e 7iv4 #be73 ,and ,judah and ,israel dwelt safely every man under his vine and fig-tree1 from ,dan to ,beersheba1 all the days of ,solomon2 and of the parallel passages1 ,micah v4 #d 7#e72 ,zech4 iii4 #aj4 ,it is further shown by the connection with what precedes1 where great calamity1 and the devastation of their whole country had been predicted to ,israel1--and by the mention of the vine and fig-tree1 which are characteristic of the land of ,israel4 ,the words1 ,for the mouth of the ,lord1 etc41 point out the pledge1 which the person of ,him who promises affords for the fulfilment of the promise1 which appears incredible4 ,ver4 #e4 ,for all the nations shall walk1 every one in the name of their ,god2 and we will walk in the name of the ,lord our ,god for ever and ever4 ,the causal particle states the ground of the fact that the ,lord of hosts has spoken this1 and given the promise of the final safety of ,israel1 and of his enjoying peace after the strife1 in consequence of ,god's exercising dominion from ,zion over the whole heathen world2 while this peace after the strife is then more fully described in vers4 #f1 #g4 ,the lot of every people corresponds to the nature of their ,god4 ,and now1 how ,pg #dea could it be otherwise1 than that all other nations should be humbled1 because their gods are idols1 while ,israel1 on the other hand1 is exalted and endowed with everlasting salvation and prosperity1 because his ,god is the only true ,god8 ,is4 xlv4 #af1 #ag is parallel3 ,they shall be ashamed1 and also confounded1 all of them2 they shall go to confusion1 the makers of idols4 ,israel is saved by the ,lord1 with an everlasting salvation2 ye shall not be ashamed nor confounded in all eternity4--,the name of the ,lord is the complex whole of ,his excellency which is revealed1 and proved by deeds2 compare ,prov4 xviii4 #aj3 ,the name of the ,lord is a strong tower2 the righteous runneth into it and is exalted4 ,inasmuch as the name of the ,lord is to manifest itself in ,his dealings with ,his people1 it represents itself as the way in which they are to walk3 the prayer of the ,psalmist in ,ps4 xxv4 #e1 that the ,lord would lead him in ,his truth1 forms a parallel to this2 and so does also what he says in ver4 #i of the same ,psalm1 that ,he guides the meek in judgment4 ,but exactly corresponding is ,zech4 x4 #ab3 ,and ,i strengthen them in the ,lord1 and in ,his name shall they walk in the path of ,his name1 so that the latter manifests itself in ,his dealings with them2 compare the remarks on that passage4 ,in favour of our exposition1 moreover1 is the comparison of the passage ,is4 ii4 #e1 the evidently requisite harmony of which with the passage under consideration is obtained1 only if the latter be understood as we have explained it4 ,the light1 i4e41 the salvation of the ,lord spoken of there1 corresponds with the name of the ,lord in the passage under review4 ,several interpreters explain3 ,they may walk1 they may worship their gods4 ,although all nations should be idolaters1 yet we1 inhabitants of ,judah1 shall faithfully worship ,jehovah4 ,against this explanation ,caspari remarks1 ,an exhortation1 or a resolution which implies an exhortation1 is here not easily justified1 because it would stand in the midst of promises4 ,moreover1 the cannot be explained according to this interpretation1 as appears with sufficient clearness from the remark of ,justi3 ,this verse does not seem to be so closely connected with the preceding one4 ,the connection is more firmly established by the explanation of ,tarnovius1 ,michaelis1 and others3 ,surely so brilliant a lot must fall to us2 for we are faithful worshippers of the true ,god1 while all other nations walk after their idols4 ,pg #deb ,but the objections to tins explanation are3 7#a7 the circumstance that it is rather unusual to found the salvation of the people upon their ,covenant-faithfulness 7of which1 from the preceding reproof1 we cannot entertain very high notions71 instead of founding it upon ,god's grace and faithfulness1 compare vii4 #ah-bj2c 7#b7 the repeated use of the ,future1 while1 according to it1 we should have expected the ,preterite1 at least in the first member2 and 7#c71 and most decisive of all1 the expression1 ,for ever and ever2 compare the expression1 ,from henceforth1 even for ever1 in ver4 #g4 ,ver4 #f4 ,in that day1 saith the ,lord1 ,i will assemble that which halteth1 and that which hath been driven out ,i will gather1 and that which ,i have afflicted4 ,ver4 #g4 ,and ,i make that which is halting a remnant1 and that which is far off a strong nation1 and the ,lord reigneth over them in ,mount ,zion from henceforth1 even for ever4 ,the expression in that day does not refer to at the end of the days1 in ver4 #a1 but is connected with1 and resumes ver4 #d;a ,that the verb has here the signification to assemble1 and not that to receive1 is shown by ii4 #ab1 and especially by ,ezek4 xi4 #ag4 ,the word refers to the announcement of ,israel's being carried away1 which was formerly made1 and with which the scattering is connected4 ,they are assembled for their return to the ,holy ,land4 ,such an assembling1 however1 is meant1 as is connected with the full enjoyment of salvation1 and in which the ,congregation truly manifests itself in a close unity1 as a kingdom of priests4 ,in the passage1 ,zeph4 iii4 #ai1 which is founded upon the one under review1 we find ,i save instead of ,i assemble4 ,of such a description1 the assembling under ,zerubbabel was not2 compare ,nehem4 ix4 #cf1 #cg4 ,it can therefore come into notice only as a prelude to the true assembling4--,the ,fem4 sing1 of the ,partic41 says ,hitzig1 must be understood collectively2 and it is not several subjects1 but predicates of the same subject1 viz41 of the whole of ,israel1 ,pg #dec which are thereby designated4 ,the halting1 which is a condition of bodily helplessness and weakness1 occurs also in ,ps4 xxxv4 #ae1 and xxxviii4 #ah1 as a designation of adversity and misery4--,the expression1 to make a remnant1 forms the contrast to total annihilation4 ,while these words show that a limit will be put to the diminution1 the following words predict a vast increase4 ,in the words1 ,in ,mount ,zion1 the contrast with iii4 #ab appears once more at the close of the section4 ,as regards 1 compare ,ps4 xciii4 #a4 ,it does not refer to the constant government of the ,lord1 but to a new and glorious manifestation of it--as it were to a new ascension to the throne4 ,the expression1 ,from henceforth1 refers to the ideal present4 ,in spirit1 the prophet is in that time when the ,lord is just entering upon ,his government4 ,the words1 ,the ,lord reigneth 444 for ever1 are thus beautifully illustrated by ,calvin3 ,micah does not here mention the descendants of ,david1 but ,jehovah ,himself2 not as if he wished thereby to exclude that dominion of ,david1 but in order to show that ,god would make it manifest that ,he was the author of that dominion1 yea1 that ,he ,himself held all the power4 ,for1 although ,god governed the ancient people by the hand of ,david1 and by the hand of ,josiah and ,hezekiah1 yet there was1 as it were1 a shadow placed between1 so that ,god's government was then perceived darkly only4 ,the prophet1 therefore1 here expresses1 that there would be some difference betwixt that shadowy government1 and the future new dominion which ,he was openly to set up by the advent of the ,messiah4 ,and this was truly and solidly fulfilled in ,christ's person4 ,for although ,christ was the true seed of ,david1 yet ,he was also1 at the same time1 ,jehovah1 viz41 ,god made manifest in the flesh4 ,with respect to this promise1 however1 it must also be kept in mind that it will be finally fulfilled only in the future1 when the kingdom and throne of glory 7compare ,matt4 xix4 #bh7 shall be set up4 ,the prophet had hitherto described the kingdom which was to be established anew1 as a kingdom of ,god1 without mentioning the channel through which ,his mercy was to be poured out upon the ,congregation--the mediator who was to represent ,him among them4 ,his representation1 therefore1 was still defective2 it still wanted the connection with the promise given to ,david1 and so frequently celebrated by him1 and by other ,pg #ded holy ,psalmists and ,prophets--the promise of the eternal dominion of ,david's house4 ,according to this promise1 every new1 great manifestation of grace1 must be through some descendant of this family as a mediator4 ,this house must ever form the substratum on which the divine power and the divine nature1 in its most complete manifestation1 showed themselves4 ,this blank is supplied in ver4 #h4 ,and thou tower of the flock1 hill of the daughter of ,zion1 unto thee it will come2 and to thee cometh the former dominion1 the kingdom of the daughter of ,zion4 ,in the words immediately preceding it is said3 ,and the ,lord reigneth over them from henceforth1 even for ever4 ,we have here1 then1 a prediction of the dominion of the house of ,david1 by whose mediation the ,lord is to reign2 compare v4 #c 7#d71 where it is said of ,him in whom the ,davidic race is to centre1 ,and ,he stands1 and feeds in the strength of the ,lord1 in the majesty of the name of the ,lord ,his ,god4 ,all interpreters agree that the ,davidic race is designated by the ,tower of the flock1 and by the hill of the daughter of ,zion2 but1 with respect to the ground of this designation1 they are very much at variance4 ,a great number of them 7,grotius1 and among the recent interpreters1 ,rosenmller1 ,winer1 ,gesenius1 ,de ,wette7 think of that ,tower of the flock1 in the neighbourhood of which ,jacob1 according to ,gen4 xxxv4 #ba1 took up his abode for a time4 ,they say that1 according to ,jerome1 this ,tower of the flock was situated in the immediate neighbourhood of ,bethlehem2 that it is used here only by way of a metalepsis for ,bethlehem1 and that ,bethlehem again designates the ,davidic race2 so that the passage agrees altogether with v4 #a 7#b74 ,but1 upon a closer examination1 this interpretation appears to be objectionable1 for the following reasons4 #a4 ,it is anything but fixed that that ,tower of the flock was situated in the immediate neighbourhood of ,bethlehem4 ,it cannot be inferred from the passage in ,genesis1 and as little can it be proved from ,jerome4 ,in the ,quest4 ad ,genes4 ,opp4 iii4 p4 #ade1 ,frcf41 he first mentions the opinion of the ,jews1 according to which1 by the ,tower of the flock is to be understood the place on which the temple was afterwards built1 and then says3 ,but if we follow the direction of the road1 we find1 by ,bethlehem1 a 'place of the shepherds1' which was so called1 either because it was there ,pg #dee that1 at the birth of the ,lord1 the angels sang their hymn of praise2 or because ,jacob fed his flock there1 and gave this name to the place2 or1 which is more likely1 because even then the future mystery was1 by a revelation1 shown to him4 ,according to this1 ,jerome does not know anything of a ,tower of the flock near ,bethlehem4 ,from the direction of the road which ,jacob took1 he only surmises that it was situated thereabouts2 and since there was1 in the neighbourhood of ,bethlehem1 a place called the place of the shepherds1 he1 from a mere combination1 declares this to be identical with the ,tower of the flock2 while1 after all1 he is so cautious as not at once to reject the only true derivation of this name from the shepherds at the birth of ,christ4 ,by this1 the other passage in the book de locis ,hebr4 must be judged1 where ,jerome expressly delivers his supposition as if it were historical truth3 ,bethlehem1 the city of ,david 444 and about a thousand paces 7passus7 distant is the tower ,ader1 which is called 'the ,tower of the flock1' indicating that1 by some vision1 the shepherds had1 beforehand1 been made conscious of the birth of the ,lord4 ,that tradition knew but little of any ,tower of the flock in the neighbourhood of ,bethlehem1 appears also from ,eusebius ,onom4 s4 v4 ,gader4 p4 #gi1 ed4 ,cleric3 ,the tower ,gader 444 ,while ,jacob dwelt there1 ,reuben went in to ,bilhah4 ,eusebius evidently knew nothing more regarding the ,tower of the flock than what we also may learn from the passage in ,genesis4 ,he does not venture to offer even a conjecture as to its position4 ,the same ignorance is shown by the ,jews1 mentioned by ,jerome1 who certainly would not have thought of a reference to the temple1 if a place called ,tower of the flock had existed in the neighbourhood of ,bethlehem4 #b4 ,but even assuming the existence of the ,tower of the flock in the neighbourhood of ,bethlehem1 is it anything else than the assumption of a pure quid pro quo1 to assert1 without assigning any reason1 that the ,tower of the flock stands for ,bethlehem8 ,rosenmller1 at least1 has felt this4 ,he makes the attempt to assign a reason3 ,in substituting1 however1 an unknown hamlet in the neighbourhood of ,bethlehem1 for ,bethlehem itself1 he intended to indicate that the dominion of ,david would be altogether weakened and brought low4 ,but this reason is certainly not by any means sufficient2 ,bethlehem was1 in itself1 so small1 that no further ,pg #def diminution was required2 compare v4 #a 7#b74 ,it had1 moreover1 been always small1 and had not by any means sunk down in the course of time from former greatness4 ,hence1 such a designation1 in contrast with its former glory1 would be entirely out of place2 and even supposing that it were not1 the mode of this designation would always be inexplicable1 unless we could assume a closer reference of the ,tower of the flock to the ,davidic family4 ,it is only by establishing such a reference1 that the whole explanation can be saved and confirmed4 ,for this purpose1 it would be necessary to suppose that ,bethlehem1 and the district belonging to it1 were the general designation of the native place of the ,davidic family1 while the ,tower of the flock was the special one4 ,but there is not the slightest ground on which to support this hypothesis4 ,everywhere1 ,bethlehem itself appears as the residence of ,jesse1 the father of ,david 7compare #a ,sam4 xvi4 #a1 #ah1 #ai1 xvii4 #ab71 and likewise of ,boaz1 ,ruth ii4 #d4 ,the incorrectness of another explanation is still more evident4 ,according to it1 we are1 by the ,tower of the flock1 to understand a tower which is alleged to have stood at ,jerusalem1 near to the ,sheep-gate4 ,but the existence of such a tower is supported by no evidence whatsoever1 and does not become even probable by the existence of a sheep-gate2 for a ,tower of the flock is not a tower which stands near the ,sheep-gate1 but a tower which is erected for the protection of the flock1 as is clearly seen from ,migdal ,eder in ,genesis4 ,but1 even supposing that such a tower existed1 is there anything which could somehow make it a suitable designation of the ,davidic family8 ,let us now proceed to the establishment of our own opinion1 by which the arguments advanced against the other explanations will be considerably strengthened4 ,concerning the situation of ,jerusalem1 ,josephus1 de ,b4 ,j4 i4 #f1 c4 #ac1 remarks as follows3 ,it was built on two hills fronting each other1 separated by a chasm running between1 down to which the houses were situated4 ,one of the hills1 on which the upper part of the city lay1 was much higher and longer than the other4 ,and1 because it was fortified1 it was called the ,citadel of ,king ,david1 etc4 ,these two hills are ,akra and ,zion4 ,the city situated upon the latter1 is1 in other passages also1 described by ,josephus to be very high and steep2 e4g41 vi4 #dj3 ,pg #deg4 ,the sight afforded by the towers in this steep height is1 by him1 compared with that of the beacon at ,alexandria from the sea 7,b4 ,j4 vi4 c4 #f3 ,it resembled in shape the lighthouse as seen by people sailing up to ,alexandria74 ,compare the similar representation of ,tacitus1 ,lib4 #e4 ,histor4 c4 #aa 7,reland ii4 p4 #hdh sqq474 ,on the summit of this high and steep hill1 in the upper town1 was situated the royal castle1 called the upper house of the king1 ,neh4 iii4 #be4 ,its situation could not fail to afford to it extraordinary security4 ,this is sufficiently shown by the ridicule of the ,jebusites1 when ,david1 who did not build1 but only enlarged it1 was about to besiege it4 ,they were of opinion that the lame and the blind would be sufficient for its defence1 #b ,sam4 v4 #g-i2 compare ,faber's ,archol4 p4 #aia4 ,far above this royal castle1 which ,david first selected for his residence 7compare #b ,sam4 v4 #i3 ,and ,david dwelt in the castle and called it the ,city of ,david1 and built it round about71 a tower jutted prominently out1 and afforded a majestic sight4 ,it is frequently mentioned in ,scripture4 ,the principal passage is ,neh4 iii4 #be3 ,opposite the tower which standeth out from the upper house of the king 7appositely the ,vulgate3 qu eminet de domo regis excelsa7 in the court of the prison2 compare ver4 #bf1 where the tower standing out1 and elevated far above the king's castle1 is likewise spoken of4 ,concerning the words1 ,in the court of the prison1 we obtain some information from ,jer4 xxxii4 #b3 ,jeremiah the prophet was shut up in the court of the prison1 1 which is in the house of the king of ,judah2 compare ,jer4 xxxviii4 #f1 according to which the pit into which the prophet was let down1 was in the court of the prison4 ,according to these passages1 the court of the prison formed1 agreeably to the customs of the ,east1 part of the royal castle on ,zion2 and it was in this court that the tower rose4 ,the other principal passage is in the ,song of ,solomon iv4 #d3 ,thy neck is like the tower of ,david built for arms2 a thousand bucklers are hanging on it1 all arms of heroes4 ,according to this passage1 the majestic appearance which the tower afforded was still further increased by the glittering arms which covered it4 ,dpke and others think of the armour of conquered heroes2 but that we must rather think of the armour of ,david's own heroes1 appears from ,ezek4 xxvii4 #aj1 #aa1 where it is said of ,pg #deh the hired troops of the ,tyrians1 ,shield and helmet they hanged up in thee1 and is confirmed by the constant designation of ,david's faithful ones1 as his heroes2 compare ,song of ,sol4 iii4 #g3 ,threescore heroes stand around the bed of the king1 of the heroes of ,israel2 and #a ,chron4 xii4 #a3 ,these were among the heroes1 helpers in the war4 ,the expression in the ,song of ,solomon iv4 #d1 ,all shields of the heroes1 indicates that the armour of all those who were received into the number of the heroes1 was hung up on that tower1 as an outward sign of this reception1 as a kind of diploma of it4 ,the circumstance that this tower1 which is certainly quite identical with the tower mentioned by ,nehemiah1 is called the tower of ,david1 refutes the supposition of ,clericus1 on ,nehemiah1 l4c41 according to which1 it is not the castle of ,david or ,zion which is spoken of in that passage1 but another castle and its tower in the lower town1 supposed to have been built by ,solomon4 ,this hypothesis is refuted1 moreover1 by that passage itself1 inasmuch as the castle is there designated as the upper1 or high one4 ,now1 it is this tower which ,micah considers as the symbol of the ,davidic house2 and in so doing1 he follows the example of the ,song of ,solomon1 where it is the symbol of the lofty elevation of ,israel1 the centre and life-blood of which was the ,davidic family4 ,it scarcely needs any lengthened demonstration to show how well suited it was for this signification1 how very naturally it represented the thing signified4 ,it was indeed the most elevated part of the castle1 the main-mast1 as it were1 of the ship1 which1 since the elevation of the ,davidic family to the royal dignity1 had been for centuries1 and was still to be1 the seat of the ,davidic race4 ,its height was a symbol of the royal dignity and authority4 ,its relation to the whole of the rest of the city1 which it overlooked and commanded1 and which looked up to it with astonishment1 symbolized the relation of the subjects to their king4 ,micah calls this tower the ,tower of the flock4 ,the main reason for this appellation must be sought in what immediately precedes1 in vers4 #f and #g4 ,as in chap4 ii4 #ab1 #ac1 so here also1 ,micah represented the ,covenant-people under the figure of a flock that was to be gathered from its dispersion and estrangement1 and protected against every hostile attack4 ,could anything then be more natural than that1 continuing the image ,pg #dei which he had begun1 he should call the tower1 which1 to him1 symbolized the family by whom1 under the guidance of the ,lord1 that gathering should be accomplished1 the ,tower of the flock8#d ,it is just this close connection with what precedes which furnishes an important proof for the correctness of our explanation1 for which the way was prepared by all those expositors who1 like ,jerome1 ,theodoret1 ,cyril1 ,cocceius1 and ,paulus 7ber die ,evang4 i4 p4 #ahi71 understand as an appellative1 and regard1 as the ground of the appellation1 the protection and the refuge4 ,in the ,east1 they look out from the towers of the flock1 whether beasts of prey or hostile bands be approaching4 ,it is into these that the flocks are driven1 in those regions where there are no towns and villages1 as soon as danger appears2 compare the proofs in ,faber1 l4c41 p4 #aib ff4 ,there was so much the stronger reason for ,micah's choosing this figurative mode of representation1 as he had the type immediately before his eyes4 ,according to #b ,chron4 xxvi4 #aj1 xxvii4 #d1 ,uzziah and ,jotham erected1 in the woods and pasture grounds1 castles and towers for the protection and refuge of the flocks4 ,but1 besides this main reason1 there seems to have existed a secondary one for choosing this appellation4 ,they who adhere so firmly to the ,tower of the flock1 mentioned in ,genesis1 are not altogether wrong4 ,except in that passage1 nowhere occurs in precisely the same manner as it stands here4 ,if1 then1 we consider that1 besides this reference1 there occur in ,micah other plain references to the ,pentateuch 7and very numerous they are1 compared with the extent of his prophecies2 compare1 e4g41 ii4 #ab1 #ac4 vide supra1 vi4 #d1 #e1 vii4 #ad1 where the words receive light from ,num4 xxiii4 #i only#e72 and still more1 if we consider that1 in v4 #a 7#b71 the appellation ,bethlehem ,ephratah is likewise taken from ,gen4 xxxv4 #ai1 and that it is in ver4 #ba of the same chapter that the ,tower of the flock is mentioned1--we shall certainly not be guilty of trifling1 if we assert that there is a suspicion of error and unsoundness against all those interpretations which cannot connect the ,tower of the flock ,pg #dfj in ,micah with that which is spoken of in ,genesis4 ,but the explanation which we have given is not liable to this charge4 ,for why should not ,jacob1 and the tower which he built for the protection of his literal flocks1 serve the prophet as a type and substratum for the relation of a spiritual ,shepherd8 ,we must not overlook the truth1 that the main and secondary reasons which we have adduced1 do not stand beside each other1 but run into each other1--are related to each other as the general and particular4 ,for the reason why the prophet had specially in view the ,tower of the flock which had been built by ,jacob was certainly this only3 that it partook of the nature of all such towers of the flocks4 ,the tertium comparationis is not thereby changed2 the figure is only more individualized1 and1 therefore1 more striking and impressive4 ,a reference to the pastoral life of the ,patriarchs is certainly one of the reasons of the frequent use of images taken from pastoral life4 ,in a different way1 ,hitzig endeavours to come to the same result4 ,he supposes that the ,tower of the flock mentioned in ,genesis was not situated in