,,the ,,open ,,mind ,,library           
,,being ,a ,,series ,,of ,,works        
,,dealing ,,with    ,,questions ,,as    
,,handled ,,by ,,different    ,,schools 
,,of ,,thought1 ,,in ,,religion1        
,,ethics1 ,,philosophy  ,,psychology    
,,religion  ,,sex       ,,studies ,,in  
,,the ,,pathology     ,,of ,,religious  
,,development         ,,by ,,chapman    
,,cohen        ,t4 ,n4 ,,foulis1        
,,publisher    ,,london1 ,,edinburgh1   
,,boston      ,published ,october #aiai 
,printed by ,,morrison  ,,gibb          
,,limited1 ,edinburgh          ,,the    
,,list ,,of ,,chapters           ,i4    
,,science  ,,the ,,supernatural         
page #a        ,,ii4 ,,the ,,primitive  
,,mind  ,,its ,,environment          #ce
       ,,iii4 ,,the ,,religion ,,of     
,,mental ,,disease                #ea   
,,iv4 ,,sex  ,,religion ,,in ,,primitive
 ,,life              #hi         ,v4    
,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,sexual         
,,pathologic           ,,states ,,on    
,,religious ,,belief                    

#abj        ,,vi4 ,,the ,,stream ,,of   
,,tendency                       #ade   
,,vii4 ,,conversion                     
#afi      ,,viii4 ,,religious           
,,epidemics                             
#bje        ,,ix4 ,,religious           
,,epidemics--7concluded7           #bbf 
,x4 ,,the ,,witch ,,mania               
#bdc        ,,xi4 ,,summary             
,,conclusion                            
#bfi          ,,preface      ,in spite  
of all that has been done in the way of 
applying scientific  principles to      
religious ideas1 there is much that yet 
remains to be  accomplished4 ,generally 
speaking science has only dealt with the
 subject  of religion in its more normal
 and more regularised forms4 ,the last  
half-century has produced many elaborate
 and fruitful studies of the  origin of 
religious ideas1 while comparative      
mythology has shown a close  and        
suggestive relationship between creeds  
and symbols that were once  believed to 
have nothing in common4 ,but beyond     

these fields of research  there is at   
least one other that has hitherto been  
denied the attention  it richly         
deserves4 ,when the anthropologist has  
described those  conditions of primitive
 culture amid which he believes         
religious ideas  took their origin1 and 
the comparative mythologist has shown us
 the  similarities and inter-relations  
of widely separated creeds1 religious   
beliefs have yet to submit to the test  
of a scientific psychology1 the         
function of which is to determine how   
far the same principles apply to  all   
phases of mental life whether religious 
or non-religious4 ,moreover1  in        
addition to the normal psychical life of
 man1 there is that vast  borderland in 
which the normal merges into the        
abnormal1 and the healthy  state into a 
pathologic one4 ,that there is a        
physiology of religion is  now generally
 admitted2 but that there is also a     
pathology of religion  is not so        
generally recognised4 ,the present work 

seeks to emphasise this  last aspect4   
,it does not claim to be more than an   
outline of the  subject--a sketch map of
 a territory that others may fill in    
more  completely4    ,from another point
 of view the following pages may be     
regarded as an  attempt more completely 
to apply scientific principles to       
religious  beliefs4 ,and it would be    
idle to hope that such an attempt could 
be made  without incurring much hostile 
criticism4 ,in connection with most     
other  subjects the help of science is  
welcomed2 in connection with religion   
science is still regarded as more or    
less of an intruder1 profaning a  sacred
 subject with vulgar tests and          
impertinent enquiries4 ,this must       
almost inevitably follow when one has to
 face the opposition of  thousands of   
men who have been trained to regard     
themselves as the  authorised exponents 
of all that pertains to religion1 but   
whose  training fails to supply them    
with a genuine scientific equipment4 ,it

  should1 however1 be clear that an     
attitude of hostility to science1       
veiled or open1 cannot be maintained4   
,mere authority has fallen on evil      
days1 and in all directions is being    
freely challenged4 ,there is  increasing
 dislike to systems of thought that     
shrink from examination1  and to        
conclusions that cannot withstand the   
most rigorous  investigation4 ,and if   
science really has anything of value to 
say on  this question it cannot be held 
to silence for ever4 ,sooner or later   
the  need for its assistance will be    
felt1 and the self-elected authority of 
an order must give way4 ,it is1         
moreover1 impossible for science with   
its  claim1 sometimes avowed1 but always
 implied1 to cover the whole of life1   
to forego so large a territory as that  
of religion4 ,for there can be no       
reasonable question that religion has   
played1 and still plays a large  part in
 the life of the race4 ,whatever be the 
nature of religion1  science is bound   

either to deal with it or confess its   
main task to be  hopeless4    ,whether  
or not it is possible to apply known    
scientific principles to  the whole of  
religion will be a matter of opinion2   
but the attempt is at  least worth      
making4 ,so much that appeared to be    
beyond the reach of  science has been   
ultimately brought within its ken1 so   
many things that  seemed to stand in a  
class by themselves have been finally   
brought under  some more comprehensive  
generalisation1 and so become part of   
the  'cosmic machine1' that one is      
impelled to believe that given time and 
industry the same will result here4 ,and
 it should never be forgotten  that one 
aspect of scientific progress has been  
the taking over of large  tracts of     
territory that religion once regarded as
 peculiarly its own2  and just as       
psychology and pathology were found to  
hold the key to an  understanding of    
such a phenomenon as witchcraft1 so we  
may yet realise  that a true explanation

 of religious phenomena is to be found1 
not in  some supernatural world1 but in 
the workings of natural forces          
imperfectly understood4    ,the defences
 set up by theologians against the      
scientific advance may be  summarised   
under two heads4 ,it is claimed that the
 'facts' of the  religious life belong  
to a world of inner experience1 to a    
state of  spiritual development which   
brings the subject into touch with a    
super-sensuous world not open to the    
normal human being1 and with which      
science1 as ordinarily understood1 is   
incompetent to deal4 ,in essence  this  
is a very old position1 and contains the
 kernel of 'mysticism' in  all ages1    
from the savage state onward4 ,this     
position involves a very  obvious       
begging of the question at issue4 ,it   
assumes that all attempts  to correlate 
religious phenomena with phenomena in   
general have failed1  and that all      
future attempts are similarly doomed to 
failure4 ,of course  nothing of the kind

 has been shown4 ,on the contrary1 the  
aim of the  present work is to show that
 no dividing line can be drawn between  
those  states of mind that have been and
 are classed as religious1 and those    
that are admittedly non-religious4 ,for 
various reasons ,i have dealt  almost   
entirely with those conditions that are 
admittedly pathological1  but ,i believe
 it would be possible to prove the same 
of all normal  frames of mind and       
emotional states4 ,any human quality may
 be enlisted  in the service of         
religion1 but there are none that are   
specifically  religious4 ,it is a pure  
assumption that the religious visionary 
possesses qualities that are either     
absent or rudimentary in other  persons4
 ,human faculty is everywhere identical 
although the form in  which it is       
expressed differs according to          
education1 the presence of  certain     
dominating ideas1 and the general       
influence of one's  environment4 ,to    
admit the claim of the mystic is to     

surrender all hope  of a scientific     
co-ordination of life4 ,it is quite     
fatal to the  scientific ideal and      
involves the re-introduction into nature
 of a  dualism the removal of which has 
been one of the most marked advantages  
of scientific thinking4    ,moreover1   
whatever views we may hold as to the    
ultimate nature of 'mind'  the          
dependence of all frames of mind upon   
the brain and nervous system  is now    
generally accepted4 ,we may hold various
 theories as to the nature  of mind1 we 
may1 with the late ,william ,james1     
treat the brain as merely  a            
'transmissive' organ1 but even on that  
assumption--on behalf of which  not a   
shred of positive evidence has been     
offered--the frames of mind  expressed  
are determined by the nervous mechanism1
 and thus the laws of  mental phenomena 
become ultimately the laws of the       
operation of the  nervous system4 ,the  
'facts' of the religious life thus      
become part of  the facts of psychology 

as a whole4 ,its 'laws' will form part  
of  psychological laws as a whole1 and  
religious experiences must be handed    
over for examination and classification 
to the psychologist who in turn  relies 
for help and understanding on various   
associated branches of  science4        
,closely allied to the claim of the     
'mystic' that his experiences bring  him
 into touch with a world of             
super-sensuous reality1 is the attempt  
to  prove that science is incapable of  
dealing with anything but in the  first 
place1 the endless ascertainment of     
facts and the physical  conditions under
 which they occur1 and in the second    
place to the  criticism of error4 ,well1
 no one denies that it is part of the   
work of  science to ascertain facts1 or 
even that its work consists in          
ascertaining facts and framing 'laws'   
that will explain them4 ,but why  are we
 to limit science to physical facts     
only8 ,all facts are not  physical4 ,if 
,i have a head-ache1 the unpleasant     

feeling is a fact4 ,if ,i  feel hot or  
cold1 angry or pleased1 think one thing 
ugly or another  beautiful1 my feelings 
are as much 'facts' as anything else    
that exists4  ,nay1 if ,i fancy ,i see a
 ghost1 or a vision1 these also are     
'facts' so  far as my mental state at   
the time is concerned4 ,so also are my  
beliefs  about all manner of things1 and
 often the most important facts with    
which ,i am connected4 ,facts may be    
objective or subjective4 ,they may      
exist in relation to all minds normally 
constituted1 or they may exist  in      
relation to my own mind only2 or1 yet   
again1 they may exist only in  relation 
to certain states of mind1 but they do  
not1 nevertheless1 cease  to be facts4  
,now the business of science is to      
collect facts--all facts--classify      
them1 and frame generalisations that    
will explain their groupings and  modes 
of operation4 ,it talks of the facts of 
the physical world1 the  facts of the   
biological world1 the facts of the      

psychological world1 and  so forth4     
,this last group comprises all sorts of 
feelings and ideas1  beliefs and        
experiences4 ,some of these facts it    
calls false1 others it  calls true--that
 is1 they are true when they hold good  
of all men and  women normally          
constituted1 they are not true when they
 hold good of  isolated individuals     
only1 and can be seen to be the product 
of  misinterpreted experience1 or arise 
from a derangement--permanent or        
temporary--of the nervous system4 ,but  
true or false they remain facts of  the 
mental life4 ,they must be collected1   
grouped1 and explained exactly  as other
 facts are collected1 grouped1 and      
explained4 ,they fall within  the scope 
of science1 to be dealt with by         
scientific methods4    ,there is really 
no escape from the position that so far 
as religious  'facts' are parts of      
mental life1 religion becomes logically 
a  department of psychology4 ,the       
substantial identity of all mental facts

  is quite unaffected by their being    
directed to this or that special        
object4 ,as mental facts they are part  
of the material that it is the  work of 
science to reduce to order4 ,and as     
mental facts religious  phenomena are   
seen to follow the same 'laws' that     
govern mental  phenomena in general4 ,it
 is perfectly true that we cannot test  
and  measure the material of psychology 
with the same definiteness and  accuracy
 that the chemist applies to the        
subject-matter of his  department2 but  
that may be due to want of knowledge1 or
 to the extreme  complexity and         
variability of the matter with which we 
are dealing4 ,and  if it were true that 
the same tests could not be applied in  
psychology  that are applied elsewhere1 
this would be no cause for scientific   
despair4 ,it would only mean that fresh 
tests would have to be devised  for a   
new group of facts1 as every other      
science has already1 as a  matter of    
fact1 created its own special standard  

of value4    ,the second of the two     
lines of defence consists in the bold   
assertion  that the religious           
interpretation of subjective phenomena  
is itself in  the nature of a true      
scientific induction4 ,the methods of   
science are  not repudiated1 but        
welcomed4 ,but it is argued that the    
non-religious  explanation of religious 
phenomena breaks down hopelessly1 while 
the  religious explanation fully covers 
and explains the facts4 ,if this were   
true1 nothing more remains to be said1  
and we must accept this dualistic       
scheme1 however repugnant it may be to  
orthodox scientific ideas4 ,but is  it  
true8 ,is it a fact that the            
non-religious explanation breaks down so
  completely8 ,hitherto the course of   
events has been in the contrary         
direction4 ,it is the religious         
explanation that has1 over and over     
again1 been shown to be unreliable1 the 
non-religious explanation that  has been
 finally established4 ,insanity and     

epilepsy1 once universally  ascribed to 
a supernatural order of being1 have been
 reduced to the  level of nervous       
disorders4 ,all the phenomena of        
'possession' are still  with us1 it is  
only our understanding of them that has 
altered4 ,and  before it is admitted    
that the phenomena described as         
religious can  never be affiliated to   
the phenomena described as              
non-religious1 it must  be shown--beyond
 all possibility of doubt--that their   
explanation in  terms of known forces is
 impossible4 ,as ,i have said in the    
body of this  work1 the question at     
issue is essentially one of             
interpretation4 ,the  'facts' of the    
religious life are admitted4 ,science no
 more questions  the reality of the     
visions of the medieval mystic than it  
questions the  visions of the non-mystic
 admittedly suffering from neural       
derangement4  ,the crucial question is  
whether we have any good reason for     
separating  the two1 and while we       

dismiss the one as hallucination accept 
the other  as introducing us to another 
order of being8 ,i do not think there is
 the  slightest ground for any such     
differentiation1 and ,i have given in   
the  following pages what ,i conceive to
 be good reasons for so thinking4 ,and  
,i hope that the fact of the            
explanations there offered running      
counter  to the traditional one will not
 prevent readers weighing with the      
utmost  care the proofs that are        
offered4          ,,religion ,,and ,,sex
    ,,chapter ,,one    ,,science ,,and  
,,the ,,supernatural      ,accepting    
,professor ,tylor's famous minimum      
definition of religion as  the belief in
 ,spiritual ,beings1 it is safe to say  
that religious  belief constitutes one  
of the largest facts in human history4  
,no other  single subject has occupied  
so large a share of man's conscious     
life1 no  other subject has absorbed so 
much of his energy4 ,in very early      
stages  of culture religious belief is  

universal in the fullest sense of the   
word4 ,it shapes all primitive          
institutions2 it dominates life from the
  cradle to the grave1 and creates a    
shadow-land beyond the grave from  which
 the dead continue to influence the     
actions of the living4 ,at a  later     
stage of culture we see a distinction   
being drawn between the  natural and the
 supernatural1 the secular and the      
spiritual1 and the  beginning of an     
antagonism that is still with us4 ,of   
all antagonisms  conceived by the brain 
of man this is the deepest and the most 
irreconcilable4 ,each feels that the    
growth of the other threatens its  own  
supremacy1 with the result that advance 
from either side has been  contested    
with the greatest obstinacy and         
determination4 ,and although it  is true
 that at present the supernatural is    
very largely suspect1 it  is still      
powerful4 ,nor is its influence confined
 to the lower strata of  ,european      
society4 ,it has very many              

representatives among the higher        
culture1 disguised it may be under      
various pseudo-philosophic forms4       
,altogether we may say that the         
supernatural has never been without its 
cloud of witnesses4 ,at all times there 
have been individuals1 or  groups of    
individuals1 who have believed          
themselves1 and have been  believed by  
others1 to be in touch with another     
order of existence than  that with which
 people are normally in contact4 ,and   
apart from these  specially favoured    
persons1 the wide vogue of the belief in
 good and  evil portents1 in lucky and  
unlucky days1 the attraction of the     
occult  in fiction and in fact1 all     
serve as evidence that belief in the    
supernatural is still a force with which
 one has to reckon4    ,to what causes  
are we to attribute the persistence of  
this belief in the  supernatural8 ,it is
 useless replying that its persistence  
is evidence of  its truth4 ,that clearly
 begs the whole question at issue4 ,mere

 social  heredity will doubtless count  
for much in this direction4 ,men do not 
start their thinking afresh with each   
generation4 ,it is based upon that  of  
preceding generations2 it follows set   
forms1 and is generally  influenced by  
that network of ideas and beliefs into  
which we are born  and from which none  
of us ever completely escapes4 ,still   
that is hardly  enough in itself to     
account for the persistence of          
supernaturalism4  ,assuming that        
originally there existed what was       
accepted as good  evidence for the      
existence of a supernatural1 it is      
hardly credible that  every subsequent  
generation went on accepting it merely  
because one  generation received        
evidence of its existence4 ,as organs   
atrophy for  want of exercise1 so do    
beliefs die out in time for want of     
proof4 ,some  kind of evidence must have
 been continually forthcoming in order  
to keep  the belief alive and active4   
,it is not a question of whether the    

evidence was good or bad4 ,all evidence1
 it is important to bear in mind1  is   
good to some one4 ,the facts upon which 
thousands of people were put  to death  
for witchcraft would not be considered  
evidence to anyone  nowadays1 but they  
were once accepted as good ground for   
conviction4    ,what kind of evidence is
 it1 then1 that has been accepted as    
proof of  the supernatural8 ,or1 to     
return to ,tylor's definition of        
religion1  seeing that the belief in    
spiritual beings has persisted in every 
generation1 upon what kind of evidence  
has this belief been nourished8         
,various replies might be given to this 
question1 all of which may  contain some
 degree of truth1 or an aspect of a     
general truth4 ,in the  present enquiry 
,i am concerned with one line of        
investigation only1 one  that has been  
strangely neglected1 but which yet1 ,i  
am convinced1  promises fruitful        
results4 ,in other directions it has    
been established  that a great aid to an

 understanding of the human organism in 
times of  health is to study its        
activities under conditions of disease4 
,abnormal  psychology is now a          
recognised branch of psychology in      
general1 and a  glance through almost   
any recent text-book will show that the 
two form  parts of a natural whole4 ,the
 normal and the abnormal are in turn    
used  to throw light on each other4 ,and
 it appears to the present writer that  
in the matter of religious beliefs a    
much clearer understanding of their     
nature1 and also of some of the         
conditions of their perpetuation1 may be
  gained by a study of what has         
happened1 and is happening1 in the light
  of mental pathology4    ,to some1 of  
course1 the bare idea of there being a  
pathology of religion  will appear an   
entirely unwarrantable assumption4 ,on  
the other hand1 the  scientific study of
 all phases of religions having made so 
great headway  it is hoped that a larger
 number will be prepared for a          

discussion of  the subject from a point 
of view which1 if not quite new1 is     
certainly  not common4 ,of course1 such 
a discussion1 even if the author quite  
succeeds in demonstrating the truth of  
his thesis1 will still leave the  origin
 of the religious idea an open question4
 ,for the present we are  not concerned 
directly with the origin of the         
religious idea1 but with  an examination
 of some of the causes that have served 
to perpetuate it1  and to trace the     
influence in the history of religion of 
states of mind1  both personal and      
collective1 that are now admittedly     
abnormal or  pathological in character4 
,the legitimacy of the enquiry cannot be
  questioned4 ,as to its value and      
significance1 that every reader must    
determine for himself4    ,one may put  
the essential idea of the following     
pages in a  sentence3--,given the       
religious idea as already existing1 in  
what way1  and to what extent has its   
development been affected by forces that

 are  not in themselves religious1 and  
which modern thought definitely         
separates from religion8    ,under      
civilised and uncivilised conditions we 
find religious beliefs  constantly      
associated with various forces--social1 
ethical1 and  psychological4 ,very      
seldom is there any serious attempt to  
separate them  and assign to each their 
respective value2 nor1 indeed1 is the   
task at  any time an easy one4 ,the     
difficulty is made the greater by the   
way in  which writers so enlarge the    
meaning of religion that it is made to  
include almost everything for which one 
feels admiration or respect4  ,this     
practice is neither helpful nor         
accurate4 ,human nature under all       
aspects of intellectual conviction      
presents the same fundamental           
characteristics1 and a definition to be 
of value1 while of necessity  inclusive1
 must also be decisively exclusive4 ,it 
must unite1 but it must  also separate4 
,and many current definitions of        

religion1 while they may  bear testimony
 to the amiability of those who frame   
them1 are quite  destitute of scientific
 value4 ,in any case1 the association of
 the  religious idea with non-religious 
forces is a fact too patent to admit  of
 denial2 and the important task is to   
determine their reciprocal  influence4  
,in actual life this separation has been
 secured by the  development of the     
various branches of positive            
thought--ethics1  psychology1 etc41 all 
of which were once directly under the   
control of  religion4 ,what remains to  
be done is to separate in theory what   
has  already been separated in fact1    
with such additions as a more critical  
knowledge may suggest as advisable4     
,far more suggestive1 however1 than the 
association of religion with what  we   
may call the normal social forces1 is   
its connection with conditions  that are
 now clearly recognised as abnormal4    
,from the earliest times we  find the   
use of drugs and stimulants1 the        

practice of fasting and  self-torture1  
with other methods of depressing or     
stimulating the action  of the nervous  
system1 accepted as well-recognised     
methods of inducing a  sense of         
religious illumination1 or the feeling  
that one is in direct  communion with a 
supernatural order of existence4        
,equally significant is  the world-wide 
acceptance--right up to recent times--of
 purely  pathological states as evidence
 of supernatural intercourse4 ,about    
these  two sets of facts there can be no
 reasonable doubt4 ,over and over again 
we can observe how the promptings of    
disease are taken for the voice of      
divinity1 and men and women who to-day  
would be handed over to the care  of the
 physician hailed as an incarnation of  
deity4 ,in modern asylums  we find one  
of the commonest of delusions to be that
 of the insane  person who imagines     
himself to be a specially selected      
instrument of  deity4 ,in such instances
 the causal influence of pathological   

conditions  is admitted4 ,on the other  
hand1 we have belonging to the more     
normal  type the person who claims a    
supernatural origin for many of his     
actions  and states of mind4 ,and       
between these two extremes lie a whole  
series of  gradations4 ,they exist in   
all stages of culture1 and it is        
difficult to  see by what rule of logic 
or of experience one can say where the  
normal  ends and the abnormal begins4   
,if we assume the inference of the      
normal  person concerning the origin of 
his mental states to be correct1 it     
seems difficult to deny the possibility 
of those of the insane person  having a 
similar origin1 although distorted by   
the influence of disease4  ,if1 on the  
other hand1 we say the insane person is 
wholly wrong as to  the origin of his   
mental states1 may we not also assume   
that the normal  person has likewise    
erred as to the cause of his emotions or
 ideas8    ,two considerations may be   
urged in support of this conclusion4 ,in

 the  first place1 there is the fact of 
the fundamental identity of human       
qualities under all conditions of their 
manifestation4 ,it is too often         
assumed--sometimes it is explicitly     
claimed--that one with what is  called a
 strong religious nature possesses some 
quality of mind absent  or undeveloped  
in those of an opposite type4 ,this     
assumption is quite  unwarrantable4 ,the
 religious man is marked off from the   
non-religious  man1 not by the          
possession of distinct mental qualities1
 but solely by  holding different ideas 
concerning the cause and significance of
 his  mental states4 ,there is no such  
thing as a religious faculty1 but  only 
qualities of mind expressed in terms of 
the religious idea4 ,if ,i am  conscious
 of a strong desire to work on behalf of
 the social betterment  of my fellows1  
,i may account for this either by       
attributing it to having  inherited a   
nature modified by generations of social
 intercourse1 or on  the hypothesis that

 ,i am an instrument in the hands of a  
superhuman  personality4 ,but in either 
case the qualities manifested remain the
  same4 ,love and hatred1 fear and      
courage1 honesty and roguery1 with all  
other human qualities1 may be expressed 
in terms of religion1 or they  may be   
expressed in non-religious terms4 ,it is
 the cause to which they  are           
attributed1 or the object to which they 
are directed1 that marks off  the       
religious from the non-religious person4
    ,the second point is that the whole 
issue arises on a conflict of           
interpretations4 ,if ,i question the    
reality of the visions or states of     
illumination experienced by ,santa      
,teresa1 ,i am not questioning that1 so 
far as the saint herself was concerned1 
these states of exaltation were  real4  
,all mental states--whether arising     
under normal or abnormal                
conditions--are quite real to those who 
experience them4 ,the visions of  the   
hashish-eater are real1 while they last2

 so are those of the victim  of delirium
 tremens4 ,all ,i question is their     
genuineness as  corresponding to an     
objective reality4 ,over the mind of the
 subject  these visions may exercise an 
absolute sway4 ,as to their occurrence1 
he  or she is the final and absolute    
authority4 ,there can be no question    
here4 ,but when we proceed from the     
occurrence of these visions to the      
question of their causation1 then we are
 on entirely different ground4  ,here it
 is not a question of their genuineness1
 or of their power1 but  a question of  
how we are to interpret them4 ,the      
honesty and  singlemindedness of these  
inspired characters may be admitted1 but
  honesty or singlemindedness is no     
guarantee of accuracy4 ,we do not need  
to ask whether the peasant girl of      
,lourdes experienced a vision of the    
,madonna1 but we do need to ask whether 
there was anything in her mental        
history1 social surroundings1 or nervous
 state that would account for  the      

vision4 ,all the facts of the religious 
life may be admitted2 the  sole question
 at issue is whether an adequate        
interpretation of at least  some of them
 may not be found in terms of a purely  
scientific  psychology4    ,taking1     
then1 the religious idea as already     
existing1 the following  pages will be  
devoted to an examination of the extent 
to which this idea  has been associated 
with forces and conditions that were    
plainly  pathological4 ,in very many    
individual cases it will not be         
difficult to  trace a vivid sense of the
 supernatural to the presence of        
abnormal  nervous states1 sometimes     
deliberately induced1 at other times    
arising  of themselves4 ,and it is a    
matter of mere historical observation   
that  such individual cases have        
operated most powerfully to strengthen  
the  belief in the supernatural with    
others4 ,the example of ,lourdes is a   
case  in point4 ,all ,protestants will  
agree that the peasant girl's vision was

  a sheer hallucination4 ,and yet there 
can be no question that this vision  has
 served to strengthen the faith of many 
thousands of others in the  nearness of 
the supernatural4 ,and it needs but     
little effort of the  imagination to    
realise how powerful such examples must 
have been in ages  when medical science 
was in its infancy1 and the more subtle 
operations  of the nervous system       
completely unknown4    ,this question1  
,i repeat1 is distinct from the much    
larger and wider  enquiry of the origin 
of religion4 ,a fairly lengthy          
experience of the  capacity of the      
general mind for missing the real point 
at issue  prevents my being too sanguine
 as to the efficiency of the most       
explicit  avowal of one's purpose1 but  
the duty of taking precautions          
nevertheless  remains4 ,and in          
elaborating an unfamiliar view of the   
nature of much of  the world's so-called
 religious phenomena1 the possibility of
  misconception is multiplied           

enormously4 ,still1 a writer must do    
what he  can to guard against           
misunderstanding1 and in the most       
emphatic manner  it must be said that it
 is not my purpose to prove1 nor is it  
my belief1  that religion springs from  
perverted sexuality1 nor that the study 
of  religion is no more than an exercise
 in pathology4 ,nothing is further  from
 the writer's mind than so essentially  
preposterous a claim4 ,neither          
sexuality1 no matter how powerful1 nor  
disease1 no matter how  pronounced1 can 
account for the religious idea4 ,that   
has an entirely  separate and           
independent origin4 ,this should be     
plain to anyone who has  but a merely   
casual acquaintance with the history of 
religion4 ,it is1  however1 a very      
different thing to enquire as to the    
part played in the  history of religion 
by morbid nervous states or perverted   
sexual  feeling4 ,that is an enquiry    
both legitimate and desirable2 and it is
 one  that promises to shed light on    

aspects of the subject otherwise very   
obscure4 ,and certainly1 if so-called   
religious feelings do not admit of      
explanation in terms of a scientific    
psychology1 nothing remains but to      
recognise religion as something quite   
apart from normal life1 to hand  it over
 to the custody of word-spinning        
,mystics1 and so surrender all          
possibility of a rational understanding 
of either its nature or its  history4   
,in saying what ,i have concerning the  
probability of misconception1 ,i  have  
had specially in mind the attack made by
 the late ,professor ,william  ,james on
 what he called the medical             
materialists4 ,in that remarkable  piece
 of religious yellow-journalism1 ,the   
,varieties of ,religious  ,experience1  
,professor ,james says of those who take
 up the position that  a great deal of  
what has been accepted by the world as  
religious  inspiration or exaltation can
 be accounted for as the products of    
disordered nervous states or perverted  

sexual feeling1 ,we are surely  all     
familiar in a general way with this     
method of discrediting states of  mind  
for which we have an antipathy4 ,we all 
use it in some degree in  criticising   
persons whose states of mind we regard  
as overstrained4 ,but  when other people
 criticise our own exalted soul-flights 
by calling them  'nothing but'          
expressions of our organic disposition1 
we feel outraged  and hurt1 for we know 
that1 whatever be our organism's        
peculiarities1  our mental states have  
their substantive value as revelations  
of the  living truth2 and we wish that  
all this medical materialism could be   
made to hold its tongue4 ,again1 ,few   
conceptions are less instructive  than  
this re-interpretation of religion as   
perverted sexuality4444 ,it is  true    
that in the vast collection of religious
 phenomena1 some are  undisguisedly     
amatory--e4g4 sex deities and obscene   
rites in  polytheism1 and ecstatic      
feelings of union with the ,saviour in a

 few  ,christian ,mystics4 ,but then why
 not equally call religion an aberration
  of the digestive functions1 and prove 
one's point by the worship of  ,bacchus 
and ,ceres1 or by the ecstatic feelings 
of some other saints  about the         
,eucharist8 ,or1 seeing that the ,bible 
is full of the language  of respiratory 
oppression1 one might almost as well    
interpret religion  as a perversion of  
the respiratory function4 ,and if it is 
pointed out  that active interest in    
religion synchronises with adolescence1 
the  retort again is easy4444 ,the      
interest in mechanics1 physics1         
chemistry1  logic1 philosophy1 and      
sociology1 which springs up during      
adolescent  years along with that in    
poetry and religion1 is also a          
perversion of  the sexual instinct4#a   
,excellent fooling1 this1 but little    
else4 ,i do not know that anyone has    
ever claimed that religion took its     
origin in sexual feeling1 or that  this 
would alone provide an explanation of   

historical religion4 ,all that  anyone  
has ever urged is that a deal of        
so-called religious feeling1  past and  
present1 can be shown to be due to      
unsatisfied or perverted  sexual        
feeling--which is a very different      
statement1 and one of which  the truth  
may be demonstrated from ,professor     
,james's own pages4 ,but  between saying
 that certain feelings are wrongly      
interpreted in terms of  an already     
existing idea1 and saying that the idea 
itself is nothing but  these same       
feelings transformed1 there is an       
obvious and important  difference4 ,in  
every case the religious idea is taken  
for granted4 ,its  origin is a quite    
different subject of enquiry4 ,but once 
the idea is in  existence there is      
always the probability of evidence for  
its truth  being found in the wrong     
direction4 ,the analogy of the digestive
 and  respiratory organs is clever1 but 
futile4 ,the belief that much which  has
 passed for religious feeling is        

perverted sexuality is not based  merely
 upon the language employed4 ,the       
language is only symptomatic4 ,the      
terminology of respiration and digestion
 when used in connection with  religion 
is frankly and palpably symbolic4 ,that 
of sexual love is as  often frankly     
literal1 and can be correlated with the 
actual state of  the person using it4   
,digestion and respiration must go on in
 any case2  but it is precisely the     
point at issue whether with a different 
sexual  life these so-called religious  
ecstatic states would have been         
experienced4 ,when we find religious    
characters of strongly marked  amorous  
dispositions1 but leading an ascetic    
life1 using toward the  object of their 
adoration terms usually associated with 
strong sexual  feeling1 it does not seem
 extravagant to find here a little more 
than  what may be covered by mere       
symbolism4 ,would the medieval monk have
 been  tempted by ,satan in the form of 
beautiful women had he been happily     

married8 ,would ,santa ,teresa or       
,catherine of ,sienna have used the     
language they did use to express their  
relations to ,jesus had they been  wives
 and mothers8 ,such questions admit of  
one answer1 which is1 in its  way1      
decisive4 ,professor ,james admits that 
modern psychology holds as a  general   
postulate there is not a single one of  
our states of mind1 high  or low1       
healthy or morbid1 that has not some    
organic process as its  condition4#b    
,the 'medical materialist' can ask for  
no more than this4  ,but this being     
granted1 on what ground are we to be    
forbidden finding in  these same organic
 processes the condition of the visions 
and ecstatic  states with which ,the    
,varieties of ,religious ,experience is 
so largely  concerned8    ,again1 it may
 be granted that adolescence brings with
 it an awakening of  the whole mental   
life1 not of religion alone4 ,but the   
analogy goes no  further1 and1 in any   
case1 it begs the question4 ,the full   

significance  of the connection will be 
seen when we come to deal with          
initiation in  primitive times and      
conversion in the modern period4 ,at    
present it  suffices to point out that  
the interest in art1 in science1 in     
literature1 in sociology1 are ends in   
themselves1 and one need go no  further 
than the developing mental life for an  
explanation4 ,but the  essential        
question here is whether this growing   
life can or cannot find  complete       
satisfaction quite apart from religion4 
,a developing interest  in the larger   
social life is common to all1 and to    
some extent this is  secured by the     
pressure of forces that are simply      
inescapable4 ,on the  other hand1 an    
interest in religion only exists with   
some1 and then it  may usually be traced
 to a conscious direction of their      
energies4  ,moreover1 those who show no 
special interest in religion evince no  
lack  of anything--save in religious    
terms4 ,in every respect they exhibit   

the  same mental and emotional qualities
 as their fellows4 ,the only            
discernible difference is that while in 
the one case adolescent nature  is      
expressed in terms of religion1 in the  
other case it is expressed in  terms of 
a larger social life4    ,the question  
here might be put thus3 ,given a        
generation not taught to  express its   
growing life in terms of religion1 could
 adequate and  satisfactory expression  
be found in the social life to which    
adolescence  is unquestionably an       
introduction8 ,many would answer        
unhesitatingly1  yes4 ,they would argue 
that what are called the religious      
feelings1 are  normal social feelings   
exploited in the interests of the       
religious idea4  ,they would deny that  
there is any such thing as a religious  
quality of  mind4 ,any mental quality   
may be directed to a religious end1 but 
all may  find complete expression and   
satisfaction in a non-religious social  
life4 ,this is the real question at     

issue1 and yet ,professor ,james never  
once1 in the whole of his #ejj pages1   
addresses himself to it4    ,apart from 
sex1 there is the important question of 
the relation between  abnormal and      
morbid nervous states and religious     
illumination4 ,how far  has the one been
 mistaken for the other8 ,to what extent
 have people  accepted the outcome of   
pathological conditions as proofs of    
intercourse  with an unseen spiritual   
world8 ,there is no doubt that among    
uncivilised  people this is usually1 if 
not invariably1 the case4 ,and our      
knowledge  of the relations between the 
nervous system and mental               
states--imperfect  as it still is--is so
 recent1 that it is not surprising that 
fasting1  self-torture1 solitary        
meditation1 etc41 because of the states 
of mind  to which they give rise1 have  
been universally valued as aids to the  
religious life4 ,dr4 ,d4 ,g4 ,brinton   
says3--    ,when ,i say that all        
religions depend for their origin and   

continuation  directly upon inspiration1
 ,i state an historic fact4 ,it may be  
known  under other names1 of credit or  
discredit1 as mysticism1 ecstasy1       
rhapsody1 demoniac possession1 the      
divine afflatus1 the gnosis1 or1 in  its
 latest christening1 'cosmic            
consciousness4' ,all are but expressions
  of a belief that knowledge arises1    
words are uttered or actions  performed 
not through conscious ideation or       
reflective purpose1 but  through the    
promptings of a power above or beyond   
the individual  mind4#c    ,the         
connection between very many1 at least1 
of these inspirational moods  and       
pathological states is too obvious to be
 ignored4 ,professor ,james  admits that
 we cannot possibly ignore these        
pathological aspects of the  subject4   
,his notice of them1 however1 reminds   
one of the preacher who  advised his    
hearers to look a certain difficulty    
boldly in the face--and  pass on4 ,no   
serious attempt is made to deal with    

them4 ,a huge mass of  religious        
experiences is thrown at the reader's   
head without any  adequate explanation4 
,it is a glorified revival meeting in an
 expensive  volume4 ,the testimony of a 
crowd of religious enthusiasts of all   
ages is  accepted at practically face   
value4 ,thus1 a religious writer who    
experiences the fairly common feeling of
 exaltation during a storm at  sea1 and 
explains his carelessness of danger as  
resulting from his  certainty of eternal
 life1#d is gravely cited as evidence of
 the  working of the religious          
consciousness4 ,what1 then1 are we to   
make of  those who experience a similar 
feeling1 but who are without the        
certainty of eternal life8 ,the         
declaration of ,st4 ,ignatius that a    
single  hour of meditation taught him   
more of the truth of heavenly things    
than  all the teachings of the doctors  
is given as evidence of mystic          
illumination4#e ,so with numerous other 
cases4 ,we are even informed that       

nitrous oxide and ether1 especially     
nitrous oxide1 when sufficiently        
diluted with air1 stimulate the mystical
 consciousness in an  extraordinary     
degree4#f ,there seems no reason why the
 same claim  should not be made on      
behalf of whisky4 ,if one were not      
assured to the  contrary1 one might     
conclude that ,professor ,james wrote   
this volume to  poke fun at the whole   
tribe of mystics and their followers4   
,the use made by ,professor ,james of   
his long list of cases is the more      
remarkable1 since he quite correctly    
points out that there are no  religious 
feelings1 only feelings directed towards
 a religious end4 ,but  if this be so1  
how are we justified in taking the      
accounts of religious  visionaries as   
correct descriptions of the nature of   
their own mental  states8 ,clearly1 we  
need a study of these cases quite apart 
from the  mystical interpretation of    
them4 ,instead of a study ,professor    
,james  presents us with a              

catalogue--useful from a documentary    
point of view1  but useless to any other
 end4 ,and he is so averse to subjecting
 his  examples to analysis that1 when   
the extravagance of certain cases are   
glaring1 he warns us that it is unfair  
to impute narrowness of mind as a  vice 
of the individual1 because in religious 
and theological matters he  probably    
absorbs his narrowness from his         
generation4#g ,granted2 only  one would 
like to know what reason there is for   
not deriving virtues as  well as vices  
from the same source8 ,and1 deeper      
enquiry still1 may not  the religious   
interpretation itself be a product of   
the special  environment of the period8 
,the study of religious phenomena from  
the point of view above indicated  is of
 first-rate importance4 ,but although   
much has been said1  parenthetically and
 inferentially1 on the subject by       
various writers1  the enquiry has never 
been exhaustively or systematically     
pursued4 ,this  is not due to any lack  

of material2 that is abundant among both
 savage  and civilised peoples4 ,perhaps
 it is because1 while it has been       
considered permissible to point out that
 certain individuals have  mistaken     
their own morbid states for evidence of 
divine illumination1  too much ill-will 
would have been aroused had the powerful
 part played  by this factor in         
religious development as a whole been   
pointed out4  ,still less admissible    
would it have been to point out1 as will
 be done  in succeeding chapters1 that  
the deliberate culture of abnormal      
states  of mind has been a part of the  
ritual of religions from the most       
primitive to the most recent times4 ,in 
this connection it is worth  noting that
 a very clear and shrewd essay on the   
connection between love  and religious  
devotion by ,isaac d',israeli1 which    
appeared in the first  issue of the     
,miscellanies of ,literature1 was       
quietly eliminated from  subsequent     
editions4    ,my purpose1 therefore1 is 

to give ,professor ,james's             
query--,under just  what biographic     
conditions did the sacred writers bring 
forth their  contributions to the holy  
volume8 and what had they exactly in    
their  several individual minds1 when   
they delivered their utterances8#h--;a  
wider scope4 ,what are the conditions1  
biographic and social1 under which      
certain persons have imagined           
themselves1 and have been believed by   
others1 to be specially favoured with   
divine illumination8 ,the majority  of  
people1 it may safely be said1 are      
conscious of no such experience4  ,in   
what respect1 then1 do the favoured few 
differ from their fellows8  ,must we    
assume that by some rare quality of     
natural endowment1 or by  some unusual  
development of faculty1 they are brought
 into touch with a  wider and deeper    
reality8 ,or are we to seek a less      
romantic explanation  with the aid of   
known tendencies and forces in human    
nature8 ,and1  further1 as this minority

 are not conscious of divine            
illumination all  the time1 what is it  
that differentiates their normal state  
from their  abnormal condition8         
,these are pertinent questions1 and     
demand answer4 ,but no answer of real   
value will be found in ordinary         
religious writings4 ,rhapsodical        
eulogies  of religion tell us nothing2  
less than nothing that is useful1 since 
theories that obtain in such quarters   
are based upon the absolute  veracity of
 the phenomena under consideration4 ,we 
may gather from this  direction what    
religious people say or do1 but not why 
they say or do  these things4 ,a        
description of the states of mind of    
religious people1  such as is given by  
,professor ,james1 is interesting       
enough1 but it is  their causation that 
is of fundamental importance4 ,and their
 causation  is only to be understood by 
associating them with other and more    
fundamental processes4 ,within recent   
years psychology owes much of the       

advance made to a closer study of the   
physiology of the nervous system1  and  
if genuine advance is to be made in our 
understanding of religious  phenomena we
 must adopt the same plan of            
investigation4 ,we do not1 for  example1
 understand the nature of demoniacal    
possession by a mere  collation of      
cases4 ,it is only when we put them side
 by side with  similar cases that now   
come under the control of the physician1
 and  associate them with certain       
peculiar nervous conditions1 and a      
particular social environment1 that we  
find ourselves within sight of a        
rational explanation4 ,without adopting 
this plan we are in the position  of one
 trying to determine the nature of a    
locomotive in complete  ignorance of its
 internal mechanism4 ,yet this is       
precisely the position  of the          
professional exponent of religion4 ,as a
 student the budding  divine has his    
head filled with historic creeds1 and   
texts1 and dogmas1  and doctrines1 none 

of which can possibly tell him anything 
of the real  nature of religion4 ,on the
 contrary1 they act as so many obstacles
 to  his acquiring real knowledge in    
later life4 ,and it is a striking fact  
that while the professional astronomer1 
biologist1 or physicist each  adds to   
our knowledge of the subject that falls 
within his respective  department1 we   
owe little or nothing of our knowledge  
of the nature of  religion to the       
professional theologian4    ,to put the 
whole matter in a sentence1 the study of
 religion must be  affiliated to the    
study of life as a whole4 ,if possible1 
we must get at  the determining factors 
that lead one person to expend his      
energy on  religion and see supernatural
 influence in a thousand and one details
 of  his life1 while another person1    
with apparently the same mental         
qualities1 finds complete satisfaction  
in another direction1 and is  conscious 
of no such supernatural influence4 ,it  
is scientifically  inadmissible to posit

 a religious faculty organically        
ear-marked for  religious use4          
,something of this kind is evidently in 
the minds of those  who explain         
,darwin's agnosticism as due to atrophy 
of his religious  sense1 consequent on  
over-absorption in scientific pursuits1 
and who  also argue that the religious  
faculty1 like a physiological structure1
  increases in efficiency with use and  
atrophies with disuse4 ,there is no     
reason for believing that1 had ,darwin  
been profoundly religious1 his  mental  
qualities would have been different to  
what they were4 ,they would  have been  
expressed in a different form1 that is  
all4 ,as ,i have already  said1 there   
are no such things as specifically      
religious qualities of  the mind4 ,there
 may be hope or fear or love or hatred  
or terror or  devotion or wonder in     
relation to religion1 but they are      
precisely the  same mental qualities    
that meet us in relation to other       
things4 ,the old  faculty psychology is 

dead1 and the religious faculty must go 
with  it4#i ,mental qualities may be    
roused to activity in connection with a 
belief in the supernatural1 or they may 
be expressed in connection with  mundane
 associations4 ,even the belief in the  
supernatural is only an  expression of  
the same qualities of mind that with    
fuller knowledge  result in a scientific
 generalisation4 ,whatever be the       
exciting cause1  mental qualities       
themselves remain unchanged4    ,in the 
present enquiry we are not concerned    
with a disproval of the  religious idea1
 but with an examination of the         
conditions of its  expression2 less with
 the varieties of religious experience  
than with  the nature of its            
manifestations4 ,how far may religious  
experience be  explained as a           
misinterpretation of normal             
non-religious life8 ,to what  extent    
have pathological nervous states        
influenced the building up of  the      
religious consciousness8 ,there can be  

no question that the  last-named factor 
is an important one4 ,this is admitted  
by ,professor  ,james in the following  
passage3--    ,you will in point of fact
 hardly find a religious leader of any  
kind in  whose life there is no record  
of automatisms4 ,i speak not merely of  
savage priests and prophets1 whose      
followers regard automatic utterance    
and action as by itself tantamount to   
inspiration1 ,i speak of leaders of     
thought and subjects of intellectualised
 experience4 ,st4 ,paul had his         
visions1 his ecstasies1 his gifts of    
tongues1 small as was the  importance he
 attached to the latter4 ,the whole     
array of ,christian  saints and         
heresiarchs1 including the greatest1 the
 ,bernards1 the  ,loyolas1 the ,luthers1
 the ,foxes1 the ,wesleys1 had their    
visions1 voices1  rapt conditions1      
guiding impressions1 and 'openings4'    
,they had these  things because they had
 exalted sensibility1 and to such things
 persons  of exalted sensibility are    

liable4#aj    ,the fact is              
unquestionable1 but the question        
remains1 ,in what sense were  these     
people exalted8 ,did their exalted      
sensibility really bring them  into     
touch with a form of existence hidden   
from persons of a coarser  fibre8 ,or   
did it belong to a class of cases which 
in a more violent form  comes within the
 province of the physician8 ,the        
subjects1 says ,professor  ,james1      
actually feel themselves played upon by 
powers beyond their  will4 ,the evidence
 is dynamic2 the god or spirit moves the
 very organs  of their body4444 ,we have
 distinct professions of being under the
  direction of a foreign power1 and     
serving as its mouthpiece4 ,of course   
we have1 but for diagnostic purposes    
such professions are quite  valueless4  
,what these people are conscious of1 and
 all they are  conscious of1 is a series
 of feelings of a more or less unusual  
kind4  ,equally convinced was the       
medieval demoniac that a spirit moved   

the very  organs of his body4 ,equally  
convinced is the modern spiritualist    
medium  that his body is controlled by a
 disembodied spirit4 ,it is not a       
question of the actuality of certain    
states1 but of their origin4 ,the       
intense conviction of the subject of the
 seizure is1 as evidence1 quite         
irrelevant4 ,the subjective state is    
always real1 whether it belongs to a    
saint in ecstasy or a drunkard in       
delirium tremens4 ,there are no states  
of mind more real while they last than  
those due to opium or hashish4  ,but it 
is never suggested that this is evidence
 of their veracity4 ,in  such cases the 
testimony of a skilled outsider is of   
far greater value  than the conviction  
of the visionary4 ,we are bound to      
appeal to ,paul1  and ,loyola1 and ,fox1
 and ,wesley to know what their feelings
 were1  because here they are the       
supreme authorities4 ,but we must       
consult  others to discover why they    
experienced these feelings4 ,an illusion

 is  no more than a false interpretation
 of a real subjective experience2       
although many are inclined to treat the 
rejection of the interpretation  as     
equivalent to a charge of imposture or  
deliberate lying4    ,it is also a      
matter of demonstration that these      
religious experiences  are strictly     
determined by environmental conditions4 
,thousands of  ,christians have been    
favoured with visions of ,jesus or of   
the ,christian  heaven in their dying   
moments4 ,millions of ,jews and         
,mohammedans have  lived and died       
without any such experience--the very   
persons to whom1  from an evidential    
point of view--such visions would be    
most useful4 ,the  spiritual experience 
is determined by the pre-existing       
religious belief4  ,when belief in a    
personal devil was general1 visions of  
,satan were  common4 ,the evidence for  
personal conflicts with ,satan is of    
precisely  the same nature and strength 
as is the evidence for intercourse with 

deity4 ,when the belief in ,satan died  
out1 visions and conflicts with him     
ceased4 ,how can we discriminate between
 the two classes of cases8 ,why  should 
the testimony of a great ,christian     
character that he is conscious  of      
intercourse with deity be more          
authoritative than the testimony of1    
perhaps1 the same person on other       
occasions1 of conflict with a personal  
devil8 ,moreover1 visions and a sense of
 contact with a super-normal  world are 
not peculiar to the religious character4
 ,it is a common  feature of a general  
psychopathic condition4 ,medical works  
are filled  with such instances4 ,and it
 is only to be expected that when the   
psychopath is of a deeply religious     
nature the affection will find a        
religious expression4 ,what is clearly  
needed is an explanation that will      
cover the phenomenon as it appears in   
both a religious and a  non-religious   
form4    ,we may take as illustrative of
 what has been said the following case  

as  given by ,dr4 ,w4 ,w4 ,ireland4 ,it 
is that of a ,berlin bookseller who     
placed  on record a clear description of
 his impressions while in ill-health1   
and which entirely ceased on recovery4  
,his delusions mostly took the  form of 
human figures2 of these he says3--    ,i
 saw1 in the full use of my senses1 and 
7after ,i had got the better of  the    
fright which at first seized me1 and the
 disagreeable effects which  it caused7 
even in the greatest composure of mind1 
for almost two  months1 constantly and  
involuntarily1 a number of human and    
other  apparitions--nay1 ,i even heard  
their voices4 ,for the most part ,i saw 
human figures of both sexes2 they       
commonly passed to and fro1 as if they  
had no connection with each other1 like 
people at a fair where all is  bustle4  
,sometimes they appeared to have        
business with one another4 ,once  or    
twice ,i saw amongst them persons on    
horseback1 and dogs and birds2  these   
figures all appeared to me in their     

natural size1 as distinctly as  if they 
had existed in real life1 with the      
several tints on the  uncovered parts of
 the body1 and with all the different   
kinds and  colours of clothes4#aa       
,here we have the case of a man who was 
under no misconception as to the  nature
 of his visions4 ,but it is safe to say 
that had he been of a less  practical   
and analytic turn of mind1 had he been1 
moreover1 deeply  interested in         
religious matters1 we might have had an 
altogether  different presentation of   
the facts4    ,in the next instance1    
also given by ,dr4 ,ireland1 we have a  
religious  explanation given of somewhat
 similar experiences3--    ,a poor woman
 complained to me that she was          
continually persecuted by  the devils   
who let loose at her all sorts of       
blasphemies1 and1 indeed1  all the worse
 the more she exerted herself not to    
attend to them2 but  often1 also1 when  
she was talking and active4 ,she had    
already been to a  clergyman who should 

exorcise the devil1 and who had         
judiciously  directed her to me4 ,i     
asked in which ear the devil always     
talked to her4  ,she was surprised at   
the question1 which she had never       
started for  herself1 but now recognised
 that it always occurred in the left    
ear4 ,i  explained to her that it was an
 affection of the ear which now and then
  occurs1 but she was doubtful4#ab      
,here we have a distinctly physical     
affection ascribed to supernatural      
agency4 ,in this case the inference is  
promptly corrected by the  physician4   
,but given a different environment1 an  
atmosphere permeated  with a belief in  
the supernatural1 an absence of adequate
 scientific  advice1 and the more       
primitive explanation is certain to     
prevail4 ,in the  next instance--that of
 ,martin ,luther--we have just this     
conjuncture of  circumstances1 with the 
inevitable result4 ,writing of his      
experience in  #aecj1 ,luther says3--   
,when ,i was in ,coburg in #aecj1 ,i was

 tormented with a noise in my ear1  just
 as though there was some wind tearing  
through my head4 ,the devil  had        
something to do with it4444 ,when ,i try
 to work1 my head becomes  filled with  
all sorts of whizzing1 buzzing1         
thundering noises1 and if ,i  did not   
leave off on the instant ,i should faint
 away4 ,for the last two  or three days 
,i have not been able to even look at a 
letter4 ,my head has  lessened down to a
 very short chapter2 soon it will be    
only a paragraph1  then only a syllable1
 then nothing at all4 ,the day your     
letter came from  ,nuremberg ,i had     
another visit from the devil4444 ,this  
time the evil one  got the better of me1
 drove me out of my bed1 and compelled  
me to seek  the face of man4#ac         
,there is no need to quote more of this 
class of cases1 at least for the        
present4 ,their name is legion4 ,one    
could1 in fact1 construct an  ascending 
series of cases1 all agreeing in their  
symptom1 and differing  only in the     

explanation offered4 ,the series would  
commence with the  explanation of a     
possessing spirit1 and end with that of 
a deranged  nervous system4 ,ignorant of
 the nature1 or even of the existence1  
of a  nervous system1 primitive man     
explains abnormal mental states as due  
to  a malignant spirit4 ,martin ,luther1
 ,george ,fox1 or ,john ,bunyan1 living 
at  a time when the activity of evil    
spirits was a firmly held doctrine1     
attribute their infirmities to satanic  
influence4 ,we are in the true  line of 
descent4 ,to-day we have with us every  
one of the phenomena on  which the      
satanic theory rested1 but they are     
described1 and prescribed  for1 in      
medical works instead of manuals of     
exorcism4 ,the  supernaturalist theory  
gives way to that of the expert         
neurologist4 ,the  exorcist is replaced 
by the physician4 ,instead of expelling 
an intruding  demon1 we have to repair a
 deranged system4 ,we cannot argue that 
while  these affections remain constant 

in character their causes may have been 
different in other ages from what they  
are now4 ,that is pure absurdity4  ,to  
claim that the religious mystic is in   
moments of exaltation brought  into     
contact with a deeper reality is to     
invite the retort that one  might make a
 similar claim on behalf of the inmates 
of a lunatic asylum4  ,we cannot1 with  
any pretence to rationality1 accept the 
verdicts of both  the neurologist and   
the exorcist4 ,if we agree that certain 
states of  mind to-day have their origin
 in neural disorder1 on what ground can 
we  believe that similar mental states  
occurring a thousand or two thousand    
years ago were due to supernatural      
stimulation8 ,we may be told that  there
 are more things in heaven and earth    
than are dreamed of in our  philosophy4 
,this may be true1 and while it is an   
observation that would  not occur to a  
fool1 it needs no supreme wisdom for its
 excogitation1  and as generally used it
 is an excuse for idle speculation and  

grotesque  theory4 ,far more useful is  
the lesson1 sadly needed1 that there are
 few  things in heaven or earth that    
will not yield their secret to a method 
of investigation that is sanely         
conceived and diligently employed4      
,the utter uselessness of accepting at  
its face value anyone's  explanation of 
the nature of his subjective experience1
 is well shown by  the once universal   
belief in witchcraft4 ,if there is a    
single belief on  behalf of which a mass
 of apparently unimpeachable evidence   
could be  produced1 it is this one4 ,it 
has run its course throughout the whole 
world4 ,it is still accepted by probably
 half the human race4 ,in our own       
country eminent men1 not alone          
theologians1 but doctors1 lawyers1      
statesmen1 and men of letters1 have     
given their solemn testimony in its     
favour4 ,thousands of people have been  
bewitched1 and their symptoms  described
 by thousands of others4 ,more          
remarkable still1 those accused  have   

often enough confessed their guilt4     
,every possible corroboration  has been 
given to this belief1 and yet it is now 
scouted by educated  persons all over   
the civilised world4 ,even religious    
teachers accept the  explanation that   
these witchcraft cases were due to      
distinctly  pathological conditions1 and
 to the power of suggestion operating   
upon  uninformed minds during an        
unenlightened age4 ,but communications  
with  spiritual beings rest on no better
 foundation than communication with     
,satan4 ,whether the alleged            
illumination be diabolic or angelic1 the
  evidence for either1 or both1 is the  
same4 ,the testimony of a man like  the 
,rev4 ,r4 ,j4 ,campbell that he is      
conscious of a divine influence in  his 
life is of no greater value than that of
 the medieval peasant who  felt himself 
tormented by ,satan4 ,the one person is 
no better authority  than is the other  
on such a topic4 ,both are the heirs of 
the ages1  inheritors of a superstition 

that goes back to the most primitive    
ages  of mankind1 only modified in its  
expression by the culture of            
contemporary life4    ,there is nothing 
new under the sun1 and human nature     
remains  substantially unchanged        
generation after generation4 ,all the   
phenomena  on which the belief in       
witchcraft was based1 remain4 ,cases of 
delusion  are common1 and the power of  
suggestion is an established fact in    
psychology4 ,all that has happened is   
this3 taking the facts on which the     
belief was based1 modern science has    
shown them to be explainable  without   
the slightest reference to the          
supernatural4 ,and this is the          
principle that must be applied in other 
directions4 ,old occurrences must  be   
explained in the light of new knowledge4
 ,this is the accepted rule in  other   
directions1 and it is of peculiar value 
in relation to religious  beliefs4 ,to  
know what religious people have thought 
and felt and said  gives us no more than

 the data for a scientific study of the 
subject4 ,to  know why they thought and 
felt and spoke thus is what we really   
need  to understand4 ,but if we are to  
do this we must relate phases of mind   
that are called religious to other      
phases of a non-religious character4  ,i
 believe it is quite possible to do     
this4 ,from medical records and from    
numerous biographies it is possible to  
parallel all the experiences of  the    
religious mystic4 ,we can see the same  
sense of exaltation1 the same           
conviction of illumination1 the same    
belief that one is the tool of a        
superior power4 ,take1 as merely        
illustrative of this1 the case of ,j4   
,addington ,symonds1 as narrated by     
,professor ,james1 who cites it as an   
example of a mystical experience with   
chloroform4 ,symonds tells us  that     
until he was twenty-eight years of age  
he was liable to extreme  states of     
exaltation concerning the nature of     
self4 7,it is worth while  pointing out 

that ,sir ,james ,crichton-,browne      
expresses the opinion that  ,symonds's  
higher nerve centres were in some degree
 enfeebled by these  abnormal states47  
,in addition to this confession he      
placed on record an  interesting        
experience while under the influence of 
chloroform4 ,he  says3--    ,after the  
choking and stifling had passed away1 ,i
 seemed at first in a  state of utter   
blankness2 then came flashes of intense 
light1  alternating with blankness1 and 
with a keen sense of vision of what was 
going on in the room around me1 but no  
sensation of touch4 ,i thought  that ,i 
was near death2 when suddenly my soul   
became aware of ,god who was  manifestly
 dealing with me1 handling me1 so to    
speak1 in an intense  personal reality4 
,i felt him streaming in like light upon
 me4444 ,i  cannot describe the ecstasy 
,i felt4 ,then1 as ,i gradually awoke   
from the  influence of the ansthetic1   
the old sense of my relation with the   
world  began to return1 the new sense of

 my relation to ,god began to fade4444  
,only think of it4 ,to have felt for    
that long dateless ecstasy of vision    
the very ,god1 in all purity1           
tenderness1 and truth1 and absolute     
love1  and then to find that ,i had     
after all had no revelation1 but that ,i
 had  been tricked by the abnormal      
excitement of my brain4    ,with a      
slight variation of expression this     
confession might have come  direct from 
the lips of the most pronounced mystic4 
,there is no question  of the intense   
reality of the experience4 ,that was as 
vivid as anything  that ever occurred to
 any saint in the calendar4 ,still1 no  
one will  dream of claiming that the way
 to get en rapport with the higher      
mysteries is by way of a dose of        
chloroform4 ,the distinction here is    
that ,symonds knew and described the    
cause of his experience4 ,and no one    
will question that the phrase tricked by
 the abnormal excitement of my  brain   
covers the ground4 ,of course1 there is 

always the easy retort  that saints and 
mystics did not use chloroform to       
produce their visions4  ,true1 but      
chloroform is not the only agent by     
means of which a person  may be thrown  
into an abnormal state4 ,other means may
 be used2 and as a  matter of fact1 the 
use of herbs and drugs1 as methods of   
producing  ecstatic states1 have        
obtained in religious ceremonies from   
the most  primitive times4 ,as we shall 
see later1 tobacco1 hashish1 coca1      
laurel  water1 and similar agents have  
been largely utilised for this purpose4 
,and when this plan is not              
adopted--although very often the two    
things  run side by side--we find       
fasting and other forms of self-torture 
practised because of the abnormal       
conditions produced4    ,it is not      
argued or implied that in all this there
 was of necessity  deliberate imposture4
 ,that would imply the possession of    
greater  knowledge than actually        
existed4 ,but it was known that ecstatic

 states  followed the use of certain    
drugs1 or were consequent on certain    
austerities1 and they were valued       
because they were believed to bring     
people into communion with a hidden     
spiritual world4 ,in this way there  has
 always been going on a more or less    
deliberate culture of the  supernatural1
 in more primitive times by crude and   
easily recognisable  means1 later by    
methods that are more subtle in         
character and more  difficult of        
detection4 ,but the method of inducing a
 sense of  spiritual illumination by    
means of practices alien to the normal  
life  of man remains unchanged          
throughout4 ,the collation of the       
conditions  under which mystical states 
of mind are experienced among savages   
with  similar experiences among the     
higher races1 proves at once that this  
statement contains no exaggeration of   
the facts4    ,the continuity of the    
phenomena is1 indeed1 of profound       
significance1  and is too often ignored4

