,,ancient ,,and ,,modern    ,,celebrated
 ,,freethinkers4    ,,reprinted ,,from  
,,an ,,english ,,work1 ,,entitled       
,,half-,,hours ,,with ,,the             
,,freethinkers4    ,by ,iconoclast41 ,a4
 ,collins1 and ,j4 ,watts               
7,iconoclast1 pseud4 of ,charles        
,bradlaugh47    ,edited by ,iconoclast1 
,boston    ,published ,by ,j4 ,p4       
,mendum    #ahgg4        ,,contents3    
,,editors' ,,preface4         ,,thomas  
,,hobbes4         ,,lord ,,bolingbroke4 
,,condorcet4         ,,spinoza4         
,,anthony ,,collins4         ,,des      
,,cartes4         ,m4 ,,de ,,voltaire4  
,,john ,,toland4         ,,compte ,,de  
,,volney4         ,,charles ,,blount4   
,,percy ,,bysshe ,,shelley4             
,,claud ,,arian ,,helvetius4            
,,frances ,w4 ,d',,arusmont4            
,,epicurus         ,,zeno1 ,,the ,,stoic
         ,,matthew ,,tindal4            
,,david ,,hume         ,,dr4 ,,thomas   
,,burnet         ,,thomas ,,paine4      
,,baptiste ,,de ,,mirabaud              

,,baron ,d',,holbach4         ,,robert  
,,taylor4         ,,joseph ,,barker4    
,,editors' ,,preface4    ,in these      
pages1 appearing under the title of     
,half-,hours with the  ,freethinkers1   
are collected in a readable form an     
abstract of the lives  and doctrines of 
some of those who have stood foremost in
 the ranks of  ,free-thought in all     
countries and in all ages2 and we trust 
that our  efforts to place in the hands 
of the poorest of our party a knowledge 
of works and workers--some of which and 
whom would otherwise be out of  their   
reach--will be received by all in a     
favorable light4 ,we shall1  in the     
course of our publication1 have to deal 
with many writers whose  opinions widely
 differ from our own1 and it shall be   
our care to deal  with them justly and  
in all cases to allow them to utter in  
their own  words their essential        
thinkings4    ,we lay no claim to       
originality in the mode of treatment--we
 will  endeavor to cull the choicest    

flowers from the garden1 and if others  
can make a brighter or better bouquet1  
we shall be glad to have their          
assistance4 ,we have only one object in 
view1 and that is1 the presenting  of   
free and manly thoughts to our readers1 
hoping to induce like  thinking in them1
 and trust-ing that noble work may      
follow noble  thoughts4 ,the            
,freethinkers we intend treating of have
 also been ,free  ,workers1 endeavoring 
to raise men's minds from superstition  
and bigotry1  and place before them a   
knowledge of the real4    ,we have been 
the more inclined to issue the          
,half-,hours with the  ,freethinkers in 
consequence1 not only of the difficulty 
which many have  in obtaining the works 
of the ,old ,freethinkers1 but also as  
an effective  answer to some remarks    
which have lately appeared in certain   
religious  publications1 implying a     
dearth of thought and thinkers beyond   
the pale  of the ,church4 ,we wish all  
men to know that great minds and good   

men  have sought truth apart from faith 
for many ages1 and that it is  because  
few were prepared to receive them1 and  
many united to crush  them1 their works 
are so difficult of access to the       
general mass at the  present day4       
,,thomas ,,hobbes4    ,this             
distinguished ,freethinker was born on  
the #eth of ,april1 #aehh1 at           
,malmesbury2 hence his cognomen of the  
philosopher of ,malmesbury4 ,in         
connection with his birth1 we are told  
that his mother1 being a loyal          
,protestant1 was so terrified at the    
rumored approach of the ,spanish        
,armada1 that the birth of her son was  
hastened in consequence4 ,the           
subsequent timidity of ,hobbes is       
therefore easily accounted for4 ,the    
foundation of his education was laid in 
the grammar school of his native  town1 
where most probably his father 7being a 
clergyman7 would officiate  as tutor4   
,at the age of fifteen he was sent to   
,oxford4 ,five years of  assiduous study

 made him proficient as a tutor2 this1  
combined with his  amiability and       
profound views of society1 gained him   
the respect of the  ,earl of            
,devonshire1 and he was appointed tutor 
to the ,earl's son1 ,lord  ,cavendish4  
,from #afaj to #afbh1 he was constantly 
in the society of this  nobleman1 in the
 capacity of secretary4 ,in the interval
 of this time he  travelled in ,france1 
,germany1 and ,italy2 cultivating in    
each capital  the society of the leading
 statesmen and philosophers4 ,lord      
,herbert1 of  ,cherbury1 the first great
 ,english ,deist1 and ,ben ,jonson1 the 
dramatist1  were each his boon          
companions4 ,in the year #afbh1 ,hobbes 
again made the  tour of the ,continent  
for three years with another pupil1 and 
became  acquainted at ,pisa with        
,galileo4 ,in #afca he was entrusted    
with the  education of another youth of 
the ,devonshire family1 and for near    
five  years remained at ,paris with his 
pupil4    ,hobbes returned to ,england  

in #afcf4 ,the troublous politics of    
this age1  with its strong party        
prejudices1 made ,england the reverse of
 a pleasant  retirement1 for either     
,hobbes or his patrons2 so1 perceiving  
the  outbreak of the ,revolution1 he    
emigrated to ,paris4 ,there in the      
enjoyment of the company of ,gassendi   
and ,descartes1 with the elite of       
,parisian genius1 he was for awhile     
contented and happy4 ,here he engaged   
in a series of mathematical quarrels1   
which were prolonged throughout  the    
whole of his life1 on the quadrature of 
the circle4 ,seven years  after1 he was 
appointed mathematical tutor to the     
,prince of ,wales1  afterwards ,charles 
,,ii4 ,in #afdb1 ,hobbes published the  
first of his  principal works1 ,de      
,cive1 or ,philosophical ,rudiments     
,concerning  ,government and ,society4  
,it was written to curb the spirit of   
anarchy1  then so rampant in ,england1  
by exposing the inevitable results which
  must of necessity spring from the want

 of a coherent government amongst  a    
people disunited and uneducated4 ,the   
principles inculcated in this  work were
 reproduced in the year #afea1 in the   
,leviathan1 or the ,matter1  ,form1 and 
,power of a ,commonwealth1              
,ecclesiastical and ,civil2 this1  along
 with a ,treatise on ,human ,nature1 and
 a small work on ,the  ,body ,politic1  
form the groundwork of the selfish      
schools of moral  philosophy4 ,as soon  
as they were published1 they were       
attacked by the  clergy of every country
 in ,europe4 ,they were interdicted by  
the ,pontiffs  of the ,roman and ,greek 
,church1 along with the ,protestants    
scattered over  ,europe1 and the        
,episcopal authorities of ,england4     
,indeed1 to such an  extent did this    
persecution rise1 that even the royalist
 exiles  received warning that there was
 no chance for their ostracism being    
removed1 unless the unclean thing       
7,hobbes7 was put away from their       
midst4 ,the young prince1 intimidated by

 those ebullitions of vengeance  against
 his tutor8 was obliged to withdraw his 
protection from him1 and  the old man1  
then near seventy years of age1 was     
compelled to escape  from ,paris by     
night1 pursued by his enemies1 who1     
according to ,lord  ,clarendon1 tracked 
his footsteps from ,france4 ,fortunately
 for ,hobbes1 he  took refuge with his  
old protectors1 the ,devonshire family1 
who were too  powerful to be wantonly   
insulted4 ,while residing at            
,chatsworth1 he would  no doubt acutely 
feel the loss of ,descartes1 the        
,cardinal de ,richelieu1  and ,gassendi2
 in the place of those men he entered   
into a warm  friendship with ,cowley1   
the poet1 ,selden1 ,harvey1 the         
discoverer of  the circulation of the   
blood1 ,charles ,blount1 and the witty  
,sir ,thomas  ,brown4    ,in #afed1 he  
published a ,letter upon ,liberty and   
,necessity2 this  brief tractate is     
unsurpassed in ,free-thought literature 
for its clear1  concise1 subtle1 and    

demonstrative proofs of the             
self-determining power  of the will1 and
 the truth of philosophical necessity4  
,all subsequent  writers on this        
question have largely availed themselves
 of ,hobbes's  arguments1 particularly  
the pamphleteers of ,socialism4 ,it is a
 fact no  less true than strange1 that  
,communism is derived from the system of
  ,hobbes1 which has always been classed
 along with that of ,machiavelli1 as  an
 apology for despotism4 ,the grand      
peculiarity of ,hobbes is his method4   
,instead of taking speculation and      
reasoning upon theories1 he carried  out
 the inductive system of ,bacon in its  
entirety1 reasoning from  separate      
generic facts1 instead of analogically4 
,by this means he  narrowed the compass 
of knowledge1 and made everything       
demonstrative  that was capable of      
proof4 ,belief was consequently placed  
upon its  proper basis1 and a rigid     
analysis separated the boundaries of    
,knowing  and ,being4 ,hobbes looked at 

the great end of existence and embodied 
it  in a double axiom4 #ast4 ,the desire
 for self-preservation4 #bnd4 ,to render
  ourselves happy4 ,from those duplex   
principles which are inherent in  all   
animals1 a modern politician has        
perpetrated a platitude which           
represents in a sentence the end and aim
 of all legislation1 the  greatest      
happiness for the greatest number4 ,this
 is the ultimatum  of ,hobbes's         
philosophy4 ,its method of              
accomplishment was by treating  society 
as one large family1 with the educated  
and skilled as governors1  having under 
their care the training of the nation4  
,all acting from  one impulse           
7self-preservation17 and by the conjoint
 experience of all1  deriving the       
greatest amount of happiness from this  
activity4 ,hobbes  opposed the          
,revolution1 because it degenerated into
 a faction2 and  supported ,charles     
,stuart because there were more elements
 of cohesion  within his own party1 than

 amongst his enemies4 ,it was here where
 the  cry of despotism arose2 the       
,round-heads seeing they could not      
detach  the ablest men from the ,king's 
party1 denounced their literary         
opponents  as lovers of ,belial1 and of 
tyranny4 ,this was their most effective 
answer to the ,leviathan4 ,in after     
years1 when the ,episcopal party no     
longer stood in need of the services of 
,hobbes1 they heaped upon him the       
stigma of heresy1 until his ci-devant   
friends and enemies were united  in the 
condemnation of the man they most       
feared4 ,mr4 ,owen1 in his schema  of   
,socialism1 took his leading idea on    
non-responsibility from ,hobbes's       
explanation of necessity1 and the       
freedom of the will4 ,the old divines   
had inculcated a doctrine to the effect 
that the will was a separate  entity of 
the human mind1 which swayed the whole  
disposition1 and was of  itself         
essentially corrupt4 ,ample testimony   
from the ,bible substantiated  this     

position4 ,but in the method of ,hobbes1
 he lays down the facts that  we can    
have no knowledge without experience1   
and no experience without  sensation4   
,the mind therefore is composed of      
classified sensations1  united together 
by the law of an association of ideas4  
,this law was  first discovered by      
,hobbes1 who makes the human will to    
consist in  the strongest motive which  
sways the balance on any side4 ,this is 
the  simplest explanation which can be  
given on a subject more mystified than  
any other in theology4    ,a long       
controversy betwixt ,bishop ,bramhall1  
of ,londonderry1 followed the           
publication of ,hobbes's views on       
,liberty and ,necessity4 ,charles ,,ii4 
on  his restoration1 bestowed an annual 
pension of #ajj on ,hobbes1 but this    
did not prevent the parliament1 in      
#afff1 censuring the ,de ,cive and      
,leviathan1 besides his other works4    
,hobbes also translated the ,greek      
historian1 ,thucydides1 ,homer's        

,odyssey1 and the ,illiad4 ,the last    
years  of his life were spent in        
composing ,behemoth2 or1 a ,history of  
the  ,civil ,wars from #afdj to #affj1  
which was finished in the year he died1 
but not published until after his death4
 ,at the close of the year #afgi1  he   
was taken seriously ill4 ,at the urgent 
request of some ,christians1  they were 
permitted to intrude their opinions upon
 his dying bed1  telling him gravely    
that his illness would end in death1 and
 unless he  repented1 he would go       
straight to hell4 ,hobbes calmly        
replied1 ,i shall  be glad then to find 
a hole to creep out of the world4 ,for  
seventy  years he had been a persecuted 
man1 but during that time his enemies   
had paid him that tribute of respect    
which genius always extorts from        
society4 ,he was a man who was hated and
 dreaded4 ,he had reached the age  of   
ninety-two when he died4 ,his words were
 pregnant with meaning2 and  he never   
used an unnecessary sentence4 ,a        

collection of moral apothegms  might be 
gathered from his table-talk4 ,when     
asked why he did not read  every new    
book which appeared1 he said1 ,if ,i had
 read as much as other  men1 ,i should  
have been as ignorant4 ,his habits were 
simple2 he  rose early in the morning1  
took a long walk through the grounds of 
,chatsworth1 and cultivated healthful   
recreation4 ,the after part of the  day 
was devoted to study and composition4   
,like ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 he  was a  
devoted admirer of the fragrant herb4   
,charles ,,ii4's constant  witticism1   
styled ,hobbes as a bear against whom   
the ,church played their  young dogs1 in
 order to exercise them4    ,if there   
had been a few more similar bears1 the  
priestly dogs would  long since have    
been exterminated1 for none of them     
escaped unhurt from  their encounters   
with the grizzly of ,malmesbury1 except 
it was in the  mathematical disputes    
with ,dr4 ,wallis4    ,he was naturally 
of a timid disposition3 this was the    

result of the  accident which caused his
 premature birth1 and being besides of a
  reserved character1 he was ill-fitted 
to meet the physical rebuffs of  the    
world4 ,it is said that he was so afraid
 of his personal safety1 that  he       
objected to be left alone in an empty   
house2 this charge is to some  extent   
true1 but we must look to the mitigating
 circumstances of the  case4 ,he was a  
feeble man1 turned the age of           
three-score and ten1 with  all the      
clergy of ,england hounding on their    
dupes to murder an old  philosopher     
because he had exposed their dogmas4 ,it
 was but a few years  before1 that      
,protestants and ,papists had           
complimented each other's  religion by  
burning those who were the weakest1 and 
long after ,hobbes's  death1            
,protestants murdered1 ruined1          
disgraced1 and placed in the  pillory   
,dissenters and ,catholics alike1 and   
,thomas ,hobbes had positive  proof that
 it was the intention of the ,church of 

,england to burn  him alive1 on the     
stake1 a martyr for his opinions4 ,this1
 then1 is a  sufficient justification   
for ,hobbes feeling afraid1 and instead 
of  it being thrown as a taunt at this  
illustrious ,freethinker1 it is a       
standing stigma on those who would      
re-enact the tragedy of persecution1  if
 public opinion would allow it4    ,sir 
,james ,mackintosh says3 99 ,the style  
of ,hobbes is the very perfection  of   
didactic language4 ,short1 clear1       
precise1 pithy1 his language never  has 
more than one meaning1 which never      
requires a second thought to  find4 ,by 
the help of his exact method1 it takes  
so firm a hold on the  mind1 that it    
will not allow attention to slacken4    
,his little tract on  human nature has  
scarcely an ambiguous or a needless     
word4 ,he has so  great a power of      
always choosing the most significant    
term1 that he  never is reduced to the  
poor expedient of using many in its     
stead4 ,he  had so thoroughly studied   

the genius of the language1 and knew so 
well  how to steer between pedantry and 
vulgarity1 that two centuries have not  
superannuated probably more than a dozen
 of his words4         99 ,second       
,dissertation3  ,encyclopaedia ,brit41  
p4 #cah4    ,lord ,clarendon describes  
the personal character of ,hobbes as one
 for  whom he always had a great esteem 
as a man1 who besides his eminent  parts
 of learning and knowledge1 hath been   
always looked upon as a man  of probity1
 and a life free from scandal4    ,we   
now proceed to make a selection of      
quotations from the works of this       
writer1 commencing with those on the    
,necessity of the ,will1 in reply  to   
,bishop ,bramhall4    ,the question is  
not whether a man be a free agent--that 
is to say1  whether he can write1 or    
forbear1 speak1 or be silent1 according 
to his  will2 but whether the will to   
write1 and the will to forbear1 come    
upon  him according to his will1 or     
according to anything else in his own   

power4 ,i acknowledge this liberty1 that
 ,i can do1 if ,i will1 but to  say1 ,i 
can will if ,i will1 ,i take to be an   
absurd speech4 ,further  replying to    
,bramhall's argument1 that we do not    
learn the idea of the  freedom of the   
will from our tutors1 but we know it    
intuitively1 ,hobbes  says1 ,it is true 
very few have learned from tutors that a
 man is not  free to will2 nor do they  
find it much in books4 ,that they and in
 books  that which the poets chaunt in  
the theatres1 and the shepherds on the  
mountains1 that which the pastors teach 
in the churches1 and the doctors  in the
 universities2 and that which the common
 people in the markets1  and all the    
people do assent unto1 is the same that 
,i assent unto2  namely1 that a man hath
 freedom to do if he will2 but whether  
he hath  freedom to will1 is a question 
which it seems neither the ,bishop nor  
they ever thought of4444 ,a wooden top  
that is lashed by the boys1 and  runs   
about1 sometimes to one wall1 sometimes 

to another1 sometimes  spinning1        
sometimes hitting men on the shins1 if  
it were sensible of its  own motion1    
would think it proceeded from its own   
will1 unless it felt  what lashed it4   
,and is a man any wiser when he runs to 
one place for a  benifice1 to another   
for a bargain1 and troubles the world   
with writing  errors1 and requiring     
answers1 because he thinks he does it   
without  other cause than his own will1 
and seeth not what are the lashings     
which  cause that will8    ,hobbes      
casually mentions the subject of praise 
or dispraise1 in  reference to the will2
 those who are old enough will remember 
this was  one of the most frequent      
subjects of discussion amongst the      
earlier  ,socialists4 ,these depend not 
at all in the necessity of the action   
praised or dispraised4 ,for what is it  
else to praise1 but to say a  thing is  
good8 ,good1 ,i say1 for me1 or for     
somebody else1 or for the  ,state and   
,commonwealth4 ,and what is it to say an

 action is good1 but to  say it is as ,i
 would wish1 or as another would have   
it1 or according  to the will of the    
,state--that is to say1 according to the
 law6 ,does  my lord think that no      
action could please me1 or the          
commonwealth1 that  should proceed from 
necessity6 ,things may be therefore     
necessary1 and  yet praiseworthy1 as    
also necessary1 and yet dispraised1 and 
neither of  them both in vain2 because  
praise and dispraise1 and likewise      
reward and  punishment1 do1 by example1 
make and conform the will to good or    
evil4  ,it was a very great praise1 in  
my opinion1 that ,vellerius ,paterculus 
gives ,cato1 where he says that he was  
good by nature1 'et quia aliter  esse   
non potuit4''--',and because he could   
not do otherwise4' ,this able  treatise 
was reprinted1 and extensively read     
about twenty years ago2  but1 like many 
other of our standard works1 it is at   
present out of  print4    ,the          
,leviathan is still readable1 a bold    

masculine book4 ,it treats  everything  
in a cool1 analytic style4 ,the knife of
 the ,socialist is  sheathed in vain2 no
 rhapsody can overturn its impassioned  
teachings4  ,rhetoric is not needed to  
embellish the truths he has to portray1 
for  the wild flowers of genius but too 
frequently hide the yawning chasms  in  
the garden of ,logic4 ,it is not to be  
expected that this book will be  read   
now with the interest with which it was 
perused two centuries ago2  then every  
statement was impugned1 every argument  
denied1 and the very  tone of the book  
called forth an interference from       
parliament to stop  the progress of its 
heresies4 ,now the case is widely       
different1 and the  general tenor of the
 treatise is the rule in which are      
illustrated alike  the works of the     
philosophers and the dreams of the      
sophists 7priests47  ,we give part of   
the introduction4 ,nature 7the art      
whereby ,god hath made  and governs the 
world7 is1 by the art of man1 as in many

 other things1  so in this also1        
imitated1 that it can make an artificial
 animal4 ,for  seeing life is but a     
motion of limbs1 the beginning whereof  
is in some  principal part within2 why  
may we not say that all automata        
7engines  that move themselves by       
springs and wheels1 as doth a watch7    
have an  artificial life8 ,for what is  
the heart but a spring2 and the nerves  
but  so many strings2 and the joints but
 so many wheels1 giving motion to the   
whole body1 such as was intended by the 
,artificer8 ,art goes yet further1      
imitating that rational and most        
excellent work of nature1 man4 ,for by  
art is created that great leviathan1    
called a ,commonwealth1 or ,state1      
which is but an artificial man though of
 greater stature and strength  than the 
natural1 for whose protection and       
defence it was intended1  and the       
sovereignty of which is an artificial   
soul1 as giving life and  motion to the 
whole body4 ,to describe the nature of  

this artificial man1  ,i will consider1 
#ast4 ,the matter thereof1 and the      
artificer1 both which is man4    #bnd4  
,how1 and by what covenants it is made1 
what are the rights  and just power or  
authority of a sovereign2 and what it is
 that  preserveth and dissolveth it4    
#crd4 ,what is a ,christian             
,commonwealth4    ,lastly1 what is the  
kingdom of darkness4    ,the first      
chapter treats of ',senses4' ,concerning
 the thoughts of man1 ,i  will consider 
them first singly1 and afterwards in    
train1 or dependence  upon one another4 
,singly1 they are every one a           
representation1 or  appearance1 of some 
quality or accident of a body without   
us1 which is  commonly called an object4
 ,which object worketh on the eyes1     
ears1 and  other parts of a man's body1 
and by diversity of working1 produceth  
diversity of appearances4 ,the original 
of them all is that which we call       
sense1 for there is no conception in a  
man's mind1 which hath not at  first    

totally or by parts been begotten upon  
the organs of sense2 the  rest are      
derived from that original4    ,speaking
 of ,imagination1 ,hobbes says1 ,that   
when a thing lies still1  unless        
somewhat else stir it1 it will lie still
 forever1 is a truth no  one doubts of4 
,but that when a thing is in motion1 it 
will eternally  be in motion1 unless    
somewhat else stay it1 though the reason
 be the  same--namely1 that nothing can 
change itself--is not so easily assented
  to4 ,for men measure not only other   
men1 but all other things1 by           
themselves2 and because they find       
themselves subject after motion to  pain
 and lassitude1 think everything else   
grows weary of motion1 and  seeks repose
 of its own accord--little considering  
whether it be not  some other motion1   
wherein that desire of rest they find in
 themselves  consisteth4444 ,when a body
 is once in motion1 it moveth 7unless   
something else hinder it7 eternally1 and
 whatsoever hindereth it1 cannot  in an 

instant1 but in time1 and by degrees1   
quite extinguish it2 and  as we see in  
the water1 though the wind cease1 the   
waves give not over  rolling for a long 
time after2 so also it happeneth in that
 motion which  is made in the internal  
parts of man1 then1 when he sees1       
dreams1 etc4  ,for after the object is  
removed1 or the eye shut1 we still      
retain an  image of the thing seen1     
though more obscure than when we see    
it4444  ,the decay of sense in men      
waking1 is not the decay of the motion  
made  in sense1 but an obscuring of it1 
in such manner as the light of the sun  
obscureth the light of the stars2 which 
stars do no less exercise their  virtue1
 by which they are visible in the day1  
than in the night4 ,but  because amongst
 many strokes which our eyes1 ears and  
other organs  receive from external     
bodies1 the predominant only is         
sensible2  therefore the light of the   
sun being only predominant1 we are not  
affected with the actions of the        

stars4444 ,this decaying sense1 when  we
 would express the thing itself 7,i mean
 fancy itself71 we call  imagination1 as
 ,i said before1 but when we would      
express the ,decay1 and  signify the    
sense is fading1 old and past1 it is    
called ,memory3 so  that imagination and
 memory are but one thing1 which1 for   
divers  considerations1 hath divers     
names4 99    ,such is the commencement  
of this celebrated book1 it is based    
upon  materialism2 every argument must  
stand this test upon ,hobbes's          
principles1 and characteristically are  
they elaborated4 ,hobbes 7,de  ,cive7   
says of the immortality of the soul1 ,it
 is a belief grounded  upon other men's 
sayings1 that they knew it              
supernaturally2 or that  they knew those
 who knew them1 that knew others1 that  
knew it  supernaturally4 ,a sparkling   
sneer1 and perhaps the truest answer to 
so universal an error4 ,dugald ,stewart1
 in his analysis of the works of        
,hobbes1 says1 9999 ,the fundamental    

doctrines inculcated in the political   
works of ,hobbes1 are contained in the  
following propositions3--,all men  are  
by nature equal1 and1 prior to          
government1 they had all an equal  right
 to enjoy the good things of this world4
 ,man1 too1 is by nature1 a  solitary   
and purely selfish animal2 the social   
union being entirely an  interested     
league1 suggested by prudential views of
 personal advantage4  ,the necessary    
consequence is1 that a state of nature  
must be a state of  perpetual warfare1  
in which no individual has any other    
means of safety  than his own strength  
or ingenuity2 and in which there is no  
room  for regular industry1 because no  
secure enjoyment of its fruits4 ,in     
confirmation of this view of the origin 
of society1 ,hobbes appeals to  facts   
falling daily within the cycle of our   
experience4 ,does not a  man1 7he asks7 
when taking a journey1 arm himself1 and 
seek to go well  accompanied8 ,when     
going to sleep1 does he not lock his    

doors8 ,nay1 even  in his own house1    
does he not lock his chests8 ,does he   
not there accuse  mankind by his action1
 as ,i do by my words8 ,for the sake of 
peace and  security1 it is necessary    
that each individual should surrender a 
part  of his natural right1 and be      
contented with such a share of liberty  
as he is willing to allow to others2 or1
 to use ,hobbes's own language1  every  
man must divest himself of the right he 
has to all things by  nature2 the right 
of all men to all things1 being in      
effect no better  than if no man had a  
right to anything4 ,in consequence of   
this  transference of natural rights to 
an individual1 or to a body of          
individuals1 the multitude become one   
person1 under the name of a ,state1  or 
,republic1 by which person the common   
will and power are exercised for  the   
common defence4 ,the ruling power cannot
 be withdrawn from those to  whom it has
 been committed2 nor can they be        
punished for misgovern-ment4  ,the      

interpretation of the laws is to be     
sought1 not from the comments  of       
philosophers1 but from the authority of 
the ruler2 otherwise society  would     
every moment be in danger of resolving  
itself into the discordant  elements of 
which it was at first composed4--,the   
will of the magistrate1  therefore1 is  
to be regarded as the ultimate standard 
of right and  wrong1 and his voice to be
 listened to by every citizen as the    
voice of  conscience4         99        
,leviathan4    ,ed4 #afea4         9999 
,dissertation on the ,progress of       
,ethical ,science1 p4 #da4    ,such are 
the words of one of ,hobbes's most      
powerful opponents4 ,dr4  ,warburton    
says1 ,the philosopher of ,malmesbury   
was the terror of the  last age1 as     
,tin-dal and ,collins are of this4 ,the 
press sweats with  controversy2 and     
every young churchman militant would try
 his arms in  thundering on ,hobbes's   
steel cap4 ,this is a modest            
acknowledgment of  the power of ,hobbes1

 from the most turbulent divine of the  
eighteenth  century4    ,victor ,comyin 
gives the following as his view of the  
philosophy of  ,hobbes3--,there is no   
other certain evidence than that of the 
senses4  ,the evidence of the senses    
attests only the existence of bodies2   
then  there is no existence save that of
 bodies1 and philosophy is only the     
science of bodies4    ,there are two    
sorts of bodies3 #ast1 ,natural bodies1 
which are the  theatre of a multitude of
 regular phenomena1 because they take   
place  by virtue of fixed laws1 as the  
bodies with which physics are occupied2 
#bnd1 ,moral and political bodies1      
societies which constantly change and   
are subject to variable laws4           
,hobbes's system of physics is that of  
,democritus1 the atomistic and          
corpuscular of the ,ionic school4       
,his metaphysics are its corollary2 all 
the phenomena which pass in  the        
consciousness have their source in the  
organization1 of which the              

consciousness in itself is simply a     
result4 ,all the ideas come from the    
senses4 ,to think1 is to calculate2 and 
intelligence is nothing else than  an   
arithmetic4 ,as we do not calculate with
 out signs1 we do not think  without    
words2 the truth of the thought is in   
the relation of the words  among        
themselves1 and metaphysics are reduced 
to a perfect language4  ,hobbes is      
completely a nominalist4 ,with ,hobbes  
there are no other than  contingent     
ideas2 the finite alone can be          
conceived2 the infinite is  only a      
negation of the finite2 beyond that it  
is a mere word invented to  honor a     
being whom faith alone can reach4 ,the  
idea of good and evil  has no other     
foundation than agreeable or            
disagreeable sensations2 to  agreeable  
or disagreeable sensation it is         
impossible to apply any4  other law than
 escape from the one and search after   
the other2 hence  the morality of       
,hobbes1 which is the foundation of his 

politics4 ,man  is capable of enjoying  
and of suffering2 his only law is to    
suffer as  little1 and enjoy as much1 as
 possible4 ,since such is his only law1 
he  has all the rights that this law    
confers upon him2 he may do anything    
for his preservation and his happiness2 
he has the right to sacrifice           
everything to himself4 ,behold8 then1   
men upon this earth1 where the  objects 
of desire are not superabundant1 all    
possessing equal rights  to whatever may
 be agreeable or useful to them1 by     
virtue of the same  capacity for        
enjoyment and suffering4 ,this is a     
state of nature1 which  is nothing less 
than a state of war1 the anarchy of the 
passions1 a  combat in which every man  
is arrayed against his neighbor4 ,but   
this  state being opposed to the        
happiness of the majority of individuals
 who  share it1 utility1 the offspring  
of egotism itself1 demands its  exchange
 for another1 to wit1 the social state4 
,the social state is the  institution of

 a public power1 stronger than all      
individuals1 capable  of making peace   
succeed war1 and imposing on all the    
accomplishment of  whatever it shall    
have judged to be useful1 that is1 just4
    ,before we dismiss the father of    
,freethought from our notice1 there     
remains a tribute of respect to be paid 
to one whom it is our duty  to associate
 with the author of the ,leviathan1 and 
who has but  just passed away--one man  
amongst the ,british aristocracy with   
the  disposition of a tribune of the    
people1 coupled with thoughts at once   
elevated and free1 and a position which 
rendered him of essential  service to   
struggling opinion4 ,this man saw the   
greatness1 the profound  depth1 the     
attic style1 and the immense importance 
of the works of  ,hobbes1 along with    
their systematic depreciation by those  
whose duty it  should be to explain     
them1 especially at a time when those   
works were  not reprinted1 and the      
public were obliged to glean their      

character  from the refutations 7so     
called7 by mangled quotations1 and a    
distorted  meaning4 ,impelled by this   
thought1 and anxious to protect the     
memory of  a philosopher1 his devoted   
disciple1 at a cost of #aj1jjj1         
translated  the ,latin1 and edited the  
,english works of ,hobbes1 in a manner  
worthy  alike of the genius of the      
author1 and the discernment of his      
editor4  ,for this kindness1 a seat in  
,parliament was lost by the organization
 of  the clergy in ,cornwall4 ,the name 
of this man was ,sir ,william           
,molesworth4  ,let ,freethinkers cherish
 the memory of their benefactor4    ,we 
now take our leave of ,thomas ,hobbes4  
,he had not the chivalry of  ,herbert2  
the vivacity of ,raleigh2 the cumulative
 power of ,bacon2 or the  winning policy
 of ,locke4 ,if his physical deformities
 prevented him from  being as daring as 
,vane1 he was as bold in thought and    
expression as  either ,descartes1 or his
 young friend ,blount4 ,he gave birth to

 the  brilliant constellation of genius 
in the time of ,queen ,anne4 ,he did    
not live to see his system extensively  
promulgated2 but his principles  moulded
 the character of the men who formed the
 revolution of #afhh1  equally as much  
as ,hume established the ,scotch and    
,german schools of  philosophy2 and     
,voltaire laid the train by which the   
,french ,revolution  was proclaimed4    
,peace to his memory6 ,it was a stormy  
struggle during his  life2 its frowns   
cannot hurt him now4 ,could we believe  
in the idea of  a future life1 we should
 invoke his blessings on our cause4     
,that cause  which for near two hundred 
years has successfully struggled into   
birth1  to youth1 and maturity4         
,striking down in its onward course     
superstitions  which hath grown with    
centuries1 and where it does not        
exterminate them1  it supplies a purer  
atmosphere1 and extracts the upas-sting 
which has  laid low so many1 and which  
must yet be finally exterminated4 ,the  

day is  rapidly dawning when our only   
deities will be the works of genius1 and
  our only prayer the remembrance of our
 most illustrious chiefs4    ,a4,c4     
,,lord ,,bolingbroke4    ,henry ,st4    
,john1 ,lord ,bolingbroke1 was born in  
his family seat at  ,battersea1 on the  
#ast of ,october #afgb1 and died there  
on ,november #aeth1  #agea1 in his #gith
 year4 ,he was educated by a clergyman  
in an unnatural  manner1 and speedily   
developed himself accordingly4 ,when he 
left ,oxford1  he was one of the        
handsomest men of the day--his majestic 
figure1  refined address1 dazzling wit1 
and classic eloquence1 made him         
irresistibly the first gentleman in     
,europe4 ,until his twenty-fourth  year1
 he was renowned more for the graces of 
his person1 and the  fascination of his 
wild exploits1 rather than possessing a 
due regard  to his rank and abilities4  
,his conduct1 however1 was completely   
changed  when he became a ,member of    
,parliament4 ,the hopes of his friends  

were  resuscitated when they discovered 
the aptitude for business--the ready    
eloquence1 and the sound reasoning of   
the once wild ,st4 ,john4 ,he soon      
became the hardest worker and the leader
 of the ,house of ,commons4 ,the        
expectations of the nation rose high    
when night after night he spoke  with   
the vivacity of a poet1 and the         
profundity of a veteran statesman  on   
public affairs4 ,in #agjd1 he received  
the seals as ,secretary-of-,war1  and   
was mainly instrumental in gaining      
,marlborough's victories1 by the        
activity with which he supplied the     
,english ,general with munitions of     
war4 ,on the ascendency of the ,whigs1  
,st4 ,john resigned his office1 and     
retired into privacy for two years1 when
 the ,whig administration was           
destroyed1 and ,st4 ,john re-appeared as
 ,secretary for ,foreign ,affairs4  ,his
 greatest work now was the negotiation  
of the treaty of ,utrecht4 ,this  treaty
 was signed by ,st4 ,john 7then ,lord   

,bolingbroke17 he being sent to  ,paris 
as the ,british ,plenipotentiary1 and   
was hailed by the ,parisians  as a      
guardian angel4 ,to such an extent was  
this feeling manifested1 that  when he  
visited the theatres every one rose to  
welcome him4 ,so long as  ,queen ,anne  
lived1 ,bolingbroke's influence was     
paramount1 but associated  with him was 
the ,earl of ,oxford1 in opposition to  
the ,whig party1 and  serious           
differences had arisen between the      
rivals4 ,oxford-was dismissed  four days
 before the ,queen's death1 and         
,bolingbroke officiated in his  place1  
until ,oxford's vacancy was filled1     
which all expected would be  given to   
himself4 ,a stormy debate in the ,privy 
,council so agitated the  ,queen1 that  
it shortened her life1 and the ,council 
recommended the ,earl  of ,shrewsbury as
 ,premier1 and with him the ,whigs4     
,with the accession of ,george1 came the
 impeachment of ,bolingbroke by the     
victorious ,whigs4 ,knowing that it was 

their intention to sacrifice  him to    
party revenge1 and that his accusers    
would likewise act as his  judges1 he   
wisely withdrew himself to ,france4 ,the
 ,pretender held a  mimic court at      
,avignon1 and a debating society at     
,lorraine1 entitled  a ,parliament4 ,he 
offered ,bolingbroke the office of      
,secretary of ,state1  which was        
accepted by him2 and it was only at this
 time that the  emanations of the exiled
 ,stuart's cabinet possessed either a   
solidity  of aim1 or a definite purpose4
 ,if ,louis ,,xiv4 had lived longer1 he 
might  have assisted the ,pretender1 but
 with his death expired the hopes of    
that ill-fated dynasty4 ,bolingbroke    
strove to husband the means which  the  
,chevalier's friends had collected1 but 
the advice of the ,duke of  ,ormond was 
listened to in preference to            
,bolingbroke's4 ,the results which      
,bolingbroke foretold--proceeding rashly
 and failing ignominiously--both        
occurred4 ,the insurrection broke out1  

and failed--no other end could  have    
been anticipated4 ,intrigues were fast  
coiling themselves around the           
secretary2 he was openly blamed for the 
reverses in ,scotland--but he was  alike
 careless of their wrath or its issue4  
,one morning ,ormond waited  upon him   
with two slips of paper from the        
,pretender1 informing him  that his     
services were no longer required4 ,after
 his dismissal he was  impeached by the 
lackeys of the ,pretender under seven   
heads1 which were  widely distributed   
throughout ,europe4 ,there is this      
anomaly in the life  of ,bolingbroke1   
witnessed in no other ,englishman3 ,in  
one year he was the  most powerful man  
in ,england--,secretary of ,state--an   
exile--and then  in the same year he    
occupied a similar office to one who    
aimed at the  ,english throne1 and was  
impeached by both parties4    ,for      
several years he occupied himself in    
,france with philosophical              
pursuits--until the year #agbc--when he 

received a pardon1 which allowed  him to
 return to ,england1 but still his      
sequestered estates were not  returned1 
and this apology for a pardon was       
negotiated by a bribe of  #aa1jjj to the
 ,german ,duchess of ,kendal--one of the
 king's mistresses4    ,alexander ,pope 
was ,bolingbroke's constant             
correspondent4 ,pope had  won the       
applause of ,england by his poems1 and  
was then considered the  arbiter of     
genius4 ,voltaire occupied a similar    
position in ,france4  ,since ,pope first
 laid the copy of his greatest epic at  
the feet of  ,bolingbroke1 and begged of
 him to correct its errors1 he had      
gradually  won himself that renown which
 prosperity has endorsed4 ,but what a   
unity  in divergence did those          
philosophers present6 ,the calm moralism
 of ,pope1  his sweet and polished      
rhyme1 contrasted with the fiery wit and
 hissing  sarcasm of the ,frenchman1    
more trenchant than ,pope's1 yet wanting
  his sparkling epigrams4 ,the keen     

discernment of both these men saw in    
,bolingbroke a master1 and they ranked  
by his side as twin apostles of  a new  
and living faith4 ,it was the           
penetration of true greatness which     
discerned in the ,english peer that     
sublimity of intellect they possessed   
themselves1 without the egotism of an   
imbecile rival4 ,bolingbroke had        
cherished the ethics of one1 and        
restrained the rancor of the other--and 
both men yielded to him whose system    
they worshipped2 and this trinity  of   
,deists affords the noblest example     
which can be evoked to prove  the       
,harmony of ,reason amidst the most     
varied accomplishments4 ,although       
,pope's name occurs but seldom in the   
history of ,freethought--while that  of 
,bolingbroke is emblazoned in all its   
glory1 and ,voltaire is enshrined  as   
its only ,deity--yet we must not forget 
that what is now known as  the only     
collection of ,st4 ,john's works 7the   
edition in five volumes  by ,mallet17   

were written for the instruction of     
,pope--sent to him in                   
letters--discussed and agreed to by     
him--so that the great essayist is  as  
much implicated in them as the author of
 the ,dictionary4 ,it is  said1 ,in his 
society these two illustrious men felt  
and acknowledged a  superior genius2 and
 if he had no claim to excellence in    
poetry--the  art in which they were so  
pre-eminent--he surpassed them both in  
the  philosophy they so much admired4   
,for ten years after this period1 he    
devoted himself to various political    
writings1 which were widely circulated2 
but we must waive the pleasure  at      
present of analyzing those1 and confine 
our attention to the alliance  between  
,pope and ,bolingbroke1 in the new      
school of philosophy4    ,bolingbroke's 
principal friends were ,pope1 ,swift1   
,mallet1 ,wyndam1 and  ,atterbury4 ,the 
first three were most in his confidence 
in regard  to religion3 and although    
,pope was educated a ,roman ,catholic1  

and  occasionally conformed to that     
hierarchy 7and like ,voltaire1 for      
peace1  died in it17 yet the            
philosophical letters which passed      
between ,pope and  ,st4 ,john1 fully    
established him as a consistent         
,deist--an honor to which  ,swift also  
attained1 although being a dignitary of 
the ,church3 but  if doubts arise on the
 subject1 they can easily be dispelled4 
,general  ,grimouard1 in his ,essai sur 
,bolingbroke1 says that he was intimate 
with the widow of ,mallet1 the poet1 who
 was a lady of much talent and          
learning1 and had lived upon terms of   
friendship with ,bolingbroke1  ,swift1  
,pope1 and many other distinguished     
characters of the day1 who  frequently  
met at her house4 ,the ,general adds1   
that the lady has been  frequently heard
 to declare1 that these men were all    
equally deistical  in their sentiments  
7que c'tait une socit de purs distes27  
that  ,swift from his clerical character
 was a little more reserved than the    

others1 but he was evidently of the same
 sentiments at bottom4    ,there is a   
remarkable passage in one of ,pope's    
letters to ,swift1 which  seems rather  
corroborative of the ,general's4 ,he is 
inviting ,swift to  come and visit him4 
,the day is come1 he says1 which ,i have
 often  wished1 but never thought to    
see1 when every mortal ,i esteem is of  
the  same sentiments in politics and    
religion4 ,dr4 ,warton remarks upon this
  paragraph ,at this time therefore     
7#agcc7 he 7,pope and ,bolingbroke were 
of the same sentiment in religion as    
well as politics72 99 and ,pope  writing
 to ,swift is proof sufficient that     
,bolingbroke1 ,swift1 and  himself1 were
 united in opinions4 ,wherever ,swift's 
name is known1 it is  associated with   
his spleen on account of his not being  
elevated to the  ,episcopal ,bench1 when
 he was promised a vacancy1 which was   
reserved for  him2 but ,queen ,anne     
absolutely refused to confer such a     
dignity upon the  author of ,gulliver's 

,travels--that profound satire upon     
society and  religion2 and this         
occurring at a time when his energetic  
services  were so much needed in defence
 of the government he so assisted by    
pamphleteering1 satire1 and wholesale   
lampoons4 ,mr4 ,cooke says1 ,the  ,earl 
of ,nottingham1 in the debate upon the  
,dissenters' ,bill1 chiefly  founded his
 objection to the provision that the    
,bishops should have the  only power of 
licensing tutors1 upon the likelihood   
there was that a  man who was in a fair 
way for becoming a ,bishop1 was hardly  
suspected  of being a ,christian4 ,this 
pointed allusion to ,swift passed       
without  comment or reply in a public   
assembly1 composed in a great measure of
  his private friends and associates4   
,this seems to intimate that the        
opinion of his contemporaries was not   
very strong in favor of ,swift's        
religious principles4 ,this may suffice 
to prove the unanimity of  sentiment    
existing among this brilliant           

coterie--one a political                
,churchman--another the greatest poet of
 his age--the third1 the most           
accomplished statesman of his country4  
,although they were united in  religious
 conviction1 it would have been certain 
ruin to any of the  confederates if the 
extent of their thoughts had reached the
 public ear4  ,the ,dean wrote for the  
present--the poet for his age--and the  
peer for  the immediate benefit of his  
friends and a record for the future4    
,but  they were all agreed that some    
code of ethics should be promulgated1   
which should embody the positive        
speculations of ,bolingbroke1 with the  
easy grace of ,pope--the elaborate      
research of the philosopher with  the   
rhetoric of the poet4 ,swift coalesced  
in this idea1 but was1 to a  certain    
extent1 ignorant of its subsequent      
history4 ,it was not thought  prudent to
 trust ,mallet and others with the      
secret4 ,for this purpose the  ,essay of
 ,man was designed on the principles    

elaborated by ,bolingbroke  in his      
private letters to ,pope4 ,it was       
,bolingbroke who drew up the  scheme1   
mapped out the arguments1 and sketched  
the similes--it was ,pope  who          
embellished its beauties1 and turned it 
into rhyme4 ,doctor ,warton1  the editor
 of ,pope1 also proves this3--,lord     
,bathurst told the ,doctor  that he had 
read the whole of the ',essay on ,man'  
in the handwriting of  ,bolingbroke1 and
 drawn up in a series of propositions   
which ,pope was  to amplify1 versify1   
and to illustrate4 ,if further proofs   
are required1  that ,bolingbroke was not
 only a co-partner but coadjutor with   
,pope1 it  is found in the opening of   
the poem1 where the poet uses the plural
 in  speaking of ,bolingbroke--         
,awake1 my ,st4 ,john1 leave all meaner 
things       ,to low ambition1 and the  
pride of kings4       ,laugh when we    
must1 be candid when you can1       ,and
 vindicate the ways of ,god to man4     
99 ,cook's ,life of ,bolingbroke1 #bnd  

vol41 p4 #ig44    ,this is sufficient to
 prove the partnership in the poem1 and 
from the  generally acknowledged fact of
 his connection1 we have no hesitation  
in  declaring that this poem is the     
grand epic of ,deism1 and is as much the
  offspring of ,bolingbroke1 as his own 
ideas when enunciated by others4  ,there
 is not a single argument in the ,essay 
but what is much more  elaborated in the
 works of ,bolingbroke1 while every     
positive argument  is reduced to a few  
poetic maxims in the ,essay4 ,we may as 
well look here  for ,bolingbroke's      
creed1 rather than amongst his prose    
works4 ,there  is1 however1 this        
difference1 that in the ,essay there is 
laid down an  ethical scheme of         
positivism--i4e41 of everything in      
morals which  can be duly tested and    
nothing more3 while in the prose        
writings of  ,bolingbroke1 the negative 
side of theology is discussed with an   
amount  of erudition which has never    
been surpassed by any of the great      

leaders  of ,freethought4 ,the first    
proposition of the ,essay is based on a 
postulate1 upon which the whole         
reasoning is built4 ,overthrow this     
substratum1 and the philosophy of the   
,essay is overturned--admit it1 and  its
 truth is evident2 it is--    ,what can 
we reason but from what we know8        
,this is equivalent to saying that we   
can only reason concerning man as  a    
finite part of an infinite existence1   
and we can only predicate  respecting   
what comes under the category of        
positive knowledge 2 we  are therefore  
disabled from speculating in any        
theories which have for  a basis        
opposition to the collected experience  
of mankind4 ,this was a  position laid  
down by ,bolingbroke to escape all the  
historical arguments  which some men    
deduce from alleged miraculous agency in
 the past1 or  problematical prophecy in
 the future4 ,it likewise shows the     
untenable  nature of all analogy1 which 
presumes to trace an hypothetical first 

cause or personal intelligence1 to      
account for a supposed origin of        
primeval existence1 by which nature was 
caused1 or forms of being first         
evolved4 ,although it may be deemed     
inconsistent with the philosophy of     
,bolingbroke to admit a ,god in the same
 argument as the above1 we must  not    
forget that in all speculative reasoning
 there must be an assumption  of some   
kind1 which ought to be demonstrated by 
proof1 or a suitable  equivalent in the 
form of universal consent4 ,yet in the  
case of the ,god  of the ,essay1 we look
 in vain for the attributes with which  
,theists love  to clothe their ,god1 and
 we can but perceive inexorable         
necessity in the  shape of rigid and    
unswerving laws1 collected in one focus 
by ,pope1 and  dignified with the name  
of ,god2 so that the difference betwixt 
a  ,deist of the old1 and an ,atheist of
 the modern school1 is one of mere      
words--they both commence with an       
assumption1 the ,atheist only defining  

his terms more strictly1 the            
subject-matter in both instances being  
the same4 ,the only difference being1   
the one deceives himself with a         
meaningless word1 the other is          
speechless on what he cannot comprehend4
  ,the ,essay shows a scheme of         
universal gradation1 composed of a      
series of  links1 which are one entwined
 within the other--every rock being     
placed  in its necessitated             
position--every plant amidst its growth 
bearing an  exoteric similitude to      
itself--every animal1 from the lowest   
quadruped  to the highest race of man1  
occupying a range of climate adapted to 
its  requirements4 ,the ,essay here is  
scientifically correct1 and agrees with 
the ablest writers on necessity4 ,a     
,german philosopher renowned alike  for 
rigid analysis and transcendent         
abilities as a successful theorist1     
observes1 ,when ,i contemplate all      
things as a whole1 ,i perceive one      
nature one force 3 when ,i regard them  

as individuals1 many forces  which      
develop themselves according to their   
inward laws1 and pass  through all the  
forms of which they are capable1 and all
 the objects  in nature are but those   
forces under certain limitations4 ,every
  manifestation of every individual     
power of nature is determined partly  by
 itself1 partly by its own preceding    
manifestations1 and partly by the       
manifestations of all other powers of   
nature with which it is connected2  but 
it is connected with all1 for nature is 
one connected whole4 ,its               
manifestations are1 therefore1 strictly 
necessary1 and it is absolutely         
impossible to be other than as it is4   
,in every moment of her duration  nature
 is one connected whole1 in every moment
 must every individual be  what it is   
because all others are what they are1   
and a single grain of  sand could not be
 moved from its place1 without1 however 
imperceptibly  to us1 changing something
 throughout all parts of the            

immeasurable  whole4 ,every moment of   
duration is determined by all past      
moments1 and  will determine all future 
movements1 and even the position of a   
grain  of sand cannot be conceived other
 than it is1 without supposing other    
changes to an indefinite extent4 ,let us
 imagine that grain of sand to be  lying
 some few feet further inland than it   
actually does2 then must the  storm-wind
 that drove it in from the sea-shore    
have been stronger than  it actually    
was2 then must the preceding state of   
the atmosphere1  by which this wind was 
occasioned1 and its degree of strength  
being  determined1 have been different  
from what it actually was1 and the      
preceding changes which gave rise to    
this particular weather1 and so  on4 ,we
 must suppose a different temperature   
from that which really  existed--a      
different constitution of bodies which  
influenced that  temperature4 ,how can  
we know that in such a state of weather 
we have  been supposing1 in order to    

carry this grain of sand a few yards    
further1 some ancestors of yours might  
not have perished from hunger1  cold1 or
 heat1 long before the birth of that son
 from whom you are  descended1 and thus 
you might never have been at all1 and   
all that you  have done1 and all that   
you ever hope to do1 must have been     
hindered1 in  order that a grain of sand
 might lie in a different place4 99 ,the
 whole  of the first book is devoted to 
the necessitated condition of man  in   
relation to the universe4 ,in one       
portion there is a succession of        
beautiful similes1 portraying the       
blissful state we are in1 instead of    
being gifted with finer sensibilities1  
or a prescience1 which would be a       
curse4         99 ,fichte's ,destination
 of ,man1 pp4 #h1 #i    ,pope1 although 
an ardent disciple of ,bolingbroke1 did 
not entirely  forsake the prejudices of 
childhood2 he still indulged in a bare  
hope of  a future life1 which his       
master1 with more consistency1          

suppressed4 ,so  that when the poet     
rhymed the propositions of ,st4 ,john1  
he pointed them  with hope in an eternal
 future2 for that speculation which was 
still  probability in his day1 is now   
nearly silenced by modern science4 ,but 
we must not confound the ideas of       
futurity1 which some of the ,deists     
expressed1 with those of ,christianity4 
,they were as different as the  dreams  
of ,christ and ,plato were dissimilar4  
,pope hoped for a future  life of       
intellectual enjoyment devoid of evil1  
but the heaven of the  gospel is equally
 as necessary to be counterbalanced by a
 hell1 as  the existence of a ,god      
requires the balancing support of a     
devil4 ,we  therefore can sympathise    
with the description of a heaven1 the   
poor  ,indian looked for3--             
,some safer world in depths of woods    
embraced1       ,some happier island in 
the watery waste2       ,where slaves   
once more their native land behold1     
,nor fiends torment1 nor ,christians    

thirst for gold4       ,to be--contents 
his natural desires1       ,he asks no  
angels' wings1 no seraphs' fires1       
,but thinks1 admitted to that equal sky1
       ,his faithful dog should bear him
 company4    ,pope durst not            
emphatically deny the future-life       
theory1 so he attacked  it by           
elaborating a physical instead of a     
spiritual heaven4 ,so heterodox  a      
notion of the ,indian's future sports1  
is not to be found in theology1         
especially as he pictures the ,indian's 
sports with his dog4 ,here was  a double
 blow aimed at ,christianity by evolving
 a positive idea  of future pleasures1  
and the promulgation of sentiments      
anti-,christian4--,again he attacks them
 for unwarrantable speculation in       
theology1 when he says--         ,in    
pride1 in reasoning pride our error     
lies4    ,this is a corollary to the    
first proposition1 ,what can we reason  
but  from what we know8 ,the only       
predicate we can draw from this is1 the 

undoubted fact we have no right to      
profess to hold opinions of that1  upon 
which we cannot have any positive proof4
 ,the last line of the  first book has  
been generally thought open to attack4  
,it relates to  necessity--,whatever is1
 is right--and is not to be viewed in   
relation  to society as at present      
constituted1 but to the physical        
universe4    ,the second book deals with
 man in relation to himself as an       
individual2  the third as a member of   
society1 and the last in respect to     
happiness4  ,throughout the whole ,essay
 the distinctions arising from nature   
and  instinct are defined and defended  
with vigor and acuteness4 ,both are     
proved to be equally great in degree1 in
 spite of the hints constantly  thrown  
out in reference to ,god-like ,reason   
versus ,blind ,instinct4 ,we  confess   
our inability to discern the vaunted    
superiority of the powers  of reason    
over those of its blinder sister4 ,we   
see in the one matchless                

wisdom--profound decision--unfailing    
resource--a happy contentment as        
unfeigned as it is natural4 ,on the     
other hand1 we see temerity allied  with
 cowardice--a man seeking wisdom on a   
watery plank1 when every  footmark may  
serve him for a funeral effigy2         
political duplicity arising  from his   
confined generalization of facts2 a     
desire to do right1 but  checked by     
accident and cunning--everywhere        
uneasy--always fatal4 ,if  the          
,christians' fables were true1 we might 
say that ,adam and ,eve were  originally
 in possession of ,instinct and ,reason1
 and fell by listening  to the          
promptings of volition1 instead of the  
unswerving powers of the  brutes1 and   
for a hereditary punishment was cursed  
with a superabundance  of reason4 ,for  
with all our intellectual prerogatives1 
we have yet  failed to arrive at a      
definite course of action which should  
influence  our conduct4 ,the ,essay1    
speaking of ,government by              

,christianity1 says3--         ,force   
first made conquest1 and that conquest  
law1       ,till superstition taught the
 tyrant awe4     44444         ,she     
taught the weak to bend1 the proud to   
pray1       ,to power unseen1 and       
mightier far than they3       ,she1 from
 the rending earth and bursting skies1  
,saw ,gods descend and fiends infernal  
rise4       ,here fixed the dreadful1   
there the blessed abodes1       ,here   
made her devils1 and weak hope her      
,gods4       ,gods partial1 changeful1  
passionate1 unjust1       ,whose        
attributes were rage1 revenge1 or lust4 
,such as the souls of cowards might     
conceive1       ,and formed like        
tyrants2 tyrants would believe4         
,zeal then1 not charity1 became the     
guide1       ,and ,hell was built in    
spite1 and ,heaven in pride4    ,and    
again--         ,for modes of faith let 
graceless zealots fight1       ,his     
can't be wrong whose life is in the     
right4    ,the ,essay concludes with an 

invocation to ,bolingbroke--whom ,pope  
styles1  my guide1 philosopher1 and     
friend4 ,such is the conclusion of the  
most  remarkable ethical poem in any    
language4 ,it is the ,iliad of ,english 
,deism4 ,not a single allusion to       
,christ--a future state of existence    
given only as a faint probability--the  
whole artificial state of society       
satirized--prayer ridiculed1 and        
government of every kind denounced      
which does not bring happiness to the   
people4 ,the first principle laid  down 
is the corner-stone of                  
materialism--,what can we reason but    
from what we know8--which is stated1    
explained1 and defended with an         
axiomatic brevity rarely equalled1 never
 surpassed--with a number  of           
illustrations comprising the chef       
d'oeuvre of poetic grace1 and  synthical
 melody combined with arguments as      
cogent as the examples are  perfect4    
,it stands alone in its                 
impregnability--a pile of literary      

architecture  like the ,novum ,organan  
of ,bacon1 the ,principia of ,newton1 or
 the  ,essay of ,locke4 ,the facades of 
its noble colonnades are seen extending 
their wings through the whole sweep of  
history1 constituting a pantheon  of    
morals1 where every nation sends its    
devotees to admire and worship4    ,let 
us now turn to the philosophical works  
of ,bolingbroke4 ,by the will  of       
,bolingbroke he devised this portion of 
his manuscripts to ,david  ,mallet1 the 
poet1 for publication4 ,the noble       
,lord's choice is open to  censure here4
 ,he knew the character of ,mallet1 and 
could expect little  justice from him   
who should have been his biographer4    
,the ,,mss4 were all  prepared for the  
press long before ,bolingbroke died4 ,in
 this original  state1 they were        
addressed to ,pope4 ,when published they
 appeared as  ,letters or ,essays       
addressed to ,alexander ,pope1 ,esq4    
,the political  friends of ,st4 ,john   
wished their suppression1 fearing that  

they would  injure his reputation by    
being anti-,christian4 ,a large bribe   
was  offered by ,lord ,cornbur if       
,mallet would destroy the works4 ,he1 no
 doubt1  thinking more money could be   
made by their publication1 issued them  
to  the world in #aged1 but without     
giving a biography or notes to the      
books1  his work being simply correcting
 the errors of the press4 ,true1 there  
existed no stipulation that he should   
write the ,life of ,bolingbroke1 but  no
 one can doubt that such was the        
intention of the statesman1 when he     
bequeathed to him property which        
realized #aj1jjj in value4 ,every one   
knows the huge witticism of ,dr4        
,johnson1 who accused ,bolingbroke of   
cowardice1 under the simile of loading a
 blunderbuss1 and then leaving a        
,scotchman half-a-crown to fire it when 
he was out of the way4 ,when those      
posthumous works appeared1 the grand    
jury of ,westminster presented them  to 
the judicial authorities as subversive  

of religion1 morality1 and  government4 
,they were burnt by the common hangman4 
,with difficulty we give a quotation    
from ,boling-broke's ideas of a  ,future
 ,life4 ,in vol4 ,,iv41 p4 #cdh1 he     
says1 ,i do not say1 that to  believe in
 a future state is to believe in a      
vulgar error2 but this ,i  say1 it      
cannot be demonstrated by reason3 it is 
not in the nature of it  capable of     
demonstration1 and no one ever returned 
that irremediable way  to give us an    
assurance of the fact4    ,again1 he    
speaks personally in reference to       
himself1 ,pope1 and  ,wollaston1 whom he
 had been opposing3--         ,he alone 
is happy1 and he 'is truly so1 who can  
say1       ,welcome life whatever it    
brings6       ,welcome death whatever it
 is6       ,if the former1--we change   
our state4                     44444    
,that you1 or ,i1 or even ,wollaston    
himself1 should return to the earth     
from whence we came1 to the dirt under  
our feet1 or be mingled with the  ashes 

of those herbs and plants from which we 
drew nutrition whilst we  lived1 does   
not seem any indignity offered to our   
nature1 since it is  common to all the  
animal kind3 and he who complains of it 
as such1 does  not seem to have been    
set1 by his reasoning faculties1 so far 
above them  in life2 as to deserve not  
to be levelled with them at death4 ,we  
were  like them before our birth1 that  
is nothing4 ,so we shall be on this     
hypothesis1 like them too after our     
death1 that is nothing4 ,what  hardship 
is done us8 ,unless it be a hardship1   
that we are not immortal  because we    
wish to be so1 and flatter ourselves    
with that expectation4    ,if this      
hypothesis were true1 which ,i am far   
from assuming1 ,i should  have no reason
 to complain1 though having tasted      
existence1 ,i might  abhor non-entity4  
,since1 then1 the first cannot be       
demonstrated by  reason1 nor the second 
be reconciled to my inward sentiment1   
let me take  refuge in resignation at   

the last1 as in every other act of my   
life3 let  others be solicitous about   
their future state1 and frighten or     
flatter  themselves as prejudice1       
imaginative bad health--nay1 a lowering 
day1  or a clear sunshine shall inspire 
them to do3 let the tranquillity of my  
mind rest on this immovable rock1 that  
my future1 as well as my present  state1
 are ordered by an ,almighty ,creator1  
and that they are equally  foolish1 and 
presumptuous1 who make imaginary        
excursions into futurity1  and who      
complain of the present4    ,lord       
,bolingbroke died in the year #agea1    
after a long and painful  illness1      
occasioned by the ignorance of a quack4 
,while lying on his  death-bed he       
composed a discourse1 entitled          
,considerations on the ,state  of the   
,nation4 ,he died in peace--in the      
knowledge of the truth of the           
principles he had advocated1 and with   
that calm serenity of mind1 which  no   
one can more fully experience than the  

honest ,freethinker4 ,he was  buried in 
the church at ,battersea4 ,he was a man 
of the highest rank of  genius1 far from
 being immaculate in his youth1 brave1  
sincere1 a true  friend1 possessed of   
rich learning1 a clear and sparkling    
style1 a great  wit1 and the most       
powerful ,freethinker of his age4    ,a4
 ,c4          ,,condorcet4    ,in the   
history of the ,french ,revolution1 we  
read of a multitude of  sections1 each  
ruled by a man1 and each man            
representing a philosophy4  ,not that   
each man was the contriver of a system1 
but the effervescence  of one4 ,as true 
as ,robespierre was the advocate of     
,rousseau1 as ,marat  was the ,wilkes of
 ,paris1 as ,danton was the ,paine1 and 
,mirabeau the  expediency-politician of 
reflex ,england1 so true is it that     
,condorcet  was the type of the         
philosophic ,girondists1 the offspring  
of ,voltaire4    ,the two great schools 
of metaphysics fought out the battle on 
the theatre of the ,constituent         

,assembly1 in a spirit as bitterly      
uncompromising as when under different  
phraseological terms1 they met in  the  
arguments of the ,school-men1 or further
 in the womb of history1 on  the forum  
of ,athens4 ,it is a fact no less true  
than singular1 that after  each mental  
excitement amongst the savons1 whether  
in ancient or in  modern times1 after   
the literary shock has passed away1 the 
people are  innoculated with the strife1
 and1 destitute of the moderation of    
their  leaders1 fight for that doctrine 
which they conceive oppresses their     
rights4 ,the ,french ,revolution was one
 of those struggles4 ,it gave rise  to  
epoch-men4 ,not men who originated a    
doctrine1 but those who attempted  to   
carry it out4 ,condorcet was one of     
those men4 ,he was the successor  of    
,voltaire in the ,encyclopdic warfare4  
,the philosopher amongst the  orators4  
,destitute of the amazing versatility of
 the sage of ,ferney1 he  imbibed the   
prophet's antipathy to superstition1 and

 after a brilliant  career1 fell in the 
wild onslaught of passion4 ,the         
,revolution was the  arena on which was 
fought the battle involving the question
 whether  ,europe was to be ruled for a 
century by ,christianity or ,infidelity4
 ,the  irresolution of ,robespierre lost
 to us the victory of the first passage 
of arms1 equally as decisive as         
,lafayette in #ahcj1 and ,lamartine in  
#ahdh1 being ,liberals1 lost in each    
case the social ,republic by  their     
vacillating policy4 ,the true           
,freethinkers of that age were the      
,girondists4 ,with their heroic death1  
the last barrier to despotism           
disappeared2 the ,consulate became the  
only logical path for gilded  chains and
 empire4 ,with the ostracism of the     
,republicans by ,napoleon the  ,little1 
a ,parallel is completed between the two
 eras of ,french history4    ,the family
 name of ,condorcet was ,caritat4 ,his  
father was a scion of an  aristocratic  
family1 and an officer in the army4 ,the

 son who gave honor  to the family1 was 
born in the year #agdc1 at ,ribemont1 in
 ,picardy4 ,his  father dying early1    
left his son to be educated with his    
wife1 under the  guardianship of his    
brother1 the ,bishop of ,lisieux1 a     
celebrated ,jesuit4  ,the mother of     
,condorcet was extremely superstitious1 
and in one of her  fanatic ecstasies1   
offered up her son at the shrine of the 
,virgin ,mary4  ,how this act was       
performed we cannot relate2 but it is a 
notorious  fact that until his twelfth  
year1 the embryo philosopher was clothed
  in female attire1 and had young ladies
 for companions1 which1 ,m4  ,arago     
says1 accounts for many peculiarities in
 the physique and the  morale of his    
manhood4 ,the abstinence from all rude1 
boyish sports1  checked the proper      
muscular development of his limbs2 the  
head and trunk  were on a large scale1  
but the legs were so meagre that they   
seemed  unfit to carry what was above   
them2 and1 in fact1 he never could      

partake  in any strong exercises1 or    
undergo the bodily fatigues to which    
healthy  men willingly expose           
themselves4 ,on the other hand1 he had  
imbibed the  tenderness of a delicate   
damsel1 retaining to the last a deep    
horror for  affliction pain on the      
inferior animals4    ,in #agge1 he      
entered the ,jesuit ,academy at         
,rheiras4 ,three years  afterwards1 he  
was transferred to the ,college of      
,navarre1 in ,paris1  and soon made     
himself the most distinguished scholar  
there4 ,his friends  wished him to enter
 the priesthood1 not knowing that even  
in his  seventeenth year he had embraced
 the ,deism of the age4    ,at the age  
of nineteen he left college1 and        
immediate-ly published a  series of     
mathematical works1 which established   
his fame4 ,shortly  after this1 the     
,academy of ,sciences chose ,condorcet  
for their assistant  secretary4 ,in the 
year #aggj he accompanied ,d',alembert  
in a tour through  ,italy1 making a call

 for some weeks at ,ferney1 where he was
 delighted  with the company of         
,voltaire1 and was duly recognised as   
one of the  ,encylopdists2 and1 on his  
return to ,paris1 became the literary   
agent of  his great leader4    ,a       
,quarterly ,reviewer1 writing on        
,voltaire and ,condercet1 says of the   
former1 ,when he himself1 in these      
latter days1 was resolved to issue      
anything that he knew and felt to be    
pregnant with combustion1 he  never     
dreamt of ,paris--he had agents enough  
in other quarters3 and the  anonymous or
 pseudonymous mischief was printed at   
,london1 ,amsterdam1 or  ,hamburgh1 from
 a fifth or sixth copy in the           
handwriting of some ,dutch  or ,english 
clerk--thence1 by cautious steps1       
smuggled into ,france--and  then1       
disavowed and denounced by himself1 and1
 for him1 by his  numberless agents1    
with an intrepid assurance which1 down  
to the last1  confounded and baffled all
 official inquisitors1 until1 in each   

separate  case1 the scent had got cold4 
,therefore1 he sympathized not at all   
with  any of these1 his subalterns1 when
 they1 in their own proper matters1     
allowed themselves a less guarded style 
of movement4    ,on one occasion1       
,condorcet's imprudence extorts a whole 
series of  passionate remonstrants from 
him and his probable complaints--but the
  burden is always the same--,tolerate  
the whispers of age6 ,how often  shall  
,i have to tell you all that no one but 
a fool will publish such  things unless 
he has #bjj1jjj bayonets at his back8   
,each ,encyclopdist  was apt to forget  
that1 though he corresponded familiarly 
with  ,frederick1 he was not a ,king of 
,prussia2 and1 by-and-by1 not one of    
them  more frequently made this mistake 
than ,condorcet--for that gentleman's   
saintlike tranquillity of demeanor1     
though it might indicate a naturally    
languid pulse1 covered copious elements 
of vital passion4 ,the slow wheel  could
 not resist the long attrition of       

controversy2 and when it once  blazed1  
the flame was all the fiercer for its   
unseen nursing4 ',you  mistake          
,condorcet1' said ,d',alembert1 'he is a
 volcano covered with  snow4'    ,when  
,turgot became ,minister of ,marine1 he 
gave ,condorcet a post as  ,inspector of
 ,canals2 from this he was subsequently 
promoted to the  ,inspector of the      
,mint4 ,when ,turgot was replaced by    
,necker1 ,condorcet  resigned his       
office4    ,in #aghb he was elected one 
of the forty of the ,academy of         
,sciences1  beating the ,astronomer1    
,bailly1 by one vote4 ,in the next year1
  ,d',alembert1 his faithful friend1    
died1 leaving him the whole of his      
wealth2 his uncle1 the bishop1 likewise 
died in the same year1 from  whom he    
would receive a fresh accession of      
property4 ,shortly after this1  time1   
,condorcet married ,madame de           
,grouchy--also celebrated as a lady of  
great beauty1 good fortune1 and an      
educated ,atheist4 ,the marriage was  a 

happy one4 ,the only offspring was a    
girl1 who married ,general ,arthur      
,o',connor1 uncle to the late ,feargus  
,o',connor1 an ,irish refugee who was   
connected with ,emmett's rebellion4     
,during the excitement of the ,american 
,war of ,independence1 ,condorcet  took 
an active part in urging the ,french    
,government to bestow assistance  in    
arms and money1 upon the ,united        
,states2 after the war was concluded1   
he corresponded with ,thomas ,paine1 who
 gradually converted him to the  extreme
 ,republican views the illustrious      
needleman himself possessed1  which1 in 
this case1 rapidly led to the denouement
 of #agia1 when he  was elected a member
 of the ,legislative ,assembly by the   
department of  ,paris4 ,in the next year
 he was raised to the rank of ,president
 by a  majority of near one hundred     
votes4 ,while in the ,assembly1 he      
brought  forward and supported the      
economical doctrines of ,adam ,smith1   
proposed  the abolition of indirect     

taxation1 and levying a national revenue
 upon  derivable wealth in amount       
according to the individual1 passing    
over all  who gained a livelihood by    
manual labor4 ,he made a motion for the 
public  burning of all documents        
relating to nobility--himself being a   
,marquis4  ,he took a conspicuous place 
in the trial of the king2 he voted him  
guilty1 but refused to vote for his     
death1 as the punishment of death  was  
against his principles4 ,the speech he  
made on this occasion is fully  equal to
 that of ,paine's on the same occasion4 
,when the divergence took place between 
the ,jacobins and ,girondists1          
,condorcet strove to unite them2 but    
every day brought fresh troubles1  and  
the position of the ,seneca of the      
,revolution was too prominent to  escape
 the opposition of the more violent     
taction4    ,robespierre triumphed2 and 
in his success could be traced the doom 
of his enemies4 ,an intercepted letter  
was the means of ,condorcet's           

impeachment4 ,deprived of the support of
 ,isnard1 ,brissot1 and ,vergniaud1  the
 ,jacobins proscribed without difficulty
 the hero whose writings had  mainly    
assisted in producing the ,revolution4  
,his friends provided means  for his    
escape4 ,they applied to a lodging-house
 keeper1 a ,madame  ,vernet1 if she     
would conceal him for a time2 she asked 
was he a virtuous  man--yes1 replied his
 friend1 he is the---- stay1 you say he 
is a good  man1 ,i do not wish to pry   
into his secrets or his name4 ,once safe
 in  this asylum1 he was unvisited by   
either wife or friends2 morover1 such   
was the hurry of his flight1 that he was
 without money1 and nearly  without     
books4    ,while in this forced         
confinement1 he wrote the ,esquisse d'un
  ,tableau ,historique des ,progrs de   
l',esprit ,humain1 and several other    
fragmentary essays4 ,in this work he    
lays down a scheme of society  similar  
to the ,new ,moral ,world1 of ,robert   
,owen4 ,opposing the idea of  a ,god1 he

 shows the dominion of science in       
education1 political economy1           
chemistry1 and applies mathematical     
principles to a series of moral         
problems4 ,along with the progress of   
man he combined the progress of         
arts--estimating the sanatory           
arrangements of our time1 he prophecied 
on  the gradual extension of longevity1 
amongst the human race2 and with it1    
enjoyments increased by better          
discipline in gustatorial duties4 ,he   
has similar views on the softer sex to  
,m4 ,proudhomme 7his immediate          
disciple17 and1 in the close of the     
work1 ,condorcet announced the          
possibility of an universal language1   
which is daily becoming more            
assimilated to modern ideas4    ,the    
guillotine had not been idle during the 
few weeks of ,condorcet's  retreat4     
,fancying that 7if discovered7 he might 
be the means of injuring  his           
benefactress1 he resolved to escape from
 the house of ,madame ,vernet4          

,previous to doing this1 he made his    
will4 ,m4 ,arago1 describing this  epoch
 in his closing days1 says3--    ,when  
he at last paused1 and the feverish     
excitement of authorship was  at an end1
 our colleague rested all his thoughts  
anew on the danger  incurred by his     
hostess4 ,he resolved then 7,i employ   
his own words7 to  quit the retreat     
which the boundless devotion of his     
tutelar angel had  transformed into a   
paradise4 ,he so little deceived himself
 as to the  probable consequences of the
 step he meditated--the chances of      
safety  after his evasion appeared so   
feeble--that before he put his plan into
  execution he made his last            
dispositions4 ,in the pages then        
written1 ,i  behold everywhere the      
lively reflection of an elevated mind1 a
 feeling  heart1 and a beautiful soul4  
,i will venture to say1 that there      
exists  in no language anything better  
thought1 more tender1 more touching1    
more sweetly expressed1 than the ',avis 

d'un ,proscrit a sa ,fill4' ,those      
lines1 so limpid1 so full of unaffected 
delicacy1 were written on that  very day
 when he was about to encounter         
voluntarily an immense danger4  ,the    
presentiment of a violent end almost    
inevitably did not disturb  him--his    
hand traced those terrible words1 ,ma   
mort1 ma mort prochane6  with a firmness
 which the ,stoics of antiquity might   
have envied4  ,sensibility1 on the      
contrary1 obtained the mastery when the 
illustrious  proscribed was drawn into  
the anticipation that ,madame de        
,condorcet also  might be involved in   
the bloody catastrophe that threatened  
him4 ,should  my daughter be destined to
 lose all--this is the most explicit    
allusion  that the husband can insert in
 his last writing4    ,the ,testament is
 short4 ,it was written on the fly-leaf 
of a ',history of  ,spain4' ,in it      
,condorcet directs that his daughter1 in
 case of his wife's  death1 shall be    
brought up by ,madame ,vernet1 whom she 

is to call her  second mother1 and who  
is to see her so educated as to have    
means of  independent support either    
from painting or engraving4 ',should it 
be  necessary for my child to quit      
,france1 she may count on protection in 
,england from my ,lord ,stanhope and my 
,lord ,daer4 ,in ,america1 reliance  may
 be placed on ,jefferson and ,bache1 the
 grandson of ,franklin4 ,she is1        
therefore1 to make the ,english language
 her first study4'    ,such was the last
 epistle ever written by ,condorcet4    
,notwithstanding  the precautions taken 
by his friends1 he escaped into the     
streets--from  thence having appealed in
 vain to friends for assistance1 he     
visited  some quarries4 ,here he        
remained from the #eth to the evening of
 the #gth  of ,april1 #agid4 ,hunger    
drove him to the village of ,clamait1   
when he  applied at an hostelry for     
refreshment4 ,he described himself as a 
carpenter out of employment1 and ordered
 an omelet4 ,this was an age  of        

suspicion1 and the landlord of the house
 soon discovered that the  wanderer's   
hands were white and undisfigured with  
labor1 while his  conversation bore no  
resemblance to that of a common         
artificer4 ,the  good dame of the house 
inquired how many eggs he would have in 
his dish4  ,twelve1 was the answer4     
,twelve eggs for a joiner's supper6     
,this was  heresy against the equality  
of man4 ,they demanded his passport--he 
had  not got one--the only appearance of
 anything of the sort was a scrap of    
paper1 scrawled over with ,latin        
epigrams4 ,this was conclusive evidence 
to the village ,dogberries that he was a
 traitor and an aristocrat4 ,the        
authorities signed the warrant for his  
removal to ,paris4 ,ironed to two       
officers they started on the march4 ,the
 first evening they arrived at          
,bourg-la-,reine1 where they deposited  
their prisoner in the gaol of  that     
town4 ,in the morning the gaoler found  
him a corpse4 ,he had taken a  poison of

 great force1 which he habitually       
carried in a ring4 ,thus  ended the life
 of the great ,encyclopdist--a man great
 by his many  virtues--who reflected    
honor on ,france by his science1 his    
literary  triumphs1 and his moral       
heroism4 ,he had not the towering energy
  of ,marat1 nor the gushing eloquence  
of ,danton1 neither had he the          
superstitious devotion to abstract ideas
 which characterized the whole  course  
of ,robespierre's life4 ,the oratory of 
,danton1 like that of ,marat1  only     
excited the people to dissatisfaction2  
they struck down effete  institutions1  
but they were not the men to inaugurate 
a new society4 ,it  is seldom we find   
the pioneers of civilization the best   
mechanics4 ,they  strike down the       
forest--they turn the undergrowth--they 
throw a log over  the stream1 but they  
seldom rear factories1 or invent tubular
 bridges4    ,amongst the whole of the  
heroes of the ,french ,revolution1 we   
must admire  the ,girondists1 as being  

the most daring1 and1 at the same time1 
the  most constructive of all who met   
either in the ,constituent ,assembly or 
the ,convention4 ,the ,jacobin faction  
dealt simply with politics through  the 
abstract notions of ,rousseau3 but of   
what use are human rights if  we have to
 begin de novo to put into              
operation8--rather let us unite  the    
conservative educationalism of          
,socialism with the wild democracy of   
ignorance4 ,politics never can be       
successful unless married to ,socialism4
    ,it was not long after ,condorcet's 
death1 before the ,committee of ,public 
,instruction undertook the charge of    
publishing the whole of his works4  ,for
 this they have been censured on many   
grounds4 ,we consider that it  was one  
of the few good things accomplished by  
that ,committee4 ,there is  nothing in  
the works of this writer which have a   
distinctive peculiarity  to us2 few     
great writers who direct opinion at the 
time they write1  appear to posterity in

 the same light as they did to a public 
inflamed  by passion1 and trembling     
under reiterated wrongs4 ,when we look  
at the  works of ,d',holbach1 we find a 
standard treatise1 which is a land-mark 
to  the present day2 but at the time the
 ,system of ,nature was written1 it  had
 not one tithe the popularity which it  
now enjoys2 it did not produce  an      
effect superior to a new sarcasm of     
,voltaire1 or an epigram of  ,diderot4  
,condorcet was rather the co-laborer and
 literateur of the  party1 than the     
prophet of the new school4 ,voltaire was
 the ,christ1  and ,condorcet the ,st4  
,paul of the new faith4 ,in political   
economy1 the  doctrines of the ,english 
and ,scotch schools were elaborated to  
their  fullest extent4 ,retrenchment in 
pensions and salaries1 diminution of    
armies1 equal taxation1 the resumption  
by the ,state of all the ,church  lands1
 the development of the agricultural and
 mechanical resources1  the abolition of
 the monopolies1 total free trade1 local

 government1 and  national education2   
such-were the doctrines for which       
,turgot fought1 and  ,condorcet         
popularized4 ,if they had been taken in 
time1 ,france would  have escaped a     
revolution1 and ,europe would have been 
ruled by peace  and freedom4 ,it may be 
asked1 who brought about the advocacy of
 those  doctrines1 for they were not    
known before the middle of the          
eighteenth  century8 ,they were         
introduced as a novelty1 and defended as
 a paradox4  ,france had been exhausted 
by wars1 annoyed by ennui1 brilliant    
above  all by her genius1 she was struck
 with lassitude for her licentious      
crimes4 ,there was an occasion for a new
 school4 ,without it1 ,france1 like     
,carthage1 would have bled to death on  
the hecatomb of her own lust4 ,her      
leading men cast their eyes to ,england2
 it was then the most progressive       
nation in existence4 ,the leading men of
 that country were intimate with  the   
rulers of the ,french2 the books of each

 land were read with avidity  by their  
neighbors2 a difference was observable  
between the two3 but how  that          
difference was to be reconciled was past
 the skill of the wisest to  unravel4   
,england had liberal institutions1 and a
 people with part of the  substance1 and
 many of the forms of ,liberalism1 along
 with a degree of  education which kept 
them in comparative ignorance1 yet did  
not offer  any obstacles to raising     
themselves in the social sphere4 ,before
 ,france  could compete with ,england1  
she had to rid herself of the feudal    
system1  and obtain a ,magna ,charta4   
,she was above four centuries           
behind-hand  here4 ,she had to win her  
spurs through revolutions1 like those of
  ,cromwell's and that of #afhh1 and the
 still greater ones of ,parliament4     
,the ,freethinkers of ,england prepared 
the ,whig revolution of ,william1 by    
advocating the only scheme which was at 
the time practicable1 for of the        
two--the ,protestant and the ,catholic  

religion--the former is far more        
conducive to the liberties of a people  
than the latter1 and at the time1  and  
we may also say1 nearer the present1 the
 people were not prepared  for any      
organic change4 ,this being the case1 it
 is not to be wondered  at that the     
,french ,revolution was a failure as a  
constructive effort2  it was a success  
as a grand outbreak of power2 showing   
politicians where  7in the future7 to   
rely for success4 ,the men who undertook
 to bring  about this ,revolution are   
not to be censured for its non-success4 
,they  wished to copy ,english          
institutions1 and adapt them to those of
 the  ,french2 for this purpose1 the    
,continental ,league was formed1 each   
member  of which pledged himself to     
uproot1 as far as lay in his power1  the
 ,catholic ,church in ,france4 ,a secret
 name was given to  it--,l',infame--and 
an organized attack was speedily        
commenced4 ,the  men at the head of the 
movement1 besides ,voltaire and         