the neighbourhood of ,bethlehem1 but is identical with the tower of the castle on ,zion1 and of the castle of ,millo which ,david already found existing1 and which was only more strongly fortified by him and by ,solomon1 #b ,sam4 v4 #i2 #a ,kings ix4 #ae1 #bd1 xi4 #bg4 ,the figure of the ,tower of the flock was so much the more appropriate in the passage under consideration1 as the founder of the royal dynasty had been1 for a long time1 a shepherd of the lambs1 before he was elected to be a shepherd of the people1 and had thus himself prefigured his future relation--a circumstance to which allusion is frequently made in ,scripture itself2 compare #b ,sam4 v4 #b1 vii4 #h2 #a ,chron4 xi4 #b2 ,ps4 lxxviii4 #gj-gb4 ,after having thus ascertained what is to be understood by the ,tower of the flock1 there can be no great difficulty in explaining the hill of the daughter of ,zion4 ,the daughter of ,zion is ,zion itself1 personified1 and represented as a virgin2 and if her hill be spoken of1 what else can be meant1 than ,mount ,zion in the more restricted sense--the ,mount 1 before which ,akra and ,moriah are changed into plains8 ,we have thus a most appropriate relation of the two appellations to each other1--the tower of the flock being the particular1 and the hill of the daughter of ,zion1 the general4 ,pg #dfa ,further1--,we obtain the most perfect harmony and agreement with the last words of the verse4 ,the hill which1 morally and physically1 commands the daughter of ,zion1 is the same which obtains dominion over the daughter of ,jerusalem4 ,finally1--,we see the most striking contrast with iii4 #ab1 and the most admirable connection with iv4 #a-g1 in which1 everywhere1 ,mount ,zion is spoken of1 and the exaltation is described which1 after its deep abasement1 it shall obtain in the future1 by the flowing of the heathens to it1 and by the dominion of the ,lord to be there exercised4 ,it is only in appearance that our explanation is contradicted by passages of the ,old ,testament1 and of ,josephus1 where ,ophel is mentioned as a particular place2 compare ,bachiene #b4 #a1 #gf2 ,hamelsveld #b1 ,s4 #ce ff4 ,the supposition of several interpreters1 that this ,ophel is some particular hill 7compare1 e4g41 ,vitringa de ,templo ,ezech4 ,l4 i4 c4 iii4 p4 #aei1 and his ,commentary on ,isaiah xxxii4 #ac71 has already been invalidated by ,reland 7p4 #hee71 and ,faber l4c41 p4 #cdg1 who rightly remark1 that ,josephus1 in enumerating the hills of ,jerusalem1 makes no mention of ,ophel1 but speaks always only of the place ,ophel4 ,all the difficulties1 however1 which stand in the way of the other assumptions1 are removed by the following view of the matter4 ,mount ,zion was called 1 the ,hill 1 and this word became1 by and by1 a nomen proprium1 and1 in this state1 as well as in its transition to the nomen proprium1 was used without the ,article4 ,from this it followed--and numerous analogies everywhere occur--that the foot of the mountain1 the place where it was connected with the lower part of the temple-mountain by means of a deep valley1 acquired this name in preference1 and received it1 as it were1 as a nomen proprium4 ,at this foot of ,zion--and hence over against the temple1 and near it--dwelt the ,nethinim1 the temple servants1 ,neh4 iii4 #bf2 and ,josephus says1 that the wall surrounding ,mount ,zion extended on the east side to the place which was called ,ophel1 and ended at the eastern porch of the temple 7de ,bell4 ,jud4 vi4 #f74 ,the view which we have taken1 not only of ,ophel1 but of this whole passage1 receives an important confirmation by ,is4 xxxii4 #ac1 #ad3 ,upon the land of ,my people come up thorns and briars1 for they shoot up in all the houses of joy1 in the joyous city4 ,for palaces are forsaken1 tumult of the city is ,pg #dfb forsaken1 hill and tower are around caves 7i4e41 it is only this which they have to protect7 for ever1 a joy of wild asses1 a pasture of flocks4 ,in this threatening of punishment1 hill1 1 and tower1 7properly a watch-tower1 corresponding to 71 are joined1 just as in ,micah's promise2 and this is a certain proof of the unsoundness of all those explanations which would sever the two in ,micah4 ,perhaps there is1 in that passage of ,isaiah1 the addition of a third object1 standing in the middle between the two1 viz41 the castle of the king which was situated on ,zion1 and of which the highest and strongest part was formed by the tower4 ,there seems1 at least1 to be better ground for understanding this by than the temple1 as is done by ,vitringa4 ,it will1 nevertheless1 be better to understand the palace collectively1 and to view it as being parallel to the houses of joy in ver4 #ac4 ,so much is1 at all events1 evident1 that here also1 ,ophel cannot be understood of the lowest part of ,mount ,zion1 inasmuch as it had nothing distinguished about it that could account for its being mentioned in this context2 and to this1 the circumstance of its being connected with the tower1 must1 moreover1 be added4 ,faber1 l4c41 has convincingly proved1 that ,ophel1 in the stricter sense1 neither had1 nor could have1 any fortifications4 1 unto thee1 seems here to have that emphasis which originally belongs to 4 ,it indicates that the object in motion really reaches its goal1 while originally expresses only its direction towards the goal4 ,it points to all the obstacles which seem to render it impossible for the dominion to reach its goal1 and represents them as such as shall be overcome by divine omnipotence4 ,this is quite in accordance with the scope of the whole representation1 which ,calvin thus appositely points out3 ,the prophet endeavours to confirm the faith and hope of the godly1 that they might look forward to the distant future1 and not dwell only upon the present destruction2 that they might rather believe that the matter was in the hands of ,god1 who had promised1 that ,he who raised the dead1 would also restore the kingdom of ,david1 which had been destroyed4 ,several interpreters1 e4g41 ,rosenmller1 connect immediately with what follows3 ,the kingdom shall come and attain4 ,but1 in opposition to this1 there are not only the accents 7,michaelis2 ,the ,athnach is intended to keep the mind ,pg #dfc of the reader in suspense for some time1 and to direct his attention to what follows71 but also the change of the tenses1 which is intended just to prevent this connection1 and the weak sense which would be the result1 inasmuch as one of the verbs would be a pleonasm4 ,it must rather be supposed1 therefore1 that the subject in is indefinite4 ,the remark which ,hvernick1 in his ,commentary on ,daniel1 ,s4 #chf1 makes on the omission of the indefinite subject1 is here fully applicable1 although he himself makes a wrong application of it to that passage3 ,the indefinite subject1 he says1 has a special emphasis4 ,by the omission of the definite idea1 it is1 as it were1 left to the reader to supply everything possible 7in the passage under consideration1 the compass of all that is glorious71 for which the writer cannot find language4 ,the first1 i4e41 former1 or ancient dominion1 refers to the splendid times under ,david and ,solomon2 but1 at the same time1 it supposes a period when the dominion is altogether taken away from the dynasty of ,david4 ,such a period had already been announced by the prophet1 in his first discourse1 inasmuch as it is implied in the carrying away of all ,judah into captivity2 and still more distinctly in iii4 #ab1 according to which1 ,zion1 the seat of the ,davidic dominion1 is to be ploughed as a field4 ,this announcement1 with the express mention of the king1 returns in ver4 #i1 and1 contrasted with ,it1 the announcement of the restoration of the ,davidic dominion in v4 #a 7#b74 ,the last words of the verse are1 by many expositors 7,calvin1 ,michaelis1 and ,rosenmller71 translated thus3 ,and the kingdom1 ,i say1 shall belong to the daughter of ,jerusalem2 so that ,jerusalem would here be1 not the object1 but the subject of dominion4 ,the sense1 according to this explanation1 is best brought out by ,calvin3 ,the prophet here distinctly mentions the daughter of ,jerusalem1 because the kingdom of ,israel had obscured the glory of the true kingdom4 ,the prophet hence testifies1 that ,god was not unmindful of ,his promise1 and would so arrange it that ,jerusalem should recover its lost dignity1 and the whole people be gathered unto one body4 ,but this explanation must be rejected on philological grounds4 is status constr42 the serves1 therefore1 only as a circumlocution of the genitive2 and it is not admissible to supply the ,verb ,substant4 ,to this1 moreover1 there must be added the reference ,pg #dfd to what precedes4 ,the dominion over the daughter of ,jerusalem is to come to the tower which commands the daughter of ,zion1 not1 by any means1 to the daughter of ,zion herself4 ,the prophet makes ,jerusalem to represent the kingdom of ,god2 and1 in so doing1 he probably has regard to the relation of ,zion and of the king's castle to the town1 by which was symbolized the relation which the ,davidic dynasty occupied to the kingdom of ,god4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chap4 ,,iv4 #i-ad4 ,at the close of the last chapter1 the prophet had announced severe judgments4 ,in the verses immediately preceding1 he had given glorious promises4 ,in that which follows1 he now combines these two elements2 and it is only in chap4 v4 that the promise again appears1 purely1 and by itself4 ,the judgments are thus introduced into the middle of the proclamation of salvation1 in order that the faithful might thus be preserved from forming any vain hopes1 which1 if not confirmed by the result1 are apt to be exchanged for much deeper despondency4 ,but this same circumstance contained within it an indirect consolation2 for it is certain that ,he who causes future events to be foretold1 overrules them also2 and ,he who sends them1 can also turn them4 ,for the greatest cause of our despondency under the cross is certainly the doubt which we entertain as to whether it really comes from ,god4 ,the prophet1 however1 affords direct consolation also4 ,whensoever he speaks of any calamity1 he immediately subjoins the announcement of divine deliverance4 ,the intimation of the sufferings1 in this section1 differs essentially from the former ones4 ,it is not1 like these1 in a threatening1 but in an affectionate character2 indeed1 in vers4 #aa-ac1 the consolation preponderates even outwardly4 ,from this1 it is sufficiently evident1 that it must have a different destination4 ,whilst the threatening was intended chiefly for the ungodly1 it has1 just as much as the preceding pure promise1 the truly godly members of the ,theocracy also in view1 and aims at strengthening them in the manifold temptations into which they must fall1 in consequence of the sufferings which ,pg #dfe always come upon them also at the same time1 on account of their outward1 and therefore also their inward1 connection with the wicked4 ,a glance at the great catastrophes1 which were to precede the appearance of ,christ1 was here just in its proper place4 ,in the preceding context1 the prophet had mentioned the restoration of the former dominion4 ,here1 he describes how the dominion is lost 7,there is no king in thee1 ver4 #i71 and what shall happen during the period of this loss4 ,he then further details1 in v4 #a 7#b7 sq41 in what manner the dominion is to be restored4 ,it is a threefold suffering1 joined with deliverance from it1 which presents itself to the prophet in his inward vision1 and which he describes accordingly4 ,this is evident from the three-fold 1 compare vers4 #i1 #aa1 #ad1 which1 each time1 indicates when a new scene presents itself to the prophet4 ,this1 further1 appears from the different character which each one bears4 ,in the case of the announcement in vers4 #i and #aj1 viz41 the carrying away to ,babylon1 it is alone the ,lord's hand which delivers ,his people4 ,in the calamity described in vers4 #aa-ac1 ,he grants to ,israel courage in war1 and victory to his arms4 ,the plans of the enemies to destroy ,zion are frustrated1 while in the former calamity they succeeded4 ,in ver4 #ad1 ,zion is anew represented as sorely pressed by enemies1 and captured by them4 ,according to v4 #a1 which is closely connected with what precedes1 the deliverance is accomplished by the ,messiah1 in whom the promise of the restoration of the dominion of the house of ,david over the daughter of ,zion is fulfilled4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ver4 #i4 ,now why dost thou raise a cry8 ,is there no king in thee1 or is thy councillor gone8 ,for pangs have seized thee as a woman in travail4 ,zion1 mourning at the time of the carrying away into captivity1 stands before the prophet's spirit1 and is addressed by him4 ,this ought never to have been overlooked4 ,but since1 nevertheless1 it has been so1 we quote from the multitude of analogous instances1 at least one which is altogether incontrovertible1 and where the writer likewise transfers himself into the time of the ,pg #dff captivity1 viz41 the passage in ,hos4 xiii4 #i-aa1 which1 in other respects also1 shows a great resemblance to the one under consideration3 ,this has destroyed thee1 ,o ,israel1 that thou wast against ,me1 against thine help4 ,where is now thy king8 ,let him deliver thee in all thy cities4 ,and where are thy judges8 ,surely thou didst say3 ,give me kings and princes4 ,and ,i gave thee a king in ,mine anger1 and took him away in ,my wrath4 ,it is quite impossible to entertain1 even for a moment1 the thought that1 in this passage1 ,hosea speaks of the real past and present1 inasmuch as he prophesied before the destruction of the kingdom of the ten tribes4 ,micah opens his representation just with the moment that ,jerusalem is captured by the enemies2 and he announces to her that her sufferings are not yet at an end1--that she must wander into exile4 ,the progress of the thought in the verse under consideration is this3--,the prophet sees ,zion dissolved in grief and lamentation4 ,full of sympathy1 he asks of her the cause of this mourning1--whether1 it may be1 it was caused by the loss of her king2 and he himself answers this question in the affirmative1 because such a cause could alone account for such a grief4 ,now1 in order fully to realize the mourning of ,zion over her king1 we must bear in mind that the visible head was a representative of the invisible one1--the mediator of ,his mercies3 that hence1 his removal was a token of divine anger1 and an extinction of every hope of salvation4 ,every other king is1 indeed1 likewise an anointed of the ,lord2 but the king of ,israel was so in a totally different sense4 ,how deeply1 from this point of view1 the loss of the king was felt1 at the time when that which is here merely the ideal present became the real present1 is seen from ,lam4 iv4 #bj3 ,the breath of our life1 the anointed of the ,lord1 is taken a prisoner in their pits1 he of whom we said4 ,under his shadow we shall live among the heathen4 ,in ,zech4 iv4 the civil magistrates1 along with the ecclesiastical authorities1 appear as the greatest gift of ,god's grace2 henceforth these two shall again be the medium through which the ,lord communicates ,his gracious gifts to the ,congregation1 just as they had been before the captivity4 ,it must further be borne in mind1 that all the promises for the future were bound up with the regal institution4 ,with its extinction1 therefore1 everything seemed to be lost2 every prospect of a better future seemed to have disappeared4 ,the reference in ,pg #dfg ,jer4 viii4 #ai1 where the king is the ,lord ,himself1 to the passage before us1 is very beautiful1 and full of deep meaning4 ,it points out the truth1 that the loss of the earthly king is a consequence of their having forced the heavenly ,king to withdraw from the midst of them4--,the councillor is preeminently the king himself2 compare ,is4 ix4 #e1 where ,christ1 in whom the ,davidic dynasty is to attain to the full height of its destination1 appears as the councillor in the highest sense4 ,other councillors1 it is true1 are not thereby excluded2 they form1 however1 only a group around the king as their centre2 compare ,is4 iii4 #c4 ,ver4 #aj4 ,travail and break forth1 ,o daughter of ,zion1 like a woman who bringeth forth2 for now shalt thou go forth out of the city1 and thou dwellest in the field1 and comest till to ,babylon3 there shalt thou be delivered1 there the ,lord shall redeem thee out of the hand of thine enemies4 ,the consolation begins with the words only2 the whole remaining part of the verse is of a mournful character4 ,in the words1 ,travail and break forth1 one aspect only of the figure of the parturient woman is brought into view1 viz41 the pain2 but not the joy following upon the pain2 compare remarks on v4 #b4 ,the ,imperative is thus not1 as some interpreters erroneously assume1 an ,imper4 consolationis1 but an intimation that the pain would reach its height1 put into the form of an exhortation to submit to it4 ,much more satisfactorily than by many of the later expositors1 the sense of this verse has been thus fixed by ,calvin3 ,the sum and substance is1 that although ,god would1 according to ,his promise1 take care of the people1 the faithful should have no reason from this to indulge in joy1 as if they were to be exempt from all troubles2 on the contrary1 the prophet exhorts them that they should rather prepare themselves to undergo all kinds of misery1 so that1 when driven out of their own land1 they should not only1 like straying people1 wander about in the fields1 but should be driven to ,babylon as into a grave4 ,but while he thus prepares the faithful to bear the cross1 he subjoins the hope of salvation1 viz41 that ,god would deliver them1 and redeem them from thence out of the hands of their enemies4--,the resumes the preceding1 where the prophet had1 at the point of time where he had taken his stand1 viz41 the capture of the city1 represented that calamity of this ,pg #dfh people1 under the image of the pains of child-bearing4 ,it thus becomes equivalent to--,thou shalt be obliged to bear1 not only the pains which precede the birth1 but also the highest of all pains1 viz41 the pains of the birth itself4 ,what the latter are in relation to the former1 that1 in the view of the prophet1 is the carrying away out of the ,holy ,land1--the expulsion from the face of ,god 7an expulsion similar to that of ,cain when he was obliged to flee from ,eden71 when compared to the mere capture4 ,hence the close connexion with what follows1 by means of 4 ,the word 7the o is1 for the sake of euphony1 employed instead of u2 just as in ver4 #ac 7 is1 by most interpreters1 translated1 ,and lead out4 ,but we must object to this1 on the ground that has always an intransitive signification only1 viz41 to break forth2 and this signification is here quite suitable1 more so even than the transitive2 for it marks more emphatically the pain during the birth1 which is here the only point3 ,jer4 iv4 #ca4 ,it is1 as it were1 a dissolution of the whole nature1 a violent breaking of it into pieces4 ,the now1 just as the now at the commencement of the description of the scene1 belongs to the ideal standing-point1 where the carrying away is just at hand2 for this is the period of the future into which the prophet has been carried4 ,the dwelling in the field is the intervening station between the going forth and the coming to ,babylon4 ,in the open air1 exposed to all the inclemencies of the weather 7compare the expression1 ,under the dew of heaven1 in ,dan4 iv4 #bb1 #cj #be1 #cc71 the prisoners were collected for the purpose of being afterwards carried away4 ,the word 1 as well as the twofold 1 are emphatic4 ,irresistibly1 the divine judgment advances to its last goal2 but as irresistibly does divine mercy wrest from the enemies the prey which seemed to have been given to them even for ever4--,the futility of all attempts to explain away the distinct prophecy of the ,babylonish captivity in this passage has been shown in the ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of ,daniel1 p4 #aea sqq4 ,how even ,caspari could join in these attempts1 it is difficult to explain4 ,even he is of opinion that the prophet had expected the catastrophe to come from ,asshur4 ,chap4 v4 #d1 #e 7#e1 #f7 cannot be decisive for the reference to ,asshur4 ,for the circumstance that ,asshur appears there as the type of the future enemies of the kingdom of ,god1 implies1 indeed1 that he occupied the first place among the enemies ,pg #dfi at the time of the prophet2 but it by no means ,implies that he must occupy a place in the outline of the future catastrophes of the people of ,god4 ,such a catastrophe was not to proceed from him1 but rather from an enemy who had not yet at that time appeared on the scene1 although his power was already germinating1 as is shown by ,is4 xxxix4 and other passages4 ,the oppression of ,judah by ,asshur was indeed a heavy one2 but it was transitory1 and did not by any means constitute an era4 ,from the relation in which vers4 #i-ad 7iv4 #i-v4 #a7 stands to ver4 #h1 it sufficiently appears that the oppression by the ,chaldeans must here form the commencement1 although the ,assyrian oppression must be added to it as an introduction and a prelude4 ,according to this relation1 the point at issue here can be only the cessation of the dominion of the ,davidic family4 ,from4 ,jer4 xxvi4 #ah1 #ai1 ,caspari endeavours to prove that ,micah had in view1 in the first instance1 the ,assyrians only4 ,but that passage of ,jeremiah refers to ,mic4 iii4 #ab1 where the prophecy has a general character1 and where the instruments of the divine judgment are not expressly mentioned1 as is the case here4 ,on the other hand1 the following arguments are opposed to the reference to the ,assyrians4 #a4 ,the prophet does not mention ,asshur1 but ,babylon4 ,nothing is1 certainly1 proved by the circumstance that1 at the time of the prophet1 ,babylon was still under the ,assyrian dominion2 for ,babylon comes here into consideration1 not so much as a place1 but as a hostile power4 ,the place1 as such1 was of no consequence1 and the mention of it was not required by the character of the prophecy4 #b4 ,if the announcement referred to ,asshur1 the result would contradict the prophecy4 ,caspari says1 that by the repentance and conversion of the people1 the fulfilment had been averted4 ,but with such a view of prophecy1 the position of the prophetic institution becomes untenable1 and historically incomprehensible4 ,the ,mosaic regulation1 that whosoever prophesied anything that did not take place should be punished with death1 would in that case lose all practical significance2 for there would always have been at hand the excuse1 that by the repentance the execution of that sentence of punishment had been repealed4 ,from the nature of the case1 and from that ,mosaic regulation1 it follows that special announcements expressed absolutely must be fulfilled absolutely2 and not a single fact in the history of prophetism ,pg #dgj stands in contradiction to this truth4 ,jonah's announcement to ,nineveh1 indeed1 has been appealed to2 but1 in reply1 we remark simply1 that the words of that announcement have not been communicated to us1 while we see from the result that it was conditional only4 ,such a decided repentance would scarcely have been called forth by it among the inhabitants of ,nineveh1 had repentance not been expressly declared in it as a means of deliverance4 #c4 ,micah everywhere goes hand in hand with his contemporary ,isaiah4 ,but the latter always opposes energetically the despondency of ,judah in the face of ,asshur1 and declares that his proud power would be broken at ,jerusalem 7as had been already prophesied by ,hosea in i4 #d-g71 and that1 while the kingdom of the ten tribes would be destroyed1 ,judah