 ,it is often asserted that we have to  
explain  the lower by the higher1 and we
 can only understand the significance of
  religion in its lower forms by bearing
 in mind the higher  manifestations4    
,this is sheer fallacy4 ,in nature the  
higher develops out  of the lower1 of   
which it is compounded4 ,in biology1 for
 example1 it is  now generally conceded 
that the secret of animal life lies in  
the cell4  ,this may be modified in all 
kinds of directions1 the resulting      
organic  structure may be of the utmost 
complexity1 but the basis remains       
unchanged4 ,so1 too1 with a great deal  
of so-called religious phenomena4  ,the 
story is not only continuous1 but the   
same elements remain unchanged  with    
only those modifications initiated by a 
changed environment4 ,and  just as we   
are driven back to the cell to explain  
organic structure1 so  for an           
understanding of the phenomena under    
consideration we must study  their      
primitive elements4 ,analysis must      

precede synthesis here as  elsewhere4   
,a survey of the subject is not at all  
exhausted by a study of abnormal        
conditions1 so far as these have entered
 into the life of religion4  ,there     
still remains the study of perfectly    
normal frames of mind that  are         
misinterpreted and diverted into        
religious channels4 ,the importance  of 
this will be seen more clearly when we  
come to deal with the subject  of       
conversion4 ,that conversion is a       
phenomenon of adolescence is now        
settled beyond all reasonable doubt4    
,statistics are conclusive on this      
point4 ,but the advocate of revivalism  
quite misses the true significance  of  
the fact4 ,current religious literature 
is full of quite meaningless  chatter   
concerning the change of view1 the      
larger and more unselfish  activities1  
that arise as a consequence of          
conversion4 ,there is really  no        
evidence that the changes indicated have
 any connection with  conversion4 ,all  

that does happen can be more simply and 
more adequately  explained as resulting 
from physiological and psychological    
changes in  terms of racial and social  
evolution4 ,the whole significance of   
adolescence lies in the bursting into   
activity of feelings hitherto  dormant1 
and the quickening of a desire for      
communion with a larger  social life4   
,the individual becomes less            
self-centred1 more alive to1  and more  
responsive to the claims of others2 he  
displays tendencies  towards what the   
world calls self-sacrifice1 but which   
mean1 in the  truest sense1             
self-realisation4 ,that these changes   
are often expressed  in terms of        
religion is undeniable4 ,this1 however1 
may be no more than  an environmental   
accident1 quite as much so as was the   
case when  epilepsy was explained in    
terms of possession4    ,so far as one  
can see1 there are no feelings or       
impulses characteristic  of adolescence 
that could not receive complete         

satisfaction in a  rationally ordered   
social life4 ,to-day it usually happens 
that the  strongest expressed influences
 brought to bear upon the individual are
  of a religious kind1 with the result  
that adolescent human nature is  most   
apt to express itself in religious      
language4 ,it must always be  borne in  
mind that we are all as dependent upon  
our environment for the  form in which  
our explanation of things is cast1 as we
 are for the  language in which we      
express those ideas4 ,the whole enquiry 
opened is a  very wide one1 with which  
,i can only deal parenthetically4 ,it is
 really  an enquiry as to how far the   
religious theory of human nature rests  
upon  a wrong interpretation of         
perfectly normal feelings1 or to what   
extent  supernaturalistic ideas are     
perpetuated by the                      
exploitation--innocent  exploitation1   
maybe--of man's social nature4 ,it is   
extremely probable  that a deeper       
knowledge1 a more accurate analysis of  

human qualities1  will disclose the     
truth that man is a social animal in a  
much more  profound sense than has      
usually attached to that phrase1 and the
  expression of these qualities in terms
 of religious beliefs1 or in terms  of  
non-religious beliefs1 is wholly        
determined by the knowledge current  in 
the society in which he moves4    ,i    
conclude this chapter with one more     
attempt to avoid misunderstanding4  ,for
 purposes of clarity it will be         
necessary to consider various factors   
out of relation to other factors4 ,but  
it should hardly need pointing out  that
 in actual life such a separation does  
not obtain4 ,the organism  functions as 
a whole2 each part acts upon and is     
acted upon by every  other part4 ,life  
in action is a synthesis1 and one       
resorts to analysis  only for the       
purpose of more adequate comprehension4 
,it is not1  moreover1 pretended that   
any one of the factors described in the 
following pages will explain religion1  

nor even that all of them  combined will
 do so4 ,the origin of the religious    
idea is a quite  different enquiry1 and 
is adequately dealt with in the writings
 of men  like ,tylor1 ,frazer1 ,spencer1
 and other representatives of the       
various  schools of anthropologists4 ,my
 present purpose is of a more restricted
  kind4 ,it is that of tracing the      
operation of various processes1 some    
normal1 but most of them abnormal1 that 
have in all ages been accepted  as      
evidence for the supernatural4 ,that the
 religious idea has been  associated    
with these processes1 and that for      
multitudes they have  served as strong  
evidence of its truth1 cannot be denied4
 ,and an  examination of this aspect of 
the history of religion ought not to be 
ignored1 however unpalatable such a     
study may be to certain  supersensitive 
minds4      ,,footnotes3    #a          
,varieties of ,religious ,experience1   
pp4 #aa-c4    #b ,varieties1 p4 #ad4    
#c ,religions of ,primitive ,peoples1 p4

 #ej4    #d ,page #bhh4    #e ,page     
#daj4    #f ,page #chg4    #g ,page     
#cgj4    #h ,varieties1 p4 #d4    #i    
,the hypothesis of faculties 444 must be
 regarded as productive of  much error  
in psychology4 ,it has led to the false 
supposition that  mental activity1      
instead of being one and the same       
throughout its  manifold phases1 is a   
juxtaposition of totally distinct       
activities1  answering to a bundle of   
detached powers1 somehow standing side  
by side1  and exerting no influence on  
one another4 ,sometimes this absolute   
separation of the parts of mind has gone
 so far as to personify the  several    
faculties as though they were distinct  
entities4--,sully1  ,outlines of        
,psychology1 p4 #bf4    #aj ,varieties1 
p4 #dgh4    #aa ,the ,blot upon the     
,brain1 p4 #d4    #ab ,the ,blot upon   
the ,brain1 p4 #af4    #ac ,cited by    
,dr4 ,ireland1 p4 #di4                  
,,chapter ,,two    ,,the ,,primitive    
,,mind  ,,its ,,environment      ,ever  

since the time of ,aristotle it has been
 an accepted truth that man  is a social
 animal4 ,not only is individual human  
nature such that it  craves for         
intercourse with its kind1 but it can   
only be effectively  understood in the  
light of those thousands of generations 
of associated  life that lie behind us  
all4 ,as an isolated object1 considered1
 that is1  apart from his fellows1 man  
is more or less of a myth4 ,at any rate1
 he  would not be the man we know and so
 may well be left out of account4 ,man  
as we know him is essentially a member  
of a group2 he is a part of a  really   
organic structure inasmuch as the       
characteristics of each part  are       
determined by its relations to the      
whole1 and the characteristics of  the  
whole determined by a synthesis of the  
qualities of the parts4    ,but while   
there is agreement in the fact1 there is
 a considerable  divergence of opinion  
as to its nature4 ,what is the nature of
 this fact  of sociability8 ,what is the

 character of the force that binds the  
members of a group so closely together8 
,by some1 the cause of  sociability is  
found in the pressure exerted upon all  
by purely external  forces4 ,the need   
for protection1 it is said1 drives human
 beings  together1 and thus in course of
 time the feeling of sociability is     
developed4 ,this seems much like        
mistaking a consequence for a cause4 ,it
  certainly leaves unanswered the       
question ,why should people have drawn  
together in the face of danger8 ,most   
certainly collective action  strengthens
 the capacity for defence2 and it also  
increases the  certainty of obtaining   
the means of subsistence4 ,such         
consequences  furnish a justification1  
so to speak1 of group life1 but they    
disclose  neither its nature nor its    
cause4 ,and most certainly they do not  
bring  us into touch with the           
fundamental qualities of human society4 
,the  need for food1 shelter1 or        
protection will not differentiate the   

gregarious from the non-gregarious forms
 of life1 nor the social from  the      
merely gregarious4 ,all forms of life   
require food1 protection1 and  shelter2 
they are part of animal economics4      
,there is nothing  specifically human   
about them4    ,we may reach what ,i    
conceive to be the truth in another way4
 ,environment  is to-day almost a cant  
word4 ,it is very largely used1 and1 as 
one might  expect1 largely              
misunderstood4 ,without actually saying 
it in so many  words1 a vast number of  
people seem to conceive the environment 
as  consisting of the purely material   
surroundings of man4 ,this is to        
overlook a most important fact4 ,even in
 the lowest stages of human  society1   
where man's power over natural forces is
 of the poorest kind1  it is not an     
exact statement of the case1 and it is  
profoundly untrue  when we take society 
in its higher developments4 ,if we take 
the lowest  existing savage race we find
 that its attitude towards life1 what it

  does1 and what it refrains from doing1
 is the product of a certain  mental    
attitude1 which is itself the outcome of
 a number of inherited  ideas and       
customs4 ,a number of white people1     
placed in exactly the same  material    
environment and faced with exactly the  
same external  circumstances1 bring a   
different psychological inheritance into
 play1  and act in an entirely different
 manner4 ,if we transport a ,chinaman   
into  ,england1 or an ,englishman into  
,china1 we find that both of them       
possess  the same biological and        
material needs whether in their native  
country  or elsewhere4 ,yet this        
community of needs does not make the    
,chinaman a  member of ,english society1
 nor an ,englishman a member of ,chinese
  society4 ,they are one in virtue of   
certain broad human characteristics2    
they are divided by certain qualities   
characteristic of their special  groups4
 ,each society is marked by the         
possession of certain  psychological    

characteristics--a number of specific   
beliefs and  emotional                  
developments--without which its         
distinctive group character  disappears4
 ,this is true of groups within the     
,state2 it is true of the  ,state as a  
whole2 it is true1 on the most general  
scale of all1 of the  race4    ,in other
 words1 the distinguishing feature of   
human society is the  possession of a   
psychological medium4 ,the adaptations  
that the human  being must make are     
mainly of a psychological character4    
,their form  may be partly determined by
 external conditions1 but this does not 
affect the general truth4 ,whether we   
take man in a civilised or in an        
uncivilised state we find the important 
thing about him to be his  relations to 
his fellows4 ,he is not merely a member 
of a tribe or a  society1 but he thinks 
that society's thoughts1 he feels their 
emotions1  his individual life is an    
expression of the psychical life of the 
group  to which he belongs4 ,and his    

transactions with nature are an         
expression  of the ideas and beliefs    
current in the society of which he is a 
part4    ,the recognition of this truth 
was one of the outstanding contributions
  of ,herbert ,spencer to the science of
 sociology4 ,whereas other writers  had 
stressed the power of the environment1  
as a purely material thing1  in shaping 
human institutions1 ,spencer placed     
chief stress upon the  emotional and    
intellectual life of primitive man as   
determining their  beginnings4 ,he      
showed how man's feelings and beliefs   
about himself1 and  about his fellows1  
and about the world of living forces    
with which he  believed himself to be   
surrounded1 were the all-important      
factors of  social evolution4 ,and the  
subsequent history of society has been  
such  that scientific sociology is very 
largely the study of the growth and     
elaboration of an essentially psychical 
environment4 ,the lower animal          
world--except so far as we allow for the

 operation of instincts--has1  broadly1 
only the existence of other animals and 
the physical  surroundings for its      
environment4 ,with man it is vastly     
different4 ,owing  primarily to         
language1 the environment of the man of 
to-day is made up  in part of the ideas 
of men who lived and died thousands of  
years ago4  ,the use of clothing and the
 invention of tools would alone make    
mind a  dominant fact in human life4    
,but apart from these things1 the great 
fact  of social heredity1 in virtue of  
which one generation enjoys the         
acquired culture of preceding           
generations1 and without which          
civilisation would have no existence1 is
 a great and dominant mental  fact4 ,our
 institutions1 our customs1 are         
transmitted to us as so many  psychic   
facts4 ,every new invention1 every fresh
 culture acquisition1 is  helping to    
strengthen and broaden the psychical    
environment of man4 ,each  newcomer is  
born into it2 it moulds his nature and  

determines his life1  as his own career 
and his own acquisition help to mould   
the life of his  successors4 ,whether   
the phenomena be simple or complex1     
whether we are  dealing with man in a   
civilised or in an uncivilised state1   
there is no  escape from the general    
truth that man is everywhere under the  
domination of his mental life4    ,so   
far as this enquiry is concerned1 we    
need only deal with one aspect  of the  
psychological medium in which primitive 
human life moves4 ,and so  far as       
primitive mankind seeks to control the  
movements of social life1  there can be 
no question that this is done under the 
impulsion of that  class of beliefs     
which we call religious4 ,the operation 
of religious  belief in savage society  
is neither spasmodic nor local4 ,it is1 
on the  contrary1 universal and         
persistent4 ,it influences every event  
of daily  life with a force that the    
modern mind finds very difficult to     
appreciate4 ,in almost every action the 

savage feels himself to be in  touch    
with a supersensual world of living     
beings that exert a direct and          
inescapable influence4 ,and any study of
 human evolution that is to be of  real 
value must take this circumstance into  
consideration to a far  greater extent  
than is usually done4 ,professor        
,frazer1 dealing with the  origin of    
various social institutions1 rightly    
observes that we are  only beginning to 
understand the mind of the savage1 and  
therefore the  mind of our savage       
forefathers who created these           
institutions and handed  them down to   
us1 and warns us that a knowledge of the
 truth may  involve a reconstruction of 
society such as we can hardly dream of4 
,he  also warns us that we have at all  
times1 in dealing with social origins1  
to reckon with the influence of         
superstition1 which pervades the life   
of the savage and has contributed to    
build up the social organism to an      
incalculable extent4#ad    ,in          

emphasising this it must not be taken to
 imply that because social  institutions
 and human actions are in primitive     
times moulded by  religious beliefs1    
they stand to them in a relation of     
complete  dependence4 ,it only means    
that the psychological medium is of such
 a  character that supernaturalistic    
reasons are found for doings things     
that are susceptible to a totally       
different explanation4 ,the facts of    
life are expressed in terms of          
supernaturalism4 ,birth1 marriage1      
death1  social cohesion1 leadership1    
health and disease1 are all natural     
facts1  and the mere play of social     
selection determines the weeding out of 
practices that are sufficiently adverse 
to tribal well-being to threaten  its   
security4 ,but in primitive times all   
these facts are allied with  religious  
beliefs1 and to the primitive mind the  
religious belief  becomes the chief     
feature connected with them4 ,as a      
matter of fact1 this  is far from an    

uncommon feature of social life to-day4 
,the amount of  supernaturalism current 
is still very large2 and one still finds
 people  explaining some of the plainest
 facts of social life in terms of       
supernaturalistic beliefs4 ,it is all   
part of the truth that man is  always   
under the domination of the             
psychological forces4    ,this being    
granted1 the enquiry immediately        
presents itself1 ,how comes  it that the
 facts of social life should be         
expressed in terms of  supernaturalism8 
,why do these facts not immediately     
present themselves  in their true       
nature8 ,to answer this question one    
must bear in mind a  yet further truth4 
,this is that the explanation which man 
offers to  himself or to others of      
phenomena must always be in terms of    
current  knowledge4 ,a modern called    
upon to explain a storm1 an eclipse1 or 
a  disease1 does so in terms of current 
physical or biological science4  ,this  
is done in virtue of a mass of prepared 

knowledge1 slowly  accumulated by       
preceding generations1 and which forms  
part of his social  heritage4 ,primitive
 man likewise explains things in terms  
of current  knowledge1 but in his case  
the amount of reliable information is of
 a  very scanty and generally erroneous 
description4 ,the inherited knowledge   
which enables a modern schoolboy to     
start life with what would have been  an
 outfit to an ancient philosopher1 had  
yet to be created4 ,instead of  finding1
 as we find1 tools ready to hand1       
replies prepared to questions  that may 
arise1 primitive mankind must create its
 own tools and prepare  its own answers4
 ,and in consequence of this the social 
environment1  which at all times        
determines the form of man's mental     
output1 is with  primitive man radically
 different from our own4 ,but however   
the form  varies there is agreement on  
this one point--in both cases phenomena 
are  explained in terms of known forces2
 the reasoning of each is determined  by

 the knowledge of each4 ,the laws of    
mental life remain the same in all      
stages of culture4 ,the brain functions 
identically whether we take the  savage 
or the scientist4 ,in a general way the 
savage intelligence is as  rational as  
that of a modern thinker4 ,the          
difference is dependent upon  the       
accuracy and extent of the information  
possessed by each4 ,hence the  vital    
difference in the conclusions reached4  
,hence1 too1 the dominance  of          
supernaturalism in primitive times4     
,the great distinction between primitive
 and scientific thinking may be         
expressed in a sentence--the modern mind
 explains man by the world1  primitive  
thought explained the world by man4 ,in 
the one case we move  from within       
outward1 in the other from without      
inward4 ,we are not now  concerned with 
semi-metaphysical idealistic theories   
that would reduce  the whole choir of   
heaven and furniture of earth to the    
creation of  mental activity1 but with  

the plain1 understandable truth that the
  human organism is fashioned by the    
environment in which it dwells4 ,and    
there is amongst those capable of       
expressing an authoritative  opinion--an
 agreement supported by evidence that   
has simply nothing  against it--that the
 world of primitive man is              
overpoweringly animistic4  ,in the      
absence of that mass of scientifically  
verified knowledge which  forms part of 
our social heritage1 humanity commences 
its intellectual  career by endowing    
natural forces with the qualities       
possessed by  itself4 ,the forces       
conceived are living ones4 ,they are to 
be dreaded  exactly as human beings are 
to be dreaded2 to be appeased or        
circumvented by the same methods that   
man applies to his fellows4 ,the        
problem before the savage is thus a very
 real one4 ,in essence it is the        
problem that is ever before             
humanity--that of subjugating forces to 
its  own welfare4 ,primitive man is not1

 however1 concerned with the            
elaboration of theories2 nor is he      
consumed with vague 'spiritual          
yearnings4' ,his difficulty is how to   
control or placate those invisible  but 
very real powers upon which he believes 
everything depends4 ,he would  willingly
 ignore them if he could1 and would     
cheerfully dispense with  their presence
 altogether if he believed that things  
would proceed as  well in their absence4
 ,but there they are1 inescapable facts 
that have  to be reckoned with4    ,the 
general outlook of the primitive mind is
 well put by ,miss ,mary  ,kingsley in  
the following passage3--    ,to the     
,african the ,universe is made up of    
matter permeated by spirit4  ,everything
 happens by the direct action of spirit4
 ,the thing he does  himself is done by 
the spirit within him acting on his body
 444  everything that is done by other  
things is done by their spirit          
associated with their particular mass of
 matter4444 ,the native will  point out 

to you a lightning-stricken tree and    
tell you that its spirit  has been      
killed4 ,he will tell you1 when the     
earthen cooking pot is  broken1 it has  
lost its spirit4 ,if his weapon fails   
him1 it is because  someone has stolen  
its spirit or made it weak by means of  
his influence  on spirits of the same   
class4444 ,in every action of his life  
he shows  you how he lives with a great 
spirit world around him4 ,you see him   
before he starts out to fight rubbing   
stuff into his weapon to  strengthen the
 spirit that is in it2 telling it the   
while what care he  has taken of it4444 
,you see him leaning over the face of   
the water  talking to its spirit with   
proper incantations1 asking it when it  
meets  an enemy of his to upset his     
canoe and destroy him4444 ,if a man is  
knocked on the head with a club1 or shot
 by an arrow or a bullet1 the  cause of 
death is clearly the malignity of       
persons using these weapons2  and so it 
is easy to think that a man killed by   

the falling of a tree1  or by the       
upsetting of a canoe in the surf1 or in 
a whirlpool in the  river is also a     
victim of some being using these things 
as weapons4 ,for  a man holding this    
view1 it seems both natural and easy to 
regard  disease as a manifestation of   
the wrath of some invisible being1 and  
to  construct that intricate system     
which we find among the ,africans1 and  
agree to call ,witchcraft1 ,fetish1 or  
,juju4#ae    ,miss ,kingsley is here    
dealing specifically with ,west ,africa1
 but her  description applies in a      
general way to uncivilised people all   
over the  world4 ,there is much closer  
resemblance between the beliefs of      
uncivilised peoples than between        
civilised ones1 because the conditions  
are much more alike4 ,and under         
substantially identical conditions the  
human mind has everywhere reached       
substantially identical conclusions4    
,the philosophy of the savage is simple1
 comprehensive1 and1 given the  data1   

logical4 ,he does not divide the world  
into the natural and the  supernatural2 
it is all one4 ,at most1 he has only the
 seen and the  unseen4 ,the             
supernatural1 as a distinct category1   
only appears when a  definite knowledge 
of the natural has arisen to which it   
can be opposed4  ,he has no such        
distinction as that of the material and 
the immaterial2  so far as he thinks of 
these things1 the invisible is only a   
finer form  of the visible4 ,of one     
thing1 however1 he is perfectly         
convinced1 and  this is that he is at   
all times surrounded by a host of       
invisible  agencies to which all        
occurrences are due1 and with whom he   
must come to  terms4 ,even death wears a
 different aspect to the primitive mind 
from  that which it presents to the     
modern4 ,to us death puts a sharp and   
abrupt termination to life4 ,to the     
primitive mind death involves no such   
ending4#af ,death is no more of a break 
than is sleep2 and at all times  the    

conception of an annihilation of        
personality requires a marked  degree of
 mental power4 ,so with the savage--the 
'dead' man simply goes  on living4 ,he  
may be incarnated in some natural       
object1 or he may simply  go on living  
as one of the innumerable company of    
tribal ghosts4 ,but he  remains a force 
to be reckoned with1 and the need for   
dealing with these  ghostly personages  
is one of the ever-present problems of  
primitive  sociology1 and brings us very
 near the beginnings of all religious   
beliefs and ceremonies--if it does not  
form their real starting-point4    ,on  
one point all modern schools of         
anthropologists are agreed4 ,this is    
that man's first conception of the      
supernatural--or what afterwards  ranks 
as such--is derived from a purely       
mistaken interpretation of  natural     
phenomena4 ,in this they have returned  
to the standpoint of  ,hobbes1 that fear
 of things invisible forms the natural  
seed of  religion4 ,one source of origin

 of this belief in a supernatural world 
is certainly found in the phenomena of  
dreaming4 ,to the savage his  dreams are
 as real as his waking experiences4 ,he 
does not dream he  goes to distant      
places2 he goes there during his sleep4 
,he does not  dream that people visit   
him2 they actually come4 ,if a ,west    
,african  wakes up in the morning with a
 tired1 bruised feeling1 this arises1 as
  ,miss ,kingsley says1 from his 'soul' 
having been out fighting and got        
ill-treated4 ,the only philosophy of    
dreaming amongst savage races is  that  
of the excursions and incursions of a   
'soul' or double4    ,another powerful  
factor in the development of belief in  
the supernatural  is that of man's      
attempt to explain natural happenings4  
,why do things  happen8 ,why does the   
sun rise and set1 why does rain fall1   
thunder  crash1 rivers flow8 ,note the  
way in which a child answers similar    
questions1 and one is on the track of   
the primitive intelligence4 ,if  man's  

own movements are caused by a 'soul' or 
double1 then other things  must also    
move because they possess a 'soul4' ,if 
an answer is to be  found at all1 it is 
only along these lines that the         
primitive mind is  able to find it4     
,and1 once the answer is given1 there   
are a thousand  and one things occurring
 that lend it apparent support4         
,resemblances in  nature1 coincidences1 
echoes1 shadows1 etc41 all give their   
support to  this primitive              
hypothesis--the only one possible in the
 circumstances1  and the one still      
endorsed by the majority of the world's 
population4    ,particularly strong     
endorsement of this belief is supplied  
by disease  and abnormal nervous states4
 ,instances to illustrate this are      
innumerable1 but from the numerous cases
 cited by ,spencer ,i select the        
following3 ,among the ,amazulus         
convulsions are believed to be caused by
  ancestral spirits4 ,with ,asiatic     
races epileptics are regarded as        

possessed by demons4 ,with the ,kirghiz 
the involuntary muscular movements  of a
 woman in childbirth are believed to be 
caused by a spirit taking  possession of
 the body4 ,the ,samoans attribute all  
madness to possession4  ,the ,congo     
people have the same notion of epilepsy4
 ,the ,east ,africans  believe that     
falling sickness is due to spirits4#ag  
,in ,rajputana1 says  ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke1 
disease is generally attributed to ,khor
 or the agency of  offended spirits4    
,the ,mahadeo ,kolis of ,ahmadnagar     
believe that every  malady or disease   
that seizes man1 woman1 or child1 or    
cattle1 is caused  either by evil       
spirits or by an angry god4 ,the        
,bijapur ,veddas have a  yearly feast to
 their ancestors to prevent the dead    
bringing sickness  into the house4#ah ,a
 ,catholic missionary1 says ,professor  
,frazer1  observes that in ,new ,guinea 
the nepir1 or sorcerer1 is              
everywhere4444  ,nothing happens without
 the sorcerer's intervention2 wars1     

marriage1  death1 expeditions1 fishing1 
hunting1 always and everywhere the      
sorcerer4#ai    ,in ,ancient ,egypt1    
,chaldea1 and ,assyria there is ample   
evidence that the  same belief          
flourished4 ,everywhere we find the     
exorcist and the  witch-doctor existing 
as natural consequents of the belief    
that disease  has a supernatural origin4
 ,we see it in both the teaching and    
practice  of the early ,christian       
,church4 ,that great father of the      
,church1 ,origen1  says3 ,it is demons  
which produce famine1 unfruitfulness1   
corruption of  the air1 and pestilence4 
,st4 ,augustine said that ,all diseases 
of  ,christians are to be ascribed to   
demons4 ,the ,church of ,england still  
retains in its ,articles an             
authorisation for the expulsion of      
demons2  and a number of charms yet in  
wide use amongst civilised nations show 
how persistent is this belief4 ,for     
centuries there existed all over        
,europe sacred pools1 wells1 grottos1   

etc41 all bearing eloquent witness  to  
the deep-seated belief that disease was 
of supernatural origin1 and  was to be  
conquered by supernatural means4        
,enough has been said to indicate the   
kind of environment in which  primitive 
man moves1 and also to understand why   
ideas concerning the  supernatural exert
 such an enormous influence in early    
society4 ,in a  world where everything  
was yet to be learned1 man's first      
attempts at  understanding himself and  
his fellows were necessarily blundering 
and  tentative4 ,his first attempts at  
explanation are expressed in terms of   
his own nature4 ,he sees himself1 his   
own passions1 strengths1 and  weaknesses
 reflected in the nature around him4    
,this is the outstanding1  dominating   
fact in primitive life4 ,leave out this 
consideration and  primitive sociology  
becomes a chaos4 ,admit it1 and we see  
the reason why  social institutions     
assumed the form they took1 and also a  
key to much  that happens in subsequent 

human history4 ,in primitive life       
religious  beliefs are not something    
separate from other forms of social     
life2 so  far as man seeks consciously  
to shape that life they are to him an   
essential part of it4 ,and the mistake  
once made is perpetuated4 ,the  initial 
blunder once committed1 daily experience
 seems to give it  constant             
justification4 ,in the absence of       
knowledge concerning natural  forces    
every event1--particularly if           
unusual1--every case of disease1        
endorses and strengthens the mistake    
made4 ,a psychological fatality  drives 
the human race along the wrong path of  
investigation1 and only  very slowly is 
the mistake rectified4 ,one cannot see  
how it could have  been otherwise4 ,the 
only corrective is knowledge1 and       
knowledge is a  plant of slow growth4   
,this psychological first step was man's
 first  attempt to frame a theory of    
things satisfactory to his intellect--an
  attempt that1 beginning in the crude  

animism of the savage1 ends in the      
verifiable laws of modern science4      
,from the point of view of our present  
enquiry two things are to be  noted4    
,the first is that man's conviction of  
the nearness of a  supernatural world   
began in his lack of knowledge          
concerning the nature  of natural       
forces4 ,of this there can be little    
doubt4 ,one can take all  the facts upon
 which primitive mankind built1 and     
still builds1 its  theories of          
supernaturalism1 and show that they may 
be explained in a  quite different      
manner4 ,the movements of the planets1  
the rush of  comets1 the presence of    
disaster1 the thousand and one          
operations of  natural forces no longer 
suggest to educated minds the action of 
personal beings4 ,the whole data of the 
primitive theory of things have  been   
rejected4 ,the premises were false1 and 
the conclusions necessarily  false also4
    ,the second point is that from the  
earliest times one of the strongest     

proofs of human contact with a          
supernatural world has been found in the
  existence of abnormal or pathological 
states of mind4 ,these may have         
sometimes arisen quite naturally2 at    
other times they have been  deliberately
 induced4 ,how much the perpetuation of 
religious beliefs as  a whole owes to   
this factor has never yet been          
adequately realised4 ,that  it has had a
 very great influence seems beyond      
dispute4 ,for it seems  certain that had
 not proofs of a supernatural world been
 offered in  the shape of visions1      
ecstatic states1 etc41 religious beliefs
 would  hardly have exercised the power 
that has been theirs4 ,the number of    
people who are able to maintain a strong
 consciousness of the truth of          
religion1 merely looking at it as a     
philosophy of existence1 is  naturally  
very few4 ,the great majority require   
more tangible evidence if  their belief 
is to be kept alive and active4 ,and    
curiously enough1 the  very growth of a 

naturalistic explanation has driven a   
great many to  find the evidence they   
desired in those abnormal states of mind
 that  seemed to defy scientific        
analysis4 ,in succeeding chapters       
evidence will  be given to show to what 
extent this kind of evidence for the    
supernatural has been offered and       
accepted4 ,it will be seen1 as          
,professor ,tylor points out1 that the  
line of religious development is        
continuous4 ,the latest forms stretch   
back in an unbroken line to the         
earliest4 ,and if this proves nothing   
else1 it at least proves that           
consequences do not always die out with 
the conditions that gave them  birth4   
,it was the world of the savage that    
gave birth to the  supernatural4 ,but   
the supernatural is still with us1 even 
though the  world that gave it birth has
 disappeared4 ,we retain conclusions    
based on  admittedly false premises4    
,,footnotes3    #ad ,lectures on the    
,early ,history of the ,kingship1 pp4   

#cf-g4    #ae ,west ,african ,studies1  
pp4 #cid-f4    #af ,see an interesting  
article on this point by ,w4 ,h4 ,r4    
,rivers on ,the  ,primitive ,conception 
of ,death1 in ,the ,hibbert ,journal for
 ,jan4 #aiab4    #ag ,principles of     
,sociology1 vol4 i4    #ah ,popular     
,religion and ,folklore of ,northern    
,india1 i4 p4 #abd4    #ai ,golden      
,bough1 #crd ed41 i4 #ccg4              
,,chapter ,,three    ,,the ,,religion   
,,of ,,mental ,,disease      ,it is an  
interesting problem1 says ,professor ,j4
 ,h4 ,leuba1 to  determine what         
influences have led theologians to      
anchor their beliefs  upon the          
proposition that religious experience   
differs from other forms  of            
consciousness in that it gives one an   
immediate knowledge of the  external    
existence of certain objects of belief1 
although they do not  fall under the    
senses1 and an immediate knowledge of   
the truth of  certain historical        
facts4#bj ,this is1 indeed1 an          

interesting problem1  and1 we may add1  
one of growing importance1 since there  
is a pronounced  tendency on the part of
 present-day exponents of religion to   
rest their  case almost entirely upon   
the immediacy of their religious        
consciousness4 ,this conception of a    
certain order of experience1  however1  
is not and cannot have always existed4  
,a belief may be so  widely and so      
generally diffused that it is accepted  
without resistance1  and1 as it would   
almost seem1 in the absence of evidence4
 ,but its  intuitive character is only  
superficial1 and disappears on careful  
examination4 ,the mere vogue of a belief
 constitutes in itself a kind of        
evidence1 and for many people the most  
powerful kind of evidence4 ,but  the    
conviction itself has a history1 and it 
is in the unravelling of  that history1 
in the discovery of the class of facts  
upon which the  conviction has been     
built1 that the work lies4 ,and when    
this is done it  will be found that our 

intuitions are invariably based upon a  
continuous--even though partly          
unconscious--appeal to facts4 ,sometimes
  it will1 of course1 be found that a   
renewed and deliberate appeal to the    
facts in question will justify the      
conviction4 ,at other times it will  be 
found that the facts demand an          
altogether new interpretation4 ,for     
centuries all the observed facts        
supported a conviction that the earth   
was flat4 ,it was a fresh scrutiny of   
the facts in the light of a new         
conception that revolutionised human    
opinion on the subject4    ,what1 then1 
is the history1 and what are the facts  
upon which the belief  that religious   
experience brings man into contact with 
a kind of  existence not given in       
ordinary experience1 is based8 ,the kind
 of answer  that will be given to this  
question has already been indicated4    
,religious beliefs are in their origin  
of the nature of an induction from  an  
observed order4 ,the induction is not   

the result of that careful  collection  
of facts1 leading up to an equally      
careful generalisation and  subsequent  
verification1 which is a characteristic 
of modern science1  but it is an        
induction none the less4 ,the primitive 
mind is not so much  engaged in seeking 
an explanation of certain experiences1  
as it has an  explanation forced upon   
it4 ,to picture the savage as inventing 
a theory  in the sense in which ,darwin 
propounded the theory of ,natural       
,selection  is to quite misconceive the 
nature of the savage intelligence4 ,but 
to  conceive the savage as having a     
certain explanation suggested by the    
pressure of repeated experiences1 and   
that this explanation subsequently      
assumes the character of a fixed belief1
 is well within the scope of the  facts 
known to us4 ,in this stage of culture  
the existence of  supernatural beings is
 as much a deduction from experience as 
any modern  scientific generalisation4  
,certain things are seen1 certain       

feelings are  experienced1 and the      
conclusion is that they are the products
 of  supernatural agency4 ,from this    
point of view religion is no more than a
  primitive science4 ,it is the first   
stage of that long series of            
generalisations which1 beginning with   
crude animism1 ends with the            
discoveries of a ,copernicus1 a ,newton1
 a ,darwin1 or a ,spencer4 ,it is a     
history that begins with vitalism and   
ends with mechanism4 ,we commence  with 
a world in which there exists a chaotic 
assemblage of independent  personal     
forces1 and end with a universe that is 
self-acting1  self-adjusting1           
self-contained1 and in which science    
makes no allowance  for the operation of
 intelligence save such as meets us in  
animal  organisation4    ,now amongst   
the facts that suggest to the primitive 
intelligence the  operation of          
'spiritual' forces are those connected  
with the human  organism itself in both 
its normal and abnormal states4 ,but it 

is  important to note--particularly so  
for the understanding of the part       
played by ecstatic religious phenomena  
in comparatively recent  times--that    
once the occurrence of a certain state  
of mind is conceived  as the product of 
intercourse between man and spirits1    
there is every  inducement to cultivate 
these frames of mind whenever renewed   
intercourse is desired4 ,this does not  
imply1 at least in the earlier  stages1 
conscious imposture4 ,generally the     
operator imposes on himself  as much as 
he imposes on others4 ,noting that      
privation of body1 or  torture of mind1 
or the use of certain herbs is followed 
by visions or  ecstasy1 it is believed1 
not that the vision is the product of   
the  practice1 but that the practice is 
the condition of illumination4    ,this 
attitude of mind is fairly paralleled by
 what takes place at the  ordinary      
spiritualistic seance4 ,those attending 
are advised that the  chief condition of
 a communication with the inhabitants of

 the other  world is a passive state of 
mind4 ,this passivity cannot exclude    
expectancy1 since it is only assumed in 
order that something may occur4  ,if    
nothing occurs1 if no communications are
 received1 it is because the  requisite 
conditions have not been fulfilled1 and 
the sceptic is met  with much           
semi-scientific jargon as to conditions 
being necessary to  every scientific    
investigation4 ,the fact that this      
passivity and  expectancy1 with other   
attendant circumstances1 not the least  
of which  is the contagious influence of
 a number of people with a similar      
mental  disposition1 opens the way to   
self-delusion is ignored4 ,then when the
  expected and desired result follows1  
the mental attitude cultivated is  taken
 as the condition of communication with 
the spiritual world1  instead of its    
being1 in all probability1 the true     
cause of what is  experienced4 ,in this 
way the story of supernatural           
intercourse runs  clear and unbroken    

from primitive savagery to its survival 
in modern  civilisation4 ,when          
,professor ,tylor says1 ,the conception 
of the human  soul is1 as to its most   
essential nature1 continuous from the   
philosophy  of the savage thinker to    
that of the modern professor of         
theology1#ba  he makes a statement that 
is true of the whole story of           
supernatural  intercourse in all its    
varied manifestations4    ,the chief    
distinction between primitive and modern
 man lies in the  consideration that in 
the first case the blunder is           
inevitable1 in the  latter case the     
remedy lies to hand4 ,how could         
primitive man be aware of  the real     
connection between the use of certain   
drugs or herbs and an  excitation or    
depression of the activities of the     
nervous system8 ,he  does observe       
consequences1 but he is quite ignorant  
of causes4 ,even  to-day their full     
consequences are unknown2 and it is     
absurd to expect  that savage humanity  

should have been better informed4 ,and  
even when a  more rational theory       
exists1 the practice persists under     
various forms4  ,this is a principle    
that receives vivid illustration from   
the history of  religions4 ,the modern  
believer in mystical states of          
consciousness no  longer advocates the  
use of drugs1 and even fasting is going 
out of  fashion4 ,but we still have a   
continuation of the primitive practice  
in  the shape of insistence on the      
cultivation of abnormal frames of mind  
if  we are to experience a consciousness
 of communion with an alleged           
supersensible reality4 ,that is1 we are 
to achieve by a mental discipline  what 
the savage or the medieval monk achieved
 by coarser and more  obvious methods4  
,to withdraw the mind from the normal   
influence of  everyday life is to expose
 it to the play of hallucination and    
delusion4  ,there is really no vital    
difference between unhealthy1 solitary  
brooding  on a given subject and        

drugging the mind with hashish4 ,this   
class of  modern mystic is one with the 
savage in an inability to recognise that
  the illumination is the product of the
 discipline1 not the mere  condition of 
its possession4 ,between the drug of the
 savage1 the fasting  and self-torture  
of the medieval monk and the prayerful  
meditation of  the modern mystic1 the   
difference is only that of changed times
 and  altered conditions4 ,the method is
 the same throughout4    ,the truth of  
this has been well put by ,tylor3--     
,the religious beliefs of the lower     
races are in no small measure based  on 
the evidence of visions and dreams1     
regarded as actual intercourse  with    
spiritual being4 ,from the earliest     
stages of culture we find  religion in  
close alliance with ecstatic physical   
conditions4 ,these are  brought on by   
various means of interference with the  
healthy action of  body and mind1 and it
 is scarcely needful to remind the      
reader that1  according to philosophic  

theories antecedent to those of modern  
medicine1 such morbid disturbances are  
explained as symptoms of divine         
visitation1 or at least of superhuman   
spirituality4 ,among the strongest      
means of disturbing the functions of the
 mind so as to produce ecstatic  vision1
 is fasting1 accompanied1 as it usually 
is1 with other  privations1 and with    
prolonged solitary contemplation in the 
desert or  in the forest4 ,among the    
ordinary vicissitudes of savage life1   
the wild  hunter has many a time to try 
involuntarily the effects of such a life
  for days together1 and under these    
circumstances he soon comes to see  and 
talk with phantoms which are to him     
invisible spirits4 ,the secret of       
spiritual intercourse thus learnt1 he   
has thence-forth but to reproduce  the  
cause in order to renew the effects4#bb 
,as a means1 then1 of strengthening and 
perpetuating a consciousness of         
intercourse with the spiritual world1 we
 have to reckon with1 not merely  the   

accidental occurrence of abnormal       
nervous conditions1 but with their      
deliberate cultivation4 ,the practice is
 world-wide1 and persists in some  form 
or other in all ages4 ,thus we find the 
,australians and many tribes  of ,north 
,american ,indians use tobacco for this 
purpose4 ,in ,western  ,siberia a       
species of fungi1 the 'fly ,agaric1' so 
called because it is  often steeped and 
the solution used to destroy house      
flies1 is used to  produce religious    
ecstasy4 ,its action on the muscular    
system is  stimulatory1 and it greatly  
excites the nervous system4#bc ,an early
  ,spanish observer says of the ancient 
,mexicans that they used a kind of      
mushroom1 which are eaten raw1 and on   
account of being bitter1 they  drink    
after them1 or eat with them a little   
honey of bees1 and shortly  after they  
see a thousand visions4#bd ,the mushroom
 was called the  bread of the gods4 ,the
 ,californian ,indians give children    
tobacco1 in  order to receive           

instruction from the resulting visions4 
,north ,american  ,indians held         
intoxication by tobacco to be           
supernatural ecstasy1 and the  dreams of
 men in this state to be inspired4 ,the 
,darien ,indians use the  seeds of the  
,datura ,sanguinea to induce visions4   
,in ,peru the priests  prepared         
themselves for intercourse with the gods
 by partaking of a  narcotic drink from 
the same plant4 ,in ,guiana the priest  
was prepared  for his functions by      
fasting and flagellation1 and was       
afterwards dosed  with tobacco juice4#be
 ,in ,india the ,laws of ,manu give     
explicit  instructions as to the means  
of producing visions4 ,chief of these is
 the  use of the ',soma' drink4 ,this is
 prepared from the flower of the lotus4 
,the sap of this1 says ,de ,candolle1   
would be poisonous if taken in large    
quantities1 but in small doses merely   
induces hallucination4 ,opium and       
hashish1 a preparation of the hemp      
plant1 have been in general use among   

,eastern peoples1 as a means of         
producing ecstasy from remote antiquity4
  ,opium1 it is well known1 produces an 
extraordinary state of exaltation1      
intensifying the sense of one's         
personality1 and inducing a pleasurable 
consciousness of mental strength and    
clarity4 ,under its influence1 as ,de   
,quincey said1 time lengthens to        
infinity and space swells to            
immensity4#bf ,belladonna1 a drug much  
used by medieval witches and  sorcerers1
 has also had its vogue for purely      
religious purposes4 ,with  the ,greeks  
the laurel was sacred to sculapius4     
,those who wished to ask  counsel of the
 god appeared before the altar crowned  
with laurel and  chewing its leaves4    
,before prophesying1 the ,greek         
priestesses drank a  preparation of     
laurel water4 ,this contains1 although  
it was1 of course1  unknown to them1 two
 toxic substances--prussic acid and the 
volatile oil  of laurel4 ,the first     
would induce convulsions1 the second1   

hallucinatory  visions4 ,the two        
combined were calculated to produce with
 both subject  and observer a profound  
impression of spiritual illumination and
  possession4    ,it is unnecessary to  
multiply examples of the action of      
various drugs or  herbs on the nervous  
system1 or to cite the people who use   
them4 ,enough  has been said to indicate
 how widespread is the practice1 and the
  consequences are not hard to foresee4 
,a very moderate development of         
intelligence would enable men to        
associate certain consequences with the 
use of particular drugs1 but a very     
considerable amount of knowledge  would 
be required to explain why these        
consequences were produced4 ,in a       
social environment saturated with       
superstition the explanation lies  ready
 to hand1 and is accepted without       
question4 ,a people that sees  spiritual
 agency in all the familiar phenomena of
 nature are certainly  not less likely  
to trace its influence in the mysterious

 and  unaccountable effects of narcotics
 and stimulants4 ,and each repeated     
experiment provides additional proof4   
,man thus not only believes himself  to 
be surrounded by a spiritual world2 he  
is actually able to enter into          
communication with it by methods that   
are defined in the clearest  possible   
manner4 ,every repetition strengthens   
the delusion and even  when the         
delusion1 as such1 is exploded1 the     
temper of mind induced by  it persists4 
,various other methods are employed to  
induce a feeling of religious           
exaltation4 ,prominent among these are  
dancing and singing4 ,dancing in        
connection with religious ceremonies is 
now generally outgrown in the  civilised
 world1 but singing is still the vogue4 
,that is1 singing is  not1 it must be   
remembered1 practised from any desire to
 cultivate a  love of music1 although it
 may appeal to music-lovers4 ,still1 its
 avowed  purpose is to induce a feeling 
of devoutness in the congregation4 ,the 

hypnotic consequences of a body of      
people singing in unison1 or the        
soothing1 mystical effect of certain    
airs from a choir upon a  congregation1 
are recognised in practice if not in    
theory4 ,this is a  phenomenon that is  
not1 of course1 exclusively associated  
with religion4  ,in this as in other    
instances religion only utilises the    
ordinary  qualities of human nature4    
,but in all cases the purpose and the   
result  are the same4 ,that is1 the     
subject is placed for the time being in 
a  supernormal condition1 and the mild  
state of passivity or enthusiasm        
created makes him more susceptible to   
the influence brought to bear upon  him4
 ,this is true of religious singing and 
chanting1 from the forest  gatherings of
 the primitive savage down to the more  
sedate and elaborate  assemblages in    
church or chapel4    ,primitive dancing 
had both a sexual and religious         
significance1  although1 as will be seen
 later1 in the primitive mind the sexual

  functions themselves are very closely 
associated with supernatural  agency4   
,tylor is of opinion that originally men
 and women dance in order  to express   
their feelings and wishes1#bg but it is 
certain it very  early and universally  
became associated with religious        
ceremonies1 and  that because of the    
ecstasy induced4 ,in some cases         
drug-taking and  dancing go together4   
,in others1 reliance is placed on       
dancing alone4  ,this latter is the case
 with the 'devil dancers' of ,ceylon4   
,in ,africa  the witch doctor discovers 
who has been guilty of sorcery by the   
aid of  inspiration furnished during a  
dance4 ,the whirling dance of the       
,eastern  dervish is well known4        
,dancing also figures in the ,bible4    
,the ,jews  danced around the golden    
calf 7,ex4 xxxii4 #ai7 in a state of    
nudity4  ,david1 too1 danced naked      
before the ,lord4 ,dancing was also part
 of the  religious ceremonies attendant 
on the worship of ,dionysos or          

,bacchus4#bh ,along with the drinking of
 certain vegetable decoctions1  dancing 
formed an important part of the witches'
 saturnalia during the  medieval period4
 ,when in a state of frenzy1 partly drug
 induced and  partly the product of     
exhilaration caused by wild dancing1    
visions of  ,satan followed4 ,in the    
dancing mania of the fourteenth century1
 the  sufferers saw visions of heaven   
opened1 with ,jesus and the ,virgin     
enthroned4 ,dancing was one of the      
prominent characteristics of the        
,french ,convulsionnaires in the        
eighteenth century4 ,in more recent     
times  we have the dancing and singing  
connected with the ,methodist revival4  
,in  modern instances the dancing seems 
to have been consequent on religious    
excitement rather than precedent to it1 
but in earlier times there is no  doubt 
that it was deliberately practised as a 
means of producing a state  of          
exaltation4    ,among the commonest     
methods of inducing a sense of religious

 exaltation  is the practice of fasting4
 ,in various guises1 this is the most   
persistent form of religious            
self-torture4 ,amongst more civilised   
people  the reason given for fasting is 
that it is a form of repentance1 the    
genuineness of which is attested by     
voluntary punishment4 ,but originally   
there seems little reason to doubt that 
it was adopted for a different  purpose4
 ,it was valued not because the fasting 
person felt that he had  done anything  
for which it was necessary to repent1   
but because it was  believed to bring   
people into closer touch with the       
spiritual world4  ,there is1 of course1 
a very obvious reason for this belief4  
,a lowered  vitality is favourable to   
hallucinations of every description4 ,a 
shipwrecked sailor is placed1 by no act 
of his own1 in precisely the  same      
condition as is the primitive medicine  
man or the medieval saint by  his own   
volition4 ,it has always been           
recognised1 and by none more  readily   

than by the great religious teachers of 
the world1 that a  well-nourished body  
is inimical to what they chose to term  
spiritual  development4 ,the historic   
,christian outcry against fleshly       
indulgence  has much more in it than a  
revolt against mere sensualism4 ,a      
well-fed  body has been deprecated      
because it closed the avenue to         
spiritual  illumination4 ,hence it is   
that fasting has found such favour in   
all  religious systems4 ,the ascetic saw
 more because1 by reducing the body to  
an abnormal state1 he provided the      
conditions for seeing more4 ,the ,zulu  
maxim1 ,a stuffed body cannot see secret
 things1 really expresses in a  sentence
 the philosophy of the matter4    ,among
 the ,blackfoot ,indians of ,north      
,america1 when a boy reaches puberty  he
 is sent away from his father's lodge in
 search of a spiritual  protector or    
totem4 ,seeking a secluded spot1 he     
abstains from food until  he is favoured
 in a dream with a vision of some animal

 or bird1 which is  at once adopted by  
him4#bi ,this custom obtains with most  
of the ,north  ,american tribes4 ,among 
these tribes1 also1 the soothsayer      
prepares  himself by fasting for the    
ecstatic state in which the spirits give
  their messages through him4 ,the      
ordinary member of the tribe who wants  
anything will fast until he is assured  
in a dream that it will be  granted him4
 ,similarly1 the ,malay1 to procure     
supernatural intercourse1  retires to   
the jungle and abstains from food4 ,the 
,zulu doctor prepares  for intercourse  
with the tribal spirits by spare diet or
 solitary fasts4  ,fasting is part of   
the ordinary regimen of the ,hindu yogi4
 ,of certain  ,indian tribes we are told
 that before proceeding on an expedition
 they  observe a rigorous fast1 or      
rather abstain from every kind of food  
for  four days4 ,in this interval their 
imagination is exalted to delirium2     
whether it be through bodily weakness or
 the natural effect of delirium1  they  

pretend to have strange visions4 ,the   
elders and sages of the tribe1  being   
called upon to interpret these dreams1  
draw from them omens more  or less      
favourable to the success of the        
enterprise2 and their  explanations are 
received as oracles1 by which the       
expedition will be  faithfully          
regulated4#cj ,amongst the ,samoans1    
when rain was required1  the priests    
blackened themselves all over1 exhumed a
 dead body1 took the  skeleton to a cave
 and poured water over it4 ,they had to 
fast and remain  in the cave until it   
rained4 ,sometimes they died under the  
experiment1  but they generally chose   
the showery months for their            
rain-making4#ca    ,in both the ,old and
 ,new ,testaments fasting figures       
largely4 ,the  encounter of ,jesus with 
,satan is preceded by a forty days'     
fast4 ,st4  ,catherine of ,sienna began 
regular fasts at a very early age4      
,santa  ,teresa kept lengthy fasts every
 year4 ,the fasting of the monks and    

nuns  during the epidemic period of     
monasticism is too well known to call   
for  more than a mere reference4        
,perhaps the most curious religious     
reason  given for fasting is that cited 
by a writer from a monkish chronicler3--
    ,as a coach goes faster when it is  
empty1 a man by fasting can be better   
united to ,god2 for it is a principle   
with geometers that a round body  can   
never touch a plane except in one       
point4444 ,a belly too well filled      
becomes round1 it cannot touch ,god     
except in one point2 but fasting        
flattens the belly until it is united   
with the surface of ,god at all         
points4#cb    ,george ,fox1 the founder 
of the ,society of ,friends1 confesses  
that he  fasted much and walked abroad  
in solitary places1 and frequently in   
the night walked about mournfully by    
myself4 ,after much brooding and        
fasting1 he heard a voice which said1   
,there is one1 even ,jesus ,christ1     
that can speak to thy condition4 ,such  

an experience is not at all  surprising1
 seeing the method pursued to acquire   
it4 ,less fasting and  brooding1 with   
more genial intercourse with his        
fellows1 might easily  have prevented   
,fox1 as it has prevented others1       
hearing heavenly voices  proffering him 
counsel4 ,such an experience is well    
within the reach of  anyone who cares to
 acquire it4 ,tylor has well said that  
,so long as  fasting is continued as a  
religious rite1 so long the consequences
 in  morbid mental exaltation will      
continue the old savage doctrine that   
morbid phantasy is supernatural         
experience4 ,bread and meat would have  
robbed the ascetic of many an angel's   
visit2 the opening of the  refectory    
door must many a time have closed the   
gate of heaven to his  gaze4 ,no one    
will question the truth of this         
principle1 so long as we  are dealing   
with uncivilised mankind4 ,many1        
however1 shrink from  acknowledging that
 the practices current in more civilised

 times are  disguised illustrations of  
the same principle of interpretation1   
which  descends direct from savages1 and
 but for them would never have existed4 
,commenting on the practices of certain 
savage medicine-men1 a missionary       
remarks3--    ,it always appeared       
probable to me that these rogues1 from  
long fasting1  contract a weakness of   
brain1 a giddiness1 a kind of delirium1 
which  makes them imagine that they are 
gifted with superior wisdom1 and give   
themselves out for physicians4 ,they    
impose upon themselves first1 and       
afterwards upon others4#cc    ,this is  
shrewdly said1 and is a good example of 
the readiness with which  obvious truths
 are recognised when they do not clash  
with religious  prepossessions4 ,the    
difficulty for others is to discern any 
real line of  demarcation between the   
practices of civilised and uncivilised4 
,so far  as one can see1 the only real  
distinction is that the method employed 
by  savages is open4 ,that followed by  

civilised people is more or less        
disguised4 ,but derangement of function 
is derangement of function1 no  matter  
how produced4 ,and if we decline to     
believe that a savage holds  genuine    
intercourse with a spiritual world1 as a
 consequence of this  derangement1 in   
what way are we justified in accepting  
the testimony of  a ,christian visionary
 to similar intercourse1 when the       
derangement is in  his case no less     
clear8 ,it is a case of accepting both1 
or neither4 ,the  sane and scientific   
conclusion seems to lie in the following
 from ,dr4  ,henry ,maudsley3--    ,now 
that the mental functions are known to  
be inseparably connected  with nervous  
substrata1 disposed and united in the   
brain in the most  orderly fashion1     
superordinate1 co-ordinate1 and         
subordinate--the whole  a complex       
organisation of confederate nerve       
centres1 each capable of  more or less  
independent action--a natural           
interpretation presents  itself4 ,the   

extraordinary states of mental          
disintegration evince the  separate and 
irregular function of certain mental    
nerve tracts1 or  grouped nerve tracts  
with which goes necessarily a coincident
  suspension1 partial or complete1 of   
the functions of all the rest2 the      
supernatural incubus1 therefore1 neither
 demoniac nor divine1 only  morbid4     
,thus the strange nervous seizures1 with
 their mental  concomitants1 not being  
outside the range of positive research1 
but  interesting events within it1      
become useful natural experiments to    
throw  an instructive light upon the    
intricate functions of the most complex 
organ in the world--the human brain4    
,steadily are the researches of         
pathology driving the supernatural back 
into its last and most obscure  retreat2
 for they prove that in the extremest   
ecstasies there is neither  theolepsy   
nor diabolepsy1 nor any other lepsy in  
the sense of  possession of the         
individual by an external power2 what   

there is truly  is a psycholepsy4#cd    
,states of exaltation produced by the   
aid of drugs1 fasting1 or other  forms  
of self-torture come naturally under the
 category of deliberately  induced      
states of mind1 owing to the conviction 
that spiritual knowledge  may be gained 
in this way4 ,but there are other states
 that arise  naturally and which foster 
the same conviction4 ,it has already    
been  pointed out that the generally    
accepted theory with uncivilised peoples
  is that all disease is due to the     
action of malevolent spirits4 ,there is 
no need now to repeat proof of this1 and
 in any case it lies to hand in  any    
work that deals with uncivilised life4  
,nor need we go back to  uncivilised    
times for evidence4 ,one requires only  
to look but a very  little way into the 
history of any country to find the      
supernaturalistic  theory of disease in 
full swing1 and even to-day one may     
discover  indications of its once       
general rule4 ,its importance to the    

present  enquiry lies in the part it has
 played in building up in the religious 
consciousness a general conviction of   
religious truth that does not  disappear
 even when it is seen that the evidence 
upon which it rests is  faulty4 ,just as
 the inhabitants of a ,welsh village    
have their general  belief in religion  
strengthened by the semi-hysterical     
speeches of an  ,evan ,roberts1 and the 
convulsive capers of a whole            
congregation1 so in  all ages people    
have found endorsement of their belief  
in a supernatural  world in the         
existence of cases the pathological     
nature of which admits  of no doubt4    
,belief in the supernatural character of
 specific nervous  conditions or mental 
states may disappear1 but the fact that 
this  belief has been general for a time
 leaves behind a certain psychological  
residuum in favour of supernaturalism in
 general4    ,the connection between the
 priest and the physician is naturally a
 very  ancient one4 ,the priest1 indeed1

 is the primitive physician1 the belief 
that diseases are supernaturally caused 
indicating him as the agent of  their   
cure4 ,and it is only to be expected    
that when the attempt is made  to divert
 the treatment of disease from priestly 
hands the effort should  be met with    
determined opposition4 ,quite naturally1
 too1 the first  gropings after a       
scientific theory of disease show a     
curious mixture of  rationalism and     
superstition4 ,thus1 in ,greece1 the    
temple hospitals  devoted to the        
mythical sculapius1 which were situated 
at ,epidaurus1  ,pergamus1 ,cyrene1     
,corinth1 and many other places1 served 
as colleges1  hospitals1 and places of  
worship4 ,sufferers slept in the temples
 in the  hopes of receiving messages    
from the gods1 and the priests          
themselves  professed to have ecstatic  
visions which enabled them to prescribe 
for  those afflicted4#ce ,great emphasis
 was placed on bathing1 light1 air1  and
 food1 and it is pretty clear that the  

priests had begun to mix both  faith and
 physic in a most perplexing manner4    
,the definite separation of medicine    
from magic and religion begins with     
,hippocrates4 ,his theory of disease was
 simple4 ,he did not deny that  there   
might be a supernatural side to disease2
 he insisted that there  was always a   
natural one1 and that this was the side 
with which we  should be concerned4     
,each disorder1 he said1 had its own    
physical  conditions1 and he laid down  
the rule that we ought to study the     
nature  of man1 what he is with         
reference to that which he eats and     
drinks1 and  to all his other           
occupations and habits1 and to the      
consequences  resulting from each4#cf   
,in ,egypt1 also1 very considerable     
advance was  made in the same direction4
 ,probably a good deal of their         
knowledge  resulted from the practice of
 embalming1 in spite of the priestly    
interdict on dissection4 ,at all events1
 there is no doubt that  considerable   

advance had been made4 ,herophilus and  
,erasistratus wrote of  the structure of
 the heart1 and described its connection
 with the veins  and arteries4 ,the two 
kinds of nerves1 motor and sensory1 were
  described1 and the influence of foods1
 etc41 as influencing health1  dwelt on4
 ,insanity was also dealt with as due to
 natural and  controllable causes1 and  
the effects of colour and music in      
dealing with  mania noted4#cg ,had this 
advance been followed1 the history of   
,european  civilisation might have been 
different from what it was4 ,plagues1   
epidemics1 and diseases1 with their     
far-reaching social and political       
consequences1--consequences that are too
 little noted1 or even  understood1 by  
historians1--might have met with        
adequate resistance1 and  some would    
never have occurred4    ,the ,pagan     
schools of medicine came to an untimely1
 although in some  cases a lingering1   
end4 ,the introduction of ,christianity1
 says a  medical writer1 had an         

undoubted influence on the course of    
medical  science2 for the ,christian was
 taught to recognise1 in every bodily   
infirmity1 the dispensation of the      
,almighty1 and in the calm1 abstracted  
pursuits of those holy men who passed   
their time in prayer and  meditation1 a 
propitiation3 hence medicine fell into  
the hands of monks  and anchorites1 who 
assumed to themselves1 exclusively1 the 
power of  interpreting all natural      
phenomena as indications of the ,divine 
,will1  and pretended to possess some   
occult and supernatural means of curing 
disease4#ch ,reversing the natural order
 of things1 the physician was  replaced 
by the priest4 ,the supernaturalistic   
theory was revived1 and  held its own   
for well on a thousand years4 ,for every
 complaint the  ,church provided a      
specific in the shape of a charm1 an    
incantation1 or a  saint4 ,st4          
,apollonia for toothache1 ,st4 ,avertin 
for lunacy1 ,st4 ,benedict  for stone1  
,st4 ,clara for sore eyes1 ,st4 ,herbert

 for hydrophobia1 ,st4  ,john for       
epilepsy1 ,st4 ,maur for gout1 ,st4     
,pernel for agues1 ,st4  ,genevieve for 
fevers1 ,st4 ,sebastian for plague1     
etc4#ci ,the height of  absurdity was   
reached when1 in spite of the monopoly  
of the treatment of  disease by the     
priesthood1 the ,council of ,rheims     
7#aaai7 actually forbade  monks to study
 medicine4 ,this was followed by the    
,council of ,beziers  7#abdf7           
prohibiting ,christians applying for    
relief to ,jewish physicians1  at a time
 when practically the only doctors of   
ability in ,christendom  were ,jews4 ,in
 #abdc the ,dominicans banished all     
books on medicine from  their           
monasteries4 ,innocent ,,iii4 forbade   
physicians practising except  under the 
supervision of an ecclesiastic4         
,honorius 7#abbb7 forbade  priests the  
study of medicine2 and at the end of the
 thirteenth ,century  ,boniface ,,viii4 
interdicted surgery as atheistical4 ,the
 ill-treatment and  opposition          

experienced by the great ,vesalius at   
the hands of the ,church1  on account of
 his anatomical researches1 is one of   
the saddest chapters  in the history of 
science4#dj    ,when the sight of bodily
 disease strengthened and confirmed     
belief in  the supernatural1 mental     
disease must have offered still more    
convincing  evidence4 ,among uncivilised
 people we know that this is so4 ,to    
quote  again from the indispensable     
,tylor3--    ,the possessed man 444     
rationally finds a spiritual cause for  
his  sufferings4444 ,especially when the
 mysterious unseen power throws him     
helpless on the ground1 jerks and       
writhes him in convulsions1 makes him   
leap upon the bystanders with a giant's 
strength and a wild beast's  ferocity1  
impels him with distorted face and      
frantic gesture1 and voice  not his own 
nor seemingly even human1 to pour forth 
wild incoherent  raving1 or with thought
 and eloquence beyond his sober         
faculties to  command1 to counsel1 to   