,frederick1 were  ,d',alembert1         
,diderot1 ,grim1 ,st4 ,lambert1         
,condillac1 ,helvetius1 ,jordan1        
,lalande1 ,montesquieu1 and a host of   
others of less note4 ,con-dorcet1  being
 secretary of the ,academy1 corresponded
 with1 and directed the  movements of   
all1 in the absence of his chief4 ,every
 new book was  criticised--refutations  
were published to the leading           
theological works  of the age2 but by   
far the roost effective progress was    
made by the  means of poems1 essays1    
romances1 epigrams1 and scientific      
papers4 ,the  songs of ,france at this  
era were written by the philosophers2   
and this  spirit was diffused among the 
people4 ,in a country so volatile and   
excitable as the ,french1 it is         
difficult to estimate too highly the    
power of a ballad warfare4 ,the morality
 of ,abbots and ,nuns were sung in      
strains as rhapsodical1 and couplets as 
voluptuous as the vagaries of  the      
,songs of ,solomon4    ,much discretion 

was required1 that no separate species  
of warfare should  be overdone1 lest a  
nausea of sentiment should revert upon  
the authors1  and thus lead to a        
reaction more sanguinary than the force 
of the  philosophers could control4 ,in 
all those cases ,condorcet was the prime
  mover and the agent concerned4 ,he    
communicated with ,voltaire on every    
new theory1 and advised him when and how
 to strike1 and when to rest4  ,in all  
those matters ,condorcet was obeyed4    
,there was a smaller section  of the    
more serious philosophers who           
sympathized with1 yet did not  labor    
simultaneously for the common           
cause--those men1 the extreme           
,atheists--clever but cautious--men who 
risked nothing--,mirabeau and           
,d',holbach were the types of this      
class4 ,it is well known that both      
,frederick1 ,voltaire1 and ,condorcet   
opposed those sections1 as likely to  be
 aiming at too much for the time4       
,when it was considered prudent to take 

a more decided step1 the  ,encyclopdia  
was formed4 ,condorcet had a principal  
part in this  work1 which shook         
priestcraft on its throne2 it spread    
consternation  where-ever it appeared1  
and was one of the main causes of the   
great  outbreak4 ,no one can            
sufficiently praise a work of such      
magnitude2 nor  can any one predicate   
when its effects will cease4    ,in the 
,life of ,condorcet1 by ,arago1 there is
 a curious extract copied  from a       
collection of anecdotes1 said to be     
compiled from his note-books1  and      
dignified with the title of ,mmoires de 
,condorcet4 ,it relates to  a           
conversation between the ,abbe ,galiana 
and ,diderot1 in which it is said       
,condorcet acquiesced4 ,the subject is  
the fair sex3--    ,diderot4--,how do   
you define woman8    ,galiana4--,an     
animal naturally feeble and sick4       
,diderot4--,feeble8 ,has she not as much
 courage as man8    ,galiana4--,do you  
know what courage is8 ,it is the effect 

of terror4 ,you  let your leg be cut    
off1 because you are afraid of dying4   
,wise people  are never courageous--they
 are prudent--that is to say1 poltroons4
    ,diderot4--,why call you woman      
naturally sick6    ,galiana4--,like all 
animals1 she is sick until she attains  
her perfect  growth4 ,then she has a    
peculiar symptom which takes up the     
fifth part  of her time4 ,then come     
breeding and nursing1 two long and      
troublesome  complaints4 ,in short1 they
 have only intervals of health1 until   
they turn a certain corner1 and then    
elles ne sont plus de malades           
peut-tre--elles ne sont que des reilles4
    ,diderot4--,observe her at a ball1  
no vigor1 then1 ,m4 l',abbe8            
,galiana4--,stop the fiddles6 put out   
the lights6 she will scarcely crawl  to 
her coach4    ,diderot4--,see her in    
love4    ,galiana4--,it is painful to   
see anybody in a fever4                 
,diderot4--,m4 l',abbe1 have you no     
faith in education8    ,galiana4--,not  

so much as in instinct4 ,a woman is     
habitually ill4 ,she is  affectionate1  
engaging1 irritable1 capricious1 easily 
offended1 easily  appeased1 a trifle    
amuses her4 ,the imagination is always  
in play4 ,fear1  hope1 joy1 despair1 and
 disgust1 follow each other more        
rapidly1 are  manifested more strongly1 
effaced more quickly1 than with us4     
,they like  a plentiful repose1 at      
intervals company2 anything for         
excitement4 ,ask  the doctor if it is   
not the same with his patients4 ,but ask
 yourself1  do we not all treat them as 
we do sick people1 lavish attention1    
soothe1  flatter1 caress1 and get tired 
of them8      ,condorcet1 in a letter1  
remarking on the above conversation1    
says3--,i  do not insist upon it as     
probable that woman will ever be ,euler 
or ,voltaire2 but ,i am satisfied that  
she may one day be ,pascal or           
,rousseau4 ,this very qualification1 we 
consider1 is sufficient to  absolve     
,condorcet from1 the charge of being a  

woman hater4 ,his  opponents1 when      
driven from every other source1 have    
fallen back on  this1 and alleged that  
he viewed the sexes as unequal1 and that
 the  stronger had a right to lord it   
over the weaker4 ,but which is the      
weaker8 ,euler and ,voltaire were       
masculine men4 ,a woman to be masculine1
  in the true sense of the word1 is an  
anomaly1 to be witnessed with pain4     
,she is not in a normal condition4 ,she 
is a monster4 ,women should live in     
society fully educated and developed in 
their physical frame1 and then  they    
would be more feminine in proportion as 
they approach the character  of ,mary   
,wollstonecraft4 ,they have no right to 
domineer as tyrants1 and  then fall into
 the most abject of slaves4 ,in each of 
the characters of  ,pascal and          
,rousseau1 was an excess of sensibility1
 which overbalanced  their other        
qualities1 and rendered their otherwise 
great talents  wayward1 and1 to a       
certain extent1 fruitless4 ,the         

peculiarity of man  is physical power1  
and intellectual force2 that of woman is
 an acute  sensibility4 ,condorcet1     
then1 was justified in expressing the   
opinions  he avowed upon the subject4   
,in a paper1 in the year #agff1 read    
before the ,academy1 on ,ought  ,popular
 ,errors to be ,eradicated6 ,condorcet  
says1 ,if the people  are often tempted 
to commit crimes in order that they may 
obtain the  necessaries of life1 it is  
the fault of the laws2 and1 as bad laws 
are  the product of errors1 it would be 
more simple to abolish those errors     
than to add others for the correction of
 their natural effects4 ,error1  no     
doubt1 may do some good2 it may prevent 
some crimes1 but it will  occasion      
mischiefs greater than these4 ,by       
putting nonsense into the  heads of the 
people1 you make them stupid2 and from  
stupidity to  ferocity there is but a   
step4 ,consider--if the motives you     
suggest  for being just make but a      
slight impression on the mind1 that will

 not  direct the conduct--if the        
impressions be lively1 they will produce
  enthusiasm1 and enthusiasm for error4 
,now1 the ignorant enthusiast is  no    
longer a man2 he is the most terrible of
 wild beasts4 ,in fact1 the  number of  
criminals among the men with prejudices 
7,christians7 is in  greater proportion 
to the total number of our population1  
than the  number of criminals in the    
class above prejudices 7,freethinkers7  
is to  the total of that class4 ,i am   
not ignorant that1 in the actual state  
of  ,europe1 the people are not1        
perhaps1 at all prepared for a true     
doctrine of morals2 but this degraded   
obtuseness is the work of social        
institutions and of superstitions4 ,men 
are not born blockheads2 they  become   
such4 ,by speaking reason to the people1
 even in the little time  they give to  
the cultivation of their intellect1 we  
might easily teach  them the little that
 it is necessary for them to know4 ,even
 the idea of  the respect that they     

should have for the property of the     
rich1 is  only difficult to be          
insinuated among them--first1 because   
they look  on riches as a sort of       
usurpation1 of theft perpetrated upon   
them1 and  unhappily this opinion is in 
great part true--secondly1 because their
  excessive poverty makes them always   
consider themselves in the case of      
absolute necessity--a case in which even
 very severe moralists have been  of    
their mind--thirdly1 because they are as
 much despised and maltreated  for being
 poor1 as they would be after they had  
lowered themselves by  larcenies4 ,it is
 merely1 therefore1 because institutions
 are bad1 that  the people are so       
commonly a little thievish upon         
principle4    ,we should have much liked
 to have given some extended quotations 
from  the works of ,condorcet2 but1     
owing to their general character1 we    
cannot  extract any philosophic formula 
which would be generally interesting4   
,his ,lettres d'un ,thologien are well  

deserving of a reprint2 they  created an
 astounding sensation when they         
appeared1 being taken for the  work of  
,voltaire--the light1 easy1 graceful    
style1 with deeply concealed  irony1 the
 crushing retort and the fiery sarcasm4 
,they made even priests  laugh by their 
,attic wit and incongruous similes4 ,but
 it was in the  ,academy where          
,condorcet's influence was supreme4 ,he 
immortalized the  heroes as they fell1  
and pushed the cause on by his          
professional duties4  ,he was always    
awake to the call of duty1 and nobly did
 he work his  battery4 ,he is now in the
 last grand sleep of man--the flowers of
 poesy  are woven in amarynth wreaths   
over his tomb4    ,a4,c4                
,,spinoza4    ,baruch ,spinoza1 or      
,espinoza1 better known under the name  
of ,benedict  ,spinoza 7as rendered by  
himself in the ,latin language17 was    
born at  ,amsterdam1 in ,holland1 on the
 #bdth of ,november1 #afcb4 ,there is   
some  uncertainty as to this date1 as   

there are several dates fixed by        
different authors1 both for his birth   
and death1 but we have adopted the      
biography given by ,dr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,bruder1
 in the preface to his edition  of      
,spinoza's works4 ,his parents were     
,jews of the middle1 or1 perhaps1       
somewhat humbler class4 ,his father was 
originally a ,spanish merchant1  who1 to
 escape persecution1 had emigrated to   
,holland4 ,although the  life of our    
great philosopher is one full of        
interesting incidents1  and deserves to 
be treated fully1 we have but room to   
give a very brief  sketch1 referring our
 readers1 who may wish to learn more of 
,spinoza's  life1 to ,lewes's           
,biographical ,history of ,philosophy1  
,westminster  ,review1 ,no4 #gg1 and    
,encyclopdia ,brittannica4 p4 #add4 ,his
 doctrines  we will let speak for       
themselves in his own words1 trusting   
thereby to  give the reader an          
opportunity of knowing who and what     
,spinoza really  was4 ,one man shrinks  

with horror from him as an ,atheist4    
,voltaire  says1 that he was an         
,atheist1 and taught ,atheism4 ,another 
calls him a  ,god-intoxicated man4 ,we  
present him a mighty thinker1 a master  
mind1  a noble1 fearless utterer of free
 and noble thoughts1 a hard-working1    
honest1 independent man2 as one who1 two
 centuries ago1 gave forth to  the world
 a series of thinkings which have       
crushed1 with resistless  force1 the    
theological shell in the centre of which
 the priests hide  the kernel truth4    
,spinoza appears in his boyhood to have 
been an apt scholar1 and to have        
rapidly mastered the tasks set him by   
his teachers4 ,full of rabbinical  lore 
he won the admiration of the ,rabbi     
,moses ,mortira1 but the pupil  rose    
higher than his master1 and attempted to
 solve problems which the  learned      
rabbis were content to reverence as     
mysteries not capable  of solution4     
,first they remonstrated1 then          
threatened2 still ,spinoza  persevered  

in his studies1 and in making known the 
result to those  around him4 ,he was    
threatened with excommunication1 and    
withdrew himself  from the synagogue4   
,one more effort was made by the rabbis1
 who offered  ,spinoza a pension of     
about #ajj a-year if he would attend the
  synagogue more frequently1 and consent
 to be silent with regard to  his       
philosophical thinkings4 ,this offer he 
indignantly refused4 ,reason  failing1  
threats proving futile1 and gold being  
treated with scorn1  one was found      
sufficiently fanatic to try a further   
experiment1 which  resulted in an       
attempt on ,spinoza's life2 the knife1  
however1 luckily  missed its aim1 and   
our hero escaped4 ,at last1 in the year 
#affj1  ,spinoza1 being then            
twenty-eight years of age1 was solemnly 
excommunicated from the synagogue4 ,his 
friends and relations shut their  doors 
against him4 ,an outcast from the home  
of his youth1 he gained  a humble       
livelihood by polishing glasses for     

microscopes1 telescopes1  etc41 at which
 he was very expert4 ,while thus        
acquiring1 by his own  handiwork1 the   
means of subsistence1 he was studying   
hard1 devoting  every possible hour to  
philosophical research4 ,spinoza became 
master of  the ,dutch1 ,hebrew1 ,german1
 ,spanish1 ,portuguese1 and ,latin      
languages1 the  latter of which he      
acquired in the house of one ,francis   
,van den ,ende1  from whom it is more   
than probable he received as much       
instruction in  ,atheism as in ,latin4  
,spinoza only appears to have once      
fallen in love1  and this was with ,van 
den ,ende's daughter1 who was herself a 
good  linguist1 and who gave ,spinoza   
instruction in ,latin4 ,she1 however1   
although willing to be his instructress 
and companion in a philogical  path1    
declined to accept his love1 and thus   
,spinoza was left to  philosophy alone4 
,after his excommunication he retired to
 ,rhynsburg1  near the ,city of ,leyden1
 in ,holland1 and there studied the     

works of  ,descartes4 ,three years      
afterwards he published an abridgment of
 the  ,meditations of the great father  
of philosophy1 which created a  profound
 sensation4 ,in an appendix to this     
abridgment were contained the  germs of 
those thinkings in which the pupil      
outdid the master1 and the  student     
progressed beyond the philosopher4 ,in  
the month of ,june1 #affd1  ,spinoza    
removed to ,woorburg1 a small village   
near the ,hague1 where he  was visited  
by persons from different parts1        
attracted by his fame as a  philosopher2
 and at last1 after many solicitations  
he came to the  ,hague1 and resided     
there altogether4 ,in #afgj he published
 his ,tractatus  ,theologico-,politicus4
 ,this raised him a host of opponents2  
many writers  rushed eager for the fray1
 to tilt with the poor ,dutch ,jew4 ,his
 book was  officially condemned and     
forbidden1 and a host of refutations 787
 were  circulated against it4 ,in spite 
of the condemnation it has outlived the 

refutations4    ,spinoza died on the    
#bast or #bbnd of ,february1 #afgg1 in  
his forty-fifth  year1 and was buried on
 the #beth of ,february at the ,hague4  
,he was frugal  in his habits1          
subsisting independently on the earnings
 of his own  hands4 ,honorable in all   
things1 he refused to accept the chair  
of  ,professor of ,philosophy1 offered  
to him by the ,elector1 and this because
  he did not wish to be circumscribed in
 his thinking1 or in the freedom  of    
utterance of his thoughts4 ,he also     
refused a pension offered to him  by    
,louis ,,xiv1 saying that he had no     
intention of dedicating  anything to    
that monarch4 ,the following is a list  
of ,spinoza's  works3--,principiorum    
,philosophise ,renati ,descartes2       
,tractatus  ,theologico-,politicus2     
,ethica2 ,tractatus ,politi-cus2 ,de    
,emandatione  ,intellectus2 ,epistol2   
,grammaticus ,hebrac1 etc4 ,there are   
also  several spurious works ascribed to
 ,spinoza4 ,the ,tractatus ,politicus   

has been translated into ,english by    
,william ,maccall1 who seems fully to   
appreciate the greatness of the         
philosopher1 although he will not admit 
the usefulness of ,spinoza's logic4     
,maccall does not see the utility of    
that very logic which compelled him to  
admit ,spinoza's truth4 ,we are not     
aware of any other translation of       
,spinoza's works except that of a  small
 portion of his ,ethica1 by ,lewes4     
,this work1 which was originally        
published in #afgg1 commenced with eight
 definitions1 which1 together  with the 
following axioms and propositions1 were 
reprinted from the  ,westminster ,review
 in the ,library of ,reason3--          
,,definitions4    ,i4 ,by cause of      
itself ,i understand that1 the essence  
of which involves  existence3 or that1  
the nature of which can only be         
considered as  existent4    ,,ii4 ,a    
thing finite is that which can be       
limited 7terminari potest7  by another  
thing of the same nature--ergo1 body is 

said to be finite  because it can always
 be conceived as larger4 ,so thought is 
limited by  other thoughts4 ,but body   
does not limit thought1 nor thought     
limit body4    ,,iii4 ,by substance ,i  
understand that which is in itself1 and 
is conceived  per se--that is1 the      
conception of which does not require the
  conception of anything else as        
antecedent to it4    ,,iv4 ,by attribute
 ,i understand that which the mind      
perceives as  constituting the very     
essence of substance4    ,v4 ,by modes  
,i understand the accidents             
7affectiones7 of substance2 or  that    
which is in something else1 through     
which also it is conceived4    ,,vi4 ,by
 ,god ,i understand the being absolutely
 infinite2 that is1 the  substance      
consisting of infinite attributes1 each 
of which expresses an  infinite and     
eternal essence4    ,explication1 ,i say
 absolutely infinite1 but not in suo    
genere2 for  to whatever is infinite1   
but not in suo genere1 we can deny      

infinite  attributes2 but that which is 
absolutely infinite1 to its essence     
pertains everything which implies       
essence1 and involves no negation4      
,,vii4 ,that thing is said to be free   
which exists by the sole necessity  of  
its nature1 and by itself alone is      
determined to action4 ,but that is      
necessary1 or rather constrained1 which 
owes its existence to another1  and acts
 according to certain and determinate   
causes4    ,,viii4 ,by eternity ,i      
understand existence itself1 in as far  
as it is  conceived necessarily to      
follow from the sole definition of an   
eternal  thing4      ,,axioms4    ,i4   
,everything which is1 is in itself1 or  
in some other thing4    ,,ii4 ,that     
which cannot be conceived through       
another1 per aliud must be  conceived1  
per se4    ,,iii4 ,from a given         
determinate cause the effect necessarily
 follows1 and  vice versa4 ,if no       
determinate cause be given1 no effect   
can follow4    ,,iv4 ,the knowledge of  

an effect depends on the knowledge of   
the cause1  and includes it4    ,v4     
,things that have nothing in common with
 each other cannot be  understood by    
means of each other--that is1 the       
conception of one1 does  not involve the
 conception of the other4    ,,vi4 ,a   
true idea must agree with its original  
in nature4    ,,vii4 ,whatever can be   
clearly conceived as non-existent does  
not1 in its  essence1 involve existence4
      ,,propositions4    ,i4 ,substance 
is prior in nature to its accidents4    
,demonstration4 ,per  definitions three 
and five4    ,,ii4 ,two substances1     
having different attributes1 have       
nothing in common  with each other4     
,dem4 ,this follows from def4 three2 for
 each substance  must be conceived in   
itself and through itself2 in other     
words1 the  conception of one does not  
involve the conception of the other4    
,,iii4 ,of things which have nothing in 
common1 one cannot be the cause of  the 
other4 ,dem4 ,if they have nothing in   

common1 then 7per axiom five7  they     
cannot be conceived by means of each    
other2 ergo 7per axiom  four17 one      
cannot be the cause of the other4--,q4  
,e4 ,d4    ,,iv4 ,two or more distinct  
things are distinguished among          
themselves1  either through the         
diversity of their attributes1 or       
through that of  their modes4 ,dem4     
,everything which is1 in itself1 or in  
some other thing  7per ax4 one7--that is
 7per def4 three and five17 there is    
nothing out  of ourselves 7extra        
intellectum1 outside the intellect7 but 
substance  and its modes4 ,there is     
nothing out of ourselves whereby things 
can be  distinguished amongst one       
another1 except substances1 or 7which is
 the  same thing1 per def4 lour7 their  
attributes and modes4    ,v4 ,it is     
impossible that there should be two or  
more substances of the  same nature1 or 
of the same attributes4 ,dem4 ,if there 
are many different  substances they must
 be distinguished by the diversity of   

their  attributes or of their modes 7per
 prop4 #d47 ,if only by the diversity   
of their attributes1 it is thereby      
conceded that there is1 nevertheless1   
only one substance of the same          
attribute2 but if their diversity of    
modes1 then1 substance being prior in   
order of time to its modes1 it  must be 
considered independent of them--that is 
7per def4 three and  six17 cannot be    
conceived as distinguished from         
another--that is  7per prop1 four17     
there cannot be many substances1 but    
only one  substance4--,q4 ,e4 ,d4       
,,vi4 ,one substance cannot be created  
by another substance4 ,dem4 ,there      
cannot be two substances with the same  
attributes 7per prop1 five7--that  is   
7per prop4 two17 that hare anything in  
common with each other2 and1  therefore 
7per prop1 three17 one cannot be the    
cause of the other4    ,corollary #a4   
,hence it follows that substance cannot 
be created by  anything else4 ,for there
 is nothing in nature except substance  

and its  modes 7per axiom one1 and def4 
three and five47 ,now1 this substance1  
not  being produced by another1 is      
self-caused4    ,corollary #b4 ,this    
proposition is more easily to be        
demonstrated by the  absurdity of its   
contradiction2 for if substance can be  
produced by  anything else1 the         
conception of it would depend on the    
conception of  the cause 7per axiom     
four17 and hence 7per def4 three17 it   
would not be  substance4    ,,vii4 ,it  
pertains to the nature of substance to  
exist4 ,dem4 ,substance  cannot be      
produced by anything else 7per coroli4  
prop1 six17 and is  therefore the cause 
of itself--that is 7per def4 one17 its  
essence  necessarily involves existence2
 or it pertains to the nature of        
substance to exist4--,q4 ,e4 ,d4        
,,viii4 ,all substance is necessarily   
infinite4 ,dem4 ,there exists but one   
substance of the same attribute2 and it 
must either exist as infinite or        
finite4 ,but not finite1 for 7per def4  

two7 as finite it must be limited  by   
another substance of the same nature1   
and in that case there would be  two    
substances of the same attributes1 which
 7per prop1 five7 is absurd4  ,substance
 therefore is infinite4--,q4 ,e4 ,d4    
,scholium ,i4--,i do not doubt but that 
to all who judge confusedly  of things1 
and are not wont to inquire into first  
causes1 it will be  difficult to admit  
the demonstration of prop4 #g1 because  
they do not  sufficiently distinguish   
between the modifications of substances1
 and  substances themselves1 and are    
ignorant of the manner in which things  
are produced4 ,hence it follows1 that   
the commencement which they see  natural
 things have1 they attribute to         
substances2 for he who knows not  the   
true cause of things1 confounds all     
things1 and feigns that trees  talk like
 men2 that men are formed from stones as
 well as from seeds1  and that all forms
 can be changed into all other forms4   
,so1 also1 those  who confound the      

divine nature with the human1 naturally 
attribute  human affections to ,god1    
especially as they are ignorant of how  
these  affections are produced in the   
mind4 ,if men attended to the nature of 
substance1 they would not1 in the least1
 doubt proposition seven2 nay1  this    
proposition would be an axiom to all1   
and would be numbered among  common     
notions4 ,for by substance they would   
understand that which exists  in itself1
 and is concerned through itself--i4e41 
the knowledge of  which does not require
 the knowledge of anything as antecedent
 to it4  ,but by modification they would
 understand that which is in another    
thing1 the conception of which is formed
 by the conception of the thing  in     
which it is1 or to which it belongs4 ,we
 can have1 therefore1 correct  ideas of 
non-existent modifications1 because1    
although out of the  understanding they 
have no reality1 yet their essence is so
 comprehended  in that of another1 that 
they can be conceived through this      

other4  ,the truth of substance 7out of 
the understanding7 lies nowhere but in  
itself1 because it is conceived per se4 
,if therefore any one says  he has a    
clear idea of substance1 and yet doubt  
whether such substance  exist1 this     
would be as much as to say that he has a
 true idea1 and  nevertheless doubts    
whether it be not false 7as a little    
attention  sufficiently manifests27 or  
if any man affirms substance to be      
created1  he at the same time affirms   
that a true idea has become false1 than 
which nothing can be more absurd4 ,hence
 it is necessarily confessed that  the  
existence of substance1 as well as its  
essence1 is an eternal truth4  ,and     
hence we must conclude that there is    
only one substance possessing  the same 
attribute1 which requires here a fuller 
development4 ,i note  therefore--#a4    
,that the correct definition of a thing 
includes and  expresses nothing but the 
nature of the thing defined4 ,from which
  follows--#b4 ,that no definition      

includes or expresses a distinct number 
of individuals1 because it expresses    
nothing but the nature of the thing     
defined2 ergo1 the definition of a      
triangle expresses no more than the     
nature of a triangle1 and not any fixed 
number of triangles4 #c4 ,there  must   
necessarily be a distinct cause for the 
existence of every existing  thing4 #d4 
,this cause1 by reason of which anything
 exists1 must either be  contained in   
the nature and definition of the        
existing thing 7viz41 that  it pertains 
to its nature to exist17 or else must be
 beyond it--must be  something different
 from it4    ,as therefore it pertains  
to the nature of substance to exist1 so 
must  its definition include a necessary
 existence1 and consequently from  its  
sole definition we must conclude its    
existence4 ,but as from its  definition1
 as already shown in notes two and      
three1 it is not possible  to conclude  
the existence of many substances--ergo1 
it necessarily  follows that only one   

substance of the same nature can exist4 
,it will be necessary for the reader to 
remember that ,spinoza commenced  his   
philosophical studies at the same point 
with ,descartes4 ,both  recognized      
existence as the primal fact1           
self-evident and indisputable4    ,but  
while ,descartes had1 in some manner1   
fashioned a quality--,god and           
,god-created substance--,spinoza only   
found one1 substance1 the definition  of
 which included existence4 ,by his      
fourth proposition 7of things which     
have nothing in common1 one cannot be   
the cause of the other1 7 he  destroyed 
the creation theory1 because by that    
theory ,god is assumed to  be a spirit  
having nothing in common with matter1   
yet acting on  matter2 and ,lewes speaks
 of the fourth proposition in the       
following  terms3--,this fallacy has    
been one of the most influential        
corrupters  of philosophical            
speculation4 ,for many years it was     
undisputed1 and most  metaphysicians    

still adhere to it4 ,the assertion is   
that only like can  act upon like2 but  
although it is true that like produces  
7causes7  like1 it is also true that    
like produces unlike2 thus fire produces
  pain when applied to our bodies2      
explosion when applied to gunpowder2    
charcoal when applied to wood2 all these
 effects are unlike the  cause4 ,we     
cannot help thinking that in this       
instance1 the usually  thoughtful ,lewes
 has either confused substance with its 
modes1 or1 for  the sake of producing a 
temporary effect1 has descended to mere 
sophism4  ,spinoza's proposition is1    
that substances having nothing in       
common1  cannot act on one another4     
,lewes deals with several modes of the  
same  substance as though they were     
different substances4 ,way1 more1 to    
make his argument the more plausible1 he
 entirely ignores in it that  noumenon  
of which he speaks as underlying all    
phenomena1 and uses each  phenomenon as 
a separate existence4 ,in each of the   

instances mentioned1  however varied may
 be the modification1 the essence is the
 same4 ,they  are merely examples of one
 portion of the whole acting upon       
another  portion1 and there is that in  
each mode which is common to the whole1 
and by means of which the action takes  
place4    ,much has been said of        
,spinoza's ,god and ,divine ,substance1 
and we  must refer the reader to        
,definition ,six1 in which ,god is      
defined as  being infinite substance4   
,now1 although we should be content to  
strike  the word ,god out of our own    
tablet of philosophical nomenclature1 as
  being a much misused1 misrepresented1 
and entirely useless word1 yet we  must 
be very careful1 when we find another   
man using the word1 to get  his precise 
definition1 and not to use any-other    
ourselves while in his  company4        
,spinoza1 when asked ,what name do you  
attach to infinite substance8  says1    
,god4--,if he had said any other word we
 could not have quarrelled  with him so 

long as he defined the word1 and adhered
 strictly to the  terms of his          
definition1 although we might regret    
that he had not either  coined a word   
for himself1 or used one less maltreated
 by the mass4  ,spinoza said1 ,i can    
only take cognizance of one substance   
7of which  ,i am part7 having infinite  
attributes of extension and thought4 ,i 
take cognizance of substance by its     
modes1 and in my consciousness of       
existence4 ,every thing is a mode of the
 attribute of extension1 every  thought1
 wish1 or feeling1 a mode of the        
attribute of thought4 ,i call  this1    
substance1 with infinite attributes1    
,god4 ,spinoza1 like all other          
thinkers1 found himself overpowered by  
the illimitable vastness of the         
infinite when attempting to grasp it by 
his mental powers1 but unlike  other men
 he did not endeavor to relieve himself 
by separating himself  from that        
infinite2 but1 knowing he was a part of 
the whole1 not  divisible from the      

remainder1 he was content to aim at     
perfecting his  knowledge of existence  
rather than at dogmatising upon an      
indefinable  word1 which1 if it         
represented anything1 professed to      
represent an  incomprehensible existence
 far beyond his reach4    ,we ought not 
to wonder that in many parts of         
,spinoza's writings we find  the word   
,god treated in a less coherent manner  
than would be  possible under the       
definition given in his ,ethics1 and for
 these  reasons3--,spinoza1 from his    
cradle upwards1 had been surrounded with
  books and traditions sanctified by the
 past1 and impressed on his  willing    
mind by his family1 his tutors1 and the 
heads of his church2 a  mind like his   
gathered all that was given1 even more  
quickly than it was  offered1 still     
craving for more--more light--more      
light--and at last  light came bursting 
on the young thinker like a lightning   
flash at dark  midnight1 revealing his  
mind in chains1 which had been cast     

round him in  his nursery1 his school1  
his college1 his synagogue4 ,by a mighty
  effort he burst these chains1 and     
walked forth a free man1 despite the    
entreaties of his family1 the reasonings
 of the rabbis1 the knife of the        
fanatic1 the curse of his church1 and   
the edict of the state4 ,but should  it 
be a matter of surprise to us that some 
of the links of those broken  chains    
should still hang on the young          
philosopher1 and1 seeming to be a  part 
of himself1 almost imperceptibly incline
 to old ways of thinking1  and to old   
modes of utterance of those thoughts6   
,wonder not that a few  links bang about
 him1 but rather that he ever succeeded 
in breaking  those chains at all4       
,spinoza1 after his secession from his  
synagogue1  became logically an         
,atheist2 education and early           
impressions enlarged  this into a less  
clearly-defined ,pantheism2 but the     
logic comes to  us naked1 disrobed of   
all by which it might have been         

surrounded in  ,spinoza's mind4 ,if that
 logic be correct1 then all the         
theologies of  the world are false4 ,we 
have presented it to the reader to judge
 of  for himself4 ,many men have written
 against it2 of these some have         
misunderstood1 some have misrepresented1
 some have failed1 and few have  left us
 a proof that they had endeavored to    
deal with ,spinoza on his own  ground4  
,maccall says1 ,in the glorious throng  
of heroic names1 there  are few nobler  
than ,spinoza's4 ,apart altogether from 
the estimate we may  form of his        
philosophy1 there is something          
unspeakably interesting in  the life and
 the character of the man4 ,in his      
metaphysical system there  are two      
things exceedingly distinct4 ,there is1 
first1 the immense  and prodigious1 but 
terrible mathematical skeleton1 which   
his subtle  intellect binds up and      
throws as calmly into space as we drop a
 pebble  into the water1 and whose      
bones1 striking against the wreck of all

 that  is sacred in belief1 or bold in  
speculation1 rattle a wild response to  
our wildest phantasies1 and drive us    
almost to think in despair that         
thinking is madness2 and there is1      
secondly1 the divinest vision of the    
infinite1 and the divinest incense which
 the intuition of the infinite  ever yet
 poured forth at the altar of creation4 
,the ,treatise on ,politics is not      
,spinoza's greatest work2 it is1 in  all
 respects1 inferior to the ,ethics1 and 
to the ,theologico-,political           
,treatise4 ,but there are in politics   
certain eternal principles1 and it  is  
for setting forth and elucidating these 
that the ,treatise of ,spinoza  is so   
valuable4    ,in the second chapter of  
that ,treatise1 after defining what he  
means by  nature1 etc41 he1 on the sixth
 section1 proceeds as follows3--,but    
many  believe that the ignorant disturb 
more than follow the order of nature1   
and conceive of men in nature as a state
 within the state4 ,for they  assert    

that the human mind has not been        
produced by any natural causes1  but    
created immediately by ,god1 and thereby
 rendered so independent of  other      
things as to have absolute power of     
determining itself1 and of  using reason
 aright4 ,but experience teaches us more
 than enough1 that it  is no more in our
 power to have a sound mind than a sound
 body4 ,since1  moreover1 everything1 as
 far as it is able1 strives to conserve 
its  being1 we cannot doubt that if it  
were equally in our power to live       
according to the prescripts of reason1  
as to be led by blind desire1  all would
 seek the guidance of reason and live   
wisely1 which is not the  case4 ,for    
every one is the slave of the particular
 pleasure to which  he is most attached4
 ,nor do theologians remove the         
difficulty when they  assert that this  
inability is a vice1 or a sin of human  
nature1 which  derives its origin from  
the fall of the first parent4 ,for if it
 was in  the power of the first man to  

stand rather than to fall1 and if he was
  sound in faculty1 and had perfect     
control over his own mind1 how did it   
happen that he1 the wise and prudent1   
fell8 ,but they say he was deceived  and
 tempted by the devil4 ,but who was it  
that led astray and tempted  the devil  
himself8 ,who1 ,i ask1 rendered this the
 most excellent of  intelligent         
creatures so mad1 that he wished to be  
greater than ,god8  ,could he render    
himself thus mad--he who had a sane     
mind1 and strove as  much as in him lay 
to conserve his being8 ,how1 moreover1  
could it happen  that the first man in  
possession of his entire mental         
faculties1 and  master of his will1     
should be both open to temptation1 and  
suffer  himself to be robbed of his     
mind8 ,for if he had the power of using 
his  reason aright1 he could not be     
deceived2 for as far as in him lay1 he  
necessarily sought to conserve his own  
being1 and the sanity of  his mind4 ,but
 it is supposed he had this in his      

power1 therefore he  necessarily        
conserved his sane mind1 neither could  
he be deceived4  ,which is evidently    
false from his history2 and1            
consequently1 it must be  granted that  
it was not in the power of the first    
person to use reason  aright1 but that  
he1 like us1 was subject to passions4   
,spinoza is scarcely likely to become a 
great favorite with the ,woman's        
,rights ,convention4 ,in his ninth      
chapter of the same ,treatise1 he says1 
,if by nature women were equal to men1  
and excelled as much as they in         
strength of mind and in talent1 truly   
amongst nations1 so many and  so        
different1 some would be found where    
both sexes ruled equally1 and  others   
where the men were ruled by the women1  
and so educated as to  be inferior to   
them in talent2 but as this has never   
happened1 we are  justified in assuming 
that women1 by nature1 have not an equal
 right  with men1 but that they are     
necessarily obedient to men1 and thus it

 can  never happen that both sexes can  
equally rule1 and still less that men   
be ruled by women4    ,lewes1 in his    
seventh chapter on ,modern ,philosophy1 
thus sums up  ,spinoza's teachings and  
their result4 ,he says3--    ,the       
doctrine of ,spinoza was of great       
importance1 if for nothing more  than   
having brought about the first crisis in
 modern philosophy4 ,his  doctrine was  
so clearly stated1 and so rigorously    
deduced from admitted  premises1 that he
 brought philosophy into this dilemma3--
    ',either my premises are correct2   
and we must admit that every clear  and 
distinct idea is absolutely true2 true  
not only subjectively1 but  objectively4
    ',if so1 my objection is true2      
',or my premises are false2 the voice of
 consciousness is not the voice  of     
truth2    ',and if so1 then is my system
 false1 but all philosophy is           
impossible2  since the only ground of   
certitude--our consciousness--is        
pronounced  unstable1 our only means of 

knowing the truth is pronounced         
fallacious4'    ,spinozism or           
scepticism1 choose between them1 for you
 have no other  choice4    ,mankind     
refused1 however1 to make a choice4 ,if 
the principles which  ,descartes had    
established could have no other result  
than ,spinozism1 it  was worth while    
inquiring whether those principles might
 not themselves  be modified4    ,the   
ground of discussion was shifted1       
psychology took the place of  ontology4 
,it was ,descartes's theory of knowledge
 which led to ,spinozism2  that theory  
must therefore he examined2 that theory 
becomes the great  subject of           
discussion4 ,before deciding upon the   
merits of any system  which embraced the
 great questions of creation1 the       
,deity1 immortality1  etc41 men saw that
 it was necessary to decide upon the    
competency of the  human mind to solve  
such problems4 ,all knowledge must be   
obtained either  through experience or  
independent of experience4 ,knowledge   

dependent on  experience must           
necessarily be merely knowledge of      
phenomena4 ,all are  agreed that        
experience can only be experience of    
ourselves as modified  by objects4 ,all 
are agreed that to know things per      
se--noumena--we  must know them through 
some other channel then experience4     
,have we or  have we not that other     
channel8 ,this is the problem4    ,thus1
 before we can dogmatize upon on to     
logical subjects1 we must  settle this  
question--,can we transcend the sphere  
of our consciousness1  and know things  
per se8    ,i4          ,,anthony       
,,collins4    ,freethought1 as developed
 in the ,deistic straggles of the       
seventeenth  century1 had to battle for 
existence against the ,puritanic        
reaction  which took its second rise    
from the worn-out licentious age of the 
last  of the ,stuarts1 and that of the  
no less dangerous 7though concealed7    
libertinism of the ,dutch king4 ,a      
religious rancor also arose which1 but  

for the influence of a new power1 would 
have re-enacted the tragedy of          
religious persecution4 ,but this rancor 
became somewhat modified1 from  the fact
 that the various parties now were      
unlike the old schismatics1  who were   
each balanced at the opposite ends of   
the same pole--extreme  ,papacy on the  
one hand1 and ,fifth-monarchists on the 
other--when  each oscillation from the  
,protestant centre deranged the balance 
of  enthusiasm1 and drove it to the     
farthest verge of fanaticism1 until all 
religious parties were hurled into one  
chaos of disunion4 ,such were the       
frequent changes of the seventeenth     
century--but at its close the  power of 
,deism had evolved a platform on which  
was to be fought the  hostilities of    
creeds4 ,here1 then1 could not exist    
that commingling of  sects1 which were  
deducible in all their varied           
extravagance from the  ,bible4 ,theology
 had no longer to fight with itself1 but
 with philosophy4  ,metaphysics became  

the ,jehu of opinion1 and sought to     
drive its chariot  through the fables of
 the saints4 ,the old doctrines had to  
be re-stated  to meet new foes4 ,for the
 ,papists1 ,nonconformists1 and         
,brownists1 were  excluded to make way  
for the ,british ,illuminati1 who spread
 as much  consternation through ,england
 as did the ,french ,encyclopdists      
across  ,europe4 ,the new field of      
action was only planned1 for when       
,catholicism  first opposed             
,protestantism1 its leaders little      
thought what a ,pandoric  box it was    
opening--nor did the ,divines of the    
latter sect ever  doubt the finality of 
their own doctrines4 ,they wished to    
replace one  infallibility by another4  
,and the same charge can be             
substantiated  against ,deism4 ,when in 
this ,augustan age the ,free-thinking   
leaders1  fresh from the trammels of    
,christism1 first took the name of      
,moral  ,philosophers1 they little knew 
they were paving the way for an ,atheism

  they so much dreaded--a democracy more
 unbridled than their most              
constitutional wishes--a political      
economy to be tried for half a  century1
 and then to be discarded--a            
revolutionary fervor which should       
plough up ,europe1 and then give place  
to a ,communism1 which the  first       
founders of this national agitation     
would have gazed upon with  amazement1  
and shrunk from with despair4 ,such is  
the progress of change4  ,the rise of   
the ,deistic movement may be defined in 
a sentence4 ,it was  the old struggle of
 speculative opinion shifting its       
battle-ground from  theology to         
philosophy1 prior to the one being      
discarded1 and the other  developed into
 positive science4    ,amongst the most 
distinguished of these reformers1 stands
 the name of  ,anthony ,collins4    ,who
 and what he was1 we have little        
opportunity of knowing1 save from  the  
scattered notices of contemporaries2 but
 sufficient is left on  record to prove 

him one of the best of men1 and the very
 ,corypheus of  ,deism4 ,the twin       
questions of ,necessity and ,prophecy   
have been examined  by him perhaps more 
ably than by any other liberal author4  
,there are  slight discrepancies in     
relation to the great events of his     
life4 ,the  ,abbe ,lodivicat says he was
 born ,june #bast1 #afgf1 of a rich and 
noble  family1 at ,heston1 in           
,middlesex1 and was appointed treasurer 
of the  county2 but another account says
 ,hounslow1 which we think was the more 
likely place4 ,he was educated at ,eton 
and ,cambridge4 ,he studied for  the bar
 for sometime1 but 7being wealthy7      
ultimately renounced  jurisprudence1    
while his youthful studies admirably    
fitted him for  his subsequent          
magisterial duties4 ,he was clever1     
honest1 learned1 and  esteemed by all   
who knew his character4 ,the elder      
,d',israeli says1 that  he was a great  
lover of literature1 and a man of fine  
genius1 while his  morals were          

immaculate1 and his personal character  
independent4    ,the friendship of      
,locke alone is sufficient to stamp the 
character of  ,collins with honor1 and  
he was one of the most valued friends of
 this  great man4 ,in a volume published
 by ,p4 ,des ,maizeaux 7a writer we     
shall  have occasion to notice7 in the  
year #agbj1 containing a collection of  
the posthumous works of ,locke1 there   
are several letters addressed to        
,collins which fully substantiate our   
opinion4 ,locke was then an old man1    
residing in the country1 and ,collins   
was a young man in ,london1 who took  a 
pleasure in executing the commissions of
 his illustrious friend4 ,in  one of    
them1 dated ,october #bith1 #agjc1 he   
says--,if ,i were now setting  out in   
the world1 ,i should think it my        
greatest happiness to have such a       
companion as you1 who had a true relish 
of truth1 would in earnest seek  it with
 me1 from whom ,i might receive it      
undisguised1 and to whom  ,i might      

communicate what ,i thought true1       
freely4 ,believe it my good  friend1 to 
love truth for truth's sake1 is the     
principal part of human  perfection in  
this world1 and the seed-plot of all    
other virtue2 and1  if ,i mistake not1  
you have as much of it as ever ,i met   
with in anybody4  ,what1 then1 is there 
wanting to make you equal to the best--a
 friend for  any one to be proud of8    
,during the following year the          
correspondence of ,locke appears in a   
most  interesting light--the            
affectionate inquiries1 the kind advice1
 and the  most grateful acknowledgments 
are made to ,collins4 ,on ,sept4 #aath1 
,locke  writes3--,he that has anything  
to do with you1 must own that friendship
  is the natural product of your        
constitution1 and your soul1 a noble    
soil1 is enriched with the two most     
valuable qualities of human             
nature--truth and friendship4 ,what a   
treasure have ,i then in such a  friend 
with whom ,i can converse1 and be       

enlightened about the highest           
speculations6 ,on the #ast of ,october  
he wrote ,collins on his rapid  decay1  
,but this1 ,i believe1 he will assure   
you1 that my infirmities  prevail so    
fast on me1 that unless you make haste  
hither1 ,i may lose the  satisfaction of
 ever seeing again a man that ,i value  
in the first rank  of those ,i leave    
behind me4 ,this was written            
twenty-seven days before  his death4    
,four days before his decease1 he wrote 
a letter to be given  to ,collins after 
his death4 ,this document is one of the 
most important  in relation to the life 
of the great ,freethinker--it           
irrefragably proves  the falsity of     
everything that may be alleged against  
the character of  ,collins3--    ,oates1
 ,august #bc1 #agjd4 ,for ,anthony      
,collins1 ,esq4    ,dear ,sir--,by my   
will1 you will see that ,i had some     
kindness for 99 99 99  ,and ,i knew no  
better way to take care of him1 than to 
put him1 and what  ,i designed for him1 

into your hands and management4 ,the    
knowledge ,i  have of your virtues of   
all kinds1 secures the trust1 which1 by 
your  permission1 ,i have placed in you2
 and the peculiar esteem and love ,i    
have observed in the young man for you1 
will dispose him to be ruled and        
influenced by you1 so of that ,i need   
say nothing4 ,may you live long  and    
happy1 in the enjoyment of health1      
freedom1 content1 and all those         
blessings which ,providence has bestowed
 on1 you1 and your virtues  entitle you 
to4 ,i know you loved me living1 and    
will preserve my memory  now ,i am dead4
 99 99 99 ,i leave my best wishes with  
you4    ,john ,locke4      ,such is the 
honorable connection which existed      
between ,locke and  ,collins4 ,collins's
 first publication was a tract1 ,several
 of the ,london  ,cases ,considered1 in 
the year #agjj4 ,in #agjg1 he published 
an ,essay  ,concerning the ,use of      
,reason on ,propositions1 the evidence  
whereof  depends upon ,human ,testimony2

 in which1 says ,dr4 ,leland1 there are 
some good observations1 mixed with      
others of a suspicious nature and       
tendency4 ,it principally turned on the 
,trinitarian controversy then  raging1  
and is of little interest now4 ,in this 
year ,collins united  with ,dodwell in  
the controversy carried on by ,dr4      
,samuel ,clarke4 ,one  of ,clarke's     
biographers alludes to it thus3 ,dr4    
,clarke's arguments  in favor of the    
immateriality1 and consequent           
immortality of the soul1  called out1   
however1 a far more formidable          
antagonist than ,dodwell1  in the person
 of ,anthony ,collins1 an ,english      
gentleman of singular  intellectual     
acuteness1 but1 unhappily1 of ,infidel  
principles4 ,the  controversy was       
continued through several short         
treatises4 ,on the whole1  though       
,clarke1 in some instances1 laid himself
 open to the keen and  searching        
dialectics of his gifted antagonist1 the
 victory certainly  remained with the   

,divine4 ,of course it is only to be    
expected that such  will be the opinion 
of an opponent--but it is further proof 
of ,collins's  ability and character4   
,in #agjc appeared his celebrated       
,discourses  of ,freethinking1 which    
perhaps created the greatest sensation  
in the  religious world 7with the       
exception of the ,age of ,reason7 of any
 book  published against ,christianity4 
,this book is as able a defence of  the 
freedom of the expression of thought    
without penalty1 as was ever  published4
 ,it is divided into four sections4 ,in 
the #ast1 ,freethinking  is defined--in 
five arguments4 ,in the #bnd1 ,that it  
is our duty to  think freely on those   
points of which men are denied the right
 to think  freely3 such as of the nature
 and attributes of ,god1 the truth and  
authority of ,scriptures1 and of the    
meaning of ,scriptures1 in seven        
arguments and eleven instances4 ,the    
third section is the consideration  of  
six objections to ,freethinking--from   

the whole of which he concludes  7#a7   
,that ,freethinkers must have more      
understanding1 and that they must       
necessarily be the most virtuous people4
 7#b7 ,that they have1 in fact1  been   
the most understanding and virtuous     
people in all ages4 ,here  follows the  
names of a great number of men whom     
,collins classified as  ,freethinkers1  
and of whom we have no reason to be     
ashamed4    ,this book was answered by  
many divines1 but none of them emerged  
from the contest with such ,christian   
honors as the famous ,dr4               
,bentley--considered ,england's greatest
 classical scholar4 ,in the same  year1 
the ,dr4 published his reply under the  
signature of ,phileleutheros            
,lipsiensis4 ,the fame of ,bentley was  
considered equal to ,collins's2 and  it 
has always been represented that this   
reply completely crushed  the           
,freethinker--nothing could be farther  
from the truth4 ,bentley  principally   
attacked the ,greek quotations and      

denounced ,collins for his  ignorance in
 not putting his 7,bentley's7           
construction on every disputed  word4   
,for this reply1 ,bentley received the  
thanks of the ,university of            
,cambridge4 ,in condition with this     
work1 ,collins is also charged with     
wilful deception--which has been        
reproduced in our own lives by devines  
who perhaps never read a line of        
,collins4 ,a ,french edition of the     
,discourse was translated under the     
personal inspection of ,collins3  and it
 is said that he altered the            
construction of several sentences  to   
evade the charges brought against him by
 ,bentley ,dr4 ,leland is  particularly 
eloquent upon this2 and the ,rev4 ,mr4  
,lorimer1 of ,glasgow1  triumphantly    
plagiarises the complaint of the men    
whose defects he can  only imitate4     
,there is another charge connected with 
,bentley and his  friends1 which it is  
desirous should be exposed4 ,the elder  
,d',israeli  says3--,anthony ,collins   

wrote several well-known works1 without 
prefixing his name2 but having pushed   
too far his curious and polemical       
points1 he incurred the odium of a      
,freethinker--a term which then began   
to be in vogue1 and which the ,french   
adopted by translating it1 in  their    
way--'a strong thinker1' or esprit fort4
 ,whatever tendency  to 'liberalise' the
 mind from the dogmas and creeds        
prevails in these  works1 the talents   
and learning of ,collins were of the    
first class4 ,his  morals were          
immaculate1 and his personal character  
independent2 but the  odium theologicum 
of those days combined every means to   
stab in the  dark1 till the taste became
 hereditary with some4 ,i may mention a 
fact  of this cruel bigotry which       
occurred within my own observation1 on  
one  of the most polished men of the    
age4 ,the late ,mr4 ,cumberland1 in the 
romance entitled his ',life' gave this  
extraordinary fact4 ,he said that  ,dr4 
,bentley1 who so ably replied to        

,collins's ',discourse1' when many      
years after he discovered him fallen    
into great distress1 conceiving  that by
 having ruined ,collins's character as a
 writer for ever1 he had  been the      
occasion of his personal misery1 he     
liberally contributed to  his           
maintenance4 ,in vain ,i mentioned to   
that elegant writer1 who was  not       
curious about facts1 that this person   
could never have been ,anthony          
,collins1 who had always a plentiful    
fortune2 and when it was suggested  to  
him that this ',a4 ,collins' as he      
printed it1 must have been ,arthur      
,collins1 the historic compiler1 who was
 often in pecuniary difficulties1  still
 he persisted in sending the lie down to
 posterity1 without  alteration1 in his 
second edition1 observing to a friend of
 mine1 that  'the story1 while it told  
well1 might serve as a striking instance
 of  his great relative's generosity2   
and that it should stand because it     
could do no harm to any but to ,anthony 

,collins1 whom he considered as  little 
short of an ,atheist4' ,such is a       
specimen of ,christian honor and        
justice4    ,in #agae1 appeared his     
,philosophical inquiry into ,human      
,liberty4 ,dr4  ,clarke was again his   
opponent4 ,the publication of this work 
marked an  epoch in metaphysics4 ,dugald
 ,stewart1 in criticising the discussion
 on  ,moral ,liberty between ,clarke and
 ,leibnitz1 says1 ,but soon after this  
controversy was brought to a conclusion 
by the death of his antagonist1  he     
7,clarke7 had to renew the same         
argument1 in reply to his countryman1   
,anthony ,collins1 who1 following the   
footsteps of ,hobbes1 with logical      
talents not inferior to his master 7and 
with a weight of personal  character in 
his favor to which his master had no    
pretensions17 gave to  the cause which  
he so warmly espoused1 a degree of      
credit amongst  sober and inquiring     
politicians1 which it had never before  
possessed  in ,england4 ,the following  

are the principal arguments of ,collins 
in  reference to ,liberty and           
,necessity3--    ,first4 ,though ,i deny
 ,liberty in a certain meaning of that  
word1 yet ,i  contend for ,liberty1 as  
it signifies a power in man to do as he 
wills  or pleases4    ,secondly4 ,when  
,i affirm ,necessity ,i contend only for
 moral  necessity2 meaning thereby that 
man1 who is an intelligent and sensible 
being1 is determined by his reason and  
senses2 and ,i deny any man to  be      
subject to such necessity as is in      
clocks1 watches1 and such other  beings1
 which1 for want of intelligence and    
sensation1 are subject to an  absolute1 
physical or mechanical necessity4       
,thirdly1 ,i have undertaken to show1   
that the notions ,i advance are so  far 
from being inconsistent with1 that they 
are the sole foundation of  morality and
 laws1 and of rewards and punishments in
 society1 and that  the notions ,i      
explode are subversive of them4    ,from
 the above premises1 ,collins sought to 

show that man is a necessary  agent4    
7#a7 ,from our experience 7through      
consciousness47 7#b7 ,from the          
impossibility of liberty4 7#c7 ,from the
 consideration of the divine            
prescience4 7#d7 ,from the nature and   
use of rewards and punishments4 7#e7    
,from the nature of morality4 ,such were
 the principles on which the great      
question of ,necessity has ever been    
advocated--from ,hobbes to ,collins1    
,jonathan ,ed wards to ,mackintosh and  
,spencer4 ,in the year #agjd ,toland    
dedicated to him a new translation of   
sop's ,fables4 ,there are many          
anecdotes respecting ,collins inserted  
in religious magazines1 most of  which  
are false1 and all without proof4 ,one  
of them1 related in a most              
circumstantial manner1 appears to be the
 favorite4 ,it depicts ,collins  walking
 out in the country on a ,sunday        
morning1 when he meets a  countryman    
returning from ,church4    ,well1       
,hodge1 says ,collins1 so you have been 

enjoying the fresh  breezes of nature1  
this fine morning4    ,the clown replied
 that he had been worshipping nature's  
,god1 and  proved it by repeating the   
substance of the ,athanasian creed4     
,upon which  ,collins questions him as  
to the residence of his ,god3 and for a 
reply is  told that his ,god is so      
large1 that he fills the universe2 and  
so small  that he dwells in his breast4 
,this sublime fact1 we are told1 had    
more  effect upon ,collins's mind than  
all the books written against him by the
  clergy4 ,when will sensible men reject
 such charlatanism8    ,the next great  
work of ,collins was his ,discourse on  
the ,grounds and  ,reasons of the       
,christian ,religion1 in two parts4 ,the
 first containing  some considerations  
on the quotations made from the ,old in 
the ,new  ,testament1 and particularly  
on the prophecies cited from the former1
 and  said to be fulfilled in the       
latter4 ,the second containing an       
examination  of the scheme advanced by  

,mr4 ,whiston1 in his essay towards     
restoring  the true text of the ,old    
,testament1 and for vindicating the     
citations  thence made in the ,new      
,testament1 to which is prefixed an     
apology for  free debate and liberty of 
writing4 ,this book took the religious  
world  by storm2 it is even thought it  
struck more dismay amongst divines  than
 his former essay on ,freethink-ing4    
,the book proceeds to show that         
,christianity is not proved by prophecy4
 ,that the ,apostles relied on the      
predictions in the ,old ,testament1 and 
their fulfilment in ,jesus as  the only 
sure proof of the truth of their        
religion2 if therefore1 the  prophecies 
are not thoroughly literal1 and         
fulfilled distinctly1  there can be no  
proof in ,christianity4 ,he then        
examines the principal  prophecies1 and 
dismisses them1 as allegorical fables   
too vague to be of  any credit4 ,in less
 than two years no less than thirty-five
 books  were published in reply to this 

work1 written by the ablest and most    
influential theologians in ,england4 ,in
 #agbg ,collins published another  large
 work1 ,the ,scheme of ,literal         
,prophecy ,considered1 in which he      
still further defends his view          
principally against the sophistical     
reasoning of ,whiston1 and finally      
vanquished the whole of his opponents4  
,perhaps no ,freethinker1 with the      
single exception of ,hobbes1 was so     
attacked during his life as ,collins4   
,toland and ,woolston were persecuted   
and driven into prison and poverty2 but 
,collins1 with his profusion of  wealth1
 could oppose ,christianity with        
applause--mingle in the gaiety of  the  
,court--occupy a seat on the magisterial
 bench--be the welcome guest  of the    
most liberal of the aristocracy1        
contemporary with others who  even      
languished in prison for the propagation
 of similar sentiments4  ,since his day 
the clergy have grown wiser2 then the   
most trivial  pamphlet on the ,deistic  

side created a consternation amongst the
 saints1  and they strove who should be 
the first to answer it--indeed1 it  was 
considered a test of honor amongst the  
clergy to be eager in the  exposure of  
,deism3 but this style of warfare was   
discontinued after the  lapse of a few  
years4 ,the most discerning observers   
discovered that in  proportion to the   
answers published against liberal works1
 the influence  of the most powerful    
side decreased4 ,force1 then1 gradually 
interfered1  and acts of ,parliament    
were considered the only logical        
refutation of a  philosophical heresy4  
,the anomaly of our laws interfered     
again4 ,collins  was rich1 and so must  
escape the fangs of the law4 ,thomas    
,woolston was  poor1 so his vitals were 
pierced by laws which ,collins          
escaped--yet both  committed the same   
offence4 ,in later times ,gibbon traced 
the rise of  ,christianity1 and about   
the same time ,paine accomplished       
another portion  of the same risk--and  

the ,government which prosecuted the    
plebeian1  flattered the patrician4 ,but
 ,collins's time was rapidly drawing    
nigh4 ,on  the #acth of ,december1      
#agbi1 he expired1 aged fifty-three     
years2 and to  show the esteem in which 
his character was held1 the following   
notice  was inserted in the newspapers  
of the day--all hostile to his views1   
yet striving to make it appear that he  
was1 after all1 not so great an         
,infidel as his reputation honored him  
with3--,on ,saturday last1 died at  his 
house in ,harley ,square1 ,anthony      
,collins1 ,esq4 ,he was a remarkably    
active1 up right1 and impartial         
magistrate1 the tender husband the kind 
parent1 the good master1 and the true   
friend ,he was a great promoter of      
literature in all its branch es2 and an 
immoveable asserter of universal        
liberty in all civil and religious      
matters4 ,whatever his sentiments  were 
on certain points1 this is what he      
declared at the time of his             

death--viz41 that he had always         
endeavored1 to the best of his ability1 
to serve ,god1 his king1 and his        
country1 so he was persuaded he was     
going to that place which ,god hath     
prepared for them that serve him1 and   
presently afterwards he said1 the       
,catholic religion is to serve ,god and 
roan4 ,he was an eminent example of     
temperance and sobriety1 and one that   
had the true art of living4 ,his worst  
enemies could never charge him  with any
 vice or immorality4 ,with this         
character the ,freethinkers have  no    
right to be dissatisfied4 ,the ,abbe    
,lodivicat says1 ,his library was       
curious and valuable2 always open to the
 learned1 even to his opponents1  whom  
he furnished with pleasure1 both with   
books and arguments1 which  were        
employed in confuting him4 ,mr4         
,d',israeli says he has seen  a         
catalogue of ,collins's library1        
elaborately drawn up in his own         
handwriting1 and it must have contained 

a splendid selection of books4  ,this is
 proved by the correspondence with      
,locke1 and the extensive  number of    
quotations spread throughout his        
published works4    ,by the death of    
,collins1 and the defalcation of one who
 abused the name  of a ,deist1 the cause
 of ,free-thought was impeded at the    
time when it  most needed assistance4   
,collins had written a great number of  
tracts  and larger works1 intending them
 to be published after his death3 one   
collection of eight octavo volumes of   
manuscript containing the attacks  upon 
,christianity1 by which he intended his 
name to be transmitted to  posterity1   
were all arranged ready for publication 
as his posthumous  works4 ,to ensure    
their credit-able appearance1 and to    
reward a man  whom he had thought worthy
 of confidence1 and one who professed to
 be a  disciple of ,collins1 he         
bequeathed them to ,des ,maizeaux1 then 
a popular  author and editor4 ,he had   
edited the correspondence of ,locke and 

,collins1 written the lite of ,bayle1   
and subsequently edited ,toland4 ,the   
idea of ,collins was to give his work to
 ,des ,maizeaux for a recompense  for   
the trouble of publishing them1 while he
 would derive the whole  profits of     
their sale1 which no doubt would be very
 large4 ,it appears  that the widow of  
,collins was much younger than          
himself--in league with  the ,church of 
,england2 and was in rather a suspicious
 friendship with  more than one clerical
 antagonist of her late husband4 ,des   
,maizeaux  being worked upon conjointly 
by ,mrs4 ,collins and a person named    
,tomlinson1 was induced to accept a     
present of fifty guineas1 and           
relinquished the possession of the      
manuscripts4 ,it was not long1  however1
 before his conscience accused him of   
the great wrong done to  the memory of  
his benefactor1 and to the              
,free-thinking cause4 ,his regret  was  
turned into the most profound           
compunction for his crime2 and in this  

state of mind he wrote a long letter to 
one who had been a mutual friend  to    
,collins and himself1 acknowledging that
 he had done a most wicked  thing1      
saying--,i am convinced that ,i have    
acted contrary to the will  and         
intention of my dear deceased friend2   
showed a disregard to the  particular   
mark of esteem he gave me on that       
occasion2 in short1 that  ,i have       
forfeited what is dearer to me than my  
own life--honor and  reputation4444 ,i  
send you the fifty guineas ,i received1 
which ,i do now  look upon as the wages 
of iniquity1 and ,i desire you to return
 them to  ,mrs4 ,collins1 who1 as ,i    
hope it of her justice1 equity1 and     
regard to  ,mr4 ,collinses intentions1  
will be pleased to cancel my paper4     
,this appeal 7which proved that ,des    
,maizeaux1 if he was weak-minded1 was   
not absolutely dishonest7 had no effect 
on ,mrs4 ,collins4 ,the manuscripts     
were never returned4 ,what their        
contents were1 no one now can inform us4

  ,we are justified1 however1 in        
supposing that as those eight volumes   
were  the crowning efforts of a mind    
which in its youth was brilliant in no  
common degree1 must have been even      
superior to those books which roused    
,england from its dreamy lethargy1 and  
brought about a revolution  in          
controversy4 ,whether they touched upon 
miracles1 or the external  evidences1 or
 the morals of ,christism1 is unknown4  
,the curtain was  drawn over the scene  
of demolition4 ,seven years after this  
time the  controversy was reopened by   
,mrs4 ,collins1 in the year #agcg1 on   
account  of a report being current that 
,mrs4 ,c4 had permitted transcripts of  
those manuscripts to get abroad4 ,the   
widow wrote some very sharp letters  to 
,des ,maizeaux1 and he replied in a tone
 which speaks faithfully of the         
affection he still bore to ,collins's   
memory4 ,he concludes thus3--,mr4       
,collins loved me and esteemed me for my
 integrity and sincerity1 of  which he  

had several proofs4 ,how ,i have been   
drawn in to injure him1  to forfeit the 
good opinion he had of me1 and which1   
were he now alive1  would deservedly    
expose me to his utmost contempt1 is a  
grief which ,i  shall carry to the      
grave4 ,it would be a sort of comfort to
 me if those  who have consented ,i     
should be drawn in1 were in some measure
 sensible  of the guilt towards so good1
 kind1 generous a man4    ,such is an   
epitome of the secret history of the    
,,mss4 of ,anthony ,collins4  ,if we    
look at the fate of the ,,mss4 of other 
,deists1 we shall have good  reasons for
 believing that some of the ablest      
writings1 meant to give a  posthumous   
reputation to their authors1 have       
disappeared into the hands  of either   
ignorant or designing persons4 ,five    
volumes1 at least1 of  ,toland's works1 
meant for publication1 were1 by his     
death1 irretrievably  lost4 ,blount's   
,,mss4 never appeared4 ,two volumes of  
,tindall's were seized  by the ,bishop  

of ,london1 and destroyed4 ,woolston's  
,,mss4 met with no  better fate4 ,chubb 
carefully prepared his works1 and       
published them in  his lifetime4        
,bolingbroke made ,mallet his confidant1
 as ,collins did by  ,des ,maizeaux4    
,the name of ,st4 ,john produced #aj1jjj
 to ,mallet2 but those  works were left 
with the tacit acknowledge ment that the
 ,scotch poet  should write a suitable  
life of the peer4 ,the letter of ,mallet
 to  ,lord ,cornbury can only be        
compared to an invitation for a bid for 
the  suppression of the ,philosophical  
,works of ,st4 ,john2 and if this was   
not sufficient1 we need only instance   
the apparent solicitation with  which he
 stopped a well-known influential       
dignitary of the church on the  day when
 the works were to appear1 by pulling   
out his watch1 and saying1  ,my ,lord1  
,christianity will tremble at a quarter 
to twelve4 ,we may  be thankful to the  
pecuniary poverty of our opponents even 
for the  possession of the first        

philosophy4 ,some of ,hume's and        
,gibbon's works  have not yet appeared4 
,the ,,mss4 of most of the minor        
,freethinkers  disappeared with their   
authors4 ,there is no doubt but what    
,robert ,taylor  left some valuable     
writings which cannot be recovered4     
,such is the  feeble chance of great    
men's writings being published when they
 are no  longer alive4    ,with regard  
to the literary claims of ,collins4 ,his
 works are logically  composed and      
explicitly worded4 ,he invariably       
commences by stating the  groundwork of 
his opponent's theories1 and from them  
deduces a great  number of facts and    
axioms of a contrary character1 and upon
 those  builds his whole chain of       
argument4 ,he is seldom witty--never    
uses the  flowers of rhetoric1 combining
 a most rigid analysis with a synthetic 
scheme1 admitting but of one unswerving 
end4 ,he was characteristically  great  
in purpose4 ,he avoided carrying forward
 his arguments beyond  the basis of his 

facts4 ,whether in treating the tangled 
intricacies  of necessity1 or the       
theological quagmires of prophecy1 he   
invariably  explained without confusing1
 and refuted without involving other    
subjects than those legitimately        
belonging to the controversy4 ,his style
  of writing was serious1 plain1 and    
without an undue levity1 yet withal     
perfectly readable4 ,men studied        
,collins who shrunk from contact with   
the lion-hearted ,woolston1 whose       
brusque pen too often shocked those  it 
failed to convince4 ,there was a        
timidity in many of the letters of      
,blount1 and a craving wish to rely more
 on the witticisms of ,brown1 than  was 
to be found in the free and manly spirit
 of our hero4 ,to the general  public1  
the abstruse speculations of the        
persecuted ,toland were a  barrier which
 his many classical allusions only      
heightened2 and the  musical syllables  
of ,shaftesbury1 with his style1 at once
 so elevated1  so pompous1 and so       

quaint2 or the political economic       
doctrines of  ,mandeville1 all tended to
 exalt the name of ,collins above those 
of his  contemporaries and immediate    
successors2 and posterity cannot fail to
  place his bust in that historic niche 
betwixt ,hobbes--his master on one      
hand--and ,bolingbroke1 his successor on
 the other4 ,from the great  ,st4 ,john 
has descended in the true apostolical   
descent the mantle of  ,free-thought    
upon ,hume1 ,gibbon1 ,paine1 ,godwin1   
,carlile1 ,taylor1 and  ,owen4 ,and     
amongst this brilliant galaxy of genius1
 no name is more  deserving of respect  
than that of ,anthony ,collins4    ,a4  
,c4          ,,des ,,cartes4    ,rene   
des ,cartes ,duperron1 better known as  
,des ,cartes1 the father of  modern     
philosophy1 was born at ,la ,haye1 in   
,touraine1 of ,breton parents1  near the
 close of the sixteenth century1 at a   
time when ,bacon was like  the morning  
sun1 rising to shed new rays of bright  
light over the then  dark world of      

philosophy4 ,the mother of ,des ,cartes 
died while he was but  a few days old1  
and himself a sickly child1 he began to 
take part in  the battle of life with   
but little appearance of ever possessing
 the  capability for action on the minds
 of his fellows1 which he afterwards  so
 fully exercised4 ,debarred1 however1 by
 his physical weakness from  many boyish
 pursuits1 he devoted himself to study  
in his earliest years1  and during his  
youth gained the title of the young     
philosopher1 from  his eagerness to     
learn1 and from his earnest endeavors by
 inquiry  and experiment to solve every 
problem presented to his notice4 ,he was
  educated in the ,jesuits' ,college of 
,la ,flche2 and the monument erected  to
 him at ,stockholm informs us1 ,that    
having mastered all the learning  of the
 schools1 which proved short of his     
expectations1 he betook  himself to the 
army in ,germany and ,hungary1 and there
 spent his vacant  winter hours in      
comparing the mysteries and phenomena of

 nature with the  laws of mathematics1  
daring to hope that the one might serve 
as a key  to the other4 ,quitting1      
therefore1 all other pursuits1 he       
retired to a  little village near       
,egmont1 in ,holland1 where spending    
twenty-five years  in continual reading 
and meditation1 he effected his design4 
,in his celebrated ,discourse on        
,method1 he says1--,as soon as my age   
permitted me to leave my preceptors1 ,i 
entirely gave up the study of  letters2 
and1 resolving to seek no other science 
than that which ,i could  find in       
myself1 or else in the great book of the
 world1 ,i employed  the remainder of my
 youth in travel--in seeing courts and  
camps--in  frequenting people of diverse
 humors and conditions--in collecting   
various experiences2 and1 above all1 in 
endeavoring to draw some  profitable    
reflection from what ,i saw4 ,for it    
seemed to me that ,i should  meet with  
more truth in the reasonings which each 
man makes in his own  affairs1 and      

which1 if wrong1 would be speedily      
punished by failure1  than in those     
reasonings which the philosopher makes  
in his study upon  speculations which   
produce no effect1 and which are of no  
consequence  to him1 except perhaps that
 he will be the more vain of them1 the  
more  remote they are from common sense1
 because he would then have been  forced
 to employ more ingenuity and subtlety  
to render them plausible4    ,at the age
 of thirty-three ,des ,cartes retired   
from the world for a  period of eight   
years1 and his seclusion was so         
effectual during that  time1 that his   
place of residence was unknown to his   
friends4 ,he there  prepared the        
,meditations1 and ,discourse on ,method1
 which have since  caused so much       
pen-and-ink warfare amongst those who   
have aspired to  be ranked as           
philosophical thinkers4 ,he became      
,european in fame2 and1  invited by     
,christina of ,sweden1 he visited her   
kingdom1 but the rudeness  of the       

climate proved too much for his delicate
 frame1 and he died  at ,stockholm in   
the year #afej1 from inflammation of the
 lungs1 being  fifty-four years of age  
at the time of his death4    ,des       
,cartes was perhaps the most original   
thinker that ,france had up  to that    
date produced2 and1 contemporary with   
,bacon1 he exercised a  powerful        
influence or the progress of thought in 
,europe2 but although a  great thinker1 
he was not a brave man1 and the fear of 
giving offence  to the church and       
government1 has certainly prevented him 
from making  public some of his         
writings1 and perhaps has toned down    
some of these  thoughts which1 when     
first uttered1 took a higher flight1 and
 struck  full home to the truth itself4 
,the father and founder of the deductive
 method1 ,des ,cartes still proudly     
reigns to the present day1 although some
 of his conclusions have  been          
over-turned1 and others of his thinkings
 have been carried to  conclusions which

 he never dared to dream of4 ,he gave a 
strong aid to  the tendency of advancing
 civilization1 to separate philosophy   
from  theology1 thereby striking a blow1
 slow in its effect1 and effectual in   
its destructive operation1 on all       
priestcraft4 ,in his dedication ol the  
,meditations1 he says1--,i have always  
thought that the two questions  of the  
existence of ,god and the nature of the 
soul1 were the chief  of those which    
ought to be demonstrated rather by      
philosophy than by  theology2 for       
although it is sufficient for us1 the   
faithful1 to believe  in ,god1 and that 
the soul does not perish with the body1 
it does not  seem possible ever to      
persuade the ,infidels to any religion1 
unless we  first prove to them these two
 things by natural reason4    ,having   
relinquished faith1 he found that he    
must choose an entirely new  faith in   
which to march with reason2 the old ways
 were so cumbered with  priests and     
,bibles1 that progression would have    

been impossible4 ,this  gave us his     
method4 ,he wanted a starting point from
 which to reason1  some indisputable    
fact upon which to found future         
thinkings4    ,he has given us the      
detailed history of his doubts4 ,he has 
told us how  he found that he could1    
plausibly enough1 doubt of everything   
except  his own existence4 ,he pushed   
his scepticism to the verge of          
self-annihilation4 ,there he stopped3   
there in self1 there in his             
consciousness1 he found at last an      
irresistible fact1 an irreversible      
certainty4 ,firm ground was discovered4 
,he could doubt the existence  of the   
external world1 and treat it as a       
phantasm4 ,he could doubt the  existence
 of ,god1 and treat the belief as a     
superstition4 ,but of the  existence of 
his own thinking1 doubting mind1 no sort
 of doubt was  possible4 ,he1 the       
doubter1 existed if nothing else        
existed4 ,the  existence that was       
revealed to him in his own              

consciousness1 was the  primary fact1   
the first indubitable certainty4 ,hence 
his famous ,cogito  ergo ,sum3 ,i think1
 therefore ,i am4 7,lewes's ,bio4 ,hist4
 ,phil47    ,proceeding from the        
certainty of his existence1 ,des ,cartes
 endeavors  to rind other equally       
certain tacts1 and for that purpose     
presents  the following doctrine and    
rules for our guidance3--,the basis of  
all  certitude is consciousness1        
consciousness is the sole foundation of 
absolute certainty1 whatever it         
distinctly proclaims must be true4  ,the
 process is1 therefore1 rendered clear  
and simple3 examine your                
consciousness--each distinct reply will 
be a fact4    ,he tells us further that 
all clear ideas are true--that whatever 
is  clearly and distinctly conceived is 
true--and in these lie the vitality  of 
his system1 the cause of the truth or   
error of his thinkings4    ,the         
following are the rules he gave us for  
the detection and separation  of true   

ideas from false1 7i4e41 imperfect or   
complex73--    #a4 ,never to accept     
anything as true but what is evidently  
so2 to admit  nothing but what so       
clearly and distinctly presents itself  
as true1 that  there can be no reason to
 doubt it4    #b4 ,to divide every      
question into as many separate parts as 
possible1  that each part being more    
easily conceived1 the whole may be more 
intelligible4    #c4 ,to conduct the    
examination with order1 beginning by    
that of objects  the most simple1 and   
therefore the easiest to be known1 and  
ascending  little by little up to       
knowledge of the most complex4    #d4   
,to make such exact calculations1 and   
such circumspections as to be  confident
 that nothing essential has been        
omitted4 ,consciousness being  the basis
 of all certitude1 everything of which  
you are clearly and  distinctly         
conscious must be true3 everything which
 you clearly and  distinctly conceive1  
exists1 if the idea of it involve       

existence4    ,in these four rules we   
have the essential part of one half of  
,des  ,cartes's system1 the other1 which
 is equally important1 is the attempt   
to solve metaphysical problems by       
mathematical aid4 ,to mathematics he    
had devoted much of his time4 ,he it was
 who1 at the age of twenty three1  made 
the grand discovery of the applicability
 of algebra to geometry4  ,while deeply 
engaged in mathematical studies and     
investigations1 he  came to the         
conclusion that mathematics were capable
 of a still further  simplification1 and
 of much more extended application4     
,impressed with  the certainty of the   
conclusions arrived at by the aid of    
mathematical  reasoning1 he began to    
apply mathematics to metaphysics4       
,his ambition was to found a system     
which should be solid and  convincing4  
,having searched for certitude1 he had  
found its basis in  consciousness2 he   
next wanted a method1 and hoped he had  
found it in  mathematics4    ,he tells  

us that those long chains of reasoning1 
all simple and  easy1 by which geometers
 used to arrive at their most difficult 
demonstrations1 suggested to him that   
all things which came within human      
knowledge1 must follow each other in a  
similar chain2 and that provided  we    
abstain from admitting anything as true 
which is not so1 and that  we always    
preserve in them the order necessary to 
deduce one from the  other1 there can be
 none so remote to which we cannot      
finally attain1  nor so obscure but that
 we may discover them4    ,acting out   
this1 he dealt with metaphysics as we   
should with a problem  from ,euclid1 and
 expected by rigorous reasoning to      
discover the truth4  ,he1 like          
,archimedes1 had wished for a standing  
place from which to use  the lever1 that
 should overturn the world2 but1 having 
a sure standing  place in the           
indubitable fact of his own existence1  
he did not possess  sufficient courage  
to put forth the mighty power--it was   

left for one  who came after him to     
fairly attempt the over-throw of the    
world of error  so long existent4       
,cartesianism was sufficiently obnoxious
 to the divines to provoke  their wrath2
 and yet1 from some of its              
peculiarities1 it has found many        
opponents amongst the philosophical     
party4 ,the ,cartesian philosophy  is   
founded on two great principles1 the one
 metaphysical1 the other  physical4 ,the
 metaphysical is ,des ,cartes's         
foundation-stone--the ,i  think1        
therefore ,i am4 ,this has been warmly  
attacked as not being  logical4 ,des    
,cartes said his existence was a fact--a
 fact above and  beyond all logic2 logic
 could neither prove nor disprove it4   
,the ,cogito  ergo ,sum was not new     
itself1 but it was the first stone of a 
new  building--the first step in a new  
road3 from this fact ,des ,cartes tried 
to reach another1 and from that others4 
,the physical principle is that nothing 
exists but substance1 which  he makes of

 two kinds--the one a substance that    
thinks1 the other a  substance extended4
 ,actual thought and actual extension   
are the essence  of substance1 so that  
the thinking substance cannot be without
 some  actual thought1 nor can anything 
be retrenched from the extension of a   
thing1 without taking away so much of   
its actual substance4    ,in his        
physical speculations1 ,des ,cartes has 
allowed his imagination  to run very    
wild4 ,his famous theory of vortices is 
an example of  this4 ,assuming extension
 to be the essence of substance1 he     
denied the  possibility of a vacuum by  
that assumption2 for if extension be the
  essence of substance1 wherever        
extension is1 there substance must be4  
,this substance he assumes to have      
originally been divided into equal      
angular particles1 each endowed with an 
equal degree of motion2 several  systems
 or collections of these particles he   
holds to have a motion  about certain   
equidistant points1 or centres1 and that

 the particles  moving round these      
composed so many vortices4 ,these       
angular particles1  by their intestine  
motions1 he supposes to become1 as it   
were1 ground  into a spherical form2 the
 parts rubbed off are called matter of  
the  first element1 while the spherical 
globules he calls matter of the  second 
element2 and since there would be a     
large quantity of this  element1 he     
supposes it to be driven towards the    
centre of each vortex  by the circular  
motion of the globules1 and that there  
it forms a large  spherical body such as
 the suu4 ,this sun being thus formed1  
and  moving about its own axis with the 
common matter of the vortex1 would      
necessarily throw out some parts of its 
matter1 through the vacuities  of the   
globules of the second element          
constituting the vortex2 and this       
especially at such places as are        
farthest from its poles3 receiving1 at  
the same time in1 by these poles1 as    
much as it loses in its equatorial      

parts4 ,and1 by these means1 it would be
 able to carry round with it  those     
globules that are nearest1 with the     
greater velocity2 and the  remoter1 with
 less4 ,and1 further3 those globules    
which are nearest the  centre of the    
sun1 must be smallest2 because1 were    
they greater1  or equal1 they would1 by 
reason of their velocity1 have a greater
  centrifugal force1 and recede from the
 centre4 ,if it should happen that  any 
of these sun-like bodies1 in the centres
 of the several vortices1  should be so 
in-crusted and weakened1 as to be       
carried about in the  vortex of the true
 sun3 if it were of less solidity1 or   
had less motion  than the globules      
towards the extremity of the solar      
vortex1 it would  descend towards the   
sun1 till it met with globules of the   
same solidity1  and susceptible of the  
same degree of motion with itself99 and 
thus1  being fixed there1 it would be   
for ever after carried about by the     
motion of the vortex1 without either    

approaching any nearer to1 or  receding 
from the sun1 and so become a planet4   
,supposing1 then1 all  this1 we are next
 to imagine that our system was at first
 divided into  several vortices1 in the 
centre of each of which was a lucid     
spherical  body2 and that some of these 
being gradually incrustated1 were       
swallowed  up by others which were      
larger1 and more powerful1 till at last 
they  were all destroyed and swallowed  
up by the biggest solar vortex1  except 
some few which were thrown off in right 
lines from one vortex to  another1 and  
so became comets4 ,it should also be    
added1 that in addition  to the two     
elements mentioned above1 those         
particles which may yet  exist1 and be  
only in the course of reduction to their
 globular form an  it still retain their
 angular proportions1 form a third      
element4    ,this theory has found many 
opponents2 but in this state of our work
  we conceive our duty to be that of    
giving a simple narrative of the        

philosopher's ideas1 rather than a      
history of the various criticisms  upon 
those ideas1 the more especially as our 
pages scarcely afford room  for such a  
mode of treatment4    ,having formed his
 method1 ,des ,cartes proceeded to apply
 it4 ,the basis  of certitude being     
consciousness1 he interrogated his      
consciousness1 and  found that he had an
 idea of a substance infinite1 eternal1 
immutable1  independent1 omniscient1    
omnipotent4 ,this he called an idea of  
,god3  he said1 ,i exist as a miserably 
imperfect finite being1 subject to      
change--ignorant1 incapable of creating 
anything--,i find by my finitude  that  
,i am not the infinite2 by my liability 
to change that ,i am not the  immutable2
 by my ignorance that ,i am not the     
omniscient3 in short1 by  my            
imperfection1 that ,i am not the        
perfect4 ,yet an infinite1  immutable1  
omniscient1 and perfect being must      
exist1 because infinity1  immutability1 
omniscience1 and perfection are applied 

as correlatives in  my ideas of         
finitude1 change1 etc4 ,god therefore   
exists3 his existence  is clearly       
proclaimed in my consciousness1 and     
therefore ceases to be  a matter of     
doubt any more than the fact of my own  
existence4 ,the  conception of an       
infinite being proved his real          
existence1 for if there  is not really  
such a being ,i must have made the      
conception2 but if  ,i could make it ,i 
can also unmake it1 which evidently is  
not true2  therefore there must be      
externally to myself1 an archetype from 
which  the conception was derived44444  
,all that we clearly and distinctly     
conceive as contained in anything is    
true of that thing4    ,now1 we conceive
 clearly and distinctly that the        
existence of ,god is  contained in the  
idea we have of him3 ergo--,god         
exists4--7,lewes's ,bio4  ,hist4 ,phil47
    ,des ,cartes was of opinion that his
 demonstrations of the existence of     
,god equal or even surpass in certitude 

the demonstrations of geometry4  ,in    
this opinion we must confess we cannot  
share4 ,he has already told  us that the
 basis of all certitude is              
consciousness--that whatever  is clearly
 and distinctly conceived1 must be      
true--that imperfect and  complex       
conceptions are false ones4 ,the first  
proposition1 all must  admit1 is        
applicable to themselves4 ,i conceive a 
fact clearly and  distinctly1 and1      
despite all resistance1 am compelled to 
accept that  fact2 and if that fact be  
accepted beyond doubt1 no higher degree 
of  certainty can be attained1 ,that two
 and two are four--that ,i exist--are   
facts which ,i never doubt4 ,the ,cogito
 ergo ,sum is irresistible1  because    
indubitable2 but ,cogito ergo ,deus est 
is a sentence requiring  much           
consideration1 and upon the face of it  
is no syllogism1 but1 on the  contrary1 
is illogical4 ,if ,des ,cartes meant ,i 
am conscious that ,i am  not the whole  
of existence1 he would be indisputable2 

but if he meant  that ,i can be         
conscious of an existence entirely      
distinct1 apart from1  and external to1 
that very consciousness1 then his whole 
reasoning from  that point appears      
fallacious4    ,we use the word ,i as   
given by ,des ,cartes4 ,mill1 in his    
,system of  ,logic1 says1 ,the ambiguity
 in this case is in the pronoun ,i1 by  
which  in one place is to be understood 
my will3 in another the laws of  my     
nature4 ,if the conception1 existing as 
it does in my mind1 had no  original    
without1 the conclusion would           
unquestionably follow that '#a'  had    
made it--that is1 that the laws of my   
nature had spontaneously  evolved it2   
but that my will made it would not      
follow4 ,now1 when ,des  ,cartes        
afterwards adds that ,i cannot unmake   
the conception1 he means  that ,i cannot
 get rid of it by an act of my will1    
which is true2 but is  not the          
proposition required4 ,that what some of
 the laws of my nature  have produced1  

other laws1 or those same laws in other 
circumstances1  might not subsequently  
efface1 he would have found it difficult
 to  establish4    ,treating the        
existence of ,god as demonstrated from  
the a priori idea  of perfection and    
infinity1 and by the clearness of his   
idea of ,god's  existence1 ,des ,cartes 
then proceeds to deal with the          
distinction between  body and soul4 ,to 
prove this distinction was to him an    
easy matter4  ,the fundamental and      
essential attribute of substance must be
 extension1  because we can denude      
substance of every quality but that of  
extension2  this we cannot touch without
 at the same time affecting the         
substance44  ,the fundamental attribute 
of mind is thought2 it is in the act of 
thinking that the consciousness of      
existence is revealed2 to be without    
thought would be to be without          
consciousness4    ,des ,cartes has given
 us1 among others1 the axiom ,that two  
substances  are really distinct when    

their ideas are complete1 and no way    
imply each  other4 ,the idea of         
extension is complete and distinct from 
the idea of  thought1 which latter is   
also clear and distinct by itself4 ,it  
follows1  therefore1 that substance and 
mind are distinct in essence4    ,des   
,cartes has1 from the vagueness of some 
of his statements1 subjected  himself to
 the charge of asserting the existence  
of innate ideas1  and the following     
quotations will speak for themselves on 
the  subject3--,when ,i said that the   
idea of ,god is innate in us1 ,i never  
meant more than this1 that ,nature has  
endowed us with a faculty by which  we  
may know ,god2 but ,i have never either 
said or thought that such ideas  had an 
actual existence1 or even that they were
 a species distinct from  the faculty of
 thinking4444 ,although the idea of ,god
 is so imprinted on  our minds1 that    
every person has within him the faculty 
of knowing him1  it does not follow that
 there may not have been various        

individuals who  have passed through    
life without ever making this idea a    
distinct object  of apprehension2 and1  
in truth1 they who think they have an   
idea of a  plurality of ,gods1 have no  
idea of ,god whatever4 ,this seems      
explicit  as negativing the charge of   
holding the doctrine of innate ideas2   
but in  the ,edinburgh ,review several  
passages are given1 amongst which is    
the following3--,by the word idea ,i    
understand all that can be in our       
thoughts2 and ,i distinguish three sorts
 of ideas--adventitious1 like  the      
common idea of the sun1 framed by the   
mind1 such as that which  astronomical  
reasoning gives of the sun2 and innate1 
as the idea of ,god1  mind1 body1 a     
triangle1 and generally all those which 
represent true1  immutable1 and eternal 
essences4 ,with regard to these rather  
opposite  statements1 ,lewes says1 ,if  
,des ,cartes1 when pressed by           
objections1 gave  different             
explanations1 we must only set it down  

to a want of a steady  conception of the
 vital importance of innate ideas to his
 system4 ,the  fact remains that innate 
ideas form the necessary groundwork of  
the  ,cartesian doctrine4444 ,the       
radical error of all ontological        
speculation  lies in the assumption that
 we have ideas independent of           
experience2  because experience can only
 tell us of ourselves or of phenomena2  
of  noumena it can tell us nothing4444  
,the fundamental question1 then1 of     
modern philosophy is this--,have we any 
ideas independent of experience8    ,des
 ,cartes's disciples are of two classes1
 the mathematical cultivators  of       
physic1 and the deductive cultivators of
 philosophy4 ,the first  class of       
disciples are far in advance of their   
chief1 and can only be  considered as   
having received an impulse in a true    
direction4 ,the  second class           
unhesitatingly accepted his principles1 
and continued his  thinking1 although   
they developed his system in a different

 manner1 and  arrived at stronger       
conclusions than ,des ,cartes's courage 
would have  supported4 ,some of the     
physical speculations of ,des ,cartes   
have been  much ridiculed by subsequent 
writers2 but many reasons may be urged1 
not  only against that ridicule1 but    
also against the more moderate censure  
which several able critics have dealt   
out against the intellectual  character 
of ,des ,cartes4 ,it should be          
remembered that the theories of  all his
 predecessors were mere conjectural     
speculations respecting the  places and 
paths of celestial bodies1 etc4         
,innumerable hypotheses had  been formed
 and found useless2 and we ought rather 
to look to what ,des  ,cartes did       
accomplish under the many difficulties  
of his position1  in respect to the     
then1 state of scientific knowledge1    
than to judge  harshly of those         
speculations1 which1 though attended    
with no beneficial  result to humanity  
at large1 were doubtless well intended  

by their  author4 ,he was the first man 
who brought optical science under the   
command of mathematics1 by the discovery
 of the law of refraction of the        
ordinary ray through diaphanous bodies2 
and probably there is scarcely  a name  
on record1 the bearer of which has given
 a greater impulse to  mathematical and 
philosophical inquiry than ,des ,cartes4
 ,although1 as a  mathematician1 he     
published but little1 yet in every      
subject which he  has treated he has    
opened1 not only a new field lor        
investigation1 but  also a new road for 
the investigators to proceed by4 ,his   
discovery of  the simple application of 
the notation of indices to algebraical  
powers1  has totally remodelled the     
whole science of algebra4 ,his          
conception of  expressing the           
fundamental property of curve lines and 
curve surfaces  by equations between the
 co-ordinates has led to an almost total
  supersedence of the geometry of the   
ancients4 ,contemporary with ,galileo1  

and with a knowledge of the persecution 
to which that father of physics  was    
being subjected by the ,church1 we are  
tempted to express our  surprise that   
,des ,cartes did not extend the right   
hand of fellowship1  help1 and sympathy 
to his brother philosopher2 but it is1  
nevertheless1  the fact1 that either    
jealous of the fame of ,galileo 7as some
 have  alleged47 or from a fear of being
 involved in the same persecutions1 ,des
  ,cartes abstained from visiting the   
astronomer1 although travelling for     
some time near his place of abode in    
,italy4 ,lewes1 in his ,life of ,des    
,cartes1 says1 ,des ,cartes was a great 
thinker2 but having said this  we have  
almost exhausted the praise we can      
bestow on him as a man4 ,in  disposition
 he was timid to servility4 ,while      
promulgating the proofs  of the         
existence of the ,deity1 he was in      
evident alarm lest the ,church  should  
see something objectionable in them4 ,he
 had also written an  astronomical      

treatise2 but hearing of the fate of    
,galileo he refrained  from publishing1 
and always used some chicanery in       
speaking of  the world's movement4 ,he  
was not a brave man2 he was also not an 
affectionate one4 ,there was in him a   
deficiency of all finer feelings4  ,but 
he was even-tempered1 and studious of   
not giving offence4    ,we are tempted1 
after a careful perusal of the life and 
writings of ,des  ,cartes and his       
contemporaries1 to be of opinion that he
 was a man who  wished to be considered 
the chief thinker of his day1 and who   
shunned  and rejected the offers of     
friendship from other philosophers1 lest
  they1 by being associated with him1   
should jointly wear laurels which  he   
was cultivating solely to form a crown  
for himself4 ,despite all1 his  brow    
still bears a crown1 and his fame has a 
freshness that we might all  be justly  
proud of1 if appertaining to ourselves4 
,we trust that in these few pages we    
have succeeded in presenting ,des       