would experience the protecting hand of the ,lord4 ,caspari contradicts himself in thus making these two men of ,god to differ in so essential a point4 ,for a man like ,hitzig1 it may be quite befitting to say1 ,micah did not possess the firm1 courageous faith which was displayed by ,isaiah4 #d4 ,it is quite impossible to get rid of the obvious parallelism of the passage under consideration with ,is4 xxxix4 #f1 #g1 where the rising of the ,babylonish empire1 the destruction of the ,davidic kingdom by it1 and the carrying away of ,judah to ,babylon1 are clearly and distinctly predicted4 ,and in a number of other prophecies1 ,isaiah likewise declares or supposes1 that that which the ,assyrians threatened in vain1 would at some future period1 when the iniquity of the people had become full1 be carried out by ,babylon with her ,chaldeans4 ,it is scarcely conceivable how ,caspari1 acknowledging as he does the genuineness of these prophecies of ,isaiah1 could think of dissevering from them the prophecy now under consideration4--,declarations like that before us1 where1 in clear and distinct outlines1 a future event is foretold one hundred and fifty years before it takes place1 inflict a death-blow upon the naturalistic view of the prophetic institution1 as is sufficiently evident from ,hitzig's embarrassment1 and from his efforts to free himself from the bands of this troublesome fact4 ,ver4 #aa4 ,and now many nations assemble themselves against thee1 that say3 ,let her be profaned1 and let our eyes look upon ,zion4 ,israel1 with its claim of being alone the people of the only true ,god1 was a thorn in the eyes of the nations4 ,these here ,pg #dga burn with eager desire to prove1 actually and by deeds1 that this presumptuous claim was unfounded1 and1 by the destruction of the city1 to take from it its fancied holiness1 and the glory of holiness4 ,destruction and profanation are1 in their view1 inseparably connected4 ,the contrast to the verse under review is formed by vii4 #aj3 ,and mine enemy shall see it1 and shame shall come upon her who said4 ,where is the ,lord thy ,god8 ,mine eyes shall behold her1 now shall she be trodden down as the mire of the streets4 ,the words1 ,where is the ,lord thy ,god8 entirely agree in substance with1 ,let her be profaned6 ,but the desire of profaning ,jerusalem must be conceived of as the human motive only4 ,according to the view of ,scripture generally1 and of ,micah particularly1 all the distress of the people of ,god has its foundation in sin2 and from the whole context1 and especially from v4 #b 7#c71 where this event also is comprehended within the time when ,god's people are given up1 it clearly appears that1 notwithstanding the happy issue1 we have here before us a heavy calamity4 ,by a new phase of sin1 a new phase of judgment is brought about2 and by a new phase of worldliness1 a new phase of aggression by the world's power4--,it is owing to a striving after variety1 that the word and here stands before now1 while it is omitted in the third scene4 ,it may stand1 or it may be omitted1 because the various catastrophes are independent of each other1 and yet1 at the same time1 form a connected whole1 as is evident from the words1 ,he will give them up1 in v4 #b 7#c71 by which they are connected together4 ,the heavy oppression of ,judah appears here under the form of a siege of its centre1 in accordance with the scope of prophecy1 which1 everywhere1 seeks to impart vividness and animation to the scene1 by uniting into one picture that which is separated by time and space4 ,the historical reference of the prophecy is thus very accurately stated by ,calvin3 ,although the ,babylonish captivity has come to an end1 and ,israel has been restored from it1 the promised kingdom shall not immediately come4 ,before that takes place1 the neighbouring nations shall assemble themselves against ,jerusalem1 with the desire of profaning it1 and of enjoying a pleasant spectacle4 ,this took place under ,antiochus4 ,that to which the prophet here simply alludes1 but yet in such a way that the right reference cannot possibly be mistaken 7since a great hostile aggression is here described1 which should happen ,pg #dgb after the people have returned from ,babylon1 and which is removed by the piety and courage of the people themselves2 and since1 after this second oppression1 there follows a third1 which is described in ver4 #ad1 there certainly remains no other alternative3 the times of the ,maccabees are those which can alone be thought of71 is further detailed by ,zechariah in ix4 #aa ff4 ,at his time1 the deliverance from the first calamity had already taken place2 and he expressly states the names of the enemies2 just as1 in the prophecy under review1 the authors of the first calamity are expressly named4 ,that which is especially characteristic1 and which points to the time of the ,maccabees1 is1 moreover1 the special mention of many nations1 which are united in their decided hatred against ,jerusalem as a city1 and against ,judah as the people of the ,lord1 taken in connection with the character of the war as a religious war in the strictest sense1--it being an attempt of heathenism to destroy the ,congregation of the ,lord as such4 ,these features are found in no other catastrophe during the time between ,micah and ,christ4 ,and that the aggression belongs to the period before the appearing of the ,saviour1 is evident from the whole context1 as well as from v4 #b 7#c74 ,in the time of the ,maccabees1 it was not with ,syria alone that ,judah had to do2 but all the heathen nations without exception1 with which ,judah had any connection at that time1 united themselves for a decisive stroke against the kingdom of ,god4 ,their purpose was to extirpate the whole race of ,jacob1 #a ,macc4 v4 #b4 ,striking remarks upon the real nature of the struggle at that period1 as a struggle of faithful ,judaism against ,heathenism1 the latter of which had gained a considerable party among the people themselves1 are made by ,stark1 in ,gaza und die ,philistische ,kste1 ,jena1 #eb1 ,s4 #dha ff4 ,among other things1 he says3 ,the national distinctions in the boundaries of ,palestine had by no means ceased1 but continued under the general cover of the ,egyptian and ,syrian administration in a varied1 unyielding1 and hostile manner4 ,there were the ,idumeans in the whole of the south of ,palestine to near ,jerusalem2 then1 the ,philistines1 or when called by their cities1 the ,gazeans and ,ashdodians2 the ,phnicians1 the ,samaritans or ,chutteans1 the mixed population of ,galilee1 the ,arabs of ,perea4444 ,as soon as the ,jewish people1 who1 up to that time1 had been altogether insignificant in a political point of view1 rose against ,pg #dgc the ,syrian empire1 at first for their religious peculiarities1 then1 for their political independence1 and1 finally1 even for the recovery of the ideal possession of their country--an idea which had been kept alive by tradition1--it could not but be that those who were naturally the supports and centres of the ,syrian operations1 became the objects of the hostile ,jewish operations2 and that the whole national portion of the population1 although not ,greeks1 were anew inflamed by their old hatred of1 and opposition to1 ,judaism2 so that they considered that ,hellenic struggle as also a national one4 ,this period thus produced at the same time a revival of the old national struggle of the inhabitants of ,palestine1 modified and increased by the struggle of ,hellenism with the national reaction which served as a superstructure for it4 ,the objection1 raised even by ,caspari1 that a prophecy of the victorious struggles in the time of the ,maccabees must be strange and surprising in a prophet of the ,assyrian period1 will not startle those who look at the analogies--such as the prophecy in ,is4 vi4 ,in the latter prophecy1 first the ,chaldean1 and then the ,roman catastrophes1 are described in sharp outlines1 but without any mention of the names of the instruments of punishment4 ,it is only in reference to the executors of the first of these judgments that more distinct disclosures were given to the prophet himself at a subsequent period4 ,the announcement in ,zech4 ix41 where the ,greeks are expressly mentioned1 is1 in reality1 not less miraculous4 ,according to all prophetical analogies1 it is a priori probable that this detailed prophecy of the ,maccabean period1 and the similar one in ,daniel1 should have been preceded by some older prophecy which refers to the same facts1 but only in general outlines1 such as we have in the passage under consideration4 ,if any doubt should still remain1 it would be removed by a glance at the conflicting interpretations4 ,ewald and ,hitzig think of the ,assyrian invasion1 to which vers4 #i1 #aj1 are likewise referred by them1 although such a reference is in opposition to the express words of these verses1--which1 for a ,naturalistic tendency1 are rather inconvenient4 ,the contradiction in these two prophecies ,ewald endeavours to reconcile by the evidently erroneous supposition1 that the carrying away in ver4 #aj must be conceived of as only a partial one1--a supposition which is invalidated by a simple comparison of iii4 #ab4 ,according to ,hitzig1 the prophet has1 in vers4 #aa-ac1 ,pg #dgdovercome the despondency expressed in vers4 #i1 #aj1 and has raised himself to confidence in ,god4 ,he thus makes the prophet distinctly contradict himself in one breath1--a supposition which does not even deserve a refutation4 ,even if we were entirely to separate this passage from its connection1 how ill does the activity here ascribed to ,judah agree with the oppression by the ,assyrians6 ,this activity of ,judah supposes that it has to do with many small nations4 ,against the great ,asiatic empires1 a direct and immediate interposition of the ,lord is everywhere referred to4 ,the salvation1 however1 which is here announced to ,judah1 can be only an imperfect one1 and cannot go beyond what they really received at the time of the ,maccabees4 ,this is sufficiently evident from the circumstance1 that it belongs to a time in which ,judah has no king of the ,davidic house2 for him they have already lost in ver4 #i1 and receive again only in v4 #a 7#b71 in ,christ2 and it is certain that the ,davidic house was the channel through which all the true and great mercies of the ,lord were bestowed upon ,his people4 ,ver4 #ab4 ,and they know not the thoughts of the ,lord1 neither understand they ,his counsel2 for ,he gathereth them as the sheaf for the threshing-floor4 ,the particle and is here used1 where we1 for the sake of a closer connection1 would employ but4 ,the thoughts of the ,lord are these1--that the sufferings1 after having served their purpose as regards ,zion1 shall pass over to the enemies1 so that they shall themselves be destroyed by ,zion1 while they so confidently thought to inflict destruction upon ,zion4 ,the introduces the reason of their not knowing the way of the ,lord4 ,if they knew it1 they would not express such desire and hope2 for it is they themselves whom the ,lord gives over to destruction4 ,ver4 #ac4 ,arise and thresh1 ,o daughter of ,zion1 for ,i make thine horn iron1 and thy claws brass2 and thou crushest in pieces many people1 and ,i consecrate their gain unto the ,lord1 and their strength to the ,ruler of the whole earth4 ,the figure is based upon the ,eastern mode of threshing2 compare ,paulsen vom ,ackerbau der ,morgenl4 #dj-db2 ,niebuhr1 ,reise i4 ,s4 #aea2 and likewise ,is4 xxi4 #aj1 xli4 #ae2 ,hab4 iii4 #ab4 ,strictly speaking1 one characteristic only of the threshing oxen is here considered1 viz41 the crushing power of their hoofs4 ,the prophet1 however1 extends the comparison to that also in which ,pg #dge the bullock is formidable1 even when it is not engaged in the work of threshing1 viz41 to its horns4 ,on this point #a ,kings xxii4 #aa may be compared1 where the pseudo-prophet ,zedekiah makes to himself iron horns1 and thus states the import of this symbolical action3 ,thus saith the ,lord1 ,with these shalt thou push ,aram until it is destroyed4 ,the first person in has perplexed several ancient translators 7,syr41 ,jerome71 as well as many modern interpreters1 who1 therefore1 substitute the second person for it4 ,but it is quite appropriate4 ,as at the beginning1 where the ,lord gathers the sheaf on the threshing-floor1 so at the close also1 the prophet declares that the victory is the work of ,god4 ,it is ,he ,himself1 the true ,god1 the ,lord of the whole earth1 who reminds ,his rebellious subjects of their true relation to ,him1 by vindicating to ,himself a part of the good things which ,he bestowed upon them2 just as ,he once did in ,egypt4 ,this thought contains the reason why1 instead of the pronoun of the first person1 the noun is employed2 so that it is equivalent to3 ,to ,me the only ,god1 the ,lord of the whole earth4 ,but it is altogether distorted1 if the first person here be changed into the second4 ,with respect to the import of the word1 we must by no means think only of the gifts of consecration which were brought to the temple4 ,such a view would be necessary1 only if the goods of the ,covenant-people1 or the ,covenant-people themselves1 were introduced as that which is to be consecrated4 ,in that case we could understand1 by that which is consecrated1 that only which is the exclusive property of the ,lord1 which has been dedicated to ,him exclusively1 and for ever withdrawn from the use of ,his subjects1 and which1 as far as they are concerned1 is as good as annihilated2 compare ,lev4 xxvii4 #bh3 ,everything consecrated1 which any one consecrates to the ,lord1 of man and of beast1 and of the field of his possession1 shall not be sold nor redeemed2 every consecrated thing is most holy to the ,lord4 ,but here1 where ,he who consecrates is the ,lord1 while the goods are those of the heathen1 the latter only are to be considered as being excluded from the possession1 and as those in reference to whom the goods are consecrated goods2 while the people of ,god must1 on the other hand1 be considered as partaking in what ,he has acquired4 ,the community of goods between these two is rendered prominent in other passages also where the object required it4 ,thus1 e4g41 ,pg #dgf ,joel iv4 7iii47 #e1 where the ,phnicians and ,philistines are charged3 ,my silver and ,my gold ye have taken1 and ,my precious things1 the goodly ones1 ye have carried into your palaces4 ,that we cannot here think of the temple-treasure is evident1 not only from a comparison of ver4 #d1 where the attempts of these nations to avenge themselves on ,israel on account of former injuries1 are expressly represented as attempts to take vengeance upon ,god1 but also from history1 which knows nothing of the plunder of the temple by ,phnicians and ,philistines4 ,the mention of the gain points to the male parta1--and this is the more strictly applicable1 the nearer the relation is in which he who is robbed stands to the ,lord of the earth4 ,with the gain1 the substance in general is lost4--,the fundamental thought of the verse1 which is here expressed only with an application to a special case1 is that of the victory of the ,congregation of the ,lord over the world4 ,this was perceived by ,calvin1 who strikingly demonstrates how this declaration is ever anew realized1 and how its complete fulfilment is reserved only for the second coming of ,christ4 ,he has erred1 however1 in this1 that looking only to the eternal import of the thought1 he overlooked the circumstance that it is here expressed with reference to a definite event in which it was to be realized4 ,ver4 #ad4 ,who thou gatherest thyself in troops1 ,o daughter of troops4 ,they lay siege against us1 they smite the judge of ,israel with the rod upon the cheek4 ,a new scene presents itself to the prophet4 ,zion1 victorious on the preceding occasion1 appears here as powerless1 and locked up within her walls4 ,she is captured2 and ignominious abuse is cast upon the leaders of the deeply abased people4--,we need not here dwell for any length of time upon the numerous expositions of 4 ,there is only one1 viz41 thou shalt press thyself together1 which affords an appropriate contrast2 while this contrast is lost when it is translated1 as ,hofmann does1 by3 thou shalt lacerate thyself 7compare what ,caspari has advanced against it74 ,thou shalt press thyself together does not1 moreover1 destroy the import of ,hithpael1 and has especially the use of the ,hithp4 of 1 in ,jer4 v4 #g1 in its favour4 ,the ,hithpael in this signification is probably a ,denominative of 4 ,the person addressed1 the 1 can be none other than the in ver4 #ac4 ,for it is she who is addressed by the prophet ,pg #dgg in each of the new scenes announced by 1 and she is1 generally1 the only one to whom the discourse is1 throughout the whole section1 addressed4 ,the intentional paronomasia occasioned by the designation daughter of troops1 i4e41 who appeared in warlike array1 evidently alludes to 1 and refers to the description of ,zion as a brave victorious hero1 in the preceding verses4 ,the enemy is immediately afterwards spoken of in the third person4 ,the words1 ,siege 7not by any means 'a wall1' as ,de ,wette maintains7 they lay1 or direct against us1 clearly indicate that the pressing of themselves together1 which forms a contrast with the former courageous excursions indicated by 1 is the consequence of fear1 weakness1 and hostile oppression4 ,the words are therefore strikingly paraphrased by ,justi1 thus3 ,but now1 why dost thou thus press thyself together1 thou who wast accustomed to press others8 ,this1 however1 only must be kept in mind1 that implies an allusion to the fact that the warlike disposition continues even in the present1 notwithstanding the feebleness forced upon her1--a very characteristic feature4 ,in saying1 ,they lay siege against us1 instead of against thee1 the prophet is carried away by his emotions to show himself as one of the people whom he sees to be oppressed by so heavy sufferings4 ,as indicated by the word now also1 he is1 in spirit1 in the midst of them4 ,the ignominious treatment of the judge of ,israel supposes that the prophet sees1 in his inward vision1 the capture of the city as having already taken place2 for it is impossible to conceive of the judge1 the soul of the city1 as being outside of it4 ,this judge of ,israel is an ideal person1 formed by the prophet in order that he might be able to contrast him with the ,ruler of ,israel in v4 #a 7#b71 who represents all the theocratic authorities2 compare1 e4g44 ,is4 iii4 #ab1 where the corrupted leaders of the ,theocracy present themselves to the prophet in the person of a large child4 ,to speak1 in such a case1 of a collective noun1 as is usually done1 is out of place4 ,but it may be observed that it is not a king who is here spoken of1 but1 very significantly1 a judge of ,israel only1 probably with reference to the times before ,saul1 when ,israel was governed by judges4 ,the royal dominion which1 according to the announcement in ver4 #i1 shall be destroyed by ,babylon1 shall be restored by the ,messiah only 7compare v4 #a #b1 iv4 #h71 who is not 1 but1 like ,his great ancestor ,pg #dgh ,david1 2 compare #b ,sam4 xxiii4 #c4 ,there can be no doubt that1 in this connection1 the ,judge is spoken of as distinguished from1 and contrasted with1 the ,king4 ,but even by itself1 the mention of the ,judge cannot but be startling4 ,it would have been against the object of the prophet to have mentioned any inferior persons1 when there existed a superior one2 and if the ,king was thereby denoted1 why should he have been designated thus8--,it is on purpose that 1 which is the nomen dignitatis of the people1 is here chosen4 ,it more emphatically points out the unworthiness of the treatment1 as well as the contrast between the reality and the idea in the destinies of the nation1--a contrast1 it is true1 which ,israel has called forth by the preceding contrast between the reality and the idea with regard to his conduct4 ,since ,israel has inwardly profaned himself by his own guilt1 he is now1 as a just punishment1 profaned outwardly also4--,with respect1 now1 to the historical reference of this disastrous announcement1 its fulfilment cannot be sought for in any other event than the invasion by the ,romans4 ,among the sufferings of the people1 which are here described in general outlines1 this is the only one recorded in history1 with the exception of those already mentioned4 ,isaiah1 the contemporary of ,micah1 likewise announced1 as early as in chap4 vi41 that upon those who should return from the captivity a second judgment would be inflicted1 by which the national independence should be destroyed4 ,this judgment is described with remarkable clearness and distinctness by the post-exilic prophets1 inasmuch as1 to them1 it appeared already more in the foreground2 compare the remarks on ,zech4 v4 and xi42 ,dan4 ix4 ,the only plausible argument against this reference is this1--that the capture of the city by the ,romans was subsequent to the appearance of the ,messiah1 and that it is1 after all1 the latter which forms the subject of the announcement of salvation in v4 #a 7#b71 which1 again1 refers to the sufferings described in the verse before us4 ,this argument1 however1 is set aside by the following considerations4 #a4 ,the prophet1 indeed1 designates the misery which was inflicted by those enemies upon the ,covenant-people only according to its acme1 viz41 the siege and capture of the city2 but he1 nevertheless1 views it in1 and understands it of1 its whole extent1 and from its first beginnings4 ,these1 then1 in so far as the ,romans are concerned1 fall in the time before ,christ1 for the ,jewish ,pg #dgi people were already subjected to the ,roman dominion by ,pompey4 #b4 ,this alone1 however1 is not sufficient4 ,if1 with ,vershuir 7de celebri oraculo ,mic4 iv4 #ad1 in the ,dissert4 ,philol4 exeg4 ,leuw4 #agge71 we confine ourselves to the capture by ,pompey1 we cannot1 by any means1 get rid of the feeling that that fulfilment does not exhaust the prophecy4 ,but we are1 on the other hand1 quite entitled to add that highest point1 viz41 the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,romans1 along with all its still existing consequences1 if only we consider1 that the announcement of salvation in chap4 v4--as is shown by its contents1 and by its accordance with the analogy of all the ,messianic prophecies--is not limited to the short period of the first appearance of ,christ4 ,that comes into consideration rather as the grain of seed only from which the tree grew up1 under which all the fowls of heaven were to dwell4 ,hence it is1 that the salvation1 no less than the punishment1 is a continuous one1 until1 at the end of the days1 it appears in its glorious consummation4 ,but if it be established that ,christ is presented as the only ,saviour from the calamity here described1 then that calamity must still continue for those who reject ,him1 yea1 it must still be increased4 ,it is only by giving up their opposition that they can be delivered from the yoke which presses upon them4 ,the election1 on the other hand1 is1 from the very beginning1 received into the communion of ,his kingdom1 which extends over the whole world4 ,here1 however1 that which has been already remarked in reference to vers4 #aa-ac finds its application4 ,the siege and capture of ,zion are pre-eminently the means of representing the idea of the heavy oppression and deep abasement of ,israel1 and of the cessation of its political independence1 although it must not upon any account be overlooked1 that the natural form of the representation is1 at the same time1 the natural form of the realization of the idea that ,judah could not be destroyed without the siege and capture of ,jerusalem1 its centre4 ,footnote #a3 ,we must not by