foretell--such a one seems to those who 
watch  him1 and even to himself1 to have
 become the mere instrument of a spirit 
which has seized him or entered into    
him1 a possessing demon in whose        
personality the patient believes so     
implicitly that he often imagines a     
personal name for it1 which it can      
declare when it speaks in its own  voice
 and character through his organs of    
speech4#da    ,it was this conception of
 insanity1 universally current in the   
uncivilised world1 that was revived with
 fearful intensity in the early         
,christian ,church1 and which certainly 
served its purpose in intensifying  the 
genuine belief in supernaturalism4      
,jesus had given ,his followers  power  
to expel demons ,in ,my name1 and this  
power of exorcism was one  upon which   
the early ,christians specially prided  
themselves4 ,it is with  unconscious    
sarcasm that ,dean ,trench puts the     
question1 ,if one of the  disciples were
 to enter a madhouse now1 how many of   

the sufferers there  he might recognise 
as 'possessed'8#db ,one may safely say  
that he would  regard all as under the  
dominion of evil spirits4 ,no other     
cause of  insanity appears to have been 
recognised1 and the ,church devised the 
most elaborate formul for casting out   
demons4 ,the assumed demoniac was       
prayed over1 incensed1 and evil-smelling
 drugs burned under his nose4 ,a  set   
form of objurgation then followed3--    
,thou lustful and stupid one4444 ,thou  
lean sow1 famine-stricken and most      
impure4444 ,thou wrinkled beast1 of all 
beasts the most beastly4444 ,thou       
bestial and foolish drunkard4444 ,thou  
sooty spirit from ,tartarus4444 ,i  cast
 thee down1 ,o ,tartarean boor1 into the
 infernal kitchen4444  ,loathsome       
cobbler 444 filthy sow 444 envious      
crocodile4444 ,malodorous  drudge 444   
swollen toad 444 lousy swineherd1 etc4  
etc4#dc    ,then followed the exorcism  
proper3--    ,by the ,apocalypse of     
,jesus ,christ1 which ,god hath given to

 make known  unto ,his servants those   
things which are shortly to be 444 ,i   
exorcise  you1 ye angels of untold      
perversity4444 ,may all the devils that 
are thy  foes rush forth upon thee and  
drag thee down to hell6444 ,may the     
,holy  ,one trample on thee and hang    
thee up in an infernal fork1 as was done
 to  the five kings of the ,amorites6444
 ,may ,god set a nail to your skull1 and
  pound it with a hammer as ,jael did to
 ,sisera6444 ,may ,sother break thy     
head and cut off thy hands1 as was done 
to the cursed ,dagon6444 ,may ,god  hang
 thee in a hellish yoke1 as seven men   
were hanged by the sons of  ,saul6#dd   
,marcus ,aurelius mentions as one of his
 debts to the philosopher  ,diognetus   
that he had taught him not to give      
credit to vulgar tales of  prodigies and
 incantations1 and evil spirits cast out
 by magicians or  pretenders to sorcery1
 and such kind of impostors4#de ,what   
would have  been the thoughts of the    
great emperor1 could he have revisited  

the  earth two centuries after his death
 and seen the then civilised world      
enveloped in a mental atmosphere in     
which such ideas as those above         
described could live8    ,all over      
,europe for centuries lunatics were     
whipped1 and otherwise  ill-treated1 in 
the hopes of expelling the demons that  
were troubling  them4 ,the              
seventy-second ,canon of the ,church of 
,england still provides  that no        
unlicensed person shall cast out any    
devil or devils under  pain of penalties
 prescribed4 ,a ,bishop of ,beauvais1 in
 the fifteenth  century1 not only caused
 five devils to come out of one person1 
but  actually induced them to sign a    
document promising not to molest this   
particular sufferer again4 ,tremendous1 
again1 were the labours of the  ,jesuit 
,fathers of ,vienna1 who boasted that   
they had cast out no less  than #ab1feb 
'living devils4' ,such arithmetical     
exactitude silences all  hostile        
comment4 ,in some parts of ,scotland1 as

 late as #aghc1 lunatics  were left all 
night in the churchyard1 with a holy    
bell over their  heads4 ,in ,cornwall1  
,st4 ,nun's pool was famous for the cure
 of lunatics4  ,the poor devils were    
tied hand and foot and doused in the    
water until  they were cured--or killed4
 ,even the embraces of prostitutes1 for 
some  peculiar reason1 were recommended 
as a cure for insanity4#df ,in #aghh1   
in ,bristol1 a drunken epileptic1 one   
,george ,larkins1 was brought into      
church1 and seven clergymen solemnly set
 themselves to the task of  exorcising  
the possessing demon4 ,whereupon ,satan 
swore 'by his infernal  den'--an oath1  
says the chronicler1 nowhere to be found
 but in ,bunyan4  ,under date of        
,october #be1 #agci1 ,john ,wesley also 
relates how he was sent  for and        
assisted at the expulsion of a demon    
from the body of a young  girl4    ,of  
all nervous diseases that of epilepsy   
appears to have been most  favourable to
 the encouragement of a belief in       

spiritual agency4 ,one  medical         
authority whose experience enables him  
to speak with a peculiar  degree of     
authority has pointed out that with     
epilepsy there is often an  exaltation  
of the religious sentiments4#dg ,a more 
recent writer1 ,dr4  ,bernard           
,hollander1 asserts that epileptics are 
highly religious4#dh  ,sir ,t4 ,s4      
,clouston also points out that strong   
religious emotionalism  often           
accompanies epilepsy4#di ,another       
eminent physician1 while  pointing out  
that a high degree of intelligence1     
amounting even to  genius1 has in some  
cases been associated with epilepsy1    
observes that  the epileptic is apt to  
be influenced greatly by the mystical   
and  awe-inspiring1 and he is disposed  
to morbid piety4#ej    ,every medical   
man is acquainted with the close        
relation that exists  between epilepsy  
and all kinds of hallucinations and     
delusions1 and it  would be more than   
surprising if in an environment where   

the religious  interpretation of things 
is paramount1 or with a patient of      
strong  religious convictions1 these    
delusions did not take a religious form4
  ,and of all nervous disorders epilepsy
 seems most favourable for  producing   
this4 ,under its influence hallucination
 attacks every one of  the senses with a
 varying degree of intensity4 ,the      
patient hears  voices1 and generally    
words expressing definite ideas1 though 
he is  often unable to properly refer   
them to any speaking person4 ,sometimes 
instead of external sounds or voices1   
the patient has a consciousness of  an  
internal voice that may be as real to   
him as any external auditory            
perception4 ,at first the voices may be 
indistinct1 but upon constant           
repetition and evolution from           
sub-conscious thought they acquire      
intensity1 eventually dominating the    
life of the individual4#ea ,dr4  ,ball  
says3 ,one patient perceives at the     
beginning of the attack a  toothed      

wheel1 in the middle of which there     
appears a human face making  strange    
contortions2 another sees a series of   
smiling landscapes4 ,in  some cases it  
is the sense of hearing which is        
affected2--the patient  hears voices or 
strange noises4 ,others are warned by   
the sense of smell  that the fit is     
going to commence4#eb    ,sometimes     
these hallucinations of sight and       
hearing are in curious  contrast with   
each other4 ,not rarely1 says ,dr4      
,conolly ,norman1 a  patient has visual 
hallucinations of a cheering kind--as of
 ,god or  angels2 yet his auditory      
hallucinations are full of blasphemy1   
mockery1  and insult4#ec    ,dr4        
,maudsley thus describes the general    
symptoms accompanying an  epileptic     
attack3--    ,the patient's senses are  
possessed with hallucinations1 his      
ganglionic  central cells being in a    
state of what may be called convulsive  
action2  before the eyes are blood-red  
flames of fire1 amidst which whoever    

happens to present himself appears as a 
devil or otherwise horribly             
transformed2 the ears are filled with a 
terribly roaring noise1 or  resound with
 a voice imperatively commanding him to 
save himself2 the  smell is one of      
sulphurous stifling1 and the desperate  
and violent  actions are the convulsive 
reaction to such fearful                
hallucinations4#ed    ,if anyone will   
bear in mind the numerous descriptions  
of religious  visions1 written in all   
good faith1 and the behaviour of many an
 assumed  'inspired' character1 he will 
have little difficulty in realising how 
easily1 to a people unacquainted with   
the real character of such  phenomena1  
epilepsy lends itself to a religious    
interpretation4 ,it must  also be borne 
in mind that the consequences of vivid  
hallucinations  experienced during      
epilepsy do not always disappear with   
the attack to  which they were          
originally due4    ,it is certain that  
from the earliest times cases of what   

are undoubtedly  epilepsy have been     
taken as positive indications of        
supernatural  influence4 ,there is1 says
 ,emanuel ,deutsch1 a peculiar something
  supposed to inhere in epilepsy4 ,the  
,greeks called it a divine disease4     
,bacchantic and chorybantic furor were  
,god-inspired stages4 ,the ,pythia      
uttered her oracles under the most      
distressing signs4 ,symptoms of         
convulsion were ever needed as a sign of
 the divine4#ee ,much of the  evidence  
for the supernatural in the ,new        
,testament rests upon cases that  are   
obviously pathological in character4 ,a 
man brings his son to ,jesus  and       
describes how ofttimes he falleth into  
the fire1 and oft into the  water       
7,matt4 xvii4 #ae71 and in another place
 7,mark ix4 #ah7 the same  patient is   
described as having a dumb spirit1 and  
wheresoever he taketh  him1 he teareth  
him2 and he foameth1 and gnasheth with  
his teeth1 and  pineth away4 ,the       
response to the father's appeal for help

 is an  exorcism of the possessing      
spirit such as one meets with in all    
savage  culture4 ,between possession by 
a malignant spirit and domination by a  
god1 the difference is clearly one of   
terminology alone4 ,and at the  side of 
the ,new ,testament case just cited one 
may place this account  from ,polynesia1
 written by a very competent observer1  
and a  missionary3--    ,as soon as the 
god was supposed to have entered the    
priest1 the latter  became violently    
agitated and worked himself up to the   
highest pitch of  apparent frenzy2 the  
muscles of the limbs seemed convulsed1  
the body  swelled1 the countenance      
became terrific1 the features distorted1
 the  eyes wild and strained4 ,in this  
state he often rolled on the earth1     
foaming at the mouth1 as if labouring   
under the influence of the  divinity by 
whom he was possessed1 and in shrill    
cries1 and often  violent and indistinct
 sounds1 revealed the will of the       
god4#ef    ,advancing to a higher       

culture stage than that indicated in the
 last  passage1 there is much evidence  
that ,mohammed was subject to           
hallucinations1 and many authorities    
have indicated epilepsy as their        
source4 ,there is a tradition that      
someone who saw ,mohammed while he was  
receiving one of his revelations        
observed that he seemed unconscious and 
was red in the face4 ,mohammed himself  
said3--    ,inspiration descendeth upon 
me in two ways4 ,sometimes ,gabriel     
cometh  and communicateth the revelation
 unto me1 as one man unto another1 and  
this is easy2 at other times it         
affecteth me like the ringing of a bell1
  penetrating my very heart1 and rending
 me as it were in pieces2 and this  it  
is which grievously afflicteth me4      
,emanuel ,deutsch1 although1 in a       
passage already cited1 recognising the  
religious significance attached to      
epilepsy1 has the following curious     
comment3--    ,mohammed was epileptic2  
and vast ingenuity and medical knowledge

 have  been lavished upon this point as 
explanatory of ,mohammed's mission and  
success4 ,we1 for our own part1 do not  
think that epilepsy ever made a  man    
appear a prophet to himself or even to  
the people of the ,east2 or1  for the   
matter of that1 inspired him with the   
like heart-moving words  and glorious   
pictures4 ,quite the contrary4 ,it was  
taken as a sign of  demons              
within--demons1 ',devs1' devils to whom 
all manner of diseases  were ascribed   
throughout the antique world4    ,this  
seems very largely to miss the point at 
issue4 ,of course1 no one  would claim  
that ,mohammed's success was due to     
epilepsy1 or even that  the very severe 
forms of epilepsy were favourable to    
inducing a  conviction of revelation4   
,but the disease assumes various forms1 
and in  some cases it is expressed in   
the form of a period of mental          
excitement  and general irritability4   
,all that is claimed is that1 given the 
complaint in its less severe forms in   

one with whom religious beliefs  are    
strong1 there are present all the       
conditions for attributing the          
resulting hallucinations to personal    
revelation or ecstatic vision4 ,and  it 
is also true that while some patients   
after emerging from a fit of  epilepsy  
are in a dazed or confused condition1   
others have a very clear  recollection  
of all they have seen and heard4        
,mohammed simply took the  current      
explanation of cases of nervous         
derangement1 and being a man of  strong 
religious feeling1 naturally gave his   
visions a religious  interpretation4    
,all the rest has to be explained in    
terms of the innate  genius of the man  
and of the circumstances of his time4   
,a similar case to the above is that of 
,emanuel ,swedenborg4 ,his followers    
naturally resent the ascription of his  
visions and voices to a  pathologic     
origin1 and point to his pronounced     
mental ability4 ,and  certainly no one  
who is at all acquainted with the       

writings of  ,swedenborg will question  
his great mental power1 amounting at    
times to  positive genius4 ,but here1   
again1 we have strong religious         
conviction in  alliance with            
pathological conditions4 ,swedenborg's  
communications with  celestial beings   
were of a more frequent and more ordered
 character than  ,mohammed's1 but there 
is the same general likeness between    
them4 ,of his  first revelation he      
writes3--    ,at ten o'clock ,i lay down
 in bed and was somewhat better2 half an
 hour  after ,i heard a clamour under my
 head2 ,i thought that then the tempter 
went away2 immediately there came over  
me a rigor so strong from the  head and 
the whole body1 with some din1 and this 
several times4 ,i found  that something 
holy was over me4 ,i thereupon fell     
asleep1 and at about  twelve1 one1 or   
two o'clock in the night there came over
 me so strong a  shivering from head to 
foot1 as if many winds rushed together1 
which  shook me1 was indescribable1 and 

prostrated me upon my face4 ,then1 while
  ,i was prostrated1 ,i was in a moment 
quite awake1 and saw that ,i was cast   
down1 and wondered what it meant4 ,and  
,i spoke as if ,i was awake1 but  found 
that the word was put into my mouth1 and
 ,i said1 ',omnipotent ,jesus  ,christ1 
as of ,thy great grace ,thou            
condescendest to come to so great a     
sinner1 make me worthy of this grace6'  
,i held my hands together and  prayed1  
and then came a hand which squeezed my  
hands hard2 immediately  thereupon ,i   
continued in prayer4#eg    ,swedenborg  
confessed to repeated walks and talks   
with celestial  visitants1 and1 of      
course1 all thought of imposture must be
 put on one  side4 ,what one has to     
consider is whether we are to accept    
these  experiences as hallucinations or 
not4 ,on the one side no further        
evidence seems possible than the        
profound faith of the man himself1 his  
recognised mental ability1 and the      
belief of his followers4 ,and against   

this it must be urged that the most     
complete honesty is no guarantee        
against self-deception1 while ability   
and even genius are not at all          
incompatible with a pathologic strain4  
,and in addition it must be borne  in   
mind that these hallucinations are1     
after all1 part of a very large  class4 
,men of very little ability and         
influence experience substantially  the 
same visions2 they occur all over the   
world1 under all conditions of  culture1
 and always express the personal        
idiosyncrasies of the subject  and      
reflect the character of his social     
environment4 ,one may safely say  that  
had ,swedenborg lived a century later1  
while he might still have  gone through 
the same mental and physical            
experiences1 he himself would  have     
given a very different interpretation of
 them4    ,st4 ,paul1 ,professor ,james 
points out1 certainly had once an       
epileptoid1  if not an epileptic        
seizure4 ,one needs to add to this that 

the seizure  occurred at the one        
critical moment of his life which       
eventuated in his  conversion from      
,judaism to ,christianity4 ,mary        
,magdalene1 the first who  brought      
tidings of the resurrection1 had been   
delivered of seven  devils4 ,luther's   
religious opinions were1 of course1     
quite apart from  his physical state1   
sound or unsound4 ,still1 even with him 
the reality  of supernatural intercourse
 became intensely vivid as a result of  
nervous affections4 ,his latest         
biographer points out that as a youth   
while in the monastery he was seized    
with something that might well have     
been an epileptic fit1 and that although
 there is no record of a return  of     
this1 he did suffer from ordinary fits  
of fainting4#eh ,he confesses  to have  
been much troubled1 at twenty-two years 
of age1 with giddiness  and noises in   
the ear1 which he attributed to the     
devil4 ,and right  through his life he  
attributed similar experiences to the   

same source4  ,bunyan confesses that    
even during childhood the ,lord did     
scare and  affright me with fearful     
dreams1 and did terrify me with dreadful
  visions4 ,george ,fox1 founder of the 
,society of ,friends1 describes how1  in
 the middle of winter1 when approaching 
,lichfield1 the ,word of the  ,lord was 
like a fire in me1 and as he went       
through the town1 there  seemed to me to
 be a channel of blood running down the 
streets1 and the  market-place appeared 
like a pool of blood4 ,reflecting on the
 meaning  of the vision1 he remembered  
that1 ,in the ,emperor ,diocletian's    
time a  thousand ,christians were       
martyred at ,lichfield4 ,so ,i was to go
 without  my shoes through the channel  
of their blood in the market-place1 that
 ,i  might raise up the blood of these  
martyrs which had been shed above a     
thousand years before4#ei    ,in none of
 these cases could it be fairly claimed 
that the religious  conviction1 as such1
 was the consequence of the             

hallucinations  experienced4 ,but it can
 scarcely be questioned that these      
served to  strengthen it to an enormous 
extent4 ,these trances1 ecstasies1      
visions1  were accepted by the subjects 
as proofs of their 'divine mission1' and
  were so accepted by multitudes of     
their followers4 ,in their absence      
religion would most probably have failed
 to be the fiercely irruptive  force in 
life that it has been4 ,the religious   
idea has1 so to speak  given            
hallucination a standing and an         
authority in life it would not  have    
possessed in its absence4 ,in the case  
of men of ordinary capacity  these      
visions possess little authority4 ,but  
in the case of men of  extraordinary    
capacity1 men like ,luther1 ,mohammed1  
,fox1 ,swedenborg1--who  must in any    
case have stood superior to their       
fellows1--these  hallucinations are then
 under favouring social conditions      
invested with  enormous authority4 ,and 
there is no doubt about the fact that   

religious  leaders have been peculiarly 
subject to these psychical variations4  
,this  is pointed out by ,professor     
,james in the following passage3--      
,even more perhaps than other kinds of  
genius1 religious leaders have  been    
subject to abnormal psychical           
visitations4 ,invariably they have  been
 creatures of exalted emotional         
sensibility4 ,often they have led a     
discordant inner life1 and had          
melancholy during a part of their       
career4  ,they have known no measure1   
been liable to obsessions and fixed     
ideas2  and frequently they have fallen 
into trances1 heard voices1 seen        
visions1 and presented all sorts of     
peculiarities which are ordinarily      
classed as pathological4 ,often1        
moreover1 these pathological features in
  their career have helped to give them 
their religious authority and           
influence4#fj    ,well1 in what way are 
we to discriminate between the visions  
of a  religious person1 admittedly of an

 abnormal disposition1 subject to fits  
of melancholy1 etc41 and presenting all 
sorts of peculiarities  ordinarily      
classed as pathological1 and the        
hallucinations of an  admittedly        
pathologic subject8 ,why should the     
ordinary classification  break down at  
this point8 ,dr4 ,granger1 dealing with 
this aspect of the  question1 says3 ,the
 religious genius is not proved to be   
morbid by the  extent to which he       
diverges from the average type4#fa      
,quite so1 genius  must depart from the 
average type in order to be genius4 ,but
 the  statement is quite beside the     
point at issue4 ,it is not a mere       
divergence from the average type that   
warrants one in assuming that much      
passing for divine illumination owes its
 origin to pathological  conditions1 but
 the fact that it is possible to        
affiliate certain cases  of religious   
exaltation with these conditions4       
,hallucinations are common  to all forms
 of ecstasy1 and ecstasy is not confined

 to religion4 ,given  a one-sided mental
 activity1 intense concentration on one 
or a few  analogous ideas1 combined with
 a lowered nervous sensibility1 and we  
have all the conditions present         
favourable to hallucination4#fb ,these  
hallucinations may occur in connection  
with any topic that engrosses the       
subject's mind4 ,in every other         
direction their true nature is          
recognised  and admitted4 ,in connection
 with religious belief alone1 it is held
 that  they bring the subject into touch
 with a supersensual world of reality4  
,what possible scientific warranty is   
there for any such distinction8    ,let 
us take1 as an example1 one of ,james's 
own cases1 which he admits is           
'distinctly pathological1' but without  
allowing this admission to  disturb his 
general conclusion4 ,the case is that of
 ,suso1 a famous  fourteenth-century    
mystic4 ,as a young man he wore a hair  
shirt and an  iron chain next the skin4 
,later he had made a leathern garment   

studded  with one hundred and fifty     
nails1 points inward4 ,the garment was  
made  very tight1 and he used it to     
sleep in4 ,to prevent himself throwing  
it  off during sleep he procured a pair 
of leather gloves studded with  tacks1  
so that if he attempted to get rid of   
the dress the tacks would  penetrate his
 flesh4 ,next he had made a wooden      
cross1 with thirty  protruding nails1 to
 emulate the sufferings of ,jesus4 ,he  
procured an old  door to sleep on4 ,in  
winter he suffered from the frost4 ,his 
feet were  full of sores1 his legs      
became dropsical1 his knees bloody and  
seared1  his loins covered with scars1  
his hands tremulous4 ,during twenty     
years  he fed scantily upon the coarsest
 food1 slept in the most uncomfortable  
places1 and during the whole of the time
 never took a bath4 ,no wonder  that    
after his fortieth year he was favoured 
with a series of visions  from ,god4    
,would not one be surprised if any other
 result than this had  been achieved8   

,and ,suso's case is only one of        
thousands1 many of not so  extreme a    
character1 others quite as bad4    ,in  
the case of ,catherine of ,sienna the   
austerities began earlier than  with    
,suso4 ,as a child she flogged herself1 
and was favoured with visions  before   
she reached her teens4 ,santa ,teresa1  
as a young woman1 prayed to  ,god to    
send her an illness1 and describes how  
she remained for days in a  trance1     
during which time her tongue was bitten 
in many places4 ,she  describes how1    
during these trances1 her body became to
 her light1 and  she remained rigid4 ,it
 was altogether impossible for me to    
hinder it2  for my world would be       
carried absolutely away1 and ordinarily 
even my  head1 as it were1 after it4#fc 
,these are typical examples from a very 
large number of cases4 ,the annals of   
monasticism are filled with  accounts of
 self-inflicted tortures1 with the one  
end in view1 and in  serious belief that
 their experiences brought them into    

touch with a  reality denied them under 
normal conditions4 ,the practice not    
only  quickened their own sense of the  
reality of religion1 it served the same 
purpose for thousands of others pursuing
 the course of ordinary social          
existence4 ,religious teachers1 says    
,francis ,galton1 by enforcing          
celibacy1 fasting1 and solitude1 have   
done their best towards making men  mad1
 and they have always largely succeeded 
in inducing morbid mental  conditions   
among their followers4#fd    ,the       
phenomenon is thus continuous and1 in   
its essentials1 unchanging4  ,from the  
most primitive times there has been a   
close association between  the belief in
 divine illumination and spiritual      
intercourse1 and mental  states that are
 unquestionably pathological4 ,following
 this there has  been a more or less    
deliberate cultivation of these states  
in the desire  to renew communion with a
 spiritual world hidden from man's      
normal  senses4 ,in this there need be  

no deliberate imposture4 ,when imposture
  does occur1 it would be at a later    
culture stage4 ,at the beginning  there 
is nothing but misunderstanding4 ,first 
in order of time comes the  crude       
animistic interpretation of almost every
 phase of human activity4  ,so far as   
primitive life is concerned1 the        
evidence of this is simply              
overwhelming4 ,next1 as ,tylor has      
pointed out1 from believing that the    
occurrence of certain mental states     
provides the conditions of              
communication with an unseen world to   
the deliberate creation of those  states
 is a natural and an easy step4 ,there  
is thus set on foot a  deliberate       
culture of the supernatural4 ,this      
cultivation of abnormal  states of mind 
once initiated persists1 now in one     
form1 now in another1  but is           
substantially the same throughout4      
,whether we are dealing with  the crude 
practices of the savage1 the less crude1
 but still obvious  methods of solitary 

living and bodily maceration of the     
medieval monk1  or the morbid and       
unhealthy dwelling upon a single idea   
which remains  one of the conditions of 
'illumination' to-day1 we are confronted
 with  the same thing4 ,in every case   
the object--unconscious1 maybe--is the  
provision of conditions that render     
hallucination and illusion a  practical 
certainty4 ,in connection with          
non-religious matters the  unhealthiness
 of mind1 distortion of vision1 and     
unreliability of  judgment induced by   
methods akin to those named is now      
generally  recognised4 ,we have yet to  
see the same thing as generally         
recognised in  connection with religious
 beliefs4 ,we see in addition that a    
great many  of those experiences1 once  
accepted as clear evidence of           
supernatural  communication1 are more   
properly explainable in terms of nervous
  derangement4 ,in such cases there is  
neither celestial illumination nor      
diabolic communion1 neither--to use     

,maudsley's phrase--theolepsy nor       
diabolepsy1 only psycholepsy4 ,in the   
present chapter we have been  striving  
to apply this principle to a little     
wider field than is usual4  ,we have    
been studying the misinterpretation1 in 
terms of religion1 of  abnormal or      
pathological states of mind1 and        
observing how far these  have           
contributed to building up and          
perpetuating a conviction of the        
possibility of supernatural intercourse4
 ,we have yet to trace the same         
principle of misinterpretation in the   
sexual and social life of mankind4      
,,footnotes3    #bj ,a ,psychological   
,study of ,religion1 p4 #bcd4    #ba    
,primitive ,culture1 i4 p4 #eja4    #bb 
,primitive ,culture1 ii4 p4 #daj4    #bc
 ,some very curious information         
concerning the use of this and other    
fungi is given by ,dr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,bourke  
in his ,scatologic ,rites1 pp4 #fi-ge4  
#bd ,cited by ,bourke1 p4 #ij4    #be   
,tylor1 ii4 pp4 #dag-i4    #bf ,for a   

clear account of the effects of hemp    
preparations1 calculated  to produce a  
feeling of religious ecstasy1 the reader
 should consult ,dr4  ,hale ,white's    
,text-,book of ,pharmacology1 #aija1 pp4
 #cah-bb4 ,the effects  of opium are    
thus described by another writer3       
,opium1 in those who are  capable of    
stimulation by it1 gives rise to a      
pleasurable feeling1  something like    
that which is produced by wine in not   
excessive doses2  but the excitement    
derived from it1 instead of tending to  
some highest  point1 remains stationary 
for hours1 and in place of the slight   
incoherence of thought always present in
 those who are exhilarated with  wine1  
the most perfect harmony is established 
among all the conceptions4  ,there is an
 extraordinary stimulation of the pure  
intellect1 and not  merely of the power 
of expression4 ,the opium-eater seems to
 have had the  eyes of his spirit       
opened1 to have acquired a gift of      
insight into  things that to mere       

mortals are inexplicable4 ,the most     
remote parts of  consciousness come into
 clear light2 the finer shades of       
personality1  those that had been       
unknown even to the opium-eater himself1
 are brought  into view and become      
distinct2 the smallest details of the   
things around  take new significance1   
and are seen to be profoundly important2
 their  analogies with other phenomena  
of nature are revealed4 ,it is the same 
with the moral as with the intellectual 
being2 that also becomes  indefinitely  
exalted4 ,an absolute balance of the    
faculties seems to have  been attained4 
,the whole man is what in his ordinary  
state he only  tends to be2 he has      
realised the highest perfection of which
 he is  capable2 only his 'best self'   
now remains2 his lower self has been    
left  behind without need of the        
purgatorial fire of contention with the 
environment to destroy it4--,t4         
,whittaker1 ,essays and ,notices1       
,psychological and ,philosophical1 p4   

#cfg4    #bg ,anthropology1 p4 #bif4    
#bh ,for a general account of religious 
dances1 see ,major-,general  ,forlong's 
,faiths of ,man1 art4 ,dancing4    #bi  
,catlin1 ,north ,american ,indians1 i4  
p4 #cf4    #cj ,cited by ,frazer1 ,taboo
 and the ,perils of the ,soul1 p4 #afa4 
#ca ,turner's ,samoa1 p4 #cde-f4    #cb 
,brady1 ,clavis ,calendaria1 vol4 i4 p4 
#bbc4    #cc ,cited by ,tylor1          
,primitive ,culture1 ii4 pp4 #dab-c4    
#cd ,natural ,causes and ,supernatural  
,seemings1 p4 #bgg4    #ce ,a very good 
account of the methods followed in these
 places will be  found in ,miss         
,hamilton's ,incubation1 or the ,cure of
 ,diseases in ,pagan  ,temples and      
,christian ,churches1 #aijf4    #cf     
,grote1 ,history of ,greece1 vol4 i4 p4 
#cei and vol4 v4 p4 #bcb4    #cg ,the   
ancient ,egyptians and ,greeks1 says    
,dr4 ,maudsley1 used humane  and        
rational methods of treatment2 it was   
only after the ,christian  doctrine of  
possession by devils had taken hold of  

the minds of men that  the worst sort of
 treatment1 of which history gives      
account1 came into  force 7,pathology of
 ,mind1 p4 #ebc74 ,for a general account
 of ,egyptian  medicine see the chapter 
on ,egypt in ,dr4 ,berdoe's ,origin and 
,growth of  the ,healing ,art4    #ch   
,meryon1 ,the ,history of ,medicine1    
vol4 i4 p4 #fg4    #ci ,ibid41 vol4 i4  
p4 #ajd4    #dj ,see ,sir ,michael      
,foster's ,lectures on the ,history of  
,physiology1  chap4 i4    #da ,primitive
 ,culture1 ii4 #abd4    #db ,on the     
,miracles1 p4 #afh4    #dc ,cited by    
,white1 who gives original authorities1 
,warfare of ,science  with ,theology1   
ii4 #ajg4    #dd ,white1 ii4 #ajh4      
#de ,meditations1 bk4 i4    #df ,fort's 
,medical ,economy during the ,middle    
,ages1 p4 #cde4    #dg ,dr4 ,howden1    
,medical ,superintendent of the         
,montrose ,lunatic ,asylum1  in ,journal
 of ,mental ,science1 #ahgc4    #dh     
,first ,signs of ,insanity1 p4 #bic4    
#di ,clinical ,lectures on ,mental      

,diseases1 p4 #dbh4 ,the whole of       
chapter xi4 is very pertinent4    #ej   
,dr4 ,r4 ,jones1 in ,allbutt's ,system  
of ,medicine1 vol4 viii4 p4 #cce    #ea 
,dr4 ,hollander1 ,first ,signs of       
,insanity1 pp4 #fd-e4    #eb ,cited by  
,ireland1 ,the ,blot on the ,brain1 p4  
#ci4    #ec ,allbutt's ,system of       
,medicine1 viii4 #cie4    #ed           
,physiology of ,mind1 p4 #bea4 ,see also
 ,dr4 ,mercier's ,the ,nervous  ,system 
and the ,mind1 p4 #ee4    #ee ,literary 
,remains1 p4 #hc4    #ef ,w4 ,ellis1    
,polynesian ,researches1 ii4 #bce-f4    
#eg ,dr4 ,h4 ,maudsley has gone fully   
into the case of ,swedenborg in an      
article in the ,journal of ,mental      
,science for ,july and ,october #ahfi1  
since reprinted in his ,body and ,mind4 
#eh ,see ,luther1 by ,h4 ,grisar1 #aiac1
 vol4 i4 pp4 #af-g4    #ei ,for other   
cases1 and a general account of the     
relations between  pathologic states and
 religious delusion1 see ,lombroso1 ,man
 of ,genius1  chap4 iv4 pt4 iii4    #fj 

,varieties of ,religious ,experience1   
pp4 #f-g4    #fa ,the ,soul of a        
,christian1 p4 #ac4    #fb ,see         
,parish's ,hallucinations and           
,illusions1 pp4 #ch-i4    #fc ,saint    
,teresa1 by ,h4 ,joly1 pp4 #be1 #bf1 and
 #eh4    #fd ,inquiries into ,human     
,faculty1 #ahhc1 p4 #fh4                
,,chapter ,,four    ,,sex  ,,religion   
,,in ,,primitive ,,life      ,the       
connection between sexual feeling and   
religious belief is ancient1  intimate1 
and sustained4 ,it has impressed itself 
on many observers who  have approached  
the subject from widely different points
 of view4 ,some  have treated the       
connection as purely accidental1 and as 
having no more  than a mere historical  
interest4 ,others have used it as       
illustrating the  way in which so sacred
 a subject as religion may suffer       
degradation in  degenerate hands4       
,others of a more scientific temper have
 dealt with the  relations between      
sexualism and religion as illustrations 

of a mere  perversion4 ,a deal may be   
said in favour of this last point of    
view4 ,we  know1 as a matter of fact1   
that such cases of perversion do exist1 
in  what form and to what extent will be
 discussed later4 ,we are also aware    
that strong feeling which cannot find   
vent in one direction will secure       
expression in another4 ,the annals of   
,roman ,catholicism contain accounts  of
 numerous persons who have sought refuge
 in a monastery or a nunnery  as the    
result of disappointment in love1 and it
 would be foolish to  conclude that     
strong amorous feelings are annihilated 
because there is a  change in the object
 to which they are directed4 ,paul was  
not a  different man from the ,saul of  
pre-conversion days1 but the same person
  with his energies directed into a new 
channel4 ,protestantism is without  the 
obvious outlets for unsatisfied sexual  
feeling such as is provided  by ,roman  
,catholicism1 but it provides other     
outlets4 ,religious service  as a whole 

remains1 and intense religious devotion 
may very often owe  its origin to       
sources undreamt of by the devotee4     
,between religious beliefs and sexual   
feelings the connection is1  however1   
wider and deeper1 than the relation     
expressed by mere  perversion4 ,neither 
is the relation one of mere accident4   
,an examination  of the facts in the    
light of adequate scientific knowledge1 
combined  with a due perception of      
primitive human psychology and          
sociology1 have  shown that the two     
things are united at their source4 ,one 
eminent  medical writer asserts that in 
a certain sense1 the history of religion
  can be regarded as a peculiar mode of 
manifestation of the human sexual       
instinct4#fe ,another writer            
substantially endorses this by the      
remark  that in a certain sense the     
religious life is an irradiation of the 
reproductive instinct4#ff ,how easily   
one glides into the other very  little  
observation of life or study of history 

will show4 ,the language  of devotion   
and of amatory passion is often         
identical1 and seems to  serve equally  
well for either purpose4 ,the           
significance of this fact is  often     
obscured by our having etherealised the 
conception of love1 and so  losing sight
 of its physiological basis4 ,and1      
having hidden it from  sight1 we1 not   
unnaturally1 fail to give it due        
consideration4 ,this is1  in its way1 a 
fatal blunder4 ,the sex life of man and 
woman is too large  a fact and too      
pervasive a force to be ignored with    
safety4 ,ignorance  combined with       
prudery conspires to perpetuate what    
ignorance alone  began2 and the sex     
life1 in both its normal and abnormal   
manifestations1  has been perpetually   
exploited in the interests of           
supernaturalism4    ,the evidence that  
may be adduced in favour of what has    
been said is  vast1 and covers a wide   
range4 ,historically it covers such     
facts as the  relations between         

primitive religious beliefs and the     
sexual life1 and  the multiplication of 
sects of a markedly erotic character    
during  periods of religious enthusiasm4
 ,even the most casual students of      
religion1 says ,professor ,g4 ,b4       
,cutten1 must have observed an          
apparently intimate connection between  
religious and sexual emotions1  and not 
a few have read with amazement the      
abnormal cults which have had  the      
sexual element as a foundation for their
 denominational  dissent4#fg ,a         
phenomenon so striking as to force      
itself on the notice  of the most       
'casual students' raises the presumption
 that the relation  between the two sets
 of facts is rather more than that of   
'apparent'  intimacy4 ,when in the      
course of history two things appear     
together over  and over again1 one is   
surely justified in assuming that there 
is some  underlying principle           
responsible for the association4 ,the   
search for  this principle leads to the 

next class of evidence--the             
psychological4  ,in this we are         
concerned with the relation between the 
sexual feelings  and the religious idea1
 an association not always expressed    
through the  comparatively harmless     
medium of language4 ,and1 finally1 we   
have the  evidence derived from         
pathology1 where we are able to discern 
a  perverted sexuality masquerading as  
religious fervour4    ,in a previous    
chapter there has been pointed out the  
kind of mental  environment in which    
primitive man moves4 ,as one of the     
earliest forms  of systematised         
thinking1 religion dominates all other  
forms of mental  activity4 ,in savage   
culture there is hardly a single event  
into which  religious considerations do 
not enter4 ,the savage does not merely  
believe in a supernatural world1 he     
lives in it2 it is as real to him as    
anything around him1 and far more potent
 in its action4 ,above all1 it is       
important to bear in mind that although 

one is compelled to speak of the        
natural and the supernatural when       
dealing with early beliefs1 no such     
separation is present to the primitive  
intelligence4 ,the division  between the
 natural and the supernatural in the    
external world is the  reflection of a  
corresponding division in the world of  
thought1 and this  arises only at a     
subsequent stage4 ,what is afterwards   
recognised as the  supernatural pervades
 everything4 ,in a sense it is          
everything1 since  most of what occurs  
is by the agency or connivance of       
animistic forces4    ,in such a world1  
where even the ordinary events of life  
have a  supernatural significance1 the  
strange and sometimes terrifying        
phenomena of sexual life carry          
peculiarly strong evidences of          
supernatural activity4 ,events which are
 to the modern mind the most  obvious   
consequences of sex life are to the     
primitive mind proofs of  supernatural  
or ghostly agency4 ,nothing1 for        

example1 would appear less  open to     
misconception than the connection       
between sexual relations and  the birth 
of children4 ,yet1 on this head1 ,mr4   
,sidney ,hartland has  produced a mass  
of evidence1 gathered from all parts of 
the world1 and  leading to the          
conclusion that in the most primitive   
stages of human  culture1 conception and
 birth are ascribed to direct           
supernatural  influence4 ,setting out   
from a study of the world-wide vogue of 
the  belief in supernatural             
birth--contained in the author's earlier
 work1  ,the ,legend of ,perseus--,mr4  
,hartland finds in this a survival of a 
culture stage in which all birth is     
believed to be supernatural4  ,survivals
 of this belief that birth is a         
phenomenon independent of the  union of 
the sexes are found in the existence of 
numerous semi-magical  devices to obtain
 children1 still practised in many parts
 of ,europe1 and  which were practised  
on a much more extensive scale during   

the medieval  period2 in the ignorance  
of man concerning physiological         
functions in  general1 the existence of 
,motherright which appears to have      
universally  antedated ,fatherright--the
 origin of which he traces to economic  
causes1  and to the animistic nature of 
primitive beliefs in general4#fh        
,such a conclusion is not without       
verification from the beliefs of        
existing savages4 ,the ,bahau of        
,central ,borneo have no notion of the  
real  duration of pregnancy1 and date   
its commencement only from the time of  
its becoming visible4 ,the ,niol-,niol  
of ,dampier ,land in ,north-,western    
,australia hold birth to be independent 
of sexual intercourse4 ,it is           
engendered by a pre-existing spirit     
through the agency of a medicine  man4  
,the ,north ,queenslanders have a       
similar belief4 ,they believe a child   
to be sent in answer to the husband's   
prayer as a punishment to his wife  when
 he is vexed with her4 ,on the          

,proserpine ,river the ,blacks believe  
that a child is the gift of a           
supernatural being called ,kunya4 ,in   
,south  ,queensland the ,euahlayi       
believe that spirits congregate at      
certain spots  and pounce on passing    
women1 and so are born4 ,on the ,slave  
,coast of ,west  ,africa the ,awunas say
 that a child derives the lower jaw from
 the  mother2 all the rest comes from   
the spirits4 ,among these people and    
others that might be named paternity    
exists in name1 but it implies          
something entirely different to what it 
afterwards connotes4 ,mr4  ,hartland    
gives numerous instances of this curious
 fact1 and points out  that the         
attention of mankind would not be early 
or easily fastened  upon the procreative
 process4 ,it is lengthy1 extending over
 months  during which the observer's    
attention would be inevitably diverted  
by a  variety of objects1 most of them  
of far more pressing import4444 ,the    
sexual passion would be gratified       

instinctively without any thought of    
the consequences1 and in an overwhelming
 proportion of cases without the        
consequence of pregnancy at all4 ,when  
that consequence occurred it would  not 
be visible for weeks or months after the
 act which produced it4 ,a  hundred     
other events might have taken place in  
the interval which would  be likely to  
be credited with the result by one      
wholly ignorant of  natural laws4       
,there seems1 therefore1 fair grounds   
for ,mr4 ,hartland's conclusion  that3--
    for generations and ons the truth   
that a child is only born in            
consequence of an act of sexual union1  
that the birth of a child is the        
natural consequence of such an act      
performed in favouring circumstances1   
and that every child must be the result 
of such an act and of no other  cause1  
was not realised by mankind1 that down  
to the present day it is  imperfectly   
realised by some peoples1 and that there
 are still others  among whom it is     

unknown4    ,this1 however1 is but one  
of the ways in which supernatural       
beliefs  become associated with sexual  
phenomena4 ,in truth1 there is not a    
stage  of any importance in the sexual  
life of men and women where the same    
association does not transpire4 ,there  
is1 for example1 the important          
phenomenon of puberty--important from   
both a physiological and  sociological  
point of view4 ,pubic ceremonies of some
 kind are found all  over the world1 and
 in all forms1 from those current       
amongst savages up  to the contemporary 
practice of confirmation in the         
,christian ,church4 ,at  all stages the 
period of puberty is the time of        
initiation4 ,with  uncivilised peoples a
 very general rule is the separation of 
the sexes1  with fasting4 ,mr4 ,stanley 
,hall in his elaborate work on          
,adolescence  has dealt very            
exhaustively with these customs1 with   
which we shall be  more closely         
concerned when we come to deal with the 

subject of  conversion4 ,at present it  
is only necessary to point out that the 
governing idea is that at puberty the   
boy and the girl are brought into       
special relationship with the tribal    
spirits1 the proof of which             
relationship lies in the sexual         
functions originated4    ,with boys1    
once puberty is attained1 the sexual    
development is orderly  and unobtrusive4
 ,in the case of girls certain recurring
 phenomena make  the essential fact of  
sex much more impressive to the         
primitive mind1  with far-reaching      
sociological consequences4 ,ignorance of
 the nature of  female periodicity1 says
 ,a4 ,e4 ,crawley1 leads man to consider
 it as  the flow of blood from a wound1 
naturally1 or more usually1             
supernaturally produced4#fi ,in ,siam an
 evil spirit is believed to be  the     
cause of the wound4 ,amongst the        
,chiriguanas the girl fasts1 while      
women beat the floor with sticks in     
order to drive away the snake that  has 

wounded the girl4 ,similar beliefs are  
found very generally among  people in a 
low stage of culture1 and customs and   
beliefs still  surviving among people   
more advanced point to the conclusion   
that  convictions of the same kind were 
once fairly universal4 ,it is this      
function1 combined with the function of 
childbirth1 that brings woman  into     
close contact with the supernatural     
world1 makes her an object of  fear and 
wonder to primitive man1 accounts for a 
number of the customs  and beliefs      
associated with her1 and finally helps  
to determine her  social position4 ,it  
is because her periodicity is taken as  
evidence of  her communion with         
spiritual forces that special           
precautions have to be  taken concerning
 her4 ,she becomes spiritually          
contagious4 ,thus1 the  natives of ,new 
,britain1 while engaged in making       
fish-traps1 carefully  avoid all women4 
,they believe that if a woman were even 
to touch a  fish-trap1 it would catch   

nothing4 ,amongst the ,maoris1 if a man 
touched  a menstruous woman1 he would be
 taboo 'an inch thick4' ,an ,australian 
black fellow1 who discovered that his   
wife had lain on his blanket at  her    
menstrual period1 killed her1 and died  
of terror himself within a  fortnight4  
,in ,uganda the pots which a woman      
touches while the impurity  of          
childbirth or menstruation is on her1   
are destroyed4 ,with many ,north        
,american ,indians the use of weapons   
touched by women during these times     
would bring misfortune4 ,a menstruating 
woman is with them the object  they     
dread most4 ,in ,tahiti women are       
secluded4 ,in some cases she is too     
dangerous to be even touched by others1 
and food is given her at the end  of a  
stick4 ,with the ,pueblo ,indians       
contact with a woman at these times     
exposes a man to attacks from an evil   
spirit1 and he may pass on the          
infection to others4#gj    ,it is       
needless to multiply instances2 the same

 general reason governs  all1 and this  
has been clearly expressed by ,dr4      
,frazer3--    ,the object of secluding  
women at menstruation is to neutralise  
the  dangerous influence which is       
supposed to emanate from them at such   
times4 ,the general effect of these     
rules is to keep the women suspended1   
so to say1 between heaven and earth4    
,whether enveloped in her hammock  and  
slung up to the roof1 as in ,south      
,america1 or elevated above the  ground 
in a dark and narrow cage1 as in ,new   
,zealand1 she may be  considered to be  
out of the way of doing mischief1 since 
being shut off  both from the earth and 
from the sun1 she can poison neither of 
these  great sources of life by her     
deadly contagion4 ,the precautions thus 
taken to isolate and insulate the girl  
are dictated by regard for her  own     
safety as well as for the safety of     
others4444 ,in short1 the girl is       
viewed as charged with a powerful force 
which1 if not kept within  bounds1 may  

prove the destruction both of the girl  
herself and all with  whom she comes in 
contact4 ,to repress this force within  
the limits  necessary for the safety of 
all concerned is the object of the      
taboos in  question4    ,the savage is  
far too logical in his methods to allow 
such an idea to  end here4 ,if a woman  
is so highly charged with spiritual     
infection as to  be dangerous at certain
 frequently recurring periods1 she may  
be more or  less dangerous between these
 periods4 ,as ,havelock ,ellis says3    
,instead  of being regarded as a being  
who at periodic intervals becomes the   
victim of a spell of impurity1 the      
conception of impurity becomes          
amalgamated with the conception of      
woman2 she is1 as ,tertullian puts it1  
,janua diaboli2 and this is the attitude
 which still persisted in  medieval     
days4#ga ,this is to be expected from   
what one knows of the  workings of the  
primitive intelligence1 but it is       
surprising to find ,mr4  ,ellis continue

 by saying1 on apparently good grounds1 
that the belief  in the periodically    
recurring impurity of women has by no   
means died out  to-day4 ,among a very   
large section of the women of the middle
 and lower  classes of ,england and     
other countries it is firmly believed   
that the  touch of a menstruating woman 
will contaminate2 only a few years      
since1  in the course of a              
correspondence on this subject in the   
,british  ,medical ,journal 7#ahgh71    
even medical men were found to state    
from  personal observation that they had
 no doubt whatever on this point4       
,thus1 one doctor1 who expressed        
surprise that any doubt could be thrown 
on the point1 wrote1 after quoting cases
 of spoiled hams1 etc41 presumed  to be 
due to this cause1 which had come under 
his own personal  observation3 ',for two
 thousand years the ,italians have had  
this idea of  menstruating women4 ,we   
,english hold to it1 the ,americans have
 it1 also  the ,australians4 ,now1 ,i   

should like to know the country where   
the  evidence of any such observation is
 unknown4' ,evidently animism is a  more
 persistent frame of mind than most     
people are inclined to believe4    ,it  
is certain1 however1 that this          
conception of woman's nature is         
dominant in the lower stages of culture4
 ,she is spiritually dangerous1  and the
 principle of 'taboo' is made to cover a
 great many of her  relations to man4   
,in ,tahiti a woman was not allowed to  
touch the weapons  or fishing implements
 of men4 ,amongst the ,todas women are  
not permitted  to touch the cattle4 ,if 
a wife touches the food of her husband1 
among  the ,hindus1 the food is unfit to
 be eaten4 ,an ,eskimo wife dare not eat
  with her husband4 ,in ,new ,zealand   
wives were not allowed to eat with the  
males lest their taboo should kill them4
 ,many tribes are careful to  refrain   
from contact with women before going to 
fight4 ,they believe that  this would   
rob them and their weapons of strength4 

,other practices  followed by savages   
before going to war forbid one assuming 
that this  abstention is due to any     
rational fear of dissipating their      
energies4  ,instead of conserving their 
strength they weaken themselves by the  
many  privations they undergo before    
fighting1 in order to ensure victory4   
,professor ,frazer well says3--    ,when
 we observe what pains these misguided  
savages took to unfit  themselves for   
the business of war by abstaining from  
food1 denying  themselves rest1 and     
lacerating their bodies1 we shall       
probably not be  disposed to attribute  
their practice of continence in war to a
 rational  fear of dissipating their    
bodily energies by indulgence in the    
lusts of  the flesh4#gb    ,the         
conception of woman as one heavily      
charged with supernatural               
potentialities1 and1 therefore1 a source
 of danger to the community1  seems to  
lie at the basis of the widespread      
belief in the religious  'uncleanness'  

of women4 ,the real significance of the 
word 'unclean' in  religious ritual has 
been obscured by our modern use of it in
 a hygienic  or ethical sense4 ,in      
reality it is but an illustration of the
 principle  of 'taboo1' and 'taboo' may 
extend to anything1 good or bad1 useful 
or  useless1 hygienically clean or      
unclean4 ,the primary meaning of        
'taboo1'  a ,polynesian word1 is        
something that is set aside or          
forbidden4 ,the  field covered by this  
word among savage and semi-savage races 
is1 as  ,robertson ,smith points out1   
very wide1 for there is no part of life 
in  which the savage does not feel      
himself surrounded by mysterious        
agencies  and recognise the need of     
walking warily4#gc ,anything may thus   
become  the object of a 'taboo4'        
,weapons1 food1 animals1 places1 special
  relations of one person to another at 
certain times and under certain         
conditions4 ,it is enough that some     
special or particular degree of         

supernatural influence is associated    
with the object in question4 ,the       
ancient ,jews1 for example1 in          
prohibiting the eating of swine's flesh1
  were as far as possible removed in    
their thought from any connection  with 
dietetics4 ,they were simply following  
the well-known savage custom  that the  
totem of a tribe is sacred4 ,the pig was
 a totem with many of  the ,semitic     
tribes1 and must not1 therefore1 be     
eaten4#gd ,it was not an  unclean       
animal1 in the modern sense1 it was a   
'holy' animal4 ,with the  ,syrians the  
dove was so holy that even to touch it  
made a man 'unclean'  for a whole day4  
,no ,north ,american ,indian will eat of
 the flesh of an  animal that is a      
tribal totem1 except under grave        
necessity1 and even  then with elaborate
 religious ceremonies4 ,so1 a           
prohibition to eat the  flesh of an     
animal of a certain species1 that has   
its ground not in  natural loathing but 
in religious horror and reverence1      

implies that  something divine is       
ascribed to every animal of the species4
 ,and what  seems to us to be a natural 
loathing often turns out1 in the case of
  primitive peoples1 to be based on a   
religious taboo1 and to have its  origin
 not in feelings of contemptuous        
disgust1 but of reverential  dread4#ge  
,the real significance of 'unclean' in  
connection with religious ritual  is    
'holy'1 something that partakes in a    
special manner of supernatural          
influence and therefore involves a      
certain danger in contact4 ,as the      
writer just cited observes3--    ,the   
acts that cause uncleanness are exactly 
the same which among savage  nations    
place a man under taboo4444 ,these acts 
are often involuntary1  and often       
innocent1 or even necessary to society4 
,the savage1  accordingly1 imposes a    
taboo on a woman in childbed1 or during 
her  courses 444 simply because birth   
and everything connected with the       
propagation of the species on the one1  

and disease and death on the  other     
hand1 seem to involve the action of     
supernatural agencies of a  dangerous   
kind4 ,if he attempts to explain1 he    
does so by supposing that  on these     
occasions spirits of deadly power are   
present2 at all events  the persons     
involved seem to him to be sources of   
mysterious danger1  which has all the   
characters of an infection1 and may     
extend to other  people unless due      
precautions are observed4444 ,it has    
nothing to do with  respect for the     
gods1 but springs from mere terror of   
the supernatural  influences associated 
with the woman's physical condition4#gf 
,it is interesting to observe the manner
 in which this notion of the            
sacramentally 'unclean' nature of woman 
has affected her religious  status1 and 
by inference1 her social status         
likewise4 ,among the  ,australians women
 are shut out from any part in the      
religious  ceremonies4 ,in the ,sandwich
 ,isles a woman's touch made a sacrifice

  unclean4 ,if a ,hindu woman touches a 
sacred image the divinity is  destroyed4
 ,in ,fiji women are excluded from the  
temples4 ,the ,papuans have  the same   
custom4 ,the ,ainus of ,japan allow a   
woman to prepare the  sacrifice1 but not
 to offer it4 ,women are excluded from  
many ,mohammedan  mosques4 ,among the   
,jews women have no part in the         
religious ceremonies4  ,in the          
,christian ,church women were excluded  
from the priestly office4 ,a  ,council  
held at ,auxerre at the end of the sixth
 century forbade women  touching the    
,eucharist with their bare hands1 and in
 various churches  they were forbidden  
to approach the altar during ,mass4#gg  
,in the  gospels ,jesus forbids the     
woman to touch ,him1 after the          
resurrection1  although ,thomas was     
allowed to feel ,his wounds4 ,the       
,church of the  ,middle ,ages did not   
hesitate to provide itself with eunuchs 
in order to  supply cathedral choirs    
with the soprano tones inhering by      

nature in  women alone4#gh ,the         
',churching' of women still in vogue has
 its origin  in the same superstition   
that childbirth endows woman with a     
supernatural influence which must be    
removed in the interests of others4     
,this ceremony was formerly called ,the 
,order of the ,purification of  ,women1 
and was read at the church door before  
the woman entered the  building4 ,its   
connection with the ideas indicated     
above is obvious4 ,the  ,tahitian       
practice of excluding women from        
intercourse with others for  two or     
three weeks after childbirth1 with      
similar practices amongst  uncivilised  
peoples all over the world1 led with    
various modifications  up to the current
 practice of churching4 ,they show that 
in the opinion  of primitive peoples a  
woman at and after childbirth is        
pervaded by a  certain dangerous        
influence which can infect anything and 
anybody she  touches2 so that in the    
interests of the community it becomes   

necessary  to seclude her from society  
for a while1 until the virulence of the 
infection has passed away1 when1 after  
submitting to certain rites of          
purification1 she is again free to      
mingle with her fellows4#gi ,the        
gradual change of this ceremony1 from a 
getting rid of a dangerous  supernatural
 infection to returning thanks for a    
natural danger passed1  is on all fours 
with what takes place in other          
directions in relation to  religious    
ideas and practices4    ,the important  
part played by this conception of       
woman's nature may be  traced in the    
fierce invective directed against her in
 the early  ,christian writings4 ,of    
course1 by that time society had reached
 a stage  when the primitive form of    
this belief had been outgrown1 but ideas
 and  attitudes of mind persist long    
after their originating conditions have 
disappeared4 ,in this particular case we
 have the primitive idea  expressed in a
 form suitable to altered circumstances1

 and the primitive  feeling seeking new 
warranty in ethical or social           
considerations4 ,but in  the main the   
old notion is there4 ,woman is a        
creature threatening  danger to man's   
spiritual welfare4#hj ,in this          
connection we may note  an observation  
of ,westermarck's during his residence  
among the country  people of ,morocco4  
,he was struck1 he says1 with the       
superstitious fear  the men had of      
women4 ,they are supposed to be much    
better versed in  magic1 and therefore  
one ran greater danger in offending     
them4 ,the  curses of women are1        
generally1 much more feared than those  
of men4 ,to  this we have a parallel in 
,christianity which so often revived and
  strengthened the lower religious      
beliefs4 ,during the witch mania an     
overwhelming proportion of those charged
 with and executed for sorcery  were    
women4 ,as a matter of fact1 women were 
more prone than men to  credit          
themselves with possessing supernatural 

power4 ,but the  theological explanation
 was that the devil had more power over 
women  than men4 ,this was1 obviously1 a
 heritage from the primitive belief     
above described4#ha    ,another way in  
which religion becomes closely          
associated with sexualism  is through   
the widely diffused phallic worship4    
,the worship of the  generative power in
 the form of stones1 pillars1 and carved
  representations of the male and female
 sexual organs plays an  unquestionably 
important part in the history of        
religion1 however hardly  pressed it may
 have been by some enthusiastic         
theorisers4 ,the farther  back we go1   
says ,mr4 ,hargrave ,jennings1 in the   
history of every  country1 the deeper we
 explore into all religions1 ancient as 
well as  modern1 we stumble the more    
frequently upon the incessantly         
intensifying  distinct traces of this   
supposedly indecent mystic worship4#hb  
,on the  lower ,congo1 says ,sir ,h4 ,h4
 ,johnston3--    ,phallic worship in    

various forms prevails4 ,it is not      
associated with  any rites that might be
 called particularly obscene2 and on the
 coast1  where manners and morals are   
particularly corrupt1 the phallus cult  
is  no longer met with4 ,in the forests 
between ,manyanga and ,stanley ,pool it 
is not rare to come upon a little rustic
 temple1 made of palm fronds and  poles1
 within which male and female figures1  
nearly or quite life size1  may be seen1
 with disproportionate genital organs1  
the figures being  intended to represent
 the male and female principle4 ,around 
these carved  and painted statues are   
many offerings1 plates1 knives1 and     
cloth1 and  frequently also the phallic 
symbol may be seen dangling from the    
rafters4 ,there is not the slightest    
suspicion of obscenity in all this1  and
 anyone qualifying this worship of the  
generative power as obscene  does so    
hastily and ignorantly4 ,it is a solemn 
mystery to the ,congo  native1 a force  
but dimly understood1 and1 like all     

mysterious natural  manifestations1 it  
is a power that must be propitiated and 
persuaded to  his good4#hc    ,the      
,egyptian religion was permeated with   
phallicism4 ,in ,india phallic  worship 
is widely scattered4 ,in ,benares1 the  
sacred city1 everywhere1  in the        
temples1 in the little shrines in the   
street1 the emblem of the  ,creator is  
phallic4 ,symbols of the male and female
 sexual organs1 the  ,lingam and the    
,yoni1 have been objects of worship in  
,india from the  earliest times4 ,with  
the ,sakti ceremonies1 ,hindu religion  
dispenses with  symbols1 and devotion is
 paid to a naked woman selected for the 
occasion4#hd ,this worship of a nude    
female is a very familiar  phenomenon in
 the history of religion4 ,some of the  
early ,christian sects  were said to    
have practised it1 and it is a feature  
of some ,russian  religious sects       
to-day4 ,the subject will be dealt with 
more fully  hereafter4    ,in ancient   
,rome1 in the month of ,april1 when the 

fertilising powers of  nature begin to  
operate1 and its powers to be visibly   
developed1 a  festival in honour of     
,venus took place2 in it the phallus was
 carried in  a cart1 and led in         
procession by the ,roman ladies to the  
temple of ,venus  outside the ,colline  
gate1 and then presented by them to the 
sexual part  of the goddess4#he ,in the 
,greek ,bacchic religious processions   
huge  phalli were carried in a chariot  
drawn by bulls1 and surrounded by women 
and girls singing songs of praise4      
,phallic worship was also associated    
with the cults of ,dionysos and         
,eleusis4 ,it is met with among the     
ancient  ,mexicans and ,peruvians1 and  
also among the ,north ,american tribes4 
,the  famous ,black ,stone of ,mecca1 to
 which religious honours are paid1 is   
also said by authorities to be a phallic
 symbol4 ,the stone set up by  ,jacob   
7,gen4 xxviii4 #ah-i7 falls into the    
same category4 ,references to  phallic  
worship may be found in many parts of   

the ,bible1 and  authoritative writers  
like ,mr4 ,hargrave ,jennings and       
,major-,general  ,forlong have not      
hesitated to assert that the god of the 
,jewish ,ark was  a sexual symbol4      
,seeing the extent to which phallic     
worship exists in  other religions1 it  
would be surprising did this not also   
exist in the  early ,jewish religion4   
,in ,christendom we have evidence of the
 perpetuation of the phallic cult  in   
the decree of ,mans1 #abdg1 and of the  
,synod of ,tours1 #acif1 against  its   
practice4 ,quite unsuccessfully1        
however4 ,indeed1 the architecture of   
medieval churches bear in their         
ornamentation numerous evidences of the 
failure at suppression4 ,of course1 much
 of this ornamentation may have  been   
due to mere imitation1 but often enough 
it was deliberate4 ,the  scholar1 says  
,bonwick1 who gazed to-day at the roof  
of ,temple ,church1  ,london1 had the   
illustration before him4 ,a symbol      
there1 repeatedly  displayed1 is the    

popular ,hindu one to express sex       
worship4#hf ,the  belief found          
expression in other ways than           
ornamentation4 ,when ,sir  ,william     
,hamilton visited ,naples in #agha he   
found in ,isernia a ,christian  custom  
in vogue which he described in a letter 
to ,sir ,william ,banks1 and  which     
admitted of no doubt as to its ,priapic 
character4 ,every ,september  was       
celebrated a festival in the ,church of 
,,ss4 ,cosmus and ,damianus4  ,during   
the progress of the festival vendors    
paraded the streets offering  small     
waxen phalli1 which were bought by the  
devout and placed in the  church1 much  
as candles are still purchased and      
given4 ,at the same time1  prayers are  
offered to ,st4 ,como by those who      
desire children4 ,in  ,midlothian1 in   
#abfh1 the clergy instructed their flock
 to sprinkle water  with a dog's phallus
 in order to avert a murrain4 ,the same 
practice  existed in ,inverkeithing1 and
 in ,easter week priest and people      

