file which includes the numerous original illustrations4 ,see #cjbij-;h4htm or #cjbij-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#cjbij_/pg#cjbij-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#cj bij_/cjbij-;h4zip7 ,the ,homeland ,handbooks--,no4 #ee4 ,,our ,,homeland ,,churches ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,study ,,them4 by ,,sidney ,,heath 7,author of ,some ,dorset ,manor ,houses1 etc47 ,illustrated by the ,author and ,ethel ,m4 ,heath ,and by ,photographs4 ,published under the ,general ,editorship of ,prescott ,row and ,arthur ,henry ,anderson1 by the ,homeland ,association for the ,encouragement of ,touring in ,great ,britain4 ,illustration3 ,the ,foundations of a ,romano-,british ,church4 ,uncovered at ,silchester4 ,photograph ,s4 ,victor ,white ,co4 ,london3 ,the ,homeland ,association ,ltd41 #bb1 ,bride ,lane1 ,fleet ,street1 ,e4,c4 ,first ,edition4 #aijg4 ,,editorial ,,note4 ,with a view to making future ,editions of this ,handbook as accurate and comprehensive as possible1 suggestions for its improvement are cordially invited4 ,if sent to ,,the ,,editors1 ,the ,homeland ,association1 ,association ,house1 #bb1 ,bride ,lane1 ,fleet ,street1 ,e4,c41 they will be gratefully acknowledged4 ,,copyright4 ,this ,book as a whole1 with its contents1 both ,literary and ,pictorial1 is ,copyrighted in ,great ,britain4 ,,advertising4 ,,local4--,terms for ,advertising in future issues of this ,handbook will be forwarded on application to the ,general ,manager of the ,homeland ,association1 at the above address4 ,,general4--,contracts for the insertion of ,advertisements through the whole series of ,homeland ,handbooks1 more than fifty volumes1 circulating through the country1 can be arranged on application to the ,general ,manager4 ,,contents4 ,author's ,preface #g ,dedication #h ,introduction #i ,i4--,early ,british ,churches #ai ,,ii4--,early ,church ,architecture #bf ,,iii4--,the ,saxon and ,norman ,styles #ca ,,iv4--,the ,early ,english ,style #dg ,v4--,the ,decorated ,style #eg ,,vi4--,the ,perpendicular ,style #fd ,,vii4--,the ,renaissance and ,later #gd ,,viii4--,church ,furniture and ,ornaments #hj ,,ix4--,bells and ,belfries #ie ,x4--,the ,spire3 ,its ,origin and ,development #ii ,,xi4--,stained ,glass #ajd ,,xii4--,crypts #aji ,,xiii4--,how to describe an ,old ,church #aaa ,appendix--,a ,glossary of the ,principal ,terms used in ,ecclesiastical ,architecture #aae ,bibliography #abc ,index #abd ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,plates4 #a ,foundations of a ,romano-,british ,church ,frontispiece #b ,the ,church of ,st4 ,margaret1 ,lynn #eb #c ,a ,fine ,perpendicular ,tower1 ,st4 ,mary1 ,taunton #gb #d ,sedilia and ,chantry1 ,luton #hh 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,various ,forms of ,arches #aj ,plan of a ,typical ,gothic ,cruciform ,parish ,church1 ,luton #ab ,examples of ,gothic ,windows #ae ,examples of ,buttresses #ag ,a ,rood ,screen1 with a ,restoration of the ,rood #bj ,the ,church of ,s4 ,martin1 ,canterbury #bb ,window ,built with ,roman ,brick1 ,swanscombe #bd ,a ,reputed ,saxon ,doorway1 ,bishopstone #cj ,tower of ,earls' ,barton ,church #cc ,an ,example of ,norman ,tower1 ,bishopstone #cd ,a ,norman ,pier ,arcade1 ,abbots ,langley #cf ,examples of ,norman ,mouldings #cg ,a ,late ,norman ,parish ,church1 ,castle ,rising #ch ,west ,doorway1 ,rochester ,cathedral #dj ,tympanum of ,norman ,doorway1 ,fordington ,st4 ,george #da ,examples of ,norman ,capitals #db ,a ,curious ,norman ,capital1 ,seaford #dc ,norman and ,early ,english ,doorways1 ,dunstable ,priory ,church #de ,windows1 ,showing the ,origin of ,tracery #dg ,an ,early ,english ,arch1 ,rochester ,cathedral #dh ,wall ,arcading1 ,showing ,junction of ,norman and ,early ,english ,masonry1 ,dunstable ,priory ,church #ej ,an ,early ,english ,doorway1 ,huntingdon #ea ,a ,group of ,thirteenth ,century ,lancet ,windows1 ,ockham #ec ,salisbury ,cathedral #ee ,examples of ,early ,english ,capitals and ,ornament #ef ,a ,late ,decorated ,window in a ,parish ,church1 ,east ,sutton #ei ,examples of ,decorated ,ornament #fa ,examples of ,perpendicular ,ornament #fd ,early ,perpendicular ,parish ,church1 ,yeovil #fe ,a ,fine ,parish ,church1 ,showing ,rich ,perpendicular ,work1 ,terrington ,st4 ,clement1 ,norfolk #fg ,a ,perpendicular ,doorway1 ,merton ,college #fh ,a ,perpendicular ,porch1 ,king's ,lynn #ga ,an ,english ,renaissance ,church1 ,s4 ,stephen1 ,walbrook #gh ,a ,typical ,cornish ,font #hj ,the ,sanctuary ,knocker1 ,durham ,cathedral #hb ,the ,baptistery in ,luton ,church #hc ,an ,example of a ,leaden ,font of the ,late ,norman ,period #he ,a ,reputed ,saxon ,font1 ,shaldon #hf ,a ,detached ,holy-,water ,stoup of ,unusual ,design #hg ,a ,typical ,somerset ,bench-,end1 ,spaxton #hi ,a ,richly-,carved ,pulpit and ,canopy1 ,edlesborough #ia ,screen with ,rood ,loft1 ,kenton #ic ,the ,carved ,oak ,balustrade in ,compton ,church #id ,bell ,turret for ,three ,bells1 ,radipole #ih ,the ,best ,example of a ,saxon ,spire or ,pyramidal ,roof1 ,sompting #ajj ,leighton ,buzzard ,church1 with ,early ,english ,tower and ,spire #ajb ,a ,parish ,church with a ,shingle ,broach ,spire1 ,edenbridge #aje ,interior ,elevation of a ,bay of a ,church #aad ,,styles ,,of ,,english ,,architecture4 ,the following periods of architectural style may be of use for the purpose of reference1 but it must be borne in mind that they are more or less approximate1 as each style merged by slow degrees into the next4 ,norman4--,william ,i4 to ,stephen4 #ajff-aaed4 ,transition ,norman4--,henry ,,ii4 #aaed-aahi4 ,early ,english ,gothic4--,richard ,i4 to ,henry ,,iii4 #aahi-abgb ,decorated4--,edward ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii4 #abgb-acgg4 ,perpendicular4--,richard ,,ii4 to ,henry ,,vii4 #acgg-adhe4 ,tudor4--,henry ,,viii4 to ,elizabeth4 #adhe-afjj4 ,mr4 ,edmund ,sharpe gives seven periods of ,english architecture up to the time of the ,reformation1 and dates them as follows3-- ,,romanesque4 ,i4 ,saxon from ---- to #ajff ,,ii4 ,norman #ajff #aade #gi years ,,iii4 ,transitional #aade #aaij #de ,,gothic4 ,,iv4 ,lancet from #aaij to #abde #ee years ,v4 ,geometrical #abde #acae #gj ,,vi4 ,curvilinear #acae #acfj #de ,,vii4 ,rectilinear #acfj #aeej #aij ,,preface4 ,it is a truism that the history of building is the history of the civilized world1 for of all the arts practised by man1 there is none which conveys to us a clearer conception of the religion1 history1 manners1 customs1 ideals and follies of past ages1 than the art of building4 ,this applies in a special sense to cathedrals and churches1 which glorious relics reflect and perpetuate the noble aim1 the delicate thought1 the refined and exquisite taste1 the patient and painstaking toil which have been expended upon them by the devout and earnest craftsmen of the past4 ,there are very few of our ancient churches in village1 town or city which do not offer some feature of interest to the visitor1 and in the absence of anything more important1 there is sure to be some door1 window1 font1 screen1 or other detail which will amply repay him for the small amount of time spent in seeing it4 ,the aim of the author of this little volume has been to indicate the symbolism and meaning attaching to the various portions of our churches and cathedrals1 and to endeavour briefly to describe1 in language as simple as the subject will allow1 the various styles of ecclesiastical architecture with their distinctive characteristics in such a way as will enable the reader to assign each portion and detail of a church to its respective period with an approximate degree of accuracy4 ,he does not claim to be original1 but endeavours to be useful and interesting4 ,the best authorities have been consulted and freely drawn upon1 but with the object in view of writing a book at once thus useful and interesting1 no attempt has been made to deal with the subject in a strictly architectural1 or a purely scientific manner4 ,weymouth1 #aijf4 ,,dedication4 ,to all those who love old buildings--cathedrals1 abbeys1 and village churches1 which breathe the spirit of an age with which we have entirely broken--and who would fain hand down to posterity1 unmutilated1 the great building achievements of our forefathers1 which we1 with all our science1 wealth1 and means of curtailing labour1 can no more imitate than we can reproduce the language of a ,chaucer or a ,shakespeare2 this book is respectfully dedicated4 ,s4 ,h4 ,firm was their faith1 the ancient bands1 ,the wise of heart in wood and stone1 ,who reared with stern and trusting hands ,those dark grey towers of days unknown2 ,they filled the aisles with many a thought1 ,they bade each nook some truth recall ,the pillared arch its legend brought1 ,a doctrine came with roof and wall4 --,,hawker ,,of ,,morwenstow4 ,,our ,,homeland ,,churches ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,study ,,them4 ,,introduction4 ,however much we may admire1 considered purely as art1 the ,pagan temples of the ,greeks and ,romans1 we must confess that they are lacking in those high ideals and those sustained and inspired motives which seem to penetrate and permeate the buildings and churches of the ,christian era4 ,perfect as is ,greek art within its somewhat narrow limits1 it is1 nevertheless1 cold1 precise and lifeless4 ,the ,gothic buildings on the contrary are pregnant with the very spirit of life4 ,prompted by a deep and fervent faith in their religion1 the ,gothic builders and sculptors unconsciously wove into the humblest of their architectural enrichments some portion of their daily life and personality4 ,the slave-built temples of the ,greeks offered no scope for the exercise of individual expression--such1 in fact1 would have been strongly resented--whereas the early ,christian craftsman1 revelling in his freedom1 seized every opportunity of expressing in his work his joy1 fear and hope of immortality4 ,this is made apparent in the study of an old church1 whereof every portion--door1 window1 bench-end1 carving1 gargoyle--has hidden about it some suggestion of beautiful thought1 or some distinct and appropriate symbolism4 ,the fact that symbolism underlies almost every such indication of medival thought is made abundantly manifest in the study of medival literature4 ,open any #abth century treatise on morals1 science or history1 and you become aware of the fact at once4 ,the main-spring of this symbolism1 of all ,christian symbolism1 turns on the parabolic meaning in the scheme of ,creation4 ,the early writers were far less concerned with recording the plain objective facts of history1 than in pursuing the allegory and the love of the marvellous1 and showing all those characteristics of what we now term an unscientific attitude of mind4 ,illustration3 ,the ,various ,forms of ,arches4 ,norman4 ,stilted4 ,horse ,shoe4 ,equilateral4 ,lancet4 ,drop4 ,trefoil4 ,trefoil4 ,cinquefoil4 ,ogee4 ,four ,centered4 ,tudor4 ,in its widest sense1 symbolism means the expression of belief1 and if we would interpret history aright1 we must grasp the fact that the key to the character and disposition of peoples of all ages lies in the knowledge of their beliefs2 for out of the beliefs of one age most surely grow the beliefs of its successors1 and in no work of man's hand are the beliefs held by various peoples in past ages more clearly defined than in our cathedrals and churches1 which noble buildings in every civilized country indicate principles as well as facts1 influences as well as results2 and while presenting the finest materials for sthetic study1 are no less useful as indicating the psychological peculiarities of those builders of old to whose condition they bear witness4 ,in our grand specimens of ecclesiastical architecture1 we may read the world's later history1 and to-day they breathe the sombre reverential influence of a faith which sought to satisfy itself with the visible symbolizing of those half-poetical1 half-superstitious conceptions with which the religion of the ,middle ,ages was so deeply imbued4 ,an early development of decorative symbolic art1 known as ,celtic1 of which we have examples on old ,irish crosses1 and particularly on illuminated ,,mss4 was wrought by the ,christian monks of the #gth and #hth centuries1 but what is generally understood as ,christian symbolic art had its finest development about the #acth century4 ,gothic art is essentially symbolic and in many instances1 its individual forms have specific significance4 ,thus the common equilateral triangle was used to symbolize the ,holy ,trinity1 as are the two entwined triangles4 ,other symbols employed at this period setting forth the mystery of the ,unity of the ,trinity1 without beginning and without end1 are three interlaced circles1 and a very curious one is that in which three faces are so combined as to form an ornamental figure4 ,baptism under the immediate sanction of the ,divine ,trinity was represented by three fishes placed together in the form of a triangle4 ,so numerous1 indeed were such ,christian symbols after the #ith century that a mere enumeration of them would occupy considerable space4 ,every trefoil symbolized the ,holy ,trinity2 every quatrefoil the four ,evangelists2 every cross the ,crucifixion1 or the martyrdom of some saint2 and in ,gothic ornament and decoration1 we find the ,chalice1 the ,crown of ,thorns1 the ,dice1 the ,sop1 the ,hammer and ,nails1 the ,flagellum and other symbols of our ,lord's ,passion4 ,illustration3 ,plan of a ,typical ,gothic ,cruciform ,parish ,church4 7,st4 ,mary1 ,luton1 fully described in ,no4 #dg of this ,series74 ,drawn by ,ed4 ,craven ,lee4 ,although presenting the same characteristics in their external design1 our town and village churches are very various4 ,the simplest form1 and the one most commonly found1 is that of a nave and chancel1 with a tower at the west end2 to which plan may be added aisles and transepts1 the latter often being wrongly called cross-aisles4 ,when the walls of the nave above the arcade rise above those of the aisles and are pierced with windows1 the upper portion is called the clerestory1 the meaning of which word is not free from obscurity2 it seems probable that it indicates the clear story--the story which rises clear of the nave and aisles4 ,in large buildings1 they are important both for utility and beauty1 but in small and early churches1 they are of less importance4 ,it is a well-known fact that the chancel and nave of a church generally stand east and west4 ,this arrangement1 called the orientation1 is symbolic of the teaching that to the east we are to look for assistance and protection against the power of our enemy1 and that as we pray we may look for the day-spring1 symbolized to us in the rising sun that sheds light and warmth all over the earth4 ,the public entrance to a church is generally at the west end 7the priest usually had a door in the chancel for his own use74 ,through this door we enter the house of prayer1 for as in the east we see the emblem of the ,lord of ,life and ,light1 so the west represents the seat of darkness and of the powers of evil4 ,the earliest porches were those of the early ,christian basilica churches2 they were long and arcaded and were called narthex4 ,in later times1 they assumed two forms1 one the projecting erection1 covering the entrance and divided into three or more doorways1 and the other a kind of covered chamber open at the end and having small windows at the sides4 ,these latter are generally found on the north and south sides of the nave4 ,formerly1 when church government was more rigorous in discipline than is now the case1 the porch was the appointed place for those who were under censure4 ,those also who were unbaptised1 or who had not yet received the sacrament of regeneration1 were not allowed beyond the porch1 not quite excluded from the church and yet not permitted to enter fully4 ,the porch also served as a path of admission for all ,christians into the body of the church1 so that they passed through the assembly of penitents and catechumens1 who were wont to ask the prayers of the more highly privileged for their full restoration or admission to the communion of the faithful4 ,with reference to our ,lord's word1 ,i am the ,door1 we frequently find the tympana of church doors1 particularly those of ,norman date1 adorned with representations of events from his life1 but they often also depict the monsters1 dragons and devils1 that formed so strong an article in the faith of the early ,christians4 ,a more detailed account of these tympana will be found in a following chapter4 ,passing through the porch we enter the nave1 which word is derived from the ,latin navis1 a ship4 ,its symbolic teaching is that of the ,church riding triumphantly and buoyantly on the troubled and dark waters of the world4 ,the first thing noticed on entering the nave is the font1 which was formerly placed outside the church1 in a separate building called the baptistery2 a few of our churches have retained these little buildings which now form part of the churches proper4 ,the reason in early days for placing the font outside the church was that the ,christian was not admitted into the nave until he had been baptised and confirmed1 the latter rite being administered immediately after baptism4 ,from the western door there is a clear passage through the centre of the nave1 called the aisle1 signifying the straight and narrow way from the seat of darkness to immortal life4 ,on each side of this aisle are seats for the laity1 with room for standing and kneeling4 ,the nave was usually divided from the chancel by an open screen of wood or stone1 signifying that although the ,christian might have some insight into the mysteries of the priest's office1 at the same time these were to be partly concealed from his view4 ,the rood screen was so called from the fact that the great ,rood1 or ,crucifix1 stood above it1 not always on the screen itself1 but on a separate beam1 to which was often attached a rood loft or chamber4 ,in early days1 the lessons were read from the top of the rood screen1 and in many of our churches the stairways leading thither have been retained4 ,illustration3 ,examples of ,gothic ,windows4 ,early ,english4 ,decorated4 ,perpendicular4 ,see also page #ei4 ,in churches where the screen has vanished1 the division of the nave from the rest of the church is plainly marked by the chancel arch4 ,the chancel is emblematic of the ,christian perfection1 of the ,church triumphant in heaven4 ,in an old church1 a piscina is nearly always found in the chancel1 and here1 too1 were the sedilia or seats for the officiating clergy1 the prior1 sub-prior1 and the deacon1 the last-named occupying the lowest seat4 ,founders' tombs also nearly always occupy positions in the chancel1 and these tombs differ from all others in that they form an integral part of the structure1 and could not have been added after the church was completed4 ,another thing sometimes to be seen is the ambery1 or aumbry1 a small cupboard let into the chancel wall1 in which were kept the communion vessels1 the chalice1 paten1 etc4 ,the great object of interest1 however1 in the chancel1 is the altar1 which ,archbishop ,laud directed should be enclosed by rails1 so that although the people may draw near1 they cannot touch the holy table1 but must accept from the hands of the priest those gifts of which he is the minister from ,god4 ,altars are fully described in a following chapter1 but we may here note that the reredos1 so universally found in our cathedrals1 abbeys1 and in many of our churches1 forms no part of the altar1 and the ,court of ,arches has decided that there are no altars in the ,church of ,england1 but only communion tables4 ,prominent among the external enrichments of our churches is the gargoyle1 a word derived from the ,french1 gargouille1 which in its turn comes from the ,latin gurgulio--a water-spout4 ,the earliest gargoyles are merely orifices with a lip to shoot the water well away from the fabric4 ,the true gargoyle1 however1 was quickly evolved from this primitive form1 and consists of two parts1 the lower one forming the channel1 the upper one being the cover4 ,the full significance of the skill displayed by the old masons in the rare opportunity the gargoyle afforded them of representing the dragons1 serpents1 etc41 in which their fancy revelled1 is made apparent when we view the futile attempts of modern architects to introduce this feature in their churches1 for modern gargoyles are generally grotesque caricatures1 and anything but happy appendages to the buildings to which they are attached4 ,illustration3 ,examples of ,buttresses4 ,norman ,decorated ,flying ,buttress ,early ,english ,perpendicular ,drawn by ,e4 ,m4 ,heath4 ,the churchyard1 so pleasing an adjunct to the ,house of ,god placed within it1 is frequently approached through a lych-gate1 which word is derived from the ,saxon lich1 a corpse4 ,these gates in our country churchyards are often very picturesque little structures1 and under them the corpse at a funeral awaited the officiating priest before being taken into the church4 ,the churchyard is commonly regarded as a mere dependency of the church1 and as having a history very inferior in interest to that of the temple to which it is the court4 ,the truth is that many of our churchyards have an antiquity far greater than that of the churches1 as many of them constituted the open-air meeting-places of our ,saxon forefathers long before the erection of parish churches4 ,in the common meeting-place a cross was set up1 either of wood or stone1 to mark and hallow the spot1 and when a church was subsequently built it was usually in the immediate vicinity of the cross1 which accounts for the fact that many churchyard crosses are of older date than the churches themselves4 ,wells of water are often found in old churchyards1 and as the regulations of the ,saxon church required immersion and not sprinkling1 it is possible that these were the ,saxon fonts4 ,such then is the necessarily brief attempt to describe the main lines on which our old churches were planned1 and the motives and ideals which animated their builders1 who1 being impressed with the dignity and mystery of the works of ,god1 made their churches symbolical of the portions of the ,christian life2 the porch signifying baptism1 the nave the life militant on earth1 and the chancel the life eternal2 while every little ornament1 piece of sculpture and enrichment was designed to remind the worshippers of their faith1 of its hopes1 blessed promises and