,cartes1 to such of our readers who were
 unacquainted with his writings1        
sufficiently well to enable them to     
appreciate him1 and to induce  them to  
search further2 and at the same time we 
hope that those better  acquainted with 
him will not blame as for the omission  
of much which  they may consider more   
important than the matter which appears 
in this  little tract4 ,we have         
endeavored to picture ,des ,cartes as   
the founder  of the deductive method1 as
 having the foundation-stone of all his 
reasoning in his consciousness4    ,i   
,m4 ,,de ,,voltaire4    ,franois ,marie 
,arouet1 better known by the name of    
,voltaire1 was born  at ,chatenay1 on   
the #bjth of ,february1 #afid4 ,by      
assuming the name of  ,voltaire1 young  
,arouet followed the custom1 at that    
time generally  practiced by the rich   
citizens and younger sons1 who1 leaving 
the family  name to the heir1 assumed   
that of a fief1 or perhaps of a country 
house4  ,the father of ,m4 de ,voltaire 

was treasurer to the ,chamber of        
,accounts1  and his mother1 ,margaret   
d',aumart1 was of a noble family of     
,poitou4 ,the  fortune which the father 
enjoyed1 enabled him to bestow a        
first-class  education upon the young   
,arouet1 who was sent to the ,jesuits'  
,college1  where the sons of the        
nobility received their education4      
,while at  school1 ,voltaire began to   
write poetry1 and gave signs of a       
remarkable  genius4 ,his tutors1        
,fathers ,poree and ,jay1 from the      
boldness and  independence of his mind  
predicted that he would become the      
apostle of  ,deism in ,france4 ,this    
prediction he fulfilled4 ,voltaire was1 
says ,lord  ,brougham1 through his whole
 life1 a sincere believer in the        
existence  and attributes of the ,deity4
 ,he was a firm and decided1 and an     
openly  declared unbeliever in          
,christianity2 but he was1 without any  
hesitation  or any intermission1 a      
,theist4 ,his open declaration of       

disbelief in  the inspiration of the    
,bible1 and his total rejection of the  
dogmas  of ,christianity1 laid him open 
to the malignant attacks and            
misrepresentations of the priesthood and
 the bigots of ,europe2 and  so strong  
were they1 that his life was continually
 in danger4  ,lord ,brougham1 in his    
,men of ,letters of the ,time of ,george
 ,,iii44  says3--,voltaire's name is so 
intimately connected in the minds of all
  men with ,infidelity1 in the minds of 
most men with irreligion1 and1 in  the  
minds of all who are not well-informed1 
with these qualities alone1  that       
whoever undertakes to write his life and
 examine his claims to the  vast        
reputation which all the hostile        
feelings excited by him against  himself
 have never been able to destroy1 or    
even materially to impair1  has to labor
 under a great load of prejudice1 and   
can hardly expect1 by  any detail of    
particulars1 to obtain for his subject  
even common justice  at the hands of the

 general reader4    ,voltaire was born  
in a corrupt age1 and in a capital where
 it was  fashionable to be immoral4     
,when he left ,college1 he was          
introduced by  his own godfather1 the   
,abbe de ,chateauneuf1 to the notorious 
,ninon de  l',enclos1 who1 at her death1
 left him by will two thousand livres   
to purchase books4 ,in estimating the   
character of ,voltaire1 a due           
consideration must be had for the period
 in which he lived1 and of the  nature  
of the society amidst which he was      
reared4 ,he lived twenty1 years  under  
the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41 and during  
the whole of the reign of the  infamous 
,louis ,,xv41 when kings1 courtiers1 and
 priests set the example  of the        
grossest immorality4 ,it was then1 as   
,voltaire said1 that to make  the       
smallest fortune1 it was better to say  
four words to the mistress of  a king1  
than to write a hundred volumes4        
,voltaire's life1 from his youth        
upwards1 was a stormy one4 ,after he    

left  ,college1 his father1 finding him 
persist in writing poetry1 and living   
at large1 forbade him his house4 ,he    
insisted upon his son binding  himself  
to an attorney4 ,but his restless       
disposition quite unfitted him  for     
regular employment1 and he soon quitted 
the profession4 ,he early made  the     
acquaintance of the most celebrated men 
of his time1 but his genius1  his wit1  
and his sarcasm1 soon raised up numerous
 enemies4 ,at the age of  twenty-two1 he
 was accused of having written a satire 
upon ,louis ,,xiv41  who was just dead1 
and was thrown into the ,bastile4 ,but  
he was not cast  down4 ,it was here that
 he sketched his poem of the ,league1   
corrected  his tragedy of ,oedipus1 and 
wrote some merry verses on the          
misfortune1 of being a prisoner4 ,the   
,regent1 ,duke of ,orleans1 being       
informed of his innocence1 restored him 
to freedom1 and granted him a           
recompense4 ,i thank your royal         
highness1 said ,voltaire1 for having    

provided me with food2 but ,i hope you  
will not hereafter trouble  yourself    
concerning my lodging4    ,voltaire1    
with his activity of mind1 and living to
 so great an age1  must necessarily     
produce many works4 ,they are           
voluminous1 consisting of  history1     
poetry1 and philosophy4 ,his dramatic   
pieces are numerous1 many  of which are 
considered second only to               
,shakespeare's4 ,oedipus1 ,zadig1       
,ingnu1 ,zaire1 ,henri-ade1 ,irene1     
,tancred1 ,mahomet1  ,merope1 ,saul1    
,alzire1 ,le ,fanatisme1 ,mariamne1     
,gaston de  ,foix1 ,enfant ,prodigue1   
,pucelle d',orlans1 an essay on ,fire1  
the  ,elements1 ,history of ,charles    
,,xii41 ,lectures on ,man1 ,letters on  
,england1 ,memoirs1 ,voyage of          
,sacramentado1 ,micromegas1 ,maid of    
,orleans1 ,brutus1 ,adelaide1 ,death of 
,csar1 ,temple of ,taste1  ,essay on the
 ,manners and ,spirit of ,nations1 ,an  
,examination of the ,holy  ,scriptures1 
and the ,philosophical ,dictionary1 are 

works that emanated  from the active    
brain of this wit1 poet1 satirist1 and  
philosopher4    ,in #agbb1 while at     
,brussels1 ,voltaire met ,jean ,baptiste
 ,rousseau1 whose  misfortunes he       
deplored1 and whose poetic talents he   
esteemed4 ,voltaire  read some of his   
poems to ,rousseau1 and he in return    
read to ,voltaire  his ,ode addressed to
 ,posterity1 which ,voltaire1 it is     
asserted1 told  him would never arrive  
at the place to which it was addressed4 
,the two  poets parted irreconcileable  
foes4    ,in #agbe1 ,voltaire was again 
shut up in the ,bastile1 through        
attempting  to revenge an insult        
inflicted upon him by a courtier4 ,at   
the end of six  months he was released1 
but ordered to quit ,paris4 ,he sought  
refuge in  ,england1 in #agbf4 ,he was  
the guest in that country of a ,mr4     
,falconer1  of ,wandsworth1 whose       
hospitality he remembered with affection
 so long as  life lasted4 ,voltaire was 
known to most of the wits and           

,freethinkers of  that day in ,england4 
,at this early age he was at war with   
,christianity4  ,his visit to ,england1 
says ,lamartine1 gave assurance and     
gravity to  his incredulity2 for in     
,france he had only known libertines--in
  ,england he knew philosophers4 ,he    
went to visit ,congreve1 who had the    
affectation to tell him that he         
7,congreve7 valued himself1 not on his  
authorship1 but as a man of the world4  
,to which ,voltaire administered  a just
 rebuke by saying1 ,i should never have 
come so far to see a  gentleman6        
,voltaire soon acquired an ample        
fortune1 much of which was expended  in 
aiding men of letters1 and in           
encouraging such youth as he thought    
discovered the seeds of genius4 ,the use
 he made of riches might prevail  on    
envy itself to pardon him their         
acquirement4 ,his pen and his purse     
were ever at the service of the         
oppressed4 ,calas1 an infirm old man1   
living at ,toulouse1 was accused of     

having hung his son1 to prevent his     
becoming a ,catholic4 ,the ,catholic    
population became inflamed1 and the     
young man was declared to be a martyr4  
,the father was condemned to the        
torture and the wheel1 and died         
protesting his innocence4 ,the family   
of ,calas was ruined and disgraced4     
,voltaire1 assuring himself of the      
innocence of the old man1 determined to 
obtain justice for the family4  ,to this
 end he labored incessantly for three   
years4 ,in all this time1 he  said1 a   
smile did not escape him for which he   
did not reproach himself  as for a      
crime4 ,his efforts were successful4    
,nor was this the only cause  in which  
he was engaged on the side of the weak  
and the wronged against  the powerful   
and the persecuting4 ,his whole life1   
though maligned as an  ,infidel and     
a-scoffer1 was one long act of          
benevolence4 ,on learning that  a young 
niece of ,corneille languished in a     
condition unworthy of his  name1        

,voltaire1 in the most delicate manner1 
invited her to his house1  and she there
 received an education suitable to the  
rank that her birth  had marked lor her 
in society4 ,it is the duty of a        
soldier1 he said1  to succor the niece  
of his general4    ,voltaire lived for a
 time at the ,court of ,frederick the   
,great of  ,prussia1 and for many years 
carried on a correspondence with that   
monarch4 ,he quarrelled with the king1  
and left the court in a passion4  ,an   
emissary was despatched to him to       
request an apology1 who said he was  to 
carry back to the king his answer       
verbatim4 ,voltaire told him that  the  
king might go to the devil6 ,on being   
asked if that was the message  he meant 
to be delivered6 ,yes1 he answered1 and 
add to it that ,i told  you that you    
might go there with him4 ,in his        
,memoirs1 he has drawn  a most amusing  
picture of his ,prussian ,majesty4 ,he1 
also says1 ,priests  never entered the  
palace2 and1 in a word1 ,frederick lived

 without  religion1 without a council1  
and without a court4    ,wearied with   
his rambling and unsettled mode of      
living1 ,voltaire bought  an estate at  
,ferney1 in the ,pays des ,gex1 where he
 spent the last twenty  years of his    
life4 ,he rebuilt the house1 laid out   
gardens1 kept a good  table1 and had    
crowds of visitors from all parts1 of   
,europe4 ,removed  from whatever could  
excite momentary or personal passion1 he
 yielded to  his zeal for the           
destruction of prejudice1 which was the 
most powerful  and active of all the    
sensations he felt4 ,this peaceful life1
 seldom  disturbed except by the threats
 of persecution rather than persecution 
itself1 was adorned by those acts of    
enlightened and bold benevolence1       
which1 while they relieve the sufferings
 of certain individuals1 are of  any    
service to the whole human race4 ,he was
 known to ,europe as the  ,sage of      
,ferney4 ,after an absence of more than 
twenty-seven years1 he  re-visited      

,paris in the beginning of #aggh4 ,he   
had just finished his  play of ,irene1  
and was anxious to see it performed4    
,his visit was an  ovation4 ,he had     
outlived all his enemies4 ,after having 
been the object  of unrelenting         
persecution by the priests and corrupt  
courtiers of  ,france for a period of   
more than fifty years1 he yet lived to  
see the  day when all that was most     
eminent in station or most distinguished
 in  talents--all that most shone in    
society1 or most ruled in court1 seemed 
to bend before him4 ,at this period he1 
for the first time1 saw ,benjamin       
,franklin4 ,they embraced each other in 
the midst of public acclamations1  and  
it was said to be ,solon who embraced   
,sophocles4    ,voltaire did not survive
 his triumph long4 ,his unwearied       
activity  induced him1 at his great age1
 to commence a ,dictionary upon a novel 
plan1 which he prevailed upon the       
,french ,academy to take up4 ,these     
labors brought on spitting of blood1    

followed by sleeplessness1 to  obviate  
which he took opium in considerable     
quantities4 ,condorcet says  that the   
servant mistook one of the doses1 which 
threw him into a state  of lethargy1    
from which he never rallied4 ,he        
lingered for some time1 but  at length  
expired on the #cjth of ,may1 #aggh1 in 
his eighty-fifth year4    ,it was the   
custom in those days1 and prevails to a 
considerable extent  even in our own    
time1 for the religious world to        
fabricate horrible  death-beds of all   
,freethinkers4 ,voltaire's last moments 
were distorted  by his enemies after the
 approved fashion2 and notwithstanding  
the  most unqualified denial on the part
 of ,dr4 ,burard and others1 who were   
present at his death1 there are many who
 believe these falsehoods at  this      
moment4 ,voltaire died in peace1 with   
the exception of the petty  annoyances  
to which he was subjected by the        
priests4 ,the philosophers1  too1 who   
wished that no public stigma should be  

cast upon him by the  refusal of        
,christian burial1 persuaded him to     
undergo confession and  absolution4     
,this1 to oblige his friends1 he        
submitted to2 but when the  cure one day
 drew him from his lethargy by shouting 
into his ear1 ,do  you believe the      
divinity of ,jesus ,christ8 ,voltaire   
exclaimed1 ,in the  name of ,god1 ,sir1 
speak to me no more of that man1 but let
 me die in  peace6 ,this put to flight  
all doubts of the pious1 and the        
certificate  of burial was refused4 ,but
 the prohibition of the ,bishop of      
,troyes  came too late4 ,voltaire was   
buried at the monastery of ,scellieres1 
in  ,champagne1 of which his nephew was 
abbot4 ,afterwards1 during the first    
,french ,revolution1 the body1 at the   
request of the citizens1 was removed  to
 ,paris1 and buried in the ,pantheon4   
,lamartine1 in his ,history of the      
,girondists1 p4 #adi1 speaking of the   
ceremony1 says3--    ,on the #aath of   
,july1 the departmental and municipal   

authorities went  in state to the       
barrier of ,charenton1 to receive the   
mortal remains of  ,voltaire1 which were
 placed on the ancient site of the      
,bastile1 like a  conqueror on his      
trophies2 his coffin was exposed to     
public gaze1 and a  pedestal was formed 
for it of stones torn from the          
foundations of this  ancient stronghold 
of tyranny2 and thus ,voltaire when dead
 triumphed  over those stones which had 
triumphed over and confined him when    
living4  ,on one of the blocks was the  
inscription1 ',receive on this spot1    
where despotism once fettered thee1 the 
,honors decreed to thee by thy          
country'4444 ,the coffin of ,voltaire   
was deposited between those of          
,descartes and ,mirabeau--the spot      
predestined for this intermediary       
genius between philosophy and policy1   
between the design and the  execution4  
,the aim of ,voltaire's life was the    
destruction of prejudice and the        
establishment of ,reason4 ,deists1 said 

,w4 ,j4 ,fox in #ahai1 have done  much  
for toleration and religious liberty4   
,it may be doubted if there  be a       
country in ,europe1 where that cause has
 not been advanced by the  writings of  
,voltaire4 ,in the ,preface and         
,conclusion to the ,examination  of the 
,scriptures1 ,voltaire says3--    ,the  
ambition of domineering over the mind1  
is one of the strongest  passions4 ,a   
theologian1 a missionary1 or a partisan 
of any description1  is always for      
conquering like a prince1 and there are 
many more sects  than there are         
sovereigns in the world4 ,to whose      
guidance shall ,i  submit my mind8 ,must
 ,i be a ,christian1 be-cause ,i        
happened to be born  in ,london1 or in  
,madrid8 ,must ,i be a ,mussulman1      
because ,i was born in  ,turkey8 ,as it 
is myself alone that ,i ought to        
consult1 the choice of a  religion is my
 greatest interest4 ,one man adores ,god
 by ,mahomet1 another  by the ,grand    
,lama1 and another by the ,pope4 ,weak  

and foolish men6 adore  ,god by your own
 reason4444 ,i have learnt that a       
,french ,vicar1 of  the name of ,john   
,meslier1 who died a short time since1  
prayed on his  death-bed that ,god would
 forgive him for having taught          
,christianity4 ,i  have seen a ,vicar in
 ,dorsetshire relinquish a living of    
#bjj a year1 and  confess to his        
parishioners that his conscience would  
not permit him to  preach the shocking  
absurdities of the ,christians4 ,but    
neither the will  nor the testament of  
,john ,meslier1 nor the declaration of  
this worthy  ,vicar1 are what ,i        
consider decisive proofs4 ,uriel        
,acosta1 a ,jew1  publicly renounced the
 ,old ,testament in ,amsterdam2 however1
 ,i pay no  more attention to the ,jew  
,acosta than to ,parson ,meslier4 ,i    
will read  the arguments on both sides  
of the trial1 with careful attention1   
not  suffering the lawyers to tamper    
with me2 but will weigh1 before ,god1   
the reasons of both parties1 and decide 

according to my conscience4 ,i  commence
 by being my-own instructor4444 ,i      
conclude1 that every sensible  man1     
every honest man1 ought to hold         
,christianity in abhorrence4 ',the      
great name of ,theist1 which we can     
never sufficiently revere1' is the  only
 name we ought to adopt4 ,the only      
gospel we should read is the grand  book
 of nature1 written with ,god's own     
hand1 and stamped with his own  seal4   
,the only religion we ought to profess  
is1 'to adore ,god1 and act  like honest
 men4' ,it would be as impossible for   
this simple and eternal  religion to    
produce evil1 as it would be impossible 
for ,christian  fanaticism not to       
produce it4444 ,but what shall we       
substitute in its  place8 say you4      
,what8 ,a ferocious animal has sucked   
the blood of my  relatives4 ,i tell you 
to rid yourselves of this beast1 and you
 ask me  what you shall put in its      
place6 ,is it you that put this question
 to me8  ,then you are a hundred times  

more odious than the ,pagan ,pontiffs1  
who  permitted themselves to enjoy      
tranquillity among their ceremonies and 
sacrifices1 who did not attempt to      
enslave the mind by dogmas1 who never   
disputed the powers of the magistrates1 
and who introduced no discord  among    
mankind4 ,you have the face to ask what 
you must substitute in the  place of    
your fables6    ,as will be seen by his 
exclamation on his death-bed1 ,voltaire 
was no  believer in the divinity of     
,christ4 ,he disbelieved the ,bible in  
toto4 ,the accounts of the doings of the
 ,jewish kings1 as represented in  the  
,old ,testament1 he has unsparingly     
ridiculed in the drama of ,saul4  ,the  
quiet irony of the following will be    
easily appreciated3--    ,divinity of   
,jesus4--,the ,socinians1 who are       
regarded as blasphemers1 do  not        
recognize the divinity of ,jesus        
,christ4 ,they dare to pretend1 with    
the philosophers of antiquity1 with the 
,jews1 the ,mahometans1 and  most other 

nations1 that the idea of a god-man is  
monstrous2 that the  distance from ,god 
to man is infinite2 and that it is      
impossible for  a perishable body to be 
infinite1 immense1 or eternal4 ,they    
have the  confidence to quote ,eusebius1
 ,bishop of ,csarea1 in their favor1    
who1  in his ,ecclesiastical ,history1  
book i41 chap4 #i1 declares that it is  
absurd to imagine the uncreated and     
unchangeable nature of ,almighty ,god   
taking the form of a man4 ,they cite the
 fathers of the church1 ,justin  and    
,tertullian1 who have said the same     
thing3 ,justin in his ,dialogue  with   
,triphonius2 and ,tertullian1 in his    
,discourse against ,praxeas4  ,they     
quote ,st4 ,paul1 who never calls ,jesus
 ,christ1 ,god1 and who calls  him man  
very often4 ,they carry their audacity  
so far as to affirm1  that the          
,christians passed three entire ages in 
forming by degrees the  apotheosis of   
,jesus2 and that they only raised this  
astonishing edifice  by the example of  

the ,pagans1 who had deified mortals4   
,at first1  according to them1 ,jesus   
was only regarded as a man inspired by  
,god1  and then as a creature more      
perfect than others4 ,they gave him some
 time  after1 a place above the angels1 
as ,st4 ,paul tells us4 ,every day added
  to his greatness4 ,he in time became  
an emanation1 proceeding from ,god4     
,this was not enough2 he was even born  
before time4 ,at last he was ,god       
consubstantial with ,god4 ,crellius1    
,voquelsius1 ,natalis1 ,alexander1  and 
,hornbeck1 have supported all these     
blasphemies by arguments1 which         
astonish the wise and mislead the weak4 
,above all1 ,faustus ,socinus  spread   
the seeds of this doctrine in ,europe2  
and at the end of the  sixteenth        
century1 a new species of ,christianity 
was established4 ,there  were already   
more than three hundred4--,philosophical
 ,dictionary1 vol4  i4 p4 #dje4         
,though a firm and consistent believer  
in the being of a ,god1 ,voltaire  was  

no bigot4 ,the calm reasoning of the    
following passage does honor to  its    
author3--    ,faith4--,divine faith1    
about which so much has been written1 is
 evidently  nothing more than           
incredulity brought under subjection2   
for we certainly  have no other faculty 
than the understanding by which we can  
believe2  and the objects of faith are  
not those of the understanding4 ,we can 
believe only what appears to be true2   
and nothing can appear true but in  one 
of the three following ways--by         
intuition or feeling1 as ,i exist1  ,i  
see the sun2 or by an accumulation of   
probability amounting to  certainty1 as 
there is a city called ,constantinople2 
or by positive  demonstration1 as       
triangles of the same base and height   
are equal4  ,faith1 therefore1 being    
nothing at all of this description1 can 
no  more be a belief1 a persuasion1 than
 it can be yellow or red4 ,it can be    
nothing but the annihilation of reason1 
a silence of adoration at the           

contemplation of things absolutely      
incomprehensible4 ,thus1 speaking       
philosophically1 no person believes the 
,trinity2 no person believes that  the  
same body can be in a thousand places at
 once2 and he who says1 ,i  believe     
these mysteries1 will see1 beyond the   
possibility of a doubt1  if he reflects 
for a moment on what passes in his mind1
 that these words  mean no more than1 ,i
 respect thee1 mysteries2 ,i submit     
myself to those  who announce them4 ,for
 they agree with me1 that my real       
reason1 their  own reason1 believe them 
not2 but it is clear if my reason is not
  persuaded1 ,i am not persuaded1 and my
 reason cannot possibly be two          
different beings4 ,it is an absolute    
contradiction that ,i should receive    
that as true which my understanding     
rejects as false4 ,faith1 therefore1  is
 nothing but submissive or deferential  
incredulity4 ,but why should  this      
submission be exercised when my         
understanding invincibly recoils8  ,the 

reason1 we well know1 is1 that my       
understanding has been persuaded  that  
the mysteries of my faith are laid down 
by ,god himself4 ,all1 then1  that ,i   
can do1 as a reasonable being1 is to be 
silent and adore4 ,that is  what divines
 call external faith2 and this faith    
neither is1 nor can be1  anything more  
than respect for things                 
incomprehensible1 in consequence  of the
 reliance ,i place on those who teach   
them2 ,if ,god himself were  to say to  
me1 ,thought is of an olive colour2 the 
square of a certain  number is bitter2  
,i should certainly understand nothing  
at all from  these words4 ,i could not  
adopt them either as true or false4 ,but
 ,i will  repeat them1 if he commands me
 to do it2 and ,i will make others      
repeat  them at the risk of my life4    
,this is faith2 it is nothing more than 
obedience4 ,in order to obtain a        
foundation then for this obedience1  it 
is merely necessary to examine the books
 which require it4 ,our  understanding1 

therefore1 should investigate the books 
of the ,old and  ,new ,testament1 just  
as it would ,plutarch or ,livy2 and if  
it finds in  them incontestable and     
decisive evidences--evidences obvious to
 all  minds1 and such as would be       
admitted by men of all nations--that    
,god  himself is their author1 then it  
is our incumbent duty to subject our    
understanding to the yoke of            
faith4--,ibid1 p4 #dgd4    ,prayer4--,we
 know of no religion without prayers2   
even the ,jews had them1  although there
 was no public form of prayer among them
 before the time  when they sang their  
canticles in their synagogues1 which did
 not take  place until a late period4   
,the people of all nations1 whether     
actuated  by desires or fears1 have     
summoned the assistance of the          
,divinity4  ,philosophers1 however1 more
 respectful to the ,supreme ,being1 and 
rising  more above human weakness1 have 
been habituated to substitute1 for      
prayer1 resignation4 ,this1 in fact1 is 

all that appears proper and  suitable   
between creature and ,creator4 ,but     
philosophy is not adapted  to the great 
mass of mankind2 it soars too highly    
above the vulgar2 it  speaks a language 
they are unable to comprehend4 ,to      
propose philosophy  to them1 would be   
just as weak as to propose the study of 
conic sections  to peasants or          
fish-women4 ,among philosophers         
themselves1 ,i know of  no one besides  
,maximus ,tyrius who has treated of this
 subject4 ,the  following is the        
substance of his ideas upon it3--,the   
designs of ,god  exist from all         
eternity4 ,if the object prayed for be  
conformable to his  immutable will1 it  
must be perfectly useless to request of 
him the very  thing which he has        
determined to do4 ,if he is prayed to   
for the reverse  of what he has         
determined to do1 he is prayed to be    
weak1 fickle1  and inconstant2 such a   
prayer implies that this is thought to  
be his  character1 and is nothing better

 than ridicule or mockery of him4 ,you  
either request of him what is just and  
right1 in which case he ought to  do it1
 and it will be actually done without   
any solicitation1 which in  fact1 shows 
distrust of his rectitude2 or what you  
request is unjust1  and then you insult 
him4 ,you are either worthy or unworthy 
of the favour  you implore2 if worthy1  
he knows it better than you do yourself2
 if  unworthy1 you commit an additional 
crime in requesting that which you  do  
not merit4 ,in a word1 we offer up      
prayers to ,god only because we have    
made him after our own image4 ,we treat 
him like a pacha1 or a sultan1  who is  
capable of being exasperated and        
appeased4 ,in short1 all nations  pray  
to ,god2 the sage is resigned1 and obeys
 him4 ,let us pray with the  people1 and
 let us be resigned to him with the     
sage4 ,we have already  spoken of the   
public prayer of many nations1 and of   
those of the  ,jews4--,that people have 
had one from time immemorial1 which     

deserves  all our attention1 from its   
resemblance to the prayer taught us by  
,jesus  ,christ himself4 ,this ,jewish  
prayer is called the ,kadish1 and begins
 with  these words3--,oh6 ,god6 let thy 
name be magnified and sanctified2 make  
thy kingdom to prevail2 let redemption  
flourish1 and the ,messiah come         
quickly6 ,as this ,radish is recited in 
,chaldee1 it has induced the  belief1   
that it is as ancient as the captivity1 
and that it was at  that period that the
 ,jews began to hope for a ,messiah1 a  
,liberator1  or ,redeemer1 whom they    
have since prayed for in ihe seasons of 
their  calamities4--,ibid1 vol4 ii41 p4 
#cej4    ,voltaire's contempt for the   
,bible led him to use the language of   
holy  writ in the coarsest jokes2       
though1 perhaps1 with such material1 the
  jokes could not well be otherwise than
 coarse4 ,the following letter  he      
addressed to ,m4 ,billon1 ,intendant of 
,lyons1 on account of a poor ,jew  taken
 up for uttering contraband goods4 ,this

 kind of writing obtained  for ,voltaire
 the title of scoffer3--    ,blessings  
on the ,old ,testament1 which gives me  
this opportunity of  telling you1 that  
amongst all those who adore the ,new1   
there is not one  more devoted to your  
service than myself1 a certain          
descendant of ,jacob1  a pedlar1 as all 
these gentlemen are1 whilst he is       
waiting for the  ,messiah1 waits also   
for your protection1 which at present he
 has the  most need of4 ,some honest men
 of the first trade of ,st4 ,matthew1   
who  gather together the ,jews and      
,christians at the gates of your city1  
have seized something in the breeches   
pocket of an ,israelitish page1         
belonging to the poor circumcised1 who  
has the honour to tender you this       
billet1 with all proper submission and  
humility4 ,i beg leave to join my  ,amen
 to his at a venture4 ,i but just saw   
you at ,paris as ,moses saw the  ,deity1
 and should be very happy in seeing you 
face to face4 ,if the word  face can any

 ways be applied to me1 preserve some   
remembrance of your  old eternal humble 
servant1 who loves you with that chaste 
and tender  affection1 which the        
religious ,solomon had for his three    
hundred  ,shuhamites4    ,voltaire's    
prodigious wit and sarcasm were so      
exuberant1 that he  expended them upon  
all people and all subjects--even       
himself1 when  occasion admitted of it1 
,in one of his letters1-addressed to the
 ,elector  ,palatine1 ,sept4 #i1 #agfa1 
he gives this excuse for not attending  
at the  court3--    ,i should really    
make an excellent figure amidst the     
rejoicings of your  electoral highness4 
,it was only1 ,i think1 in the ,egypt of
 antiquity  that skeletons were admitted
 to a place in their festivals4 ,to say 
the  truth1 my lord1 it is all over with
 me4 ,i laugh indeed sometimes2 but am  
forced to acknowledge that pain is an   
evil4 ,it is a comfort to me that  your 
highness is well2 but ,i am fitter for  
an extreme unction than a  baptism4 ,may

 the peace serve for an era to mark the 
prince's birth2 and  may his august     
father preserve his regard for1 and     
accept the profound  respects of his    
little ,swiss1 ,voltaire4    ,in        
politics1 ,voltaire was not very far    
advanced4 ,he seems to have had no  idea
 of a nation without a king4 ,a monarch 
who should not commit any  very flagrant
 acts of tyranny1 was as much as he     
appeared to desire4 ,he  evidently did  
not foresee the great revolution that   
was so soon to burst  forth in ,france1 
but that he mainly contributed by his   
writings to bring  it about1 there can  
be no doubt4 ,his influence upon the men
 of his  time1 both in ,france and      
,europe1 is ably depicted by such       
writers as  ,lamartine1 ,quinet1 and    
,brougham4 ,voltaire's was the one great
 mind of  his day1 whose thoughts       
engrossed the attention of all men4 ,he 
was great  by his learning1 his genius1 
and his benevolence--and this man was   
the  champion of ,reason1 the enemy of  

superstition1 and an ,infidel4 ,quinet1 
in his lectures on the ,romish ,church1 
says3--,i watch1 for forty years1  the  
reign of one man who is in himself the  
spiritual director1 not of  his country1
 but of his age4 ,from the corner of his
 chamber1 he governs  the kingdom of    
spirits2 intellects are every day       
regulated by his2 one  word written by  
his hand traverses ,europe4 ,princes    
love1 and kings fear  him2 they think   
they are not sure of their kingdom if he
 be not with  them4 ,whole nations1 on  
their side1 adopt without discussion1   
and  emulously repeat1 every syllable   
that falls from his pen4 ,who exercises 
this incredible power1 which had been   
nowhere seen since the middle  ages8 ,is
 he another ,gregory ,,ii48 ,is he a    
,pope8 ,no--,voltaire4    ,we conclude  
our sketch with the eloquent words of   
,lamartine1 who  describes1 in a few    
sentences1 the inestimable services     
rendered to  ,freethought and           
intellectual progression by the ,sage of

 ,ferney3--    ,if we judge of men by   
what they have done1 then ,voltaire is  
incontestably the greatest writer of    
modern ,europe4 ,no one has caused1     
through the powerful influence of his   
genius alone1 and the perseverance  of  
his will1 so great a commotion in the   
minds of men2 his pen aroused  a world1 
and has shaken a far mightier empire    
than that of ,charlemagne1  the         
,european empire of a theocracy4 ,his   
genius was not force but  light4 ,heaven
 had destined him not to destroy but to 
illuminate1 and  wherever he trod1 light
 followed him1 for ,reason 7which is    
light7 had  destined him to be first her
 poet1 then her apostle1 and lastly her 
idol4    ,j4 ,w4          ,,john        
,,toland4    ,in the ,augustan age of   
,freethought1 no ,british writer        
achieved more  renown1 or performed     
greater services to ,biblical criticism1
 than ,john  ,toland4 ,his life would   
fill a volume1 while his works would    
stock a  library4 ,true to his          

convictions1 he spoke like a man1 and   
died as a  hero4 ,his books are strewn  
with classical illustrations1 and deal  
so  with abstract 7and to us7           
uninteresting arguments1 that we shall  
simply  give a brief sketch of the life 
of this extraordinary man4 ,he gave his 
thoughts to the scholars at the same    
time that ,woolston addressed the       
people2 conjointly they revolutionized  
opinion in our favor4    ,toland was    
born on ,november #cj1 #afgj1 at        
,londonderry1 in ,ireland4 ,it  is said 
his registered name was ,james ,junius1 
another account says  ,julius ,csar2 but
 we have been unable to find any        
authentic date  for either supposition1 
and whatever his name was registered1 we
 have  indisputable evidence that he was
 always called ,john ,toland4 ,we have  
less proof as to his parentage2 some    
writers allege that he was the  natural 
son of a ,catholic priest2 while others 
contend that he was born  of a family   
once affluent1 but at the time of his   

birth in very reduced  circumstances4   
,whether this was the case or the       
reverse1 young ,toland  received a      
liberal education4 ,he was early taught 
the classics1 studied  in the ,glasgow  
,college2 and on leaving ,glasgow he was
 presented with  letters of credit from 
the city magistrates1 highly flattering 
to him as  a man and a scholar4 ,he     
received the diploma of ,a4,m4 at       
,edinburgh1 the  day previous to the    
,battle of the ,boyne4 ,he finished his 
studies at the  ,university of ,leyden4 
,the first work of importance which     
,toland published1 was a ,life of  ,john
 ,milton1 containing besides the        
,history of his ,works1 several         
extraordinary ,characters of ,men and   
,books1 ,sects1 ,parties1 and           
,opinions4 ,this work being violently   
opposed1 was speedily followed  by      
,amyntor1 or a defence of ,milton's     
life1 containing--#a4 ,a general        
apology for all writings of that kind4  
#b4 ,a catalogue of books1  attributed  

in the primitive times to ,jesus        
,christ1 his apostles1 and  other       
eminent persons1 with several important 
remarks relating to the  canon of       
,scripture4 #c4 ,a complete history of  
the ,book1 entitled ,icon  ,basilike1   
proving ,dr4 ,gauden1 and not ,king     
,charles ,i41 to be the author  of it1  
etc4 ,those works established the fame  
of ,toland1 as well as  formed the      
groundwork for persecution1 which hunted
 him even on his  death-bed4 ,in the    
year #afii ,toland collected1 edited1   
and published1  from the original       
,,mss41 the whole of the works of ,james
 ,harrington1  prefixed by a memoir of  
this extraordinary theorist4 ,in his    
preface he  says that he composed this  
work in his beloved retirement at       
,cannon1  near ,bansted1 in ,surrey4    
,from this1 along with other excerpts   
scattered  through his works1 we cannot 
but infer that at the outset of his     
career he possessed a moderate          
competence of worldly wealth and social 

position4 ,he says his idea was to      
transmit to posterity the worthy  memory
 of ,james ,harrington1 a bright        
ornament to useful learning1 a  hearty  
lover of his native country1 and a      
generous benefactor to the  whole world2
 a person who obscured the false lustre 
of our modern  politicians1 and equalled
 7if not exceeded7 all the ancient      
legislators4 ,this to us is an          
interesting fact1 for it shows the early
  unanimity which existed between the   
earlier reformers in politics and  those
 of theology4 ,the supervision of the   
,oceana by ,toland1 bears the  same     
inferential analogy1 as if ,mr4         
,holyoake were the biographer and       
publisher of the ,new ,moral ,world and 
its author4 ,in #agjj1 he published     
,anglia ,libera2 or1 the ,limitation and
 ,succession of the ,crown of  ,england1
 explained and ,asserted1 etc4 ,this    
book is concluded by the  following     
apothegm1 assuring the people that no   
king can ever be so  good as one of     

their own making1 as there is no title  
equal to their  approbation1 which is   
the only divine right of all magistracy1
 for the  voice of the people is the    
voice of ,god4 ,in #agjb1 ,toland spent 
some  time in ,germany1 publish-ing a   
series of ,letters to a friend in       
,holland1 entitled ,some ,remarks on the
 ,king of ,prussia's ,country1 on  his  
,government1 his ,court1 and his        
numerous ,palaces4 ,about this time     
appeared ,the ,art of ,governing by     
,parties2 this was always a favorite    
subject of the old ,freethinkers1 and is
 still further elucidated by            
,bolingbroke4    ,in #agjg he published 
a large treatise in ,english and ,latin1
 as ,a  ,philippic ,oration1 to incite  
the ,english against the ,french1 a work
 ,i  have never seen4 ,we now return to 
an earlier date1 and shall trace the    
use of his theological works4 ,the first
 of note 7#afif7 was ,christianity  not 
,mysterious--showing that there is      
nothing in the gospel contrary  to      

reason1 nor above it2 and that no       
,christian doctrine can be properly     
called a mystery4 ,as soon as this book 
was issued from the press1 it  was      
attacked with unmanly virulence4 ,one   
man 7,peter ,brown7 who was more        
disgustingly opposed to ,toland than the
 rest1 was made a bishop2 and by  far   
the greatest majority amongst the       
,anglican clergy1 who attacked him1     
were all rewarded by honors and         
preferment4 ,the author was accused of  
making himself a new ,heresiarch2 that  
there was a tradition amongst  the      
,irish that he was to be a second       
,cromwell1 and that ,toland himself     
boasted that before he was forty years  
old1 he would be governor over a        
greater country than ,cromwell2 and that
 he would be the head over a new        
religion before he was thirty4 ,one of  
his opponents publicly stigmatises  him 
as saying that he 7,toland7 himself     
designed to be as great an  impostor as 
,mahomet1 and more powerful than the    

,pope2 while the ,puritans  denounced   
him as a disguised ,jesuit1 and the     
,papists as a rancorous  ,nonconformist4
 ,to complete the comedy1 the ,irish    
,parliament condemned  his book to be   
publicly burnt1 some ecclesiastics      
loudly murmuring that1  the author      
should be burned with it2 others1 more  
moderate1 were anxious  that ,toland    
should burn it himself1 while at last   
they came to an  unanimous resolution to
 burn it in front of the threshold of   
his door1  so that when the author      
appeared1 he would be obliged to step   
oyer the  ashes of his own book1 which  
was accordingly done amid the brutal    
cheers  of an ignorant and infuriated   
populace4    ,as a proof of the high    
esteem in which ,toland was held by the 
few able  and liberal men of the day1 we
 extract the following account from the 
correspondence of ,john ,locke and ,mr4 
,molyneux4 99 ,the latter gentleman1    
writing to the former1 says3--,i am told
 the author of ',christianity not       

,mysterious' is of this country1 and    
that his name is ,toland1 but he is  a  
stranger in these parts1 ,i believe4 ,if
 he belongs to this kingdom1  he has    
been a good while out of it1 or ,i have 
not heard of any such  remarkable man   
amongst us4 ,in another letter1 the same
 writer  says3--,in my last to you1     
there was a passage1 relating to the    
author  of ',christianity not           
,mysterious4' ,i did not then think he  
was so near  me as within the bounds of 
this city2 but ,i find since that he has
  come over hither1 and have had the    
favor of a visit from him4 ,i now       
understand that he was born in this     
country1 but that he has been a  great  
while abroad1 and his education was for 
some time under the great  ,le ,clerc4  
,but that for which ,i can never honor  
him too much1 is his  acquaintance and  
friendship to you1 and the respect which
 upon all  occasions he expresses for   
you4 ,i propose a great deal of         
satisfaction  in his conversation4 ,i   

take him to be a candid ,freethinker1   
and a good  scholar4 ,but there is a    
violent sort of spirit which reigns     
here1 which  begins already to show     
itself against him1 and ,i believe will 
increase  daily1 for ,i find the clergy 
alarmed to a mighty degree against him4 
,and last ,sunday he had his welcome to 
this city1 by hearing himself  harangued
 against out of the pulpit1 by a prelate
 of this country4         99 ,locke's   
posthumous works4   ,edited by ,die     
,maizeaus4    ,mr4 ,locke1 in return1   
says3--,for the man ,i wish very well1  
and could  give you1 if it needed1      
proofs that ,i do so4 ,and therefore ,i 
desire you  to be kind to him3 but ,i   
must leave it to your prudence in what  
way  and how far4 ,for it will be his   
fault alone1 if he proves not a very    
valuable man1 and have not you for his  
friend4 ,to this1 ,mr4 ,molyneux  writes
 to ,mr4 ,locke--,i look upon ,mr4      
,toland as a very ingenuous man1  and ,i
 should be very glad of any opportunity 

of doing him service1 to  which ,i think
 myself indispensably bound by your     
recommendation4 ,soon  after this1 ,mr4 
,molyneux describes the treatment       
,toland underwent in  ,ireland4 ,in     
another letter to ,locke--,he has had   
his opposers here1  as you will find by 
a book which ,i have sent to you4 ,the  
author 7,peter  ,brown7 is my           
acquaintance1 but two things ,i shall   
never forgive in his  book3 the one is  
the foul language and opprobrious names 
he gives ,mr4  ,toland2 the other is    
upon several occasions1 calling in the  
aid of the  civil magistrate1 and       
delivering up ,mr4 ,toland to secular   
punishment4  ,this1 indeed1 is a killing
 argument1 but some will be apt to say1 
that  where1 the strength of his reason 
failed him1 then he flies to the        
strength of his sword2 and this reminds 
me of a business that was very          
surprising to many1 the presentment of  
some pernicious books and their  authors
 by the grand jury of ,middlesex4 ,this 

is looked upon as a matter  of dangerous
 consequence1 to make our civil courts  
judges of religious  doctrines2 and no  
one knows upon a change of affairs whose
 turn it  may be next to be condemned4  
,but the example has been followed in   
this  country1 and ,mr4 ,toland and his 
book have been presented here by a grand
  jury1 not one of whom ,i am persuaded 
ever read one leaf in ',christianity    
not ,mysterious4'    ,let the ,sorbonne 
forever now be silent2 a learned grand  
jury1 directed  by as learned a judge1  
does the business much better4 ,the     
,dissenters  here were the chief        
promoters of this matter1 but1 when ,i  
asked one  of them ',what if a violent  
,church of ,england jury should present 
,mr4  ,baxter's books as pernicious1 and
 condemn them to the flames by the      
common executioner1' he was sensible of 
the error1 and said he wished  it had   
never been done4 ,mr4 ,locke1 in his    
reply1 coincides with his  friend1 and  
says1 ,the ,dissenters had best         

consider2 but they are a  sort of men   
which will always be the same4 ,a remark
 which #aej years has  not failed in its
 truthfulness4 ,mr4 ,molyneux concludes 
his remarks in  reference to ,toland1 as
 follows3--,mr4 ,toland is at length    
driven out  of our kingdom2 the poor    
gentleman at last wanted a meal's meat1 
and  the universal outcry of the clergy 
ran so strong against him1 that none    
durst admit him to their tables4 ,the   
little stock of money which he had  was 
soon exhausted1 he fell to borrowing1   
and to complete his hardships1  the     
,parliament fell on his book1 voted it  
to be burnt by the common  hangman1 and 
ordered the author to be taken into     
custody by the  ,serjeant-at-,arms1 and 
to be prosecuted by the ,attorney       
,general4 ,hereupon  he is fled out of  
this kingdom1 and none here knows where 
he has  directed his course4 ,from this 
correspondence we glean the following   
facts3--    #a4 ,that ,john ,locke and  
,mr4 ,molyneux were favorable to        

,freethought4    #b4 ,that 7on ,locke's 
authority7 ,toland possessed abilities  
of no common  order4    #c4 ,that       
,toland was unjustly persecuted1 and he 
met with the sympathy of  the ,liberals4
    ,toland1 having received a foretaste
 of his country's vengeance1 retired    
for two years to ,germany1 where he was 
welcomed by the first scholars of  the  
age4 ,hearing that the ,house of        
,convocation1 in ,london1 was about to  
denounce two of his works as heretical  
7,christianity not ,mysterious1  and    
,amyntor17 he hastened to ,england1 and 
published two letters to the            
,prolucutor1 which were never laid      
before ,convocation4 ,he insisted that  
he should be heard in his own defence   
before sentence was passed on  his      
works2 but as usual this wish was denied
 him4 ,a legal difficulty  prevented the
 bishops from prosecuting the works1 and
 ,toland gave the  world a full account 
in his ,vindicius ,liberius4    ,the    
,letters to ,serena1 written in a bold1 

honest1 unflinching manner1  were the   
next performances of ,toland4 ,the first
 letter is on ,the ,origin  and ,force  
of ,prejudices4 ,it is founded on a     
reflection of ,cicero1 that  all        
prejudices spring from moral1 and not   
physical sources1 and while  all admit  
the power of the senses to be           
infallible1 all strive to  corrupt the  
judgment1 by false metaphor and unjust  
premises4 ,toland  traces the progress  
of superstition from the hands of a     
midwife to those  of a priest1 and shows
 how the nurse1 parent1 schoolmaster1   
professor1  philosopher1 and politician1
 all combine to warp the mind of man by 
fallacies from his progress in          
childhood1 at school1 at college1 and   
in the world4 ,how the child is blinded 
with an idea1 and the man with  a word4 
,the second letter is ,a ,history of the
 ,soul's ,immortality ,among  the       
,heathens4 ,a lady had been reading     
,platers ,phdo1 and remarked  as to how 
,cato could derive any consolation from 

the slippery and vague  suppositions of 
that verbiant dialogue4 ,toland1        
therefore1 for her  edification1 drew up
 a list of the specifications of the    
ancients on the  subject1 analysing 7in 
its progress7 the varying phases of the 
fables of  the ,elysian fields1 the     
,charons1 the ,styx1 etc41 deriving them
 all from  the ancient ,egyptians4      
,toland thought the idea had arisen     
among the  people1 like our witches1    
ghosts1 and fairy stories1 and          
subsequently  defended by the           
philosophers1 who sought to rule their  
passions by  finding arguments for their
 superstitions1 and thus the rise of    
their  exoteric and esoteric doctrines  
were the first foundations of the belief
  in the immortality of the soul4 ,the  
third letter is on ,the ,origin of      
,idolatry1 or1 as it might rather be    
called1 a history of the follies  of    
mankind4 ,he traces the causes1 the     
origin1 and the science of              
superstition--its phenomena and its     

devotees1 proving that all the          
sacrifices1 prayers1 and customs of     
idolatry are the same in all ages1  they
 only differ in language and            
adaptability of climate1 and that with  
the fall of judicial astrology1 idolatry
 received its greatest blow1  for while 
men thought that priests could control  
destiny1 they feared  them--but this    
idea destroyed1 it removed the terror   
which so long  had existed as an        
immediate object betwixt the man and    
this sacerdotal  tyrant4    ,in letter  
fourth1 addressed ,to a ,gentleman in   
,holland1 showing  ,spinoza's ,system of
 ,philosophy to be without any principle
 or  foundation1 and in the concluding  
article1 ,toland argues that motion  is 
essential to matter1 in answer to some  
remarks by a noble friend  on the above4
 ,in the fifteenth section of this      
argument1 ,toland thus  rebuts the      
allegation that were motion indissolubly
 connected with  matter1 there must be  
extension without surface for motion or 

matter  to exert their respective powers
 upon4 ,it is often used as an argument1
  that if a vase was filled with any    
commodity to the utmost extent1 where   
would be the space for motion8 ,we know 
that in a kettle of water1 if  there is 
no outlet for the steam 7which is the   
motion of the water17  the kettle will  
burst4 ,toland says1 ',you own most     
bodies are in actual  motion1 which can 
be no argument that they have been      
always so1 or that  there are not others
 in actual repose4' ,i grant that such a
 consequence  does not necessarily      
follow1 though the thing may itself be  
true4 ,but1  however1 it may not be     
amiss to consider how far this actual   
motion  reaches1 and is allowed1 before 
we come to treat of rest4 ,though the   
matter of the universe be everywhere the
 same1 yet according to its  various    
modifications it is conceived to be     
divided into numberless  particular     
systems1 vortices or whirlpools of      
matter2 and these again  are subdivided 

into other systems greater or less1     
which depend oh one  another1 as every  
one on the whole1 in their centres1     
textures1 frame1  and coherence4 ,our   
sun is the centre of one of the larger  
systems1 which  contains a great many   
small ones within the sphere of its     
activity1  as all the planets which move
 about it2 and these are subdivided into
  lesser systems that depend on them1 as
 his satelites wait upon  ,jupiter1 and 
the moon on the earth2 the earth again  
is divided into the  atmosphere1 ground1
 water1 and other principal parts2 these
 again into  the vegetable1 animal1 and 
mineral kingdoms4 ,now1 as all these    
depend  in a link on one another1 so    
their matter is mutually resolved into  
each  other1 for earth1 air1 fire1 and  
water are not only closely blended  and 
united1 but likewise interchangeable1   
transformed in a perpetual  revolution3 
earth becoming water1 water air1 air    
ether1 and so back  again in mixtures   
without end or number4 ,the animals we  

destroy  contribute to preserve us1 till
 we are destroyed to preserve other     
things1 and become parts of grass1 or   
plants1 or water1 or air1 or  something 
else that helps to make other animals1  
and they one another1  or other men1 and
 these again into stone1 or wood1 or    
metals1 or  minerals1 or animals again1 
or become parts of all these and of a   
great  many other things1 animals1 or   
vegetables1 daily consuming and         
devouring  each other--so true it is    
that everything lives by the destruction
 of  another4 ,all the parts of the     
universe are in this constant motion of 
destroying and begetting1 of begetting  
and destroying1 and the greater  systems
 are acknowledged to have their         
ceaseless movements as well  as the     
smallest particles1 the very central    
globes of the vortices  revolving on    
their own axis1 and every particle in   
the vortex  gravitating towards the     
centre4 ,our bodies1 however we may     
flatter  ourselves1 do not differ from  

those of other creatures1 but like them 
receive increase or diminution by       
nutrition or evacuation1 by accretion1  
transpiration1 and other ways1 giving   
some parts of ours to other  bodies1 and
 receiving again of theirs1 not         
altogether the same yesterday  as       
to-day1 nor to continue the same        
to-morrow1 being alive in a  perpetual  
flux like a river1 and in the total     
dissolution of our system  at death to  
become parts of a thousand other things 
at once1 our bodies  partly mixing with 
the dust and the water of the earth1    
partly exhaled  and evaporated into the 
air1 flying to so many different places1
 mixing  and incorporating with numerous
 things4    ,no parts of matter are     
bound to any one figure or form1 losing 
and  changing their figures and forms   
continually1 that is being in perpetual 
motion1 dipt1 or worn1 or ground to     
pieces1 or dissolved by other parts1    
acquiring their figures1 and these      
theirs1 and so on incessantly3 earth1   

air1 fire1 and water1 iron1 wood1 and   
marble1 plants and animals1 being       
rarefied1 condensed1 liquified1         
congealed1 dissolved1 coagulated1 or    
any other way resolved into one another4
 ,the whole face of the earth  exhibits 
those mutations every moment to our     
eyes1 nothing continuing  one hour      
numerically the same2 and these changes 
being but several kinds  of motion1 are 
therefore the incontestable effects of  
universal action4  ,but the changes in  
the parts make no change in the         
universe2 for it is  manifest that the  
continual alterations1 successions1     
revolutions1 and  transmutations of     
matter1 cause no accession or diminution
 therein1 no  more than any letter is   
added or lost in the alphabet by the    
endless  combinations and transpositions
 thereof into so many different words   
and  languages1 for a thing no sooner   
quits one form than it puts on another1 
leaving as it were the theatre in a     
certain dress1 and appearing again  in a

 new one1 which produces a perpetual    
youthfulness and vigor1 without  any    
decay or decrepitness of the world1 as  
some have falsely imagined1  contrary to
 reason and experience2 the world1 with 
all the parts and  kinds thereof1       
continuing at all times in the same     
condition4    9999999999    ,but the    
species still continue by propagation1  
notwithstanding the decay  of the       
individuals1 and the death of our bodies
 is but matter going  to be dressed in  
some new form2 the impressions may vary1
 but the wax  continues still the same1 
and indeed death is in effect the very  
same  thins with our birth2 for as to   
die is only to cease to be what we      
formerly were1 so to be born is to begin
 to be something which we were  not     
before4 ,considering the numberless     
successive generations that have        
inhabited this globe1 returning at death
 into the common mass of  the same1     
mixing with all the other parts thereof1
 and to this1 the  incessant river-like 

flowing and transpiration of matter     
every  moment from the bodies of men    
while they live1 as well as their daily 
nourishment1 inspiration of air1 and    
other additions of matter to their      
bulk2 it seems probable that there is no
 particle of matter on the whole  earth 
which has not been a part of man4 ,nor  
is this reasoning confined  to our own  
species1 but remains as true of every   
order of animals or  plants1 or any     
other beings1 since they have been all  
resolved into one  another by ceaseless 
revolutions1 so that nothing is more    
certain than  that every material ,thing
 is all ,things1 and that all ,things   
are but  manifestations of one4    ,in  
his reply to ,wotton1 who attacks those 
,letters to ,serena1 ,toland  says they 
were addressed to a lady1 the most      
accomplished then in the  world4 ,the   
name of the lady will probably1 remain  
forever a mystery4    ,in #agah1 he     
published the celebrated work           
,nazarenus1 or ,jewish1  ,gentile1 and  

,mahometan ,christianity1 which caused  
an immense sensation  at the time it    
appeared1 and led to his ,mangonentes   
7#agbj17 a work  singularly profound and
 effective4 ,in the same year he gave   
the world  ,tetradymus1 containing      
,hodegus1 or the ,pillar of ,cloud and  
,fire1  that guided the ,israelites in  
the ,wilderness1 not miraculous1 but a  
thing equally practiced by other        
nations2 and ,clidophorus1 or of  the   
,exoteric and ,esoteric ,philosophy2 and
 ,hypatia4 ,there is a long  preface to 
those books1 from under an elm in       
,bensbury 7or ,chebem's  camp17 on the  
'warren at the south end of ,wimbledon  
,common 7#agbj47  ,about this time      
,pantheisticon appeared1 written as a   
caricature  on ,church ,liturgies1 which
 ,archdeacon ,hare denounced as         
downright  ,atheism4    ,along with the 
above1 ,toland wrote a multitude of     
small pamphlets2 he  translated the     
fables of sop1 and published a poem1    
entitled ,clito1  which caused much     

excitement at the time2 and1 as it      
represented  ,toland's ideal character1 
we reprinted it in the ,london          
,investigator4  ,his earlier political  
works were esteemed so valuable in the  
defence of  the ,protestant succession1 
and advancing the interests of the      
,elector1  subsequently ,king of        
,england1 that in one of his visits paid
 to that  ,court1 he was presented by   
the ,electress with miniature portraits 
of  herself and family4    ,the         
following is a catalogue of the works of
 ,toland1 which have never  yet been    
published1 and the works in which they  
are mentioned3--    #a4 ,the ,history of
 ,socrates 7in the ,life of             
,harrington47    #b4 ,systems of        
,divinity ,exploded4 ,an ,epistolary    
,dissertation4  7,christianity not      
,mysterious47    #c4 ,the ,history of   
the ,canon of the ,new ,testament4      
7,nazarenus47    #d4 ,repubiica         
,mosaica4 7,nazarenus47    #e4 ,a       
,treatise ,concerning ,tradition4       

7,tetradymus47    ,there were several   
other works1 part of them written1 which
 passed into  the hands of ,lord        
,molesworth 7we believe17 part of which 
were published  7the ,history of the    
,druid and also ,giordano ,bruno27 but  
whether  they exist at the present time 
or not1 we are unable to say4    ,there 
is also great difficulty in deciding as 
to the manner of ,toland's  life2 of    
this1 however1 we are certain1 that he  
caused great opposition  in his own day1
 and he was patronised by able man4 ,he 
edited an edition  of ,lord             
,shaftesbury's ,letters1 and published a
 work of that noble ,lord's             
surreptitiously2 he mingled amongst the 
,german ,courts1 and appeared  on terms 
of equality with the elite of the       
philosophers and the  aristocracy4 ,the 
brief memoir prefaced to one of his     
works is an  epistolary document        
addressed to a noble ,lord4 ,his        
acquaintance with  ,locke1 ,shaftesbury1
 ,collins1 ,molesworth1 and ,molyneux1  

must have  proceed-4 ed from other      
causes than his genius1 or why was      
,toland  exalted when ,mandeville1      
,chubb1 and the brave ,woolston are     
never so much  as alluded to8 ,we       
consider that there is a strong         
probability that  he was wealthy--or at 
least possessed of a moderate           
competence4 ,his  abilities were of a   
curious order4 ,he seemed to be one of a
 school which  rose about his time to   
advocate ,freethought1 but shackled by a
  dogma4 ,his collegiate education gave 
him an early liking for the dead        
languages1 and he carried out the notion
 of the ancients1 that the  exoteric or 
esoteric methods were still in force4   
,from a careful  perusal of the works of
 the ,fathers1 and the contemporary     
books of the  heathens1 he fancied that 
all the superstitions in the world      
differed  but in degree--that religion  
was but the organic cause of            
superstition1  the arguments made for it
 by the philosophers to propitiate the  

vulgar4  ,this idea 7in the main7 was   
agreed to by ,woolston1 although his    
violent  ,discourses1 which were        
addressed to the unlearned1 contained   
within  them the germ of their intrinsic
 popularity4 ,yet even ,woolston's      
works1  notwithstanding their bluff     
exterior1 had something more within them
  than what the people could appreciate1
 or even the present race of            
,freethinkers can always understand2 for
 underneath that unrivalled  vein of    
sarcasm1 there was in every instance an 
esoteric view1 which  comprehended the  
meaning by which the earlier ,christians
 understood  the gospels1 and rendered  
them on the same scale as the works of  
the  ancients4 ,the renowned ,william   
,whiston was another who interpreted    
,scripture in a similar manner4 ,all    
those writers would have been           
,swedenborgians if there had been no    
,freethought1 while ,whiston would  have
 been an ,atheist had there been no     
representative of that school4  ,we do  

not consider ,toland1 then1 as an       
absolute ,deist4 ,at that time the  age 
was not so far progressed as to admit a 
,biblical scholar into  the extreme     
advanced list2 and when a man has spent 
the whole of his  childhood in a        
sectarian family1 and his youth and     
early manhood in  a ,university1 it is  
an impossibility to throw off at one    
struggle the  whole of his past ideas2  
he may be unfettered in thought1 and    
valiant in  speech1 still there is the  
encyclopdia of years hanging upon him as
  a drag to that extreme development    
which he wishes1 but cannot bring his   
passions to follow4 ,not that we would  
by any means observe that ,toland  was  
comparatively behind his age1 but that  
even in his more daring works  he still 
had a vague idea of ,scripture being    
partly inspired1 although  overlaid with
 a mass of ecclesiastical verbiage4     
,it also seems a mystery how the works  
of ,woolston could be condemned1  his   
person seized1 while in the case of     

,toland we hear of nothing  but his     
works being burnt4 ,why was ,convocation
 so idle8 ,why make idle  threats1 and  
let their victim ramble at large6 ,was  
it because the one  had powerful friends
 and the other had none8 or was it that 
in  the earlier portion of the career of
 ,toland1 the invisible hand of         
,bolingbroke stayed the grasp of        
persecution8 ,or was ,shaftesbury's     
memory  so esteemed1 that hid friend was
 untouched6 ,those particulars we cannot
  learn1 but they will take rank with   
other parallel cases1 as when the  same 
government prosecuted ,paine1 and gave  
,gibbon a sinecure1 or nearer  our own  
times when a series of men were         
imprisoned for ,atheism1 and ,sir       
,william ,moles worth published similar 
sentiments without hindrance4    ,in the
 ,history of the ,soul's ,immortality1  
,toland thus gives  the explanation     
respecting the exoteric and esoteric    
doctrines of  ,pythagoras3--,pythagoras 
himself did not believe the             

transmigration  which has made his name 
so famous to posterity2 for in the      
internal or  secret doctrine he meant no
 more than the eternal revolution of    
forms  in matter1 those ceaseless       
vicissitudes and alterations which turn 
everything into all things1 and all     
things into anything2 as vegetables  and
 animals become part of us1 we become   
part of them1 and both become  parts of 
a thousand other things in the universe1
 each turning into  water1 water into   
air1 etc41 and so back again in mixtures
 without end  or number4 ,but in the    
external or popular doctrine he imposed 
on the  mob by an equivocal expression  
that they should become various kinds   
of beasts after death1 thereby to deter 
them the more effectually  from         
wickedness4444 ,though the poets        
embellished their pieces with the       
opinion of the soul's immortality1 yet a
 great number of them utterly  rejected 
it for ,seneca was not single in        
saying3--         ',naught's after      

death1 and death itself is naught1      
,of a quick race1 only the utmost goal2 
,then may the saints lose all their hope
 of heaven1       ,and sinners quit     
their racky fears of hell4'    ,we now  
dismiss ,john ,toland from our view4 ,he
 was one of the most honest1  brave1    
truthful1 and scholastic of the old     
,deists4 ,his memory will be  borne on  
the wings of centuries1 and if ever a   
true millennium does  arise1 the name of
 this sterling ,freethinker will occupy 
one of the  brightest niches in its     
,pantheon of ,worthies4    ,a4 ,c4      
,,compte ,,de ,,volney4    ,constantine 
,francis ,chasshboeuf1 de ,volney1 was  
born on ,february #crd1  #ageg1 at      
,craon1 in ,anjou4 ,his father1 a       
distinguished advocate1 not  wishing his
 son to bear the name of ,chasseboeuf1  
resolved that he  should assume that of 
,boisgirais4 ,with this name            
,constantine ,francis  was first known  
in the world1 studying at the ,college  
of ,ancenis and  ,angers4 ,he afterwards

 commenced his ,oriental travels1       
changing his name  to ,volney4    ,at   
the age of seventeen1 finding himself   
his own master1 and possessed  of #ej   
a-year1 inherited from his mother1 he   
went to ,paris1 in order  to study the  
sciences1 preferring the study of       
medicine and physiology1  although      
giving great attention to history and   
the ancient languages4  ,on inheriting a
 legacy of #bdj1 he visited ,egypt and  
,syria1 starting on  foot1 a knapsack on
 his back1 a gun on his shoulder1 and   
his #bdj1 in  gold1 concealed in a belt4
 ,when he arrived in ,egypt1 he shut    
himself up  for eight months in a       
,coptic monastery1 in order to learn    
,arabic2 after  which he commenced his  
travels through ,egypt and ,syria1      
returning to  ,france after an absence  
of four years1 and publishing his       
,voyage en  ,egypte et en ,syrie1 which 
was acknowledged by the ,french army1 on
 their  conquering ,egypt1 to be the    
only book that had never deceived them4 

