,transcriber's note3 ,a few typographical errors have been corrected3 they are listed at the end of the text4 ,due to space constraints1 italics denoting underscores were not used in the tables4 ,,the ,,encyclop,,dia ,,britannica ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,sciences1 ,,literature ,,and ,,general ,,information ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,viii slice ,,iii ,destructor to ,diameter ,,destructor 7continued from volume #h1 slice #b1 page #jajh47 444 in main flues1 c4 7g7 ,the chimney draught must be assisted with forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of #a in4 to #b in4 under grates by water-gauge4 7h7 ,where a destructor is required to work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants1 its efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view in designing the works1 steam-raising being regarded as a secondary consideration4 ,boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace so as to present a large cooling surface1 whereby the temperature of the gases is reduced before the organic matter has been thoroughly burned4 7i7 ,where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a large percentage of ,,co#b should be sought in the furnaces with as little excess of air as possible1 and the flue gases should be utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates1 and the feed-water to the boilers4 7j7 ,ample boiler capacity and hot-water storage feed-tanks should be included in the design where steam-power is required4 ,sidenote3 ,cost4 ,as to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors1 few trustworthy data can be given4 ,the outlay necessarily depends1 amongst other things1 upon the difficulty of preparing the site1 upon the nature of the foundations required1 the height of the chimney-shaft1 the length of the inclined or approach roadway1 and the varying prices of labour and materials in different localities4 ,as an example may be mentioned the case of ,bristol1 where1 in #ahib1 the total cost of constructing a #af-;cell ,fryer destructor was #aa1dah1 of which #biji was expended on foundations1 and #afhi on the chimney-shaft2 the cost of the destructor proper1 buildings and approach road was therefore #fhbj1 or about #dbf per cell4 ,the cost per ton of burning refuse in destructors depends mainly upon--7a7 ,the price of labour in the locality1 and the number of shifts or changes of workmen per day2 7b7 the type of furnace adopted2 7c7 the nature of the material to be consumed2 7d7 the interest on and repayment of capital outlay4 ,the cost of burning ton for ton consumed1 in high-temperature furnaces1 including labour and repairs1 is not greater than in slow-combustion destructors4 ,the average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four different towns throughout ,england1 exclusive of interest on the cost of the works1 is #as4 #a;d4 per ton burned2 the minimum cost is #f;d4 per ton at ,bradford1 and the maximum cost #bs4 #aj;d4 per ton at ,battersea4 ,at ,shoreditch the cost per ton for the year ending on the #beth of ,march #ahii1 including labour1 supervision1 stores1 repairs1 c4 7but exclusive of interest on cost of works71 was #bs4 #f4i;d4 ,the quantity of refuse burned per cell per day of #bd hours varies from about #d tons up to #bj tons4 ,the ordinary low-temperature destructor1 with #be sq4 ft4 grate area1 burns about #bj lb4 of refuse per square foot of grate area per hour1 or between #e and #f tons per cell per #bd hours4 ,the ,meldrum destructor furnaces at ,rochdale burn as much as #ff lb4 per square foot of grate area per hour1 and the ,beaman and ,deas destructor at ,llandudno #ga4g lb4 per square foot per hour4 ,the amount1 however1 always depends materially on the care observed in stoking1 the nature of the material1 the frequency of removal of clinker1 and on the question whether the whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is thoroughly cremated4 ,sidenote3 ,residues3 ,the amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from #bb to #cg of the bulk dealt with4 ,from #be to #cj is a very usual amount4 ,at ,shoreditch1 where the refuse consists of about #h of straw1 paper1 shavings1 c41 the residue contains about #bi clinker1 #b4g fine ash1 4#e flue dust1 and 4#f old tins1 making a total residue of #cb4h4 ,as the residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the total bulk of the refuse dealt with1 it is a question of the utmost importance that some profitable1 or at least inexpensive1 means should be devised for its regular disposal4 ,among other purposes1 it has been used for bottoming for macadamized roads1 for the manufacture of concrete1 for making paving slabs1 for forming suburban footpaths or cinder footwalks1 and for the manufacture of mortar4 ,the last is a very general1 and in many places profitable1 mode of disposal4 ,an entirely new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of good well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion with the construction of bacteria beds for sewage disposal1 and in many districts its value has1 by this means1 become greatly enhanced4 ,sidenote3 ,forced draught4 ,through defects in the design and management of many of the early destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose1 and these have1 to some extent1 brought destructor installations into disrepute4 ,although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this respect1 that is by no means the case with the modern improved type of high-temperature furnace2 and often1 were it not for the great prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft1 the existence of a refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to the inhabitants4 ,a modern furnace1 properly designed and worked1 will give rise to no nuisance1 and may be safely erected in the midst of a populous neighbourhood4 ,to ensure the perfect cremation of the refuse and of the gases given off1 forced draught is essential4 ,this is supplied either as air draught delivered from a rapidly revolving fan1 or as steam blast1 as in the ,horsfall steam jet or the ,meldrum blower4 ,with a forced blast less air is required to obtain complete combustion than by chimney draught4 ,the forced draught grate requires little more than the quantity theoretically necessary1 while with chimney draught more than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied4 ,with forced draught1 too1 a much higher temperature is attained1 and if it is properly worked1 little or no cold air will enter the furnaces during stoking operations4 ,as far as possible a balance of pressure in the cells during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to prevent an inrush of cold air through the flues4 ,the forced draught pressure should not exceed #b in4 water-gauge4 ,the efficiency of the combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the ,econometer1 which registers continuously and automatically the proportion of ,,co#b passing away in the waste gases2 the higher the percentage of ,,co#b the more efficient the furnace1 provided there is no formation of ,,co1 the presence of which would indicate incomplete combustion4 ,the theoretical maximum of ,,co#b for refuse burning is about #bj2 and1 by maintaining an even clean fire1 by admitting secondary air over the fire1 and by regulating the dampers or the air-pressure in the ash-pit1 an amount approximating to this percentage may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly worked4 ,if the proportion of free oxygen 7i4e4 excess of air7 is large1 more air is passed through the furnace than is required for complete combustion1 and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste of heat4 ,the position of the econometer in testing should be as near the furnace as possible1 as there may be considerable air leakage through the brickwork of the flues4 ,the air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot1 the inlet air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of which is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue4 ,sidenote3 ,calorific value4 ,the modern high-temperature destructor1 to render the refuse and gases perfectly innocuous and harmless1 is worked at a temperature varying from #abej to #bjjj ,f41 and the maintenance of such temperatures has very naturally suggested the possibility of utilizing this heat-energy for the production of steam-power4 ,experience shows that a considerable amount of energy may be derived from steam-raising destructor stations1 amply justifying a reasonable increase of expenditure on plant and labour4 ,the actual calorific value of the refuse material necessarily varies1 but1 as a general average1 with suitably designed and properly managed plant1 an evaporation of #a lb4 of water per pound of refuse burned is a result which may be readily attained1 and affords a basis of calculation which engineers may safely adopt in practice4 ,many destructor steam-raising plants1 however1 give considerably higher results1 evaporations approaching #b lb4 of water per pound of refuse being often met with under favourable conditions4 ,from actual experience it may be accepted1 therefore1 that the calorific value of unscreened house refuse varies from #a to #b lb4 of water evaporated per pound of refuse burned1 the exact proportion depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with4 ,taking the evaporative power of coal at #aj lb4 of water per pound of coal1 this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from #a_/aj to #a_/e that of coal2 or1 with coal at #bjs4 per ton1 refuse has a commercial value of from #bs4 to #ds4 per ton4 ,in ,london the quantity of house refuse amounts to about #a million tons per annum1 which is equivalent to from #d cwt4 to #e cwt4 per head per annum4 ,if it be burned in furnaces giving an evaporation of #a lb4 of water per pound of refuse1 it would yield a total power annually of about #ach million brake horse-power hours1 and equivalent cost of coal at #bjs4 per ton for this amount of power even when calculated upon the very low estimate of #b lb4#a of coal per brake horse-power hour1 works out at over #abc1jjj4 ,on the same basis1 the refuse of a medium-sized town1 with1 say1 a population of #gj1jjj yielding refuse at the rate of #e cwt4 per head per annum1 would afford #aab indicated horse-power per ton burned1 and the total indicated horse-power hours per annum would be #gj1jjj #e cwt4 --------------- #aab #a1ifj1jjj ,i4,h4,p4 hours annually4 #bj ,if this were applied to the production of electric energy1 the electrical horse-power hours would be 7with a dynamo efficiency of #ij7 #a1ifj1jjj #ij -------------- #a1gfd1jjj ,e4,h4,p4 hours per annum2 #ajj and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be #a1gfd1jjj #gdf #a1cae1idd1jjj4 ,allowing for a loss of #aj in distribution1 this would give #a1ahd1cdi1fjj watt-hours available in lamps1 or with #h-;candle-power lamps taking #cj watts of current per lamp1 we should have #a1ahd1cdi1fjj watt-hours ------------------------ #ci1dgh1cbj #h-;c4p4 lamp-hours per annum2 #cj watts #ci1dgh1cbj that is1 ----------------- #efc #h-;c4p4 lamp hours per annum per #gj1jjj population head of population4 ,taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at #bj on three-quarters of the total or #ae upon the whole1 there would be #dgh #h-;c4p4 lamp-hours per annum per head of the population3 i4e4 if the power developed from the refuse were fully utilized1 it would supply electric light at the rate of one #h-;c4p4 lamp per head of the population for about #aa_/c hours for every night of the year4 ,sidenote3 ,difficulties4 ,in actual practice1 when the electric energy is for the purposes of lighting only1 difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want of adequate means of storage either of the thermal or of the electric energy4 ,a destructor station usually yields a fairly definite amount of thermal energy uniformly throughout the #bd hours1 while the consumption of electric-lighting current is extremely irregular1 the maximum demand being about four times the mean demand4 ,the period during which the demand exceeds the mean is comparatively short1 and does not exceed about #f hours out of the #bd1 while for a portion of the time the demand may not exceed #a_/bjth of the maximum4 ,this difficulty1 at first regarded as somewhat grave1 is substantially minimized by the provision of ample boiler capacity1 or by the introduction of feed thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during the hours of light load 7say #ah out of the #bd71 so that at the time of maximum load the boiler may be filled directly from these vessels1 which work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler4 ,further1 the difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at stations where there is a fair day load which practically ceases at about the hour when the illuminating load comes on1 thus equalizing the demand upon both destructor and electric plant throughout the #bd hours4 ,this arises in cases where current is consumed during the day for motors1 fans1 lifts1 electric tramways1 and other like purposes1 and1 as the employment of electric energy for these services is rapidly becoming general1 no difficulty need be anticipated in the successful working of combined destructor and electric plants where these conditions prevail4 ,the more uniform the electrical demand becomes1 the more fully may the power from a destructor station be utilized4 ,in addition to combination with electric-lighting works1 refuse destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with various other classes of power-using undertakings1 including tramways1 water-works1 sewage-pumping1 artificial slab-making and clinker-crushing works and others2 and the increasingly large sums which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this character is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value of such combinations where these several classes of work must be carried on4 ,for further information on the subject1 reference should be made to ,william ,h4 ,maxwell1 ,removal and ,disposal of ,town ,refuse1 with an exhaustive treatment of ,refuse ,destructor ,plants 7,london1 #ahii71 with a special ,supplement embodying later results 7,london1 #aije74 ,see also the ,proceedings of the ,incorporated ,association of ,municipal and ,county ,engineers1 vols4 xiii4 p4 #baf1 xxii4 p4 #baa1 xxiv4 p4 #bad and xxv4 p4 #ach2 also the ,proceedings of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 vols4 cxxii4 p4 #ddc1 cxxiv4 p4 #dfi1 cxxxi4 p4 #dac1 cxxxviii4 p4 #ejh1 cxxix4 p4 #dcd1 cxxx4 pp4 #bac and #cdg1 cxxiii4 pp4 #cfi and #dih1 cxxviii4 p4 #bic and cxxxv4 p4 #cjj4 7,w4 ,h4 ,,ma47 #a ,with medium-sized steam plants1 a consumption of #d lb4 of coal per brake horse-power per hour is a very usual performance4 ,,de ,,tabley1 ,,john ,,byrne ,,leicester ,,warren1 #crd ,,baron 7#ahce-ahie71 ,english poet1 eldest son of ,george ,fleming ,leicester 7afterwards ,warren71 #bnd ,baron ,de ,tabley1 was born on the #bfth of ,april #ahce4 ,he was educated at ,eton and ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 where he took his degree in #ahef with second classes in classics and in law and modern history4 ,in the autumn of #aheh he went to ,turkey as unpaid attach to ,lord ,stratford de ,redcliffe1 and two years later was called to the bar4 ,he became an officer in the ,cheshire ,yeomanry1 and unsuccessfully contested ,mid-,cheshire in #ahfh as a ,liberal4 ,after his father's second marriage in #ahga he removed to ,london1 where he became a close friend of ,tennyson for several years4 ,from #ahgg till his succession to the title in #ahhg he was lost to his friends1 assuming the life of a recluse4 ,it was not till #ahib that he returned to ,london life1 and enjoyed a sort of renaissance of reputation and friendship4 ,during the later years of his life ,lord ,de ,tabley made many new friends1 besides reopening old associations1 and he almost seemed to be gathering around him a small literary company when his health broke1 and he died on the #bbnd of ,november #ahie at ,ryde1 in his sixty-first year4 ,he was buried at ,little ,peover in ,cheshire4 ,although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a poet1 ,de ,tabley was a man of many studious tastes4 ,he was at one time an authority on numismatics2 he wrote two novels2 published ,a ,guide to the ,study of ,book ,plates 7#ahhj72 and the fruit of his careful researches in botany was printed posthumously in his elaborate ,flora of ,cheshire 7#ahii74 ,poetry1 however1 was his first and last passion1 and to that he devoted the best energies of his life4 ,de ,tabley's first impulse towards poetry came from his friend ,george ,fortescue1 with whom he shared a close companionship during his ,oxford days1 and whom he lost1 as ,tennyson lost ,hallam1 within a few years of their taking their degrees4 ,fortescue was killed by falling from the mast of ,lord ,drogheda's yacht in ,november #ahei1 and this gloomy event plunged ,de ,tabley into deep depression4 ,between #ahei and #ahfb ,de ,tabley issued four little volumes of pseudonymous verse 7by ,g4 ,f4 ,preston71 in the production of which he had been greatly stimulated by the sympathy of ,fortescue4 ,once more he assumed a pseudonym--his ,praeterita 7#ahfc7 bearing the name of ,william ,lancaster4 ,in the next year he published ,eclogues and ,monodramas1 followed in #ahfe by ,studies in ,verse4 ,these volumes all displayed technical grace and much natural beauty2 but it was not till the publication of ,philoctetes in #ahff that ,de ,tabley met with any wide recognition4 ,philoctetes bore the initials ,m4,a41 which1 to the author's dismay1 were interpreted as meaning ,matthew ,arnold4 ,he at once disclosed his identity1 and received the congratulations of his friends1 among whom were ,tennyson1 ,browning and ,gladstone4 ,in #ahfg he published ,orestes1 in #ahgj ,rehearsals and in #ahgc ,searching the ,net4 ,these last two bore his own name1 ,john ,leicester ,warren4 ,he was somewhat disappointed by their lukewarm reception1 and when in #ahgf ,the ,soldier of ,fortune1 a drama on which he had bestowed much careful labour1 proved a complete failure1 he retired altogether from the literary arena4 ,it was not until #ahic that he was persuaded to return1 and the immediate success in that year of his ,poems1 ,dramatic and ,lyrical1 encouraged him to publish a second series in #ahie1 the year of his death4 ,the genuine interest with which these volumes were welcomed did much to lighten the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life4 ,his posthumous poems were collected in #aijb4 ,the characteristics of ,de ,tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style1 derived from close study of ,milton1 sonority1 dignity1 weight and colour4 ,his passion for detail was both a strength and a weakness3 it lent a loving fidelity to his description of natural objects1 but it sometimes involved him in a loss of simple effect from over-elaboration of treatment4 ,he was always a student of the classic poets1 and drew much of his inspiration directly from them4 ,he was a true and a whole-hearted artist1 who1 as a brother poet well said1 still climbed the clear cold altitudes of