any means suppose1 as has been done last of all by ,caspari1 that the mountains are here regarded as places of worship4 ,footnote #b3 ,thus does ,calvin1 who says3 ,he speaks after the manner of the prophets1 who under the term 'law' used to comprehend the whole doctrine of ,god4 ,footnote #c3 ,caspari1 indeed1 is of opinion1 that the walking in the name of the ,lord is not to be considered as a merit1 on account of which the salvation is granted1 but as a mercy which has been bestowed upon ,israel1 and which forms the ground of the salvation4 ,but this feature is not at all intimated2 and we are the less at liberty to introduce it1 as the walking in the name of the gods is parallel to the walking in the name of the ,lord4 ,footnote #d3 ,caspari very properly refers here to v4 #c 7#d71 where the ,messiah1 in whom the former dominion is to come to the ,tower of the flock1 is represented as a shepherd4 ,footnote #e3 ,micah's references to the ,pentateuch are made the subject of a most thorough disquisition by ,caspari1 ,s4 #dai ff4 ,,chap4 ,v4 #a4 ,and thou1 ,bethlehem ,ephratah1 too little to be among the thousands of ,judah1 out of thee shall come forth unto ,me 7one7 ,pg #dhj to be ,ruler in ,israel2 and ,his goings forth are the times of old1 the days of eternity4 ,the close connection of this verse with what immediately precedes 7,caspari is wrong in considering iv4 #i-ad as an episode7 is evident1 not only from the copulative1 and from the analogy of the near relation of the announcement of salvation to the prophecy of disaster in the preceding verse 7for if the connection with ver4 #ad be overlooked1 the announcement of disaster contained in it remains without a corresponding consolation1--and this would be against the analogy of vers4 #i1 #aj1 #aa-ac72 but more strikingly so from the contrast of the with the 4 ,the ,judge of ,israel in his deepest abasement1 is here contrasted with the ,ruler of ,israel in ,his highest divine glory4 ,the connection is seen also in the indication of ,bethlehem's natural littleness1 as contrasted with the greatness to be bestowed upon it by ,god4 ,what could have induced the prophet thus strongly to point out this circumstance1 had it not been that he considered ,bethlehem as the type of the ,jewish people in their misery1 described in the preceding verse1 and the miraculous elevation of the former1 to be accomplished by divine omnipotence1 as the pledge of a like result for the whole people8 ,there is1 moreover1 a reference to the beginning of the pretended episode4 ,in iv4 #i1 it was said3 ,there is no king in thee2 here1 it is announced that from ,bethlehem there comes forth a glorious ,ruler in ,israel4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there is also a close connection with ver4 #h1 as has been rightly perceived by ,caspari4 ,this connection and reference are sufficiently indicated by the like form4 ,the address to ,bethlehem here corresponds with the address to the ,tower of the flock there1--the ,ruler1 1 here1 with the dominion1 1 there4 ,there1 the dominion returns to the house of ,david2 here1 the august person is described by whom this return is effected1 after the events1 described iv4 #i-ad1 have come upon the ,covenant-people4 ,that the ,ruler here comes forth out of ,bethlehem1 corresponds with iv4 #h in so far as there the dominion returns to the ,tower of the flock1 to the hill of the daughter of ,zion1 which implies the overthrow of the ,davidic kingdom1 and the return of the family of ,david to the condition in which it lived at ,bethlehem before the time of ,david1--which must necessarily precede its final glory4--,according to ,bachiene ,pg #dha ii4 #b1 ,s4 #g ff41 ,bethlehem and ,ephratah are to be distinguished1 so that the former designates the town alone1 and the latter at the same time its whole environs1--so that ,bethlehem ,ephratah would be equivalent to ,bethlehem situated in ,ephratah4 ,but even if we were to agree with this opinion1 we must not1 by any means1 consider the two words as standing in the stat4 constr41 any more than the corresponding in ,judges xvii4 #i1 xix4 #a1 #b1 #ah4 ,for as a ,nomen proprium is equivalent to a noun with the article1 it can never stand in the stat4 constr4 with another noun4 ,we should thus be obliged to assume that1 by way of brevity1 common in geographical designations1 both appellations were placed unconnectedly beside each other1 without any indication of their relation1 just as in addressing a letter1 we would simply write ,berlin1 ,prussia4 ,but if we compare ,gen4 xxxv4 #ai1 where ,ephratah is simply declared to be identical with ,bethlehem 7 72--and if we consider that the prophet had already alluded to the contents of that chapter 7compare remarks on iv4 #h71 and that he regards the events which formerly happened in the neighbourhood of ,bethlehem as a type of those which were to take place in future2--that in ver4 #b 7#c7 he brings the new birth which is there to happen in parallelism with one which had formerly occurred in its nearest neighbourhood1 and that it is just in the account of the latter that the designation occurs1--we shall have the strongest reason for understanding here also the two names as a designation of the town1 without deciding whether the above-mentioned difference1 as regards other passages1 be well founded or not4 ,interpreters commonly assert that the sole ground of the twofold designation of the place is the intention of distinguishing it from another ,bethlehem in the tribe of ,zebulun2 compare ,josh4 xix4 #ae4 ,but in that case1 we should rather have expected the common ,bethlehem ,judah1 instead of ,bethlehem ,ephratah4 ,there can be no doubt1 that the prophet1 in choosing this designation1 was guided by a regard to that passage in ,genesis4 ,one might also suppose that the prophet wished to allude1 at the same time1 to the appellative significations of these nouns1 viz41 house of bread1 and field of fruit1 and to lay stress upon their typical import3 the place1 the blessing of which1 as regards temporal things1 is indicated by its name1 shall1 at some ,pg #dhb future time1 be blessed and fruitful in a higher sense4 ,it is just in ,micah1 who is fond of making significant allusions to names1 that such a supposition is very natural1 as is shown1 not only by chap4 i41 but also by vii4 #ah1 where he gives an interpretation of his own name4 ,as1 however1 the two names elsewhere also occur thus connected1 without any attention being given to their signification1 the prophet would not have omitted giving a hint upon this point4 ,it is not the way of ,scripture to make any allusions which cannot be understood with certainty4 ,we shall1 therefore1 be obliged to suppose that1 after the common name1 the prophet mentions1 in addition1 the ancient name rendered sacred by memory from the time of the ,patriarch1 and by the authority of the most ancient documents of revelation 7compare1 besides ,gen4 xxxv4 #ai1 ,gen4 xlviii4 #g71 in order thereby to impart greater solemnity to the discourse1 and to intimate what great things he had to say of ,bethlehem4 ,in accordance with this designation by two names1 is1 then1 the circumstance that the address is directed to ,bethlehem4--,the word forms an apposition to ,bethlehem3 little to be1 instead of1 who art too little to be4 ,if the sense were to be1 thou art little1 the would not have been omitted after 4 ,the circumstance that ,bethlehem is addressed as a masculine 7comp4 11 and 7 may be accounted for by the prophet's viewing the town in the image of its ideal representative2 compare remarks on ,zech4 ix4 #g4 ,in such a case1 the gender may be neglected2 compare1 e4g41 ,gen4 iv4 #g1 where sin1 1 appears as a masculine noun1 on account of the image of a ravenous beast4 ,such personifications occur very frequently4 ,thus1 nothing is more common in the ,mosaic law than that ,israel is addressed as one man4 ,this has been frequently misunderstood1 and1 in consequence1 that which refers to the whole people has been applied to the single individual4 ,thus it is even in the ,decalogue4 ,in ,is4 v4 #g1 the people of ,judah appear as the man ,judah4 ,the littleness of ,bethlehem is sufficiently evident from the circumstance of its being left out in the catalogue of the towns of the tribe of ,judah1 in ,joshua 7compare ,bachiene1 #aib74 ,this induced the ,,lxx4 to insert it in ,josh4 xv4 #fj along with several other towns which had been omitted2 and1 in doing so1 they were probably guided1 not so much by a regard to its outward ,pg #dhc importance1 as by the interest which attached to it from the recollection of an event of former times 7compare ,gen4 xxxv471 from its being the birth-place of ,david1 and still more1 from the prophecy under consideration1 by which the eyes of the whole nation were directed to this place1 outwardly so unimportant4 ,the assertion of ,jerome1 that the ,jews omitted the name in the ,hebrew text1 in order that ,christ might not appear as a descendant of the tribe of ,judah1 has received from ,reland 7,s4 #fdc7 a more thorough refutation than it deserved4 ,keil1 in his commentary on ,joshua1 has lately renewed the attempt to prove1 from internal reasons1 the genuineness of the addition2 but1 from the whole condition of the ,alex4 ,version1 it is very dangerous to trust to such arguments4 ,the very reasons which ,keil brings forward in support of the addition1 are just those which might have induced the ,,lxx4 to make it4 ,the circumstance that they added to ,bethlehem the name ,ephratah1 plainly indicates the reason which induced them to introduce ,bethlehem specially4 ,bethlehem is likewise omitted in the catalogue of the towns of ,judah1 in ,neh4 xi4 #be ff41 and can therefore have occupied among them a very low place only1 although it is mentioned in ,ezra ii4 #ba1 ,neh4 vii4 #bf4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 it is called a mere village 71 ,john vii4 #db74 ,josephus1 indeed1 occasionally gives it the title of a town 7compare ,luke ii4 #d1 #aa72 but1 in other passages1 he designates it by 1 ,ant4 v4 #b1 #h4-- means properly1 little in reference to being1 instead of1 too little to be1--the wider expression being used to indicate the relations of the town to the being1 where we use the more limited expression4--,instead of the thousands of ,judah1 ought to have been employed1 as it appears1 in order strictly to maintain the personification4 ,the representative of ,bethlehem is too small to be numbered among the heads of ,judah4 ,several expositors 7,j4 ,d4 ,michaelis1 ,justi7 have thereby been induced to point instead of 4 ,but this supposed emendation is set aside by the consideration that is only the special designation of the ,edomitish princes1 and occurs in a general sense1 only by way of ,catachresis1 in ,zechariah1 who lived at a time when the ,hebrew language was nearly extinct4 ,the most simple explanation is1 that the prophet views the thousands1 or the families of ,judah1 no less than the town ,bethlehem1 as ideal existences2 in which ,pg #dhd case1 the personification is maintained throughout4 ,moreover1 there would not be any insurmountable difficulty in the way of supposing that the prophet had given up the personification2 for these are frequently not strictly adhered to by the prophets1 who constantly pass from the figure to the thing prefigured4 ,this may be at once seen from the preceding verse1 in the first clause of which1 ,zion appears personified as a woman1 while immediately afterwards there follows1 against us4--1 thousand1 is frequently used for designating a family1 because the number of its members usually consisted of about a thousand2 compare ,num4 i4 #af1 where it is said of the twelve princes of the tribes3 ,heads of the thousands of ,israel are they2 ,num4 x4 #d2 ,josh4 xxii4 #ad1 #ba2 ,judg4 vi4 #ae2 #a ,sam4 x4 #ai4 ,on the division of ,israel into thousands1 hundreds1 etc4--a division which existed before the time of ,moses--compare what has been advanced in my ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pentateuch1 ii4 p4 #cda sqq4 ,it is self-evident that the thought here is1 that ,bethlehem is too little to constitute a thousand by itself4 ,communities1 however1 which were not sufficiently numerous to constitute1 by themselves1 a generation or family1 were reckoned with others1 and formed with them an artificial generation1 an artificial family2 for the divisions of generations and families were1 owing to the great significance which numbers had in ancient times1 connected with numerical relations4 ,an instance of this kind occurs in #a ,chron4 xxiii4 #aa1 #ab1 where it is said of four brothers that they had not sons enough1 and were1 for that reason1 reckoned as one family only4 ,being merely part of a generation1 ,bethlehem had no place among the generations4 ,the sense is clearly this3 ,bethlehem occupies a very low rank among the towns of the ,covenant-people1--can scarcely show herself in the company of her distinguished sisters1 who proudly look down upon her4--,it is altogether a matter of course that 1 to go out1 may be used also of being born1 of descent1 inasmuch as this belongs to the general category of going out2 compare1 e4g41 #b ,kings xx4 #ah4 ,we must1 however1 confine ourselves to the general idea of going forth1 proceeding1 and not consider ,bethlehem as the father of the ,messiah4 ,in opposition to ,hofmann1 this is proved by ,caspari1 from ,jer4 xxx4 #ba3 ,and their governor shall proceed from the midst of them2 and from ,zech4 x4 #d4,pg #dhe-- is without a definite subject4 ,it is best to supply one1 which is evidently implied in what follows4 ,the construction1 which might otherwise appear somewhat strange1 has been occasioned by the desire of making perceptible1 by the very words1 and their position1 the contrast between the divine greatness and the natural littleness of ,bethlehem3-- ,thou art little to be among the thousands of ,judah2-- ,from thee shall come forth unto me1 to be a ,ruler in ,israel4 ,from a place which is too little to form a single independent member of the body1 the head proceeds4 ,from this contrast appears also the reason why it is said1 ,ruler in ,israel1 while we should have expected to hear of the ,ruler of ,israel 1--a circumstance on which ,paulus lays so much stress in opposing the ,messianic interpretation4--,had the prophet adopted the latter expression1 not only would this contrast have been less striking1 but the other also1 which is likewise intended1 viz41 the contrast with the ,judge of ,israel1 in the preceding verse1 who loses his dignity4 ,the prophet was1 in the first instance1 concerned more about the genus than the individual1--more about the idea of dominion in general1 than about the mode and kind of it4 ,the individual is1 afterwards1 however1 partly in this verse itself1 partly in the following verse1 so distinctly characterized1 that he cannot be by any means mistaken4 ,nothing more1 it is true1 is implied in these words1 than that1 at some future time1 there would come forth from ,bethlehem a ,ruler over all ,israel2 and if these words stood isolated1 and if it could be proved that1 after the time of ,micah1 there came forth from ,bethlehem a ,ruler over all ,israel1 besides the ,messiah--a thing which1 however1 cannot be proved--then1 indeed1 it might be questionable which of the two to choose4 ,caspari's exposition1 ,will he come forth1 has this against it1 that1 in the preceding verses1 the ,messiah was not yet spoken of1 and1 hence1 that ,he cannot simply be supposed as known2 and least of all--if the acquaintance with ,him were to be supposed from other passages--could ,he have been introduced with a simple unaccented he3 the could not have been omitted in this case4 ,the case in iv4 #h is but little analogous1 for the subject in is there an indefinite one4-- is1 by several interpreters1 referred to the prophet4 ,thus ,rosenmller1 ,pg #dhf following ,michaelis1 says1 ,to me1 i4e41 for my good1 the prophet says1 in the name of his whole people4 ,but the reference to ,god is required by the contrast between human littleness and divine greatness4 ,calvin remarks on it3 ,by this word1 ,god declares that ,his decree to give up the people was not such1 that ,tie should not be willing to restore them after some time4 ,he therefore calls the faithful back to ,himself1 and reminds them of ,his counsel1 just as if ,he said1 ',i have indeed rejected you for a time1 but not so as that ,i am not filled with compassion for you4' ,the import of the 1 viz41 that ,god could exalt that which was low1 the believer saw1 in a type1 in ,david2 and there is no doubt that the prophet was anxious indirectly to refer them to this type1 and thereby to strengthen their faith in the promise1 which appeared almost incredible4 ,he 7,david7 had been a native of the humble1 little ,bethlehem1 the youngest among his brothers1 without power1 without renown4 ,in order that the might become the more evident1 the ,lord1 at his election1 gave such a direction to the circumstances1 that this1 his natural lowliness1 might be most strikingly exhibited4 ,it was ,god who raised him from being a shepherd of lambs1 to be a shepherd of nations4 ,in contrast with the ,messiah's human and lowly origin4 ,his divine and lofty dignity is prominently brought out in the last words of the verse1--a contrast similar to that in the case of ,bethlehem1 to which the prophet thereby refers4 ,here also1 the prophet has so clearly expressed the contrast by the words themselves1 that1 upon the homines bon voluntatis among the interpreters of all ages1 it has most forcibly impressed itself4 ,thus1 e4g41 ,chrysostom1 demonstratio adv4 ,judos et ,gentiles1 quod ,christus sit ,deus1 opp4 ,t4 ,v41 p4 #gci3 ,he exhibits both ,godhead and manhood4 ,for in the words1 ',his goings forth are from the beginning1 from the days of eternity1' ,his existence from all eternity is revealed2 while in the words1 ',shall come forth the ruler who feeds ,my people ,israel1' ,his origin according to the flesh is revealed4 ,a more minute inquiry into the meaning of these words must begin with the investigation of 4 ,the greater number of interpreters agree in this1 that 1 the feminine form of the more common here denotes the action of the going forth4 ,but this is opposed by the following considerations4 #a4 ,the use of the plural4 ,those especially ,pg #dhg who here think of the eternal going forth of the ,son from the ,father1 cannot by any means ,justify it4 ,several among them consider it as plur4 majest4 ,thus1 e4g41 do ,tarnovius and ,frischmuth1 in the ,dissert4 de ,nativitate ,messi1 in the remarks on this passage1 ,jena #affa4 ,but although such a plural exists1 indeed1 in ,hebrew1 and many traces of it are to be found 7compare my ,dissertations on the ,genuineness of the ,pentateuch1 i4 p4 #bfg ff471 it could appear here1 of course1 in the suffix only1 not in the noun4 ,others suppose that the plural stands here simply for the singular4 ,now1 there are1 it is true1 three cases in which such does apparently take place3--the first1 when a definite individual out of the multitude is meant1--when accordingly1 not the number1 but the general idea only is concerned2--the second1 when a noun in the plural gradually loses its plural signification1 because the etymology and original signification have become indistinct2--the third1 when the plural stands for the abstract4 ,not one of these cases1 however1 is applicable here4 ,those interpreters have most plausibly removed the difficulty who understand to be really a repeated act of going forth1 and refer it to the ,old ,testament doctrine of the ,angel of the ,lord4 ,thus ,jerome3 ,because ,he had always spoken to them through the prophets1 and became in their hands the ,word of ,god4 ,tremellius and ,junius3 ,the goings forth1 i4e41 the declarations and demonstrations of1 as it were1 a rising sun2 ,he from the very beginning revealed and manifested ,himself to all created things1 by the light of ,his word1 and the excellency of ,his works2 just as the rising sun manifests himself from the moment of his rising1 by the light and its effects4 ,cocceius3 ,i cannot1 however1 be persuaded to believe that the plural is here used without emphasis4 ,for the ,son has not gone forth from the ,father1 like a man from a man1 who begins to exist only when he is brought forth from a man1 and when he goes forth1 ceases to be brought forth and to go out4 ,in all the days of eternity1 the ,son proceeds from the ,father1 and is the eternal 4 ,but this circumstance is1 in general1 against this explanation1 that the contrast with the going forth from ,bethlehem1 which is completed in one act1 does not admit of the mention of a manifold going forth1 and that1 in this contrast1 the arising1 the origin of the existence of the ,messiah1 can alone be thought of2 while1 more specially1 ,jerome1 ,pg #dhh ,tremellius1 and ,junius1 who1 with ,piscator also1 limit the going forth to the relation to created things only1 are contradicted by 1 by which the going forth is placed beyond the beginning of creation2 and ,cocceius1 by the fact that the in the ,old ,testament1 differently from the in the ,new ,testament1 appears always as going forth from ,god1 in relation to the world only4 ,but although the time of old and the days of eternity should be considered as the place of the going forth1 yet the plural cannot be explained1 as is done by ,caspari1 from the circumstance that a person is always descended from several2 for the transferring of such a usus loquendi to a relation1 to which in itself it is not applicable1 could be admitted only when it could be demonstrated to be altogether common and firmly established4 ,but the plural might indeed1 although only with some difficulty1 be vindicated and accounted for from the circumstance1 that two points of going forth are mentioned1 which1 as it were1 suppose a twofold act4 #b4 ,but even if the singular were used1 the explanation of the act of going forth would not be admissible4 ,it is contrary to the idea of nouns with 1 that they could be used as nomina actionis4 ,it is only with writers living at a time when the language was dying out1 that a few instances of this erroneous use can be found4 denotes the place where1 the instrument wherewith1 the time wherein1 and perhaps the way and manner whereby1 something is done1 or is4 ,further--,it may signify also the thing itself which is done1 or is2 but1 in no writer of the living and flourishing language1 does it ever denote the action itself4 ,caspari1 indeed1 attempts to prove that there occurs in the older books a number1 by no means inconsiderable1 of nouns with 1 which undeniably denote an action2 but what he has advanced on this point requires still to be minutely sifted1 and to be more closely examined2 compare1 e4g41 on ,num4 x4 #b1 my pamphlet on ,the ,day of the ,lord1 ,s4 #cb4 ,but we are quite satisfied with what is granted by ,caspari himself 7compare ,ewald's ,lehrbuch d4 ,hebr4 ,spr4 #afj71 that it is against the nature and common use of this form to denote the action4 ,even by this concession1 a presumption is raised against the correctness of an interpretation which would ascribe to 1 here1 and in other passages1 the signification of going forth1 viewed as an action4 ,the passages quoted by ,winer in favour of the signification1 egressus1 ,pg #dhi are the following3 #a4 ,hos4 vi4 #c1 where it is said of the ,lord 1 firm like the morning-dawn is ,his going forth4 ,but is there1 not the action1 but the place and the time of the going forth1 as is evident from the word firm also4 #b4 ,ezek4 xii4 #d3 ,and thou shalt go forth at even in their sight1 4 ,several interpreters agree that here signifies the kind and mode of the going forth4 ,vatablus says1 ,it denotes the deportment of him who goes forth1 and means1 ,thou shalt go forth in sorrow1 and indignant4 ,but it