rewards4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,early ,,british ,,churches4 ,in dealing with the introduction of church architecture into our own land1 the task would be much simplified if one could state with certainty when the first church was built on ,british soil4 ,some historians assert that the ,church of ,england as it is constituted to-day dates no further back than the moment when ,s4 ,augustine and his followers landed on the shores of ,kent in the year #eif1 yet one is probably justified in assuming that a church existed in these islands for centuries previous to the arrival of the ,roman missionaries4 ,unfortunately we have no records to guide us as to the date of this earlier settlement1 and the name of the first ,christian missionary to heathen ,britain has still to be discovered4 ,we see1 says the quaint old historian1 ,thomas ,fuller1 the light of the word shined here1 but see not who kindled it4 ,the first ,christian building of which we have any record was probably that erected at ,glastonbury before the year #cjj1 but that this was the first ,christian settlement cannot be alleged with certainty4 ,there are many traditions concerning the introduction of ,christianity into ,britain1 some of which may probably have some bearing on the truth1 but the whole subject is involved in considerable obscurity4 ,one of these numerous traditions is to the effect that the ,british ,king ,caradoc1 after being taken prisoner to ,rome1 was allowed to return1 on condition that several members of his family remained as hostages2 and whilst serving in this capacity1 his mother1 son1 and daughter are stated to have become converts to ,christianity1 the doctrines of which faith they spread in their native land on their return thereto4 ,another tradition is to the effect that ,s4 ,paul himself visited ,britain and laid the foundation of the ,christian faith4 ,we are also told by eminent church historians that the father and grandfather of ,s4 ,patrick were ,christians1 in which case ,s4 ,patrick himself would from a very early age have been brought up in the tenets of their faith4 ,he is said to have been seized by pirates in the ,clyde and taken to the north of ,ireland1 and eventually to ,gaul4 ,he was subsequently restored to his friends1 whom he wished to convert to the ,christian faith1 and for this purpose his father sent him to be taught in the schools of ,tours1 ,auxerre and ,lerins4 ,eventually he was consecrated ,bishop of the ,irish and organized an efficient ecclesiastical system in ,ireland4 ,illustration3 ,a ,rood ,screen with a ,restoration of the ,rood4 ,kenn1 ,devon4 ,photograph by ,chapman4 ,before the coming of the ,anglo-,saxons the church seems to have established a firm hold on the people1 who held tenaciously to their possessions1 both secular and religious1 which were only wrested from them after a severe struggle4 ,their enthusiastic love of ,christianity led them to make a heroic defence of the churches1 rather than see them fall into the hands of the heathen ,anglo-,saxons4 ,the historian ,bede tells us that all their buildings were destroyed1 the priests' blood was spilt upon the altars1 prelates and people were slain with the sword1 and all the cities and churches were burnt to the ground4 ,when all was lost and there was no longer a church or home to defend1 the ,britons retired to the country of their fellow-,christians1 the secluded and almost impenetrable hills and forests of the west4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon love of gold was quickly recognised by the people of ,west ,wales who saved their property and bought the right of worshipping after the manner of their fathers by the payment of an annual tribute to their conquerors4 ,side note3 ,church of ,s4 ,piran1 ,perranporth4 ,so ruthlessly indeed did the ,anglo-,saxons rase to the ground the early churches1 that1 until a few years ago1 but few traces of these early buildings were thought to exist4 ,an accidental discovery1 however1 in the year #ahce1 brought to light an undoubted relic of an early ,british church in the west1 this being the remains of a little church which had been until the date above mentioned completely buried in the sand on the sea coast near ,perranporth in ,cornwall4 ,they are thought by ecclesiologists to be the remains of the original church erected to the memory of ,s4 ,piran1 a ,cornish missionary and a friend of ,s4 ,patrick1 who was buried within its walls before the year #ejj ,a4,d4 ,on removing the sand1 the accumulated deposit of centuries1 the church was found to have consisted of a nave and chancel containing a stone altar4 ,illustration3 ,the ,church of ,s4 ,martin1 ,canterbury4 ,the building measured #bi feet in length1 #af-a_/c feet in width and #ai feet from the floor to the roof1 and probably shares with ,s4 ,mary's ,church in ,dover ,castle1 and ,s4 ,martin's1 ,canterbury1 the honour of being one of the earliest links we possess with the ancient ,british ,church4 ,s4 ,mary's1 ,dover1 appears to have been built of ,roman bricks and cement1 a combination which antiquaries consider is found only in those buildings which were erected during the ,roman occupation4 ,side note3 ,s4 ,martin's ,canterbury4 ,s4 ,martin's ,church1 ,canterbury has many claims to be considered one of our most interesting churches1 no less on account of its associations than for its structural interest4 ,the date of its building has been a source of endless controversy1 as it contains many features attributable to either ,roman or ,saxon architecture4 ,it is thought that it may possibly have been used for worship by the ,christian soldiers of the ,roman army4 ,be this as it may1 it is established beyond doubt that it was the oratory of ,queen ,bertha1 the first ,english ,christian queen1 who here worshipped1 with her chaplain ,liudhard1 long before the advent of ,s4 ,augustine1 who himself in later times preached here2 and within the walls of this cradle of ,english ,christianity1 ,ethelbert1 ,king of ,kent1 the husband of ,queen ,bertha was baptized4 ,the ,venerable ,bede1 writing within a hundred years of the death of ,s4 ,augustine states that there was in #eig ,a4,d4 in ,canterbury1 a church dedicated to the honour of ,s4 ,martin and built while the ,romans still occupied ,britain4 ,on the departure of the ,romans it is probable that the church was still used by a small band of ,christian worshippers until the heathen ,jutes overran the ,isle of ,thanet in #ddi4 ,little is known of the progress of ,christianity on this island from that date until the landing of ,s4 ,augustine in #eig1 and the first fruits of his mission1 as we have seen1 was the conversion and baptism of ,king ,ethelbert4 ,as one would naturally expect1 the aspect of the structure to-day1 though suggestive of antiquity1 is lacking in uniformity of treatment4 ,the brick courses in the nave are at irregular intervals1 varying from nine to twenty inches apart1 the spaces being filled with ,kentish rag-stone and occasional blocks of chalk4 ,the chancel extends eighteen or twenty feet east of the arch and is composed of ,roman bricks1 evenly laid and averaging four bricks to a foot4 ,illustration3 ,an ,ancient ,window built with ,roman ,brickwork4 ,swanscombe1 ,kent4 ,photograph ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,smith4 ,the chancel was lengthened at the beginning of the thirteenth century and again at a more recent date1 so that its architecture to-day is of three distinct periods4 ,outside may be seen five flat pilaster buttresses and one semi-circular one1 a square-headed ,roman doorway1 a ,saxon doorway and two ,early ,english porches2 and there is also a nearly circular panel on the south side of the nave1 and a ,norman squint at the west end4 ,there are many other features of interest which bear evidences of a great antiquity1 and the only question which is seriously disputed is whether the earliest portion of the present nave was built about the end of the ,roman occupation of ,britain or during the mission of ,s4 ,augustine4 ,the ,rev4 ,charles ,f4 ,routledge1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,hon4 ,canon of ,canterbury ,cathedral1 writes3 ,whatever may finally be determined to be the date of the church's foundation1 it can never lose its unique association with ,s4 ,augustine1 ,king ,ethelbert and ,queen ,bertha1 nor its undisputed claim to be the oldest existing church in ,england4 ,from it flowed the tiny spring of ,english ,christianity1 which has since widened out into a mighty river1 and penetrated the remotest parts of the civilized and uncivilized world4 ,side note3 ,other ,early ,churches4 ,among other churches which show signs of having been built during the ,roman occupation are those of ,reculver1 ,richborough and ,lyminge1 while the foundations of an undoubted early church have been discovered in the old ,roman city of ,silchester1 in ,hampshire4 ,see frontispiece4 ,the old church at ,reculver stood originally within the ,roman castrum1 the fortress which guarded the northern mouth of the ,wantsume1 now a small stream1 but once an arm of the sea dividing the ,isle of ,thanet from the mainland4 ,the greater part of this church was pulled down in #ahji1 but the western towers1 known as the sisters were repaired by ,trinity ,house1 as they constitute a useful landmark for mariners1 being visible at a great distance4 ,reculver church was built about ,a4,d4 #fgj1 and from the existing walls and foundations it is clear that its plan was basilican4 ,the church is now a ruin1 but some stone pillars which supported the arches are preserved in the ,cathedral ,close at ,canterbury4 ,as ,reculver guarded the northern mouth of the watercourse1 so ,richborough protected the south1 and here traces of a chapel in the form of a cross are plainly discernible amongst ruins known to be of ,roman workmanship4 ,the old church at ,lyminge in the same county is thus described by ,canon ,jenkyns1 in his ,history of ,lyminge3--,the ,roman foundations discoverable at the south-east angle of the chancel1 together with the remarkable half-arch that intervenes1 marked the site of the aquilonalis porticus--the title of basilica already given to it in the seventh century establishes its claim to great antiquity4 ,we thus see that although remains of the actual buildings in which the ,british ,christians worshipped are few in number1 yet enough are left us to prove conclusively that there was a very active and zealous ,christian community established in these islands during at least the period immediately preceding that in which ,rome withdrew her legions from ,britain in order to defend ,italy against the ,goths1 and abandoned our island to the mercy of her foes4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,early ,,church ,,architecture4 ,in the early years of the ,christian ,church1 when its members became sufficiently free from persecution to erect buildings for the purpose of worship1 they were naturally anxious to avoid any of the forms peculiar to either heathen or ,jewish temples4 ,some model1 however1 was necessary1 and their choice being limited1 they appear to have adopted the simple style of the ,roman basilica1 or court of justice4 ,there was an adaptability about the general plan of such a building which rendered its selection natural and not inappropriate1 while the dignified simplicity of its construction and the object for which it was primarily founded--the dispensation of justice--commended it no doubt in the first instance as a model for the primitive ,christian church4 ,these basilic were usually enclosures surrounded by a colonnade1 sometimes roofed1 but more often open to the air1 and designedly built for the purpose of being accessible to all members of the community at all times of the day4 ,they appear occasionally to have been used for the transaction of ordinary business in which they would closely resemble our exchanges4 ,be this as it may1 this form of architecture has left its impress on many ,christian buildings1 and the name of basilica1 for a church1 is still used in many parts of ,italy4 ,the ,roman basilica was usually in the form of a parallelogram1 with a seat for the judges at one end1 and in their adaptation of this form of building1 the early ,christians devoted this place to the purposes of an altar4 ,this1 by an easy and natural transition1 is thought to have given rise to the formation of the semi-circular recess at one end of the building1 known as the apse 7from the ,latin apsis1 a bow or arch71 which is still to be found in some of our older churches4 ,being thus ,roman in the nature of their ground plan1 it is not surprising to find that other portions of the early ,christian buildings show decided characteristics of a ,roman style4 ,on the destruction of the ,pagan temples by order of the ,emperor ,constantine about the year #ccj1 much of their material was built into the earliest ,christian churches1 and the ,roman character of their design being prevalent1 they formed a style of architecture which has been designated ,romanesque1 of which the later styles1 known here as ,saxon and ,norman were largely modifications4 ,there is no reason to doubt that the earliest ,christian churches were very unpretentious in form and that some time elapsed before there was anything which could be called a definite church architecture1 beyond that to which we have alluded4 ,nevertheless1 as the ,church strengthened her position and grew in security1 more attention was devoted to the subject of its edifices1 and the departure in time from the original ground plan furnished an opportunity for the introduction of a more symbolical and appropriate design4 ,the plan of the old basilica was abandoned for one in the form of the cross1 the accepted symbol of the ,christian religion1 which departure1 however1 did not involve any very great alteration from the old ground plan4 ,we come then to the time when one or other of the forms known as the ,latin or the ,greek cross--whichever was most convenient--was usually employed in a building designed for ,christian worship1 and these forms are universally found in the most elaborate structures of which the ,christian ,church can boast4 ,as time passed1 these cruciform churches were surmounted with a dome1 steeple1 or tower at the point where the members of the cross intersected each other4 ,at first the most prominent of these external adornments was the dome2 a characteristic of the architecture of ,eastern ,europe1 which acquired the name ,byzantine1 from its having been carried to great perfection in ,byzantium 7,constantinople71 the capital of the ,eastern ,empire4 ,the church of ,s4 ,sophia1 which was built1 much as it now exists1 early in the sixth century1 and was afterwards converted into a mosque1 is an almost perfect example of the ,byzantine style4 ,in this building we find the ,roman arch used in a variety of ways1 while the dome itself is formed entirely of this arch used as the crowning work of the edifice4 ,eastern churches in this style usually took the form of the ,greek cross1 this form being better calculated to support the weight of the cupola4 ,in ,western ,europe1 however1 where the flat squat tower afterwards developed into the steeple1 as we shall see in a later chapter1 the ,latin cross was mostly used1 and this1 with a few notable exceptions1 is the plan of most western churches4 ,with writers of about fifty years ago1 it was a favourite theory that the ,christians converted the old basilic into churches1 and that the ,halls of ,justice erected by the ,romans in this country were also converted into ,christian churches1 and some authorities point to the walls and arches of ,brixworth church in confirmation of this theory4 ,the late ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,brewer1 however1 stated that unfortunately for this theory1 no single example of a basilica being converted into a church has been found in this country and he himself held the theory that the word basilica was used by the ,romans to describe any building which was supported by internal columns1 and in that way the name came to be applied to ,christian churches4 ,as we have seen1 the early ,christians1 after a short time1 became dissatisfied with these buildings adapted from ,pagan types1 and the ,byzantine form of church arose1 the first people who practised this style of building being the ,greeks4 ,the style spread with rapidity all over the ,east1 the great church of ,s4 ,sophia being its largest example and the smaller1 but more perfect1 church of ,s4 ,mark at ,venice giving us the best idea of this form of church architecture4 ,largely modelled on this style1 also1 are the circular baptisteries of ,italy and the round churches of ,england1 ,france and ,germany1 the modern ,russian churches and all the ,mohammedan mosques4 ,the ,latin churches did not greatly favour this style and their use of it was confined1 with few exceptions1 to baptisteries1 monumental chapels and the like1 but for parochial1 cathedral and monastic churches1 the oblong plan was retained and ultimately developed into the ,gothic church with its nave1 transepts and chancel4 ,the changes which the ,christian basilica at first underwent were simple1 viz41 the use of the arch instead of the straight lintel1 or the placing of an entablature between the columns2 a little later1 about the tenth century1 the old wooden roof of the basilica gave place to the arched roof or vaulting1 so called from its being composed of a series of vaults4 ,the styles called ,romanesque and ,lombardic are but geographical varieties of the same architecture and from these the ,saxon and ,norman styles were soon to be developed4 ,the vaulted basilica church soon became common over the north of ,europe1 the two most important and practically unaltered examples being the cathedrals of ,speyer and ,worms1 in ,germany1 although our ,anglo-,saxon cathedrals of ,peterborough1 ,ely and ,norwich may1 so far as regards their naves1 be justly regarded as the offspring of the vaulted basilica style of building4 ,when the old basilica style of church with its heavy beam roof and its innumerable columns had ceased to satisfy the lofty aspirations of ,latin ,christianity1 and when the ,greeks had inaugurated a new style of church architecture1 only two courses were left to the ,latins1 either to adopt the ,greek style in its entirety1 or to improve upon the basilica type4 ,fortunately1 although after considerable hesitation1 they chose the latter alternative1 the result being the genesis of our glorious cathedrals with their long naves and aisles1 deep transepts and beautiful variety of form and outline4 ,illustration3 ,a ,reputed ,saxon ,doorway4 ,bishopstone1 ,sussex4 ,photograph ,mr4 ,w4 ,hodgson4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,saxon ,,and ,,norman ,,styles4 ,as we have seen in the previous chapter1 the whole subject of pre-,saxon church building is still very obscure1 and for some considerable time after the ,anglo-,saxon invasion little is known concerning church architecture1 nor has it yet been fully ascertained whether any buildings of this period exist4 ,by the year #ehh the ,saxons were in complete possession of the land4 ,christianity was to all appearance wiped out and the ,church1 to the superficial observer was dead4 ,in his ,history of ,english ,church ,architecture1 ,scott expresses the opinion that the oldest ,english churches may be divided into three groups4 ,first1 those which preceded the ,danish invasion2 secondly1 those from the above epoch to the invasion of ,sweyn2 and thirdly1 those onward to the ,norman ,conquest4 ,side note3 ,saxon ,architecture4 ,what exactly constituted ,saxon architecture has long been a controversial point and one which will probably never be definitely settled4 ,parker1 in his ,glossary of ,architecture1 says3-- ,for a considerable time1 after they 7the ,anglo-,saxons7 had established themselves in this country1 their buildings were of wood1 and this appears to have been the prevailing material employed at the time of the ,conquest1 although stone had been occasionally used several centuries earlier4444 ,no timber-work of ,saxon date can be in existence at the present time1 but it is contended by some antiquaries that several of our churches exhibit specimens of ,saxon masonry2 the truth of this theory1 however1 is not fully established1 nor has the subject of ,saxon architecture been yet sufficiently investigated to clear away the obscurity in which it is involved4 ,probably few of our so-called ,saxon churches were built earlier than thirty or forty years before the ,norman ,conquest1 and it seems certain that for some years after they had settled in ,england1 the ,normans employed ,saxon masons to build in the ,saxon manner1 as is seen by the tower of ,s4 ,michael's ,church1 ,oxford1 which1 although showing all the characteristics of reputed ,saxon masonry was built many years after the ,battle of ,hastings4 ,certain it is that these pre-,norman buildings in ,england were singularly rude and rough and show how much our ,saxon ancestors were1 at that period1 behind the ,italians1 ,french and ,germans in architectural skill4 ,side note3 ,saxon ,churches4 ,our best examples containing ,saxon work are possibly the churches at ,sompting and ,bishopstone1 ,sussex2 ,bradford-on-,avon2 ,wootton ,wawen 7sub-structure of tower72 ,wing2 ,brixworth1 and ,barnack1 ,northants2 ,greenstead in ,essex2 and ,s4 ,martin's at ,wareham1 ,dorset4 ,of towers of this date the best are possibly those of ,s4 ,mary's and ,s4 ,peter's1 ,lincoln and ,s4 ,benet's1 ,cambridge4 ,of crypts1 the finest examples are at ,ripon ,cathedral1 ,york ,minster 7part7 and ,s4 ,mary's ,church1 ,york4 ,in addition to these1 many other churches have chancel arches1 doorways or some other less important features which are considered to be of ,saxon origin4 ,these early buildings generally show the semi-circular arch on the doorways1 but the windows usually have a triangular head2 at ,sompting church1 however1 the windows have the semi-circular arch4 ,it is necessary to say a few words in detail about the more important churches of this era4 ,side note3 ,s4 ,lawrence1 ,bradford-on-,avon4 ,the church of ,s4 ,lawrence at ,bradford-on-,avon is one of the oldest unaltered churches in ,england1 and it seems to be beyond question that it is the actual church built by ,ealdhelm at the beginning of the eighth century and dedicated by him to ,s4 ,lawrence4 ,it consists of a chancel1 nave and north porch1 and among its remarkable features is its great height