,the ,french ,government named him      
,director of ,commerce and ,agriculture 
in  ,corsica1 but being elected a deputy
 of the tiers-etat of the ,senechausse  
of ,anjou1 he resigned the government   
appointment1 holding the maxim1  that a 
national deputy ought not in any way to 
be a pensioner4 ,he  opposed all secret 
deliberations1 and wished to admit the  
constituents  and the citizens4 ,he was 
made secretary on the #bcrd of          
,november1 #agij1  and in the debates1  
which arose upon the power of the king  
to determine  peace and war1 ,volney    
proposed and carried the resolution that
 ,the  ,french nation renounces from    
this moment the undertaking any war     
tending  to increase their territory4   
,in #agib1 he accompanied ,pozzo di     
,borgo  to ,corsica1 in compliance with 
invitations from many influential       
inhabitants1 who sought his information4
 ,in ,corsica he became acquainted  with
 ,napoleon ,buonaparte1 who was then an 
artillery officer2 and some  years      

after1 hearing that ,buonaparte had     
obtained the command of the  army of    
,italy1 ,volney exclaimed1 ,if          
circumstances favor him1 we shall  see  
the head of a ,cesar upon the shoulders 
of an ,alexander4 ,when  ,volney        
returned to ,paris1 he published an     
,account of the ,state of  ,corsica4 ,he
 was afterwards appointed ,professor of 
,history1 attracting  large audiences2  
but the ,normal ,school being           
suppressed1 he embarked for  the ,united
 ,states of ,america1 in #agie4 ,he was 
received by ,washington1  who bestowed  
publicly on him marks of honor and      
friendship4 ,in #agih1  ,volney returned
 to ,france1 and gave up to his         
mother-in-law the property  which he was
 entitled to from the death of his      
father1 which had  just occurred4       
,during his absence1 he had been chosen 
a member of the  ,institute4 ,buonaparte
 also1 on ,volney's return1 tried to win
 his esteem  and assistance1 soliciting 
him as colleague in the consulship4 ,but

  he refused the co-operation1 as also  
the office of ,minister of the          
,interior4    ,seldom do men find so    
many inducements to accept office as was
 offered  to ,volney2 and seldom do men 
appear who are disinterested enough to  
reject the inducements then held out to 
him4 ,although he refused to work  with 
the ruling powers of that day1 he ever  
ceased to work for the  people6 ,he     
occupied himself till the last year of  
his life in giving  to the world that   
literature which will never be          
forgotten4    ,it would be impossible to
 notice all the works written by such an
  indefatigable thinker as the heretic  
of our sketch4 ,we ought to  mention1   
however1 that subsequently to his being 
made ,peer of ,france1  by ,louis       
,,xviii42 and when there existed an     
intention of crowning  ,louis1 ,volney  
published ,the ,history of ,samuel1 the 
inventor of ,royal  ,coronations4 ,this 
book represents ,samuel as an impostor1 
,saul as the  blind instrument of       

sacerdotal cunning1 and ,david as an    
ambitious youth4  ,in ,september1 #agia1
 ,volney presented to the ,assembly ,the
 ,ruins1  or ,meditations on the        
,revolutions of ,empires1 a book which  
will  immortalize him in the memory of  
,freethinkers4 ,the originality of      
style1  and the eloquence of expression1
 cannot fail to interest all who read   
it4 ,we give the following extracts1    
from the above work1 but as it  contains
 so much that ought to be read1 we must 
return to the subject in  another       
number3--    ,legislators1 friends of   
evidence and of truth6    ,that the     
subject of which we treat should be     
involved in so many  clouds1 is by no   
means astonishing1 since1 beside the    
difficulties  that are peculiar to it1  
thought itself has1 till this moment1   
ever had  shackles imposed upon it1 and 
free inquiry1 by the intolerance of     
every religious system1 been            
interdicted4 ,but now that thought is   
unrestrained1 and may develope all its  

powers1 we will expose in the  face of  
day1 and submit to the common judgment  
of assembled nations1  such rational    
truths as unprejudiced minds have by    
long and laborious  study discovered3   
and this1 not with the design of        
imposing them as a  creed1 but from a   
desire of provoking new lights1 and     
obtaining better  information4          
,chiefs and instructors of the people6  
you are not ignorant of the  profound   
obscurity in which the nature1 origin1  
and history of the  dogmas you teach are
 enveloped4 ,imposed by force and       
authority1  inculcated by education1    
maintained by the influence of example1 
they  were perpetuated from age to age1 
and habit and inattention strengthened  
their empire4 ,but if man1 enlightened  
by experience and reflection1  summon to
 the bar of mature examination the      
prejudices of his infancy1  he presently
 discovers a multitude of incongruities 
and contradictions1  which awaken his   
sagacity1 and call forth the exertion of

 his reasoning  powers4    ,at first1   
remarking the various and opposite      
creeds into which nations  are divided1 
we are led boldly to reject the         
infallibility claimed  by each2 and     
arming ourselves alternately with their 
reciprocal  pretensions1 to conceive    
that the senses and the understanding1  
emanating directly from ,god1 are a law 
not less sacred1 and a guide not  less  
sure1 than the indirect and             
contradictory codes of the prophets4    
,if we proceed to examine the texture of
 the codes themselves1 we shall  observe
 that their pretended divine laws1 that 
is to say1 laws immutable  and eternal1 
have risen from the complexion of times1
 of places1 and  of persons2 that these 
codes issue one from another in a kind  
of  genealogical order1 mutually        
borrowing a common and similar fund of  
ideas1 which every institutor modifies  
agreeably to his fancy4    ,if we ascend
 to the source of those ideas1 we shall 
find that it is  lost in the night of   

time1 in the infancy of nations1 in the 
very origin  of the world1 to which they
 claim alliance3 and there1 immersed in 
the obscurity of chaos1 and the fabulous
 empire of tradition1 they are  attended
 with so many prodigies as to be        
seemingly inaccessible to the  human    
understanding4 ,but this prodigious     
state of things gives birth to  a ray of
 reasoning1 that resolves the           
difficulty2 for if the miracles  held   
out in systems of religion have actually
 existed2 if1 for instance1             
metamorphoses1 apparitions and the      
conversations of one or more ,gods1     
recorded in the sacred books of the     
,hindoos1 the ,hebrews1 and the         
,parses1 are indeed events in real      
history1 it follows that nature in      
those times was perfectly unlike the    
nature that we are acquainted with  now2
 that men of the present age are totally
 different from the men that  formerly  
existed2 but1 consequently1 that we     
ought not to trouble our  heads about   

them4    ,on the contrary1 if those     
miraculous facts have had no real       
existence  in the physical order of     
things1 they must be regarded solely as 
productions of the human intellect3 and 
the nature of man1 at this  day1 capable
 of making the most fantastic           
combinations1 explains the  phenomenon  
of those monsters in history4 ,the only 
difficulty is to  ascertain how and for 
what purpose the imagination invented   
them4 ,if we  examine with attention the
 subjects that are exhibited by them1 if
  we analyze the ideas which they       
combine and associate1 and weigh with   
accuracy all their concomitant          
circumstances1 we shall find a solution 
perfectly conformable to the laws of    
nature4 ,those fabulous stories have  a 
figurative sense different from their   
apparent one2 they are founded  on      
simple and physical facts2 but these    
facts being ill-conceived and           
erroneously represented1 have been      
disfigured and changed from their       

original nature by accidental causes    
dependent on the human mind1 by the     
confusion of signs made use of in the   
representation of objects1 by the       
equivocation of words1 the defect of    
language1 and the imperfection of       
writing4 ,these ,gods1 for example1 who 
act such singular parts in every        
system1 are no other than the physical  
powers of nature1 the elements1  the    
winds1 the meteors1 the stars1 all which
 have been personified by  the necessary
 mechanism of language1 and the manner  
in which objects  are conceived by the  
understanding4 ,their life1 their       
manners1 their  actions1 are only the   
operation of the same powers1 and the   
whole of  their pretended history no    
more than a description of their various
  phenomena1 traced by the first        
naturalist that observed them1 but taken
  in a contrary sense by the vulgar1 who
 did not understand it1 or by           
succeeding generations1 who forgot it4  
,in a word1 all the theological  dogmas 

respecting the origin of the world1 the 
nature of ,god1 the  revelation of his  
laws1 the manifestation of his person1  
are but  recitals of astronomical facts1
 figurative and emblematical narratives 
of the motion and influence of the      
heavenly bodies4 ,the very idea  itself 
of the divinity1 which is at present so 
obscure1 abstracted1 and  metaphysical1 
was in its origin merely a composite of 
the powers of the  material universe1   
considered sometimes analytically1 as   
they appear  in their agents and their  
phenomena1 and sometimes synthetically1 
as  forming one whole1 and exhibiting an
 harmonious revelation in all its       
parts4 ,thus the name of ,god has been  
bestowed sometimes upon the wind1  upon 
fire1 water1 and the elements2 sometimes
 upon the sun1 the stars1  the planets1 
and their influences2 sometimes upon the
 universe at large1  and the matter of  
which the world is composed2 sometimes  
upon abstract  and metaphysical         
properties1 such as space1 duration1    

motion1 and  intelligence2 but in every 
instance1 the idea of a ,deity has not  
flowed  from the miraculous revelation  
of an invisible world1 but has been  the
 natural result of human reflection1 has
 followed the progress and  undergone   
the changes of the successive           
improvement of intellect1 and  has had  
for its subject the visible universe and
 its different agents4    ,it is then in
 vain that nations refer the origin of  
their religion  to heavenly inspiration2
 it is in vain that they pretend to     
describe a  supernatural state of things
 as first in order of events2 the       
original  barbarous state of mankind1   
attested by their own monuments1 belies 
all  their assertions4 ,these assertions
 are still more victoriously refuted  by
 considering this great principle1 that 
man receives no ideas but  through the  
medium of his senses3 for from hence it 
appears that every  system which        
ascribes human wisdom to any other      
source than experience  and sensation1  

includes in it a ysteron vroteron1 and  
represents the  last results of         
understanding as earliest in the order  
of time4 ,if  we examine the different  
religious systems which have been formed
  respecting the actions of the ,gods1  
and the origin of the world1 we  shall  
discover at every turn an anticipation  
in the order of narrating  things1 which
 could only be suggested by subsequent  
reflection4 ,reason1  then1 emboldened  
by these contradictions1 hesitates not  
to reject  whatever does not accord with
 the nature of things1 and accepts      
nothing  for historical truth that is   
not capable of being established by     
argument and ratiocination4 ,its ideas  
and suggestions are as follows3--       
,before any nation received from a      
neighbor nation dogmas already          
invented2 before one generation         
inherited the ideas of another1 none of 
these complicated systems had existence4
 ,the first men1 the children of        
nature1 whose consciousness was anterior

 to experience1 and who brought  no     
preconceived knowledge into the world   
with them1 were born without  any idea  
of those articles of faith which are the
 result of learned  contention2 of those
 religious rites which had relation to  
arts and  practices not yet in          
existence2 of those precepts which      
suppose the  passions already developed2
 of those laws which have reference to a
  language and a social order hereafter 
to be produced2 of that ,god1 whose     
attributes are abstractions of the      
knowledge of nature1 and the idea of    
whose conduct is suggested by the       
experience of a despotic government2  in
 fine1 of that soul and those spiritual 
existences which are said not  to be the
 object of the senses1 but which1       
however1 we must forever have  remained 
unacquainted with1 if our senses had not
 introduced them to  us4 ,previously to 
arriving at these notions1 an immense   
catalogue of  existing facts must have  
been observed4 ,man1 originally savage1 

must  have learned from repeated trials 
the use of his organs4 ,successive      
generations must have invented and      
refined upon the means of  subsistence2 
and the understanding1 at liberty to    
disengage itself from  the wants of     
nature1 must have risen to the          
complicated art of comparing  ideas1    
digesting reasonings1 and seizing upon  
abstract similitudes4    ,it was not    
till after having surmounted those      
obstacles1 and run a long  career in the
 night of history1 that man1 reflecting 
on his state1 began  to perceive his    
subjection to forces superior to his own
 and independent  of his will4 ,the sun 
gave him light and warmth2 fire burned1 
thunder  terrified1 the winds buffeted1 
water overwhelmed him2 all the various  
natural existences acted upon him in a  
manner not to be resisted4 ,for a  long 
time an automaton1 he remained passive1 
without inquiring into the  cause of    
this action2 but the very moment he was 
desirous of accounting  to himself for  

it1 astonishment seized his mind2 and   
passing from the  surprise of a first   
thought to the reverie of curiosity1 he 
formed a  chain of reasoning4    ,at    
first1 considering only the action of   
the elements upon him1 he  inferred     
relatively to himself1 an idea of       
weakness1 of subjection1 and  relatively
 to them1 an idea of power1 of          
domination2 and this idea  was the      
primitive and fundamental type of all   
his conceptions of the  divinity4       
,the action of the natural existences1  
in the second place1 excited in  him    
sensations of pleasure or pain1 of good 
or evil2 by virtue of his  organization1
 he conceived love or aversion for them1
 he desired or  dreaded their presence3 
and fear or hope was the principle of   
every idea  of religion4    ,afterwards1
 judging everything by comparison1 and  
remarking in those  beings a motion     
spontaneous like his own1 he supposed   
there to be a  will1 an intelligence    
inherent in that motion1 of a nature    

similar to  what existed in himself2 and
 hence1 by way of inference1 he started 
a fresh argument4 ,having experienced   
that certain modes of behavior  towards 
his fellow-creatures wrought a change in
 their affections and  governed their   
conduct1 he applied those practices to  
the powerful  beings of the universe4   
',when my fellow-creature of superior   
strength1'  said he to himself1 'is     
disposed to injure me1 ,i humble myself 
before  him1 and my prayer has the art  
of appeasing him4 ,i will pray to the   
powerful beings that strike me4 ,i will 
supplicate the faculties of the         
planets1 the waters1 and they will hear 
me4 ,i will conjure them to  avert the  
calamities1 and to grant me the         
blessings which are at their  disposal4 
,my tears will move1 my offerings       
propitiate them1 and ,i shall  enjoy    
complete felicity4'    ,and1 simple in  
the infancy of his reason1 man spoke to 
the sun and  the moon2 he animated with 
his understanding and his passions the  

great  agents of nature2 he thought by  
vain sounds and useless practices to    
change their inflexible laws4 ,fatal    
error6 ,he desired that the water       
should ascend1 the mountains be removed1
 the stone mount in the air2  and       
substituting a fantastic to a real      
world1 he constituted for himself       
beings of opinion1 to the terror of his 
mind and the torment of his  race4      
,thus the ideas of ,god and religion    
sprung1 like all others1 from  physical 
objects1 and were in the understanding  
of man1 the products  of his sensations1
 his wants1 the circumstances of his    
life1 and the  progressive state of his 
knowledge4    ,as these ideas had       
natural beings for their first models1  
it resulted  from hence that the        
divinity was originally as various and  
manifold  as the forms under which he   
seemed to act3 each being was a power1 a
  genius1 and the first men found the   
universe crowded with innumerable       
,gods4    ,in like manner the ideas of  

the divinity having had for motors the  
affections of the human heart1 they     
underwent an order of division          
calculated from the sensations of pain3 
and pleasure1 of love and  hatred3 the  
powers of nature1 the ,gods1 the genii1 
were classed into  benign and           
maleficent1 into good and evil ones3 and
 this constitutes the  universality of  
these two ideas in every system of      
religion4    ,these ideas1 analogous to 
the condition of their inventors1 were  
for  a long time confused and cross4    
,wandering in woods1 beset with wants1  
destitute of resources1 men in their    
savage state had no leisure to make     
comparisons and draw conclusions4       
,suffering more ills than they tasted   
enjoyments1 their most habitual         
sentiment was fear1 their theology      
terror1 their worship was confined to   
certain modes of salutation1  of        
offerings which they presented to beings
 whom they supposed to be  ferocious and
 greedy like themselves4 ,in their state

 of equality and  independence1 no one  
took upon him the office of mediator    
with ,gods  as insubordinate and poor as
 himself4 ,no one having any superfluity
  to dispose of1 there existed no       
parasite under the name of priest1 nor  
tribute under the name of victim1 nor   
empire under the name of  altar2 their  
dogmas and morality1 jumbled together1  
were only  self-preservation2 and their 
religion1 an arbitrary idea without     
influence on the mutual relations       
existing between men1 was but a vain    
homage paid to the visible powers of    
nature4    ,such was the first and      
necessary origin of every idea of the   
divinity4444    ,in reality1 when the   
vulgar heard others talk of a new heaven
 and  another world1 they gave a body to
 these fictions2 they erected on it  a  
solid stage and real scenes2 and their  
notions of geography and  astronomy     
served to strengthen1 if they did not   
give rise to the delusion4    ,on the   
one hand1 the ,phoenician navigators1   

those who passed the  pillars of        
,hercules to fetch the pewter of ,thule 
and the amber of the  ,baltic1 related  
that at the extremity of the world1 the 
boundaries of  the ocean 7the           
,mediterranean17 where the sun sets to  
the countries of  ,asia1 there were     
,fortunate ,islands1 the abode of an    
everlasting spring2  and at a farther   
distance1 hyperborean regions1 placed   
under the earth  7relatively to the     
tropics17 where reigned an eternal      
night4 ,from  those stories1 badly      
understood1 and no doubt confusedly     
related1 the  imagination of the people 
composed the ,elysian ,fields1          
delightful spots  in a world below1     
having their heaven1 their sun1 and     
their stars2 and  ,tartarus1 a place of 
darkness1 humidity1 mire1 and chilling  
frost4  ,now1 inasmuch as mankind1      
inquisitive about all that of which they
 are  ignorant1 and desirous of a       
protracted existence1 had already       
exerted  their faculties respecting what

 was to become of them after death2     
inasmuch1 as they had early reasoned    
upon that principle of life which       
animates the body1 and which quits it   
without changing the form of the  body1 
and had conceived to themselves airy    
substances1 phantoms  and shades1 they  
loved to believe that they should resume
 in the  subterranean world that life   
which it was so painful to lose2 and    
this  abode appeared commodious for the 
reception of those beloved objects      
which they could not prevail on         
themselves to renounce4    ,on the other
 hand1 the astrological and             
philosophical priests told such  stories
 of their heavens as perfectly quadrated
 with these fictions4  ,having1 in their
 metaphorical language1 denominated the 
equinoxes and  solstices the gates of   
heaven1 or the entrance of the seasons1 
they  explained the terrestrial         
phenomena by saying1 that through the   
gate of  horn 7first the bull1          
afterwards the ram17 vivifying fires    

descended1  which1 in spring1 gave life 
to vegetation1 and aquatic spirits1     
which  caused1 at the solstice1 the     
overflowing of the ,nile3 that through  
the  gate of ivory 7originally the      
bowman1 or ,sagittarius1 then the       
balance17  and through that of          
,capricorn1 or the urn1 the emanations  
or influences  of the heavens returned  
to their source and re-ascended to their
 origin2  and the ,milky ,way which     
passed through the doors of the         
solstices1  seemed to them to have been 
placed there on purpose to be their road
  and vehicle4 ,the celestial scene     
farther presented1 according to their   
,atlas1 a river 7the ,nile1 designated  
by the windings of the ,hydra27         
together with a barge 7the vessel       
,argo17 and the dog ,sirius1 both       
bearing relation to that river1 of which
 they foreboded the overflowing4  ,these
 circumstances1 added to the preceding  
ones1 increased the  probability of the 
fiction2 and thus to arrive at ,tartarus

 or ,elysium1  souls were obliged to    
cross the rivers ,styx and ,acheron1 in 
the boat of  ,charon the ferryman1 and  
to pass through the doors of horn and   
ivory1  which were guarded by the       
mastiff ,cerberus4 ,at length a civil   
usage was  joined to all these          
inventions1 and gave them consistency4  
,the inhabitants of ,egypt having       
remarked that the putrefaction of dead  
bodies became in their burning climate  
the source of pestilence and  diseases1 
the custom was introduced in a great    
number of ,states1 of  burying the dead 
at a distance from the inhabited        
districts1 in the  desert which lies at 
the ,west4 ,to arrive there it was      
necessary to cross  the canals of the   
river in a boat1 and to pay a toll to   
the ferryman1  otherwise the body       
remaining unburied1 would have been left
 a prey  to wild beasts4 ,this custom   
suggested to her civil and religious    
legislators1 a powerful means of        
affecting the manners of her            

inhabitants1 and addressing savage and  
uncultivated men with the motives  of   
filial piety and reverence for the dead2
 they introduced1 as a  necessary       
condition1 the undergoing that previous 
trial which should  decide whether the  
deceased deserved to be admitted upon   
the footing of  his family honors into  
the black city4 ,such an idea too well  
accorded  with the rest of the business 
not to be incorporated with it2 it      
accordingly entered for an article into 
religious creeds1 and hell had  its     
,minos and its ,radamanthus1 with the   
wand1 the chair1 the guards1 and  the   
urn1 after the exact model of this civil
 transaction4 ,the divinity  then1 for  
the first time1 became a subject of     
moral and political  consideration1 a   
legislator1 by so much the more         
formidable as1  while his judgment was  
final and his decrees without appeal1 he
 was  unapproachable to his subjects4   
,this mythological and fabulous         
creation1  composed as it was of        

scattered and discordant parts1 then    
became a  source of future punishments  
and rewards1 in which divine justice was
  supposed to correct the vices and     
errors of this transitory state4 ,a     
spiritual and mystical system1 such as  
,i have mentioned1 acquired so  much the
 more credit as it applied itself to the
 mind by every argument  suited to it4  
,the oppressed looked thither for an    
indemnification1 and  entertained the   
consoling hope of vengeance2 the        
oppressor expected by  the costliness of
 his offerings to secure to himself     
impunity1 and  at the same time employed
 this principle to inspire the vulgar   
with  timidity2 kings and priests1 the  
heads of the people1 saw in it a  new   
source of power1 as they reserved to    
themselves the privilege of  awarding   
the favors or the censure of the great  
,judge of all1 accord-ing  to the       
opinion they1 should inculcate of the   
odiousness of crimes and  the           
meritoriousness of virtue4    ,thus1    

then1 an invisible and imaginary world  
entered into competition  with that     
which was real4 ,such1 ,o ,persians6 was
 the origin of your  renovated earth1   
your city of resurrection1 placed under 
the equator1  and distinguished from all
 other cities by this singular          
attribute1  that the bodies of its      
inhabitants cast no shade4 ,such1 ,o    
,jews and  ,christians6 disciples of the
 ,persians1 was the source of your ,new 
,jerusalem1 your paradise and your      
heaven1 modelled upon the astrological  
heaven of ,hermes4 ,meanwhile your hell1
 ,o ye ,musselmans6 a subterraneous  pit
 surmounted by a bridge1 your balance of
 souls and good works1  your judgment   
pronounced by the angels ,monkir and    
,nekir1 derives its  attributes from the
 mysterious ceremonies of the cave of   
,mithra2 and  your heaven is exactly    
coincident with that of ,osiris1        
,ormuzd1 and  ,brama44444    ,it is     
evident1 that it is not truth for which 
you contend2 that it is  not her cause  

you are jealous of maintaining1 but the 
cause of your own  passions and         
prejudices2 that it is not the object as
 it really exists  that you wish to     
verify1 but the object as it appears to 
you2 that it is  not the evidence of the
 thing that you are anxious should      
prevail1 but  your personal opinion1    
your mode of seeing and judging4 ,there 
is a power  that you want to exercise1  
an interest that you want to maintain1 a
  prerogative that you want to assume3  
in short1 the whole is a struggle  of   
vanity4 ,and as every individual1 when  
he compares himself with every  other1  
finds himself to be his equal and       
fellow1 he resists by a similar  feeling
 of right2 and from this right1 which   
you all deny to each  other1 and from   
the inherent consciousness of your      
equality1 spring your  disputes1 your   
combats1 and your intolerance4    ,now  
the only way of restoring unanimity is  
by returning to nature1 and  taking the 
order of things which she has           

established for your director  and      
guide1 and this farther truth will then 
appear from your uniformity  of         
sentiment4    ,if we would arrive at    
uniformity of opinion1 we must          
previously  establish certainty1 and    
verify the resemblance which our ideas  
have  to their models4 ,now1 this cannot
 be obtained1 except so far as the      
objects of our inquiry can be referred  
to the testimony1 and subjected  to the 
examination of our senses4 ,whatever    
cannot be brought to this  trial is     
beyond the limits of our understanding3 
we have neither rule to  try it by1 nor 
measure by which to institute a         
comparison1 nor source of  demonstration
 and knowledge concerning it4    ,whence
 it is obvious that1 in order to live in
 peace and harmony1  we must consent not
 to pronounce upon such objects1 nor    
annex to them  importance2 we must draw 
a line of demarcation between such as   
can be  verified and such as cannot1 and
 separate1 by an inviolable barrier1 the

  world of fantastic beings from the    
world of realities3 that is to say1  all
 civil effect must be taken away from   
theological and religious  opinions4    
,this1 ,o nations6 is the end that a    
great people1 freed from their  fetters 
and prejudices1 have proposed to        
themselves2 this is the work  in which1 
by their command1 and under their       
immediate auspices1 we were  engaged1   
when your kings and your priests came to
 interrupt our  labors4444 ,kings and   
priests6 you may yet for awhile suspend 
the solemn  publication of the laws of  
nature2 but it is no longer in your     
power to  annihilate or to subvert them4
    ,we conclude with the               
following3--,investigate the laws which 
nature1  for our direction1 has         
implanted in our breasts1 and form from 
thence  an authentic and immutable code4
 ,nor let this code be calculated for   
one  family1 or one nation only1 but for
 the whole with-out exception4 ,be  the 
legislators of the human race1 as ye are

 the interpreters of their  common      
nature4 ,show us the line that separates
 the world of chimeras  from that of    
realities3 and teach us1 after so many  
religions of error  and delusion1 the   
religion of evidence and truth4    ,our 
space prohibits further quotation in    
this number2 but when we return  to the 
subject1 we shall notice chapter xxi41  
,problem of ,religious  ,contradictions1
 and also ,the ,law of ,nature2 or      
,principles of  ,morality4 ,few men     
wrote more on various topics than       
,volney2 and few  have been more        
respected while living1 and esteemed    
when dead1 by those  whose respect and  
esteem it is always an honor to possess4
 ,at the age  of fifty-three1 after much
 travel and great study1 ,volney        
consoled his  latter days by marrying   
his cousin--the hope of his             
youth--,mdlle4 de  ,chassebouf4 ,a      
disorder of the bladder1 contracted when
 traversing the  ,arabian deserts1      
caused his death at the age of          

sixty-three4 ,he was  buried in the     
cemetery of ,pere ,lachaise1 when ,laya1
 ,director of the  ,french ,academy1    
pronounced a noble panegyric over his   
grave2 and months  after his death he   
was spoken highly of by some of the most
 illustrious  men of ,france4 ,thus     
ended the days of one of the            
,freethinkers of the  past whose works1 
despite all suppression1 will never die4
    ,j4 ,w4          ,,charles ,,blount4
    ,look with me through the dark vista
 of #aej years of clouded history4      
,throw your mind across the bridge of   
time1 for we are about to visit  a      
tragic scene--a scene which might be    
depicted by a poet--so much of  beauty1 
of truth1 and of goodness1 all blasted  
by the perjuries of the  priest4        
,yonder1 in the dim library of an       
ancestral mansion1 embowered  amid the  
woods of the south1 close by the        
gurgling waters which beat an  echo to  
the stormy breezes--those breezes which 
will never more fan  his cheek--that    

water where he has often bathed his     
limbs will be his  rippling monument4   
,the shady moonlight of an ,august      
evening is gilding  the rich pastures of
 ,hertfordshire2 the gorse bushes have  
not yet lost  their beauty1 the         
pheasants are playing in the            
woods--woods that so  lately resounded  
with laughter--laughter ringing like a  
bell--the music  of a merry heart4      
,withdraw those curtains which hide the 
heart-struck  and the dead4 ,above you  
is the exquisite picture of ,eleanora1  
gazing  into the very bed at that form  
which lay shrouded in nothingness4 ,you 
see the broad manly brow--even now the  
brown hair rises in graceful  curls over
 that damp forehead4 ,the lips are      
locked in an eternal smile1  as if to   
mock the closed eyes and the recumbent  
form4 ,is it true that  pictures of     
those we love are endowed with a        
clairvoyant power of gazing  at those   
who have caressed them in life8 ,if it  
is1 then on that ,august  night the wife

 of ,charles ,blount was watching over  
his bier4    ,but who is that pale form1
 with dishevelled hair and weeping eyes1
  with an alabaster skin stained with   
the blue spots of grief8 ,the rapid     
upheaving swells of that fair bosom tell
 of affection withered1 not by  remorse1
 but by superstition8 ,see her how she  
nervously grasps that  dead man's hand1 
how she imprints kisses on his lips6    
,her hair1 which  yesterday was glossy  
as the raven's1 is now as bleached as   
the driven  snow2 to-day she utters her 
plaintive cries1 to-morrow she hastens  
to  join her lover in the tomb4 ,this is
 a sad history4 ,it should be written   
with the juice of hemlock1 as a warning 
to ,genius of impatient love4    ,while 
the fair girl watches by the couch of   
the suicide1 while from the  painted    
canvass ,eleanora gleams on the living  
and the dead1 while the  clouds of night
 gather silently over that ancestral    
hall1 around the  drooping corn on the  
bold sloping park1 and the clear blue   

river--all so  quiet and gentle--let us 
gather up the events of the past1 and   
learn the  cause of a death so tragic1 a
 grief so piercing4    ,in the year     
#afgb1 at the age of nineteen years1 a  
young man 7the son of  a baronet7 led to
 the altar the lovely daughter of ,sir  
,timothy ,tyrrel4  ,flowers strewed the 
path of the wedded pair1 and for years  
their life  was one scene of bliss4 ,at 
last1 struck down by disease1 ,charles  
,blount  stood by the side of his dying 
wife--in his arms his ,eleanora yielded 
her last sigh4 ,he buried her by the    
willow-tree in the old churchyard4  ,the
 lily blended with the white rose1 and  
the myrtle overshadowed the  grave4 ,it 
was here where the widower rested in the
 evening--here where  he taught his     
children the virtues of their dead      
mother4 ,sometimes he  gazed at the     
azure skies1 and strange fancies        
beguiled the mind of the  mourner4 ,when
 he saw the sun sink to the west1       
gilding the world with  its glorious    

rays1 he mused on the creeds of many    
lands4 ,he fancied he  saw a heaven and 
a ,god1 and traced in the lines of light
 the  patriarchal worshippers of the    
world4 ,he looked at the sun and its    
worshippers--those who sought the origin
 of purity by worshipping that  which is
 the origin of all good4 ,he looked at  
the fables of ,greece1 and  found       
delight in the thought of ,sappho       
uttering her diapason of joy in  lyrics 
which told of love and beauty2 at       
,egypt1 where the priests1 in  their    
esoteric cunning1 searched in vain for  
that which gives life1 and  motion1 and 
joy2 and then he glanced at the         
,christian heaven1 but here  all was    
dark--dark as the ,plutonian caverns of 
,homer's hell4 ,he  wished to meet his  
,eleanora--not in ,pagan dreams--not in 
,christian  parables--but in the world  
of realities4 ,he looked with eager eyes
 upon  the world around him1 in society1
 at ,court1 and1 in the homes of his    
country4 ,but wherever he went1 there   

was but one thought--one feeling4  ,he  
wished a mother for his children--a     
mother like the sainted dead4  ,there   
was but one who answered the ideal--like
 in features1 in passion1  and in       
beauty--to the lost ,eleanora4 ,born of 
the same parents1 loved by  the same    
brother1 educated by the same teachers1 
imbued with the same  thoughts1 she was 
the model of her dead sister2 with a    
sisterly love  for her brother1 she was 
already both mother and aunt to her     
sister's  children4    ,with deliberate 
thoughts1 with convulsive passion1 the  
love of ,charles  ,blount passed the    
bounds of that of a brother2 longing to 
make her his  wife1 he adored her with  
the passion he had lavished on the dead4
 ,it  seemed as if the shade of         
,eleanora was perpetually prompting him 
to  bestow all his affection on the     
young and beautiful ,eliza4 ,she        
caressed  his children with the pride of
 an aunt1 she traced the image of her   
sister in the laughing eyes of the merry

 babes--still she was not happy4  ,how  
could she be happy8 ,she loved him as a 
man--as a brother4 ,she was  a          
,christian--he an ,infidel4 ,she was    
bound by creeds--he by conduct4 ,she    
was doing the duty she owed to the dead4
 ,he sought to do it by uniting  himself
 to the living4 ,eliza was anxious to   
marry1 but there existed  something     
which1 to her mind1 was greater than    
human duties1 and it  often outraged    
them4 ,god and the ,church demanded her 
first attention1  and then her lover and
 his children4 ,the ,church1 in cruel   
mockery of  human rights1 stepped       
between her judgment and her affections4
 ,it denied  the power of a woman to    
occupy the married home of her deceased 
sister4  ,she was willing to pledge her 
love to ,charles ,blount at the altar1  
but  the priest mocked her prayers and  
denounced her affections4 ,the occasion 
was too good to be lost4 ,episcopalism  
sought revenge on its opponent1  and it 
triumphed4 ,eliza felt the force of     

,blount's arguments4 ,she  wandered with
 him through the green fields1 but her  
sorrow was too  great to pluck the wild 
roses4 ,the luscious fruits of summer   
were  passed untasted4 ,a heart sick and
 in trouble1 a mind wandering from her  
sister's grave to her children1 and then
 at the anathema of the ,church1  made  
her a widowed maid4 ,to overcome her    
scruples1 her lover wrote a  book       
7inviting the clergy to refute it17     
defending the marriage with a  deceased 
wife's sister4 ,but ever as he spoke    
there was a film before her  eyes4      
,there was a gaunt priest1 with         
canonical robes1 stood before the  gates
 of heaven4 ,before him and through him 
was the way to an eternal  happiness1   
below him was a fiery hell2 and he      
shouted with hoarse voice1  ,incest1    
incest1 incest6--,and ever as he        
shouted1 he pointed with his  finger of 
scorn at this ,christian hell1 and she  
conjured up in her mind  the old stories
 of this priest1 until she saw the livid

 flames rising up  higher till they     
encircled her form1 and then the priest 
screamed with  fury1 ,anathema          
maranatha1 incest1 incest6 ,and in      
terror she stood1  with the big drops of
 sweat dripping from her brow1 with her 
heart  beating1 with her mind           
distracted1 but her affections          
unclouded4    ,this priest was the      
,church of ,england1 and those fancies  
were driven  into her imagination by her
 creed1 her litanies1 and her sermons4  
,eliza  ,tyrrel was miserable2 she was  
placed between her love1 her duty1 and  
her  religion4 ,if she had been a woman 
of a strong mind1 she would have  torn  
her creed into shreds1 she would have   
dared the anathema of the  priest--the  
ostracism of its dupes--and would have  
clung to the man she  loved so truly1 in
 defiance of that which was1 at the     
best1 but a faint  possibility4    ,the 
arguments in that pamphlet of ,blount's 
were conclusive1 but she  distrusted    
reason4 ,the plainest dictates of common

 logic were referred  to the promptings 
of the ,devil4 ,how could it be         
otherwise8 ,can the  teachings of a     
lifetime be overthrown by the courtship 
of a few months8  ,eliza ,tyrrel1 true  
to ,blount1 loved him2 true to her      
religion1 she durst  not marry him      
without the sanction of the ,church4 ,so
 ,blount1 as a last  resolve1 laid the  
matter before the ,lord's ,vicegerent at
 ,canterbury1  and many of the most     
learned divines of ,england2 and from   
those  ecclesiastical leeches there was 
a ,shylock cry of incest1 incest1       
incest6 ,and those terrible words came  
greeting the ears of ,charles  ,blount1 
making his home like a charnel-house1   
and they nearly sent his  beautiful     
,eliza to a maniac's grave4 ,still she  
lingered on4 ,denied the  power of a    
wife1 she would not relinquish her      
duties as a mother to her  sister's     
babes4 ,there was a calm heroism here   
which few can imitate4  ,the passions of
 ,blount could not brook further        

insults4 ,the last kick  of bigotry     
against the broken-hearted ,freethinker 
was given4 ,he could  no longer rise    
with the lark1 and roam over the hills  
of his ancestral  home4 ,to him the     
birds1 as they warbled1 spoke of joys   
never to return4  ,the broad river told 
him of the days when the little skiff   
floated  on its waters with ,eleanora2  
and even his friends only too bitterly  
reminded him of the tournaments of wit  
where ,hobbes1 ,brown1 and ,gildon1     
jousted each other in the presence of   
his wife4 ,his life was one scene  of   
misery4 ,he saw no chance of amendment4 
,in a fit of despair1 he  loaded his    
pistol with due deliberation1 placed it 
to his head1 and shot  himself4 ,he     
lingered for sometime1 and then died on 
the breast of ,eliza4    ,this was a    
strange suicide4 ,blount's memory bears 
its weight of obloquy4  ,it is hard to  
draw the line when and where a man has a
 right to take  away his life4 ,common  
sense tells us that so long as our      

families are  dependent upon us1 we have
 no right to end our lives2 and if we   
have no  dependents1 no friends1 then   
our country has a claim upon us4 ,but1  
at  the same time1 the one sole end of  
existence is to be happy4 ,if a man     
cannot find happiness in life1 if there 
is a great coalition against  him1 he is
 justified in taking up arms against    
them2 but1 at the same  time1 it proves 
a greater amount of courage to bear up  
against the ills  of life than to madly 
leave it1 and thus weaken the force of  
those who  wish to stem its injustice4  
,charles ,blount died1 and with him     
expired much of the chivalry of         
,freethought4 ,his friend1 ,charles     
,gil-don1 writing of him to a lady1     
says1 ,you know ,astrea 7,eliza17 and   
have an exact friendship with  her4 ,you
 can attest her beauty1 wit1 honor1     
virtue1 good humor1 and  discretion4    
,you have been acquainted with the      
charms of her conversation  and conduct1
 and condemn her1 only adhering to a    

national custom to the  loss of so      
generous a friend1 and so faithful a    
lover4 ,but custom and  obedience       
meeting the more easily1 betrayed her   
virtue into a crime4 ,i  know my friend 
loved her to his last breath2 and ,i    
know1 therefore1 that  all who love his 
memory must1 for her sake1 love and     
value her1 as being  a lady of that     
merit1 that engaged the reason of       
,philander 7,c4 ,blount7  to so violent 
a passion for her4    ,the same writer  
says1 ,his father was ,sir ,henry       
,blount1 the ,socrates  of the age1 for 
his aversions to the reigning sophisms  
and hypocrisies1  eminent in all        
capacities3 the best husband1 father1   
and master1  extremely agreeably in     
conversation1 and just in all his       
dealings4  ,from such a father our hero 
derived him self2 to such a master owed 
his generous education1 unmixed with the
 nauseous methods and profane  opinions 
of the schools4 ,nature gave him parts  
capable of the noblest  sciences1 and   

his industrious studies bore a          
proportion to his  capacities4 ,he was a
 generous and constant friend1 an       
indulgent parent1  and a kind master4   
,his temper was open and free2 his      
conversation  pleasant2 his reflections 
just and modest2 his repartees          
close--not  scurrilous2 he had a great  
deal of wit1 and no malice4 ,his mind   
was  large and noble--above the little  
designs of most men2 an enemy to        
dissimulation1 and never feared to own  
his thoughts4 ,he was a true            
,englishman1 and lover of the liberties 
of his country1 and declared it  in the 
worst of times4 ,he was an enemy to     
nothing but error1 and none  were his   
enemies that knew him1 but those who    
sacrificed more to mammon  than reason4 
,this was the man who died1 because a   
dominant priesthood insisted on  a dogma
 which interfered with a purely ,secular
 rite1 which blasted two  hearts in a   
vain attempt to perpetuate a system1    
which dashes its rude  fingers1 and     

tears out the heart of human felicity to
 sprinkle the altar  of superstition    
with the gore of offended innocence4    
,charles ,blount  was a ,deist2 as such1
 he believed in a ,god2 which he        
described in his  account of a ,deist's 
religion4 ,let us examine his thoughts1 
and see if  they bear the interpretation
 which ,christianity has always placed  
upon  them4 ,blount gives the ,deist's  
opinion of ,god4 ,he says1 ,whatever is 
adorable1 amiable1 and imitable by      
mankind1 is in one ,supreme1 perfect    
,being4 ,an ,atheist cannot object to   
this4 ,he speaks in the manner  in which
 ,god is to be worshipped4 ,he says1 not
 by sacrifice1 or by a  ,mediator1 but  
by a steady adherence to all that is    
great and good and  imitable in nature4 
,this is the brief religious creed of   
,charles ,blount4  ,he never seeks to   
find out fabled attributes of ,deity4   
,he knows what is  of value to mankind1 
and sedulously practices whatever is    
beneficial to  society4    ,in his      

,anima ,mundi1 or1 ,history of the      
,opinions of the ,heathens on the       
,immortality of the ,soul1 7p4 #ig17    
,blount says3--    ,the heathen         
philosophers were much divided          
concerning the soul's  future state2    
some held it mortal1 others immortal4   
,of those who held  the mortality of the
 soul1 the ,epicureans were the chief   
sect1 who1  notwithstanding their       
doctrines1 led virtuous lives4 ,cardan  
had so  great a value for their moral   
actions1 that he appeared in            
justification  of them4 ,it appears     
7says he7 by the writings of ,cicero1   
,diogenes1  and ,laertius1 that the     
,epicureans did more religiously observe
 laws1  piety1 and fidelity among men   
than either the ,stoics or the          
,platonists2  and ,i suppose the cause  
thereof was1 that a man is either good  
or evil  by custom1 but none confideth  
in those that do not possess sanctity of
  life4 ,wherefore they were compelled  
to use greater fidelity1 thereby  the   

better to justify their profession1 from
 which reason it likewise  proceeds1    
that at this day few do equal the       
fidelity of usurers1  notwithstanding   
they are most base in the rest of their 
life4 ,also among  the ,jews1 whilst the
 ,pharisees1 that confessed the         
resurrection and the  immortality of the
 soul1 frequently persecuted ,christ1   
the ,sadducees1  who denied the         
resurrection1 angels1 and spirits1      
meddled not with him  above once or     
twice1 and that very gently4 ,thus1 if  
you compare the  lives of ,pliny and    
,seneca 7not their writings17 you shall 
find ,pliny1  with his mortality of the 
soul1 did as far exceed ,seneca in      
honesty of  manners1 as ,seneca excels  
him in religious discourse4 ,the        
,epicureans  observed honesty above     
others1 and in their conversation were  
usually  found inoffensive and virtuous1
 and for that reason were often employed
  by the ,romans when they could        
persuade them to accept of great        

employs1  for their fault was not any   
want of ability or honesty1 but their   
general desire of leading a private life
 of ease1 and free from trouble1        
although inglorious4 ,for when          
immortality is not owned1 there can be  
no  ambition of posthumous glory4       
,the ,epicureans1 instead of those      
bloody scenes of gallantry 7which       
tyrants applaud17 undertook to manage   
carefully the inheritance of  orphans2  
bringing up1 at their own charge1 the   
children of their  deceased friends1 and
 were counted good men1 unless it were  
in front of  religious worship2 for they
 constantly affirmed that there were no 
,gods1  or1 at least1 such as concerned 
themselves with human affairs1 according
  to the poets4 ,neither doth the hope  
of immortality conduce to fortitude1  as
 some vainly suggest1 for ,brutus was   
not more valiant than ,cassius2  and if 
we will confess the truth1 the deeds of 
,brutus were more cruel  than those of  
,cassius2 for he used the ,rhodians1 who

 were his enemies1  far more kindly than
 ,brutus did those amicable cities which
 he governed4  ,in a word1 though they  
both1 had a hand in ,csar's murder1 yet 
,brutus  was the only parricide4 ,so    
that the ,stoics1 which believed a      
,providence1  lived as if there were    
none2 whereas the ,epicureans1 who      
denied it1  lived as if there were4444  
,the next sect to the ,epicureans1 in   
point  of incredulity1 concerning the   
soul1 ,i conceive to be the ,sceptics1  
who  were by some esteemed1 not only the
 modestest1 but the most perspicuous  of
 all sects4 ,they neither affirmed nor  
denied anything1 but doubted  of all    
things4 ,they thought all our knowledge 
seemed rather like truth1  than to be   
really true1 and that for such like     
reasons as these3--    #a4 ,they denied 
any knowledge of the ,divine ,nature1   
because1 they say1  to know adequately  
is to comprehend1 and to comprehend is  
to contain1  and the thing contained    
must be less than that which contains   

it2 to  know inadequately is not to     
know4    #b4 ,from the uncertainty of   
our senses1 as1 for instance1 our eyes  
represent things at a distance to be    
less than they really are4 ,a  straight 
stick in the water appears crooked2 the 
moon to be no bigger  than a cheese2 the
 sun greater at rising and setting than 
at noon4 ,the  shore seems to move1 and 
the ship to stand still2 square things  
to be  round at a distance2 an erect    
pillar to be less at the top4 ,neither  
7say  they7 do we know whether objects  
are really as our eyes represent them   
to us1 for the same thing which seems   
white to us seems yellow to a  jaundiced
 man1 and red to a creature afflicted   
with red eyes2 also1 if a  man rubs his 
eyes1 the figure which he beholds seems 
long or narrow1 and  therefore it is not
 improbable that goats1 cats1 and other 
creatures1  which have long pupils of   
the eye1 may think those things long    
which we  call round1 for as glasses    
represent the object variously1         

according  to their shape1 so it may be 
with our eyes4 ,and so the sense of     
hearing  deceives4 ,thus1 the echo of a 
trumpet1 sounded in a valley1 makes the 
sound seem before us1 when it is behind 
us4 ,besides1 how can we think  that an 
ear1 which has a narrow passage1 can    
receive the same sound with  that which 
has a wide one8 ,or the ear1 whose      
inside is full of hair1 to  hear the    
same with a smooth ear8 ,experience     
tells us that if we stop1  or half stop1
 our ears1 the sound cometh different as
 when the ears are  open4 ,nor is the   
smelling1 taste1 or touch less subject  
to mistake2 for  the same scents please 
some1 and displease others1 and so in   
our tastes4  ,to a rough and dry tongue 
that very thing seems bitter 7as in an  
ague17  which to the most moist tongue  
seems otherwise1 and so is it in other  
creatures4 ,the like is true of the     
touch1 for it were absurd to think  that
 those creatures which are covered with 
shells1 scales1 or hairs1  should have  

the same sense in touching with those   
that are smooth4 ,thus  one and the same
 object is diversely judged of1         
according to the  various qualities of  
the instruments of sense1 which         
convinceth to  the imagination2 from all
 which the ,sceptic concluded1 that what
 these  things are in their own nature1 
whether red1 white1 bitter1 or sweet1   
he cannot tell2 for1 says he1 why should
 ,i prefer my own conceit in  affirming 
the nature of things to be thus1 or     
thus1 because it seemeth  so to me--when
 other living creatures1 perhaps1 think 
it is otherwise8  ,but the greatest     
fallacy is in the operation of our      
inward senses2 for  the fancy is        
sometimes persuaded that it hears and   
sees what it does  not1 and our         
reasoning is so weak1 that in many      
disciplines scarce one  demonstration is
 found1 though this alone produces      
science4 ,wherefore it  was             
,democritus's opinion that truth is hid 
in a well1 that she may not  be found by

 men4 ,now1 although this doctrine be   
very inconsistent with  ,christianity1  
yet ,i could wish ,adam had been of this
 persuasion1 for  then he would not have
 mortgaged his posterity for the        
purchase of a  twilight knowledge4 ,now1
 from these sinister observations it was
 that  they esteemed all our sciences to
 be but conjectures1 and our knowledge  
but opinion4 ,whereupon1 doubting the   
sufficiency of human reason1 they  would
 not venture to affirm or deny anything 
of the soul's future state2  but civilly
 and quietly gave way to the doctrines  
and ordinances under  which they lived1 
without raising or espousing any new    
opinions4  ,speaking of the origin of   
the world1 ,gildon gives the following  
as a  translation from ,ocellus         
,lucanas3--,again 7says he17 as the     
frame of the  world has been always1 so 
it is necessary that its parts should   
likewise  always have existed2 by parts1
 ,i mean the heaven1 earth1 and that    
which  lieth betwixt--viz41 the sky2 for

 not without these1 but with these1 and 
of these1 the world consists4 ,also1 if 
the parts exist1 it is necessary  that  
the things which are within them should 
also coexist2 as with  the heavens1 the 
sun1 moon1 fixed stars1 and planets2    
with the earth1  animals1 plants1       
minerals1 gold1 and silver2 with the    
air1 exhalations1  winds1 and           
alterations of weather1 sometimes heat  
and sometimes cold1  for with the world 
all those things do1 and ever have      
existed1 as parts  thereof4 ,nor hath   
man had any original production from the
 earth1  or elsewhere1 as some believe1 
but have always been1 as now he is1     
coexistent with the world1 whereof he is
 a part4 ,now1 corruptions and  violent 
alterations are made according to the   
parts of the earth1 by  winds and waters
 imprisoned in the bowels thereof2 but a
 universal1  corruption of the earth    
never hath been1 nor ever shall be4 ,yet
 these  alterations have given occasion 
for the invention of many lies and      

fables4 ,and thus are we to understand  
them that derive the original of  the   
,greek history from ,inachus1 the       
,argive2 not that he really was the     
original1 as some make him1 but because 
a most memorable alteration  did then   
happen1 and some were so unskilful as to
 attribute it to  ,inachus4444 ,but for 
the universe1 and all the parts whereof 
it subsists1  as it is at present1 so it
 ever was1 and ever shall be2 one nature
  perpetually moving1 and another       
perpetually suffering1 one always       
governing1 and the other always being   
governed4 ,the course which  nature     
takes in governing the world1 is by one 
contrary prevailing over  another1 as   
thus3--,the moisture in the air         
prevaileth over the dryness  of the     
fire2 and the coldness of the wafer over
 the heat of the air1  and the dryness  
of the earth over the moisture of the   
water2 and so the  moisture of the water
 over the dryness of the earth2 and the 
heat in the  air over the coldness of   

the water2 and the dryness in the fire  
over the  moisture of the air4 ,and thus
 the alterations are made and produced1 
out  of one another4444 ,as nature      
cannot create by making something out   
of nothing1 so neither can it           
annihilate1 by turning something into   
nothing2 whence it consequently follows1
 as there is no access1 so there  is no 
diminution in the universe1 no more than
 in the alphabet1 by the  infinite      
combination and transposition of        
letters1 or in the wax by the           
alteration of the seal stamped upon it4 
,now1 as for the forms of natural       
bodies1 no sooner doth any one abandon  
the matter he occupied1 but  another    
instantly steps into the place thereof2 
no sooner hath one acted  his part and  
is retired1 but another comes presently 
forth upon the  stage1 though it may be 
in a different shape1 and so act a      
different  part2 so that no portion of  
the matter is1 or at any time can be1   
altogether void and empty1 but like     

,proteus1 it burns itself into a        
thousand shapes1 and is always supplied 
with one form or another1 there  being  
in nature nothing but circulation4      
,the following are the principal works  
of ,blount3--,anima ,mundi2 or1 an      
,historical ,narration of the ,opinions 
of the ,ancients concerning ,man's      
,soul after this ,life1 according to    
,enlightened ,nature2 published in      
#afgi4 ,upwards of twenty answers were  
published to this work4 ,in #afhj  he   
published a translation1 with notes1 of 
the life of ,apolloninis1 of  ,tyana4   
,this work was suppressed4 ,during the  
same year1 he gave the world  ,great is 
,diana of the ,ephesians2 or1 the       
,original of ,idolatry4    ,by able     
critics this is considered one of his   
ablest works in #afhc1  ,religio ,laici 
appeared1 which is published frum a     
,latin work of ,lord  ,herbert's4 ,in   
#afhh he wrote ,a ,vindication of       
,learning1 and of the  ,liberty of the  
,press4 ,this tractate sparkles with wit

 and argument4 ,but  by far the most    
important work he was connected with1   
was published in  the year he died1 and 
mainly written by himself1 ,the ,oracles
 of  ,reason a favorite title with both 
,american and ,english ,freethinkers4   
,it  consists of sixteen sections2 the  
most interesting being the first four1  
containing ,a ,vindication of ,dr4      
,burnett's ,archiologie4 ,the seventh   
and  eighth chapters 7translated7 of the
 same1 of ,moses's ,description of  the 
,original ,state of ,man1 and ,dr4      
,burnett's ,appendix of the ,brahmin's  
,religion4 ,we would quote from these   
sections of the ,oracles1 but  intend to
 form separate ,half-,hours1 with       
sketches of ,drs4 ,brown and  ,burnett2 
it will be more appropriate to use      
,blount's translation in  describing    
those quaint1 but highly instructive    
authors4 ,in the general  style of      
,blount's works1 he is not seen to      
advantage2 there is too much  heaviness1
 enhanced by the perpetual ,greek and   

,latin quotations2 but as  his works    
were intended for scholars1 and the time
 in which they were  written was        
essentially the most pedantic era of our
 literary history1  we cannot expect    
that vivacity and clearness which other 
writers in  a later age possessed4 ,it  
was in his character as a man that      
,blount  excelled--he was the leader of 
the chivalry of the period1 as in the   
next age ,woolston was his successor4   
,at the ,court he was the gayest of  the
 gay1 without the taint of immorality1  
in a period of the grossest             
licentiousness2 he defended the honor of
 his friends1 frequently at  the expense
 of calumny and danger4 ,in witty       
repartees he was equal to  ,rochester2  
while for abstruse learning he was      
superior to many of the  most learned   
theologians4 ,daintily brave and        
skilfully alive to the  requirements of 
friends and foes1 he passed through life
 in the gilded  barge of pleasure1 and  
ended it sailing through a cloud where  

he  foundered4 ,but the darkness which  
enveloped his history is now charged    
with that sympathetic power which draws 
the young to his grave1 and  compels the
 gloomiest to shed a tear over his      
unhappy fate4    ,at the close of       
,august1 in #afic1 a few friends met    
near the grave of  ,blount1 to join in  
their last respects to their lost       
friend4 ,foremost  amongst them was     
,charles ,gildon1 who so soon repented  
of the part he  had taken in the        
,oracles of ,reason1 but never forgot   
the kindness he  experienced from       
,blount4 ,he lived long enough for ,pope
 to be revenged on  his apostacy1 by    
inserting his name in his great satire4 
,at the time we  speak he was mournful  
and deeply grieved at the loss he had   
sustained2  near him was ,harvey        
,wilwood1 whose bold demeanor and       
sorrowful  countenance told of          
heart-struck grief1 for of the few able 
to  appreciate the genius of ,blount1 he
 was one of the earliest and most       

devoted in his friendship4 ,now we see  
the noble ,lord1 whom ,blount always    
addressed as the most ingenious         
,strephon2 along with him there is the  
pretty ,anne ,rogers1 with ,savage1 and 
,major ,arkwright2 we look in vain  for 
,eliza ,tyr-rel2 they talk slowly over  
him that is no more2 they  recount to   
themselves the intellectual             
achievements1 and the brilliant  hours  
they have spent in the past2 and while  
they speak so kindly1 and  think so     
deeply1 they kneel on the hallowed spot1
 but not to pray2  some of them pledge  
their enmity against ,christian laws and
 ,christian  priests1 and they executed 
it4 ,during this time1 the calm radiance
 of  the lunar light shines on the      
church of ,ridge1 illumining those      
ghostly  tablets of white marble1 where 
the forefathers of ,blount lie entombed4
  ,the baronial arms are emblazoned on  
the wall2 heraldic pomp is keeping      
watch over the mouldering bones of the  
now-levelled great4 ,anne ,rogers  weeps

 wildly for ,eliza and ,eleanora4 ,those
 metaphysical disquisitions  which have 
exalted woman to so high a nature1 that 
devotion to esthetics  which woman      
should always cultivate1 not as a       
household slave1 but  as one of equal   
rights with man1 and his leader in      
everything which  concerns taste1       
elegance1 and modesty2 such gifts in no 
ordinary degree  had ,anne ,rogers--and 
often in dialectic subtlety had she     
mastered her  relative1 who stood by her
 side1 and given tokens of her          
admiration of  ,blount's philosophy and 
conduct4 ,strephon was passionately     
attached  to his confidant and friend1  
and could not give so calm an expression
  to his loss4 ,he wept wildly1 for he  
had lost one who tempered his rebuke    
with a kind word1 and pointed out that  
,epicurean path which leads to          
enjoyment without excess3 to pleasure1  
without a reaction4 ,it was a  memorable
 meeting4 ,while the remembrance of past
 deeds of love lighted  up the eye and  

made the blood course faster through    
their veins1 ,anne  ,rogers detailed the
 following episode in his               
character3--,blount had  visited the    
,court of ,king ,james1 and had been    
singled out by that  monarch for one of 
his savage fits of spleen4 ,i hear1 ,mr4
 ,blount1 you  are very tenacious of the
 opinions of ,sir ,henry1 your father1  
and you  consider his conduct during the
 ,rebellion as worthy of imitation4 ,is 
it so8 ,your ,majesty1 replies ,blount1 
has been correctly informed2 ,i  admire 
my father's conduct4 ,what6 says ,james1
 in opposing his king8  ,blount quickly 
answered1 ,a king1 my liege1 is the     
chief magistrate of  the ,commonwealth1 
and is so hereditarily while he obeys   
the laws of  that ,commonwealth1 whose  
power he represents2 but when he usurps 
the  direction of that power1 he is king
 no longer1 and such was the case  with 
your royal father4 ,with a scowl of     
defiance on his face1 ,king  ,james left
 the ,freethinker1 and sought more      

congenial company2 and as  ,anne ,rogers
 told the story1 each eye was dimmed    
with tears4 ,the moon had  risen high in
 the heavens ere the mourners prepared  
to depart--the first  streaks of dawn   
broke through the ,eastern sky1 and     
revealed the grave  watered with tears1 
where the most chivalrous ,freethinker  
of his age  reposed1 in that sleep which
 knows of no awakening4    ,a4 ,c4      
,,percy ,,bysshe ,,shelley4    ,percy   
,bysshe ,shelley 7the son and heir of a 
wealthy ,english baronet1 ,sir  ,timothy
 ,shelley1 of ,castle ,goring1 in the   
county of ,sussex7 was born at  ,field  
,place1 near ,horsham1 in that county1  
on the #dth of ,august1 #agib4  ,ushered
 into the world in the midst of wealth  
and fashion1 with all the  advantages of
 family distinction1 the future of      
,shelley's life appeared  a bright one2 
but the sunshine of the morning only    
served to render  the darkness which    
came over his noontide more dark1 and to
 make poor  ,shelley still more         

susceptible of the hardships he had to  
encounter4  ,first educated at ,eton1   
his spirit there manifested itself by an
  unflinching opposition to the fagging 
system1 and by revolt against the       
severe discipline of the school2 in his 
,revolt of ,islam ,shelley has  thus    
portrayed his feeling3--         ,i do  
remember well the hour which burst      
,my spirit's sleep2 a fresh ,may dawn it
 was       ,when ,i walked forth upon   
the glittering grass       ,and wept1 ,i
 knew not why3 until there rose         
,from the near school-room voices that1 
alas6       ,were but one echo from a   
world of woes1       ,the harsh and     
grating strife of tyrants and of foes4  
,and then ,i clasped my hands and looked
 around1       ,and none was near to    
mock my streaming eyes1       ,which    
poured their warm drops on the sunny    
ground2       ,so1 without shame1 ,i    
spake--' ,i will be wise1       ,and    
just1 and free1 and mild1 if in me lies 
,such power1 for ,i grow weary to behold

       ,the selfish1 and the strong     
still tyrannize       ,without reproach 
or check4'     44444         ,and from  
that hour did ,i1 with earnest thought1 
,heap knowledge from forbidden mines of 
lore2       ,yet nothing that ray       
tyrants knew or taught       ,i cared to
 learn1 but from that secret store      
,wrought linked armour for my soul1     
before       ,it might walk forth to war
 among mankind4      ,from ,eton1       
,shelley went to ,oxford1 and while     
there he1 scarce at the age  of         
eighteen1 published a volume of         
political rhymes1 entitled ,margaret    
,nicholson's ,remains1 the said         
,margaret being a woman who tried to    
assassinate ,george ,,iii4 ,he also     
wrote a pamphlet in defence of ,atheism4
  ,a copy of this pamphlet he caused to 
be sent to the head of each of the      
colleges in ,oxford1 with a challenge to
 discuss and answer4--,the answer  to   
this was the edict which expelled       
,shelley from ,oxford1 and at the  same 

time placed a wide chasm between him and
 his family4 ,this breach  was still    
further widened in the following year by
 his marriage1 at the  age of nineteen1 
with a beautiful girl named ,westbrook4 
,although ,miss  ,westbrook was         
respectfully connected1 ,shelley's      
aristocratic family  regarded this as a 
mesalliance1 and withdrew his pecuniary 
allowance2  and had it not been for the 
bride's father1 who allowed the young   
couple  #bjj a year1 they would have    
been reduced to actual poverty4 ,this   
was an  unfortunate marriage for both4  
,after having two children1             
disagreements  arose1 and ,shelley was  
separated from his wife4 ,she 7like all 
beautiful  women7 was soon attacked by  
the busy tongue of slander1 and1 unable 
to  bear the world's taunts1 committed  
suicide by throwing herself into a      
pond1 just four years from the date of  
their marriage4 ,shelley1 on this       
account1 suffered much misery and       
misrepresentation1 and this misery was  

much increased by his family1 who       
applied to the ,court of ,chancery1 and 
obtained a decree1 by which ,shelley was
 deprived of the custody of  his        
children1 on the ground of his ,atheism4
 ,the same spirit even now  pervades the
 ,shelley family1 and scarce a copy of  
his poems can be found  in the          
neighborhood of his birth-place4        
,shelley afterwards contracted  a second
 marriage with the daughter of ,godwin1 
the author of ,caleb  ,williams1 and    
,mary ,wollstonecroft 7who died in      
giving birth to  ,shelley's wife71 and  
for sometime the poet resided at ,marlow
 in  ,buckinghamshire1 where he composed
 the ,revolt of ,islam2 and it is  a    
strong proof of the reality of          
,shelley's poetical pleadings for the   
oppressed amongst the human race1 that  
he was indefatigable in his  attentions 
to the poor cottagers of his            
neighborhood2 and that he  suffered     
severely from an attack of opthalmia1   
which was originated  in one of his     

benevolent visits4 ,nearly the first of 
,shelley's poems was  his ,queen ,mab1  
in which 7having in vain struggled to   
devote himself  to metaphysics apart    
from poetry71 he blended his            
metaphysical  speculation with his      
poetical aspirations4 ,the following    
quotations  are taken from that poem1 in
 which his wonderful command of language
 is  well shown3--         ,there's not 
one atom of yon earth            ,but   
once was living man2       ,nor the     
minutest drop of rain1       ,that      
hangeth in its thinnest cloud1          
,but flowed in human veins2         ,and
 from the burning plains       ,where   
,lybian monsters yell1       ,from the  
most gloomy glens       ,of ,greenland's
 sunless clime1       ,to where the     
golden fields       ,of fertile ,england
 spread       ,their harvest to the day1
       ,thou canst not find one spot    
,whereon no city stood4                 
,how strange is human pride6       ,i   
tell thee that those living things1     

,to whom the fragile blade of grass1    
,that springeth in the morn       ,and  
perishes ere noon4             ,in an   
unbounded world2       ,i tell thee that
 those viewless beings4       ,whose    
mansion is the smallest particle        
,of the impassive atmosphere1           
,think1 feel1 and live1 like man3       
,that their affections and antipathies1 
,like his1 produce the laws             
,ruling their mortal state2             
,and the minutest throb4         ,that  
through their frame diffuses            
,the slightest1 faintest motion1        
,is fixed and indispensable             
,as the majestic laws           ,that   
rule yon rolling orbs4                  
44444      ,how bold the flight of      
passion's wandering wing1    ,how swift 
the step of reason's firmer tread1      
,how calm and sweet the victories of    
life4    ,how terrorless the triumph of 
the grave6    ,how powerless were the   
mightiest monarch's arm1    ,vain his   
loud threat and impotent his frown6     

,how ludicrous the priest's dogmatic    
roar6    ,the weight of his             
exterminating curse1    ,how light6 and 
his affected charity1    ,to suit the   
pressure of the changing times1    ,what
 palpable deceit6--but for thy aid1     
,religion6 but for thee1 prolific fiend1
    ,who peoplest earth with demons1    
hell with men1    ,and heaven with      
slaves6      ,thou taintest all thou    
look'st upon6--,the stare1    ,which on 
thy cradle beamed so brightly sweet1    
,were gods to the distempered           
playfulness    ,of thy untutored        
infancy3 the trees1    ,the grass1 the  
clouds1 the mountains1 and the sea1     
,all living things that walk1 swim1     
creep1 or fly1    ,were gods3 the sun   
had homage1 and the moon    ,her        
worshipper4   ,then thou becam'st a boy1
    ,more daring in thy frenzies3 every 
shape1    ,monstrous or vast1 or        
beautifully wild1    ,which1 from       
sensation's relics1 fancy culls2    ,the
 spirits of the air1 the shuddering     

ghost1    ,the genii of the elements1   
the powers    ,that give a shape to     
nature's varied works1    ,had life and 
place in the corrupt belief    ,of thy  
blind heart--yet still thy youthful     
hands    ,were pure of human blood4     
,then manhood gave    ,its strength and 
ardor to thy frenzied brain2    ,thine  
eager gaze scanned the stupendous scene1
    ,whose wonders mocked the knowledge 
of thy pride4      ,their everlasting   
and unchanging laws    ,reproached thine
 ignorance4    ,awhile thou stood'st    
,baffled and gloomy2 then thou did'st   
sum up    ,the elements of all that thou
 did'st know4      ,the changing        
seasons1 winter's leafless reign1       
,the budding of the heaven-breathing    
trees1    ,the eternal orbs that        
beautify the night1    ,the sunrise1 and
 the setting of the moon1               
,earthquakes and wars1 and poisons and  
disease1    ,and all their causes1 to an
 abstract point1    ,converging1 thou   
did'st bend1 and called it ,god2    ,the

 self-sufficing1 the omnipotent1    ,the
 merciful1 and the avenging ,god6       
,who1 prototype of human misrule1 sits  
,high in ,heaven's realm1 upon a golden 
throne1    ,even like an earthly king3  
and whose dread work1    ,hell gapes    
forever for the unhappy slaves    ,of   
fate1 whom he created in his sport1     
,to triumph in their torments when they 
fell6      ,earth heard the name2 earth 
trembled1 as the smoke    ,of his       
revenge ascended up to ,heaven1         
,blotting the constellations3 and the   
cries    ,of millions1 butchered in     
sweet confidence1    ,and unsuspecting  
peace1 even when the bonds    ,of safety
 were confirmed by wordy oaths1         
,sworn in his dreadful name1 rung       
through the land2    ,whilst innocent   
babes writhed on thy stubborn spear1    
,and thou did'st laugh to hear the      
mother's shriek    ,of maniac gladness1 
as the sacred steel    ,felt cold in her
 torn entrails6      ,religion6 thou    
wert then in manhood's prime2    ,but   

age crept on3 one ,god would not suffice
    ,for senile puerility2 thou fram'dst
    ,a tale to suit thy dotage1 and to  
glut    ,thy misery-thirsting soul1 that
 the mad fiend    ,thy wickedness had   
pictured might afford    ,a plea for    
sating the unnatural thirst    ,for     
murder1 rapine1 violence1 and crime1    
,that still consumed thy being1 even    
when    ,thou heard'st the step of      
fate3--that flames might light    ,thy  
funeral scene1 and the shrill horrent   
shrieks    ,of parents dying on the pile
 that burned    ,to light their children
 to thy paths1 the roar    ,of the      
encircling flames1 the exulting cries   
,of thine apostles1 loud commingling    
there1         ,might sate thy hungry   
ear         ,even on the bed of death6  
,but now contempt is mocking thy gray   
hairs2    ,thou art descending to the   
darksome grave1    ,unhonored and       
unpitied1 but by those    ,whose pride  
is passing by like thine1 and sheds     
,like thine1 a glare that fades before  

the sun    ,of truth1 and shines but in 
the dreadful night    ,that long has    
lowered above the ruined world4         
,speaking of the ,atheist's martyrdom in
 answer to the spirit of ,ianthe1       
,shelley makes his fairy say3--         
,there is no ,god6    ,nature confirms  
the faith his death-groan sealed4       
,let heaven and earth1 let man's        
revolving race1    ,his ceaseless       
generations1 tell their tale2      ,let 
every part depending on the chain       
,that links it to the whole1 point to   
the hand    ,that grasps its term6      
,let every seed that falls    ,in silent
 eloquence unfold its store    ,of      
argument4   ,infinity within1           
,infinity without1 belie creation2      
,the exterminate spirit it contains     
,is nature's only ,god3 but human pride 
,is skilful to invent most serious names
    ,to hide its ignorance4             
,the name of ,god    ,has fenced about  
all crime with holiness1    ,himself the
 creature of his worshippers1    ,whose 

names and attributes and passions       
change1    ,seeva1 ,buddh1 ,foh1        
,jehovah1 ,goa1 or ,lord1    ,even with 
the human dupes who build his shrines4  
,still serving o'er the war-polluted    
world    ,for desolation's watch-word2  
whether hosts    ,stain his             
death-blushing chariot wheels1 as on    
,triumphantly they roll1 whilst         
,brahmins raise    ,a sacred hymn to    
mingle with the groans2    ,or countless
 partners of his powers divide    ,his  
tyranny to weakness3 or the smoke    ,of
 burning towns1 the cries of female     
helplessness1    ,unarmed old age1 and  
youth1 and infancy1    ,horribly        
massacred1 ascend to heaven    ,in honor
 of his name2 or1 last and worst1       
,earth groans beneath religion's iron   
age1    ,and priests dare babble of a   
,god of peace1    ,even whilst their    
hands are red with guiltless blood1     
,murdering the while1 uprooting every   
germ    ,of truth1 exterminating1       
spoiling all1    ,making the earth a    

slaughter-house4    ,ianthe's spirit1   
however1 asks still further1 and the    
ghost of  ,ahasuerus having been        
summoned1 the question is repeated1 ,is 
there a  ,god8      ,ahasuerus4--,is    
there a ,god8 ay1 an ,almighty ,god1    
,and vengeful as ,almighty6   ,once his 
voice    ,was heard on earth3 earth     
shuddered at the sound1    ,the         
fiery-visaged firmament expressed       
,abhorrence1 and the grave of nature    
yawned    ,to swallow all the dauntless 
and the good    ,that dared to hurl     
defiance at his throne1    ,girt as it  
was with power4   ,none but slaves      
,survived1--cold-blooded slaves1 who did
 the work    ,of tyrannous omnipotence3 
whose souls    ,no honest indignation   
ever urged    ,to elevated daring1 to   
one deed    ,which gross and sensual    
self did not pollute4    ,these slaves  
built temples for the omnipotent fiend1 
,gorgeous and vast3 the costly altars   
smoked    ,with human blood1 and hideous
 moans rung    ,through all the         

long-drawn aisles4   ,a murderer heard  
,his voice in ,egypt1 one whose gifts   
and arts    ,had raised him to his      
eminence in power1    ,accomplice of    
omnipotence in crime1    ,and confidant 
of the all-knowing one4      ,these were
 ,jehovah's words3    ,from an eternity 
of idleness1    ,god1 awoke3 in seven   
days toil made earth    ,from nothing2  
rested1 and created man4    ,i placed   
him in a paradise1 and there    ,planted
 the tree of evil1 so that he    ,might 
eat and perish1 and my soul procure     
,wherewith to sate its malice1 and to   
turn1    ,even like a heartless         
conqueror of the earth1    ,all misery  
to my fame4   ,the race of men1         
,chosen to my honor1 with impunity1     
,may sate the lusts ,i planted in their 
heart4    ,here ,i command thee hence to
 lead them on1    ,until1 with hardened 
feet1 their conquering troops    ,wade  
on the promised soil through woman's    
blood1    ,and make my name be dreaded  
through the land4    ,yet ever burning  

flame and ceaseless woe    ,shall be the
 doom of their eternal souls1    ,with  
every soul on this ungrateful earth1    
,virtuous or vicious1 weak or           
strong1--even all    ,shall perish1 to  
fulfil the blind revenge    ,which you1 
to men1 call justice1 of their ,god4    
,the murderer's brow    ,quivered with  
horror4         ,god omnipotent6    ,is 
there no mercy8 must our punishment     
,be endless8 will long ages roll away1  
,and see no 'term8   ,oh6 wherefore hast
 thou made    ,in mockery and wrath this
 evil earth8    ,mercy becomes the      
powerful--be but just3    ,o ,god6      
repent and save4           ,one way     
remains6    ,i will beget a son1 and he 
shall bear    ,the sins of all the      
world3 he shall arise    ,in an         
unnoticed corner of the earth1      ,and
 there shall die upon a cross1 and purge
    ,the universal crime2 so that the   
few    ,on whom my grace descends1 those
 who are marked    ,as vessels to the   
honor of their ,god1    ,may credit this

 strange sacrifice1 and save    ,their  
souls alive4    ,millions shall live and
 die    ,who ne'er shall call upon their
 ,saviour's name1    ,but1 unredeemed1  
go to the gaping1 grave4    ,thousands  
shall deem it an old woman's tale1      
,such as the nurses frighten babes      
withal4    ,these in a gulph of anguish 
and of flame    ,shall curse their      
reprobation endlessly4    ,yet tenfold  
pangs shall force them to avow1    ,even
 on their beds of torment1 where they   
howl1    ,my honor1 and the justice of  
their doom4    ,what then avail their   
virtuous deeds1 their thoughts    ,of   
purity1 with radiant genius bright1     
,or lit with human reason's earthly ray8
    ,many are called1 but few ,i will   
elect4    ,do thou my bidding1 ,moses6  
,in his poem of ,rosalind and ,helen1   
the poet indulges in the following      
prophecy1 which he puts in the mouth of 
,helen3--         ,fear not the tyrants 
shall rule forever1       ,or the       
priests of the bloody faith2       ,they

 stand on the brink of that mighty      
river1       ,whose waves they have     
tainted with death4       ,it is fed    
from the depths of a thousand dells1    
,around them it foams1 and rages1 and   
swells2       ,and their swords and     
their sceptres ,i floating see1         
,like wrecks on the surge of eternity4  
,beside the poems mentioned1 ,shelley   
wrote ,the ,cenci1 ,alastor1            
,prometheus ,unbound1 and many others1  
including a beautiful little ode  to a  
,skylark1 and the well-known ,sensitive 
,plant4    ,shelley was a true and noble
 man--no poet was ever warmed by a more 
genuine and unforced aspiration4--,de   
,quincey says1 ,shelley would1 from  his
 earliest manhood1 have sacrificed all  
that he possessed for any  comprehensive
 purpose of good for the race of man4   
,he dismissed all  insults and injuries 
from his memory4 ,he was the sincerest  
and most  truthful of human creatures4  
,if he denounced marriage as a vicious  
institution1 that was but  another phase

 of the partial lunacy which affected   
him3 for to no man  were purity and     
fidelity more essential elements in the 
idea of real  love4 ,again1 ,de ,quincey
 speaks of ,shelley's fearlessness1 his 
gracious  nature1 his truth1 his purity 
from all flesh-liness of appetite1 his  
freedom from vanity1 his diffusive love 
and tenderness4 ,this testimony  is     
worth much1 the more especially when we 
remember that it is from the  pen of    
,thomas de ,quincey1 who1 while         
truthfully acknowledging the man1       
hesitates not to use polished irony1    
rough wit1 and covert sneering1  when   
dealing with the man's uttered          
thinkings4    ,that ,shelley understood 
the true mission of a poet1 and the true
 nature  of poetry1 will appear from the
 following extract from one of his prose
  essays3--,poetry1 he says1 is the     
record of the best and happiest  moments
 of the happiest and best minds4 ,we are
 aware of evanescent  visitations of    
thought and feeling1 sometimes          

associated with place  and person1      
sometimes regarding our own mind alone1 
and always arising  unforeseen1 and     
departing unbidden1 but elevating and   
delightful beyond  all expression4      
,poets are not only subject to these    
experiences1 as  spirits of the most    
refined organization1 but they can color
 all they  combine with the evanescent  
lines of this ethereal world2 a word1  a
 trait in the representation of a scene 
or passion will touch the  enchanted    
cord1 and reanimate in those who have   
ever experienced these  emotions1 the   
sleeping1 the cold1 the buried image of 
the past4 ,poetry  thus makes immortal  
all that is best and most beautiful in  
the world2  it arrests the vanishing    
apparitions which haunt the             
interlunations  of life1 and veiling    
them1 or in language or in form1 sends  
them forth  among mankind1 bearing sweet
 news of kindred joy to those with whom 
their sisters abide--abide1 because     
there is no portal of expression  from  

the caverns of the spirit which they    
inhabit into the universe of  things4   
,shelley's beautiful imagery and        
idealistic drapery is sometimes so      
accumulated in his poems1 that it is    
difficult to follow him in his          
thinkings4 ,in his verse he wishes to   
stand high as a philosophical  reasoner1
 and this1 together with his devotion to
 the cause1 which even  men of ,de      
,quincey's stamp call ,insolent         
,infidelity1 has prevented  ,shelley    
from becoming so popular as he might    
have been4    ,shelley lived a life of  
strife1 passed his boyhood and youth in 
struggling to be free--misunderstood and
 misinterpreted3 and when at  last in   
his manhood happier circumstances were  
gathering around him1  a blast of wind  
came1 and the waves of the sea washed   
away one who was  really and truly a man
 and a poet4    ,on ,monday4 ,july #hth1
 #ahbb1 being then in his #bith year1   
,shelley was  returning from ,leghorn to
 his home at ,lerici1 in a              

schooner-rigged boat  of his own1 with  
one friend and an ,english servant2 when
 the boat had  reached about four miles 
from the shore1 the storm suddenly rose1
 and  the wind suddenly shifted4 ,from  
excessive smoothness1 all at once the   
sea was foaming1 and breaking1 and      
getting up in a heavy swell4 ,the  boat 
is supposed to have filled to leeward1  
and 7carry-ins3 two tons of  ballast7 to
 have sunk instantaneously--all on board
 were drowned4 ,the  body of ,shelley   
was washed on shore eight days          
afterwards1 near ,via  ,reggio1 in an   
advanced state of decomposition1 and was
 therefore burned  on a funeral pyre in 
the presence of ,leigh ,hunt1 ,lord     
,byron1 ,mr4  ,trelawney1 and a ,captain
 ,shenley4    ,thus died ,shelley in the
 mid day of life1 and ere the warm sun  
of that  mid-day could dispel the clouds
 that had gathered round the morning of 
his career4 ,the following comparison   
made between the personal  appearance of
 ,shelley and of ,byron1 by ,gilfillan1 

has been called by ,de  ,quincey an     
eloquent parallel1 and we therefore     
conclude the present  number by quoting 
it3--    ,in the forehead and head of   
,byron there is more massive power and  
breadth3 ,shelley has a smooth1 arched1 
spiritual expression2 wrinkle  there    
seems none on his brow2 it is as if     
perpetual youth had there  dropped its  
freshness4 ,byron's eye seems the focus 
of pride and lust3  ,shelley's is mild1 
pensive1 fixed on you1 but seeing you   
through  the mist of his own idealism4  
,defiance curls on ,byron's nostril1 and
  sensuality steps his full large lips4 
,the lower features of ,shelley's  face 
are frail1 feminine1 flexible4--,byron's
 head is turned upwards  as if having   
risen proudly above his contemporaries1 
he were daring  to claim kindred1 or    
demand a contest with a superior order  
of beings4  ,shelley's is half bent1 in 
reverence and humility1 before some vast
  vision seen by his own eye alone4     
,misery erect1 and striving to cover    

its retreat under an aspect of          
contemptuous fury1 is the permanent and 
pervading expression of ,byron's        
countenance4 ,sorrow1 softened and      
shaded  away by hope and habit1 lies    
like a 'holier day' of still moonshine  
upon  that of ,shelley4 ,in the portrait
 of ,byron1 taken at the age of         
nineteen1  you see the unnatural age of 
premature passion2 his hair is young1   
his  dress is youthful1 but his face is 
old4 ,in ,shelley you see the eternal   
child1 none the less that his hair is   
grey1 and that sorrow seems half  his   
immortality4    ,i4          ,,claud    
,,arian ,,helvetius4    ,if ,france1 at 
the present day1 has not reason to be   
proud of its  leading man1 it has in    
former times produced those minds that  
shed  lustre upon the country1 and who1 
by their literature1 add immortality  to
 its renown4 ,during the eighteenth     
century1 when religious persecution  and
 intolerance were rampant throughout    
,europe1 ,france furnished men to  check

 oppression and expose superstition1    
while others followed to  lay the       
foundation of excellence and greatness  
in the examination and  cultivation of  
its true source--the mind4 ,heivetius   
sought to direct  men's attention to    
self-examination1 and to show how many  
disputes might  be avoided if each      
person understood what he was disputing 
about4  ,helvetius on the ,mind is a    
work that ought to be read widely1 and  
studied attentively1 especially by      
rising young men1 as it is one of  those
 ,secular works too rarely found among  
our literature4    ,claud ,arian        
,helvetius was born in ,paris in the    
year #agae4 ,after his  preparatory     
studies1 he was sent to the ,college of 
,louis le ,grand1  having for his tutor 
the famous ,poree1 who bestowed         
additional attention  upon ,heivetius1  
perceiving in him great talent and      
genius4 ,early in life  ,heivetius      
formed the friendship of some of the    
leading minds of ,france1  ,montesquieu 

being his intimate friend4 ,voltaire1   
too1 sought his  correspondence when at 
the age of twenty-three1 calling him his
 ,young  ,apollo1 and his ,son of       
,parnassus4 ,the first literary attempts
 of  ,helvetius consisted of            
poetry--,epistles on ,happiness1 which  
appeared  as a posthumous production1   
with the lavish commendations of        
,voltaire4  ,after ten years' thought   
and study ,helvetius in #ageh1 published
 a  work entitled ,de ,l',esprit1 which 
brought upon him a great amount of      
persecution4 ,the ,parliament of ,paris 
condemned it1 and ,helvetius was        
removed from the office he held of      
,maitre d',hotel to the ,queen4         
,voltaire remarks3--it is a little      
extraordinary that they should have     
persecuted1 disgraced1 and harassed1 a  
much respected philosopher of our  days1
 the innocent1 the good ,helvetius1 for 
having said that if men  had been       
without hands they could not have built 
houses1 or worked in  tapestry4         

,apparently those who have condemned    
this proposition1 have a  secret for    
cutting stones and wood1 and for sewing 
with the feet4444 ,i  have no doubt that
 they will soon condemn to the galleys  
the first who  shall have the insolence 
to say1 that a man cannot think without 
his  head2 for1 some bachelor will tell 
him1 the soul is a pure spirit1 the     
head is nothing but matter3 ,god can    
place the soul in the nails1 as well  as
 in the skull1 therefore ,i proscribe   
you as impious4    ,during the          
persecution raised against him1         
,helvetius visited ,england in  #agfd4  
,in #agfe he visited ,prussia1 being    
well received by ,frederick1  in whose  
place he lodged4 ,voltaire strongly     
advised ,helvetius to leave  ,france in 
these words3--,in your place1 ,i should 
not hesitate a moment  to sell all that 
,i have in ,france2 there are some      
excellent estates in  my neighborhood1  
and there you might cultivate in peace  
the arts you  love4 ,about this period  