is better1 with ,hvernick1 to refer it to the time3 ,according to the goings forth of prisoners1 at the time when emigrants of this kind prefer to go forth from their places4 #c4 ,num4 xxxiii4 #b3 ,and ,moses wrote down 1 'the places of their goings out4' #d4 ,ps4 xix4 #g1 it is said of the sun3 1 from the end of the heaven is his going forth1 which is tantamount to--,the end of the heaven is the place from which he goes forth4 #e4 #a ,kings x4 #bh3 1 which ,de ,wette translates1 ,and the export of the horses which ,solomon had1 7was7 from ,egypt4 ,but a more accurate translation is1 ,and the place of coming forth of the horses which ,solomon had was ,egypt1 or1 more literally still1 from ,egypt1--a concise mode of expression for1 ,the place from which the horses of ,solomon came forth was ,egypt1--just as in the preceding example4 ,in proof of the signification1 action of going out1 ,ch4 ,b4 ,michaelis refers1 moreover1 to #b ,sam4 iii4 #be1 where ,de ,wette translates1 ,thou knowest ,abner1 the son of ,ner2 he came to deceive thee1 and to see thy going out and thy coming in1 and all that thou doest4 ,but a more accurate translation would be1 ,the place from which thou goest out1 and to which thou art going2 compare ,ezek4 xliii4 #aa4 ,in all other passages--and these are rather numerous--the signification place of going out1 or that which goes out1 is quite obvious4 ,even ,caspari grants that the signification place of going out has1 a priori1 the greatest probability in its favour4--,to this it may be added1 that the signification place of going out is recommended here1 even by the contrast with what precedes1 inasmuch as there ,bethlehem1 is mentioned as the place from which the ,euler in ,israel is to come forth4 ,with this place of going out1 another and a higher one is contrasted4 ,this contrast also shows us how the ,pg #dij in and must be understood1 viz41 in the same manner as in 2 for the evident reference of to shows that it must correspond with it4 ,hence the literal translation would be1 ,and ,his places of going out are from the times of old1 from the days of eternity1 which is equivalent to--,the places from which ,he goes forth are the times of old1 the days of eternity1--just as in the two passages1 ,ps4 xix4 #g2 #a ,kings x4 #bh4 ,the might very well have been omitted2 but its insertion here has arisen chiefly from a desire to make the reference to the corresponding clause outwardly also more perceptible4 ,this reference shows also1 that the explanation of by pr1 which was proposed by ,pococke and others1 is inadmissible1 besides involving an absurdity1 inasmuch as nothing can be before eternity2 while1 on the other hand1 this reference alone affords a satisfactory explanation of the plural4 ,according to it1 the words1 ,from the time of old1 from the days of eternity1 contain a gradation4 ,first1 the existence of the ,messiah before ,his birth in time1 in ,bethlehem1 is pointed out in general2 and then1 in contrast with all time1 it is vindicated to eternity4 ,this could not fail to afford a great consolation to ,israel4 ,he who hereafter1 in a visible manifestation1 was to deliver them from their misery1 was already in existence1--during it1 before it1 and through all eternity4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,interpretation4 #a4 ,,among ,,the ,,jews4 ,this ,history1 as to its essential features1 might1 a priori1 be sketched with tolerable certainty4 ,from the nature of the case1 we could scarcely expect that the ,jews should have adopted views altogether erroneous as to the subject of the prophecy in question2 for the ,messiah appears in it1 not in ,his humiliation1 but in ,his glory--rich in gifts and blessings1 and ,pelagian self-delusion will1 a priori1 return an affirmative answer to the question as to whether one is called to partake in them4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the prophecy contains a twofold ground of offence which had to be removed1 and explained away at any ,pg #dia expense4 ,one of these1 the eternity of the ,messiah--which was in contradiction to the popular notions1 and conceivable only from a knowledge of ,his ,godhead--could not but exist at all times2 while the second of these--the birth at ,bethlehem--made its appearance1 and exercised its influence1 only after the birth of ,christ4 ,that this should be set aside1 was demanded by two causes4 ,first1 there was the desire of depriving the ,christians of the proof1 which they derived from the birth at ,bethlehem1 for the proposition that ,he who had appeared was also ,he who was promised4 ,and1 secondly1 there was the difficulty of any longer deriving from ,bethlehem the descent of ,christ1 after1 by an ordinance of ,hadrian 7compare ,reland1 ,s4 #fdg71 all the ,jews had been expelled from ,bethlehem and its neighbourhood4 ,this difficulty was strongly urged against them by ,christian controversialists2 compare ,tertullian cont4 ,jud4 c4 xiii41 ,how then can the ,ruler be descended from ,judah1 and how can ,he come forth from ,bethlehem1 as1 in the present day1 there is not one of ,israel left there1 of whose family ,christ may be born8 ,the actual history furnishes facts and details which only confirm and enlarge what1 in its essential features1 we have sketched a priori4 #a4 ,the reference to the ,messiah was1 at all times1 not the private opinion of a few scholars1 but was publicly received1 and acknowledged with perfect unanimity4 ,as respects the time of ,christ1 this is obvious from ,matt4 ii4 #e4 ,according to that passage1 the whole ,sanhedrim1 when officially interrogated as to the birth-place of the ,messiah1 supposed this explanation to be the only correct one4 ,but if this proof required a corroboration1 it might be derived from ,john vii4 #da1 #db4 ,in that passage1 several who erroneously supposed ,christ to be a native of ,galilee1 objected to ,his being the ,messiah on the ground that ,scripture says3 1 1 4 ,but even after ,christ had appeared1 the interest in depriving the ,christians at once of the arguments which1 in their controversies1 they derived from this passage1 was not sufficiently strong to blind the ,jews to the evident indications contained in this passage1 or to induce them to deprive themselves of the sweet hope which it afforded4 ,this1 it is true1 would be the case nevertheless1 if we were to rely upon1 and believe in the assertion of ,chrysostom 7,hom4 #g1 ,pg #dib in ,matt4 c4 #b1 in ,nov4 ,test41 t4 i4 p4 #hj1 ed4 ,frcf473 ,some of them1 in their impudence1 assert that this prophecy has a reference to ,zerubbabel2 of ,theodoret 7on this passage73 ,the ,jews have tried to refer this to ,zerubbabel1 which evidently fights against the truth2 of ,theophylact 7on ,matt4 ii472 and of ,euthymius ,zigabenus 7in iv4 ,evang4 t4 #a1 p4 #fa1 ed4 ,mat474 ,but the supposition is here forced upon us--a supposition which1 in another case also 7compare remarks on ,zech4 ix4 #i1 #aj71 we must acknowledge to be well-founded--that the ,fathers1 having in their controversies with the ,jews sometimes met a reference to ,zerubbabel1 forced it upon the ,jews1 even when the latter themselves refused it4 ,and there can be the less difficulty in admitting this supposition1 as the apparently fourfold testimony may be easily reduced to a single one1 viz41 to that of ,chrysostom4 ,if these statements had any truth in them1 some traces1 at least1 of this interpretation must be found among the ,jews themselves4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,all the ,jewish interpreters adhere to the ,messianic interpretation1 and in this they are headed by the ,chaldee1 who paraphrases the words in this way3 1 i4e41 ,from thee ,messiah shall go out before me4 #b4 ,a twofold method has been tried to remove the first ground of objection mentioned above4 ,in ancient times1 they gave their full sense to the words1 ,of 7or from7 the days of eternity1 but substituted the name of the ,messiah for ,his person4 ,this we meet with as early as in the ,chaldee1 who says3 1 i4e41 ,whose name is said 7or called7 from the days of old1 from the days of eternity4 ,thus also the ,pirke ,r4 ,elieser1 ch4 iii41 where1 with a reference to the passage before us1 the name of the ,messiah is mentioned among the seven things created before the world existed1 viz41 along with the ,law1 ,hell1 ,paradise1 the ,throne of ,glory1 the ,temple1 ,repentance2 compare ,schttgen ii4 ,s4 #bac4 ,according to ,eisenmenger i4 ,s4 #cag1 the same1 with some change1 is found in the ,talmud1 ,tract4 ,pesachim1 fol4 #ed1 col4 i41 and ,nedarim f4 #ci1 c4 #b4 ,we cannot1 in that explanation by the ,chaldee1 understand name in its emphatic signification1 in which it often occurs in ,scripture1 viz41 as an expression and image of the substance1--a signification in which the name of the ,messiah would be equivalent to the glory of the ,messiah1 or to the ,messiah ,pg #dic in ,his glory4 ,this is evident from the 1 i4e41 said or spoken1 of the ,chaldee1 which does not allow of our thinking of the creation of a substance2 and not less from the consideration1 that if this signification of name were assumed1 the aim and object which he had in view in substituting name for person at all1 would have been missed4 ,the name of the ,messiah expresses ,his nature1 the idea of ,his existence4 ,the creation or pronouncing of this name marks1 accordingly1 the rise of this idea in ,god1--,his forming the decree of redemption by the ,messiah4 ,by this explanation--which we again meet with1 afterwards1 in ,calvin1 and which we shall then consider more minutely--a mere existence in thought1 was substituted for the real existence of the ,messiah1--,his predestination1 for ,his pre-existence4--,but in aftertimes they came still further down4 ,to supply the name1 was too arbitrary to admit of their resting satisfied with such an explanation4 ,almost unanimously they now came to the supposition1 that the words of the passage under consideration merely marked the descent of the ,messiah from the ancient1 royal house of ,david4 ,thus ,abenezra3 ,all this is said of ,david2 the words also1 ',his goings out are of old1' refer to ,david4 ,aberbanel 7,praec4 ,sal4 p4 #fb73 ,the goings out of the family from which that ,ruler is to be descended are of old1 and of the days of eternity1 i4e41 of the seed of ,david1 and the rod of ,jesse1 which is of ,bethlehem-,judah4 ,on the similar expositions of ,kimchi and others1 compare ,frischmuth l4c41 and ,wichmannshausen1 ,dissert4 on the pass41 ,wittenb4 #agbb1 ,s4 #f ff4 ,we could not urge against this exposition that is erroneously understood either as going out1 or1 as family2 and that1 in the latter signification1 the usus loquendi1 as well as the evident reference to 1 are disregarded4 ,for that might be given up1 and yet the explanation would stand as to its substance4 ,even then1 it might be translated3 ,his goings out 7in the signification of 'places of going out'7 are the days of old1 the days of eternity1 i4e41 the very ancient times2 so that there would be ascribed to the time something which belongs to that which exists in it1 viz41 to the family of ,david4 ,but the following reason is decisive against it4 ,every one will admit that the eternal origin of the ,messiah forms a far more suitable contrast with ,his temporal origin from ,bethlehem1 than ,his descent from the ancient family of ,pg #did ,david4 ,the latter would come into consideration here1 only on account of its antiquity2 a reference to its dignity is not made by even a single word1 nor is the family itself mentioned at all in the text2 but the attribute of antiquity1 and that alone1 is nevertheless taken from it1 and ascribed to the ,messiah4 ,but now1 we cannot at all see what pre-eminence in this respect the family of ,david enjoyed above other families1 and how1 therefore1 it could have been an honour for the ,messiah to be descended from it4 ,how strange would1 according to this explanation1 be the words1 of the days of eternity1 which1 as a climax1 are added to1 of days of old6 ,what reason could there have existed for the prophet to exalt1 by a hyperbolical expression1 a limited time to eternity8 ,as regards ,his human origin1 the ,messiah had not the slightest advantage over other mortals1 as far as the age of the family was concerned4 ,what1 then1 was the use of such a hyperbole in a matter which1 in this connection1 was of no consequence1 and which could not in any way serve for ,his exaltation8 ,it is just this1 however1 which after all is required by the contrast4 ,what kind of consolation would thereby have been afforded to the people8 ,certainly no one doubted that the ,messiah would have parents1 and ancestors reaching back to a hoar antiquity4 ,but was there anything gained by this1 since ,he had it only in common with the lowest and feeblest among the people8 ,how does this shallow1 unmeaning1 and yet so much pretending contrast in reference to the ,messiah1 suit the other contrast in reference to ,bethlehem1 which is so brilliant and exalted8 ,and now what reason is there for preferring that explanation which is so unnatural1 to the other1 which is so natural1 so obvious1 which presents a contrast so beautiful1 and opens up to the ,covenant-people a source of consolation so rich8 ,is it this1 perhaps1 that the eternity of the ,messiah is not mentioned anywhere else in the ,old ,testament8 ,but the eternity of the ,messiah is only a single feature of ,his divine nature1 and just that feature which1 according to the context1 came here into special consideration4 ,caspari very correctly remarks3 ,the prophet pointed out just the feature of the pre-existence1 and of the eternal existence of the ,messiah1 and these only1 because the announcement of ,his origin from the little ,bethlehem led just to this1 and to this alone4 ,the intimation of the divine nature of the ,messiah is1 ,pg #die however1 as old as the ,messianic prediction in general2 compare1 concerning this1 my remarks on ,gen4 xlix4 #aj4 ,in a more definite shape1 and in a more distinct form1 it appears as early as in the ,messianic ,psalms4 ,but it is found1 in sharply defined outlines1 in ,isaiah1 and specially in ix4 #e1 where1 just as in the passage before us1 the divine glory of the ,messiah is contrasted with the lower aspect of ,his existence2 and the closer the points of contact are between ,isaiah and ,micah1 the less can we refuse to acknowledge such here4 ,this circumstance also must prevent us from doing so1 that immediately afterwards1 in ver4 #c 7#d71 the divine dignity and nature of the ,messiah meet us anew4 ,this passage requires1 as its foundation1 the one upon which we are now commenting4 ,moreover1 the eternity which1 in contrast with ,his birth in time1 is here ascribed to the ,messiah1 corresponds with the eternity of ,his existence and dominion after ,his birth1 which is repeatedly ascribed to the ,messiah1 and1 most prominently1 in ,is4 ix4 #e1 where ,he receives the name ,father of eternity1 i4e41 ,he who will be ,father in all eternity4--,some one1 perhaps1 would infer from the subjoined words1 of the days1 that is here to be understood in a limited sense4 ,but who does not know that1 when eternity is predicated in contrast with a limited duration of time1 just to make the contrast the more striking1 those measures of time1 which are properly applicable to the latter only1 are transferred to the former8 ,for in order to be able to compare things1 a certain resemblance between them must necessarily be first established4 ,thus in ,dan4 vii4 #i1 ,god is called the ,ancient of ,days2 thus it is said of ,him in ,ps4 cii4 #bh1 ,thy years have no end2 and the ,new ,testament frequently speaks in the same way of eternal times4 ,we are1 in our thoughts1 generally so much bound to time1 that we can conceive of eternity only as time without time4 ,it cannot by any means be satisfactorily or incontrovertibly proved from vii4 #ad1 #bj1 that and here designate merely the ancient time4 ,all which that passage proves is1 that such a sense is possible--and this1 no one probably has ever doubted--but not that it is applicable in this connection4 ,if the connection be considered1 ,prov4 viii4 #bb1 #bc1 will then be acknowledged to be parallel1--a passage in which the eternal existence of ,wisdom is spoken of in a similar manner4 #c4 ,that1 in the prophecy under consideration1 ,bethlehem is ,pg #dif marked out as the birth-place of the ,messiah1 was held as an undoubted truth by the ancient ,jews4 ,this appears from the confident reply of the ,sanhedrim to the question of ,herod as to the birth-place of ,christ4 ,and it is not less evident from ,john vii4 #db4 ,the circumstance that1 after the tumult raised by ,barcochba1 not only ,jerusalem1 but ,bethlehem also1 was1 by the ,emperor ,adrian1 interdicted to the ,jews as a residence1 renders it probable that this interpretation was not given up immediately after the death of ,christ4 ,but even after this edict of ,adrian1 and after the difficulty had appeared in all its force1 they did not1 for a considerable time1 venture to assert that the prophecy knew nothing of ,bethlehem as the birth-place of the ,messiah4 ,it is with the later ,rabbinical interpreters only1 who were better skilled in the art of distorting1 that this assertion is found4 ,the ancient ,jews endeavoured to evade the difficulty by the fable1 dressed up in various ways1 that the ,messiah was indeed born at ,bethlehem1 on the day of the destruction of the temple1 but that1 on account of the sins of the people4 ,he was afterwards carried away by a storm1 and had1 since that time1 remained1 unknown and concealed1 in various places4 ,thus speak the ,talmud1 the very ancient commentary on ,lamentations1 ,echa ,rabbati1 and the very old commentary on ,genesis1 ,breshith ,rabba 7compare the passages in ,raim4 ,martini1 ,s4 #cdh-ej2 ,carpzovius and ,frischmuth1 l4c474 ,indeed1 we can trace this fiction still farther back4 ,closely connected with it is the explanation of by darkness of the daughter of ,zion 7 being confounded with 71 i4e41 hidden on account of ,zion4 ,this explanation is found as early as in ,jonathan4 ,the concealment of the ,messiah is only an isolated feature of this fiction4 ,the fiction itself1 indeed1 has its roots1 not only in the passage under review1 but also in the endeavour to remove the contradiction between the destruction of the temple1 and the firm expectation of the ,messiah's appearing during the time of its existence1--an expectation founded on passages of the ,old ,testament4 ,this concealment of the ,messiah is mentioned as early as in the ,dialogus cum ,tryphone 7,no4 #h ,bened4 ,ven42 compare also p4 #aad73 ,christ1 even if he be born1 and exist anywhere1 is unknown1 and neither manifests himself in any way1 nor has he any power until ,elijah come1 etc4 ,in order to be convinced that1 at the time when this book was composed1 ,pg #dig and hence in the second century1 the fiction was already fully developed1 we need only compare the account in ,breshith ,rabba4 ,after ,elijah1 at the time of the birth of the ,messiah1 had visited his mother in ,bethlehem ,judah1 and consoled her who was afflicted on account of the destruction of the temple1 which was contemporaneous with her delivery1 he withdraws4 ,after five years had elapsed1 he said1 ,i will go and see the ,saviour of ,israel1 whether he be nursed up in the manner of kings or of ministering angels4 ,he went and found the woman standing at the door of her house1 and said to her3 ,my daughter1 in what state is that boy8 ,and she answered him3 ,rabbi1 did ,i not tell thee that it is a bad thing to nurse him1 because1 on the day on which he was born1 the temple was destroyed8 ,but this is not all2 for he has feet and walks not1 he has eyes and sees not1 he has ears and hears not1 he has a mouth and does not speak at all1 and there he lies like a stone4 ,the ,rabbinical interpreters felt1 however1 that this fiction1 being destitute of all warrant1 was of no use to them in their controversies with ,christians2 and it was to these that their view was chiefly directed4 ,hence they sought to remove the difficulty by means of the interpretation2 and as all had the same interest1 the result was that the distorted explanation became as generally prevalent1 as the correct one had formerly been4 ,kimchi1 ,abenezra1 ,abendana1 ,abarbanel1 and1 in general1 all the later ,rabbins 7compare the passages in ,wichmannsh4 l4 c4 ,s4 #i71 maintain that ,bethlehem is mentioned here as the birth-place of the ,messiah indirectly only1--in so far only as the ,messiah was to be descended from ,david the ,bethlehemite4 ,there cannot well be a prepossession in favour of this exposition4 ,the circumstance that1 formerly1 no one ever thought that it was even possible to explain the passage under review in any other way than that1 in it1 ,bethlehem is spoken of as the birth-place of the ,messiah1 and that this exposition was discovered and introduced1 only at a time when the other could no longer be received1 raises1 a priori1 strong suspicions against it4 ,and this suspicion is fully confirmed by a closer examination4 ,cteris paribus1 that explanation which here finds ,bethlehem mentioned as the birth-place of the ,messiah1 would deserve the preference1 even for this reason1 that the passage1 as thus understood1 fills up a blank ,pg #dih in the ,messianic prophecy1--and that from the whole analogy1 we are led to expect that no such blank would be left4 ,should the family from which ,christ was to descend1 the time at which ,he was to appear1 the part of the country which was pre-eminently to enjoy ,his blessings1 and so many other things concerning ,him1 have been so minutely foretold1 and not the place where ,he was to be born8 ,even the question of ,herod1 2 shows how much reason we have1 a priori1 to expect such a prediction4 ,he supposes that1 as a matter of course1 the birth-place of the ,messiah must have been determined in the ,old ,testament2 he only inquires about the place where4 ,but the matter is not so1 that there could be any choice at all betwixt the two explanations4 ,if we suppose that it is only the descent of the ,messiah from the family of ,david which is here announced1 the contrast between the natural littleness of ,bethlehem1 and its divine greatness1 would be very far from being appropriate4 ,after the family of ,david had1 for centuries1 resided and ruled at ,jerusalem1 the natural littleness of ,bethlehem came very little into further consideration4 ,it was not this which could render improbable the appearance of the ,messiah4 ,it was only the downfall of ,jerusalem1 and the destruction of the ,king's ,castle1 which were in opposition to the belief in the ,messiah's appearance4 ,and1 in like manner1 the glory1 resulting from ,his appearance1 was not imparted to ,bethlehem1 but to ,zion4 ,hence it is that1 in iv4 #h1 where the prophet wishes to declare the descent of the ,messiah from the family of ,david1 he contrasts the glorification of ,zion1 and especially of the ,king's ,castle1 with its previous degradation4--,further--,there is not a single instance to be found of a place1 in which the ancestors of some one resided centuries ago1 being spoken of as the place of his descent4 ,is there a single passage in which ,bethlehem is mentioned as the native place of any of the kings from the ,davidic dynasty who were born at ,jerusalem1 or as the native place of ,zerubbabel who was born at ,babylon8 ,for further details concerning this argument1 ,huetius1 dem4 ,evang4 p #egi ed4 ,amstel4 #afhj1 maybe compared4--,further--,the relation of the passage under review to the parallel passage ,is4 viii4 #bc 7ix4 #a7 must not be overlooked4 ,as in the latter text1 the province is marked out which1 by the appearance of the ,messiah1 is to be raised from the deepest degradation ,pg #dii to the highest glory1 so1 in