song4 ,his ambition was always for the heights1 a region naturally ice-bound at periods1 but always a country of clear atmosphere and bright1 vivid outlines4 ,see an excellent sketch by ,e4 ,gosse in his ,critical ,kit-,kats 7#ahif74 7,a4 ,,wa47 ,,detaille1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,douard 7#ahdh- 71 ,french painter1 was born in ,paris on the #eth of ,october #ahdh4 ,after working as a pupil of ,meissonier's1 he first exhibited1 in the ,salon of #ahfg1 a picture representing ,a ,corner of ,meissonier's ,studio4 ,military life was from the first a principal attraction to the young painter1 and he gained his reputation by depicting the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail truthfully rendered4 ,he exhibited ,a ,halt 7#ahfh72 ,soldiers at rest1 during the ,manoeuvres at the ,camp of ,saint ,maur 7#ahfi72 ,engagement between ,cossacks and the ,imperial ,guard1 #ahad 7#ahgj74 ,the war of #ahgj-ga furnished him with a series of subjects which gained him repeated successes4 ,among his more important pictures may be named ,the ,conquerors 7#ahgb72 ,the ,retreat 7#ahgc72 ,the ,charge of the #ith ,regiment of ,cuirassiers in the ,village of ,morsbronn1 #fth ,august #ahgj 7#ahgd72 ,the ,marching ,regiment1 ,paris1 ,december #ahgd 7#ahge72 ,a ,reconnaissance 7#ahgf72 ,hail to the ,wounded6 7#ahgg72 ,bonaparte in ,egypt 7#ahgh72 the ,inauguration of the ,new ,opera ,house--a water-colour2 the ,defence of ,champigny by ,faron's ,division 7#ahgi74 ,he also worked with ,alphonse de ,neuville on the panorama of ,rezonville4 ,in #ahhd he exhibited at the ,salon the ,evening at ,rezonville1 a panoramic study1 and ,the ,dream 7#ahhh71 now in the ,luxemburg4 ,detaille recorded other events in the military history of his country3 the ,sortie of the ,garrison of ,huningue 7now in the ,luxemburg71 the ,vincendon ,brigade1 and ,bizerte1 reminiscences of the expedition to ,tunis4 ,after a visit to ,russia1 ,detaille exhibited ,the ,cossacks of the ,ataman and ,the ,hereditary ,grand ,duke at the ,head of the ,hussars of the ,guard4 ,other important works are3 ,victims to ,duty1 ,the ,prince of ,wales and the ,duke of ,connaught and ,pasteur's ,funeral4 ,in his picture of ,chlons1 #ith ,october #ahif1 exhibited in the ,salon1 #ahih1 ,detaille painted the emperor and empress of ,russia at a review1 with ,m4 ,flix ,faure4 ,detaille became a member of the ,french ,institute in #ahih4 ,see ,marius ,vachon1 ,detaille 7,paris1 #ahih72 ,frdric ,masson1 douard ,detaille and his work 7,paris and ,london1 #ahia72 ,j4 ,claretie1 ,peintres et sculpteurs contemporains 7,paris1 #ahgf72 ,g4 ,goetschy1 ,les ,jeunes peintres militaires 7,paris1 #ahgh74 ,,detainer 7from detain1 ,lat4 detinere71 in law1 the act of keeping a person against his will1 or the wrongful keeping of a person's goods1 or other real or personal property4 ,a writ of detainer was a form for the beginning of a personal action against a person already lodged within the walls of a prison2 it was superseded by the ,judgment ,act #ahch4 ,,determinant1 in mathematics1 a function which presents itself in the solution of a system of simple equations4 #a4 ,considering the equations ax by cz d1 a'x b'y c'z d'1 ax by cz d1 and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross multiplication1 we multiply the equations by factors selected in such a manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient of y becomes #j1 and the whole coefficient of z becomes #j2 the factors in question are b'c - bc'1 bc - bc1 bc' - b'c 7values which1 as at once seen1 have the desired property72 we thus obtain an equation which contains on the left-hand side only a multiple of x1 and on the right-hand side a constant term2 the coefficient of x has the value a7b'c - bc'7 a'7bc - bc7 a7bc' - b'c71 and this function1 represented in the form a1 b1 c 1 a'1 b'1 c' a1 b1 c is said to be a determinant2 or1 the number of elements being #c1 it is called a determinant of the third order4 ,it is to be noticed that the resulting equation is a1 b1 c x d1 b1 c a'1 b'1 c' d'1 b'1 c' a1 b1 c d1 b1 c where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function with d1 d'1 d in place of a1 a'1 a respectively1 and is of course also a determinant4 ,moreover1 the functions b'c - bc'1 bc - bc1 bc' - b'c used in the process are themselves the determinants of the second order b'1 c'1 b1 c1 b1 c 4 b1 c b1 c b'1 c' ,we have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation of the determinants of the orders #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 c41 each from the preceding one1 viz4 we have a a1 a1 b ab' - a'b4 a'1 b' a1 b1 c ab'1 c' a'b1 c ab1 c 1 a'1 b'1 c' b1 c b 1 c b'1 c' a1 b1 c a1 b 1 c 1 d ab'1 c'1 d' - a'b 1 c 1 d a'1 b' 1 c' 1 d' b1 c1 d b'1 c'1 d' a1 b 1 c 1 d b'1 c'1 d' b 1 c 1 d a'1 b'1 c'1 d' ab'1 c'1 d' - a'b 1 c1 d 1 b 1 c 1 d b'1 c'1 d' b' 1 c' 1 d' b1 c1 d and so on1 the terms being all for a determinant of an odd order1 but alternately and - for a determinant of an even order4 #b4 ,it is easy1 by induction1 to arrive at the general results3-- ,a determinant of the order n is the sum of the #a4b4c444n products which can be formed with n elements out of n elements arranged in the form of a square1 no two of the n elements being in the same line or in the same column1 and each such product having the coefficient unity4 ,the products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible manner the columns 7or the lines7 of the determinant1 and then taking for the factors the n elements in the dexter diagonal4 ,and we thence derive the rule for the signs1 viz4 considering the primitive arrangement of the columns as positive1 then an arrangement obtained therefrom by a single interchange 7inversion1 or derangement7 of two columns is regarded as negative2 and so in general an arrangement is positive or negative according as it is derived from the primitive arrangement by an even or an odd number of interchanges4 ,this implies the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive arrangement only by an odd number1 or else only by an even number of interchanges1--a theorem the verification of which may be easily obtained from the theorem 7in fact a particular case of the general one71 an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number of interchanges4 ,and this being so1 each product has the sign belonging to the corresponding arrangement of the columns2 in particular1 a determinant contains with the sign the product of the elements in its dexter diagonal4 ,it is to be observed that the rule gives as many positive as negative arrangements1 the number of each being #a4b444n4 ,the rule of signs may be expressed in a different form4 ,giving to the columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers #a1 #b1 #c 444 n1 to obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement we take1 as often as a lower number succeeds a higher one1 the sign -1 and1 compounding together all these minus signs1 obtain the proper sign1 or - as the case may be4 ,thus1 for three columns1 it appears by either rule that #abc1 #bca1 #cab are positive2 #bac1 #cba1 #acb are negative2 and the developed expression of the foregoing determinant of the third order is ab'c - abc' a'bc - a'bc abc' - ab'c4 #c4 ,it further appears that a determinant is a linear function#a of the elements of each column thereof1 and also a linear function of the elements of each line thereof2 moreover1 that the determinant retains the same value1 only its sign being altered1 when any two columns are interchanged1 or when any two lines are interchanged2 more generally1 when the columns are permuted in any manner1 or when the lines are permuted in any manner1 the determinant retains its original value1 with the sign or - according as the new arrangement 7considered as derived from the primitive arrangement7 is positive or negative according to the foregoing rule of signs4 ,it at once follows that1 if two columns are identical1 or if two lines are identical1 the value of the determinant is #j4 ,it may be added1 that if the lines are converted into columns1 and the columns into lines1 in such a way as to leave the dexter diagonal unaltered1 the value of the determinant is unaltered2 the determinant is in this case said to be transposed4 #d4 ,by what precedes it appears that there exists a function of the n elements1 linear as regards the terms of each column 7or say1 for shortness1 linear as to each column71 and such that only the sign is altered when any two columns are interchanged2 these properties completely determine the function1 except as to a common factor which may multiply all the terms4 ,if1 to get rid of this arbitrary common factor1 we assume that the product of the elements in the dexter diagonal has the coefficient #a1 we have a complete definition of the determinant1 and it is interesting to show how from these properties1 assumed for the definition of the determinant1 it at once appears that the determinant is a function serving for the solution of a system of linear equations4 ,observe that the properties show at once that if any column is #j 7that is1 if the elements in the column are each #j71 then the determinant is #j2 and further1 that if any two columns are identical1 then the determinant is #j4 #e4 ,reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the beginning of this article1 consider the determinant ax by cz - d 1 b 1 c 2 a'x b'y c'z - d'1 b'1 c' ax by cz - d1 b1 c it appears that this is xa 1 b 1 c yb 1 b 1 c zc 1 b 1 c - d 1 b 1 c 2 a'1 b'1 c' b'1 b'1 c' c'1 b'1 c' d'1 b'1 c' a1 b1 c b1 b1 c c1 b1 c d1 b1 c viz4 the second and third terms each vanishing1 it is xa 1 b 1 c - d 1 b 1 c 4 a'1 b'1 c' d'1 b'1 c' a1 b1 c d1 b1 c ,but if the linear equations hold good1 then the first column of the original determinant is #j1 and therefore the determinant itself is #j2 that is1 the linear equations give xa 1 b 1 c - d 1 b 1 c #j2 a'1 b'1 c' d'1 b'1 c' a1 b1 c d1 b1 c which is the result obtained above4 ,we might in a similar way find the values of y and z1 but there is a more symmetrical process4 ,join to the original equations the new equation alphax betay gammaz delta2 a like process shows that1 the equations being satisfied1 we have alpha1 beta1 gamma1 delta #j2 a 1 b 1 c 1 d a' 1 b' 1 c' 1 d' a 1 b 1 c 1 d or1 as this may be written1 alpha1 beta1 gamma - delta a 1 b 1 c #j3 a 1 b 1 c 1 d a'1 b'1 c' a' 1 b' 1 c' 1 d' a1 b1 c a 1 b 1 c 1 d which1 considering delta as standing herein for its value alphax betay gammaz1 is a consequence of the original equations only3 we have thus an expression for alphax betay gammaz1 an arbitrary linear function of the unknown quantities x1 y1 z2 and by comparing the coefficients of alpha1 beta1 gamma on the two sides respectively1 we have the values of x1 y1 z2 in fact1 these quantities1 each multiplied by a 1 b 1 c 1 a'1 b'1 c' a1 b1 c are in the first instance obtained in the forms #a 1 #a 1 #a 2 a 1 b 1 c 1 d a 1 b 1 c 1 d a 1 b 1 c 1 d a'1 b'1 c'1 d' a'1 b'1 c'1 d' a'1 b'1 c'1 d' a1 b1 c1 d a1 b1 c1 d a1 b1 c1 d but these are b 1 c 1 d 1 - c 1 d 1 a 1 d 1 a 1 b 1 b'1 c'1 d' c'1 d'1 a' d'1 a'1 b' b1 c1 d c1 d1 a d1 a1 b or1 what is the same thing1 b 1 c 1 d 1 c 1 a 1 d 1 a 1 b 1 d b'1 c'1 d' c'1 a'1 d' a'1 b'1 d' b1 c1 d c1 a1 d a1 b1 d respectively4 #f4 ,multiplication of two ,determinants of the same ,order4--,the theorem is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition of a determinant4 ,it is most simply expressed thus-- 7alpha1 alpha'1 alpha71 7beta1beta'1beta71 7gamma1gamma'1gamma7 --------------------------------------- 7a 1 b 1 c 7 7a'1 b'1 c'7 7a1 b1 c7 a 1 b 1 c 4 alpha 1 beta 1 gamma 1 a'1 b'1 c' alpha'1 beta'1 gamma' a1 b1 c alpha1 beta1 gamma where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant1 the terms of the first line being 7a1 b1 c77alpha1 alpha'1 alpha71 that is1 aalpha balpha' calpha1 7a1 b1 c77beta1 beta'1 beta71 that is1 abeta bbeta' cbeta1 7a1 b1 c77gamma1 gamma'1 gamma71 that is agamma bgamma' cgamma2 and similarly the terms in the second and third lines are the life functions with 7a'1 b'1 c'7 and 7a1 b1 c7 respectively4 ,there is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns2 the result would hold good if on the left-hand side we had written 7alpha1 beta1 gamma71 7alpha'1 beta'1 gamma'71 7alpha1 beta1 gamma71 or what is the same thing1 if on the right-hand side we had transposed the second determinant2 and either of these changes would1 it might be thought1 increase the elegance of the form1 but1 for a reason which need not be explained1#b the form actually adopted is the preferable one4 ,to indicate the method of proof1 observe that the determinant on the left-hand side1 qua linear function of its columns1 may be broken up into a sum of 7#c 7 #bg determinants1 each of which is either of some such form as alphabetagamma'a 1 a 1 b 1 a'1 a'1 b' a1 a1 b where the term alphabetagamma' is not a term of the alphabetagamma-determinant1 and its coefficient 7as a determinant with two identical columns7 vanishes2 or else it is of a form such as alphabeta'gammaa 1 b 1 c 1 a'1 b'1 c' a1 b1 c that is1 every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the abc-determinant last written down2 the sum of all other factors alphabeta'gamma is the alphabetagamma-determinant of the formula2 and the final result then is1 that the determinant on the left-hand side is equal to the product on the right-hand side of the formula4 #g4 ,decomposition of a ,determinant into complementary ,determinants4--,consider1 for simplicity1 a determinant of the fifth order1 #e #b #c1 and let the top two lines be a 1 b 1 c 1 d 1 e a'1 b'1 c'1 d'1 e' then1 if we consider how these elements enter into the determinant1 it is at once seen that they enter only through the determinants of the second order a 1 b 1 c41 which can be formed by selecting any two a'1 b' columns at pleasure4 ,moreover1 representing the remaining three lines by a 1 b 1 c 1 d 1 e a'1 b'1 c'1 d'1 e' a1 b1 c1 d1 e it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant of the third order formed with the complementary three columns of the second set2 and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a sum of all the products of the form a 1 b c 1 d 1 e 1 a'1 b c'1 d'1 e' c1 d1 e the sign being in each case such that the sign of the term ab'cd'e obtained from the diagonal elements of the component determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the determinant of the fifth order2 for the product written down the sign is obviously 4 ,observe that for a determinant of the n-th order1 taking the decomposition to be #a 7n - #a71 we fall back upon the equations given at the commencement1 in order to show the genesis of a determinant4 #h4 ,any determinant a 1 b formed out of the elements of the original a'1 b' determinant1 by selecting the lines and columns at pleasure1 is termed a minor of the original determinant2 and when the number of lines and columns1 or order of the determinant1 is n-#a1 then such determinant is called a first minor2 the number of the first minors is n1 the first minors1 in fact1 corresponding to the several elements of the determinant--that is1 the coefficient therein of any term whatever is the corresponding first minor4 ,the first minors1 each divided by the determinant itself1 form a system of elements inverse to the elements of the determinant4 ,a determinant is symmetrical when every two elements symmetrically situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal to each other2 if they are equal and opposite 7that is1 if the sum of the two elements be #j71 this relation not extending to the diagonal elements themselves1 which remain arbitrary1 then the determinant is skew2 but if the relation does extend to the diagonal terms 7that is1 if these are each #j71 then the determinant is skew symmetrical2 thus the determinants a1 h1 g2 a 1 nu1 - mu2 #j1 nu1 - mu h1 b1 f - nu1 b1lambda - nu1 #j1lambda g1 f1 c mu1-lambda1 c mu1- lambda1 #j are respectively symmetrical1 skew and skew symmetrical3 ,the theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments1 and applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of mathematics4 ,for further developments of the theory of determinants see ,,algebraic ,,forms4 7,a4 ,,ca47 #i4 ,history4--,these functions were originally known as resultants1 a name applied to them by ,pierre ,simon ,laplace1 but now replaced by the title determinants1 a name first applied to certain forms of them by ,carl ,friedrich ,gauss4 ,the germ of the theory of determinants is to be found in the writings of ,gottfried ,wilhelm ,leibnitz 7#afic71 who incidentally discovered certain properties when reducing the eliminant of a system of linear equations4 ,gabriel ,cramer1 in a note to his ,analyse des lignes courbes algbriques 7#agej71 gave the rule which establishes the sign of a product as plus or minus according as the number of displacements from the typical form has been even or odd4 ,determinants were also employed by tienne ,bezout in #agfd1 but the first connected account of these functions was published in #aggb by ,charles ,auguste ,vandermonde4 ,laplace developed a theorem of ,vandermonde for the expansion of a determinant1 and in #aggc ,joseph ,louis ,lagrange1 in his memoir on ,pyramids1 used determinants of the third order1 and proved that the square of a determinant was also a determinant4 ,although he obtained results now identified with determinants1 ,lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically4 ,in #ahja ,gauss published his ,disquisitiones arithmeticae1 which1 although written in an obscure form1 gave a new impetus to investigations on this and kindred subjects4 ,to ,gauss is due the establishment of the important theorem1 that the product of two determinants both of the second and third orders is a determinant4 ,the formulation of the general theory is due to ,augustin ,louis ,cauchy1 whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries made in the following decades by ,hon-,wronski and ,j4 ,binet in ,france1 ,carl ,gustav ,jacobi in ,germany1 and ,james ,joseph ,sylvester and ,arthur ,cayley in ,england4 ,jacobi's researches were published in ,crelle's ,journal 7#ahbf-ahda74 ,in these papers the subject was recast and enriched by new and important theorems1 through which the name of ,jacobi is indissolubly associated with this branch of science4 ,the far-reaching discoveries of ,sylvester and ,cayley rank as one of the most important developments of pure mathematics4 ,numerous new fields were opened up1 and have been diligently explored by many mathematicians4 ,skew-determinants were studied by ,cayley2 axisymmetric-determinants by ,jacobi1 ,v4 ,a4 ,lebesque1 ,sylvester and ,o4 ,hesse1 and centro-symmetric determinants by ,w4 ,r4 ,f4 ,scott and ,g4 ,zehfuss4 ,continuants have been discussed by ,sylvester2 alternants by ,cauchy1 ,jacobi1 ,n4 ,trudi1 ,h4 ,nagelbach and ,g4 ,garbieri2 circulants by ,e4 ,catalan1 ,w4 ,spottiswoode and ,j4 ,w4 ,l4 ,glaisher1 and ,wronskians by ,e4 ,b4 ,christoffel and ,g4 ,frobenius4 ,determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been studied by ,v4 von ,zeipel2 the expression of definite integrals as determinants by ,a4 ,tissot and ,a4 ,enneper1 and the expression of continued fractions as