danced  round a wooden phallus4#hg ,mr4 
,westropp1 quoting an eighteenth-century
  writer1#hh says3 ,when the ,huguenots 
took ,embrun1 they found among the      
relics of the principal church a        
,priapus1 of three pieces in the ancient
  fashion1 the top of which was worn    
away from being constantly washed  with 
wine4 ,the temple of ,st4 ,eutropius1   
destroyed by the ,huguenots1 is  said to
 have contained a similar figure4 ,from 
,mr4 ,sidney ,hartland's  collection of 
practices for obtaining children ,i take
 the following3--    ,at ,bourg-,dieu1  
in the diocese of ,bourges1 a similar   
saint 7similar to  the priapean figure  
previously described7 was called        
,guerlichon or  ,greluchon4 ,there after
 nine days' devotions women stretched   
themselves  on the horizontal figure of 
the saint1 and then scraped the phallus 
for  mixture in water as a drink4 ,other
 saints were worshipped elsewhere in    
,france with equivalent rites4 ,down to 
the ,revolution there stood at  ,brest a

 chapel of ,saint ,guignolet containing 
a priapean statue of the  holy man4     
,women who were1 or feared to be1       
sterile used to go and scrape  a little 
of the prominent member1 which they put 
into a glass of water  from the well and
 drank4 ,the same practice was followed 
at the ,chapel of  ,saint               
,pierre--,croquettes in ,brabant until  
#ahcg1 when the archologist  ,schayes   
called attention to it1 and thereupon   
the ecclesiastical  authorities removed 
the cause of scandal4 ,women have1      
however1 still  continued to make votive
 offerings of pins down almost1 if not  
quite1 to  the present day4 ,at ,antwerp
 stood at the gateway to the ,church of 
,saint  ,walburga in the ,rue des       
,pcheurs a statue1 the sexual organ of  
which  had been entirely scraped away by
 women for the same purpose4#hi    ,from
 what has been said1 it will not be     
difficult to understand the  existence  
of the custom of religious prostitution4
 ,considering the  sexual impulse as    

specially connected with a supernatural 
force1 man  pays it religious honour1   
and comes to identify its manifestations
 as an  expression of the supernatural  
and also as an act of worship towards   
it4  ,in ,india the practice existed1   
when most temples had their 'bayadres4' 
,in ancient ,chaldea every woman was    
compelled to prostitute herself once  in
 her life in the temple of the goddess  
,mylitta--the ,chaldean ,venus4  ,this  
custom existed elsewhere1 and by it the 
woman was compelled to  remain within   
the temple enclosures until some man    
chose her1 from whom  she received a    
piece of money4 ,the money1 of course1  
belonged to the  temple4#ij ,in ,greece1
 ,carthage1 ,syria1 etc41 we find the   
same custom4  ,among the ,jews1 so      
orthodox a commentary as ,smith's ,bible
 ,dictionary  admits that the           
',kadechim' attached to the temple were 
prostitutes4 ,the  frequent references  
to the service of the 'groves'          
surrounding the  temple irresistibly    

suggest their likeness to the groves    
around the  temples of ,mylitta1 and    
their use for the same purpose4         
,there is no necessity to prolong the   
subject1#ia nor is it necessary to  my  
purpose to discuss the origin of phallic
 worship4 ,it is enough to  have shown  
the manner in which1 from the very      
earliest times1 religious  belief and   
sexual phenomena have been connected in 
the closest possible  manner4 ,in this  
respect it is only on all fours with the
 relation of  religion to phenomena in  
general1 but here the attitude of mind  
is  accentuated and prolonged by the    
startling facts of sexual development4  
,the connection becomes consequently so 
close it is not surprising to  find that
 the association has persisted down to  
the present time1 and  moods that have  
their origin in the sexual life are     
frequently  attributed to religious     
influences4 ,the primitive intelligence1
 frankly  seeing in the phenomena of sex
 a manifestation of the supernatural1   

sees  here a continuous endorsement of  
religious life4 ,the more sophisticated 
mind raised above this point of view    
continues1 with modifications1 the      
primitive practices1 and in ignorance of
 the physiological causes of its  own   
states is only too ready to interpret   
ebullitions of sex feeling as  evidence 
of the divine4      ,,note ,,to ,,page  
#ajd4          ,it is strange that so   
little attention has been paid to       
these primitive beliefs as important    
factors in determining        the social
 position of women4 ,it is too generally
 assumed        that because woman is   
physically weaker than man it is her    
weakness that has determined her        
subordination4 ,both the                
advocates and the opponents of ',woman's
 ,rights' appear to        have reached 
a common agreement on this point4       
,during some        of the debates in   
the ,house of ,commons1 for example1 it 
was        openly stated by prominent   
politicians1 as an axiom of             

political philosophy1 that all laws rest
 upon a basis of        force1 and if   
men say they will not obey woman-made   
laws        there is no power that can  
compel them to do so4 ,on the           
other side1 women1 while appealing to   
what they properly        call higher   
considerations1 themselves dwell upon   
the        physical weakness of woman as
 the reason for her        subordination
 in the past4 ,both parties are helped  
in their        arguments by the facile 
division of social history into two     
periods1 an earlier one in which club   
law plays the chief        part1 and a  
later period when mental and moral      
qualities        assume a dominating    
position4 ,the consequence is1 runs the 
argument1 that each sex has to battle   
with the dead weight        of tradition
 and custom4 ,the woman is oppressed by 
the        tradition of subordination to
 the male2 the man is inspired        by
 that of dominance over the female4     
,it is when we ask for evidence of this 

that we see how        flimsy the case  
is4 ,social phenomena in either         
civilised or        uncivilised society 
furnishes no proof that institutions    
and customs rest upon a basis of        
physical force4 ,the        rulership of
 a tribe often rests with the old men of
 a        tribe2 with some tribes the   
women are consulted1 and                
invariably custom and tradition plays a 
powerful part4 ,the        notion that  
the primitive chief is the primitive    
strong man        of the tribe is as    
baseless as the belief in an original   
social contract1 and owes its existence 
to the same kind of        fanciful     
speculation4 ,as ,frazer says1 it is one
 of those        facile theories which  
the arm-chair philosopher concocts      
with his feet on the fender without     
taking the trouble to        consult the
 facts4 ,the primitive chief may be a   
strong        man4 ,the tribal council  
or chief may use force or rely upon     
physical force to enforce certain       

decrees1 just as the        modern king 
or parliament may call on the help of   
policeman        or soldier1 but this no
 more proves that their rule is         
based upon force than ,mr4 ,asquith's   
premiership proves his        physical  
superiority to the rest of the ,cabinet4
    ,all political life1 and to a       
smaller degree all social life1 involves
  the direction of force1 but neither   
appeal to force for an ultimate         
justification1 nor do social            
institutions originate in an act of     
force4  ,it is one of the commonplaces  
of historical study that when an        
institution is actually forced upon a   
people it very quickly becomes          
inoperative4 ,other things equal1 one   
group of people may overcome  another   
group because of physical superiority1  
but the conquest over1  the question as 
to which group shall really rule1 or    
which set of  institutions shall        
survive1 is settled on quite different  
grounds4 ,the  history of almost any    

country will give examples of the       
absorption of  the conqueror by the     
conquered1 and the bringing of imported 
institutions into line with native life 
and feeling4 ,fundamentally the         
relations binding people together into a
 society are not physical1 but          
psychological4 ,society rests upon the  
foundations of a common mental          
life--upon sympathy1 beliefs1 the desire
 for companionship1 etc4 ,as  ,professor
 ,j4 ,m4 ,baldwin puts it1 the          
fundamental social facts are not        
things1 but thoughts4#ib ,as a member of
 a social group man is born  into an    
environment that is essentially         
psychological1 and his attitude  not    
only towards his fellow human beings1   
but towards nature in general1  is      
determined by the psychological contents
 of the society to which he  belongs4   
,now if the relation of one man to      
another is not determined by physical   
superiority and inferiority1 if the     
relations of classes within a  society  

are not determined in this manner1 why  
should it be assumed that  as a sex     
woman's position is fixed by this means8
 ,it seems more  reasonable to assume   
that some other principle than that of  
club law1 a  principle set in operation 
very early in the history of            
civilisation1  fixed the main lines upon
 which the relations of the sexes were  
to  develop1 however much other forces  
helped its operation4 ,i believe this   
desired factor is to be found in the    
superstitious notions savages  develop  
concerning the nature and function of   
woman1 and which society  only very     
slowly outgrows4 ,for1 as ,frazer says3 
,the continuity of human  development   
has been such that most1 if not all1 of 
the great  institutions which still form
 the framework of a civilised society   
have  their roots in savagery1 and have 
been handed down to us in these later   
days through countless generations1     
assuming new outward forms in the       
process of transmission1 but remaining  

in their inmost core  substantially     
unchanged4    ,in considering the play  
of primitive ideas as determining the   
lines of  human evolution several things
 must be kept clearly in mind4 ,one is  
that  the course of biological          
development has made woman1 as a sex1   
dependent  upon man1 as a sex1 for      
protection and support4 ,this is true   
quite apart  from economic              
considerations or from those arising    
from the relative  physical strength of 
the sexes4 ,the prime function of woman1
  biologically1 is that of motherhood4  
,she is1 so to speak1 mother in a  much 
more important and more pervasive sense 
than man is father4 ,in the  case of    
woman1 her functions are of necessity   
subordinated to this one4  ,with man    
this is not the case4 ,it is with the   
woman that the nutrition  of the child  
rests before birth1 and a large portion 
of her strength is  expended in the     
discharge of this function4 ,the same is
 true for some  period immediately after

 birth4 ,again to use a biological      
illustration1  during the period of     
child-bearing and child-rearing the     
relation of the  man to the woman may be
 likened to that which exists between   
the germ  cells and the somatic cells4  
,as the latter is the medium of         
protection  and the conveyer of         
nutrition in relation to the former1 so 
it falls to  the male to protect and in 
some degree to provide for the woman as 
child-bearer4 ,it would not1 of course1 
be impossible for woman to  provide for 
herself1 but it would detract so        
considerably from social  efficiency    
that any group in which it was done     
would soon disappear4 ,it  is the nature
 and supreme function of woman that     
makes her dependent  upon man4 ,and even
 though the dreams of some were         
realised1 and society  as a whole cared 
for woman in the discharge of this      
function1 the issue  would not be       
changed4 ,it would mean that instead of 
a woman being  dependent upon one man   

she would be dependent upon all men4    
,nor are the  substantial facts of the  
situation changed by anyone pointing out
 that  all women do not and cannot under
 ordinary circumstances become wives    
and mothers4 ,human nature will always  
develop on the lines of the normal      
functions of men and women1 and there   
can be no question in this case as  to  
what these are4    ,i have used the word
 'dependence1' but this does not1 of    
necessity1  involve either subordination
 or subjection4 ,it may provide the     
condition  of either or of both1 but the
 dependence of the woman on the man is1 
as  ,i have said1 biologically          
inescapable4 ,her subjection is quite   
another  question4 ,dependence may be   
mutual4 ,one class of society may be    
dependent upon another class1 but the   
two may move on a perfect level of      
equality4 ,and with uncivilised peoples 
the evidence goes to prove that1  while 
the spheres of the sexes are more       
clearly differentiated than with  us1   

this difference is seldom if ever       
expressed in terms of superior and      
inferior4 ,savages would say1 as        
civilised people still say1 there are   
many things that it is wrong for a woman
 to do1 and they would add there  are   
also things that a man must not do4     
,they would be as shocked at  woman     
doing certain things as some people     
among ourselves were when  women first  
began to speak at public meetings4      
,their disapproval would  not rest on   
the ground that these things were       
'unwomanly'1 nor upon any  question of  
weakness or strength1 of inferiority or 
superiority1 but for  another and1 to   
the savage1 very urgent reason4    ,one 
can very easily exaggerate the extent of
 the subjection of women  among         
uncivilised people4 ,as a matter of     
fact1 it usually is  exaggerated4 ,not  
all travellers are capable of accurate  
observation1 and  very many are led     
astray by what are really superficial   
aspects of  savage life4 ,they are so   

impressed by the contemplation of a     
state of  affairs different from our own
 that they mistake mere lines of        
demarcation for a moral valuation4 ,many
 travellers1 for example1  observing    
that women are strictly forbidden to do 
this or that1 conclude  that the woman  
has no rights as against the man4 ,as in
 nearly all these  cases the man is as  
strictly forbidden to encroach on the   
woman's  sphere1 one might as reasonably
 reverse the statement and dwell upon   
male subjection4 ,as a matter of fact1  
both furnish examples of the            
all-powerful principle of 'taboo4' ,some
 things are taboo to the man1  others to
 the woman4 ,and the key to the problem 
lies in the nature and  origin of these 
taboos4 ,but taboo does not extinguish  
rights2 it  confirms them4 ,under its   
operation1 far from its being the truth 
that  women are without status or rights
 or power1 her position and rights are  
clearly marked1 generally recognised1   
and quickly enforced4 ,some  examples of

 this may be noted4    ,a ,kaffir woman 
when ill-treated possesses the right of 
asylum with her  parents1 and remains   
there until the husband makes atonement4
 ,the same  thing holds of the ,west    
,african ,fulahs4 ,in the ,marquesas a  
woman is  prohibited the use of canoes2 
on the other hand1 men are prohibited   
frequenting certain places belonging to 
the women4 ,in ,nicaragua no man  may   
enter the woman's market-place under    
penalty of a beating4 ,with most  of the
 ,north-,american tribes a woman has    
supreme power inside the lodge4  ,the   
husband possesses no power of           
interference4 ,in most cases the        
husband cannot give away anything       
belonging to the lodge without first    
getting the consent of his wife4 ,with  
the ,nootkas1 women are consulted  on   
all matters of business4 ,livingstone   
relates his surprise on finding  that a 
native would not accompany him on a     
journey because he could not  get his   
wife's consent4 ,he found this to be one

 of the customs of the  tribe to which  
the man belonged4 ,among the ,kandhs of 
,india nothing  public is done without  
consulting the women4 ,in the ,pellew   
,islands the  head of the family can do 
nothing of importance without consulting
 the  oldest female relative4 ,among the
 ,hottentots women have supreme rule in 
the house4 ,if a man oversteps the line1
 his female relatives inflict a  fine1  
which is paid to the wife4 ,with the    
,bechuanas the mother of the  chief is  
present at all councils1 and he can     
hardly decide anything  without her     
consent4 ,these are only a few of the   
cases that might be  cited1 but they are
 sufficient to show that the common view
 of women  among savages as without     
recognised status1 or power1 needs very 
serious  qualification4 ,of course1     
ill-treatment of women does occur with  
uncivilised as with civilised people1   
and she may suffer from the  expression 
of brutal passion or superior strength1 
but an examination of  the facts        

justifies ,starcke's opinion that we are
 not justified in  assuming that the    
savage feels a contempt for women in    
virtue of her  sex4    ,in primitive    
life1 in short1 the dominant idea is not
 that of  superiority in relation to    
woman1 but that of difference4 ,she is  
different from man1 and this difference 
involves consequences of the  gravest   
character1 and against which due        
precautions must be taken4  ,superiority
 and inferiority are much later         
conceptions2 they belong to a           
comparatively civilised period1 and     
their development offers an  admirable  
example of the way in which customs     
based on sheer  superstitions become    
transformed into a social prejudice1    
with the  consequent creation of        
numerous excuses for their perpetuation4
 ,what  that initial prejudice is--a    
prejudice so powerful that it largely   
determines the future status of         
woman--has already been pointed out4    
,her  place in society is marked out in 

uncivilised times by the powerful       
superstitions connected with sexual     
functions4 ,not that she is             
weaker--although that is1 of course1    
plain--nor that she is inferior1 a      
thought which scarcely exists with      
uncivilised peoples1 but that she is    
dangerous1 particularly so during her   
functional crises and in  childbirth4   
,and being dangerous1 because charged   
with a supernatural  influence inimical 
to others1 she is excluded from certain 
occupations1  and contact with her has  
to be carefully regulated4 ,i agree with
 ,mr4  ,andrew ,lang that in the        
regulations concerning women amongst    
uncivilised  people we have another     
illustration of the far-reaching        
principle of  taboo 7,social ,origins   
and ,primal ,law1 p4 #bci7 she suffers  
because of  her sex1 and because of the 
superstitious dread to which her sex    
nature  gives birth4    ,of course1 at a
 later stage other considerations begin 
to operate4  ,where1 for example1 as    

amongst the ,kaffirs1 women are not     
permitted to  touch cattle because of   
this assumed spiritual infection1 and   
where a  man's wealth is measured by the
 cattle he possesses1 it is easy to see 
that this would constitute a force      
preventing the political and social     
equality of the sexes4 ,the pursuits    
from which women were primarily         
excluded for purely religious reasons   
would in course of time come to be      
looked upon as man's inalienable        
possessions4 ,and here her physical     
weakness would play its part2 for she   
could not take1 as man could  withhold1 
by force4 ,even when the primitive point
 of view is discarded1  the social      
prejudices engendered by it long        
remains4 ,and social  prejudices1 as we 
all know1 are the hardest of all things 
to destroy4    ,a final consideration   
needs to be stated4 ,this is that the   
customs  determined by the views of     
woman 7above outlined7 fall into line1  
in a  rough-and-ready fashion1 with the 

biological tendency to consecrate the   
female to the function of motherhood and
 conserve her energies to that  end1    
leaving other kinds of work to the male4
 ,it would be an obvious  advantage to a
 tribe in which woman1 relieved from the
 necessity of  physical struggle for    
food and defence1 was able to attend to 
children  and the more peaceful side of 
family life4 ,children would not only   
benefit thereby1 but the home with all  
its civilising1 humanising  influences  
would develop more rapidly4 ,assuming   
variations in tribal  life in this      
direction1 there is no question as to   
which tribe that  would stand the better
 chance of survival4 ,the development of
 life has  proceeded here as elsewhere  
by differentiation and specialisation2  
and  while the tasks demanding the more 
sustained physical exertions were  left 
to man1 and to the performance of which 
his sexual nature offered  no           
impediment1 woman became more and more  
specialised for maternity and  domestic 

occupations4 ,this1 ,i hasten to add1 is
 not at all intended as a  plea for     
denying to women the right to           
participate in the wider social  life of
 the species4 ,i am trying to explain a 
social phase1 and neither  justifying   
nor condemning its perpetuation4        
,,footnotes3    #fe ,dr4 ,iwan ,bloch1  
,the ,sexual ,life of ,our ,time1 p4    
#ig4    #ff ,e4 ,d4 ,starbuck1 ,the     
,psychology of ,religion1 p4 #dja4      
#fg ,the ,psychological ,phenomena of   
,christianity1 p4 #dai4    #fh          
,primitive ,paternity1 #b vols41        
#aiji-aj4    #fi ,the ,mystic ,rose1 p4 
#aia4    #gj ,see ,frazer's ,taboo and  
the ,perils of the ,soul1 pp4 #ade-fc1  
and  ,crawley's ,mystic ,rose4    #ga   
,man and ,woman1 p4 #ae4    #gb ,taboo1 
pp4 #afc-d4    #gc ,religion of the     
,semites1 p4 #adb4    #gd ,a long list  
of animals that were sacred to various  
,semitic tribes  has been compiled by   
,robertson ,smith1 ,kinship and         
,marriage in ,early  ,arabia1 pp4       

#aid-bja4    #ge ,robertson ,smith1     
,kinship and ,marriage in ,early        
,arabia1 pp4 #cjf-g4    #gf ,religion of
 the ,semites1 pp4 #dbg-i4 ,for a fuller
 discussion of  the subject1 see        
,studies in the ,psychology of ,sex1 by 
,havelock ,ellis1  #aija4    #gg        
,westermarck1 ,origin and ,development  
of the ,moral ,ideas1 p4 #fff4    #gh   
,westermarck1 p4 #fff4    #gi ,frazer1  
,taboo1 p4 #aej4    #hj ,see the ,rev4  
,principal ,donaldson's ,woman3 her     
,position and  ,influence in ,ancient   
,greece and ,rome1 and among the ,early 
,christians1  bk4 iii4    #ha ,for the  
general influence of these beliefs about
 woman in  determining her social       
position1 see note at the end of this   
chapter4    #hb ,the ,worship of        
,priapus1 ,pref4 p4 #i4    #hc ,the     
,river ,congo1 p4 #dje4    #hd ,a       
description of the ,sakti ceremony is   
given by ,major-,general  ,forlong1     
,faiths of ,man1 iii4 pp4 #bbh-i4    #he
 ,westropp1 ,primitive ,symbolism1 p4   

#cj4    #hf ,egyptian ,belief and       
,modern ,thought1 p4 #bef4    #hg       
,forlong1 ,faiths of ,man1 iii4 p4 #ff4 
#hh ,primitive ,symbolism1 p4 #cf4      
#hi ,primitive ,paternity1 i4 pp4 #fc-d4
    #ij ,major-,general ,forlong agrees 
with many other authorities in tracing  
our custom of kissing under the         
mistletoe to this ancient practice4 ,the
  mistletoe1 he says1 marks in one sense
 ,venus's temple1 for any girl  may be  
kissed if caught under its sprays--a    
practice1 though modified1  which       
recalls to us that horrid one mentioned 
by ,herodotus1 where all  women were for
 once at least the property of the man  
who sought them in  ,mylitta's          
temple4--,rivers of ,life1 i4 p4 #ia4   
#ia ,those who desire further and more  
detailed information may consult        
,forlong's great work1 ,the ,rivers of  
,life1 ,payne ,knight's ,worship of     
,priapus1 ,westropp and ,wake's         
,phallicism in ,ancient ,religion1      
,brown's  ,dionysiak ,myth1 ,westropp's 

,primitive ,symbolism1 ,r4 ,a4          
,campbell's  ,phallic ,worship1         
,hargrave ,jennings's ,worship of       
,priapus1 etc4    #ib ,a good discussion
 of the topic will be found in this     
author's  ,social and ,ethical          
,interpretations in ,mental             
,development4          ,,chapter ,,five 
,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,sexual ,,and   
,,pathologic ,,states ,,on ,,religious  
,,belief      ,in the preceding chapter 
we have been concerned with the various 
ways in  which the phenomena attendant  
on the sexual life of man and woman     
become  associated with religious       
beliefs4 ,as a force that arises in the 
life of  each individual1 and intrudes1 
as it were1 into consciousness1 the     
phenomena of sex fill primitive man with
 an amazement that is not  unmixed with 
terror4 ,in strict accord with primitive
 psychology sexual  phenomena are       
conceived as more or less connected with
 the supernatural  world1 and becoming  
thus entwined with religious convictions

 are made  the nucleus of a number of   
superstitious ceremonies4 ,the          
connection is  close and obvious so long
 as we restrict our survey to           
uncivilised  humanity4 ,the only room   
for doubt or discussion is the exact    
meaning of  certain ceremonies1 or the  
order of certain phases of development4 
,it is  when we take man in a more      
advanced stage that obscurity gathers   
and  difficulties arise4 ,the sexual    
life is no longer lived1 as it were1    
openly4 ,symbolism and mysticism        
develop2 a more complex social life     
provides disguised outlets for primitive
 and indestructible feelings4           
,sexualism1 instead of being something  
to be glorified1 and1 so to speak1      
annotated by religious ceremonies1      
becomes something to be hidden or       
decried4 ,ignored it may be4 ,decried it
 may be2 but it will not be  denied4    
,that is a practical impossibility in   
the case of so powerful and  so         
pervasive a fact as sex4 ,we may        

disguise its expression1 but only too   
often the disguise is the equivalent of 
undesirable and unhealthy               
manifestations4    ,the modern history  
of religion offers a melancholy         
illustration of the  truth of the last  
sentence1 and it is quite clearly       
exhibited in the  history of            
,christianity itself4 ,from the         
beginning it strove to suppress  the    
power of sexual feeling4 ,it was an     
enemy against whom one had to be  always
 on guard1 one that had to be crushed1  
or at least kept in  subjection in the  
interests of spiritual development4 ,and
 yet the very  intensity of the efforts 
at suppression defeated the object aimed
 at4  ,with some of the leaders of early
 ,christianity sex became an obsession4 
,long dwelling upon its power made them 
unduly and unhealthily conscious  of its
 presence4 ,instead of sex taking its   
place as one of the facts of  life1     
which like most other facts might be    
good or bad as circumstances            

determined1 it was so much dwelt upon as
 to often dwarf everything else4        
,asceticism is1 after all1 mainly a     
reversed sensualism1 or at least        
confesses the existence of a sensualism 
that must not be allowed  expression    
lest its manifestation becomes          
overpowering4 ,mortification  confesses 
the supremacy of sense as surely as     
gratification4 ,moreover1  mortification
 of sense as preached by the great      
ascetics does not  prevent that most    
dangerous of all forms of gratification1
 the  sensualism of the imagination4    
,that remains1 and is apt to gain in    
strength since the fundamentally        
healthful energies are denied           
legitimate and natural modes of         
expression4 ,thus it is that we find    
developing social life not always       
providing a healthy outlet for the      
sexual life1 and thus it is that the    
intense striving of religious  leaders  
against the power of the sexual impulse 
has often forced it into  strange and   

harmful forms of expression4 ,so we find
 throughout the  history of religion1   
not only that a deal of what has passed 
for  supernatural illumination to have  
undoubtedly had its origin in  perverted
 sexual feeling1 but the constant       
emergence of curious  religio-erotic    
sects whose strange mingling of         
eroticism and religion  has scandalised 
many1 and offered a lesson to all had   
they but possessed  the wit to discern  
it4    ,although there is an            
understandable disinclination1 amounting
 with some  to positive revulsion1 to   
recognise the sexual origin of much that
  passes for religious fervour1 the fact
 is well known to competent  medical    
observers1 as the following citations   
will show4 ,more than a  generation     
since a well-known medical authority    
said3--    ,i know of no fact in        
pathology more striking and more        
terrifying than  the way in which the   
phenomena of the ecstatic--which have   
often been  seized upon by sentimental  

theorisers as proofs of spiritual       
exaltation--may be plainly seen to      
bridge the gulf between the innocent    
foolery of ordinary hypnotic patients   
and the degraded and repulsive          
phenomena of nymphomania and            
satyriasis4#ic    ,dr4 ,c4 ,norman also 
observes3--    ,ecstasy1 as we see in   
cases of acute mental disease1 is       
probably always  connected with sexual  
excitement1 if not with sexual          
depravity4 ,the same  association is    
seen in less extreme cases1 and one of  
the commonest  features in the          
conversation of acutely maniacal women  
is the  intermingling of erotic and     
religious ideas4#id    ,this opinion is 
fully endorsed by ,sir ,francis         
,galton3--    ,it has been noticed that 
among the morbid organic conditions     
which  accompany the show of excessive  
piety and religious rapture in the      
insane1 none are so frequent as         
disorders of the sexual organisation4   
,conversely1 the frenzies of religious  

revivals have not infrequently  ended in
 gross profligacy4 ,the encouragement of
 celibacy by the fervent  leaders of    
most creeds1 utilises in an unconscious 
way the morbid  connection between an   
over-restraint of the sexual desires and
 impulses  towards extreme devotion4#ie 
,dr4 ,auguste ,forel1 the eminent       
,german specialist1 points out that--   
,when we study the religious sentiment  
profoundly1 especially in the           
,christian religion1 and ,catholicism in
 particular1 we find at each step  its  
astonishing connection with eroticism4  
,we find it in the exalted  adoration of
 holy women1 such as ,mary ,magdalene1  
,marie de ,bethany1 for  ,jesus1 in the 
holy legends1 in the worship of the     
,virgin ,mary in the  ,middle ,ages1 and
 especially in art4 ,the ecstatic       
,madonnas in our art  galleries cast    
their fervent regards on ,jesus or on   
the heavens4 ,the  expression in        
,murillo's ',immaculate ,conception' may
 be interpreted by  the highest         

voluptuous exaltation of love as well as
 by holy  transfiguration4 ,the 'saints'
 of ,correggio regard the ,virgin with  
an  amorous ardour which may be         
celestial1 but appears in reality       
extremely  terrestrial and human4#if    
,another ,german authority remarks3--   
,i venture to express my conviction that
 we should rarely err if1 in a  case of 
religious melancholy1 we assumed the    
sexual apparatus to be  implicated4#ig  
,dr4 ,bevan ,lewis points out how       
frequently religious exaltation occurs  
with women at puberty1 and religious    
melancholia at the period of sexual     
decline4 ,and ,dr4 ,charles ,mercier    
puts the interchangeability of sexual   
and religious feelings in the following 
passage3--    ,religious observances    
provide an alternative1 into which the  
amatory  instinct can be easily and     
naturally diverted4 ,the emotions and   
instinctive desires1 which finds        
expression in courtship1 is a vast body 
of vague feeling1 which is at first     

undirected4444 ,it is a voluminous      
state of exaltation that demands        
enthusiastic action4 ,this is the state 
antecedent to falling in love1 and if an
 object presents himself or  herself1   
the torrent of emotion is directed into 
amatory passion4 ,but if  no object     
appears1 or if the selected object is   
denied1 then religious  observances     
yield a very passable substitute for the
 expression of the  emotion4 ,religious 
observances provide the sensuous        
atmosphere1 the call  for               
self-renunciation1 the means of         
expressing powerful and voluminous      
feeling1 that the potential or          
disappointed lover needs4 ,the madrigal 
is  transformed into the hymn2 the      
adornment of the person that should have
  gone to allure the beloved now takes  
the shape of ecclesiastical  vestments2 
the reverence that should have been paid
 to the loved one is  transformed to a  
higher object2 the enthusiasm that would
 have expanded  in courtship is         

expressed in worship2 the gifts that    
would have been  made1 the services that
 would have been rendered to the loved  
one1 are  transferred to the ,church4#ih
    ,dr4 ,krafft-,ebing1 after dwelling 
upon the substantial identity of sexual 
love and religious emotion1 summarises  
his conclusions by saying3--            
,religious and sexual hypersthesia at   
the acme of development show the  same  
volume of intensity and the same quality
 of excitement1 and may1  therefore1    
under given circumstances interchange4  
,both will in certain  pathologic states
 degenerate into cruelty4#ii    ,even so
 orthodox a writer as the ,rev4 ,s4     
,baring-,gould points out that--    ,the
 existence of that evil1 which1 knowing 
the constitution of man1 we  should     
expect to find prevalent in mysticism1  
the experience of all ages  has shown   
following1 dogging its steps inevitably4
 ,so slight is the film  that separates 
religion from sensual passion1 that     
uncontrolled  spiritual fervour roars   

readily into a blaze of                 
licentiousness4#ajj    ,no useful       
purpose would be served by lengthening  
this list of citations4  ,enough has    
been said to show that the point of view
 expressed is one  endorsed by many     
sober1 competent1 and responsible       
observers4 ,there  exists among them a  
general1 and one may add a growing1     
recognition of  the important truth that
 the connection between religious and   
sexual  feeling is of the closest       
character1 and that one is very often   
mistaken  for the other4 ,asceticism1   
usually taken as evidence to the        
reverse1 is  on the contrary1           
confirmative4 ,the ascetic often        
presents us with a  flagrant case of    
eroto-mania1 expressing itself in terms 
of religion4  ,it is highly significant 
that the biographies of ,christian      
saints should  furnish so many cases of 
men and women of strong sensual         
passions1 and  whose ascetic devotion   
was only the reaction from almost       

unbridled  sensualism4 ,no wonder that  
in the temptations experienced by the   
monks  the figures of nude women so     
often appeared before their heated      
imaginations4 ,sexual feeling suppressed
 in one direction broke out in  another4
 ,feelings1 in themselves perfectly     
normal1 became1 as a  consequence of    
repression and misdirection1 pathologic4
 ,and one  consequence of this was that 
many of the early ,christian writers    
brought  to the consideration of the    
subject of sex a concentration of mind  
that  resulted in disquisitions of such 
a nature that it is impossible to do    
more than refer to them4 ,the sexual    
relation instead of being refined  was  
coarsened4 ,marriage was viewed in its  
lowest form1 more as a  concession to   
the weakness of the flesh than as a     
desirable state for  all men and women4 
,nor can it be said1 after many         
centuries1 that these  ideas are quite  
eradicated from present-day life4    ,a 
field of investigation that yields much 

illuminating information is  the        
biographies of the saints and of other  
religious characters4 ,in many  of these
 cases the acceptance of sexual feeling 
for religious  illumination is very     
clear4 ,thus of ,st4 ,gertrude1 a       
,benedictine nun of  the thirteenth     
century1 we read3--    ,one day at      
chapel she heard supernaturally sung the
 words1 ',sanctus1  ,sanctus1 ,sanctus4'
 ,the ,son of ,god1 leaning towards her 
like a sweet  lover1 and giving to her  
soul the softest kiss1 said to her at   
the  second ,sanctus1 ',in the ,sanctus 
addressed to ,my person1 receive with   
this all the sanctity of ,my divinity   
and of ,my humanity4'444 ,and the       
following ,sunday1 while she was        
thanking ,god for this favour1 behold   
the  ,son of ,god1 more beauteous than  
thousands of angels1 takes her to ,his  
arms as if ,he were proud of her1 and   
presents her to ,god the ,father1 and   
in that perfection of sanctity with     
which ,he had endowed her4#aja    ,of   

,juliana of ,norwich1 who was granted a 
revelation in #acgc1 we are told  that  
she had for long 'ardently desired' a   
bodily sight of the ,lord upon  the     
cross2 and that finally ,jesus appeared 
to her and said1 ,i love thee  and thou 
lovest ,me1 and our love shall never be 
disparted in two4#ajb  ,so1 again1 in   
the case of ,sister ,jeanne des ,anges1 
,superior of the  ,convent of ,ursulines
 of ,loudun1 and the principal character
 in the  famous ,grandier witchcraft    
case1 we have a detailed account1 in her
 own  words1 of the lascivious dreams1  
unclean suggestions1 etc4--all          
attributed to ,satan--and alternating   
with impressions of bodily union  with  
,jesus4#ajc ,marie de ,l',incarnation   
addresses ,jesus as follows3--    ,oh1  
my love1 when shall ,i embrace you8     
,have you no pity on the torments  that 
,i suffer8 ,alas6 alas6 ,my love6 ,my   
beauty6 ,my life6 ,instead of  healing  
my pain1 you take pleasure in it4 ,come1
 let me embrace you1 and  die in your   

sacred arms4#ajd    ,veronica ,juliani1 
beatified by ,pope ,pius ,,ii41 took a  
real lamb to bed  with her1 kissed it1  
and suckled it at her breasts4 ,st4     
,catherine of  ,genoa threw herself on  
the ground to cool herself1 crying out1 
,love1  love1 ,i can bear it no longer4 
,she also confessed to a peculiar       
longing towards her confessor4#aje      
,the blessed ,mary ,alacoque1 foundress 
of the ,sacred ,heart1 was subject  from
 early life to a number of              
complaints--rheumatism1 palsy1 pains in 
the side1 ulceration of the legs--and   
experienced visions early in her        
career4 ,as a child she had so vivid a  
sense of modesty that the mere  sight of
 a man offended her4 ,at seventeen she  
took to wearing a knotted  cord drawn so
 tightly that she could neither eat nor 
breathe without  pain4 ,she compressed  
her arms so tightly with iron chains    
that she could  not remove them without 
anguish4 ,i made1 she says1 a bed of    
potsherds1 on which ,i slept with       

extreme pleasure4 ,she fasted and       
tortured herself in a variety of ways1  
and the more her physical  disorders    
increased the more numerous became her  
visions4 ,before she was  eighteen years
 of age1 in #afga1 she entered a        
nunnery4 ,from the time she  donned the 
habit of a novice she was 'blessed' with
 visions4 ,our ,lord  showed me that    
that day was the day of our spiritual   
wedding2 ,he  forthwith gave me to      
understand that ,he wished to make me   
taste all the  sweetness of the caresses
 of ,his love4 ,in reality1 those divine
 caresses  were from that moment so     
excessive1 that they often put me out of
  myself4 ,once1 says one of her        
biographers1 having retired into her    
chamber1 she threw off the clothes with 
which she had bedecked herself  during  
the day1 when the ,son of ,god showed   
,himself to her in the state  in which  
,he was after ,his cruel                
flagellation--that is1 with ,his body   
all  wounded1 torn1 gory--and ,he said  

to her that it was her vanities that    
had brought ,him into that condition4   
,in one of these visions ,jesus  took   
the head of ,mary1 pressed it to ,his   
bosom1 spoke to her in  passionate      
words1 opened her side and took out her 
heart1 plunged it  into ,his own1 and   
then replaced it4 ,he then explained    
,his design of  founding the ,order of  
the ,sacred ,heart4 ,ever after1 ,mary  
was conscious  of a pain in her side and
 a burning sensation in her chest--two  
plain  symptoms of hysteria4#ajf        
,santa ,teresa1 who died at the early   
age of thirty-three1 and in whose       
family more than one case of            
well-developed neurasthenia can be      
traced1  was favoured with 'messages' at
 a very early age4 ,she believed some of
  these were temptations from the devil 
suggesting an 'honourable  alliance4' ,a
 nervous breakdown followed directly    
after entrance into a  convent4 ,she was
 then twenty years of age1 was subject  
to fainting fits  and longed for illness

 as a sign of divine favour4 ,she was   
subject to  convulsions1 and soon after 
taking the veil fell into a cataleptic  
trance1 which lasted three days4 ,she   
was thought to be dead1 but at the  end 
of the time sat up and told those around
 that she had visited both  heaven and  
hell1 and seen the joys of the blessed  
and the torments of  the damned4 ,it is 
at least suggestive that1 in spite of   
the longing for  personal communion with
 ,jesus1 her first experience of the    
ecstasy of  divine love was experienced 
after discovering a 'very realistic'    
picture  of a martyred saint--,st4      
,joseph4 ,the significance of the       
intense  contemplation of a tortured    
body--possibly made by one whose sexual 
nature was undergoing a process of      
suppression--is unmistakable4#ajg    ,on
 these and similar cases ,professor     
,william ,james makes the following     
comment3--    ,to the medical mind these
 ecstasies signify nothing but suggested
  hypnoid states1 on an intellectual    

basis of superstition1 and a  corporeal 
one of degeneration and hysteria4       
,undoubtedly these  pathological        
conditions have existed in many and     
possibly in all the  cases1 but that    
fact tells us nothing about the value   
for knowledge of  the consciousness     
which they induce4 ,to pass a spiritual 
judgment upon  these states1 we must not
 content ourselves with superficial     
medical  talk1 but enquire into their   
fruits for life4#ajh    ,now the        
question is really not what these       
ecstasies suggest to the  'medical      
mind1' as though that were a type of    
mind quite unfitted to  pass judgment4  
,it is a question of what the facts     
suggest to any mind  judging the        
behaviour of a person under the         
influence of strong  religious emotion  
exactly as it would judge anyone under  
any other  strong emotional pressure4   
,and if it be possible to explain these 
states  in terms of known physiological 
and mental action1 what warranty have we

  for rejecting this and preferring in  
its stead an explanation that is  both  
unprovable and unnecessary8 ,and one    
would be excused for thinking  that     
cases which certainly involve some sort 
of abnormal nervous action  are         
precisely those in which the medical    
mind should be called on to  express an 
opinion4 ,what is meant by passing 'a   
spiritual judgment'  upon these states  
is not exactly clear1 unless it means   
judging them in  terms of the historic  
supernatural interpretation4 ,but that  
is precisely  the interpretation which  
is challenged by the 'medical mind4'    
,i do not see how any enquiry into their
 fruits for life can affect a  rational 
estimate of the nature of these mystical
 states4 ,mysticism adds  nothing to the
 native disposition of a person4 ,it    
merely gives their  energies a new turn1
 a new direction4 ,what they were before
 the  experience they remain1           
substantially1 afterwards4 ,that is why 
we find  religious mystics of every     

variety4 ,some energetically practical2 
others  dreamily unpractical4 ,professor
 ,james admits this in saying that the  
other-worldliness encouraged by the     
mystical consciousness makes this       
over-abstraction from practical life    
peculiarly liable to befall mystics  in 
whom the character is naturally passive 
and the intellect feeble2 but  in       
natively strong minds and characters we 
find quite opposite  results4#aji ,and  
when it is further admitted that the    
mystical  feeling of enlargement1 union1
 and emancipation has no specific       
intellectual content whatever of its    
own1 but is capable of forming          
matrimonial alliances with material     
furnished by the most diverse           
philosophies and theologies1 provided   
only they can find a place in  their    
framework for its peculiar emotional    
mood1 mysticism seems  reduced to an    
emotional development on all fours with 
emotional  development in other         
directions4 ,it is not peculiar to      

religious minds  because it has no      
specific intellectual content4 ,it is   
amorphous1 so  to speak4 ,and it may    
form diverse 'matrimonial alliances'    
precisely  because it does not point to 
a hidden world of reality1 but is merely
  indicative of tense emotional moods4  
,in the face of nature the  non-theistic
 ,richard ,jeffries experiences all the 
feelings of mental  enlargement and     
emotional transports that ,mary         
,alacoque or ,santa ,teresa  experienced
 in their visions of the ',risen        
,christ4'    ,it is idle1 then1 to sneer
 at 'medical materialism1' and          
stigmatise it  as superficial4 ,many    
people are constitutionally afraid of   
words1 and  there is nothing that       
arouses prejudice so quickly as a name4 
,but it is  really not a question of    
materialism1 medical or non-medical4 ,it
 is a  mere matter of applying knowledge
 and common sense to the cases before   
us4 ,are we to take the subject's       
explanation of his or her mental states 

as authoritative1 so far as their nature
 is concerned2 or are we to  treat them 
as symptoms demanding the skilled       
analysis of the specialist8  ,if the    
former1 how can we differentiate between
 the mystic and the  admittedly         
hysterical patient8 ,if the latter1 what
 ground is there for  placing the mystic
 in a category of his own8 ,rational and
 scientific  analysis will certainly    
take far more notice of the nature of   
the  feelings excited than of the object
 towards which they are directed4  ,here
 is the case of a young lady1 given by  
,dr4 ,moreau1 in his ,morbid            
,psychology3--    ,during my long hours 
of sleeplessness in the night my beloved
 ,saviour  began to make ,himself       
manifest to me4 ,pondering over the     
meditations of  ,st4 ,franois de ,sales 
on the ,song of ,songs1 ,i seemed to    
feel all my  faculties suspended1 and   
crossing my arms upon my chest1 ,i      
awaited in a  sort of dread what might  
be revealed to me4444 ,i saw the        

,redeemer  veritably in the flesh4444   
,he extended ,himself beside me1 pressed
 me so  closely that ,i could feel ,his 
crown of thorns1 and the nails in ,his  
feet  and hands1 while ,he pressed ,his 
lips over mine1 giving me the most      
ravishing kiss of a divine ,spouse1 and 
sending a delicious thrill  through my  
entire body4#aaj    ,get rid of the     
narcotising effect of theological       
associations by  eliminating the name of
 ,jesus and other religious terms from  
this case1  and from the others already 
cited1 and no one would have the least  
doubt  as to their real nature4 ,given a
 condition of physical health in these  
cases1 with conditions that favoured    
social activity1 healthy  intercourse   
with the opposite sex1 culminating in   
marriage and  parenthood1 can there be  
any doubt that this species of religious
  ecstasy would have been non-existent8 
,if1 as ,tylor says1 the refectory  door
 would many a time have closed the gates
 of heaven1 happy family  life would in 

a vast number of cases have prevented   
those religio-erotic  trances which have
 played so powerful a part in the       
history of  supernaturalism4 ,most      
people will agree with ,dr4 ,maudsley3--
    ,the ecstatic trances of such       
saintly women as ,catherine ,sienne and 
,st4  ,theresa1 in which they believed  
themselves to be visited by their       
,saviour and to be received as veritable
 spouses into ,his bosom1 were1  though 
they knew it not1 little better than    
vicarious sexual orgasm2 a  condition of
 things which the intense contemplation 
of the naked male  figure1 carved or    
sculptured in all its proportions on a  
cross1 is more  fitted to produce in    
young women of susceptible nervous      
temperament than  people are apt to     
consider4 ,every experienced physician  
must have met  with instances of single 
and childless women who have devoted    
themselves with extraordinary zeal to   
habitual religious exercises1 and  who1 
having gone insane as a culmination of  

their emotional fervour1  have          
straightway exhibited the saddest       
mixture of religious and erotic         
symptoms--a boiling over of lust in     
voice1 face1 gestures1 under the        
pitiful degradation of disease4444 ,the 
fanatical religious sects1 such  as the 
,shakers and the like1 which spring up  
from time to time in  communities and   
disgust them by the offensive way in    
which they mingle  love and religion1   
are inspired in great measure by sexual 
feeling2 on  the one hand1 there is     
probably the cunning of a hypocritical  
knave1 or  the self-deception of a      
half-insane one1 using the weaknesses of
 weak  women to minister to his vanity  
or his lust under a religious guise2 on 
the other hand1 there is an exaggerated 
self-feeling1 often rooted in  the      
sexual passion1 which is unwittingly    
fostered under the cloak of  religious  
emotion1 and which is apt to conduct to 
madness or to sin4 ,in  such cases the  
holy kiss owes its warmth to the sexual 

impulse1 which  inspires it1 consciously
 or unconsciously1 and the mystical     
religious  union of the sexes is fitted 
to issue in a less spiritual union4#aaa 
,many manuals of devotion will be found 
to furnish the same kind of  evidence as
 biographical narratives concerning the 
intimate relations  that exists between 
sexuality and religious feeling4 ,what  
has just been  said may be repeated     
here1 namely1 that if the religious     
associations  were dispelled1 there     
would be no mistaking the nature of     
feelings that  originated much of this  
class of writing1 or the feelings to    
which they  appeal4 ,the serious fact is
 that the appeal is there whether we    
recognise it or not1 and it is a        
question worthy of serious              
consideration whether the unwary        
imagination of the young may be not as  
surely debauched by certain books of    
devotion as by a frankly erotic         
production4 ,it is not without reason   
that d',israeli the elder1 in an  essay 

omitted from all editions of his book   
after the first1 remarked  that poets   
are amorous1 lovers are poetical1 but   
saints are both4#aab  ,take1 for        
example1 the following from a collection
 of old ,english  homilies1 dating from 
the thirteenth and fourteenth           
centuries3--    ,jesus1 my holy love1 my
 sure sweetness6 ,jesus1 my heart1 my   
joy1 my  soul-heal6 ,jesus1 sweet       
,jesus1 my darling1 my life1 my light1  
my balm1  my honey-drop6444 ,kindle me  
with the blaze of ,thy enlightening     
love4 ,let  me be ,thy leman1 and teach 
me to love ,thee4444 ,oh1 that ,i might 
behold  how ,thou stretchedst ,thyself  
for me on the cross4 ,oh1 that ,i might 
cast  myself between those same arms1 so
 very wide outspread4444 ,oh1 that ,i   
were in ,thy arms1 in ,thy arms so      
stretchedst and outspread on the  cross4
    ,or this1 from the same             
collection3--    ,sweet ,jesus1 my love1
 my darling1 my ,lord1 my ,saviour1 my  
balm1 sweeter  is the remembrance of    

,thee than honey in the mouth4 ,who is  
there that  may not love ,thy lovely    
face8 ,whose heart is so hard that may  
not melt  at the remembrance of ,thee8  
,oh6 who may not love ,thee1 lovely     
,jesus8  ,jesus1 my precious darling1 my
 love1 my life1 my beloved1 my most     
worthy  of love1 my heart's balm1 ,thou 
art lovesome in countenance1 ,thou art  
altogether bright4 ,all angels' life is 
to look upon ,thy face1 for ,thy  cheer 
is so marvellously lovesome and pleasant
 to look upon4444 ,thou art  so bright1 
and so white that the sun would be pale 
if compared to ,thy  blissful           
countenance4 ,if ,i1 then1 love any man 
for beauty1 ,i will love  ,thee1 my dear
 life1 my mother's fairest son4#aac     
,the language of erotic piety figures   
much more prominently in ,roman         
,catholic medieval writings than in     
,protestant literature4 ,this is not    
because an appeal to the same feelings  
is absent from the religious  literature
 of ,protestantism1 it is mainly due to 

the fact that more  modern conditions   
leads to a less intense religious       
appeal1 while the  broadening of social 
life encourages a more natural outlet   
for all  aspects of human nature4       
,still1 the following expression of a   
young lady  convert of ,wesley's offers 
a fair parallel to the specimen given   
above4  ,it is taken from ,southey's    
,life of ,wesley3--    ,oh1 mighty1     
powerful1 happy change6 ,the love of    
,god was shed abroad in  my heart1 and a
 flame kindled there with pains so      
violent1 and yet so  very ravishing1    
that my body was almost torn asunder4 ,i
 sweated1 ,i  trembled1 ,i fainted1 ,i  
sang4 ,oh1 ,i thought my head was a     
fountain of  water4 ,i was dissolved in 
love4 ,my beloved is mine1 and ,i am    
,his4 ,he has  all charms2 ,he has      
ravished my heart2 ,he is my comforter1 
my friend1 my  all4 ,oh1 ,i am sick of  
love4 ,he is altogether lovely1 the     
chiefest among  ten thousand4 ,oh1 how  
,jesus fills1 ,jesus extends1 ,jesus    

overwhelms the  soul in which ,he lives4
    ,the ,imitation of ,christ has been 
described by more than one writer as  a 
manual of eroticism1 and certainly the  
chapters ,the ,wonderful ,effects  of   
,divine ,love1 and ,of the ,proof of a  
,true ,lover1 might well be cited  in   
defence of this view4 ,in the following 
canticle of ,st4 ,francis of  ,assisi it
 does not seem possible to distinguish a
 substantial difference  between it and 
a frankly avowed love poem3--           
,into love's furnace ,i am cast1        
,into love's furnace ,i am cast1        
,i burn1 ,i languish1 pine1 and waste4  
,oh1 love divine1 how sharp thy dart6   
,how deep the wound that galls my heart6
       ,as wax in heat1 so1 from above1 
,my smitten soul dissolves in love4     
,i live1 yet languishing ,i die1        
,while in thy furnace bound ,i lie4#aad 
,it would certainly be possible to      
furnish exact parallels from volumes  of
 secular verse that would be strictly   
'taboo' among those who fail to  see    

anything objectionable in verses like   
the above when written in  connection   
with religion4 ,such people fail to     
recognise that their  attractiveness    
lies in the hidden appeal to amatory    
feeling1 and owe  their origin to the   
suppressed or perverted sexual passion  
of their  author4 ,we must not allow    
ourselves to be blinded by the          
consideration  as to whether the object 
of adoration be an earthly or a heavenly
 one4  ,men and women have not distinct 
feelings that are aroused as their      
objective differs1 but the same feelings
 directed now in one direction1  now in 
another4 ,the direction of these        
feelings1 their exciting cause1  are    
sheer environmental accidents4 ,how can 
one resist the implications  of the     
following1 from a devotional work widely
 circulated amongst the  women of       
,france3--        ,praise to ,jesus1    
praise ,his power1       ,praise ,his   
sweet allurements4       ,praise to     
,jesus1 when ,his goodness              

,reduces me to nakedness2       ,praise 
to ,jesus when ,he says to me1       ,my
 sister1 my dove1 my beautiful one6     
,praise to ,jesus in all my steps1      
,praise to ,his amorous charms4         
,praise to ,jesus when ,his loving mouth
       ,touches mine in a loving kiss4  
,praise to ,jesus when ,his gentle      
caresses       ,overwhelm me with chaste
 joys4       ,praise to ,jesus when at  
,his leisure       ,he allows me to kiss
 ,him4#aae    ,against this we may place
 the following hymn1 sung at an         
,american camp  meeting of some         
thousands of persons between the ages of
 fourteen and  twenty-five3--           
,blessed ,lily of the ,valley1 oh1 how  
fair is ,he2              ,he is mine1  
,i am ,his4       ,sweeter than the     
angels' music is ,his voice to me2      
,he is mine1 ,i am ,his4       ,where   
the lilies fair are blooming by the     
waters calm       ,there ,he leads me   
and upholds me by ,his strong right arm4
         ,all the air is love around    

me--,i can feel no harm2                
,he is mine1 ,i am ,his4#aaf    ,special
 significance is given to this reference
 by the age of those who  composed the  
gathering4 ,this period embraces the    
years during which  sexual maturity is  
attained1 and the organism experiences  
important  physiological and            
psychological changes4 ,the consequence 
is that the  atmosphere is1 so to say1  
charged with unsuspected sex feeling1   
and it  is not surprising that many     
complaints have been made of immorality 
following such gatherings4 ,the organism
 is then peculiarly liable to           
suggestion in all forms4 ,along with the
 imitativeness of early years  there is 
something of the decisive initiative of 
maturity4 ,these  qualities wisely      
guided might be turned to the great     
advantage of both  the individual and of
 the community4 ,mere incitement by     
religious  revivalism can result in     
little else than misdirection and       
injury4 ,it  should be the most obvious 

of truths that the attractiveness of    
hymns  such as the one given1 with the  
keen delight in the suggested pictures1 
lies in their yielding--all unknown1    
perhaps1 to those participating--       
satisfaction to feelings that are very  
frequently imperious in their  demands1 
and are at all times astonishingly      
pervasive in their  influence4    ,much 
valuable light is thrown upon this      
aspect of the subject by a  study of    
human behaviour under the influence of  
actual disease4 ,of late  years much    
useful work has been done in this       
direction1 and our  knowledge of normal 
psychology greatly helped by a study of 
abnormal  mental states4#aag ,this is   
mainly because in disease we are able to
  observe the operation of tendencies   
that are unobscured by the  restraints  
and inhibitions created by education and
 social convention4  ,and one of the    
most striking1 and to many startling1   
things observed is  the close relation  
existing between erotic mania and       

religious delusion4  ,the person who at 
one time feels himself under direct     
religious  inspiration1 or who imagines 
himself to be the incarnation of a      
divine  personage1 will at another time 
exhibit the most shocking obscenity in  
action and language4 ,sir ,t4 ,s4       
,clouston furnishes a very striking case
  of this character1 which he cites in  
order to show the common mixture  of    
religious and sexual emotion4#aah ,i do 
not reproduce it here  because of its   
grossly obscene character2 but1 save for
 coarseness of  language1 it does not   
differ materially from illustrations    
already  given4 ,almost any of the      
text-books will supply cases            
illustrating the  connection between    
sexualism and religion1 a connection    
generally  recognised as the opinions   
cited already clearly show4    ,dr4     
,mercier1 in dealing with the connection
 between sexualism and  religion1 which 
he says has long been recognised1 but   
never accounted  for1 traces it to a    

feeling of1 or desire for self-sacrifice
 common to  both4 ,certainly sacrifice  
in some form--of food1 weapons1 land1   
money1  or bodily inconvenience--is a   
feature present in every religion more  
or  less4 ,and it is quite certain that 
not merely the fact1 but the desire  for
 some amount of sacrifice1 forms an     
integral1 fundamental1 and              
preponderating element in the sexual    
emotion4 ,dr4 ,mercier further  believes
 that the benevolence founded on        
religious emotion has its  origin in    
sexual emotion1 which is1 again1        
extremely likely4 ,this  community of   
origin would allow for the              
transformation of one into the  other1  
and supplies a key to the language of   
lover-like devotion and  self-abnegation
 which is so prominent in religious     
devotional  literature4 ,the importance 
attached to dress is also very          
suggestive2  for here1 again1 the       
element of sacrifice expresses itself in
 the  cultivation of a studied          

repulsiveness to the normal             
attractiveness of  costume4 ,thus1 says 
,dr4 ,mercier1 we find that the         
self-sacrificial  vagaries of the       
rejected lover and of the religious     
devotee own a common  origin and nature4
 ,the hook and spiny kennel of the      
fakir1 the pillar of  ,st4 ,simeon      
,stylites1 the flagellum of the monk1   
the sombre garments of  the nun1 the    
silence of the ,trappists1 the defiantly
 hideous costume of  the hallelujah     
lass1 and the mortified sobriety of the 
district visitor1  have at bottom the   
same origin as the rags of ,cardenio1   
the cage of ,don  ,quixote de la        
,mancha1 and the yellow stockings and   
crossed garters of  ,malvolio4#aai      
,professor ,granger1 who at times comes 
very near the truth1 says3--    ,there  
is something profoundly philosophical in
 the use of ,the ,song of  ,songs to    
typify the communion of the soul with   
its ideal4 ,the passion  which is       
expressed by the ,shulamite for her     

earthly lover in such  glowing phrases  
becomes the type of the love of the soul
 towards  ,god4#abj    ,one fails to see
 the profoundly philosophic nature of   
the selection4 ,the  ,song of ,songs is 
a frankly erotic love poem1 written with
 no other aim  than is common to such   
poetry1 and its spiritualisation is due 
to the  same process of reinterpretation
 that is applied to other parts of the  
,bible in order to make them agreeable  
to modern thought4 ,had it not been  in 
the ,bible1 ,christians would have found
 it neither profoundly  philosophical   
nor spiritually illuminating2 and1 as a 
matter of fact1  similar effusions are  
selected by ,christians from            
non-,christian writings  as proofs of   
their sensual character4 ,the real      
significance of its use  in religious   
worship is that it gives a marked       
expression to feelings  that crave an   
outlet4 ,and the lesson is that sexual  
feeling cannot be  eliminated from life2
 it can only be diverted or disguised4  

,some  expression it will find--here in 
open perversion resulting in positive   
vice1 there in obsession that leads to a
 half-insane asceticism1 and  elsewhere 
the creation of the unconsciously       
salacious with an unhealthy  fondness   
for dabbling in questions that refer to 
the illicit relations  of the sexes4    
,one of the reasons why popular religion
 in ,england1 says ,professor  ,granger1
 seems to be coming to the limits of its
 power1 is that it has  contented itself
 so largely with the commonplace motives
 which1 after  all1 find sufficient     
exercise in the ordinary duties of life4
 ,here1  again1 is a curious obtuseness 
to a plain but important truth4 ,with   
what else should a healthy religion     
associate itself but the ordinary       
motives or feelings of human life8 ,with
 what else has religion always          
associated itself8 ,far from that being 
the source of the weakness of  modern   
religion1 it is its only genuine source 
of strength4 ,if religion  can so       

associate itself with the ordinary facts
 and feelings of life  that these are   
unintelligible or poorer without        
religion1 then religious  people have   
nothing to fear4 ,but if it be true1 as 
,professor ,granger  implies1 that life 
in its normal moods can receive complete
  gratification apart from religion1    
then the outlook is very different4     
,from a merely historic point of view it
 is true that as men have found         
explanations of phenomena1 and          
gratifications of feelings apart from   
religion1 the latter has lost a deal of 
its power4 ,this is seen in the  growth 
of the physical sciences1 and also1     
although in a smaller  measure1 in      
sociology and morals4    ,this1 however1
 opens up the enquiry1 previously       
indicated1 as to how far  the whole     
range of human life may be              
satisfactorily explained in the         
complete absence of religion or         
supernaturalism4 ,and with this we are  
not now directly concerned4 ,what we are

 concerned with is to show that  from   
one direction at least supernaturalism  
has derived strength from a             
misinterpretation of the facts4 ,these  
facts1 once interpreted as clear        
evidence for supernaturalism1 are now   
seen to be susceptible to a  different  
explanation4 ,but they have nevertheless
 played their part in  creating as part 
of the social heritage a diffused sense 
of the reality  of supernatural         
intercourse4 ,it is not1 then1 a        
question of religion  losing power      
because it has contented itself with    
commonplace motives1  and because these 
have now found satisfaction in ordinary 
life4 ,it is  rather a question of the  
adequacy of science to deal with facts  
that  have been taken to lie outside the
 scientific order4 ,has science the     
knowledge or the ability to deal with   
the extraordinary as well as with  the  
ordinary facts of life8 ,i believe it   
has4 ,the facts we have passed  in      
review are amenable to scientific       

treatment1 for the reason that  they    
belong to a class with which the        
physician of to-day finds himself  in   
constant contact4 ,and it is too often  
overlooked that the belief in  the      
existence and influence of a            
supersensible world is itself only a    
theory put forward in explanation of    
certain classes of facts1 and like  all 
theories it becomes superfluous once a  
simpler theory is made  possible4       
,,footnotes3    #ic ,article in ,the    
,lancet1 ,jan4 #aa1 #ahgc4    #id       
,article in ,tuke's ,dictionary of      
,psychological ,medicine4    #ie        
,inquiries into ,human ,faculty1 pp4    
#ff-g4    #if ,the ,sexual ,question1   
pp4 #ced-e4    #ig ,cited by ,havelock  
,ellis1 ,psychology of ,sex1 pp4 #bcc-d4
    #ih ,conduct and its ,disorders1 pp4
 #cfh-i4    #ii ,psychopathia-,sexualis1
 pp4 #i-aa4    #ajj ,lost and ,hostile  
,gospels1 ,preface4    #aja ,cited by   
,james1 ,varieties1 pp4 #cde-f4    #ajb 
,inge1 ,christian ,mysticism1 pp4       