and the extreme narrowness of the round-headed arch between the nave and the chancel1 a feature it has in common with the ,saxon church of ,s4 ,martin at ,wareham2 the ground-plan measurements of both these churches are identical4 ,at ,s4 ,lawrence's church1 an incised arcade is seen outside the walls1 and on either side of the west aspect of the chancel arch are two sculptured figures of angels1 which are thought to represent the earliest extant fragments of church carving in ,england4 ,side note3 ,brixworth1 ,earls' ,barton and ,barnack4 ,brixworth church is possibly older than ,s4 ,lawrence's and it is said to have been in continuous use for ,divine ,service ever since it was erected4 ,the tower appears to be of rather later date than the nave and rests upon the walls of a narthex or portico1 which may have extended along the whole breadth of the front1 as is still to be seen in churches at ,rome and ,ravenna4 ,the curious pile of masonry built up against the tower may have been added for defence1 as it could hardly have formed part of the original design4 ,illustration3 ,tower of ,earls' ,barton ,church4 ,generally considered to show characteristics of ,saxon masonry4 ,earls' ,barton and ,barnack churches both have towers so covered with narrow projecting strips of stonework that the surface of the walls appears divided into rudely formed panels4 ,the west doorways of both show primitive imitations of ,roman mouldings in the imposts and architraves4 ,the tower of ,earls' ,barton consists of four stages1 each of which is slightly smaller than the one below4 ,in that of ,barnack church1 the upper stages of the tower represent the period of transition from ,norman to ,early ,english4 ,illustration3 ,an ,example of a ,norman ,tower4 ,bishopstone1 ,sussex4 ,homeland ,copyright4 ,s4 ,michael's1 ,oxford1 has a massive tower of solid masonry1 unpierced in its lowest stage by either door or window1 the second stage shows but one window and the highest is pierced by several windows of more elaborate construction4 ,side note3 ,st4 ,michael's ,church1 ,oxford4 ,although generally consisting of rubble and stone1 ,saxon churches were sometimes built of wood as we see from the existing nave of the parish church of ,greenstead1 ,essex4 ,side note3 ,greenstead ,church1 ,essex4 ,a brick chancel has been added at the east and a timber belfry at the west end1 but the old ,saxon portion is composed of large chestnut trees split asunder and set upright close to each other with the round side outwards4 ,the ends are roughly hewn so as to fit into a sill at the bottom1 and into a plate at the top1 where they are fastened with wooden pins4 ,there are #af logs on the south side where are two doorposts1 and on the north side twenty-one logs and two spaces now filled with rubble4 ,there is a tradition that this church was erected to receive the body of ,s4 ,edmund1 on its return from ,london to ,bury1 in #ajac4 ,the semi-circular arch has long been considered to be one of the most distinctive marks of ,norman architecture1 but ,mr4 ,rickman1 who made an exhaustive study of the early churches of ,france and ,england1 says3-- ,in various churches it has happened that a very plain arch between nave and chancel has been left as the only ,norman feature1 while both nave and chancel have been rebuilt at different times2 but each leaving the chancel arch standing4 ,i am disposed to think that some of these plain chancel arches1 will1 on minute examination1 turn out to be of ,saxon origin4 ,it would be tedious to enter into any more minute account of the ,anglo-,saxon ecclesiastical remains1 and the reader whose enquiries conduct him to the more elaborate works on the subject will be startled by the contrary opinions that he will surely encounter4 ,in concluding these brief remarks on early buildings1 we must again quote from ,parker's work to which reference has already been made3-- ,the class of buildings referred to as being considered to belong to this style contain some rather unusual features1 and they require to be particularly described1 both because they are in themselves remarkable1 and because there is a probability that some of them may be ,saxon4 ,illustration3 ,a ,norman ,pier ,arcade4 ,abbots ,langley1 ,herts4 ,photograph ,mr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,anderson4 ,the ,norman style of church architecture with its varied forms of columns1 moulded and recessed arches and vaulting1 may be roughly stated to have been introduced into ,england at the time of the ,conquest4 ,the ,saxon masons do not appear to have understood vaulting sufficiently well to have roofed over any large space with stone1 and for this reason alone the ,saxon form of building was bound to give way before the ,norman1 which of all the earlier styles was the most advanced in this respect4 ,side note3 ,norman ,architecture4 ,generally speaking1 ,norman arches were semi-circular1 but they were by no means universally so1 for a form frequently found is one in which the spring of the arch does not take place from the abacus1 or upper member of the capital1 but at some distance above it and when it assumes this form it is called a stilted arch1 suggested by some authorities to have been unintentional and the result of imperfect construction or planning4 ,see page #aj4 ,illustration3 ,examples of ,norman ,mouldings4 ,chevron or ,zig-zag4 ,star4 ,alternate ,billet4 ,square ,billet4 ,double ,cone4 ,lozenge4 ,beak ,head4 ,bird ,head4 ,the main features in the ornamentation of this period are the sculptured bands worked round the arches1 which1 although generally called mouldings1 are more in the nature of decoration1 and in some instances they appear to be additions carved on the originally unadorned surface of the masonry4 ,side note3 ,ornament4 ,the earliest and most general ornament is the chevron or zig-zag1 which is frequently found doubled1 trebled and quadrupled4 ,the next most common form is the beak-head1 consisting of a hollow and large round4 ,in the hollow are placed heads of beasts or birds whose tongues or beaks encircle the round4 ,on the west doorway of ,iffley church1 ,oxford1 are many of these beak-heads extending the whole length of the jamb down to the base moulding4 ,they also figure prominently among the ornamentations of the hospital church of ,s4 ,cross1 near ,winchester4 ,the zig-zag moulding is very common on ,norman churches and is so easily recognised that no further description is needed here4 ,the less prominent decorations of ,norman mouldings include the alternate billet1 the double cone1 and the lozenge1 together with an immense number of others less commonly found4 ,side note3 ,windows4 ,the ,early ,norman window was little better than a narrow slit finished with a plain semi-circular head1 and was generally only a few inches wide4 ,they were1 it is believed1 filled with oiled linen and the sides of the aperture were splayed towards the interior4 ,later in the period1 the windows were enriched by the zig-zag and other mouldings and at a still later period an improvement was made by inserting nook-shafts in the jambs similar to those in doorways4 ,illustration3 ,a ,late ,norman ,parish ,church4 ,castle ,rising1 ,norfolk4 ,drawn by ,gordon ,home4 ,the towers of ,norman churches often show windows of two lights separated by a central shaft1 all enclosed under a large semi-circular arch1 the spandrel of which is rarely pierced4 ,plain circular windows of small dimensions are sometimes found in other positions and in churches of later date1 and occasionally in gable walls4 ,larger windows of the same form1 with small shafts radiating from the centre and connected at the circumference by semi-circular or trefoiled arches1 are also found as at ,barfreston church1 ,kent1 where there is a fine example4 ,side note3 ,doorways4 ,norman doorways are found in great numbers and variety1 even in churches which present no other features in this style4 ,the most usual form consists of a semi-circular-headed aperture with a hood-mould springing from plain square-edged jambs4 ,frequently1 however1 the doorways are recessed1 having a nook-shaft in the angle formed by a recession from the capital1 in which case it presents two soffits and two faces1 besides the hood-moulds4 ,the depth of these doorways is largely due to the great thickness of the walls usual in buildings of this period1 but in many cases that portion of the wall in which the entrance is inserted is made to project forward beyond the general face1 which projection is finished either with plain horizontal capping1 or a high-pitched gable4 ,illustration3 ,west ,doorway ,rochester ,cathedral ,duncan ,moul4 ,norman porches thus have generally but little projection1 and are frequently so flat as to be little more than outer mouldings to the inner door4 ,they are1 however1 often richly ornamented and have rooms above1 which rooms are wrongly called parvises4 ,the shallow aperture often follows the form of the arch1 but is frequently square-headed1 having a semi-circular tympanum of masonry filling the space between the lintel of the door and the intrados of the arch4 ,illustration3 ,tympanum of ,norman ,doorway4 ,fordington ,s4 ,george1 ,dorset4 ,drawn by ,e4 ,m4 ,heath4 ,these tympana are usually sculptured in low relief with a representation of some scriptural or traditional event1 while the assertion of the ,apostle that we must1 through much tribulation1 enter into the kingdom of ,god1 may account for the fondness of the ,norman sculptors in representing different stages of martyrdom on the tympana of their doors4 ,a very singular tympanum is that on the door of the church of ,fordington ,s4 ,george1 at ,dorchester1 whereon is represented some incident in the life of ,s4 ,george4 ,the principal figure is on horseback with a discus round his head4 ,the other figures are in hauberks and chausses1 and generally bear1 in point of costume1 much resemblance to the figures on the famous ,bayeux tapestry4 ,barfreston church1 ,kent1 has an interesting tympanum1 as also has ,patrixbourne church in the same county1 where the sculpture shows the ,saviour with dragons and at his feet a dog4 ,at ,alveston church1 ,warwickshire1 the sculpture shows two quadrupeds with enormous tails1 fighting1 with between them a small bird1 possibly intended for a dove4 ,our best example of a ,norman doorway and tympanum is generally considered to be the west doorway of ,rochester ,cathedral1 where the sculpture is of a very advanced character for its date1 which is probably about #aacj-dj4 ,side note3 ,piers4 ,a distinctive feature of the ,norman style are the massive pillars1 usually circular1 and with capitals either of the same form1 or square2 occasionally in plain buildings the pillars themselves are square with very little or no ornamentation4 ,towards the end of the period1 an octagonal pillar was often used1 having a much lighter appearance than the earlier forms4 ,illustration3 ,examples of ,capitals4 ,norman4 ,transitional4 ,norman4 ,crypt1 ,winchester4 ,christ ,church1 ,oxford4 ,winchester ,cathedral4 ,besides these plain styles1 compound or clustered piers are very numerous1 differing considerably in plan2 the simplest consists of a square having one or more rectangular recesses at each corner1 but one more frequently met with has a small circular shaft in each of the recesses and a larger semi-circular one on each side of the square4 ,side note3 ,capitals4 ,norman capitals are very varied1 having many different forms of ornamentation2 the commonest is one which resembles a bowl with the sides truncated1 reducing the upper part to a square2 sometimes the lower part is cut into round mouldings and ornamented1 but it is frequently left plain4 ,the ,norman capital in its earliest style was of short proportions1 but afterwards it became longer1 with lighter ornamentation1 gradually merging into the ,early ,english4 ,illustration3 ,a ,curious ,norman ,capital4 ,seaford1 ,sussex4 ,the bishops and abbots of this period appear to have possessed considerable skill in architecture1 for no fewer than fifteen of our ,english cathedrals contain some important ,norman work1 as the older portions of the cathedrals of ,canterbury1 ,durham1 ,winchester1 ,gloucester1 ,peterborough1 ,ely1 ,norwich1 ,lincoln and ,oxford4 ,side note3 ,norman ,buttresses4 ,the ,norman buttress1 better described by ,mr4 ,sharpe as a pilaster strip1 unlike those of the later period1 projects but very little from the wall1 and this is especially so in buildings of the earlier part of the period4 ,they are usually quite plain and are more used for finish than actual support2 the ,norman builder relying principally upon the thickness and weight of his walls to sustain any roof thrust 7see page #ag74 ,side note3 ,the ,round ,churches4 ,there are in ,england a few round churches which are thought to have been built by the ,knights ,templars1 a religious community banded together for the purpose of wresting the ,holy ,sepulchre at ,jerusalem from the ,saracens4 ,their object was to defend the ,saviour's tomb and to guard ,palestine1 for which purpose they built numerous monasteries throughout the ,holy ,land and fortified them like castles4 ,another famous order which combined the religious instincts of the cloister with the military ardour of the warrior was that of the ,knights of ,s4 ,john ,baptist or ,knights ,hospitallers1 who1 besides fighting1 were to tend the sick and provide for the welfare of all ,christian travellers4 ,the churches belonging to the ,templars were usually built in circular form in imitation of the church of the ,holy ,sepulchre at ,jerusalem4 ,they were capped with vaulted concave roofs said to be symbolical of the vast circuit and concave of the heavens4 ,our best example is the ,temple ,church1 ,london1 to which was added at a later period1 a beautiful ,early ,english ,gothic extension4 ,other round churches are those of ,s4 ,sepulchre1 ,cambridge2 ,s4 ,sepulchre1 ,northampton2 ,temple ,balsall1 ,warwickshire1 and of ,little ,maplestead1 ,essex1 which last1 although the smallest1 is by no means the least interesting4 ,it is attributed to the ,hospitallers1 an order founded about the year #ajib1 and introduced into ,england in the reign of ,henry ,i4 ,at ,clerkenwell may still be seen the ancient gateway leading to their hospital4 ,the order was suppressed in #aede4 ,the church at ,little ,maplestead was built early in the #abth century1 and in #aahf the adjoining manor was given by ,juliana ,doisnel to this order1 which gift was confirmed by ,king ,john and ,henry ,,iii4 ,this church is thought to reproduce with more fidelity than the others the original church of the ,holy ,sepulchre4 ,illustration3 ,norman and ,early ,english ,doorways4 ,showing the transition from one style to another4 ,dunstable ,priory ,church4 ,drawn by ,worthington ,g4 ,smith4 ,these famous ,norman round-chancelled churches have much in common with the old basilica form4 ,it must be pointed out that the arbitrary divisions into which architecture has been divided--,norman1 ,gothic1 etc41 are pure figures of the imagination1 as by a series of easy transitions1 one style became gradually merged into the next without any hard and fast dividing lines whatever4 ,the periods during which one style became gradually blended into another are called the periods of transition4 ,side note3 ,the ,transition4 ,architecture being progressive1 it was only by the gradual development of one style from another that the art was enabled to advance with social progress1 the literature and other arts of the country4 ,the transition from the ,norman to the ,early ,english style may be ascribed to a period somewhat earlier than the #abth century1 when a great change in the construction of the arch began to manifest itself4 ,alone1 however1 the form of the arch is no real test1 for many pure ,norman works have pointed arches4 ,the square abacus may be taken as the best test4 ,in its incipient state the pointed arch exhibited a change of form only1 whilst the accessories and details remained the same as before2 and although this change gradually led to the ,early ,pointed style in a pure state1 with mouldings and features altogether distinct from those of the ,norman1 and to the general disuse1 in the #acth century1 of the semi-circular arch1 it was for a while so intermixed as1 from its first appearance to the close of the #abth century1 to constitute that state of transition called the semi-,norman4 ,illustration3 ,windows showing the ,origin of ,tracery4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,early ,,english ,,style4 ,the origin of what is loosely called ,gothic architecture--which is generally considered to include the styles1 with their transitions1 from ,early ,english to late ,perpendicular1 or ,tudor-,gothic--is not free from obscurity1 but it is certain that it began to be employed in ecclesiastical edifices about the time that the ,goths settled in ,italy1 although all the available evidence goes to prove that the style originated and underwent its earliest developments in the north-west of ,europe1 and penetrated by slow degrees to the south and east4 ,england was somewhat later than ,france in introducing this style of architecture1 our earliest purely ,gothic building being ,salisbury ,cathedral1 begun in #abbj1 although the choirs of ,rievaulx and ,fountains ,abbey were commenced a few years earlier4 ,the ,early ,english style in its earliest developments is nowhere seen to better advantage than in ,salisbury ,cathedral1 and in its very latest forms at ,westminster ,abbey1 the period of time being chronologically measured by the reigns of ,richard ,i41 ,john and ,henry ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,an ,early ,english ,arch4 ,rochester ,cathedral4 ,photograph ,eastmead4 ,most of our ,gothic buildings were carried out under the supervision of a master-mason1 but the most subordinate workman was left plenty of scope within reasonable limits for whatever artistic individuality he possessed1 and the enrichments and ornaments of the ,gothic era point out the noble aim1 the delicate and graceful thought1 the refined and exquisite taste expended upon every portion of their buildings by these ,gothic masons4 ,side note3 ,the ,pointed ,arch4 ,one of the chief differences between pure ,gothic and ,norman architecture is in the use of the pointed form of arch1 yet in the study of the early buildings of this date it is curious to notice how evenly the balance is held between the pointed and the round arch1 and how at one time it was quite an open question whether the ,gothic style would be distinguished by a round or a pointed arch4 ,in ,germany and ,italy the round arch held its own and continued to be used right through the ,middle ,ages4 ,in ,england1 however1 the pointed arch soon gained a decided victory over its rival4 ,many theories have been put forward concerning the introduction of the pointed arch1 one amongst them being that it was the result of the intersection of two circular arches such as is very commonly found in late ,norman work2 another theory is the poetical idea that it was copied from an avenue of trees4 ,whether or not either of these theories holds good1 it is quite certain that this form of arch was known in the ,east for centuries before it reached ,europe1 being found in cisterns and tombs in ,egypt and ,arabia dating from long before the ,christian era4 ,it has also been suggested that it was introduced from the ,east by the ,crusaders1 in which case we should have found it making its first appearance in ,hungary1 ,poland1 ,bohemia and ,russia1 but it so happens that these were the very last countries in ,europe to adopt the pointed arch4 ,side note3 ,the ,transitional ,period4 ,the first form of the pointed arch1 known as the ,early ,english1 was used from about #aahj to #acjj1 including part of the reigns of ,henry ,,ii41 ,richard ,i41 ,john1 ,henry ,,iii4 and ,edward ,i4 ,nothing1 says the ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,hutchinson1 could be more striking than the change from ,norman to ,early ,english4 ,the two styles were the complete opposites of each other2 the round arch was replaced by the pointed1 often by the acute1 lancet2 the massive piers by graceful clustered shafts2 the grotesque and rudely-sculptured capitals by foliage of the most exquisite character2 and the heavy cylindrical mouldings by bands of deeply undercut members4 ,illustration3 ,arcading showing the junction of the ,norman and ,early ,english ,masonry4 ,dunstable ,priory ,church4 ,photograph ,h4 ,a4 ,strange4 ,gothic architecture differs from all previous forms in the economical use of material1 and the small size of the stones used4 ,whereas in both ,roman and ,norman buildings the arrangement of the materials depended upon their strength in masses1 the ,gothic masons employed stones of small size in the construction of edifices of equal strength and of far greater magnificence2 while in constructive properties the ,gothic style was a great advance on anything that had gone before1 as the buildings in this style did not depend for their stability on the vertical pressure of columns1 but on the correct adjustment of the bearings and thrusts of different arches operating in various directions4 ,owing to the fact1 then1 that each portion of a ,gothic ,church helps to support something besides itself1 it is obvious that such buildings could be erected with a far smaller quantity of material than was previously necessary4 ,the various little shafts or columns are so disposed as to distribute the weight of the superstructure and thus relieve the greater columns or piers of some portion of the superincumbent weight2 the aisles help to support the nave2 the walls of the side chapels act as abutments against the walls of the aisles1 while the towers are generally placed so as to resist the accumulated thrust of all the arches along the sides of the nave4 ,illustration3 ,an ,early ,english ,doorway4 ,huntingdon4 ,the enrichments and little ornaments attached to mouldings1 and particularly those placed in the hollows1 are most characteristic of the various styles of ,gothic architecture4 ,the zig-zag is peculiar to the ,norman1 the nail head to the ,transitional or semi-,norman1 and the dog tooth to the ,early ,english4 ,side note3 ,early ,english ,ornament4 ,this last ornament represents a flower1 looking like four sweet almonds arranged pyramidically1 and there is no other ornament so distinctive of this period4 ,early ,english foliage is known by reason of the stalks always being shown as