,hume became acquainted with ,helvetius1
 whom  he styles1 in writing to ,dr4    
,robertson1 a very fine genius and      
worthy  man4 ,in #agfe1 ,helvetius      
returned from ,prussia1 and retired to  
his  estate at ,vore4 ,the sight of     
misery much affected him2 and when      
relieving distress1 he enjoined strict  
secrecy4 ,sometimes1 when told he       
relieved those undeserving his aid1 he  
would say1 ,if ,i were a king ,i  would 
correct them1 but as ,i am only rich and
 they are poor1 ,i do my  duty in       
relieving them4 ,an attack of gout in   
the head and stomach  terminated his    
life in ,december1 #agga1 in the        
fifty-sixth year of his  age4    ,in ,de
 ,l',esprit1 or1 ,essays on the ,mind1  
chap4 ,i44 ,helvetius makes the         
following remarks on the ,mind          
considered in itself3--    ,we hear     
every day disputes with regard to what  
ought to be called the  ,mind2 each     
person delivers his thoughts1 but       
annexes different ideas to  the word2   

and thus the debate is continued1       
without understanding each  other4 ,in  
order1 therefore1 to enable us to give a
 just and precise idea  of the word     
,mind1 and its different acceptations1  
it is necessary first  to consider the  
,mind in itself4 ,we consider the ,mind 
either as the  effect of the faculty of 
thinking1 and in this sense the ,mind is
 no  more than an assemblage of our     
thoughts1 or1 we consider it as the very
  faculty of thinking4 ,but in order to 
understand what is meant by  the ,mind1 
in the latter acceptation1 we ought     
previously to know the  productive      
causes of our ideas4 ,man has two       
faculties2 or1 if ,i may be  allowed the
 expression1 two passive powers whose   
existence is generally  and distinctly  
acknowledged4 ,the one is the faculty of
 receiving the  different impressions   
caused by external objects1 and is      
called ,physical  ,sensibility4 ,the    
other is the faculty of preserving the  
impressions  caused by those objects1   

called ,memory2 and ,memory is nothing  
more than  a continued1 but weakened    
sensation4--,those faculties which ,i   
consider  as the productive causes of   
our thoughts1 and which we have in      
common  with beasts1 would produce but a
 very small number of ideas1 if they    
were not assisted by certain external   
organizations4 ,if ,nature1 instead  of 
hands and flexible fingers1 had         
terminated our wrist with the foot  of a
 horse1 mankind would doubtless have    
been totally destitute of art1          
habitation1 and defence against other   
animals4 ,wholly employed in the  care  
of procuring food1 and avoiding the     
beasts of prey1 they would have  still  
continued wandering in the forests1 like
 fugitive flocks4 ,it is  therefore     
evident that1 according to this         
supposition1 the police would  never    
have been carried in any society to that
 degree of perfection1 to  which it is  
now arrived4 ,there is not a nation now 
existing1 but1 with  regard to the      

action of the mind1 must not have       
continued very inferior  to certain     
savage nations1 who have not two hundred
 different ideas1  nor two hundred words
 to express those ideas2 and whose      
language must  consequently be reduced1 
like that of animals1 to five or six    
different  sounds or cries1 if we take  
from it the words bow1 arrow1 nets1     
etc41  which suppose the use of hands4  
,from whence ,i conclude1 that1 without 
a  certain exterior organization1       
sensibility and memory in us would prove
  two sterile faculties4 ,we ought to   
examine if these two faculties1 by  the 
assistance of this organization1 have in
 reality produced all our  thoughts4    
,but2 before we examine this subject1 ,i
 may possibly be asked  whether these   
two faculties are modifications of a    
spiritual or a  material substance8     
,this question1 which has formerly been 
so often  debated by philosophers1 and  
by some persons revived in our time1    
does  not necessarily fall within the   

limits of my work4---,what ,i have to   
offer1 with regard to the ,mind1 is     
equally conformable to either of  these 
hypothesis4 ,i shall therefore only     
observe that1 if the church  had not    
fixed our belief in respect to this     
particular1 and we had  been obliged by 
the light of reason alone to acquire a  
knowledge of  the thinking1 principle1  
we must have granted1 that neither      
opinion is  capable of demonstration2   
and consequently that1 by weighing the  
reasons  on both sides1 balancing the   
difficulties1 and determining in favor  
of  the greater number of probabilities1
 we should form only conditional        
judgments4 ,it would be the fate of this
 problem1 as it hath been of many       
others1 to be resolvable only by the    
assistance of the calculation of        
probabilities4    ,helvetius1 on the    
question whether genius ought to be     
considered as a  natural gift1 or as an 
effect of education1 says3--    ,i am   
going to examine in this discourse what 

the mind receives from  nature and      
education2 for which purpose it is      
necessary first1 to  determine what is  
here meant by the word ,nature4 ,this   
word may raise in  our minds a confused 
idea of a being or a force that has     
endued us with  all our senses3 now the 
senses are the sources of all our ideas4
 ,being  deprived of our senses1 we are 
deprived of all the ideas relative to   
them3 a man born blind has for this     
reason no idea of colors2 it is then    
evident that1 in this signification1    
genius ought to be considered as  a gift
 of nature4 ,but1 if the word be taken  
in a different acceptation1  and we     
suppose that among the men well formed  
and endued with all their  senses1      
without any perceivable defect of their 
organization1 nature  has made such a   
remarkable difference1 and formed such  
an unequal  distribution of the         
intellectual powers1 that one shall be  
so organized  as to be stupid1 and the  
other be a man of genius1 the question  

will  become more delicate4 ,i confess  
that1 at first1 we cannot consider the  
great inequality in the minds of men1   
without admitting that there is  the    
same difference between them as between 
bodies1 some of which are  weak and     
delicate1 while others are strong and   
robust4 ,what can  here occasion such   
variations from the uniform manner      
wherein nature  operates8 ,this         
reasoning1 it is true1 is founded only  
on analogy4 ,it is  like that of the    
astronomers who conclude that the moon  
is inhabited1  because it is composed of
 nearly the same matter as our          
earth4--,how weak  soever this reasoning
 may be1 it must yet appear             
demonstrative2 for1  say they1 to what  
cause can be attributed the great       
disproportion of  intellects observable 
between people who appear to have had   
the same  education6 ,in order to reply 
to this objection1 it is proper first   
to inquire1 whether several men can1    
strictly speaking1 have the same        

education2 and for this purpose to fix  
the idea included in the word           
,education4 ,if by education we merely  
understand that received in the  same   
places1 and under the same masters2 in  
this sense the education is  the same   
with an infinite number of men4 ,but1 if
 we give to this word  a more true and  
extensive signification1 and in general 
comprehend  everything that relates to  
our instruction2 then ,i say1 that      
nobody  receives the same education2    
because each individual has1 for his    
preceptors1 if ,i may be allowed to say 
so1 the form of government under  which 
he lives1 his friends1 his mistresses1  
the people about him1  whatever he      
reads1 and in short chance2 that is1 an 
infinite number  or events1 with respect
 to which our ignorance will not permit 
us to  perceive their causes1 and the   
chain that connects them together4 ,now1
  this chance has a greater share in our
 education than is imagined4 ,it  is    
this places certain objects before us1  

and in consequence of  this1 occasions  
more happy ideas1 and sometimes leads to
 the greatest  discoveries4 ,to give    
some examples3 it was chance that       
conducted ,galileo  into the gardens of 
,florence1 when the gardeners were      
working the pumps3  it was that which   
inspired those gardeners1 when1 not     
being able to  raise the water above the
 height of #cb feet1 to ask him the     
cause1 and  by that question piqued the 
vanity of the philosopher1 put in action
 by  so casual a question1 that obliged 
him to make this natural effect the     
subject of his thoughts1 till1 at last1 
by discovering the weight of  the air1  
he found the solution of the problem4   
,in the moment when the  peaceful soul  
of ,newton was employed by no business1 
and agitated by  no passion1 it was also
 chance that1 drawing him under an apple
 tree1  loosened some of the fruit from 
the branches1 and gave that philosopher 
the first idea of his system on         
gravitation3 it was really this incident

  that afterwards made him turn his     
thoughts to inquire whether the moon    
does not gravitate towards the earth    
with the same force as that with  which 
bodies fall on its surface8 ,it is then 
to chance that great  geniuses are      
frequently obliged for their most happy 
thoughts4 ,how many  great minds are    
confounded among the people of moderate 
capacities for  want of a certain       
tranquillity of soul1 the question of a 
gardener1 or  the fall of an apple6     
,of the exclusive qualities of the ,mind
 and ,soul1 ,helvetius observes3--      
,my view in the preceding chapters was  
to affix clear ideas to the  several    
qualities of the mind1 ,i propose in    
this to examine if there are  talents   
that must necessarily exclude each      
other8 ,this question1 it is  said1 is  
determined by facts2 no person is1 at   
the same time1 superior  to all others  
in many different kinds of knowledge4   
,newton is not  reckoned among the      
poets1 nor ,milton among the            

geometricians3 the verses  of ,leibnitz 
are bad4 ,there is not a man who1 in a  
single art1 as poetry1  or painting1 has
 succeeded in all the branches of it4   
,corneille and  ,racine have done       
nothing in comedy comparable to ,molire3
 ,michael  ,angelo has not drawn the    
pictures of ,albani1 nor ,albani painted
 those  of ,julius ,romano4 ,the genius 
of the greatest men appears then to be  
confined within very narrow limits4     
,this is1 doubtless1 true3 but ,i ask1  
what is the cause8 ,is it time1 or is it
 wit1 which men want to render          
themselves illustrious in the different 
arts and sciences8 ,the progress  of the
 human mind1 it is said1 ought to be the
 same in all the arts and  sciences3 the
 operations of the mind are reduced to  
the knowledge of the  resemblances and  
differences that subsist between various
 objects4 ,it is  then by observation   
that we obtain1 in all the different    
kinds of study1  the new and general    
ideas on which our superiority depends4 

,every great  physician1 every great    
chemist1 may then become a great        
geometrician1  a great astronomer1 a    
great politician1 and the first1 in     
short1 in all  the sciences ,this fact  
being stated1 it will doubtless be      
concluded1  that it is the short        
duration of human life that forces      
superior  minds to limit themselves to  
one kind of study4 ,it must1 however1 be
  confessed1 that there are talents and 
qualities possessed only by the         
exclusion of some others4 ,among mankind
 some are filled with the love  of      
glory1 and are not susceptible of any   
other of the passions3 some may  excel  
in natural philosophy1 civil law1       
geometry1 and1 in short1 in all  the    
sciences that consist in the comparison 
of ideas4 ,a fondness for any  other    
study can only distract or precipitate  
them into errors4 ,there  are other men 
susceptible not ,only of the love of    
glory1 but an infinite  number of other 
passions3 these may become celebrated in

 different  kinds of study1 where the   
success depends on being moved4 ,such   
is1  for instance1 the dramatic kind of 
writing3 but1 in order to paint the     
passions1 we must1 as ,i have already   
said1 feel them very warmly3 we are     
ignorant both of the language of the    
passions and of the sensations they     
excite in us1 when we have not          
experienced them4 ,thus ignorance of    
this  kind always produces mediocrity4  
,if ,fontenelle had been obliged to     
paint  the characters of ,rhadamistus1  
,brutus1 or ,cataline1 that great man   
would  certainly have fallen much below 
mediocrity4444 ,let a man1 for instance1
  like ,m4 de ,fontenelle1 contemplate1 
without severity1 the wickedness  of    
mankind2 let him consider it1 let him   
rise up against crimes without  hating  
the criminals1 and people will applaud  
his moderation2 and yet1  at the same   
instant1 they will accuse him of being  
too lukewarm in  friendship4 ,they do   
not perceive1 that the same absence of  

the passions1  to which he owes the     
moderation they commend1 must           
necessarily render  him less sensible of
 the charms of friendship4    ,the abuse
 of words by different schools of       
philosophers is thus ably  pointed      
out3--    ,descartes had before ,locke  
observed that the ,peripatetics1        
intrenching  themselves behind the      
obscurity of words1 were not unlike a   
blind man1  who1 in order to be a match 
for his clear-sighted antagonist1 should
  draw him into a dark cavern4 ',now1'  
added he1 'if this man can introduce    
light into the cavern1 and compel the   
,peripatetics to fix clear ideas  to    
their words1 the victory is his own4 ,in
 imitation of ,descartes and  ,locke1 ,i
 shall show that1 both in metaphysics   
and morality1 the abuse of  words1 and  
the ignorance of their true import1 is a
 labyrinth in which  the greatest       
geniuses have lost themselves2 and1 in  
order to set this  particular in a clear
 light1 instance1 in some of those words

 which  have given rise to the longest  
and sharpest disputes among             
philosophers3  such1 in metaphysics1 are
 ,matter1 ,space1 and ,infinite4 ,it has
 at all  times been alternately asserted
 that ,matter felt1 or did not feel1 and
  given rise to disputes equally loud   
and vague4 ,it was very late before  it 
came into the disputants6 heads to ask  
one another1 what they were  disputing  
about1 and to annex a precise idea to   
the word ,matter4 ,had  they at first   
fixed the meaning of it1 they would have
 perceived1 if  ,i may use the          
expression1 that men were the creators  
of ,matter2 that  ,matter was not a     
being2 that in nature there were only   
individuals to  which the name of ,body 
had been given2 and that this word      
,matter could  import no more than the  
collection of properties common to all  
bodies4  ,the meaning of this word being
 determined1 all that remained was to   
know1 whether extent1 solidity1 and     
impenetrability1 were the only          

properties common to all bodies2 and    
whether the discovery of a power1  such 
for instance as attraction1 might not   
give rise to a conjecture  that bodies  
had some properties hitherto unknown1   
such as that of  sensation1 which1      
though evident only in the organized    
members of  animals1 might yet be common
 to all individuals6 ,the question being
  reduced to this1 it would have        
appeared that if1 strictly speaking1 it 
is impossible to demonstrate that all   
bodies are absolutely insensible1  no   
man1 unless instructed by a particular  
revelation1 can decide the  question    
otherwise than by calculating and       
comparing the verisimilitude  of this   
opinion with that of the contrary4444   
,instructed by the errors of great men  
who have gone before us1 we should  be  
sensible that our observations1 however 
multiplied and concentrated1  are       
scarcely sufficient to form one of those
 partial systems  comprehended in the   
general system2 add that it is from the 

depth of  imagination that the several  
systems of the universe have hitherto   
been drawn2 and1 as our informations of 
remote countries are always  imperfect1 
so the informations philosophers have of
 the system of  the world are also      
defective4 ,with a great genius and a   
multitude of  combinations1 the products
 of their labors will be only fictions  
till  time and chance shall furnish     
then8 with a general fact1 to which all 
others may be referred4    ,what ,i have
 said of the word ,matter1 ,i say also  
of ,space4 ,most of the  philosophers   
have made a being of it2 and the        
ignorance of the true  sense of the word
 has occasioned long disputes4 ,they    
would have been  greatly shortened by   
annexing a clear idea to this word2 for 
then the  sages would have agreed that  
,space1 considered in bodies1 is what we
  call extension2 that we owe the idea  
of a void1 which partly composes  the   
idea of ,space1 to the interval seen    
betwixt two lofty mountains2 an         

interval which1 being filled only by    
air1 that is1 by a body which at a      
certain distance makes no sensible      
impression on us1 must have given us  an
 idea of a vacuum2 being nothing more   
than a power of representing  to        
ourselves mountains separated from each 
other1 and the intervening  distances   
not being filled by other bodies4 ,with 
regard to the idea of  ,infinite1       
comprehended also within the idea of    
,space1 ,i say that we owe  this idea of
 ,infinite only to the power which a man
 standing on a plain  has of continually
 extending its limits1 the boundary of  
his imagination  not being determinable3
 the absence of limits is therefore the 
only idea  we can form of ,infinite4    
,had philosophers1 previously to their  
giving  any opinion on this subject1    
determined the signification of the word
  ,infinite1 ,i am inclined to believe  
they would have adopted the above       
definition1 and not spent their time in 
frivolous disputes4 ,to the false       

philosophy of former ages1 our gross    
ignorance of the true signification  of 
words is principally owing2 as the art  
of abusing them made up the  greatest   
part of that philosophy4 ,this art1 in  
which the whole science  of the schools 
consisted1 confounded all ideas2 and the
 obscurity  it threw on the expressions1
 generally diffused itself over all the 
sciences1 especially morality4    ,the  
following remarks show ,helvetia's      
notions of the love of glory3--    ,by  
the word ,strong-,passion1 ,i mean a    
passion the object of which is so       
necessary to our happiness1 that without
 the possession of it life would  be    
insupportable4 ,this was ,omar's idea of
 the passion1 when he said1  ',whoever  
thou art1 that lovest liberty1 desirest 
to be wealthy without  riches1 powerful 
without subjects1 a subject without a   
master1 dare to  condemn death3 kings   
will then tremble before thee1 whilst   
thou alone  shalt fear no person4'4444  
,it was the passion of honor and        

philosophic  fanaticism alone that could
 induce ,timicha1 the ,pythagorean1 in  
the  midst of torture1 to bite off her  
tongue1 that she might not expose       
herself to reveal the secrets of her    
sect4 ,cato1 when a child1 going  with  
his tutor to ,sylla's palace1 at seeing 
the bloody heads of the  proscribed1    
asked with impatience the name of the   
monster who had caused  so many ,roman  
citizens to be murdered4 ,he was        
answered1 it was ,sylla3  ',how1' says  
he1 'does ,sylla murder thus1 and is    
,sylla still alive8'  ',yes1' it was    
replied1 'the very name of ,sylla       
disarms our citizens4'  ',oh6 ,rome1'   
cried ,cato1 'deplorable is thy fate1   
since within the vast  compass of thy   
walls not a man of virtue can be found1 
and the arm of a  feeble child is the   
only one that will oppose itself against
 tyranny6'  ,then1 turning towards his  
governor1 ',give me1' said he1 'your    
sword2 ,i  will conceal it under my     
robe1 approach ,sylla1 and kill him4    

,cato lives1  and ,rome is again free4' 
,if the generous pride1 the passion of  
patriotism and glory1 determine citizens
 to such heroic actions1 with  what     
resolution and intrepidity do not the   
passions inspire those who  aim at      
distinction in the arts and sciences1   
and whom ,cicero calls the  peaceable   
heroes8 ,it is from a desire of glory   
that the astronomer is  seen1 on the icy
 summits of the ,cordileras1 placing his
 instruments in  the midst of snows and 
frost2 which conducts the botanist to   
the brinks  of precipices in quest of   
plants2 which anciently carried the     
juvenile  lovers of ihe sciences into   
,egypt1 ,ethiopia1 and even into the    
,indies1  for visiting the most         
celebrated philosophers1 and acquiring  
from their  conversation the principles 
of their doctrine4 ,how strongly did    
this  passion exert itself in           
,demosthenes1 who1 for perfecting his   
pronunciation1 used every day to stand  
on the sea-shore1 and with his  mouth   

full of pebbles harangue the agitated   
waves6 ,it was from the same  desire of 
glory that the young ,pythagoreans      
submitted to a silence of  three years1 
in order to habituate themselves to     
recollection and  meditation2 it induced
 ,democritus to shun the distractions of
 the world1  and retire among the tombs1
 to meditate on those valuable truths1  
the  discovery of which1 as it is always
 very difficult1 is also very little    
esteemed2 in fine1 it was this that     
prompted ,heraclitus to cede to his     
younger brother the throne of ,ephesus1 
to which he had the right of            
primogeniture1 that he might give       
himself up entirely to philosophy2      
which made the ,athletic improve his    
strength1 by denying himself the        
pleasures of love2 it was also from a   
desire of popular applause that  certain
 ancient priests renounced the same     
pleasures1 and often1 as  ,boindin      
pleasantly observes of them1 without any
 other recompense for  their continence 

than the perpetual temptation it        
occasions1444 ',the  cause1' says       
,cardinal ,richelieu1 'why a timorous   
mind perceives an  impossibility in the 
most simple projects1 when to an        
elevated mind the  most arduous seems   
easy1 is1 because1 before the latter the
 mountains  sink1 and before the former 
mole-hills are metamorphosed into       
mountains4'    ,the different motives   
that influence our conduct are thus     
stated3--    ,a mother idolizes her son2
 ',i love him1' says she1 'for his own  
sake4'  ,however1 one might reply1 you  
take no care of his education1 though   
you are in no doubt that a good one     
would contribute infinitely to his      
happiness2 why1 therefore1 do not you   
consult some men of sense about  him1   
and read some of the works written on   
this subject8 ',why1 because1'  says    
she1 ',i think ,i know as much of this  
matter as those authors  and their      
works4' ,but how did you get this       
confidence in your own  understanding8  

,is it not the effect of your           
indifference8 ,an ardent  desire always 
inspires us with a salutary distrust of 
ourselves4 ,if we  have a suit at law of
 considerable consequence1 we visit     
counsellors and  attorneys1 we consult a
 great number1 and examine their advice4
 ,are we  attacked by any of those      
lingering diseases1 which incessantly   
place  around us the shades and horrors 
of death8 ,we seek physicians1 compare  
their opinions1 read physical books1 we 
ourselves become little  physicians4    
,such is the conduct prompted by a warm 
interest4 ,with  respect to the         
education of children1 if you are not   
influenced in the  same manner1 it is   
because you do not love your son as well
 as  yourself4 ',but1' adds the mother1 
'what then should be the motive of my   
tenderness8' ,among fathers and mothers1
 ,i reply1 some are influenced by  the  
desire of perpetuating their name in    
their children2 they properly  love only
 their names2 others are fond of        

command1 and see in their  children     
their slaves4 ,the animal leaves its    
young when their  weakness no longer    
keeps them in dependence2 and paternal  
love becomes  extinguished in almost all
 hearts1 when children have1 by their   
age or  station1 attained to            
independence4 ',then1' said the poet    
,saadi1 'the  father sees nothing in    
them but greedy heirs1' and this is the 
cause1  adds some poet1 of the          
extraordinary love of the grandfather   
for his  grandchildren2 he considers    
them as the enemies of his enemies4     
,there  are1 in short1 fathers and      
mothers1 who make their children their  
playthings and their pastime4 ,the loss 
of this plaything would be              
insupportable to them2 but would their  
affliction prove that they loved  the   
child for itself8 ,everybody knows this 
passage in the life of  ,m4 de ,lauzun3 
he was in the ,bastile2 there1 without  
books1 without  employment1 a prey to   
lassitude and the horrors of a prison1  

he took it  in his head to tame a       
spider4 ,this was the only consolation  
he had  left in his misfortune4 ,the    
governor of the ,bastile1 from an       
inhumanity  common to men accustomed to 
see the unhappy1 crushed the spider4    
,the  prisoner felt the most cutting    
grief1 and no mother could be affected  
by the death of a son with a more       
violent sorrow4 ,now whence is derived  
this conformity of sentiments for such  
different objects8 ,it is because1  in  
the loss of a child1 or in the loss of  
the spider1 people frequently  weep for 
nothing but for the lassitude and want  
of employment into which  they fall4 ,if
 mothers appear in general more         
afflicted at the death of  a child than 
fathers employed in business1 or given  
up to the pursuit  of ambition1 it is   
not because the mother loves her child  
more tenderly1  but because she suffers 
a loss more difficult to be supplied4   
,the  errors1 in my opinion1 are1 in    
this respect1 very frequent2 people     

rarely cherish a child for its own sake4
 ,that paternal love of which so  many  
men make a parade1 and by which they    
believe themselves so warmly  affected1 
is most frequently nothing more than an 
effect1 either of a  desire of          
perpetuating their names1 or of pride of
 command444444 ,do  you not know that   
,galileo was unworthily dragged to the  
prison of the  ,inquisition1 for having 
maintained that the sun is placed in the
 centre1  and does not move around the  
earth2 that his system first offended   
the  weak1 and appeared directly        
contrary to that text of                
,scripture--',sun1  stand thou still8'  
,however1 able divines have since made  
,galileo's  principles agree with those 
of religion4 ,who has told you1 that a  
divine more happy or more enlightened   
than you1 will not remove the           
contradiction1 which you think you      
perceive between your religion1 and  the
 opinion you resolve to condemn6 ,who   
forces you by a precipitate  censure to 

expose1 if not religion1 at least its   
ministers1 to the  hatred excited by    
persecution8 ,why1 always borrowing the 
assistance of  force and terror1 would  
you impose silence on men of genius1 and
 deprive  mankind of the useful         
knowledge they are capable of           
dispensing8 ,you  obey1 you say1 the    
dictates of religion4 ,but it commands  
you to distrust  yourselves1 and to love
 your neighbor4 ,if you do not act in   
conformity  to these principles1 you are
 then not actuated by the spirit of     
,god4  ,but you say1 by whom then are we
 inspired8 ,by laziness and pride4 ,it  
is laziness1 the enemy of thought1 which
 makes you averse to those  opinions1   
which you cannot1 without study and some
 fatigue of attention1  unite with the  
principles received in the schools2 but 
which being  proved to be               
philosophically true1 cannot be         
theologically false4 ,it is  pride1     
which is ordinarily carried to a greater
 height in the bigot than  in any other 

person1 which makes him detest in the   
man of genius the  benefactor of the    
human race1 and which exasperates him   
against the  truths discovered by       
humility4 ,it is then this laziness and 
this pride1  which1 disguising          
themselves under the appearance of zeal1
 render them  the persecutors of men of 
learning2 and which in ,italy1 ,spain1  
and  ,portugal1 have forged chains1     
built gibbets1 and held the torch to the
  piles of the ,inquisition4 ,thus the  
same pride1 which is so formidable in   
the devout fanatic1 and which in all    
religions makes him persecute1 in  the  
name of the ,most ,high1 the men of     
genius1 sometimes arms against  them the
 men in power4 ,after the example of    
those ,pharisees1 who treated  as       
criminals the persons who did not adopt 
all their decisions1 how  many viziers  
treat1 as enemies to the nation1 those  
who do not blindly  approve their       
conduct6    ,j4 ,w4          ,,frances  
,w4 ,d',,arusmont4    ,the previous     

issues of this publication contain      
notices of the lives and  writings of   
men of eminence in the world of         
,freethought4 ,this number  is devoted  
to a review of the career and works of a
 most talented and  accomplished lady--a
 ,freethinker and ,republican4 ,as a    
proof--if any  proof were needed--that  
women1 if adequately educated1 are      
equally  capable with men to become     
teachers and reformers1 the works of the
  subject of present notice afford      
abundant evidence4 ,the efforts now     
being made to procure an adjustment of  
the laws relating to women1  whereby    
they will be protected in their         
property1 and consequently  improved in 
their social position1 deserve the      
support of all classes2  ,when females  
become independent1 there will be less  
ignorance among  women and more         
happiness among men4    ,frances        
,wright1 afterwards ,madame             
,d',arusmont1 was a native of ,dundee4  
,she was born on the #fth of ,september1

 #agie4 ,she came of a wealthy  family1 
who had been extensive holders of city  
property from the year  #aejj4 ,her     
father was a man of considerable        
literary attainments1 and to  his active
 antiquarian researches and donations   
the ,british ,museum is  indebted for   
many rare and valuable coins and medals4
 ,he died young1 as  also his wife1     
leaving three children--two girls and a 
boy4 ,frances  was then but two years   
and a half old4 ,at the wish of her     
grandfather1  ,general ,duncan          
,campbell1 she was taken to ,england1   
and reared as a ward  of ,chancery1     
under the guardianship of a maternal    
aunt4 ,she grew to be  very tall in     
person1 erect1 and of a commanding      
figure2 large eyes1 and  magnificent    
head1 with a face somewhat masculine1   
but well formed1  and decidedly         
handsome4 ,her brother was sent to      
,india1 at the age of  fifteen1 as a    
cadet in the ,east ,india ,company's    
service1 and was killed  on the passage 

out in an encounter with a ,french      
vessel4 ,her sister  passed her life    
with her1 and died in ,paris in #ahca4  
,at an early age1 ,miss ,wright gave    
evidence of great intellectual  ability4
 ,the education she received was of a   
very superior kind4 ,she  diligently    
applied herself to the various branches 
of science1 and to  the study of ancient
 and modern letters and the arts1 being 
impelled by  a strong desire for        
knowledge4 ,at the age of nineteen1 she 
published her  first work1 ,a ,few ,days
 in ,athens4 ,her attention was early   
drawn to the  sufferings of the lower   
classes1 and on reflection she became   
convinced  that some great vice lay at  
the foundation of the whole of human    
practice3 ,she determined to endeavor to
 discover1 and assist in removing  it4  
,she read ,bocca's ,history of the      
,american ,revolution1 and resolved  to 
visit that country1 it appearing to her 
young imagination as the  land of       
freedom and hope4--,after having        

familiarised herself with the           
government and institutions of ,america1
 she sailed for ,new ,york #ahah4  ,she 
returned to ,england in #ahbj1 and      
published a large volume1 entitled      
,views of ,society and ,manners in      
,america4 ,it was dedicated to ,jeremy  
,bentham1 and had a large sale4 ,the    
work being translated into most of  the 
continental languages1 she became known 
to the prominent reformers  of ,europe4 
,in #ahba1 she made her first visit to  
,paris1 and was there introduced  to    
,general ,lafayette1 who1 having        
previously read her work on ,america1   
invited her to that city4 ,a republican 
in all her views and hopes1 she  was    
highly appreciated by ,lafayette and    
other eminent supporters of the  liberal
 party in ,france4--,she remained in    
,paris until #ahbd1 when she  returned  
to the ,united ,states1 and immediately 
undertook a project for  the abolition  
of slavery upon a plan somewhat         
different from any that  then engaged   

the attention of philanthropists4 ,for  
this purpose she  purchased two thousand
 acres of land at ,chickasaw ,bluffe1   
7now  ,memphis1 ,tennessee71 intending  
to make a good farm rather than a cotton
  plantation4 ,she then purchased       
several slave families1 gave them their 
liberty1 and removed them to the farm1  
residing there herself to direct  their 
labor4 ,commencing this novel           
undertaking with all that enthusiasm    
for which she was remarkable1 she       
continued the experiment some three     
years and a half1 when her health gave  
way1 and1 suffering under severe        
sickness1 she made a voyage to ,europe  
for her recovery4 ,during her  absence1 
the farm got involved in difficulties by
 the influence of her  enemies2 and     
finally1 the whole project falling      
through1 the negroes  were sent off to  
,hayti at her expense4--,she gave much  
time and money to  the carrying forward 
of this experiment2 and though it was a 
failure1  it strikingly exhibited her   

strong sympathy and benevolence for an  
oppressed and degraded class of beings4 
,returning from ,europe1 she went  to   
,new ,harmony 7,indiana7 to assume the  
proprietorship of a periodical  the     
,harmony ,gazette1 which had been       
published under the direction of        
,robert ,dale ,owen4 ,in #ahbh1 leaving 
,mr4 ,owen in charge of the paper1  she 
began a lecturing tour through the      
,union2 and probably no man1 and        
certainly no woman1 ever met with such  
furious opposition4 ,her views1  as     
announced in her paper1 had made her    
generally known1 and1 being  somewhat   
new and radically anti-theological1     
brought down upon her  head the rancor  
of religious bigotry4 ,as no church or  
hall would be  opened for her1 she      
lectured in theatres2 and her ability   
and eloquence  drew great audiences4 ,on
 one occasion1 while preparing to       
lecture in  a theatre at ,baltimore1 she
 was threatened with the destruction of 
her  life if she attempted to speak4    

,she calmly replied1 that she thought   
she  knew the ,american people1 and for 
every riotous fanatic that might annoy  
her1 a hundred good citizens would      
protect her1 and she was not afraid  to 
place herself in their hands4 ,she      
judged rightly4 ,she went to the        
theatre1 which was crammed from pit to  
ceiling1 and lectured to an  admiring   
and enthusiastic audience4 ,in other    
cities she was not always  so fortunate2
 more or less rioting occurred1 while   
the press1 almost  without exception1   
denounced her in the bitterest terms4   
,subsequently1  her paper was removed to
 ,new ,york4 ,some years afterwards1 she
 again made  a lecturing tour1 but this 
time she spoke on subjects of a         
political  nature1 and met with a better
 reception4 ,in addition to lecturing1  
she conducted a political magazine1     
entitled the ,manual of ,american       
,principles1 and was also engaged with  
,mr4 ,kneeland in editing the ,boston   
,investigator4 ,she wrote a great deal1 

and upon many subjects4 ,among  her many
 works is a tragedy called ,altorf1     
which was performed on the  stage1 the  
principal character being sustained by  
,mr4 ,james ,wallack4  ,her last work1  
of any considerable size1 was entitled  
,england the  ,civiliser1 published in  
,london in #ahdg4    ,madame            
,d',arusmont died suddenly in           
,cincinnati1 on ,tuesday1 ,december #ad1
  #aheb1 aged fifty-seven4 ,she had been
 for sometime unwell1 in consequence  of
 a fall upon the ice the previous       
winter1 which broke her thigh1 and      
probably hastened her decease2 but the  
immediate cause of her death was  the   
rupture of a blood vessel4 ,she was     
aware of her situation1 knew when  she  
was dying1 and met her last hour with   
perfect composure4 ,a daughter1  her    
only child1 survives her4    ,in a small
 work entitled ,observations on         
,religion and ,civilization1  are given 
the following ,definitions of ,theology 
and ,religion3 in the  words and in the 

things signified4 ,origin and ,nature of
 ,theology3--    ,theology from the     
,greek theos1 logos1 renders distinct   
the meaning of  the subject it attempts 
to treat4--,theos1 ,god1 or ,gods1      
unseen beings  and unknown causes4      
,logos1 word1 talk--or1 if we like to   
employ  yet more familiar and expressive
 terms1 prattle or chatter4 ,talk1 or   
prattle1 about unseen beings or unknown 
causes1 ,the idleness of the  subject1  
and inutility--nay1 absolute insanity of
 the occupation1  sufficiently appears  
in the strict etymological meaning of   
the word  employed to typify them4 ,the 
danger1 the mischief1 the cruelly       
immoral1  and1 if ,i may be permitted to
 coin a word for the occasion1 the      
unhumanizing tendencies both of the     
subject and the occupation1 when  and   
where these are 7as they have for the   
most part ever been throughout  the     
civilized world7 absolutely protected by
 law and upheld by  government1         
sufficiently appear also from the whole 

page of history4  ,religion1 from the   
,latin religio1 religio1 renders with   
equal  distinctness the things          
signified4 ,religo1 to tie over again1  
to bind  fast2 religio1 a binding       
together1 a bond of union4 ,the         
importance of  the great reality1 here  
so accurately shadowed out1 appears     
sufficiently  in the etymological       
signification of the word4 ,its utility 
will be  evident if we read1 with       
intelligence1 the nature1 the past      
history1 the  actual condition1 and the 
future destiny of man4 ,but now1 taking 
these  two things in the most strict    
etymological sense of the words which   
express them1 it will readily be        
distinguished that the first is a       
necessary creation of the human         
intellect in a certain stage of         
inquiry2 the second1 a necessary        
creation of the human soul 7by which  ,i
 understand both our intellectual and   
moral faculties taken conjointly7  in   
any and every state of human            

civilization4 ,theology argues1 in its  
origin1 the first awakening of human    
attention to the phenomena of  nature1  
and the first crude efforts of human    
ingenuity to expound them4  ,while man  
sees the sun and stars without observing
 either their diurnal  or their annual  
revolutions2 while he receives upon his 
frame the rain  and the wind1 and the   
varying elements1 without observing     
either their  effects upon himself or   
upon the field of nature around him1 he 
is as  the brute which suffers and      
enjoys without inquiring why it         
experiences  light or darkness1 pain or 
pleasure4 ,when first he puts1 in       
awkward  language1 to himself or to his 
fellow1 the question why does such an   
effect follow such a cause8 he commences
 his existence1 if not as a  reasonable 
being1 7a state at which he has not yet 
arrived7 at least  as a being capable of
 reason4 ,the answer to this first      
inquiry of  awakening intelligence is1  
of course1 such as his own circumscribed

  observation supplies4--,it is1 in     
fine1 in accordance with the            
explanation of the old nurse to the     
child1 who1 asking1 when startled by  a 
rolling peal of thunder--'what makes    
that noise' was fully satisfied  by the 
reply3 'my darling1 it is ,god ,almighty
 overhead moving his  furniture4' ,man  
awakening to thought1 but still         
unfamiliar with the  concatenation of   
natural phenomena1 inevitably conceives 
of some huge  being1 or beings1         
bestriding the clouds and whirlwind1 or 
wheeling the  sun and the moon like     
chariots through the blue vault4 ,and so
 again1  fancy most naturally peoples   
the gloom of the night with demons1 the 
woods and the waters with naiads and    
dryads1 elves and fairies1 the          
church-yard with ghosts1 and the dark   
cave and the solitary cot with  wizards1
 imps and old witches4 ,such1 then1 is  
theology in its origin2  and1 in all its
 stages1 we find it varying in grossness
 according to  the degree of ignorance  

of the human mind2 and1 refining into   
verbal  subtleties and misty metaphysics
 in proportion as that mind exchanges1  
in its progress from darkness to light1 
the gloom of ignorance for the  mass of 
terror4    ,the nature of belief in the 
unknowable1 and the dire consequences   
arising from fanaticism1 are ably       
depicted in the following passages1     
selected from ,lecture ,,iv41 on        
,religion3--    ,admitting religion to  
be the most important of all subjects1  
its truths  must be the most apparent2  
for we shall readily concede1 both that 
a  thing true1 must be always of more or
 less importance--and that a thing      
essentially important1 must always be   
indisputably true4 ,now1 again1 ,i      
conceive we shall be disposed to admit1 
that exactly in proportion to  the      
indisputability of a truth1 is the proof
 it is capable of affording2  and that1 
exactly in proportion to the proof      
afforded1 is our admission  of such     
truth and belief in it4 ,if1 then1      

religion be the most important  subject 
of human inquiry1 it must be that also  
which presents the most  forcible1      
irrefragable1 and indisputable truths to
 the inquirer4--,it  must be that on    
which the human mind can err the least1 
and where all  minds must be the most   
agreed4 ,if religion be at once a       
science1 and the  most true of all      
sciences1 its truths must be as         
indisputable as those  in any branch of 
the mathematics--as apparent to all the 
senses as those  revealed by the chemist
 or observed by the naturalist1 and as  
easily  referred to the test of our     
approving or disapproving sensations1 as
  those involved in the science of      
morals4444 ,is religion a science8  ,is 
it a branch of knowledge8 ,where are the
 things known upon which it  rests8     
,where are the accumulated facts of     
which it is compounded8 ,what  are the  
human sensations to which it appeals8   
,knowledge is compounded  of things     
known4 ,it is an accumulation of facts  

gleaned by our senses1  within the range
 of material existence1 which is subject
 to their  investigation4444 ,now let us
 see where1 in the table of knowledge1  
we may class religion4 ,of what part or 
division of nature1 or material         
existence1 does it treat8 ,what bodies1 
or what properties of tangible  bodies1 
does it place in contact with our       
senses1 and bring home to the           
perception of our faculties8 ,it clearly
 appertains not to the table of  human  
knowledge1 for it treats not of objects 
discoverable within the  field of human 
observation4 ',no1' will you say8 'but  
its knowledge  is superhuman1           
unearthly--its field is in heaven4' ,my 
friends1 the  knowledge which is not    
human1 is of slippery foundation to us  
human  creatures4 ,things known1        
constitute knowledge2 and here is a     
science  treating of things unseen1     
unfelt1 uncomprehended6 ,such cannot be 
knowledge4 ,what1 then1 is it8          
,probability8 possibility8 theory8      

hypothesis8 tradition8 written8 spoken8 
by whom8 when8 where8 ,let its          
teachers--nay1 let all earth reply6 ,but
 what confusion of tongues and  voices  
now strike on the ear6 ,from either     
,indies1 from torrid ,africa1  from the 
frozen regions of either pole1 from the 
vast plains of ancient  ,asia1 from the 
fields and cities of ,european industry1
 from the palaces  of ,european luxury1 
from the soft chambers of priestly ease1
 from the  domes of hierarchal dominion1
 from the deep cell of the              
self-immolated  monk1 from the stony    
cave of the self-denying anchorite1 from
 the  cloud-capt towers1 spires1 and    
minarets of the crescent and the cross1 
arise shouts1 and hosannas1 and         
anathemas1 in the commingled names  of  
,brama1 and ,veeshnu1 and ,creeshna1 and
 ,juggernaut2 heavenly kings1  heavenly 
queens1 triune deities1 earth-born gods1
 heaven-born prophets1  apotheosized    
monarchs1 demon-enlightened             
philosophers1 saints1 angels1  devils1  

ghosts1 apparitions1 and sorceries6     
,but1 worse than these sounds  which but
 stun the ear and confound the          
intellect1 what sights1 oh6  human kind6
 appal the heart6 ,the rivers of earth  
run blood6 ,nation set  against nation6 
,brother against brother6 ,man against  
the companion of  his bosom6 and that   
soft companion1 maddened with the frenzy
 of insane  remorse for imaginary       
crimes8 fired with the rage of          
infatuated bigotry1  or subdued to      
diseased helplessness and mental        
fatuity1 renounces  kindred1 flies from 
social converse1 and pines away a       
useless or  mischievous existence in    
sighings and tremblings1 spectral fears1
  uncharitable feelings and bitter      
denunciations6 ,such are thy doings1    
oh6 religion6 ,or1 rather1 such are thy 
doings1 oh6 man6 ,while standing  in a  
world so rich in sources of enjoyment1  
so stored with objects of  real inquiry 
and attainable knowledge1 yet shutting  
thine eyes1 and1  worse1 thine heart1 to

 the tangible things and sentient       
creatures around  thee1 and winging thy 
diseased imagination beyond the light of
 the sun  which gladdens thy world1 and 
contemplation of the objects which are  
here to expand thy mind and quicken the 
pulses of thy heart6444 ,i will  pray ye
 to observe how much of our positive    
misery originates in our  idle          
speculations in matters of faith1 and in
 our blind1 our fearful  forgetfulness  
of facts--our cold1 heartless1 and1 ,i  
will say1 insane  indifference to       
visible causes of tangible evil1 and    
visible sources of  tangible happiness4 
,look to the walks of life1 ,i beseech  
ye--look into  the public prints--look  
into your sectarian churches--look into 
the  bosoms of families--look into your 
own bosoms1 and those of your fellow    
beings1 and see how many of our disputes
 and dissensions1 public  and           
private--how many of our unjust         
actions--how many of our harsh          
judgments--how many of our uncharitable 

feelings--spring out of our  ignorant   
ambition to rend the veil which wraps   
from our human senses the  knowledge of 
things unseen1 and from our human       
faculties the conception  of causes     
unknown8 ,and oh6 my fellow beings6 do  
not these very words  unseen and        
unknown1 warn the enthusiast against the
 profanity of  such inquiries1 and      
proclaim to the philosopher their       
futility8 ,do they  not teach us that   
religion is no subject for instruction1 
and no subject  for discussion8 ,will   
they not convince us that as beyond the 
horizon of  our observation we can know 
nothing1 so within that horizon's the   
only safe ground for us to meet in      
public8444 ,every day we see sects      
splitting1 creeds new modelling1 and men
 forsaking old opinions only to  quarrel
 about their opposites4    ,i see three 
,gods in one1 says the ,trinitarian1 and
 excommunicates the  ,socinian1 who sees
 a ,god-head in unity4 ,i see a heaven  
but no hell1 says  the ,universalist1   

and disowns fellowship with such as may 
distinguish  less4 ',i see a heaven and 
hell also1 beyond the stars1' said      
lately  the ,orthodox friend1 and       
expelled his shorter-sighted brethren   
from the  sanctuary4 ,i seek them both  
in the heart of man1 said the more      
spiritual  follower of ,penn1 and       
straightway builded him up another      
temple1 in  which to quarrel with his   
neighbor1 who perhaps only employs other
 words  to express the same ideas4 ,for 
myself1 pretending to no insight into   
these mysteries1 possessing no means of 
intercourse with the inhabitants  of    
other worlds1 confessing my absolute    
incapacity to see either as far  back as
 a first cause1 or as far forward as a  
last one1 ,i am content  to state to    
you1 my fellow creatures1 that all my   
studies1 reading1  reflection1 and      
observation1 have obtained for me no    
knowledge beyond  the sphere of our     
planet1 our earthly interests and our   
earthly duties2  and that ,i more than  

doubt whether1 should you expend all    
your time and  all your treasure in the 
search1 you will be able to acquire any 
better  information respecting unseen   
worlds and future events than myself4   
,the philosophical romance1 ,a ,few     
,days in ,athens1 though the first  of  
,miss ,wright's works1 and written when 
she was very young1 displays            
considerable power and eloquence4 ,it is
 the most pleasing of all her  writings4
 ,it is intended to portray the         
doctrines of ,epicurus1 and gives  a    
picture of the ,gargettian1 in the      
,gardens of the ,academy1 surrounded  by
 his pupils1 calculated to counteract   
many of the popular and  erroneous      
notions entertained of that             
philosopher's teachings4 ,the  following
 dialogue between ,epicurus and his     
favorite1 ,theon1 will afford  the      
readers of the ,half-,hours an          
opportunity of judging how far ,miss    
,wright has conveyed a truthful idea of 
,epicurus's ethical philosophy3--    ,on

 leaving you1 last night1 said ,theon1  
,i encountered ,cleanthes4 ,he  came    
from the perusal of your writings1 and  
brought charges against them  which ,i  
was unprepared to answer4    ,let us    
hear them1 my son2 perhaps1 until you   
shall have perused them  yourself1 we   
may assist your difficulty4    ,first1  
that they deny the existence of the     
,gods4    ,i see but one other assertion
 that could equal that in folly1 said   
,epicurus4    ,i knew it1 exclaimed     
,theon1 triumphantly1 ,i knew it was    
impossible4  ,but where will not        
prejudice lead men1 when even the       
uptight ,cleanthes  is capable of       
slander8    ,he is utterly incapable of 
it1 said the ,master2 and the           
inaccuracy1  in this case1 ,i rather    
suspect to rest with you than with him4 
,to deny  the existence of the ,gods    
would indeed be presumption in a        
'philosopher2  a presumption equalled   
only by that of him who should assert   
their  existence4    ,how6 exclaimed the

 youth1 with a countenance in which     
astonishment  seemed to suspend every   
other expression4    ,as ,i never saw   
the ,gods1 my son1 calmly continued the 
,sage1 ,i cannot  assert their          
existence2 and that ,i never saw them1  
is no reason for  my denying it4    ,but
 do we believe nothing except that of   
which we have ocular  demonstration8    
,nothing1 at least1 for which we have   
not the evidence of one or more  of our 
senses2 that is1 when we believe on just
 grounds1 which ,i grant1  taking men   
collectively1 is very seldom4    ,but   
where would this spirit lead us6 ,to    
impiety6--to ,atheism6--to  all1 against
 which ,i felt confidence in defending  
the character and  philosophy of        
,epicurus6    ,we will examine          
presently1 my son1 into the meaning of  
the terms you  have employed4 ,when you 
first entered the ,garden your mind was 
unfit for  the examination of the       
subject you have now started3 it is no  
longer so2  and we will therefore enter 

upon the inquiry1 and pursue it in      
order4    ,forgive me if ,i express--if 
,i acknowledge1 said the youth1 slightly
  recoiling from his instructor1 some   
reluctance to enter on the  discussion  
of truths1 whose very discussion would  
seem to argue a doubt1  and--    ,and   
what then6    ,that very doubt were a   
crime4    ,if the doubt of any truth    
shall constitute a crime1 then the      
belief of  the same truth should        
constitute a virtue4    ,perhaps a duty 
would rather express it6 ,when you      
charge the neglect  of any duty as      
crime1 or account its fulfilment a      
virtue1 you suppose  the existence of a 
power to neglect or fulfil2 and it is   
the exercise of  this power1 in the one 
way or the other which constitutes the  
merit or  demerit4 ,is it not so8       
,certainly4    ,does the human mind     
possess the power to believe or         
disbelieve1 at  pleasure1 any truths    
whatsoever4    ,i am not prepared to    
answer3 but ,i think it does1 since it  

possesses  always the power of          
investigation4    ,but1 possibly1 not   
the will to exercise the power4 ,take   
care lest  ,i beat you with your own    
weapons4 ,i thought this very           
investigation  appeared to you a crime8 
,your logic is too subtle1 said the     
youth1 for my inexperience4    ,say1    
rather1 my reasoning too close4 ,did ,i 
bear you down with sounding  words and  
weighty authorities1 and confound your  
understanding with  hair-drawn          
distinctions1 you would be right to     
retreat from the  battery4    ,i have   
nothing to object to the fairness of    
your deductions1 said  ,theon4 ,but     
would not the doctrine be dangerous that
 should establish  our inability to help
 our belief2 and might we not stretch   
the  principle1 until we asserted our   
inability to help our actions8    ,we   
might1 and with reason4 ,but we will not
 now traverse the ethical  pons asinorum
 of necessity--the most simple and      
evident of mortal  truths1 and the most 

darkened1 tortured1 and belabored by    
moral  teachers4 ,you inquire if the    
doctrine we have essayed to establish1  
be  not dangerous4 ,i reply--not1 if it 
be true4--,nothing is so dangerous  as  
error--nothing so safe as truth4 ,a     
dangerous truth would be a              
contradiction in terms1 and an anomaly  
in things4    ,but what is a truth8 said
 ,theon4    ,it is pertinently asked4 ,a
 truth ,i consider to be an ascertained 
fact2  which truth would be changed to  
an error1 the moment the fact1 on which 
it rested1 was disproved4    ,i see1    
then1 no fixed basis for truth4    ,it  
surely has the most fixed of all--the   
nature of things4 ,and it  is only an   
imperfect insight into that nature which
 occasions all our  erroneous           
conclusions1 whether in physics or      
morals4    ,but where1 if we discard the
 ,gods and their will1 as engraven on   
our  hearts1 are our guides in the      
search after truth8    ,our senses and  
our faculties as developed in and by the

 exercise of our  senses1 are the only  
guides with which ,i am acquainted4 ,and
 ,i do not  see why1 even admitting a   
belief in the ,gods1 and in a           
superintending  ,providence1 the senses 
should not be viewed as the guides      
provided by  them1 for our direction and
 instruction4 ,but here is the evil     
attendant  on an ungrounded belief1     
whatever be its nature4 ,the moment we  
take one  thing for granted1 we take    
other things for granted2 we are started
 in  a wrong road1 and it is seldom that
 we gain the right one1 until we have   
trodden back our steps to the starting  
place4 ,i know but of one thing  that a 
philosopher should take for granted2 and
 that only because he  is forced to it  
by an irresistible impulse of his       
nature2 and because1  without doing so1 
neither truth nor falsehood could exist 
for him4 ,he  must take for granted the 
evidence of his senses2 in other words1 
he  must believe in the existence of    
things1 as they exist to his senses4 ,i 

know of no other existence1 and can     
therefore believe in no other3          
although1 reasoning from analogy1 ,i may
 imagine other existences to            
be4--,this1 for instance1 ,i do as      
respects the ,gods4 ,i see around me1 in
  the world ,i inhabit1 an infinite     
variety in the arrangement of matter--a 
multitude of sentient beings1 possessing
 different kinds and varying  grades of 
power and intelligence--from the worm   
that crawls in the dust1  to the eagle  
that soars to the sun1 and man who marks
 to the sun its  course4 ,it is         
possible1 it is moreover probable1 that1
 in the worlds  which ,i see not--in the
 boundless infinitude and eternal       
duration of  matter1 beings may exist1  
of every countless variety1 and varying 
grades  of intelligence1 inferior and   
superior to our own1 until we descend to
  a minimum and rise to a maximum1 to   
which the range of our observation      
affords no parallel1 and of which our   
senses are inadequate to the            

conception4 ,thus far1 my young friend1 
#a believe in the ,gods1 or in what  you
 will of existences removed from the    
sphere of my knowledge4 ,that you       
should believe1 with positiveness1 in   
one unseen existence or another1        
appears to me no crime1 although it may 
appear to me unreasonable2 and  so1 my  
doubt of the same should appear to you  
no moral offence1 although  you might   
account it erroneous4 ,i fear to fatigue
 your attention1 and  will1 therefore1  
dismiss1 for the present1 these abstruse
 subjects4    ,but we shall both be     
amply repaid for their discussion1 if   
this truth  remain with you--that an    
opinion1 right or wrong1 can never      
constitute a  moral offence1 nor be in  
itself a moral obligation4 ,it may be   
mistaken2  it may involve an absurdity1 
or a contradiction4--,it is a truth2 or 
it  is an error3 it can never be a crime
 or a virtue4--,chapter xiv4    ,miss   
,wright was a poetess1 as well as a     
politician and writer on ethics4  ,in   

her ,fourth of ,july address1 delivered 
in the ,new ,harmony ,hall1 in  #ahbh1  
in commemoration of the ,american       
,independence1 is the following3--      
,is there a thought can fill the human  
mind       ,more pure1 more vast1 more  
generous1 more refined       ,than that 
which guides the enlightened patriot's  
toil8       ,not he whose view is       
bounded by his soil--       ,not he     
whose narrow heart can only shrine      
,the land1 the people that he calleth   
mine--       ,not he who1 to set up that
 land on high1       ,will make whole   
nations bleed1 whole nations die--      
,not he who1 calling that land's rights 
his pride1       ,trampleth the rights  
of all the earth beside4       ,no6     
,he it is1 the just1 the generous soul1 
,who owneth brotherhood with either     
pole1       ,stretches from realm to    
realm his spacious mind1       ,and     
guards the weal of all the human kind-- 
,holds freedom's banner o'er the earth  
unfurl'd1       ,and stands the guardian

 patriot of a world6    ,j4 ,w4         
,,epicurus         ,epicurean4--,one who
 holds the principles of ,epicurus--    
,luxurious1 contributing to luxury4     
,epicurism--,the principles of          
,epicurus--,luxury1 sensual             
enjoyment1 gross pleasure4      ,the    
words with which this page is headed may
 be found in the current and            
established dictionaries of the present 
day2 and it shall be our task to  show  
that never was slander more foul1       
calumny more base1 or libel more        
cowardly1 than when it associated the   
words luxury and sensuality with  the   
memory of the ,athenian ,epicurus4 ,the 
much-worn anecdote of the brief         
endorsed ,the ,defendant has no case1   
abuse the ,plaintiffs ,solicitor1  will 
well apply here4 ,the religionists had  
no case1 the ,epicurean  ,philosophy was
 impregnable as far as theological      
attacks were concerned1  and the        
theologians have1 therefore1 constantly 
and vehemently abused  its founder2 so  

that1 at last1 children have caught the 
cry as though it  were the enunciation  
of a tact1 and have grown into men      
believing that  ,epicurus was a sort of 
discriminating hog1 who wallowed in the 
filth  which some have miscalled        
pleasure4    ,epicurus was born in the  
early part of the year #cdd1 ,b4 ,c1 the
 third  year of the #ajith ,olympiad1 at
 ,gargettus1 in the neighborhood of     
,athens4  ,his father1 ,neocles1 was of 
the gean tribe4 ,some allege that       
,epicurus  was born in the island of    
,samos2 but1 according to others1 he was
 taken  there when very young by his    
parents1 who formed a portion of a      
colony  of ,athenian citizens1 sent to  
colonize ,samos after its subjugation   
by ,pericles4 ,the father and mother of 
,epicurus were in very humble           
circumstances2 his father was a         
schoolmaster1 and his mother1           
,chrestrata1 acted as a kind of         
priestess1 curing diseases1 exorcising  
ghosts1 and exercising other fabulous   

powers4 ,epicurus has been charged  with
 sorcery1 because he wrote several songs
 for his mother's solemn  rites4 ,until 
eighteen1 he remained at ,samos and the 
neighboring isle of  ,teos2 from whence 
he removed to ,athens1 where he resided 
until the death  of ,alexander1 when1   
disturbances arising1 he fled to        
,colophon4 ,this  place1 ,mitylene1 and 
,lampsacus1 formed the philosopher's    
residence until  he was thirty-six years
 of age2 at which time he founded a     
school in the  neighborhood of ,athens4 
,he purchased a pleasant garden1 where  
he taught  his disciples until the time 
of his death4    ,we are told by        
,laertius1 ,that those disciples who    
were regularly  admitted into the school
 of ,epicurus1 lived together1 not in   
the manner  of the ,pythagoreans1 who   
cast their possessions into a common    
stock2 for  this1 in his opinion1       
implied mutual distrust rather than     
friendship2  but upon such a footing of 
friendly attachment1 that each          

individual  cheerfully supplied the     
necessities of his brother4    ,the     
habits of the philosopher and his       
followers were temperate and            
exceedingly frugal1 and formed a strong 
contrast to the luxurious1  although    
refined1 manners of the ,athenians4 ,at 
the entrance of the  garden1 the visitor
 of ,epicurus found the following       
inscription3--,the  hospitable keeper of
 this mansion1 where you will find      
pleasure the  highest good1 will present
 you with barley cakes and water from   
the  spring4 ,these gardens will not    
provoke your appetite by artificial     
dainties1 but satisfy it with natural   
supplies4 ,will you not1 then1 be  well 
entertained8 ,and yet the owner of the  
garden1 over the gate  of which these   
words were placed1 has been called a    
glutton and a  stomach worshipper6      
,from the age of thirty-six until his   
decease1 he does not seem to have       
quitted ,athens1 except temporarily4    
,when ,demetrius besieged ,athens1 the  

,epicureans were driven into great      
difficulties for want of food2 and it   
is said that ,epicurus and his friends  
subsisted on a small quantity of  beans 
which he possessed1 and which he shared 
equally with them4    ,the better to    
prosecute his studies1 ,epicurus lived a
 life of celibacy4  ,temperate and      
continent himself1 he taught his        
followers to be so  likewise1 both by   
example and precept4 ,he died #bgc ,b4  
,c1 in the  seventy-third year of his   
age2 and1 at that time1 his warmest     
opponents  seem to have paid the highest
 compliments to his personal character2 
and1 on reading his life1 and the       
detailed accounts of his teachings1 it  
seems difficult to imagine what has     
induced the calumny which has been      
heaped upon his memory4    ,we cannot   
quote from his own works1 in his own    
words1 because1 although  he wrote very 
much1 only a summary of his writings has
 come to us  uninjured2 but his         
doctrines have been so fully            

investigated and treated  on1 both by   
his opponents and his disciples1 that   
there is no difficulty  or doubt as to  
the principles inculcated in the school 
of ,epicurus4    ,the sum of his        
doctrine concerning philosophy1 in      
general1 is  this3--,philosophy is the  
exercise of reason in the pursuit and   
attainment of a happy life2 whence it   
follows1 that those studies which       
conduce neither to the acquisition nor  
the enjoyment of happiness are to  be   
dismissed as of no value4 ,the end of   
all speculation ought to be1 to  enable 
men to judge with certainty what is to  
be chosen1 and what to be  avoided1 to  
preserve themselves free from pain1 and 
to secure health of  body1 and          
tranquillity of mind4 ,true philosophy  
is so useful to every  man1 that the    
young should apply to it without delay1 
and the old should  never be weary of   
the pursuit2 for no man is either too   
young or too  old to correct and improve
 his mind1 and to study the art of      

happiness4  ,happy are they who possess 
by nature a free and vigorous intellect1
  and who are born in a country where   
they can prosecute their inquiries      
without restraint3 for it is philosophy 
alone which raises a man above  vain    
fears and base passions1 and gives him  
the perfect command of  himself4 ,as    
nothing ought to be dearer to a         
philosopher than truth1 he  should1     
pursue it by the most direct means1     
devising no actions himself1  nor       
suffering himself to be imposed upon by 
the fictions of others1  neither poets1 
orators1 nor logicians1 making no other 
use of the  rules of rhetoric or        
grammar1 than to enable him to speak or 
write with  accuracy and perspicuity1   
and always preferring a plain and simple
 to an  ornamented style4 ,whilst some  
doubt of everything1 and others profess 
to acknowledge everything1 a wise man   
will embrace such tenets1 and  only such
 as are built upon experience1 or upon  
certain and indisputable  axioms4       

,the following is a summary of his      
,moral ,philosophy3--    ,the end of    
living1 or the ultimate good1 which is  
to be sought for its  own sake1         
according to the universal opinion of   
mankind1 is happiness2  yet men1 for the
 most part1 fail in the pursuit of this 
end1 either  because they do not form a 
right idea of the nature of happiness1  
or  because they do not make use of     
proper means to attain it4 ,since it is 
every man's interest to be happy through
 the whole of life1 it is the  wisdom of
 every one to employ philosophy in the  
search of felicity  without delay2 and  
there cannot be a greater folly1 than to
 be always  beginning to live4    ,the  
happiness which belongs to man1 is that 
state in which he enjoys  as many of the
 good things1 and suffers as few of the 
evils incident  to human nature as      
possible2 passing his days in a smooth  
course of  permanent tranquillity4 ,a   
wise man1 though deprived of sight or   
hearing1  may experience happiness in   

the enjoyment of the good things which  
yet remain2 and when suffering torture1 
or laboring under some painful  disease1
 can mitigate the anguish by patience1  
and can enjoy1 in  bis afflictions1 the 
consciousness of bis own constancy4 ,but
 it is  impossible that perfect         
happiness can be possessed without the  
pleasure  which attends freedom from    
pain1 and the enjoyment of the good     
things of  life4 ,pleasure is in its    
nature good1 as pain is in its nature   
evil2 the  one is1 therefore1 to be     
pursued1 and the other to be avoided1   
for its  own sake4--,pleasure1 or pain1 
is not only good1 or evil1 in itself1   
but the measure of what is good or evil1
 in every object of desire or  aversion2
 for the ultimate reason why we pursue  
one thing1 and avoid  another1 is       
because we expect pleasure from the     
former1 and apprehend  pain from the    
latter4 ,if we sometimes decline a      
present pleasure1 it is  not because we 
are averse to pleasure itself1 but      

because we conceive1  that in the       
present instance1 it will be necessarily
 connected with a  greater pain4 ,in    
like manner1 if we sometimes voluntarily
 submit to a  present pain1 it is       
because we judge that it is necessarily 
connected  with a greater               
pleasure4--,although all pleasure is    
essentially good1 and  all pain         
essentially evil1 it doth not thence    
necessarily follow1 that  in every      
single instance the one ought to be     
pursued1 and the other to  be avoided2  
but reason is to be employed in         
distinguishing and comparing  the nature
 and degrees of each1 that the result   
may be a wise choice of  that which     
shall appear to be1 upon the whole1     
good4 ,that pleasure is  the first good1
 appears from the inclination which     
every animal1 from  its first birth1    
discovers to pursue pleasure1 and avoid 
pain2 and is  confirmed by the universal
 experience of mankind1 who are incited 
to action by no other principle than the

 desire of avoiding pain1 or  obtaining 
pleasure4 ,there are two kinds of       
pleasure3 one consisting in  a state of 
rest1 in which both body and mind are   
undisturbed by any kind  of pain2 the   
other arising from an agreeable         
agitation of the senses1  producing a   
correspondent emotion in the soul4 ,it  
is upon the former  of these that the   
enjoyment of life chiefly depends4      
,happiness may  therefore be said to    
consist in bodily ease1 and mental      
tranquillity1  ,when pleasure is        
asserted to be the end of living1 we are
 not then to  understand that violent   
kind of delight or joy which arises from
 the  gratification of the senses and   
passions1 but merely that placid state  
of mind1 which results from the absence 
of every cause of pain or  uneasiness4  
,those pleasures1 which arise from      
agitation1 are not to be  pursued as in 
themselves the end of living1 but as    
means of arriving at  that stable       
tranquillity1 in which true happiness   

consists4 ,it is the  office of reason  
to confine the pursuit of pleasure      
within the limits  of nature1 in order  
to the attainment of that happy state1  
in which  the body is free from every   
kind of pain1 and the mind from all     
perturbation4 ,this state must not1     
however1 be conceived to be perfect  in 
proportion as it is inactive and torpid1
 but in proportion as all  the functions
 of life are quietly and pleasantly     
performed4 ,a happy life  neither       
resembles a rapid torrent1 nor a        
standing pool1 but is like a  gentle    
stream1 that glides smoothly and        
silently along4    ,this happy state can
 only be obtained by a prudent care of  
the body1  and a steady government of   
the mind4 ,the diseases of the body are 
to be  prevented by temperance1 or cured
 by medicine1 or rendered tolerable  by 
patience4 ,against the diseases of the  
mind1 philosophy provides  sufficient   
antidotes4 ,the instruments which it    
employs for this purpose  are the       

virtues2 the root of which1 whence all  
the rest proceed1 is  prudence4 ,this   
virtue comprehends the whole art of     
living discreetly1  justly1 and         
honorably1 and is1 in fact1 the same    
thing with wisdom4 ,it  instructs men to
 free their understandings from the     
clouds of prejudice2  to exercise       
temperance and fortitude in the         
government of themselves3  and to       
practice justice towards others4        
,although pleasure1 or happiness1  which
 is the end of living1 be superior to   
virtue1 which is only the  means1 it is 
every one's interest to practice all the
 virtues2 for in a  happy life1 pleasure
 can never be separated from virtue4    
,a prudent man1 in order to secure his  
tranquillity1 will consult his  natural 
disposition in the choice of his plan of
 life4 ,if1 for example1  he be         
persuaded that he should be happier in a
 state of marriage than in  celibacy1 he
 ought to marry2 but if he be convinced 
that matrimony would  be an impediment  

to his happiness1 he ought to remain    
single4 ,in like  manner1 such persons  
as are naturally active1 enterprising1  
and  ambitious1 or such as by the       
condition of their birth are placed in  
the  way of civil offices1 should       
accommodate themselves to their nature  
and  situation1 by engaging in public   
affairs2 while such as are1 from        
natural temper1 fond of leisure and     
retirement1 or1 from experience or      
observation1 are convinced that a life  
of public business would be             
inconsistent with their happiness1 are  
unquestionably at liberty1 except  where
 particular circumstances call them to  
the service of their  country1 to pass  
their lives in obscure repose4          
,temperance is that discreet regulation 
of the desires and passions1 by  which  
we are enabled to enjoy pleasures       
without suffering any consequent        
inconvenience4 ,they who maintain such a
 constant self-command1 as never  to be 
enticed by the prospect of present      

indulgence1 to do that which  will be   
productive of evil1 obtain the truest   
pleasure by declining  pleasure4 ,since1
 of desires some are natural and        
necessary2 others  natural1 but not     
necessary2 and others neither natural   
nor necessary1  but the offspring of    
false judgment2 it must be the office of
 temperance  to gratify the first class1
 as far as nature requires3 to restrain 
the  second within the bounds of        
moderation2 and1 as to the third1       
resolutely  to oppose1 and1 if possible1
 entirely repress them4    ,sobriety1 as
 opposed to inebriety and gluttony1 is  
of admirable use in  teaching men that  
nature is satisfied with a little1 and  
enabling them  to content themselves    
with simple and frugal fare4 ,such a    
manner of  living is conducive to the   
preservation of health3 renders a man   
alert  and active in all the offices of 
life2 affords him an exquisite relish   
of the occasional varieties of a        
plentiful board1 and prepares him to    

meet every reverse of fortune without   
the fear of want4    ,continence is a   
branch of temperance1 which prevents the
 diseases1  infamy1 remorse1 and        
punishment1 to which those are exposed1 
who  indulge themselves in unlawful     
amours4 ,music and poetry1 which are    
often  employed as incentives to        
licentious pleasure are to be cautiously
 and  sparingly used4    ,gentleness1 as
 opposed to an irrascible temper1       
greatly contributes  to the tranquillity
 and happiness of life1 by preserving   
the mind from  perturbation1 and arming 
it against the assaults of calumny and  
malice4  ,a wise man1 who puts himself  
under the government of reason1 will be 
able to receive an injury with calmnese1
 and to treat the person who  committed 
it with lenity2 for he will rank        
injuries among the casual  events of    
life1 and will prudently reflect that he
 can no more stop the  natural current  
of human passions1 than he can curb the 
stormy winds4  ,refractory servants in a

 family should be chastised1 and        
disorderly  members of a state punished 
without wrath4    ,moderation1 in the   
pursuit of honors or riches1 is the only
 security  against disappointment and   
vexation4 ,a wise man1 therefore1 will  
prefer  the simplicity of rustic life to
 the magnificence of courts4 ,future    
events a wise man will consider as      
uncertain1 and will1 therefore1  neither
 suffer himself to be elated with       
confident expectation1 nor to  be       
depressed by doubt and despair3 for both
 are equally destructive of             
tranquillity4 ,it will contribute to the
 enjoyment of life1 to consider  death  
as the perfect termination of a happy   
life1 which it becomes us to  close like
 satisfied guests1 neither regretting   
the past1 nor anxious for  the future4  
,fortitude1 the virtue which enables us 
to endure pain1 and to banish  fear1 is 
of great use in producing tranquillity4 
,philosophy instructs us  to pay homage 
to the gods1 not through hope or fear1  

but from veneration  of their superior  
nature4 ,it moreover enables us to      
conquer the fear  of death1 by teaching 
us that it is no proper object of       
terror2 since1  whilst we are1 death is 
not1 and when death arrives1 we are not3
 so  that it neither concerns the living
 nor the dead4 ,the only evils to  be   
apprehended are bodily pain1 and        
distress of mind4 ,bodily pain it       
becomes a wise man to endure with       
patience and firmness2 because1 if it   
be slight1 it may easily be borne2 and  
if it be intense1 it cannot  last long4 
,mental distress commonly arises not    
from nature1 but from  opinion2 a wise  
man will therefore arm himself against  
this kind of  suffering1 by reflecting  
that the gifts of fortune1 the loss of  
which  he may be inclined to deplore1   
were never his own1 but depended upon   
circumstances which he could not        
command4 ,if1 therefore1 they happen  to
 leave him1 he will endeavor1 as soon as
 possible1 to obliterate the            

remembrance of them1 by occupying his   
mind in pleasant contemplation1  and    
engaging in agreeable avocations4       
,justice respects man as living in      
society1 and is the common bond  without
 which no society can subsist4 ,this    
virtue1 like the rest1  derives its     
value from its tendency to promote the  
happiness of  life4 ,not only is it     
never injurious to the man who practices
 it1 but  nourishes-in his mind calm    
reflections and pleasant hopes2 whereas 
it is  impossible that the mind in which
 injustice dwells1 should not be full   
of disquietude4--,since it is impossible
 that iniquitous actions should  promote
 the enjoyment of life1 as much as      
remorse of conscience1 legal  penalties1
 and public disgrace1 must increase its 
troubles1 every one  who follows the    
dictates of sound reason1 will practice 
the virtues of  justice1 equity1 and    
fidelity4 ,in society1 the necessity of 
the mutual  exercise of justice1 in     
order to the common enjoyment of the    

gifts of  nature1 is the ground of those
 laws by which it is prescribed4 ,it is 
the interest of every individual in a   
state to conform to the laws of         
justice2 for by injuring no one1 and    
rendering to every man his due1 he      
contributes his part towards the        
preservation of that society1 upon the  
perpetuity of which his own safety      
depends4 ,nor ought any one to think    
that he is at liberty to violate the    
rights of his fellow citizens1  provided
 he can do it securely2 for he who has  
committed an unjust  action can never be
 certain that it will not be discovered2
 and however  successfully he may       
conceal it from others1 this will avail 
him little1  since he cannot conceal it 
from himself4 ,in different communities1
  different laws may be instituted1     
according to the circumstances of  the  
people who compose them4 ,whatever is   
thus prescribed is to be  considered as 
a rule of justice1 so long as the       
society shall judge the  observance of  

it to be for the benefit of the whole4  
,but whenever any  rule of conduct is   
found upon experience not to be         
conducive to the  public good1 being no 
longer useful1 it should no longer be   
prescribed4    ,nearly allied to justice
 are the virtues of beneficence1        
compassion1  gratitude1 piety1 and      
friendship4--,he who confers benefits   
upon others1  procures to himself the   
satisfaction of seeing the stream of    
plenty  spreading around him from the   
fountain of his beneficence2 at the same
  time1 he enjoys the pleasure of being 
esteemed by others4 ,the exercise  of   
gratitude1 filial affection1 and        
reverence for the gods1 is  necessary1  
in order to avoid the hatred and        
contempt of all men4  ,friendships are  
contracted for the sake of mutual       
benefit2 but by  degrees they ripen into
 such disinterested attachment1 that    
they are  continued without any prospect
 of advantage4 ,between friends there is
 a  kind of league1 that each will love 

the other as himself4 ,a true friend    
will partake of the wants and sorrows of
 his friend1 as if they were his  own2  
if he be in want1 he will relieve him2  
if he be in prison1 he will  visit him2 
if he be sick1 he will come to him2     
nay-situations may occur1  in which he  
would not scruple to die for him4 ,it   
cannot then be doubted1  that friendship
 is one of the most useful means of     
procuring a secure1  tranquil1 and happy
 life4    ,no man will1 we think1 find  
anything in the foregoing summary to    
justify  the foul language used against 
,epicurus1 and his moral philosophy2 the
  secret is in the physical doctrines1  
and this secret is1 that ,epicurus  was 
actually1 if not intentionally1 an      
,atheist4 ,the following is a  summary  
of his physical doctrine3--    ,nothing 
can ever spring from nothing1 nor can   
anything ever return to  nothing4 ,the  
universe always existed1 and will always
 remain2 for there  is nothing into     
which it can be changed4 ,there is      

nothing in ,nature1 nor  can anything be
 conceived1 besides body and space4     
,body is that which  possesses the      
properties of bulk1 figure1 resistance1 
and gravity3 it is  this alone which can
 touch or be touched4 ,space is the     
region which  is1 or may be1 occupied by
 body1 and which affords it an          
opportunity of  moving freely4 ,that    
there are bodies in the universe is     
attested by  the senses4 ,that there is 
also space is evident2 since otherwise  
bodies  would have no place in which to 
move or exist1 and of their existence   
and motion we have the certain proof of 
perception4 ,besides these1 no  third   
nature can be conceived2 for such a     
nature must either have bulk  and       
solidity1 or want them2 that is1 it must
 either be body or space3  this does    
not1 however1 preclude the existence of 
qualities1 which have  no subsistence   
but in the body to which they belong4   
,the universe1 consisting of body and   
space1 is infinite1 for it has  no      

limits4 ,bodies are infinite in         
multitude2 space is infinite in         
magnitude4 ,the term above1 or beneath1 
high or low1 cannot be  properly applied
 to infinite space4 ,the universe is to 
be conceived as  immoveable1 since      
beyond it there is no place into which  
it can move2  and as eternal and        
immutable1 since it is neither liable to
 increase  nor decrease1 to production  
nor decay4 ,nevertheless1 the parts of  
the  universe are in motion1 and are    
subject to change4    ,all bodies       
consist of parts1 of which they are     
composed1 and into  which they may be   
resolved2 and these parts are either    
themselves simple  principles1 or may be
 resolved into such4 ,these first       
principles1  or simple atoms1 are       
divisible by no force1 and1 therefore1  
must be  immutable4 ,this may also be   
inferred from the uniformity of ,nature1
  which could not be preserved if its   
principles were not certain  and        
consistent4 ,the existence of such atoms

 is evident1 since it is  impossible    
that anything which exists should be    
reduced to nothing4 ,a  finite body     
cannot consist of parts infinite1 either
 in magnitude or  number2 divisibility  
of bodies ad infinitum1 is therefore    
conceivable4 ,all atoms are of the same 
nature1 or differ in no essential       
qualities--,from their different effects
 upon the senses1 it appears1  however1 
that they differ in magnitude1 figure1  
and weight4 ,atoms exist  in every      
possible variety of figure--round1 oval1
 conical1 cubical1  sharp1 hooked1 etc4 
,but in every shape1 they are1 on       
account of their  solidity1 infrangible1
 or incapable of actual division4       
,gravity must be an essential property  
of atoms2 for since they are            
perpetually in motion1 or making an     
effort to move1 they must be moved  by  
an internal impulse1 which may be called
 gravity4    ,the principle of gravity1 
that internal energy which is the cause 
of  all motion1 whether simple or       

complex1 being essential to the primary 
corpuscles or atoms1 they must have been
 incessantly and from eternity  in      
actual motion4    ,epicurus1 who boasts 
that he was an inquirer and a           
philosopher in his  thirteenth year1 was
 scarcely likely to bow his mind to the 
mythology of  his country4 ,the man who1
 when he was but a schoolboy1 insisted  
upon an  answer to the question1 ,whence
 came chaos8 could hardly be expected   
to receive as admitted facts the        
fabulous legends as to ,jupiter and the 
other gods4 ,his theology is1 however1  
in some respects1 obscure1 and          
unintelligible2 for while he zealously  
opposed the popular fables1 which  men  
misname ,god-ideas1 he at the same time 
admitted the existence of  material     
gods1 whom he placed in the intervals   
between the infinite  worlds1 where they
 passed a life undisturbed by aught1 and
 enjoyed a  happiness which does not    
admit of augmentation4 ,these inactive  
gods play  a strange part in the system 

of ,epicurus2 and it is asserted by many
  that these extraordinary conceptions  
of ,deity were put forward by the       
philosopher to screen him from the      
consequences attaching to a charge of   
,atheism4 ,dr4 ,heinrich ,ritter1 who   
does not seem very friendly disposed    
towards ,epicurus1 or his philosophy1   
repudiates this notion1 and argues      
,epicurus was not in truth an ,atheist1 
and alleges that it was a mere  pretence
 on his part2 and that from his very    
theory of knowledge the  existence of   
gods could be deduced4 ,this has been   
much litigated1 7vide  ,electric ,review
 for #ahjf1 p4 #fjf47 ,it is quite      
evident that ,epicurus  neither regarded
 the gods in the capacity of ,creators1 
controllers1 or  rulers1 so that his    
,theism 7if it be ,theism7 twas not of a
 very  superstitious character4 ,the    
,god who neither created man1 nor       
exercised  any influence whatever over  
his actions or thinkings1 could have but
  little to do with man at all4    ,if  

we attempt to review the whole of the   
teachings of ,epicurus1 we and  they are
 defective and imperfect in many        
respects1 and necessarily so4  ,we say  
necessarily so1 because the imperfect   
science of the day limited  the array of
 facts presented to the philosopher1 and
 narrowed the base  upon which he was to
 erect his system4 ,we must expect1     
therefore1 to  find the structure weak  
in many points1 because it was too large
 for  the foundation2 but we are not1   
therefore1 to pass it on one side1 and  
without further notice2 it should rather
 be our task to lay good1 wide1  and    
sure foundations1 ,on which to build up 
a system1 and develope a  method1 really
 having1 for its end1 the happiness of  
mankind4 ,we live  #bjjj years later    
than the ,athenian philosopher4--,in    
those #bjjj years  many facts have been 
dragged out of the circle of the unknown
 and  unused4 ,astronomy1 geology1      
physiology1 psychology--all except      
theology  are belter understood4 ,men   

pretend they are searching after        
happiness1  and where do they try to    
find it8 ,not here amongst the known1   
but in the  possible hereafter amongst  
the unknowable4 ,how do they try to find
 it8  ,not by the aid of the known1 not 
by the light of facts1 gathered in      
years of toil1 and sanctified by the    
blood of some of the noblest  of truth's
 noble martyrs2 no--but in the darkness 
of the unknown and  unknowable2 in the  
next world4 ,question the men who fly to
 theology  for happiness1 and they will 
tell you that the most learned of the   
theologians sum up their knowledge in   
the word incomprehensible4 ,is it       
wonderful that their happiness is       
somewhat marred here by quarrels  as to 
the true definition of hereafter8 ,g4   
,h4 ,lewes says1 of the  ,epicurean     
philosophy1 that the attempt failed     
because the basis was  not broad enough4
 ,the ,epicureans are therefore to be   
regarded as men who  ventured on a great
 problem1 and failed because they only  

saw part  of the truth4 ,and we might   
add that ,christianity1 and every other 
religious anity1 fails1 because the     
professors expect to obtain  happiness  
in the next life1 and neglect to work   
for it in the present  one4    ,epicurus
 says1 no life can be pleasant except a 
virtuous life2 and he  charges you to   
avoid whatever maybe calculated to      
create disquiet in the  mind1 or give   
pain to the body4 ,the ,rev4 ,habbakuk  
,smilenot1 of little  ,bethel1 says that
 all pleasure here1 is vanity and       
vexation in the  hereafter2 and he      
charges you to continually worry and    
harass your mind  with fears that you   
may be condemned to hell1 and doubts    
whether you  will be permitted to enter 
heaven4 ,which is the best1 the         
philosophy of  ,epicurus1 or the        
theology of ,smilenof8    ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes
 says3--,epicureanism1 in leading man to
 a correct  appreciation of the moral   
end of his existence1 in showing him how
 to  be truly happy1 has to combat with 

many obstructions which hide from  him  
the real road of life4 ,these           
obstructions are his illusions1 his     
prejudices1 his errors1 his ignorance4  
,this ignorance is of two kinds1  as    
,victor ,cousin points out2 ignorance of
 the laws of the external  world1 which 
creates absurd superstitions1 and       
troubles the mind with  false fears and 
false hopes4 ,hence the necessity of    
some knowledge of  physics4 7,we can    
scarcely blame ,epicurus that he was not
 in advance of  his time1 as far as the 
physical sciences are concerned1 and    
therefore  imparted an imperfect system 
of physics4 ,we must1 with our improved 
knowledge1 ourselves remove the         
obstruction47 ,the second kind of       
ignorance is that of the nature of man4 
,socrates had taught men to  regard     
their own nature as the great object of 
investigation2 and this  lesson         
,epicurus willingly gave ear to4--,but  
man does not interrogate his  own nature
 out of simple curiosity1 or simple     

erudition2 he studies  his nature in    
order that he may improve it2 he learns 
the extent of  his capacities1 in order 
that he may properly direct them4 ,the  
aim1  therefore1 of all such inquiries  
must be happiness4    ,we may add that  
the result of all such inquiries will be
 happiness1 if  the inquirer will but   
base his investigation and experiments  
upon  facts4 ,let him understand that1  
as he improves the circumstances which  
surround him1 so will he advance        
himself1 becoming happier1 and making   
his fellows happy also4 ,remember the   
words of ,epicurus1 and seek that       
pleasure for yourself which appears the 
most durable1 and attended with  the    
greatest pleasure to your fellow men4   
,i          ,,zeno1 ,,the ,,stoic    ,in
 the previous number we gave a short    
sketch of the opinions of  ,epicurus4   
,in this we shall deal with the founder 
of a rival sect--the  ,stoics4 ,amongst 
the disciples and students in the ,stoic
 schools have  been many illustrious    

names1 and not the least worthy is the  
name with  which we are now dealing4    
,zeno was born at ,cittius1 a small     
maritime town in the ,island of ,cyprus4
  ,this place having been originally    
peopled by a colony of ,phoenicians1    
,zeno is sometimes called a ,phoenician2
 but at the period when he  flourished1 
it was chiefly inhabited by ,greeks4    
,the date of his birth is  uncertain1   
but must have been about the year ,b4,c4
 #cfb4 ,his father was a  merchant1 and 
,zeno appears to have been1 in the early
 part of his life1  engaged in          
mercantile pursuits4 ,he received a very
 liberal education  from his father1    
whom1 we are told1 perceived in his son 
a strong  inclination for philosophical 
studies1 and who purchased for ,zeno the
  writings of the ,socratic             
philosophers2 which were studied with   
avidity1  and which undoubtedly         
exercised a considerable influence over 
his future  thinkings4 ,when about      
thirty years of age1 he made a trading  

voyage from  ,cittius to ,athens1 with a
 very valuable cargo of ,phoenician     
purple1 but  was unfortunately          
shipwrecked on the coast of ,greece1 and
 the whole of  his freight destroyed4   
,it is supposed that this severe loss1  
which must  have considerably reduced   
his means1 materially influenced ,zeno1 
and  induced him to embrace the tenets  
of the ,cynics1 whose leading principle 
was a contempt of riches4 ,we are told  
that upon is first arrival in  ,athens1 
he went into the shop of a bookseller1  
and took up1 by accident1  a volume of  
the ,commentaries of ,xenophon4 ,alter  
reading a few pages1  ,zeno was so much 
delighted with the work1 that he asked  
the bookseller  to direct him where he  
might meet such men as the author8      
,crates1 the  ,cynic philosopher1 passed
 by at the time1 and the bookseller     
said1  ,follow that man6 ,he did so1 and
 after listening to several of his      
discourses1 was so pleased with the     
doctrines of the ,cynics1 that  he      

became a disciple4 ,he did not long     
remain attached to the ,cynic           
school--their peculiar manners were too 
gross for him2 and his energetic  and   
inquiring mind was too much cramped by  
that indifference to all  scientific    
investigation which was one of their    
leading characteristics4  ,he therefore 
sought instruction elsewhere1 and       
,stilpo1 of ,megara1 became  his        
teacher1 from whom he acquired the art  
of disputation1 in which  he afterwards 
became so proficient4 ,the ,cynics were 
displeased at his  following other      
philosophy1 and we are told that ,crates
 attempted to  drag him by force out of 
the school of ,stilpo1 on which ,zeno   
said1 ,you  may seize my body1 but      
,stilpo has laid hold of my mind4 ,the  
,megaric  doctrine was1 however1        
insufficient4 ,zeno was willing to learn
 all that  ,stilpo could teach1 but     
having learned all1 his restless and    
insatiable  appetite for knowledge      
required more1 and after an attendance  

of several  years upon the lectures of  
,stilpo1 he passed over to the          
expositors of  ,plato1 ,xenocrates1 and 
,polemo4 ,the latter philosopher appears
 to have  penetrated ,zeno's design in  
attending the various schools--i4e41 to 
collect materials from various quarters 
for a new system of his own2  and when  
he came to the school1 ,polemo said1 ,i 
am no stranger1 ,zeno1 to  your         
,phoenician arts2 ,i perceive that your 
design is to creep slily into  my       
garden1 and steal away my fruit4 ,after 
twenty years of study1 having  mastered 
the tenets of the various schools1 ,zeno
 determined to become  the founder of a 
sect himself4 ,in accordance with this  
determination1 he  opened a school in a 
public portico1 called the ,painted     
,porch1 from the  pictures of           
,polygnotus1 and other eminent painters1
 with which it  was adorned4 ,this      
portico became famous in ,athens1 and   
was called  7,stoa7---the ,porch4 ,from 
this ,stoa the school derived its name1 

the  students being called the ,stoics4 
,zeno was a subtle reasoner1 and        
exceedingly popular4 ,he taught a strict
 system of morals and exhibited  a      
pleasing picture of moral discipline in 
his own life4 ,as a man1  his character 
appears deserving of the highest        
respect4 ,he became  exceedingly        
respected and revered at ,athens for the
 probity and severity  of bis life and  
manners1 and consistency thereof with   
his doctrine4 ,he  possesed so large a  
share of public esteem that the         
,athenians decreed  him a golden crown1 
and on account of his approved          
integrity1 deposited  the keys of their 
citadel in his hands4 ,antigouus        
,gonates1 ,king of  ,macedon1 was a     
constant attendant at his lectures      
whilst at ,athens1  and when that       
monarch returned1 he earnestly invited  
,zeno to his court4  ,during the        
philosopher's lifetime1 the ,athenians  
erected a statue of  brass as a mark of 
the estimation in which they held him4  