#bja-i4    #ajc ,see ,ellis1 ,psychology
 of ,sex1 pp4 #bdj-b4    #ajd ,parkman's
 ,jesuits in ,north ,america1 p4 #age4  
#aje ,krafft-,ebing1                    
,psychopathia-,sexualis1 p4 #h4    #ajf 
,see ,l4 ,asseline's ,mary ,alacoque and
 the ,worship of the ,sacred  ,heart of 
,jesus4    #ajg ,see ,st4 ,teresa of    
,spain1 by ,h4 ,h4 ,colvill1 and ,saint 
,teresa1  by ,h4 ,joly4    #ajh         
,varieties1 p4 #dac4    #aji ,varieties1
 p4 #dac4    #aaj ,cited by ,j4 ,f4     
,nisbet1 ,the ,insanity of ,genius1 p4  
#bdh4    #aaa ,pathology of ,mind1 p4   
#add4 ,also ,mercier1 ,sanity and       
,insanity1  pp4 #bbc1 #bha4    #aab     
,miscellanies1 #agif1 p4 #cfe4 ,from the
 same essay ,i take the  following3     
,even the ceremonies of religion1 both  
in ancient and in  modern times1 have   
exhibited the grossest indecencies4     
,priests in all  ages have been the     
successful panders of the human heart1  
and have  introduced in the solemn      
worship of the divinity1 incitements1   

gratifications1 and representations1    
which the pen of the historian must     
refuse to describe4 ,often has the      
sensible ,catholic blushed amidst his   
devotions1 and ,i have seen chapels     
surrounded by pictures of lascivious    
attitudes1 and the obsolete amours of   
saints revived by the pencil of  some   
,aretine4444 ,their homilies were       
manuals of love1 and the more  religious
 they became1 the more depraved were    
their imaginations4 ,in the  nunnery the
 love of ,jesus was the most abandoned  
of passions1 and the  ideal espousal was
 indulged at the cost of the feeble     
heart of many a  solitary beauty 7pp4   
#cfi-gj74    #aac ,from a collection    
published by the ,early ,english ,text  
,society1  #ahfh1 pp4 #ahb-d1 #bfh4     
#aad ,g4 ,a4 ,coe1 ,the ,spiritual      
,life1 p4 #baj4    #aae ,les ,perles de 
,saint ,franois de ,sales1 #ahga4 ,cited
 by ,bloch1 p4  #aaa4    #aaf           
,davenport's ,primitive ,traits in      
,religious ,revivals1 p4 #bi4    #aag   

,see1 for example1 ,conduct and its     
,disorders1 by ,dr4 ,c4 ,mercier2       
,psycho-,pathological ,researches1 by   
,dr4 ,boris ,sidis2 and ,abnormal       
,psychology1 by ,i4 ,h4 ,coriat4    #aah
 ,clinical ,lectures on ,mental         
,diseases1 p4 #ehd4    #aai ,sanity and 
,insanity1 chap4 viii4    #abj ,the     
,soul of a ,christian1 p4 #agh4         
,,chapter ,,six    ,,the ,,stream ,,of  
,,tendency      ,it should hardly need  
pointing out that the facts presented in
 the last  chapter are not offered as an
 attempt at the--to use ,professor      
,william  ,james's                      
expression--reinterpretation of religion
 as perverted  sexuality4 ,nor1 so far  
as the present writer is aware1 has     
anyone ever  so presented them4 ,the    
expression1 indeed1 seems almost a      
deliberate  mis-statement of a position 
in order to make its rebuttal easier4   
,obviously the idea of religion must be 
already in existence before it  could be
 utilised for the purpose of explaining 

any group of phenomena4  ,but if the    
biographic and other facts described    
have any value whatever1  they are at   
least strong presumptive evidence in    
favour of the position  that in very    
many cases a perverted or unsatisfied   
sexuality has been at  the root of a    
great deal of the world's emotional     
piety4 ,of course1 the  strong religious
 belief must be in existence            
before-hand4 ,but given  this1 and add  
thereto a sexual nature imperious in its
 demands and yet  denied legitimate     
outlet1 and we have the conditions      
present for its  promptings being       
interpreted as the fruits of            
supernatural influence4 ,it  is not a   
reinterpretation of religion that is    
attempted1 but a  reinterpretation of   
phenomena that have been erroneously    
called  religious4 ,and on all sides the
 need for this reinterpretation is      
becoming clear4 ,over sixty years ago   
,renan wrote1 ,a rigorous  psychological
 analysis would class the innate        

religious instinct of  women in the same
 category with the sexual instinct1#aba 
and since  then a very much more        
detailed knowledge of both physiology   
and  psychology has furnished a         
multitude of data for an exhaustive     
study of  the whole question4    ,in the
 present chapter our interest is mainly 
historical4 ,and for  various reasons1  
chief amongst which is that interested  
readers may the  more easily follow up  
the study should they feel so inclined1 
the survey  has been restricted to the  
history of that religion with which we  
are  best acquainted--,christianity4    
,moreover1 if we are to form a correct  
judgment of the part played in the      
history of religions by the             
misinterpretations already noted1 it is 
necessary to trace the extent to  which 
they have influenced men and women in a 
collective capacity4 ,for  the striking 
fact is that1 in spite of the           
purification of the sexual  relations   
being one of the avowed objects of      

,christianity1 in spite1  too1 of the   
attempts of the official churches to    
suppress them1 the  history of          
,christianity has been dogged by        
outbreaks of sexual  extravagance1 by   
the continuous emergence of             
erotico-religious sects1  claiming      
,christian teachings as the authority   
for their actions4 ,we need  not discuss
 the legitimacy of their inferences4 ,we
 are concerned solely  with a chronicle 
of historic facts so far as they can be 
ascertained2  and these have a certain  
significance of their own1 as events1   
quite  apart from their reasonableness  
or desirability4    ,a part cause of the
 movements we are about to describe may 
have been a  violent reaction against an
 extravagant asceticism4 ,something may 
also  be due to the fact that           
over-concentration of mind upon a       
particular  evil is apt to defeat its   
end by the mere force of unconscious    
suggestion in the contrary direction4   
,but in all probability much was  due to

 the presence of certain elements       
inherited by ,christianity from  the    
older religions4 ,at any rate1 those    
whose minds are filled with the  idea   
that sexual extravagance on a collective
 scale and under the cloak  of religion 
is either a modern phenomenon1 or was   
unknown to the early  history of        
,christianity1 would do well to revise  
their opinions in the  light of         
ascertainable facts4 ,no less a person  
than the ,rev4 ,s4  ,baring-,gould has  
reminded us that criticism discloses on 
the shining  face of primitive          
,christianity rents and craters undreamt
 of in our old  simplicity1 and also    
asserts that there was in the breast of 
the  newborn ,church an element of      
antinomianism1 not latent1 but in       
virulent  activity1 is a fact as capable
 of demonstration as any conclusion in a
  science which is not exact4#abb       
,there would be little value in a study 
of these erotico-religious  movements if
 they involved only a detection of      

individual lust  consciously using      
religion as a cloak for its             
gratification4 ,such a  conclusion is a 
fatally easy one1 but it does little    
justice to the  chief people concerned1 
and it is quite lacking in historical   
perspective4 ,in most cases the         
initiators of these strange sects have  
put forward a philosophy of religion as 
a justification of their  teaching1 and 
only a slight knowledge of this is      
enough to prove that we  are face to    
face with a phenomenon of much greater  
significance than  mere immorality4     
,this may be recognised even in the     
pages of the ,new  ,testament itself4   
,it is not a practice that is there     
denounced2 it is a  teaching that is    
repudiated4 ,and one sees the same thing
 at later  periods4 ,the conviction on  
the one side that certain actions are   
unlawful1 is met on the other side with 
the conviction that they are  perfectly 
legitimate4 ,conviction is met with     
conviction4 ,each side  expresses itself

 in terms of religion2 the ethical      
aspect is incidental  or subordinate4   
,it is a contest of opposing religious  
beliefs and  practices4    ,the real    
nature of the conflict is often obscured
 by the fact of social  opinion and the 
social forces generally being on the    
side of the more  normal expression of  
sexual life4 ,this1 however1 is no more 
than a  necessity of the situation4 ,the
 continuance of a healthful social life 
is dependent upon the maintenance of a  
certain balance in the relations  of the
 sexes1 and anything that strikes at    
this strikes at social life  as a whole4
 ,in such cases we have1 therefore1 to  
allow for the operation  of social      
selection1 which is always on the side  
of the more normal  type4 ,from this it 
follows that although a small body of   
people may  exemplify a variation that  
is in itself socially disastrous1 the   
main  forces of social life will prevent
 its ever assuming large dimensions4    
,moreover1 a large body of people1 such 

as is represented by a church  holding a
 commanding position in society1 will be
 forced to come to  terms with the      
permanent tendencies of social life1 and
 will either  suppress undesirable      
variations or expel them4 ,it thus      
happens that  while the larger and more 
dominant churches have been on the side 
of  normal1 regularised expressions of  
the sexual life1 abnormal variations    
have constantly arisen and have been    
denounced by them4 ,but the  significant
 feature is that they have arisen within
 the churches1 and  most commonly during
 periods of great religious stress or   
excitement4    ,these tendencies1 as the
 ,rev4 ,s4 ,baring-,gould has pointed   
out1 existed  in the very earliest days 
of ,christianity4 ,it is quite apparent 
from  ,paul's writings that as early as 
the date of the ,first ,epistle to the  
,corinthians some of the more           
objectionable features of the older     
,pagan  worship had shown themselves in 
the ,church4 ,the doctrine of 'spiritual

  wifehood' appeared at a very early    
date in the ,church1 and its teachers   
cited even ,st4 ,paul himself as their  
authority4 ,their claim was based  upon 
,paul's declaration 7#a ,cor4 ix4 #e7   
that he had power to lead about  a      
sister1 a wife1 as well as other        
apostles1 and as the brethren of the    
,lord and ,cephas4 ,curiously enough1   
commentators have never agreed as to    
what ,paul meant by this expression4    
,the word translated may mean either    
wife1 or sister1 or woman4 ,had it been 
wife in the ordinary sense1 it  does not
 appear that at that date there would   
have been any room for  scandal4 ,the   
clear fact is1 however1 that others     
claimed a like  privilege2 the privilege
 was not always restricted to one woman1
 and the  practice1 if not general1     
became not uncommon1 and furnished the  
ground  for scandal for a long period4  
,two epistles1 wrongly attributed to    
,st4  ,clement of ,rome1 and dating from
 some time in the second century1       

condemn the practice of young people    
living together under the cloak of      
religion1 and specially warns virgins   
against cohabiting with the clergy  and 
so giving offence4 ,that the practice   
was difficult to suppress is  shown by  
its being condemned by several church   
councils--,antioch in #baj1  ,nicea in  
#cbe1 and ,elvira in #cej4abc ,at a     
later date a much more  elaborate theory
 has been built on ,paul's claim4 ,the  
,pauline ,church has  found several     
expressions both in ,england and        
,america within recent  times4#abd      
,these sects have claimed that both ,st4
 ,paul and the woman  with whom he      
travelled were in a state of grace1 and1
 therefore1 above  all law4 ,we do not  
mean the maintenance of an ascetic      
relationship1 but  the normal relation  
of husband and wife4 ,it is really the  
doctrine of  ',free ,love' with a       
spiritual warranty instead of a secular 
one4    ,this doctrine of religious     
',free ,love' rests upon a twofold      

basis4  ,first1 it was held that1 apart 
from a wife after the flesh1 one might  
also have a wife after the spirit1 and  
this spiritual union might exist  side  
by side with the fleshly one1 and with  
different persons4 ,a great  impetus    
appears to have been given to this      
theory from ,germany1 many of  the      
originators of the ,american sects of   
,free ,lovers being ,germans4           
,secondly1 it was held that a ,christian
 in a state of grace was absolved  from 
laws that were binding upon other       
people4 ,his actions were no  longer    
subject to the categories of right and  
wrong2 as it was said1 to  one in a     
state of grace all things were lawful1  
even though all things  might not be    
expedient4 ,some went the length of     
teaching that not only  were all things 
lawful1 but all things were desirable4  
,separating by a  sharp division things 
that influenced the soul from things    
that  influenced the body1 it was openly
 taught by some of the early sects  that

 nothing done by the body could injure  
the soul1 and so could not  affect its  
salvation4 ,reversing the practice of   
asceticism1 which sought  to crush      
bodily passions by a course of          
deprivation1 it was taught that  all    
kinds of forbidden conduct might be     
practised in order to  demonstrate the  
soul's superiority4 ,there is no        
question whatever that  this tendency   
was very prominent in the early         
,christian ,church4 ,it was  not there  
as something hidden1 something of which 
men ought to be  ashamed2 it was an     
avowed teaching1 claiming full religious
 sanction4  ,the ,church1 says          
,baring-,gould1 trembled on the verge of
 becoming an  immoral sect4 ,the same   
writer also says3--    ,this teaching of
 immorality in the ,church is a         
startling feature1 and  it seems to have
 been pursued by some who called        
themselves apostles as  well as by those
 who assumed to be prophets4 ,in the    
,corinthian ,church  even the elders    

encouraged incest4 ,now1 it is not      
possible to explain  this phenomenon    
except on the ground that ,paul's       
argument as to the ,law  being          
overridden had been laid hold of and    
elevated into a principle4  ,these      
teachers did not wink at lapses into    
immorality1 but defiantly  urged on the 
converts to the ,gospel to commit       
adultery1 fornication1 and  all         
uncleanness 444 as a protest against    
those who contended that the  moral law 
as given on the tables was still binding
 upon the  ,church4#abe    ,a certain   
detachment from modern conditions1 and  
from modern frames of  mind1 is         
essential to an adequate appreciation of
 what has been said4  ,looking at these 
events through the distorting medium of 
an altogether  different social         
atmosphere1 one is apt to attribute them
 to the  operation of lawless desire1   
and so have done with it4 ,this1        
however1 is  to overlook the fact that  
we are dealing with a society in which  

sexual  symbols were common in religious
 worship1 and in which theories of the  
religious life were propounded and      
accepted which to-day would be  regarded
 as little less than maniacal4          
,unquestionably even then1 once  the    
situation had established itself it     
would be utilised by those of a  coarser
 nature for mere sensual gratification4 
,but practices such as we  know existed1
 on the scale we have every reason for  
believing they were1  could never have  
been had they not taken the form of an  
intense  conviction4 ,to assume         
otherwise is equal to arguing that      
because men  have entered the ,church   
from mere love of power or lust for     
wealth1 the  ,church owed its           
establishment to the play of these      
motives4 ,it is true  that those who    
opposed these religio-erotic sects      
accused them of  immorality1 but it is  
the form these teachings assumed to the 
members of  the impeached sects1 not how
 they appeared to their enemies1 that is

  important4 ,eroticism taught and      
practised as a religious                
conviction--that is the essential and   
significant feature of the  situation4  
,not to grasp this is to fail to realise
 the vital fact  embodied in the        
phenomena under consideration4 ,we are  
not dealing with  mere sensualists1 even
 though we may be dealing with what is  
largely an  expression of sensualism4   
,it is sensualism expressed as1 and     
sanctioned  by1 religious conviction    
that is the vital fact of the situation4
    ,one of the earliest ,christian     
institutions around which scandals      
gathered was that of the ,agap1 or      
love-feasts4 ,from the outset the       
,pagan writers asserted that these      
love-feasts were new versions of        
various old orgiastic practices1 some of
 which were still current1  others of   
which had been suppressed by the ,roman 
government4 ,there is no  doubt that    
they were the grounds of very serious   
accusations against the  ,christians4   

,on the other hand1 it must be          
remembered that1 at the outset  at      
least1 these charges were indignantly   
rejected by the ,christians4 ,the  ,agap
 were called indiscriminately ,feasts of
 ,love and ,feasts of  ,charity4 ,each  
member1 male and female1 greeted each   
other with a holy  kiss1 and the        
institution was described by ,tertullian
 as a support of  love1 a solace of     
purity1 a check on riches1 a discipline 
of weakness4  ,these love-feasts were   
held on important occasions1 such as a  
marriage1  a death1 or the anniversary  
of a martyrdom4 ,some churches          
celebrated  them weekly4 ,from the ,acts
 of the ,apostles we learn that the     
feasts  began about nightfall1 and      
continued till after midnight1 or even  
till  daybreak4 ,it was only natural    
that mixed assemblies of men and women  
that gathered in this manner1 and where 
there was eating and drinking1  should  
create scandal4 ,it is absolutely       
certain that some of this  scandal had a

 basis in fact4 ,the ,rev4 ,s4          
,baring-,gould confesses that at        
,corinth1 and certainly elsewhere1 among
 excitable people1 the wine1 the  heat1 
the exaltation of emotion1 led to       
orgiastic ravings1 the jabbering  of    
disconnected1 unintelligible words1 to  
fits1 convulsions1 pious  exclamations1 
and incoherent ravings4 ,and unless ,st4
 ,paul was  deliberately slandering his 
fellow-believers worse things than these
  occurred4    ,generally1 even by      
non-,christian writers1 it has been     
assumed that the  ,agap commenced as a  
perfectly harmless1 even admirable      
institution1 and  afterwards            
degenerated1 and so gave genuine cause  
for scandal4 ,it is not  easy to see    
that this opinion rests on anything     
better than a mere  prejudice4 ,it is   
true that there is no unmistakable      
evidence to the  contrary1 but no clear 
evidence is to be found in its behalf4  
,the ,agap  was not1 after all1 an      
essentially ,christian institution4     

,similar  gatherings existed among the  
,pagans1 more or less orgiastic in      
character4 ,and even though at first    
some of the more extreme forms were     
avoided amongst the ,christians1 it is  
not improbable1 on the face of it1  that
 some kind of sexual extravagance or    
symbolism was present from the  outset4 
,at any rate1 as ,i have said1 the      
charges were made1 first by  ,pagans1   
afterwards by ,christians against other 
,christians4 ,the charges  were         
persistent1 and were made in districts  
far removed from each other4  ,says     
,lecky3 ,when the ,pagans accused the   
,christians of indulging in  orgies of  
gross licentiousness1 the first         
apologist1 while repudiating  the       
charge1 was careful to add1 of the      
heretics1 ',whether or not these  people
 commit those shameful acts 444 ,i know 
not4' ,in a few years the  language of  
doubt and insinuation was exchanged for 
that of direct  assertion2 and if we may
 believe ,st4 ,irenus and ,st4 ,clement 

of  ,alexandria1 the followers of       
,carpocrates1 the ,marcionites1 and some
  other gnostic sects habitually        
indulged1 in their secret meetings1 in  
acts of impurity and licentiousness as  
hideous and as monstrous as can  be     
conceived1 and their conduct was one of 
the causes of the persecution  of the   
orthodox4#abf ,tertullian accused some  
of the sects of  practising incestuous  
intercourse at the ,agap4 ,ambrose      
compared the  institution to the ,pagan 
,parentalia4 ,clement says1 probably    
referring to  the ,agap1 the shameless  
use of the rite occasions foul suspicion
 and  evil reports4 ,the first epistle  
on ,virginity by the ,pseudo-,clement   
7probably written in the second century7
 admits the existence of  immorality by 
saying1 ,others eat and drink with them 
7i4e4 the  virgins7 at feasts1 and      
indulge in loose behaviour and much     
uncleanness1  such as ought not to be   
among those who have elected holiness   
for  themselves4 ,justin ,martyr1       

referring to certain sects1 says more   
cautiously3 ,whether or not these people
 commit these shameful acts 7the        
putting out of lights1 and indulging in 
promiscuous intercourse7 ,i know  not4  
,others are more precise in their       
charges4 ,that the ,agap became  the    
legitimate cause of complaint is        
admitted by all4 ,the only question  is 
whether it was the institution itself or
 the public mind in relation  to it that
 underwent a change4 ,eventually1 on the
 avowed ground of evil  conduct1 the    
,agap were forbidden by the ,council of 
,carthage1 #cia1 of  ,orleans1 #eda1 and
 of ,constantinople1 #fhj4    ,the whole
 subject is obscure1 but the one certain
 and significant thing  is that charges 
of licentiousness were connected with   
the ,agap from the  outset4 ,these may  
at first have been unfounded or         
exaggerated4 ,on the  other hand1 it is 
quite probable that just as             
,christianity continued  ,pagan         
ceremonies in other directions1 so there

 was also a carrying over  into the     
,church of some of the sexual rites and 
ceremonies connected  with earlier forms
 of worship4 ,and we know that the      
principle of  ,antinomianism1 a prolific
 cause of evil at all times1 was active 
amongst  the ,christians from the       
outset4    ,it is almost impossible to  
say at this distance how many sects     
exhibiting marked erotic tendencies     
appeared in the early ,christian        
centuries4 ,many must have disappeared  
and left no trace of their  existence4  
,but there can be no question that they 
were fairly numerous4  ,the extensive   
sect1 or sects1 of the gnostics         
contained in its teachings  elements    
that at least paved the way for the     
conduct with which other  ,christians   
charged them1 although the charges made 
may not have been  true of all4 ,to some
 of the gnostic sects belongs the       
teaching--quite in  accord with the     
doctrine of the evil nature of the      
world1 that  liberation from the ',law' 

was one of the first conditions of      
spiritual  freedom4 ,from this came the 
teaching1 subsequently held by numerous 
other sects1 that those born of the     
,spirit could not be defiled by any     
acts of the flesh1 and that so-called   
vicious actions were rather to be       
encouraged as providing experience      
useful to spiritual welfare4 ,some      
branches of the gnostics had 'spiritual 
marriages1' similar to what  existed in 
,india in the ,sakti rites already      
described4 ,thus the  ,adamites1 a      
rather obscure gnostic sect of the      
second century1 attempted  to imitate   
the ,edenic state by condemning marriage
 and abandoning  clothing4 ,their       
assemblies were held underground1 and on
 entering the  place of worship both    
sexes stripped themselves naked1 and in 
that state  performed their ceremonies4 
,they called their church ,paradise1    
from  which all dissentients were       
promptly expelled4 ,the ,adamites       
themselves  claimed that their object   

was to extirpate desire by familiarising
 the  senses to strict control4 ,their  
religious opponents gave a very         
different account of the practice1 and  
it is not difficult to realise1         
whatever may have been the motive of the
 founders1 the consequences of  such a  
practice4 ,it is curious1 by the way1 to
 observe how strong  religious          
excitement seems to lead people to      
discard clothing4 ,thus1  during the    
,crusade of #abjc-db the women crusaders
 rushed about the  streets in a state of
 nudity4#abg ,during the wars of the    
,league in  ,france1 men and women      
walked naked in procession headed by the
  clergy4#abh ,other examples of this   
curious practice might be given4    ,the
 ,nicolaitanes1 a second-century sect   
referred to in the ,new ,testament      
7,rev4 ii4 #ad71 were accused of        
practising religious prostitution4 ,so  
also were the ,manichans1 a very        
numerous sect1 against whom the charges 
were of a much more detailed character4 

,with them the ceremonial  violation of 
a virgin is said to have formed a part  
of their regular  ritual1 and that their
 meetings frequently ended in an orgy of
  promiscuous intercourse4#abi ,as both 
these acts are found in connection  with
 other religious ceremonies1 and1 as    
will be seen later1 have  persisted     
until recent times1 the story does not  
sound so incredible as  otherwise it    
might4 ,the difficulty of deciding      
definitely is intensified  by the fact  
of the ,manichans being split into a    
number of sects1 and  statements true of
 some might be untrue of others4 ,so we 
find ,st4  ,augustine1 who had been a   
,manichan1 declaring that if all did not
  practise licentious rites1 one sect   
7the ,catharists7 did1 believing that   
they could only mortify the flesh by the
 exercise of bad instincts1  since the  
flesh proceeded from demons4 ,st4       
,augustine himself confesses  to have   
taken part in various phallic ceremonies
 before his conversion4  ,i myself1 he  

says1 when a young man used to go       
sometimes to the  sacrilegious          
entertainments and spectacles2 ,i saw   
the priests raving in  religious        
excitement1 and heard the choristers2 ,i
 took pleasure in the  shameful games   
which were celebrated in honour of gods 
and goddesses1 of  the ,virgin          
,coelestia1 and of ,berecynthia1 the    
mother of all gods4 ,and  on the day    
consecrated to her purification1 there  
were sung before her  couch productions 
so obscene and filthy to the ear--,i do 
not say of the  mother of the gods1 but 
of the mother of any senator or honest  
man--nay1  so impure that not even the  
mother of the foul-mouthed players      
themselves could have formed one of the 
audience4#acj    ,the ,carpocratians1   
who claimed to be a branch of the       
,gnostics1 taught  that faith and       
charity were alone necessary virtues3   
all others were  useless4 ,there is     
nothing evil in itself1 and life only   
becomes complete  when all so-called    

blemishes are fully displayed in        
conduct4 ,their  leader not only allowed
 his disciples a full liberty to sin1   
but  recommended a vicious course of    
life as a matter of obligation and      
necessity2 asserting that eternal       
salvation was only attainable by those  
who had committed all sorts of          
crimes4444 ,it was the will of ,god that
  all things should be possessed in     
common1 the female sex not              
excepted4#aca    ,a little later we have
 the sect of the ,agapet4 ,they rejected
 marriage  as an institution1 and       
permitted unrestrained intercourse      
between the  sexes4 ,st4 ,jerome1       
alluding to this sect1 says3 ,it is a   
shame even to  allude to the true facts4
 ,whence did the pest of the ,agapet    
creep into  the ,church8 ,whence is this
 new title of wives without marriage    
rites8  ,whence this new class of       
concubines8 ,i will infer more4 ,whence 
these  harlots cleaving to one man8     
,they occupy the same house1 a single   

chamber1 often a single bed1 and call us
 suspicious if we think anything  of it4
 ,the brother deserts his virgin sister1
 the virgin despises her  unmarried     
brother1 and seeks a stranger1 and since
 they pretend to be  aiming at the same 
object1 they ask for the spiritual      
consolation of  each other that they may
 enjoy the pleasures of the flesh4#acb  
,this form of extravagance does not     
appear to have been limited to a  single
 sect4 ,it was more or less general     
during the ascendancy of  asceticism4   
,tertullian says that the desire to     
enjoy the reputation of  virginity led  
to much immorality1 the effects of which
 were concealed by  infanticide4 ,the   
,council of ,antioch lamented the       
practice of unmarried  men and women    
sharing the same room4 ,in #dej1 the    
,anchorites of ,palestine  are described
 as herding together without distinction
 of sex1 and with  no garments but a    
breech-clout4#acc ,the practice of      
priests travelling  about with women1   

mothers and wives1 and the scandals     
created thereby1  is referred to in     
regulation after regulation4 ,although  
legislated  against1 it never entirely  
disappeared1 and eventually led to a    
recognised priestly                     
concubinage--recognised1 that is1 by    
public opinion1  although condemned by  
the ,church4    ,there is no need to go 
over even the names of all the numerous 
sects  that appeared during the early   
centuries manifesting curious features  
concerning sexual relations4 ,when      
suppressed in one form they reappeared  
in another1 and were unusually prominent
 during seasons of religious  unrest4   
,many of the teachings already noted    
made their appearance again  with the   
,brethren of the ,free ,spirit in the   
thirteenth1 fourteenth1  and fifteenth  
centuries4 ,some of these sects took    
their stand on the  ,pauline teaching1  
,the law of the spirit of life in ,jesus
 ,christ hath  made me free from the law
 of sin and death1 and claimed freedom  

from  sin1 no matter what their actions4
 ,the ,brethren of the ,free ,spirit    
carried women about with them1 held     
midnight assemblies1 and1 according  to 
,mosheim1 attended these meetings in a  
state of nudity4 ,the ,ranters1  the    
,spirituels of ,geneva1 the ,berghards1 
the ,flagellants1 the ,molinists1  were 
all accused of sexual misconduct in     
their assemblies4 ,one of the  specific 
teachings of the last-named body1 as    
condemned by the  ,inquisition1 ran as  
follows3 ,god1 to humble us1 permits in 
certain  perfect souls that the devil   
should make them commit certain acts4   
,in  this case1 and in others1 which    
without the permission of ,god1 would be
  guilty1 there is no sin because there 
is no consent4 ,it may happen1 that     
this violent movement1 which excites to 
carnal acts1 may take place in  two     
persons1 a man and a woman1 at the same 
instant4#acd    ,it has been pointed out
 that the dominant ,church made         
continuous efforts  to suppress these   

sects1 but the remarkable thing is that 
they should so  often reappear1 and     
always with strong claims to existence  
on the basis  of religious conviction4  
,that a number of men and women should  
seek  gratification of their sensual    
feelings in ways not countenanced by the
  laws of normal life need not excite   
surprise4 ,there always have been and   
always will be such4 ,but to do this in 
the name of religion1 and with a        
persistency as great as that of the     
religious idea itself1 is a  phenomenon 
that surely deserves more attention than
 it ordinarily  receives4 ,nor can it be
 said with justice that these sects     
began in mere  conscious lust4 ,they    
ended there1 true2 more or less         
disguised1 it may  always have been     
present1 but those who initiated them   
believed that  they were justified in   
doing so by religious principles1 and   
appealed to  those principles to justify
 their conduct4 ,why should this have   
been the  case8 ,why should conduct of  

which men and women are ashamed in the  
social sphere1 and which their social   
sense promptly condemns1 in the         
religious sphere be crowned with the    
dignity of lofty principles and  fought 
for with the fervour of intense         
conviction8 ,so long as  theologians    
leave that question unanswered1 their   
arguments are simply  wide of the real  
issue4    ,naturally1 the closer we get 
to our own day1 and to times when       
religious  feeling is more vigorously   
controlled by purely social forces1     
these  manifestations of sexuality      
become less frequent1 less widely       
spread1  and more transient in          
character4 ,still they do occur4 ,for   
reasons that  do not concern us here1   
,america has in recent years been a     
favourable  ground for these            
religio-sexual developments4 ,a         
sympathetic account of  many of these   
,american sects will be found in        
,hepworth ,dixon's  ,spiritual ,wives1  
with accounts of similar sects in       

,germany and  ,england4 ,in some cases  
many of the features of the early       
,christian sects  were reproduced1 even 
to the length of young women sharing the
 bedrooms  of their spiritual guides4   
,all took ,paul as their principal      
authority4  ,j4 ,h4 ,noyes1 one of the  
best known and most representative of   
these  teachers1 laid down the main     
principles of his teachings thus3--     
,when the will of ,god is done on earth 
as it is in heaven1 there will be  no   
marriage4 ,the marriage supper of the   
,lamb is a feast at which every  dish is
 free to every guest4 ,exclusiveness1   
jealousy1 quarrelling1 have  no place   
there1 for the same reason as that which
 forbids the guests at  a thanksgiving  
dinner to claim each his separate dish1 
and quarrel with  the rest for his      
rights4 ,in a holy community there is no
 more reason why  sexual intercourse    
should be restrained by law1 than why   
eating and  drinking should be2 and     
there is as little occasion for shame in

 the one  case as in the other4444 ,the 
guests of the marriage supper may have  
each  his favourite dish1 each a dish of
 his own procuring1 and that without    
the jealousy of exclusiveness4 ,i call a
 certain woman my wife2 she is  yours2  
she is ,christ's2 and in ,him she is the
 bride of all saints4 ,she  is dear in  
the hands of a stranger1 and according  
to my promise to her ,i  rejoice4#ace   
,in a letter to ,mr4 ,hepworth ,dixon1  
,j4 ,h4 ,noyes claims the right of      
religious inspiration to shape society  
and dictate the form of family  life1   
and with probable accuracy says that the
 origin of these ,american  sects is to 
be found in revivals3--    ,the         
philosophy of the matter seems to be    
this3 ,revivals are theocratic  in their
 very nature2 they introduce ,god into  
human affairs4444 ,in the  conservative 
theory of revivals1 this power is       
restricted to the  conversion of souls2 
but in actual experience it goes1 or    
tends to go1  into all the affairs of   

life4444 ,religious love is very near   
neighbour  to sexual love1 and they     
always get mixed in the intimacies and  
social  excitements of revivals4 ,the   
next thing a man wants1 after he has    
found  the salvation of his soul1 is to 
find his ,eve and his ,paradise4444 ,the
  course of things may be restated thus3
 ,revivals lead to religious love2      
religious love excites the passions2 the
 converts1 finding themselves  in       
theocratic liberty1 begin to look about 
for their mates and their  liberty4#acf 
,with regard to the beginnings of these 
modern movements of ,spiritual          
,wifehood1 all involving the abrogation 
of the normal relations of the  sexes1  
,hepworth ,dixon writes3--    ,it has   
not1 ,i think1 been noticed by any      
writer that three of the most  singular 
movements in the churches of our        
generation seem to have been  connected1
 more or less closely1 with the state of
 mind produced by  revivals2 one in     
,germany1 one in ,england1 and one in   

the ,united ,states2  movements which   
resulted1 among other things1 in the    
establishment of  three singular        
societies--the congregation of          
,pietists1 vulgarly called  the ,mucker1
 at ,knigsberg2 the brotherhood of      
,princeites at ,spaxton2 and  the ,bible
 ,communists at ,oneida ,creek4444 ,they
 had these chief things in  common3 they
 began in colleges1 they affected the   
form of family life1  and they were     
carried on by clergymen2 each movement  
in a place of  learning and of          
theological study3 that in ,germany at  
the ,luther-,kirch  of ,knigsberg1 that 
in ,england at ,st4 ,david's ,college1  
that in the  ,united ,states at ,yale   
,college4444 ,these three divines1 one  
,lutheran1 one  ,anglican1 one          
,congregational1 began their work in    
perfect ignorance of  each other4444    
,each movement was regarded by its      
votaries as the most  perfect fruit of  
the revival spirit4 ,in truth1 the      
change which came  upon the saints from 

their close experience of revival       
passion1 was  regarded by themselves as 
in some degree miraculous1 equal in     
divine  significance to a new creation  
of the world4#acg    ,for an almost     
exact replica of the erotic             
extravagances of some of the  early     
,christian sects1 one may turn to       
,russia4 ,the difficulties and  dangers 
of political life in ,russia are        
doubtless responsible for having  made  
religion such a power among the mass of 
the people1 and this will  also explain 
the diversion into religious channels of
 energy that under  more favourable     
conditions is expended in social        
agitation and activity4  ,many of these 
sects are1 of course1 of a harmless     
character1 mostly  originating in an    
even greater love for the past and a    
more slavish  adherence to ancient      
formulas than is displayed by the       
orthodox ,church4  ,some1 however1      
present the wildest excesses of sexual  
theory and  practice4 ,nothing seems too

 wild or too extravagant to become the  
originating point of a new sect4        
,theories of marriage and sexual        
relations generally are developed with a
 logical fearlessness peculiarly        
,russian4 ,among the ,bezpopovtsi1 a    
numerous sect split up into several     
branches1 opinions on marriage vary     
between regarding it as a mere          
conventional affair1 and denouncing it  
as a hindrance to spiritual             
development4 ,between these two         
extremes1 says ,mr4 ,heard1 there is    
room for the wildest and most repulsive 
theories4 ,carnal sensuality is  allied 
in monstrous union with religious       
mysticism4 ,free love1  independence of 
the sexes1 possession of women in       
common1 have been  preached and         
practised4 ,debauchery1 as an incidental
 weakness of human  nature1 has been    
advocated as the lesser evil2           
libertinism as preferable  to           
concubinage1 and the latter as better   
than marriage4 ,one of their  most      

austere teachers cynically declares that
 'it is wiser to live with  beasts than 
to be joined to a wife2 to frequent many
 women in secret1  rather than to live  
with one openly4'#ach    ,another sect  
called ',eunuchs' take their stand on   
,matt4 xix4 #ab3 ,there  are some       
eunuchs1 which were so born from their  
mother's womb3 and there  are some      
eunuchs1 which were made eunuchs of men3
 and there be eunuchs1  which have made 
themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of   
heaven's sake4 ,he  that is able to     
receive it1 let him receive it4 ,this   
sect believes in  and practises         
emasculation as the surest way of       
attaining perfection4  ,man1 they say1  
should be like the angels1 without sex  
and without  desire4 ,this practice     
reminds one of an early ,christian sect1
 the  ,valesians1 which not only        
emasculated members of their own sect1  
but  performed the same operation       
forcibly on those who fell into their   
hands4#aci ,the ,khlysti1 a sect which  

derives its name from the practice  of  
flagellation1 denounce marriage as      
unclean1 and part of their  religious   
ritual is1 according to some writers1   
the worship of a naked  woman4 ,baron   
,von ,haxthausen1 writing in #ahef1     
gives the following  description of     
their ceremonies on ,easter night3--    
,on this night the ,khlysti all assemble
 for a great solemnity1 the  worship of 
the mother of ,god4 ,a virgin1 fifteen  
years of age1 whom they  have induced to
 act the part by tempting promises1 is  
bound and placed  in a tub of warm      
water2 some old women come1 and first   
make a large  incision in the left      
breast1 then cut it off1 and staunch the
 blood in a  wonderfully short time4    
,during the operation a mystical picture
 of the  ,holy ,spirit is put into the  
victim's hand1 in order that she may be 
absorbed in regarding it4 ,the breast   
which has been removed is laid upon  a  
plate and cut into small pieces1 which  
are eaten by all the members of  the    

sect present2 the girl in the tub is    
then raised upon an altar which  stands 
near1 and the whole congregation dance  
wildly round it1 singing  at the same   
time4 ,the jumping then grows madder and
 wilder1 till the  lights are suddenly  
extinguished and horrible orgies        
commence4#adj    ,the ',jumpers1' an    
offshoot of the ,khlysti1 are much more 
pronounced in  their sexual             
extravagances4 ,they openly profess     
debauchery1 for the  usual reason1 that 
of conquering the flesh by exhaustion   
and satiety4  ,they meet usually by     
night1 and after prayers are chanted and
 hymns  sung1 the leader commences a    
slow jumping movement1 keeping time with
 a  song4 ,then3--    ,the audience1    
arranged in couples1 engaged to each    
other in advance1  imitate his example  
and join the strain2 the bounds and the 
singing grow  faster and louder as it   
spreads1 until1 at its height1 the elder
 shouts  that he hears the voices of    
angels2 the lights are extinguished1 the

  jumping ceases1 and the scene that    
follows in the darkness defies          
description4 ,each one yields to his    
desires1 born of inspiration1 and       
therefore righteous1 and to be          
gratified2 all are brethren in ,christ1 
all promptings of the inner spirit are  
holy2 incest1 even1 is no sin4  ,they   
repudiate marriage1 and justify their   
abominations by the ,biblical  legends  
of ,lot's daughters1 ,solomon's harem1  
and the like4#ada    ,there are many    
other curious sects in ,russia1 many of 
which bring us  back to the religious   
atmosphere of the ,european dark ages4  
,but without  pursuing a description of 
these to any greater extent1 enough has 
been  said to show the persistence of   
the stream of sexualism in the history  
of ,christianity4 ,of course1 this      
feature did not enter religion with     
,christianity4 ,on the contrary1 ,i have
 shown that it was present from the     
earliest times4 ,the association of     
religion with sexual phenomena does  not

 commence as a sexual aberration2 it    
only assumes that form at a             
comparatively late stage in religious   
history4 ,the origin of the  connection 
has to be found in that atmosphere of   
the supernatural which  envelops        
primitive life1 moulds primitive        
conceptions1 and more or less  fashions 
all primitive institutions4 ,the sexual 
side of religious belief  and religious 
symbolism only becomes abnormal1 and    
even morbid1 when the  development of   
social life makes possible a truer view 
of sexuality4 ,in  this the great       
churches have1 perhaps1 unconsciously   
assisted4 ,their  position of social    
control has compelled them to set their 
faces against  the sexual symbolism     
which is so closely associated with     
early religious  history1 while at the  
same time countenancing religious       
fervour in  general4 ,the consequence   
has been that small bodies of men and   
women1  freed from the restraining      
influence of social responsibility1 have

  developed to extravagant length       
certain phases of religious belief that 
have been generally discountenanced     
elsewhere4 ,their so doing certainly    
helps the present-day student to make a 
more complete survey of all the  factors
 that have played their part in         
religious history than would  otherwise 
have been possible4 ,repulsive as some  
of these features now  are1 they have   
helped in their time to nourish the     
general belief in a  supernatural order1
 and so to strengthen the general idea  
to which they  were affiliated4         
,,footnotes3    #aba ,the ,future of    
,science1 p4 #dfe4    #abb ,lost and    
,hostile ,gospels1 ,preface1 p4 #g4     
#abc ,see ,baring-,gould's ,study of    
,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #dej-a4    #abd ,see    
,hepworth ,dixon's curious work1        
,spiritual ,wives1 #ahhh1 #b  vols4     
#abe ,study of ,st4 ,paul1 p4 #deh4     
#abf ,history of ,european ,morals1 i4  
p4 #dag4    #abg ,cutten1 ,psychological
 ,christianity1 p4 #aeg4    #abh        

,sanger1 ,history of ,prostitution1 p4  
#aaf4    #abi ,see ,blunt's ,dictionary 
of ,sects1 art4 ,manichans4    #acj ,de 
,civitate ,dei1 ii4 #d4    #aca         
,mosheim1 ,cent4 #b1 chap4 v4 sec4 #d4  
#acb ,dictionary of ,sects1 p4 #ac4     
#acc ,lea1 ,hist4 of ,sacerdotal        
,celibacy1 #ahhd1 p4 #db4    #acd ,cited
 by ,michelet1 ,priests1 ,women1 and    
,families1 p4 #acj4    #ace ,spiritual  
,wives1 ii4 pp4 #ee-f4    #acf          
,spiritual ,wives1 pp4 #agf-g1 #aha4    
#acg ,ibid41 pp4 #hd-f4    #ach ,the    
,russian ,church and ,russian ,dissent1 
p4 #bja4    #aci ,lea1 ,hist4 of        
,sacerdotal ,celibacy1 p4 #dj4    #adj  
,visit to the ,russian ,empire1 i4 p4   
#bed4 ,merejkowski1 in his  historical  
novel1 ,peter and ,alexis1 gives a more 
detailed account of  the sexual         
ceremonies of this sect4 ,see also      
,heard's description1  ,russian ,church1
 p4 #beh4    #ada ,russian ,church and  
,russian ,dissent1 p4 #bfb4             
,,chapter ,,seven    ,,conversion       

,from what has been already said1 it    
should be clear that a complete         
understanding of religious              
phenomena--whether legitimately or      
wrongly so  called--involves            
acquaintance with a number of factors   
that are not  usually called religious4 
,man's religious beliefs are usually a  
very  composite product2 they are built 
up from a number of states of feeling   
and mental convictions1 some of which   
have only an accidental connection  with
 the religious idea itself4             
,unfortunately1 the training given to   
professional religious teachers rarely  
equips them for dealing with  religion  
from the scientific point of view4      
,their training gives them a  knowledge 
of several ancient languages1 makes them
 acquainted with the  rise and fall of  
certain doctrines1 the nature of ,church
 ritual and the  like1 all of which1    
while interesting enough in themselves1 
give little  more genuine enlightenment 
than a knowledge of the dates of        

,english  monarchs provides of the      
character of genuine historic processes4
 ,one  writer pertinently asks3--       
,what does the ordinary seminary        
graduate know of the histology1         
anatomy1 and physiology of the soul8    
,absolutely nothing4 ,he must stumble   
along through years of trying experience
 and look back over countless  mistakes 
before he understands these things even 
in a general way4 ,what  does the       
ordinary graduate understand about      
doubt8 ,it is all classed  together1    
whether in adolescents or in hardened   
sinners1 and one dose is  applied4 ,what
 does the graduate know about sexuality1
 so closely allied  with certain forms  
of religious manifestations8 ,what about
 ecstasy1 in  its various forms1 the    
numerous methods of faith cure thrust   
upon an  illiterate but credulous       
people1 or the significance or          
insignificance  of visions and          
dreams8#adb    ,it is1 indeed1 not too  
much to say that a theological training 

tends to  prevent a rational            
comprehension of religion in both its   
normal and  abnormal manifestations4    
,religious phenomena are not affiliated 
to  phenomena as a whole2 they are      
treated as quite distinct from the rest 
of life1 possessing both an independent 
origin and justification4 ,the          
consequence is that what are usually    
called studies of religion move  round  
and round the same circle of ideas1 and 
a revolution is mistaken  for progress4 
,genuine enlightenment has come to us   
from men who have  attacked the subject 
from a quite different point of view4   
,they  recognised that whether the      
religious idea was accepted as true or  
rejected as false1 it could not be      
separated from that host of ideas and   
beliefs which make up the psychological 
side of the social structure4 ,it  was  
to be studied as a piece of natural     
history first of all4 ,whether it       
involved more than this they left to be 
settled later4 ,it cannot be said  that 

they belittled the power of religion2 on
 the contrary1 the  investigations      
showed it to be one of the most potent  
of the forces that  shape social        
institutions4 ,but they demonstrated the
 absurdity of  placing religion in a    
category of its own4 ,as an objective   
fact1 they  showed that religion was    
subject to the same forces that         
determine the  form of other objective  
facts4 ,as a culture fact1 they traced  
its  connection with corresponding      
phases of social development2 and as a  
psychological fact1 they demonstrated   
its workings to be in harmony with      
workings of normal psychological laws4  
,five thousand years of  theological    
study had left the world as ignorant of 
the nature of  religious phenomena as it
 was in the days of ancient ,chaldea4   
,fifty  years of scientific study has   
served to make at least a broad path    
through what was hitherto an            
impenetrable jungle4    ,what has been  
said holds with peculiar force of the   

subject of  conversion4 ,this is not a  
phenomenon peculiar to ,christianity1   
for  initiation and conversion          
accompanies religion in all its phases4 
,i do  not think that it is peculiar to 
religion even as a whole4 ,a sudden     
discharge of feeling in a special       
direction leading to a changed          
attitude1 more or less permanent towards
 life1 may be seen in connection  with  
the non-religious life1 although it     
fails to receive the attention  bestowed
 on changes that are connected with     
religion4 ,but if conversion  is not a  
peculiarly ,christian phenomenon1 one   
school of theologians1 at  least1 has   
raised it to a position of peculiar     
eminence in connection  with            
,christianity4 ,they have taken it to be
 the mark of a person who has  attained 
spiritual manhood1 and have laid down   
elaborate rules for its  achievement4   
,many theologians will agree that this  
has been almost  wholly disastrous4 ,on 
the one side1 conversion has been dwelt 

upon as a  cataclysmal epoch in a       
person's life1 produced1 negatively1 by 
an act of  self-surrender1 and1         
positively1 by a supernatural act of    
grace4 ,this  has had the effect of     
blinding people to the real nature of   
the process1  and has led to certain    
evil consequences that must always      
accompany  attempts at wholesale        
conversion4 ,on the other hand1 it has  
given rise  to a class of professional  
evangelists who count their trophies in 
'souls' as a ,red ,indian might count   
scalps1 and who are ignorant of  nearly 
everything except the art of working    
upon the emotions of a crowd  of more or
 less uncultured people4 ,here1 for     
instance1 is an account of  an ,american
 evangelist and ex-prize fighter1 and   
evidently a great  favourite with       
certain sections of the religious public
 in ,america4 ,the  account is cited by 
,dr4 ,cutten from a local paper1        
,illinois3--    #ehdc converts1 #fhc in 
a day4 ,total gift to ,mr4 ,sunday1     

#aj1dca4  ,greatest revival in history4 
,will attract the attention of the      
religious  world4 ,sermon on ',booze1'  
the great effort of the revival6 ,these 
are all  headlines to the report of the 
meeting1 which covers six               
columns--evidently a response to the    
interest shown in ',billy' ,sunday's    
meetings4 ,the sermon on ',booze' is    
given in full1 and the physical         
exertions of the preacher described in  
detail4 ,he began with his coat1  vest1 
tie1 and collar off4 ,in a few moments  
his shirt and undershirt  were gaping   
open to the waist1 and the muscles of   
his neck and chest  were seen working   
like those in the arm of a blacksmith1  
while  perspiration poured from every   
pore4 ,his clothing was soaked1 as if a 
hose had been turned on him4 ,he        
strained1 and twisted1 and reached up   
and down4 ,once he was on the floor for 
just a second1 in the attitude of       
crawling1 to show that all crime crawled
 out of the saloon2 then he was  on his 

feet as quickly as a cat could jump4 ,at
 the end of forty-five  minutes he      
mounted a chair1 reached high1 as he    
shouted1 then again was  on the floor1  
and dropped prostrate to illustrate a   
story of a drunken  man1 bounded to his 
feet again as if steel springs filled   
that lithe1  slender1 lightning-like    
body4 ,he generally breaks a common     
kitchen chair  in this sermon1 and this 
came after a terrible effort1 with eyes 
flashing1 face scowling1 the picture of 
hate4 ,he whirled the chair over  his   
head1 smashed the chair to the platform 
floor1 whirled the shattered  wreck in  
the air again1 and threw it to the      
ground in front of the  pulpit4 ,in two 
minutes men from the front row were     
tearing the wreck to  pieces and        
dividing it up--a round here1 a leg     
there1 a piece of the  back to another1 
and so on4 ,later1 men carried away in  
cheering could be  seen in the audience 
waving those chair fragments in the air4
    ,this is1 of course1 an extreme     

case1 although it is but an exaggeration
  of methods in common use among these  
professional revivalists4 ,the whole    
aim and purpose of these men is to      
arouse in the audience a high  emotional
 tension1 and any means is acceptable   
that succeeds in doing  this4 ,on the   
part of the congregation a large portion
 go for the express  purpose of         
indulging in an emotional debauch4 ,many
 attend revival after  revival1 living  
over again the debauch of the last1 and 
treasuring  lively expectations of the  
next4 ,between these and the victim of  
alcohol  tasting again his last 'burst1'
 and seeking opportunities for another1 
there is really little moral or         
psychological distinction4 ,the social  
consequences of these engineered        
revivals have never been fully worked   
out1 but when it is done by some        
competent person1 the conclusions will  
be a revelation to many4 ,one thing is  
certain3 to expect really useful  social
 results from such methods is verily to 

look to gather grapes from  thistles4   
,during recent years the phenomena of   
religious conversion have been  studied 
in a more scientific spirit4#adc        
,statistics have been compiled  and     
analysed1 the frames of mind attendant  
on conversion arranged and  studied1    
with the result that the salient        
features are to be discerned  by all who
 approach the study of the subject with 
a little detachment of  mind4 ,one      
outstanding feature of this more        
scientific enquiry into the  nature of  
conversion has been to demonstrate that 
it is almost  exclusively a phenomenon  
of puberty and adolescence4 ,mr4 ,hall  
has  compiled a lengthy list of the ages
 at which noted religious characters    
experienced what is known as            
conversion4#add ,from this ,i take the  
following examples4 ,religious          
conviction came to ,st4 ,thekla at the  
age  of #ah1 to ,st4 ,agnes at #ac1 ,st4
 ,antony at #ah1 ,martin of ,tours at   
#ah1  ,euphrasia at #ab1 ,benedict at   

#ad1 ,cuthbert at #ae1 ,st4 ,bernard at 
#ab1 ,st4  ,dominic at #ae1 ,st4        
,collette at #bj1 ,st4 ,catherine at #g1
 ,st4 ,teresa at #ab1  ,st4 ,francis of 
,sales at #aa4 ,in his ,life of ,jesus1 
,keim also remarks  that although some  
of the disciples may have been married1 
most of them  were probably about twenty
 years of age4#ade    ,professor        
,starbuck1 placing on one side both     
historical and  anthropological aspects1
 set himself the task of examining cases
 of the  present day4 ,a paper was sent 
out asking various questions as to age1 
state of health1 frame of mind1 before1 
during1 and following  conversion4 ,the 
questions were sent to male and female  
members of  different religious         
denominations4 ,in reply1 #abfe papers  
were filled up  and returned4 ,one      
result of a scrutiny of these returns   
was to show that  the age at which      
religious conversion was experienced    
began as early as  #g or #h years1 it   
increased gradually till #aj or #aa1    

then a more rapid  increase till #ah or 
#bj1 a decline increasing in rapidity to
 the age of  #be1 and its practical     
disappearance beyond the age of #cj4 ,in
 girls1 the  period of conversion       
antedates that of boys by about two     
years4#adf  ,starbuck's conclusion is   
the perfectly valid one that conversion 
belongs almost exclusively to the years 
between #aj and #be1 and is  distinctly 
a phenomenon of adolescence4    ,this   
conclusion would be borne out by a study
 of almost any revival  crusade4 ,thus a
 few years ago--#aijd--;,england        
received a visit from the  ,american    
evangelist1 ,dr4 ,torrey4 ,at the       
conclusion of his visit1 ,sir           
,robertson ,nicol invited opinions from 
ministers in the towns visited by       
,torrey1 and published the replies in   
his paper1 ,the ,british ,weekly1 on    
,october #bg4 ,there was no attempt     
whatever to elicit the ages of the      
reported converts2 the enquiry was      
directed to the point of ascertaining   

whether these engineered missions had a 
beneficial effect on church  life1 or   
the reverse4 ,but incidentally the ages 
of the converts were  given in some     
cases1 and one may safely assume that in
 the reports where  no age was mentioned
 the facts1 if disclosed1 would not run 
counter to  the generalisation above    
given4 ,the ,rev4 ,t4 ,towers1          
,birmingham1 noted  that #af out of #be 
reported converts were children4 ,rev4  
,a4 ,le ,gros1  ,rugby1 reported3 ,a    
number of our youngest members1         
especially amongst  the young girls1    
were amongst those who professed        
conversion4 ,rev4 ,h4  ,singleton1      
,smethwick1 says3 ,the bulk of the names
 sent to me were those  of children     
under thirteen years of age4 ,rev4 ,w4  
,g4 ,percival1 ,lozells  ,congregational
 ,church1 says of the 'inquiry' meeting 
held after the  preaching3 ,the dear    
little things followed one another for  
inquiry  until the place was a scene of 
utter confusion4 ,reports of a similar  

nature came from other places4 ,the ages
 were pointed out quite  incidentally2  
conversions of youths of #ag or #ah     
would not excite comment  with these4   
,were the ages of all given1 we should1 
without doubt1 find  them fall into line
 with ,starbuck's and ,hall's figures4  
,professor ,james quite accepts this    
view of conversion4 ,the conclusion1  he
 says1 would seem to be the only sound  
one3 conversion is in its  essence a    
normal adolescent phenomenon1 incidental
 to the passage from  the child's small 
universe to the wider intellectual and  
spiritual life  of maturity4#adg        
,conversion1 in the sense of a change   
from the  child's small universe to the 
large world of human society1 may be a  
normal fact in life1 but the really     
essential fact in the enquiry is not    
the fact of growth1 but growth in a     
specific direction4 ,why should this    
normal change from childhood to maturity
 be the period during which  religious  
conversion is experienced8 ,this        

question is not only ignored  by        
,professor ,james1 it is made more      
confused by his method of stating  it4  
,of course1 if all people experienced   
this religious conviction1 as  all      
people undergo other changes at         
adolescence1 the question would be      
simplified4 ,but this is obviously not  
the case4 ,a large number of people     
never experience it so long as they are 
only brought into contact with  ordinary
 social forces4 ,special circumstances  
seem usually to be  required to rouse   
this sense of religious conviction4     
,nearly every story  of conversion turns
 upon something unusual1 unexpected1 or 
dramatic  occurring as the exciting     
cause4 ,the question is1 therefore1 why 
should  the line of growth1 general with
 all at adolescence1 be1 in the case of 
some1 diverted into religious channels8 
,a study of the subject from this  point
 of view will1 ,i think1 show that      
conversion is only normal in the  sense 
that in an environment where religious  

influences are powerful  each person is 
normally exposed to it4 ,those on whom  
the religious  influence fails to       
operate experience the change from      
childhood to  adolescence1 on to        
complete maturity1 without their nature 
evincing any  lack of completeness4     
,this is the vital truth of which       
,professor ,james  loses sight1 and it  
is ignored by the vast majority of      
writers who treat  of the subject4      
,leaving1 for a while1 the statistical  
view of conversion1 we may turn to  its 
other aspects4 ,by the more advanced of 
religious teachers to-day the           
developments attendant on adolescence   
are taken as supplying no more  than a  
favourable occasion for directing mind  
and emotion to definite  religious      
conviction4 ,here the connection is     
admittedly more or less  accidental4    
,but by the great majority of           
theologians there is assumed a  direct  
supernatural influence in the states of 
mind developed during  adolescence4 ,in 

more primitive times the connection is  
of a yet closer  character4 ,puberty    
does not at this stage represent what a 
modern would  call an awakening of the  
religious consciousness1 but a direct   
impingement of supernatural influence4  
,from one point of view this  conception
 still remains part of all religious    
systems1 however overlaid  it may be    
with modern ideas concerning sexual     
maturity4 ,and we have1 as  a mere      
matter of historic fact1 a whole series 
of customs commencing  with the         
initiatory customs of savages and       
running right on to the  modern practice
 of confirmation4    ,in a previous     
chapter it was pointed out what is the  
savage state of  mind in relation to the
 beginnings of sex life as it is        
manifested in  both boys and girls4     
,adolescence does not1 to the primitive 
mind1 serve  as an occasion for the     
creation of an interest in the religious
 life1 it  is the sign of direct        
supernatural influence4 ,one consequence

 of this is  the rise of more or less   
elaborate ceremonials marking the       
initiation of  youth into direct        
communion with the spiritual forces that
 govern tribal  life4#adh ,among the    
,polynesians tattooing forms part of the
 religious  ceremony1 and during the    
time the marks are healing the boy is   
taboo to  the rest of the tribe1 owing  
to his having been touched by the gods4 
,with the ,north ,american ,indians the 
following ceremony seems                
characteristic3--    ,when a boy has    
attained the age of fourteen or fifteen 
years he absents  himself from his      
father's lodge1 lying on the ground in  
some remote or  secluded spot1 crying to
 the ,great ,spirit1 and fasting the    
whole time4  ,during this period of     
peril and abstinence1 when he falls     
asleep1 the  first animal1 bird1 or     
reptile1 of which he dreams1 he         
considers the  ,great ,spirit has       
designated for his mysterious protector 
through  life4#adi ,similar ceremonies  

are described by ,livingstone as        
existing  among the ,south ,african     
tribes4 ,these customs are too          
widespread1 and  bear too great a       
similarity to be described with         
reference to many  races4 ,the          
variations are unimportant1 and such as 
they are they may be  studied in the    
pages of ,hall1 ,frazer1 and numerous   
other writers4 ,with  girls the measures
 adopted are of a more elaborate        
character than is the  case with boys1  
because1 for reasons already stated1 the
 occurrence of  puberty in girls gives  
the supernatural act a more startling   
and  significant character4 ,hence the  
strict seclusion of girls almost        
universally practised among uncivilised 
peoples4 ,the precautions taken         
indicate1 as ,hartland points out1 that 
they are at this period not  merely     
charged with a malign influence1 but are
 peculiarly susceptible  to the onset of
 powers other than human4 ,and with a   
modification of  language the same idea 

has persisted down to our time1 even    
amongst  those who would reject with    
indignation the statement that savage   
ideas  concerning the nature of puberty 
form the real basis of their own mental 
attitude4    ,this truth cannot be too  
strongly emphasised4 ,to ignore it is to
 miss  the whole significance of        
continuity in human institutions and    
ideas4  ,the ceremonies described do1 of
 course1 gather round the fact of sexual
  development1 but they are not         
concerned with the sexual life1 as such4
  ,it is sex as a supernatural          
manifestation that is the vital feature 
of  the situation4 ,the governing idea  
is that puberty marks the direct        
association of the individual with a    
spiritual world to the influence of     
which the functional changes are due4   
,as more accurate conceptions are       
formed1 the older and inaccurate one is 
not altogether discarded4 ,it has       
become incarnate in ceremonies1 it is   
part of the traditional psychic  life of

 the people1 and the change is one of   
transformation rather than  of          
eradication4 ,in later cultural stages  
the physiological nature of the  changes
 are seen1 but they are expressed in    
terms of religion4 ,such  expressions as
 the soul's awareness of ,god1 the      
dawning consciousness  of religion1     
etc41 take the place of the earlier and 
more direct  animistic interpretation4  
,but the essential misinterpretation is 
retained1 disguised from careless or    
uninformed people by the use of a       
modified terminology4 ,but in substance 
the use made of puberty by  organised   
religious forces remains the same       
throughout4 ,we have the same  absence  
of a rational explanation in both       
instances4 ,in the one because  the     
state of knowledge makes any other      
impossible2 in the other because        
tradition1 self-interest1 and prejudice 
prevent its use4 ,it is not only  in his
 physical structure that man carries    
reminiscences of a lower form  of life2 

such reminders are quite as plentiful in
 his mental life1 and  in social        
institutions4    ,even with many who    
perceive the mechanism of conversion its
 real  significance is often missed4    
,for the important thing is1 not that   
some  people express the changes        
incident to adolescence in terms of     
religion1  but that many do not1 and    
also that these find complete           
satisfaction  along lines of sthetic1   
intellectual1 or social interest4 ,yet  
one often  finds it assumed that the    
difference between the two classes is   
explained by assuming a certain lack of 
'spiritual' development in the          
non-religious class4 ,as stated1 this is
 often perilously near to  impertinence1
 and in any case is little better than  
the language of a  charlatan4 ,in the   
same way1 the use of amatory phraseology
 is often  treated as the intrusion of  
the sex element in a sphere in which it 
has  no proper place4 ,enough has       
already been said to furnish good       

grounds  for believing that there is    
much more than this in the phenomenon1  
and  that one is justified in treating  
it as symptomatic of the operation of   
forces of the nature of which the       
subject is quite unaware4 ,the only     
explanation of the facts already cited  
is that a misinterpretation of  sexual  
states lies at the heart of the         
question4 ,no other hypothesis  covers  
the facts2 no other hypothesis will     
explain why the larger number  of people
 should find complete development in    
activities that lie  outside the field  
of religion4    ,how easy it is to see  
the truth and distort it in the stating 
may be  seen in the following passage3--
    ,passing over the fact that the     
period of adolescence is noticeably a   
period of 'susceptibility1' we may take 
as an example of the intrusion  or the  
persistence of the sexual elements in   
conditions of a non-sexual  kind the    
frequent association of sexual with     
religious excitement4 ,the  appeal made 