determinants by ,jacobi1 ,v4 ,nachreiner1 ,s4 ,gnther and ,e4 ,frstenau4 7,see ,t4 ,muir1 ,theory of ,determinants1 #aijf74 #a ,the expression1 a linear function1 is here used in its narrowest sense1 a linear function without constant term2 what is meant is that the determinant is in regard to the elements a1 a'1 a1 444 of any column or line thereof1 a function of the form ,aa ,a'a' ,aa 444 without any term independent of a1 a'1 a 444 #b ,the reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for the multiplication of two matrices4 ,,determinism 7,lat4 determinare1 to prescribe or limit71 in ethics1 the name given to the theory that all moral choice1 so called1 is the determined or necessary result of psychological and other conditions4 ,it is opposed to the various doctrines of ,free-,will1 known as voluntarism1 libertarianism1 indeterminism1 and is from the ethical standpoint more or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism4 ,there are various degrees of determinism4 ,it may be held that every action is causally connected not only externally with the sum of the agent's environment1 but also internally with his motives and impulses4 ,in other words1 if we could know exactly all these conditions1 we should be able to forecast with mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue4 ,in this theory the agent cannot be held responsible for his action in any sense4 ,it is the extreme antithesis of ,indeterminism or ,indifferentism1 the doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative courses 7the liberum arbitrium indifferentiae74 ,since1 however1 the evidence of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the individual1 especially in relation to future acts1 regards himself as being free within certain limitations to make his own choice of alternatives1 many determinists go so far as to admit that there may be in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes solely an element of freedom4 ,this view is corroborated by the phenomenon of remorse1 in which the agent feels that he ought to1 and could1 have chosen a different course of action4 ,these two kinds of determinism are sometimes distinguished as hard and soft determinism4 ,the controversy between determinism and libertarianism hinges largely on the significance of the word motive2 indeed in no other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression4 ,how far1 and in what sense1 can action which is determined by motives be said to be free8 ,for a long time the advocates of free-will1 in their eagerness to preserve moral responsibility1 went so far as to deny all motives as influencing moral action4 ,such a contention1 however1 clearly defeats its own object by reducing all action to chance4 ,on the other hand1 the scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the distinction between external and internal compulsion1 e4g4 motives1 character and the like4 ,in so far as man can be shown to be the product of1 and a link in1 a long chain of causal development1 so far does it become impossible to regard him as self-determined4 ,even in his motives and his impulses1 in his mental attitude towards outward surroundings1 in his appetites and aversions1 inherited tendency and environment have been found to play a very large part2 indeed many thinkers hold that the whole of a man's development1 mental as well as physical1 is determined by external conditions4 ,in the ,bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed1 but ,christian ethics as set forth in the ,new ,testament assumes throughout the freedom of the human will4 ,it has been argued by theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge1 coupled with that of the divine origin of all things1 necessarily implies that all human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world4 ,such an inference is1 however1 clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of sin1 repentance and the atonement1 as also with that of eternal reward and punishment1 which postulates a real measure of human responsibility4 ,for the history of the free-will controversy see the articles1 ,,will1 ,,predestination 7for the theological problems71 ,,ethics4 ,,detinue 7,o4 ,fr4 detenue1 from detenir1 to hold back71 in law1 an action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property in goods seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and refuses to redeliver them4 ,if the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue1 the judgment is that he recover the chattel or1 if it cannot be had1 its value1 which is assessed by the judge and jury1 and also certain damages for detaining the same4 ,an order for the restitution of the specific goods may be enforced by a special writ of execution1 called a writ of delivery4 7,see ,,contract2 ,,trover47 ,,detmold1 a town of ,germany1 capital of the principality of ,lippe-,detmold1 beautifully situated on the east slope of the ,teutoburger ,wald1 #be m4 ,s4 of ,minden1 on the ,herford-,altenbeken line of the ,prussian state railways4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #ac1afd4 ,the residential chteau of the princes of ,lippe-,detmold 7#aeej71 in the ,renaissance style1 is an imposing building1 lying with its pretty gardens nearly in the centre of the town2 whilst at the entrance to the large park on the south is the ,new ,palace 7#agjh-agah71 enlarged in #ahej1 used as the dower-house4 ,detmold possesses a natural history museum1 theatre1 high school1 library1 the house in which the poet ,ferdinand ,freiligrath 7#ahaj-ahgf7 was born1 and that in which the dramatist ,christian ,dietrich ,grabbe 7#ahja-ahcf71 also a native1 died4 ,the leading industries are linen-weaving1 tanning1 brewing1 horse-dealing and the quarrying of marble and gypsum4 ,about #c m4 to the south-west of the town is the ,grotenburg1 with ,ernst von ,bandel's colossal statue of ,hermann or ,arminius1 the leader of the ,cherusci4 ,detmold 7,thiatmelli7 was in #ghc the scene of a conflict between the ,saxons and the troops of ,charlemagne4 ,,detroit1 the largest city of ,michigan1 ,u4,s4,a41 and the county-seat of ,wayne county1 on the ,detroit river opposite ,windsor1 ,canada1 about #d m4 ,w4 from the outlet of ,lake ,st ,clair and #ah m4 above ,lake ,erie4 ,pop4 7#ahhj7 #aaf1cdj2 7#ahij7 #bje1hgf2 7#aijj7 #bhe1gjd1 of whom #if1ejc were foreign-born and #daaa were negroes2 7#aiaj census7 #dfe1gff4 ,of the foreign-born in #aijj1 #cb1jbg were ,germans and #aj1gjc were ,german ,poles1 #be1djc were ,english ,canadians and #ceda ,french ,canadians1 #fcdg were ,english and #fdab were ,irish4 ,detroit is served by the ,michigan ,central1 the ,lake ,shore ,michigan ,southern1 the ,wabash1 the ,grand ,trunk1 the ,pre ,marquette1 the ,detroit ,toledo ,shore ,line1 the ,detroit1 ,toledo ,ironton and the ,canadian ,pacific railways4 ,two belt lines1 one #b m4 to #c m41 and the other #f m4 from the centre of the city1 connect the factory districts with the main railway lines4 ,trains are ferried across the river to ,windsor1 and steamboats make daily trips to ,cleveland1 ,wyandotte1 ,mount ,clemens1 ,port ,huron1 to less important places between1 and to several ,canadian ports4 ,detroit is also the ,s4 terminus for several lines to more remote lake ports1 and electric lines extend from here to ,port ,huron1 ,flint1 ,pontiac1 ,jackson1 ,toledo and ,grand ,rapids4 ,the city extended in #aijg over about #da sq4 m41 an increase from #bi sq4 m4 in #aijj and #cf sq4 m4 in #aije4 ,its area in proportion to its population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of the ,united ,states4 ,baltimore1 for example1 had in #aijd nearly #gj more inhabitants 7estimated71 while its area at that time was a little less and in #aijg was nearly one-quarter less than that of ,detroit4 ,the ground within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is quite level1 but rises gradually from the river bank1 which is only a few feet in height4 ,the ,detroit river1 along which the city extends for about #aj m41 is here m4 wide and #cj ft4 to #dj ft4 deep2 its current is quite rapid2 its water1 a beautiful clear blue2 at its mouth it has a width of about #aj m41 and in the river there are a number of islands1 which during the summer are popular resorts4 ,the city has a #c m4 frontage on the river ,rouge1 an estuary of the ,detroit1 with a #af ft4 channel4 ,before the fire by which the city was destroyed in #ahje1 the streets were only #ab ft4 wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty4 ,but when the rebuilding began1 several avenues from #ajj ft4 to #bjj ft4 wide were--through the influence of ,augustus ,b4 ,woodward 7c4 #agge-ahbg71 one of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the city of ,washington--made to radiate from two central points4 ,from a half circle called the ,grand ,circus there radiate avenues #abj ft4 and #bjj ft4 wide4 ,about m4 toward the river from this was established another focal point called the ,campus ,martius1 #fjj ft4 long and #djj ft4 wide1 at which commence radiating or cross streets #hj ft4 and #ajj ft4 wide4 ,running north from the river through the ,campus ,martius and the ,grand ,circus is ,woodward ,avenue1 #abj ft4 wide1 dividing the present city1 as it did the old town1 into nearly equal parts4 ,parallel with the river is ,jefferson ,avenue1 also #abj ft4 wide4 ,the first of these avenues is the principal retail street along its lower portion1 and is a residence avenue for #d m4 beyond this4 ,jefferson is the principal wholesale street at the lower end1 and a fine residence avenue ,e4 of this4 ,many of the other residence streets are #hj ft4 wide4 ,the setting of shade trees was early encouraged1 and large elms and maples abound4 ,the intersections of the diagonal streets left a number of small1 triangular parks1 which1 as well as the larger ones1 are well shaded4 ,the streets are paved mostly with asphalt and brick1 though cedar and stone have been much used1 and kreodone block to some extent4 ,in few1 if any1 other ,american cities of equal size are the streets and avenues kept so clean4 ,the ,grand ,boulevard1 #aej ft4 to #bjj ft4 in width and #ab m4 in length1 has been constructed around the city except along the river front4 ,a very large proportion of the inhabitants of ,detroit own their homes3 there are no large congested tenement-house districts2 and many streets in various parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often having a garden plot in front4 ,of the public buildings the city hall 7erected #ahfh-ahga71 overlooking the ,campus ,martius1 is in ,renaissance style1 in three storeys2 the flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of #bjj ft4 ,on the four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures1 each #ad ft4 in height1 to represent ,justice1 ,industry1 ,art and ,commerce1 and on the same level with these is a clock weighing #gfgj lb--one of the largest in the world4 ,in front of the building stands the ,soldiers' and ,sailors' monument1 #fj ft4 high1 designed by ,randolph ,rogers 7#ahbe-ahib7 and unveiled in #ahgb4 ,at each of the four corners in each of three sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures representing the ,united ,states ,infantry1 ,marine1 ,cavalry and ,artillery1 also ,victory1 ,union1 ,emancipation and ,history2 the figure by which the monument is surmounted was designed to symbolize ,michigan4 ,a larger and more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county court house1 facing ,cadillac ,square1 with a lofty tower surmounted by a gilded dome4 ,the ,federal building is a massive granite structure1 finely decorated in the interior4 ,among the churches of greatest architectural beauty are the ,first ,congregational1 with a fine ,byzantine interior1 ,st ,john's ,episcopal1 the ,woodward ,avenue ,baptist and the ,first ,presbyterian1 all on ,woodward ,avenue1 and ,st4 ,anne's and ,sacred ,heart of ,mary1 both ,roman ,catholic4 ,the municipal museum of art1 in ,jefferson ,avenue1 contains some unusually interesting ,egyptian and ,japanese collections1 the ,scripps' collection of old masters1 other valuable paintings1 and a small library2 free lectures on art are given here through the winter4 ,the public library had #bbh1ejj volumes in #aijh1 including one of the best collections of state and town histories in the country4 ,a large private collection1 owned by ,c4 ,m4 ,burton and relating principally to the history of ,detroit1 is also open to the public4 ,the city is not rich in outdoor works of art4 ,the principal ones are the ,merrill fountain and the soldiers' monument on the ,campus ,martius1 and a statue of ,mayor ,pingree in ,west ,grand ,circus ,park4 ,the parks of ,detroit are numerous and their total area is about #abjj acres4 ,by far the most attractive is ,belle ,isle1 an island in the river at the ,e4 end of the city1 purchased in #ahgi and having an area of more than #gjj acres4 ,the ,grand ,circus ,park of #d acres1 with its trees1 flowers and fountains1 affords a pleasant resting place in the busiest quarter of the city4 ,six miles farther out on ,woodward ,avenue is ,palmer ,park of about #adj acres1 given to the city in #ahid and named in honour of the donor4 ,clark ,park 7#bh acres7 is in the ,w4 part of the city1 and there are various smaller parks4 ,the principal cemeteries are ,elmwood 7,protestant7 and ,mount ,elliott 7,catholic71 which lie adjoining in the ,e4 part of the city2 ,woodmere in the ,w4 and ,woodlawn in the ,n4 part of the city4 ,charity and ,education4--,among the charitable institutions are the general hospitals 7,harper1 ,grace and ,st ,mary's72 the ,detroit ,emergency1 the ,children's ,free and the ,united ,states ,marine hospitals2 ,st ,luke's hospital1 church home1 and orphanage2 the ,house of ,providence 7a maternity hospital and infant asylum72 the ,woman's hospital and foundling's home2 the ,home for convalescent children1 c4 ,in #ahid the mayor1 ,hazen ,senter ,pingree 7#ahdb-aija71 instituted the practice of preparing1 through municipal aid and supervision1 large tracts of vacant land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other vegetables and then1 in conjunction with the board of poor commissioners1 assigning it in small lots to families of the unemployed1 and furnishing them with seed for planting4 ,this plan served an admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression1 and was copied in other cities2 it was abandoned when1 with the renewal of industrial activity1 the necessity for it ceased4 ,the leading penal institution of the city is the ,detroit ,house of ,correction1 noted for its efficient reformatory work2 the inmates are employed ten hours a day1 chiefly in making furniture4 ,the house of correction pays the city a profit of #ce1jjj to #dj1jjj a year4 ,the educational institutions1 in addition to those of the general public school system1 include several parochial schools1 schools of art and of music1 and commercial colleges2 ,detroit ,college 7,catholic71 opened in #ahgg2 the ,detroit ,college of ,medicine1 opened in #ahhe2 the ,michigan ,college of ,medicine and ,surgery1 opened in #ahhh2 the ,detroit ,college of law1 founded in #ahia1 and a city normal school4 ,commerce4--,detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and shipbuilding interests a high importance4 ,all the enormous traffic between the upper and lower lakes passes through the ,detroit river4 ,in #aijg the number of vessels recorded was #cd1adi1 with registered tonnage of #ec1iei1gfi1 carrying #ga1bbf1hie tons of freight1 valued at #fig1caa1cjb4 ,this includes vessels which delivered part or all of their cargo at ,detroit4 ,the largest item in the freights is iron ore on vessels bound down4 ,the next is coal on vessels up bound4 ,grain and lumber are the next largest items4 ,detroit is a port of entry1 and its foreign commerce1 chiefly with ,canada1 is of growing importance4 ,the city's exports increased from #aa1cbe1hjg in #ahif to #cg1jhe1jbg in #aiji4 ,the imports were #c1aec1fji in #ahif and #g1ajj1fei in #aiji4 ,as a manufacturing city1 ,detroit holds high rank4 ,the total number of manufacturing establishments in #ahij was #agdf1 with a product for the year valued at #gg1cea1edf2 in #aijj there were #bhdg establishments with a product for the year valued at #ajj1hib1hch2 or an increase of #cj4d in the decade4 ,in #aijj the establishments under the factory system1 omitting the hand trades and neighbourhood industries1 numbered #abei and produced goods valued at #hh1cfe1ibd2 in #aijd establishments under the factory system numbered #acfc and the product had increased #de4g to #abh1gfa1feh4 ,in the district subsequently annexed the product in #aijd was about #ab1jjj1jjj1 making a total of #adj1jjj1jjj4 ,the output for #aijf was estimated at #ahj1jjj1jjj4 ,the state factory inspectors in #aije visited #agba factories having #hc1bca employees4 ,in #aijf they inspected #agij factories with #ic1jga employees4 ,detroit is the leading city in the country in the manufacture of automobiles4 ,in #aijd the value of its product was one-fifth that for the whole country4 ,in #aijf the city had twenty automobile factories1 with an output of #aa1jjj cars1 valued at #ab1jjj1jjj4 ,detroit is probably the largest manufacturer in the country of freight cars1 stoves1 pharmaceutical preparations1 varnish1 soda ash and similar alkaline products4 ,other important manufactures are ships1 paints1 foundry and machine shop products1 brass goods1 furniture1 boots and shoes1 clothing1 matches1 cigars1 malt liquors and fur goods2 and slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry4 ,the ,detroit ,board of ,commerce1 organized in #aijc1 brought into one association the members of three former bodies1 making a compact organization with civic as well as commercial aims4 ,the board has brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of the city and many of the professional men4 ,their united efforts have brought many new industries to the city1 have improved industrial conditions1 and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal administration4 ,other business organizations are the ,board of ,trade1 devoted to the grain trade and kindred lines1 the ,employers' ,association1 which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between employer and employed1 the ,builders' ,traders' ,exchange1 and the ,credit ,men's ,association4 ,administration4--,although the city received its first charter in #ahjf1 and another in #ahae1 the real power rested in the hands of the governor and judges of the territory until #ahbd2 the charters of #ahbd and #ahbg centred the government in a council and made the list of elective officers long2 the charter of #ahbg was revised in #aheg and again in #ahei and the present charter dates from #ahhc4 ,under this charter only three administrative officers are elected1--the mayor1 the city clerk and the city treasurer1--elections being biennial4 ,the administration of the city departments is largely in the hands of commissions4 ,there is one commissioner each1 appointed by the mayor1 for the parks and boulevards1 police and public works departments4 ,the four members of the health board are nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate4 ,the school board is an independent body1 consisting