,zeno lived to the extreme age of       
ninety-eight1 when1 as he was leaving1  
his school one day1 he fell and broke   
his finger4 ,the consciousness of  his  
infirmity afflicted him so much1 that he
 exclaimed1 ,why am ,i thus  importuned8
 ,earth1 ,i obey thy summons6 and       
immediately going home1 he  put his     
affairs in order1 and strangled himself4
 ,in person1 ,zeno was  tall and        
slender2 his brow was furrowed with     
thought2 and this1 with  his long and   
close application to study1 gave a tinge
 of severity to his  aspect4 ,although  
of a feeble constitution1 he preserved  
his health by  his great abstemiousness1
 his diet consisting of figs1 bread1 and
 honey4  ,he was plain and modest in his
 dress and habits and very frugal in all
  his expenses1 showing the same respect
 for the poor as for the rich1 and      
conversing as freely with the slave as  
he did with the king4 ,independent  in  
spirit1 he broke off all communication  
with his friend ,democharis1  because   

that person had offered to procure a    
gratuity for ,zeno from  the ,king of   
,macedon4 ,his system appears to have   
been little more than a  collection from
 his various lessons of whatever was    
most in unison with  his peculiar habit 
of thought1 and an attempt to reconcile 
and combine  in one system the various  
elements of different theories4 ,taking 
from  so many schools various portions  
of their doctrine1 he seems to have     
provoked the antagonism of many of his  
contemporaries1 and several             
philosophers of learning and ability    
employed their eloquence to  diminish   
the growing influence of the new school4
 ,towards the close of  his life1 he    
found a powerful antagonist in the      
person of ,epicurus1 and  the           
,epicureans and ,stoics have since      
treated each other as rival sects4      
,zeno's school appears to have been     
generally a resort for the poor1 and  it
 was a common joke amongst his          
adversaries1 that poverty was the charm 

for which he was indebted for his       
scholars4 ,the list of his disciples1   
however1 contains the names of some very
 rich and powerful men1 who  may have   
regarded the ,stoic theory as a powerful
 counter-agent to the  growing          
effeminacy of the age4 ,after ,zeno's   
death1 the ,athenians1 at  the request  
of ,antigonus1 erected a monument to his
 memory1 in the  ,ceramicura4      ,from
 the particulars which have been related
 concerning ,zeno1 it will  not be      
difficult to perceive what kind of      
influence his circumstances  and        
character must have had upon his        
philosophical system4 ,if his  doctrines
 be diligently compared with the history
 of his life1 it will  appear1 that     
having attended upon many eminent       
preceptors1 and being  intimately       
conversant with their opinions1 he      
compiled1 out of their  various tenets1 
an heterogeneous system1 on the credit  
of which he  assumed to himself the     
title of the founder of a new sect4444  

,the  dialectic arts which ,zeno learned
 in the school of ,diodorus ,chronus1   
he did not fail to apply to the support 
of his own system1 and to  communicate  
to bis followers4 ,as to the moral      
doctrine of the ,cynic  sect1 to which  
,zeno strictly adhered to the last1     
there can be no doubt  that he          
transferred it almost without alloy1    
into his own school4 ,in  morals1 the   
principal difference between the ,cynics
 and the ,stoics was1  that the former  
disdained the cultivation of nature1 the
 latter affected  to rise above it4 ,on 
the subject of physics1 ,zeno received  
his doctrine  through the channel of the
 ,platonic school1 as will fully appear 
from  a careful comparison of their     
respective systems4 ,the ,stoic         
philosophy1  being in this manner of    
heterogeneous origin1 it necessarily    
partook of  the several systems of which
 it was composed4 ,the idle quibbles1   
jejune  reasonings1 and imposing        
sophisms1 which so justly exposed the   

schools  of the dialectic philosophers  
to ridicule1 found their way into the   
,porch1 where much time was wasted1 and 
much ingenuity thrown away1 upon        
questions of no importance4 ,cicero     
censures the ,stoics for encouraging  in
 their schools a barren kind of         
disputation1 and employing themselves   
in determining trifling questions1 in   
which the disputants can have no        
interest1 and which1 at the close1 leave
 them neither wiser nor better4  ,and   
that this censure1 is not1 as some      
modern advocates for ,stoicism  have    
maintained1 a mere calumny1 but grounded
 upon fact1 sufficiently  appears from  
what is said by the ancients1           
particularly by ,sextus  ,empiricus1    
concerning the logic of the ,stoics4    
,seneca1 who was himself  a ,stoic1     
candidly acknowledges this4 ,it may1    
perhaps1 be thought  surprising that    
philosophers1 who affected so much      
gravity and  wisdom1 should condescend  
to such trifling occupations4 ,but it   

must be  considered1 that1 at this time1
 a fondness for subtle disputations so  
generally prevailed in ,greece1 that    
excellence in the arts of reasoning  and
 sophistry was a sure path to fame4 ,the
 ,stoics1 with whom vanity  was         
unquestionably a ruling passion1 were   
ambitious for this kind of  reputation4 
,hence it was that they engaged with so 
much vehemence  in verbal contests1 and 
that they largely contributed towards   
the  confusion1 instead of the          
improvement1 of science1 by substituting
 vague  and ill-defined terms in the    
room of accurate conceptions4 ,the moral
  part of the ,stoical philosophy1 in   
like manner1 partook of the defects  of 
its origin4 ,it may be as justly        
objected against the ,stoics as the     
,cynics1 that they assumed an artificial
 severity of manners1 and a tone  of    
virtue above the condition of a man4    
,their doctrine of moral wisdom  was an 
ostentatious display of words1 in which 
little regard was paid  to nature and   

reason4 ,it professed to raise human    
nature to a degree of  perfection before
 unknown2 but its real effect was1      
merely to amuse  the ear1 and captivate 
the fancy1 with fictions which can never
  be realized4444 ,the extravagancies   
and absurdities of the ,stoical         
philosophy may also be in some measure  
ascribed to the vehement contests  which
 subsisted between ,zeno and the        
,academics on the one hand1 and  between
 him and ,epicurus on the other4 ,for1  
not only did these disputes  give rise  
to many of the dogmas of ,stoicism1 but 
led ,zeno and his  followers1 in the    
warmth of controversy1 to drive their   
arguments to the  utmost extremity1 and 
to express themselves with much greater 
confidence  than they would probably    
otherwise have done4 ,this is1 perhaps1 
the  true reason why so many extravagant
 notions are ascribed to the ,stoics1   
particularly upon the subject of morals4
 ,whilst ,epicurus taught his  followers
 to seek happiness in tranquillity1     

,zeno imagined his wise man1  not only  
free from all sense of pleasure1 but    
void of all passions and  emotions1 and 
capable of being happy in the midst of  
torture4 ,that he  might avoid the      
position taken by the ,epicureans1 he   
had recourse to  a moral institution1   
which bore indeed the lofty front of    
wisdom1 but  which was elevated far     
above the condition and powers of human 
nature4  ,the natural disposition of    
,zeno1 and his manner of life1 had1     
moreover1  no inconsiderable influence  
in fixing the peculiar character of his 
philosophy4 ,by nature severe and       
morose1 and constitutionally inclined   
to reserve and melancholy1 he early     
cherished this habit by submitting  to  
the austere ami rigid discipline of the 
,cynics4 ,those qualities  which he     
conceived to be meritorious in himself1 
and which he found to  conciliate the   
admiration of mankind1 he naturally     
transferred to his  imaginary character 
of a wise or perfect man4    ,in order  

to form an accurate judgment concerning 
the doctrine of  the ,stoics1 besides a 
careful attention to the particulars    
already  enumerated1 it will be         
necessary to guard with the utmost      
caution  against two errors1 into which 
several writers have fallen4 ,great care
  should be taken1 in the first place1  
not to judge of the doctrine of the     
,stoics from words and sentiments1      
detached from the general system1 but   
to consider them as they stand1 related 
to the whole train of premises  and     
conclusions4444 ,the second caution is1 
not to confound the genuine  doctrines  
of ,zeno1 and other ancient fathers of  
this sect1 with the  glosses of the     
later ,stoics4444 ,out of the many      
proofs of this change1  which might be  
adduced1 we shall select one1 which is  
the more worthy  of notice1 as it has   
occasioned many disputes among the      
learned4 ,the  doctrine we mean is that 
concerning fate4 ,this doctrine1        
according to  ,zeno and ,chrysippus1    

implies an eternal and immutable series 
of causes  and effects1 within which all
 events are included1 and to which the  
,deity himself is subject3 whereas1 the 
later ,stoics1 changing the term  fate  
into the ,providence of ,god1 discoursed
 with great plausibility  on this       
subject1 but still in reality retained  
the ancient doctrine of  universal fate4
 ,from this example1 a judgment may be  
formed concerning  the necessity of     
using some caution1 in appealing to the 
writings of  ,seneca1 ,antoninus1 and   
,epictetus1 as authorities1 in          
determining what  were the original     
doctrines of the ,stoic philosophers4   
,concerning philosophy in general1 the  
doctrine of the ,stoics was1  that      
wisdom consists in the knowledge of     
things divine and human2 that           
philosophy is such an exercise of the   
mind as produces wisdom2 that  in this  
exercise consists the nature of virtue2 
and consequently1  that virtue is a term
 of extensive meaning1 comprehending the

 right  employment of the mind in       
reasoning1 in the study of nature1 and  
in  morals4 ,the wisdom of the ,stoics  
is either progressive1 through several  
stages2 or perfect1 when every weakness 
if subdued1 and every error  corrected1 
without the possibility of a relapse    
into folly1 or vice1 or  of being again 
enslaved by any passion1 or afflicted by
 any calamity4  ,with ,socrates and the 
,cynics1 ,zeno represented virtue as the
 only true  wisdom2 but being disposed  
to extend the pursuits of his wise man  
into  the regions of speculation and    
science1 he gave1 after his usual       
manner1  a new signification to an old  
term1 and comprehended the exercise of  
the  understanding in the search of     
truth1 as well as the government of  the
 appetites and passions1 under the      
general term1 virtue4 ,the great        
importance of the united exercise of the
 intellectual and active  powers of the 
mind1 are thus beautifully asserted by  
the philosophical  emperor3--,let every 

one endeavor so to think and act1 that  
his  contemplative and active faculties 
may at the same time be going on        
towards perfection4 ,his clear          
conceptions1 and certain knowledge1 will
  then produce within him an entire     
confidence in himself1 unperceived      
perhaps by others1 though not affectedly
 concealed1 which will give a           
simplicity and dignity to his character2
 for he will at all times be  able to   
judge1 concerning the several objects   
which come before him1  what is their   
real nature1 what place they hold in the
 universe1 how  long they are by nature 
fitted to last1 of what materials they  
are  composed1 by whom they may be      
possessed1 and who is able to bestow    
them1  or take them away4 ,the sum of   
the definitions and rules given by  the 
,stoics concerning logic is             
this3--,logic is either rhetorical or   
dialectic4 ,rhetorical logic is the art 
of reasoning and discoursing on  those  
subjects which require a diffuse kind of

 declamation4 ,dialectic is  the art of 
close argumentation in the form of      
disputation or dialogue4  ,the former   
resembles an open1 the latter1 a closed 
hand4--,rhetoric is  of three kinds1    
deliberative1 judicial1 and             
demonstrative4 ,the dialectic  art is   
the instrument of knowledge1 as it      
enables a man to distinguish  truth from
 error1 and certainty from bare         
probability4 ,this art  considers things
 as expressed by words1 and words       
themselves4 ,external  things are       
perceived by a certain impression1 made 
either upon some  parts of the brain1 or
 upon the percipient faculty1 which may 
be called  an image1 since it is        
impressed upon the mind1 like the image 
of a seal  upon wax4    ,this image is  
commonly accompanied with a belief of   
the reality of the  thing perceived2 but
 not necessarily1 since it does not     
accompany  every image1 but those only  
which are not attended with any evidence
  of deception4 ,where only the image is

 perceived by itself1 the thing  is     
apprehensible2 where it is acknowledged 
and approved as the image  of some real 
thing1 the impression is called         
apprehension1 because the  object is    
apprehended by the mind as a body is    
grasped by the hand4 ,such              
apprehension1 if it will bear the       
examination of reason1 is knowledge2  if
 it is not examined1 it is mere opinion2
 if it will not bear this  examination1 
it is misapprehension4 ,the senses1     
corrected by reason1  give a faithful   
report2 not by affording a perfect      
apprehension of  the entire nature of   
things1 but by leaving no room to doubt 
of their  reality4 ,nature has furnished
 us with these apprehensions1 as the    
elements of knowledge1 whence further   
conceptions are raised in the  mind1 and
 a way is opened for the investigations 
of reason4 ,some  images are sensible1  
or received immediately through the     
senses2 others  rational1 which are     
perceived only in the mind4 ,these      

latter are called  notions1 or ideas4   
,some images are probable1 to which the 
mind assents  without hesitation2 others
 improbable1 to which it does not       
readily  assent2 and others doubtful1   
where it is not entirely perceived1     
whether  they are true or false4 ,true  
images are those which arise from things
  really existing1 and agree with them4 
,false images1 or phantasms1 are        
immediately derived from no real object4
 ,images are apprehended  by immediate  
perception1 through the senses1 as when 
we see a man2  consequentially1 by      
likeness1 as when from a portrait we    
apprehend the  original2 by composition1
 as when1 by compounding a horse and    
man1 we  acquire the image of a         
,centaur2 by augmentation1 as in the    
image of a  ,cyclops2 or by diminution1 
as in that of a pigmy4 ,judgment is     
employed  either in determining1        
concerning particular things1 or        
concerning  general propositions4 ,in   
judging of things we make use of some   

one of  our senses1 as a common         
criterion or measure of apprehension1 by
 which  we judge whether a thing is1 or 
is not2 or whether or not it exists     
with certain properties2 or we apply to 
the thing1 concerning which a  judgment 
is to be formed1 some artificial        
measure1 as a balance1 a rule1  etc41 or
 we call in other peculiar measures to  
determine things not  perceptible by the
 senses4 ,in judging of general         
propositions1 we make  use of our       
pre-conceptions1 or universal           
principles1 as criteria1 or  measures of
 judgment4 ,the first impressions from  
the senses produce in  the mind an      
involuntary emotion2 but a wise man     
afterwards deliberately  examines them1 
that he may know whether they be true or
 false1 and  assents to1 or rejects     
them1 as the evidence which offers      
itself to  his understanding appears    
sufficient or insufficient4 ,this       
assent1 or  approbation1 will indeed be 
as necessarily given1 or withheld1      

according  to the ultimate state of the 
proofs which are adduced1 as the scales 
of  a balance will sink or rise1        
according to the weights which are      
placed  upon them2 but while the vulgar 
give immediate credit to the reports of 
the senses1 wise men suspend their      
assent1 till they have deliberately     
examined the nature of things1 and      
carefully estimated the weight  of      
evidence4 ,the mind of man is originally
 like a blank leaf1 wholly  without     
characters1 but capable of receiving    
any4 ,the impressions which  are made   
upon it1 by means of the senses1 remain 
in the memory1 after  the objects which 
occasioned them are removed2 a          
succession of these  continued          
impressions1 made by similar1 objects1  
produces experience2  and hence arises  
permanent notions1 opinions1 and        
knowledge4 ,even  universal principles  
are originally formed by experience from
 sensible  images4 ,all men agree in    
their common notions or preconceptions2 

disputes only arise concerning the      
application of these to particular      
cases4    ,let us pass on to the        
,stoical doctrine concerning nature4    
,according to  ,zeno and his followers1 
there existed from eternity a dark and  
confused  chaos1 in which was contained 
the first principles of all future      
beings4  ,this chaos being at length    
arranged1 and emerging into variable    
forms1  became the world1 as it now     
subsists4 ,the world1 or nature1 is that
  whole which comprehends all things1   
and of which all thing are parts  and   
members4 ,the universe1 though one      
whole1 contains two principles1         
distinct from elements1 one passive1 the
 other active4 ,the passive  principle  
is pure matter without qualities2 the   
active principle  is reason1 or ,god4   
,this is the fundamental doctrine of the
 ,stoics  concerning nature4444,the     
,stoical system teaches1 that both the  
active  and passive principles in nature
 are corporeal1 since whatever acts or  

suffers must be so4 ,the efficient      
cause1 or ,god1 is pure ether1 or fire1 
inhabiting the exterior surface of the  
heavens1 where every thing  which is    
divine is placed4 ,this ethereal        
substance1 of divine fire1  comprehends 
all the vital principles by which       
individual beings are  necessarily      
produced1 and contains the forms of     
things1 which from the  highest regions 
of the universe1 are diffused through   
every other part  of nature4 ,seneca1   
indeed1 calls ,god incorporeal reason2  
but by this  term he can only mean to   
distinguish the divine ethereal         
substance from  gross bodies2 for1      
according to the ,stoics1 whatever has a
 substantial  existence is corporeal2   
nothing is incorporeal1 except that     
infinite  vacuum which surrounds the    
universe2 even mind and voice are       
corporeal1  and1 in like manner1 ,deity4
 ,matter1 or the passive principle1 in  
the  ,stoical system1 is destitute of   
all qualities1 but ready to receive any 

form1 inactive1 and without motion1     
unless moved by some external cause4    
,the con trary principle1 or the        
ethereal operative fire1 being active1  
and capable of producing all things from
 matter1 with consummate  skill1        
according to the forms which it         
contains1 although in its nature        
corporeal1 considered in opposition to  
gross and sluggish matter1 or  to the   
elements1 is said to be immaterial and  
spiritual4 ,for want of  carefully      
attending to the preceding distinction1 
some writers have been  so far imposed  
upon1 by the bold innovations of the    
,stoics in the use of  terms1 as to     
inter from the appellations which they  
sometimes apply  to the ,deity1 that    
they conceived him to be strictly and   
properly  incorporeal4 ,the truth       
appears to be1 that1 as they sometimes  
spoke of  the soul of man1 a portion of 
the ,divinity1 as an exceedingly rare   
and  subtle body1 and sometimes as a    
warm or fiery spirit199 so they spoke   

of the ,deity as corporeal1 considered  
as distinct from the incorporeal        
vacuum1 or infinite space2 but as       
spiritual1 considered in opposition to  
gross and inactive matter4 ,they taught1
 indeed1 that ,god is underived1        
incorruptible1 and eternal1 possessed of
 intelligence1 good and perfect1  the   
efficient cause of all the peculiar     
qualities or forms of things2  and the  
constant preserver and governor of the  
world2 and they described  the ,deity   
under many noble images1 and in the most
 elevated language4  ,the hymn of       
,cleanthes1 in particular1 is justly    
admired for the grandeur  of its        
sentiments1 and the sublimity of its    
diction4 ,but if in reading  these      
descriptions1 we hastily associate with 
them modern conceptions  of ,deity1 and 
neglect to recur to the leading         
principles of the sect1 we  shall be led
 into fundamental misapprehensions of   
the true doctrine of  ,stoicism4 ,for   
according to this sect4 ,god and matter 

are alike underived  and eternal1 and   
,god is the former of the universe in no
 other sense  than as he has been the   
necessary efficient cause1 by which     
motion and  form have been impressed    
upon matter4    ,what notions the       
,stoics entertained of ,god sufficiently
 appears from  the single opinion of his
 finite nature2 an opinion which        
necessarily  followed from the notion   
that he is only a part of a spherical1  
and  therefore a finite universe4 ,on   
the doctrine of divine providence1 which
  was one of the chief points upon which
 the ,stoics disputed with the          
,epicureans1 much is written1 and with  
great strength and elegance1 by         
,seneca1 ,epictetus1 and other later    
,stoics4 ,but we are not to judge of    
the genuine and original doctrine of    
this sect from the discourses of        
writers who had probably corrupted their
 language on this subject1 by  visiting 
the ,christian school4 ,the only way to 
form an accurate judgment  of their     

opinions concerning ,providence1 is to  
compare their popular  language upon    
this head with their general system1 and
 explain the  former consistently with  
the fundamental principles of the       
latter4    ,if this be fairly done1 it  
will appear that the agency of ,deity   
is1  according to the ,stoics1 nothing  
more than the active motion of a        
celestial ether1 or fire1 possessed of  
intelligence1 which at first gave  form 
to the shapeless mass of gross matter1  
and being always essentially  united to 
the visible world by the same necessary 
agency1 preserves its  order and        
harmony4    ,the ,stoic idea of         
,providence is1 not that of a being1    
wholly independent  of matter1 freely   
directing and governing all things1 but 
that of a  necessary chain of causes and
 effects1 arising from the action of a  
power1 which is itself a part of the    
existence which it regulates1 and  which
 equally with that existence is subject 
to the immutable law of  necessity4     

,providence1 in the ,stoic creed1 is    
only another name for  absolute         
necessity1 or fate1 to which ,god and   
matter1 or the universe1  which consists
 of both1 is immutably subject4 ,the    
rational1 efficient1  and active        
principle in nature1 the ,stoics called 
by various names3  ,nature1 fate1       
,jupiter1 ,god4    ,what is nature1 says
 ,seneca1 but ,god2 the divine reason1  
inherent in  the whole universe1 and in 
all its parts8 or you may call him1 if  
you  please1 the author of all things4  
,and again3 ,whatever appellations imply
 celestial power and energy1 may  be    
justly applied to ,god2 his names may   
properly be as numerous as his  offices1
 ,the term nature1 when it is at all    
distinguished in the ,stoic  system from
 ,god1 denotes not a separate agent1 but
 that order of things  which is         
necessarily produced by his perpetual   
agency4 ,since the active  principle of 
nature is comprehended within the world1
 and with matter  makes one whole1 it   

necessarily follows that ,god           
penetrates1 pervades1  and animates     
matter1 and the things which are formed 
from it2 or1 in  other words1 that he is
 the soul of the universe4    ,the      
universe is1 according to ,zeno and his 
followers1 a sentient  and animated     
being4 ,nor was this a new tenet1 but1  
in some sort1 the  doctrine of all      
antiquity4 ,pythagoras1 ,heraclitus1 and
 after these1  ,zeno1 taking it for     
granted that there is no real existence 
which is  not corporeal1 conceived      
nature to be one whole1 consisting of a 
subtle  ether and gross matter1 the     
former the active1 the latter the       
passive  principle1 as essentially      
united as the soul and body of man that 
is1  they supposed ,god1 with respect to
 nature1 to be1 not a co-existing1 but  
an informing principle4    ,concerning  
the second principle in the universe1   
matter1 and concerning  the visible     
world1 the doctrine of the ,stoics is   
briefly this3--,matter  is the first    

essence of all things1 destitute of1 but
 capable of  receiving1 qualities4      
,considered universally1 it is an       
eternal whole1  which neither increases 
nor decreases4 ,considre6 with respect  
to  its parts1 it is capable of increase
 or diminution1 of collision and        
separation1 and is perpetually changing4
 ,bodies are continually tending        
towards dissolution2 matter always      
remains the same4 ,matter is not        
infinite1 but finite1 being             
circumscribed by the limits of the      
world2  but its parts are infinitely    
divisible4 ,the world is spherical in   
its  form2 and is surrounded by an      
infinite vacuum4 ,the action of the     
divine  nature upon matter first        
produced the element of moisture1 and   
then the  other elements1 fire1 air1 and
 earth1 of which all bodies are         
composed4  ,air and fire have essential 
levity1 or tend towards the exterior    
surface  of the world2 earth and water  
have essential gravity1 or tend towards 

the centre4 ,all the elements are       
capable of reciprocal conversion2 air   
passing into fire1 or into water2 earth 
into air and water2 but there  is this  
essential difference among the elements1
 that fire and air  have within         
themselves a principle of motion1 while 
water and earth are  merely passive4444 
,the world1 including the whole of      
nature1  ,god and matter1 subsisted from
 eternity1 and will for ever subsist2   
but  the present regular frame of nature
 had a beginning1 and will have  an end4
 ,the parts tend towards a dissolution1 
but the whole remains  immutably the    
same4 ,the world is liable to           
destruction from the  prevalence of     
moisture1 or of dryness2 the former     
producing a universal  inundation1 the  
latter a universal conflagration4 ,these
 succeed each  other in nature as       
regularly as winter and summer4 ,when   
the universal  inundation takes place1  
the whole surface of the earth is       
covered with  water1 and all animal life

 is destroyed2 after which1 nature is   
renewed  and subsists as before1 till   
the element of fire1 becoming prevalent 
in  its turn1 dries up all the moisture1
 converts every substance into its  own 
nature1 and at last1 by a universal     
conflagration1 reduces the world  to its
 pristine state4 ,at this period1 all   
material forms are lost in  one chaotic 
mass3 all animated nature is re-united  
to the ,deity1 and  nature again exists 
in its original form1 as one whole1     
consisting of  ,god and matter4 ,from   
this chaotic state1 however1 it again   
emerges1 by  the energy of the efficient
 principle1 and gods1 and men1 and all  
the  forms of regulated nature1 are     
renewed1 and to be dissolved and renewed
  in endless succession4 ,the above is  
collated from ,ritter1 ,enfield1  and   
,lewes1 as a specimen of one of the     
earlier phases of ,freethought4         
,freethought as then expressed had many 
faults and flaws1 but it has  grown     
better every day1 extending and widening

 its circle of utterance1  and we hope  
that it will continue to do so4    ,i4  
,,matthew ,,tindal4    ,it is easy to   
mark the progress of the age by         
recurring to the history  of past       
,freethinkers4 ,bishops1 established and
 dissenting1 are now  repeating the     
parts the old ,deiste played4 ,they were
 sadly treated for  setting the example1
 modern divines follow with applause4   
,matthew ,tindal was an example of this4
 ,he labored to establish religion  on  
the foundation of ,reason and ,nature4  
,it was to be expected that  ,christians
 would be pleased at efforts which would
 have no effect but  to strengthen its  
foundations4 ,the effort was met by     
reprobation1 and  resented as an injury4
 ,it is but a just retaliation that     
believers  should now have to establish 
in vain that evidence they once         
denounced4    ,matthew ,tindal was an   
,english ,deistical writer1 who was born
 at  ,beer-,terres1 in ,devonshire1     
#afef4--;,his father1 it appears1 was a 

clergyman1 who held the living of       
,beer-,terres1 presented to him by the  
,university of ,cambridge1 in the time  
of the ,civil ,wars4--,young ,matthew   
was educated at ,oxford1 where at       
twenty-eight he took the degree of      
,,ll4,d4 ,matthew ,tindal1 ,,ll4 ,d41   
was early tossed about by the winds of  
doctrine4 ,first he embraced ,romanism3 
afterwards he became a ,protestant4     
,then politics interested him1 and he   
engaged in controversy on the side  of  
,william ,,iii4 ,he was appointed       
,commissioner of a ,court for ,trying   
,foreigners4 ,in #afic he published an  
essay on the ,law of ,nations  ,when    
fifty-four1 in #agaj1 he entered so     
vigorously into theological             
controversy1 arising out of ,trinitarian
 criticism1 that his marked  satire led 
to his books being condemned by the     
,house of ,commons1 and  burnt by the   
hangman4 ,he resented this indignity by 
a spirited attack on  the dominant      
priestly party in his ,high ,church     

,catechism1 and he also  wrote in       
defence of philosophical necessity4 ,but
 his most notable work  was the         
performance of his old age1 his         
,christianity as ,old as the  ,creation3
 or1 the ,gospel1 a ,republication of   
the ,religion of ,nature4  ,this was    
produced in his seventy-third year4 ,he 
was attacked in ,reply  by ,bishop      
,waterland4 ,it is generally agreed that
 in point of good spirit  and good      
temper the ,bishop was far inferior to  
the ,deist4 ,dr4 ,conyers  ,middleton1  
says ,thomas ,cooper1 in his brief      
sketch of ,tindal1 appeared  in defence 
of ,tindal in a ,letter to ,dr4         
,waterland1 whom he condemned  for the  
shallowness of his answer to ,tindal1   
and boldly and frankly  admitted that   
the ,freethinker was right in asserting 
that the ,jews  borrowed some of their  
ceremonies and customs from ,egypt2 that
 allegory  was1 in some cases1 employed 
in the ,scriptures1 where common readers
  took the relation for fact2 and1 that 

the ,scriptures are not of  absolute and
 universal inspiration4 ,the following  
sentence1 which will  be found in this  
,letter of ,dr4 ,conyers ,middleton1    
does honor to his  name3--,if religion  
consists in depreciating moral duties   
and depressing  natural reason2 if the  
duty of it be to hate and persecute for 
a different way of thinking where the   
best and wisest have never              
agreed--then4 ,i declare myself an      
,infidel1 and to have no share in that  
religion4 ,matthew ,tindal died at his  
house in ,coldbath ,fields1 of the      
stone1 #aggc1 aged seventy-seven4 99    
,rysbrach1 the famous statuary1 took a  
model of him4         99 ,julian        
,hibbert gives #afef-g3 ,dr4 ,beard1    
#aeef2 ,thomas       ,cooper1 #afeg1 as 
the year of ,tindal's birth4 ,all agree 
that       he died #agcc--;he was       
therefore seventy-six or seventy-seven  
at the time of his death4    ,tindal    
opens his great work thus3--,the author 
makes no apology for  writing on a      

subject of the last importance2 and     
which1 as far as ,i can  find1 has no   
where been so fully treated3 he builds  
nothing on a thing  so uncertain as     
tradition1 which differs in most        
countries2 and of  which1 in all        
countries1 the bulk of mankind are      
incapable of judging2  but thinks he has
 laid down such plain and evident rules1
 as may  enable men of the meanest      
capacity1 to distinguish between        
religion and  superstition2 and has     
represented the former in every part so 
beautiful1  so amiable1 and so strongly 
affecting1 that they1 who in the least  
reflect1 must be highly in love with it2
 and easily perceive1 that their  duty  
and happiness are inseparable4    ,the  
character of the performance will be    
seen from a few of the  propositions he 
maintains3--    ,that ,god1 at all      
times1 has given mankind sufficient     
means of knowing  whatever he requires  
of them4    ,that the religion of nature
 consists in observing those things1    

which  our reason1 by considering the   
nature of ,god and man1 and the relation
  we stand in to him1 and one another1  
demonstrates to be our duty2 and  that  
those things are plain2 and likewise    
what they are4    ,that the perfection  
and happiness of all rational beings1   
supreme  as well as subordinate1 consist
 in living up to the dictates of their  
nature4    ,that ,god requires nothing  
for his own sake2 no1 not the worship we
 are  to render him1 nor the faith we   
are to have in him4    ,that the not    
adhering to those notions reason        
dictates1 concerning  the nature of     
,god1 has been the occasion of all      
superstition1 and those  innumerable    
mischiefs1 that mankind1 on the account 
of religion1 have  done either to       
themselves1 or one another4    ,the bulk
 of mankind1 by their reason1 must be   
able to distinguish  between religion   
and superstition2 otherwise they can    
never extricate  themselves from that   
superstition they chance to be educated 

in4    ,tindal deals with the question  
of the obscurity of ,revelation in these
  terms1 sufficiently salient to alarm  
the very proper divines of that  day3-- 
,had ,god1 from time to time1 spoken to 
all mankind in their several  languages1
 and his words had miraculously conveyed
 the same ideas to  all persons2 yet he 
could not speak more plainly than he has
 done by the  things themselves1 and the
 relation which reason shows there is   
between them4 ,nay1 since it is         
impossible in any book1 or books1 that  
a particular rule could be given for    
every case1 we must even then have  had 
recourse to the light of nature to teach
 us our duty in most cases2  especially 
considering the numberless circumstances
 which attend us1 and  which1           
perpetually varying1 may make the same  
actions1 according as men  are          
differently affected by them1 either    
good or bad4 ,and ,i may add1  that most
 of the particular rules laid down in   
the gospel for our  direction1 are      

spoken after such figurative a manner1  
that except we  judge of their meaning1 
not merely by the letter1 but by what   
the law  of nature antecedently declares
 to be our duty1 they are apt to lead   
us wrong4 ,and if precepts relating to  
morality are delivered after an  obscure
 manner1 when they might have been      
delivered otherwise2 what  reason can   
you assign1 for its being so1 but that  
infinite wisdom meant  to refer us to   
that law for the explaining them8       
,sufficient instances  of this nature ,i
 shall give you hereafter1 though ,i    
must own1 ,i  cannot carry this point so
 far as a learned divine1 who represents
 the  ,scriptures more obscure 7which   
one would think impossible7 than even   
the  fathers4 ,he tells us1 'that a     
certain author 7viz41 ,flaccus          
,illyricus7  has furnished us with      
one-and-fifty reasons for the obscurity 
of the  ,scriptures2' adding1 ',i think 
,i may truly say that the writing of the
  prophets and apostles abound with     

tropes1 and metaphors1 types1 and       
allegories1 parables1 and dark speeches2
 and are as much1 nay1 much more        
unintelligible in many places1 than the 
writings of the ancients4' ,it  is well 
this author1 who talks of people being  
stark ,bible-mad1 stopped  here2 and did
 not with a celebrated wit 99 cry1 ',the
 truly illuminated  books are the       
darkest of all4' ,the writer above      
mentioned supposes it  impossible1 that 
,god's will should be fully revealed by 
books2 'except1'  says he1 'it might be 
said perhaps without a figure1 that even
 the world  itself could not contain the
 books which should be written4' ,but   
with  submission to this reverend       
person1 ,i cannot help thinking1 but    
that  7such is the divine goodness7     
,god's will is so clearly and fully     
manifested in the ,book of ,nature1 that
 he who runs may read it4         99    
,dean ,swift--,tale of a ,tub4    ,in   
the next extract we make1 we find       
,tindal quoting two striking  passages  

from ,lord ,shaftesbury1 followed by an 
acute vindication of the  integrity of  
the ,law of ,nature over the            
,scriptures3--    ,had the heathen      
distinguished themselves by creeds made 
out of spite  to one another1 and       
mutually persecuted each other about the
 worship of  their gods1 they would soon
 have made the number of their votaries 
as  few as the gods they worshipped2 but
 we don't find 7except in ,egypt1  that 
mother-land of superstition7 that they  
ever quarrelled about their  gods2      
though their gods sometimes quarrelled1 
and fought about their  votaries4 ,by   
the universal liberty that was allowed  
by the ancients1  ',matters 7as a noble 
author observes7 were so balanced1 that 
reason had  fair play2 learning and     
science flourished2 wonderful was the   
harmony  and temper which arose from    
these contrarieties4 ,thus superstition 
and  enthusiasm were mildly treated2 and
 being let alone1 they never raged  to  
that degree as to occasion bloodshed1   

wars1 persecutions1 and  devastations2  
but a new sort of policy has made us    
leap the bounds of  natural humanity1   
and out of a supernatural charity1 has  
taught us the  way of plaguing one      
another most devoutly4 ,it has raised an
 antipathy1  that no temporal interest  
could ever do1 and entailed on us a     
mutual  hatred to all eternity4 ,and    
savage zeal1 with meek and pious        
semblance1  works dreadful massacre2 and
 for heaven's sake 7horrid pretence7    
makes  desolate the earth4' ,and        
further1 ,shaftesbury observes1 ',the   
,jupiter  of ,strangers1 was1 among the 
ancients1 one of the solemn characters  
of divinity1 the peculiar attribute of  
the supreme deity2 benign to  mankind1  
and recommending universal love1 mutual 
kindness1 and benignity  between the    
remotest and most unlike of the human   
race4 ,such was the  ancient heathen    
charity and pious duty towards the whole
 of mankind2  both those of different   
nations and different worship4 ,but1    

good ,god6  how different a character do
 bigots give us of the ,deity1 making   
him an  unjust1 cruel1 and inconsistent 
,being2 requiring all men to judge for  
themselves1 and act according to their  
consciences2 and yet authorizing  some  
among them to judge for others1 and to  
punish them for not acting  according to
 the consciences of those judges1 though
 ever so much  against their own4 ,these
 bigots thought they were authorized to 
punish  all those that differ with them 
in their religious worship1 as ,god's   
enemies2 but had they considered that   
,god alone could discern men's  hearts1 
and alone discover whether any1 by      
conscientiously offering him  a wrong   
worship1 could become his enemies2 and  
that infinite wisdom best  knew how to  
proportion the punishment to the fault1 
as well as infinite  power how to       
inflict it2 they would1 surely1 have    
left it to ,god to  judge for himself1  
in a cause which immediately related to 
himself2 and  where they were not so    

much as parties concerned1 and as likely
 to be  mistaken as those they would    
punish4 ,can one1 without horror1 think 
of men's breaking through all the rules 
of doing as they would be done  unto1 in
 order to set themselves up for         
standards of truth for ,god as  well as 
man8 ,do not these impious wretches     
suppose1 that ,god is not able  to judge
 for himself2 at least1 not able to     
execute his own judgment8  ,and that1   
therefore1 he has recourse1 forsooth1 to
 their superior  knowledge or power2 and
 they are to revenge his injuries1 root 
out his  enemies1 and restore his lost  
honor1 though with the destruction of   
the  better part of mankind8 ,but1 to do
 the propagators of these blasphemous   
notions justice1 they do not throw this 
load of scandal on the law of  ,nature1 
or so much as pretend from thence to    
authorize their execrable  principles2  
but endeavor to support them by         
traditional religion2  especially by    
mis-interpreted texts from the ,old     

,testament2 and thereby  make1 not only 
natural and revealed religion1 but the  
,old and ,new  ,testament 7the latter of
 which requires doing good both to ,jews
 and  ,gentiles7 contradict each other4 
,but to return2 if what the light of    
,nature teaches us concerning the divine
 perfections1 when duly attended  to1 is
 not only sufficient to hinder us from  
falling into superstition  of any kind  
whatever2 but1 as ,i have already shown1
 demonstrates what  ,god1 from his      
infinite wisdom and goodness1 can1 or   
cannot command2 how  is it possible that
 the law of ,nature and grace can       
differ8 ,how can  it be conceived1 that 
,god's laws1 whether internally1 or     
externally  revealed1 are not at all    
times the same1 when the author of them 
is1 and  has been immutably the same    
forever8'    ,the following passage     
exhibits the judicious mixture of       
authority and  argument for which our   
author is remarkable4 ,the quotation is 
a good  illustration of ,tindal's best  

manner4 ,he is replying to ,dr4 ,samuel 
,clark3--    ,it cannot be imputed to   
any defect in the light of nature1 that 
the  pagan world ran into idolatry1 but 
to their being entirely governed by     
priests1 who pretended communication    
with their gods1 and to have  thence    
their revelations1 which they imposed on
 the credulous as divine  oracles3      
whereas the business of the ,christian  
dispensation was to  destroy all those  
traditional revelations2 and restore1   
free from all  idolatry1 the true       
primitive1 and natural religion1        
implanted in mankind  from the creation4
 ,the ,dr4 7,clark7 however1 seems      
afraid1 lest he had  allowed too much to
 the light of nature1 in relation to the
 discovery of  our duty both to ,god and
 man2 and not left room for revelation  
to make  any addition2 he therefore     
supposes1 'there are some duties1 which 
nature hints at only in general4'--,but1
 if we cannot1 without highly           
reflecting on the wisdom and goodness of

 ,god1 suppose that he has not1  at all 
times1 given the whole rational creation
 a plain rule for their  conduct1 in    
relation to those duties they owe to    
,god1 themselves1 and  one another2 must
 we not suppose reason1 and religion    
7that rule of all  other rules7         
inseparable2 so that no rational        
creature can be ignorant  of it1 who    
attends to the dictates of his own mind2
 ,i mean1 as far as  it is necessary for
 him to know it6 ,an ignorant peasant   
may know what is  sufficient for him1   
without knowing as much as the learned  
rector of ,st4  ,james's4 ,though the   
,dr4 says1 'the knowledge of the law of 
nature is1  in fact1 by no means        
universal2' yet he asserts1 that 'man is
 plainly in  his own nature an          
accountable creature2' which supposes   
that the light  of nature plainly1 and  
undeniably1 teaches him that law1 for   
breach of  which he is naturally        
accountable2 and did not the ,dr4       
believe this  law to be universal1 he   

could not infer a future judgment from  
the  conscience all men have of their   
actions1 or the judgment they pass on   
them in their own minds whereby ',they  
that have not any law1 are a law  unto  
themselves2 their consciences bearing   
witness1 and their thoughts  accusing1  
or excusing one another2' which is      
supposing but one law1  whether that law
 be written on paper1 or in men's hearts
 only2 and that  all men by the judgment
 they pass on their own actions1 are    
conscious  of this law4 ,and1 the       
apostle ,paul1 though quoted by the     
,dr41 is so far  from favoring his      
hypothesis of any invincible ignorance1 
even in the  wisest and best of the     
philosophers1 that he1 by saying1 ,the  
,gentiles1  that have not the law1 do by
 nature the things contained in the law1
  makes the law of nature and grace to  
be the same3 and supposes the  reason   
why they were to be punished1 was their 
sinning against light and  knowledge4   
,that which may be known of ,god was    

manifest in them1 and when  they knew   
,god1 they glorified him not as ,god4   
,and they were likewise  guilty of      
abominable corruptions1 not ignorantly1 
but knowing the  judgment of ,god1 that 
they who do such things are worthy of   
death4    ,had the ,dr4 but considered  
this self-evident proposition1 that     
there  can be no transgression where    
there is no law2 and that an unknown law
  is the same as no law2 and            
consequently1 that all mankind1 at all  
times1  must be capable of knowing all  
7whether more or less7 that ,god        
requires1  it would have prevented his  
endeavoring to prove1 that1 till the    
gospel  dispensation1 mankind were      
entirely1 and unavoidably ignorant of   
their  duty in several important points2
 and thus charging the light of  nature 
with undeniable defects4 ,i think it no 
compliment to external  revelation1     
though the ,dr4 designed it as the      
highest1 to say1 it  prevailed1 when the
 light of nature was1 as he supposes1 in

 a manner  extinct2 since then an       
irrational religion might as easily     
obtain1 as  a rational one4 ,the ,dr41  
to prove that revelation has supplied   
the  insufficiency1 and undeniable      
defects of the light of nature1 refers  
us  to ,phil41 iv41 #a1 which he        
introduces after this pompous           
manner3--',let  any man of an honest and
 sincere mind consider1 whether that    
practical  doctrine has not1 even in    
itself1 the greatest marks of a divine  
original1 wherein whatsoever things are 
true1 whatsoever things  are honest1    
whatsoever things are just1 whatsoever  
things are pure1  whatsoever things are 
lovely1 whatsoever things are of good   
report1 if  there be any virtue1 it     
there be anything praiseworthy2 all     
these1 and  these only1 are earnestly   
recommended to man's practice4' ,i would
 ask  the ,dr41 how he can know what    
these are1 which are thus alone         
earnestly  recommended to man's         
practice2 or1 why they have1 in         

themselves1 the  greatest marks of a    
divine original2 but from the light of  
nature8 ,nay1  how can the ,dr4 know    
there are defects in the light of       
nature1 but from  that light itself8    
which supposes this light is all we have
 to trust  to2 and consequently1 all the
 ,dr4 has been doing1 on pretence of    
promoting the honor of revelation1 is   
introducing universal scepticism4  ,and 
,i am concerned1 and grieved1 to see a  
man1 who had so great a share  of the   
light of nature1 employing it to expose 
that light1 of which  before he had     
given the highest commendation2 and     
which can have no  other effect1 than to
 weaken even his own demonstration1     
drawn from that  light1 for the being of
 a ,god4 ,i shall mention but one text  
more1  which1 had not the ,dr4 thought  
it highly to his purpose1 for showing   
the  insufficiency of the light of      
nature1 he would not have ushered it in 
after this most solemn manner3--',when  
men have put themselves into this       

temper and frame of mind1 let them try  
if they can any longer reject the       
evidence of the gospel4 ,if any man will
 do his will1 he shall know  of the     
doctrine2 whether it be of ,god4' ,is it
 not strange1 to see so  judicious a    
divine write after such a manner1 as if 
he thought the  best way to support the 
dignity of revelation1 was to derogate  
from the  immutable and eternal law of  
nature8 and while he is depressing it1  
extol revelation for those very things  
it borrows from that law8 in  which1    
though he asserts there are undeniable  
defects1 yet he owns that  ,god governs 
all his own actions by it1 and expects  
that all men should  so govern theirs4  
,but1 ,i find the ,dr4's own brother1   
the ,dean of ,sa-rum1 is entirely of  my
 mind1 as to those texts the ,dr4       
quotes--viz41 ,rom4 ii41 #ad1 and       
,phil1 iv41 #h4 ,as to the first--viz41 
,rom4 ii41 #ad1 he says1 ',the apostle  
supposes1 that the moral law is founded 
in the nature and reason of  things3    

that every man is endued with such      
powers and faculties of mind1  as render
 him capable of seeing1 and taking      
notice of this law2 and also  with such 
a sense and judgment of the             
reasonableness and fitness of           
conforming his actions to it1 that he   
cannot but in his own mind acquit       
himself when he does so2 and condemn    
himself when he does otherwise4'  ,and  
as to the second--viz41 ,phil1 iv41 #h1 
where the same apostle  recommends the  
practice of ,virtue1 upon the           
fore-mentioned principles  of comeliness
 and reputation4--',these principles1'  
says he1 'if duly  attended to1 were    
sufficient to instruct men in the whole 
of their duty  towards themselves1 and  
towards each other4 ,and they would also
 have  taught them their duty towards   
,god1 their ,creator and ,governor1 if  
they  had diligently pursued them4 ,for 
according as the apostle expresses it1  
,rom4 i41 #bj1 the invisible things of  
,god from the creation of the world  are

 clearly seen1 being understood by the  
things that are made1 even his  eternal 
power and ,godhead4 ,the same fitness   
and decency that appears  in men's      
regular behavior towards each other1    
appears also in their  behavior towards 
,god4 ,and this1 likewise1 is founded in
 the nature and  reason of things2 and  
is what the circumstances and condition 
they are  in do absolutely require4     
,thus we see therein moral virtue1 or   
good  consists1 and what the obligation 
to it is from its own native beauty  and
 excellency4'    ,one more example of   
,tindal's style will show how skilfully 
and cogently  he forced1 the great      
authorities of his day to bear ,witness 
to the truth  of his leading            
proposition1 the natural antiquity of   
all the reasonable  precepts of the     
,bible3--    ,the most accurate ,dr4    
,barrow gives this character of the     
,christian  religion1 ',that its        
precepts are no other than such as      
physicians  prescribe for the health of 

our bodies2 as politicians would allow  
to be  needful for the peace of the     
state2 as ,epicurean philosophers       
recommend  for the tranquillity of our  
minds1 and pleasures of our lives2 such 
as reason dictates1 and daily shows     
conducive to our welfare in all         
respects2 which consequently1 were there
 no law enacting them1 we should  in    
wisdom choose to observe1 and           
voluntarily impose them on ourselves2   
confessing them to be fit matters of    
law1 and most advantageous and          
requisite to the good1 general and      
particular1 of mankind4'    ,that great 
and good man ,dr4 ,tillotson says1      
',that all the precepts  of             
,christianity are reasonable and wise1  
requiring such duties as are  suitable  
to the light of nature1 and do approve  
themselves to the best  reason of       
mankind2 such as have their foundation  
in the nature of ,god1  and are an      
imitation of the divine excellencies2   
such as tend to the  perfection of human

 nature1 and to raise the minds of men  
to the highest  pitch of goodness and   
virtue4 ,they command nothing that is   
unnecessary1  they omit nothing that may
 tend to the glory of ,god1 or the      
welfare of  men1 nor do they restrain us
 in anything1 but what is contrary to   
the  regular inclinations of nature1 or 
to our reason1 and true interest2  they 
forbid us nothing but what is base and  
unworthy to serve our humors  and       
passions1 to make ourselves fools and   
beasts4 ,in a word1 nothing but  what   
tends to our private harm1 or prejudice1
 or to public disorder and  confusion4' 
,the late ,dean of ,canterbury1 in a    
sermon preached in defence of           
,christianity1 says1 99 ',what can be a 
more powerful incentive to  obedience1  
than for a rational creature clearly to 
discern the equity1  the necessity1 the 
benefit1 the decency and beauty of every
 action  he is called to do1 and thence 
to be duly sensible how gracious a      
master he serves2 one that is so far    

from loading him with fruitless1        
arbitrary1 and tyrannical impositions1  
that each command abstracted  from his  
command who issues it1 is able to       
recommend itself2 and nothing  required 
but what every wise man would choose of 
his accord3 and cannot1  without being  
his own enemy1 wish to be exempted      
from8' ,and this  character of          
,christianity he makes to be essential  
to its being from  ,god1 and therefore  
must make it the same with natural      
religion1 which  has this character     
impressed on it4    ',there was none of 
the doctrines of our ,saviour 7says the 
late  ,archbishop of ,york7 9999        
calculated for the gratification of     
men's  idle curiosities1 the busying and
 amusing them with airy and useless     
speculations2 much less were they       
intended for an exercise of our         
credulity1 or a trial how far we could  
bring our reason to submit to our       
faith2 but as on the one hand they were 
plain and simple1 and such as  by their 

agreeable-ness to the rational faculties
 of mankind1 did highly  recommend      
themselves to our belief2 so on the     
other hand they had an  immediate       
relation to practice1 and were the      
general principles and  foundation1 on  
which all human and divine virtues were 
naturally to be  superstructed4'        
99 ,boyle's ,lect41 p4 #bf1         9999
 ,sermon before the ,queen on ,christmas
 ,day1 #agbd4    ,does not every one    
see1 that if the religion of nature had 
been put  instead of ,christianity1     
these descriptions would have exactly   
agreed  with it8 ,the judicious ,dr4    
,scot affirms1 ',god never imposes laws 
on us  pro imperio1 as arbitrary tests  
and trials of our obedience4 ,the great 
design of them 7says he17 is to do us   
good1 and direct our actions to  our own
 interest4 ,this1 if we firmly believe1 
will infinitely encourage  our          
obedience2 for when ,i am sure ,god     
commands me nothing but what my  own    
health1 ease1 and happiness requires2   

and that every law of his is  both a    
necessary and sovereign prescription    
against the diseases of  my nature1 and 
he could not prescribe less than he has1
 without being  defective in his care of
 my recovery and happiness2 with what   
prudence  and modesty can ,i grudge to  
obey him8'    ,nay1 the most considerate
 men1 even among the ,papists1 do not   
scruple  to maintain there's nothing in 
religion but what is moral4 ,the divines
  of ,port ,royal for instance1 say1    
',all the precepts1 and all the         
mysteries that are expressed in so many 
different ways in the holy  volumes1 do 
all centre in this one commandment of   
loving ,god with all  our heart1 and in 
loving our neighbors as ourselves3 for  
the ,scripture  7it is ,st4 ,austin who 
says it7 forbids but one only thing1    
which is  concupiscence1 or the love of 
the creature2 as it commands but one    
only  thing1 which is charity1 and the  
love of ,god4 ,upon this double precept 
is founded the whole system of the      

,christian religion2 and it is unto     
this1 say they1 according to the        
expression of ,jesus ,christ1 that all  
the ancient law and the prophets have   
reference2 and we may add also1  all the
 mysteries1 and all the precepts of the 
new law2 for love1 says  ,st4 ,paul1 is 
the fulfilling of the law4' ,and these  
divines likewise cite  a remarkable     
passage of ,st4 ,austin on this subject1
 viz41 ',he that knows  how to love     
,god1 and to regulate his life by that  
love1 knows all that  the ,scripture    
propounds to be known4' ,and might add  
the authority of  a greater man1 and a  
,papist too1 99 who says1 ',religion    
adds nothing  to natural probity1 but   
the consolation of doing that for love  
and  obedience to our ,heavenly ,father1
 which reason itself requires us do in  
favor of virtue4'         99 ,archbishop
 of ,cambray3 ,lettres sur la ,religion1
       p4 #beh1 a ,paris4    ,tindal was
 a solid1 rather than a brilliant       
writer3 but he perfectly  knew what he  

was about2 and the work from which we   
quote1 was well  conceived and carefully
 executed4 ,his ground was skilfully    
chosen1 his  arguments were placed on an
 eminence where his friends could see   
them1  and where his enemies could not  
assail them4 ,dr4 ,leland1 in his view  
of  ,deistical writers1 is quite in a   
rage with him1 because he discredits    
,book ,revelation1 to set up ,nature's  
,revelation4 ,his real offence  was1    
that he did prove that ,nature was the  
only source of truth and  reason--the   
criterion by which even ,divine         
,revelation must be judged4  ,he carried
 men back to the gospel of nature1 by   
the side of which the  gospel of the    
,jewish fishermen did not show to       
advantage4 ,tindal did  put something in
 the place of that which he was supposed
 desirous  of removing4 ,how unwilling  
,christians of that day were to admit of
  improvement in religion1 is shown by  
the number of attacks ,tindal's work    
sustained4 ,the ,bishop of ,london      

published a ,second ,pastoral ,letter   
against it2 ,dr4 ,thomas ,burnet        
confuted it2 ,mr4 ,law fully answered   
it2 ,dr4 ,stebbing obviated the         
principal objections in it4 ,the same   
learned and judicious writer1 observes  
,leland1 a second time entered  the     
lists1 in answer to the fourteenth      
chapter of a book1 entitled             
',christianity as ,old as the           
,creation4' ,mr4 ,balgny issued a       
,second  ,letter to a ,deist1 occasioned
 by ,tindal's work4 ,mr4 ,anthony       
,o',key gave  a short view of the whole 
controversy4 ,dr4 ,foreter1 ,dr4 ,john  
,conybeare1  particularly engaged public
 attention as ,dr4 ,tindal's            
antagonists4  ,mr4 ,simon ,brown        
produced a solid and excellent answer2  
and ,dr4 ,leland1  with many blushes1   
tells us that he himself issued in      
,dublin1 in #aggc1  two volumes1 taking 
a wider compass than the other answers4 
,christianity as ,old as the ,creation  
is a work which ,freethinkers may  yet  

consult with advantage1 as a repertory  
of authorities no longer  accessible to 
the readers of this generation4 ,what   
these authorities  allege will be found 
to have intrinsic value1 to be indeed   
lasting  testimonies in favor of        
,rationalism4 ,in passing in review the 
noble  truths1 ,tindal insists that it  
is impossible not to wonder at the      
policy1 or rather want of policy        
displayed by ,christians4 ,tindal is an 
author whom they might be proud of1 if  
they were really in love with  reason4  
,tindal's opponents have shown how      
instinctively the children of  faith    
distrust the truths of ,nature4 ,after  
all the refutations1 and  confutations  
and answers made to the great ,deist1   
,tin-dal's work  has maintained its     
ground1 and the truths he so ably and   
spiritedly  vindicated1 have spread     
wider since and taken deeper root4      
,j4 ,w4          ,,david ,,hume    ,lord
 ,brougham has rendered service not only
 to ,letters1 but also to  ,freethought1

 by his admirable ,lives1 incomparably  
the best we have1  of ,voltaire1        
,rousseau1 ,hume1 ,gibbon1 etc4 ,from   
,lord ,brougham we learn  7whose life in
 this sketch we follow7 that ,david     
,hume1 related to the  ,earl of ,hume's 
family1 was born in ,edinburgh1 in      
,april1 #agaa4 ,refusing  to be made a  
lawyer1 he was sent1 in #agcd1 to a     
mercantile house in  ,bristol4 ,the desk
 not suiting the embryo historian's     
genius1 we find  him in #agcg at ,la    
,flche1 in ,anjou1 writing his          
still-born ,treatise on  ,human ,nature2
 which in #agdb1 in separate ,essays1   
attracted some notice4  ,keeper and     
companion to the ,marquis of ,annandale 
in #agde1 private  secretary to ,general
 ,st4 ,clair in #agdg1 he visited on    
embassy the courts  of ,vienna and      
,turin4 ,while at ,turin he completed   
his ,inquiry ,concerning  the ,human    
,understanding1 the ,treatise on ,human 
,nature in a new form4  ,returned to    
,scotland1 he published his ,political  

,discourses in #ageb1  and the same year
 his ,inquiry ,concerning the           
,principles of ,morals4  ,the ,essays1  
,moral and ,metaphysical1 are the form  
in which we now read  these             
speculations4 ,in #ageb1 ,hume became   
librarian to the ,faculty of            
,advocates4 ,in #aged he published the  
first volume of his ,history of         
,england4 ,in #agee1 appeared his       
,natural ,history of ,religion4 ,in     
#agfc he accompanied the ,british       
ambassador to ,paris4 ,in #agfe he      
became  charge d'affaires4    ,in #agff 
he was appointed ,under ,secretary of   
,state under ,marshal ,conway4  ,in     
#agge he was seized with a mortal       
disease1 which he bore without any      
abatement of his cheerfulness2 and on   
the #beth of ,august1 le bon  ,david1 as
 he was styled in ,paris1 died1 to use  
his own words1  having no               
enemies--except all the ,whigs1 all the 
,tories1 and all the  ,christians--which
 was something to his honor1 and a      

testimony of the  usefulness of his     
life4    ,david ,hume was the first     
writer who gave historical distinction  
to ,great  ,britain4 ,lord ,john        
,russell remarked in a speech at        
,bristol1 in ,october1  #ahed3--,we have
 no other ',history of ,england' than   
,hume's4444  ,when a young man of       
eighteen asks for a ',history of        
,england1' there is  no resource but to 
give him ,hume4 ,hume was the author of 
the modern  doctrines of politics and   
political economy1 which now rule the   
world of  science4 ,he was the sagacious
 unfolder of truth1 the accurate and    
bold  discoverer of popular error4 ,more
 than a sceptic1 he was an ,atheist4    
,such is ,lord ,brougham's judgment of  
him4    ,hume carried ,freethought into 
high places4 ,in originality of thought1
  grace of style1 and logical ability1  
he distanced all rival writers on       
religion in his time1 and what is of no 
small importance1 his life was  as      
blameless as his intellect was          

unapproachable4    ,our first extract   
from his writings is a felicitous       
statement of  the pro and con41 on the  
questions of polygamous and single1     
marriages3--    ,a man1 in conjoining   
himself to a woman1 is bound to her     
according to  the terms of his          
engagement4 ,in begetting children1 he  
is bound1 by all  the ties of nature and
 humanity1 to provide for their         
subsistence and  education4 ,when he has
 performed these two parts of duty1 no  
one  can reproach him with injustice or 
injury4 ,and as the terms of his        
engagement1 as well as the methods of   
subsisting his offspring1 may  be       
various1 it is mere superstition to     
imagine that marriage can be  entirely  
uniform1 and will admit only of one mode
 or form4 ,did not human  laws restrain 
the natural liberty of men1 every       
particular marriage  would be as        
different as contracts or bargains of   
any other kind  or species4 ,as         
circumstances vary1 and the laws propose

 different  advantages1 we find1 that in
 different times and places1 they impose
  different conditions on this important
 contract4 ,in ,tonquin1 it is usual    
for the sailors1 when the ship comes    
into the harbor1 to marry for  the      
season2 and1 notwithstanding this       
precarious engagement1 they are         
assured1 it is said1 of the strictest   
fidelity to their bed1 as well as  in   
the whole management of their affairs1  
from those temporary spouses4  ,i       
cannot1 at present1 recollect my        
authorities2 but ,i have somewhere      
read1 that the ,republic of ,athens1    
having lost many of its citizens by  war
 and pestilence1 allowed every man to   
marry two wives1 in order the  sooner to
 repair the waste which had been made by
 these calamities4  ,the poet ,euripides
 happened to be coupled to two noisy    
vixens1 who so  plagued him with their  
jealousies and quarrels1 that he became 
ever  after a professed woman hater2 and
 is the only theatrical writer1  perhaps

 the only poet1 that ever entertained an
 aversion to the sex4444  ,the advocates
 for polygamy may recommend it as the   
only effectual remedy  for the disorders
 of love1 and the only expedient for    
freeing men from  that slavery to the   
females which the natural violence of   
our passions  has imposed upon us4 ,by  
this means alone can we regain our right
 of  sovereignty and1 sating our        
appetite1 re-establish the authority of 
reason in our minds1 and1 of            
consequence1 our own authority in our   
families4 ,man1 like a weak sovereign1  
being unable to support himself  against
 the wiles and intrigues of his         
subjects1 must play one faction  against
 another1 and become absolute by the    
mutual jealousy of  the females4 ,to    
divide and to govern is an universal    
maxim2 and  by neglecting it1 the       
,europeans undergo a more grievous and a
 more  ignominious slavery than the     
,turks or ,persians1 who are subjected  
indeed  to a sovereign that lies at a   

distance from them1 but in their        
domestic  affairs rules with an         
uncontrollable sway4 ,on the other hand1
 it may be  urged with better reason1   
that this sovereignty of the male is a  
real  usurpation1 and destroys that     
nearness of rank1 not to say equality1  
which nature has established between the
 sexes4 ,we are1 by nature1 their       
lovers1 their friends1 their patrons4   
,would we willingly exchange such       
endearing appellations for the barbarous
 title of master and tyrant8 ,in  what  
capacity shall we gain by this inhuman  
proceeding8 ,as lovers1 or  as husbands8
 ,the lover is totally annihilated2 and 
courtship1 the most  agreeable scene in 
life1 can no longer have place where    
women have  not the free disposal of    
themselves1 but are bought and sold like
 the  meanest animal4 ,the husband is as
 little a gainer1 having found  the     
admirable secret of extinguishing every 
part of love1 except its  jealousy4 ,no 
rose without its thorn2 but he must be a

 foolish wretch  indeed1 that throws    
away the rose and preserves only the    
thorn4 ,but the  ,asiatic manners are as
 destructive to friendship as to love4  
,jealousy  excludes men from all        
intimacies and familiarities with each  
other4 ,no  one dares bring his friend  
to his house or table1 lest he bring a  
lover  to his numerous wives4 ,hence1   
all over the ,east1 each family is as   
much  separate from another as if they  
were so many distinct kingdoms4 ,no     
wonder then that ,solomon1 living like  
an ,eastern prince1 with his seven      
hundred wives1 and three hundred        
concubines1 without one friend1 could   
write so pathetically concerning the    
vanity of the world4 ,had he tried  the 
secret of one wife or mistress1 a few   
friends1 and a great many  companions1  
he might have found lite somewhat more  
agreeable4 ,destroy  love and           
friendship1 what remains in the world   
worth accepting8    ,next we quote his  
famous statement of the principle of    

utility in  morals3--    ,there has been
 a controversy started of late much     
better worth  examination1 concerning   
the general foundation of morals2       
whether  they be derived from reason or 
from sentiment2 whether we attain  the  
knowledge of them by a chain of argument
 and induction1 or by an  immediate     
feeling and finer internal sense2       
whether1 like all sound  judgment of    
truth and falsehood1 they should be the 
name to every  rational intelligent     
being2 or whether like the perception of
 beauty  and deformity1 they be founded 
entirely on the particular fabric and   
constitution of the human species4 ,the 
ancient philosophers1 though they  often
 affirm that virtue is nothing but      
conformity to reason1 yet1 in  general1 
seem to consider morals as deriving     
their existence from taste  and         
sentiment4 ,on the other hand1 our      
modern inquirers1 though they  also talk
 much of the beauty of virtue1 and1     
deformity of vice1 yet have  commonly   

endeavored to account for these         
distinctions by metaphysical            
reasonings1 and by deductions from the  
most abstract principles of  the        
understanding4 ,such confusion reigned  
in these subjects1 that an  opposition  
of the greatest consequence could       
prevail between one system  and another1
 and even in the parts of almost each   
individual system3 and  yet nobody1 till
 very lately1 was ever sensible of it4  
,the elegant ,lord  ,shaftesbury1 who   
first gave occasion to remark this      
distinction1 and  who1 in general1      
adhered to the principles of the        
ancients1 is not1  himself1 entirely    
free from the same confusion4444 ,in all
 determinations  of morality1 the       
circumstance of public utility1 is ever 
principally in  view2 and wherever      
disputes arise1 either in philosophy or 
common life1  concerning the bounds of  
duty1 the question cannot1 by any means1
 be  decided with greater certainty1    
than by ascertaining1 on any side1  the 

true interests of mankind4 ,if any false
 opinion1 embraced from  appearances1   
has been found to prevail2 as soon as   
farther experience  and sounder         
reasoning have given us juster notions  
of human affairs1  we retract our first 
sentiment1 and adjust anew the          
boundaries of moral  good and evil4     
,giving alms to common beggars is       
naturally praised2  because it seems to 
carry relief to the distressed and      
indigent2  but when we observe the      
encouragement thence arising to idleness
 and  debauchery1 we regard that species
 of charity rather as a weakness than  a
 virtue4 ,tyrannicide1 or the           
assassination of usurpers and oppressive
  princes1 was highly extolled in       
ancient times2 because it both freed    
mankind from many of these monsters1 and
 seemed to keep the others  in awe whom 
the sword or poniard could not reach4   
,but history and  experience having     
since convinced us1 that this practice  
increases the  jealousy and cruelty of  

princes1 a ,timoleon and a ,brutus1     
though treated  with indulgence on      
account of the prejudices of their      
times1 are now  considered as very      
improper models for imitation4          
,liberality in princes  is regarded as a
 mark of beneficence4 ,but when it      
occurs1 that the  homely bread of the   
honest and industrious is often thereby 
converted  into delicious cakes for the 
idle and the prodigal1 we soon retract  
our  heedless praises4 ,the regrets of a
 prince1 for having lost a day1 were    
noble and generous2 but had he intended 
to have spent it in acts of  generosity 
to his greedy courtiers1 it was better  
lost than misemployed  after that       
manner4444 ,that justice is useful to   
society1 and  consequently that part of 
its merit1 at least1 must arise from    
that  consideration1 it would be a      
superfluous undertaking to prove4 ,that 
public utility is the sole origin of    
justice1 that reflections on the        
beneficial consequences of this virtue  

are the sole foundation of its  merit2  
this proposition being more curious and 
important1 will better  deserve our     
examination and inquiry4 ,let us suppose
 that nature has  bestowed on the human 
race such profuse abundance of all      
external  conveniences1 that1 without   
any uncertainty in the event1 without   
any  care or industry on our part1 every
 individual finds himself fully         
provided with whatever his most         
voracious appetite can want1 or         
luxurious imagination wish or desire4   
,his natural beauty1 we shall  suppose1 
surpasses all acquired ornaments2 the   
perpetual clemency of the  seasons      
renders useless all clothes or covering3
 the raw herbage affords  him the most  
delicious fare2 the clear fountain1 the 
richest beverage4  ,no laborious        
occupation required3 no tillage3 no     
navigation4 ,music1  poetry1 and        
contemplation1 form his sole business3  
conversation1 mirth1  and friendship his
 sole amusement4 ,it seems evident1     

that1 in such  a happy state1 every     
other social virtue would flourish1 and 
receive  tenfold increase2 but the      
cautious1 jealous virtue of justice1    
would  never once have been dreamed of4 
,for what purpose make a partition of   
goods1 where every one has already more 
than enough8 ,why give rise  to         
property1 where there cannot possibly be
 any injury8 ,why call this  object     
mine1 when1 upon seizing of it by       
another1 ,i need but stretch  out my    
hand to possess myself of what is       
equally valuable8 ,justice1 in  that    
case1 being totally useless1 would be an
 idle ceremonial1 and could  never      
possibly have place in the catalogue of 
virtues4 ,we see1 even in  the present  
necessitous condition of mankind1 that1 
wherever any benefit  is bestowed by    
nature in an unlimited abundance1 we    
leave it always in  common among the    
whole human race1 and make no           
subdivisions of right and  property4    
,water and air1 though the most         

necessary of all objects1 are  not      
challenged as the property of           
individuals2 nor can any man commit     
injustice by the most lavish use and    
enjoyment of these blessings4 ,in       
fertile extensive countries1 with few   
inhabitants1 land is regarded  on the   
same footing4 ,and no topic is so much  
insisted on by those  who defend the    
liberty of the seas1 as the unexhausted 
use of them in  navigation4 ,were the   
advantages procured by navigation as    
inexhaustible1  these reasoners had     
never had any adversaries to refute2 nor
 had any  claims ever been advanced of a
 separate1 exclusive dominion over  the 
ocean4444 ,suppose a society to fall    
into such want of all common            
necessaries1 that the utmost frugality  
and industry cannot preserve the        
greater number from perishing1 and the  
whole from extreme misery4 ,it  will    
readily1 ,i believe1 be admitted that   
the strict laws of justice are          
suspended in such a pressing emergence1 

and give place to the stronger  motives 
of necessity and self-preservation4 ,is 
it any crime1 after a  shipwreck1 to    
seize whatever means or instrument of   
safety one can lay  hold of1 without    
regard to former limitations of         
properly8 ,or if a city  besieged were  
perishing with hunger2 can we imagine   
that men will see  any means of         
preservation before them1 and lose their
 lives from a  scrupulous regard to     
what1 in other situations1 would be the 
rules of  equity and justice8 ,the use  
and tendency of that virtue is to       
procure  happiness and security1 by     
preserving order in society4 ,but where 
the  society is ready to perish from    
extreme necessity1 no greater evil can  
be dreaded from violence and injustice2 
and every man may now provide  for      
himself by all the means which prudence 
can dictate1 or humanity  permit4 ,the  
public1 even in less urgent necessities1
 opens granaries  without the consent of
 proprietors2 as justly supposing1 that 

the  authority of magistracy may1       
consistent with equity1 extend so far4  
,but  were any number of men to         
assemble1 without the tie of laws or    
civil  jurisdiction2 would an equal     
partition of bread in a famine1 though  
effected by power and even violence1 be 
regarded as criminal or  injurious8     
,suppose1 likewise1 that it should be a 
virtuous man's fate  to fall into the   
society of ruffians1 remote from the    
protection of  laws and government2 what
 conduct must he embrace in that        
melancholy  situation8 ,he sees such a  
desperate rapaciousness prevail2 such a 
disregard to equity1 such contempt of   
order1 such stupid blindness  to future 
consequences1 as must immediately have  
the most tragical  conclusion1 and must 
terminate in destruction to the greater 
number1 and  in a total dissolution of  
society to the rest4 ,he1 meanwhile1 can
 have  no other expedient than to arm   
himself1 to whomever the sword he       
seizes1  or the buckler may belong3 to  

make provision of all means of defence  
and  security3 and his particular regard
 to justice being no longer of use  to  
his own safety or that of others1 he    
must consult the dictates of            
self-preservation alone1 without concern
 for those who no longer merit  his care
 and attention4444 ,but perhaps the     
difficulty of accounting for  these     
effects of usefulness1 or its contrary1 
has kept philosophers from  admitting   
them into their systems of ethics1 and  
has induced them to  employ any other   
principle1 in explaining the origin of  
moral good and  evil4 ,but it is no just
 reason for rejecting any principle1    
confirmed  by experience1 that we cannot
 give a satisfactory account of its     
origin1  nor are able to resolve it into
 other more general principles4 ,and if 
we  would employ a little thought on the
 present subject1 we need be at  no loss
 to account for the influence of        
utility1 and deduce it from  principles 
the most known and avowed in human      

nature4444  ,usefulness is agreeable1   
and engages our approbation4 ,this is a 
matter  of fact1 confirmed by daily     
observation4 ,but useful6 ,for what8    
,for  somebody's interest1 surely6      
,whose interest then8 ,not our own only2
 for  our approbation frequently extends
 farther4 ,it must therefore be the     
interest of those who are served by the 
character or action approved of2  and   
these1 we may conclude1 however remote1 
are not totally indifferent  to us4 ,by 
opening up this principle1 we shall     
discover one great source  of moral     
distinctions4    ,the origin and        
mischiefs of ,theistic influences is the
 subject of the  following passage3--   
,it must necessarily1 indeed1 be        
allowed1 that in order to carry men's   
attention beyond the present course of  
things1 or lead them into any  inference
 concerning invisible intelligent power1
 they must be actuated  by some passion 
which prompts their thought and         
reflection1 some motive  which urges    

their first inquiry4 ,but what passion  
shall we here have  recourse to1 for    
explaining an effect of such mighty     
consequence8 ,not  speculative          
curiosity1 surely1 or the pure love of  
truth4 ,that motive  is too refined for 
such gross apprehensions2 and would lead
 men into  inquiries concerning the     
frame of nature1 a subject too large and
  comprehensive for their narrow        
capacities4 ,no passions1 therefore1 can
  be supposed to work upon such         
barbarians1 but the ordinary affections 
of human life2 the anxious concern for  
happiness1 the dread of future  misery1 
the terror of death1 the thirst of      
revenge1 the appetite for  food and     
other necessaries4 ,agitated by hopes   
and fears of this nature1  especially   
the latter1 men scrutinize1 with a      
trembling curiosity1 the  course of     
future causes1 and examine the various  
and contrary events  of human life4 ,and
 in this disordered scene1 with eyes    
still more  disordered and astonished1  

they see the first obscure traces of    
divinity4444 ,we hang in perpetual      
suspense between life and death1  health
 and sickness1 plenty and want1 which   
are distributed amongst  the human      
species by secret and unknown causes1   
whose operation is oft  unexpected1 and 
always unaccountable4 ,these unknown    
causes1 then1  become the constant      
object of hope and fear2 and while the  
passions are  kept in perpetual alarm by
 an anxious expectation of the events1  
the  imagination is equally employed in 
forming ideas of those powers on  which 
we have so entire a dependence4 ,could  
men anatomize nature1  according to the 
most probable1 at least the most        
intelligible  philosophy1 they would    
find that these causes are nothing but  
the  particular fabric and structure of 
the minute parts of their own bodies    
and of external objects2 and that by a  
regular and constant machinery1  all the
 events are produced1 about which they  
are so much concerned4444  ,there is an 

universal tendency among mankind to     
conceive all beings like  themselves1   
and to transfer to every object those   
qualities with  which they are          
familiarly acquainted1 and of which they
 are intimately  conscious4 ,we find    
human faces in the moon1 armies in the  
clouds2 and1  by a natural propensity1  
it not corrected by experience and      
reflection1  ascribe malice or good will
 to everything that hurts or pleases us4
  ,hence the frequency and beauty of the
 prosopopoia in poetry2 where  trees1   
mountains1 and streams are personified1 
and the inanimate parts  of nature      
acquire sentiment and passion4 ,and     
though these poetical  figures and      
expressions gain not on the belief2 they
 may serve1 at  least1 to prove a       
certain tendency in the imagination1    
without which  they could neither be    
beautiful nor natural4 ,nor is a        
river-god or  hamadryad always taken for
 a mere poetical or imaginary personage1
 but  may sometimes enter into the real 

creed of the ignorant vulgar2 while     
each grove or field is represented as   
possessed of a particular genius  or    
invisible power which inhabits and      
protects1 it4 ,nay1 philosophers  cannot
 entirely exempt themselves from this   
natural frailty2 but have  oft ascribed 
to inanimate matter the horror of a     
vacuum1 sympathies1  antipathies1 and   
other affections of human nature4 ,the  
absurdity is  not less1 while we cast   
our eyes upwards2 and1 transferring1 as 
is too  usual1 human passions and       
infirmities to the ,deity1 represent him
 as  jealous and revengeful1 capricious 
and partial1 and1 in short1 a  wicked   
and foolish man in every respect but his
 superior power and  authority4--,no    
wonder1 then1 that mankind1 being placed
 in such an  absolute ignorance of      
causes1 and being at the same time so   
anxious  concerning their future        
fortune1 should immediately acknowledge 
a  dependence on invisible powers1      
possessed of sentiment and intelligence4