during a religious revival to an        
unconverted person has  psychologically 
some resemblance to the attempt of the  
male to overcome  the hesitancy of the  
female4 ,in each case the will has to be
 set aside1  and strong suggestive means
 are used2 and in both cases the appeal 
is  not of the conflict type1 but of an 
intimate1 sympathetic1 and pleading     
kind4 ,in the effort to make a moral    
adjustment1 it consequently turns  out  
that a technique is used which was      
derived originally from sexual  life1   
and the use1 so to speak1 of the sexual 
machinery for a moral  adjustment       
involves1 in some cases1 the carrying   
over into the general  process of some  
sexual manifestations4#aej    ,the      
important questions1 why religion should
 so powerfully appeal to  people at     
adolescence1 why its strength should    
reside so largely in the  appeal to     
feelings associated with sexual         
development1 and why  conversion should 
be so rarely experienced when the period

 of sexual  crisis is past1 are quite   
ignored by ,mr4 ,thomas4 ,yet it is     
precisely  these questions that call    
most loudly for answers1 and which1 ,i  
believe1  contain the key of the        
situation4    ,from many points of view 
adolescence is perhaps the most         
important epoch  in the life of every   
individual4 ,it is a time of great and  
significant  organic growth1 with the   
development of new organs and functions1
 and a  corresponding transformation of 
both the emotional and intellectual     
output4 ,so far as the brain1 the most  
important organ of all1 is  concerned1  
one may safely say that before puberty  
its main function has  been acquisition4
 ,after puberty vast tracts of brain    
tissue become  active1 and an era of    
rapid development sets in4 ,there is a  
rapid growth  of new nerve connections  
which occasions both physiological and  
psychological unrest4#aea ,an important 
point to bear in mind1 also1 is  that   
all periods of rapid development involve

 conditions of relative                 
instability--one is1 in fact1 only the  
obverse side of the other4 ,dr4         
,mercier says that with girls more or   
less decided manifestations of  hysteria
 are the rule1 and with both sexes this 
instability involves a  peculiar        
susceptibility to suggestions and       
impressions4 ,accompanying the  purely  
physical changes the mental and         
emotional nature undergoes what  is     
little less than a transformation4      
,there is less direct concern with      
self1 and a more conscious concern with 
others4 ,there is a craving for         
sympathy1 for fellowship1 a tendency to 
look at oneself from the  outside1 so to
 speak1 a susceptibility to sights and  
sounds and  impressions that formerly   
had little influence4 ,each one is      
conscious of  new desires1 new          
attractions1 expressed often only in a  
vague feeling of  unrest1 with a desire1
 half shy because half conscious1 for   
the company  of the opposite sex4 ,the  

childish desire for protection weakens2 
the  more mature desire to protect      
others begins to express itself4        
,now1 the whole significance of these   
changes1 physical and mental1 is        
fundamentally sexual and social4 ,human 
life1 it may be said1 has a  twofold    
aspect4 ,as a mere animal organism1     
there is the perpetuation of  the       
species1 which nature secures by the    
mere force of the sex impulse4  ,as a   
human being1 he is part of a social     
structure1 cell in the social  tissue1  
to use ,leslie ,stephen's expressive    
phrase4 ,and in this direction  nature  
secures what is necessary by the        
presence of impulses and  cravings as   
imperious as1 and even more permanent   
than1 those of mere  sex4 ,of course1 in
 practice these two things operate      
together4 ,by a  process of selection1  
the anti-social character is weeded out1
 and the  two sets of feelings work     
together in harmony for the furtherance 
and  the development of the life of the 

species4 ,the species is perpetuated  in
 the interests of society2 society is   
perpetuated in the interests of  the    
species4 ,further1 it is part of the    
natural 'plan' that there shall  be     
developed impulses and capacities       
suitable to each phase of life as  it   
emerges4 ,thus it has been shown that   
the lengthening of infancy--that  is1   
the prolongation of the time during     
which the young human being is          
dependent upon its parents for support  
and protection--is nature's  method of  
developing to a greater degree the      
capacity of the human  animal for more  
complex adjustment4 ,instead of being   
launched on the  world with a number of 
instincts practically fully developed1  
and so  capable of attending to its own 
needs almost as soon as born1 man is    
born with few instincts1 and a great    
capacity for education enabling him  to 
adjust his conduct to the demands of an 
environment constantly  increasing in   
complexity4 ,in the same way it has been

 shown that the  instinct for play1     
practically universal throughout the    
whole of the  animal world1 is nature's 
method of preparing the young for the   
more  serious business of nature4#aeb   
,it is1 therefore1 only in line with    
what is found to be true elsewhere that 
the changes incident to puberty  should 
receive their rational interpretation in
 the necessities of  social life4 ,that 
these necessities should be met largely 
by the play of  unreasoning impulse is1 
again1 quite in line with what occurs in
 other  directions4 ,the insistent      
pressure of social life for thousands of
  generations secures the emergence of  
needs of the true nature of which  the  
individual may be ignorant4 ,in no other
 way1 in fact1 could the  persistence of
 the species and of human society be    
secured4    ,the whole significance1    
then1 of puberty and adolescence is the 
entry of  the individual into the larger
 life of the race4 ,it is1 too1 a       
statement  beyond reasonable dispute    

that if we eliminate religion altogether
 from  the environment there is not a   
single feeling experienced at           
adolescence1 not a single intellectual  
craving1 that would not undergo  full   
development and receive complete        
satisfaction4 ,the proof of the  truth  
of this is that it occurs in a large    
number of cases4 ,sacrifice1  the       
craving for the ideal1 with every other 
feeling associated by many  with        
religion1 exist in connection with      
non-religious phases of life4 ,it  is   
idle to argue that some people have a   
craving for religion1 and  nothing but  
religion will satisfy them4 ,where an   
individual is in  complete ignorance of 
the nature and significance of his own  
development1 and those around him no    
better informed2 where1 moreover1  there
 are others in a position of authority  
ready with a special  interpretation1 it
 is not surprising if the religious     
explanation is  accepted as the genuine 
and only one4 ,but in reality a sound   

judgment is  formed1 not on the basis of
 what some declare they cannot do       
without1  but on the basis of what      
others actually do without1 and suffer  
no  observable loss in consequence4 ,we 
do not estimate the value of alcohol  on
 the basis of those who declare they    
cannot do without it4 ,the true  test is
 found in those who abstain from its    
use4 ,so1 also1 in the case  of         
religion4 ,that some1 even the majority1
 declare that religious belief  is      
essential to their welfare1 proves      
little or nothing4 ,human nature  being 
what it is1 and the history of society  
being what it is1 it would  be          
surprising were it otherwise4 ,there is 
much greater significance in  so large a
 number of people finding complete      
satisfaction in purely  secular         
activities4    ,after what has been said
 of the misinterpretation of mental and 
emotional states in terms of religious  
belief1 it is not surprising to  find a 
writer1 a clergyman1 and one with       

experience of growing boys1  express    
himself as follows3--    ,my experience 
confirms the opinion of the             
psychologists that most boys  of the    
public school age have a strongly       
mystical tendency4 ,this is to  be      
expected1 on account of the great       
emotional development of that  period of
 life4 ,but it is obscured by the fact  
that the boy is both  unwilling and     
unable to give any verbal expression to 
this tendency4 ,he  is unwilling because
 it is something very new and curious in
 his  experience2 he is often a little  
frightened of it1 and he is exceedingly 
frightened of other people's contempt   
for it4 ,and he is unable1 because  the 
words he is accustomed to use are       
valueless in this connection1 and  he   
feels priggish if he tries to use       
others4444 ,but1 though unexplained1    
the mystical tendency is there1 and     
should be appealed to and               
developed4#aec    ,now1 clearly1 all    
that can be reasonably meant by saying  

that a boy of1  apparently1 from #ab to 
#af has a mystical tendency1 is that the
  physiological changes incident to     
puberty are accompanied by a mass of    
feeling of a vague and formless         
character4 ,naturally1 his boyish       
experience is unable to furnish him with
 the means of giving adequate           
expression to his feelings4 ,that can   
only come with the experience of        
maturity4 ,and with equal inevitability 
he is at the mercy of the  explanation  
furnished him by those whom he regards  
as his teachers and  guides4 ,when he is
 told that this element of 'mysticism'  
is the  awakening of religion in his    
soul1 he accepts the explanation        
precisely  as he accepts explanations of
 other things4 ,that this 'mystical     
tendency' should be appealed to and     
developed is a statement open to  very  
great doubt4 ,it should rather be       
explained1 not perhaps in a  brutally   
frank manner1 but in a way that would   
lead the boy to see  himself as an      

organic part of society1 with definite  
duties and  obligations4 ,if this were  
done1 adolescence might provide us with 
the  raw material for a much greater    
number of useful and intelligent        
citizens than it does at present4 ,the  
true nature of the process1 so          
elaborately misunderstood by ,dr4       
,temple1 is clearly outlined by ,dr4    
,mercier3--    ,in connection with      
normal development1 a large body of     
vague and  formless feeling arises1 and1
 until experience gives it shape1 the   
possessor remains ignorant of the source
 and nature of the feeling4 ,if  the    
circumstances are appropriate for the   
natural outlet and expression  of the   
activities1 they are expressed in       
affection1 and are a source of  health  
and strength to the possessor4 ,but if  
no such outlet exists1 the  vague1      
voluminous1 formless feelings are       
referred to an occasion that is  vague1 
voluminous1 and wanting in definite     
form1 they are ascribed to  the direct  

influence of the ,deity1 and assume a   
place in religious  emotion4#aed        
,leaving this aspect of the subject for 
a time1 let us look more closely  at the
 process of conversion4 ,it has already 
been pointed out that one  great feature
 of adolescence is susceptibility to    
impressions and  suggestions4 ,one is   
not surprised to find1 therefore1 that  
in  ,starbuck's collection of cases #cd 
per cent4 of the females and #bi per    
cent4 of the males described their      
conversion as being directly due to     
imitation1 social pressure1 and example4
 ,if we were to add to these the  cases 
where unconscious imitation and         
suggestion is at work1 the  proportion  
would be much greater4 ,religion1 like  
dress1 has its modes1  and imitation    
will occur in the one direction as      
readily as in the  other4 ,nothing is   
more striking in the records of         
conversion than the  monotony of the    
language used to describe the feelings  
experienced4 ,it  is exactly as though  

the converts had been learning a regular
 catechism1  as in a way they have been4
 ,young boys and girls will confess     
their  sinful state in language         
identical with that used by one who has 
actually lived a career of vice and     
crime4 ,others of an aggressively       
commonplace character will use the      
language of exalted mysticism  suitable 
to an ,augustine or a ,jacob ,boehme4   
,in these cases we have not  identity of
 feeling finding expression in identity 
of language2 it is  pure imitation and  
suggestion without the least regard to  
the fitness of  the language employed4  
,the full power of suggestion would be  
more fitly considered in  connection    
with waves of religious feeling that    
have assumed an epidemic  form2 but it  
will not be out of place here to call   
attention to this  factor in such a     
recent case as the outbreaks in ,wales  
under the  leadership of persons such as
 ,evan ,roberts4 ,quite apart from the  
suggestion and imitation operating in   

the gatherings themselves1 it is  plain 
that many went to the meetings quite    
prepared to act in accordance  with what
 had gone before4 ,newspapers had       
published elaborate reports  of the     
'scenes1' certain manifestations were   
recognised as signs of the  workings of 
the ,spirit1 with the result that all   
these operated as  powerful suggestions1
 particularly with those of a hysterical
  disposition4 ,and behind this         
particular revival there were the       
traditions of other revivals1 all of    
which had created a heritage as         
coercive as any purely social tradition4
 ,a crowd of people in a state of  eager
 expectancy1 exposed to the assaults of 
a preacher skilled in  rousing their    
emotion to fever pitch1 is naturally    
ready to see and hear  things that none 
would see and hear in their normal      
moments4 ,no better  field for the study
 of crowd psychology1 particularly at   
the point at  which it merges into the  
abnormal1 could be imagined than the    

ordinary  revival4    ,in ,america these
 revival out breaks seem to assume a    
much more  extravagant form than with   
us4 ,mr4 ,stanley ,hall1 for example1   
thus  describes a ,kentucky camp meeting
 in which the prevailing term of        
spiritual manifestation was that of     
'jerking4' ,quoting from an             
eye-witness1 he says3--    ,the crowd   
swarmed all night round the preacher1   
singing1 shouting1  laughing1 some      
plunging wildly over stumps and benches 
into the forest1  shouting ',lost1      
lost6' others leaping and bounding about
 like live fish  out of water2 others   
rolling over and over on the ground for 
hours2  others lying on the ground and  
talking when they could not move2 and   
yet  others beating the ground with     
their heels4 ,as the excitement         
increased1  it grew more morbid and took
 the form of 'jerkings1' or in others   
the  holy laugh4 ,the jerks began with  
the head1 which was thrown violently    
from side to side so rapidly that the   

features were blurred and the  hair     
almost seemed to snap1 and when the     
sufferer struck an obstacle and  fell he
 would bounce about like a ball4        
,saplings were sometimes cut  breast    
high for the people to jerk by4 ,in one 
place the earth about the  roots of one 
of them was kicked about as though by   
the feet of a horse  stamping flies4    
,one sufferer mounted his horse to ride 
away when the  jerks threw him to the   
earth1 whence he rose a ,christian4 ,a  
lad1 who  feigned illness to stay away1 
was dragged there by the spirit and his 
head dashed against the wall till he had
 to pray4 ,a sceptic who cursed  and    
swore was crushed by a falling tree4    
,men fancied themselves dogs1  and      
gathered round a tree barking and       
'treeing the devil4' ,they saw  visions 
and dreamed dreams1 and as the revival  
waned1 it left a crop of  nervous and   
hysterical disorders in its wake4#aee   
,we have nothing quite so extreme as    
this in ,british revivals1 but the  home

 phenomena are not substantially        
different in nature4 ,a medical         
observer of some of the earliest        
,methodist revivals thus describes the  
symptoms of those who were subject to   
'divine' seizures under the  influence  
of ,wesley and his immediate            
followers3--    ,there came on first a  
feeling of faintness1 with rigor and a  
sense of  weight at the pit of the      
stomach2 soon after which the patient   
cried out  as though in the agonies of  
labour4 ,the convulsions then began1    
first  showing themselves in the muscles
 of the eyelids1 though the eyes        
themselves were fixed and staring4 ,the 
most frightful contortions of the       
countenance followed1 and the           
convulsions now took their course       
downwards1 so that the muscles of the   
trunk and neck were affected1  causing a
 sobbing respiration1 which was         
performed with great effort4  ,tremors  
and agitations ensued1 and the patients 
screamed out violently1  and tossed     

their heads from side to side4 ,as the  
complaint increased1 it  seized the     
arms1 and its victims beat their        
breasts1 clasped their  hands1 and made 
all sorts of strange noises4    ,to the 
non-medical religious observer the      
scenes produced a different  impression1
 thus3--    ,when the power of religion 
began to be spoken of1 the presence of  
,god  really filled the place4444 ,the  
greatest number of them who cried or    
fell were men2 but some women and       
several children felt the power of the  
same ,almighty ,spirit1 and seemed just 
sinking into hell4 ,this occasioned  a  
mixture of sounds1 some shrieking1 some 
roaring aloud4 ,the most  general was a 
loud breathing1 like that of people half
 strangled and  gasping for life2 and1  
indeed1 almost all the cries were like  
those of  human creatures dying in      
bitter anguish4444 ,i stood on a pew    
seat1 as  did a young man in the        
opposite pew1 an able-bodied1 fresh1    
healthy  countryman2 but in a moment1   

while he seemed to think of nothing     
less1  down he dropt with a violence    
inconceivable4 ,the adjoining pews      
seemed  shook with his fall4 ,i heard   
afterwards the stamping of his feet     
ready  to break the boards as he lay in 
strong convulsions at the bottom of the 
pew4444 ,among the children who felt the
 arrows of the ,almighty1 ,i saw a      
sturdy boy1 about eight years old1 who  
roared above his fellows1 and  seemed1  
in his agony1 to struggle with the      
strength of a grown man4 ,his  face was 
red as scarlet2 and almost all on whom  
,god laid ,his hand turned  either very 
red or almost black4#aef    ,in other   
instances connected with the same       
movement1 a girl is described  as lying 
on the floor as one dead4 ,one woman    
tore up the ground with  her hands1     
filling them with dust and with the     
hard-trodden grass2  another roared and 
screamed in dreadful agony4 ,a child1   
seven years  old1 saw visions1 and      
astonished the neighbours with her awful

 manner  of relating them4 ,john ,wesley
 personally interviewed a number of the 
people seized in this manner1 and was   
quite convinced of the  supernatural    
nature of the attacks4 ,he said that he 
had generally  observed more or less of 
these outward symptoms to attend the    
beginning  of a general work of ,god1   
although he admitted that in some cases 
,satan mimicked ,god's work in order to 
discredit the whole work4 ,but  whether 
of ,god or ,satan there was no question 
of their supernatural  character4       
,moreover1 whatever may be one's opinion
 of these outbreaks1  there is one fact 
that stands out clear and indisputable4 
,this is that  the ,methodist revival   
owed a great deal of its vitality--as is
 also the  case with other religious    
movements--to phenomena of a distinctly 
pathologic nature4 ,subtract from these 
movements all phenomena of the  class   
indicated1 and such phrases as 'the     
revival fire' become  meaningless4      
,right through history religious        

conviction has been gained  in          
innumerable cases by the operation of   
factors that a more accurate  knowledge 
finds can be explained without any      
reference whatever to  supernatural     
forces4    ,lest the above examples be  
dismissed as belonging to an old order  
of  things1 ,i subjoin the following    
account--from a missionary--of a recent 
revival scene in ,india3--    ,there    
were people 444 on the floor fairly     
writhing over the realisation  of sin as
 it came over them4444 ,saturday we were
 favoured with a  wonderful             
manifestation of the ,spirit4 ,one of   
the older girls who had  had a          
remarkable experience1 went into a      
trance1 with her head thrown  back1 her 
arms folded1 and motionless1 except for 
a slight movement of  her foot4 ,she    
seemed to be seeing something wonderful1
 for she would  marvel at it1 and then  
laugh excitedly4444 ,one girl rushed to 
the back  of the vestibule and1 lying   
across a bench1 with her head and hands 

against the wall1 she fairly writhed in 
agony for two hours before peace  came  
to her4#aeg    ,i do not know on what   
grounds we are justified in calling     
civilised  people who chronicle these   
outbreaks as a wonderful manifestation  
of  the ,spirit4 ,civilised in other    
respects1 in relation to other matters1 
they may be4 ,civilised in relation to  
this particular matter they  certainly  
are not4 ,their viewpoint is precisely  
that of the lowest tribe  of savages4   
,savages1 indeed1 could not do more2 our
 'civilised'  missionaries do no less4  
,tylor well says that such descriptions 
carry  us far back in the history of the
 human mind1 showing modern men still   
in ignorant sincerity producing the very
 fits and swoons to which for  untold   
ages savage tribes have given religious 
import4 ,these  manifestations in modern
 ,europe indeed form part of a revival  
of  religion1 the religion of mental    
disease4#aeh    ,the truth is that the  
appeals usually made to induce          

conversion1 and the  methods adopted1   
tend to develop a morbid state of mind1 
which very  easily passes into the      
pathological4 ,a too insistent habit of 
introspection is always dangerous1 and  
the danger is heightened when it  takes 
the form of religious brooding4 ,in ,dr4
 ,starbuck's collection of  cases1      
seventy-five per cent4 of the males and 
sixty per cent4 of the  females         
confessed to feelings of depression1    
anxiety1 and sadness before  conversion4
 ,this may be attributed partly to the  
harping upon a  conviction of           
sinfulness1 which in itself is wholly of
 an unhealthy  character4 ,it does not  
indicate moral health1 and it is very   
far from  indicating physiological      
health4 ,the following confessions are  
pertinent1 and will illustrate both     
points4 ,i give in brackets the ages  of
 the subjects where stated3--    ,i felt
 the wrath of ,god resting on me4 ,i    
called on ,him for aid1 and  felt my    
sins forgiven 7#ac74    ,i couldn't eat1

 and would lie awake all night4         
,often1 very often1 ,i cried myself to  
sleep 7#ai74    ,hymns would sound in my
 ears as if sung 7#aj74    ,i had       
visions of ,christ saying to me1 ,come  
to ,me1 ,my child 7#ae74    ,just before
 conversion ,i was walking along a      
pathway1 thinking of  religious matters1
 when suddenly the word ,h-e-l-l was    
spelled out five  yards ahead of me     
7#ag74    ,i felt a touch of the ,divine
 ,one1 and a voice said ',thy sins are  
forgiven thee2 arise and go in peace'   
7#ab74    ,the thoughts of my condition 
were terrible 7#ac74    ,for three      
months it seemed as if ,god's ,spirit   
had withdrawn from me4  ,fear took hold 
of me4 ,for a week ,i was on the border 
of despair 7#af74    ,a sense of        
sinfulness and estrangement from ,god   
grew daily 7#ae74    ,everything went   
wrong with me2 it felt like ,sunday all 
the time 7#ab74    ,i felt that         
something terrible was going to happen  
7#ad74    ,i fell on my face by a bench 

and tried to pray4 ,every time ,i would 
call  on ,god something like a man's    
hand would strangle me by choking4 ,i   
thought ,i would surely die if ,i could 
not get help4 ,i made one final  effort 
to call on ,god for mercy if ,i did     
strangle and die1 and the last  ,i      
remember at that time was falling back  
on the ground with that unseen  hand on 
my throat4 ,when ,i came to myself there
 was a crowd around  praising ,god4     
,a crowd around praising ,god6 ,for all 
substantial purposes this last  might be
 the description of a state of affairs  
in ,central ,africa instead  of an      
occurrence in a country that claims to  
be civilised4 ,it is not  surprising    
that so great an authority as ,sir ,t4  
,s4 ,clouston gives an  emphatic warning
 against revival services and unusual   
religious  meetings1 which should on no 
account be attended by persons with weak
  heads1 excitable dispositions1 and    
neurotic constitutions4#aei             
,unfortunately it is precisely these    

classes for whom they possess the       
greatest attractions1 and from whom the 
larger number of chronicled  cases are  
drawn4 ,the excitement of the revival   
meeting is as fatal an  attraction to   
them as the dram is to the confirmed    
alcoholist2 and if  the ill-consequences
 are neither so immediately discernible 
nor as  repulsive in character1 they are
 none the less present in a large number
  of cases4 ,the emotional strain to    
which the organism is subjected  occurs1
 as the ages of the converts show1      
precisely at the time when it  is least 
able to bear it safely4 ,the main       
characteristic of adolescence  is       
instability1 physical1 emotional1 and   
intellectual4 ,it is a time of  stress  
and strain1 of the formation of new     
feelings and associations and  desires  
that crave for expression and           
gratification4 ,the instability of  the 
organic conditions is evidenced by the  
large proportion of nervous  disorders  
that occur during adolescence4          

,adolescent insanity is a  well-known   
form of mania1 although it is usually of
 brief duration4 ,sir  ,t4 ,s4          
,clouston1 in his ,neuroses of          
,development1 gives a long list of      
complaints attendant on adolescence1 and
 ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,gowers1 dealing with     
#adej cases of epilepsy1 points out that
 three-quarters of the cases of         
epilepsy begin under twenty years1 and  
nearly half 7#df per cent47  between ten
 and twenty1 the maximum being at       
fourteen1 fifteen1 and  sixteen4 ,of    
hysteria1 the same writer points out    
that of the total  cases #ej per cent4  
occurs from ten to twenty years of age1 
#bj per cent4  from twenty to thirty1   
and only #aj per cent4 from thirty to   
forty4#afj    ,the peculiar danger1     
then1 of the modern appeal for          
conversion is that  it is couched in a  
form likely to do the minimum of good   
and the maximum  of harm4 ,where        
religion exists as a normally operative 
factor of the  environment--as in lower 

stages of culture--the danger is        
avoided1  because no special machinery  
is required to bring about religious    
conviction4 ,the general social life    
secures this4 ,but at a later stage1    
when the religious and secular aspects  
of life become separated1 with a        
growing preponderance of the latter1    
religion must be1 as it were1  specially
 and forcibly introduced4 ,whether for  
good or ill1 it is a  disturbing force4 
,it strives to divert the developing    
organic energies  into a new channel4   
,to effect this1 it plays upon the      
emotions to an  altogether dangerous    
extent1 in complete ignorance of the    
nature of the  passions excited4 ,in the
 older form of the religious appeal1    
that in  which fear was the chief       
emotion aroused1 it is now generally    
conceded  that the consequences were    
wholly bad4 ,but under any form the     
emotional  appeal is fraught with       
danger1 since the tendency is for it to 
bring out  unsuspected weaknesses in    

other directions4 ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,gowers  
wisely  points out that mental          
emotion--fright1 excitement1 anxiety--is
 the  most potent cause of epilepsy1    
which is accounted for by bearing in    
mind the profoundly disturbing effect of
 alarm on the nervous system1  deranging
 as it does almost every function of the
 nervous system4  ,persons with         
predispositions to nervous disorders may
 pass with safety  through the period of
 adolescence so long as their           
circumstances provide  opportunities for
 healthy occupation with no undue       
emotional strain4 ,but  let the former  
be lacking1 and the latter danger is    
always present4 ,the  hidden weakness   
develops1 and injury more or less       
permanent follows4  ,there is hardly a  
qualified medical authority in the      
country who would  deny the truth of    
what has been said1 although many do not
 care to speak  out in relation to      
religious matters4 ,but all would       
doubtless agree with  ,dr4 ,mercier that

 every revival is attended by its crop  
of cases of  insanity1 which are the    
more numerous as the revival is more    
fervent and  long continued4#afa        
,something must be said on the moral    
character of conversions in  general4   
,this is1 naturally1 greatly            
exaggerated1 often deliberately so4  ,in
 the first place1 confessions of        
'sinfulness' in a pre-conversion  state1
 when made by youths of both sexes1 may 
be dismissed as quite  worthless4 ,they 
are merely using the language placed in 
their mouths by  professional           
evangelists1 and the similarity of the  
confessions carry  their own            
condemnation4 ,leading a sinful1 or even
 a vicious life1  usually means no more 
than visiting a theatre1 or a music     
hall1 or  playing cards1 or             
non-attendance at church1 or not        
troubling about  religious doctrines4   
,very often the vague feeling of        
restlessness  incident to adolescence is
 interpreted as due to sin or           

estrangement  from ,god1 and after      
conversion the convert is1 for purposes 
of  self-glorification1 given to magnify
 the benefits and comforts derived  from
 his religious convictions4 ,the        
magnitude of the change increases  the  
value of the convert1 and with          
well-known characters there has been  as
 great an exaggeration of vices before  
conversion as of virtues  subsequently4 
,the way in which evangelical           
,christianity has created a  life of the
 wildest dissipation for the earlier    
years of ,john ,bunyan is  an           
instructive instance of this procedure4 
,so far as older converts are concerned1
 everyone of balanced judgment  will    
regard stories of conversion from       
extreme vice to extreme virtue  with the
 greatest suspicion4 ,character does not
 change suddenly1  although there may be
 cases of 'sports' in the moral world as
 elsewhere4  ,where some modification of
 conduct1 but hardly of character1      
results1  the machinery is very obvious1

 and does not in the least necessitate  
an  appeal to the intrusion of a        
supernatural influence for an           
explanation4  ,the religious gathering  
opens--as any non-religious meeting may 
open--a  new circle of associates with  
different ideals and standards of value4
  ,so long as the newcomer is desirous  
of retaining the respect of his  fresh  
associates1 so long he will try to act  
as they act and think as  they think4   
,there will be a change of conduct1 but 
not1 as ,i have said1  of character4    
,those who look closely will find the   
same character still  active4 ,the mean 
character remains mean1 the untruthful  
one remains  untruthful4 ,the only      
difference is that these qualities will 
be  expressed in a different form4      
,moreover1 the same thing may be seen   
occurring quite apart from religion4    
,every association of men and women     
exerts precisely the same influence4 ,in
 the army1 a regiment that has a        
reputation for steadiness and sobriety  

develops these qualities in all  who    
enter it4 ,regiments with a reputation  
for opposite qualities do not  fail to  
convert newcomers4 ,a workshop1 a club1 
a profession1 exerts a  precisely       
similar influence4 ,one man finds       
inspiration in the ,bible and  another  
in the ,newgate ,calendar4 ,a man will  
usually be guided by the  ideals of his 
associates1 whether these ideals be     
those of a thieves'  kitchen or of a    
philanthropic institution4 ,this only   
means that each  individual is subject  
to the influence of the group spirit4   
,for good and  evil this is one of the  
deepest and most pregnant facts of human
 nature4  ,the utilisation and          
distortion of this fact in the interests
 of  religious organisations has served 
to prevent its general recognition  and 
the wise use of it by the community at  
large4    ,finally1 it has to be borne  
in mind1 in view of the data given      
above1  that conversion is experienced  
by the individual at that period of life

  when the more social side of human    
nature is beginning to find  expression4
 ,in this way the natural growth from   
the small world of  childhood to the    
larger world of adult humanity is taken 
advantage of by  religion1 and the      
process of inevitable growth is         
attributed to the  influence of         
religious belief4 ,in itself the        
phenomenon is in no degree  religious1  
but wholly social4 ,the process is well 
enough described by  ,starbuck in the   
following passage--although there are   
certain quite  unnecessary theological  
implications3--    ,conversion is the   
surrender of the personal will to be    
guided by the  larger forces of which it
 is a part4 ,these two aspects are often
  mingled4 ,in both there is much in    
common4 ,there is a sudden revelation   
and recognition of a higher order than  
that of the personal will4 ,the         
sympathies follow the direction of the  
new insight1 and the convert  transfers 
the centre of life and activity from the

 part to the whole4  ,with new insight  
comes new beauty4 ,beauty and worth     
awaken love--love  for parents1 kindred1
 kind1 society1 cosmic order1 truth1 and
 spiritual  life4 ,the individual learns
 to transfer himself from a centre of   
self-activity into an organ of          
revelation of universal being1 and to   
live a life of affection for and oneness
 with the larger life outside4  ,as a   
necessary condition of the spiritual    
awakening is the birth of  fresh        
activity and of a larger                
self-consciousness1 which often assert  
themselves as the dominant element in   
consciousness4#afb    ,adolescence is   
the golden period of life1 because it is
 the age in which  the formative        
influences effect their strongest and   
most permanent  impressions4 ,but this  
susceptibility1 while pregnant with     
promise1 is  because of this            
susceptibility likewise fraught with the
 possibilities  of danger4 ,the         
developing qualities of mind need to be 

wisely and  carefully guided2 and it is 
little short of criminal that at this   
critical juncture so many young people  
should be handed over to the  ignorant  
ministrations of professional           
evangelism4 ,the true sociological      
significance of the development is      
ignored1 and it is small wonder that1   
having wasted this impressionable       
period1 so many people should go        
through life with a quite rudimentary   
sense of social responsibility and      
duty4 ,an ,american author1 speaking of 
the connection between certain  brutal  
manifestations in social life in the    
,united ,states and religious  teaching1
 says3--    ,it is well known that      
lynching in the ,south is carried on    
largely by  the ignorant and baser      
elements of the white population4 ,it is
 also well  known that the chief method 
of religious influence and training of  
the  black man and the ignorant white   
man is impulsive and emotional          
revivalism4 ,it is a highly dangerous   

situation1 and deserves the earnest     
consideration of the ecclesiastical     
statesmen of all denominations which    
work in the ,south4 ,it will be         
impossible to protect that part of the  
nation1 or any other1 from the epidemic 
madness of the lynching mob if  the     
seeds of it are sown in the sacred soil 
of religion4444 ,their  preachers are   
great 'soul-savers1' but they lack the  
practical sense to  build up their      
emotionalised converts into anything    
that approaches a  higher life4#afc     
,the truth of this passage has a very   
wide implication4 ,it is not alone  true
 that so long as the lower kind of      
revivalism is encouraged1 we are        
unconsciously perpetuating certain very 
ugly manifestations of social  life2 it 
is also true that while we give a       
supernaturalistic  interpretation of    
phenomena that are wholly physiological 
and  sociological in character1 we can  
never make the most of the human        
material we possess4 ,on the one side we

 have a deplorable encouragement  of    
unhealthy emotionalism1 and on the other
 a sheer misdirection and  misuse of    
human faculty4 ,the increase of         
self-consciousness1 the craving  for    
sympathy and communion with one's       
fellows1 the impulse to service in  the 
common life of the ,state1 have no      
genuine connection with religion1       
although all these qualities are        
classified as religious1 and are        
utilised by religious organisations4    
,actually and fundamentally they  belong
 to the social side of human nature4 ,as
 our hands are developed  for grasping1 
and the various organs of the body for  
their respective  functions1 so mental  
and emotional qualities are developed in
 their due  course for a rational social
 life4 ,biologically and                
psychologically1  male and female are at
 adolescence entering into a deeper and 
more  enduring relationship with the    
life of the race4 ,there is no other    
meaning to the process4    ,naturally   

enough1 the vast majority of people     
express their developing  nature in     
accordance with the fashion of their    
environment4 ,if this  environmental    
influence were rationally non-religious1
 the language  would be that of a       
non-religious philosophy4 ,as1 however1 
supernaturalism1 in some form or other1 
is still a potent force we have  a      
contrary result4 ,it is only here and   
there that one is found with the        
inclination or the wit to analyse his or
 her impulses1 and few possess  enough  
knowledge to make the analysis          
profitable4 ,there is no wonder  that   
concerning many of the most important   
phenomena of human life we  are still   
little above the level of the fetish    
worshipper4 ,we may have a  more        
elaborate phraseology1 but the old ideas
 are still operative4 ,the  consequence 
is that each newcomer finds certain     
ideas and forms of  speech ready for his
 acceptance1 and is handed over1 bound  
hand and  foot1 to influences that are  

the least capable of sane direction4 ,we
 do  not merely sacrifice our           
first-born2 we immolate the whole of our
  progeny4 ,the ignorant past plays into
 the hands of the designing  present2   
the present conspires with the past to  
rob the future of the  good that might  
result from the growth of a wiser and a 
better race4    ,were society really    
enlightened and genuinely civilised1 the
 truth of  what has been said would be  
recognised as soon as stated4 ,it would1
  indeed1 be unnecessary to labour what 
would then be a generally  recognised   
truth4 ,but the mass of the people are  
not genuinely  enlightened1 our         
civilisation is largely a veneer1 and   
numerous agencies  prevent our reaping  
the full benefit of our available       
knowledge4 ,thus it  happens that in    
place of an explanation of human        
qualities in terms of  biologic and     
social evolution1 we find current an    
explanation that is  based upon         
pre-scientific ideas4 ,because our less 

instructed ancestors  accounted for     
various manifestations of human         
qualities as due to a  supernatural     
influence1 we continue to perpetuate the
 delusion4 ,we teach  youth to express  
itself in terms of supernaturalism1 and 
then treat the  language and the fact as
 inseparable4 ,in this respect1         
sociology is  passing through a phase   
from which some of the sciences have    
finally  emerged4 ,in physics and       
astronomy1 for instance1 the fact has   
been  separated from the supernatural   
explanation1 and shown to be            
independent of it4 ,an exploitation of  
social life in the interests of         
supernaturalism is still in active      
operation4 ,it is this that is really   
the central truth of the situation4 ,and
 in ignoring this truth we expose  a    
growing generation to the worst possible
 of educative influences1 at a  time    
when a wiser control would be preparing 
it for an intelligent  participation in 
the serious and enduring work of social 

organisation4      ,,footnotes3    #adb 
,dr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,cutten1 ,the              
,psychological ,phenomena of            
,christianity1  pp4 #g-h4    #adc ,the  
most elaborate study of this character  
known to the present  writer is ,mr4 ,g4
 ,stanley ,hall's ,adolescence1 in two  
volumes4 ,the bulk  of the work is1     
however1 terrifying to some1 and the    
cost prohibitive to  many4 ,for the     
general reader of limited leisure and   
means1 ,professor  ,starbuck's smaller  
volume1 ,the ,psychology of ,religion1  
presents the  salient facts in a brief  
and satisfactory manner4 ,it is lacking1
  however1 on the anthropological side1 
a view that is well presented by  ,dr4  
,stanley ,hall4    #add ,see            
,adolescence1 i4 p4 #ebh4    #ade ,vol4 
iii4 p4 #bgi4    #adf ,psychology of    
,religion1 chap4 iii4 ,hall's figures   
are given in  the second volume of his  
work1 pp4 #bhh-ib4    #adg ,varieties1  
p4 #aii4    #adh ,an elaborate list of  
these ceremonies in both the savage and 

civilised worlds has been compiled by   
,mr4 ,hall1 ii4 chap4 xiii4    #adi     
,catlin1 ,north ,american ,indians1 i4  
p4 #cf2 see also ii4 p4 #cdg4    #aej   
,w4 ,i4 ,thomas1 ,sex and ,society1 pp4 
#aae-f4    #aea ,for a good summary1 see
 ,donaldson's ,growth of the ,brain1 pp4
  #bda-dh4    #aeb ,see on this subject 
the two fine works by ,karl ,groos1 ,the
 ,play of  ,animals1 ,the ,play of ,man4
    #aec ,w4 ,temple1 ,repton ,school   
,sermons4    #aed ,sanity and ,insanity1
 p4 #bha4    #aee ,adolescence1 ii4 pp4 
#bhf-g4    #aef ,southey's ,life of     
,wesley1 chap4 xxiv4    #aeg ,from ,the 
,examiner of ,september #f1 #aijf1 cited
 by ,cutten1 p4 #ahe4    #aeh ,primitive
 ,culture1 ii4 p4 #dbb4    #aei         
,clinical ,lectures1 p4 #ci4    #afj    
,manual of ,diseases of the ,nervous    
,system1 #ahic1 pp4 #gcb and #ghe4      
#afa ,sanity and ,insanity1 p4 #bhb4    
#afb ,psychology of ,religion1 pp4      
#adf-g4    #afc ,primitive ,traits in   
,religious ,revivals4          ,,chapter

 ,,eight    ,,religious ,,epidemics     
,under pressure of scientific analysis  
the old distinction between the         
individual and society bids fair to     
break down1 or to maintain itself as  no
 more than a convenience of             
classification4 ,it is now being        
recognised  that a society is something 
more than a mere aggregate of           
self-contained  units1 and that the     
individual is quite inexplicable apart  
from the  social group4 ,it is the      
latter which gives the former his       
individuality4  ,his earliest           
impressions are derived from the life of
 the group1 and as  he grows so he comes
 more and more under the influence of   
social forces4  ,the consequence is that
 the key to a very large part of the    
phenomena of  human nature is to be     
found in a study of group life4 ,we may 
abstract  the individual for purposes of
 examination1 much as a physiologist may
  study the heart or the liver apart    
from the body from which it has been    

taken4 ,but ultimately it is in relation
 to the whole that the true             
significance and value of the part is to
 be discerned4    ,in this corporate    
life imitation and suggestion play a    
powerful part4  ,with children1 by far  
the larger part of their education      
consists of  sheer imitation1 nor do    
adults ever develop beyond its          
influence4  ,suggestion is a factor that
 is more operative in youth and maturity
 than  in early childhood1 and is       
exhibited in a thousand and one subtle  
and  unexpected ways4 ,both these forces
 are essential to an orderly1 and to a  
progressive1 social life2 but they may  
just as easily become the cause  of     
movements that are retrogressive1 and   
even anti-social in character4  ,an     
epidemic of suicide or of murder is as  
easily initiated as an  epidemic of     
philanthropy4 ,let a person commit      
suicide in a striking and  unusual      
manner1 and there will soon be others   
following his example4  ,given a        

favourable environment1 there is no     
idea1 however unreal1 that  will not    
find advocates2 no example1 however     
strange or disgusting1 that  will not   
find imitators4 ,the more uniform the   
society1 the more powerful  the         
suggestion1 the easier the imitation4   
,that is why a crowd1 acting as  a      
crowd1 is nearly always made up of      
people drawn from the same social       
stratum1 each unit already familiar with
 certain ideals and belief4  ,under such
 conditions a crowd will assume all the 
characteristics of a  psychological     
entity4 ,as ,gustave ,le ,bon has       
pointed out1 a crowd will do            
collectively what none of its           
constituent units would ever dream of   
doing singly4#afd ,it becomes capable of
 deeds of heroism or of savage  cruelty4
 ,it will sacrifice itself or others    
with indifference4 ,above  all1 the mere
 fact of moving in a mass gives the     
individual a sense of  power1 a         
certainty of being in the right that he 

can--save under  exceptional            
circumstances--never acquire while      
alone4 ,the intellect is  subdued1      
inhibition is inoperative1 the instincts
 are given free play1  and their        
movement is determined in turn by       
suggestions not unlike those  with which
 a trained hypnotist influences his     
subject4    ,in the phenomena of        
contagion words and symbols play a      
powerful part4  ,they are both a        
rallying-point and an outlet for the    
emotions of a  crowd4 ,these words or   
symbols may be wholly incongruous with  
the real  needs of a people1 but        
provided they are sufficiently familiar 
they will  serve their purpose4 ,and the
 more primitive the type of mind        
represented  by the mass of the people  
the more powerfully these symbols       
operate4  ,shakespeare's portrayal of   
the crowd in ,julius ,csar remains      
eternally  true4 ,the skilled orator1   
playing on old feelings1 using familiar 
terms1  and invoking familiar ideas1    

finds a crowd quite plastic to his      
hands4  ,it is for these reasons that   
there is so keen a struggle with        
political  and social parties for a     
monopoly of good rallying cries1 and a  
readiness to fix objectionable titles on
 their opponents4 ,patriotism1  ,little 
,englander1 ,jingo1 ,the ,church in     
,danger1 ,godless ,education1 etc4  etc4
 ,causes are materially helped or       
injured by these means4 ,there is       
little or no consideration given to     
their justice or reasonableness2 it  is 
the image aroused that does the work4   
,psychological epidemics may in some    
cases be justly called normal in        
character4 ,that is1 they depend upon   
factors that are always in  operation   
and which form a part of every social   
structure4 ,a war fever  or a commercial
 panic falls under this head4 ,in other 
instances they  depend upon abnormal    
conditions1 upon the workings1 perhaps1 
of some  obscure nervous disease1 and   
are of a pathological description4 ,in  

yet  other cases they represent a       
mixture of both4 ,in such cases1 for    
example1 as that of the ,medieval       
,flagellants or of the ,dancing ,mania1 
the presence of pathological elements is
 unmistakable4 ,but neither of  these   
epidemics could have occurred without a 
certain social  preparation1 and unless 
they had called into operation those    
principles  of crowd psychology to which
 science has within recent years turned 
its  attention1 and which are normal    
factors in every society4 ,these three  
classes of epidemics may be found in    
connection with subjects other than     
religious1 but ,i am at present         
concerned with them only in that        
relation1 and to point out that1 in     
spite of their undesirable or           
admittedly pathologic character1 they   
have yet served to keep  supernaturalism
 alive and active4    ,during the       
,christian period of ,european history  
by far the most  important of all       
epidemics1 as it was indeed the         

earliest1 was  monasticism4 ,this takes 
front rank because of its extent1 the   
degree to  which it prepared the ground 
for subsequent outbreaks1 and because of
  its indirect1 and1 ,i think1 too      
little noticed1 social consequences4 ,it
  may safely be said that no other      
movement has so powerfully affected     
,european society as has the monasticism
 of the early ,christian  centuries4 ,it
 cannot1 of course1 be urged that       
,christianity originated  monasticism4  
,india and ,egypt had its ascetic       
practices and celibate  priesthood long 
before the birth of ,christianity1 and  
indeed gave  ,christianity the pattern  
from which to work4 ,but the main stream
 of  social life remained unaffected to 
any considerable extent by this         
asceticism4 ,the social and domestic    
virtues received full recognition  from 
the upholders of the monastic life1 and 
there is no evidence that  asceticism   
ever assumed an epidemic form4 ,it has  
often been the lot of  the ,christian   

,church to give a more intense          
expression to religious  tendencies     
already existing1 and this was so in the
 case before us4 ,at  any rate1 it was  
left for the ,christian ,church to give 
to monasticism  the character of an     
epidemic1 to treat the purely social and
 domestic  virtues as a positive        
hindrance to the religious life1        
seriously to  disturb national          
well-being1 and to come perilously near 
destroying  civilisation4    ,the origin
 of ascetic practices has already been  
indicated in a previous  chapter4 ,it   
has there been pointed out that the     
deliberate torture of  mind and body    
arose from the belief that the induced  
states brought man  into direct         
communion with supernatural powers1 and 
that this element  has continued in     
almost every religion in the world4     
,says  ,baring-,gould3--    ,the ascetic
 instinct is intimately united with the 
religious instinct4  ,there is scarcely 
a religion of ancient and modern times1 

certain forms  of ,protestantism        
excepted1 that does not recognise       
asceticism as an  element in its        
system4444 ,brahmanism has its order of 
ascetics4444  ,mohammedanism has its    
fakirs1 subduing the flesh by their     
austerities1  and developing the spirit 
by their contemplation and prayers4     
,fasting  and self-denial were          
observances required of the ,greeks1 who
 desired  initiation into the           
mysteries4444 ,the scourge was used     
before the altars  of ,artemis and over 
the tomb of ,pelops4 ,the ,egyptian     
priests passed  their novitiate in the  
deserts1 and when not engaged in their  
religious  functions were supposed to   
spend their time in caves4 ,they        
renounced all  commerce with the world1 
and lived in contemplation1 temperance1 
and  frugality1 and in absolute         
poverty4444 ,the ,peruvians were        
required to  fast before sacrificing to 
the gods1 and to bind themselves by vows
 of  chastity and abstinence from       

nourishing food4444 ,there were ascetic 
orders for old men and nunneries for    
widows among the ,totomacs1 monastic    
orders among ,toltecs dedicated to the  
service of ,quetzalcoatl1 and  others   
among the ,aztecs consecrated to        
,tezcatlipoca4#afe    ,it was argued by 
,bingham1 a learned eighteenth-century  
ecclesiastical  historian1 that although
 asceticism was known and practised in  
individual cases from the earliest      
period of ,christian history1 it did    
not establish itself within the ,church 
until the fourth century4 ,it is  not a 
matter of great consequence to the      
subject under discussion  whether this  
be so or not4 ,it is at least certain   
that ,christian  teaching contained     
within itself all the elements for such 
a  development1 which was bound1 sooner 
or later1 to transpire4 ,the  antithesis
 between the flesh and the spirit1 the  
conception of the world  as given over  
to ,satan1 the ascetic teaching of      
,paul1 with the value  placed upon      

suffering and privation as spiritually  
disciplinary forces1  could not but     
create in a society permeated with a    
special type of  supernaturalism1 that  
asceticism which became so marked a     
feature of  medieval ,christianity4 ,and
 it is certain also that in no other    
instance  has asceticism proved itself  
so grave a danger to social order and   
security4 ,allowing for what ,lecky     
calls the 'glaring mendacity' of the    
lives of the saints1 a description that 
applies more or less to all the         
ecclesiastical writings of the early    
centuries1 it is evident that the       
number of monks1 their ferocity1 and    
general practices1 were enough to       
constitute a grave social danger4 ,it is
 said that ,st4 ,pachomius had #gjjj    
monks under his direct rule2 that in the
 time of ,jerome #ej1jjj monks  gathered
 together at the ,easter festival2 that 
one ,egyptian city  mustered #bj1jjj    
nuns and #aj1jjj monks1 and that the    
monastic population  of ,egypt at one   

time equalled in number the rest of the 
inhabitants4 ,at  a later date1 within  
fifty years of its institution1 the     
,franciscan  ,order possessed #hjjj     
houses1 with #bjj1jjj members4 ,in the  
twelfth  century the ,cluniacs had #bjjj
 monasteries in ,france4 ,in ,england1  
as late  as #aedf1 ,hooper1 afterwards  
,bishop of ,gloucester1 declared that   
there  were no less than #aj1jjj nuns in
 ,england4 ,every country in ,europe    
possessed a larger or smaller army of   
men and women whose ideals were in      
direct conflict with nearly all that    
makes for a sane and progressive        
civilisation4    ,the general character 
of the monk during the full swing of the
 ascetic  epidemic has been well        
sketched by ,lecky4 ,his summary here   
will save a  more extended exposition3--
    ,there is perhaps no phase in the   
moral history of mankind of a deeper    
and more painful interest than this     
ascetic epidemic4 ,a hideous1 sordid1   
and emaciated maniac1 without knowledge1

 without patriotism1 without  natural   
affection1 passing his life in a long   
routine of useless and  atrocious       
self-torture1 and quailing before the   
ghastly phantoms of his  delirious      
brain1 had become the ideal of the      
nations which had known the  writings of
 ,plato and ,cicero1 and the lives of   
,socrates and ,cato4 ,for  about two    
centuries1 the hideous maceration of the
 body was regarded as  the highest proof
 of excellence4 ,st4 ,jerome declares1  
with a thrill of  admiration1 how he had
 seen a monk1 who for thirty years had  
lived  exclusively on a small portion of
 barley bread and of mouldy water2      
another who lived in a hole and never   
ate more than five figs for his  daily  
repast2 a third who cut his hair only on
 ,easter ,sunday1 who never  washed his 
clothes1 who never changed his tunic    
till it fell to pieces1  who starved    
himself till his eyes grew dim1 and his 
skin like a pumice  stone4444 ,for six  
months1 it is said1 ,st4 ,macarius of   

,alexandria slept  in a marsh1 and      
exposed his naked body to the stings of 
venomous  flies4444 ,his disciple1 ,st4 
,eusebius1 carried one hundred and fifty
  pounds of iron1 and lived for three   
years in a dried-up well4444 ,st4       
,besarion spent forty days and nights in
 the middle of thorn bushes1 and  for   
forty days and nights never lay down    
when he slept4444 ,some saints1  like   
,st4 ,marcian1 restricted themselves to 
one meal a day1 so small that  they     
continually suffered the pangs of       
hunger4444 ,some of the hermits  lived  
in deserted dens of wild beasts1 others 
in dried-up wells1 while  others found a
 congenial resting-place among the      
tombs4 ,some disdained  all clothes1 and
 crawled abroad like the wild beasts1   
covered only by  their matted hair4 ,the
 cleanliness of the body was regarded as
 a  pollution of the soul1 and the      
saints who were most admired had become 
one hideous mass of clotted filth4 ,st4 
,athanasius relates with  enthusiasm how

 ,st4 ,antony1 the patriarch of         
monachism1 had never1 to  extreme old   
age1 been guilty of washing his feet4444
 ,st4 ,abraham1 the  hermit1 however1   
who lived for fifty years after his     
conversion1 rigidly  refused from that  
date to wash either his face or his     
feet4444 ,st4 ,ammon  had never seen    
himself naked4 ,a famous virgin1 named  
,sylvia1 though she  was sixty years    
old1 and though bodily sickness was a   
consequence of her  habits1 resolutely  
refused1 on religious principles1 to    
wash any part of  her body except her   
fingers4 ,st4 ,euphraxia joined a       
convent of one  hundred and thirty nuns1
 who never washed their feet1 and who   
shuddered  at the mention of a bath4#aff
    ,it is difficult to realise what it 
is exactly that some writers have in    
their minds when they praise the purity 
of the ascetic ideal1 and lament  its   
degradation as though society lost      
something of great value thereby4  ,the 
examples cited realised that ideal as   

well as it could be realised1  and its  
anti-social character is unmistakable4  
,if it is intended to  imply that an    
element of self-denial or               
self-discipline is essential to  healthy
 development1 that is admitted1 but this
 is not the ascetic  ideal2 it is that  
of temperance as taught by the best of  
the ancient  philosophers4 ,what the    
ascetic aimed at was not                
self-development1 but  self-suppression4
 ,the discipline of the monk was only   
another name for  the cultivation of a  
frame of mind unhealthy and anti-social4
  ,eventually1 the rapidity with which  
this mania spread1 the fact that for    
several centuries it raged as a         
veritable epidemic1 carried with it the 
germs of a corrective4 ,the more        
numerous monks and nuns became1 the more
  certain it became that many of them   
would develop passions and  propensities
 they professed to despise4 ,the love of
 ease and wealth1 the  lust of power and
 pride of place1 was sure to find       

expression1 and if by  the degradation  
of the ascetic ideal is meant the fact  
that the  preachers of poverty1 and     
humility1 and meekness1 became the      
wealthiest1  the most powerful1 the most
 corrupt1 and the most tyrannical order 
in  ,christendom1 the reason is that not
 even monasticism could prevent         
ordinary human passions from finding    
expression4 ,they might be  suppressed  
in the case of a few2 it became         
impossible with a multitude4  ,that they
 found expression in so disastrous a    
form was due to the fact  that the      
disciplinary agent of these passions1 a 
developed social  consciousness1 played 
so small a part in the life of the monk4
    ,it is no part of my present purpose
 to trace the full consequences of  the 
ascetic epidemic4 ,some of these        
consequences1 however1 have a more  or  
less direct bearing upon this enquiry1  
and it is necessary to say  something   
upon them4 ,one enduring and inevitable 
consequence of  monasticism has not1 ,i 

think1 been adequately noted by many    
writers4  ,this is its influence on the 
ideal of marriage1 on the family1 and on
  the domestic virtues4 ,in ,india and  
,egypt celibacy had been closely        
associated with the religious life1 but 
the ascetic was regarded as a  man      
peculiarly apart from his fellows1 and  
the family continued to be  held in     
great honour1 even by religious writers4
 ,christianity provided  for the first  
time a body of writers who made a direct
 attack upon  marriage as obstructing   
the supreme duty of spiritual           
development4 ,the  ,rev4 ,principal     
,donaldson1 in his generally excellent  
book on ,woman1  professes to find some 
difficulty in accounting for the growth 
among the  early ,christians of the     
feeling in favour of celibacy4 ,he      
remarks that  no one with the ,new      
,testament as his guide could venture to
 assert that  marriage was wrong4 ,not  
wrong1 certainly2 but anyone with the   
,new  ,testament before him would be    

justified in asserting marriage to be   
inferior to celibacy4 ,it is at most    
taken for granted2 it is neither        
commended nor recommended1 and of its   
social value there is never a  glimpse4 
,and there is much on the other side4   
,paul's teaching is  strongly in favour 
of celibacy1 and marriage is only       
advised to avoid a  greater evil4 ,in   
the ,book of ,revelation there is a     
reference to the  #add1jjj saints who   
wait on the ,lamb1 and who were not     
defiled with  women1 but were virgins4  
,certainly the ,new ,testament does not 
condemn  marriage1 but it is idle to    
pretend that those who preached the     
celibate  ideal failed to find therein a
 warranty for their teaching4    ,the   
historic fact is1 however1 that the     
early ,christian leaders were1 in  the  
main1 ardent advocates of celibacy4 ,the
 social importance of  marriage being   
ignored1 its functions became those of  
ministering to  sexual passion and the  
perpetuation of the race4 ,in view of   

the supposed  approaching end of the    
world1 the desirability of this last was
  questioned1 and in the name of purity 
the former was strongly denounced4  ,it 
is from these points of view that       
,tertullian describes children as       
burdens which are to most of us perilous
 as being unsuitable to faith1  and     
wives as women of the second degree of  
modesty who had fallen into  wedlock4   
,jerome said that marriage was at best a
 sin1 and all that could  be done was to
 excuse and purify it4 ,epiphanius said 
that the ,church was  based upon        
virginity as upon a corner-stone4       
,augustine was of opinion  that         
celibates would shine in heaven like    
dazzling stars4 ,married people  were   
declared1 by another authority1 to be   
incapable of salvation4 ,the  most      
powerful and most influential of writers
 concurred that the sexual  relation was
 an almost fatal obstacle to religious  
salvation4    ,hardly any movement ever 
struck so hard against social well-being

 as  did this teaching of celibacy4     
,wives were encouraged to desert their  
husbands1 husbands to forsake their     
wives1 children their parents4          
,parents1 in turn1 were exhorted to     
devote their children to the monastic   
life2 and although at first children who
 had been so condemned were  allowed to 
return to the world1 should they desire 
it1 on reaching  maturity1 this liberty 
was taken from them by the fourth       
,council of  ,toledo in #fcc4afg ,some  
few of the ,christian writers protested 
against  children being taught to       
forsake their parents in this manner1   
but the  general spirit of the time was 
in its favour4    ,children were nursed 
and trained to expect at every instant  
more than  human interferences2 their   
young energies had ever before them     
examples  of asceticism1 to which it was
 the glory1 the true felicity of life1  
to  aspire4 ,the thoughtful child had   
all his mind thus preoccupied 444       
wherever there was gentleness1 modesty1 

the timidity of young passion1          
repugnance to vice1 an imaginative      
temperament1 a consciousness of         
unfitness to wrestle with the rough     
realities of life1 the way lay          
invitingly open4444 ,it lay through     
perils1 but was made attractive by      
perpetual wonders4 ,it was awful1 but in
 its awfulness lay its power over  the  
young mind4 ,it learned to trample down 
that last bond which united  the child  
to common humanity1 filial reverence2   
the fond and mysterious  attachment of  
the child and the mother1 the inborn    
reverence of the son  to the father4 ,it
 is the highest praise of ,st4          
,fulgentius that he  overcame his       
mother's tenderness by religious        
cruelty4#afh    ,the full warranty for  
,dean ,milman's stricture is seen in the
 following  passage from ,st4 ,jerome3--
    ,though your little nephew twine his
 arms around your neck2 though your     
mother1 with dishevelled hair1 and      
tearing her robe asunder1 point to  the 

breast with which she suckled you2      
though your father fall down on  the    
threshold before you1 pass on over your 
father's body4 ,fly with  tearless eyes 
to the banner of the cross4 ,in this    
matter cruelty is the  only piety4444   
,your widowed sister may throw her      
gentle arms around  you4444 ,your father
 may implore you to wait but a short    
time to bury  those near to you1 who    
will soon be no more2 your weeping      
mother may  recall your childish days1  
and may point to her shrunken breast and
 to  her wrinkled brow4 ,those around   
you may tell you that all the household 
rests upon you4 ,such chains as these   
the love of ,god and the fear of  hell  
can easily break4 ,you say that         
,scripture orders you to obey your      
parents1 but he who loves them more than
 ,christ loses his soul4 ,the  enemy    
brandishes a sword to slay me4 ,shall ,i
 think of a mother's  tears8#afi        
,gibbon said of the ascetic movement    
that the ,pagan world regarded with     

astonishment a society that perpetuated 
itself without marriage4  ,unfortunately
 this perpetuation was secured by the   
sacrifice of some of  the dearest       
interests of the race4 ,for1 in general1
 one may say that  idealistic teaching  
of any kind appeals most powerfully to  
those who are  least in need of it4 ,the
 world would at any time lose little1   
and might  possibly gain much1 were it  
possible to restrain a certain class    
from  parentage4 ,but there is no       
evidence that monasticism ever had its  
effect  on that kind of people2 the     
presumption is indeed in the contrary   
direction4 ,the careless and brutal hear
 and are unaffected4 ,the more          
thoughtful and desirable alone are      
influenced4 ,and there can be little    
doubt that the ,church in appealing to  
certain aspects of human nature         
dissuaded from parentage those who were 
most fitted for the task4 ,there  was a 
practical survival of the unfittest4    
,nothing is more striking1 in  fact1 in 

the early history of ,christianity than 
the comparative absence  of home life   
and of the domestic ideals4 ,dean       
,milman remarked that in  all the       
discussion concerning celibacy he could 
not recall a single  instance where the 
social aspects appear to have occurred  
to the  disputants4 ,the ,dean's remark 
applies to some extent to a much later  
period of ,christian history than the   
one to which he refers4 ,that           
much-admired evangelical classic1       
,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress1 for     
example1 shows a curious obliviousness  
to the value of family and social  life4
 ,but neglect of the socialising and    
refining influence of family  life leads
 inevitably to a hardening of character 
and a brutalising of  life in general4  
,the ferocious nature of the theological
 disputes of the  early ,christian      
period never fail to arouse the comments
 of historians4  ,but there was really  
nothing to soften or restrain them4     
,everything was  dominated by the       

theological interest4 ,and we owe it in 
no small measure  to the vogue of the   
monk that the tolerance of ,pagan times1
 with its  widespread respect for       
truth-seeking1 was replaced by the      
narrow  intolerance of the medieval     
period1 an intolerance which has never  
really been eradicated from any part of 
,christian ,europe4    ,in counting this
 as one of the consequences of the      
,christian preaching  of celibacy1 ,i am
 supported by no less an authority than 
the late ,sir  ,francis ,galton4 ,in his
 epoch-marking work1 ,hereditary        
,genius1 this  writer says3--    ,the   
long period of the ,dark ,ages under    
which ,europe has lain is due1 ,i       
believe1 in a very considerable degree1 
to the celibacy enjoined by the         
religious orders on their votaries4     
,whenever a man or woman was  possessed 
of a gentle nature that fitted him or   
her to deeds of charity1  to meditation1
 to literature1 or to art1 the social   
condition of the  time was such that    

they had no refuge elsewhere than in the
 bosom of the  ,church4 ,but she chose  
to preach and exact celibacy4 ,the      
consequence was  that these gentle      
natures had no continuance1 and thus by 
a policy so  singularly unwise and      
suicidal that ,i am hardly able to speak
 of it  without impatience1 the ,church 
brutalised the breed of our forefathers4
  ,she acted precisely as if she had    
aimed at selecting the rudest portion   
of the community to be alone the parents
 of future generations4 ,she  practised 
the arts that breeders would use1 who   
aimed at creating  ferocious1 currish1  
and stupid nature4 ,no wonder that club 
law prevailed  for centuries over       
,europe2 the wonder rather is that      
enough good  remained in the veins of   
,europeans to enable their race to rise 
to its  very moderate level of natural  
morality4#agj    ,the consequences of   
asceticism on morals were almost wholly 
disastrous4  ,there is no intention of  
endorsing the vulgar ,protestant        

prejudice of  every convent being a     
brothel1 and all monks and nuns as given
 over to a  vicious life1 but there is  
no question that a very widespread      
demoralisation existed amongst the      
religious orders1 that this existed     
from the very earliest times1 and that  
it was an inevitable consequence  of so 
large a number of people professing the 
ascetic life4 ,this is not  a history of
 morals1 and it is needless to enter    
into a detailed account  of the state of
 morality during the prevalence of      
asceticism4 ,but the  absence of any    
favourable influence exerted by         
asceticism on conduct is  well          
illustrated in the description of       
,salvianus1 ,bishop of ,marseilles  at  
the close of the fifth century1 of the  
condition of society in his  day4 ,gaul1
 ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,africa are        
depicted as sunk in an  overmastering   
sensuality4 ,rome is represented as the 
sewer of the  nations1 and in the       
,african ,church1 he says1 the most     

diligent search  can scarce discover one
 chaste among thousands4 ,and this1 it  
must be  borne in mind1 was the ,african
 ,church1 which under the care of       
,augustine  had been specially nurtured 
in the most rigid asceticism4 ,four     
hundred  years later the state of       
monastic morals is sufficiently         
indicated by a  regulation of ,st4      
,theodore ,studita prohibiting the      
entrance of female  animals into        
monasteries4#aga ,a regulation passed in
 ,paris at a ,council  held in #abab    
enforces the same lesson by forbidding  
monks or nuns  sleeping two in a bed4   
,the avowed object of this was to       
repress offences  of the most disgusting
 description4#agb ,in #abjh an order was
 issued  prohibiting mothers or other   
female relatives residing with priests1 
on  account of the frequent scandals    
arising4 ,offences became so numerous   
and so open that it was with relief that
 laymen saw priests openly  select      
concubines4 ,that at least gave a       

promise of some protection to  domestic 
life4 ,in some of the ,swiss cantons it 
actually became the  practice to compel 
a new pastor1 on taking up his charge1  
to select a  concubine as a necessary   
protection to the females under his     
care4 ,the  same practice existed in    
,spain4#agc    ,there is1 as ,lea       
rightly says1 no injustice in holding   
the ,church mainly  responsible for the 
laxity of morals which is characteristic
 of medieval  society4 ,it had unbounded
 and unquestioned power1 and this with  
its  wealth and privileges might have   
made medieval society the purest in the 
world4 ,as it was1 the period of its    
unquestioned domination over the        
conscience of ,europe was the very      
period in which licence among the       
,teutonic races was most unchecked4 ,a  
church which1 though founded on the     
,gospel1 and wielding the illimitable   
power of the ,roman hierarchy1 could    
yet allow the feudal principle to extend
 to the jus prim noctis or  droit de    

marquette1 and whose ministers in their 
character of temporal  seigneurs could  
even occasionally claim the disgusting  
right1 was  evidently exercising its    
influence1 not for good1 but for evil4  
,on civic life and the civic virtues the
 influence of asceticism was  equally   
disastrous4 ,a candid examination1 says 
,lecky1 will show that  the ,christian  
civilisation has been as inferior to the
 ,pagan ones in  civic and intellectual 
virtues as it has been superior to them 
in the  virtues of humanity and         
chastity4 ,one may reasonably question  
the  latter part of this statement1     
bearing in mind the facts just pointed  
out1 but the first part admits of       
overwhelming proof4 ,celibacy is not    
chastity1 and it is difficult to see how
 the coarsening of character  described 
by ,lecky himself can be consistent with
 a heightened  humanity4 ,but there can 
be small doubt that the growth of the   
,christian  ,church spelt disaster to   
the civic life and institutions of the  