the passage under consideration1 the place is designated4--,finally--,if any doubt yet remained1 it must surely be removed by the fulfilment1--by the fact that ,christ was actually born at ,bethlehem2 and this so much the more1 that this fact cannot be looked upon as an accidental circumstance1 for ,bethlehem was not the residence of ,his parents4 ,but the ,jews endeavoured1 in another way1 to wrest from ,christian controversialists the advantage afforded by this passage4 ,they denied altogether that ,christ was born at ,bethlehem4 ,thus ,abr4 ,peritsol 7compare ,eisenmenger1 l4 c4 ,s4 #bei73 ,since they called ,him ,jesus the ,nazarene1 and not ,jesus the ,bethlehemite1 it is to be inferred that ,he was born at ,nazareth1 as it is written in the ,targum of ,jerusalem4 ,upon this point1 however1 there existed no unanimity among them4 ,david ,gans1 in the ,book ,zemach ,david1 mentions1 without any remark1 ,bethlehem as the birth-place of the ,messiah 7,s4 #aje of ,vorst's translation74 #b4 ,,among ,,the ,,christians4 ,the conviction that ,christ is the subject of the prophecy under consideration was so much the prevailing one in the ,christian ,church1 that the mention of any of its defenders is altogether superfluous4 ,it were more interesting to learn who were the opponents of it4 ,the assertion of ,huetius1 l4 c41 that ,chrysostom1 ,theophylact1 and ,euthymius ,zigabenus attempted an explanation by which it was referred to ,zerubbabel1 rests on a misapprehension resulting from want of memory4 ,huetius himself ascribes to them that very view which they most decidedly oppose as the one alleged to be held by the ,jews4 ,but this interpretation was actually advanced by ,theodorus of ,mopsueste1 whose exegetical tendencies it admirably suited4 ,along with several other interpretations1 it was condemned by the ,council at ,rome1 under ,pope ,vigilius2 compare ,h4 ,prado on ,ezek4 prooem4 ,sect4 #c1 and ,hippol4 a ,lapide in prophet4 min4 prooem41 and in the remarks on this passage4 ,the immediate successor of ,theodorus was ,grotius4 ,his book de veritate relig4 ,christ4--where in i4 #e1 #ag 7p4 #bff1 ed4 ,oxon4 #ahbj71 he proves ,pg #ejj against the ,jews the ,messianic dignity of ,christ1 from the circumstance that ,he was1 in accordance with the passage1 born at ,bethlehem--might1 indeed1 entitle us to infer that he was not confirmed in this opinion4 ,but perhaps he only imagined that1 in a popular work1 he needed not to be so careful1 and that1 even according to his own views1 he had retained a certain right to this use of the passage1 inasmuch as he considered ,zerubbabel as a type of ,christ1 and the birth of the latter at ,bethlehem as an outward representation of ,his descent from the ,davidic family4 ,it was at the commencement of the ,rationalistic period1 when an easier mode of evading the reference to ,christ had not as yet been discovered1 that the reference to ,zerubbabel was seized upon4 ,it is found in ,dathe and ,kuehnl 7,mess4 ,weissagungen1 ,s4 #hh74 ,the latter1 however1 changed his opinion 7compare ,commentary on ,matt4 ii471 after such a mode had been discovered1 by referring the prophecy to the ideal ,christ4 ,from that time onwards1 the reference to the ideal ,christ is found in almost all the ,rationalistic interpreters4 ,the distinctness with which the marks here given1 viz41 the birth in time at ,bethlehem1 and the eternity of the origin1 lead to the historical ,christ2 and the difficulty of explaining these when the prophecy is referred to the ideal ,messiah1 are rendered sufficiently evident by the efforts which all these interpreters1 without exception1 have made to explain these marks away4 ,who does not discover1 in these very efforts1 a confession of their force1 on the supposition that they can be1 as they have already been1 demonstrated to have an actual existence8 ,god ,himself has borne witness by facts against this explanation2 for ,he ordered the circumstance in such a manner that1 by the birth of ,christ at ,bethlehem1 the prophecy was fulfilled4 ,but how can a fulfilment be spoken of by those who do not believe in prophecy1 but see in it human conjectures only1 since the very idea of prophecy necessarily implies divine inspiration8 ,how should ,god have impressed ,his own seal upon mere human conjectures1 as ,he would have done by effecting an apparent fulfilment8 ,he would ,himself have surely become the author of error by so doing4 ,finally1--,we shall afterwards see that1 in the ,new ,testament1 this passage has been explained in the strictest sense1 of the historical ,christ2 and the attempts of the ,rationalistic interpreters to divest that ,pg #eja quotation of its import1 will furnish us with a proof1 that it is not truth for which they are concerned1 but the removal only1 at any rate and cost1 of a fact which is irreconcilable with their system4 ,all that has been advanced by them 7e4g41 by ,justi and ,ammon7 against the reference to the historical ,christ1 rests on their misapprehension of ,christ's ,regal office4 ,the ,regal office of ,christ is by no means a poetical image1 but the most real among all kingly offices2 yea4 ,his kingdom is that from which all others derive their existence and reality4 ,it rests1 further1 on their ignorance as regards the final history of the ,messianic kingdom4 ,of the whole history of ,christ1 they know a single fragment only1 viz44 ,his first appearance in ,his humiliation2 and even this they know1 and can know1 only very imperfectly4 ,his invisible dominion existing even now1 they do not recognise1 because it is beheld with the eye of faith only2 and ,his future visible manifestation of it they do not believe1 because they have not experienced in their own hearts the invisible power of ,christ1 which is a pledge and earnest of this visible success4 ,it rests1 finally1 on their ignorance of the prophetic vision1 which necessarily requires that the kingdom of ,god under the ,old ,testament should serve as a substratum for the description of the kingdom of ,christ4 ,it can be demonstrated1 from the intimations contained in this passage1 in which the ,messiah appears in ,his glory1 how little it is contradictory to others1 in which ,he is represented in ,his lowest humiliation4 ,through humiliation to glory1--this is the proposition which lies at the foundation of the announcements of the prophet concerning the destinies of the ,covenant-people1 and which he distinctly expresses in regard to ,bethlehem4 ,that this proposition is applicable to the ,head not less than to the members1--to ,him who was born1 not less than to the place where ,he was born1 appears from the circumstance that ,he was to be born at the time of the deepest degradation of the ,davidic dynasty1 iv4 #h1 and not at ,jerusalem1 where ,his ,royal ancestors resided1 but at ,bethlehem4 #b4 ,as regards the last words of this verse1 the same twofold false interpretation which we noticed among ,jewish interpreters1 is found among ,christian expositors also4 ,one of these1 which1 besides in other ,jewish interpreters1 occurs in ,jarchi 7and ,his goings out1 etc42 just as in ,ps4 lxxii4 #ag1 it was said that ,his name ,pg #ejb should continue as long as the sun2--thus ,jonathan also translated it71 changes the eternal origin of ,christ into an eternal predestination4 ,this view was held by ,calvin3 ,these words1 he says1 signify that the rising of the ,prince who was to rule the nations would not be something sudden1 but long ago decreed by ,god4 ,i know that some pertinaciously insist that the prophet speaks here of ,christ's eternal essence1 and as far as ,i am concerned1 ,i willingly acknowledge that ,christ's eternal ,godhead is here proved to us2 but as we shall never succeed in convincing the ,jews of this1 ,i prefer to hold that the words of the prophet signify that ,christ would not thus suddenly proceed from ,bethlehem1 as if ,god had formerly decreed nothing concerning ,him4 ,he speaks indeed of his willingly acknowledging2 but that he was not very much in earnest in his willingness1 appears from what follows3 ,others advance a new and ingenious view1 etc4 ,it is only from the relation of ,calvin to the earlier interpreters1 that we can account for his advancing an exposition so very arbitrary4 ,these had1 ad majorem ,dei gloriam1 advanced a multitude of forced expositions4 ,calvin1 who very properly hated such interpretations 7,i do not like such distorted explanations1 he says1 in his commentary on ,joel ii471 always regarded them with suspicion2 and whensoever there was the appearance of any motive which may possibly have guided them in adopting a certain explanation1 he himself1 rather than concur with them1 falls upon the most unnatural explanations in return4 ,the best refutation of his exposition is to be found in ,pococke4 ,it is absurd to suppose that the actual going forth of ,christ from ,bethlehem is here contrasted with one which is merely imaginary1--the action1 with a mere decree4 ,it is without any analogy that some one should be designated as actually existing1 or going forth1 who exists merely in the divine foreknowledge1 or the divine predestination4--,the other view1 which regards the last words of this verse as referring to the ,messiah's descent from the ancient family of ,david1 is found among all interpreters who1 from some cause1 were prevented from adopting the sound one4 ,it is thus with the ,socinians 7compare1 e4g41 ,volkel de vera religione1 l4 #e1 c4 #b71 some of whom1 in order the more surely to set aside a passage so damaging to their system1 supposed that1 according to its proper sense1 it did not refer to ,christ at all2 e4g41 ,jo4 ,crellius1 who1 in his exposition of ,matt4 ii41 asserts that it refers indefinitely to ,pg #ejc some one of the family of ,david who1 after the ,babylonish captivity1 was to rule the nation4 ,it is thus with ,grotius also1 who says3 ,he 7,zerubbabel7 has his origin from the days of old1 from ancient times1 i4e41 he has descended from a house1 illustrious from ancient times1 and governing for five hundred years4 ,thus it is with all the ,rationalistic interpreters4 ,among recent faithful ,christian expositors1 ,jahn also 7,vatic4 ,mess4 #b1 p4 #adg7 has been led away to the adoption of this opinion4 ,but that he felt strongly1 at least1 one of the difficulties which stood in its way1 viz41 that if the reference to the family of ,david be assumed1 it is the mere age of the family1 apart from every preference on the ground of its dignity1 which is mentioned to magnify the ,messiah--appears from the strange exegetical process which he employs for the purpose of removing it4 ,he supplies at the end1 celebris est3--,his origin or ,his family 7thus he erroneously explains 7 is celebrated from ancient times4 ,one may see in this case how much1 in particulars1 an individual still remains dependent upon a community1 even although1 upon the whole1 he may have freed himself from such dependence4 ,for it is certainly from this dependence alone that the fact can be accounted for1 that this commentator rejected an exposition which must have been to him the most agreeable1 which has everything in its favour1 and nothing against it1--and chose another instead1 the nakedness of which he was obliged to cover as well as he could1 while1 in so doing1 he was violating his exegetical convictions4 ,ewald also permits himself to introduce into the passage what is necessary for the sense which he has made up his mind to adopt4 ,in place of the simple antiquity1 he puts3 ,descended from the ancient1 venerable royal family of ,david4 ,the view taken by ,hofmann is peculiar3 ,he comes from the family of ,david1 just as it had happened long ago1 when that family still belonged to the community of ,bethlehem1--from the community of ,bethlehem does ,he come4 ,weiss4 u4 ,erf4 #a1 ,s4 #bea4 ,in order to get at this rather superfluous repetition1 he has substituted the manner in which the family of ,david formerly existed1 for the days of old1 and eternity4 ,the origins 7this is the sense which he gives to 7 cannot be attributed to that portion only of ,david's family which dwelt at ,bethlehem2 for ,he was descended from them indirectly only1 through the royal family of ,david4 ,pg #ejd #c4 ,the ,jewish assertion1 that in the prophecy there is no allusion to the birth at ,bethlehem of ,him who was to come1 could not fail to be repeated by ,grotius and his supporters1 inasmuch as ,zerubbabel was not born at ,bethlehem4 ,zerubbabel1 he says1 is rightly said to have been born at ,bethlehem1 because he was of the family of ,david which had its origin there4 ,this is1 in like manner1 repeated by the ,rationalistic interpreters1 in order to avoid the too close coincidence of the prophecy with the actual history of ,christ1 e4g41 by ,paulus and ,strauss 7both1 in their ,life of ,jesus71 and by ,hitzig4 ,it is remarkable1 however1 that1 in order the more securely to attain this object1 some have gone so far even as to follow the example of several ,jews1 and of the infamous ,bodinus 7de abditis rerum sublimium arcanis1 l4 #e1 compare the refutation by ,huetius1 l4c4 p4 #gja71 and to characterize the evangelical account concerning the birth of ,christ at ,bethlehem as unworthy of credit4 ,such has been the case with ,ammon especially4 ,,the ,,quotation ,,in ,,matt4 ,,ii4 #f4 ,several interpreters1 ,paulus especially1 have asserted that the interpretation of ,micah which is here given1 was that of the ,sanhedrim only1 and not of the ,evangelist1 who merely recorded what happened and was said4 ,but this assertion is at once refuted when we consider the object which ,matthew has in view in his entire representation of the early life of ,jesus4 ,his object in recording the early life of ,jesus is not like that of ,luke1 viz41 to communicate historical information to his readers4 ,the historical event which he could suppose to be already known to his readers1 comes into his view only in so far as it served for the confirmation of ,old ,testament prophecies4 ,hence it is that he touches upon any historical circumstance1 just when the mention of it can serve for the attainment of this purpose4 ,thus1 the design of the genealogy is to prove that1 in accordance with the prophecies of the ,old ,testament1 ,christ was descended from ,abraham1 through ,david4 ,thus all which he mentions in chap4 i4 #ah-ba1 serves only to prepare the way for the quotation of the prophecy of ,isaiah1 that the ,messiah was to be born of a ,pg #eje virgin1 which is subjoined in ver4 #bb1 with the words3 4 ,even the proves that all which precedes is mentioned solely with a view to the prophecy4 ,the of ,olshausen which refers the to the whole1 in contrast with the particular1 can be accounted for only from the embarrassment into which this commentator could not here avoid falling by his interpretation of the prophecy of ,isaiah1 according to which a semblance of agreement is1 with the utmost difficulty1 made out betwixt it1 and the event in which ,matthew finds its fulfilment4 ,moreover1 all the single features of the account have too distinct a reference to the prophecy which is to be afterwards quoted4 ,it is from a regard to it1 that he is most anxious to point out that ,christ was conceived by a pure and immaculate virgin1 that1 in ver4 #be1 he expressly adds that before the birth of ,jesus1 ,mary had had no connubial intercourse with ,joseph1 because ,immanuel was not only to be conceived1 but born of a virgin4 ,the words1 1 correspond exactly with 4 ,the ,evangelist explains the latter name by 1 which1 again1 cannot be without an object1 for the name of ,jesus 7,gottheil1 ,god-,salvation7 has1 with him1 the same signification4 ,we pass over1 in the meantime1 the section ii4 #a-ab4 ,in ver4 #ac there follows the account of the flight into ,egypt with a reference to ,hos4 xi4 #a4 ,this passage refers1 in the first instance1 to ,israel2 but ,israel does not here come into view according to its carnal condition1 but only according to its divine destination and election1--as is evidently shown by the designation ,son of ,god4 ,israel was called to preserve the truth of ,god in the midst of error1 to proclaim among the ,gentiles the mighty acts of ,god1 and to be ,his messenger and ambassador4 ,in this respect ,israel was a type of the ,messiah1 and the latter1 as it were1 a concentrated and exalted ,israel4 ,it is from this relation alone that many passages in the second part of ,isaiah can be explained2 and in ,is4 xlix4 #c1 the ,messiah is expressly called ,israel4 ,if1 then1 there existed between ,israel and the ,messiah such a relation of type and ,antitype2--if this relation was not accidental1 but designed by ,god1 it will1 a priori1 appear to us most probable that the abode of the children of ,israel in ,egypt1 and the residence of ,christ in the same country1 have a relation to each other4 ,this supposition rests upon the perception of the ,pg #ejf remarkable coincidence which1 by divine ,providence1 generally exists betwixt the destinies of typical persons1 and those of the ,antitype1 so that the former may be considered as an actual prophecy of the latter4 ,but this coincidence must here not be sought in the stay in the same country only2 this circumstance served only to direct attention to the deeper unity1 to represent it outwardly4 ,it was not from their own choice1 but from a series of the most remarkable dispensations of ,providence1 and on the express command of ,god1 that ,israel went to ,egypt4 ,they thereby escaped from the destruction which threatened them in the land for which they were really destined4 ,they were there prepared for their destiny2 and when that preparation was finished1 they were1 agreeably to the promise of ,god1 which was given to them even before they went down into ,egypt1 introduced into that land in which their destiny was to be realized4 ,the same providence of ,god which there chose the means for the preservation of ,his kingdom1 which was at that time bound up with the existence of the typical ,israel1 chose the same means now also when their hopes concentrated themselves in the person of their future ,head4 ,it was necessary that ,egypt should afford ,him a safe abode until the danger was over4--,there then follows1 in vers4 #af-ai1 the account of the murder of the children of ,bethlehem1 with a sole reference to ,jer4 xxxi4 #ae1 and just on account of it4 ,here1 too1 we must not think of a simple simile only4 ,in ,jeremiah1 the mother of ,israel laments over the destruction of her children4 ,the ,lord appears and comforts her4 ,her grief is1 at some future time1 to be changed into joy4 ,she is to see the salvation which the ,lord will still bestow upon her sons4 ,that which1 therefore1 constitutes the essence of that passage is the contrast of the merited punishment which ,israel drew down upon themselves by their sins1 with the unmerited salvation which the mercy of the ,lord will bestow upon them4 ,now1 quite the same contrast is perceptible in the event under consideration4 ,in the same manner as the tyranny of the ,chaldeans1 so that of ,herod also was a deserved punishment for the sins of the ,covenant-people4 ,herod1 by birth a foreigner1 was1 like ,nebuchadnezzar1 a rod of correction in the hand of the ,lord4 ,the cruel deed which1 with divine permission1 he committed at the very place in which the ,saviour was born1 was designed actually and visibly to remind the ,covenant-people ,pg #ejg of what they had deserved by their sins1--was intended also to be a matter-of-fact prophecy of the impending more comprehensive judgment1 and thus to make it manifest that so much the more plainly1 the sending of the ,messiah was purely a work of divine mercy1 destined for those only who would recognise it as such4 ,from this it appears that the ,old ,testament event1 to which the prophet1 in the first instance1 refers1 viz41 the carrying away into captivity1 and the deliverance from it1 were prophecies by deeds of those ,new ,testament relations 7in which1 however1 the typical relation of the murder of the children at ,bethlehem1 as we have stated it1 must not be overlooked72--that both were subject to the same laws1 that both were a necessary result of the working of the same divine mercy1 and that hence1 a declaration which1 in the first instance1 referred to the first event1 might at the same time be considered as a prophecy of the second4--,vers4 #ai and #bj have for their foundation ,exod4 iv4 #ai1 where the ,lord1 after having ordered ,moses to return to ,egypt1 subjoins the words3 4 ,that which the ,lord there speaks to ,moses1 and that which1 here4 ,he speaks to ,joseph1 proceed from the same cause4 ,like all servants of ,god under the ,old ,testament1 ,moses is a type of ,christ4 ,there is the same overruling by divine ,providence1 the same direction of all events for the good of the kingdom of ,god4 ,moses is first withdrawn from threatening danger by flight into distant regions4 ,as soon as it is time that he should enter upon his vocation1 the door for the return to the scene of his activity is opened to him4 ,just so is it with regard to ,christ4--,vers4 #ba-bc have for their sole foundation the prophetic declaration3 7compare1 on these words1 the remarks on ,is4 xi474 ,the particular circumstances which are mentioned1 viz41 that ,joseph had the intention of settling in ,judea1 but received from ,god the command to go into ,galilee1 are designed only to make it more perceptible that the fulfilment of this prophecy was willed by ,god4 ,from this summary it sufficiently appears that the object of ,matthew in chap4 i4 and ii4 was by no means of an historical1 but rather of a doctrinal nature2 and since this is the case1 all the objections fall to the ground1 which ,sieffert1 solely by disregarding this object of the writer1 has lately drawn from these ,pg #ejh chapters against the genuineness of ,matthew's ,gospel4 ,and if we apply this to the question before us1 it follows that the section ii4 #a-ab must likewise have an ,old ,testament foundation4 ,that this foundation can1 in the first instance1 be sought for only in the prophecy of ,micah1 becomes evident from the circumstance1 that ,bethlehem is1 in ver4 #a1 mentioned as ,christ's birth-place4 ,if we now take into consideration the fact that the ,evangelist does not mention at all that the parents of ,jesus formerly resided at ,nazareth1 just because it had no reference to any prophecy of the ,old ,testament 7it is merely by designating1 in the account of the birth of ,jesus1 ,bethlehem as the place of ,his parents1 that he intimates that that which had been previously reported had happened in a different place71--and that1 on the other hand1 he mentions the residence of the ,holy ,family at ,nazareth1 after their return from ,egypt1 evidently for the sole purpose of bringing it into connection with a prophecy1--it becomes quite evident that it is not from any historical interest that this circumstance1 which was known to all his readers1 is mentioned4 ,to this it may be further added1 that the account given in vers4 #a-f1 especially the communication of the answer of the ,sanhedrim to the question of ,herod1 would1 according to the proved object and aim of ,matthew1 stand altogether without a purpose1 unless he had considered the answer of the ,doctors as being in harmony with the truth1 and hence as superseding his usual formula1 4 ,in order to show how much ,matthew was guided by a regard to the ,old ,testament1 and how frequently1 at the same time1 he contented himself with a mere allusion1 supposing his readers to be acquainted with the ,old ,testament--as is quite evident from vers4 #bj and #bc--we must further consider the second ,old ,testament reference which he has in view in vers4 #a-ab4 ,the passages to which he refers are ,ps4 lxxii4 #aj3 ,the kings of ,sheba and ,seba shall offer gifts2 and ,is4 lx4 #f3 ,all they from ,sheba shall come1 they shall bring gold and incense1 and they shall show forth the praises of the ,lord4 ,the representation1 in these and other similar passages1 is1 in the first instance1 a figurative one4 ,gifts are in the ,east a sign of allegiance4 ,the fundamental thought is this3 ,the most distant1 the wealthiest1 and the most powerful nations of the earth shall do homage to the ,messiah1 and consecrate to ,him themselves and all that they have4 ,but that which is ,pg #eji prophesied by a figurative representation in these ,old ,testament passages began to be fulfilled by the symbolical action of the ,magi1 by which the image was represented externally2 for the gold1 incense1 and myrrh which they consecrated to the new-born ,king of the ,jews symbolized the homage which they offered to ,him2 and these gifts are certainly expressly mentioned by ,matthew for this reason1 that they occur in the ,old ,testament passages4 ,as this event formed1 in one respect1 the beginning of the fulfilment1 so1 in another1 it formed a new prophecy by deeds1--the type of a new1 greater1 and more proper fulfilment4 ,the ,apostles considered these ,magi as the types and representatives of the whole mass of heathen nations who were1 at a subsequent period1 to do homage to the ,messiah4 ,they were the ambassadors1 as it were1 of the heathen world1 to greet the new-born ,king1 just as the shepherds1 whom ,god ,himself had chosen1 were the deputies of the ,jews4 ,in my work on ,balaam1 pp4 #dhj-dhb1 ,i have proved that1 even with these references1 the contents of the passage are not yet exhausted1--that there still remains a prominent point1 viz41 the star which the ,magi saw1 and that this refers to ,balaam's prophecy of the star proceeding from ,jacob4 ,but if it be established that the view of the prophecy under consideration1 which the ,evangelist reports as that of the ,sanhedrim1 must1 at the same time1 be considered as his own1 we must also suppose that the quotation1 even in its particulars1 is approved by him1 and that the view which was first advanced by ,jerome 7,i believe that he wished to exhibit the negligence of the scribes and priests1 and wrote it down as it had been spoken by them71 and recently by ,paulus1 cannot be made use of in order to justify the deviations1--if any should indeed be found4 ,in order to ascertain this1 we must examine more closely the quotation in its relation to the original text of the passage1 ,matt4 ii4 #f3 1 1 1 4 ,the first thing which demands our attention is for the ,ephratah of the original4 ,the reason of this deviation is to be sought for in the circumstance1 that the place appears as ,bethlehem ,judah in #a ,sam4 xvii4 #ab1 where it is mentioned with a reference to ,david4 ,the deviation at the beginning has1 accordingly1 the same purpose ,pg #eaj as that at the close4 ,as regards the grammatical exposition of 1 it stands for3 ,bethlehem situated in the land of ,judah1--a short mode of expression which is common in geographical and other similar designations1 just as in the ,old ,testament also we find 1 for3 ,bethlehem situated in the land of ,judah4 ,the assertion of many interpreters1 that has here the signification town1 is as objectionable as the attempt to change the text1 made by ,fritzsche1 who advances nothing on the whole verse that can stand examination4 ,the ,evangelist here as little follows the ,,lxx4 as he does the ,hebrew text4 ,the former has here3 1 7thus without an article4 ,cod4 ,vatic474 ,fritzsche thinks that had been brought into the text from the margin4 ,but the translator evidently considered ,ephratah to be the proper name of ,caleb's wife 7#a ,chron4 ii4 #ai1 #ej1 iv4 #d71 from whom others also1 e4g41 ,adrichomius 7compare ,bachiene ii4 #b1 #aij71 derived the name of the place1 and did nothing else than express more definitely1 by the subjoined 1 the relation of dependence which1 as he supposed1 was indicated by the ,genitive4 ,the apparent contradiction1 that the prophet calls ,bethlehem small1 whereas the ,evangelist speaks of it as by no means small1 has already been so satisfactorily explained by ancient and modern interpreters 7compare1 e4g41 ,euthymius ,zigabenus l4 c4 p4 #ei3 ,although in appearance thou art small1 yet1 truly1 thou art by no means the least among the principalities of the tribe of ,judah2 ,michaelis3 ,micah1 looking to the outward condition1 calls it small2 ,matthew1 looking to the birth of the ,messiah1 calls it by no means small1 inasmuch as1 by that birth1 that town was in a wonderful manner adorned and exalted71 that we need not dwell upon it4 ,we only remark1 that the supposition of ,paulus1 that the members of the ,sanhedrim understood the verse interrogatively--,art thou1 perhaps1 too small1 etc4--receives no confirmation from the passage in ,pirke ,eliezer1 c4 #c1 which he quotes in favour of it1 but which he saw only in the ,latin translation of ,wetzstein2 for1 in the original text1 the verse is quoted in literal agreement with the ,hebrew original2 compare ,eisenmenger1 i4 p4 #caf4 ,a comparison with the ,chaldee1 who with similar liberty paraphrases1 ,thou1 ,bethlehem ,ephratah1 shalt soon be numbered1 clearly shows that the deviation has arisen rather from an endeavour to express the sense more ,pg #eaa clearly and definitely4 ,on such deviations1 ,calvin strikingly remarks3 ,let the reader always attend to the purpose for which the ,evangelists quote ,scripture passages1 that they may not scrupulously insist upon single words1 but be satisfied with this1--that the ,scriptures are never distorted by them to a different sense4--,micah introduces ,bethlehem in the person of its representative2 but this figure ,matthew has dropped at the beginning4 ,instead of the ,masculine he puts the ,feminine 2 and1 on the other hand1 he renders by 1 which1 in a way not to be mistaken1 suggests this representation4 ,fritzsche announces himself as the man who would heal this fdum solcismum which had not hitherto been remarked by any one4 ,he proposes to read3 1--and thou ,bethlehem1 by no means the smallest part of the land of ,judah1 art1 etc4 ,but altogether apart from the arbitrary change of 1--which certainly no one could ever have been tempted to put for the more simple 1--the personification could even then not have been maintained1 and the fdus solcismus would still remain4 ,even although the be understood in accordance with the elegantissimus ,grcorum usus1 ,bethlehem must1 after all1 be treated as a thing--as a town4 ,nor is the case much improved by the assistance which ,fritzsche immediately afterwards endeavours to give to the text3 1 1 1 among the principal towns of the families in ,judea4 ,is there an instance in which means the principal towns8 ,moreover1 the relation of to the subsequent 1 which requires the ,masculine1 has been overlooked4--,micah personifies ,bethlehem from the outset4 ,matthew first introduces ,bethlehem as a town1 but afterwards passes to the personification by speaking of the 2 instead of the tribes4 ,for this he had a special reason in the regard to the subsequent 4 ,bethlehem1 although outwardly small1 is1 notwithstanding1 when regarded from a higher point of view1 even in the present by no means small among the leaders of ,judah1 for1 from it1 in the future1 the great leader of ,judah shall proceed4 ,this relation1 which is so evident1 must the rather be assumed1 that in ,micah also a contrast occurs which1 as to the sense1 is altogether similar4 ,it serves1 at the ,pg #eab same time1 for a proof against the assumption that the ,gospel of ,matthew was originally written in the ,aramean language1--a view which is1 generally1 opposed also by the free handling of the ,old ,testament text in the whole quotation4 ,the inconsistency in the use of the personification is1 further1 the more easy of explanation1 since it is altogether of an ideal character1 and1 substantially1 person and town are not distinguished4--,the last words in ,micah1 ,and ,his goings forth1 etc41 have been omitted by ,matthew1 because they were not needed for his purpose1 which was to show that1 according to the prophecies of the ,old ,testament1 the ,messiah was to be born at ,bethlehem4 ,on the other hand1 the of ,micah is paraphrased by3 1 4 ,these words refer to #b ,sam4 v4 #b3 ,and the ,lord says to thee1 ,thou shalt feed ,my people ,israel1 and thou shalt be a prince over ,israel4 ,they point out the typical relation between the first ,david who was born at ,bethlehem1 and the second ,david1 the ,messiah4 ,with respect to the relation betwixt prophecy and its fulfilment1 we must here still make a general remark4 ,it is everywhere evident 7compare the remarks on ,zech4 ix4 #i71 that the fulfilment of the prophecies of the ,old ,testament forms a secondary purpose of the events of the ,new ,testament1 but that in none of the latter this fulfilment is the sole object4 ,every one1 on the contrary1 has its significance apart from the prophecy2 and it is by this significance that prophecy and history are equally governed4 ,this general remark is here also confirmed4 ,the birth of ,christ at ,bethlehem testified1 in one respect1 for the divine origin of the prophecy of the ,old ,testament1 and1 in another1 that ,jesus is the ,christ4 ,but its main object1 altogether independent of this1 was to represent1 outwardly also1 the descent of ,christ from ,david4 ,this was recognised by the ,jews even1 at the time of ,christ1 as appears from the addition 1 ,john vii4 #db4 ,of the two seats of the ,davidic family1 viz41 ,bethlehem and ,jerusalem1 the former is chosen1 partly1 because1 from its external littleness1 it was1 generally1 very suitable for prefiguring the lowliness of the ,messiah at the outset--a circumstance which is expressly pointed out by the prophet himself--and partly1 because it was peculiar to the family of ,david during its obscurity2 whilst ,jerusalem1 on the contrary1 belonged to their regal condition1--and the ,messiah ,pg #eac was to be born in the fallen tabernacle of ,david1 to be a rod from the cut off stem of ,jesse1 ,is4 xi4 #a4 ,that this reference also was in the view of the prophet1 seems to be evident from a comparison of iii4 #ab1 and iv4 #h1 #i1 #ad4 ,at all events he considered the family of ,david as having altogether sunk at the time of the ,messiah's appearing4 ,the very threatenings in chap4 i4-iii4 imply the destruction of the ,davidic kingdom4 ,this meets us1 very distinctly1 in chap4 iv4 99 99 99 99 99 ,ver4 #b4 ,therefore will ,he give them up until the time that she who is hearing hath brought forth2 and then the remnant of his brethren shall return unto the sons of ,israel4 ,the description of what the ,messiah is to bestow upon the ,covenant-people begins in this verse1 and is carried on through the whole chapter4 ,by the close connection of v4 #a with vi4 #i-ad is indicated4 ,michaelis remarks3 ,because this is the counsel of ,god1 first to afflict ,zion1 on account of her sins1 and1 afterwards only1 to restore her through the ,messiah to be born at ,bethlehem4 ,in chap4 iv4 #i-ad1 it is implied that the giving up will not terminate before ,his birth2 in v4 #a1 that it will come to an end with ,his birth4 ,the whole time described in iv4 #i-ad is a time of affliction1 of giving up ,israel to the world's power in a threefold form of its manifestation4 ,in iv4 #ad1 however1 the affliction has reached its highest point1 and the lucid interval1 mentioned in vers4 #ab1 #ac1 has fully expired4 ,it is only when we look back to v4 #a alone1 that the therefore with which our verse opens is not explained1 inasmuch as there it is said only1 that with the ,messiah deliverance and salvation would come1 but not that the affliction would continue until ,he should come4-- is similarly used in #b ,chron4 xxx4 #g3 ,and be not ye like your fathers1 and like your brethren who trespassed against the ,lord ,god of your fathers2 therefore ,he gave them up to desolation 7 71 as you see4 ,with respect to the words1 ,until the time that she who is bearing hath brought forth1 there is an essential difference of opinion as to the explanation of the main point4 ,one class of interpreters--comprehending ,eusebius and ,cyril1 and by far the greatest number of the ancient ,christian expositors2 and among the more recent1 ,rosenmller1 ,ewald1 ,hitzig1 ,maurer1 and ,caspari--understand ,pg #ead by her who is bearing1 the mother of the ,messiah4 ,another class understands thereby the ,congregation of ,israel4 ,the latter1 however1 differ from each other as to the signification and import of the figure of the birth4 ,some--,abendana1 ,calvin1 and ,justi--suppose the tertium comparationis to be the joy following upon the pain4 ,others--,theodoret1 ,tarnovius 7until ,israel1 like a fruitful mother1 has brought forth a numerous progeny71 ,vitringa 7in his ,commentary on ,revel4 ,s4 #ecd7--suppose it to be the great increase4 ,let us first decide between these two modifications of that view which refers the words to the ,congregation of ,israel4 ,the former--the joy following after the pain--appears to be inadmissible for this single reason1 that among the very numerous passages of the ,old ,testament where the image of a birth is employed1 there does not occur even one1 in which the joy following after the pain is made prominent1 as is the case in the well-known passage in the ,new ,testament4 ,on the contrary1 in all the passages which come into consideration on this point1 it is rather the pain accompanying the birth which is considered4 ,thus ,mic4 iv4 #aj2 ,is4 xxvi4 #ag2 ,jer4 iv4 #ca3 ,for ,i hear a voice as of a woman in travail1 anguish as of her that bringeth forth her first-born child1 the voice of the daughter of ,zion1 she groaneth1 spreadeth her hands3 ,woe to me1 for my soul is wearied1 through them that kill2 xxx4 #f1 xlix4 #bd2 ,hos4 xiii4 #ac4 ,to consider the pain alone1 however1 as the tertium comparationis1 is inadmissible1 because1 in that case1 we would obtain the absurd meaning3 the suffering shall continue until the suffering cometh4 ,it is likewise impossible to understand the bringing forth as the highest degree of affliction1--so that the sense would be3 the ,lord will give them up until the distress reaches its highest point1--because this meaning could apply only in the event of the lower degrees1 the pains before the birth1 being also mentioned4 ,they who hold and defend the second modification of this view1 can indeed refer to1 and quote1 a large number of parallel passages--almost all of them from the second part of ,isaiah--where this image occurs with a similar signification4 ,thus1 e4g44 ,is4 liv4 #a3 ,shout for joy1 ,o barren1 thou that didst not bear2 break forth into shouting and exult1 thou that didst not travail2 for more numerous are the sons of the desolate than the sons of the married wife1 saith the ,lord2 xlix4 #ba1 #bb1 lxvi4 #g-i4 ,but we must nevertheless prefer ,pg #eae to this explanation1 that which refers the words to the mother of the ,messiah1 for the following reasons4 #a4 ,if the words were to be referred to the ,congregation of ,israel1 we should expect the ,article before 4 ,for the ,congregation of ,israel is substantially mentioned in what immediately precedes2 she is only a personification of those who are to be given up4 #b4 ,it is true that1 frequently1 the personification is not consistently carried out2 but the circumstance that here1 in the same sentence1 the children of ,israel are spoken of in the plural 7,he will give them up71 and that no trace of a personification is found in what follows1 but that1 on the contrary1 the children of ,israel are mentioned expressly1 makes the pretended personification appear in rather an abrupt manner1 so that such an assumption would be admissible in a case of necessity only4 #c4 ,if referred to the ,congregation of ,israel1 the relation of the ,messiah to that great event1 and epoch1 is not intimated by a single word4 ,of ,him ver4 #a speaks1 and of ,him vers4 #c-e4 ,how then can it be that in ver4 #b there should all at once be a transition to the general ,messianic representation8 #d4 ,the suffix in 1 which refers to the ,messiah1 requires that ,he should be indirectly mentioned in what precedes2 and such is the case1 only when the is she who is to bring forth the ,ruler announced in ver4 #a4 #e4 ,it appears from the reference to ,gen4 xxxv41 which we have already pointed out and proved1 that the prophet has in view one who is to bring forth in ,bethlehem4 ,bethlehem1 which had in ancient times already become remarkable by a birth1 is in future to be ennobled by another birth1 infinitely more important4 #f4 ,the comparison of ,is4 vii4 #ad1 where likewise the mother of the ,messiah is mentioned2 compare the remarks on that passage4 #g1 and lastly--,the evident reference of ,until the time that she who is bearing hath brought forth to ,from thee shall come forth1 suggests the mother of the ,messiah4 ,that she is designated as she who brings forth1 may be explained from the circumstance that she comes into view here in a relation which is altogether one-sided1 viz41 only as regards the one event of the birth of the ,messiah4--,among the blessings which the ,messiah is to confer upon the ,congregation of the ,lord1 there is first of all viewed the fundamental blessing1 the condition of all others1 viz41 the change which ,he is to effect in the disposition of the ,covenant-people4 ,pg #eaf ,it is this which1 above and before everything else1 needs to be changed1 if ,israel is not any more to be given up2 for ,israel which is so only by name and in appearance1 is the legitimate prey of the world4--,by the ,brethren of the ,messiah1 the members of the ,old ,covenant-people1 ,his brethren according to the flesh1 can alone be understood4 ,there is no ,old ,testament analogy for referring the expression to the ,gentiles4 ,we are led to the reference to ,israel by the connection with the first member of the verse4 ,the brethren are such as have become the ,messiah's brethren by the circumstance that ,he has been born of the ,bethlehemitish woman who is to bring forth 7,caspari74 ,we are led to it1 further1 by v4 #a1 according to which1 the ,messiah is to be ,ruler in ,israel2 and1 still further1 by the fundamental passage in ,ps4 xxii4 #bc3 ,i will declare ,thy name unto my brethren1 where1 according to the address in ver4 #bd1 the brethren are all the descendants of ,israel1 among whom a great awakening is to be produced4--,the construction of with may be explained by the remark of ,ewald3 stands in its primary local signification with verbs also1 when the thing moves to another thing1 and remains upon it4 ,of a material return the verb with is thus used in ,prov4 xxvi4 #aa1 ,eccles4 i4 #f2--of a spiritual return1 #b ,chron4 xxx4 #i3 when ye return to the ,lord1 properly1 upon the ,lord2 and ,mal4 iii4 #bd 7iv4 #f73 ,and he makes return the hearts of the fathers to the sons1 1--which latter passage has a striking resemblance to the one under review4 ,in the latter signification must be taken here also4--,by the sons of ,israel1 here1 as ordinarily1 the whole of the ,covenant-people are signified1 and that by its highest and holiest name4 ,from this holy communion1 the wicked--the souls which1 according to the expression of the ,lord1 are cut off from their people--are separated and dissevered2 compare my commentary on ,ps4 lxxiii4 #a4 ,the whole description of the prevailing corruption1 and especially vii4 #a1 #b1 show us to what an extent this separation existed at the time of the prophet4 ,but1 by the ,saviour1 this separation is to be abolished1 and the lost and wandering are to be brought back to the communion of the church1--a work which1 according to ,rom4 xi41 will be perfected in the future only4#a ,pg #eag ,ver4 #c4 ,and ,he stands and feeds in the strength of the ,lord1 in the majesty of the name of the ,lord ,his ,god2 and they dwell1 for now shall ,he be great unto the ends of the earth4 ,in this verse we are told what the ,saviour shall do for awakened and1 thus1 inwardly united ,israel4 ,he stands1 has here not the signification of ,he abides1 but belongs merely to the graphic description of the habit of the shepherd2 compare ,is4 lxi4 #e3 ,and strangers stand and feed your flocks4 ,the shepherd stands1 leaning upon his staff1 and overlooks the flock4 ,the connection of ,he feeds with in the strength of the ,lord1 we cannot better express than ,calvin has done in the words3 ,the word 'to feed' expresses what ,christ will be towards ,his people1 i4e41 towards the flock committed to ,him4 ,he does not exercise dominion in the ,church like a formidable tyrant who keeps down his subjects through terror1 but ,he is a ,shepherd1 and treats ,his sheep with all the gentleness which they can desire4 ,but1 inasmuch as we are surrounded on all sides by enemies1 the prophet adds3 ',he shall feed in the strength1' etc42 i4e41 as much power as there is in ,god1 so much protection there will be in ,christ1 when it is necessary to defend and protect ,his ,church against enemies4 ,we may learn1 then1 from this1 that we may expect as much of salvation from ,christ as there is strength in ,god4 ,the great ,king is so closely united to ,god1 that the whole fulness of divine power and majesty belongs to ,him4 ,such attributes are never given to any earthly king4 ,such a king has1 indeed1 strength in the ,lord1 ,is4 xlv4 #bd2 ,the ,lord giveth strength to ,his king1 and exalteth the horn of ,his anointed1 #a ,sam4 ii4 #aj2 but the whole strength and majesty of ,god are not his possession4 ,the passage ,pg #eah in ,is4 ix4 #e 7#f7 is parallel1--where the ,messiah is called 1 ,god-hero4--,the name of ,god points to the rich fulness in deeds1 by which ,he has manifested the glory of ,his nature4 ,the ,messiah will be the brightness and image of this ,his glory1--a glory which is manifested by acts1 and not a glory which is inactive and concealed4 ,they dwell forms a contrast to the disquietude and scattering1 and we are1 therefore1 not at liberty to supply safely before it4 ,the last words are deprived of their meaning and significance by explanations such as that of ,dathe3 ,his name shall attain to great renown and celebrity4 ,the ground of the present rest and safety of the ,congregation of the ,lord rather is this1--that her ,head has now extended ,his dominion beyond the narrow limits of ,palestine1 over the whole earth2 compare iv4 #c4--b ,sam4 vii4 #i cannot here be compared1 as there the name of the ,lord is not spoken of as it is here4 ,that the being great here implies real dominion 7,maurer3 auctoritate et potentia valebit71 which alone can afford a pledge for the dwelling in safety1 is shown also by the fundamental passages ,ps4 ii4 #h1 lxxii4 #h2 compare ,zech4 ix4 #aj4 ,in ,luke i4 #cb the passage before us is referred to4 ,the now does not by any means form a contrast with a former condition of the ,messiah1 but with the former condition of the ,congregation when she did not enjoy so powerful a ,ruler4 ,ver4 #d4 ,and this 7man7 is peace4 ,when ,asshur comes into our land1 and when he treads in our palaces1 we raise against him seven shepherds1 and eight princes of men4 ,ver4 #e4 ,and they feed the land of ,asshur with the sword1 and the land of ,nimrod in its gates2 and ,he protects from ,asshur when he comes into our land1 and when he treads within our borders4 ,and this man 7,he whose glory has just been described7 is peace1--,he bestows that which we have so much needed1 and longed for with so much anxiety in these troublous times before ,his appearing4 ,in a similar manner1 and with reference to the passage before us1 it is said in ,ephes4 ii4 #ad3 1 compare also ,judges vi4 #bd3 ,and ,gideon built an altar there unto the ,lord1 and called it ,jehovah-,peace1 4 ,abandoning this explanation1 which is so natural1 ,jonathan1 ,grotius1 ,rosenmller1 and ,winer