  ,the unknown causes which continually 
employ their thought1 appearing  always 
in the same aspect1 are all apprehended 
to be of the same kind or  species4 ,nor
 is it long before we ascribe to them   
thought1 and reason1  and passion1 and  
sometimes even the limbs and figures of 
men1 in  order to bring them nearer to a
 resemblance with ourselves4444 ,it is  
remarkable1 that the principles of      
religion have a kind of flux and  reflux
 in the human mind1 and that men have a 
natural tendency to rise  from idolatry 
to ,theism1 and to sink again from      
,theism into idolatry4  ,the            
vulgar--that is1 indeed1 all mankind1 a 
few excepted--being ignorant  and       
uninstructed1 never elevate their       
contemplation to the heavens1 or        
penetrate by their disquisitions into   
the secret structure of vegetable  or   
animal bodies2 so far as1 to discover a 
,supreme ,mind or ,original             
,providence1 which bestowed order on    
every part of nature4 ,they consider    

these admirable works in a more confined
 and selfish view2 and finding  their   
own happiness and misery to depend on   
the secret influence1 and  unforeseen   
concurrence of external objects1 they   
regard1 with perpetual  attention1 the  
unknown causes which govern all these   
natural events1  and distribute pleasure
 and pain1 good and ill1 by their       
powerful but  silent operation4 ,the    
unknown causes are still appealed to on 
every  emergency2 and in this general   
appearance or confused image1 are the   
perpetual objects of human hopes and    
fears1 wishes and apprehensions4  ,by   
degrees1 the active imagination of men1 
uneasy in this abstract  conception of  
objects1 about which it is incessantly  
employed1 begins to  render them more   
particular1 and to clothe them in shapes
 more suitable  to its natural          
comprehension4 ,it represents them to be
 sensible1  intelligent beings like     
mankind2 actuated by love and hatred1   
and  flexible by gifts and entreaties1  

by prayers and sacrifices4 ,hence the   
origin of religion3 and hence the origin
 of idolatry or polytheism4    ,more has
 been written by theologians in         
endeavors to refute the  following      
passage1 than has ever been called forth
 by the wit of man  before by the same  
number of words3--    ,a miracle is a   
violation of the laws of nature2 and as 
a firm and  unalterable experience has  
established these laws1 the proof       
against a  miracle1 from the very nature
 of the fact1 is as entire as any       
argument  from experience can possibly  
be imagined4 ,why is it more than       
probable  that all men must die2 that   
lead cannot1 of itself1 remain suspended
 in  the air2 that fire consumes wood1  
and is extinguished by water2 unless  it
 be that these events are found         
agreeable to the laws of nature1  and   
there is required a violation of these  
laws1 or1 in other words1  a miracle to 
prevent them8 ,nothing is esteemed a    
miracle1 if it ever  happen in the      

common course of nature4 ,it is no      
miracle that a man1  seemingly in good  
health1 should die on a sudden2 because 
such a kind  of death1 though more      
unusual than any other1 has yet been    
frequently  observed to happen4 ,but it 
is a miracle that a dead man should come
 to  life2 because that has never been  
observed in any age or country4 ,there  
must1 therefore1 be an uniform          
experience against every miraculous     
event1 otherwise the event would not    
merit that appellation4 ,and as an      
uniform experience amounts to a proof1  
there is here a direct and  full proof1 
from the nature of the fact1 against the
 existence of any  miracle2 nor can such
 a proof be destroyed1 or the miracle   
rendered  credible1 but by an opposite  
proof which is superior4 ,the plain     
consequence is 7and it is a general     
maxim worthy of our attention17  ',that 
no testimony is sufficient to establish 
a miracle1 unless the  testimony be of  
such a kind that its falsehood would be 

more miraculous  than the fact which it 
endeavors to establish4 ,and even in    
that case  there is a mutual destruction
 of arguments1 and the superior only    
gives  us an assurance suitable to that 
degree of force which remains after     
deducting the inferior4' ,when any one  
tells me that he saw a dead man         
restored to life1 ,i immediately        
consider with myself whether it be more 
probable that this person should either 
deceive or be deceived1 or that  the    
fact which he relates should really have
 happened4 ,i weigh the one  miracle    
against the other2 and according to the 
superiority which  ,i discover1 ,i      
pronounce my decision1 and always reject
 the greater  miracle4 ,if the falsehood
 of his testimony would be more         
miraculous than  the event which he     
relates2 then1 and not till then1 can he
 pretend  to command my belief or       
opinion4444 ,there is not to be found1  
in all  history1 any miracle attested by
 a sufficient number of men1 of such    

unquestioned good sense1 education1 and 
learning1 as to secure us  against all  
delusion in themselves2 of such         
undoubted integrity1 as to  place them  
beyond all suspicion of any design to   
deceive others2 of such  credit and     
reputation in the eyes of mankind1 as to
 have a great deal to  lose in case of  
their being detected in any falsehood2  
and at the same  time attesting facts1  
performed in such a public manner1 and  
in so  celebrated a part of the world1  
as to render the detection unavoidable2 
all which circumstances are requisite to
 give us a full assurance of the        
testimony of men4444 ,one of the best   
attested miracles in all profane        
history1 is that which ,tacitus reports 
of ,vespasian1 who cured a blind  man in
 ,alexandria by means of his spittle1   
and a lame man by the mere  touch of his
 foot2 in obedience to a vision of the  
god ,seraphis1 who had  enjoined them to
 have recourse to the emperor for these 
miraculous  cures4 ,the story may be    

seen in that fine historian2 where every
  circumstance seems to add weight to   
the testimony1 and might be  displayed  
at large with all the force of argument 
and eloquence1 if  any one were now     
concerned to enforce the evidence of    
that exploded and  idolatrous           
superstition4 ,the gravity1 solidity1   
age1 and probity of so  great an        
emperor1 who through the whole course of
 his life1 conversed  in a familiar     
manner1 with his friends and courtiers1 
and never affected  those extraordinary 
airs of divinity assumed by ,alexander  
and ,demetrius4  ,the historian1 a      
contemporary writer1 noted for candor   
and veracity1  and1 withal1 the greatest
 and most1 penetrating genius1 perhaps  
of all  antiquity2 and so free from any 
tendency to credulity1 that he even lies
  under the contrary imputation of      
,atheism and profaneness4 ,the persons1 
from whose authority he related the     
miracle of established character  for   
judgment and veracity1 as we may-well   

presume2 eye-witnesses of  the fact1 and
 confirming their testimony1 after the  
,flavian family was  despoiled of the   
empire1 and could no longer give any    
reward as the  price of a lie4          
,utrumque1 qui interfuere1 nunc quoque  
memorant1  postquam nullum mendacio     
pretium4 ,to which1 if we add the public
 nature  of the facts1 as related1 it   
will appear that no evidence can well be
  supposed stronger for so gross and so 
palpable a falsehood4    ,these extracts
 will give some idea of the grace1 and  
power1 and  penetration of ,hume4 ,the  
society he kept1 the abilities with     
which he  was justly credited1 the      
reputation his works deservedly won for 
him1  made him a man of mark and        
influence in his day4 ,read by the      
learned1  courted by statesmen1 he      
taught gentlemen liberality1 and        
governments  toleration4 ,the influence 
of ,hume1 silent and inappreciable to   
the  multitude1 has been of the utmost  
importance to the nation4 ,his works    

have been studied by philosophers1      
politicians1 and prelates4 ,the         
writings of no ,freethinker1 except     
,voltaire1 have maintained their  ground
 with continually increasing reputation4
 ,oddly enough1 none  of ,hume's works  
were popular when they first appeared4  
,in fact1 his  ,treatise on ,human      
,nature he had to reprint in the form of
 ,essays1 five  years after its first   
publication4 ,it then1 for the first    
time1 began to  be bought2 but not to   
any great extent4 ,five years later1 he 
again  made it re-appear1 under the form
 of an ,inquiry ,concerning the ,human  
,understanding4 ,it was not until this  
third publication that he began  to     
perceive symptoms of its coming into    
notice4 ,the world has since  made up   
for its negligence1 by perpetual comment
 and solid appreciation4  ,a king among 
thinkers1 the clergy have in the        
provinces of politics and  philosophical
 speculation to acknowledge allegiance  
to him1 however they  may rebel against 

his theological heresies4    ,j4 ,w4    
,,dr4 ,,thomas ,,burnet    ,it was only 
a very narrow accident which prevented  
,dr4 ,burnet1 an  ultra ,freethinker in 
the ,church of ,england1 from becoming  
,archbishop of  ,canterbury at the death
 of ,tillotson4 ,a combination of       
clergymen were  prepared to immolate    
themselves providing ,burnet could be   
overthrown4  ,they succeeded4 ,thomas   
,burnet kept the ,charter ,house1 in    
,london1 and  his conscience--happier1  
perhaps1 in this than if he had enjoyed 
the  ecclesiastical preferment which    
,king ,william seemed so anxious to give
  him4 ,amongst the clergy1 ,dr4 ,burnet
 was1 with the single exception of      
,dean ,swift1 the greatest ,freethinker 
of whom we can boast1 who held an       
influential position in the ,church4    
,this position is sometimes claimed  for
 ,bishop ,berkeley1 a man of vast       
talents1 a sincere ,christian1  although
 an innovator in philosophy4    ,thomas 
,burnet was born in the year #afce4 ,at 

the age of forty-five1  he published the
 work1 in ,latin1 with which his name is
 generally  associated1 ,the ,sacred    
,theory of the ,earth3 containing an    
account of  the ,original of the ,earth1
 and of all the general changes which it
  has already undergone1 or is to       
undergo1 till the consummation of all   
,things4 ,this book gives us an idea1   
formed by its author1 of the origin  of 
the world1 and is remarkable as one of  
the first grand prophecies of  geology2 
although of little value to us1 it      
produced an impression upon  the age by 
depicting the various strata of the     
mountainous regions1 and  comparing them
 in different countries1 eliminating    
ideas of the nature  of the vast changes
 we see in the universe1 tracing the    
rise of most of  the phenomena from the 
two elements1 fire and water4 ,burnet   
thought that  at one time the whole of  
matter was in a fluid state1 revolving  
round  a central sun1 until the heavier 
particles sunk into the middle1 and     

formed the stony strata which supports  
the earth1 over which the lighter       
liquids coalesced until the heat of the 
sun effectually separated water  from   
land4 ,this is the foundation of a      
scheme which is elaborated in  a poetic 
style1 abounding in eloquent            
descriptions2 in fact it is a           
philosophic prose poem of almost        
unalloyed beauty4 ,in it there is some  
resemblance to the measured sentences of
 ,shaftesbury1 although unequal  to that
 fine writer in soundness of judgment or
 practical usefulness4 ,in  #afia an    
,english translation was published4     
,by far the most interesting work to us 
of ,burnet's 7also written in  ,latin7  
is ,archologia ,philosophical or1 an    
account of the ,opinion of  the         
,ancients on various ,philosophical     
,problems4 ,this work created great     
opposition by its free remarks on the   
,mosaic dispensation1 although  the     
writer in this1 as in the case of his   
posthumous works1 strongly  protested   

against their being translated into the 
,english language1 as  he was justly    
afraid of their influence on the minds  
of the laity1 and  from his high        
official station1 with the influence his
 vast learning and  his connection with 
,tillotson1 and the ,court gave him1 he 
was1 no  doubt1 apprehensive that the   
really religious champions of the       
,church of  ,england would denounce him 
when exposed to the temptation of ,high 
,church  preferment4 ,fragments of those
 works were translated by the clergy to 
prove to the unlearned what a dangerous 
character ,thomas ,burnet was4  ,charles
 ,blount1 writing to ,gildon1 says1 ,i  
have1 according to my  promise1 sent you
 herewith the seventh and eighth        
chapters1 as also the  appendix1 of the 
great and learned ,dr4 ,burnet's book1  
published this  winter in ,latin1 and by
 him dedicated to our most gracious     
,sovereign1  ,king ,william44444 ,as for
 the piece itself1 ,i think it is one of
 the  most ingenious ,i have ever read1 

and full of the most acute as well  as  
learned observations4 ,nor can ,i find  
anything worthy an objection  against   
him1 as some of the censorious part of  
the world pretend2 who  would have you  
believe it a mere burlesque upon ,moses1
 and destructive  to the notion of      
original sin1 wherefore by consequence  
7say they7  there could be no necessity 
of a ,redemption1 which1 however1 ,i    
think no  necessary consequence2 but1   
for my part1 either the great veneration
  ,i have for the doctor's extraordinary
 endowments1 or else my own  ignorance1 
has so far bribed me to his interests   
that ,i can1 by no  means1 allow of any 
of those unjust reflections the         
wholesale merchants  of credulity1 as   
well as their unthinking retailers1 make
 against him4  ,it is true1 in the      
seventh chapter he seems to prove that  
many parts of  the ,mosaic history of   
the creation appear inconsistent with   
reason1  and in the eighth chapter the  
same appears no less inconsistent with  

philosophy2 wherefore he concludes 7as  
many fathers of the ,church have  done  
before him7 that the whole rather seems 
to have been but a pious  allegory4 ,dr4
 ,burnet took the meaning of much of the
 ,bible to be but  a pious allegory1    
and1 as such1 he strove to popularize it
 with the  clergy4 ,we do not believe   
that he intended to enlighten any but   
the  clergy4 ,he foresaw the flood of   
fierce democracy1 and1 like other  able 
men with vested rights in the ignorance 
of the people1 he strove to  temporize1 
to put off still further the day of     
,christianity's downfall4  ,we place him
 in this biographical niche not because 
he dashed into the  fray1 like bold     
,hobbes or chivalrous ,woolston1 and    
took part in the  battle of priestcraft 
because he thought it was right1 but    
rather  because he was a ,freethinker in
 disguise1 longing for ,episcopal       
honors2  yet1 by one false step 7the    
publishing of ,archologia1 7 lost an    
archbishopric1 and gave the authority of

 a great name to struggling  opinion4   
,his accession to our ranks was a       
brilliant accident4 ,he died1  at the   
age of eighty years1 in #agae4 ,after   
his demise1 two works were  translated  
7and published17 both expressive of his 
liberal views4 ,the  first1 ,on         
,christian ,faith and ,duties1 throwing 
overboard the whole of  the speculative 
tenets of the ,bible1 and giving        
practical effect to the  morals taught  
in the ,new ,testament1 without striving
 to refute1 or even  apparently to      
disbelieve1 their authority1 but        
advising the clergy to  treat them as a 
dead letter4 ,the other posthumous      
treatise was1 ,on the  ,state of the    
,dead and the ,reviving1 which shadows  
forth a scheme of  ,deism1 inasmuch as  
,burnet here flatly contradicts the     
usual ideas of  hell torments or hell   
fire1 while asserting the necessity of  
those  who have not been as good in this
 life as they ought to be undergoing  a 
probationary purification before they   

attained supreme happiness1 yet1        
eventually1 every human being would     
inhabit a heavenly elysium1 where       
perennial pleasure would reign1 and     
sorrow be forever unknown4    ,those    
sentiments indicate a high degree of    
liberal culture1 although  they do not  
sufficiently embody our ideal of one of 
the great  ,freethinkers of the past4   
,we should have preferred ,burnet if he 
had  systematically opposed the ,church 
as ,toland or ,tindal1 or if he had     
boldly entered the breach like ,william 
,whiston1 whose singular talents  and   
faithful honesty separated him alike    
from the ,church1 ,dissent1 and  ,deism1
 and left him shipwrecked on the world  
an able yet a visionary  reformer4 ,with
 more ability than ,chubb1 he resembled 
him in his weak  policy2 he chose to cut
 his sneers in slices1 and served them  
up for  a scholarly party rather than   
hazard the indignation of the ignorant  
amongst the clergy4 ,we are1 however1   
certain that although ,thomas ,burnet   

was deficient in many points where he   
might have done effective service1  yet 
we honor him for the boldness with which
 he faced the scholars with  his ,latin 
works4 ,he threw an apple of discord    
amongst their ranks which  has served1  
in a constantly increasing manner1 to   
divide and distract  their attention4   
,the result has been a constant         
internecine war in the  ,church1 by     
which ,freethought has largely profited4
    ,we conclude our sketch of ,dr4     
,burnet by quoting some extracts from   
the  seventh chapter of the ,archologia 
,philosophica1 as translated  by        
,charles ,blount in the ,oracles of     
,reason1 concerning ,moses's            
description of ,paradise and the        
original of things3--    ,we have 7says 
,burnet7 hitherto made our inquiries    
into the originals  of things1 as well  
as after a true knowledge of ,paradise  
amongst the  ancients2 yet still with   
reference to sacred writ1 where it gave 
us any  manner of light on the subject1 

but think it altogether unnecessary  to 
define the place or situation of        
,paradise1 since in respect to the      
theory of the earth1 it is much the same
 thing where you place it1  providing it
 be not on our modern earth4 ,now1 if   
you inquire among the  ancient fathers  
where the situation of it was1 either   
they will have it  to be none at all1 or
 else obscure and remote from our       
understanding2  some of them1 indeed1   
term it an intelligible ,paradise1 but  
confined  to no one particular place2   
whilst others1 at the same time make it 
a  sensible one1 and here it is they    
first divided about it1 etc4444 ,now1   
the history of ,paradise1 according to  
,moses1 is this3--,when ,god had1 in    
six days1 finished the creation of the  
world1 the seventh day he rested  from  
all manner of work4 ,and here ,moses    
relates particularly each day's         
operations3 but for the story of        
mankind1 as well male as female1 of     
which he makes a particular treatise by 

himself4 ,wherefore1 omitting the  rest 
at present1 let us consider the ,mosaic 
doctrine upon those three  subjects1    
viz41 ,adam1 ,eve1 and the ,garden of   
,eden1 together with those  things which
 are interwoven within them4 ,as to the 
first man1 ,adam1  ,moses says he was   
formed not out of stones or dragon's    
teeth1 as other  ,cosmists have feigned 
concerning their men1 but out of the    
dust or  clay of the earth1 and when his
 body was formed1 ',god blew into his   
nostrils the breath of life1 and man was
 made a living soul4'    ,but after     
another manner1 and of another matter1  
was the woman  built--viz41 with one of 
,adam's small bones1 for as ,adam lay   
asleep1 ,god  took away one of his ribs1
 and out of that made ,eve4 ,so much for
  the forming of the first man and woman
 by the literal text4 ,moses has        
likewise given us a large account of    
their first habitation4 ,he says  that  
,god made them in a certain famous      
garden in the ,east1 and gave it  to    

them as a farm to cultivate and to      
inhabit1 which garden was a most        
delightful place1 watered with four     
several fountains or rivers1 planted    
with trees of every kind4444 ,amongst   
the trees1 in the midst of the  garden1 
stood two more remarkable than the rest2
 one was called the tree  of life1 the  
other the tree of death1 or of the      
knowledge of good and  evil4444 ,god1   
upon pain of death1 prohibits ,adam and 
,eve from tasting  the fruit of this    
tree2 but it happened that ,eve sitting 
solitary under  this tree1 without her  
husband1 there came to her a serpent or 
adder1  which 7though ,i know not by    
what means or power7 civilly accosted   
the  woman 7if we may judge of the thing
 by the event7 in these words1 or to    
this purpose3-- 99         99 ,we       
extract this portion not for its merits 
of buffoonery1       but to show the    
real state of mind which could actuate a
       dignitary of the ,church of      
,england in writing it1 as the          

eighth chapter is by far the most       
philosophical1 but we wish       to show
 ,burnet's real sentiments4             
,serpent4--,all hail1 most fair one1    
what are you doing so solitary and      
serious under this shade8    ,eve4--,i  
am contemplating the beauty of this     
tree4    ,serp4--',tis truly an         
agreeable sight1 but much pleasanter are
 the  fruits thereof4 ,have you tasted  
them1 my lady8    ,eve4--,i have not1   
because ,god has forbidden us to eat of 
this tree4    ,serp4--,what do ,i hear6 
,what is that ,god that envies his      
creatures the  innocent delights of     
nature8 ,nothing is sweeter1 nothing    
more wholesome  than this fruit3 why1   
then1 should he forbid it1 unless in    
jest8    ,eve4--,but he has forbid it us
 on pain of death4                      
,serp4--,undoubtedly you mistake his    
meaning4 ,this tree has nothing that    
would prove fatal to you1 but rather    
something divine1 and above the  common 
order of nature4    ,eve4--,i can give  

you no answer2 but will go to my        
husband1 and then do  as he thinks fit4 
,serp4--,why should you trouble your    
husband over such a trifle6 ,use your   
own judgment4    ,eve4--,let me see--had
 ,i best use it or not8 ,what 'can be   
more  beautiful than this apple8 ,how   
sweetly it smells6 ,but it may be it    
tastes ill4    ,serp4--,believe me1 it  
is a bit worthy to be eaten by the      
angels  themselves2 do but try1 and if  
it tastes ill1 throw it away4           
,eve4--,well1 ,i'll try4 ,it has1       
indeed1 a most agreeable flavor4 ,give  
me  another that ,i may carry it to my  
husband4    ,serp4--,very well thought  
on2 here's another for you3 go to your  
husband  with it4 ,farewell1 happy young
 woman4 ,in the meantime ,i'll go my    
ways2  let her take care of the rest4   
,accordingly1 ,eve gave the apple to the
 too uxorious ,adam1 when  immediately  
after their eating of it1 they became   
both 7,i don't know  how7 ashamed of    
their nakedness1 and sewing fig leaves  

together1 making  themselves a sort of  
aprons1 etc4 ,after these transactions1 
,god1 in the  evening1 descended into   
the garden1 upon which our first parents
 fled  to hide themselves in the        
thickest of the trees1 but in vain1 for 
,god  called out1 ',adam1 where art     
thou8' ,when he1 trembling1 appeared    
before  ,god ,almighty1 and said1 ,lord1
 when ,i heard thee in this garden1 ,i  
was  ashamed because of my nakedness1   
and hid myself amongst the most shady   
parts of the thicket4 ,who told thee1   
says ,god1 that thou wast naked8  ,have 
you eaten of the forbidden fruit8 ,that 
woman thou gavest me brought  it2 'twas 
she that made me eat of it4 ,you have1  
says ,god1 finely ordered  your         
business1 you and your wife4 ,here1 you 
woman1 what is this that you  have done8
 ,alas6 for me1 says ,adam1 thy serpent 
gave me the apple1 and ,i  did eat of   
it4    ,this apple shall cost you dear1 
replied ,god1 and not only you1 but your
  posterity1 and the whole race of      

mankind4 ,moreover1 for this crime1 ,i  
will curse and spoil the heavens1 the   
earth1 and the whole fabric  of nature4 
,but thou1 in the first place1 vile     
beast1 shall bear the  punishment of thy
 craftiness and malice4 ,hereafter shall
 thou go  creeping on thy belly1 and    
instead of eating apples1 shall lick the
 dust  of the earth4 ,as for you1 ,mrs4 
,curious1 who so much love delicacies1  
in  sorrow-shall you bring forth your   
children4 ,you shall be subject to  your
 husband1 and shall never depart from   
his side unless having first  obtained  
leave4 ,lastly1 as for you1 ,adam1      
because you have hearkened  more to your
 wife than to me1 with the sweat of your
 brow shall you  obtain both food for   
her and her children4 ,you shall not    
gather fruits  which1 as heretofore1    
grew of themselves1 but shall reap the  
fruits  of the earth with labor and     
trouble4 ,may the earth be1 for thy     
sake1  accursed--hereafter grow barren4 
,may she produce thistles1 thorns1      

tares1 with other hurtful and           
unprofitable herbs1 and when thou hast  
here led a troublesome1 laborious life1 
dust thou art1 to dust shalt  thou      
return444444    ,great is the force of  
custom and a preconceived opinion over  
human  minds4 ,wherefore1 these short   
observations of the first originals of  
men  or things1 which we receive from   
,moses1 are embraced without the least  
examination of them4 ,but had we read   
the same doctrine in a ,greek           
philosopher1 or in a ,rabbinical or     
,mahometan doctor1 we should have       
stopped at every sentence with our mind 
full of objections and scruples4  ,now1 
this difference does not arise from the 
nature of the thing itself1  but from   
the great opinion we have of the        
authority of the writer 'as  being      
divinely inspired4' ,the author here    
defines his ideas in reference  to      
fabulous writings1 after which he       
proceeds in his inquiry4 ',but  out of  
what matter the first of mankind1       

whether1 male or female1 was  composed1 
is not so easily known4 ,if ,god had a  
mind to make a woman  start from one of 
,adam's ribs1 it is true it seems to be 
a matter not  very proper2 but1 however1
 out of wood1 stone1 or any other being 
,god  can make a woman2 and here1 by the
 bye1 the curious ask whether this rib  
was useless to ,adam1 and beyond the    
number requisite in a complete  body4   
,if not1 when it was taken away1 ,adam  
would be a maimed person1 and  robbed of
 a part of himself that was necessary4  
,i say necessary1 for  as much1 as ,i   
suppose1 that in the fabric of a human  
body nothing is  superfluous1 and that  
no one bone can be taken away without   
endangering  the whole1 or rendering it1
 in some measure1 imperfect4 ,but it1 on
 the  other side1 you say this rib was  
really useless to ,adam1 and might be   
spared1 so that you make him to have    
only twelve ribs on one side and        
thirteen on the other1 they will reply  
that this is like a monster1  as much as

 if the first man had been created with 
three feet1 or three  hands1 or had had 
more eyes1 or other members1 than the   
use of a human  body requires4 ,but in  
the beginning we cannot but suppose that
 all  things were made with all         
imaginable exactness4    ,for my part1  
,i do not pretend to decide this        
dispute1 but what more  perplexes me is1
 how1 out of one rib1 the whole mass of 
a woman's body  could be built8 ,for a  
rib does not1 perhaps1 equal the        
thousandth part  of an entire body4 ,if 
you answer that the rest of the matter  
was taken  from elsewhere1 certainly1   
then1 ,eve might much more truly be said
 to  have been formed out of that       
borrowed matter1 whatever it was1 than  
out  of ,adam's rib4 ,i know that the   
,rabbinical doctors solve this business 
quite another way1 for they say the     
first man had two bodies1 the one  male1
 the other female1 who were joined      
together1 and that ,god having  cloven  
them asunder1 gave one side to ,adam for

 a wife4 ,plato has1 in his             
',symposium1' something very like this  
story1 concerning his first man1        
,anoroginus1 who was afterwards divided 
into two parts1 male and female4        
,lastly1 others conjecture that ,moses  
gave out this original of woman to  the 
end that he might inspire a mutual love 
between the two sexes1 as  parts of one 
and the same whole1 so as more          
effectually to recommend his  own       
institution of marriage4444 ,but leaving
 this subject1 ,i will hasten  to       
something else4    ,now1 the second     
article treats of ,god's1 garden in     
,eden1 watered with  four rivers arising
 from the same spring4444 ,those rivers 
are1 by ,moses1  called ,pishon1        
,gishon1 ,hiddekal1 and ,perath1 which  
the ancient authors  interpret by       
,ganges1 ,nile1 ,tigris1 and ,euphrates4
 ,nor do ,i truly think  without some   
reason1 for ,moses seems to have        
proposed nothing more than  the bringing
 four of the most celebrated rivers of  

the whole earth to  the watering of his 
garden4 ,ah6 but1 say you1 these four   
rivers do not  spring from the same     
source1 or come from the same place2    
'tis true1 nor  any other four rivers   
that are named by the interpreters4     
,wherefore  this objection will         
everywhere hold good1 as well against   
the ancient  as modern writers4--,but   
although you should reduce these rivers 
to only  two1 as some do1 to ,tigris and
 ,euphrates1 yet neither have these two 
rivers the same fountain-head1 but this 
is really and truly an evasion1  instead
 of an explanation1 to reduce1 contrary 
to the history of ,moses1  a greater    
number of rivers to a smaller1 only that
 they may the more  conveniently be     
reduced to the same spring2 for these   
are the words of  ,moses1 ',but there   
comes a river out of ,eden to water the 
garden1 and  from thence it divides     
itself into four branches1 the name of  
the first  is ,pishon1' etc41 whereby it
 is apparent that either in the exit or 

in  the entrance of the garden there    
were four rivers1 and that these four   
rivers did one and all proceed from the 
same fountain-head in ,eden4 ,now1  pray
 tell me in what part of the earth is   
this country of ,eden1 where  four      
rivers arise from one and the same      
spring8 ,but do not go about to  say    
that only two came from that fountain of
 ,eden1 and that the other  two arose   
from the ,tigris or the ,euphrates1     
where they split near the  sea1 and     
make1 as it were1 a bifrontic figure1   
since this does by no  means answer the 
words of ,moses4 ,besides1 he mentions  
in the first place  ,pishon and ,gishon1
 and afterwards ,tigris and ,euphrates  
as lesser rivers2  whereas you1 on the  
contrary1 will have those to be derived 
from these  last as rivers of an        
inferior order1 which is a manifest     
distorting of  the historical account4  
,but to end all these difficulties      
concerning  the channels of the rivers  
which watered ,paradise1 you will1      

perhaps1 at  last say1 that the springs1
 as well as the courses of rivers1 have 
been  changed by the universal deluge3  
and that we cannot now be certain  where
 it was they burst over the earth1 and  
what countries they passed  through4    
,for my part ,i am much of your opinion1
 providing you confess  there happened  
in the deluge such a disruption of the  
earth as we  suppose there did4 ,but    
from only an inundation of waters such a
 change  could never happen4 ,besides1  
what geography will you have ,moses to  
describe these rivers1 ante-diluvian or 
post-diluvian'8--,if the latter1  there 
has happened no considerable alteration 
of the earth since the  time of ,moses  
and the flood4 ,if the former1 you then 
render ,moses's  description of the     
earth totally superfluous and unuseful  
to discover  the situation of ,paradise4
 ,lastly1 it is hard to conceive that   
any  rivers1 whether these or others1   
can have subsisted ever since the first 
beginning of the world2 whether you have

 regard to their water or their         
channels4 ,the channels of rivers are   
made by daily attrition2 for if  they   
had been made as ditches and furrows    
are1 by earth dug out and  heaped on    
each side1 there would certainly have   
been seen everywhere  great banks of    
earth4 ,but we plainly see that this is 
only fortuitous2  forasmuch as they     
often run through plains1 and the river 
banks are no  more than level with the  
adjacent fields2 besides1 whence could  
there be  had water at the beginning of 
the world to fill these channels8 ,if   
you  say1 that on the third day1 when   
the great bed of the ocean was made1    
the smaller channels of the rivers were 
also3 and as the greatest  part of the  
waters of the abyss fell into the gulf  
of the seas1 so the  remaining part     
descended into these other channels1 and
 therewith formed  the primitive rivers4
 ,admitting this1 yet the waters would  
not only be  as salt as those of the    
sea1 but there would be no continual    

springs  to nourish these rivers2       
insomuch as when the first stream of    
water had  flown off1 there being no    
fresh supplies of water to succeed it1  
these  rivers would have been           
immediately dried up2 ,i say because    
there were  no perpetual springs2 for   
whether springs proceed from rain1 or   
from the  sea1 they could neither way   
have rose in so short a time2 not from  
rain1  for it had not as yet rained2    
neither was it possible1 that in the    
short  space of one day1 the waters of  
the abyss should run down from the most 
inland places to the sea1 and afterwards
 returning through ways that  were never
 yet open to them1 should strain        
themselves through the bowels  of the   
earth1 and ascend to the heads of their 
rivers4 ,but of rivers we  have said    
enough2 let us now proceed to the rest4 
,we have1 in the third place1 a very    
strange account of a serpent that       
talked with ,eve1 and enticed her to    
oppose ,god4 ,i must confess1 we have   

not yet known that this beast could ever
 speak1 or utter any sort  of voice1    
beside hissing4 ,but what shall we think
 ,eve knew of this  business8 ,if she   
had taken it for a dumb animal1 the very
 speech of it  would have so frightened 
her1 that she would have fled from it4  
,if1  on the other side1 the serpent had
 from the beginning been capable of     
talking and haranguing1 and only lost   
his speech for the crime of having      
corrupted the faith of ,eve1 certainly  
,moses would have been far from  passing
 over in silence this sort of           
punishment1 and only mentioning the     
curse of licking the dust4 ,besides     
this1 will you have the particular      
species of serpents1 or all the beasts  
in ,paradise1 to have been imbued  with 
the faculty of speaking1 like the trees 
in ,dodona's grove8 ,if you  say all1   
pray what offence had the rest been     
guilty of1 that they also  should lose  
the use of their tongues8 ,if only the  
serpent enjoyed this  privilege1 how    

came it about that so vile an animal 7by
 nature the most  reverse and remote    
from man7 should1 before all his other  
fellow brutes1  deserve to be master of 
so great a favor and benefit as that of 
speech8    ,lastly1 since all           
discoursing and arguing includes the use
 of reason1  by this very thing you make
 the serpent a rational creature4 ,but  
,i imagine you will solve this          
difficulty another way2 for 7say the    
sticklers for a literal interpretation7 
under the disguise of a serpent  was hid
 the ,devil1 or an evil spirit1 who1    
using the mouth and organs  of this     
animal1 spoke to the woman as though it 
were a human voice4 ,but  what testimony
 or what authority have they for this8  
,the most literal  reading of ,moses1   
which they so closely adhere to1 does   
not express  anything of it2 for what   
else does he seem to say1 but that he   
attributes the seducing of ,eve to the  
natural craftiness of the serpent1  and 
nothing else8 ,for these are ,moses's   

words3--',now the serpent was  more     
cunning than any beast of the field that
 the ,lord ,god had made4'  ,afterwards1
 continues he3--',the serpent said to   
the woman1 yea1 hath ,god  said1'       
etc4--,but besides1 had ,eve heard an   
animal1 by nature dumb1 speak  through  
the means of some evil spirit1 she would
 instantly have  fled with horror from  
the monster4--,when1 on the contrary1   
she very  familiarly received it2 they  
argued very amicably together1 as though
  nothing new or astonishing had taken  
place4 ,again1 if you say that all  this
 proceeded from the ignorance or        
weakness of a woman1 it would on  the   
other side have been but just1 that some
 good angels should have  succoured a   
poor1 ignorant1 weak woman2 those just  
guardians of human  affairs would not   
have permitted so unequal a conflict2   
for what if  an evil spirit1 crafty and 
knowing in business1 had1 by his        
subtlety1  overreached a poor1 weak1 and
 silly woman1 who had not as yet1 either

  seen the sun rise or set1 who was but 
newly born1 and thoroughly              
inexperienced4 ,certainly1 a person who 
had so great a price set upon her  head1
 as the salvation of all mankind1 might 
well have deserved a guard  of angels4  
,aye1 but perhaps 7you will say7 the    
woman ought to have taken  care not to  
violate a law established on pain of    
death4 ',the day you eat  of it you     
shall surely die1'1 both you and yours2 
this was the law4 ,die6  what does that 
mean1 says the poor1 innocent virgin1   
who as yet had not  seen anything dead1 
no1 not so much as a flower2 nor had yet
 with her  eyes or mind perceived the   
image of death--viz41 sleep1 or night8  
,but  what you add concerning his       
posterity and their punishment1 that is 
not all expressed in the law4 ,now no   
laws are ever to so distorted1          
especially those that are penal4 ,the   
punishment of the serpent will also     
afford no inconsiderable question1 if   
the ,devil transacted the whole  thing  

under the form of a serpent2 or if he   
compelled the serpent to do1  or to     
suffer things1 why did he 7the serpent7 
pay for a crime committed  by the       
,devil8 ,moreover1 as to the manner and 
form of the punishment  inflicted on the
 serpent1 that from that time he should 
go creeping on  his belly1 it is not to 
be explained what that meant4 ,hardly   
any one  will say1 that prior to his    
catastrophe the serpent walked upright1 
like  four footed beasts2 and if1 from  
the beginning1 he crept on his belly    
like other snakes1 it may seem          
ridiculous to impose on this creature as
  a punishment for one single crime1 a  
thing which1 by nature1 he ever had     
before4 ,but let this suffice for the   
woman and serpent2 let us now go  on to 
the trees4 ,i here understand those two 
trees1 which stood in the  middle of the
 garden1 the tree of life1 and the tree 
of good and evil4  ,the former so       
called1 that it would give men a very   
long life1 although1  by what follows1  

we find our forefathers1 prior to the   
flood1 lived  to very great ages1       
independent of the tree of life4        
,besides1 if the  longevity1 or         
immortality of man had depended only    
upon one tree1 or its  fruit1 what if   
,adam had not sinned8 how could his     
posterity1 diffused  throughout the     
whole earth1 have been able to come and 
gather fruit out  of this garden1 or    
from this tree8 or how could the product
 of one tree  have been sufficient for  
all mankind8    ,such is a condensed    
abstract of ,dr4 ,burnet's seventh      
chapter of  ,archologia4 ,the eighth    
chapter equals the above in boldness2   
but far  exceeds it in breadth of logic 
and critical acumen1 without1 however1  
appearing so iconoclastic or so vulgar4 
,the next chapter abounds in  classical 
quotations1 the ,creation of the world  
and the ,deluge is the  theme on which  
so much is advanced1 at a time when such
 language was  greeted with the stake   
and the prison4 ,we cannot calculate the

 effect of  ,burnet's works on the      
clerical mind2 but this we do know1 that
 since his  day1 there has progressed an
 internal revolution in the tenets of   
the  church1 which1 in the last         
generation1 gave birth to the neology1  
now so  destructive of the internal     
peace of the churches4 ,neology has not 
come  from ,deism1 for this power       
assails the outworks of ,christianity2  
while  the school of criticism is but a 
severe pruning knife of internal        
verbiage4 ,although the language quoted 
is harsh1 the arguments  common-place1  
which1 although true1 are now discarded 
by the educated  ,freethinker2 yet if   
for no stronger language than this men  
were  imprisoned only ten years ago1    
what must we say to the moral courage   
which could publish them #aej years ago8
 ,there must surely have been  greater  
risks than in our day2 and when a man   
dare hazard the highest  power of the   
church for the duty of publishing       
unpopular sentiments1  it is clearly our

 duty to2 enshrine him as one of the    
guardians of that  liberty of thought1  
and speech1 which have won for us a     
freedom4  we cherish and protect4 ,let  
the earth then lie lightly over the     
priest-,freethinker1 ,thomas ,burnet4   
,a4 ,c4          ,,thomas ,,paine4      
,the wise by some centuries before the  
crowd1            ,must1 by their novel 
systems1 though correct1       ,of      
course offend the wicked1 weak1 and     
proud1            ,must meet with       
hatred1 calumny1 neglect4      ,thomas  
,paine1 the sturdy champion of political
 and religious liberty1  was born at    
,thetford1 in the ,county of ,norfolk1  
7,eng417 #bith of ,january1  #agcg4     
,born of religious parents 7his father  
being a ,quaker1 and his  mother a      
member of the ,church of ,england17     
,paine received a religious  education  
at ,thetford ,grammar ,school1 under the
 ,rev4 ,william ,knowles4  ,at an early 
age he gave indications of his great    
talent1 and found  pleasure1 when a boy1

 in studying poetical authors4 ,his     
parents1  however1 endeavored to check  
his taste for poetry1 his father        
probably  thinking it would unfit him   
for the denomination to which he        
belonged4  ,but ,paine did not lose much
 time before experimenting in poetry    
himself4  ,hence we find him1 when eight
 years of age1 composing the following  
epitaph1 upon a fly being caught in a   
spider's web3--         ,here lies the  
body of ,john ,crow1       ,who once was
 high1 but now is low2       ,ye brother
 ,crows take warning all1       ,for as 
you rise1 so you must fall4    ,at the  
age of thirteen1 after receiving a      
moderate education in reading1  writing1
 and arithmetic1 ,paine left school1 to 
follow his father's  trade              
7stay-making47 ,although disliking the  
business1 he pursued  this avocation for
 nearly five years4 ,when about twenty  
years of age1  however1 he felt--as most
 enterprising young men do feel--a      
desire  to visit ,london1 and enter into

 the competition and chances of a       
metropolitan life4 ,his natural dislike 
to his father's business led him  to    
abandon for a period his original       
occupation1 and1 after working some     
time with ,mr4 ,morris1 a noted         
stay-maker1 in ,long ,acre1 he resolved 
upon  a seafaring adventure1 of which he
 thus speaks3--    ,at an early age1    
raw1 adventurous1 and heated with the   
false ,heroism  of a master ,rev4 ,mr4  
,knowles1 ,master of the ,grammar       
,school at ,thetford  who had served in 
a man-of-war1 ,i began my fortune1 and  
entered on board  the ,terrible1        
,captain ,death1 from this adventure ,i 
was happily prevented  by the           
affectionate and moral remonstrances of 
a good father1 who from  the habits of  
his life1 being of the ,quaker          
profession1 looked on me as  lost2 but  
the impression1 much as it affected me  
at the time1 wore  away1 and ,i entered 
afterwards in the ,king of ,prussia     
privateer1 ,captain  ,mender1 and went  

with her to sea4    ,sea life did not1  
as may be supposed1 long satisfy a mind 
like ,paine's4  ,in ,april1 #agei1 after
 working nearly twelve months at ,dover1
 we find  him settled as master         
stay-maker at ,sandwich2 marrying1 on   
,september  #bg1 ,mary ,lambert1        
daughter of an ,exciseman of that place4
 ,but his  matrimonial happiness was of 
short duration1 his wife dying the      
following year4    ,disgusted with the  
toil and inconvenience of his late      
occupation1  ,paine now renounced it    
forever1 to apply himself to the        
profession of  ,exciseman4 ,after       
fourteen months' study he obtained the  
appointment of  supernumerary in the    
,excise1 which he held1 with intervals1 
till #agfh1  when he settled as         
,exciseman at ,lewes1 in ,sussex1 and   
married1 #agga1  ,elizabeth ,olive1     
daughter of a tobacconist1 whose        
business he succeeded  to4 ,about this  
time ,paine wrote several little pieces1
 in prose and  verse1 among which was   

the celebrated song on the ,death of    
,general  ,wolfe1 and ,the ,trial of    
,farmer ,carter's ,dog1 ,porter4 ,the   
latter is a  composition of exquisite   
wit and humor4    ,in #aggb the ,excise 
officers throughout the kingdom were    
dissatisfied  with their salaries1 and  
formed a plan to apply to ,parliament   
for an  increase4 ,paine being          
distinguished among them as a man of    
great  talent1 was solicited to draw up 
and state their case1 which he did in a 
pamphlet entitled ,the ,case of the     
,salary of the ,officers of ,excise1 and
  ,thoughts on the ,corruption arising  
from the ,poverty of ,excise ,officers4 
,four thousand copies of this pamphlet  
were printed and circulated4 ,some  time
 after this publication1 ,paine1 being  
in the grocery business1 was  suspected 
of unfair practices1 and was dismissed  
the ,excise1 after  being in it twelve  
years4 ,this suspicion1 however1 was    
never shown  to be just4 ,but to show   
how very vigorous the authorities were  

in  suppressing smuggling1 we will quote
 the following letter from ,clio        
,rickman to the ,editor of the          
,independent ,whig1 in ,october1        
#ahjg3--    ,sir1--,if there are any    
characters more to be abhorred than     
others1  it is those who inflict severe 
punishments against offenders1 and yet  
themselves commit the same crimes4      
,if any characters more than others     
deserve execration1 exposure1 and  to be
 driven from among mankind1 it is those 
governors of the people who  break the  
laws they themselves make1 and punish   
others for breaking4    ,suffer me1 ,mr4
 ,editor1 thus to preface the following 
fact2 fact1 ,i say1  because ,i stand   
ready to prove it so4    ,when ,admiral 
,duncan rendezvoused in the ,downs with 
his fleet1 on the  #hth of ,january1    
#ahjf1 the ,spider lugger1 ,daniel      
,falara1 master1 was sent  to ,guernsey 
to smuggle articles for the fleet1 such 
as wine1 spirits1  hair powder1 playing 
cards1 tobacco1 etc41 for the supply of 

the  different ships4    ,at her arrival
 in the ,downs1 the ships' boats flocked
 round her  to unload her and her       
contraband cargo4 ,a ,custom ,house     
extra boat1  commanded by ,william      
,wallace1 seeing the lugger1 followed   
and took her2  in doing which he did his
 duty4    ,on his inspecting the        
smuggled articles with which she was    
laden1 he  found a number of cases      
directed to ,admiral ,duncan1 the ,right
 ,honorable  ,william ,pitt1 the        
heaven-born ,minister of ,england1 and  
to the ,right  ,honorable ,henry        
,dundas1 ,walmer ,castle4 ,in a few     
days1 ,wallace1 the  master of the      
,custom ,house cutter1 received orders  
from ,government to  give the lugger and
 her smuggled cargo up1 on penalty of   
being dismissed  the service2 and these 
cases of smuggled goods were afterwards 
delivered  at the ,prime ,ministers1    
,mr4 ,pitt1 at ,walmer ,castle4    ,mr4 
,editor1 read what follows1 and repress 
your indignation if you can4    ,there  

are now in ,deal jail fourteen persons  
for trifling acts of  smuggling compared
 to the above of the ,right ,honorable  
,william ,pitt and  the now ,right      
,honorable ,lord ,melville4    ,the     
former were poor1 and knew not how to   
live1 the latter were most  affluently  
and splendidly supported by the         
people--that is1 they were  paupers upon
 the generous public1 towards whom they 
thus scandalously  and infamously       
conducted themselves4    ,i am1 ,sir1   
your humble servant1    ,clio ,rickman4 
,to those opponents of ,thomas ,paine   
who attach any weight to his  dismissal 
from the ,excise on suspicion of        
smuggling1 we would mention  the fact1  
that during ,paine's service at ,lewes1 
,mr4 ,jenner1 the  principal clerk in   
the ,excise ,office1 ,london1 wrote     
several letters  from the ,board of     
,excise1 thanking ,mr4 ,paine for his   
assiduity in his  profession1 and for   
his information and calculations        
forwarded to the  office4 ,shortly-after

 his dismissal1 ,mr4 ,paine and his     
wife1 by mutual  agreement1 separated4  
,many tales have been put in circulation
 respecting  the separation4 ,clio      
,rickman1 in his ,life of ,paine1 has   
the following  passage3---    ,that he  
did not cohabit with her from the moment
 they left the altar  till the day of   
their separation1 a space of three      
years1 although they  lived in the same 
house together1 is an indubitable truth4
 ,it is also  true1 that no physical    
defect1 on the part of ,mr4 ,paine1 can 
be adduced  as a reason for such        
conduct4444 ,mr4 ,paine's answer1 upon  
my once  referring to this subject1 was1
 ',it is nobody's business but my own3  
,i  had cause for it1 but ,i will name  
it to no one4'4444 ,this ,i can assert1 
that ,mr4 ,paine always spoke tenderly  
and respectfully of his wife2 and  sent 
her several times pecuniary aid1 without
 her knowing even whence it  came4      
,in #aggd ,paine left ,england1 and     
arrived at ,philadelphia a few months   

before the battle of ,lexington4 ,he    
made his appearance in the ,new ,world  
as editor of the ,pennsylvanian         
,magazine2 and it would appear that he  
then had in view the coming struggle1 in
 which he took so prominent a  part1 for
 in his introduction to the first number
 of the above ,magazine  he             
states3--,thus encompassed with         
difficulties1 this first number of  the 
,pennsylvanian ,magazine entreats a     
favorable reception2 of which we  shall 
only say1 that like the early snowdrop1 
it comes forth in a barren  season1 and 
contents itself with foretelling the    
reader that choicer  flowers are        
preparing to appear4 ,upon the foreign  
supply of gunpowder  being prohibited1  
he proposed a plan1 in the              
,pennsylvanian ,journal1 of  a saltpetre
 association for the voluntary supply of
 that article of  destruction4    ,on   
the #ajth of ,january1 #aggf1 ,common   
,sense was published1 its  circulation  
soon reaching #ajj1jjj copies4 ,the     

effect this remarkable  pamphlet        
produced upon the minds of the ,american
 people1 and the share  it had in       
bringing to a successful issue the then 
pending struggle1 may  be gathered even 
from ,paine's bitterest enemies4 ,mr4   
,cheetham1 in his  ,life of ,paine1     
while endeavoring to damage the author  
of ,common  ,sense1 admits the value of 
this pamphlet4 ,he says3--,this pamphlet
 of  forty octavo pages1 holding out    
relief by proposing ,independence to  an
 oppressed and despairing people1 was   
published in ,january1 #aggf2  speaking 
a language which the colonists had felt1
 but not thought of4  ,its popularity1  
terrible in its consequences to the     
parent country1  was unexampled in the  
history of the press4 ,at first         
involving the  colonists1 in the crime  
of rebellion1 and pointing to a road    
leading  inevitably to ruin1 it was read
 with indignation and alarm2 but when   
the reader--and every one read          
it--recovering from the first shock1    

re-perused it1 its arguments nourishing 
his feelings and appealing to  his      
pride1 re-animated his hopes1 and       
satisfied his understanding that        
',common ,sense1' backed by the         
resources and force of the colonies1    
poor  and feeble as they were1 could    
alone rescue them from the unqualified  
oppression with which they were         
threatened4 ,the unknown author1 in the 
moments of enthusiasm which succeeded1  
was an angel sent from heaven  to save  
from all the horrors of slavery by his  
timely1 powerful1 and  unerring         
councils1 a faithful but abused1 a brave
 but misrepresented  people4 ,another of
 ,paine's enemies and                   
slanderers--,elkanah ,watson--in  a     
volume recently published1 entitled ,men
 and ,times of the ,revolution1  after  
speaking in very disparaging terms of   
,paine's appearance1 habits1  and       
disposition 7which is proved false by   
the best of testimony17 admits  the     
service rendered to ,america by ,common 

,sense4 ,he says3--,yet ,i  could not   
repress the deepest emotions of         
gratitude towards him1 as  the          
instrument of ,providence in            
accelerating the declaration of our     
,independence4 ,he certainly was a      
prominent agent in preparing the public 
sentiment of ,america for that glorious 
event4 ,the idea of ,independence  had  
not occupied the popular mind1 and when 
guardedly approached on the  topic1 it  
shrunk from the conception1 as fraught  
with doubt1 with peril1  and with       
suffering4 ,in #aggf ,i was present at  
,providence1 ,rhode ,island1  in a      
social assembly of most of the prominent
 leaders of the ,state4 ,i  recollect   
that the subject of ,independence was   
cautiously introduced by  an ardent     
,whig1 and the thought seemed to excite 
the abhorrence of the  whole circle4 ,a 
few weeks after1 ,paine's ',common      
,sense' appeared1 and  passed through   
the continent like an electric spark4   
,it everywhere  flashed conviction1 and 

aroused a determined spirit1 which      
resulted in  the ,declaration of        
,independence1 upon the #dth of ,july   
ensuing4 ,the name  of ,paine was       
precious to every ,whig heart1 and had  
resounded throughout  ,europe4 ,other   
testimony could be given to ,paine's    
influence in the  ,american struggle for
 ,independence2 but after the two       
already mentioned  from his opponents1  
it is unnecessary to give further proof4
    ,in the same year that ,common      
,sense appeared1 ,paine accompanied     
,general  ,washington and his army1     
being with him in his retreat from      
,hudson ,river  to the ,delaware4       
,although great terror prevailed1 ,paine
 stood brave and  undismayed1 conscious 
he was advocating a just cause1 and     
determined to  bring it to a successful 
issue4 ,he occupied himself in inspiring
 hope  in the ,americans1 showing them  
their strength and their weakness4 ,this
  object drew from his pen ,the ,crisis1
 a continuation of the  ,common ,sense1 

which was issued at intervals till the  
cessation of  hostilities4    ,in #aggg 
,paine was unanimously1 and unknown to  
himself1 appointed  ,secretary in the   
,foreign ,department1 where he formed a 
close friendship  with ,dr4 ,franklin4  
,he did not retain his office1 however1 
long1 as  he refused to become a party  
to the fraudulent demands of a ,mr4     
,silas  ,deane1 one of the ,american    
,commissioners1 then in ,europe2 and he 
resigned the office4    ,in #aghj he was
 chosen member of the ,american         
,philosophical ,society1  having        
previously received the degree of       
,master of ,arts from the  ,university  
of ,philadelphia4    ,when the          
,independence of ,america was attained1 
and when oppression had  received a     
severe and lasting check in that rising 
country1 we find that  ,paine1 so far   
from being satisfied with his success in
 the ,new ,world1  began to look for a  
fresh field where he might render good  
service to  the cause of right and      

freedom4 ,accordingly1 in #aghg4 he     
visited ,paris1  his famous services to 
,america giving him a welcome by those  
who knew  the benefit arising from the  
establishment of human rights4 ,his stay
 in  ,paris1 at this time1 was of short 
duration1 as he returned to ,england    
after an absence of thirteen years1 on  
,september #crd4 ,after visiting  his   
mother1 and settling an allowance of    
nine shillings per week for her         
support1 he resided for a short time at 
,rotherham1 in ,yorkshire1 where  an    
iron bridge was cast and erected upon a 
model of his invention1 which  obtained 
him great reputation for his            
mathematical skill4    ,the publication 
of ,mr4 ,burke's ,reflections on the    
,french ,revolution  called from ,paine 
his ,rights of ,man1 a book that created
 great  attraction1 and sold nearly a   
million and a half of copies4 ,in       
politics  ,paine was clear and decided1 
and1 from his moderation1 what is called
  sound4 ,for the perusal of those who  

may not have read it1 we give the       
following quotations1 to show the       
principles upon which it is based3--    
,mr4 ,burke talks about what he calls an
 hereditary crown1 as if it  were some  
production of nature2 or as if1 like    
time1 it had a power to  operate1 not   
only independently1 but in spite of man2
 or as if it were a  thing or a subject 
universally consented to4 ,alas6 it has 
none of  those properties1 but is the   
reverse of them all4 ,it is a thing in  
imagination1 the property of which is   
more than doubted1 and the  legality of 
which in a few years will be denied4    
,but1 to arrange this  matter in a      
clearer view than what general          
expressions can convey1  it will be     
necessary to state the distinct heads   
under which 7what is  called7 an        
hereditary crown1 or1 more properly     
speaking1 an hereditary  succession to  
the government of a nation1 can be      
considered2 which are1  first1 the right
 of a particular family to establish    

itself2 secondly1  the right of a nation
 to establish a particular family4 ,with
 respect to  the first of these heads1  
that of a family establishing itself    
with  heredity powers on its own        
authority1 and independent of the       
consent of  a nation1 all men will      
concur in calling it despotism3 and it  
would  be trespassing on their          
understanding to attempt to prove it4   
,but the  second head1 that of a nation 
establishing a particular family with   
hereditary powers1 does not present     
itself as despotism on the first        
reflection2 but if men will permit a    
second reflection to take place1  and   
carry that reflection forward but one   
remove out of their own  persons to that
 of their offspring1 they will then see 
that hereditary  succession becomes in  
its consequences the same despotism to  
others1  which they reprobated for      
themselves4 ,it operates to preclude the
  consent of the succeeding generations2
 and the preclusion of consent is       

despotism4 ,when the person who at any  
time shall be in possession of  a       
government1 or those who stand in       
succession to him1 shall say to a       
nation1 ,i hold this power in 'contempt'
 of you1 it signifies not on what       
authority he pretends to say it4 ,it is 
no relief1 but an aggravation to  a     
person in slavery1 to reflect that he   
was sold by his parent2 and as  that    
which heightens the criminality of an   
act cannot be produced to  prove the    
legality of it1 hereditary succession   
cannot be established as  a legal       
thing4444 ,notwithstanding the taxes of 
,england amount to almost  seventeen    
millions a year1 said to be for the     
expenses of ,government1 it  is still   
evident that the sense of the nation is 
left to govern itself  by magistrates   
and jurors1 almost at its own charge1 on
 ,republican  principles1 exclusive of  
the expense of taxes4 ,the salaries of  
the  judges are almost the only charge  
that is paid out of the revenue4        

,considering that all the internal      
government is executed by the people1   
the taxes of ,england ought to be the   
lightest of any nation in ,europe2      
instead of which they are the contrary4 
,as this cannot be accounted for  on the
 score of civil government1 the subject 
necessarily extends itself  to the      
monarchical part44444 ,if a law be bad1 
it is one thing to oppose  the practice 
of it1 but it is quite a different thing
 to expose its  errors1 to reason on its
 defects1 and show cause why it should  
be  repealed1 or why another ought to be
 substituted in its place4 ,i have      
always held it an opinion 7making it    
also my practice7 that it is better  to 
obey a bad law1 making use at the same  
time of every argument to show  its     
errors and procure its repeal1 than     
forcibly to violate it2 because  the    
precedent of breaking a bad law might   
weaken the force1 and lead to  a        
discretionary violation1 of those which 
are good4    ,as may be supposed1 such a

 work as ,the ,rights of ,man1 aiming   
directly  at all oppression1 regardless 
of party1 could not be allowed to escape
  the ,attorney-,general's answer4      
,accordingly1 we find a prosecution     
instituted against it4 ,but instead of  
prosecuting the author1 the  publishers 
were selected4 ,this drew from ,paine a 
long ,letter to the  ,attorney-,general1
 suggesting the justice of his answering
 for the book  he wrote4 ,on the trial1 
,mr4 7afterwards ,lord7 ,erskine thus   
spoke of  the author of ,the ,rights of 
,man3--,the defendant's whole deportment
  previous to the publication has been  
wholly unexceptionable2 he properly     
desired to be given up as the author of 
the book1 if any inquiry should  take   
place concerning it2 and he is not      
affected in evidence1 directly  or      
indirectly1 with any illegal or         
suspicious conduct1 not even with       
uttering an indiscreet or taunting      
expression1 nor with any one matter  or 
thing inconsistent with the best subject

 in ,england4    ,on the #abth of       
,september1 #agib1 ,mr4 ,achilles       
,audibert came expressly to  ,england1  
from the ,french ,convention1 to solicit
 ,paine to attend and aid  them1 by his 
advice1 in their deliberations4 ,on his 
arrival at ,calais  a public dinner was 
provided1 a royal salute was fired from 
the battery1  the troops were drawn out1
 and there was a general rejoicing      
throughout  the town4444 ,paine was     
escorted to the house of his friend1    
,mr4  ,audibert1 the ,chief ,magistrate 
of the place1 where he was visited by   
the  ,commandant1 and all the ,municipal
 ,officers in forms1 who afterwards gave
  him a sumptuous entertainment in the  
,town ,hall4 ,the same honor was also   
paid him on his departure for ,paris4   
,upon his arrival in ,paris all  was    
confusion4 ,there were the ,king's      
friends mortified and subdued1  the     
,jacobins split up into cavilling       
faction1 some wishing a federative      
government1 some desiring the ,king's   

death1 and the death of all the         
nobility2 while a portion were more     
discreet1 wishing liberty without       
licentiousness1 and having a desire to  
redress wrongs without revenge4  ,these 
few accepted ,paine as their leader1 and
 renounced all connection  with the     
,jacobin ,club4    ,paine1 on all       
occasions1 advocated the preservation of
 the ,king's life  but his efforts were 
thwarted by the appointment1 by         
,robespierre1 of  ,barrere to office4   
,so anxiously was ,paine sought after1  
that both ,calais  and ,versailles      
returned him as ,deputy4 ,to show how   
the author of ,the  ,rights of ,man     
opposed all physical force where reason 
may be used1 it  is only necessary to   
state1 that when the ,letter of         
,dumourier reached  ,paris with the     
threat of restoring the ,king1 ,paine   
wrote a letter to  the ,convention1     
stating a plan for re-adjustment1 and   
was taking it  personally1 when he was  
informed that a decree had just been    

passed  offering one hundred thousand   
crowns for ,dumourier's head2 and       
another1  making it high treason to     
propose anything in his favor4 ,whilst  
,deputy  for ,calais1 ,paine was sought 
and admired by all classes4 ,he dined   
every  ,friday1 for a long period1 with 
the ,earl of ,lauderdale and ,dr4       
,moore2  and so frequent were his       
visitors1 that he set apart two mornings
 a  week for his levee days4--,he soon1 
however1 changed his residence1         
preferring less formality and a more    
select circle4 ,his ,history of the     
,french ,revolution we are deprived of  
by his imprisonment1 which ,gibbon      
thought would prove a great loss4 ,the  
historian often applied for the  ,,ms41 
believing it to be of great worth4 ,the 
opinion ,paine held of the  ,revolution 
may be gathered from the following3--   
,with respect to the ,revolution1 it was
 begun by good men1 on good  principles1
 and ,i have ever believed it would have
 gone on so1 had  not the provocative   

interference of foreign powers          
distracted it into  madness1 and sown   
jealousies among the leaders4 ,the      
people of ,england  have now two        
,revolutions1 the ,american and the     
,french before them4 ,their  own wisdom 
will direct them what to choose and what
 to avoid1 and  in everything which     
relates to their happiness1 combined    
with the common  good of mankind1 ,i    
wish them honor and success4    ,his    
speech against the death of the ,king1  
shows how far he was removed  from party
 spirit or any feeling of revenge4      
,whilst he protested against  the ,king 
being re-enthroned1 he equally protested
 against his death1  wishing him removed
 from the seat of his corruption1 and   
placed in  a more elevating             
atmosphere4--,entreating for the ,king's
 safety1 he  says3--,let then the       
,united ,states be the safeguard and the
 asylum of  ,louis ,capet4 ,there1      
hereafter1 far removed from the miseries
 and crimes  of royalty1 he may learn1  

from the constant aspect of public      
prosperity1  that the true system of    
government consists in fair1 equal1 and 
honora-able representation4 ,in relating
 this circumstance1 and in  submitting  
this proposition1 ,i consider myself as 
a citizen of both  countries4    ,the   
policy pursued by ,paine was not        
consonant with the views of             
,robespierre4 ,consequently1 he was     
seized in the night and imprisoned  in  
the ,luxembourg eleven months1 without  
any reason being assigned4 ,the  readers
 are doubtless aware of the many        
,providential escapes he had  from the  
death for which he was seized4 ,while in
 prison he wrote part of  his ,age of   
,reason1 7having commenced it just      
previous to his arrest7  not ,knowing   
one hour but he might be executed1 and  
once being on the  verge of death from  
fever4 ,he knew the prejudice the ,age  
of ,reason  would create1 so he left its
 production to the latter part of his   
life1 not wishing to make that an       

impediment to the good he sought to     
accomplish in the ,political world4     
,after toiling in ,france to bring the  
,revolution to a just termination1  and 
finding his efforts rendered abortive by
 that feeling which former  oppression  
had created1 he resolved to return to   
,america1 a country he  saw thriving by 
a policy he wished to institute in      
,france4    ,in #ahjb1 ,jefferson1 then 
,president of ,america1 knowing his wish
 to  return1 wrote him the following    
letter3--      ,you express a wish in   
your letter to return to ,america by a  
national  ship4 ,mr4 ,dawson1 who brings
 over the treaty1 and who will present  
you  with this letter1 is charged with  
orders to the captain of the ,maryland1 
to receive and accommodate you back if  
you can be ready to return at  such a   
short warning4 ,you will in general find
 us returned to sentiments  worthy of   
former times2 in these it will be your  
glory to have steadily  labored1 and    
with as much effect as any man living4  

,that you may  live long to continue    
your useful labors1 and reap the reward 
in the  thankfulness of nations1 is my  
sin cere prayer4    ,accept the         
assurance of my high esteem and         
affectionate attachment1    ,thomas     
,jefferson4      ,but circumstances     
prevented ,paine going by the ,maryland4
 ,he sailed1  however1 on the #ast of   
,september1 #ahjb1 in the ,london       
,pacquet4 ,he  had often previously     
arranged to return to ,america1 but     
luckily1  ,providence prevented him4    
,one ship that he intended to sail by1  
was  searched by ,english frigates for  
,thomas ,paine1 and another sunk at sea1
  whilst at other times ,british        
frigates were cruising off the ports    
from  which he was to sail1 knowing him 
to be there4    ,so much religious      
misrepresentation has been circulated   
about ,paine's  life and death1 that it 
becomes a duty to restate the facts4    
,the  manner of life ,paine pursued may 
be gathered from the reliable  testimony

 of ,clio ,rickman4 ,he says1 ,mr4      
,paine's life in ,london was a  quiet   
round of philosophical leisure and      
enjoyment4 ,it was occupied in  writing1
 in a small epistolary correspondence1  
in walking about with me  to visit      
different friends1 occasionally lounging
 at coffeehouses and  public places1 or 
being visited by a select few4 ,lord    
,edward ,fitzgerald1  the ,french and   
,american ambassadors1 ,mr4 ,sharp the  
engraver1 ,romney1 the  painter1 ,mrs4  
,wolstonecraft1 ,joel ,barlow1 ,mr4     
,hull1 ,mr4 ,christie1 ,dr4  ,priestley1
 ,dr4 ,towers1 ,colonel ,oswald1 the    
walking ,stewart1 ,captain  ,sampson    
,perry1 ,mr4 ,tuffin1 ,mr4 ,william     
,choppin1 ,captain ,de ,stark1  ,mr4    
,home ,tooke1 etc41 were among the      
number of his friends and               
acquaintances4 ,his manner of living in 
,france and ,america has already  been  
noticed4    ,the perverted tales of     
,carver and ,cheetham may be utterly    
disproved by  referring to ,clio        

,rickman's ,life of ,paine4 ,as his     
life1 so was his  death4 ,when he became
 feeble and infirm 7in ,jan4 #ahji7 he  
was often  visited by those good people 
who so often intrude upon the domestic  
quiet of the afflicted4 ,after the visit
 of an old woman1 come from the         
,almighty1 7whom ,paine soon sent back  
again7 he was troubled with the  ,rev4  
,mr4 ,milledollar1 and the ,rev4 ,mr4   
,cunningham4 ,the latter reverend  said1
 ,mr4 ,paine1 we visit you as friends   
and neighbors2 you have now a  full view
 of death1 you cannot live long2 and    
whoever does not believe  in ,jesus     
,christ1 will assuredly be damned4 ,let 
me1 said ,paine1  have none of your     
,popish stuff2 get away with you2 good  
morning1  good morning4 ,another visitor
 was the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,hargrove1 with this
  statement3--,my name is ,hargrove1    
,sir2 ,i am minister of the new         
,jerusalem church2 we1 ,sir1 explain the
 scripture in its true meaning2  the key
 has been lost these four thousand      

years1 and we have found ,it4  ,then1   
said ,paine1 in his own neat way1 it    
must have been very rusty4  ,shortly    
before his death1 he stated to ,mr4     
,hicks1 to whom he had sent  to arrange 
his burial8 that his sentiments in      
reference to the ,christian  religion   
were precisely the same as when he wrote
 the ,age of ,reason4  ,on the #hth of  
,june1 7in the words of ,clio ,rickman7 
#ahji4 about nine in  the morning1 he   
placidly1 and almost without a struggle1
 died as he had  lived1 a ,deist1 aged  
seventy-two years and five months4 ,he  
was interred  at ,new ,rochelle1 upon   
his own farm2 a handsome monument being 
now  erected where he was buried4    ,it
 has been the object in the present     
sketch rather to give1 in a brief       
manner1 an account of ,paine's life and 
services1 than an elucidation  of his   
writings4 ,his works are well known1 and
 they will speak for  themselves but    
much wrong is done to his memory by the 
perversions and  misrepresentations of  

the religious publications4 ,no doubt   
had his views  been different on        
religious subjects1 he would have been  
held up as  a model of genius1          
perseverance1 courage1 disinterestedness
 of purpose1  and purity of life1 by the
 men who now find him no better name    
than the  ,blasphemer4 ,we hope that    
those not previously acquainted with the
  facts of his life1 will find in the   
present sketch sufficient reason to     
think and speak otherwise of a man who  
made the world his country1 and  the    
doing good his religion4         ,as    
,euclid near his various writings shone1
       ,his pen inspired by glorious    
truth alone1       ,o'er all the earth  
diffusing light and life1               
,subduing error1 ignorance1 and strife2 
,raised man to just pursuits1 to        
thinking right1       ,and yet will free
 the world from woe and falsehood's     
night2       ,to this immortal man1 to  
,paine 'twas given1       ,to           
metamorphose earth from hell to heaven4 

,j4 ,w4          ,,baptiste ,,de        
,,mirabaud    ,jean ,baptiste de        
,mirabaud was born at ,paris1 in the    
year #afge4 ,of his  early life we can  
glean but very scanty information4 ,he  
appears first to  have embraced the     
military profession1 but it not being   
consonant with  his general character1  
he soon quitted the army1 and devoted   
himself to  literature4 ,he was1        
however1 nearly forty-nine years of age 
before  he became known in the literary 
world4 ,he then published a ,french     
translation of ,tasso's ,jerusalem1     
which brought him much fame2 and  many  
of the contributors to the ,french      
,encyclopaedia appear to have           
associated with him1 and courted his    
friendship4 ,he was afterwards  elected 
a member of the ,french ,academy of     
which he became the ,secretary  in      
#agdb4 ,mirabaud was a constant visitor 
at the house of his friend1 the  ,baron 
d',holbach1 down to the period of his   
death4 ,he wrote ,the ,world3  its      

,origin and its ,antiquity1 ,opinions of
 the ,ancients upon the ,jews1          
,sentiments of the ,philosophers upon   
the ,nature of the ,soul1 and other     
minor works4 ,the ,system of ,nature was
 also for many years attributed  to     
,mirabaud1 but it appears now to be     
extremely doubtful whether he ever      
wrote a single line of the work4 ,the   
,abbe ,galiani was one of the first  who
 pointed out ,d',holbach as the author4 
,in the memoirs of ,m4 ,suard1  edited  
by ,m4 ,garat1 the same hypothesis is   
supported with additional  firmness4    
,dugald ,stewart seems to put much faith
 in the latter  authority1 as fixing the
 authorship of the ,system of ,nature   
upon  ,d',holbach4 ,voltaire attributes 
the work to ,damilaville1 in a somewhat 
positive manner1 for which he is sharply
 criticised in the ,biographie          
,universelle1 published in #ahag4 ,the  
,system of ,nature is a book of  which  
,dugald ,stewart speaks1 as the boldest1
 if not the ablest work of  the         

,parisian ,atheists1 and it has         
undoubtedly obtained great  popularity4 
,voltaire1 who has written against the  
,system of ,nature in  a tone of bitter 
sarcasm1 and who complains of its       
general dullness and  prolixity1 yet    
admits that it is often humorous1       
sometimes eloquent4  ,it certainly is   
not written in that lively1 but rather  
superficial  style1 which has           
characterized many of the ,french       
writers1 but it speaks  in plain yet    
powerful language1 evincing an extensive
 acquaintance with  the works of        
previous philosophers1 and much thought 
in relation to the  subjects treated    
upon4 ,some of its pages exhibiting more
 vivacity than  the rest of the book1   
have been attributed to ,diderot1 who   
7it is  alleged by ,marmontel and       
others7 aided1 by his pen and counsel1  
many of  the ,freethinking works issued 
during his life4    ,the ,system of     
,nature was not published during the    
life-time of  ,mirabaud1 and it is      

therefore impossible to use any argument
 which might  have been based upon      
,mirabaud's conduct in relation to it4  
,mirabaud died in ,paris in #agfj1 at   
the advanced age of nearly eighty-six   
years4 ,contemporary with him were      
,d',alembert1 ,d',holbach1 ,voltaire1   
,diderot1 ,helvetius1 ,condorcet1       
,buffon1 ,rousseau1 ,frederick ,,ii4 of 
,prussia1 ,montesquieu1 ,grimm1 ,sir    
,william ,tempte1 ,toland1 ,tindel1     
,edmund  ,halley1 ,hume1 ,gibbon1 ,adam 
,smith1 ,franklin1 and ,darwin1 forming 
a role  of names1 whose fame will be    
handed down to posterity for centuries  
to  come1 as workers in the cause of    
man's redemption from mental slavery4   
,if 7as it appears very probably7 it be 
the fact that ,mirabaud had but  little 
part in the authorship of ,la ,systme de
 la ,nature1 ,d',holbach1  in using the 
name of his deceased friend1 only       
associated him with a  work which       
7judging from his other writings1 the   
tenor of his life1 and  the noble       

character of his associates7 ,mirabaud  
would have issued with  pride himself1  
had the book been really written by him4
          ,,baron ,d',,holbach4    ,paul
 ,thyry1 ,baron ,d',holbach1 was born at
 ,heidesheim1 in the ,palatinate1  in   
the month of ,january1 #agbc4 ,his      
father appears to have been a  very     
wealthy man1 and brought his son to     
,paris1 for the purpose of              
superintending his education1 but died  
white he was still a child4 ,in  his    
youth1 ,d',holbach appears to have been 
noted for his studious habits  and      
retentive faculties1 and ultimately     
attained to some eminence in  chemistry 
and mineralogy4 ,he married when very   
young1 and he had not  been married one 
year when his wife died4 ,he afterwards 
obtained a  dispensation from the ,pope1
 and married his deceased wife's sister1
 by  whom he had four children1 two sons
 and two daughters4    ,d',holbach      
appeared to have spent the greater part 
of his life in ,paris1  and for forty   

years he assembled around his table1    
every ,sunday1 the  elite of the        
literary world1 including nearly the    
whole of those who  took part in the    
first ,encyclopedia4 ,if that table were
 only in the  hands of some of our      
spirit friends of the present day1 what 
brilliant  anecdotes might it not rap   
out--the sparkling wit of ,diderot1 the 
good  humor of out host1 the hospitable 
and generous ,d',holbach1 the occasional
  bitterness of ,jean ,jacques          
,rousseau1 the cautious expression of   
opinion  by ,d',alembert1 the agreeable 
variety of ,montesquieu1 and the bold   
enthusiasm of the youthful but          
hardworking ,naigeon6 ,if ever a table  
were  inclined to turn1 this table      
should have been2 but perhaps it may be 
that tables never turn when reason is   
the ruler of those who sit around4      
,it seems more than probable that       
,d',holbach at first held opinions      
differing widely from those entertained 
by him during the later periods  of his 

life1 and it is asserted that ,diderot  
contributed much to this  change of     
opinion4 ,d',holbach was an amiable man 
of the world1 fond of  amusement1 and   
without pretension2 he was1             
notwithstanding1 well versed  in ,roman 
and ,grecian literature1 mathematics1   
chemistry1 botany1 and  modern          
languages4 ,he was generous to every    
one4 ,i content myself1 he  said1 with  
performing the disagreeable character of
 benefactor1 when ,i  am forced to it4  
,i do not wish to be repaid my money2   
but ,i am pleased  when ,i meet with    
some little gratitude1 if it be only as 
proving that  the persons ,i have       
assisted were such sort of men as ,i    
desired4    ,although about forty-five  
works are now ascribed to ,d',holbach1  
not  one of them was published during   
his life-time in his own name4 ,the     
manuscripts were taken to ,amsterdam by 
,naigeon1 and there printed by  ,michael
 ,rey4 ,d',holbach never talked publicly
 of his literary productions  himself   

and his secrets seem to have been well  
kept by his friends4  ,several of the   
works were condemned and suppressed by  
the government2  but ,d',holbach lived  
unsuspected and unmolested4 ,the        
expression used by  the ,avocat1        
,general ,seguier1 in his rquisitoire   
against the ,system  of ,nature is      
worthy of notice4 ,the ,avocat ,general 
said--,the restless  spirit of          
,infidelity1 inimical to all dependence1
 endeavors to overthrow  all political  
constitutions4 ,its wishes will not be  
satisfied until  it has destroyed the   
necessary inequality of rank and        
condition1 and  until it has degraded   
the majesty of kings1 and rendered their
 authority  subordinate to the caprices 
of the mob4 ,note the three words we    
have italicised4 ,for the first read    
unnecessary2 for the second1  voice2 for
 the third1 peoples4 ,we trust that     
,free-thought never will be  satisfied  
until it has destroyed the unnecessary  
inequalities of rank  and condition1 and

 rendered it impossible for the         
authority of kings to  be enforced in   
opposition to the voice of the people4  
,the following description of           
,d',holbach is given in a little        
sketch1 published by ,mr4 ,watson in    
#ahcd1 as taken from ,grimm's           
,correspondence3--,d',hol-bach's        
features were1 taken separately1        
regular1 and even handsome1 yet he was  
not a handsome man4 ,his forehead1      
large and open1 like that of ,diderot1  
indicated a vast and capacious  mind2   
but his forehead having fewer           
sinuosities1 less roundness than        
,diderot's1 announced less warmth1 less 
energy1 and less fecundity of  ideas4 ,a
 craniologist would say that in both    
,d',holbach and ,diderot1 the           
philosophical organs were largely       
developed1 but that ,diderot excelled   
in ideality2 ,d',holbach's countenance  
only indicated mildness1 and the        
habitual sincerity of his mind4 ,he was 
incapable of personal hatred4  ,though  

he detested priests and ,jesuits1 and   
all other supporters of  despotism and  
superstition2 and though when speaking  
of such people1 his  mildness and good  
temper were sometimes transformed into  
bitterness and  irritability2 yet it is 
affirmed that when the ,jesuits were    
expelled  from ,france1 ,d',holbach     
regarded them as objects of             
commiseration and of  pity1 and afforded
 them pecuniary assistance4    ,the     
titles of ,d',holbach's works may be    
found in ,barbier's ,dictionary  of     
,anonymous ,works1 and in ,st4 ,surins's
 article in the ,biographie             
,universelle1 so in the little tract    
before mentioned as published by ,j4    
,watson4 ,d',holbach contributed largely
 to the first ,french ,encyclopaedia1   
and other works of a like character4 ,of
 the ,system of ,nature we have  already
 spoken1 and shall rather leave our     
readers to the work itself  than take up
 more space in discussing its           
authorship4    ,after having lived a    

life of comfort1 in affluent            
circumstances1  and always surrounded by
 a large circle of the best men of the  
day1  ,d',holbach died on ,january the  
#bast1 #aghi1 being1 then sixty-six     
years  of age4 ,the priests have never  
pictured to us any scene of horror  in  
relation to his dying moments4 ,the good
 old man died cheered and  supported in 
his last struggle by those men whom he  
had many times  assisted in the hard    
fighting of the battle of life4 ,j4 ,a4 
,naigeon1  who had been his friend for  
thirty years2 paid an eloquent tribute  
to ,d',holbach's memory1 in an article  
which appeared in the ,journal de       
,paris of ,february the #ith1 #aghi1 and
 we are not aware that any man has  ever
 written anything against ,d',hol-bach's
 personal character4      ,,extracts    
,,from ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,nature4    
,although we may not attempt to express 
a decided opinion as to the  authorship 
of ,le ,systme de la ,nature1 we feel it
 our duty to present  some of its       

principal arguments to the consideration
 of our readers4 ,the  author opens his 
work with this passage3--    ,man always
 deceives himself when he abandons      
experience to follow  imaginary systems4
 ,he is the work of nature4 ,he exists  
in nature4 ,he is  submitted to her     
laws4 ,he cannot deliver himself from   
them4 ,he cannot  step beyond them even 
in thought4 ,it is in vain his mind     
would spring  forward beyond the visible
 world3 an imperious necessity ever     
compels  his return--for a being formed 
by ,nature1 who is circumscribed by her 
laws1 there exists nothing beyond the   
great whole of which he forms a  part1  
of which be experiences the influence4  
,the beings his imagination  pictures as
 above ,nature1 or distinguished from   
her1 are always  chimeras formed after  
that which he has1 already seen1 but of 
which it  is utterly impossible he      
should ever form any correct idea1      
either as to  the place they occupy1 or 
their manner of acting--for him there is

  not1 there can be nothing out of that 
nature which includes all beings4       
,instead1 therefore1 of seeking out of  
the world he inhabits for beings  who   
can procure him a happiness denied by   
,nature1 let him study this  nature1    
learn her laws1 contemplate her         
energies1 observe the immutable  rules  
by which she acts4    ,speaking of the  
theological delusions under which many  
men labor1 and of  the mode in which man
 has been surrounded by those delusions1
 he says3--    ,his ignorance made him  
credulous3 his curiosity made him       
swallow large  draughts of the          
marvellous3 time confirmed him in his   
opinions1 and he  passed his conjectures
 from race to race1 for realities2 a    
tyrannical  power maintained him in his 
notions1 because by those alone could   
society be enslaved4 ,it was in vain1   
that some faint glimmerings of  ,nature 
occasionally attempted1 the recall of   
his reason2 that slight  corruscations  
of experience sometimes threw his       

darkness into light2 the  interest of   
the few was bottomed on his enthusiasm2 
their pre-eminence  depended on his love
 of the wonderful2 their very existence 
rested on  the solidity of his ignorance
 they consequently suffered no          
opportunity  to escape1 of smothering   
even the lambent flame4 ,the many were  
thus  first deceived into credulity1    
then coerced into submission4 ,at       
length1  the whole science of man became
 a confused mass of darkness1 falsehood1
  and contradictions1 with here and     
there a feeble ray of truth1 furnished  
by that ,nature of which he can never   
entirely divest himself1 because1       
without his knowledge1 his necessities  
are continually bringing him back  to   
her resources4    ,having stated that by
 nature he means the great whole1 our   
author  complains of those who assert   
that matter is senseless1 inanimate1    
unintelligent1 etc41 and says1          
,experience proves to us that the matter
  which we regard as inert or dead1     

assumes action1 intelligence1 and  life1
 when it is combined in a certain way3--
    ,if flour be wetted with water1 and 
the mixture closed up1 it will be       
found1 after some little lapse of time1 
by the aid of a microscope1 to  have    
produced organized beings that enjoy    
life1 of which the water and  the flour 
were believed incapable3 it is thus that
 inanimate matter can  pass into life1  
or animate matter1 which is in itself   
only an assemblage  of motion4          
,reasoning from analogy1 which the      
philosophers of the present  day hold   
perfectly compatible1 the production of 
a man1 independent of  the ordinary     
means1 would not be more marvellous than
 that of an insect  with flour and      
water4 ,fermentation and putrefaction   
evidently produce  living animals4 ,we  
have here the principle2 with proper    
materials1  principles can always be    
brought into action4 ,that generation   
which is  styled equivocal is only so   
for those who do not reflect1 or who  do

 not permit themselves1 attentively1 to 
observe the operations of  ,nature4     
,this passage is much ridiculed by      
,voltaire1 who asserts that it is       
founded on some experiments made by one 
,needham1 who placed some  rye-meal in  
well-corked bottles1 and some boiled    
mutton gravy in other  bottles1 and     
found that eels were produced in each4  
,we do not know  sufficient of the      
history of ,needham's experiments1      
either to affirm or  deny their         
authenticity1 but we feel bound to      
remind our readers of  the much-decried 
experiments conducted by ,mr4 ,crosse1  
and which were  afterwards verified by  
,mr4 ,weekes1 of ,sandwich4 ,in these   
cases1 insects  were produced by the    
action of a powerful voltaic battery    
upon a  saturated solution of silicate  
of potash1 and upon ferro cyanuret  of  
potassium4 ,the insects were a species  
of acarus1 minute and  semi-transparent1
 and furnished with long bristles1 which
 could only be  seen by the aid of the  

microscope4 ,the sixth chapter treats of
 man1 and  the author thus answers the  
question1 ,what is man83--    ,we say he
 is a material being1 organized after a 
peculiar manner1  conformed to a certain
 mode of thinking1 of feeling1 capable  
of  modification in certain modes       
peculiar to himself1 to his             
organization1  to that particular       
combination of matter which is found    
assembled in  him4 ,if again it be      
asked1 ,what origin we give to beings of
 the human  species8 ,we reply1 that    
like all other beings1 man is a         
production of  nature1 who resembles    
them in some respects1 and finds himself
 submitted  to the same laws2 who       
differs from them in other respects1 and
 follows  particular laws determined by 
the diversity of his conformation4 ,if  
then  it be demanded1 ,whence came man8 
,we answer1 our experience on this  head
 does not capacitate us to resolve the  
question2 but that it cannot  interest  
us1 as it suffices for us to know that  