,empire4  ,nothing the ,romans did was  
more admirable than their organisation  
of  municipal life4 ,they avoided the   
common blunder of imposing on all a     
uniform organisation1 and so gave free  
play to local feeling and custom  so far
 as was consistent with imperial order  
and peace4 ,civic life  became1 as a    
consequence1 well ordered and           
persistent4 ,it was far less  corrupt   
than administration in the capital1 and 
freedom persisted in the  provincial    
towns for long after its practical      
disappearance in ,rome  itself4 ,indeed1
 but for the antagonism of              
,christianity1 it is probable  that the 
urban municipalities might have provided
 the impetus for the  rejuvenation of   
the ,empire4#agd    ,from the outset1   
the early ,christian movement stood as a
 whole apart  from the civic life of the
 ,empire1 while the ascetic waged a     
constant  warfare against it4 ,according
 to monastic view of ,christianity1 says
  ,milman1 the total abandonment of the 

world1 with all its ties and  duties1 as
 well as its treasures1 its enjoyments1 
and objects of  ambition1 advanced      
rather than diminished the hopes of     
salvation4 ,the  object was individual  
salvation1 not social regeneration4     
,when people  were praised for breaking 
the closest of family ties in their     
desire for  salvation1 it would be      
absurd to suppose that social duties and
  obligations would remain exempt4 ,the 
,christian ascetic was ready enough  to 
risk his own life1 or to take the life  
of others1 on account of  minute points 
of doctrinal difference1 but he was deaf
 to the call of  patriotism or the      
demands of civic life4 ,theology became 
the one  absorbing topic2 and as        
monasticism assumed more menacing       
proportions1  the monk became the       
dominating figure1 paralysing by his    
presence the  healthful activities of   
masses of the people4 ,speaking of the  
,eastern  ,empire1 although his words   
apply with almost equal truth wherever  

the  ,church was supreme1 ,milman       
says3--    ,that which is the           
characteristic sign of the times as a   
social and  political1 as well as a     
religious1 phenomenon1 is the complete  
dominion  assumed by the monks in the   
,east over the public mind4444 ,the     
monks1 in  fact1 exercise the most      
complete tyranny1 not merely over the   
laity1 but  over bishops and patriarchs1
 whose rule1 though nominally subject to
 it1  they throw off whenever it suits  
their purposes4444 ,monks in            
,alexandria1  monks in ,antioch1 monks  
in ,constantinople1 decide peremptorily 
on  orthodoxy and heterodoxy4444        
,persecution is universal2 persecution  
by  every means of violence and cruelty2
 the only question is in whose hands  is
 the power to persecute4444 ,bloodshed1 
murder1 treachery1  assassination1 even 
during the public worship of ,god--these
 are the  frightful means by which each 
party strives to maintain its opinions  
and  to defeat its adversary4           

,ecclesiastical and civil authority are 
alike  paralysed by combinations of     
fanatics ready to suffer or to inflict  
death1 utterly unapproachable by        
reason4#age    ,against such            
combinations of ignorance1 fanaticism1  
and ferocity1 the  few remaining lovers 
of secular progress were powerless4     
,patriotism  became a mere name1 and    
organised civic life an almost forgotten
  aspiration4 ,what the ,pagan world had
 understood by a 'good man' was one  who
 spent himself in the service of his    
country4 ,the ,christian  understood by 
it one who succeeded in saving his own  
soul1 even at the  sacrifice of family  
and friends4 ,vampire-like1 monasticism 
fed upon the  life-blood of the ,empire4
 ,the civic life and patriotism of old  
,rome  became a mere tradition1 to      
inspire long after the men of the       
,renaissance and of the ,french         
,revolution4    ,finally1 asceticism    
exerted a powerful influence on religion
 itself4  ,that it served to strengthen 

and perpetuate the life of religion     
there  can be little doubt4 ,however    
strongly some people may have resented  
the  monastic ideal1 it nevertheless    
gave increased strength and vitality to 
the religious idea4 ,to begin with1 it  
offered for centuries a very  powerful  
obstacle to the development of those    
progressive and scientific  ideas that  
have made such advances in all centres  
of civilisation during  the past two or 
three centuries4 ,to the common mind it 
brought home the  supremacy of religion 
in a way that nothing else could4 ,the  
mere sight  of monarch and noble        
yielding homage to the monk1            
acknowledging his  supremacy in what was
 declared to be the chief interest in   
life1 the  interference of the monk in  
every department of life1 saturated     
society  with supernaturalism4 ,and     
although at a later period the rapacity1
  dissoluteness1 and tyranny of the     
monkish orders led to revolt1 by that   
time the imagination of all had been    

thoroughly impressed with the value  of 
religion4 ,even to-day current theology 
is permeated with the monkish  notions  
of self-denial1 self-sacrifice1 and     
contempt of the world's  comfort and    
beauty as belonging to the essence of   
pure religion4 ,the  lives of the saints
 still remain the storehouse of ideals  
for the  religious preacher4 ,in spite  
of their absurd practices and disgusting
  penances1 later generations have not  
failed to hold them up as examples4     
,they have been used to impress the     
imagination of their successors1 as     
they were used to impress the minds of  
their contemporaries4 ,the fact of      
,thomas  ,beckett wearing a hair shirt  
running with vermin has not  prevented  
his being held up as an example of the  
power of religion4  ,people fear ghosts 
long after they cease to believe in     
them2 they pay  unreasoning homage to a 
crown long after intellectual           
development has  robbed the kingly      
office of its primitive significance2   

all the recent  developments of         
democracy have not abolished the        
,englishman's  constitutional crick in  
the neck at the sight of a nobleman4    
,nor is  supernaturalism expunged from a
 society because the conditions that    
gave  it birth have passed away4 ,a     
religious epidemic is not analogous to  
those physical disorders which deposit  
an antitoxin and so protect  against    
future attacks4 ,it resembles rather    
those disorders that  permanently       
weaken1 and so invite repeated assaults4
 ,the ascetic  epidemic passed away2    
but1 before doing so1 it thoroughly     
saturated with  supernaturalism the     
social atmosphere and impressed its     
power upon the  public mind4 ,it gave   
supernaturalism a new and longer lease  
of life1 and  paved the way for other   
outbreaks1 of a less general1 but still 
of a  thoroughly epidemic character4    
,,footnotes3    #afd ,see ,the          
,psychology of ,peoples and ,the ,crowd4
    #afe ,origin and ,development of    

,religious ,belief1 i4 pp4 #cdc-h4      
#aff ,history of ,european ,morals1 ii4 
pp4 #ajg-aj4 ,for a careful  description
 of the monastic discipline in its more 
normal aspects1 see  ,bingham's ,works1 
vol4 ii4 bk4 vi4 ,gibbon gives his usual
 brilliant  summary of the movement in  
chapter xxxvii4 of the ,decline and     
,fall4 ,a  host of facts similar to     
those cited by ,lecky will be found in  
,the ,book  of ,paradise1 #b vols41     
trans4 by ,wallis ,budge4 ,lea's        
,history of  ,sacerdotal ,celibacy gives
 the classical and authoritative account
 of  the moral consequences of the      
practice of celibacy4 ,for a vivid      
picture  of the psychology of the       
ascetic1 see ,flaubert's great romance1 
,st4  ,antony4    #afg ,cited by ,lecky1
 ii4 p4 #aca4    #afh ,dean ,milman1    
,hist4 of ,latin ,christianity1 ii4 pp4 
#ha-b4    #afi ,lecky1 ii4 pp4 #acd-e4  
#agj ,hereditary ,genius1 #ahfi1 p4     
#ceg4    #aga ,lea1 p4 #aji4    #agb    
,lea1 p4 #ccb4    #agc ,see ,lea1 pp4   

#cec-d4    #agd ,for a fine sketch of   
,roman municipal life1 see ,dill's      
,roman  ,society from ,nero to ,marcus  
,aurelius1 chap4 ii4    #age ,hist4 of  
,latin ,christianity1 i4 pp4 #cag-h4    
,,chapter ,,nine    ,,religious         
,,epidemics--7,,concluded7      ,it is  
not easy to overestimate the influence  
of monasticism on  subsequent religious 
history4 ,the lives of its votaries     
provided  examples of almost every      
conceivable kind of self-torture or     
semi-maniacal behaviour4 ,it had made   
the world thoroughly familiar with      
extravagance of action as the symptom of
 intense religious conviction4  ,and its
 influence on social development had    
been such that the  susceptibility of   
the public mind to suggestions was as a 
raw wound in  the presence of a powerful
 irritant4 ,such an institution as the  
,inquisition could only have maintained 
itself among a people thoroughly        
familiar with supernaturalism1 and to   
whom its preservation was the  first and

 most sacred of duties4    ,a society   
habituated to the commanding presence of
 the monk1 fed upon  stories of their   
miraculous encounters with celestial and
 diabolic  visitants1 and so accustomed 
to regard the priesthood as in a very   
peculiar sense the mouthpiece of        
divinity1 was well prepared for such a  
series of events as the crusades for the
 recovery of the ,holy ,land4           
,pilgrimages to the burial-places of    
saints1 and to spots connected1 by      
legend or otherwise1 with ,christian    
history1 had long been in vogue1 and    
formed a source of both revenue to the  
,church and of inspiration to the       
faithful4 ,as early as #hcc a guide-book
 had been prepared called the           
,itinerary from ,bordeaux to ,jerusalem1
 and along the route marked  convents   
and shelters for the pilgrims were      
established4 ,a lucrative  traffic in   
relics of every description had also    
been established1 and  any interference 
with this touched the ,church in its    

tenderest point4  ,added to which the   
expected end of the world in the year   
#ajjj had the  effect of still further  
increasing the crowd of pilgrims to the 
,holy  ,land1 where it was firmly       
believed the second advent would take   
place4    ,in the eleventh century a tax
 was imposed on all ,christians visiting
  ,jerusalem4 ,there were also reports  
of ,christian pilgrims being            
ill-treated4 ,recent events in ,europe  
have shown with what ease ,christian    
feeling may be roused against a         
,mohammedan power1 and it was           
considerably easier to do this in the   
eleventh century4 ,between them1  ,pope 
,urban ,,ii4 and ,peter the ,hermit--the
 former acting mainly from  political   
motives2 the latter from a spirit of    
sheer fanaticism--  succeeded in rousing
 ,europe to a maniacal desire for the   
recovery  of the ,holy ,land4 ,and for  
nearly two hundred years the world saw  
a series of crusades on as absurd an    
errand as ever engaged the  energies of 

mankind4 ,every class of society        
participated1 and it is  calculated that
 no less than two millions of lives were
 sacrificed4    ,ordinary histories lean
 to representing the crusades as a      
series of  armed expeditions1 led by    
princes1 nobles1 and kings4 ,but this   
gives a  quite inaccurate conception of 
the movement1 during its early stages1  
at  all events4 ,in reality it was a    
true psychological epidemic4 ,no custom1
  however ancient1 no duty1 no law1 was 
allowed to stand before the  crusading  
mania4 ,in every village the clergy fed 
the mania1 promising  eternal rewards to
 all who took up the burden of the      
cross4 ,old and  young1 the strong and  
the sick1 the rich and the poor were    
enrolled4  ,urban had told them that    
under their ,general1 ,jesus ,christ1   
they would  march to certain victory4   
,absolution for all sins was promised to
 all  who joined2 and1 as ,gibbon says1 
at the voice of their pastor1 the       
robber1 the incendiary1 the homicide1   

arose by thousands to redeem their      
souls by repeating on the infidels the  
same deeds which they had  exercised    
against their ,christian brethren4      
,until experience had taught  them      
better1 little precautions were taken to
 provide food or arms4 ,huge  concourses
 of people1#agf some led by a goose and 
a goat1 into which it  was believed the 
,holy ,ghost had entered1 set out for   
the ,holy ,land1 so  ignorant that at   
every large town or city they enquired1 
,is this ,zion8  ,although a religious  
expedition1 small regard was paid to    
decency or  humanity4 ,defenceless      
cities en route were sacked4 ,women were
  outraged1 men and children killed4    
,the ,jews were murdered wholesale4     
,almost universally the slaughter of    
,jews at home were preparatory to       
crusading abroad4 ,germany1 ,hungary1   
and ,bulgaria1 although providing       
contingents for the crusading army1     
suffered heavily by the passage of      
these undisciplined1 lawless crowds4 ,as

 one writer says3--    ,if they had     
devoted themselves to the service of    
,god1 they convinced  the inhabitants on
 their line of march that they had      
ceased to regard  the laws of man4 ,they
 considered themselves privileged to    
gratify every  wish and every lust as it
 arose4 ,they recognised no rights of   
property1  they felt no gratitude for   
hospitality1 and they possessed no sense
 of  honour4 ,they violated the wives   
and daughters of their hosts when they  
were kindly treated1 they devastated the
 lands of friends whom they had         
converted into enemies1 they resorted to
 wanton robbery and destruction  in     
revenge for calamities which they had   
brought upon themselves4 ,they  believed
 that they proved their superiority to  
the ,mohammedans by  torturing the      
defenceless ,jews2 and this was the only
 exploit in which  the first divisions  
of the crusaders could boast of         
success4444 ,to the  leaders1 who could 
not write their own names1 deception and

 treachery  were as familiar as force2  
to their followers rapine and murder    
were so  congenial that1 in the absence 
of ,saracens1 ,jews1 or townsfolk1 it   
seemed but a professional pastime to    
kill or to rob a companion in  arms4#agg
    ,and of the behaviour of the        
crusaders on the first capture of       
,jerusalem1  #ajii1 ,dean ,milman       
writes3--    ,no barbarian1 no infidel1 
no ,saracen1 ever perpetrated such      
wanton and  cold-blooded atrocities of  
cruelty as the wearers of the ,cross of 
,christ  7who1 it is said1 had fallen on
 their knees and burst into a pious hymn
  at the first view of the ,holy ,city7 
on the capture of that city4 ,murder    
was mercy1 rape tenderness1 simple      
plunder the mere assertion of the       
conqueror's right4 ,children were seized
 by their legs1 some of them  plucked   
from their mother's breasts1 and dashed 
against the walls1 or  whirled from the 
battlements4 ,others were obliged to    
leap from the  walls2 some tortured1    

roasted by slow fires4 ,they ripped up  
prisoners to  see if they had swallowed 
gold4 ,of #gj1jjj ,saracens there were  
not left  enough to bury the dead2 poor 
,christians were hired to perform the   
office4 ,everyone surprised in the      
,temple was slaughtered1 till the reek  
from the dead drove away the slayers4   
,the ,jews were burned alive in  their  
synagogue4#agh    ,the most remarkable  
of all the crusades1 and the one that   
best shows  the character of the        
epidemic1 was the children's crusade of 
#abab4 ,it  was said that the sins of   
the crusaders had caused their failure1 
and  priests went about ,france and     
,germany calling upon the children to do
  what the sins of their fathers had    
prevented them accomplishing4 ,the      
children were told that the sea would   
dry up to give them passage1 and  the   
infidels be stricken by the ,lord on    
their approach4 ,a peasant lad1         
,stephen of ,cloyes1 received the usual 
vision1 and was ordered to lead  the    

crusade4 ,commencing with the children  
around ,paris1 he collected  some       
#cj1jjj followers1 and without money or 
food commenced the march4 ,at  the same 
time an army of children1 #dj1jjj       
strong1 was gathered together  at       
,cologne4 ,the result of the crusade may
 be told in a few words4 ,about  #fjjj  
of the ,french contingent1 having       
reached ,marseilles1 were offered a     
passage by some shipowners4 ,several of 
the ships foundered1 others  reached    
shore1 and the boys were sold into      
slavery4 ,the girls were  reserved for a
 more sinister fate4 ,thousands of the  
children died in  attempting a march    
over the ,alps4 ,a mere remnant         
succeeded in reaching  home1 ruined in  
both mind and body4 ,well might ,fuller 
say3 ,this crusade  was done by the     
instinct of the devil1 who1 as it were1 
desired a  cordial of children's blood1 
to comfort his weak stomach1 long cloyed
  with murdering of men4#agi    ,on both
 the social and the religious side the  

consequences were  important4 ,for the  
first time large bodies of men1 taught  
to regard all  those who were outside   
,christendom as beneath consideration1  
came into  contact with a people        
possessing an art1 an industry1 a       
culture far  superior to their own4 ,as 
,draper says3 ,even down to the meanest 
camp  follower1 everyone must have      
recognised the difference between what  
they  had anticipated and what they had 
found4 ,they had seen undaunted         
courage1 chivalrous bearing1            
intellectual culture far higher than    
their  own4 ,they had been in lands     
filled with prodigies of human skill4   
,they  did not melt down into the       
populations to whom they returned       
without  imparting to them a profound   
impression destined to make itself felt 
in  the course of time4#ahj ,hitherto   
,mohammedan culture had only  influenced
 ,christendom through the medium of the 
,spanish schools and  universities4 ,now
 the influence became more general4 ,a  

taste for greater  comfort developed4   
,commerce grew2 literature improved4 ,we
 approach the  period of the            
,renaissance1 and to that new birth the 
crusades1 despite  their intolerance and
 brutality1 offered a contribution of no
 small  value4    ,on the other hand1   
and for a time1 the power of the ,church
 grew greater4  ,the impetus given to   
superstitious hopes and fears made on   
all hands for  the wealth of the        
,church4 ,much was made over to the     
,church as a free  gift4 ,much was      
pawned to it4 ,much also was entrusted  
by those who went  to the ,holy ,land1  
never to return1 in which case the      
,church became the  designated or       
undesignated heir4 ,in every way the    
all-absorbing ,church  was still        
gathering in wealth1 encircling new land
 within her hallowed  pale1 the one     
steady merchant who in this vast traffic
 and sale of  personal and of landed    
property never made a losing venture1   
but went on  accumulating and still     

accumulating1 and for the most part     
withdrawing  the largest portion of the 
land in every kingdom into a separate   
estate1 which claimed exemption from all
 burthens of the realm1 until  the realm
 was compelled into measures1 violent   
often and iniquitous in  their mode1 but
 still inevitable4#aha    ,next1 the    
crusades set their seal upon the justice
 of religious wars1  and established an 
enduring alliance between militarism and
 religion4  ,the military profession    
became surrounded with all the          
ceremonies and  paraphernalia of        
religion1 without being in the least    
humanised by the  alliance4 ,the knight 
received his arms blessed by the        
,church1 he was  sworn to defend the    
,church1 and he was as ready to turn his
 weapons  against heretics in ,europe as
 against infidels in ,syria4 ,military  
persecutions of heretics assumed the    
form of a mania4 ,there were  crusades  
against the ,moors in ,spain1 against   
the ,albigenses1 and against  other     

heretics4 ,as ,bryce remarks3 ,the      
religious feeling which the  crusades   
evoked--a feeling which became the      
origin of the great orders  of chivalry1
 and somewhat later of the two great    
orders of mendicant  friars--turned     
wholly against the opponents of         
ecclesiastical claims1  and was made to 
work the will of the ,holy ,see1 which  
had blessed and  organised the          
project4#ahb ,the expedition against    
,king ,john by ,philip  of ,france was  
undertaken at the behest of the ,pope1  
and was called a  crusade4 ,the attempt 
of ,spain to crush the ,netherlands was 
called a  crusade4 ,so was the ,armada  
that was fitted out against ,england4   
,more than all1 a stamp of permanency   
was given to popular superstition4  ,for
 two centuries people had seen          
expedition after expedition fitted out  
to accomplish an avowedly religious     
purpose4 ,they had been taught that  to 
die in defence of religion1 or in the   
attempt to achieve a religious  object1 

was the noblest of deaths4 ,they had    
seen the greatest in ,europe  setting   
forth at the command of the ,church4    
,signs and wonders had  abounded to     
prove the heaven-blessed character of   
the crusades4 ,they had  seen the       
,church growing steadily in power1 and  
every possible means had  been utilised 
to increase the flame of religious      
fanaticism4 ,expeditions  might fail1   
but failure did not cure fanaticism4 ,it
 fed it2 the  crusaders returned1       
chastened in some respects1 but still   
sufficiently  full of religious zeal to 
be ready to battle against the          
unbeliever and  the heretic at the      
behest of the ,church4 ,and it was not  
the policy of  the ,church to allow this
 fanaticism to remain unemployed4 ,even 
though it  might ultimately lose1 the   
,church and superstition profited       
enormously  by the crusading spirit4 ,it
 strengthened the general sense of the  
supernatural1 even while creating       
tendencies that were destined to limit  

its sway4 ,above all1 it prepared the   
way for other religious epidemics4      
,these were more circumscribed in area1 
and less lengthy in their  duration2 but
 their existence was made possible and  
easy by the  centuries during which1    
first monasticism1 and later the        
crusading  mania1 had dominated the     
public mind4    ,the crusades had hardly
 been brought to a close before         
continental  ,europe witnessed an       
outbreak1 in epidemic form1 of a        
practice that had  been long associated 
with monastic discipline4 ,the use of   
the whip as a  form of religious        
discipline had always played a part in  
conventual and  monastic life4 ,on the  
one hand1 it formed part of that        
insensate desire  to torture the body   
which went to make up the ascetic ideal2
 on the  other hand1 the fondness for   
whipping bare flesh and for being       
whipped  has a distinctly pathologic    
character4 ,the subject is rather too   
unsavoury to dwell upon1 but it has long

 been established that there is  a close
 connection between the whipping of     
certain parts of the body and  the      
production of intense sexual            
pleasure4#ahc ,and it is also clear     
that the life led by monks and nuns was 
such as to encourage sexual  aberrations
 of various forms4 ,moreover1 when once 
the practice of  whipping became a      
public spectacle1 and assumed an        
epidemic form1  imitation1 combined with
 intense religious faith1 would operate 
very  powerfully4    ,in the fourteenth 
century ,europe was visited by the      
,black ,plague4 ,in  countries utterly  
devoid of sanitation1 where baths were  
practically  unknown and personal habits
 of the filthiest1 the plague found a   
fruitful soil4 ,nearly a quarter of the 
population died1 and corpses were  so   
numerous that huge pits were dug and    
hundreds buried together4 ,it was  amid 
the general terror and demoralisation   
caused by this visitation  that the sect
 of the ,flagellants arose4 ,calling    

themselves the  ,brotherhood of the     
,flagellants1 or the ,brethren of the   
,cross1 wearing  dark garments with red 
crosses front and back1 they traversed  
the cities  of the ,continent carrying  
whips to which small pieces of iron were
  fixed4 ,england appears to have been  
the only country in which they  failed  
to establish themselves4 ,elsewhere     
their numbers grew with  formidable     
rapidity4 ,at ,spires two hundred boys1 
under twelve years of  age1 influenced  
probably by the example of the          
children's crusade1  formed themselves  
into a brotherhood and marched through  
some of the  ,german cities4 ,in ,italy 
over #bj1jjj people marched from        
,florence in one  of these processions2 
from ,modena1 over #be1jjj4 ,some of    
them professed  to work miracles4       
,everywhere1 while the mania lasted1    
they were warmly  welcomed1 the         
inhabitants of towns and cities ringing 
the bells and  flocking in crowds to    
hear the preaching and witness the      

whippings4    ,the proceedings of the   
,flagellants in all countries were very 
similar4  ,they marched from town to    
town1 men and women and children        
stripped to  the waist--sometimes       
entirely naked--praying incessantly and 
whipping  each other4 ,not only during  
the day1 but even by night1 and in the  
severest winter1 they traversed the     
cities with torches and banners1 in     
thousands and tens of thousands1 headed 
by their priests1 and prostrated        
themselves before the altars4 ,at other 
times they proceeded to the             
market-place1 arranged themselves on the
 ground in circles1 assuming  attitudes 
in accordance with their real or        
supposed crimes4 ,after each  had been  
whipped1 one of them1 in conclusion1    
stood up to read a  letter1 which it was
 pretended an angel had brought from    
heaven to ,st4  ,peter's ,church1 at    
,jerusalem1 stating that ,christ1 who   
was sore  displeased at the sins of man1
 had granted1 at the intercession of the

  ,holy ,virgin and of the angels1 that 
all who should wander about for         
thirty-four days and scourge themselves 
should be partakers of the  ,divine     
grace4 ,in the end the movement became  
so obnoxious to the  ,church1 and so    
troublesome to the civil authorities1   
that both combined  to secure its       
suppression4    ,equally significant in 
the history of religion is the dancing  
mania1  which broke out as the mania for
 flagellation was subsiding4 ,the       
function of dancing in primitive        
religious ceremonial has been pointed   
out in a previous chapter4 ,it is there 
a common and obvious method of  both    
creating and expressing a high state of 
nervous excitability4 ,in  later times  
religious dancing becomes more purely   
hypnotic in character1  and suggestion  
plays a powerful part4 ,during the      
medieval period the  conditions were    
peculiarly favourable to the prevalence 
of psychological  epidemics4 ,plagues1  
more or less severe1 were of frequent   

occurrence4  ,between #aaai and #acdj1  
,italy alone had no less than sixteen   
such  visitations4 ,smallpox and leprosy
 were also common4 ,the public mind was 
morbidly sensitive to signs and portents
 and saturated to an almost  incredible 
degree with superstition4 ,the public   
processions of the  ,church1 its        
penances1 and practices were all        
calculated to fire the  imagination1 and
 produce a mixed and dangerous condition
 of fear and  expectancy4 ,moreover1    
dancing mania1 on a small scale1 had    
made its  appearance on several previous
 occasions1 and the public mind was thus
  in a way prepared for a more serious  
outbreak4    ,the great dancing mania of
 #acgd occurred immediately after the   
revels  connected with the semi-,pagan  
festival of ,st4 ,john4 ,bacchanalian   
dances  formed one of the accompaniments
 of the festival of ,st4 ,john1 and     
made1  so to speak1 a natural           
starting-point for the epidemic4        
,hecker1 who  gives a very elaborate    

account of the dancing mania as it      
appeared in  various countries1 thus    
describes the behaviour of those        
afflicted3--    ,they formed circles1   
hand in hand1 and1 appearing to have    
lost control  over their senses1        
continued dancing1 regardless of all    
bystanders1 for  hours together1 in wild
 delirium1 until at length they fell to 
the  ground in a state of exhaustion4444
 ,while dancing1 they neither saw nor   
heard1 being insensible to external     
impressions1 but were haunted by        
visions1 their fancies conjuring up     
spirits whose names they shrieked  out2 
and some of them afterwards asserted    
that they felt as if they had  been     
immersed in a stream of blood1 which    
obliged them to leap so high4  ,others1 
during the paroxysm1 saw the heavens    
open and the ,saviour  enthroned with   
the ,virgin ,mary4#ahd    ,at           
,aix-la-,chapelle1 ,cologne1 and ,metz1 
says the same writer3--    ,peasants    
left their ploughs1 mechanics their     

workshops1 housewives  their domestic   
duties1 to join the wild revels4 ,secret
 desires were  excited1 and but too     
often found opportunities for wild      
enjoyment2 and  numerous beggars1       
stimulated by vice and misery1 availed  
themselves of  this new complaint to    
gain a temporary livelihood4 ,girls and 
boys  quitted their parents1 and        
servants their masters1 to amuse        
themselves  at the dances of those      
possessed1 and greedily imbibed the     
poison of  mental infection4 ,above a   
hundred unmarried women were seen raving
 about  in consecrated and unconsecrated
 places1 and the consequences were soon 
perceived4#ahe    ,once attacked1 the   
hypnotic character of the complaint was 
shown by its  annual recurrence4 ,again 
to quote ,hecker3--    ,most of those   
affected were only annually visited by  
attacks2 and the  occasion of them was  
so manifestly referable to the          
prevailing notions  of that period that1
 if the unqualified belief in the agency

 of saints  could have been abolished1  
they would not have had any return of   
the  complaint4 ,throughout the whole of
 ,june1 prior to the festival of ,st4   
,john1 patients felt a disquietude and  
restlessness which they were  unable to 
overcome4 ,they were dejected1 timid1   
and anxious2 wandered  about in an      
unsettled state1 being tormented with   
twitching pains1 which  seized them     
suddenly in different parts1 and eagerly
 expected the eve of  ,st4 ,john's ,day1
 in the confident hope that by dancing  
at the altars of  this saint they would 
be freed from all their sufferings4     
,this hope was  not disappointed2 and   
they remained1 for the rest of the year1
 exempt  from any further attack4#ahf   
,in addition to ,john the ,baptist1 the 
dancing disease was also connected  with
 another saint--,st4 ,vitus4 ,he is said
 to have been martyred about  #cjc1 and 
a body1 reputed to be his1 was          
transported to ,france in the  ninth    
century4 ,it is said that just before he

 was killed he prayed that  all who     
would commemorate the day of his death  
should be protected from  the dancing   
mania4 ,whereupon a voice from heaven   
was heard to say1  ,vitus1 thy prayer is
 accepted4 ,the fact that the prayer was
 offered a  thousand years before the   
dancing mania appeared is a circumstance
 that  to the eye of faith merely       
heightened its value4    ,within recent 
times epidemics of dancing have been    
more local1 less  persistent1 and of    
necessity not so public in their        
display1 but nearly  always their       
appearance has been in connection with  
displays of  religious fervour4 ,in most
 cases the dancing has tended more to a 
species of 'jumping1' and--although this
 may be due to more careful             
observation--has been accompanied by    
actions of a clearly epileptoid  nature4
 ,one of the most famous of these       
outbreaks was that of the ,french       
,convulsionnaires1 which lasted from    
#agbg to the ,revolution4 ,in #agbg1 a  

popular1 but half-crazy priest1 ,franois
 de ,paris1 died4 ,during his life      
,paris had fasted and scourged himself1 
lived in a hut that was seldom or  never
 cleansed1 showed the same lack of      
cleanliness in his person1 and  often   
went about half naked4 ,very shortly    
after his death1 it was said  that      
miracles began to take place at his     
grave in the cemetery of ,st4  ,mdard4  
,people gathered round the tomb day     
after day1 and one young girl  was      
seized with convulsions4 7,she is called
 a girl in the narrative1 but  she was a
 mature virgin of forty-two years of    
age47 ,afterwards other  miracles       
followed in rapid succession4 ,some fell
 in fits1 others  swallowed pieces of   
coal or flint1 some were cured of       
diseases4 ,from the  description of the 
behaviour of some of these devotees     
there seems to  have been a considerable
 amount of sexual feeling mixed up with 
the  display4 ,sometimes1 we are told1  
those seized bounded from the ground    

like fish out of water2 this was so     
frequently imitated at a later  period  
that the women and girls1 when they     
expected such violent  contortions1 not 
wishing to appear indecent1 put on gowns
 made like  sacks1 closed at the feet4  
,if they received any bruises by falling
 down1  they were healed with earth     
taken from the grave of the uncanonised 
saint4 ,they usually1 however1 showed   
great agility in this respect2 and  it  
is scarcely necessary to remark that the
 female sex especially was              
distinguished by all kinds of leaping1  
and almost inconceivable  contortions of
 body4 ,some spun round on their feet   
with incredible  rapidity1 as is related
 of the dervishes4 ,others ran with     
their heads  against walls1 or curved   
their bodies like rope dancers1 so that 
their  heels touched their shoulders4   
,women figured very prominently among   
the ,convulsionnaires1 particularly     
when the epidemic passed from convulsive
 dancing to prophecy1 and thence  to    

various forms of self-torture4 ,women   
stretched themselves on the  floor1     
while other women1 and even men1 jumped 
upon their bodies4 ,others  were beaten 
with clubs and bars of iron4 ,some      
actually underwent  crucifixion on      
repeated occasions4 ,they were stretched
 on wooden  crosses1 and nails three    
inches long driven through hands and    
feet4 ,some  of the occurrences remind  
one of what is now seen to take place   
under  hypnotic influence4 ,people      
labouring under strong excitement1 it is
  known1 become insensible to pain4     
,outbreaks of jumping and dancing       
followed the introduction of ,methodist 
preachers into country districts in the 
eighteenth century4 ,in ,wales1 a  sect 
of ',jumpers' originated from this      
cause1 and many of the ,american        
',jumpers' and ',dancers' seem to have  
had their origin from this ,welsh       
outbreak4 ,in all such cases the spread 
of the mania was helped1 if not  made   
possible1 by the preachers4 ,they       

themselves looked upon these            
exhibitions as manifestations of the    
power of ,god1 and so encouraged  their 
hearers in their behaviour4 ,not every  
minister has the common  sense of the   
,shetland preacher cited by ,hecker4 ,an
 epileptic woman had a  fit in church1  
which a number of others hailed as a    
manifestation of  the power of ,god4    
,sunday after ,sunday the same thing    
occurred with other  women1 the number  
of the sufferers steadily increasing4   
,the thing  threatened to assume such   
proportions1 and to become so great a   
nuisance1 he announced that attendants  
would be at hand who would dip  women in
 the lake who happened to be seized4    
,this threat proved a most  powerful    
form of exorcism4 ,not one woman was    
affected4 ,similar conduct  might have  
been quite as efficacious in preventing 
many religious  manifestations that have
 assumed epidemic proportions4          
,unfortunately1 the influence of        
preachers and religious teachers was    

most usually cast in the other          
direction4 ,very often1 of course1 they 
were no better informed than their      
congregations2 at other times they      
undoubtedly encouraged the delusion for 
interested reasons4 ,the most  striking 
recent illustration of this latter      
behaviour was seen in the  ,welsh       
revival led by ,evan ,roberts4 ,of this 
man's mental condition there  could be  
little doubt4 ,just as little doubt     
could there be that the  behaviour of   
the congregations was wholly due to the 
power of  suggestions upon weak and     
excitable natures4 ,yet scarcely a      
preacher in  ,britain said a word in    
disapproval4 ,hundreds of them used the 
outbreak  to illustrate the power of    
religion4 ,many prominent preachers     
travelled  down to ,wales and returned  
telling of the great manifestations of  
'spiritual power' they had witnessed4   
,how little removed such behaviour  is  
from that of the savage watching with   
awe the actions of one  suffering from  

epilepsy or insanity1 readers of the    
foregoing pages will  be in a position  
to judge4    ,from the middle of the    
third century onward1 ,europe had been  
subject to  wave after wave of religious
 fanaticism4 ,all along1 religious      
belief had  been verified and           
strengthened by the occurrence of       
phenomena that now  admittedly fall     
within the purview of the pathologist4  
,and from one  point of view the        
secularisation of life served but to    
emphasise the  dependence of religion   
upon the occurrence of these abnormal   
conditions4  ,for the more surely the   
phenomena of nature and of social life  
were  brought within the scope of a     
scientific generalisation1 the more     
people  began to look for the life of   
religion in conditions that were removed
  from the normal4 ,but1 above all1 this
 long succession of waves of  fanaticism
 served to permeate the general mind    
with supernaturalism4  ,each one cleared
 the way for a successor4 ,and in the   

next chapter we  have to deal with one  
that1 in some respects1 is the most     
remarkable of  all1 viz41 that of the   
belief in witchcraft4      ,,footnotes3 
#agf ,it is estimated that #bge1jjj     
people formed the van of the first      
crusade4    #agg ,l4 ,o4 ,pike1 ,history
 of ,crime in ,england1 i4 pp4 #afd-i4  
#agh ,history of ,latin ,christianity1  
iv4 p4 #ahh4    #agi ,history of the    
,holy ,war1 bk4 iii4    #ahj            
,intellectual ,development of ,europe1  
#ahgb1 p4 #dbe4    #aha ,milman1 iv4 p4 
#aii4    #ahb ,holy ,roman ,empire1 p4  
#afd4    #ahc ,see ,bloch1 ,sexual ,life
 of our ,time1 pp4 #efh-gd4    #ahd     
,epidemics of the ,middle ,ages1 pp4    
#hg-h4    #ahe ,hecker1 p4 #ia4    #ahf 
,epidemics1 p4 #aje4          ,,chapter 
,,ten    ,,the ,,witch ,,mania      ,in 
all stages of religious history the     
witch and the wizard are familiar       
figures4 ,it is of no importance to our 
present enquiry whether magic  precedes 
religion or not4 ,it is at all events   

certain that they are very  closely     
connected1 and that conditions which    
foster the belief in magic  likewise    
serve to strengthen religious belief4   
,witchcraft1 as ,tylor  says1 is part   
and parcel of savage life4 ,death is    
very frequently  attributed to the      
magical action of wizards1 and the      
savage lives in  perpetual fear lest    
some of his belongings1 or some part of 
his person1  should be bewitched by     
malevolent sorcerers4 ,sir ,richard     
,burton says  that in ,east ,africa his 
experience taught him that among the    
negroes1  what with slavery and what    
with black magic1 no one1 especially in 
old  age1 is safe from being burnt at a 
day's notice4 ,when from savage life  we
 mount to societies enjoying a higher   
culture1 we still find the witch  and   
the wizard in evidence4 ,both in ,greece
 and ,rome the belief in  witchcraft    
existed4 ,there were made direct laws   
against its practice1  although neither 
the ,greeks nor the ,romans stained     

their civilisation  with the judicial   
murder of thousands of victims such as  
occurred later  in ,christian ,europe4  
,but the belief in witchcraft is        
continuous4 ,so also are the methods    
practised1 and the modes of detection4  
,the proofs offered in support of       
sorcery in the seventeenth century are  
precisely similar to those  credited by 
savages in the lowest stage of human    
culture4 ,the power of  transformation  
possessed by the accused1 the ability to
 bewitch through  the possession of     
hairs belonging to the afflicted person1
 the making of  little effigies and     
driving sharp instruments into them1 and
 so  affecting the corresponding parts  
of people1 transportation through the   
air1 etc41 all belong to the belief in  
and practice of witchcraft  wherever    
found4 ,had a ,fijian been transported  
to a seat on the judicial  bench by the 
side of ,sir ,matthew ,hale1 when that  
judge condemned two old  women to death 
for witchcraft1 he would have found     

himself in a quite  congenial           
atmosphere4 ,allowing for difference in 
language1 he would have  found the      
evidence similar to that with which he  
was familiar1 and he  would have been   
able to endorse the judge's remarks with
 tales of his  own experience4 ,on this 
point1 the level of culture attained by 
savages1  and that of the inhabitants of
 the overwhelming majority of ,european 
countries little more than two hundred  
years ago1 were substantially the  same4
 ,even to-day cases are continually     
occurring which prove that  advances in 
knowledge and civilisation have not left
 this ancient  superstition without     
supporters4    ,in subscribing to the   
belief in witchcraft1 the ,christian    
,church thus  fell into line with       
earlier forms of religious belief4 ,the 
peculiar  feature it represents is that 
it came into existence when the belief  
in  witchcraft was losing its hold on   
the more cultured classes4 ,had it not  
allied itself with this tendency1 no    

such thing as the witch mania of  the   
medieval period could have existed4 ,in 
sober truth1 it brought about  a        
veritable renaissance of the cruder     
theories of demonism1 while its         
intolerance of opposition succeeded in  
stifling the voice of criticism  for    
centuries4 ,the primitive theory which  
holds that man is surrounded  by hosts  
of spiritual agencies1 mostly of a      
malevolent nature1 was  revived and     
fully endorsed by all ,christian        
teachers4 ,in the commonest1  as well as
 in the rarest events of life1 this     
supernatural activity was  manifest4 ,in
 both the ,old and ,new ,testament the  
belief in demoniacal  agency was        
endorsed4 ,moreover1 the fact that      
,christianity was not a  creed seeking  
to live as one of many others1 but a    
religion struggling  for complete       
mastery1 gave further impetus to the    
belief4 ,an easy  explanation for the   
miracles and marvels that occurred in   
connection  with non-,christian beliefs 

was that they were the work of demons4  
,the  ,christian felt himself to be     
fighting not so much human antagonists  
as  so many embodiments of satanic      
power4 ,and after the establishment of  
,christianity it is probable that much  
that went on under cover of witch       
assemblies1 a more detailed knowledge   
than we possess would prove to be       
really the clandestine exercise of      
prescribed forms of faith4 ,the old     
saying1 ,the sin of witchcraft is as the
 sin of rebellion1 has more in  it than 
meets the eye4 ,there is little real    
difference between the magic  that      
appears as piety and the magic that is  
denounced as sorcery1 except  that one  
is permitted and the other is not4 ,and 
it is almost a law of  religious        
development that the gods of one        
religion become the demons of  its      
successor4    ,but while witchcraft has 
existed in all ages1 it existed in a    
much  milder form than that which we    
find in the sixteenth and seventeenth   

centuries4 ,first of all1 there is the  
fact to which attention has  already    
been directed1 namely1 the concentration
 of the public mind upon  various forms 
of supernaturalism4 ,every aspect of    
life was more or less  under the direct 
influence of the ,church1 and no        
teaching was tolerated  that conflicted 
with her doctrines4 ,and it was to the  
interest of the  ,church perpetually to 
emphasise the reality of either angelic 
or  diabolic activity4 ,even in the case
 of those who showed a tendency to      
revolt against ,church rule there was no
 exception to this4 ,if anything1  the  
belief was more pronounced4 ,next1 the  
fifteenth and sixteenth  centuries saw a
 rising tide of heresy against which the
 ,church was  compelled to battle2 and  
to ascribe this alleged perversion of   
,christian  doctrines to the malevolence
 of ,satan offered the line of least    
resistance--just as the heretics        
attributed the power of the ,church     
itself to the same source4 ,whatever    

diminution ensued in the general  flood 
of superstition1 as a consequence of the
 quarrel between  ,protestant and       
,catholic1 was1 so far as the disputants
 were concerned1  incidental and even   
undesired4 ,on the one point of demonism
 there  existed complete unanimity1 and 
the sceptic fared equally hard with both
  parties4 ,in such an environment the  
wildest tales of sorcery became         
credible2 and nothing illustrates this  
more forcibly than the fact that  many  
of those tortured and condemned for     
sorcery actually believed  themselves   
capable of performing the marvels laid  
to their charge4 ,added  to these       
factors1 we have to note that social    
conditions were also  extremely         
favourable4 ,moral ties were as loose as
 they could reasonably  be2 and the     
attitude of the ,church towards the     
sexual relation had  forced both the    
religious and the non-religious mind    
into wholly  unhealthy channels4 ,this  
last aspect of the subject has been     

little  dealt with1 but it is           
unquestionably a very real one4 ,a      
,german writer  says3--    ,whilst in   
the fifteenth and the beginning of the  
sixteenth centuries1  as those well     
acquainted with the state of morals     
during this period can  all confirm1 a  
most unbounded freedom was dominant in  
sexual relations1  the ,state and the   
,church were desirous of compelling the 
people to keep  better order by the use 
of actual force1 and by religious       
compulsion4 ,so  forced a transformation
 in so vital a matter necessarily       
resulted in a  reaction of the worst    
kind1 and forced into secret channels   
the impulse  which it had attempted to  
suppress4 ,this reaction occurred1      
moreover1  with an elemental force4     
,there resulted widespread sexual       
violence and  seduction1 hesitating at  
nothing1 often insanely daring1 in which
  everywhere the devil was supposed to  
help2 everyone's head was turned in     
this way2 the uncontrolled lust of      

debauchees found vent in secret         
bacchanalian associations and orgies1   
wherein many1 with or without           
masquerade1 played the part of ,satan2  
shameful deeds were perpetrated by      
excited women and by procuresses and    
prostitutes ready for any kind of       
immoral abomination2 add to these sexual
 orgies the most widely diffused  web of
 a completely developed theory of       
witchcraft1 and the systematic          
strengthening of the widely prevalent   
belief in the devil--all these  things1 
woven in a labyrinthine connection1 made
 it possible for  thousands upon        
thousands to be murdered by a disordered
 justice and to  be sacrificed to       
delusion4#ahg    ,to those who look     
closely into the subject of medieval    
witchcraft the  presence of a strong    
sexual element is undeniable4 ,when we  
examine  contemporary accounts of the   
',sabbath1' some of which are so gross  
as to  be unprintable1 we find a portion
 of the proceedings to be of a marked   

erotic character4 ,the figure of ,satan 
often enough reminds one of the  pagan  
,priapus1 and the ceremonies bear a     
strong resemblance to the  ancient ones1
 with the mixture of ,christian language
 and symbolism  inevitable under such   
circumstances4 ,promiscuous intercourse 
between the  sexes was said to occur at 
the witches' gatherings2 and1 indeed1   
unless  some sort of sexual extravagance
 occurred1 it is hard to account for    
both the persistency of the gatherings  
and of the reports concerning  them4    
,the most probable theory is1 as ,i have
 just said1 that these  gatherings were 
covers for a continuance of the older   
sex worship4 ,many  customs connected   
therewith lingered on in the ,church    
itself1 and it is  not a wild assumption
 that they existed in a less adulterated
 and more  extravagant form outside4    
,universal as the belief in witchcraft  
has been1 it was not until the  close of
 the fifteenth century that it assumed  
what may be justly called  an epidemic  

form4 ,the famous ,bull of ,pope        
,innocent ,,viii4 was not  unconnected  
in its origin with the growth of heresy4
 ,this precious  document1 issued in    
#adhd1 declares3--    ,it has come to   
our ears that very many persons of both 
sexes1 deviating  from the ,catholic    
,faith1 abuse themselves with demons1   
,incubus and  ,succubus2 and by         
incantations1 charms1 and conjurations1 
and other  wicked superstitions1 by     
criminal acts and offences1 have caused 
the  offspring of women and of the lower
 animals1 the fruits of the earth1  the 
grape1 and the products of various      
plants1 men1 women1 and other  animals  
of different kinds1 vineyards1 meadows1 
pasture land1 corn and  other vegetables
 of the earth1 to perish1 be oppressed1 
and utterly  destroyed2 that they       
torture men and women with cruel pains  
and  torments1 internal as well as      
external2 that they hinder the proper   
intercourse of the sexes1 and the       
propagation of the human species4       

,moreover1 they are in the habit of     
denying the very faith itself4 ,we1     
therefore1 willing to provide by        
opportune remedies1 according as it     
falls to our office1 by our apostolical 
authority1 by the tenor of these        
presents1 do appoint and decree that    
they be convicted1 imprisoned1          
punished1 and mulcted according to their
 offences4    ,it was this ,pope who    
commissioned the inquisitor1 ,sprenger1 
to root out  witches4 ,sprenger1 with   
two others1 acting on the authority of  
the  ,popes1 drew up the famous work1   
,the ,witch ,hammer1 which provided the 
basis for all subsequent works on the   
detection and punishment of             
witches4#ahh ,the folly and iniquity of 
the book is almost unbelievable1        
although it is quite matched by         
subsequent productions4 ,it even        
provides  for the silence of people     
under torture4 ,if they confess when    
tortured1  the case is complete4 ,but if
 they do not confess1 this diabolic     

production lays it down that this is    
because witches who have given          
themselves up to the devil are          
insensible to pain4 ,even the evidence  
of  children was admitted4 ,and although
 in ordinary trials the evidence of     
criminals was barred1 it was to be      
freely allowed in trials for sorcery4   
,everything that ingenuity could suggest
 or brutality execute was  provided for4
    ,from the issue of ,the ,witch      
,hammer until the middle of the         
seventeenth  century1 a period of about 
one hundred and fifty years1 an epidemic
 of  witchcraft raged4 ,people of all   
ages and of all classes of society      
became implicated1 and for some time1 at
 least1 accusation meant  conviction4   
,an almost unbelievably large number    
were executed4 ,says  ,lecky3--    ,in  
almost every province of ,germany1 but  
especially in those where  clerical     
influence predominated1 the persecution 
raged with a fearful  intensity4 ,seven 
thousand witches are said to have been  

burned at  ,trves1 six hundred by a     
single bishop in ,bamberg1 and nine     
hundred in a  single year in the        
bishopric of ,wrzburg4444 ,at ,toulouse1
 the seat of  the ,inquisition1 four    
hundred persons perished for sorcery at 
a single  execution1 and fifty at ,douay
 in a single year4 ,remy1 a judge of    
,nancy1  boasted that he put to death   
eight hundred witches in sixteen        
years4444  ,in ,italy1 a thousand       
persons were executed in a single year  
in the  province of ,como2 and in other 
parts of the country the severity of the
  inquisitors at last created an        
absolute rebellion4444 ,in ,geneva1     
which  was then ruled by a bishop1 five 
hundred alleged witches were executed   
in three months2 forty-eight were burned
 at ,constance or ,ravensburg1 and      
eighty in the little town of ,valery in 
,saxony4 ,in #afgj1 seventy persons     
were condemned in ,sweden1 and a large  
proportion of them burnt4#ahi    ,in    
,england1 from #afjc to #afhj1 it is    

estimated that seventy thousand  persons
 were put to death for sorcery4#aij     
,grey1 the editor of  ,hudibras1 says   
that he had himself seen a list of three
 thousand who  were put to death during 
the ,long ,parliament4 ,the celebrated  
witch-finder1 ,mathew ,hopkins1 hung    
sixty in one year in the county of      
,suffolk4 ,in ,scotland1 for thirty-nine
 years1 the number killed annually      
averaged about two hundred4 ,this1 of   
course1 does not take into account  the 
number who were hounded to death by     
persecution of a popular kind1  or whose
 lives were made so wearisome that death
 must have come as a  release4 ,but the 
most remarkable1 and the most horrible1 
of witchcraft  executions occurred in   
,wrzburg in ,february #afbi4 ,no less   
than one  hundred and sixty-two witches 
were burned in a succession of          
autos-da-f4 ,among these1 the reports   
disclose that there were  actually      
thirty-four children4 ,the following    
details give the actual  ages of some of

 them3--                                
----------------------------------------
------------     ,burning4  ,number4    
,children4                              
----------------------------------------
------------       #gth       #g        
#a ,girl1 aged #ab4                     
#acth       #d       #a ,girl of #aj and
 another4            #aeth       #b     
#a ,boy of #ab4                         
#ahth       #f       #b ,boys of #aj1   
girl of #ad4            #aith       #f  
#b ,boys1 #aj and #ab4                  
#bjth       #f       #b ,boys4          
#bcrd       #i       #c ,boys1 #i1 #aj1 
and #ad4               #bdth       #g   
#b ,boys1 brought from hospital4        
#bfth       #h       ,little boy and    
girl4                 #bgth       #g    
#b ,boys1 #h and #i4                    
#bhth       #f       ,blind girl and    
infant4#aia                             
----------------------------------------
------------    ,the vast majority of   
those executed for sorcery were women4  