of one elected member from each ward holding office for four years1 but the mayor has the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common council4 ,in each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto4 ,the other principal officers and commissions1 appointed by the mayor and confirmed by the council1 are controller1 corporation counsel1 board of three assessors1 fire commission 7four members71 public lighting commission 7six members71 water commission 7five members71 poor commission 7four members71 and inspectors of the house of correction 7four in number74 ,the members of the public library commission1 six in number1 are elected by the board of education4 ,itemized estimates of expenses for the next fiscal year are furnished by the different departments to the controller in ,february4 ,he transmits them to the common council with his recommendations4 ,the council has four weeks in which to consider them4 ,it may reduce or increase the amounts asked1 and may add new items4 ,the budget then goes to the board of estimates1 which has a month for its consideration4 ,this body consists of two members elected from each ward and five elected at large4 ,the mayor and heads of departments are advisory members1 and may speak but not vote4 ,the members of the board of estimates can hold no other office and they have no appointing power1 the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political motives and influences4 ,they may reduce or cut out any estimates submitted1 but cannot increase any or add new ones4 ,no bonds can be issued without the assent of the board of estimates4 ,the budget is apportioned among twelve committees which have almost invariably given close and conscientious examination to the actual needs of the departments4 ,a reduction of #a1jjj1jjj to #a1ejj1jjj1 without impairing the service1 has been a not unusual result of their deliberations4 ,prudent management under this system has placed the city in the highest rank financially4 ,its debt limit is #b on the assessed valuation1 and even that low maximum is not often reached4 ,the debt in #aijg was only about #e1ejj1jjj1 a smaller per capita debt than that of any other city of over #ajj1jjj inhabitants in the country2 the assessed valuation was #ccj1jjj1jjj2 the city tax1 #ad4gj on the thousand dollars of assessed valuation4 ,both the council and the estimators are hampered in their work by legislative interference4 ,nearly all the large salaries and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the legislature1 which has also determined many affairs of a purely administrative character4 ,detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership4 ,on account of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private company1 the city bought the water-works as long ago as #ahcf4 ,the works have been twice moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the city4 ,in #aijg there were six engines in the works with a pumping capacity of #aeb1jjj1jjj gallons daily4 ,the daily average of water used during the preceding year was #fa1ceg1jjj gallons4 ,the water is pumped from ,lake ,st ,clair and is of exceptional purity4 ,the city began its own public lighting in ,april #ahie1 having a large plant on the river near the centre of the city4 ,it lights the streets and public buildings1 but makes no provision for commercial business4 ,the lighting is excellent1 and the cost is probably less than could be obtained from a private company4 ,the street lighting is done partly from pole and arm lights1 but largely from steel towers from #ajj ft4 to #ahj ft4 in height1 with strong reflected lights at the top4 ,the city also owns two portable asphalt plants1 and thus makes a saving in the cost of street repairing and resurfacing4 ,with a view of effecting the reduction of street car fares to three cents1 the state legislature in #ahii passed an act for purchasing or leasing the street railways of the city1 but the ,supreme ,court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that1 as the constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal improvement1 the state could not empower a municipality to do so4 ,certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question of municipal ownership of the railways4 ,history4--,detroit was founded in #agja by ,antoine ,laumet de la ,mothe ,cadillac 7c4 #affa-agcj71 who had pointed out the importance of the place as a strategic point for determining the control of the fur trade and the possession of the ,north-west and had received assistance from the ,french government soon after ,robert ,livingston 7#afed-agbe71 the secretary of the ,board of ,indian ,commissioners in ,new ,york1 had urged the ,english government to establish a fort at the same place4 ,cadillac arrived on the #bdth of ,july with about #ajj followers4 ,they at once built a palisade fort about #bjj ft4 square ,s4 of what is now ,jefferson ,avenue and between ,griswold and ,shelby streets1 and named it ,fort ,pontchartrain in honour of the ,french colonial minister4 ,indians at once came to the place in large numbers1 but they soon complained of the high price of ,french goods2 there was serious contention between ,cadillac and the ,french ,canadian ,fur ,company1 to which a monopoly of the trade had been granted1 as well as bitter rivalry between him and the ,jesuits4 ,after the several parties had begun to complain to the home government the monopoly of the fur trade was transferred to ,cadillac and he was exhorted to cease quarrelling with the ,jesuits4 ,although the inhabitants then increased to #bjj or more1 dissatisfaction with the paternal rule of the founder increased until #agaj1 when he was made governor of ,louisiana4 ,the year before1 the soldiers had been withdrawn2 by the second year after there was serious trouble with the ,indians1 and for several years following the population was greatly reduced and the post threatened with extinction4 ,but in #agbb1 when the ,mississippi country was opened1 the population once more increased1 and again in #agdh1 when the settlement of the ,ohio ,valley began1 the governor-general of ,canada offered special inducements to ,frenchmen to settle at ,detroit1 with the result that the population was soon more than #ajjj and the cultivation of farms in the vicinity was begun4 ,in #agfj1 however1 the place was taken by the ,british under ,colonel ,robert ,rogers and an ,english element was introduced into the population which up to this time had been almost exclusively ,french4 ,three years later1 during the conspiracy of ,pontiac1 the fort first narrowly escaped capture and then suffered from a siege lasting from the #ith of ,may until the #abth of ,october4 ,under ,english rule it continued from this time on as a military post with its population usually reduced to less than #ejj4 ,in #aggh a new fort was built and named ,fort ,lernault1 and during the ,war of ,independence the ,british sent forth from here several ,indian expeditions to ravage the frontiers4 ,with the ratification of the treaty which concluded that war the title to the post passed to the ,united ,states in #aghc1 but the post itself was not surrendered until the #aath of ,january #agif1 in accordance with ,jay's ,treaty of #agid4 ,it was then named ,fort ,shelby2 but in #ahjb it was incorporated as a town and received its present name4 ,in #ahje all except one or two buildings were destroyed by fire4 ,general ,william ,hull 7#agec-ahbe71 a veteran of the ,war of ,american ,independence1 governor of ,michigan territory in #ahje-ahab1 as commander of the north-western army in #ahab occupied the city4 ,failing to hear immediately of the declaration of war between the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain1 he was cut off from his supplies shipped by ,lake ,erie4 ,he made from ,detroit on the #abth of ,july an awkward and futile advance into ,canada1 which1 if more vigorous1 might have resulted in the capture of ,malden and the establishment of ,american troops in ,canada1 and then retired to his fortifications4 ,on the #afth of ,august #ahab1 without any resistance and without consulting his officers1 he surrendered the city to ,general ,brock1 for reasons of humanity1 and afterwards attempted to justify himself by criticism of the ,war ,department in general and in particular of ,general ,henry ,dearborn's armistice with ,prevost1 which had not included in its terms ,hull1 whom ,dearborn had been sent out to reinforce4#a ,after ,perry's victory on the #adth of ,september on ,lake ,erie1 ,detroit on the #bith of ,september was again occupied by the forces of the ,united ,states4 ,its growth was rather slow until #ahcj1 but since then its progress has been unimpeded4 ,detroit was the capital of ,michigan from #ahje to #ahdg4 ,,authorities4--,silas ,farmer1 ,the ,history of ,detroit and ,michigan 7,detroit1 #ahhd and #ahhi71 and ,detroit1 the ,queen ,city1 in ,l4 ,p4 ,powell's ,historic ,towns of the ,western ,states 7,new ,york and ,london1 #aija72 ,d4 ,f4 ,wilcox1 ,municipal ,government in ,michigan and ,ohio1 in ,columbia ,university ,studies 7,new ,york1 #ahif72 ,c4 ,m4 ,burton1 ,cadillac's ,village or ,detroit under ,cadillac 7,detroit1 #ahif72 ,francis ,parkman1 ,a ,half ,century of ,conflict 7,boston1 #ahig72 and ,the ,conspiracy of ,pontiac 7,boston1 #ahih72 and the annual ,reports of the ,detroit ,board of ,commerce 7#aijd sqq474 #a ,hull was tried at ,albany in #ahad by court martial1 ,general ,dearborn presiding1 was found guilty of treason1 cowardice1 neglect of duty and unofficerlike conduct1 and was sentenced to be shot2 the president remitted the sentence because of ,hull's services in the ,revolution4 ,,dettingen1 a village of ,germany in the kingdom of ,bavaria1 on the ,main1 and on the ,frankfort-on-,main-,aschaffenburg railway1 #aj m4 ,n4,w4 of ,aschaffenburg4 ,it is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the #bgth of ,june #agdc1 when the ,english1 ,hanoverians and ,austrians 7the ,pragmatic army71 #db1jjj men under the command of ,george ,,ii4 of ,england1 routed the numerically superior ,french forces under the duc de ,noailles4 ,it was in memory of this victory that ,handel composed his ,dettingen ,te ,deum4 ,,deucalion1 in ,greek legend1 son of ,prometheus1 king of ,phthia in ,thessaly1 husband of ,pyrrha1 and father of ,hellen1 the mythical ancestor of the ,hellenic race4 ,when ,zeus had resolved to destroy all mankind by a flood1 ,deucalion constructed a boat or ark1 in which1 after drifting nine days and nights1 he landed on ,mount ,parnassus 7according to others1 ,othrys1 ,aetna or ,athos7 with his wife4 ,having offered sacrifice and inquired how to renew the human race1 they were ordered to cast behind them the bones of the great mother1 that is1 the stones from the hillside4 ,the stones thrown by ,deucalion became men1 those thrown by ,pyrrha1 women4 ,see ,apollodorus i4 #g1 #b2 ,ovid1 ,metam4 i4 #bdc-dae2 ,apollonius ,rhodius iii4 #ajhe ff42 ,h4 ,usener1 ,die ,sintflutsagen 7#ahii74 ,,deuce 7a corruption of the ,fr4 deux1 two71 a term applied to the two of any suit of cards1 or of dice4 ,it is also a term used in tennis when both sides have each scored three points in a game1 or five games in a set2 to win the game or set two points or games must then be won consecutively4 ,the earliest instances in ,english of the use of the slang expression the deuce1 in exclamations and the like1 date from the middle of the #agth century4 ,the meaning was similar to that of plague or mischief in such phrases as plague on you1 mischief take you and the like4 ,the use of the word as an euphemism for the devil is later4 ,according to the ,new ,english ,dictionary the most probable derivation is from a ,low ,german das daus1 i4e4 the deuce in dice1 the lowest and therefore the most unlucky throw4 ,the personification1 with a consequent change of gender1 to der daus1 came later4 ,the word has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in ,teutonic mythology4 ,,deus1 ,,jo,o ,,de 7#ahcj-ahif71 the greatest ,portuguese poet of his generation1 was born at ,san ,bartholomeu de ,messines in the province of ,algarve on the #hth of ,march #ahcj4 ,matriculating in the faculty of law at the university of ,coimbra1 he did not proceed to his degree but settled in the city1 dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses1 which circulated among professors and undergraduates in manuscript copies4 ,in the volume of his art1 as in the conduct of life1 he practised a rigorous self-control4 ,he printed nothing previous to #ahee1 and the first of his poems to appear in a separate form was ,la ,lata1 in #ahfj4 ,in #ahfb he left ,coimbra for ,beja1 where he was appointed editor of ,o ,bejense1 the chief newspaper in the province of ,alemtejo1 and four years later he edited the ,folha do ,sul4 ,as the pungent satirical verses entitled ,eleies prove1 he was not an ardent politician1 and1 though he was returned as ,liberal deputy for the constituency of ,silves in #ahfi1 he acted independently of all political parties and promptly resigned his mandate4 ,the renunciation implied in the act1 which cut him off from all advancement1 is in accord with nearly all that is known of his lofty character4 ,in the year of his election as deputy1 his friend ,jos ,antonio ,garcia ,blanco collected from local journals the series of poems1 ,flores do campo1 which is supplemented by the ,ramo de flores 7#ahfi74 ,this is ,joo de ,deus's masterpiece4 ,pires de ,marmalada 7#ahfi7 is an improvisation of no great merit4 ,the four theatrical pieces--,amemos o nosso proximo1 ,ser apresentado1 ,ensaio de ,casamento1 and ,a ,viva inconsolavel--are prose translations from ,mry1 cleverly done1 but not worth the doing4 ,horacio e ,lydia 7#ahgb71 a translation from ,ronsard1 is a good example of artifice in manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure1 the ,portuguese couplet4 ,as an indication of a strong spiritual reaction three prose fragments 7#ahgc7--;,anna1 ,me de ,maria1 ,a ,virgem ,maria and ,a ,mulher do ,levita de ,ephrain--translated from ,darboy's ,femmes de la ,bible1 are full of significance4 ,the ,folhas soltas 7#ahgf7 is a collection of verse in the manner of ,flores do campo1 brilliantly effective and exquisitely refined4 ,within the next few years the writer turned his attention to educational problems1 and in his ,cartilha maternal 7#ahgf7 first expressed the conclusions to which his study of ,pestalozzi and ,frbel had led him4 ,this patriotic1 pedagogical apostolate was a misfortune for ,portuguese literature2 his educational mission absorbed ,joo de ,deus completely1 and is responsible for numerous controversial letters1 for a translation of ,thodore-,henri ,barrau's treatise1 ,des devoirs des enfants envers leurs parents1 for a prosodic dictionary and for many other publications of no literary value4 ,a copy of verses in ,antonio ,vieira's ,grinalda de ,maria 7#ahgg71 the ,loas ,virgem 7#ahgh7 and the ,proverbios de ,salomo are evidence of a complete return to orthodoxy during the poet's last years4 ,by a lamentable error of judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled ,cryptinas have been inserted in the completest edition of ,joo de ,deus's poems--,campo de ,flores 7,lisbon1 #ahic74 ,he died at ,lisbon on the #aath of ,january #ahif1 was accorded a public funeral and was buried in the ,national ,pantheon1 the ,jeronymite church at ,belem1 where repose the remains of ,camoens1 ,herculano and ,garrett4 ,his scattered minor prose writings and correspondence have been posthumously published by ,dr ,theophilo ,braga 7,lisbon1 #ahih74 ,next to ,camoens and perhaps ,garrett1 no ,portuguese poet has been more widely read1 more profoundly admired than ,joo de ,deus2 yet no poet in any country has been more indifferent to public opinion and more deliberately careless of personal fame4 ,he is not responsible for any single edition of his poems1 which were put together by pious but ill-informed enthusiasts1 who ascribed to him verses that he had not written2 he kept no copies of his compositions1 seldom troubled to write them himself1 and was content for the most part to dictate them to others4 ,he has no great intellectual force1 no philosophic doctrine1 is limited in theme as in outlook1 is curiously uncertain in his touch1 often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced accent2 and1 on the only occasion when he was induced to revise a set of proofs1 his alterations were nearly all for the worse4 ,and yet1 though he never appealed to the patriotic spirit1 though he wrote nothing at all comparable in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of ,os ,lusiadas1 the popular instinct which links his name with that of his great predecessor is eminently just4 ,for ,camoens was his model2 not the ,camoens of the epic1 but the ,camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets1 where the passion of tenderness finds its supreme utterance4 ,braga has noted five stages of development in ,joo de ,deus's artistic life--the imitative1 the idyllic1 the lyric1 the pessimistic and the devout phases4 ,under each of these divisions is included much that is of extreme interest1 especially to contemporaries who have passed through the same succession of emotional experience1 and it is highly probable that ,caturras and ,gaspar1 pieces as witty as anything in ,bocage but free from ,bocage's coarse impiety1 will always interest literary students4 ,but it is as the singer of love that ,joo de ,deus will delight posterity as he delighted his own generation4 ,the elegiac music of ,rachel and of ,marina1 the melancholy of ,adeus and of ,remoinho1 the tenderness and sincerity of ,meu casta lirio1 of ,lagrima celeste1 of ,descala and a score more songs are distinguished by the large1 vital simplicity which withstands time4 ,it is precisely in the quality of unstudied simplicity that ,joo de ,deus is incomparably strong4 ,the temptations to a display of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a ,portuguese poet2 he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood1 he has before him the example of all contemporaries1 and he has at hand an instrument of wonderful sonority and compass4 ,yet not once is ,joo de ,deus clamorous or rhetorical1 not once does he indulge in idle ornament4 ,his prevailing note is that of exquisite sweetness and of reverent purity2 yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental1 and1 though he has not the strength for a long fight1 emotion has seldom been set to more delicate music4 ,had he included among his other gifts the gift of selection1 had he continued the poetic discipline of his youth instead of dedicating his powers to a task which1 well as he performed it1 might have been done no less well by a much lesser man1 there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen4 ,see also ,maxime ,formont1 ,le ,mouvement potique contemporain en ,portugal 7,lyon1 #ahib74 7,j4 ,f4-,k47 ,,deuteronomy1 the name of one of the books of the ,old ,testament4 ,this book was long the storm-centre of ,pentateuchal criticism1 orthodox scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its ,mosaic authorship reduced it to the level of a pious fraud4 ,but ,biblical facts have at last triumphed over