man exists1 that he is  so constituted  
as to be competent to the effects we    
witness4    ,in the seventh chapter the 
author1 treating of the soul and spirit 
says3--    ,the doctrine of             
spirituality1 such as it now exists1    
offers nothing  but vague ideas1 or1    
rather1 is the absence of all ideas4    
,what does it  present to the mind but a
 substance which possesses nothing of   
which our  senses enable us to have a   
knowledge8 ,can it be truth1 that man is
 able  to figure to himself a being not 
material1 having neither extent nor     
parts2 which1 nevertheless1 acts upon   
matter without having any point  of     
contact1 any kind of analogy with it2   
and which itself receives the  impulse  
of matter by means of material organs1  
which announce to it the  presence of   
other beings8 ,is it possible to        
conceive the union of the  soul with the
 body2 to comprehend how this material  
body can bind1  enclose1 constrain1     
determine a fugitive being1 which       

escapes all our  senses8 ,is it honest1 
is it plain dealing1 to solve these     
difficulties1  by saying there is a     
mystery in them1 that they are the      
effects of a  power more inconceivable  
than the human soul1 than its mode of   
acting1  however concealed from our     
view8 ,when to resolve these problems1  
man is  obliged to have recourse to     
miracles1 to make the ,divinity         
interfere1  does he not avow his own    
ignorance8 ,when notwithstanding the    
ignorance  he is thus obliged to avow by
 availing himself of the divine agency1 
he tells us1 this immaterial substance1 
this soul1 shall experience the  action 
of the element of fire1 which he allows 
to be material2 when  he confidently    
says1 this soul shall be burnt2 shall   
suffer in  purgatory--have we not a     
right to believe1 that either he has a  
design  to deceive us1 or else that he  
does not himself understand that which  
he  is so anxious we shall take upon his
 word8    ,the ninth chapter1 after     

treating of the diversity of the        
intellectual  faculties1 proceeds1 ,man 
at his birth brings with him into the   
world  nothing but the necessity of     
conserving himself1 of rendering his    
existence happy2 instruction1 examples1 
the custom of the world1 present  him   
with the means1 either real or          
imaginary1 of achieving it2 habit       
procures for him the facility of        
employing these means3--    ,in order   
that man may become virtuous1 it is     
absolutely requisite that  he should    
have an interest1 that he should find   
advantages in practicing  virtue4 ,for  
this end1 it is necessary that education
 should implant in  him reasonable      
ideas2 that public opinion should lean  
towards virtue1 as  the most desirable  
good2 that example should point it out  
as the object  most worthy of esteem2   
that government should faithfully       
recompense1  should regularly reward it2
 that honor should always accompany its 
practice2 that vice should constantly be

 despised2 that crime should  invariably
 be punished4 ,is virtue in this        
situation amongst men6  ,does the       
education of man infuse into him just1  
faithful ideas of  happiness--true      
notions of virtue---dispositions really 
favorable to the  beings with whom he is
 to live8 ,the examples spread before   
him1 are  they suitable to innocence of 
manners8 ,are they calculated to make   
him  respect decency1 to cause him to   
love probity1 to practice honesty1  to  
value good faith1 to esteem equity1 to  
revere conjugal fidelity1  to observe   
exactitude in fulfilling his duties8    
,religion1 which alone  pretends to     
regulate his manners1 does it render him
 sociable8 does  it make him pacific8   
does it teach him to be humane8 ,the    
arbiters1 the  sovereigns of society1   
are they faithful in recompensing       
punctual in  rewarding1 those who have  
best served their country1 in punishing 
those who have pillaged1 who have       
robbed1 who have plundered1 who have    

divided1 who have ruined it8 ,justice1  
does she hold her scales with  a firm1  
with an even hand1 between all the      
citizens of the state8 ,the  laws1 do   
they never support the strong against   
the weak1 favor the rich  against the   
poor1 uphold the happy against the      
miserable8 ,in short1 is  it an uncommon
 spectacle to behold crime frequently   
justified1 often  applauded1 sometimes  
crowned with success1 insolently        
triumphing1  arrogantly striding over   
that merit which it disdains1 over that 
virtue  which it outrages8 ,well1 then1 
in societies thus constituted1 virtue   
can only be heard by a very small number
 of peaceable citizens1 a few  generous 
souls1 who know how to estimate its     
value1 who enjoy it in  secret4 ,for the
 others1 it is only a disgusting object2
 they see in  it nothing but the        
supposed enemy to their happiness1 or   
the censor of  their individual conduct4
    ,in the tenth chapter1 which is upon
 the soul1 the author says3--    ,the   

diversity in the temperament of man1 is 
natural1 the necessary  source of the   
diversity of passions1 of his taste1 of 
his ideas of  happiness1 of his opinions
 of every kind4 ,thus this same         
diversity  will be the fatal source of  
his disputes--of his hatreds--of his    
injustice--every time he shall reason   
upon unknown objects1 but to which  he  
shall attach the greatest importance4   
,he will never understand either        
himself or others1 in speaking of a     
spiritual soul1 or of immaterial        
substances distinguished from nature2 he
 will1 from that moment1 cease  to speak
 the same language1 and he will never   
attach the same ideas to  the same      
words4 ,what then shall be the common   
standard that shall decide  which is the
 man that thinks with the greatest      
justice8    ,propose to a man to change 
his religion for yours1 he will believe 
you  a madman2 you will only excite his 
indignation1 elicit his contempt2 he    
will propose to you1 in his turn1 to    

adopt his own peculiar opinions2  after 
much reasoning1 you will treat each     
other as absurd beings1  ridiculously   
opinionated1 pertinaciously stubborn2   
and he will display  the least folly who
 shall first yield4 ,but if the         
adversaries become  heated in the       
dispute1 which always happens1 when they
 suppose the  matter important1 or when 
they would defend the cause of their own
  self-love1 from thence their passions 
sharpen1 they grow angry1 quarrels  are 
provoked1 they hate each other1 and end 
by reciprocal injury4 ,it  is thus that 
for opinions1 which no man can          
demonstrate1 we see the  ,brachman      
despised2 the ,mahomedan hated2 the     
,pagan held in contempt2 that  they     
oppress and disdain each with the most  
raucorous animosity3 the  ,christian    
burns the ,jew at what is called an     
,auto-da-fe1 because he  clings to the  
faith of his fathers2 the ,roman        
,catholic condemns the  ,protestant to  
the flames1 and makes a conscience of   

massacreing7sp47 him  in cold blood2    
this re-acts in his turn2 sometimes the 
various sects  of ,christians league    
together against the incredulous ,turk1 
and for  a moment suspend their own     
bloody disputes that they may chastise  
the  enemies to the true faith3 then1   
having glutted their revenge1 return    
with redoubied fury1 to wreak over again
 their infuriated vengeance on  each    
other4    ,the thirteenth chapter argues
 as follows1 against the doctrine of the
  immortality of the soul and a future  
state3--    ,in old age1 man            
extinguishes entirely1 his fibres become
 rigid1 his  nerves lose their          
elasticity1 his senses are obtunded1 his
 sight grows  dim1 his ears lose their  
quickness1 his ideas become unconnected1
 his  memory fails1 his imagination     
cools1--what1 then1 becomes of his soul4
  ,alas6 it sinks down with the body1 it
 gets benumbed as this loses its        
feeling1 becomes sluggish as this decays
 in activity2 like it1 when  enfeebled  

by years1 it fulfils its functions with 
pain2 this substance1  which is deemed  
spiritual1 which is considered          
immaterial1 which it is  endeavored to  
distinguish from matter1 undergoes the  
same revolutions1  experiences the same 
vicissitudes1 submits to the name       
modifications as  does the body itself4 
,in despite of this proof of the        
materiality of the  soul1 of its        
identity with the body so convincing to 
the unprejudiced1  some thinkers have   
supposed that although the latter is    
perishable1 the  former does not perish2
 that this portion of man enjoys the    
especial  privilege of immortality2 that
 it is exempt from dissolution2 free    
from  those changes of form all the     
beings in nature undergo3 in consequence
  of this1 man is persuaded himself that
 this privileged soul does not  die4    
,it will be asked1 perhaps1 by what road
 has man been conducted to form  to     
himself gratuitous ideas of another     
world4 ,i reply1 that it is a  truth man

 has no idea of a future life2 they are 
the ideas of the past  and the present1 
that furnish his imagination with the   
materials of  which he constructs the   
edifice of the regions of futurity4     
,hobbes says1  ',we believe that1 that  
which is will always be1 and that the   
same causes  will have the same         
effects4' ,man in his actual state has  
two modes  of feeling--one1 that he     
approves2 another1 that he disapproves3 
thus  persuaded that these two modes of 
feeling must accompany him even  beyond 
his present existence1 he placed in the 
regions of eternity two  distinguished  
abodes2 one destined to felicity2 the   
other to misery3 the  one must contain  
those who obey the calls of             
superstition1 who believe  in its       
dogmas2 the other is a prison1 destined 
to avenge the cause  of heaven on all   
those who shall not faithfully believe  
the doctrines  promulgated by the       
ministers of a vast variety of          
superstitions4 ,has  sufficient         

attention been paid to the fact that    
results as a necessary  consequence from
 this reasoning2 which on examination   
will be found  to have rendered the     
first place entirely useless1 seeing1   
that by  the number and contradiction of
 these various systems1 let man believe 
whichever he may1 let him follow it in  
the most faithful manner1 still  he must
 be ranked as an ,infidel1 as a rebel to
 the divinity2 because  he cannot       
believe in all2 and those from which he 
dissents1 by a  consequence of their own
 creed1 condemn him to the              
prison-house8--,such  is the origin of  
the ideas upon a future life1 so        
diffused among  mankind4 ,everywhere may
 be seen an ,elysium1 and a ,tartarus1 a
 ,paradise  and a ,hell2 in a word1 two 
distinguished abodes1 constructed       
according  to the imagination of the    
enthusiasts who have invented them2 who 
have  accommodated them to their own    
peculiar prejudices1 to the hopes1 to   
the  fears of the people who believe in 

them4 ,the ,indian figures the first of 
these abodes as one of inaction1 of     
permanent repose1 because1 being the    
inhabitant of a hot climate1 he has     
learned to contemplate rest as the      
extreme of felicity3 the ,mussulman     
promises himself corporeal pleasures1   
similar to those that actually          
constitute the object of his research in
  this life3 each figures to himself    
that on which he has learned to set  the
 greatest value4    ,as for the         
miserable abode of souls1 the           
imagination of fanatics1  who were      
desirous of governing the people1 strove
 to assemble the most  frightful images 
to render it still more terrible2 fire  
is of all things  that which produces in
 man the most pungent sensation2 not    
finding  anything more cruel1 the       
enemies to the several dogmas were to be
  everlastingly punished with this      
torturing element3 fire1 therefore1 was 
the point at which their imagination was
 obliged to stop2 the ministers  of the 

various systems agreed pretty generally1
 that fire would one day  avenge their  
offended divinities2 thus1 they painted 
the victims to the  anger of the gods1  
or rather those who questioned their own
 creeds1  as confined in fiery dungeons2
 as perpetually rolling into a vortex of
  bituminous flames2 as plunged in      
unfathomable gulfs of liquid sulphur2   
making the infernal caverns resound with
 their useless groanings1 with  their   
unavailing gnashing of teeth4 ,but it   
will1 perhaps1 be inquired1  how could  
man reconcile himself to the belief of  
an existence  accompanied with eternal  
torments2 above all1 as many according  
to their  own superstitions had reason  
to fear it for themselves--,many causes 
have concurred to make him adopt so     
revolting an opinion3 in the first      
place1 very few thinking men have ever  
believed such an absurdity1  when they  
have deigned to make use of their       
reason2 or1 when they have  accredited  
it1 this notion was always              

counterbalanced by the idea of  the     
goodness1 by a reliance on the mercy1   
which they attributed to their          
respective divinities3 in the second    
place1 those who were blinded by  their 
fears never rendered to themselves any  
account of these strange  doctrines     
which they either received with awe from
 their legislators1  or which were      
transmitted to them by their fathers2 in
 the third place1  each sees the object 
of his terrors only at a favorable      
distance2  moreover1 superstition       
promises him the means of escaping the  
tortures  he believes he has merited4   
,we conclude by quoting the following   
eloquent passage3--    ,oh6 ,nature6    
sovereign of all beings6 and ye1 her    
adorable daughters1  ,virtue1 ,reason1  
and ,truth6 remain forever our reverend 
protectors4 ,it is  to you that belong  
the praises of the human race2 to you   
appertains the  homage of the earth4    
,show us1 then1 oh6 ,nature6 that which 
man ought  to do1 in order to obtain the

 happiness which thou makest him        
desire4--,virtue6 animate him with thy  
beneficent fire6 ,reason6 conduct  his  
uncertain steps through the paths of    
life4 ,truth6 let thy torch  illumine   
his intellect1 dissipate the darkness of
 his road4444 ,banish  error from our   
mind1 wickedness from our hearts1       
confusion from our  footsteps4 ,cause   
knowledge to extend its salubrious      
reign1 goodness to  occupy our souls1   
serenity to dwell in our bosoms4444 ,let
 our eyes1  so long either dazzled or   
blindfolded1 be at length fixed upon    
those  objects we ought to seek4 ,dispel
 forever those mists of ignorance1 those
  hideous phantoms1 together with those 
seducing chimeras1 which only  serve to 
lead us astray4 ,extricate us from that 
dark abyss into which  we are plunged by
 superstition1 overthrow the fatal      
empire of delusion1  crumble the throne 
of falsehood1 wrest from their polluted 
hands the  power they have usurped4     
,,robert ,,taylor4    ,many of the      

readers of this number will1 from their 
own memories1 be  better able to do     
justice to him1 whom ,henry ,hunt named 
,the ,devil's  ,chaplain1 than we shall 
in our limited space4 ,robert ,taylor   
was born at  ,edmonton1 in the county of
 ,middlesex1 on the #ahth of ,august1   
#aghd4  ,his family was highly          
respectable1 and his parents were in    
affluent  circumstances2 but1 being a   
younger son in a family of eleven       
children1  it was necessary that ,robert
 ,taylor should follow some profession4 
,his  father died when he was about     
seven years old1 leaving him under the  
guardianship of a paternal uncle4 ,when 
seventeen years of age1 he was          
apprenticed to a surgeon1 at            
,birmingham1 and studied medicine       
afterwards  under ,sir ,astley ,cooper  
and ,mr4 ,clive1 passing the ,college of
 ,surgeons  with considerable eclat4    
,when about twenty-three1 he became     
acquainted  with the ,rev4 ,thomas      
,cotterell1 a clergyman of the          

,established ,church1  of high          
evangelical principles1 who induced him 
to quit physic for  metaphysics1 and in 
#ahji ,robert ,taylor entered ,saint    
,john's ,college1  ,cambridge1 and in   
#ahac took his degree of ,bachelor of   
,arts4 ,he was  publicly complimented by
 the ,master of the ,college as a       
singular honor  to the ,university in   
his scholarship1 and was ordained on the
 #adth of  ,march1 #ahac1 by the bishop 
of ,chichester2 from that time until    
#ahah1  ,taylor officiated as curate at 
,midhurst4 ,here he became acquainted   
with  a person named ,ayling who held   
,deistical opinions1 and who induced    
,taylor to read various ,free-thinking  
works2 this soon resulted in an  avowal 
of ,deism on the part of ,taylor1 who   
tendered his resignation to  his        
,bishop4 ,his friends and family were   
much alarmed1 and much pressure  was    
brought to bear upon him1 and we regret 
to state that it had the  effect of     
producing a temporary recantation4      

,this1 however1 brought  ,taylor no     
relief2 he found himself in distress1   
and shunned by his  family4 ,through the
 kindness of an old friend1 he obtained 
the curacy of  ,yardley1 near           
,birmingham1 but his previous apostacy  
having reached the  ears of the ,bishop1
 the necessary license was refused1 and 
the rector  received a peremptory notice
 to dismiss ,taylor4 ,this harsh        
treatment  caused a reaction1 and while 
the rector sought another curate1       
,taylor  preached a series of sermons1  
by means of which he shook the faith of 
nearly the whole of his congregation4   
,the following is an abstract of  his   
last sermon at ,yardley3--    ,the text 
was1 ',for as ,jonah was three days and 
three nights in the  whale's belly1 so  
shall the son of man be three days and  
three nights in  the heart of the       
earth4'--,matt1 xii41 #dj4 ,he began1   
',then this glorious  miracle of the man
 having been swallowed alive by a fish1 
and remaining  alive for seventy-two    

hours1 undigested and unhurt1 in the    
fish's  bowels1 and being vomited up    
unhurt and safe upon the dry land1 was  
as  true as the gospel2 and consequently
 the gospel was as true1 but not  more  
true1 than this sea-sick miracle4 ,he   
inferred that no person could  have a   
right to pretend to believe in the death
 and resurrection of  ,christ1 who had  
the least doubt as to the reality of the
 deglutition and  evomition of the      
prophet ,jonah4 ,as to the natural      
improbabilities and  physical           
impossibilities of this very wonderful  
,bible miracle1 these  were nothing in  
the way of a true and lively faith4     
,where miracles of  any sort were       
concerned1 there could be no distinction
 into the greater  and the less1 since  
infinite power was as necessary to the  
reality of  the least as to the         
greatest4 ,we should never forget that  
it was the  ,lord who prepared the fish1
 and prepared him for the express       
purpose of  swallowing the man1 and     

probably gave him a little opening      
physic1 to  cleanse the apartment for   
the accommodation of its intended       
tenant2 and  had the purpose been1 that 
the whole ship and all the crew should  
have  been swallowed as well as he1     
there's no doubt that they could have   
been  equally well accommodated4 ,but as
 to what some wicked ,infidels objected1
  about the swallow of the whale being  
too narrow to admit the passage of  the 
man1 it only required a little          
stretching1 and even a herring or  a    
sprat might have gulped him4 ,he        
enlarged1 most copiously1 on the        
circumstance of the ,lord speaking to   
the fish1 in order to cause him to      
vomit2 and insisted on the natural      
efficacy of the ,lord1 which was  quite 
enough to make anybody sick4 ,he pointed
 out the many interesting  examples of  
faith and obedience which had been set  
by the scaly race1  who were not only at
 all times easy to be caught in the     
gospel net1 when  thrown over them by   

the preaching of the word1 but were     
always ready to  surrender their        
existence to the ,almighty1 whenever he 
pleased to drop  'em a line4 ,that as   
the first preachers of the gospel were  
fishermen1  so the preachers of the     
gospel1 to this day1 might truly be said
 to  be looking after the loaves and    
fishes1 and they who1 as the ,scripture 
says1 are 'wise to catch soles1' speak  
to them for no other purpose than  that 
for which the ,lord spake unto the      
whale--that is1 to ascertain how  much  
they can swallow4 ,the moral of this    
pungent persiflage1 aimed  to admonish  
the proud and uncharitable believer1 who
 expected his  acceptance with the deity
 on the score of his credulity1 that    
when his  credulity was fairly put to   
trial1 it might be found that he was in 
reality as far from believing what he   
did not take to be true as the  most    
honest and avowed ,infidel4 ',thou then 
who wouldst put a trick  upon infinite  
wisdom1 and preferest the imagined merit

 of a weak  understanding to the real   
utility of an honest heart--thou who    
wouldst         ',compound for sins thou
 art inclined to1       ,by damning     
those thou hast no mind to2'    hast    
thou no fears for thy presumptuous self8
 ,thou believest only that  which       
seemeth to thee to be true2 what does   
the ,atheist less8 ,and that  which     
appeareth to be a lie thou rejectest2   
what does the ,atheist more8  ,can we   
think that ,god has given us reason only
 to betray us1 and made  us so much     
superior to the brute creation1 only to 
deal with us so much  worse than they1  
to punish us for making the best use we 
could of the  faculties he has given us1
 and to make the very excellence of our 
nature  the cause of our damnation8'    
,this concluded his connection with the 
,church of ,england1 and his  brother   
having consented to make him an         
allowance of one pound per week  if he  
would quit ,england1 he retired to the  
,isle of ,man4 ,after nine  weeks his   

brother ceased to remit2 and to support 
himself1 ,taylor wrote  for the two     
newspapers then published in the island1
 but his articles  attracting attention1
 he was summoned before the ,bishop1 and
 compelled  to quit the island under a  
threat of imprisonment4 ,in deep        
distress1 he  went to ,dublin1 where he 
lectured on ,deism until #ahbd1 when he 
came to  ,london1 and founded the       
,christian ,evidence ,society4    ,many 
of the discourses delivered by him were 
printed in ,the ,lion4  which was first 
published in #ahbh4 ,in #ahbg ,mr4      
,taylor was tried at  ,guildhall for    
blasphemy1 and was sentenced to         
imprisonment in ,oakham  gaol for one   
year4 ,in ,oakham he wrote ,the         
,diegesis and ,syntagma4  ,after his    
release from prison in #ahbi1 he1       
together with ,richard  ,carlile1 made a
 tour through ,england on an ,infidel   
mission1 commencing  with a challenge to
 the ,cambridge ,university4 ,in #ahcj  
and #ahca he  delivered a series of     

discourses1 which are printed together  
under the  title of ,the ,devil's       
,pulpit4 ,on the #dth ,july1 #ahca1 he  
was again  tried for blasphemy and      
sentenced to two years' imprisonment ,in
 #ahcc  he delivered a number of        
discourses1 which were printed in the   
,philalethean4 ,he was the friend and   
companion of ,richard ,carlile for      
several years4 ,it is difficult to quote
 from ,robert ,taylor's works1  unless  
at the risk of doing him great          
injustice1 and we must therefore  refer 
our readers to the works we have named4 
,the following is from  ,the ,devil's   
,pulpit3--    ,the gentlemen who        
distribute religious tracts1 the general
 body of  dissenting preachers1 and     
almost all persons engaged in the trade 
of religion1 imagine themselves to have 
a mighty advantage against  ,infidels1  
upon the strength of that last and      
reckless argument--that  whether the    
,christian religion be true or false1   
there can be no harm in  believing2 and 

that belief is1 at any rate1 the safe   
side4 ,now1 to say  nothing of this old 
,popish argument1 which a sensible man  
must see  is the very essence of        
,popery1 and would oblige us to believe 
all the  absurdities and nonsense in the
 world3 inasmuch as if there be no harm 
in believing1 and there be some harm and
 danger in not believing1 the  more we  
believe the better3 and all the argument
 necessary for any  religion whatever   
would be1 that it should frighten us out
 of our wits3  the more terrible1 the   
more true3 and it would be our duty to  
become  the converts of that religion   
whatever it might be1 whose priests     
could  swear the loudest1 and damn and  
curse the fiercest4 ,but ,i am here to  
grapple with this ,popery in disguise1  
this wolfish argument in sheepish       
clothing1 upon ,scriptural ground1 and  
on ,scriptural ground only2 taking  the 
,scriptures of the ,old and ,new        
,testament1 for this argument's sake1   
to be divine authority4 ,the question   

proposed is1 ',whether is the  believer 
or the unbeliever the more likely to be 
saved1 taking the  ,scriptures to be of 
divine authority6' ,and ,i stand here1  
on this divine  authority1 to prove that
 the unbeliever is the more likely to be
 saved3  that unbelief1 and not belief1 
is the safe side1 and that a man is more
  likely to be damned for believing the 
gospel1 and because of his having       
believed it1 than for rejecting and     
despising it1 as ,i do4444 ,but1 if a   
patient hearing be more than good       
,christians be minded to give us1 when  
thus advance to meet them on their own  
ground1 their impatience and            
intolerance itself will supply the      
evidence and demonstration of the  fact1
 that1 after all1 they dare not stand to
 the text of their own  book1 that it is
 not the ,bible that they go by1 nor    
,god whom they  regard3 but that they   
want to be ,god-a'-mighties themselves1 
and would  have us take their words for 
,god's words2 you must read it as they  

read  it1 and understand it as they     
understand it3 you must 'skip1 and go   
on1'  just where a hard word comes in   
the way of the sense they choose to put 
upon it3 you must believe what the book 
contains1 what you see with your  own   
eyes that it does not contain3 you must 
shut your eyes1 and not see  what it    
does contain2 or you'll be none the     
nearer the mark of their  liking4444    
,taking the authority of ,scripture1 for
 this argument's sake1  to be decisive1 
,i address the believer who would give  
himself airs of  superiority1 would     
chuckle in an imaginary safety in       
believing1 and  presume to threaten the 
unbeliever as being in a worse case1 or 
more  dangerous plight1 than he4 ',hast 
thou no fears for thy presumptuous      
self8' when on the showing of thine own 
book1 the safety 7if safety  there be7  
is all on the unbelieving side8 ,when   
for any one text that can  be produced1 
seeming to hold out any advantage or    
safety in believing1  we can produce two

 in which the better hope is held out to
 the  unbeliever8 ,for any one apparent 
exhortation to believe1 we can produce  
two forbiddances to believe1 and many   
threaten-ings of ,god's vengeance  to1  
and for the crime and folly of1         
believing4 ,to this proof ,i proceed1   
by showing you3--#ast4 ,what the        
denunciations of ,god's vengeance are3  
with no comment of mine1 but in the     
words of the text itself4 #b;d4 ,that   
these dreadful denunciations are        
threatened to believers3 and that they  
are not threatened to unbelievers4 ,and 
#c;d4 ,that all possible advantages  and
 safety1 which believing could confer on
 any man1 are likely1 and  more likely  
to be conferred on the unbeliever than  
on the believer4 ,that  the danger of   
the believer is so extreme1 that no     
greater danger can  possibly be4 #ast4  
,what are the denunciations of ,god's   
vengeance6 ',there  are' 7says the holy 
,revelation1 xiv4 #aj17 'who shall drink
 of the wine  of the wrath of ,god1     

which is poured out without mixture into
 the cup of  his indignation1 and shall 
be tormented with fire and brimstone1   
and the  smoke of their torment         
ascendeth up forever and ever3 and they 
have no  rest day or night4' ,there's   
'glad tidings of great joy' for you6    
,the  ,christian may get1 over the      
terror of this denunciation by the      
selfish  and ungenerous chuckle of his  
',ah6 well1 these were very wicked      
people1  and must have deserved their   
doom2 it need not alarm us3 it doesn't  
apply to us4' ,but good-hearted men     
would rather say1 ',it does apply4  ,we 
cannot be indifferent to the misery of  
our fellow-creatures4 ,the  self-same   
,heaven that frowns on them1 looks      
lowering upon us4' ,and who  were they8 
and what was their offence8 ,was it     
,atheism6 was it ,deism'  was it        
,infidelity8 ,no6 ,it was for church and
 chapel-going2 it was for  adoring1     
believing1 and worshipping4 ,they       
worshipped the beast3 ,i know  not what 

beast they worshipped2 but ,i know that 
if you go into any of  our churches and 
chapels at this day1 you will find them 
worshipping the  ,lamb2 and if          
worshipping a lamb be not most          
suspiciously like worshiping  a beast1  
you may keep the color in your cheeks1  
while mine are blanched  with fear4 ,the
 unbeliever only can be absolutely safe 
from this danger4  ,he only who has no  
religion at all1 is sure not to be of   
the wrong  religion4 ,he who worships   
neither ,god nor ,devil1 is sure not to 
mistake  one of those gentlemen for the 
other4 ,but will it be pretended1 that  
these are only metaphors of speech1 that
 the thing said is not the  thing that's
 meant8 ,why1 then1 they are very ugly  
metaphors4 ,and what is  saying that    
which you don't mean1 and meaning the   
contrary to what you  say1 but lying8   
,and what worse can become of the       
,infidel1 who makes it  the rule of his 
life 'to hear and speak the plain and   
simple truth1'  than of the ,christian1 

whose religion itself is a system of    
metaphors  and allegories1 of double    
meanings1 of quirk and quiddities in    
dread  defiance of the text that warns  
him1 that ',all liars shall have their  
part in the lake which burneth with fire
 and brimstone8' ,rev4 xxi4 #h4    ,is  
it a parable that a man may merely      
entertain his imagination withal1  and  
think no more on't1--though not a word  
be hinted about a parabolical           
signification1 and the text stands in   
the mouth of him who1 we are told1  was 
the truth itself8 ,and he it is who     
brought life and immortality to  light1 
that hath described in the #afth of     
,luke1 such an immortality as  that of  
one who was a sincere believer1 a son of
 ,abraham1 who took the  ,bible for the 
rule of his life1 and was anxious to    
promote the salvation  of his brethren1 
yet found for himself no ,saviour1 no   
salvation2 but1  ',in ,hell he lifted up
 his eyes being in torment3 and saith   
,father  ,abraham1 have mercy on me1 and

 send ,lazarus1 that he may dip the tip 
of his finger in water1 and cool my     
tongue1 for ,i am tormented in  this    
flame4' ,but that request was refused4  
',then he said1 ,i pray thee1           
therefore1 ,father1 that thou wouldst   
send him to my father's house2 for  ,i  
have five brethren1 that he may testify 
unto them1 lest they also come  to this 
place of torment4' ,but that request was
 refused4 ,there's 'glad  tidings of    
great joy' for you6 ,that the believer's
 danger of coming  or going into that   
place of torment is so great1 that      
greater cannot  possibly be3 and that   
his belief will stand him in no stead at
 all1  but make his plight a thousand   
times worse than if he had not been a   
believer2 and that unbelief is the safer
 side--,christ himself being  judge--,i 
quote no words but his to prove4 ,is the
 believer concerned  to save his soul1  
then shall he most assuredly be damned  
for being so  concerned3 for ,christ    
hath said1 ',whosoever will save his    

soul shall  lose it4' ,matthew xvi4 #be4
 ,is the believer a complete beggar8 ,if
 he be  not so1 if he hath a rag that he
 doth call his own1 he will be damned   
to all eternity4 ,for ,christ hath said1
 ',whosoever he be of you who  forsaketh
 not all that he hath1 he cannot be my  
disciple4' ,luke xiv4  #cc4 ,is the     
believer a rich man8 and dreams he of   
going to ,heaven8 ,it is  easier for a  
camel to go through the eye of a        
needle4' ,matthew xix4 #bd4  ,is he a   
man at all1 then he cannot be saved1 for
 ,christ hath said1 ',thou  believest   
that there is one ,god2' saith ,st4     
,james1 ',thou dost well1 the  ,devils  
also believe and tremble4' #b ,james    
xix4 ,and so much good1 and  no more1   
than comes to damned spirits in the     
flames of ,hell1 is all the  good that  
ever did and can come of believing4     
',for though thou hadst  all faith1 so  
that thou couldst remove mountains1'    
saith ,st4 ,paul1 ',it  should profit   
thee nothing4' #a ,cor4 xiii4 #b4 ,well1

 then6 let the good  ,christian try what
 saving his prayers will do for him3    
this is the good  that they'66 do for   
him2 and he hath ,christ's own word to  
comfort him  in't1 ',he shall receive   
the greater damnation4' ,luke xx4 #dg4  
,well1 then1  since believing will not  
save him1 since faith will not save him1
 since  prayer will not save him1 but   
all so positively make things all the   
worse1 and none the better1 there's one 
other chance for him4 ,let him go  and  
receive the ,sacrament1 the most        
comfortable ,sacrament1 you know1  'of  
the body and blood of ,christ1'         
remembering1 as all good communicants   
should1 'that he is not worthy so much  
as to gather up the crumbs that  fall   
from that table4' ',truth1 ,lord6 ,but  
the dogs eat of the crumbs that  fall   
from their master's table6' ,o what     
happy dogs6 ,but let those dogs         
remember1 that it is also truth1 that   
',he that eateth and drinketh           
unworthily1 eateth and drinketh         

damnation to himself4' #a ,cor4 xvi4    
#bi4 ,o  what precious eating and       
drinking6         ',my ,god6 and is thy 
table spread2       ,and doth thy cup   
with love o'erflow8       ,thither be   
all the children led1       ,and let    
them all thy sweetness know4'    ,that  
table is a snare1 that cup is deadly    
poison that bread shall  send thy soul  
to ,hell4 ,well1 then6 try again1       
believer3 perhaps you had  better join  
the ,missionary ,society1 and subscribe 
to send these glad  tidings of these    
blessed privileges1 and this jolly      
eating and drinking1  to the ,heathen4  
,why1 then2 you have ,christ's own      
assurance1 that when  you shall have    
made one proselyte1 you shall just have 
done him the  kindness of making him    
twofold more the child of ,hell than    
yourself4  ,mat4 xxiii4 #ae4 ,is the    
believer liable to the ordinary gusts of
 passion1  and in a passion shall he    
drop the hasty word1 'thou fool6' for   
that one  word 'he shall be in danger of

 ,hell fire4' ,mat4 v4 #bb4 ,nay1 ,sirs6
 this  isn't the worst of the believer's
 danger4 ,would he but keep his legs and
  arms together1 and spare his own eyes 
and limbs2 he doth by that very  mercy  
to himself damn his eyes and limbs--and 
hath ,christ's assurance  that it would 
have been profitable for him rather to  
have plucked out  his eyes1 and chopt   
off his limbs1 and so to have wriggled  
and groped  his way through the         
',straight gate and the narrow way that 
leadeth unto  life1' than having two    
eyes and two arms1 or two legs1 to be   
cast into  ,hell1 into the fire that    
never shall be quenched1 where their    
'worm  dieth not1 and the fire is not   
quenched4' ,mark ix4 #dc4 ,well1 then6  
will  the believer say1 what were all   
the miracles and prophecies of both  the
 ,old and the ,new ,testament for those 
unquestionable miracles1 and            
clearly-accomplished prophecies1 if it  
were not that men should believe8  ,why1
 absolutely1 they were the very         

arguments appointed by ,god himself  to 
show us that men should not believe1 but
 that damnation should be  their        
punishment if they did believe4 ',to the
 law and the testimony4'  ,sirs6 ,these 
are the very words3--',of miracles1     
saith ,god's word1 ',they  are the      
spirits of devils1 that work miracles4' 
,rev4 xvi4 #ad4 ,and it  is the ,devil  
who 'deceiveih them which dwell on the  
earth1 by means of  those miracles which
 he hath power to do4' ,rev4 xiii4 #ad4 
,so much for  miracles4 ,is it on the   
score of prophets and of prophecies1    
then1 that  you will take believing to  
be the safe side8 ,then 'thus saith the 
,lord  of ,hosts1 the ,god of ,israel1  
the prophets prophesy falsely and the   
priests bear rule by their means4' ,jer4
 v4 #ca4 ',the prophet is a fool3  the  
spiritual man is mad4' ,hosea i4 #g4    
',thus saith the ,lord of ,hosts3       
hearken not unto the prophets4' ,jer4   
xxiii4 #ae4 ',o ,israel1 thy prophets   
are like the foxes of the desert4'      

,ezekiel xiii4 #d4 ',they lie unto      
thee4' ,jerem4 xiv4 #ad4 ',and they     
shall be tormented day and night        
forever and ever4' ,rev4 xx4 #aj4 ',and 
the punishment of the prophet shall  be 
even as the punishment of him that      
seeketh unto him4' ,ezekiel xiv4  #aj4  
,nay more1 then1 it is1 when ,god hath  
determined to damn men1 that  he1 in    
every instance1 causeth them to become  
believers1 and to have  faith in divine 
,revelation1 in order that they may be  
damned4 ,believers1  and none but       
believers1 becoming liable to damnation2
 believers and none  but believers1     
being capable of committing that        
unpardonable sin against  the ,holy     
,ghost1 which hath never forgiveness1   
neither in this world nor  in that which
 is to come4 ',whereas all other kinds  
of blasphemy shall  be forgiven unto    
men1 and all sorts of blasphemy         
wherewith soever they  shall blaspheme4 
,but there is no forgiveness for        
believers4' ,mark  iii4 #bh4 ,for it is 

written1 ',for this cause ,god shall    
send them strong  delusion1 that they   
should believe a lie3 that they all     
might be  damned4' #b ,thessal4 ii4 #aa4
 ,so when it was determined by ,god that
 the  wicked ,ahab should perish1 the   
means to bring him to destruction1 both 
of body and soul1 was to make him become
 a believer4    ,i offer no comment of  
my own on words so sacred2 but these are
 the  words3 ',hear thou1 therefore1 the
 word of the ,lord4 ,i saw the ,lord    
sitting upon his throne1 and all the    
hosts of ,heaven standing by him on  his
 right hand and on his left4 ,and the   
,lord said1 who shall persuade  ,ahab   
that he may go up and fall at ,ramoth   
,gilead8 and one said on this  manner1  
and another said on that manner4 ,and   
there stood forth a spirit1  and stood  
before the ,lord1 and said3 ,i will     
persuade him4 ,and the  ,lord said unto 
him wherewith8 ,and he said1 ,i will go 
forth1 and ,i will  be a lying spirit in
 the mouth of all his prophets4 ,and he 

said1  thou shalt persuade him1 and     
prevail also4 ,go forth and do so4 ,now1
  therefore1 behold the ,lord hath put a
 lying spirit in the mouth of all  thy  
prophets4' #a kings xxii4 #bb4 ,there   
were #djj of 'em2 they were 'the        
goodly-fellowship of the prophets for   
you2 all of them inspired by the  spirit
 from on high1 and all of them lying as 
fast as they could lie4'  ,so much for  
getting on the safe side by believing4  
,had ,ahab been an  ,infidel1 he would  
have saved his soul alive4 ,as it was1  
we may address  him in the words of ,st4
 ,paul to just such another fool1 ',king
 ,ahab1  believest thou the prophets8 ,i
 know that thou believest3 but no better
  than ,i know1 that for that very      
belief1 fell slaughter on thy soul3 and 
where thou soughtest to be saved by     
believing1 it was by believing  thou    
wert damned4' ,so when ,elijah had      
succeeded in converting the #dej        
worshippers of ,baal1 who had been safe 
enough while they were ,infidels1  and  

they began crying1 'the ,lord ,he is    
,god1 the ,lord ,he is ,god3' the       
moment they got into the right faith1   
they found themselves in the  wrong box2
 and the prophet1 by the command of     
,god1 put a stop to their               
,lord-,godding1 by cutting their throats
 for 'em1 ',elijah brought them  down to
 the brook of ,kishon1 and slew them    
there4' #a ,kings xviii4 #dj4  ,oh6 what
 a blessed thing1 you see1 to be        
converted to the true faith6  ,thus all 
the sins and crimes that have been      
committed in the world1 and  all ,god's 
judgments upon sin and sinners have been
 the consequence of  religion1 and      
faith1 and believing4 ,what was the     
first sin committed  in the world8 ,it  
was believing4 ,had our great mother    
,eve not been a  believing credulous    
fool1 she would not have been in the    
transgression4  ,who was the first      
reverend divine that began preaching    
about ,god and  immortality8 ,it was the
 ,devil4 ,what was the first lie that   

was ever  told1 the very damning and    
damnable lie8 ,it was the lie told to   
make  folks believe that they would not 
be dead when they were dead1 that they  
should not surely die1 but that they    
should be as gods1 and live in a  future
 state of existence4 ',when ,god himself
 hath declared1 that there  is no future
 state of existence3 that ',dust thou   
art1 and unto dust  shalt thou return4' 
,who is it1 then1 that prefers believing
 in the ,devil  rather than in ,god1 but
 the believer8--,and from whom is the   
hope of a  future state derived1 but    
from the father of lies--the ,devil8    
,but if in  defiance of so positive a   
declaration of ,almighty ,god1 men will 
have it  that there is a future state of
 existence after death1 who are they who
  shall sit down with ,abraham1 ,isaac1 
and ,jacob1 in the kingdom of ,heaven1  
but unbelievers1 let them come from the 
north1 from the south1 from the  east1  
or from the west8 ,and who are they that
 shall be cast out1 but  believers1 'the

 children of the kingdom8' ,as ,st4     
,peter very charitably  calls them1     
'cursed children4' #b ,peter ii4 #ad4   
,that is1 ,i suppose1  children with    
beards1 children that never grew to     
sense enough to put  away childish      
things1 but did in gawky manhood1 like  
new-born babes1  desire the pure milk   
and lollipop of the gospel4 ',for of    
such is the  kingdom of ,heaven4' ,and  
who are they whom ,christ will set upon 
his  right hand1 and to whom he will    
say1 ',come ye blessed of my father6'   
but  unbelievers1 who never troubled    
their minds about religion1 and never   
darkened the doors of a gospel shop8    
,but who are they to whom he will  say1 
',depart ye cursed into everlasting     
fire1 prepared for the ,devil and  his  
angels1' but believers1 every one of    
them believers1 chapel-going  folks1    
,christ's blood men1 and incorrigible   
bigots1 that had been  bothering him all
 their days with their ',lord6 ,lord6'  
to come off at  last with no better     

reward of their faith than that he will 
protest unto  them1 ,i never knew ye4   
,one text there is1 and only one1       
against ten thousand of a contrary      
significancy3 which1 being garbled and  
torn from its context1 seems1  for a    
moment1 to give the advantage to the    
believer2 the celebrated #aith  chapter 
of ,mark1 v4 #af3--';,he that believeth1
 and is baptized1 shall be  saved2 but  
he that believeth not1 shall be damned4'
 ,but little will this  serve the       
deceitful hope of the ,christian1 for it
 is immediately added4  ,and these signs
 shall follow them that believe2 in my  
name shall they  cast out devils2 they  
shall speak with new tongues2 they shall
 take up  serpents2 and if they drink   
any deadly thing1 it shall not hurt     
them2  they shall lay hands on the sick1
 and they shall recover4' ,can the      
,christian show these signs1 or any of  
them8 ,will he dare to take-up a        
serpent1 or drink prussic acid8 ,if he  
hesitate1 he is not a believer1  and his

 profession of belief is a falsehood4   
,let belief confer what  privilege it   
may1 he hath no part nor lot in the     
matter2 the threat  which he denounces  
against ,infidels hangs over himself1   
and he hath no  sign of salvation to    
show4 ,believing the gospel1 then1 7or  
rather1  ,i should say1 professing to   
believe it1 for ,i need not tell you    
that  there's a great deal more         
professing to believe1 than believing17 
instead of making a man the more likely 
to be saved1 doubles his danger  of     
damnation1 inasmuch as ,christ hath     
said1 that 'the last state of that  man 
shall be worse than the first4' ,luke   
xi4 #bf4 ,and his holy apostle  ,peter  
addeth1 ',it would have been better for 
them not to have known the  way 7#b     
,peter ii4 #ba7 of righteousness4' ,the 
sin of believing makes all  other sins  
that a man can commit so much the more  
heinous and offensive  in the sight of  
,god1 inasmuch as they are sins against 
light and  knowledge3 and 'the servant  

who knew his ,lord's will1 and did it   
not1 he  shall be beaten with many      
stripes4' ,luke xii4 #dg4 ,while        
unbelief is not  only innocent in       
itself1 but so highly pleasing to       
,almighty ,god1 that it  is represented 
as the cause of his forgiveness of      
things which otherwise  would not be    
forgiven4 ,thus ,st4 ,paul1 who had been
 a blasphemer1 a  persecutor1 and       
injurious1 assures us that it was for   
this cause he  obtained mercy1 'because 
he did it ignorantly in unbelief4' #a   
,tim4 i4  #ac4 ,had he been a believer1 
he would as surely have been damned as  
his  name was ,paul4 ,and 'tis the gist 
of his whole argument1 and the express  
words of the #aath of the ,epistle to   
the ,romans1 that ',god included them   
all in unbelief1 that he might have     
mercy upon all4' ,unbelief being the    
essential qualification and             
recommendation to ,god's mercy3 not     
without  good reason was it that the    
pious father of the boy that had the    

devil  in him1 when he had need of      
,christ's mercy1 and knew that unbelief 
would be the best title to it1 cried out
 and said with tears1 ',lord1  ,i       
believe1 help thou mine unbelief6' ,mark
 ix4 #bd4 ,while the ,apostles          
themselves1 who were most immediately   
near and dear to ,christ1 no more       
believed the ,gospel than ,i do2 and for
 all they have said and preached  about 
it1 they never believed it themselves1  
as ,christ told 'em that  they hadn't so
 much faith as a grain of mustard seed4 
,and the evangelist  ,john bears them   
record1 to their immortal honor2 that   
'though ,christ had  done so many       
miracles among them1 yet believed they  
not4' ,john xii4 #cg4  ,and the same    
divine authority assures us that        
'neither did his brethren  believe in   
him4' ,john vii4 #e4 ,which then is 'the
 safe side4' ,sirs1 on  the showing of  
the record itself8 ,on the unbelieving  
side1 the ,infidel  stands in the       
glorious company of the ,apostles1 in   

the immediate family  of ,christ1 and   
hath no fear2 while the believer doth as
 well and no  better than the devils in 
hell1 who believe and tremble4    ,i4   
,,joseph ,,barker4    ,in any work1     
purporting to be a true record of       
,freethinkers1 the name of  ,joseph     
,barker cannot be omitted4 ,we find in  
him1 from the commencement  of his      
public life till the present time1 an   
ardent desire for1 and  a determination 
to achieve1 freedom of thought and      
ex-pression on all  subjects            
appertaining to theology1 politics1 and 
sociology4 ,possessing  a vigorous      
intellect1 a constitution naturally     
strong1 great oratorical  ability1 and  
an unrivalled command oi the ,saxon     
language1 he has made  himself a power  
among each party with whom the          
transitory state of his  mind has       
brought him in contact4 ,it is seldom we
 find men with equal  boldness1 when    
once connected with ,wesleyan           
,methodism1 rising superior  in thought 

to its narrow1 selfish1 dogmatic1       
unnatural1 and humiliating  views1 and  
claiming for human nature a more        
dignified and exalted  position2        
gradually advancing to ,unitarianism2   
ultimately to land safely  on the shore 
of ,materialism4 ,joseph ,barker has    
passed1 amid persecution  and privation1
 through these different phases of      
theology1 to arrive at  ,infidelity1 to 
be1 he states1 a better1 wiser1 and     
happier man4 ,in his  autobiography1 we 
read that he was born in ,bramley1 an   
old country town  in the ,west ,riding  
of ,yorkshire1 in #ahjf1 the day of his 
birth being  forgotten4 ,his parents1   
and his ancestors1 so far as is known of
 them1  were of humble means4 ,his      
grandfather was addicted to drinking    
freely  of those beverages which meet   
with so much opposition from ,mr4       
,barker  himself4 ,his aunt also was    
unfortunate1 having married a man who   
was  a minister1 a drunkard1 and a      
cock-fighter4 ,his parents appear to    

have  been uneducated and pious2        
belonging to the old school of          
,methodists1  those who look on this    
life merely as a state of trial and     
probation2  always looking forward to   
enjoy their mansion in the skies--the   
house  not made with hands eternal in   
the heavens1 thinking nothing     4444  
,worth a thought beneath1       ,but how
 they may escape the death       ,that  
never1 never dies4    ,although living  
in this world1 they were not of it4 ,it 
was to them1  all vanity and vexation of
 spirit4 ,they attended their chapel1   
their  love feasts1 their               
class-meetings1 their prayer meetings1  
and their  revival meetings1 where they 
would lament over the wickedness and    
depravity of human nature1 where they   
would speak their experience1  tell of  
their temptations1 pray for the         
conversion of the world1 and  sing their
 hymns1 such as the following1 which was
 a favorite with ,mr4  ,barker's        
family3--         ,refining fire1 go    

through my heart1            ,illuminate
 my soul2       ,scatter my life through
 every part1            ,and sanctify   
the whole4    ,such being the character 
of ,mr4 ,barker's parents1 it is no     
wonder that  he was brought up under the
 same influence1 with the same false    
notions of life1 of humanity1 and of the
 world2 and we cannot prize  too highly 
the man who had the industry to         
investigate1 the ability to  discern1   
and the courage to expose the falsity of
 such doctrines and the  disastrous     
effects of such teaching4    ,in the    
extracts we shall give from ,mr4        
,barker's works will be found that      
simplicity of style and force of        
argument peculiar to himself4 ,the first
  extract we take shows the falsity of  
the orthodox doctrine of the total      
depravity of human nature3--    ,on     
looking back on the earlier periods of  
my life1 ,i first see  proofs that the  
orthodox doctrine of original sin1 or of
 natural total  depravity1 is a         

falsehood4 ,i was not born totally      
depraved4 ,i never  recollect the time1 
since ,i began to think and feel at all1
 when ,i had  not good thoughts1 and    
good feelings4 ,i never recollect the   
time since  ,i began to think and feel  
at all1 when ,i had not many good       
thoughts1 and  strong inclinations to   
goodness4 ,so far was my heart from     
being utterly  depraved or hardened1    
that ,i sympathised1 even in my         
childhood1 with the  humblest of ,god's 
creatures1 and was filled to overflowing
 with sorrow  at the sight of distress4 
,i recollect one ,sunday1 while ,i was  
searching  about for something in one of
 the windows upstairs1 ,i found a       
butterfly  that had been starved to     
death1 as ,i supposed4 ,when ,i laid    
hold of it1  it crumbled to pieces4 ,my 
feelings were such at the thought of the
  poor butterfly's sufferings1 that ,i  
wept4 ,and for all that day ,i could    
scarcely open my lips to say a word to  
any one without bursting into  tears4444

 ,and ,i recollect well what a struggle 
,i had when ,i first told a  lie4 ,a    
school in the neighborhood had a feast1 
ours had not1 so ,i played  the truant1 
after a serious struggle1 to have an    
opportunity of seeing  the scholars     
walk4 ,i had a miserable afternoon2 for 
,i felt that ,i was  doing wrong1 and ,i
 was afraid lest my mother should find  
me out4 ,my  sister found me out and    
told my mother1 but my mother was loth  
to  believe her till she had asked me   
myself4 ,when ,i went home my mother    
asked me if ,i had been to school1 and  
,i said yes1 and my mother1 as she  had 
never found me out in a lie before1     
believed me4 ,but ,i was sadly          
distressed afterwards when ,i thought of
 what ,i had done4 ,that lie  caused me 
days of remorse1 and my sufferings were 
all the severer in  consequence of my   
mother having so readily believed what  
,i said4    ,the unhappy and unnatural  
effects of theology on the minds of     
earnest1  truth-seeking men--the total  

prostration of manly dignity1 the       
perversion of the mental faculties1 and 
the debasement of human nature1  is     
truly stated by ,mr4 ,barker in the     
following extract3--    ,i also         
recollect being very much troubled with 
dreadful and  indescribably awful       
dreams1 and for several months during   
certain parts  of the year ,i was       
accustomed to rise during my sleep1 and 
walk about the  house in a state of     
sleep for hours together4 ,i say in a   
state of sleep3  but ,i cannot exactly  
describe the state in which ,i was4 ,it 
was not  perfect sleep1 and yet ,i was  
not properly awake4 ,my eyes were open1 
and ,i saw1 as far as ,i can remember1  
the things around me1 and #a could  hear
 what was said to me4 ,but neither what 
,i saw nor what ,i heard seemed  to have
 power to penetrate far enough into my  
soul to awake me properly4  ,during     
those occasions1 ,i was frequently very 
unhappy1 dreadfully  unhappy1 most      
horribly miserable4 ,sometimes ,i       

fancied ,i had been doing  something    
wrong1 and my fancied offence seemed    
horrible beyond all  expression1 and    
alarmed and overwhelmed me with         
unutterable terrors and  distress4 ,on  
one occasion ,i fancied that both ,i and
 my father had  both been doing         
something wrong1 and this seemed most   
horrible and  distressing of all2 and as
 ,i wandered about in my mysterious     
state1 ,i  howled most piteously1 and   
cried and wept as if my heart would     
break4 ,i  never recollect being roused 
from that dismal state while ,i was     
walking  about the house1 except twice4 
,once when ,i struck my shins violently 
against a large earthenware bowl and    
hurt myself sadly2 and another was  when
 ,i was attempting to go up the chimney3
 ,i put my foot upon fire  and burnt    
myself1 and that awoke me4 ,i suffered  
in this way for several  years4 ,after  
,i went to bed at night ,i soon fell    
asleep1 and slept  perhaps an hour or   
nearly two4 ,i would then begin to cry1 

or moan1  or howl1 and at times to sing4
 ,one night ,i sang a whole hymn of     
eight  verses through2 the hymn in      
,wesley's ,hymn ,book1 beginning        
,with glorious clouds encompassed round 
,whom angels dimly see1       ,will the 
unsearchable be found            ,or    
,god appear to me8'    ,few persons who 
have not attended the class-meetings of 
the ,wesleyan  ,methodists can form an  
adequate idea of the stereotyped phrases
 and  absurd sayings indulged in by     
those who speak their experience1  etc41
 at those meetings4 ,certain sentences  
are learned1 and uttered                
indiscriminately1 without reference to  
time1 place1 or other conditions4  ,mr4 
,barker1 after speaking of the          
recklessness of speech thus indulged    
in1 says3--    ,in many cases this false
 way of speaking is the result of mere  
thoughtlessness perhaps1 or of          
ignorance1 joined with the notion that  
it  is their duty to pray1 or to say    
something in public4 ,the parties have  

no intention to deceive3 but being      
called on to speak1 or invited to  pray1
 they begin1 and catch hold of such     
words as they can find1 whether  right  
or wrong1 whether true or false4 ,and   
their words are oftener  foolish or     
false1 than wise or true4 ,their talk is
 at times most foolish  and ridiculous4 
,i will give an example or two4 ,it is  
customary for  people1 when praying for 
preachers1 to say1 ',lord1 bless thy    
servants  when they stand up to declare 
thy word3 be thou mouth matter1 and     
wisdom to them4' ,this has some meaning 
in it when offered in reference  to a   
preacher1 especially a preacher about to
 preach4 ,in other cases  it would be   
most foolish and ridiculous4 ,yet ,i    
once heard a person in a  prayer-meeting
 at ,chester use this same form of      
expression in behalf  of the sick and   
the dying4 ',o ,lord1' said he1 'bless  
the sick and the  afflicted1 and those  
that are in the article of death2--be   
thou mouth1  matter1 and wisdom to      

them4' ,at another prayer-meeting at    
,chester1 on a  ,friday evening1 one of 
the leaders gave out the following      
lines3--         ',another six days'    
work is done2       ,another ,sabbath is
 begun4' etc4    ,i once heard a woman  
say in class1 ',i do thank ,god that he 
ever gave me  a desire to see that death
 that never1 never dies4'    ,soon after
 ,mr4 ,barker became religious and      
attended his  class-meetings1 he awaited
 the usual call to preach the gospel4   
,accordingly1 having received the call1 
he became a ,methodist preacher1        
belonging to the ,old ,connexion1 the   
,new ,connexion1 and then advancing to  
,unitarianism1 ultimately arriving at   
the climax of ,freethought1 in  which   
cause he is now so distinguished an     
advocate4 ,while a ,methodist  preacher1
 he was induced by a neighbor1 an       
,atheist1 to read ,carlile's            
,republican4 ,we can readily understand 
why ,christians are taught not  to read 
,infidel works4 ,the effect the         

,republican produced on ,mr4  ,barker's 
mind would be augmented1 did those      
,christians investigate what  they so   
often ignorantly denounce4 ,in reference
 to the ,republican1  ,mr4 ,barker      
says3--    ,i was very much struck in   
reading some portions of the work       
,carlile's1 and agitated and shaken by  
its arguments on some points4  ,the     
object of many of its articles was to   
prove ,christianity irrational  and     
false4 ,the principal doctrines which it
 assailed were such as the  trinity--the
 common notion about the fall of man1   
and its effects upon  the human         
race--the ,calvinistic notions of       
eternal1 universal1 and  absolute       
predestination1 unconditional election  
and reprobation--the  ,calvinistic      
notion of ,god's sovereignty or         
partiality--the utter  depravity of     
every human being born into the world1  
and yet the  obligation of those utterly
 depraved beings to steer clear of all  
evil1  and to do all that is right and  

good1 on pain of eternal damnation4 ,the
  doctrine of satisfaction to justice1  
was also assailed1 and the doctrine  of 
the immortality of the human soul1 and  
the notion that because it is           
immaterial1 it must1 as a consequence1  
be immortal4444 ,the consequence  was1  
that my mind was thrown into a state of 
doubt and suspense4 ,i  cannot say that 
,i doubted the truth of the ,christian  
religion exactly1  but still ,i doubted 
the truth of certain doctrines which ,i 
had been  taught to regard as parts of  
that religion4 ,i can briefly describe  
the  doubts ,i had4 ,i neither saw      
clearly that those doctrines to which he
  objected were no part of the          
,christian religion1 nor could ,i see   
any way  by which these doctrines could 
be defended and proved to be rational   
and  true4 ,one thing began to seem     
almost certain1 either that             
,christianity  was not true1 or that    
those doctrines as generally laid down1 
were  no parts of the ,christian        

religion4 ,this led to investigation4 ,i
 was  wishful to ascertain whether those
 doctrines which were assailed as       
irrational1 were parts of ,christianity 
or not4 ,i began to converse on  the    
subject with one of my religious        
companions1 and ,i began to read on  the
 subject as ,i had opportunity4 ,my     
companion was rather troubled and       
alarmed at the doubts ,i expressed with 
respect to the correctness of  some of  
the common doctrines of what was        
considered orthodoxy2 still1  what ,i   
had said had some influence on his mind1
 for he told me shortly  after1 that he 
wished he had never heard my doubts1 for
 what ,i had said  had spoiled some of  
his best sermons2 he would never be able
 to preach  them with comfort more4444  
,during my residence in that ,newcastle 
circuit1 my views on many subjects      
became anti-,methodistical to a very    
great extent indeed4 ,i now no longer   
held the prevailing views with  respect 
to the nature of justifying faith1 the  

witness of the ,spirit1  regeneration1  
sanctification1 and the like4 ,in       
reading ,wesley's works1  ,i was        
astonished at the great number of       
unmeaning and inconsistent  passages    
which ,i met with4 ,in many of his views
 ,i perfectly agreed with  him8 but with
 a vast amount of what he said on other 
subjects1 ,i could  not help but        
disagree4444 ,about this time1 finding  
that there was little  likelihood that  
,i should be tolerated in the ,new      
,connexion unless ,i  could allow my    
mind to be enslaved1 and feeling that ,i
 should be obliged  sooner or later to  
break loose from ,methodistical         
restraint1 and speak  and act with      
freedom1 ,i thought of visiting ,mr4    
,turner1 the ,unitarian  minister of    
,newcastle1 and seeking an interview    
with him4 ,i had  heard something to the
 effect that ,unitarians were great     
lovers of  freedom--that they did not   
bind their ministers and members by any 
human  creeds1 but left them at liberty 

to investigate the whole system of      
,christianity thoroughly1 and to judge  
as to what were its doctrines  and      
duties for themselves1 and to preach    
what they believe to be true  without   
restraint and persecution1 and ,i       
thought if this was the case1  they must
 be a very happy people4 ,but from other
 things which ,i had  heard respecting  
them1 ,i was led to regard them with    
something  of horror--to look1 on them  
as persons who trifled with ,scripture  
authority1 as persons who had rushed    
from the extremes of false  orthodoxy   
into the extremes of ,infidelity4 ,i was
 in consequence  prevented from visiting
 ,mr4 ,turner1 and ,i remained in       
comparative  ignorance of the ,unitarian
 body1 in ignorance both of their       
principles  and of their character1     
still shut up in the dungeons of        
orthodox  slavery4    ,the dungeons of  
orthodox slavery did not long contain   
,mr4 ,barker2 for  he afterwards became 
better acquainted with the ,unitarians1 

and formed  one of their most energetic 
preachers4 ,but ,unitarianism1 appearing
 to  him at first true in its doctrine  
and free in its advocacy1 shortly       
became insufficient for the cravings of 
his mind2 and1 at length1 he  found     
himself outside all the churches4 ,the  
,bible1 which at one period  of his life
 seemed to him a perfect revelation from
 ,god now appeared  only the production 
of erring and half-informed men2 and    
having a  thorough knowledge of its     
contents1 he resolved to employ the     
remainder  of his life in confuting the 
false notions of its divine authority4  
,america presenting a congenial         
residence1 he resolved to visit that    
country and purchase some land1 upon    
which he might occupy his leisure  from 
lecturing and writing4 ,having settled  
in the country1 he considered  something
 should be said on the ,bible4          
,accordingly1 in ,november1 #aheb1  a   
,bible ,convention was held at ,salem1  
,ohio1 ,mr4 ,barker being appointed     

,president1 he extract the following    
from his speech1 as illustrating the    
uncertainty of the ,bible translations1 
the character of the translators1  and  
the nature of the manuscripts from which
 the translations are  made3--    ,we   
say1 that the ,bible bears on its very  
face the marks of human  imperfection   
and error4 ,this is true of every ,bible
 in existence4  ,we will begin with the 
,bible in common use1 and what do we    
find6 ,the  title-page tells us it is a 
translation from the original tongues1  
by  the special command of one of the   
kings of ,england4 ,does any one pretend
  that the translators were             
infallible--men above the possibility of
  error8 ,nothing of the kind4 ,even    
those who contend that the original     
writers of the ,bible were infallible1  
do not pretend that the king's          
translators were so4 ,the sects and     
priesthoods themselves show that they   
regard the common translation as        
imperfect4 ,they all take the liberty   

to alter it4 ,they alter it in thousands
 and tens of thousands of places4       
,nothing is more common than for        
theological disputants to appeal from   
the common translation of the ,bible to 
what they call the original ,greek  and 
,hebrew4 ,every commentator takes the   
same liberty4 ,the leaders of the  sects
 and priesthoods of the day have        
testified their belief that  the ,bibles
 in common use are imperfect and        
erroneous by making new  translations4  
,there is scarcely an ,english sect or  
priesthood of  any note in existence    
that has not produced a new translation 
of the  ,scriptures4 ,john ,wesley      
translated both the ,old and ,new       
,testament4 ,his  translation of the    
,new ,testament continues to be used in 
the ,methodist  body to this day4 ,adam 
,clarke1 in his ',commentary1'          
translates afresh  almost every         
important passage in the book4 ,many    
passages he translates  in such a way as
 to give them meanings quite contrary to

 the meaning  given them in the common  
,bible4 ,richard ,watson1 a ,methodist  
preacher1 commenced a new translation of
 the ,bible4 ,dr4 ,boothroyd1 a         
,congregationalist minister of ,england1
 published another translation4  ,dr4   
,conquest1 a layman of the same         
denomination1 published another1 in     
which he says he made twenty thousand   
emendations1 or improvements4  ,he must1
 therefore1 have thought the common     
,bible had twenty thousand              
imperfections or errors4 ,mr4 ,belsham1 
and other ,english ,unitarians1         
published a new translation of the ,new 
,testament4 ,mr4 ,wellbeloved1 a        
,unitarian minister1 published a new    
translation of a great part of  the ,old
 testament1 intending to publish a new  
translation of the whole  ,bible4 ,even 
ministers of the ,established ,church   
have spoken strongly  against the common
 translation1 and some of them have gone
 so far as  to publish new translations 
of portions of the ,bible4 ,alexander   

,campbell1 the founder of the           
denomination which bears his name1 has  
published a new translation of the ,new 
,testament4 ,a ,mr4 ,taylor published  a
 new translation of the ,new ,testament 
from ,griesbach's ,greek ,new           
,testament4 ,a ,mr4 ,sharp published    
another translation from ,griesbach's   
,greek text4 ,the ,baptists have        
published a new translation of the      
,bible1  ,i am told4444 ,we are not     
alone1 therefore1 in believing that the 
,bibles  in common use bear marks of    
human imperfection and error4 ,the      
leading  men in all the religious sects 
and priesthoods of ,great ,britain and  
,america believe the same4 ,we add1 if  
the translators of the ,bible had  been 
the best and wisest men that ever lived1
 their work would not have  been        
perfect4 ,a translation from ,greek and 
,hebrew cannot be perfect4 ,but  the    
translators employed by ,king ,james    
were not the best or wisest men  that   
ever lived4 ,they were1 in some         

respects1 exceedingly ignorant1         
prejudiced1 and immoral4444 ,they were  
liars and false-swearers4  ,these       
dignitaries of the ,church of ,england  
knew1 as well as you know1  that kings  
and queens are often vicious1           
profligate1 and godless4 ,they  knew    
that among the kings and queens of      
,england there had been some of  the    
most loathsome lumps of filthiness--some
 of the most adulterous  and lecherous  
sensualists--some of the most heartless 
and cruel  tyrants--some of the most    
inhuman and bloody wretches that ever   
cursed  the earth4 ,they knew1 too1 that
 ,english kings and queens generally    
were  under strong temptations to be    
thus cruel and profligate1 and that  it 
was too much to expect any of them to be
 strictly religious and  virtuous4 ,yet 
they bound themselves on oath to call   
their kings  and queens1 whatever their 
characters might be1 most gracious and  
religious4' ,they did call the monarch  
then living1 'most gracious and         

religious1' and they handed it down as a
 duty to their successors to  give the  
same high titles to all their future    
monarchs1 though they  should be as     
filthy as that unwieldy1 waddling mass  
of lust and  rottenness1 ,king ,henry   
the ,eighth1 or at false and treacherous
 as the  perjured ,charles the ,first4  
,these translators of the ,bible also   
knew  that many who were brought to them
 to be buried were godless1  wicked men4
 ,they knew that some of them were      
drunkards1 adulterers1  false-swearers4 
,yet they bound themselves to call them 
all1 as they  lowered them into their   
graves1 their 'beloved brethren1' and to
 declare  that they committed them to   
the dust 'in sure and curtain hope of a 
resurrection to eternal life1' though   
they believed in their hearts that  they
 would rise to eternal damnation4444    
,they were the hirelings of the  king   
and government4 ,they regarded the king 
as the head of the church1  and were    
sworn to obey him in all things4 ,they  

were sworn to obey him in  translating  
the ,bible4 ,the king gave them the     
rules by which they were  to be guided  
in the work of translation1 and they    
were sworn to follow  these rules4      
,these rules were intended to prevent   
them from putting  anything into their  
translation of the ,bible that was at   
variance with  the established          
priesthoods1 and to keep them from      
leaving out anything  that was favorable
 to the ,established ,church and        
government4 ,and they  kept to their    
rules1 and they were influenced by their
 interests1  their situation1 and their 
prejudices4 ,it would be foolish to     
think  otherwise4 ,to make the ,bible   
agree with their creed1 they put into   
their  translation things which were not
 in the ,greek or ,hebrew ,bibles1 and  
mistranslated vast multitudes of things 
which were in the ,greek and  ,hebrew   
,bibles4 ,i will give you an instance or
 two4 ,their creed taught  that ,god    
once died1 or laid down his life4 ,there

 was nothing in the  ,greek or ,hebrew  
,bibles to uphold this doctrine1 so in  
translating the  ,bible they so altered 
a passage as to make it to teach the    
doctrine4  ,you may find the passage in 
#a ,john1 iii4 #af4 ,it is as           
follows3--',hereby  perceive we the love
 of ,god1 because he laid down his life 
for us4' ,now  the word ',god' is not in
 the ,greek2 it was put into the passage
 by the  translators4 ,in one place in  
the ,old ,testament it is said that     
,elhanan  slew ,goliath the ,gittite4   
,the translators have altered the       
passage so as  to make it say that it   
was the brother of ,goliath that        
,elhanan slew4  ,see #b ,samuel xxi4    
#ai4444 ,before a man can give a perfect
 translation of  the ,bible1 he must    
have a perfect knowledge of both the    
,greek and ,hebrew  ,bible1 and of the  
language into which he would translate  
it4 ,but no man  has that knowledge4    
,the ,greek and ,hebrew languages1 from 
which the ,bible  has to be translated1 

are dead languages--languages which are 
no longer  spoken or written by any     
people--languages which exist only in   
ancient  writings4 ,the meaning of many 
of the words of those languages is1 in  
consequence1 lost4 ,the writings of the 
,old ,testament are the only books      
remaining in the ,hebrew language4      
,there are no ,hebrew books to throw    
light on dark passages1 or to settle the
 meaning of doubtful words and  phrases4
 ,true1 we have ,greek and ,hebrew      
dictionaries and grammars1 but  these   
dictionaries and grammars are the work  
of imperfect and erring  men1 who had no
 other means oi understanding the       
meaning of the ,greek  and ,hebrew      
languages than ourselves4 ,these        
dictionaries and grammars  differ from  
each other4 ,none of them are perfect4  
,the best abound with  errors4 ,we have 
better means of obtaining a knowledge of
 the ,greek  language than of the       
,hebrew--but the ,greek of the ,new     
,testament is a  peculiar dialect1 not  

to be found in any other book4 ,it is1  
therefore1  as difficult to translate   
the ,new ,testament as the ,old4 ,if1   
herefore1 we  would find a ,bible that  
does not bear the marks of human        
imperfection  and error1 we must look   
for it in what are called the original  
,greek and  ,hebrew4 ,but there is no   
such ,bible4 ,the ,greek and ,hebrew    
,bibles are  as really imperfect as the 
,english translations4 ,the ,greek and  
,hebrew  ,bibles are as really the work 
of imperfect and erring men as the      
,english  translations are4 ,many people
 imagine that there is only one ,greek  
and  ,hebrew ,bible1 and that that one  
was written by ,moses and the prophets1 
and by the evangelists and the apostles4
 ,but this is not the case4  ,there are 
several ,greek and ,hebrew ,bibles1 and 
all of them are the  compilations of    
fallible men4 ,we have several ,hebrew  
,old ,testaments1  and quite a number of
 ,greek ,new ,testaments1 all compiled  
by different  persons1 but drawn1 to    

some extent1 from different sources4 ,it
 should  be understood1 that the oldest 
,greek and ,hebrew ,bibles are not      
printed  books1 but written ones4 ,they 
were written before the art of printing 
was known among ,jews or ,christians4   
,those written or manuscript ,bibles    
are more numerous than the ,greek and   
,hebrew printed ,bibles4 ,they are the  
work of different men1 in different     
countries1 and different ages4 ,and  no 
two of them are alike4 ,they differ from
 each other almost endlessly4  ,some    
contain more1 some less4 ,some have     
passages in one form1 others  have them 
in other forms4 ,john ,mills compared a 
number of those  manuscripts of the ,new
 ,testament1 and found that they        
differed from each  other in thirty     
thousand places4 ,he marked and collated
 thirty thousand  various readings4     
,other men have compared the ,greek     
manuscripts of the  ,new ,testament1 and
 discovered upwards of a hundred        
thousand various  readings--a hundred   

thousand places or particulars in which 
they differ  from each other4 ,a similar
 diversity of readings is to be found in
 the  ,hebrew manuscripts of the ,old   
,testaments4 ,now it is from these      
imperfect  and discordant manuscripts   
that men have to make their ,greek and  
,hebrew  ,bibles4 ,they have nothing    
else from which to make them4 ,and those
 ,greek  and ,hebrew ,bible makers have 
no means of knowing which of the various
  and contradictory manuscripts are the 
best4444 ,you must understand  that the 
original writings from which the        
manuscripts now in existence            
originated1 have perished many ages ago4
 ,it is probable that the last of  them 
perished more than sixteen hundred years
 ago4 ,we have1 therefore1  no          
opportunity of comparing existing       
manuscripts with the original  writings1
 in order to and out which are the true1
 the original readings4  ,the discordant
 and contradictory manuscripts1         
therefore1 can never be  corrected4444  

,it is not only of the common ,english  
,bible1 therefore1  that the words of   
the resolution are true1 but of every   
,bible known1  whether printed or       
written1 whether in ,greek and ,hebrew1 
or in modern  languages4    ,since ,mr4 
,baker has resided in ,america1 he has  
visited ,england1 and  lectured for the 
,secular and ,freethought ,societies in 
,england and  ,scotland2 the total      
number of lectures he delivered during  
his visit  amounted to #aec1 besides    
engaging in several debates1 the        
principal one  being with the ,rey4     
,brewin ,grant1 at ,halifax1 during ten 
nights1 on the  ,divine ,authority of   
the ,bible1 which is now published4 ,the
 views  now held by ,mr4 ,barker on ,god
 and ,secularism may be seen from the   
following extract of a letter addressed 
to the ,editor of the ,reasoner1        
written by ,mr4 ,barker from ,america1  
on ,february #bb1 #ahec3--    ,i confess
 ,i know nothing of ,god1 but as he is  
revealed in his works4  ,with me1 the   

word ,god stands for the unseen cause of
 all natural  phenomena4 ,i attribute to
 ,god no quality but what seems         
necessary to  account for what ,i see in
 nature4 ,my ,jewish and ,christian     
notions of  ,god are all gone1 except so
 far as they appear to be the utterances
 of  nature4444 ,as to ,secularism1 ,i  
think our business is with the seen1 the
  worldly1 the physical1 the secular4   
,our whole duty seems to me to be  truly
 and fully to unfold ourselves1 and     
truly and fully to unfold  others3 to   
secure the greatest possible perfection 
of being and  condition1 and the largest
 possible share of life and enjoyment to
 all  mankind in this present world4    
,the machinery of sects and priesthoods 
for saving souls and fitting men for    
heaven1 ,i regard as wasteful and       
injurious folly1 except so far as it may
 tend to better men and improve  their  
condition here4 ,i have a hope of future
 life1 but whatever is best  for this   
life must be best for another life2     

whatever is best for the  present1 must 
be best for the eternal future4 ,to     
reveal to men the laws  of their own    
being1 and to unfold to them the laws of
 nature generally1  and to bring them   
into harmony with those laws1 is1       
therefore1 with  me1 the whole business 
of man4 ,if there be another world1 as  
#a hope1 it  will1 ,i suppose1 be       
governed by the same laws as this4 ,if  
men live on  for ever1 they will have   
all the better start in a future life1  
for  having got well on in this4 ,as an 
art1 therefore1 ,i believe in           
,secularism4    ,j4 ,w4      ,note by   
the ,american ,publisher4--,soon after  
,mr4 ,barker's return from  ,england1 he
 resumed his lecturing in various towns 
and cities in the  ,united ,states1     
giving great satisfaction1 by his able  
addresses1 to  large and intelligent    
audiences4 ,he still labors occasionally
 in the  same pursuit1 though at present
 he is residing on his farm at ,omaha   
,city1 in the ,territory of ,nebraska4  

,much might be said in praise of his    
efforts to promote ,liberalism in this  
country2 but his greatest triumph1  as  
we consider it1 was his public debate   
with the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,berg of            
,philadelphia4 ,this took place on the  
#ith of ,january1 #ahed1 and continued  
no less than eight evenings4 ,the       
question was on the origin1  authority1 
and tendency of the ,bible--,dr4 ,berg  
affirming1 and ,mr4  ,barker opposing4  
,this famous discussion was attended by 
thousands1 and  was probably the        
greatest affair of the kind that ever   
occurred4 ,the  speeches on both sides  
were published1 making a large pamphlet 
of #aij  pages4 ,of course1 each of the 
debaters was victorious1 in the opinion 
of  his friends2 but the trick played by
 the ,christian party1 in the closing   
scene1 showed a determination on their  
part to claim the victory whether  or   
no6 ,for1 as soon as ,dr4 ,berg 7who    
made the last speech7 had finished1  one
 of his friends took the platform1 and1 

while the audience were  separating1    
read some resolutions in favor of the   
,doctor and the ,bible4  ,less than one 
fourth of the audience1 says the        
,philadelphia ,register1  voted for     
them4 ,the more serious part of the     
audience did not vote at  all4 ,the     
great majority seemed to take the thing 
as a farce4 ,the result  of the vote    
made a good many long faces on the stage
 and front seats4 ,a  short silence     
ensued1 followed by a burst of          
obstreporous laughter1  and cries of    
'the ,infidels have it6' ,and so ended  
the most remarkable  debate ever held in
 ,america4    ,the following correct and
 candid report of the above discussion1 
appeared at the time in the columns of  
the ,pennsylvania ,freeman3--    ,the   
,bible ,discussion4--,the discussion on 
the authority of the ,bible1 at         
,concert ,hall1 between ,rev4 ,j4 ,f4   
,berg1 of this city and ,joseph ,barker1
  of ,ohio1 closed on ,thursday evening 
last1 after a continuance of eight      

evenings4 ,during the whole time1 the   
vast hall was crowded with an  eager    
multitude--numbering from #bjjj to #bejj
 persons--each paying an  admittance of 
#ab #a-b cents every evening1 and on    
some evenings it is  said that hundreds 
went away1 unable to approach the door2 
nor did the  interest appear to flag    
among the hearers to the last4    ,of   
the merits of the question or the       
argument1 it does not come within  the  
scope of a strictly anti-slavery paper  
to speak1 but we cannot  forbear to     
notice the contrast in the manner and   
bearing of the two  debaters1 and the   
two parties among the audience4 ,mr4    
,barker uniformly  bore himself as a    
gentleman1 courteously and respectfully 
towards his  opponent1 and with the     
dignity becoming his position1 and the  
solemnity  and importance of the        
question4 ,we regret that we cannot say 
the same of  ,dr4 ,berg1 who at times   
seemed to forget the obligations of the 
gentleman  in his zeal as a             

controversialist4 ,he is an able and    
skillful debater1  though less logical  
than ,mr4 ,barker1 but he wasted his    
time and  strength too often on         
personalities and irrelevant matters4   
,his personal  inuendoes and epithets1  
his coarse witticisms1 and a bearing    
that seemed  to us more arrogant than   
,christian1 may have suited the vulgar  
and  the intolerant among his party1 but
 we believe these things won him no     
respect from the calm and thinking      
portion of the audience1 while we  know 
that they grieved and offended some     
intelligent and candid men who          
thoroughly agreed with his views4 ,it is
 surely time that all ,christians  and  
clergymen had learned that men whom they
 regard as heretics and  ,infidels have 
not forfeited their claims to the       
respect and courtesies  of social life1 
by their errors of opinion1 and that    
insolence and  arrogance1 contemptuous  
sneers and impeachment of motives and   
character1 toward such men1 are not     

effective means of grace for their      
enlightenment and conversion4    ,among 
the audience1 there was a large number  
of men1 who also lost their             
self-control in their dislike to ,mr4   
,barker's views1 and he was often       
interrupted1 and sometimes checked in   
his argument1 by hisses1 groans1        
sneers1 vulgar cries1 and clamor1 though
 through all these annoyances  and      
repeated provocations1 he maintained his
 wonted composure of manner  and        
clearness of thought4 ,on the other     
hand1 ,dr4 ,berg was heard with  general
 quiet by his opponents1 and greeted    
with clamorous applause by  his friends1
 who seemed to constitute a large       
majority of the audience1  and to feel  
that the triumph of their cause1 like   
the capture of ,jericho  of old1        
depended upon the amount of noise made4 
,mr4 ,barker1 in giving an account of   
the origin of the discussion1  says3--  
,in ,december1 #ahec in compliance with 
a request from the ,sunday  ,institute1 

,i began a course of lectures in        
,philadelphia1 on the origin1  authority
 and influence of the ,scriptures4 ,the 
object of the lectures  was to show that
 the ,bible is of human origin1 that its
 teachings are  not of divine authority1
 and that the doctrine that the ,bible  
is ,god's  word is injurious in its     
tendency4    ,when ,i sent the ,sunday  
,institute a programme of my lectures1  
,i  authorised the ,secretary to        
announce1 through the papers1 that ,i   
was  willing to meet any clergyman1 of  
good standing in any of the leading     
churches1 in public discussion on the   
,bible question4    ,the ,rev4 ,mr4     
,mc,calla1 a ,presbyterian clergyman1   
accepted the offer1  and arrangements   
were made for a six nights debate2 but1 
on the fifth  evening1 after trying to  
raise a mob1 he withdrew from the       
contest4    ,the clergy1 or a portion of
 the clergy1 of ,philadelphia1 unwilling
 to  leave their cause in this plight1  
demanded that ,i should discuss the     

question with ,dr4 ,berg1 a minister in 
whom they had fuller confidence4  ,being
 assured that ,dr4 ,berg was a gentleman
 and a scholar1 and that he  was the    
ablest debater the clergy of            
,philadelphia could boast1 ,i agreed  to
 meet him1 and the discussion was fixed 
for the #ith1 #ajth1 #abth1 #acth1      
#afth1 #agth1 #ahth and #aith of        
,january44444    ,though the ,doctor did
 not prove himself so much of a         
gentleman as ,i  had been encouraged to 
expect1 ,i was sorry he declined to     
continue the  discussion four nights    
longer1 as we had not got more than half
 through  the question when the eighth  
night closed4 ,i wished for an          
opportunity  of laying the whole subject
 before the public4 ,perhaps some other 
clergyman will take the matter in       
hand--one disposed and able to discuss  
the subject thoroughly4