growing upwards from the lower ring of the capital1 called the astrigal4 ,these stalks are generally grouped together and curve forward in a very graceful manner4 ,the plants mostly represented are the wild parsley1 seakale and celery1 and this foliage1 called stiff-leaved foliage1 is found at no other period than the end of the #abth century4 ,side note3 ,early ,english ,mouldings4 ,early ,english mouldings are very complicated and yet very beautiful1 and consist of beads1 keel and scroll patterns1 separated by deep hollows giving a rich effect of light and shade round the arch4 ,these deeply-cut hollows are also a distinctive mark of the style4 ,side note3 ,early ,english ,windows4 ,the earliest windows of this period are long and narrow1 with acutely pointed heads1 the exterior angle being merely chamfered and the interior widely splayed4 ,somewhat later the introduction of tracery gave a highly beautiful appearance to the windows and from the character of this feature the date of the window can be fairly accurately determined4 ,where the tracery is formed by ornamental apertures pierced through a plate of stone1 it is called plate tracery1 and is certain to be of not later date than the earlier part of the #acth century4 ,if it is bar tracery1 with the bars forming plain circles1 the work is also ,early ,english1 but if1 on the other hand1 the bars form other shapes filled in with patterns1 or consisting of a single trefoil or quatrefoil1 they are of later date4 ,illustration3 ,the ,church of ,st4 ,margaret1 ,lynn4 ,west ,front showing the ,early ,english work in the base of the ,tower4 ,photograph ,dexter ,son4 ,illustration3 ,example of ,group of ,thirteenth ,century ,lancet ,windows4 ,ockham1 ,surrey4 ,homeland ,copyright4 ,the traceried window originated from the placing of a two-light narrow lancet window under one dripstone having a plain head1 the introduction of tracery between the heads of the lancets and the dripstone becoming necessary for beauty and lightness of the form 7see page #dg74 ,side note3 ,early ,english ,porches4 ,early ,english porches project much further from the main walls than do the ,norman doorways1 and in large and important buildings they frequently have a room above4 ,the gables are usually bold and high pitched1 and the interiors quite as rich in design as are the exteriors4 ,side note3 ,early ,english ,doorways4 ,the doorways of this period are usually pointed1 though occasionally they have a semi-circular head4 ,the mouldings are boldly cut and often enriched with dog tooth ornament4 ,the jambs frequently contain a shaft or shafts with plain or foliated capitals 7see page #ea74 ,side note3 ,early ,english ,capitals and ,piers4 ,early ,english capitals are usually bell-shaped1 and are1 in the smaller examples1 quite devoid of ornament1 with the exception of a necking and one or two mouldings round the abacus4 ,the bell is generally deeply undercut1 which1 as in the mouldings1 is a strong characteristic of the style4 ,the nail head and dog tooth ornaments sometimes appear in the hollows between the mouldings4 ,in the large examples the bell is covered with foliage1 which1 springing direct from the necking1 curls over most gracefully beneath the abacus4 ,in clustered piers the capitals follow the form of the pier1 and they also adopt the same form in the single shaft1 with the exception that multiangular shafts have often circular capitals4 ,the base consists of a series of mouldings and frequently stands upon a double or single plinth1 which in the earlier examples is square1 but in later examples assumes the form of the base1 and is either circular or polygonal4 ,at ,stone church1 ,kent1 is a good example of an ,early ,english capital1 decorated with stiff-leaved foliage1 and the dog tooth ornament1 which in this case is seen between the mouldings of the arch1 and is of a perforated character4 ,side note3 ,early ,english ,buttresses4 ,the buttresses 7see page #ag7 of this period are1 as a rule1 simple in form1 and in small churches consist of two or more stages1 each set-off or division being sloped at the top to carry off the rain4 ,in larger buildings the buttress generally finishes with a triangular head or gable1 and is frequently carried above the parapet1 except where stone vaulting is used1 in which case it is covered with a pinnacle either plain or ornamented4 ,the edges are often chamfered or the angles ornamented with slender shafts4 ,a niche to contain a statue is occasionally sunk in the face of the buttress1 but this feature is more common in the next or ,decorated period1 although the change from one period to another was so gradual that the exact date of a niched buttress would be difficult to determine were there no other features to guide us4 ,illustration3 ,salisbury ,cathedral4 ,begun in #abbj4 ,the spire was added1 #acej4 ,drawn by ,sidney ,heath4 ,flying buttresses were first introduced at this period1 and are common in all large buildings with vaulted roofs4 ,they are generally of simple design1 with a plain capping and archivolt1 and they spring from the wall buttress to the clerestory 7see page #ag74 ,illustration3 ,examples of ,early ,english ,capitals and ,ornament4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,decorated ,,style4 ,the best examples of ,gothic architecture may be said to have been erected between the years #aahj and #acjj1 and from the latter year many writers date the commencement of its decline4 ,in ,england we owe nearly the whole of such magnificent buildings as the cathedrals of ,lincoln1 ,salisbury1 ,worcester1 and the abbey of ,westminster to the #acth century1 and there is scarcely a cathedral or abbey that does not owe some beautiful portion of its structure to the builders of the same period1 the transepts and lady chapel of ,hereford ,cathedral1 the eastern transepts of ,durham1 the nave and transepts of ,wells1 the transepts of ,york1 the choir presbytery1 central and eastern transepts of ,rochester1 the eastern portion of the choir of ,ely1 the west front of ,peterborough1 the choir of ,southwell1 the nave and transepts of ,lichfield1 and the choir of ,s4 ,david's being a few of our most characteristic examples of this period4 ,the style which followed the ,early ,english is known as the ,geometric or ,early ,decorated style1 and it embraces roughly the end of the #acth century and the first twenty or thirty years of the #adth century1 and continued in its later or ,curvilinear form to near the end of that century4 ,perhaps the most perfect example of the ,geometric style in the world is the cathedral church at ,amiens1 which is usually called the mother church of this style1 and although she has many daughters1 none of them can be said to equal their parent in beauty4 ,in ,england the most perfect examples are not to be looked for in cathedrals and large churches1 but in their chapels1 and the most superb specimen we possessed1 ,s4 ,stephen's ,chapel1 ,westminster1 has been destroyed within comparatively recent years4 ,those left to us include the chapel of the palace of the bishops of ,ely1 in ,ely ,place1 ,holborn1 now the ,roman ,catholic ,church of ,s4 ,etheldreda1 a building almost identical in plan with the vanished chapel of ,s4 ,stephen4 ,trinity ,church1 ,ely1 once ,our ,lady's ,chapel1 and ,prior ,crawden's ,chapel1 in the same city1 are lovely examples of the latest development of the ,curvilinear style1 while the former is considered the most highly-wrought building in ,england4 ,belonging to this period1 also1 is the choir of ,merton ,college ,chapel1 ,oxford1 and ,luton ,church4 ,the ,decorated style may be divided as regards its windows into two classes--,geometric and ,curvilinear4 ,the first has tracery evolved entirely from the circle4 ,the ,curvilinear style is distinguished by traceries formed by curved and flowing lines4 ,see pages #ae and #ei4 ,side note3 ,decorated ,windows4 ,decorated windows are usually large and contain from two to seven lights1 although one sometimes finds a window with a single light1 but of less elongated form than those of the ,early ,english period4 ,as we have seen in a previous chapter1 tracery originated from the necessity of piercing that portion of the wall which was left vacant when two lights were gathered under a single arched dripstone1 and therefore elementary tracery consisted merely of apertures in a flat surface4 ,as the possibilities of this ornamental feature became better understood1 the mullions were recessed from the face of the wall and the fine effect thus produced was1 as the art progressed1 much enhanced by the introduction of various orders of mullions1 and by recessing certain portions of the tracery from the face of the mullions and their corresponding bars4 ,the geometrical tracery1 as we have seen1 consists of various combinations of the circle1 as the trefoil1 based on the triangle1 the quatrefoil on the square1 the cinquefoil on the pentagon1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,a ,late ,decorated ,window in a ,parish ,church4 ,east ,sutton1 ,kent4 ,photograph ,gardner ,waterman4 ,in ,curvilinear windows the tracery1 although based on the same forms and figures1 is yet so blended into an intricate pattern that each figure does not stand out with the same individuality as in the ,geometric4 ,among our most beautiful ,geometric windows are those of the ,lady ,chapel at ,exeter1 ,ely ,chapel1 and ,merton ,chapel1 ,oxford1 and of the ,curvilinear our best example is probably the east window of ,carlisle ,cathedral4 ,it must be noted that beautiful as are ,curvilinear windows1 yet they mark a certain decadence in ,gothic architecture1 in that it is an irrational treatment of stone1 and conveys the idea that the material was bent and not cut into the required shape1 it being a well-established canon in art that when strength is sacrificed to mere elegance it marks a decline in that art4 ,side note3 ,decorated ,capitals and ,piers4 ,decorated capitals as a rule follow the contour of the pier in clustered columns1 and are either bell-shaped or octagonal4 ,they are frequently only moulded1 thus presenting rounds1 ogees and hollows1 on which the prevailing ornaments of the period1 the ball and the square flower1 are set4 ,the foliated sculpture is most exquisite1 and is gracefully wreathed around the bell1 instead of rising from the astrigal or upper member of the capital1 as in the earlier style4 ,illustration3 ,examples of ,decorated ,ornament4 ,finial ,capital ,finial 7,wimborne ,minster74 7,york ,minster74 7,york ,minster74 ,square ,flower4 ,ball ,flower4 ,crocket ,cornice ,crockets 7,hereford ,cathedral74 7,grantham74 7,york ,minster74 ,drawn by ,e4 ,m4 ,heath4 ,almost every variety of leaf and flower is represented1 the oak1 the vine and the rose being perhaps the most common1 but the leaves of the maple1 hazel1 ivy and strawberry are all so beautifully rendered as to evidence their having been directly studied from nature4 ,plucked flowers too1 are not uncommon1 and sometimes the little stalks and foliage are accompanied by birds1 lizards1 squirrels and other creatures4 ,the columns of this period are much more elaborate than those of the ,early ,english style1 and in plan have curved profiles with moulded members between the shafts4 ,these mouldings are very varied1 but the hollows not being so deeply undercut1 the general effect is broader and less liney than in the ,early ,english2 while the ,decorated arches are less sharply pointed than in the previous style4 ,side note3 ,decorated ,doorways4 ,the doorways of this style possess much the same features as the last1 but the mouldings1 jamb shafts1 etc41 are more slender1 and generally of finer proportions1 the hollows being often filled with the ball flower and square flower instead of the dog tooth4 ,sometimes the doorways have no pillars1 being entirely composed of mouldings which are continuous with those in the architrave4 ,the large single doorways of this period are nearly as large as the double ones of ,early ,english date1 and on the sides small buttresses or niches are sometimes placed1 and often one finds a series of niches carried up like a hollow moulding1 and filled with figures4 ,the figures of this period are not so good as in the previous style1 the heads seem too large for the bodies1 and in the female figures the breasts are represented as quite flat4 ,where there are no figures double foliated tracery is often found hanging from one of the outer mouldings1 giving an effect of great richness4 ,side note3 ,decorated ,buttresses4 ,the buttresses 7see page #ag7 in the ,decorated style are nearly always worked in stages1 and a niche frequently figures on the face of the buttress4 ,crocketed canopies and other carved decorations are common1 and in large buildings they usually terminate in pinnacles1 which are sometimes of open work4 ,a ,gothic building attains its effect by the combination of numerous parts1 each possessing an individual character of its own4 ,in its loftiness1 graceful outlines1 and rich effect of light and shade1 it speaks of noble aspirations1 of freedom1 of intellectual thought1 of talent and skill1 all generously given for a high purpose1 the foundation of which was a strong religious enthusiasm1 combined with an intense love of the work itself4 ,side note3 ,characteristics of ,gothic ,architecture4 ,having now arrived at the point where ,gothic architecture reached its climax1 we may briefly sum up its leading characteristics4 ,it is essentially pointed or vertical2 its details are mostly geometrical in its window traceries1 clusters of shafts and bases1 but this geometric quality is only one of construction and form and not of its inner spirit and motive1 for plants copied directly from nature were used in beautiful profusion4 ,if we compare a large ,gothic church with a comparatively small one1 we shall find the columns1 windows1 ornaments of the former are not so very much larger than those of the latter1 but that there are double or three times the number of them4 ,this is not the case in a classical building1 where each feature has to be enlarged in proportion to the size of the building4 ,it is the constant sub-division of a ,gothic ,church which adds so to its apparent size4 ,ornamentally1 the ,gothic is the geometrical and pointed elements repeated to their utmost and afterwards combined with the elaboration of natural objects1 plants1 flowers1 etc41 growing in the neighbourhood of the work4 ,this is a great feature1 but the most striking point in all good ,gothic work is the wonderful elaboration of geometric tracery1 vesicas1 trefoils1 quatrefoils and an immense variety of other ornament4 ,in regard to the sizes of our great churches it may be of interest to note that our longest ,english cathedral is ,winchester4 ,york and ,lincoln1 although not so long as ,winchester1 are in superficial area very much larger4 ,the largest ,english church of a non-cathedral rank is ,westminster ,abbey1 which has1 moreover1 the distinction of being the loftiest internally2 the nave being #ajd ft4 in height4 ,the largest parish church is that of ,s4 ,nicholas1 ,great ,yarmouth1 which exceeds in superficial area no fewer than eight of our cathedrals4 ,illustration3 ,examples of ,perpendicular ,ornament4 ,panel4 ,crocket4 ,tudor ,rose4 ,portcullis4 ,fleur de ,lys4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,perpendicular ,,style4 ,towards the close of the ,x,i,vth century a great change came over ,english ,gothic architecture1 a change which was to a certain extent a return to classical ideas4 ,the curvilinear tracery gave place to a rigid vertical and horizontal form1 with the result that windows and panels instead of being filled with curved bars of stone1 were sub-divided by straight perpendicular bars and transoms or cross-bars4 ,this style of architecture is popularly known as ,perpendicular1 but as the horizontal lines are quite as distinct a feature as are the vertical1 it would perhaps be more correct to speak of it as ,rectilinear4 ,this change in architectural form made its appearance towards the close of the ,x,i,vth century1 although it was by no means generally introduced at that period1 for the old methods and styles were carried on side by side with the new for many years4 ,for example1 the eastern end of the choir of ,york ,minster 7#acfa-ii7 possesses a window the traceries of which contain both curvilinear and rectilinear lines1 while ,shottesbrook ,church in ,berkshire 7#achg71 and ,wimmington ,church1 ,bedfordshire 7#acia7 are examples of village churches neither of which has any feature of the ,perpendicular style4 ,illustration3 ,yeovil ,parish ,church 7,a4,d4 #acgf74 ,early ,perpendicular in style1 without a clerestory1 and called1 for its large window area1 the ,lantern of the ,west4 ,in its earlier stages the ,perpendicular style presented an effect at once good and bold2 the mouldings1 though not equal to the best of the ,decorated style1 were well defined1 the enrichments effective1 and the details delicate without extravagant minuteness4 ,subsequently the style underwent a gradual debasement2 the arches became depressed2 the mouldings impoverished1 the details crowded and coarsely executed1 and the whole style became wanting in the chaste and elegant effects for which the ,decorated stands unapproached and unapproachable4 ,the flowing contours and curved lines of the previous style now gave place in the windows to mullions running straight up from the bottom to the top1 and crossed by transoms4 ,as the arch became more and more depressed the mouldings became shallower and less effective4 ,in early buildings of this period the drop arch is very prevalent1 but as the period advanced a form known as the ,tudor arch began to be used4 ,it is an arch in which1 as a rule1 the centres of the upper portion lie immediately below those of the lower1 but this is not always the case4 ,sometimes the whole of the upper portion uniting the arcs of the ends is struck from one centre1 in which case the arch becomes a three-centred one1 being1 in fact1 half an ellipse4 ,towards the close of the style the curvature of the upper portion is so slight that it can hardly be distinguished from a straight line1 and as the debasement progressed it became really straight4 ,ogee arches are also found at this period1 and foiled arches are very frequent4 ,when the ,tudor arch was not used1 we generally find the low drop arch1 these three last being mostly used for small openings4 ,illustration3 ,a ,fine ,parish ,church showing ,rich ,perpendicular ,work4 ,terrington ,st4 ,clement1 ,norfolk4 ,photograph ,dexter ,son4 ,the peculiar characteristics of the windows--the perpendicular mullions and horizontal transoms--we have already alluded to4 ,side note3 ,perpendicular ,windows4 ,the window heads1 instead of being filled with flowing tracery1 have slender mullions running from the heads of the lights between each mullion1 and these again have smaller transoms1 until the whole surface of the window becomes divided into a series of panels1 the heads of which being arched1 are trefoiled or cinquefoiled4 ,in the later windows the transoms at the top are often furnished with a small ornamental battlement1 causing the mullions to present a concave outline4 ,illustration3 ,a ,perpendicular ,doorway4 ,merton ,college ,chapel4 ,drawn by ,e4 ,m4 ,heath4 ,the plans of churches in this style differ from all others in that they are more spacious1 the columns more slender and wider apart1 the windows much larger1 and the walls loftier and thinner4 ,panelling is used most abundantly on walls1 both internally and externally1 and also on vaulting1 while some buildings1 as ,henry the ,seventh's ,chapel at ,westminster1 are almost entirely covered with it4 ,fan tracery vaulting1 a feature peculiar to this style1 is almost invariably covered with panelling4 ,the mouldings of this period are essentially different from those which preceded them4 ,as a general rule they are cut on a slanting or chamfer plane1 the groups of mouldings being separated by a shallow oval-shaped hollow1 entirely different from those of the ,decorated period4 ,side note3 ,perpendicular ,doorways4 ,the doorways of the early portion of this period had two-centred arches1 but the characteristic form is the four-centred1 enclosed in a square head1 formed by the outer mouldings with a hood mould of the same shape1 the spandrels being filled with quatrefoils1 roses1 shields1 etc4 ,side note3 ,perpendicular ,capitals4 ,perpendicular capitals are either circular or octagonal1 but the necking is usually of the former shape1 and the upper members of the abacus of the latter form4 ,the bell portion is mostly plain1 but is often enriched with foliage of a very conventional character1 shallow and formal1 without either the freedom or the boldness of the ,early ,english1 or the exquisite grace of the ,decorated periods4 ,a distinguishing feature in the ornamentation of this period is that called panel-tracery1 with which the walls and vaulted ceilings are covered4 ,the patterns are found in a variety of forms1 as circles1 squares1 quatrefoils1 etc4 ,side note3 ,fan ,vaulting4 ,the rich vaulting called fan vaulting previously alluded to1 is composed of pendant curved semi-cones1 covered with foliated panel-work1 which bears some resemblance to a fan spread open4 ,side note3 ,perpendicular ,ornament4 ,another very characteristic ornament is the ,tudor flower4 ,it is formed by a series of flat leaves placed upright against the stalk4 ,it was much used in late buildings as a crest or ornamental finishing to cornices1 etc41 to which it gave an embattled appearance4 ,cornices and brackets were frequently ornamented with busts of winged angels called angel-brackets1 and angel-corbels4 ,the portcullis and the ,tudor rose--both badges of the house of ,tudor--also figure prominently among the ornaments of the period4 ,the crockets for the most part partake of the squareness which pervades all the foliage of this style4 ,see page #fd4 ,side note3 ,perpendicular ,buttresses4 ,the buttresses are very similar to those preceding them in their plainer forms1 but1 in richer examples the faces are covered with panel work and are finished with square pinnacles sometimes set diagonally and terminated with a crocketed spire1 or finished with an animal or other ornament4 ,parapets with square battlements are very common at this period1 but they too are frequently panelled or pierced with tracery1 or with trefoils or quatrefoils inserted in square1 circular or triangular compartments4 ,side note3 ,perpendicular ,roofs4 ,the roofs of this period1 both in ecclesiastical and secular buildings1 are very magnificent1 and have the whole of the framing exposed to view2 many of them are of high pitch1 the spaces between the timbers being filled with tracery1 and the beams arched1 moulded and ornamented in various ways2 and frequently pendants1 figures of angels1 and other carvings are introduced4 ,the flatter roofs are sometimes lined with boards and divided into panels by ribs1 or have the timbers open1 and all enriched with mouldings and carvings1 as at ,cirencester church1 ,gloucestershire4 ,the gradual decline of the ,gothic style is very evident in late ,perpendicular churches1 especially in those erected at the beginning of the ,x,v,ith century4 ,the elements of ,gothic architecture became much degraded and led to that mixture of features called the ,debased ,gothic in which every real principle of art and of beauty was lost4 ,illustration3 ,a ,perpendicular ,porch4 ,s4 ,nicholas1 ,king's ,lynn4 ,photograph ,dexter ,son4 ,the chief characteristics1 then1 of the ,perpendicular style are the vertical mullions1 and the general flattening of arches1 mouldings and carvings4 ,should there be no other guide1 a ,perpendicular church carries its style and period stamped upon its carvings4 ,the plants represented are1 almost without exception1 the vine with or without grapes1 and the oak with or without acorns4 ,the leaves are generally full blown and crumpled4 ,the earliest building showing the ,perpendicular style is the beautiful little priory church of ,edington1 in ,wilts1 erected by ,william ,edington1 ,bishop of ,winchester4 ,the same style1 but more fully developed1 is seen in the nave of ,winchester ,cathedral1 at ,new ,college1 ,oxford1 and at ,winchester ,college4 ,it is generally admitted that the ,perpendicular style was1 to a certain extent1 a return to classical ideas1 for ,gothic architecture in its aspiring grace and feeling for motion was becoming a little unsteady in construction1 and although the movement was started by ,bishop ,edington1 it was left to ,william of ,wykeham to save our ,english ,gothic architecture from developing into the flamboyant#a style so characteristic of the late ,gothic buildings of ,france and ,germany4 ,it is little less than astounding that ,william of ,wykeham1 at once ,prime ,minister1 diplomatist1 scholar and energetic churchman1 should have found time to introduce such far-reaching reforms into the art of building1 and whatever his fame may be in other directions he will always be remembered by posterity as one of the most remarkable geniuses of the ,middle ,ages1 a man of giant mind and immense physical energy1 who carried into all his work a large and dignified character1 stamping it with the unmistakable personality of a master mind4 ,side note3 ,perpendicular ,towers4 ,as builders and designers of church towers the masons of the ,perpendicular era have never been approached1 and all our finest ,english towers are of this style and period4 ,illustration3 ,a ,fine ,perpendicular ,tower4 ,st4 ,mary1 ,taunton4 ,photograph ,h4 ,montague ,cooper4 ,considerations of space will only allow a few of these towers to be mentioned1 but among the finest are those at ,boston1 ,lincolnshire2 ,wrexham1 ,denbighshire2 ,wymondham1 ,heigham and ,s4 ,clement's in ,norfolk2 ,southwold ,church in ,suffolk2 ,manchester ,cathedral1 ,s4 ,nicholas' ,church1 ,newcastle1 and ,s4 ,mary's ,church1 ,taunton4 ,of ,perpendicular date and style1 also1 are the great lantern towers of ,worcester1 ,bristol1 ,gloucester1 ,york and ,durham ,cathedrals1 in addition to the fine bell-tower of ,evesham ,abbey4 ,side note3 ,perpendicular ,spires4 ,the spire1 although less commonly used than formerly1 was by no means abandoned1 and beautiful examples of ,perpendicular spires are those at ,s4 ,michael's1 ,coventry1 and ,rotherham ,church1 ,yorkshire4 ,although nearly all our cathedrals have some portion of their fabric in the ,perpendicular style1 chantries1 chapels1 cloisters1 vaulting1 screens1 etc41 it was in our parochial churches that ,perpendicular architecture reached its highest and finest development4 ,just as the ,x,i,i,ith century was the great age for cathedral building1 so the latter end of the ,x,i,vth and earlier half of the ,x,vth centuries was the period to which we owe some of the most beautiful of our parish churches1 as ,s4 ,michael's1 ,coventry 7fin4 #acie72 ,s4 ,nicholas1 ,lynn 7fin4 #adjj72 ,manchester ,cathedral 7formerly a collegiate church71 7#adbb72 ,fotheringay ,church1 ,northants 7fin4 #adce72 ,southwold ,church1 ,suffolk 7#addj71 and ,s4 ,mary ,redcliffe1 ,bristol 7about #addb74 ,a little later came1 among others1 ,wakefield ,church1 ,yorkshire 7#adgj71 ,s4 ,stephen's1 ,bristol 7#adgj71 ,s4 ,mary's1 ,oxford1 and its namesake at ,cambridge 7both in #adgh7 and ,long ,melford ,church1 ,suffolk 7#adha74 ,apart from the actual buildings the ,perpendicular architects1 masons and sculptors have left us some beautiful work in the form of timber roofs1 screens1 stalls and seats4 ,among the more notable roofs of this period are those at ,s4 ,peter's1 ,s4 ,andrew's and ,s4 ,mary's1 ,norwich1 the one at ,morton ,church in ,somerset1 those at ,saffron ,walden and ,thaxted1 ,essex1 and a particularly fine one at ,s4 ,david's ,cathedral in ,wales4 ,among the remarkable domestic roofs in this style are those at ,westminster ,hall and ,eltham ,palace4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,and ,,later4 ,so far we have been considering ,gothic churches1 but we now come to the time when1 from a variety of causes1 the ,italian architects1 among them ,palladio and ,vitruvius1 began to revive classical architecture1 a movement which gradually spread over other parts of ,europe4 ,side note3 ,the ,classic ,revival4 ,the various causes which led to this apparently retrograde movement are still involved in considerable obscurity4 ,the commercial prosperity of the age produced a class who travelled abroad and cultivated the fine arts1 with the result that they desired to see erected in ,england buildings such as they had seen in ,rome1 ,florence1 ,genoa and ,padua4 ,it is generally admitted that the ramifications of ,gothic architecture had reached their utmost limit1 and the style was getting out of hand1 as is seen by the flamboyant buildings on the continent4 ,the revival of classical literature in western ,europe gave an impetus to the movement which was largely intended to enfold art within the shelter of an enlightened taste1 and protect it from the licence of unordered enthusiasm4 ,how far it succeeded is not a question that can be discussed at length here1 but1 however good their intentions may have been1 the architects used little discrimination in the selection of buildings which were to serve as models for ,christian churches1 and although subsequently considerable improvements were made1 yet1 most of the defects in the pagan buildings of the ancients were retained in such as were intended to be utilized for ,christian worship1 and even considered purely as exercises in architecture it was not until the more chaste remains of antiquity began to be studied that the spirit and harmony of the good examples were attained4 ,a greater contrast than the methods employed by the ,gothic mason and the ,renaissance architect could not well be imagined4 ,the former shaped his material with his own hands2 the foster mother of his art was tradition and its cradle the craftsman's bench2 whereas the latter1 with no builder's training1 worked out his flawless and precise plans in the exotic atmosphere of the office and the study4 ,the practice of making working drawings for every detail of the building was the cause of the decline of ornamental sculpture1 with the result that all life and growth in the building ceased4 ,some authorities are very severe on the ,renaissance movement4 ,dr4 ,fergusson1 in his ,modern ,styles of ,architecture1 says3 ,during the ,gothic era the art of building was evolved by the simple exercise of man's reason1 with the result that the work of this period is the instinctive natural growth of man's mind4 ,the buildings1 on the other hand1 which were designed in the imitative styles1 and produced on a totally different principle1 present us with an entirely different result1 and one which frequently degrades architecture from its high position of a quasi-natural production to that of a mere imitative art4 ,side note3 ,inigo ,jones and ,wren4 ,be this as it may1 the severe classical style introduced into ,england by ,inigo ,jones 7who studied in ,italy under ,palladio71 and continued by ,sir ,christopher ,wren1 soon swept everything before it4 ,our most remarkable church in this style is ,s4 ,paul's ,cathedral1 which in style has two very adverse circumstances to struggle against4 ,in the first place1 it bears so great a similarity to the great church of ,s4 ,peter1 at ,rome1 that one cannot help comparing it with that fine example1 and secondly1 it is the only ,english cathedral which is not in the ,gothic style4 ,it must1 of course1 be acknowledged that ,s4 ,paul's falls far short of ,s4 ,peter's1 especially in its lighting1 but it does not deserve the condemnation of a great ,german critic1 who said1 ,it is a building marked neither by elegance of form nor vigour of style4 ,although the interior of its dome and clerestory of the nave and choir are extremely gloomy when compared with those of ,s4 ,peter's1 the church is generally acknowledged to be far superior to the latter in its architectural details1 and few1 if any1 ,italian churches can be said to surpass it1 either in general composition or external effect1 although it must be admitted that everything having been sacrificed to attain the latter quality1 ,s4 ,paul's taken as a whole1 is neither worthy of its fine situation nor of its great architect4 ,other churches which are excellent examples of this style are ,s4 ,stephen's1 ,walbrook1 and ,s4 ,mary ,abchurch1 ,london4 ,both show remarkable skill4 ,the former is divided into a nave and four aisles1 transepts1 and a shallow chancel1 by four rows of ,corinthian columns1 with a small dome over the intersection4 ,the interior is very beautiful1 and this church is generally considered to be ,wren's masterpiece4 ,s4 ,mary ,abchurch1 is nearly square in plan1 has no columns and is covered with a domical ceiling1 but so skilfully treated that the effect is singularly pleasing4 ,side note3 ,hawkesmore4 ,of the ,elizabethan and ,jacobean buildings it is necessary to say little1 as at best they are but clumsy imitations of the ,flemish1 ,french and ,italian ,renaissance1 while the style which we now call ,queen ,anne came in towards the close of the ,x,v,i,ith century1 and belongs of right to the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,hawkesmore1 a pupil and follower of ,wren1 was a strong architect who has left us ,christ ,church1 ,spitalfields1 and ,s4 ,mary ,woolnoth4 ,he also designed the western towers of ,westminster ,abbey1 often wrongly ascribed to ,wren1 and the second quadrangle of ,all ,souls' ,college1 ,oxford4 ,this architect1 like the majority of his contemporaries1 misunderstood and despised the ,gothic style1 with which he had little real sympathy2 he drew out designs1 which still exist1 for converting ,westminster ,abbey into an ,italian church1 just as ,inigo ,jones had done with the exterior of the nave of old ,s4 ,paul's1 but we cannot be too thankful that this abominable suggestion was never carried out4 ,illustration3 ,an ,english ,renaissance ,church4 ,s4 ,stephen's1 ,walbrook1 ,london4 ,generally considered to be ,sir ,christopher ,wren's masterpiece4 ,from an ,engraving dated #ahjf4 ,with ,king ,george ,,iii4 on the throne our ancestors contented themselves with dull1 but substantial1 buildings of which some hard things have been written1 but they were at least respectable and free from sham1 while the churches1 although not elegant1 were well-built and occasionally picturesque1 as we see by the perfect little building of this date at ,billesley1 ,warwickshire4 ,the eighteenth century pseudo-classical abominations and sham ,gothic1 so favoured by ,horace ,walpole and his admirers1 can be briefly dismissed4 ,a more rampant piece of absurdity than that of erecting imitations of portions of ,greek temples and adapting them for ,christian worship it is difficult to imagine1 and in the ,pavilion at ,brighton1 ,marylebone ,church1 and the ,extinguisher ,church in ,langham ,place we even surpassed in bad taste and vulgarity all the absurdities of the ,continental architecture produced by the ,french ,revolution4 ,side note3 ,barry and ,pugin4 ,two men now came on the scene who1 united1 were destined to bring some kind of order out of this chaos4 ,barry and ,pugin were both scholars and architects1 for while the former rather favoured the classical style he thoroughly understood the ,gothic1 while ,pugin was a thorough medivalist1 a true artist1 and a bold exponent in his ,contrasts of a complete return to medival architecture as the only possible cure for the evils which had crept into the art of building4 ,barry's idea1 which was perhaps the more practical1 was to correct by careful study the errors into which the later exponents of both ,classic and ,gothic architecture had fallen1 and endeavour by well thought out modifications to evolve a style more suitable to modern requirements4 ,pugin1 however1 would have none of the evil thing1 and although he supplied his friend with designs for the details and woodwork of the ,houses of ,parliament which ,barry was rebuilding1 they did not collaborate in any further way1 and both died before the ,houses of ,parliament were completed1 in which1 as a matter of fact1 ,barry's designs were completely ignored4 ,the ,reform ,club is considered to be the best of ,barry's classical buildings4 ,pugin's earlier works were mostly ,roman ,catholic churches1 and they are acknowledged to be an immense advance on any ,gothic work which had been seen for centuries4 ,in the ,roman ,catholic ,cathedral of ,s4 ,chad1 at ,birmingham1 there is a dignity1 loftiness and simplicity surpassed by few ,gothic buildings when that style was at its zenith1 and from the time ,pugin designed this building1 architecture--notwithstanding our exhaustive study of archology1 our immense resources of capital and labour1 our science and labour-saving appliances1 and the comparative accessibility of the finest materials--has neither developed nor advanced4 ,the most erudite ,gothic mason could have possessed but little art knowledge as compared with the modern architect1 and yet with our learned societies1 wonderful libraries1 easily obtained photographs and plans of the best buildings in the world2 with writers far superior in intellectual acquirements to those of the ,middle ,ages1 our vast wealth1 with our tools such as the medival craftsman could never have dreamed of1 and with the experience of twenty centuries to guide us we have made no advance during more than half a century4 ,our best architects acknowledge that until we get a new method of building1 originality in architecture is an impossibility1 mainly because all the existing styles of architecture have been worked out to their legitimate conclusion1 and have been perfected under circumstances and conditions with which we have entirely broken2 the originality in detail which pervades and permeates our ,gothic buildings and gives them the greater part of their charm1 must1 of necessity1 be out of our reach until we blend the spirit of what we are pleased to call our practical age1 with a certain amount of that spirit of poetry and romance1 religious fervour and devoutness1 which animated the builders and craftsmen of the past4 ,illustration3 ,a ,typical ,cornish ,font4 ,probably of the late ,norman period4 ,now at ,maker1 near ,plymouth4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,church ,,furniture ,,and ,,ornaments4 ,the most important part of the internal furniture of a church is the altar1 a name derived from the ,latin altare1 a high place4 ,the altar is a raised structure on which propitiatory offerings are placed4 ,in the ,christian church the altar is a table or slab on which the instruments of the ,eucharist are displayed4 ,side note3 ,the ,altar4 ,the early ,christian altars were portable structures of wood1 and the ,church of ,rome still allows the use of an altar of this description1 although a consecrated stone1 containing an authentic relic and regarded as the true altar1 must be placed upon the wooden table4 ,the slab forming the altar was sometimes supported on pillars1 but more frequently on solid masonry1 and previous to the ,reformation it was marked with five crosses cut into the top1 in allusion to the five wounds of ,christ4 ,from the period that stone altars were introduced it was usual to enclose within them the relics of saints1 so that in some cases they were the actual tombs of saints4 ,in ,england the altars were generally taken down about the year #aeej1 set up again in the beginning of the reign of ,queen ,mary1 and again removed in the second year of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,in the church of ,porlock1 ,somerset1 the original high altar has been preserved1 though not in use1 being placed against the north wall of the chancel4 ,in ,dunster ,church1 in the same county1 there is a solid stone altar1 said to have been the original high altar1 and in the ruined church of ,s4 ,mary ,magdalene at ,ripon1 the high altar has escaped destruction4 ,of chantry altars we have several left1 including those at ,abbey ,dore1 ,herefordshire2 ,grosmont1 ,monmouthshire2 ,chipping ,norton1 ,oxon42 ,warmington1 ,warwick2 ,s4 ,giles's1 ,oxford2 ,lincoln ,cathedral1 and many others2 and it is rare to find a ,gothic church without some traces of altars in their various chapels1 oratories or chantries4 ,the altar is1 of course1 an adoption by the ,christian church of a pagan aid to worship1 and at ,s4 ,mary's church1 ,wareham1 which is thought to stand on the site of a ,roman temple1 are some pieces of stone considered by antiquaries to be portions of a pagan altar1 on which burnt offerings were placed4 ,above many ,christian altars was placed a piece of sculpture or a painting representing some religious subject4 ,these altar pieces sometimes consist of two pictures1 when they are called diptyches1 and sometimes of three pictures1 when they are called triptyches1 and both forms usually fold up or are provided with shutters4 ,they are often rare examples of the ,flemish and other schools of painting1 and of great value4 ,at the ,reformation the stone altar was displaced by the communion table1 which at first occupied the position vacated by the altar4 ,this gave umbrage to the ,puritan mind1 and the communion table was then usually placed in the centre of the chancel1 with seats all round for the communicants2 which arrangement is still in vogue in some of our ,english churches and in ,jersey1 although at the ,restoration the communion table was1 as a general rule1 replaced at the eastern wall of the ,chancel4 ,illustration3 ,durham ,sanctuary ,knocker4 ,long before the ,christian era the altar was regarded as a place of refuge for those fleeing from justice or oppression1 and this custom or privilege of sanctuary was sanctioned by the ,english bishops and was retained for many centuries by the ,christian ,church4 ,many of our parish churches claim to possess old sanctuary rings or knockers1 but it is doubtful if any of these were ever used by fugitives1 for the reason that although in early days every parish church had the right to grant sanctuary1 few possessed the means of feeding and housing a refugee1 save in the church itself1 which was expressly forbidden4 ,this is why we find records of fugitives travelling many miles at the risk of their lives and passing hundreds of parish churches in their endeavour to reach ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds1 ,hexham1 ,durham or some other of the well-recognised sanctuaries4 ,the only sanctuary knocker remaining to-day1 which is above suspicion1 is that at ,durham ,cathedral4 ,it is made of bronze and represents the grotesque head of a dragon1 the ring coming from the mouth4 ,illustration3 ,the ,baptistery in ,luton ,church4 ,photograph ,fredk4 ,thurston1 ,f4,r4,p4,s4 ,above the door is a small room in which attendants watched by day and night1 and when a fugitive was admitted a bell was rung to announce that someone had taken sanctuary4 ,side note3 ,the ,font4 ,the font1 as we have seen1 was originally placed in a separate building called the baptistery4 ,the only known example of anything of the kind in ,england is that in ,s4 ,mary's ,church1 ,luton1 fully described in ,the ,homeland ,handbook1 ,no4 #dg4 ,it is in the ,decorated style1 dates from the time of ,edward ,,iii41 and is said to have been designed by ,william of ,wykeham for ,queen ,philippa4 ,it is composed of white stone with open panels1 pierced by cinquefoils and quatrefoils1 while the apex of each panel terminates in a foliated finial4 ,the font inside is octagonal in form and of #acth century date1 but it has been somewhat restored4 ,ancient fonts were always large enough to allow for total immersion1 and our present custom of baptism by affusion1 or sprinkling1 is only permitted1 not enjoined by the rubric4 ,in early days the sacrament of baptism was only administered by the bishops at the great festivals of ,pentecost and ,easter1 for the reason that this afforded the greater convenience for immediate confirmation1 but with the increase in the number of churches the rite was administered by the priests in every village4 ,the font was required by the canon to be of stone1 but there are a few ,norman fonts made of lead1 among them those at ,s4 ,mary's ,church1 ,wareham1 ,walton-on-the-,hill1 ,surrey1 and at ,edburton1 ,parham1 and ,pyecombe1 ,sussex4 ,a remarkable font is that at ,dolton ,church1 ,devon1 made up of fragments of the churchyard cross1 and there is also a somewhat similar one at ,melbury ,bubb1 ,dorset4 ,by a constitution of ,edmund1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury 7#abcf71 fonts were required to be covered and locked1 and at first these covers were little more than plain lids1 but they afterwards became highly ornamental and were enriched with buttresses1 pinnacles1 crockets1 etc4 ,it is doubtful if any fonts exist which can reasonably be supposed to be ,saxon1 although a few1 like that at ,little ,billing1 ,northants1 may possibly be of that era4 ,of ,norman