tradition1 and the non-,mosaic authorship of ,deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism4 ,it is still instructive1 however1 to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion regarding the composition and date of his book has passed4 ,in the #agth century the characteristics which so clearly mark off ,deuteronomy from the other four books of the ,pentateuch were frankly recognized1 but the most advanced critics of that age were inclined to pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five4 ,in the beginning of the #aith century de ,wette startled the religious world by declaring that ,deuteronomy1 so far from being ,mosaic1 was not known till the time of ,josiah4 ,this theory he founded on #b ,kings xxii42 and ever since1 this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of ,biblical criticism4 ,the only other single chapter of the ,bible which is responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in critical opinion is ,ezek4 xliv4 ,from this chapter1 some seventy years after de ,wette's discovery1 ,wellhausen with equal acumen inferred that ,leviticus was not known to ,ezekiel1 the priest1 and therefore could not have been in existence in his day2 for had ,leviticus been the recognized ,law-book of his nation ,ezekiel could not have represented as a degradation the very position which that ,law-book described as a special honour conferred on the ,levites by ,yahweh himself4 ,hence ,leviticus1 so far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the ,pentateuch than ,deuteronomy1 as de ,wette thought1 must belong to a much later stratum1 and be at least exilic1 if not post-exilic4 ,the title ,deuteronomy is due to a mistranslation by the ,septuagint of the clause in chap4 xvii4 #ah1 rendered and he shall write out for himself this ,deuteronomy4 ,the ,hebrew really means and he the king shall write out for himself a copy of this law1 where there is not the slightest suggestion that the author intended to describe this law delivered on the plains of ,moab as a second code in contradistinction to the first code given on ,sinai thirty-eight years earlier4 ,moreover the phrase this law is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater difficulty than that caused by the ,greek mistranslation of the ,hebrew word for copy4 ,how much does this law include8 ,it was long supposed to mean the whole of our present ,deuteronomy2 indeed1 it is on that supposition that the traditional view of the ,mosaic authorship is based4 ,but the context alone can determine the question2 and that is often so ambiguous that a sure inference is impossible4 ,we may safely assert1 however1 that nowhere need this law mean the whole book4 ,in fact1 it invariably means very much less1 and sometimes1 as in xxvii4 #c1 #h1 so little that it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered stones set up beside an altar4 ,deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a long process of development4 ,the fact that it is legislative as well as hortatory is enough to prove this1 for most of the laws it contains are found elsewhere in the ,pentateuch1 sometimes in less developed1 sometimes in more developed forms1 a fact which is conclusive proof of prolonged historical development4 ,according to the all-pervading law of evolution1 the less complex form must have preceded the more complex4 ,still1 the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind4 ,its style is as easily recognized as that of ,deutero-,isaiah1 being as remarkable for its copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious feeling4 ,the original ,deuteronomy1 ,d1 read to ,king ,josiah1 cannot have been so large as our present book1 for not only could it be read at a single sitting1 but it could be easily read twice in one day4 ,on the day it was found1 ,shaphan first read it himself1 and then went to the king and read it aloud to him4 ,but perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is that it was read publicly to the assembled people immediately before they1 as well as their king1 pledged themselves to obey it2 and not a word is said as to the task of reading it aloud1 so as to be heard by such a great multitude1 being long or difficult4 ,the legislative part of ,d consists of fifteen chapters 7xii4-xxvi471 which1 however1 contain many later insertions4 ,but the impression made upon ,josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been produced by the legislative part alone4 ,the king must have listened to the curses as well as the blessings in chap1 xxviii41 and no doubt also to the exhortations in chaps4 v4-xi4 ,hence we may conclude that the original book consisted of a central mass of religious1 civil and social laws1 preceded by a hortatory introduction and followed by an effective peroration4 ,the book read to ,josiah must therefore have comprised most of what is found in ,deut4 v4-xxvi41 xxvii4 #i1 #aj and xxviii4 ,but something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present form1 for in the closing chapter1 as well as elsewhere1 e4g4 i4 #da-dc 7where the joining is not so deftly done as usual7 and xxxii4 #dh-eb1 there are undoubted traces of the ,priestly ,code1 ,p1 which is generally acknowledged to be post-exilic4 ,the following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now have it4 ,there are two introductions1 the first i4-iv4 #dd1 more historical than hortatory2 the second v4-xi41 more hortatory than historical4 ,these may at first have been prefixed to separate editions of the legislative portion1 but were eventually combined4 ,then1 before ,d was united to ,p1 five appendices of very various dates and embracing poetry as well as prose1 were added so as to give a fuller account of the last days of ,moses and thus lead up to the narrative of his death with which the book closes4 7#a7 ,chap4 xxvii41 where the elders of ,israel are introduced for the first time as acting along with ,moses 7xxvii4 #a7 and then the priests1 the ,levites 7xxvii4 #i74 ,some of the curses refer to laws given not in ,d but in ,lev4 xxx41 so that the date of this chapter must be later than ,leviticus or at any rate than the laws codified in the ,law of ,holiness 7,lev4 xvii4-xxvi474 7#b7 ,the second appendix1 chaps1 xxix4-xxxi4 #bi1 xxxii4 #de-dg1 gives us the farewell address of ,moses and is certainly later than ,d4 ,moses is represented as speaking not with any hope of preventing ,israel's apostasy but because he knows that the people will eventually prove apostate 7xxxi4 #bi71 a point of view very different from ,d's4 7#c7 ,the ,song of ,moses1 chap4 xxxii4 ,that this didactic poem must have been written late in the nation's history1 and not at its very beginning1 is evident from v4 #g3 ,remember the days of old1 ,consider the years of many generations4 ,such words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of ,moses4 ,it must have been composed in a time of natural gloom and depression1 after ,yahweh's anger had been provoked by a very froward generation1 certainly not before the ,assyrian ,empire had loomed up against the political horizon1 aggressive and menacing4 ,some critics bring the date down even to the time of ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel4 7#d7 ,the ,blessing of ,moses1 chap1 xxxiii4 ,the first line proves that this poem is not by ,d1 who speaks invariably of ,horeb1 never of ,sinai4 ,the situation depicted is in striking contrast with that of the ,song4 ,everything is bright because of promises fulfilled1 and the future bids fair to be brighter still4 ,bruston maintains with reason that the ,blessing1 strictly so called1 consists only of vv4 #f-be1 and has been inserted in a ,psalm celebrating the goodness of ,jehovah to his people on their entrance into ,canaan 7vv4 #a-e1 #bf-bi74 ,the special prominence given to ,joseph 7,ephraim and ,manasseh7 in vv4 #ac-ag has led many critics to assign this poem to the time of the greatest warrior-king of ,northern ,israel1 ,jeroboam ,,ii4 7#e7 ,the account of ,moses' death1 chap4 xxxiv4 ,this appendix1 containing1 as it does1 manifest traces of ,p1 proves that even ,deuteronomy was not put into its present form until after the exile4 ,from the many coincidences between ,d and the ,book of the ,covenant 7,ex4 xx4-xxiii47 it is clear that ,d was acquainted with ,e1 the prophetic narrative of the ,northern kingdom2 but it is not quite clear whether ,d knew ,e as an independent work1 or after its combination with ,j1 the somewhat earlier prophetic narrative of the ,southern kingdom1 the combined form of which is now indicated by the symbol ,,je4 ,kittel certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that ,d quotes always from ,e and never from ,j1 for some of the passages alluded to in ,d may just as readily be ascribed to ,j as to ,e1 cf4 ,deut4 i4 #g and ,gen4 xv4 #ah2 ,deut4 x4 #ad and ,ex4 xxxiv4 #a-d4 ,consequently ,d must have been written certainly after ,e and possibly after ,e was combined with ,j4 ,in ,amos1 ,hosea and ,isaiah there are no traces of ,d's ideas1 whereas in ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel their influence is everywhere manifest4 ,hence this school of thought arose between the age of ,isaiah and that of ,jeremiah2 but how long ,d itself may have been in existence before it was read in #fbb to ,josiah cannot be determined with certainty4 ,many argue that ,d was written immediately before it was found and that1 in fact1 it was put into the temple for the purpose of being found4 ,this theory gives some plausibility to the charge that the book is a pious fraud4 ,but the narrative in #b ,kings xxii4 warrants no such inference4 ,the more natural explanation is that it was written not in the early years of ,josiah's reign1 and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office1 but some time during the long reign of ,manasseh1 probably when his policy was most reactionary and when he favoured the worship of the host of heaven and set up altars to strange gods in ,jerusalem itself4 ,this explains why the author did not publish his work immediately1 but placed it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity should arise for its publication4 ,one need not suppose that he actually foresaw how favourable that opportunity would prove1 and that1 as soon as discovered1 his work would be promulgated as law by the king and willingly accepted by the people4 ,the author believed that everything he wrote was in full accordance with the mind of ,moses1 and would contribute to the national weal of ,yahweh's covenant people1 and therefore he did not scruple to represent ,moses as the speaker4 ,it is not to be expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact year or even decade in which such a book was written4 ,it is enough to determine with something like probability the century or half-century which best fits its historical data2 and these appear to point to the reign of ,manasseh4 ,between ,d and ,p there are no verbal parallels2 but in the historical rsums ,,je is followed closely1 whole clauses and even verses being copied practically verbatim4 ,as ,dr ,driver points out in his careful analysis1 there are only three facts in ,d which are not also found in ,,je1 viz4 the number of the spies1 the number of souls that went down into ,egypt with ,jacob1 and the ark being made of acacia wood4 ,but even these may have been in ,j or ,e originally1 and left out when ,,je was combined with ,p4 ,steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory parts of ,d between two authors1 one of whom uses the #bnd person plural when addressing ,israel1 and the other the #bnd person singular2 but as a similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally acknowledged to be by the same author1 this clue seems anything but trustworthy1 depending as it does on the presence or absence of a single ,hebrew letter1 and resulting1 as it frequently does1 in the division of verses which otherwise seem to be from the same pen 7cf4 xx4 #b74 ,the inference as to diversity of authorship is much more conclusive when difference of standpoint can be proved1 cf4 v4 #c1 xi4 #b ff4 with viii4 #b4 ,the first two passages represent ,moses as addressing the generation that was alive at ,horeb1 whereas the last represents him as speaking to those who were about to pass over ,jordan a full generation later2 and it may well be that the one author may1 in the historical and hortatory parts1 have preferred the #bnd plural and the other the #bnd singular2 without the further inference being justified that every law in which the #bnd singular is used must be assigned to the latter1 and every law in which the #bnd plural occurs must be due to the former4 ,the law of the ,single ,sanctuary1 one of ,d's outstanding characteristics1 is1 for him1 an innovation1 but an innovation towards which events had long been tending4 #b ,kings xxiii4 #i shows that even the zeal of ,josiah could not carry out the instructions laid down in ,d xviii4 #f-h4 ,josiah's acceptance of ,d made it the first canonical book of scripture4 ,thus the religion of ,judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them4 ,d requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols1 but of the ,asheras 7wooden posts7 and the ,mazzebas 7stone pillars7 often set up beside the altar of ,jehovah 7xvi4 #ba74 ,these reforms made too heavy demands upon the people1 as was proved by the reaction which set in at ,josiah's death4 ,indeed the country people would look on the destruction of the high places with their ,asheras and ,mazzebas as sacrilege and would consider ,josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his sacrilegious deeds4 ,on the other hand1 the destruction of ,jerusalem and the exile of the people would appear to those who had obeyed ,d's instructions as a well-merited punishment for national apostasy4 ,moreover1 ,d regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each individual ,israelite2 and it is certainly not by accident that the declaration of the individual's duty towards ,god immediately follows the emphatic intimation to ,israel of ,yahweh's unity4 ,hear1 ,o ,israel1 ,yahweh is our ,god1 ,yahweh is one3 and thou shalt love ,yahweh thy ,god with all thine heart and with all thy soul and with all thy strength 7vi4 #d1 #e74 ,in estimating the religious value of ,deuteronomy it should never be forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy ever pronounced on any scripture was pronounced by ,christ himself1 when he said on these words hang all the law and the prophets1 and it is also well to remember that when tempted in the wilderness he repelled each suggestion of the ,tempter by a quotation from ,deuteronomy4 ,nevertheless even such a writer as ,d could not escape the influence of the age and atmosphere in which he lived2 and despite the spirit of love which breathes so strongly throughout the book1 especially for the poor1 the widow and the fatherless1 the stranger and the homeless ,levite 7xxiv4 #aj-bb71 and the humanity shown towards both beasts and birds 7xxii4 #a1 #d1 #f f41 xxv4 #d71 there are elements in ,d which go far to explain the intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance characteristic of ,judaism4 ,should a man's son or friend dear to him as his own soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers1 ,d's pitiless order to that man is ,thou shalt surely kill him2 thine hand shall be first upon him to put him to death4 ,from this single instance we see not only how far mankind has travelled along the path of religious toleration since ,deuteronomy was written1 but also how very far the criticism implied in ,christ's method of dealing with what was said to them of old time may be legitimately carried4 7,j4 ,a4 ,p4997 ,,deutsch1 ,,immanuel ,,oscar ,,menahem 7#ahbi-ahgc71 ,german oriental scholar1 was born on the #bhth of ,october #ahbi1 at ,neisse in ,prussian ,silesia1 of ,jewish extraction4 ,on reaching his sixteenth year he began his studies at the university of ,berlin1 paying special attention to theology and the ,talmud4 ,he also mastered the ,english language and studied ,english literature4 ,in #ahee ,deutsch was appointed assistant in the library of the ,british ,museum4 ,he worked intensely on the ,talmud and contributed no less than #aij papers to ,chambers's ,encyclopaedia1 in addition to essays in ,kitto's and ,smith's ,biblical ,dictionaries1 and articles in periodicals4 ,in ,october #ahfg his article on ,the ,talmud1 published in the ,quarterly ,review1 made him known4 ,it was translated into ,french1 ,german1 ,russian1 ,swedish1 ,dutch and ,danish4 ,he died at ,alexandria on the #abth of ,may #ahgc4 ,his ,literary ,remains1 edited by ,lady ,strangford1 were published in #ahgd1 consisting of nineteen papers on such subjects as ,the ,talmud1 ,islam1 ,semitic ,culture1 ,egypt1 ,ancient and ,modern1 ,semitic ,languages1 ,the ,targums1 ,the ,samaritan ,pentateuch1 and ,arabic ,poetry4 ,,deutschkrone1 a town of ,germany1 kingdom of ,prussia1 between the two lakes of ,arens and ,radau1 #ae m4 ,n4,w4 of ,schneidemhl1 a railway junction #fj m4 north of ,posen4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #gbhb4 ,it is the seat of the public offices for the district1 possesses an ,evangelical and a ,roman ,catholic church1 a synagogue1 and a gymnasium established in the old ,jesuit college1 and has manufactures of machinery1 woollens1 tiles1 brandy and beer4 ,,deutz 7anc4 ,divitio71 formerly an independent town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian ,rhine ,province1 on the right bank of the ,rhine1 opposite to ,cologne1 with which it has been incorporated since #ahhh4 ,it contains the church of ,st ,heribert1 built in the #agth century1 cavalry barracks1 artillery magazines1 and gas1 porcelain1 machine and carriage factories4 ,it has a handsome railway station on the banks of the ,rhine1 negotiating the local traffic with ,elberfeld and ,knigswinter4 ,the fortifications of the town form part of the defences of ,cologne4 ,to the east is the manufacturing suburb of ,kalk4 ,the old castle in ,deutz was in #ajjb made a ,benedictine monastery by ,heribert1 archbishop of ,cologne4 ,permission to fortify the town was in #abcj granted to the citizens by the archbishop of ,cologne1 between whom and the counts of ,berg it was in #abdj divided4 ,it was burnt in #acgf1 #adde and #aehc2 and in #afgh1 after the peace of ,nijmwegen1 the fortifications were dismantled2 rebuilt in #ahaf1 they were again razed in #ahhh4 ,,deux-,s,,vres1 an inland department of western ,france1 formed in #agij mainly of the three districts of ,poitou1 ,thouarsais1 ,gtine and ,niortais1 added to a small portion of ,saintonge and a still smaller portion of ,aunis4 ,area1 #bccg sq4 m4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #cci1dff4 ,it is bounded ,n4 by ,maine-et-,loire1 ,e4 by ,vienne1 ,s4,e4 by ,charente1 ,s4 by ,charente-,infrieure and ,w4 by ,vende4 ,the department takes its name from two rivers--the ,svre of ,niort which traverses the southern portion1 and the ,svre of ,nantes 7an affluent of the ,loire7 which drains the north-west4 ,there are three regions--the ,gtine1 occupying the north and centre of the department1 the ,plaine in the south and the ,marais1--distinguished by their geological character