explain3 ,and there will be peace to us1--an interpretation1 however1 which is inadmissible even on philological grounds1 is nowhere used1 either ,pg #eai as ,adverb1 loci here1 or as ,adverb1 temp4 then4 ,as regards the latter1 such passages as ,gen4 xxxi4 #da--,these are to me twenty years1 instead of1 twenty years have now elapsed--are1 of course1 not at all to the purpose4 ,but of such a kind are almost all the examples quoted by ,nolde4 ,in ,esther ii4 #ac is used4 ,the verb in ver4 #e is likewise in favour of understanding personally2 compare also ,zech4 ix4 #aj3 ,and ,he shall speak peace unto the nations4--,there can scarcely be any doubt that the words allude to the name of ,solomon1 and that the ,messiah is represented in them as the ,antitype of ,solomon4 ,upon this point there is the less room for doubt1 because even ,solomon himself called the ,messiah by his name in the ,song of ,solomon2 and in ,is4 ix4 #e 7#f7 also1 ,he is1 with an evident allusion to the name of ,solomon1 called the ,prince of ,peace4--,all which follows after these words1 to the end of ver4 #e1 is only a particularizing expansion of the words3 ,and this 7man7 is peace4 ,interpreters have almost all agreed1 that ,asshur1 the most dangerous enemy of the ,covenant-people at the time of the prophet1 stands here as a type of the enemies of the ,covenant-people4 ,even ,l4 ,baur has translated3 ,and though another ,asshur1 etc41 with a reference to the passage in ,virgil to which allusion had already been made by ,castalio3 ,alter erit tum ,tiphys et altera qu vehat ,argo delectos heroas4 ,that the prophet1 however1 was fully conscious of his here using ,asshur typically1 appears from iv4 #i1 #aj4 ,for1 according to these verses1 the first of the three catastrophes which preceded the birth of the ,messiah1 proceeds from a new phase of the world's power1 viz41 from the ,babylonian empire1 the rising of which implies the overthrow of the ,assyrian4 ,but the figurative element in the representation goes still farther4 ,from ver4 #i ff4--according to which the ,lord makes ,his people outwardly defenceless1 before they become1 in ,christ1 the conquerors of the world--it is obvious that the spiritual struggle against the world's power is here represented under the image of the outward struggle1 carried on with the sword4 ,one might be tempted to confine the thought of the passage to this3 ,the ,messiah affords to ,his people the same protection and security as would a large number of brave princes with their hosts1 inasmuch as the bestowal of these was1 under the ,old ,testament1 the ordinary means by which the ,lord delivered ,his people4 ,if1 however1 the spiritual character ,pg #ebj of the struggle only be maintained1 there is no sufficient reason for considering the seven and more shepherds and the princes as mere imagery1 because1 in the kingdom of ,christ also1 the cause of the kingdom of ,god is carried on by human instruments1 whom ,he furnishes with ,his own strength4 ,the words1 ,this 7man7 is peace1 and ,he protects1 in ver4 #e1 show indeed with sufficient distinctness1 that1 in the main1 ,christ is the only ,saviour1--the shepherds1 ,his instruments only1--and their world-conquering power1 a derived one only4 ,the apparent contradiction of the passage before us to iv4 #a-c1 vii4 #ab--;according to which the heathen nations shall1 in the time of the ,messiah1 spontaneously press towards the kingdom of ,god--is removed by the remark1 that we have here before us two different streams which may as well flow together in prophecy as they do in history4 ,the zeal with which the nations press towards the kingdom is1 in part1 greatly called forth by the fact1 that1 in attacking the kingdom of ,christ1 they have experienced its world-conquering power4 ,the circumstance that the words1 ,this 7man7 is peace1 stand at the beginning1 proves that the main idea is the security of the kingdom of ,god against all hostile attacks4 ,for the like reason it is1 towards the end1 resumed in the words1 ,and ,he protects1 etc4 ,but this affords no reason for saying1 with ,caspari3 ,it forms part of the defence1 it is indeed its consummation1 that the war is carried into ,asshur4 ,in the first hemistich of ver4 #e1 it is intimated rather1 that1 in the time of the ,messiah1 the positions of the world and of the people of ,god are changed1--that the latter becomes world-conquering2 and for this reason1 every thought of their own insecurity must so much the rather disappear4 ,the land of ,nimrod is1 according to ,gen4 x4 #aa1 ,asshur4 ,the gates are those of the cities and fortresses1 corresponding with1 ,when he treads in our palaces1 in ver4 #d4 ,it weakens the sense to think of the gates of the country1 as such1 i4e41 the borders4 ,the attack1 on the contrary1 is directed against1 and strikes the real centre of the seat of the world's power1 just as1 formerly1 the stroke was always directed against ,zion4 ,with regard to the remaining part of the chapter1 we content ourselves with a mere statement of the contents4 ,the ,congregation of the ,lord shall1 at that time1 not only be lovely and refreshing1 ver4 #f 7#g71 7this is the constant signification of the ,pg #eba image of the dew1 compare ,ps4 cx4 #c1 cxxxiii4 #c1 lxxii4 #f2 the relative pronoun must be referred to the grass1 mentioned immediately before2 that which the dew descending from heaven is to the grass1 ,israel will1 in his heavenly mission1 be to the heathen world71 but at the same time fearful and irresistible1 vers4 #g1 #h 7#h1 #i72 the latter of these qualities shall show itself not only as a curse in the case of obstinate despisers1 but also as a blessing in the case of those who are estranged from the kingdom of ,god1 through ignorance only4 ,resuming then the last words of ver4 #h 7#i71 ,all thine enemies shall be cut off1 the prophet declares that before this word shall be fulfilled1 the destructive activity of the ,lord will be manifested in ,israel itself4 ,he will cut off by ,his judgments1 and by the catastrophes described in iv4 #i-ad1 everything in which1 in the present1 they placed a carnal confidence1 everything by which they became externally strong and powerful 7,caspari3 ,a cutting off1 in the first instance1 of all wherewith elsewhere enemies are commonly cut off71 and so likewise all idolatry1 to which the ,chaldean catastrophe already put a violent end4 ,it is only of such a termination by force1 and not of a purely inward effect of the gentle power of the ,spirit then poured out upon them1 that the words here1 as well as in reference to the horses1 etc41 permit us to think4 ,the two kinds of objects of false confidence are then1 in conclusion1 in ver4 #ac 7#ad7 once more summed up1--when the cities1 just as in ver4 #aj 7#aa71 come into view as fortresses only4 ,if thus the path be cleared and prepared for the ,lord1 ,he will1 on behalf of ,his people1 execute vengeance upon the heathen world4 ,footnote #a3 ,after the example of ,hofmann1 ,caspari gives this exposition3 ,and the remnant of ,his brethren1 viz41 the inhabitants of ,judah1 shall return from the captivity to ,canaan1 along with the sons of ,israel1 i4e41 the ten tribes4 ,but the return from the captivity never appears in the prophets1 as a work of the ,messiah4 ,it has here taken place long before ,his appearing3 chap4 iv4 #aj1 iv4 #aa-ad supposes it to have taken place1 and ,zion to be in existence4 ,the brethren of the ,messiah can neither be the inhabitants of ,judah especially1 nor the sons of ,israel1 the ten tribes1 unless the antithesis to ,judah be distinctly expressed4 ,it is absurd to suppose that the ten tribes should appear as those chiefly who are to be redeemed4 1 which means to return1 cannot be used simply of a return to the country1 while with can1 according to the usus loquendi1 be understood only in the sense of to return to1 etc41 etc4 ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,we shall now1 in conclusion1 give a survey of the third and closing discourse of the prophet4 ,after an introduction in vi4 #a1 #b1 where the mountains serve only to give greater solemnity to the scene 7in the fundamental passages ,deut4 xxxii4 #a1 and in ,is4 #a1 #b1 heaven and earth are mentioned for the same purposes1 inasmuch as they are the most venerable parts of creation2 contend with the mountains by taking them in and applying to ,pg #ebb them as hearers71 the prophet reminds the people of the benefits which they have repaid with ingratitude1 vers4 #c-e4 7,in ver4 #e those facts also which served as a proof of its truth1 are considered as part of ,balaam's answer47 ,he then1 in vers4 #f-h1 shows the fallacy of the imagination that they could satisfy the ,lord by the observance of the mere outward forms of worship1 though such should be increased to the utmost1 and performed in a manner totally different from that in which it was in the present1 and points out the spiritual demands already made even by the law1 and especially by ,deut4 x4 #ab1 a compliance with which could alone be pleasing to the ,lord4 ,from vi4 #i-vii4 #f1 he shows to how limited an extent these demands are complied with by the people1--how true and cordial piety and justice have disappeared from the midst of them1--and how1 therefore1 the threatenings of the law must1 and shall be fulfilled upon them4 ,the reproof and threatening are then followed by the announcement of salvation1 which refers indeed to the ,messianic times1 but without any mention in it of the person of the ,messiah1 the brightness of which meets us only in the main body of the prophecy4 ,the main thought here also is the entirely altered position of ,israel in their relation to the heathen world4 ,a day is coming--so it is said in ver4 #aa--to build thy walls2 in that day shall the law be far removed4 is used especially of the walls and fences of vineyards2 and under the image of a vineyard1 ,israel appears as early as in the ,song of ,solomon4 ,the wall around the vineyard of ,israel is the protection against the heathen world2 ,is4 v4 #e4 ,the law is1 according to the context1 in which the heathen oppressors are spoken of1 that which is imposed by them upon the people of ,god2 ,ps4 xciv4 #bj4 ,ver4 #ab4 ,a day it is when they shall come to thee from ,asshur1 and from the cities of ,egypt1 and from ,egypt to the river1 and to sea from sea1 and to mountain from mountain4 ,it is not enough that the people of ,god are freed from the servitude of the world4 ,they shall become the objects of the longing of the nations1 even the most powerful and hostile4 ,they become the magnet which attracts them2 compare iv4 #a1 #b4 ,from among the heathen nations ,asshur and ,egypt are first specially mentioned1 as the two principal representatives of hostility against the kingdom of ,god in the present and past1 and1 at the same time1 as the two most powerful empires at the time of the prophet ,pg #ebc--the latter quality being indicated by the circumstance of ,egypt's appearing under the name 1 fortress4 ,but then1 by the expressions from sea to sea1 from mountain to mountain1 which are equivalent to from every sea to every sea1 etc41 all barriers in general are completely removed2 compare in v4 #c 7#d7 the words3 ,he shall be great unto the ends of the earth4 7,the subject in can only be the inhabitants of these countries themselves1 not the ,jews living there4 ,if the latter had been intended1 a more distinct indication of it would have been required4 ,the ,masculine ,suffix to thee1 i4e41 not to ,zion but to ,israel1 is opposed to such a reference4 ,this shows clearly that they who come are different from ,israel4 ,in entire harmony with this prophecy is ,is4 xix4 #ah-be47 ,but1 before such glory can be bestowed upon the people of ,god1 the irrevocable judgment must first have done its fearful work1 ver4 #ac2 compare the fundamental passage ,lev4 xxvi4 #cc1 and ,is4 i4 #g4 ,in ver4 #ad the announcement of salvation takes a new start4 ,vers4 #ah-bj form the sublime close1 not only of the last discourse1 but also of the whole book1 as is clearly indicated by the coincidence of the words1 ,who is1 ,o ,god1 like unto ,thee8 ver4 #ah1 with the mention of ,micah's name in the inscription4 ,the name of the prophet1 by which he is dedicated to the incomparable ,god1 has been confirmed by the contents of his prophecy4 ,the ,new ,testament parallel passage is ,rom4 xi4 #cc-cf3 ,who is1 ,o ,god1 like unto ,thee2 pardoning iniquity1 and remitting transgression to the remnant of ,his heritage8 ,he retaineth not ,his anger for ever1 because ,he delighteth in mercy4 ,who is1 ,o ,god1 like unto ,thee8 so the people once already sang after the redemption from ,egypt4 ,thus it resounds still more loudly in the view of the antitypal redemption1 by which the fundamental definition of the divine nature in ,exod4 xxxiv4 #f1 #g1 and ,david's praise of divine mercy in ,ps4 ciii41 are fully realized4 ,he will return and have compassion upon us 7according to the promise in ,deut4 xxx4 #c71 will overcome our iniquities 7which1 like a cruel tyrant1 like ,pharaoh of old1 subjected us to their power1 ,ps4 xix4 #ad71 and cast all their sins into the depth of the sea1 as once ,he cast the proud ,egyptians1 ,exod4 xv4 #e-aj4 ,thou wilt give truth to ,jacob1 and mercy to ,abraham1 as ,thou hast sworn unto our fathers from the days of old4 ,pg #ebd ,blank page ,pg #ebe ,works ,published by ,t4 ,t4 ,clark1 ,edinburgh4 ,,prospectus ,,of ,,the ,,ante-,,nicene ,,christian ,,library4 ,,messrs ,,clark of ,edinburgh1 ,publishers of the ,foreign ,theological ,library1 beg respectfully to invite attention to the ,prospectus of a ,collection of all the works of the ,fathers of the ,christian ,church1 prior to the ,council of ,nica1 to be ,edited by ,,rev4 ,,alexander ,,roberts1 ,d4,d41 ,author of ',discussions on the ,gospels1' ,etc42 ,,and ,,james ,,donaldson1 ,,ll4,d41 ,author of ',a ,critical ,history of ,christian ,literature and ,doctrine from the ,death of the ,apostles to the ,nicene ,council4' ,,the writings of the early ,christians are allowed on all hands to be of great importance1 and to be invested with a peculiar interest2 and regrets have often been expressed that it should be so difficult to know their contents4 ,many of them are mere fragments2 and where complete works exist1 the text is often so corrupt1 and the style is so involved1 that even a good classical scholar is repelled from their perusal4 ,if the student of ,latin and ,greek meets with obstacles1 the merely ,english reader is absolutely without the means of information4 ,the greater part of the most important writings have never been translated2 and those translations which have been made are1 with the exception of the few executed in recent times1 for the most part loose1 inaccurate1 and difficult to procure4 ,to supply this great want is the object of the ,ante-,nicene ,christian ,library4 ,all the ,christian writings antecedent to the ,nicene ,council have been put into the hands of competent translators4 ,these will make it their first and principal aim to produce translations as faithful as possible1 uncoloured by any bias1 dogmatic or ecclesiastical4 ,they will also endeavour1 in brief notes1 to place the ,english reader in the position of those acquainted with the original languages4 ,they will indicate important variations in the text2 they will give different translations of the same passage where more than one have been proposed2 they will note the various meanings attributed to the words in ecclesiastical controversies2 and when the ancient documents appear in widely different forms1 the various forms will be presented4 ,at the same time1 they will strive to combine with this strict accuracy and faithfulness as much elegance as may be consistent with the main aim4 ,short biographical ,pg #ebf and explanatory notices will be prefixed to each translation2 and in every case where there is variety of opinion1 the writer will abstain from expressing his own sentiments1 and confine himself simply to an impartial statement of the opinions of the most noteworthy critics on the point4 ,the following are the works which are now being translated3-- ,i4 ,the ,apostolical ,fathers1 including the ,epistles of ,clemens ,romanus1 the ,epistles of ,ignatius in their various forms1 the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 the ,epistle of ,polycarp1 the ,epistle to ,diognetus1 and the ,pastor of ,hermas1 with the ,martyria of ,ignatius and ,polycarp4 ,,ii4 ,the undoubted and doubtful works of ,justin ,martyr1--the ,apologies1 the ,dialogue with ,trypho1 the ,oratio ad ,gentiles1 the ,cohortatio1 the ,de ,monarchia1 and the fragments on the ,resurrection1 along with the ,martyrium of one ,justin4 ,,iii4 ,the works of ,tatian1 ,athenagoras1 ,theophilus of ,antioch1 ,hermias1 and the fragments of the rest of the ,apologists4 ,,iv4 ,irenaeus3 ,all his extant works4 ,v4 ,clemens ,alexandrinus3 ,all his extant works4 ,,vi4 ,origen4 ,the ,series will include the ,de ,principiis1 and the ,contra ,celsum4 ,the rest of his works will be translated if the ,series is successful4 ,,vii4 ,the fragments of ,julius ,africanus1 and of the other writers given in ,dr ,routh's ,reliqui ,sacr4 ,,viii4 ,the works generally ascribed to ,hippolytus1 along with the recently discovered ,refutatio ,omnium ,hresium4 ,,ix4 ,the works ascribed to ,dionysius of ,alexandria1 ,gregory ,thaumaturgus1 ,methodius1 and others of the same period4 ,x4 ,the ,recognitions and the ,clementine ,homilies1 the ,letters of ,clemens on ,virginity1 the ,constitutions1 the ,canons of the ,apostles1 ,decrees of ,councils till the period of the ,nicene ,council1 and the ,martyria written within the period1 and generally believed to be genuine4 ,,xi4 ,the ,apocryphal ,gospels1 and other ,apocryphal ,literature of the ,new ,testament4 ,,xii4 ,the ,octavius of ,minucius ,felix4 ,,xiii4 ,the entire works of ,tertullian4 ,,xiv4 ,all the genuine works of ,cyprian4 ,,xv4 ,arnobius adversus ,gentes4 ,,xvi4 ,the works of ,lactantius4 ,,xvii4 ,the extant works of ,novatian1 ,victorinus1 ,commodianus1 and other ,christian ,latin writers preceding the ,council of ,nice4 ,pg #ebg ,it is intended to include in the ,series every ,christian writing and document produced before the ,nicene ,council1 whether in ,greek1 ,latin1 ,syriac1 ,arabic1 thiopic1 or in any other language4 ,the list includes a number of works1 some portions of which are generally believed to have been written after the ,council of ,nice2 but as other portions were1 or may have been1 written before that time1 it has been thought the safer course to give them fully4 ,only those works which are now allowed on every hand to have been written after the ,nicene ,council1 will be excluded4 ,it is believed that the writings comprised in the above ,synopsis will form about sixteen or eighteen ,volumes1 in demy octavo1 of a size similar to the ,publishers' ,foreign ,theological ,library2 and the ,series will be published at the same rate to ,subscribers1 namely-- ,,four ,,volumes for ,,one ,,guinea4 ,each work will have a separate ,index2 and a very complete ,index to the whole ,series will be published in a separate ,volume1 especial care being taken hi its compilation4 ,the ,publishers' arrangements are such1 that the publication1 once commenced1 will proceed very rapidly2 so that1 whilst no ,subscriber will be required to take the work more rapidly than four ,volumes annually1 it is highly probable that the whole may be finished at a much earlier period1 for the convenience of those who may desire to have their sets completed4 ,the ,volumes will be handsomely bound in cloth1 with red edges2 but ,subscribers may have them with uncut edges1 by intimating their wish with their order4 ,they will be greatly obliged by intending ,subscribers filling up the accompanying ,slip1 and returning it to them speedily1 as this will very much facilitate their arrangements4 9999 ,when not paid in advance1 the retail ,bookseller is entitled to charge #bds 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 444444444444444444444444444444444444444# ahf 4 ,i request ,messrs ,clark to insert my name in their list of ,subscribers to the ,,ante-,,nicene ,,christian ,,library1 and to forward the books as published1 through my bookseller1 ,mr 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444 7,signed74444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444444 ,if it is preferred to have the works forwarded direct per railway or book post 7at cost of postage71 ,it is requested that it be so stated4 ,the ,subscription is payable in advance1 annually1 on or before the ,,first ,issue for each ,year4 ,pg #ebh ,now ready1 in ,four ,volumes1 demy #hvo1 price #cbs41 handsomely bound in cloth1 ,,the ,,comparative ,,geography ,,of ,,palestine ,,and ,,the ,,sinaitic ,,peninsula4 ,by ,,carl ,,ritter1 ,,professor ,,of ,,geography ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,berlin4 ,translated and ,adapted to the use of ,biblical ,students1 by ,,william ,l4 ,,gage4 ,,carl ,,ritter1 the late ,professor of ,geography in the ,university of ,berlin1 is known by name to many who are comparatively uninformed respecting the extent and value of his labours4 ,in portraying the connection of geography with the physical sciences1 ,alexander von ,humboldt had no superior2 while in establishing the relation between geography and history1 ,,carl ,,ritter was as unquestionably pre-eminent4 ,a chair was created for him in the ,berlin ,university as early as #ahbj4 ,he lived to occupy it for forty years1 and to confer no less honour upon the city where he resided1 and the institution in which he taught1 than upon his own name4 ,and though but slight glimpses of his career have been caught by the people of ,great ,britain1 yet such references to him as that in the ,preface to ,robinson's ,biblical ,researches1 and works of a similar character1 will convince the readers of this country that whatever comes from his pen must have great and permanent value4 ,professor ,,ritter',s main work relates to ,asia1 and includes therefore all of that territory which is known as the ,holy ,land4 ,to this1--including the ,lebanon district1 ,palestine proper1 the country east of the ,jordan1 and the ,sinaitic ,peninsula1--,,ritter devotes a space equal to #fjjj pages of the size employed in ,messrs ,clark's publications4 ,to translate a mass so voluminous as this would be evidently impracticable2 and yet the immense erudition and power of graphic description of ,professor ,,ritter1 conjoined with the fact that he brought to the study of the ,holy ,land1 not the unbelief of a rationalist1 but living faith of a genuine ,christian1 has convinced the publishers that a portion of his great work would be a welcome offering to all students of ,biblical ,geography4 ,messrs ,clark accordingly now publish a translation executed by ,,rev4 ,,william ,l4 ,,gage1 a pupil and friend of the lamented ,,ritter1 comprising that portion of the volumes relating to the ,holy ,land1 which1 in his judgment as editor1 shall be the most acceptable addition to our biblical literature4 ,the work is comprised in four octavo volumes4 ,,mr ,,gage has been engaged for several years in the study and interpretation of ,professor ,,ritter',s writings1 and has enjoyed the active co-operation of many of the most eminent living geographers4 ,the main object which has been held in view in condensing and in selecting from the original1 is to prepare the work for the use of biblical students4 ,everything illustrating the ,bible bas been considered of prime importance1 and everything has been retained1 needful to maintain the unity of the work4 ,notes are added1 indicative of discoveries made since ,,ritter wrote1 and the object has never been lost from sight--to make the work worthy of taking the same place in ,english that it has already done in ,german literature4