fonts we have large numbers4 ,they are sometimes plain hollow cylinders2 others are massive squares with a large pillar in the centre1 and small shafts at the corners4 ,these fonts are generally ornamented with rudely executed carvings1 consisting of foliage and grotesque animals4 ,illustration3 ,an ,example of a ,leaden ,font of the late ,norman period4 ,walton-on-the-,hill1 ,surrey4 ,the one in ,winchester ,cathedral is a good example1 and there are three other very similar ones in ,hampshire4 ,early ,english fonts are very often circular1 and sometimes square1 and they are often supported in much the same way as the ,norman ones4 ,in the ,decorated and ,perpendicular styles they are1 with few exceptions1 octagonal1 and the details generally partake of the character of those used in the other architectural features of the period4 ,there are hexagonal fonts of ,decorated date at ,rolvenden1 ,kent1 and ,heckington1 ,lincs4 ,the font is usually placed close to a pillar near the entrance1 generally that nearest but one to the tower in the south arcade1 or1 in larger buildings1 in the middle of the nave4 ,side note3 ,stoups4 ,the holy-water stoups sometimes found in our old churches are generally small niches with stone basins formed in the wall either in or just outside the porch1 or within the church close to the door1 or in one of the pillars nearest to the door4 ,these niches resemble piscinas1 except that they differ in situation1 are smaller and plainer1 and rarely have a drain4 ,a good example of an outside stoup is that at ,broadmayne1 ,dorset1 where there is also one inside the church4 ,they are rarely found unmutilated1 but there is one in perfect condition in the north porch of ,thornham ,church1 ,kent2 and a rather elaborate example at ,pylle ,church1 near ,glastonbury4 ,illustration3 ,a ,reputed ,saxon ,font4 ,shaldon1 ,devon4 ,the piscina is a water-drain formerly placed near the altar and consisting of a shallow stone basin1 or sink1 with a drain to carry off whatever is poured into it4 ,side note3 ,piscinas4 ,it was used to receive the water in which the priest washed his hands1 as well as for that with which the chalice was rinsed at the celebration of the mass4 ,it was usually placed within a niche1 although the basin often projects from the face of the wall1 and is sometimes supported on a shaft rising from the floor4 ,in the ,early ,english and ,decorated periods there are often two basins and two drains1 and occasionally three4 ,within the niche a wooden or stone shelf is often found1 called a credence-table1 on which the sacred vessels were placed previous to their being required at the altar4 ,illustration3 ,a ,detached ,holy-water ,stoup of unusual design4 ,wooton ,courtenay1 ,som4 ,piscinas are unknown in ,england of earlier date than the middle of the #abth century1 and of that date they are extremely rare4 ,of thirteenth and succeeding centuries we have many examples1 more or less mutilated4 ,their forms and decorations are very various1 but the character of their architectural features will always decide their approximate date4 ,side note3 ,sedilia4 ,the ,sedilia1 from the ,latin sedile1 a seat1 has come to be applied in modern times to the seats used by the celebrants during the pauses in the mass4 ,they were sometimes moveable1 but more usually in this country were formed of masonry and recessed in the wall4 ,they are generally three in number1 for the priest1 deacon and sub-deacon1 while in a few rare instances they number four seats1 as at ,rothwell ,church1 ,northants1 and ,furness ,abbey2 or even five1 as at ,southwell ,minster4 ,sometimes a long single seat under one arch is found1 and when three seats are used the two western ones are often on the same level and the eastern one raised above them4 ,numerous examples remain in our churches1 some being as early as the latter part of the #abth century1 but they are mostly later and extend to the end of the ,perpendicular style4 ,some of them are separated by shafts1 and profusely ornamented with panelling1 niches1 statues1 pinnacles1 tabernacle work1 and crowned with canopies all more or less elaborately enriched4 ,side note3 ,stalls4 ,stalls are fixed seats in the choir1 either wholly or partially enclosed and used by the clergy4 ,previous to the ,reformation all large and many small churches had a range of wooden stalls on each side and at the west end of the choir4 ,in cathedrals they were enclosed at the back with panelling1 and surmounted by overhanging canopies of tabernacle work1 generally of oak1 of which those at ,winchester1 ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel at ,westminster1 and ,manchester ,cathedral are possibly our finest examples4 ,when the stalls occupied both sides of the choir1 return seats were placed at the ends for the prior1 dean1 precentor1 and other of the officiating clergy4 ,illustration3 ,sedilia and ,chantry4 ,luton1 ,beds4 ,photograph ,fredk4 ,thurston1 ,f4,r4,p4,s4 ,mr4 ,parker1 in his ,glossary of ,architecture1 gives the following definition of the miserere1 patience or pretella4 ,the projecting bracket on the underside of the seats of stalls in churches2 these1 when perfect1 are fixed with hinges so they may be turned up1 and when this is done the projection of the miserere is sufficient1 without actually forming a seat1 to afford very considerable rest to anyone leaning upon it4 ,they were allowed as a relief to the infirm during the long services that were required to be performed by ecclesiastics in a standing posture4 ,it is in the carving of these that one is frequently struck by the curious mixture of the sacred and the profane1 the refined and the vulgar1 for which it is difficult to find any adequate explanation4 ,of so coarse a nature are some of these carvings that it has been necessary to entirely remove them from the stalls4 ,they are usually attributed to the mendicant and wandering monks1 and they undoubtedly reflect the licentiousness which at one time pervaded the monastic and conventual establishments4 ,among our best examples are those at ,christchurch ,priory1 ,hants1 and in ,henry ,,vii4's ,chapel4 ,there is a remarkably complete set in ,exeter ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,a ,typical ,somerset ,bench-,end4 ,showing a ,fuller at work with the implements of his trade4 ,spaxton4 ,photograph ,mr4 ,page4 ,of modern pews it is not necessary to say anything here1 but previous to the ,reformation the nave of a church was usually fitted with fixed seats1 parted from each other by wainscoting1 and partially enclosed at the ends by framed panelling1 but more often by solid pieces of wood1 either panelled or carved on the front4 ,these bench-ends are very common in the ,west of ,england1 in ,somerset and ,devon1 and they are often very beautiful pieces of work and were in all probability executed by local craftsmen4 ,they embrace a variety of subjects3 figures1 scrolls1 dragons1 serpents1 etc41 and frequently bear the arms of the family who owned the pew4 ,sometimes they terminate at the top with finials either in the form of heads1 bunches of foliage1 a chamfered fleur-de-lys and a variety of other ornaments called ,poppy-heads1 from the ,french ,poupe4 ,no examples are known to exist earlier than the ,decorated style1 but of ,perpendicular date specimens are very numerous1 especially in our cathedrals and old abbey churches4 ,side note3 ,pulpits4 ,pulpits were formerly placed1 not only in churches1 but in the refectories and occasionally in the cloisters of monasteries1 and there is one in the outer court of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford1 and another at ,shrewsbury4 ,in former times pulpits were placed in the nave attached to a wall1 pillar or screen1 usually against the second pier from the chancel arch4 ,some are of wood1 others of stone2 the former are mostly polygonal1 with the panels enriched with foliation or tracery4 ,few exist of earlier date than the ,perpendicular style1 but stone pulpits of ,decorated date are sometimes met with as at ,beaulieu1 ,hants1 a very early specimen4 ,wooden pulpits are usually hexagonal or octagonal2 some stand on slender wooden stems1 others on stone bases4 ,a few have canopies or sounding boards1 and their dates can be fixed by the character of their ornamentation4 ,at ,kenton1 ,devon1 there is an early pulpit which has retained its original paintings4 ,jacobean pulpits are very numerous1 and are frequently gilded and painted2 the one at ,s4 ,saviour's ,church1 ,dartmouth1 being a most elaborate example4 ,illustration3 ,a ,richly ,carved ,pulpit and ,canopy4 ,edlesborough1 ,bucks4 ,photograph ,h4 ,a4 ,strange4 ,open-air preaching is anything but a modern invention1 for long before the erection of parish churches it was the recognised method of addressing the people4 ,there is a print of some popular bishop preaching in a pulpit at ,paul's ,cross in ,s4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 and in medival days open-air pulpits were erected near the roads1 on bridges and often on the steps of the market crosses1 which are often still known as preaching crosses4 ,side note3 ,squints4 ,in some of our churches is to be seen a squint1 an opening in an oblique direction through a wall or pier for the purpose of enabling persons in the aisles or transepts to see the elevation of the ,host at the high altar4 ,they are of frequent occurrence in our churches and are very numerous in the neighbourhood of ,tenby1 ,south ,wales1 also in ,devon and the ,west generally4 ,they are usually without any ornament1 but are sometimes arched and enriched with tracery4 ,they are mostly found on one or both sides of the chancel arch1 but they sometimes occur in rooms above porches1 in side-chapels and the like2 in every instance they were so situated that the altar could be seen4 ,when they occur in porches or the rooms above they are thought to have been for the use of the acolyte appointed to ring the sanctus bell1 who1 viewing the performance of mass1 would be thus able to sound the bell at the proper time4 ,the name hagioscope has been used to describe these oblique openings4 ,cruciform marks are sometimes found on our churches1 often on a stone in the porch2 they are usually incised crosses or five dots in the form of a cross4 ,they were1 presumably1 cut by the bishop when the building was consecrated1 and are called consecration crosses4 ,side note3 ,screens4 ,the rood-screens1 separating the chancel or choir of a church from the nave1 usually supported the great ,rood or ,crucifix1 not actually on the screen itself1 but on a beam called the rood-beam1 or by a gallery called the rood-loft1 which last was approached from the inside of the church1 by a small stone staircase in the wall1 as can be seen in many of our churches to-day4 ,although rood-lofts have been generally destroyed in ,england1 some beautiful examples remain at ,long ,sutton1 ,barnwell1 ,dunster and ,minehead1 ,somerset2 ,kemsing1 ,kent2 ,newark1 ,nottingham2 ,uffendon1 ,collumpton1 ,dartmouth1 ,kenton1 ,plymtree and ,hartland1 ,devon4 ,the general construction of wooden screens is close panelling below1 from which rise tall slender balusters1 or wooden mullions supporting tracery rich with cornices and crestings1 frequently painted and gilded4 ,the lower panels often depict saints and martyrs4 ,from the top of the screen certain parts of the services and the lessons were read4 ,they were occasionally close together and glazed1 as we see by a most beautiful example at ,charlton-on-,otmoor1 in ,oxfordshire4 ,these screens1 many of which have been over-restored1 are very common1 and in addition to those above mentioned1 are found at ,s4 ,mary's1 ,stamford1 ,ottery ,s4 ,mary1 ,chudleigh1 ,bovey1 and in nearly all the ,devon parish churches4 ,at ,dunstable a screen of ,queen ,mary's time separates the vestry from the chancel4 ,illustration3 ,screen with ,rood ,loft4 ,kenton1 ,devon4 ,photograph by ,chapman4 ,of stone screens space will permit of only the briefest mention4 ,they were used in various situations1 to enclose tombs and to separate chapels1 and occasionally the rood-screen was of stone4 ,illustration3 ,the ,carved ,oak ,balustrade in ,compton ,church4 ,held to be the oldest existing piece of carved woodwork in ,england4 ,the oldest piece of screen work in this country is that at ,compton ,church1 ,surrey2 it is of wood and shows the transition from the ,norman to the ,early ,english styles4 ,stone screens are often massive structures enriched with niches1 statues1 tabernacles1 pinnacles1 crestings1 etc41 as those at ,canterbury1 ,york and ,gloucester4 ,side note3 ,the ,reredos4 ,the reredos forms no part of the altar1 and is often highly enriched with niches1 buttresses1 pinnacles1 and other ornaments4 ,not infrequently it extends across the whole breadth of the church1 and is sometimes carried nearly up to the roof1 as at ,s4 ,alban's ,abbey1 ,durham and ,gloucester ,cathedrals1 ,s4 ,saviour's1 ,southwark and in that remarkably fine example at ,christchurch1 ,hants4 ,in village churches they are mostly very simple1 and generally have no ornaments formed in the wall1 though niches and corbels are sometimes provided to carry images1 and that part of the wall immediately over the altar is panelled1 as at ,s4 ,michael's1 ,oxford2 ,solihull1 ,warwickshire2 ,euston and ,hanwell1 ,oxfordshire1 etc4 ,it is interesting to note that the open fire-hearth1 once used in domestic halls1 was also called a reredos4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,bells ,,and ,,belfries4 ,the history of bells is lost in antiquity1 and little is known about them previous to the ,x,vth century4 ,it is probable1 however1 that they were used in ,india and ,china centuries before they reached ,europe4 ,bells were used by the ,romans for many secular purposes1 and although their use was sanctioned by the ,christian ,church about #djj ,a4,d41 they were not in general use in ,england until #fej ,a4,d4 ,the earliest bells were hand bells1 quadrangular in shape1 and made of thin plates of copper or iron riveted together1 and their abominable sound when struck must have been one of their chief merits1 as the early bells were much used for the purpose of frightening the devil and other evil spirits4 ,our oldest bells are hand bells1 ,s4 ,patrick's bell at ,belfast 7#ajia7 and ,s4 ,ninian's bell at ,edinburgh1 which is probably of even earlier date4 ,from #aeej to #agej was the golden age of production for bells1 more especially so in ,belgium and the ,low ,countries1 where the bells of the towers and belfries were rung to arouse the country in times of danger and invasion4 ,it is quite possible that the bells used for secular and religious purposes were kept distinct4 ,bells played a very important part in medival life1 and next to cannon were regarded as the chief city guardians1 for he who held the bells held the town1 and the first thing done by the invader on taking a town was to melt the bells and thus destroy the means of communicating an alarm4 ,in ,england our old towns1 being almost entirely constructed of wood1 were liable to periodic and devastating conflagrations1 which fact suggested to that genius1 ,william the ,conqueror1 the institution of ,couvre-feu1 or in its more popular form1 ,curfew1 which rang at eight o'clock in the evening1 when all lights were to be extinguished4 ,the ringing of curfew has survived in many of our towns and villages to this day1 but it is doubtful if the custom has been continuous from its first institution4 ,the secular use of the bell is1 however1 only incidental1 and it is in its connection with religious life that we are now concerned1 for all church history1 church doctrine and church custom and observances are set to bell music4 ,bells in fact may be said to sum up the short span of our mortal life1 for the birthday1 the wedding and the funeral1 are all welded to religion by the church bell4 ,bells were used for ecclesiastical purposes in ,england long before the erection of our parish churches1 for ,bede1 speaking of the death of ,s4 ,hilda1 ,a4,d4 #fhj1 says that one of the sisters in the distant monastery of ,hackness1 thought she heard as she slept1 the sound of the bell which called them to prayers1 and ,turketul gave to ,croyland ,abbey a great bell called ,guthlac1 and afterwards six others which he called ,bartholomew and ,betelin1 ,turketul and ,tatwin1 and ,pega and ,bega4 ,s4 ,dunstan gave bells to many of the churches in ,somerset1 and he also seems to have introduced bell ringing into the monasteries4 ,a few words may be of interest concerning the number and purposes of these monastic bells1 with which the life of the monks must have been completely bound up4 ,the ,signum woke up the whole community at day-break4 ,the ,squilla announced the frugal meal in the refectory2 but for those working in the gardens1 the cloister-bell1 or ,campanella1 was rung4 ,the abbot's ,cordon1 or handbell1 summoned the brothers and novices to their ,superior2 whilst the ,petasius was used to call in those working at a distance from the main building4 ,at bed-time the ,tiniolum was sounded1 and the ,noctula was rung at intervals throughout the night to call the monks to watch and pray4 ,the ,corrigiumcula was the scourging bell1 while the sweet-toned ,nota1 a choir bell1 was rung at the consecration of the elements4 ,the use of the bell-tower was recognised in the ancient ,saxon law1 which gave the title of thane to anyone who had a church with a bell-tower on his estate1 and two of our most interesting ,saxon churches1 ,brixworth and ,brigstock1 both in ,northamptonshire1 have each a semi-circular tower rising together with the bell-tower1 and forming a staircase to it4 ,one of the most beautiful campaniles or bell-towers still standing is that at ,evesham1 in ,worcestershire1 which is a good specimen of ,perpendicular architecture4 ,it was built by ,abbot ,lichfield1 the last abbot but one of the abbey1 and took six years in building1 and was not quite completed when the famous abbey1 of which it was a final ornament1 was pulled down4 ,in addition to this example at ,evesham1 detached bell-towers exist1 or once existed1 at ,chichester1 ,east ,dereham1 ,glastonbury ,abbey1 ,bruton1 in ,somerset1 and in several other places4 ,markland1 in his ,remarks on ,churches1 says3 ,the great bell-tower which once formed part of the abbey church of ,s4 ,edmundsbury was commenced about #adcf4 ,from the year #adda to #aejj legacies were still being given towards the building4 ,in #adfa an individual1 probably a benefactor1 desired to be buried in magno ostio novi campanilis4 ,in ,protestant use church bells have been stripped of much of the former superstition and symbolism4 ,they are no longer rung to announce the miracle of transubstantiation2 neither are they called upon as of old for the purpose of scaring devils1 demons1 and other evil spirits which formed so prominent a feature in the faith of the early ,christian communities4 ,illustration3 ,bell ,turret for #c ,bells4 ,radipole1 ,dorset4 ,closely connected with the subject of bells and belfries are the bell-gables or bell-turrets1 so frequently found at the west ends of our smaller churches which have no towers4 ,they usually contain but one bell1 but are sometimes found with two1 and at ,radipole ,church1 near ,weymouth1 the bell-turret was originally designed to carry three bells4 ,they are generally most picturesque little features of which a few may be of ,norman date1 but by far the greater number of them are ,early ,english1 a style in which they are frequently found4 ,in addition to these bell-turrets at the western ends of our churches one sometimes finds a similar1 but smaller1 erection at the eastern end of the roof of the nave1 but used for a very different purpose1 for while the bell at the western end was rung to summon the parishioners to service1 that at the eastern end1 known as the ,sanctus or ,mass-bell1 was rung on the elevation of the ,host during the celebration of mass2 although usually placed on the apex of the roof1 this bell sometimes occupied a position in the lantern or tower1 or in a turret of larger dimensions4 ,in churches where no turret existed it was carried in the hand1 and such is now the prevailing practice on the continent4 ,the turret for the ,sanctus bell still exists at ,barnstaple1 ,devon1 and ,st4 ,peter ,port1 ,guernsey4 ,the ,sanctus bell was generally made of silver1 and occasionally a number of little bells were hung in the middle of the church1 and by means of a wheel they were all made to ring at once4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,spire2 ,,its ,,origin ,,and ,,development4 ,probably the most beautiful feature of a ,gothic church is the spire1 raising its tapering form far above the town or village and forming a prominent landmark1 denoting the location of the ,house of ,god4 ,although found occasionally in other styles1 the spire is essentially ,gothic1 and one of the most marked characteristics of this period4 ,spires are generally of two kinds1 those constructed of timber and covered with slates1 lead1 tiles or shingles1 and those built of stone or brick4 ,examples of both kinds are very numerous on the continent and in ,england1 while shingle spires are especially common in ,sussex4 ,the spire is generally acknowledged to have originated from the small pyramidal roof so frequently found on ,saxon and ,norman towers4 ,this gradually became elongated1 and the towers were sometimes gabled on each side1 as is the case with the remarkable ,saxon church at ,sompting1 ,sussex4 ,this shows us very clearly the angles of the spire resting upon the apex of each gable1 so that the spire itself is set obliquely to the square of the tower4 ,illustration3 ,the best example of a ,saxon ,spire or ,pyramidal ,roof4 ,sompting1 ,sussex4 ,drawn by ,george ,pearl4 ,saxon and ,norman spires are very rare in ,england1 ,sompting being our best example of the former and those on the eastern transepts of ,canterbury ,cathedral of the latter4 ,of ,early ,english spires we have1 fortunately1 some good examples1 among which are those at ,oxford ,cathedral1 ,wilford and ,wansted1 in the same county1 and a very graceful one at ,leighton ,buzzard4 ,these #acth century spires are very common in ,france1 as at ,chartres and ,s4 ,pierre1 ,caen4 ,illustration3 ,leighton ,buzzard ,church4 ,with ,early ,english ,tower and ,spire4 ,photograph ,h4 ,a4 ,strange4 ,of fourteenth century1 or ,decorated1 spires1 we have many examples1 of which perhaps the best is the beautiful spire of ,salisbury ,cathedral1 