and their general physical appearance4 ,the ,gtine1 formed of primitive rocks 7granite and schists71 is the continuation of the ,bocage of ,vende and ,maine-et-,loire4 ,its surface is irregular and covered with hedges and clumps of wood or forests4 ,the systematic application of lime has much improved the soil1 which is naturally poor4 ,the ,plaine1 resting on oolite limestone1 is treeless but fertile4 ,the ,marais1 a low-lying district in the extreme south-west1 consists of alluvial clays which also are extremely productive when properly drained4 ,the highest points1 several of which exceed #gjj ft41 are found in a line of hills which begins in the centre of the department1 to the south of ,parthenay1 and stretches north-west into the neighbouring department of ,vende4 ,it divides the region drained by the ,svre ,nantaise and the ,thouet 7both affluents of the ,loire7 in the north from the basins of the ,svre ,niortaise and the ,charente in the south4 ,the climate is mild1 the annual temperature at ,niort being #ed ,fahr41 and the rainfall nearly #be in4 ,the winters are colder in the ,gtine1 the summers warmer in the ,plaine4 ,three-quarters of the entire area of ,deux-,svres1 which is primarily an agricultural department1 consists of arable land4 ,wheat and oats are the main cereals4 ,potatoes and mangold-wurzels are the chief root-crops4 ,niort is a centre for the growing ,of vegetables 7onions1 asparagus1 artichokes1 c47 and of angelica4 ,considerable quantities of beetroot are raised to supply the distilleries of ,melle4 ,colza1 hemp1 rape and flax are also cultivated4 ,vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of ,bressuire in the north1 and of ,niort and ,melle in the south4 ,the department is well known for the ,parthenay breed of cattle and the ,poitou breed of horses2 and the mules reared in the southern arrondissements are much sought after both in ,france and in ,spain4 ,the system of co-operative dairying is practised in some localities4 ,the apple-trees of the ,gtine and the walnut-trees of the ,plaine bring a good return4 ,coal is mined1 and the department produces building-stone and lime4 ,a leading industry is the manufacture of textiles 7serges1 druggets1 linen1 handkerchiefs1 flannels1 swan-skins and knitted goods74 ,tanning and leather-dressing are carried on at ,niort and other places1 and gloves are made at ,niort4 ,wool and cotton spinning1 hat and shoe making1 distilling1 brewing1 flour-milling and oil-refining are also main industries4 ,the department exports cattle and sheep to ,paris and ,poitiers2 also cereals1 oils1 wines1 vegetables and its industrial products4 ,the ,svre ,niortaise and its tributary the ,mignon furnish #ai m4 of navigable waterway4 ,the department is served by the ,ouest-tat railway4 ,it contains a large proportion of ,protestants1 especially in the south-east4 ,the four arrondissements are ,niort1 ,bressuire1 ,melle and ,parthenay2 the cantons number #ca1 and the communes #cef4 ,deux-,svres is part of the region of the ,,ix4 army corps1 and of the diocese and the acadmie 7educational circumscription7 of ,poitiers1 where also is its court of appeal4 ,niort 7the capital71 ,bressuire1 ,melle1 ,parthenay1 ,st ,maixent1 ,thouars and ,oiron are the principal places in the department4 ,several other towns contain features of interest4 ,among these are ,airvault1 where there is a church of the #abth and #adth centuries which once belonged to the abbey of ,st ,pierre1 and an ancient bridge built by the monks2 ,celles-sur-,belle1 where there is an old church rebuilt by ,louis ,,xi41 and again in the #agth century2 and ,st ,jouin-de-,marnes1 with a fine ,romanesque church with ,gothic restoration1 which belonged to one of the most ancient abbeys of ,gaul4 ,,deva 7,sanskrit heavenly71 in ,hindu and ,buddhist mythology1 spirits of the light and air1 and minor deities generally beneficent4 ,in ,persian mythology1 however1 the word is used for evil spirits or demons4 ,according to ,zoroaster the devas were created by ,ahriman4 ,,deva 7mod4 ,chester71 a ,roman legionary fortress in ,britain on the ,dee4 ,it was occupied by ,roman troops about ,a4,d4 #dh and held probably till the end of the ,roman dominion4 ,its garrison was the ,legio ,,xx4 ,valeria ,victrix1 with which another legion 7,,ii4 ,adjutrix7 was associated for a few years1 about ,a4,d4 #ge-he4 ,it never developed1 like many ,roman legionary fortresses1 into a town1 but remained military throughout4 ,parts of its north and east walls 7from ,morgan's ,mount to ,peppergate7 and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area4 ,see ,f4 ,j4 ,haverfield1 ,catalogue of the ,grosvenor ,museum1 ,chester 7,chester1 #aijj71 ,introduction4 ,,devadatta1 the son of ,suklodana1 who was younger brother to the father of the ,buddha 7,mahavastu1 iii4 #gf74 ,both he and his brother ,ananda1 who were considerably younger than the ,buddha1 joined the brotherhood in the twentieth year of the ,buddha's ministry4 ,four other cousins of theirs1 chiefs of the ,sakiya clan1 and a barber named ,upali1 were admitted to the order at the same time2 and at their own request the barber was admitted first1 so that as their senior in the order he should take precedence of them 7,vinaya ,texts1 iii4 #bbh74 ,all the others continued loyal disciples1 but ,devadatta1 fifteen years afterwards1 having gained over the crown prince of ,magadha1 ,ajatasattu1 to his side1 made a formal proposition1 at the meeting of the order1 that the ,buddha should retire1 and hand over the leadership to him1 ,devadatta 7,vinaya ,texts1 iii4 #bch2 ,jataka1 i4 #adb74 ,this proposal was rejected1 and ,devadatta is said in the tradition to have successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his aged father and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death of the ,buddha 7,vinaya ,texts1 iii4 #bda-bej2 ,jataka1 vi4 #aca71 shortly afterwards1 relying upon the feeling of the people in favour of asceticism1 he brought forward four propositions for ascetic rules to be imposed on the order4 ,these being refused1 he appealed to the people1 started an order of his own1 and gained over #ejj of the ,buddha's community to join in the secession4 ,we hear nothing further about the success or otherwise of the new order1 but it may possibly be referred to under the name of the ,gotamakas1 in the ,anguttara 7see ,dialogues of the ,buddha i4 #bbb71 for ,devadatta's family name was ,gotama4 ,but his community was certainly still in existence in the #dth century ,a4,d41 for it is especially mentioned by ,fa ,hien1 the ,chinese pilgrim 7,legge's translation1 p4 #fb74 ,and it possibly lasted till the #gth century1 for ,hsan ,tsang mentions that in a monastery in ,bengal the monks then followed a certain regulation of ,devadatta's 7,t4 ,watters1 ,on ,yuan ,chwang1 ii4 #aia74 ,there is no mention in the canon as to how or when ,devadatta died2 but the commentary on the ,jataka1 written in the #eth century ,a4,d41 has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by the earth near ,savatthi1 when on his way to ask pardon of the ,buddha 7,jataka1 iv4 #aeh74 ,the spot where this occurred was shown to both the pilgrims just mentioned 7,fa ,hien1 loc4 cit4 p4 #fj2 and ,t4 ,watters1 ,on ,yuan ,chwang1 i4 #cij74 ,it is a striking example of the way in which such legends grow1 that it is only the latest of these authorities1 ,hsan ,tsang1 who says that1 though ostensibly approaching the ,buddha with a view to reconciliation1 ,devadatta had concealed poison in his nail with the object of murdering the ,buddha4 ,,authorities4--,vinaya ,texts1 translated by ,rhys ,davids and ,h4 ,oldenberg 7#c vols41 ,oxford1 #ahha-ahhe72 ,the ,jataka1 edited by ,v4 ,fausbll 7#g vols41 ,london1 #ahgg-ahig72 ,t4 ,watters1 ,on ,yuan ,chwang 7ed4 ,rhys ,davids and ,bushell1 #b vols41 ,london1 #aijd-aije72 ,fa ,hian1 translated by ,j4 ,legge 7,oxford1 #ahhf72 ,mahavastu 7ed4 ,tenant1 #c vols41 ,paris1 #ahhb-ahig74 7,t4 ,w4 ,r4 ,d47 ,,devaprayag 7,,deoprayag71 a village in ,tehri ,state of the ,united ,provinces1 ,india4 ,it is situated at the spot where the rivers ,alaknanda and ,bhagirathi unite and form the ,ganges1 and as one of the five sacred confluences in the hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout ,hindus4 ,devaprayag stands at an elevation of #bbfe ft4 on the side of a hill which rises above it #hjj ft4 ,on a terrace in the upper part of the village is the temple of ,raghunath1 built of huge uncemented stones1 pyramidical in form and capped by a white cupola4 ,,devens1 ,,charles 7#ahbj-ahia71 ,american lawyer and jurist1 was born in ,charlestown1 ,massachusetts1 on the #dth of ,april #ahbj4 ,he graduated at ,harvard ,college in #ahch1 and at the ,harvard law school in #ahdj1 and was admitted to the bar in ,franklin county1 ,mass41 where he practised from #ahda to #ahdi4 ,in the year #ahdh he was a ,whig member of the state senate1 and from #ahdi to #ahec was ,united ,states marshal for ,massachusetts1 in which capacity he was called upon in #ahea to remand the fugitive slave1 ,thomas ,sims1 to slavery4 ,this he felt constrained to do1 much against his personal desire2 and subsequently he attempted in vain to purchase ,sims's freedom1 and many years later appointed him to a position in the department of justice at ,washington4 ,devens practised law at ,worcester from #ahec until #ahfa1 and throughout the ,civil ,war served in the ,federal army1 becoming colonel of volunteers in ,july #ahfa and brigadier-general of volunteers in ,april #ahfb4 ,at the battle of ,ball's ,bluff 7#ahfa7 he was severely wounded2 he was again wounded at ,fair ,oaks 7#ahfb7 and at ,chancellorsville 7#ahfc71 where he commanded a division4 ,he later distinguished himself at ,cold ,harbor1 and commanded a division in ,grant's final campaign in ,virginia 7#ahfd-fe71 his troops being the first to occupy ,richmond after its fall4 ,breveted major-general in #ahfe1 he remained in the army for a year as commander of the military district of ,charleston1 ,south ,carolina4 ,he was a judge of the ,massachusetts superior court from #ahfg to #ahgc1 and was an associate justice of the supreme court of the state from #ahgc to #ahgg1 and again from #ahha to #ahia4 ,from #ahgg to #ahha he was attorney-general of the ,united ,states in the cabinet of ,president ,hayes4 ,he died at ,boston1 ,mass41 on the #gth of ,january #ahia4 ,see his ,orations and ,addresses1 with a memoir by ,john ,codman ,ropes 7,boston1 #ahia74 ,,deventer1 a town in the province of ,overysel1 ,holland1 on the right bank of the ,ysel1 at the confluence of the ,schipbeek1 and a junction station #aj m4 ,n4 of ,zutphen by rail4 ,it is also connected by steam tramway ,s4,e4 with ,brokulo4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #bf1bab4 ,deventer is a neat and prosperous town situated in the midst of prettily wooded environs1 and containing many curious old buildings4 ,there are three churches of special interest3 the ,groote ,kerk 7,st ,lebuinus71 which dates from #accd1 and occupies the site of an older structure of which the #aath-century crypt remains2 the ,roman ,catholic ,broederkerk1 or ,brothers' ,church1 containing among its relics three ancient gospels said to have been written by ,st ,lebuinus 7,lebwin71 the ,english apostle of the ,frisians and ,westphalians 7d4 c4 #ggc72 and the ,bergkerk1 dedicated in #abjf1 which has two late ,romanesque towers4 ,the town hall 7#afic7 contains a remarkable painting of the town council by ,terburg4 ,in the fine square called the ,brink is the old weigh-house1 now a school 7gymnasium71 built in #aebh1 with a large external staircase 7#afdd74 ,the gymnasium is descended from the ,latin school of which the celebrated ,alexander ,hegius was master in the third quarter of the #aeth century1 when the young ,erasmus was sent to it1 and at which ,adrian ,floreizoon1 afterwards ,pope ,adrian ,,vi41 is said to have been a pupil about the same time4 ,another famous educational institution was the ,athenaeum or high school1 founded in #afcj1 at which ,henri ,renery 7d4 #afci7 taught philosophy1 while ,johann ,friedrich ,gronov 7,gronovius7 7#afaa-afga7 taught rhetoric and history in the middle of the same century4 ,the ,athenaeum disappeared in #ahgf4 ,in modern times ,deventer possessed a famous teacher in ,dr ,burgersdyk 7d4 #aijj71 the ,dutch translator of ,shakespeare4 ,the town library1 also called the library of the ,athenaeum1 includes many ,,mss4 and incunabula1 and a #acth-century copy of ,reynard the ,fox4 ,the archives of the town are of considerable value4 ,besides a considerable agricultural trade1 ,deventer has important iron foundries and carpet factories 7the royal manufactory of ,smyrna carpets being especially famous72 while cotton-printing1 rope-making and the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on4 ,a public official is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread known as ,deventer ,koek1 which has a reputation throughout ,holland4 ,in the church of ,bathmen1 a village #e m4 ,e4 of ,deventer1 some #adth-century frescoes were discovered in #ahgj4 ,in the #adth century ,deventer was the centre of the famous religious and educational movement associated with the name of ,,gerhard ,,groot 7q4v471 who was a native of the town 7see ,,brothers ,,of ,,common ,,life74 ,,de ,,vere1 ,,aubrey ,,thomas 7#ahad-aijb71 ,irish poet and critic1 was born at ,curragh ,chase1 ,co4 ,limerick1 on the #ajth of ,january #ahad1 being the third son of ,sir ,aubrey de ,vere ,hunt 7#aghh-ahdf74 ,in #ahcb his father dropped the final name by royal licence4 ,sir ,aubrey was himself a poet4 ,wordsworth called his sonnets the most perfect of the age4 ,these and his drama1 ,mary ,tudor1 were published by his son in #ahge and #ahhd4 ,aubrey de ,vere was educated at ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 and in his twenty-eighth year published ,the ,waldenses1 which he followed up in the next year by ,the ,search after ,proserpine4 ,thenceforward he was continually engaged1 till his death on the #bjth of ,january #aijb1 in the production of poetry and criticism4 ,his best-known works are3 in verse1 ,the ,sisters 7#ahfa72 ,the ,infant ,bridal 7#ahfd72 ,irish ,odes 7#ahfi72 ,legends of ,st ,patrick 7#ahgb72 and ,legends of the ,saxon ,saints 7#ahgi72 and in prose1 ,essays chiefly on ,poetry 7#ahhg72 and ,essays chiefly ,literary and ,ethical 7#ahhi74 ,he also wrote a picturesque volume of travel-sketches1 and two dramas in verse1 ,alexander the ,great 7#ahgd72 and ,st ,thomas of ,canterbury 7#ahgf72 both of which1 though they contain fine passages1 suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic spirit4 ,the characteristics of ,aubrey de ,vere's poetry are high seriousness and a fine religious enthusiasm4 ,his research in questions of faith led him to the ,roman ,church2 and in many of his poems1 notably in the volume of sonnets called ,st ,peter's ,chains 7#ahhh71 he made rich additions to devotional verse4 ,he was a disciple of ,wordsworth1 whose calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity2 and his affection for ,greek poetry1 truly felt and understood1 gave dignity and weight to his own versions of mythological idylls4 ,but perhaps he will be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study of ,celtic legend and literature4 ,in this direction he has had many followers1 who have sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers2 but after ,matthew ,arnold's fine lecture on ,celtic ,literature1 nothing perhaps did more to help the ,celtic revival than ,aubrey de ,vere's tender insight into the ,irish character1 and his stirring reproductions of the early ,irish epic poetry4 ,a volume of ,selections from his poems was edited in #ahid 7,new ,york and ,london7 by ,g4 ,e4 ,woodberry4 ,,device1 a scheme1 plan1 simple mechanical contrivance2 also a pattern or design1 particularly an heraldic design or emblem1 often combined with a motto or legend4 ,device and its doublet devise come from the two ,old ,french forms devis and devise of the ,latin divisa1 things divided1 from dividere1 to separate1 used in the sense of to arrange1 set out1 apportion4 ,devise1 as a substantive1 is now only used as a legal term for a disposition of property by will1 by a modern convention restricted to a disposition of real property1 the term bequest being used of personalty 7see ,,will74 ,this use is directly due to the ,medieval ,latin meaning of dividere testamento disponere4 ,in its verbal form1 devise is used not only in the legal sense1 but also in the sense of to plan1 arrange1 scheme4 ,,devil 7,gr4 ,greek3 diabolos1 slanderer1 from ,greek3 diaballein1 to slander71 the generic name for a spirit of evil1 especially the supreme spirit of evil1 the foe of ,god and man4 ,the word is used for minor evil spirits in much the same sense as demon4 ,from the various characteristics associated with this idea1 the term has come to be applied by analogy in many different senses4 ,from the idea of evil as degraded1 contemptible and doomed to failure1 the term is applied to persons in evil plight1 or of slight consideration4 ,in ,english legal phraseology devil and devilling are used of barristers who act as substitutes for others4 ,any remuneration which the legal devil may receive is purely a matter of private arrangement between them4 ,in the chancery division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of one half of the fee which the client pays2 in the king's bench division remuneration for 'devilling' of briefs or assisting in drafting and opinions is not common 7see ,annual ,practice1 #aijg1 p4 #gag74 ,in a similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by a literary hack or devil4 ,the term printer's devil for the errand boy in a printing office probably combines this idea with that of his being black with ink4 ,the common notions of the devil as black1 ill-favoured1 malicious1 destructive and the like1 have occasioned the application of the term to certain animals 7the ,tasmanian devil1 the devil-fish1 the coot71 to mechanical contrivances 7for tearing up cloth or separating wool71 to pungent1 highly seasoned dishes1 broiled or fried4 ,in this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the word1 as used in mythology and religion4 ,the primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all phenomena to personal agencies4 ,as phenomena are good or evil1 produce pleasure or pain1 cause weal or woe1 a distinction in the character of these agencies is gradually recognized2 the agents of good become gods1 those of evil1 demons4 ,a tendency towards the simplification and organization of the evil as of the good forces1 leads towards belief in outstanding leaders among the forces of evil4 ,when the divine is most completely conceived as unity1 the demonic is also so conceived2 and over against ,god stands ,satan1 or the devil4 ,although it is in connexion with ,hebrew and ,christian monotheism that this belief in the devil has been most fully developed1 yet there are approaches to the doctrine in other religions4 ,in ,babylonian mythology the old serpent goddess 'the lady ,nina' was transformed into the embodiment of all that was hostile to the powers of heaven 7,sayce's ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #bhc71 and