,at all times  witches have been more   
numerous than wizards1 owing to their   
assumed  closer connection with the     
world of supernatural beings4 ,it was   
said1  ,for one sorcerer1 ten thousand  
sorceresses1 and ,christian writers were
  ready to explain why4 ,woman had a    
greater affinity with the devil from    
the outset4 ,it was through woman that  
,satan had seduced ,adam1 and it  was   
only to be expected that he would employ
 the same instrument on  subsequent     
occasions4 ,the ,witch ,hammer has a    
special chapter devoted  to the         
consideration of why women are more     
given to sorcery than men1  and quotes  
freely from the ,fathers to prove that  
this follows from her  nature4 ,james   
,i4 in his ,demonologia follows         
,sprenger in accounting for  the number 
of witches4 ,the reason is easy4 ,for as
 that sex is frailer  than man is1 so it
 is easier to be entrapped in the gross 
snares of the  devil1 as was over-well  
proved to be true by the serpent's      

deceiving of  ,eve at the beginning1    
which makes him the homelier with the   
sex  sensine4 ,to be old1 or ugly1 or   
unpopular1 to have any peculiar         
deformity or mark1 was to invite        
persecution1 and1 in an overwhelming    
majority of instances1 conviction       
followed accusation4    ,it is a        
significant comment upon the popular    
belief that ,protestantism1  as a form  
of religious belief1 was the product of 
an enlightened  rational life1 that it  
was only with the advance of            
,protestantism that  the belief in      
witchcraft assumed an epidemic form4    
,this may be partly  due to the greater 
direct dependence upon the ,bible1 in   
which satanic  influence--particularly  
in the ,new ,testament--plays so large a
 part4 ,in  the ,roman ,church1 exorcism
 remained a regular part of the         
functions of  the priest2 the ,church   
was filled with accounts of satanic     
conflicts1  but diabolic intercourse    
seems to have been mainly limited to    

saintly  characters and priests4        
,protestantism which1 theoretically1    
made every  man his own priest1 raised  
the belief in satanic agency to an      
obsession4  ,and wherever ,protestantism
 established itself there was an        
immediate  and marked increase in the   
number of cases of witchcraft4 ,in      
,england1 if  we omit a doubtful law of 
the tenth century1 there existed no     
regular  law against witchcraft until   
#aeda4 ,it remained a purely            
ecclesiastical  offence4 ,seventeen     
years later1 the year of ,elizabeth's   
accession1  ,bishop ,jewell1 preaching  
before the ,queen1 drew attention to the
  increase of sorcery4 ,it may please   
,your ,grace1 he said1 to understand    
that witches and sorcerers1 within these
 last few years1 are  marvellously      
increased within ,your ,grace's realm4  
,your ,grace's subjects  pine away even 
to the death1 their colour fadeth1 their
 flesh rotteth1  their senses are       
bereft4 ,i pray ,god they never practise

 further than  upon the subject4 ,and he
 added1 ,these eyes have seen most      
evident and  manifest marks of their    
wickedness4 ,a measure was passed       
through  ,parliament the same year1     
making enchantments and witchcraft      
felony4 ,the  first year of ,james ,i4  
saw the passing of the ',witch ,act1'   
under which  subsequent executions took 
place1 and which remained in force until
  nearly the middle of the eighteenth   
century4    ,with scarce an exception1  
the leaders of ,protestantism encouraged
 the  belief in witches and urged their 
extermination as a religious and civil  
duty4 ,with ,luther1 in spite of the    
sturdy common sense he manifested in    
some directions1 belief in the activity 
of ,satan amounted to an  obsession4 ,he
 saw ,satan everywhere in everything4   
,the devil appeared to  him while       
writing1 disturbed his rest by the      
rattling of pans1 and  prevented his    
pursuing his studies by hammering on his
 skull4 ,when a  storm arose1 ,luther   

declared1 ',tis the devil who has done  
this2 the  winds are nothing else but   
good or bad spirits4 ,suicides1 he said1
 were  often those strangled by the     
devil4 ,moreover1 ,the devil can so     
completely assume the human form when he
 wants to deceive us1 that we  may very 
well lie with what seems to be a woman  
of real flesh and blood1  and yet all   
the while 'tis only the devil in the    
shape of a woman4 ,the  devil could also
 become the father of children4 ,luther 
says that he knew  of one such case1 and
 added1 ,i would have that child thrown 
into the  ,moldau at the risk of being  
held its murderer4#aib    ,in ,america1 
,protestantism manifested the same      
influence4 ,of course1 the  settlers    
took the superstition of witchcraft with
 them1 but it underwent  no diminution  
in a new land4 ,increase ,mather and his
 celebrated son1  ,cotton ,mather1 were 
the principal agents in stirring up the 
belief to  frenzy point1 and a          
commission was appointed to rout out    

witches and  suppress their practices4  
,there was soon a plentiful supply of   
victims4  ,one woman was charged with   
giving a look towards the great         
meeting-house of ,salem1 and immediately
 a demon entered the house and  tore    
down part of it4 ,it seems that a bit of
 the wooden wainscotting  had fallen    
down4 ,in the case of ,giles ,corey1 who
 refused to plead  guilty1 torture was  
used4 ,he was pressed to death1 and when
 his tongue  protruded from his mouth   
the sheriff thrust it back with his     
walking-stick4 ,many people were        
executed1 and the ministers of ,boston  
and ,charlestown drew up an address     
warmly thanking the commission for  its 
zeal1 and expressing the hope that it   
would never be relaxed4    ,certainly   
the commission did what it could to earn
 the thanks given4 ,a  shipmaster making
 for ,maryland with emigrants           
encountered unusually  rough weather4   
,an old woman1 one ,mary ,lee1 was      
accused of raising the  storm1 and      

drowned as a witch4 ,a woman walked a   
long distance over muddy  roads without 
soiling her dress4 ,i scorn to be       
drabbled1 she said1 and  was hanged as a
 reward4 ,george ,burroughs could lift a
 barrel by  inserting his finger in the 
bunghole4 ,he was hanged for a wizard4  
,bridget ,bishop was charged with       
appearing before ,john ,louder at       
midnight  and grievously oppressing him4
 ,louder's evidence against the woman   
also  included the fact that he saw a   
black pig approach his door1 and when he
  went to kick it the pig vanished4 ,he 
was also tempted by a black thing  with 
the body of a monkey1 the feet of a     
cock1 and the face of a man4 ,on  going 
out of his back door he saw the said    
,bridget ,bishop going towards  her     
house4 ,the evidence was deemed quite   
conclusive4 ,another witness  said that 
being in bed on the ,lord's ,day1 he saw
 a woman1 ,susanna  ,martin1 come in at 
the window and jump down on the floor4  
,she took hold  of the witness's foot1  

and drawing his body into a heap1 lay   
upon him  for nearly two hours1 so that 
he could neither move nor hear4 ,in most
 of  these cases torture was applied1   
and confessions were obtained4 ,these   
confessions often implicated others1 but
 when the witches took to  accusing     
those in high places1 and even ministers
 of religion1 the need  for             
discrimination was realised4 ,once a    
critical judgment was aroused1  the     
mania began to subside--,cotton ,mather 
fighting manfully for the  belief to the
 end4    ,the impetus given by          
,protestantism to witch-hunting in      
,scotland was most  marked4 ,scotch     
witchcraft1 says ,lecky1 was the        
offspring of ,scotch  ,puritanism1 and  
faithfully reflected the character of   
its parent4 ,the  clergy nowhere        
possessed greater power1 and nowhere    
used it more  assiduously to fan the    
flame against witchcraft4 ,buckle       
says3--    ,of all the means of         
intimidation employed by the ,scotch    

clergy1 none  was more efficacious than 
the doctrines they propounded respecting
 evil  spirits and future punishments4  
,on these subjects they constantly      
uttered the most appalling threats4 ,the
 language which they used was           
calculated to madden men with fear1 and 
to drive them to the depths of          
despair4444 ,it was generally believed  
that the world was overrun by evil      
spirits1 who not only went up and down  
the earth1 but also lived in the  air1  
and whose business it was to tempt      
mankind4 ,their number was  infinite1   
and they were to be found in all places1
 and in all seasons4  ,at their head was
 ,satan himself1 whose delight it was to
 appear in  person1 ensnaring or        
terrifying everyone he met4 ,with this  
object he  assumed various forms4 ,one  
day he would visit the earth as a black 
dog2  another day1 as a raven2 on       
another1 he would be heard in the       
distance  roaring like a bull4 ,he      
appeared sometimes as a white man in    

black  clothes1 and sometimes he        
appeared as a black man in black        
clothes1 when  it was remarked that his 
voice was ghostly1 and that one of his  
feet was  cloven4 ,his stratagems were  
endless4 ,for1 in the opinion of        
divines1 his  cunning increased with his
 age1 and1 having been studying for more
 than  #ejjj years1 he had now attained 
to unexampled dexterity4#aic            
,witchcraft was declared by the ,scotch 
,parliament in #aefc to be  punishable  
by death4 ,and1 naturally1 the more     
zealous and active the  search for      
witches1 the more numerous they became4 
,in the search the  clergy and the      
kirk-sessions led the way4 ,in #aehg the
 ,general ,assembly1  having before them
 a case of witchcraft in which the      
evidence was  insufficient1 deputed     
,james ,melville to travel on the coast 
side and  collect evidence in favour of 
the prosecution4 ,it also ordered that  
the  presbyteries should proceed in all 
severity against such magistrates as    

liberated convicted witches4 ,as in     
,england so here1 a body of men came    
into existence whose business it was to 
travel the country and detect  witches4 
,anonymous accusations were invited1 the
 clergy placing an  empty box in church1
 to receive a billet with the sorcerer's
 name1 and  the date and description of 
his deeds4#aid ,in #afjc at the ,college
 of  ,auld ,abirdene every minister was 
ordered to make subtill and privie      
inquisition1 concerning the number of   
witches in his parish1 and report  the  
same forthwith4 ,nothing that could whet
 the appetite for the hunt  was         
neglected4 ,william ,johnston1 baron1   
bailie of the regalitie and  barronie of
 ,broughton1 was awarded the goods of   
all who should be  lawfullie convict be 
assyses of notorious and common witches1
 haunting  and resorting devilles and   
witches4#aie ,the lives of thousands of 
people were rendered unbearable1 and the
 complaint of one1 ,margaret  ,miall1   
that she desyres not to live1 because   

nobody will converse with  her1 seeing  
she is under the reputation of a witch1 
must have  represented the feelings of  
many4    ,it was not only for working   
ill that people were accused of         
witchcraft  and executed2 ill or well   
made little difference4 ,in ,edinburgh  
in #afbc  it was charged against ,thomas
 ,grieve that he had relieved many      
sicknesses and grievous diseases by     
sorcery and witchcraft4 ,he took        
sickness off a woman in ,fife1 and put  
it upon a cow1 which thereafter  ran mad
 and died4 ,he also cured a child of a  
disease by straiking back  the hair of  
his head1 and wrapping him in an        
anointed cloth1 and by that  means      
putting him asleep1 and thus through his
 devilry and witchcraft1  cured the     
child4 ,other charges of a similar kind 
were brought against  ,grieve1 who was  
found guilty and hanged on the ,castle  
,hill4#aif ,at the  same place1 a year  
previous1 ,margaret ,wallace was also   
sentenced to be  hanged and burned1 on  

the same kind of charge1 and for        
practising  devilry1 incantation1 and   
witchcraft1 especially forbidden by the 
laws  of ,almighty ,god1 and the        
municipal laws of this realm4    ,the   
following bill of costs for burning two 
women1 ,jane ,wischert and  ,isabel     
,cocker1 in ,aberdeen1 has a certain    
melancholy interest3--                  
s4 d4      ,item for #bj loads of       
,peatts to burn them    #b    #j   #j   
for ane boll of colles                  
#a    #d   #j        for four tar       
barrells                  #j    #f   #h 
for fir and win barrells                
#j   #af   #h        for a staick and   
the dressing of it    #j   #af   #j     
for four fathoms of towis               
#d    #j   #j        to ,jon ,justice   
for their execution     #j   #ac   #d   
,in ,england1 no less than in ,scotland1
 ,america1 and on the ,continent1  much 
learned testimony might be cited in     
defence of witchcraft4 ,the  great ,sir 
,thomas ,browne said in the most famous 

of his writings3 ,for my  part ,i have  
ever believed1 and do now know1 that    
there are witches4 ,they  that doubt of 
these do not only deny them1 but        
spirits2 and are  obliquely and upon    
consequence1 a sort1 not of infidels1   
but  atheists4#aig ,henry ,more1 the    
great ,platonist1 asserted that they who
  deny the agency of witches are puffed 
up with nothing but ignorance1  vanity1 
and stupid infidelity4 ,ralph ,cudworth1
 one of the greatest  scholars of the   
latter part of the seventeenth century1 
said that they  who denied the          
possibility of satanic intercourse can  
hardly escape the  suspicion of some    
hankering towards atheism4#aih ,writing 
nearly a  century later1 when the       
,english law merely prosecuted as rogues
 and  vagabonds those who pretended to  
witchcraft1 ,blackstone thought it      
necessary to point out that this        
alteration did not deny the possibility 
of the offence1 and added3--    ,to deny
 this would be to contradict the        

revealed word of ,god in various        
passages both of the ,old and ,new      
,testaments2 and the thing itself is a  
truth in which every nation in the world
 hath in its turn borne  testimony2     
either by examples seemingly well       
attested1 or by prohibitory  laws which 
at least suppose the possibility of a   
commerce with evil  spirits4#aii        
,about the same time ,wesley gave the   
world his famous declaration on the     
subject3--    ,it is true likewise that 
the ,english in general1 and indeed most
 of the  men of learning in ,europe1    
have given up all accounts of witches   
and  apparitions as mere old wives'     
fables4 ,i am sorry for it1 and ,i      
willingly take this opportunity of      
entering my solemn protest against  this
 violent compliment which so many who   
believe the ,bible pay to those  who do 
not believe it4 ,i owe them no such     
service4 ,i take knowledge  that these  
are at the bottom of the outcry which   
has been raised and  with such insolence

 spread through the land in direct      
opposition1 not  only to the ,bible1 but
 to the suffrage of the wisest and best 
of men in  all ages and nations4 ,they  
well know 7whether ,christians know it  
or not7  that the giving up of          
witchcraft is in effect giving up the   
,bible4#bjj    ,the evidence upon which 
the convictions for witchcraft rested   
were  almost incredibly stupid1 as the  
punishments were almost unbelievably    
brutal4 ,if the crops failed1 or the    
milk turned sour2 if the head of a      
local magnate ached1 or a minister of   
the gospel fell sick2 if a woman  was   
childless1 or a child taken with a fit2 
if a cow sickened1 or sheep  died       
suddenly1 some poor woman was pretty    
certain to be seized1 and  tortured     
until she confessed her alleged crime4  
,a mole or wart on any  part of the body
 was a sure sign of commerce with the   
devil4 ,it was  believed that on the    
body of every witch was a spot          
insensible to pain4  ,to discover this  

she was stripped1 pins were run into the
 body1 and when  excess of pain had     
produced numbness1 some such spot was   
pretty certain  to be found4 ,men       
regularly took up with this work in both
 ,england and  ,scotland1 and their fame
 as 'prickers' depended upon the number 
of  witches they unearthed4 ,if a       
suspected witch kept a black cat1 did   
not  shed tears1 or could not repeat the
 ,lord's ,prayer correctly1 these were  
pretty sure signs of guilt4 ,a more     
serious test was the ordeal by water4   
,this was a favourite and general test1 
and was highly recommended by  that     
learned fool1 ,james the ,first4 ,in    
this the right hand was tied to  the    
left foot1 the left hand to the right   
foot4 ,she was then thrown  into a pond4
 ,if she floated she was a witch1 and   
was either hanged or  burned4 ,if she   
sank1 she was innocent--and was drowned4
 ,another test was  to tie a woman's    
legs across1 and she was so seated on   
them that they  bore the entire weight  

of her body4 ,in this position she was  
kept for  hours1 and on the first sign  
of pain condemned as a witch4    ,if    
none of these tests were adopted1       
torture was used4 ,there was the        
boot--a frame of iron or wood in which  
the leg was placed and wedges  driven in
 until the limb was smashed4 ,a         
variation of this was to place  the leg 
in an iron boot and slowly heat it over 
a fire4 ,there was the  thumbscrew1 an  
instrument which smashed the thumb to   
pulp by the turning  of a screw4 ,more  
barbarous still was the bridle4 ,this   
was an iron hoop  passing over the head1
 with four prongs1 two pointing to the  
tongue and  palate1 and one to either   
cheek4 ,the suspected witch was then    
chained to  the wall1 and watchers      
appointed to prevent her sleeping4 ,the 
slightest  movement caused the greatest 
torture1 and in the vast majority of    
cases  a confession was secured4 ,in    
obstinate cases pressing between heavy  
stones was adopted4    ,one of the most 

famous of these witch-finders was the   
celebrated ,mathew  ,hopkins before     
referred to4 ,he was appointed to the   
work by ,parliament  during the time of 
the ,commonwealth1 and styled himself   
'witch-finder  general4' ,hopkins       
travelled round the country1 much like  
an assize  judge1 putting up at the     
principal inns1 and at the expense of   
the local  authorities4 ,his charge was 
twenty shillings a visit1 whether he    
found  witches or not4 ,if he discovered
 any1 there was a further charge of     
twenty shillings for every witch brought
 to execution4 ,his favourite  method of
 detection was that of floating4 ,but   
another of ,hopkins's tests  was the    
following3 ,the suspected witch was     
placed cross-legged on a  stool in the  
centre of the room4 ,she was closely    
watched and kept  without food for      
four-and-twenty hours4 ,doors and       
windows remained open  to watch for the 
entrance of some of the devil's imps4   
,these might come  in the form of a fly1

 a wasp1 a moth1 or some other insect4  
,the work of  the watchers was to kill  
every insect that came into the room4   
,but if  one escaped1 it was clear proof
 that this was one of the witch's       
familiars4    ,wherever ,hopkins        
travelled numerous convictions followed4
 ,these were so  numerous that suspicion
 was aroused1 not of the genuineness of 
the  convictions1 but of ,hopkins's     
knowledge concerning the locality of the
  witches4 ,in defence he published in  
#afdg a tract entitled ,the ,discovery  
of ,witches2 in answer to several       
,queries lately delivered to the ,judge 
of ,assize for the ,county of ,norfolk2 
and now published by ,mathew  ,hopkins1 
,witchfinder1 for the benefit of the    
whole ,kingdom4 ,the charge  against    
,hopkins was that he had been supplied  
by the devil with a  memorandum of all  
the witches1 and so was able to find    
them where others  failed4 ,absurd as   
the charge was1 it found credence1 and  
although his  end is wrapped in         

obscurity1 it is said that he was       
finally seized  himself on a charge of  
sorcery1 tried by his own favourite     
water  test--and floated4 ,one cannot   
but hope that tradition is in this case 
trustworthy4    ,it is difficult1       
nowadays1 to realise the gravity with   
which these  trials were undertaken4 ,an
 outline of a very famous witch trial1  
before  an eminent judge in the latter  
part of the seventeenth century1 will   
best serve as an illustration4 ,before  
me there lies a little tract of  some   
sixty pages1 printed for ,william       
,shrewsbury at the ,bible in ,duck      
,lane1 and bearing on the title page the
 following description3--    ,at the    
,assizes and general gaol delivery1 held
 at ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds for  the ,county
 of ,suffolk1 the ,tenth day of ,march1 
in the ,sixteenth ,year of  the ,reign  
of our ,sovereign1 ,lord ,king ,charles 
,,ii41 before ,mathew ,hale1  ,knight1  
,lord ,chief ,baron of ,his ,majesties  
,court of ,exchequer2 ,rose  ,callender 

and ,amy ,duny1 ,widows1 both of        
,leystoff1 in the county  aforesaid1    
were severally indicted for bewitching  
,elizabeth and ,anne  ,durent1 ,jane    
,bocking1 ,susan ,chandler1 ,william    
,durent1 ,elizabeth and  ,deborah ,pacy 
and the said ,callender and ,duny1 being
 arrainged upon the  same indictments1  
pleaded not guilty2 and afterwards upon 
a long  evidence1 were found guilty1 and
 thereupon had judgment to dye for the  
same4    ,both the women charged were   
old4 ,the charges were as follows3 ,the 
mother  of the infant1 ,william ,durent1
 sworn and examined in open court1      
deposed  that about the #ajth of ,march1
 having special occasion to go from     
home1  left her child in the care of    
,amy ,duny1 giving her special occasion 
not  to give her child the breast4      
,nevertheless1 ,amy ,duny did acquaint  
her  mother on her return that she had  
given the child the breast1 and on      
being reprimanded used many high        
expressions and threatening speeches    

towards her2 telling her that she had as
 good have done otherwise than  to have 
found fault with her 444 and that very  
night her son fell into  strange fits of
 swounding 444 and so continued for     
several weeks4 ,much  troubled1 the     
mother consulted a ,dr4 ,jacob1 of      
,yarmouth1 who advised  her to hang up  
the child's blanket1 at night to wrap   
the child in it1  and if she found      
anything therein to throw it in the     
fire4 ,a very large  toad was found1    
which on being put in the fire made a   
great and  horrible noise1 and after a  
space there was a flashing in the fire  
like  gunpowder 444 and thereupon the   
toad was no more seen or heard4 ,more   
wonderful still1 the next day there came
 a young woman and told this  deponnent 
that her aunt 7meaning the said ,amy7   
was in a most lamentable  condition1    
having her face all scorched with fire4 
,and on the mother  enquiring of ,amy   
,duny how this had happened1 ,amy       
replied1 she might  thank her for it1   

for that she was the cause thereof1 but 
that she  should live to see some of her
 children dead1 or else upon crutches4  
,it  was further alleged that not long  
after this deponnent was taken with     
lameness in both her legges1 from the   
knees downwards1 and that she was  fain 
to go upon crutches 444 and so continued
 till the time of the  ,assizes1 that   
the witch came to be tried4             
,concerning the bewitching of ,elizabeth
 and ,deborah ,pacy1 aged eleven and    
nine1 their father declared that        
,deborah was suddenly taken with        
lameness4 ,one day while the girl was   
resting outside the house1 ,amy  ,duny  
came to the deponnent's house to buy    
some herrings2 but1 being  denied1 she  
went away discontented4444 ,but at the  
very same instant of  time1 the said    
child was taken with most violent fits1 
feeling extreme  pain in her stomach1   
like the pricking of pins1 and shrieking
 out in a  dreadful manner like unto a  
whelp4 ,as the result of this and other 

ailments from which the child suffered1 
the father accused ,amy ,duny of  being 
a witch1 and she was placed in the      
stocks4 ,being placed in the  stocks1   
further threats were uttered1 and both  
children were afflicted  with fits4     
,upon recovery they would cough         
extremely1 and bring up much  phlegm and
 crooked pins1 and one time a twopenny  
nail with a very broad  head2 which pins
 7amounting to forty or more71 together 
with the  twopenny nail1 were produced  
in court1 with the affirmation of the   
said  deponnent that he was present when
 the said nail was vomited up1 and  also
 most of the pins4444 ,in this manner   
the said children continued for  the    
space of two months1 during which time1 
in their intervals1 this  deponnent     
would cause them to read some chapters  
from the ,new ,testament4  ,whereupon he
 observed that they would read till they
 came to the name of  ,lord or ,jesus or
 ,christ1 and then1 before they could   
pronounce either of  the said words1    

they would suddenly fall into their     
fits4 ,but when they  came to the name  
of ,satan or ,devil1 they would clap    
their fingers upon  the book1 crying    
out1 ',this bites1 but makes me speak   
right well6'    ,much more evidence of a
 similar kind was offered during the    
course of  the trial1 with details of a 
too indelicate character for            
reproduction  concerning the search made
 on the women's bodies for devil's      
marks4  ,during the whole of the trial  
there were present in court a number of 
distinguished people1 amongst them ,sir 
,thomas ,browne4 ,the latter1 being     
desired to give his opinion1 what he did
 conceive of him2 was clearly  of       
opinion that the persons were bewitched1
 and said that in ,denmark  there had   
lately been a great discovery of        
witches1 who used the very  same way of 
afflicting persons1 by conveying pins   
into them1 and crooked  as these pins   
were1 with needles and nails4 ,and his  
opinion was that  the devil in such     

cases did work upon the bodies of men   
and women as on  a natural foundation1  
to stir up and excite such humours      
superabounding  in their bodies to a    
great excess1 whereby he did in an      
extraordinary  manner afflict them with 
such distempers as their bodies were    
most  subject to1 as particularly       
appeared in these children4    ,sir     
,mathew ,hale1 one of the greatest      
lawyers of his day1 in directing  the   
jury1 told them he would not repeat the 
evidence unto them1 lest by  so doing he
 should wrong the evidence one way or   
the other4 ,only this  acquainted them4 
,first1 whether or no these children    
were bewitched8  ,secondly1 whether the 
prisoners at the bar were guilty of it8 
,that there  were such creatures he made
 no doubt at all4 ,for1 first1 the      
,scriptures  had affirmed as much4      
,secondly1 the wisdom of all nations had
 provided  laws against such persons1   
which is an argument of their confidence
 of  such a crime4 ,and such had been   

the judgment of this kingdom1 as appears
  by that ,act of ,parliament which had 
provided punishments proportionable  to 
the quality of the offence4 ,and desired
 them strictly to observe  their        
evidence1 and desired the great ,god of 
,heaven to direct their  hearts in this 
weighty thing they had in hand2 for to  
condemn the  innocent and let the guilty
 go free were both an abomination before
 the  ,lord4 ,the jury took no more than
 half an hour to consider their         
verdict1 and brought in both women      
guilty upon all counts4 ,the judge      
expressed his complete satisfaction with
 the verdict1 and sentenced them  to be 
hanged--a sentence duly carried out a   
fortnight later4    ,this is the last   
notable trial in ,english history4 ,a   
witch was burned  later than the date of
 this trial1 and the last one actually  
condemned  was in #agab4 ,but in this   
case1 on the representation of the judge
 who  tried the issue1 the verdict was  
formally set aside4 ,by that time people

  were beginning to realise the wisdom  
of ,montaigne's counsel1 written at  the
 commencement of the witch epidemic3--  
,how much more natural and more likely  
do ,i find it that two men should  lie  
than one in twelve hours should pass    
with the winds from east to  west8 ,how 
much more natural that our understanding
 may1 by the  volubility of our loose1  
capering mind1 be transported from its  
place  than one of us should1 flesh and 
bones as we are1 by a strange spirit be 
carried upon a broom through a tunnel or
 a chimney4    ,in ,england the ,witch  
,act of #afjd was not formally repealed 
until #agcf4  ,in ,scotland the last    
witch legally executed was in #agbb4    
,captain ,ross1  ,sheriff of            
,sutherland1 has the doubtful honour of 
having condemned her  to the stake4 ,but
 fifty years later than this--#aggc--the
 ,associated  ,presbytery passed a      
resolution deploring the fact that      
witchcraft was  falling into disrepute4 
,in ,germany the last witch was executed

 in #agdi1  by decapitation4 ,the last  
trial for witchcraft in ,massachusetts  
was as  late as #agic4 ,these dates     
refer1 of course1 to legal proceedings4 
,examples of the existence of this      
belief are continually being recorded   
in newspapers1 although they now only   
rank as solitary reminiscences of  one  
of the most degrading and brutalising   
beliefs that ,european history  records4
    ,i have not aimed at giving a       
history of the witch mania--indeed1 a   
scientific history of witchcraft1 one   
that will make plain the nature of  the 
various factors involved1 has yet to be 
written4 ,i have only dwelt  upon it for
 the purpose of enforcing the lesson of 
how materially such  an epidemic must   
have contributed to give permanence to  
religious belief  in general4 ,it is    
certain that such an epidemic could not 
occur save in  a society saturated with 
supernaturalism4 ,it is equally certain 
that  once such an epidemic occurs it   
must in turn strengthen the tendency    

towards supernaturalistic beliefs4      
,thanks to the long reign of the        
religious idea1 and to the overwhelming 
influence of the ,church1 the  people of
 ,europe were prepared for such an      
outbreak4 ,and it should be  clear that 
the prevalence of such beliefs1 even    
though they may be  afterwards          
discarded1 favours the perpetuation of  
religious belief as a  whole4 ,the      
particular form of a belief that is     
prevalent for a time may  disappear1 but
 the temper of mind induced by its reign
 remains4 ,and  absurd as the belief in 
witches capering through the air on     
broomsticks1  changing themselves into  
black cats1 raising storms1 and causing 
sickness--absurd though all this may be1
 it yet serves to keep alive the  temper
 of mind on which supernaturalism lives4
      ,,footnotes3    #ahg ,cited by    
,bloch1 ,sexual ,life of our ,time1 p4  
#abj4 ,michelet has  also dealt with    
this matter in his vivid and picturesque
 work1 ,the  ,sorceress4    #ahh ,a     

lengthy account of this work is given by
 ,ennemoser in his  ,history of ,magic1 
vol4 ii4    #ahi ,rise and ,influence of
 ,rationalism1 i4 pp4 #c-f4    #aij ,h4 
,williams1 ,the ,superstitions of       
,witchcraft1 p4 #bad4    #aia ,t4       
,wright1 ,narratives of ,sorcery and    
,magic4    #aib ,michelet1 ,life of     
,luther1 chap4 vi4    #aic ,history of  
,civilisation1 chap4 xix4    #aid       
,dalyell1 ,darker ,superstitions of     
,scotland1 p4 #fbc4    #aie ,dalyell1 p4
 #fbh4    #aif ,pitcairn's ,criminal    
,trials1 vol4 iii4    #aig ,religio     
,medici1 pt4 i4 sec4 #cj4    #aih ,true 
,intellectual ,system1 ii4 p4 #fej4     
#aii ,commentaries1 ,stephen's ,edition1
 i4 p4 #bch4    #bjj ,journal1 #agfh4   
,,chapter ,,eleven    ,,summary         
,,conclusion      ,the study of religion
 falls naturally and easily into two    
parts4 ,the  first is a question of     
origin4 ,under what conditions did the  
hypothesis  that supernatural beings    
control the life of man come into       

existence8 ,we  know that in civilised  
times religious beliefs are in the      
nature of an  inheritance4 ,a member of 
any civilised society finds them here   
when he  is born1 he grows up with them1
 generally accepting them without       
question1 or effecting certain          
modifications in the form in which he   
continues to hold them4 ,if we treat    
religion as a hypothesis1 advanced  as  
other hypotheses are advanced1 to       
account for a certain class of  facts1  
then we can safely say that religion is 
one of the earliest in  the history of  
human thought4 ,and its antiquity and   
universality  preclude us from seeking  
an explanation of its origin in the     
mental life  of civilised humanity4     
,whether the religious hypothesis can or
 cannot be  justified by an appeal to   
civilised intelligence1 it is plain it  
did not  begin there4 ,its beginnings   
are earlier than any existing           
civilisation2  and in its most general  
form may be said to be as old as mankind

 itself4  ,consequently1 if any         
satisfactory explanation of the origin  
of the  religious idea is to be found1  
it must be sought amid the very earliest
  conditions of human society4    ,now  
whatever the differences of opinion     
concerning matters of detail1  there is 
substantial agreement amongst ,european 
anthropologists upon one  important     
point4 ,they all agree that the         
conception of supernatural1 or          
'spiritual1' beings owes its beginning  
to the ignorance of primitive man       
concerning both his own nature and the  
nature of the world around him4  ,the   
beginnings of human experience suggest  
questions that can only be              
satisfactorily answered by the          
accumulated experience of many          
generations4 ,these questions do not    
materially differ from those that  face 
men to-day4 ,the why and wherefore of   
things are always with us2  life        
propounds the same problem to all2 it is
 the replies alone that  vary1 and the  

nature of these replies is determined by
 the knowledge at  our disposal4 ,the   
difference is not in nature but in man4 
,the answers  given by primitive man to 
these eternal questions are a complete  
inversion of those of his better        
informed descendants4 ,the conception of
  natural force1 of mechanical          
necessity1 is as yet unborn1 and the    
primitive thinker everywhere assumes the
 operation of personal beings as        
responsible for all that occurs4 ,this  
is not so much the product of  careful  
and elaborate philosophising1 it is     
closer akin to the naive  thinking of a 
child concerning a thunderstorm4        
,primitive thought accepts  the         
universal operation of living and       
intelligent forces as an  unquestionable
 fact4 ,modern thought tends more and   
more surely in the  direction of        
regarding the universe as a complex of  
self-adjusting1  non-conscious forces4  
,primitive thought assumes a            
supernatural agency as  the cause of    

disease1 and seeks1 logically1 to       
placate it by prayer or  coerce it by   
magic4 ,modern thought turns to         
test-tube and microscope1  searches for 
the malignant germ1 and manufactures an 
antitoxin4 ,the  history of human       
thought is1 as ,huxley said1 a record of
 the  substitution of mechanical for    
vitalistic processes4 ,the beginning of 
religion is found in connection with the
 latter4 ,a genuine science  commences  
with the emergence of the former4       
,with this aspect of the matter ,i have 
not1 however1 been specially  concerned4
 ,it has been left on one side in order 
to concentrate  attention upon another  
and a more neglected aspect of the      
subject--that  of the conditions that   
have served to perpetuate the religious 
idea4  ,grant1 what cannot be well      
denied in the face of modern            
investigation1  that ideas of the       
supernatural began in primitive         
delusion4 ,how comes it  that this idea 
has not by now disappeared from         

civilised society8 ,what  are the causes
 that have given it such a lengthy lease
 of life8  ,experience has shown that   
all really verifiable knowledge counts  
as an  asset of naturalism1 and is so   
far opposed to supernaturalism4         
,moreover1  the history of science has  
been such that one feels justified in   
the  assumption that1 given time and    
industry1 there are no phenomena that   
are not susceptible to a naturalistic   
explanation4 ,why1 then1 has not        
supernaturalism died out8 ,even the     
religious idea cannot persist without   
evidence of some kind being offered in  
its behalf4 ,this evidence may be  to a 
better instructed mind inconclusive or  
irrelevant1 but evidence of  some sort  
there must have been all along1 and must
 still be4 ,granted  that the religious 
idea began with primitive mankind1      
granted also that  it was based on a    
mistaken interpretation of natural      
phenomena1 these  reasons are quite     
insufficient to explain why thousands of

 generations  later that idea is still  
with us4 ,our fathers have told us      
offers to  the average mind a strong    
appeal1 but surely the children will    
require  some further proof than this4  
,what kind of evidence is it that       
throughout the ages religious people    
have accepted as conclusive8 ,a  study  
of primitive psychology shows clearly   
enough how the religious  idea vitalised
 the facts4 ,what we next have to       
discern is the class of  facts that have
 kept the religious idea alive4    ,the 
foregoing pages constitute an attempt to
 answer this question4 ,the  need for   
some such investigation was clearly     
shown by the publication of  the late   
,professor ,william ,james's ,varieties 
of ,religious ,experience  and its      
reception by the religious press of the 
country as an  epoch-marking work4 ,as a
 mere collection of documents1 the work 
is  interesting enough4 ,but its        
critical value is extremely small4 ,how 
religious visionaries have felt1 or what

 has been their experiences1 can  only  
furnish the mere data of an enquiry1 and
 their explanation of the  cause of     
their experiences is a part of the data4
 ,this1 apparently1  ,professor ,james  
overlooked2 and it will be noted by     
critical readers of  his book that it   
proceeds on the assumption that the     
statements of  religious visionaries are
 to be taken1 not only as true          
concerning their  subjective experiences
 at a given time1 but also as           
approximately true  as to the causes of 
their mental states4 ,this1 of course1  
by no means  follows4 ,a scientific     
enquiry cannot separate mental          
conditions from the  subject's          
interpretation of their causation4      
,whether this interpretation  is genuine
 or not must be decided finally by an   
appeal to what is known  of the laws of 
mental life1 under both normal and      
abnormal conditions4  ,if these are     
adequate to explain the ,varieties of   
,religious  ,experience1 there is no    

need whatever to assume the operation of
 a  supernatural agency4 ,nor does      
calling this agency 'transcendent' or   
'supermundane' make any substantial     
difference4 ,for1 in this connection1   
these are only names that serve to      
disguise a visitant of a highly         
undesirable character4    ,the evidence 
on behalf of a naturalistic explanation 
of religious  phenomena has been        
purposely stated in a suggestive rather 
than in an  exhaustive manner4 ,the main
 lines of evidence are threefold4       
,first1  there is the indisputable fact 
that in the lower stages of culture all 
mental and bodily diseases are          
universally attributed to spiritual     
agency4 ,this explanation holds the     
field2 it is the only one possible at   
the time1 and it is not replaced until a
 comparatively late stage of  human     
history4 ,but of special importance is  
the fact that a belief does  not die out
 suddenly4 ,it is only destroyed very   
slowly1 and even after  the facts upon  

which the belief was originally based   
have been otherwise  interpreted1 the   
attitude of mind engendered by the long 
reign of a  belief remains4 ,it has by  
that time become part of the            
intellectual  environment4 ,theories of 
a quasi-philosophic or quasi-scientific 
character are elaborated1 and give to   
the original belief something of a      
rational air4 ,even to-day the extent to
 which superstitious practices  still   
gather round the subject of disease is  
known only to the curious  in such      
matters4 ,not that the original reason  
is given for the practice4  ,in nearly  
every case a different one is invented4 
,to take only a single  example4 ,we    
still find saffron tea largely used in  
cases of measles4 ,all  medical men are 
aware that it possesses not the         
slightest curative  value4 ,students of 
folklore are aware that it has its      
origin in the  theory of sympathetic    
cures4 ,its redeeming feature is that it
 is  harmless2 so we find it still in   

common use1 and the recovery of a child 
from measles is often enough attributed 
to the potency of the  concoction4 ,so  
with the relation of disease to the     
persistence of the  belief in the       
supernatural4 ,the conclusion that      
disease--whether bodily  or mental--is  
due to the agency of spirits is one that
 follows from the  existence of the     
religious idea2 but in turn the observed
 facts react  and strengthen the        
religious belief4 ,every case of disease
 becomes to  the primitive mind an      
unanswerable proof in favour of the     
original  hypothesis4 ,the disease is   
there1 and the only explanation possible
 is  in terms of the animistic idea4    
,and all the time the religious idea is 
becoming more deeply embedded in the    
social consciousness1 more firmly       
established as a social fact4    ,the   
next line of evidence is that furnished 
by what ,i have called the  culture of  
the supernatural4 ,by some means or     
other--probably by  accident in the     

first instance--it is discovered that   
certain herbs and  vegetable drugs have 
a peculiar effect on one's mental state4
 ,those who  use them see or hear things
 other people do not normally hear or   
see4  ,abstention from food and other   
bodily privations produce similar       
results4 ,what is the inevitable        
conclusion8 ,the only one possible under
  the existing conditions is that       
communication has been set up with an   
invisible world from which one is shut  
off under normal conditions4 ,from  this
 to the next step is obvious and easy4  
,if a drug1 or a fast1 brings  one into 
communication with the supernatural     
world1 one has only to  repeat the      
conditions in order to repeat the       
experience4 ,and repeated  they are in  
all religions1 with1 at most1 those     
modifications induced by  changed times 
and circumstances4 ,this is why fasting 
and other forms of  'fleshly            
mortification' play so large a part in  
the history of religion4  ,the savage   

medicine man1 the ,hindu fakir1 the     
medieval saint1 all create  their       
ecstasies by the simple plan of         
disturbing the normal operations  of the
 nervous system4 ,it is not1 of course1 
implied that this is done  with a full  
consciousness of all that is involved in
 the practice4 ,the  derangement is to  
them the condition of the supernatural  
manifestation1  not the physiological   
and psychological cause of the          
experience4    ,the third main line of  
evidence is connected with the phenomena
 of  sexuality4 ,it has been shown that 
in early stages of culture man          
everywhere connects the phenomena of the
 sexual life with the activity  of      
supernatural forces4 ,following the     
lines of investigation indicated  by    
,mr4 ,sidney ,hartland1 we saw reason to
 believe that the primitive  conception 
of procreation is not that afterwards   
prevalent1 but that of  assuming the    
birth of a child to be due to the direct
 action of  spiritual beings on the     

mother4 ,proofs of this are found in    
existing  beliefs among primitive       
peoples1 in the magical practices so    
widely  current to obtain children1 and 
in numerous other customs connected with
  childbirth4 ,the phenomenon of puberty
 in the male and of menstruation in  the
 female gives a terrifying reality to   
this belief4 ,but still more  important 
is the fact that a great deal of assumed
 religious feeling is  found on analysis
 to be little more than masked          
sexuality4 ,the  connection between     
eroticism and piety has been noted over 
and over  again by medical observers in 
the cases that have been brought        
professionally under their notice4 ,and 
it is hardly less marked in a  large    
number of instances that are usually    
classed as normal4 ,thus great          
religious teachers have often emphasised
 the value of a celibate life as  a     
means of furthering religious devotion1 
and nearly all have treated it  with    
marked respect4 ,the reason given for   

this is that marriage involves  a       
greater absorption in material or       
worldly cares1 while celibacy  leaves   
one free to full devotion to the        
spiritual4 ,but the bottom reason  for  
it is that sexual and domestic feelings1
 lacking their proper outlet  in        
marriage and family life1 run with      
greater force in the outlet  provided by
 religion4 ,so it happens that we find  
unmarried men and  women1 devoted to the
 religious life1 expressing themselves  
towards  ,jesus or the ,virgin in       
language which1 separated from its      
religious  associations1 leaves no doubt
 as to its origin in unsatisfied sexual 
feeling4 ,in these cases we are dealing 
with a perversion of one of the  deepest
 of human instincts4 ,and it is one of  
the commonest of  observations in       
psychology that when a feeling is denied
 outlet through  its proper channel it  
finds vent in some other direction1 and 
is to that  extent masked or disguised4 
,allied to the fact of perversion is    

that of misinterpretation4 ,in the      
chapter on ,conversion we have seen how 
largely this occurs at the  period of   
adolescence4 ,the significant features  
of adolescence are a  development of the
 sexual nature and an awakening of a    
consciousness of  race kinship4         
,connected with these1 and flowing from 
them1 is a more or  less rapid          
development of what are called the      
altruistic feelings1 the  individual    
becoming less self-centred and more     
concerned for the  well-being of others4
 ,from an evolutionary point it is easy 
to read the  fundamental meaning of     
these transformations1 although in the  
course of  social development they have 
become overlaid with a number of        
secondary  characteristics4 ,still1 in a
 completely rationalised social life1   
with  adequate knowledge concerning the 
nature of adolescence1 every care  would
 be taken to direct these developing    
energies into purely social  channels4  
,adolescence is the great formative     

period2 it is then that  imitation and  
suggestion play their most important    
parts1 and it is then  that the         
foundations may be laid of a really good
 and useful  citizenship4 ,if we fail   
then1 we fail completely4    ,in a      
society where supernaturalism still     
exerts considerable power  another1 and 
a more disastrous1 policy is pursued4   
,every endeavour is  made by religious  
organisations to exploit adolescence in 
their own  interest4 ,thousands of      
priests1 often1 no doubt1 with the best 
of  motives1 are engaged in impressing  
upon the youthful mind an entirely      
erroneous notion of the character and   
the direction of the feelings           
experienced4 ,the sense of restlessness1
 consequent upon a period of  great     
physiological disturbance1 is utilised  
to create an unhealthy  'conviction of  
sin1' or the need of 'getting right with
 ,god4' ,social  duties and obligations 
are made incidental rather than         
fundamental4  ,activities that should be

 consciously directed to a social end   
are  diverted into religious channels1  
and one consequence of this1 as we  have
 seen1 is a large crop of nervous       
disorders that might be avoided  were a 
healthier outlet provided4 ,in this the 
modern priest is acting  precisely as   
his savage forerunner acted4 ,as the    
savage medicine man  associates sexual  
phenomena with the activity of the      
tribal ghosts1 so  the modern priest    
often associates the psychological      
conditions that  accompany adolescence  
with a supernatural influence4 ,the     
distinction  between the two is a purely
 verbal one4 ,in neither case is there a
  recognition of the nature of the      
processes actually at work2 in both     
cases the phenomena are used to         
emphasise the reality and activity of   
the supernatural4 ,in both cases the    
social feelings are disguised by  the   
religious interpretation given1 with the
 result that instead of  adolescence    
being1 as it should be1 the period of a 

conscious entry into  the larger social 
life1 it only too often marks the       
beginning of a  lifelong servitude to   
retrogressive forces4    ,these are the 
main lines along which1 ,i conceive1 the
 study of the  pathologic elements that 
enter into the history of religion must 
be  studied4 ,and so long as we restrict
 our study to the lower culture  stages 
the evidence is clear and unmistakable4 
,it is when we reach the  higher stages 
of civilisation that the problem becomes
 more difficult4  ,for although it is   
possible to detect the same factors at  
work they are  expressed in a different 
way1 and affiliated to current          
philosophic and  even scientific ideas4 
,thus1 it would be readily admitted by  
most people  nowadays that visions seen 
by a fasting man1 or by a taker of      
drugs1 or  by one suffering from some   
nervous disorder1 were wholly           
inadmissible as  evidence4 ,so far we   
have advanced beyond the point of view  
of primitive  races4 ,but the testimony 

of one who by constantly dwelling upon a
 single  idea1 and by excluding rational
 and corrective influences1 has brought 
about a quite abnormal state of mind1 is
 still counted of value by  theologians4
 ,much of the current cant concerning   
'mysticism' may be  cited in            
illustration of this4 ,exactly what     
mysticism is no one appears  to know4   
,definitions are numerous and varied4   
,so far as most mystics are  concerned  
the definition of ,harnack--,mysticism  
is rationalism applied  to a sphere     
beyond reason--appears to hit the mark1 
although how reason  can be used in a   
sphere to which it does not apply is    
precisely one of  those unintelligible  
statements that so delights those with  
yearnings  after the ineffable4 ,the    
normal mind will probably find more     
satisfaction in ,john ,stuart ,mill's   
description of mysticism as being       
neither more nor less than ascribing    
objective existence to the  subjective  
creations of the mind1 and believing    

that by watching and  contemplating     
these ideas of its own making1 it can   
read what takes  place in the world     
without4    ,but the general claim of   
'mystics1' and1 indeed1 of              
supernaturalists  generally1 is that    
they are1 in virtue of the exercise of  
certain  qualities or 'faculties1'      
either inoperative at certain times1 or 
absent  in the case of normal folk1 able
 to perceive a truth not perceptible to 
people less fortunately endowed4 ,and   
these claims1 ,i have no hesitation  in 
saying1 are wholly false4 ,there are all
 degrees of development of  human       
faculty1 but it is substantially the    
same with all4 ,there is no  royal road 
to truth in this direction more than in 
others4 ,truth is  reached in the same  
way by all1 and although an induction   
may in the  case of certain well-dowered
 individuals be so rapid as to rank as  
an  'intuition1' a careful analysis     
destroys the illusion4    ,when we clear
 away from the claims of the 'mystic'   

all the superfluities  of language that 
are there1 and so reduce these claims to
 their lowest  and plainest terms1 we   
find ourselves face to face with the    
claim of the  supernaturalist as it has 
existed from savage times onward4 ,the  
method  remains true to itself4 ,in the 
first instance1 we have the claim to    
illumination based upon direct          
interference with the normal workings of
  the mind4 ,in the next stage1 we find 
this interference still marked1 but     
less direct4 ,finally1 we have the      
unhealthy operation of fixed ideas1  and
 the exclusion of all conditions that   
would prevent the operation of          
hallucination or illusion4 ,but the     
method remains the same throughout1  and
 it is equally sterile throughout4 ,in  
all history these mystical  states of   
illumination have discovered no         
verifiable truth2 they have  never at   
any time advanced human knowledge in the
 smallest degree4 ,and  the reason for  
this is plain3 ,the brain of the mystic1

 like that of the  non-mystic1 can only 
work on the basis of its acquired       
knowledge or  experience4 ,it can create
 nothing new2 it can declare no truth   
that is  not in the nature of an        
induction from existing knowledge4 ,all 
that the  religious mystic can          
accomplish after brooding upon inherited
 religious  beliefs is to create new    
combinations1 or effect certain         
modifications  or developments of them1 
and by continued contemplation endow his
  subjective creations with an objective
 existence4 ,that is why the  ,christian
 mystic remains a ,christian4 ,the      
,mohammedan mystic remains a            
,mohammedan4 ,the 'supersensible        
reality' is always of the kind consonant
  with their inherited beliefs and their
 social environment4 ,that is also  why 
mysticism has its fashions like all     
other forms of religious  extravagance4 
,and as he is applying rationalism to a 
sphere above  reason1 the mystic may    
give full vent to his imaginative       

powers4 ,that  which is above reason may
 defy reasonable disproof4 ,to some1    
however1 it  has the disadvantage of not
 admitting of reasonable verification4  
,there  is nothing here but the         
primitive delusion operating under      
changed  conditions4    ,in addition1 to
 the lines of investigation followed in 
the foregoing  pages1 a great deal might
 be said as to how far the religious    
idea has  been perpetuated by an        
exploitation of purely social qualities4
 ,it must  be obvious to even the       
cursory student that a great deal of    
what is now  being put forward as       
religious is really no more than a      
sociology with a  religious label4 ,the 
feeling for truth1 beauty1 justice1 the 
desire for  social intercourse1 are all 
treated as expressions of religious     
conviction4 ,all sorts of social reforms
 are urged in the name of  religion1 and
 the degree of success achieved dwelt   
upon as fruits of the  religious spirit4
 ,but in no legitimate sense of the word

 can these  things be called religious4 
,they may or may not be consonant with  
the  existing religion1 but in          
themselves they are very clearly the    
outcome  of man's social nature1 and    
would exist even though religion        
disappeared  entirely4 ,the appeals made
 to man's moral sense1 to his sense of  
justice1 to his sympathies1 are thus    
fundamentally appeals made to his       
social nature1 and so far as the        
religious appeal is placed upon this    
basis it becomes an exploitation of the 
social consciousness4  ,unfortunately1  
the long association of religious forms 
with social life  and institutions1 due 
ultimately to the immense power of      
supernaturalism  in early society1 this1
 combined with early education1 makes it
 a matter  of no small difficulty for   
the average man or woman to separate the
 two  things4    ,finally1 let us       
imagine for a moment that the course of 
human history  had been different to    
what it actually has been4 ,suppose that

 by some  miracle humanity had started  
its career in full possession of that   
knowledge of nature which has been so   
laboriously accumulated4 ,in that  case1
 would the belief in the supernatural   
have ever existed8 ,would the  thousand 
and one 'spiritual beings' of primitive 
society have ever had  being8 ,and if   
not called into being then1 from what   
other source could  they have been      
derived8 ,is there anything in later    
scientific knowledge  that would ever   
have suggested the supernatural8 ,we    
know there is not2  we know that the    
whole of modern science is an emphatic  
protest against  its existence4         
,unfortunately the scientist does not   
come first1 but  last2 and by the time  
he appears1 the supernatural has made   
good its  foothold2 it has permeated    
human institutions1 and has bitten so   
deeply  into habits of thought as to    
make its eradication the most difficult 
of  all tasks4    ,let us carry our     
imagining yet a step further4 ,imagine  

that even after  primitive ignorance had
 created the supernatural1 it had come  
to an  abrupt stop when man had emerged 
from the purely savage stage4 ,suppose a
  generation born1 not without knowledge
 of what their progenitors  believed1   
but with a sufficient knowledge of their
 own to correct their  ancestor's       
errors4 ,suppose that generation in a   
position to recognise  disease1         
insanity1 delusion1 hysteria1           
hallucination for what they are4        
,assume them to be under no delusion    
concerning the nature of man1           
physically or mentally4 ,would the      
religious idea have persisted in the    
way that it has done8 ,granted religion 
would still have continued to  exist as 
an ultimate philosophy of nature that   
appealed to some minds1  as other       
systems of philosophy number their      
disciples1 would it have  been the      
dominating power it has been8 ,what     
under such conditions would  have become
 of that evidence for the supernatural1 

accepted generation  after generation1  
but which is now rejected by all        
educated minds8 ,where  would have been 
that long array of seers1 prophets1     
illuminants1 whose  credentials have    
been found in states of mind that are   
now seen to have  been pathological in  
character8 ,for remember it was not     
always--very  seldom1 in fact--the      
justice1 or the reasonableness of the   
teachings set  forth1 that won support1 
but generally the 'signs and wonders'   
that were  pointed to as evidence of the
 divine commission of the teachers4     
,assume1  then1 that these 'signs and   
wonders' had been wanting1 and that for 
thousands of years people had looked at 
natural phenomena from the point  of    
view of the educated mind of to-day1    
what would have been the present        
position of the religious idea8 ,would  
it not have been like a tree  divorced  
from the soil8    ,well1 we know that   
the course of history has been far      
different from  what ,i have assumed to 

be the case4 ,we know that the savage   
dies out  very slowly1 and that even in 
civilised ,states to-day he is honoured 
in  the existence of a whole army of    
representatives4 ,each generation moves 
along the road marked out by its        
predecessors1 and broadens or lengthens 
it to but a small extent4 ,for many1    
many generations people went on         
adopting the conclusions of the savage  
concerning man and the universe1  and   
finding proofs of the soundness of those
 conclusions in exactly the  same kind  
of experiences4 ,the beliefs thus       
engendered were wild and                
absurd--admittedly so1 and many of such 
a nature that educated people  are now  
ashamed of them4 ,but such as they were1
 they served the purpose  of            
perpetuating the belief in the          
supernatural1 and so served to          
strengthen the general religious idea4  
,of that there can be no  reasonable    
doubt4 ,for the influence of beliefs    
that have been long held  does not end  

with the intellectual perception of     
their falsity4 ,a belief  such as       
witchcraft dies out1 but by that time it
 has done its work in  familiarising the
 general mind with the reality of the   
supernatural1 and  so prepares the      
ground for other harvests4 ,these long  
centuries of  superstitious beliefs have
 left behind in society a psychological 
residuum that is at all times an        
obstacle and is sometimes fatal to      
scientific thinking4 ,we are like men   
who have obtained freedom after  almost 
a lifetime of slavery4 ,we may be no    
longer in any real danger of  the lash1 
but fear of the whip has become part of 
our nature1 and we  shrink without      
cause4 ,so with all those now admitted  
delusions that have  been described in  
the foregoing pages1 and which for      
generations were  asserted without      
question4 ,they bit deeply in to social 
institutions2  the temper of mind they  
induced became part of our social       
heritage4 ,they  perpetuated the long   

reign of supernaturalism1 and still     
interpose a  serious obstacle to sane   
and helpful conceptions of man and the  
universe4          ,,index              
,adolescence and ,religion1 #agg-h1     
#aha1 #bgf-g4    ,adolescence and       
,primitive ,customs1 #agh4              
,adolescence and ,nervous ,disorders1   
#aif-g4    ,adolescence1 ,social        
,significance of1 #ahc-e4    ,agap1     
#aeb4    ,asceticism1 #aba1 #abe1 #adf1 
#bjh-ac4    ,asceticism and ,purity1    
#bac4    ,asceticism1 ,influence on     
,religion1 #bbd-e4    ,augustine1 #aeg4 
,authority1 ,conflict with ,science1    
viii4      ,baring-,gould1 ,s41 #adg1   
#aec1 #bji4    ,baring-,gould1 ,s41 on  
,mysticism and ,sexualism1 #abe1 #aea4  
,brinton1 ,d4 ,g41 on ,origin of        
,religion1 #ad4    ,bryce1 ,j41 #bcb4   
,buckle1 ,t4 ,h41 #bef4      ,catherine 
of ,sienna1 #he1 #abi4    ,celibacy1    
#bad-e4    ,celibacy1 ,results on       
,morals1 #bbj-c4    ,celibacy1 ,social  
,consequences of1 #baf-i1 #bbj-c4       

,clouston1 ,sir ,t4 ,s41 on ,revivals1  
#aie4    ,clouston1 ,sir ,t4 ,s41 on the
 ,connection between ,sexualism and     
,religion1  #adj4    ,conversion1       
,pathological ,nature of1 #aid4         
,conversion and ,adolescence1 #cb1      
#agf-g1 #bgf4    ,conversion1           
,theological ,notions of1 #afi-ga4      
,conversion1 ,ages of ,converts1 #agd-e1
 #aid-e4    ,conversion1 ,statistics of1
 #agc-e4    ,conversion and ,imitation1 
#ahh4    ,conversion1 ,social ,aspects  
of1 #bjj4    ,convulsionnaires 7,the71  
#bci4    ,crowd ,psychology1 #bjf4      
,crusades1 ,character of1 #bbg-i4       
,crusades1 ,children's1 #bcj4           
,crusades1 ,consequences of1 #bcb-c4    
,cudworth1 ,r41 #bei4      ,dalyell1 ,j4
 ,g41 #beg4    ,dancing and ,religious  
,ecstasy1 #fj-a4    ,dancing ,epidemics1
 #bcf-dj4    ,death1 ,savage ,ideas of1 
#dd4    ,demoniacs1 #gg4    ,disease1   
,theory of1 amongst ,primitive ,peoples1
 #df4    ,disease1 ,theory of1 amongst  
the ,early ,christians1 #dg4            

,d',israeli1 ,i41 on ,sexualism and     
,religion1 #ag1 #ace4    ,draper1 ,j4   
,w41 #bca4    ,drugs1 their use in the  
history of ,religion1 #eg4              
,environment1 #cf1 #ch4    ,environment1
 ,nature of ,primitive1 #ci4            
,epilepsy1 ,influence of1 in fostering  
,supernaturalism1 #gd-i4    ,epilepsy1  
,opinion of ,dr4 ,hollander1 #ge4       
,epilepsy1 ,opinion of ,sir ,t4 ,s4     
,clouston1 #ge4    ,epilepsy1 ,opinion  
of ,dr4 ,c4 ,norman1 #gf4    ,epilepsy1 
,opinion of ,emanuel ,deutsch1 #gg1 #gi4
    ,epilepsy in ,new ,testament1 #gg4  
,erotic ,sects1 #aee-fj1 #afe4          
,eroticism and ,supernaturalism1 #abf-h1
 #acb1 #acf-i4    ,evidence for the     
,supernatural1 #b1 #bga4      ,fasting1 
#fa-e4    ,flagellation1 #bcd-e4        
,forlong1 ,maj4-,gen41 #aji n4    ,fox1 
,george1 ,account of ,visions1 #hb4     
,frazer1 ,j4 ,g41 #ci1 #df1 #ig1 #ii1   
#aaa4    ,free ,love--,religious1 #aej1 
#afa-d4      ,galton1 ,francis1 on      
,religious and ,morbid ,states1 #hf4    

,galton1 ,francis1 #bai4    ,gibbon1    
,e41 #bbg4    ,gowers1 ,sir ,w4 ,r41    
#aig4    ,granger1 ,prof41 #hd1 #ada-c4 
,hallucinations1 #bc-d-e1 #fb1 #hd4     
,hecker1 ,j4 ,f4 ,c41 #bcf-g4           
,hopkins1 ,mathew1 #bfa-b4    ,human    
,qualities1 ,identity of1 #f4           
,interpretation1 ,growth of ,scientific1
 xiii4    ,ireland1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,w41 on    
,hallucinations1 #bc-d4      ,james1    
,w41 #aj1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 #ba1 
#ha1 #hc1 #acj1 #aca1 #ade1 #age-f1     
#bgb4      ,kingsley1 ,mary1 on         
,primitive ,thought1 #db4      ,lea1 ,h4
 ,c41 #bbj-a4    ,le ,bon1 ,gustave1 on 
,crowd ,psychology1 #bjf4    ,lecky1 ,w4
 ,e4 ,h41 #aed1 #bab1 #bba4    ,luther  
and ,demonism1 #be1 #eh1 #hb1 #bec4     
,maudsley1 ,h41 on the ,relation between
 ,nervous ,states and ,ecstasy1 #ff1    
#gf1 #acc4    ,medicine and the ,church1
 #gj-a4    ,menstruation1 #ie-f-g-h4    
,mental ,states1 ,reality of1 xi1 #g1   
#bb4    ,mercier1 ,c41 ,connection      
between ,sexualism and ,religion1 #abd1 

#adj-a1 #ahg1  #aig4    ,milman1 ,h4    
,h41 #bai1 #bbb-c1 #bbe-f1 #bbi1 #bcb4  
,mind1 ,theories of1 x4    ,mistletoe1  
,origin of ,kissing under1 #aji n4      
,mohammed1 his ,account of ,inspiration1
 #gh1 #ha4    ,monasticism1 #bbe4       
,monasticism and the ,family1 #baf-g1   
#bai1 #bbb-c4    ,monasticism and       
,morals1 #bbj4    ,mysticism1 #aca1     
#bgi-hj4    ,mysticism and the          
,abnormal1 #ee4    ,mysticism and       
,puberty1 #ahf4    ,mysticism1          
,definitions of1 #bgh-i4    ,mystics1   
,claims of1 xi4      ,opium1 ,effects   
of1 #eh4      ,pathological ,states and 
,religious ,belief1 #e1 #di4            
,pathological ,aspects of ,revivals1    
#aij-a-b-c1 #bja4    ,pathology of      
,religion1 ,need of1 #c4    ,phallicism1
 #ajd-e-f-g-h-i4    ,pike1 ,l4 ,o41 on  
,character of ,crusaders1 #bbi4         
,procreation1 ,primitive ,beliefs       
concerning1 #ic-d4    ,psychological    
,epidemics1 #bjg4    ,psychology1       
,normal and ,abnormal1 #c4              

,psychology as a ,social ,force1 #cg-h4 
,puberty1 #ahj-f4    ,puberty ,customs1 
#fb1 #ie1 #if4      ,religion1          
,definition of1 #a4    ,association of1 
with ,non-religious ,forces1 #d4    and 
,intuition1 #ea4    and ,puberty1 #ahj4 
and ,dancing1 #fj-a-b4    and ,fasting1 
#fc-d-e4    and ,environment1 #aii1     
#bjb4    in ,primitive ,life1 #dj1      
#dd-e-f1 #ec4    its ,connection with   
,pathological ,conditions1 #h1 #ad1     
#fh-i1 #gj-a-b-c-d4    ,religious       
,faculty1 ,fallacy of1 #g1 #ai1 #bj4    
,religious ,idea and ,modern ,thought1  
vii4    ,renan1 ,e41 #ade4              
,revivalistic ,religion1 #afc1 #agb1    
#ahi1 #aij1 #aic1 #bja4    ,russian     
,sects1 #afd-g4      ,saints1 ,medical  
,uses of1 #gj4    ,santa ,teresa1 #he4  
,science1 ,function of1 xi-xii4         
,sexualism and ,religious ,belief1 #i1  
#aa-b1 #hi-ij1 #abj1 #aba1 #abe-i1 #ade1
  #bge4    ,sexualism and ,religious    
,belief1 ,opinion of ,dr4 ,norman1 #abb2
    of ,dr4 ,forel1 #abc2    of ,dr4    

,mercier1 #abd2    of ,dr4              
,krafft-,ebing1 #abe2    of ,dr4        
,maudsley1 #acc-d4    ,smith1 ,w4 ,r41  
on the ,meaning of ',unclean1' #aja4    
,sociability1 ,significance of1 #ce4    
,social ,life and ,religious ,theories1 
#ac1 #bha4    ,spencer1 ,h41 #cg1 #df4  
,spiritual ,wifehood1 #adh-i4           
,spiritualism1 #ec-d4    ,starbuck1 ,e4 
,d41 on ,conversion1 #agd1 #bjj4        
,sully1 ,j41 #bj4    ,supernaturalism1  
,causes of ,persistence of1 #bga1 #bgc1 
#bgg1 #bhb4    ,supernaturalism1        
,consequences of1 #bhc-d4               
,supernaturalism1 ,persistence of1 #b4  
,suso1 ,austerities of1 #he4            
,swedenborg1 ,e41 #hj4    ,symonds1 ,j4 
,a41 ,experience under ,chloroform1 #bi4
      ,theologians1 ,attitude towards   
,science1 ix4    ,thomas1 ,w4 ,i41 #ahb4
    ,tylor1 ,e4 ,b41 #a1 #di1 #ed1 #ee1 
#ga1 #ahb1 #aic4      ,unclean1         
,religious ,significance of1 #ajj-a4    
,whittaker1 ,t41 on the ,effects of     
,opium1 #eh4    ,williams1 ,a41 #bej4   

,witchcraft1 #bg1 #bdc4    ,pathology   
of1 #bdf-g4    and ,christian ,church1  
#bdd4    ,bull of ,innocent ,,viii41    
#bdh4    ,extent of ,epidemic1 #bej4    
and ,sir ,thomas ,browne1 #bfe4    and  
,montaigne1 #bfg4    and ,sir ,m4 ,hale1
 #bff4    and ,john ,wesley1 #bei4      
and ,luther1 #bec4    and               
,protestantism1 #beb-c4    ,scottish1   
#bee-f-g-h1 #bfg4    ,american1 #bed-e4 
,children burned for1 #bea4             
,description of ,trial1 #bfc-f4         
,legislation in ,england1 #bec1 #bfg4   
,witches1 ,methods of ,detection1       
#bfj-a4    ,witches1 ,number killed1    
#bej-a4    ,woman1 ,christian ,church   
and1 #ajb4    ,woman1 why considered    
religiously unclean1 #ajc4    ,woman1 a 
,source of ,spiritual ,infection1 #ii4  
,woman1 ,influence of ,religious        
,beliefs in determining her ,social     
,position1 #ajb-c1 #aaj-i4    ,woman1   
,position among ,primitive ,peoples1    
#aae4    ,wright1 ,t41 #bea4            
,transcriber's ,note3    ,the following 

corrections were made3    p4 #ba3 extra 
open quote removed 7,in what sense7     
p4 #bd3 ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,ireland to ,dr4   
,w4 ,w4 ,ireland 7as given by ,dr4 ,w4  
,w4  ,ireland7    p4 #be3 ,nuremburg to 
,nuremberg 7came from ,nuremberg71 to   
match cited text    p4 #df3 ,crook to   
,crooke 7says ,mr4 ,w4 ,crooke7    p4   
#df3 ,ahmadnager to ,ahmadnagar         
7,mahadeo ,kolis of ,ahmadnagar7    p4  
#eg3 ,de,candolle to ,de ,candolle 7says
 ,de ,candolle7    p4 #eh 7,footnote    
#bf73 ,pharmcology to ,pharmacology     
7,text-,book of  ,pharmacology7    p4   
#gj3 ,persel to ,pernel 7,st4 ,pernel   
for agues71 to match cited text    p4   
#ge3 everyone to every one 7every one of
 the senses7    p4 #gf3 ,connolly to    
,conolly 7,dr4 ,conolly ,norman7    pp4 
#hf 7,footnote #fc71 and #acj 7,footnote
 #ajg73 ,joli to ,joly 7,h4 ,joly7    p4
 #aja 7,footnote #gf73 on to in         
7,studies in the ,psychology of ,sex7   
p4 #aad3 is to are 7,nor are the        
substantial facts7    p4 #abc 7,footnote

 #if73 ,problem to ,question 7,the      
,sexual ,question7    pp4 #abe1 #abh    
7,footnote #aje71 and #bhg 7,index73    
,kraft-,ebing to  ,krafft-,ebing    p4  
#abg3 ,loudon to ,loudun 7,convent of   
,ursulines of ,loudun7    p4 #abg       
7,footnote #ajd73 of ,america to in     
,north ,america 7,jesuits in ,north     
,america7    p4 #abh3 ,alacocque to     
,alacoque 7,the blessed ,mary ,alacoque7
    p4 #adi 7,footnote #abc73 ,life of  
,st4 ,paul to ,study of ,st4 ,paul    p4
 #aff 7,footnote #adj73 ,churches to    
,church 7,heard's description1 ,russian 
,church7    p4 #agh3 tatooing to        
tattooing 7tattooing forms part of the  
religious  ceremony7    p4 #ahb         
7,footnote #aea73 missing #d added in   
#bda 7pp4 #bda-dh7    p4 #bji3          
,brahminism to ,brahmanism 7,brahmanism 
has its order of ascetics71  to match   
cited text    p4 #bji3 missing close    
quote added 7consecrated to             
,tezcatlipoca47    p4 #bdi 7,footnote   
#ahh73 ,enenmoser to ,ennemoser 7is     

given by ,ennemoser7    p4 #bej         
7,footnote #aij73 ,a4 ,williams1 ,the   
,superstition of ,witchcraft to ,h4     
,williams1 ,the ,superstitions of       
,witchcraft    p4 #bea 7,footnote #aia73
 ,history to ,narratives 7,narratives of
 ,sorcery and  ,magic7    p4 #bee3      
,burroughes to ,burroughs 7,george      
,burroughs7    pp4 #bfc1 #bfd3 ,tacy to 
,pacy 7,elizabeth and ,deborah ,pacy7   
p4 #bhf 7,index73 ,ireland1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,h4
 to ,ireland1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,w4    p4 #bhf   
7,index73 ,millman1 ,h4 ,h4 to ,milman1 
,h4 ,h4    ,irregularities in           
hyphenation 7e4g4 supernormal vs4       
super-normal7 and  misquotations have   
not been corrected4 ,unless it was found
 that the  error also occurred in the   
cited text1 misspellings have been      
corrected4    ,although ,footnote #ha   
7originally on p4 #ajd7 refers to a note
 at the end  of this chapter1 the ,,note
 ,,to ,,page #ajd begins on p4 #aaj1    
several pages  before the chapter ends4 
,this has not been changed4             

,footnotes markers have been changed    
from symbols 7in the original7 to       
numerals4    ,for the plain text        
versions1 an oe-ligature has been       
changed to oe  7,coelestia74