although the equally fine one at ,s4 ,mary's1 ,oxford1 runs it close for premier position4 ,the triple group at ,lichfield ,cathedral belong to this period1 as do the spires of ,ross1 ,heckington1 ,grantham1 ,s4 ,mary's1 ,newark1 ,king's ,sutton1 ,bloxham and ,snettisham1 ,norfolk4 ,a peculiarity of the ,salisbury spire is that it never formed part of the original design of the cathedral1 being added seventy years later4 ,it is the loftiest spire in ,england--#djd feet--about #dj ft4 higher than the cross of ,s4 ,paul's4 ,it speaks well for the ,gothic builders that such a vast superstructure as this tower and spire could be imposed upon walls and piers never intended to bear it4 ,at an early period it was found to have deflected twenty-three inches from the perpendicular1 but there has been no sign of any further movement4 ,barnack ,church1 in ,northamptonshire1 has a curious spire showing the transition from ,norman to ,early ,english4 ,it will be noticed that the sides of a church spire are slightly curved1 so that they swell out a little in the centre4 ,this is called the entasis of the spire1 and belongs to the study of optics in architecture4 ,where the spire has no entasis the same effect is produced by the introduction of small projecting gables1 bands of carving1 or a little coronal of pinnacles4 ,one of the most clearly marked differences between ,english and continental spires is that the latter are much shorter than the towers which support them1 the towers1 as a rule1 being twice as high as the spires4 ,in ,england1 on the contrary1 the spire is generally very much loftier than the tower4 ,at ,shottesbrook1 ,berks1 and ,ledbury1 ,herefordshire1 the spires occupy as much as three-fifths of the total elevation1 and the usual rule in ,england is for the tower to be a little less in height than the spire4 ,the masons lavished an extraordinary amount of care and skill on their spires4 ,so much is this the case that there is hardly a medival spire in the country which can be called ill-designed or displeasing4 ,church spires are very common in some counties and very rare in others4 ,there are1 of course1 exceptions1 but it is in the flat counties that spires are most frequent1 the most beautiful ones being found in ,northamptonshire1 ,leicestershire1 ,lincolnshire1 ,warwickshire1 ,staffordshire1 ,nottinghamshire and ,oxfordshire4 ,the top of the spire is usually capped with a weather vane terminating in a cock4 ,the custom of using a cock as the flag of the vane is of very early date1 for ,wolfstan1 in his ,life of ,s4 ,ethelwold1 written towards the end of the #ajth century1 speaks of one which surmounted ,winchester ,cathedral4 ,in the ,bayeux ,tapestry one is shown on the gable of ,westminster ,abbey1 and one of the early ,popes ordained that every church under the papal jurisdiction should be surmounted by a cock as emblematical of the sovereignty of the church over the whole world4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,stained ,,glass4 ,the use of coloured glass in the windows of buildings devoted to religious purposes appears to have been employed as early as the ninth century1 but no examples remain of anything like so old a date1 and we have only illuminated missals and primitive drawings by members of the conventual bodies to guide us in determining the earliest styles of coloured glazing4 ,it appears to have consisted of more or less primitive representations of the human form1 with strong black lines to indicate the features and folds of the drapery4 ,the backgrounds were generally masses of deep blue or red1 and in the rare instances where landscapes were introduced positive colours only appear to have been used4 ,our oldest specimens in ,england are those in the choir aisles of ,canterbury ,cathedral1 which appear to be of the #abth century1 and it is thought that they are the remains of the original glazing that was put in when this part of the building was rebuilt after a fire in #aagd4 ,the general design is composed of panels of various forms1 in which are depicted subjects from ,holy ,scripture1 with backgrounds of deep blue or red2 the spaces between the panels are filled with mosaic patterns in which blue and red colours predominate1 and the whole design is framed in an elaborate border of leaves and scroll-work in brilliant colours4 ,illustration3 ,a ,parish ,church with a ,shingle ,broach ,spire4 7,see page #ii74 ,edenbridge1 ,kent4 ,homeland ,copyright4 ,of thirteenth century windows we have some magnificent examples --unfortunately few unmutilated--as at ,york1 where is the five-light lancet window situated in the north end of the transept1 known as the ,five ,sisters of ,york4 ,of this date1 also1 are the large circular window of ,lincoln ,cathedral1 and the windows at ,chetwode1 ,bucks2 ,westwell1 ,kent2 ,west ,horsley1 ,surrey2 and ,beckett's ,crown1 ,canterbury4 ,a little later1 in the ,decorated period1 we get the great east window of ,york ,cathedral1 #ge ft4 high and #cb ft4 broad2 the east window of ,gloucester ,cathedral1 #gb ft4 high and #ch ft4 broad2 and other fine windows at ,tewkesbury ,abbey2 ,merton ,college1 ,oxford2 ,wroxhall ,abbey1 ,warwickshire2 and the churches of ,chartham1 ,kent2 ,stanford1 ,leicestershire2 ,ashchurch1 ,glous42 ,cranley1 ,surrey2 ,norbury1 ,derbyshire1 and others4 ,salisbury ,cathedral has retained portions1 but very lovely portions1 of the glazing of its west windows1 and enough is left to show that it was little inferior to the great windows of ,york and ,gloucester4 ,carlisle ,cathedral1 too1 has preserved fragments of the original glass in the tracery of the great east window1 but the lower part of the glazing is modern4 ,windows in the ,decorated style continued to be arranged in panels1 with the spaces between them filled with flowing patterns of foliage1 in which the vine and ivy leaves predominate4 ,single figures are more common than in the previous style1 and when used are generally shown beneath a simple pediment or canopy4 ,in the early examples they only occupy a portion of the window light1 but later they are found occupying nearly the whole of the surface and are surmounted by large and elaborate canopies4 ,quarries are much used in this style1 sometimes quite plain1 but more often with leaves or rosettes painted on them in black lines1 or painted with the vine and ivy leaves so arranged that they form a repeating pattern over the whole window4 ,at this period1 too1 heraldry began to be employed in the decoration of the windows to which it is always an appropriate and artistic adjunct1 and many authentic and valuable examples of our national heraldry have thus been preserved for posterity4 ,with the advent of the ,perpendicular style the glazing became more uniform in character1 the glass was thinner and lighter1 the tints paler1 and the whole effect more brilliant and transparent4 ,the paintings for the most part consist of large figures under elaborate canopies1 frequently occupying an entire light1 and in the patterns and smaller decorations there is a greater freedom of design1 and the whole treatment is more harmonious and artistic than in any other period4 ,the use of heraldry became very common1 and inscriptions on long narrow scrolls were frequently employed4 ,among the best examples of this period are the windows at ,s4 ,margaret's ,church1 ,westminster2 ,king's ,college ,chapel1 ,cambridge2 ,fairford ,church1 ,gloucestershire2 and ,morley ,church1 ,derbyshire4 ,the ,reformation1 with its vast social and political upheaval1 was not conducive to the encouragement of the fine arts1 and from this period the art of glazing in ,england declined beyond measure1 and was not the only art that received its death-blow in the triumph of ,puritanism4 ,the art has1 however1 revived greatly during recent years1 thanks1 among other artists1 to ,william ,morris and ,burne-,jones4 ,a few words must be said about the ,jesse window found in some of our cathedrals and churches4 ,strictly speaking1 it is a representation of the genealogy of ,christ1 in which the different persons forming the descent are placed on scrolls of foliage branching out of each other1 intended to represent a tree4 ,it was also wrought into a branched candlestick1 thence called a ,jesse1 a common piece of furniture in ancient churches4 ,the subject is found on a window at ,llanrhaiadr y ,kinmerch1 ,denbighshire1 on the stone work of one of the chancel windows at ,dorchester ,church1 ,oxfordshire1 and in carved stone on the reredos of ,christchurch ,priory1 ,hants4 ,it is not perhaps generally known that the actual colours used in early stained glass possessed each of them their own specific symbolism4 ,underlying the obvious story conveyed by the human figures or decorated devices1 there was an inner story to be read with profit by those who understood the mystic symbolism concerning colours4 ,without entering at length into this interesting subject1 it may yet be stated that green was the symbol of ,regeneration1 red of ,divine ,love1 white of ,divine ,wisdom1 yellow of ,faith1 and grey1 or a mixture of black and white1 the emblem of ,terrestrial ,death and ,spiritual ,immortality4 ,these colours at different times or in different countries had other meanings as well1 and ecclesiologists tell us that the colours chosen for depicting the robes of our ,lord differ according to the period of ,his life which it was intended to represent4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,crypts4 ,the crypts so generally found beneath our cathedrals and abbeys1 and so frequently under our churches1 rarely extend beyond the choir or chancel and its aisles1 and are sometimes of very small dimensions4 ,they are often coeval with the upper parts of the building1 and although not so elaborate in ornamentation as the fabric they support1 they are almost without exception well constructed and well finished pieces of building4 ,in some cases the crypt is of much older date than any portion of the superstructure1 as is the case at ,york1 ,worcester and ,rochester cathedrals4 ,during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the roofs were often richly groined1 and upheld by cylindrical columns or clustered piers1 and furnished with handsome bases and decorated capitals4 ,there is abundant evidence that crypts were at one time furnished with altars1 piscinas1 and the various fittings requisite for the celebration of the mass1 and they were used as sepulchres1 wherein the shrines of relics and martyrs were carefully preserved4 ,some authorities claim a purely ,saxon origin for the crypts at ,ripon ,cathedral1 ,hexham ,abbey1 and ,repton ,church1 ,derbyshire4 ,the ,ripon example is a plain barrel-vaulted chamber1 about #aa ft4 long and #h ft4 wide1 with no pillars or ornament of any kind4 ,it is popularly known as ,s4 ,wilfrid's ,needle1 but the exact origin of the name is lost in obscurity4 ,the ,hexham crypt is very similar in character1 but is somewhat longer1 being more than #ac ft4 long and #h ft4 wide4 ,as at ,ripon1 there are hollows or shallow niches in the walls in which lamps may possibly have been placed4 ,the third reputed ,saxon crypt is that at ,repton1 but it has little in common with the other two1 its superficial area being nearly twice as great and the roof is supported on four columns1 with plain square capitals rudely carved1 and bearing much similarity to early ,norman work4 ,the position of the crypt varies4 ,at ,beverley ,minster it is on the south side of the south-west tower2 in ,hereford ,cathedral it is under a side chapel1 while at ,lastingham1 in ,yorkshire1 the crypt extends under the whole of the church1 including the apse4 ,at ,wells the crypt is beneath the chapter-house1 and ,durham ,cathedral has three crypts1 one under what was the dormitory1 another beneath the refectory1 and the third under the prior's chapel4 ,of crypts of ,norman date we have many examples1 of which1 perhaps1 our best are those at ,gloucester1 ,worcester1 ,canterbury and ,winchester ,cathedrals1 while ,canterbury is probably the largest of them all4 ,good crypts are also found at ,wimborne ,minster1 ,christchurch ,priory1 and in our smaller churches at ,repton and ,s4 ,peter's-in-the-,east1 ,oxford4 ,the ,wimborne crypt is lighted by four windows4 ,the vaulting is supported by two pairs of pillars which form three aisles1 each of three bays4 ,mr4 ,perkins1 in his book on ,wimborne ,minster1 says1 ,on each side of the place where the altar stood there are two openings into the choir aisles4 ,the exteriors of these are of the same form and size as the crypt windows1 but they are deeply splayed inside1 and probably were used as hagioscopes or squints1 to allow those kneeling in the choir aisles to see the priest celebrating mass at the crypt altar4 ,the crypt at ,christchurch is of ,norman date1 and now serves as a vault for the ,malmesbury family4 ,the crypt of ,canterbury ,cathedral is claimed and justly claimed1 perhaps1 as the largest and most beautiful in ,england4 ,it is thought to contain fragments of ,roman and ,saxon work1 and much of it dates from the days of ,s4 ,anselm 7#ajif-aajj74 ,it was here that the remains of ,s4 ,thomas ,becket lay from #aagj to #abbj1 and here that ,henry ,,ii41 fasting and discrowned1 with naked feet1 bared back1 and streaming tears1 performed on ,july #abth1 #aagd1 the memorable penance for his share in the murder of the great ,archbishop4 ,it was here too1 in later times that the ,walloons were granted1 by ,queen ,elizabeth1 the privilege of carrying on their silk-weaving1 and it was also reserved as a place of worship for ,french ,protestants4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,how ,,to ,,describe ,,an ,,old ,,church4 ,having carefully read the foregoing chapters1 it should be possible for anyone interested in the subject to be able to write a fairly accurate description of any old church4 ,the record should1 if possible1 be amplified with sketches or photographs4 ,in course of time1 decay1 neglect and restoration will deprive our ancient buildings of every visible stone of original work which they possess1 and careful records of this kind1 written1 photographed and sketched1 may be of the highest possible value to future generations of historians and architects1 long after the objects themselves have ceased to exist4 ,the work in itself is of absorbing interest1 and the more one studies these works of past ages the stronger becomes the conviction that our old buildings1 whether cathedral1 castle or simple village church1 are the landmarks of the nation's history1 and a priceless inheritance of beauty and art the conservation of which is the duty of all generations4 ,the principal points to be noted are--#a4 ,the name of the church4 #b4 ,its situation4 #c4 ,its dedication4 #d4 ,general plan4 #e4 ,the style of architecture to which each portion belongs4 #f4 ,any peculiarity of the architecture1 blocked up windows1 etc4 #g4 ,any ancient furniture1 screens1 bench-ends1 glass4 #h4 ,any monuments1 tablets1 or mural paintings4 #i4 ,church plate1 bells1 registers4 #aj4 ,any local traditions4 ,the record should be made somewhat in the following manner4 ,the church of ---- is prettily situated on rising ground some quarter of a mile north of the village1 and on the main road to ---- 4 ,it is approached by a picturesque timber lych-gate1 and consists of nave1 aisles and chancel1 having a side chapel to the north and a single transept to the south4 ,at the west end is a ,decorated tower and spire4 ,there are two porches1 one on the north side and the other on the west1 which last has a niche for a figure over the doorway and seats on either side4 ,the nave is ,perpendicular1 as is the greater part of the rest of the fabric4 ,above the nave rises a lofty and noble clerestory1 divided from the aisles by five rather obtusely-pointed arches supported by richly moulded piers with small moulded capitals4 ,each bay of the clerestory contains two three-light windows of late ,perpendicular date4 ,the roof is flat pitched and is of oak1 the principals are adorned with panelled tracery and show vestiges of ancient colour decoration4 ,the windows of the aisles are late ,decorated in style2 they are of three lights1 the traceries elegant and richly moulded4 ,the east window is ,perpendicular and is much sub-divided by mullions and transoms2 in the upper portions are some heraldic coats of arms1 which appear to have formed part of a much earlier window4 ,the chancel is divided from the nave by a fine open oak screen1 coeval with the larger part of the building4 ,it is richly carved and gilded1 and in the right-hand side of the chancel arch are the steps which formerly led up to the top of it4 ,the chancel1 together with its chapel1 is vaulted in stone with well marked ribs and carved bosses4 ,the transept1 late ,perpendicular1 opens into the south side of the nave by a four-centred arch1 and has a rich flat ceiling4 ,in the chancel is a piscina of ,early ,english date1 together with a sedilia of the same period4 ,on the north side of the chancel1 resting on the floor1 is a cross-legged effigy1 in chain mail1 surcoat1 etc41 and bearing on his left arm a shield1 but all much mutilated4 ,there is a local tradition that it represents ,sir ----1 but there is no evidence by which he can be identified4 ,features of the church are the many highly carved bench ends1 all in oak1 representing a great variety of subjects1 such as dragons1 serpents1 etc41 while a few bear the arms of local families who probably bore the cost of the work4 ,the pulpit is ,jacobean1 and has no special feature4 ,the font1 which stands in the centre of the nave1 is square in form and is supported by a modern round plinth4 ,it is constructed of marble1 the four sides being carved in low relief with intersecting patterns4 ,it is possibly of ,norman date1 and is the only existing feature of a much earlier church4 ,the tower and spire are ,decorated2 the latter is of stone with four pinnacles at the base1 and has a little coronal of pinnacles4 ,the belfry windows are arranged in pairs on each side of the tower4 ,the tower or western window is of five lights1 richly ,decorated in style4 ,illustration3 ,,key ,,to ,,diagram ,,of ,,the ,,interior ,,elevation ,,of ,a ,,bay ,,of ,a ,,church4 ,,clerestory4 #bf ,boss4 #be ,vaulting ,rib4 #bd ,vault4 #bc ,vaulting ,rib4 #bb ,tracery of ,c4 ,window4 #ba ,clerestory ,window4 #bj ,sill of ,clerestory ,window4 #ai ,base of ,jamb1 ,c4 ,arch4 #ah ,jamb of ,c4 ,arch4 #ag ,clerestory ,string4 ,,blind ,,storey 7,,triforium74 #af ,capital of ,vaulting ,shaft4 #ae ,tracery of ,triforium4 #ad ,triforium ,arch4 #ac ,capital of ,t4 ,pier4 #ab ,pier of ,triforium4 #aa ,triforium ,string4 ,,ground ,,storey4 #aj ,tracery of ,aisle ,window4 #i ,aisle ,window4 #h ,sill of ,aisle ,window4 #g ,wall ,arcade4 #f ,vaulting ,shaft4 #e ,corbel4 #d ,pier ,arch4 #c ,capital of ,pier4 #b ,pier4 #a ,base of ,pier4 ,,footnotes4 #a3 ,so called from its flame-like appearance1 producing forms which resemble elongated tongues of flame4 ,there is great beauty in much of this work1 but it is constructionally weak4 ,the finest example is ,chartres ,cathedral4 ,,appendix4 ,a ,,glossary ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,terms ,,used ,,in ,,ecclesiastical ,,architecture4 ,,abacus ,derived from the ,greek ,abax--a tray or flat board1 an essential feature of the ,grecian and ,roman orders1 but now used to describe the slab forming the upper part of a column1 pier1 etc4 ,,abbey ,a term for a union of ecclesiastical buildings1 for the housing of those conventual bodies presided over by an abbot or abbess1 supposed to be derived from the ,hebrew ab1 father4 ,,acanthus ,a plant1 the leaves of which are represented in the capitals of the ,corinthian orders4 ,,aisle ,french aile1 a wing1 the lateral division of a church4 ,,almonry ,a room where alms were distributed4 ,,altar ,an elevated table dedicated to the ,sacrament of the ,holy ,eucharist1 and usually called the ,communion ,table4 ,,almery1 ,,aumery1 and ,,aumbrey ,a recess or small cupboard in the wall of a church1 used to contain the chalices1 patens1 etc41 for the use of the priest4 ,they are sometimes near the piscina1 but are usually on the opposite side of the chancel4 ,,ante-,,chapel ,the outer part of a chapel4 ,,apse ,the semi-circular or polygonal recess at the east end of the choir or aisles of a church4 ,,arcade ,a series of arches1 open or closed with masonry1 and supported by columns or piers4 ,,arch ,a construction of bricks or stones so placed as by mutual pressure to support each other and a superincumbent weight4 ,they may be semi-circular1 segmental1 elliptical1 stilted1 horse-shoe1 pointed1 trefoiled1 cinquefoiled1 or ogee4 ,,architrave ,in classical architecture1 the lowest division of the entablature resting immediately on the abacus of the capital4 ,in ,gothic buildings the ornamental mouldings round the openings of doors1 windows1 etc4 ,,archivolt ,the under surface of the curve of an arch1 from impost to impost4 ,,ashlar ,shaped or squared stone used in building1 as distinguished from that in the rough4 ,,astragal ,a small semi-circular bead or moulding4 ,,ball ,,flower ,an ornament resembling a ball in a circular flower with three enclosing petals4 ,dec4 ,,base ,the lower member of a column1 pier1 or wall4 ,,basilica ,a ,roman law-court4 ,early ,christian churches when built on the same lines were called by the same name4 ,,billet ,an ornament much used in ,norman work and formed by cutting a moulding in notches1 so that the remaining parts resembled wooden billets or pieces of stick4 ,,blind ,,storey ,see ,triforium4 ,,bosses ,ornamental projections usually of foliage and placed at the intersection of the ribs of vaults1 ceilings1 etc4 ,,braces ,timbers which brace or support the main rafters4 ,also called struts4 ,,broach ,a spire1 generally octagonal and springing from the square top of the tower1 without a parapet4 7,see page #aje74 ,,buttress ,a projection from a wall1 giving it additional strength4 ,,canopy ,in ,gothic architecture an ornamental hood or projection over doors1 windows1 niches1 tombs1 etc41 and rarely found except in the ,dec4 and ,perp4 styles4 ,,capital ,the head of a column or pilaster1 found in a great variety of shapes4 ,,cathedral ,a church presided over by a ,bishop4 ,the principal church of a diocese4 ,,chalice ,the cup used for the wine at the celebration of the ,eucharist4 ,,chamfer ,the surface formed by cutting away the rectangular edge of wood or stone work4 ,,chancel ,the choir or eastern part of a church1 