was confounded with the dragon ,tiamat1 a terrible monster1 reappearing in the ,old ,testament writings as ,rahab and ,leviathan1 the principle of chaos1 the enemy of ,god and man 7,tennant's ,the ,fall and ,original ,sin1 p4 #dc71 and according to ,gunkel 7,schpfung und ,chaos1 p4 #chc7 the original of the 'old serpent' of ,rev4 xii4 #i4 ,in ,egyptian mythology the serpent ,apap with an army of monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat of the luminous gods4 ,while the ,greek mythology described the ,titans as enchained once for all in their dark dungeons yet ,prometheus' threat remained to disturb the tranquillity of the ,olympian ,zeus4 ,in the ,german mythology the army of darkness is led by ,hel1 the personification of twilight1 sunk to the goddess who enchains the dead and terrifies the living1 and ,loki1 originally the god of fire1 but afterwards looked upon as the father of the evil powers1 who strips the goddess of earth of her adornments1 who robs ,thor of his fertilizing hammer1 and causes the death of ,balder the beneficent sun4 ,in ,hindu mythology the ,maruts1 ,indra1 ,agni and ,vishnu wage war with the serpent ,ahi to deliver the celestial cows or spouses1 the waters held captive in the caverns of the clouds4 ,in the ,trimurti1 ,brahma 7the impersonal7 is manifested as ,brahma 7the personal creator71 ,vishnu 7the preserver71 and ,siva 7the destroyer74 ,in ,siva is perpetuated the belief in the god of ,vedic times ,rudra1 who is represented as the wild hunter who storms over the earth with his bands1 and lays low with arrows the men who displease him 7,chantepie de la ,saussaye's ,religionsgeschichte1 #bnd ed41 vol4 ii4 p4 #be74 ,the evil character of ,siva is reflected in his wife1 who as ,kali 7the black7 is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death4 ,the opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in ,zoroastrianism4 ,opposed to ,ormuzd1 the author of all good1 is ,ahriman1 the source of all evil2 and the opposition runs through the whole universe 7,d',alviella's ,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #aeh-afd74 ,the conception of ,satan 7,heb4 ,hebrew3 ,satan1 the adversary1 ,gr4 ,greek3 ,satanas1 or ,greek3 ,satan1 #b ,cor4 xii4 #g7 belongs to the post-exilic period of ,hebrew development1 and probably shows traces of the influence of ,persian on ,jewish thought1 but it has also its roots in much older beliefs4 ,an evil spirit possesses ,saul 7#a ,sam4 xvi4 #ad71 but it is from the ,lord4 ,the same agency produces discord between ,abimelech and the ,shechemites 7,judges ix4 #bc74 ,a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets as ,yahweh's messenger entices ,ahab to his doom 7#a ,kings xxii4 #bb74 ,growing human corruption is traced to the fleshy union of angels and women 7,gen4 vi4 #a-d74 ,but generally evil1 whether as misfortune or as sin1 is assigned to divine causality 7#a ,sam4 xviii4 #aj2 #b ,sam4 xxiv4 #a2 #a ,kings xxii4 #bj2 ,isa4 vi4 #aj1 lxiii4 #ag74 ,after the ,exile there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence by the introduction of mediating angelic agency1 and to separate all evil from ,god by ascribing its origin to ,satan1 the enemy of ,god and man4 ,in the prophecy of ,zechariah 7iii4 #a-b7 he stands as the adversary of ,joshua1 the high priest1 and is rebuked by ,yahweh for desiring that ,jerusalem should be further punished4 ,in the book of ,job he presents himself before the ,lord among the sons of ,god 7ii4 #a71 yet he is represented both as accuser and tempter4 ,he disbelieves in ,job's integrity1 and desires him to be so tried that he may fall into sin4 ,while1 according to #b ,sam4 xxiv4 #a1 ,god himself tests ,david in regard to the numbering of the people1 according to #a ,chron4 xxi4 #a it is ,satan who tempts him4 ,the development of the conception continued in later ,judaism1 which was probably more strongly influenced by ,persian dualism4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether the ,asmodeus 7q4v47 of the book of ,tobit is the same as the ,aeshma ,daewa of the ,bundahesh4 ,he is the evil spirit who slew the seven husbands of ,sara 7iii4 #h71 and the name probably means ,destroyer4 ,in the book of ,enoch ,satan is represented as the ruler of a rival kingdom of evil1 but here are also mentioned ,satans1 who are distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function1 to tempt1 to accuse and to punish4 ,satan possesses the ungodly 7,ecclesiasticus xxi4 #bg71 is identified with the serpent of ,gen4 iii4 7,wisdom ii4 #bd71 and is probably also represented by ,asmodeus1 to whom lustful qualities are assigned 7,tobit vi4 #ad72 ,gen4 iii4 is probably referred to in ,psalms of ,solomon xvii4 #di1 a serpent speaking with the words of transgressors1 words of deceit to pervert wisdom4 ,the ,book of the ,secrets of ,enoch not only identifies ,satan with the ,serpent1 but also describes his revolt against ,god1 and expulsion from heaven4 ,in the ,jewish ,targums ,sammael1 the highest angel that stands before ,god's throne1 caused the serpent to seduce the woman2 he coalesces with ,satan1 and has inferior ,satans as his servants4 ,the birth of ,cain is ascribed to a union of ,satan with ,eve4 ,as accuser affecting man's standing before ,god he is greatly feared4 ,this doctrine1 stripped of much of its grossness1 is reproduced in the ,new ,testament4 ,satan is the ,greek3 diabolos 7,matt4 xiii4 #ci2 ,john xiii4 #b2 ,eph4 iv4 #bg2 ,heb4 ii4 #ad2 ,rev4 ii4 #aj71 slanderer or accuser1 the ,greek3 peirazn 7,matt4 iv4 #c2 #a ,thess4 iii4 #e71 the tempter1 the ,greek3 ponros 7,matt4 v4 #cg2 ,john xvii4 #ae2 ,eph4 vi4 #af71 the evil one1 and the ,greek3 echthros 7,matt4 xiii4 #ci71 the enemy4 ,he is apparently identified with ,beelzebub 7or ,beelzebul7 in ,matt4 xii4 #bf1 #bg4 ,jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons belonging to a kingdom of evil under the leadership of ,satan the prince of demons 7,matt4 xii4 #bd1 #bf1 #bg71 whose works in demonic possessions it is his function to destroy 7,mark i4 #cd1 iii4 #aa1 vi4 #g2 ,luke x4 #ag-bj74 ,but he himself conquers ,satan in resisting his temptations 7,matt4 iv4 #a-aa74 ,simon is warned against him1 and ,judas yields to him as tempter 7,luke xxii4 #ca2 ,john xiii4 #bg74 ,jesus's cures are represented as a triumph over ,satan 7,luke x4 #ah74 ,this ,jewish doctrine is found in ,paul's letters also4 ,satan rules over a world of evil1 supernatural agencies1 whose dwelling is in the lower heavens 7,eph4 vi4 #ab73 hence he is the prince of the power of the air 7ii4 #b74 ,he is the tempter 7#a ,thess4 iii4 #e2 #a ,cor4 vii4 #e71 the destroyer 7x4 #aj71 to whom the offender is to be handed over for bodily destruction 7v4 #e71 identified with the serpent 7,rom4 xvi4 #bj2 #b ,cor4 xi4 #c71 and probably with ,beliar or ,belial 7vi4 #ae72 and the surrender of man to him brought death into the world 7,rom4 v4 #ag74 ,paul's own stake in the flesh is ,satan's messenger 7#b ,cor4 xii4 #g74 ,according to ,hebrews ,satan's power over death ,jesus destroys by dying 7ii4 #ad74 ,revelation describes the war in heaven between ,god with his angels and ,satan or the dragon1 the old serpent1 the deceiver of the whole world 7xii4 #i71 with his hosts of darkness4 ,after the overthrow of the ,beast and the kings of the earth1 ,satan is imprisoned in the bottomless pit a thousand years 7xx4 #b74 ,again loosed to deceive the nations1 he is finally cast into the lake of fire and brimstone 7xx4 #aj2 cf4 ,enoch liv4 #e1 #f2 #b ,peter ii4 #d74 ,in ,john's ,gospel and ,epistles ,satan is opposed to ,christ4 ,sinner and murderer from the beginning 7#a ,john iii4 #h7 and liar by nature 7,john viii4 #dd71 he enslaves men to sin 7viii4 #cd71 causes death 7verse #dd71 rules the present world 7xiv4 #cj71 but has no power over ,christ or those who are his 7xiv4 #cj1 xvi4 #aa2 #a ,john v4 #ah74 ,he will be destroyed by ,christ with all his works 7,john xvi4 #cc2 #a ,john iii4 #h74 ,in the common faith of the ,gentile churches after the ,apostolic ,age the present dominion of evil demons1 or of one evil demon1 was just as generally presupposed as man's need of redemption1 which was regarded as a result of that dominion4 ,the tenacity of this belief may be explained among other things by the living impression of the polytheism that surrounded the communities on every side4 ,by means of this assumption too1 humanity seemed to be unburdened1 and the presupposed capacity for redemption could1 therefore1 be justified in its widest range 7,harnack's ,history of ,dogma1 i4 p4 #aha74 ,while ,christ's ,first ,advent delivered believers from ,satan's bondage1 his overthrow would be completed only by the ,second ,advent4 ,the ,gnostics held that the present world sprang from a fall of man1 or from an undertaking hostile to ,god1 and is1 therefore1 the product of an evil or intermediate being 7p4 #beg74 ,some taught that while the future had been assigned by ,god to ,christ1 the devil had received the present age 7p4 #cji74 ,the fathers traced all doctrines not held by the ,catholic ,church to the devil1 and the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil transforming himself into an angel of light 7ii4 #ia74 ,irenaeus ascribes ,satan's fall to pride and arrogance and envy of ,god's creation2 and traces man's deliverance from ,satan to ,christ's victory in resisting his temptations2 but also1 guided by certain ,pauline passages1 represents the death of ,christ as a ransom paid to the 'apostasy' for men who had fallen into captivity 7ii4 #bij74 ,he does not admit that ,satan has any lawful claim on man1 or that ,god practised a deceit on him1 as later fathers taught4 ,this theory of the atonement was formulated by ,origen4 ,by his successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men4 ,god offered ,christ's soul for that of men4 ,but the devil was duped1 as ,christ overcame both him and death 7p4 #cfg74 ,it was held by ,gregory of ,nyssa1 ,ambrose1 who uses the phrase pia fraus1 ,augustine1 ,leo ,i41 and ,gregory ,i41 who expresses it in its worst form4 ,the humanity of ,christ was the bait2 the fish1 the devil1 snapped at it1 and was left hanging on the invisible hook1 ,christ's divinity 7iii4 #cjg74 ,in ,athanasius the relation of the work of ,christ to ,satan retires into the background1 ,gregory of ,nazianzus and ,john of ,damascus felt scruples about this view4 ,it is expressly repudiated by ,anselm and ,abelard4 ,peter the ,lombard asserted it1 disregarding these objections4 ,bernard represents man's bondage to ,satan as righteously permitted as a just retribution for sin1 he being the executioner of the divine justice4 ,another theory of ,origen's found less acceptance4 ,the devil1 as a being resulting from ,god's will1 cannot always remain a devil4 ,the possibility of his redemption1 however1 was in the #eth century branded as a heresy4 ,persian dualism was brought into contact with ,christian thought in the doctrine of ,mani2 and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy views of ,augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to this influence4 ,mani taught that ,satan with his demons1 sprung from the kingdom of darkness1 attacked the realm of light1 the earth1 defeated man sent against him by the ,god of light1 but was overthrown by the ,god of light1 who then delivered the primeval man 7iii4 #cbd74 ,during the middle ages1 says ,tulloch1 the belief in the devil was absorbing--saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant conflict with him4 ,this superstition1 perhaps at its strongest in the #acth to the #aeth century1 passed into ,protestantism4 ,luther was always conscious of the presence and opposition of ,satan4 ,as ,i found he was about to begin again1 says ,luther1 ,i gathered together my books1 and got into bed4 ,another time in the night ,i heard him above my cell walking on the cloister1 but as ,i knew it was the devil ,i paid no attention to him and went to sleep4 ,he held that this world will pass away with its pleasures1 as there can be no real improvement in it1 for the devil continues in it to ply his daring and seductive devices 7vii4 #aia74 ,i4 ,a4 ,dorner 7,christian ,doctrine1 iii4 p4 #ic7 sums up ,protestant doctrine as follows3--,he is brought into relation with natural sinfulness1 and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to him4 ,the dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery to ,satan1 and this as punishment4 ,he has his full power in the extra-,christian world4 ,but his power is broken by ,christ1 and by his word victory over him is to be won4 ,the power of creating anything is also denied the devil1 and only the power of corrupting substances is conceded to him4 ,but it is only at the ,last ,judgment that his power is wholly annihilated2 he is himself delivered up to eternal punishment4 ,this belief in the devil was specially strong in ,scotland among both clergy and laity in the #agth century4 ,the devil was always and literally at hand1 says ,buckle1 he was haunting them1 speaking to them1 and tempting them4 ,go where they would he was there4 ,in more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on this subject4 ,j4 ,s4 ,semler denied the reality of demonic possession1 and held that ,christ in his language accommodated himself to the views of the sick whom he was seeking to cure4 ,kant regarded the devil as a personification of the radical evil in man4 ,daub in his ,judas ,ishcarioth argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute evil1 and the absolute evil as real must be in a person4 ,schelling regarded the devil as1 not a person1 but a real principle1 a spirit let loose by the freedom of man4 ,schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the common belief4 ,the problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in ,satan1 ,satan only showing the limits of our self-knowledge4 ,dorner has formulated a theory which explains the development of the conception of ,satan in the ,holy ,scriptures as in correspondence with an evolution in the character of ,satan4 ,satan appears in ,scripture under four leading characters3--first as the tempter of freedom1 who desires to bring to decision1 secondly as the accuser1 who by virtue of the law retorts criminality on man2 thirdly as the instrument of the ,divine1 which brings evil and death upon men2 fourthly and lastly he is described1 especially in the ,new ,testament1 as the enemy of ,god and man4 ,he supposes a change in ,satan in the course of the history of the divine revelation1 in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn enemy of ,god and man1 especially in the ,new ,testament times1 in which1 on the other hand1 his power is broken at the root by ,christ4 ,he argues that the world-order1 being in process as a moral order1 permits breaches everywhere into which ,satan can obtain entrance 7pp4 #ii1 #ajb74 ,h4 ,l4 ,martensen gives even freer rein to speculation4 ,the evil principle1 he says1 has in itself no personality1 but attains a progressively universal personality in its kingdom2 it has no individual personality1 save only in individual creatures1 who in an especial manner make themselves its organs2 but among these is one creature in whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and head of the kingdom of evil 7,dogmatics1 p4 #aii74 ,a4 ,ritschl gives no place in his constructive doctrine to the belief in the devil2 but recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another constitutes a kingdom of sin1 opposed to the ,kingdom of ,god 7,a4 ,e4 ,garvie1 ,the ,ritschlian ,theology1 p4 #cjd74 ,kaftan affirms that a doctrine about ,satan can as little be established as about angels1 as faith can say nothing about it1 and nothing is gained by it for the dogmatic explanation of evil4 ,this whole province must be left to the immediate world-view of the pious4 ,the idea of ,satan will on account of the ,scriptures not disappear from it1 and it would be arrogant to wish to set it aside4 ,only let everyone keep the thought that ,satan also stands under the commission of the ,almighty ,god1 and that no one must suppose that by leading back his sins to a ,satanic temptation he can get rid of his own guilt4 ,to transgress these limits is to assail faith 7,dogmatik1 p4 #cdh74 ,in the book entitled ,evil and ,evolution there is an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient mystery of evil4 ,the author contends that the existence of evil is best explained by assuming that ,god is confronted with ,satan1 who in the process of evolution interferes with the divine designs1 an interference which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible4 ,satan is1 however1 held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom been estranged from1 and opposed to his ,creator1 and who at last will be conquered by moral means4 ,w4 ,m4 ,alexander in his book on demonic possession maintains that the confession of ,jesus as the ,messiah or ,son of ,god is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession 7p4 #aej71 and argues that1 as the ,incarnation indicated the establishment of the kingdom of heaven upon earth1 there took place a counter movement among the powers of darkness1 of which genuine demonic possession was one of the manifestations 7p4 #bdi74 ,interesting as these speculations are1 it may be confidently affirmed that belief in ,satan is not now generally regarded as an essential article of the ,christian faith1 nor is it found to be an indispensable element of ,christian experience4 ,on the one hand science has so explained many of the processes of outer nature and of the inner life of man as to leave no room for ,satanic agency4 ,on the other hand the modern view of the inspiration of the ,scriptures does not necessitate the acceptance of the doctrine of the ,scriptures on this subject as finally and absolutely authoritative4 ,the teaching of ,jesus even in this matter may be accounted for as either an accommodation to the views of those with whom he was dealing1 or more probably as a proof of the limitation of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the ,incarnation1 for it cannot be contended that as revealer of ,god and redeemer of men it was imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in this respect4 ,the possibility of the existence of evil spirits1 organized under one leader ,satan to tempt man and oppose ,god1 cannot be denied2 the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may1 however1 be doubted2 the necessity of any such belief for ,christian thought and life cannot1 therefore1 be affirmed4 7,see also ,,demonology2 ,,possession47 7,a4 ,e4 ,g4997 ,,devizes1 a market town and municipal borough in the ,devizes parliamentary division of ,wiltshire1 ,england1 #hf m4 ,w4 by ,s4 of ,london by the ,great ,western railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #fecb4 ,its castle was built on a tongue of land flanked by two deep ravines1 and behind this the town grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland4 ,its main streets1 in which a few ancient timbered houses are left1 radiate from the market place1 where stands a ,gothic cross1 the gift of ,lord ,sidmouth in #ahad4 ,the ,kennet and ,avon ,canal skirts the town on the ,n41 passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-nine