appropriated to the use of those who officiate in the performance of the services4 ,,chantry ,a chapel often containing a tomb of the founder1 and in which masses were said4 ,,chapel ,a small building attached to cathedrals and large churches4 ,,chapter-,,house ,the room where the ,dean and ,prebendaries meet for the transaction of business4 ,,chevron ,an ornament characteristic of the ,norman period and divided into several equal portions chevron-wise or zig-zag4 ,,choir ,that part of a church to the east of the nave where the services are celebrated1 also called chancel1 and frequently separated from the nave by an open screen of stone or wood4 ,,cinquefoil ,an ornamental foliation used in arches1 tracery1 etc41 and composed of projecting points or cusps1 so arranged that the opening resembles five leaves4 ,,clerestory ,possibly the clear storey4 ,an upper storey standing above or clear of the adjacent roofs1 and pierced by windows to give increased light4 ,,cloister ,a covered walk or ambulatory forming part of a cathedral or college quadrangle4 ,,clustered ,,column ,a pier made up of several columns or shafts in a cluster4 ,,colonnade ,a row or rows of columns supporting a roof or building4 ,,corbel ,usually a moulded or carved ornament projecting from the walls1 acting as a bracket and capable of bearing a super-incumbent weight4 ,,cornice ,the horizontal termination of a building in the form of a moulded projection4 ,,course ,a continuous and regular line of stones or bricks in the wall of a building4 ,,crockets ,projecting ornaments in the form of leaves1 flowers1 etc41 used to embellish the angles of pinnacles1 spires1 gables1 canopies1 etc4 ,,cross ,the accepted symbol of the ,christian religion and an architectural church ornament usually placed upon the apex of the gable4 ,a large cross called a rood was at one time always placed over the entrance to the chancel4 ,the cross was worn as a personal ornament ages before the ,christian era by the ,assyrians1 and we are told that the ,druids also used this symbol in very early times4 ,,crypt ,sometimes called the ,undercroft1 a vaulted chamber1 usually underground and1 in churches1 rarely extending beyond the area of the choir or chancel1 and often of less dimensions4 ,,cusps ,projecting points giving the foliated appearance to tracery1 arches1 panels1 etc4 ,,dormer ,a gabled window pierced through a sloping roof4 ,,dripstone ,a projecting ledge or narrow moulding over the heads of doorways1 windows1 etc41 to carry off the rain4 ,,fan-,,tracery ,tracery in which the ribs form a fan-like appearance and diverge equally in every direction4 7,peculiar to the late ,perp47 ,,flamboyant ,tracery whereof the curves assume flame-like waves and shapes4 ,,flying ,,buttress ,a buttress in the form of a bridge1 usually transferring the thrust of the main roof from the clerestory walls to the main or aisle buttresses4 ,,font ,the vessel for holding the consecrated water used in baptism4 ,,gargoyle ,a projecting spout usually grotesquely carved and used to throw the water from the roof well away from the building4 ,,groin ,the line of intersection in vaulted roofs4 ,,impost ,horizontal mouldings1 capping a column or pier1 from which the arch springs4 ,,jamb ,the side of a window or door4 ,,keystone ,the central stone at the top of an arch4 ,the bosses in vaulted ceilings are frequently called keys4 ,,lady ,,chapel ,a chapel dedicated to the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary1 called ,our ,lady4 ,,lantern ,a small structure or erection surmounting a dome or tower to admit light4 ,these towers are known as ,lantern ,towers4 ,,lozenge ,a name given in modern times to ,norman mouldings which partake of a lozenge formation4 ,,lych-,,gate ,from the ,anglo-,saxon lich1 a corpse4 ,a small and often picturesque shelter at the entrance to a churchyard4 ,,minster ,the church usually of a monastery or abbey or one to which such has been an appendant4 ,york and ,beverley1 however1 are exceptions to this rule4 ,,miserere ,a small bracket on the undersides of the seats of stalls4 ,,moulding ,a term generally applied to the contours given to angle projections or hollows of arches1 doors1 windows1 etc4 ,,mullion ,the dividing bars of stone or wood between the lights of windows1 or the openings of screens4 ,m,,nster has now lost its simple application4 7,,monastery7 ,,nave ,from navis1 a ship1 the main body of a church west of the chancel4 ,,niche ,an alcove or recess in a wall for holding a statue or ornament4 ,,ogee ,a moulding or arch formed of a curve or curves somewhat like the letter ,s1 the curve of contra-flexure1 part being concave and part convex4 ,,orders ,in ,gothic architecture1 the receding mouldings of an arch4 ,,parclose ,the screen or railings protecting a monument or chantry4 ,,parvise ,an open space or porch at the entrance to a church1 and often wrongly applied to the room over a church porch4 ,,paten ,the small plate or salver used to hold the ,consecrated ,bread in the celebration of the ,eucharist4 ,,pendant ,ornaments which hang or depend from a ceiling or roof4 ,,penthouse ,a covering projecting over a door1 window1 etc41 as a protection from the weather4 ,,pier ,the masses or clusters of masonry between doors1 windows1 etc42 the supports from which arches spring4 ,,pillar ,a term frequently confounded with column1 but differing from it in not being subservient to the rules of classical architecture1 and in not of necessity consisting of a single circular shaft4 ,,pinnacle ,a small turreted ornament tapering towards the top1 and used as a termination to many parts of ,gothic architecture4 ,,piscina ,the stone basin or sink in the chancel used for cleansing the communion vessels4 ,,plinth ,the lower division of the base of a column1 pier or wall4 ,,poppy-,,head ,an ornament boldly carved on the tops of bench ends1 etc4 ,,presbytery ,a term sometimes used to include the whole of the choir1 but more often meant to refer to the eastern end of the choir from which it is generally raised by several steps4 ,,quarries or ,,quarrels ,the small diamond1 square or other the shaped panes used in plain glazing4 ,,quatrefoil ,the shape resembling four leaves formed in tracery or panels by cusps4 ,,quoin ,the external angle of a building1 generally of ashlar4 ,,reredos ,the wall or screen at the back of an altar1 often enriched with carving1 niches1 statues1 etc4 ,,rood-,,beam or ,,rood-,,loft ,the loft or beam which1 previous to the ,reformation1 supported the ,great ,rood1 or ,crucifix4 ,,rose ,,window ,a term often used to denote a circular window of several lights4 ,,rotunda ,a term used to describe a church or other building which is of circular formation both within and without4 ,,sacristry ,a room used in churches for storing the plate and valuables4 ,,sanctuary ,see ,presbytery4 ,,sedilia ,a seat or seats1 generally canopied and situated on the south side of the chancel and used in pre-,reformation days by the officiating clergy during the pauses in the mass4 ,,shaft ,the part of a column or pillar between the capital and the base4 ,,shrine ,often called the feretory4 ,the place where relics were deposited4 ,,soffit ,the word means literally a ceiling1 but is generally used to describe the flat under-surface of arches1 cornices1 stairways1 etc4 ,,spandrels ,the spaces between the arch of a doorway or window and the rectangular mouldings over it4 ,early tracery originated from the piercing of the spandrels of windows4 ,,spire ,the acutely pointed termination of towers1 etc41 originating by the elongation of the early pyramidal roofs4 ,,splay ,the slanting or sloped surface of a window opening in the thickness of the wall1 also of doorways1 etc42 the term is also applied to bevels and other sloped surfaces4 ,,springer ,see ,voussoir4 ,,squint ,an oblique opening or slit in the wall of a church1 for the purpose of enabling persons in the aisles or transepts to see the elevation of the ,host at the ,high ,altar4 ,they are mostly found on the sides of the chancel arch1 and are frequently called hagioscopes4 ,,stoup ,a vessel for consecrated water1 at or near the entrance to a church4 ,,string or ,,string ,,course4 ,a horizontal projecting band of stone in the wall of a building4 ,,strut ,see ,brace4 ,,tooth ,,ornament ,an ornament used almost exclusively in the ,e4,e4 style1 resembling a square four-leaved flower1 and thought to be based on the dog-tooth violet4 ,,transom ,a horizontal cross-bar in a panel or window4 ,,tracery ,the ornamental stonework in the upper part of a window2 when formed by the mullions it is called bar tracery and when the spandrel is pierced1 plate tracery4 ,also used largely on tombs1 screens1 doorways1 etc4 ,,transepts ,the projecting arms of a cruciform church1 often wrongly called cross-aisles4 ,,transition ,a term used to describe the process of change from one style of architecture to another4 ,the three great periods of transition are from the ,romanesque and ,norman to the ,early ,english2 the ,early ,english to the ,decorated1 and the ,decorated to the ,perpendicular4 ,,trefoil ,an ornamental foliation in the heads of windows1 panels1 etc41 in which the spaces formed by the cusps resemble three leaves4 ,,triforium or ,blind-,storey4 ,an open gallery or arcade without windows immediately above the pier arcade and under the roof of the aisle4 ,,tympanum ,the space between the top of a square-headed door and the arch above it2 frequently sculptured4 ,,vault ,roofing of stone constructed on the principle of the arch1 the intersections of which are termed groins and are in the pointed styles usually ribbed4 ,,vaulting ,,shafts ,small shafts sometimes rising from the floor1 sometimes from the capital of a pillar and sometimes from a corbel1 and intended as supports for the ribs of a vault4 ,,vesica ,,piscis ,an oval shape or figure formed by two equal circles cutting each other in their centres4 ,very commonly found on episcopal and monastic seals4 ,,voussoir ,the wedge-shaped stones forming an arch1 the centre one of which is the keystone and those at the impost or starting point of the curve are the springers4 ,,zig-,,zag ,see ,chevron4 ,a ,,short ,,bibliography ,,of ,,english ,,ecclesiastical ,,architecture4 ,adeline1 ,j4 ,art ,dictionary of ,terms4 ,bland1 ,w4 ,arches1 ,piers1 ,buttresses1 etc4 ,blomfield1 ,r4 ,short ,history of ,renaissance ,architecture4 ,bond1 ,francis ,english ,cathedrals ,illustrated4 ,bond1 ,francis ,gothic ,architecture in ,england4 ,bonney1 ,t4 ,g4 ,cathedrals1 ,abbeys1 and ,churches of ,england and ,wales4 ,carter1 ,j4 ,the ,ancient ,architecture of ,england4 ,colling1 ,j4 ,k4 ,details of ,gothic ,architecture4 ,corroyer1 ,e4 ,gothic ,architecture4 ,cram1 ,r4 ,adams ,church ,building4 ,davidson1 ,e4 ,a4 ,gothic ,stonework4 ,fergusson1 ,j4 ,handbook of ,architecture4 ,fergusson1 ,j4 ,history of ,architecture4 ,fairbairns1 ,a4 ,portfolio of ,english ,cathedrals4 ,garbett1 ,e4 ,l4 ,principles of ,design in ,architecture4 ,markland1 ,j4 ,h4 ,remarks on ,churches4 ,moore1 ,c4 ,h4 ,development and ,character of ,gothic ,architecture4 ,paley1 ,f4 ,a4 ,manual of ,gothic ,architecture4 ,paley1 ,f4 ,a4 ,manual of ,gothic ,mouldings4 ,parker1 ,j4 ,h4 ,a4,b4,c4 of ,gothic ,architecture4 ,parker1 ,j4 ,h4 ,concise ,glossary of ,architecture4 ,parker1 ,j4 ,h4 ,introduction to the ,study of ,gothic ,architecture4 ,perkins1 ,rev4 ,t4 ,handbook of ,gothic ,architecture4 ,prior1 ,ed4 ,s4 ,history of ,gothic ,art4 ,pugin1 ,a4 ,w4 ,treatise on ,chancel ,screens and ,rood ,lofts4 ,rickman1 ,thos4 ,gothic ,architecture4 ,rickman1 ,thos4 ,attempts to discriminate the ,styles of ,architecture in ,england4 ,sharpe1 ,edmund ,the ,seven ,periods of ,english ,architecture4 ,sharpe1 ,edmund ,treatise on the ,rise and ,progress of ,window ,tracery4 ,scott1 ,g4 ,history of ,church ,architecture4 ,ruskin1 ,john ,seven ,lamps of ,architecture4 ,ruskin1 ,john ,stones of ,venice4 ,ruskin1 ,john ,poetry of ,architecture4 ,ruskin1 ,john ,lectures on ,architecture4 ,wall1 ,j4 ,c4 ,shrines of ,british ,saints4 ,winkle ,british ,cathedrals4 ,wilson1 ,s4 ,romance of our ,ancient ,churches4 ,bell's ,cathedral ,series4 ,the ,builder ,portfolio of ,english ,cathedrals4 ,murray's ,handbooks to the ,cathedrals4 ,s4,p4,c4,k4 ,illustrated ,notes on ,english ,church ,history4 ,swan1 ,sonnenschein ,co4 ,notes on the ,cathedrals4 ,our ,english ,minsters4 ,edited by ,dean ,farrar4 ,this bibliography does not claim to be complete1 but is a selection of the various books on the subject which should be studied by the student4 ,index ,all ,souls' ,college1 ,oxford1 #gf ,altars1 #hj ,alveston ,church1 ,warwickshire1 #da ,amiens ,cathedral1 #eg ,anne1 ,queen1 #gf ,apse1 ,the1 #bg ,arches-- ,saxon1 #ce ,norman1 #cg ,early ,english1 #di ,decorated1 #fb ,perpendicular1 #ff ,ashchurch1 ,gloucestershire1 #ajf ,baptistery1 ,the1 #hd ,barfreston ,church1 ,kent1 #ci1 #da ,barnack ,church1 ,northants #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #aja ,barnstaple1 ,devon1 #ih ,barnwell1 #ib ,barry1 ,sir ,c41 #gh1 #gi ,basilica1 ,the1 #bf ,bayeux ,tapestry1 #da1 #ajc ,beaulieu1 ,hants1 #ij ,beckett's ,crown1 ,canterbury1 #ajf ,bede 7quoted71 #ba1 #bc1 #if ,bells and ,belfries1 #ie ,bench ,ends1 #hi ,bertha1 ,queen1 #bc ,beverley ,minster1 #aji ,billesley ,church1 ,warwickshire1 #gh ,bishopstone1 ,sussex1 #cb ,bloxham ,church1 #aja ,boston1 ,lincs1 #gb ,bovey ,church1 #ib ,bradford-on-,avon1 #cb ,brewer1 ,j4 ,w4 7quoted71 #bh ,brighton ,pavilion1 #gh ,brigstock ,church1 ,northants1 #ig ,bristol ,cathedral1 #gj ,british ,churches1 ,early1 #ai ,brixworth ,church1 #bh1 #cb1 #cc1 #ig ,broadmayne ,church1 #hf ,bruton1 ,som41 #ig ,burne-,jones1 ,sir ,e41 #ajg ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds1 #hb ,buttresses-- ,norman1 #dc ,early ,english1 #hd ,decorated1 #fb ,perpendicular1 #gj ,byzantium1 #bg ,canterbury ,cathedral1 #dc1 #id1 #aja1 #ajd1 #aaj ,capitals-- ,norman1 #db ,early ,english1 #ed ,decorated1 #fj ,perpendicular1 #fi ,caradoc1 ,king1 #ai ,carlisle ,cathedral1 #fj1 #ajf ,charles ,,ii41 #gf ,charlton-on-,otmoor1 #ib ,charlton ,church1 ,kent1 #ajf ,chartres ,cathedral1 #aja ,chetwode1 ,bucks1 #ajf ,chichester ,cathedral1 #ig ,chipping ,norton1 ,oxford1 #ha ,christchurch ,priory1 #hh1 #id1 #ajg1 #aaj ,christ ,church1 ,spitalfields1 #gf ,chudleigh ,church1 ,devon1 #ib ,church ,furniture and ,ornaments1 #hj ,cirencester ,church1 ,glos41 #gj ,classic ,reverse1 ,the1 #gj ,clerkenwell1 #dd ,collumpton1 ,devon1 #ib ,compton ,church1 #id ,constantine1 ,emperor1 #bg ,constantinople1 #bg ,cranley1 ,surrey1 #ajf ,crawden's ,chapel1 #eh ,croyland ,abbey1 #if ,crypts1 #aji ,curfew1 #if ,decorated ,style1 ,the1 #eg ,doisnel1 ,juliana1 #dd ,dolton ,church1 #hd ,doorways-- ,saxon1 #cj1 #cb ,norman1 #ci ,early ,english1 #ed ,decorated1 #fb ,perpendicular1 #fi ,dorchester ,church1 ,oxford1 #ajg ,dore ,abbey1 #ha ,dunstable1 #ib ,dunster ,church1 #ha1 #ib ,durham ,cathedral1 #dc1 #gc1 #hb1 #id1 #aab ,earl's ,barton ,church1 #cb1 #cc ,early ,english ,style1 ,the1 #dg ,east ,dereham1 #ig ,edburton ,church1 #hd ,edington ,church1 ,wilts1 #gb ,edington1 ,bp4 ,william1 #gb ,edmund1 ,archbp4 of ,cant41 #hd ,edward ,i41 #di ,edward ,,iii41 #hd ,elizabeth1 ,queen1 #ha1 #aaj ,eltham ,palace1 #gc ,ely ,cathedral1 #bi1 #dc1 #eg ,ely ,chapel1 #fj ,ethelbert1 ,king of ,kent1 #bc ,euston1 ,oxford1 #id ,evesham ,abbey1 #gc1 #ig ,exeter ,cathedral1 #hi ,fairford ,church1 ,glos41 #ajg ,fan ,vaulting1 #fi ,fergusson1 ,dr4 7quoted71 #ge ,flying ,buttresses1 #ef ,fonts1 #hd ,fordington ,s4 ,george1 ,dorchester1 #da ,fotheringay ,church1 ,northants1 #gc ,fountains ,abbey1 #dg ,fuller1 ,thos4 7quoted71 #ai ,furness ,abbey1 #hg ,furniture1 ,church1 #hj ,glass1 ,stained1 #ajd ,glastonbury ,abbey1 #ai1 #ig ,glossary1 #aae ,gloucester ,cathedral1 #dc1 #gc1 #id1 #ajf1 #aaj ,gothic ,architecture1 ,leading ,characteristics1 #fc ,gothic ,styles1 ,the1 #dg ,grantham1 #aja ,greenstead ,church1 ,essex1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce ,grosmont1 ,monmouth1 #ha ,hackness1 #if ,hanwell1 ,oxford1 #id ,hartland ,church1 #ib ,hawkesmore1 #gf ,heckington1 #hf1 #aja ,heigham1 #gb ,henry ,i41 #dd ,henry ,,ii41 #di ,henry ,,iii41 #dd1 #dh1 #di ,hereford ,cathedral1 #eg1 #aaj ,hexham1 #hb1 #aji ,hutchinson1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 7quoted71 #di ,iffley ,church1 ,oxford1 #ci ,jenkyns1 ,canon 7quoted71 #be ,john1 ,king1 #dd1 #dh1 #di ,jones1 ,inigo1 #ge1 #gh ,kemsing1 ,kent1 #ib ,kenton ,church1 ,devon1 #ij1 #ib ,king's ,college ,chapel1 ,cambridge1 #ajg ,king's ,sutton1 #aja ,knights ,hospitallers1 #dd ,knights ,templars1 #dc ,lady ,chapel1 ,exeter1 #fj ,langham ,place1 #gh ,lastingham ,church1 ,york1 #aaj ,laud1 ,archbishop1 #af ,ledbury1 ,hereford1 #ajc ,leighton ,buzzard1 #aja ,lichfield1 ,abbot1 #ig ,lichfield1 ,cathedral1 #eg1 #aja ,lincoln ,cathedral1 #dc1 #eb1 #eg1 #fc1 #ha1 #ajf ,little ,billing1 #hd ,little ,maplestead1 #dd ,llanrhaiadr-y-,kinmerch1 #ajg ,luidhard1 ,bishop1 #bc ,long ,melford ,church1 ,suffolk1 #gc ,long ,sutton1 #ib ,luton ,church1 #eh ,lyminge1 #be ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford1 #ij ,malmesbury 7family71 #aaj ,manchester ,cathedral1 #gc1 #hh ,markland 7quoted71 #ig ,mary1 ,queen1 #ha1 #ib ,marylebone ,church1 #gh ,melbury ,bubb1 #hd ,merton ,college1 ,oxford1 #eh1 #fj1 #ajf ,minehead1 #ib ,morley ,church1 ,derbyshire1 #ajg ,morris1 ,william1 #ajg ,morton ,church1 ,soms41 #gc ,mouldings-- ,norman1 #cg ,early ,english1 #eb ,decorated1 #fb ,perpendicular1 #fi ,newark1 ,notts41 #ib ,new ,college1 ,oxford1 #gb ,norbury1 ,derbyshire1 #ajf ,norman ,architecture1 #ce ,norwich ,cathedral1 #bi1 #dc ,ornaments-- ,norman1 #cg ,early ,english1 #eb 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#eg1 #fc1 #ff1 #gc1 #id1 #ajf1 #aji ,,the ,,homeland ,,handbooks ,copiously ,illustrated and provided with ,ordnance ,maps and ,plans4 ,,january1 #aijg4 ,no4 ,cloth4 ,paper4 #a ,,tonbridge ,,for ,,the ,,angler1 ,,the ,,holiday-,,maker1 ,,and ,,the ,,resident4 ,by ,stanley ,martin and ,prescott ,row #a_/- #f;d4 #b ,,tunbridge ,,wells ,,of ,,to-,,day4 ,by ,stanley ,martin and ,prescott ,row4 ,ordnance ,map and ,plans4 ,second ,edition #a_/- #f;d4 #c ,,london ,,town4 ,by ,eric ,hammond #a_/- #f;d4 #d ,,lyonesse3 ,,the ,,isles ,,of ,,scilly4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,tonkin and ,prescott ,row4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,map #b_/- #a_/- #e ,,wolfe-,,land3 ,,the ,,westerham ,,district1 ,,kent4 ,by ,gibson ,thompson4 ,third ,edition4 ,ordnance ,map #a_/f #a_/- #f ,,kent',s ,,capital3 ,,maidstone4 ,by ,stanley ,martin and ,prescott ,row4 ,second ,edition4 ,with ,map #a_/- #f;d4 #g ,,croydon1 ,,new ,,and ,,old4 ,by ,edward ,a4 ,martin1 ,f4,g4,s41 and ,j4 ,e4 ,morris1 ,b4,a4 ,third ,edition4 ,with ,map #a_/- #f;d4 #h ,,dartmoor ,,and ,,its ,,surroundings4 ,by ,beatrix ,f4 ,cresswell4 ,edited by ,william ,crossing4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,ordnance ,maps #b_/- #a_/- #i ,,rochester ,,and ,,chatham ,,with ,,pen ,,and ,,camera4 ,by ,a4 ,g4 ,munro1 ,b4,a4 ,second ,edition4 ,with ,map #a_/f #f;d4 #aj ,,reigate ,,and ,,redhill4 ,by ,t4 ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton and ,w4 ,hodgson4 ,second ,edition4 ,ordnance ,map #a_/- #f;d4 #aa ,,surrey',s ,,capital3 ,,guildford ,,and ,,district4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,morris1 ,b4,a4 ,third ,edition4 ,with ,map #a_/f #f;d4 #ab ,,dulverton ,,and ,,district3 ,,the ,,country ,,of ,,the ,,wild ,,red ,,deer4 ,by ,f4 ,j4 ,snell1 ,b4,a4 ,second ,edition4 ,cloth ,edition contains ,map #a_/f #f;d4 #ac ,,farnham ,,and ,,its ,,surroundings4 ,by ,gordon ,home4 ,with ,map #b_/- #a_/- #ad ,,godalming ,,and ,,its ,,surroundings4 ,edited by ,prescott ,row4 ,second ,edition4 ,with ,ordnance ,map #a_/- #f;d4 #ae ,,teignmouth ,,and ,,its ,,surroundings4 ,by ,beatrix ,f4 ,cresswell4 ,second ,edition4 ,with 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,st4 ,l4 ,finny4 ,with ,ordnance ,map #b_/f #a_/- #be ,,evesham ,,and ,,its ,,neighbourhood1 ,,including ,,broadway4 ,by ,william ,smith4 ,with ,map #a_/f #a_/- #bf ,,petworth ,,and ,,mid ,,west ,,sussex4 ,by ,l4 ,c4 ,barnes4 ,with ,map4 7,cloth only7 #a_/- -- #bg ,,newquay1 ,,the ,,vale ,,of ,,lanherne1 ,,and ,,perranzabuloe4 ,by ,fannie ,goddard4 ,second ,edition4 ,ordnance ,map #a_/- #f;d4 #bh ,,haslemere ,,and ,,hindhead ,,with ,,their ,,surroundings4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,morris1 ,b4,a4 ,second ,edition4 ,ordnance ,map #b_/- #a_/- #bi ,,taunton ,,and ,,taunton ,,deane4 ,by ,beatrix ,f4 ,cresswell4 ,ordnance ,map #b_/f #a_/- #cj ,,littlehampton1 ,,arundel1 ,,and ,,amberley4 ,by ,rev4 ,w4 ,goodliffe1 ,m4,a4 ,ordnance ,map #a_/- #f;d4 #ca ,,the ,,western ,,gate ,,of ,,dartmoor3 ,,tavistock ,,and ,,the ,,district4 ,by ,william ,crossing4 ,with ,ordnance ,map #a_/- #f;d4 #cb ,,plymouth3 ,,the ,,metropolis ,,of ,,the ,,west4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,k4 ,wright4 ,with ,ordnance ,map #a_/- #f;d4 #cc ,,the ,,chalfont ,,country 7,,south ,,bucks74 ,by ,s4 ,graveson4 ,ordnance ,map #a_/f #a_/- #cd ,,dunstable1 ,,the ,,downs1 ,,and ,,the ,,district4 ,by4 ,g4 ,worthington ,smith1 ,f4,l4,s41 etc4 ,with ,maps #b_/- #a_/- #ce ,,the ,,quantock ,,hills1 ,,their ,,combes ,,and ,,villages4 ,by ,beatrix ,f4 ,cresswell4 ,ordnance ,map4 7,cloth only7 #b_/f -- #cf ,,oxted1 ,,limpsfield1 ,,and ,,edenbridge4 ,by ,gordon ,home4 ,ordnance ,map #a_/- #f;d4 #cg ,,lynton1 ,,lynmouth1 ,,and ,,the ,,lorna ,,doone ,,country4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,morris1 ,b4,a4 ,ordnance ,map #a_/- #f;d4 #ch ,,horsham ,,and ,,its ,,surroundings4 ,by ,rev4 ,w4 ,goodliffe1 ,m4,a4 ,ordnance ,map #b_/- #a_/- #ci ,,seaford ,,and ,,newhaven4 ,by ,geo4 ,day4 ,ordnance ,map #a_/- #f;d4 #dj ,,the ,,great ,,ouse4 ,,huntingdon1 ,,st4 ,,neots1 ,,and ,,st ,,ives4 ,by ,h4 ,l4 ,jackson1 ,m4,a41 and ,g4 ,r4 ,holt ,shafto4 ,ordnance ,map #b_/- #a_/- #da ,,king',s ,,lynn ,,with ,,its ,,surroundings1 ,,including ,,sandringham4 ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,dutt4 ,ordnance 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,,surroundings4 ,by ,walter ,moore4 ,ordnance ,map #b_/- #a_/- #ec ,,gravesend ,,and ,,its ,,surroundings4 ,by ,a4 ,j4 ,philip4 ,ordnance ,map #b_/- #a_/- #ed ,,high ,,wycombe ,,and ,,its ,,surroundings4 ,by ,henry ,harbour -- -- #ee ,,our ,,homeland ,,churches1 ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,study ,,them4 ,by ,sidney ,heath #b_/- -- ,,handbooks ,,for ,,many ,,other ,,towns ,,and ,,districts ,,are ,,in ,,active ,,preparation4