locks4 ,st ,john's church1 one of the most interesting in ,wiltshire1 is cruciform1 with a massive central tower1 based upon two round and two pointed arches4 ,it was originally ,norman of the #abth century1 and the chancel arch and low vaulted chancel1 in this style1 are very fine4 ,in the interior several ancient monuments of the ,suttons and ,heathcotes are preserved1 besides some beautiful carved stone work1 and two rich ceilings of oak over the chapels4 ,st ,mary's1 a smaller church1 is partly ,norman1 but was rebuilt in the #aeth and again in the #aith century4 ,its lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof1 and the south porch1 though repaired in #afab1 preserves its ,norman mouldings4 ,the woollen industries of ,devizes have lost their prosperity2 but there is a large grain trade1 with engineering works1 breweries1 and manufactures of silk1 snuff1 tobacco and agricultural implements4 ,the town is governed by a mayor1 six aldermen and eighteen councillors4 ,area1 #ijf acres4 ,devizes 7,divisis1 la ,devise1 ,de ,vies7 does not appear in any historical document prior to the reign of ,henry ,i41 when the construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by ,roger1 bishop of ,salisbury1 at once constituted the town an important political centre1 and led to its speedy development4 ,after the disgrace of ,roger in #aaci the castle was seized by the ,crown2 in the #adth century it formed part of the dowry of the queens of ,england1 and figured prominently in history until its capture and demolition by ,cromwell in the ,civil ,war of the #agth century4 ,devizes became a borough by prescription1 and the first charter from ,matilda1 confirmed by successive later sovereigns1 merely grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of undisturbed peace4 ,edward ,,iii4 added a clause conferring on the town the liberties of ,marlborough1 and ,richard ,,ii4 instituted a coroner4 ,a gild merchant was granted by ,edward ,i41 ,edward ,,ii4 and ,edward ,,iii41 and in #afad was divided into the three companies of drapers1 mercers and leathersellers4 ,the present governing charters were issued by ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i41 the latter being little more than a confirmation of the former1 which instituted a common council consisting of a mayor1 a town clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses4 ,these charters were surrendered to ,charles ,,ii41 and a new one was conferred by ,james ,,ii41 but abandoned three years later in favour of the original grant4 ,devizes returned two members to parliament from #abie1 until deprived of one member by the ,representation of the ,people ,act of #ahfg1 and of the other by the ,redistribution ,act of #ahhe4 ,the woollen manufacture was the staple industry of the town from the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 until the middle of the #ahth century1 when complaints as to the decay of trade began to be prevalent4 ,in the reign of ,elizabeth the market was held on ,monday1 and there were two annual fairs at the feasts of the ,purification of the ,virgin and the ,decollation of ,john the ,baptist4 ,the market was transferred to ,thursday in the next reign1 and the fairs in the #ahth century had become seven in number4 ,see ,victoria ,county ,history1 ,wiltshire2 ,history of ,devizes 7,devizes1 #ahei74 ,,devolution1 ,,war ,,of 7#affg-fh71 the name applied to the war which arose out of ,louis ,,xiv4's claims to certain ,spanish territories in right of his wife ,maria ,theresa1 upon whom the ownership was alleged to have devolved4 7,see1 for the military operations1 ,,dutch ,,wars47 ,the war was ended by the treaty of ,aix-la-,chapelle in #affh4 ,,devon1 ,,earls ,,of4 ,from the family of ,de ,redvers 7,de ,ripuariis2 ,riviers71 who had been earls of ,devon from about #aajj1 this title passed to ,hugh de ,courtenay 7c4 #abge-acdj71 the representative of a prominent family in the county 7see ,gibbon's digression in chap4 lxi4 of the ,decline and ,fall1 ed4 ,bury71 but was subsequently forfeited by ,thomas ,courtenay 7#adcb-adfb71 a ,lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of ,towton4 ,it was revived in #adhe in favour of ,edward ,courtenay 7d4 #aeji71 whose son ,sir ,william 7d4 #aeaa7 married ,catherine1 daughter of ,edward ,,iv4 ,too great proximity to the throne led to his attainder1 but his son ,henry 7c4 #adih-aeci7 was restored in blood in #aeag as earl of ,devon1 and in #aebe was created marquess of ,exeter2 his second wife was a daughter of ,william ,blount1 #dth ,lord ,mountjoy4 ,the title again suffered forfeiture on ,henry's execution1 but in #aeec it was recreated for his son ,edward 7#aebf-aeef74 ,at the latter's death it became dormant in the ,courtenay family1 till in #ahca a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the ,house of ,lords1 and the earldom of ,devon was restored to the peerage1 still being held by the head of the ,courtenays4 ,the earlier earls of ,devon were referred to occasionally as earls of ,devonshire1 but the former variant has prevailed1 and the latter is now solely used for the earldom and dukedom held by the ,cavendishes 7see ,,devonshire1 ,,earls ,,and ,,dukes ,,of1 and also the article ,,courtenay74 ,,devonian ,,system1 in geology1 the name applied to series of stratified fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed during the ,devonian period1 that is1 in the interval of time between the close of the ,silurian period and the beginning of the ,carboniferous2 it includes the marine ,devonian and an estuarine ,old ,red ,sandstone series of strata4 ,the name ,devonian was introduced in #ahbi by ,sir ,r4 ,murchison and ,a4 ,sedgwick to describe the older rocks of ,cornwall and ,devon which ,w4 ,lonsdale had shown1 from an examination of the fossils1 to be intermediate between the ,silurian and ,carboniferous4 ,the same two workers also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the continent1 where already several others1 ,f4 ,roemer1 ,h4 ,e4 ,beyrich1 c41 were endeavouring to elucidate the succession of strata in this portion of the ,transition ,series4 ,the labours of these earlier workers1 including in addition to those already mentioned1 the brothers ,f4 and ,g4 von ,sandberger1 ,a4 ,dumont1 ,j4 ,gosselet1 ,e4 ,j4 ,a4 d',archiac1 ,e4 ,p4 de ,verneuil and ,h4 von ,dechen1 although somewhat modified by later students1 formed the foundation upon which the modern classification of the ,devonian rocks is based4 ,illustration3 ,distribution of ,devonian ,rocks ,stratigraphy of the ,devonian ,facies4 ,notwithstanding the fact that it was in ,devonshire and ,cornwall that the ,devonian rocks were first distinguished1 it is in central ,europe that the succession of strata is most clearly made out1 and here1 too1 their geological position was first indicated by the founders of the system1 ,sedgwick and ,murchison4 ,continental ,europe4--,devonian rocks occupy a large area in the centre of ,europe1 extending from the ,ardennes through the south of ,belgium across ,rhenish ,prussia to ,darmstadt4 ,they are best known from the picturesque gorges which have been cut through them by the ,rhine below ,bingen and by the ,moselle below ,treves4 ,they reappear from under younger formations in ,brittany1 in the ,harz and ,thuringia1 and are exposed in ,franconia1 ,saxony1 ,silesia1 ,north ,moravia and eastern ,galicia4 ,the principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical areas are indicated in ,table ,i4 ,this threefold subdivision1 with a central mass of calcareous strata1 is traceable westwards through ,belgium 7where the ,calcaire de ,givet represents the ,stringocephalus limestone of the ,eifel7 and eastwards into the ,harz4 ,the rocks reappear with local petrographical modifications1 but with a remarkable persistence of general palaeontological characters1 in ,eastern ,thuringia1 ,franconia1 ,saxony1 ,silesia1 the north of ,moravia and ,east ,galicia4 ,devonian rocks have been detected among the crumpled rocks of the ,styrian ,alps by means of the evidence of abundant corals1 cephalopods1 gasteropods1 lamellibranchs and other organic remains4 ,perhaps in other tracts of the ,alps1 as well as in the ,carpathian range1 similar shales1 limestones and dolomites1 though as yet unfossiliferous1 but containing ores of silver1 lead1 mercury1 zinc1 cobalt and other metals1 may be referable to the ,devonian system4 ,in the centre of ,europe1 therefore1 the ,devonian rocks consist of a vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks1 with occasional seams of limestone1 and in particular with one thick central calcareous zone4 ,these rocks are characterized in the lower zones by numerous broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites 7,phacops1 ,homalonotus1 c47 which1 though generically like those of the ,silurian system1 are specifically distinct4 ,the central calcareous zone abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous brachiopods4 ,in the highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods 7,clymenia7 occurs in some of the limestones1 while the shales are crowded with a small but characteristic ostracod crustacean 7,cypridina74 ,here and there traces of fishes have been found1 more especially in the ,eifel1 but seldom in such a state of preservation as to warrant their being assigned to any definite place in the zoological scale4 ,subsequently1 however1 ,e4 ,beyrich has described from ,gerolstein in the ,eifel an undoubted species of ,pterichthys1 which1 as it cannot be certainly identified with any known form1 he names ,p4 ,rhenanus4 ,a ,coccosteus has been described by ,f4 ,a4 ,roemer from the ,harz1 and still later one has been cited from ,bicken near ,herborn by ,v4 ,koenen2 but1 as ,beyrich points out1 there may be some doubt as to whether the latter is not a ,pterichthys4 ,a ,ctenacanthus1 seemingly undistinguishable from the ,c4 ,bohemicus of ,barrande's tage ,g1 has also been obtained from the ,lower ,devonian ,nereitenschichten of ,thuringia4 ,the characteristic ,holoptychius nobilissimus has been detected in the ,psammite de ,condroz1 which in ,belgium forms a characteristic sandy portion of the ,upper ,devonian rocks4 ,these are interesting facts1 as helping to link the ,devonian and ,old ,red ,sandstone types together4 ,but they are as yet too few and unsupported to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations between these types4 ,it is in the north-east of ,europe that the ,devonian and ,old ,red ,sandstone appear to be united into one system1 where the limestones and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the fish-bearing sandstones and shales of the other4 ,in ,russia1 as was shown in the great work ,russia and the ,ural ,mountains by ,murchison1 ,de ,verneuil and ,keyserling1 rocks intermediate between the ,upper ,silurian and ,carboniferous ,limestone formations cover an extent of surface larger than the ,british ,islands4 ,this wide development arises not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal character of the strata4 ,like the ,silurian formations described elsewhere1 they remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they were originally laid down4 ,judged by mere vertical depth1 they present but a meagre representative of the massive ,devonian greywacke and limestone of ,germany1 or of the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,britain4 ,yet vast though the area is over which they form the surface rock1 it is probably only a small portion of their total extent2 for they are found turned up from under the newer formations along the flank of the ,ural chain4 ,it would thus seem that they spread continuously across the whole breadth of ,russia in ,europe4 ,though almost everywhere undisturbed1 they afford evidence of some terrestrial oscillation between the time of their formation and that of the ,silurian rocks on which they rest1 for they are found gradually to overlap ,upper and ,lower ,silurian formations4 ,,table ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,brittany and ,stages4 ,ardennes4 ,rhineland4 ,normandy4 ,bohemia4 ,harz4 _/ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,limestone of ,cypridina slates4 ,slates of ,cypridina ,u ,etroeungt4 ,pn sandstone 7,sauerland74 ,rostellec4 slates4 ,p ,famennien ,psammites of ,crumbly limestone 7,kramen- ,clymenia ,p 7,clymenia ,condroz 7sandy zelkalk7 with ,clymenia4 limestone and ,e beds74 series74 ,neheim slates in ,sauerland1 limestone of ,r ,slates of ,famenne and diabases1 tuffs1 c41 ,altenau4 7shaly series74 in ,dillmulde1 c4 ,d _/ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,e ,slates of ,adorf limestone of ,waldeck ,limestone of ,iberg limestone ,v ,matagne4 and shales with ,goniatites ,cop-,choux and ,winterberg ,o ,frasnien ,limestones1 marls 7,eifel and ,aix7 and green limestone2 ,n 7,intumesce- and shale of ,budesheimer shales4 slates of also ,adorf ,i cens beds74 ,frasne1 and ,marls1 limestone and dolomite ,travuliors4 limestone and ,a red marble of with ,rhynchonella cuboides shales ,n ,flanders4 7,flinz in part74 7,budesheim74 4 ,iberg limestone of ,dillmulde4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ _/ ,limestone of ,stringocephalus limestone1 ,limestones ,h#b 7of ,stringocephalus ,m ,givet4 ironstone of ,brilon and of ,chalonnes1 ,barrande7 dark shales with ,i ,givrien ,lahnmulde4 ,montjean and plant-bearing ,flaser and ,d 7,stringocep- ,upper ,lenne shales1 crinoidal l',ecochre4 shales4 ,knollenkalk4 ,d halus beds74 limestone of ,eifel1 red ,wissenbach ,l sandstones of ,aix4 slates4 ,e ,tuffs and diabases of ,brilon ,h#a4 and ,lahnmulde4 ,d _/ ,red conglomerate of ,aix4 ,e ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,v ,calceola slates ,calceola beds1 ,wissenbach ,slates of ,g#c ,cephalo- ,calceola beds4 ,o and limestones slates1 ,lower ,lenne beds1 ,porsguen1 pod limestone4 ,nereite slates1 ,n ,eiflien of ,couvin4 ,gntroder limestone and greywacke ,g#b ,tentacu- slates of ,i 7,calceola ,greywacke with clay slate of ,lahnmulde1 of ,fret4 lite limestone4 ,wieda and ,a beds74 ,spirifer ,dillmulde1 ,wildungen1 ,g#c ,knollen- limestones of ,n cultrijugatus4 ,griefenstein limestone1 kalk and ,hasselfeld4 4 ,ballersbach limestone4 mottled ,mnenian limestone4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ _/ ,coblentzien ,greywacke of ,upper ,coblentz slates4 ,limestones ,haupt quartzite ,l ,hierges4 ,red sandstone of ,eifel1 of ,erbray1 7of ,lossen7 ,o ,shales and conglom- ,coblentz quartzite1 lower ,brulon1 ,vir ,rammelsberg ,w erate of ,burnot ,coblentz slates4 and ,nhou1 slates1 ,schal- ,e with quartzite1 ,hunsrck and ,siegener greywacke lker slates ,r of ,bierl and greywacke and slates4 of ,faou1 ,kahleberg red slates of ,taunus quartzite and sandstone sandstone4 ,d ,vireux1 greywacke greywacke4 of ,gahard4 ,f-#b of ,hercynian slates ,e _/ of ,montigny1 ,barrande4 and lime- ,v sandstone of ,anor4 ,white ,konjeprus stones4 ,o ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,limestone with ,n ,gdinnien ,slates of ,st ,hubert ,slates of ,gdinne4 ,slates and ,hercynian ,i and ,fooz1 slates quartzites fauna4 ,a of ,mondrepuits1 of ,plou- ,n arkose of ,weis- gastel4 4 mes1 conglomerate of ,fpin4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,the chief interest of the ,russian rocks of this age lies in the fact1 first signalized by ,murchison and his associates1 that they unite within themselves the characters of the ,devonian and the ,old ,red ,sandstone types4 ,in some districts they consist largely of limestones1 in others of red sandstones and marls4 ,in the former they present molluscs and other marine organisms of known ,devonian species2 in the latter they afford remains of fishes1 some of which are specifically identical with those of the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,scotland4 ,the distribution of these two palaeontological types in ,russia is traced by ,murchison to the lithological characters of the rocks1 and consequent original diversities of physical conditions1 rather than to differences of age4 ,indeed cases occur where in the same band of rock ,devonian shells and ,old ,red ,sandstone fishes lie commingled4 ,in the belt of the formation which extends southwards from ,archangel and the ,white ,sea1 the strata consist of sands and marls1 and contain only fish remains4 ,traced through the ,baltic provinces1 they are found to pass into red and green marls1 clays1 thin limestones and sandstones1 with beds of gypsum4 ,in some of the calcareous bands such fossils occur as ,orthis striatula1 ,spiriferina prisca1 ,leptaena productoides1 ,spirifer calcaratus1 ,spirorbis omphaloides and ,orthoceras subfusiforme4 ,in the higher beds ,holoptychius and other well-known fishes of the ,old ,red ,sandstone occur4 ,followed still farther to the south1 as far as the watershed between ,orel and ,voronezh1 the ,devonian rocks lose their red colour and sandy character1 and become thin-bedded yellow limestones1 and dolomites with soft green and blue marls4 ,traces of salt deposits are indicated by occasional saline springs4 ,it is evident that the geographical conditions of the ,russian area during the ,devonian period must have closely resembled those of the ,rhine basin and central ,england during the ,triassic period4 ,the ,russian ,devonian rocks have been classified in ,table ,,ii4 ,there is an unquestionable passage of the uppermost ,devonian rocks of ,russia into the base of the ,carboniferous system4 ,,table ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,north-,west ,russia4 ,central ,russia4 ,petchoraland4 ,ural ,region4 _/ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,u ,red sandstone ,limestones with ,limestones with ,domanik slates ,cypridina slates1 ,clymenia ,p 7,old ,red74 ,spirifer ,arca oreliana4 and limestones limestones 7,famennien74 ,p ,verneuili and ,limestones with with ,sp4 ,limestones with ,gephyoceras ,e ,sp4 ,archiaci4 ,sp4 ,verneuili ,verneuili4 intumescens and ,r and ,sp4 ,rhynchonella cuboides ,archiaci4 7,frasnien74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,m _/ ,dolomites and limestones ,marl with ,limestones and slates with ,i with ,spirifer ,anossofi ,sp4 ,anossofi 7,givtien74 ,d ,spirifer ,anossofi4 and corals4 ,limestones and slates with ,d ,pentamerus baschkiricus ,l ,lower sandstone 7,old ,red74 7,eiflien74 ,e ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- _/ ,limestones and slates of ,l the ,yuresan and ,ufa rivers1 ,o ,absent4 slate and quartzite1 ,w marble of ,byclaya and ,e of ,bogoslovsk1 phyllitic ,r schists and quartzite4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the ,lower ,devonian of the ,harz contains a fauna which is very different from that of the ,rhenish region2 to this facies the name ,hercynian has been applied1 and the correlation of the strata has been a source of prolonged discussion among continental geologists4 ,a similar fauna appears in ,lower ,devonian of ,bohemia1 in ,brittany 7limestone of ,erbray7 and in the ,urals4 ,the ,upper ,devonian of the ,harz passes up into the ,culm4 ,in the eastern ,thuringian ,fichtelgebirge the upper division is represented by ,clymenia limestone and ,cypridina slates with ,adorf limestone1 diabase and ,planschwitzer tuff in the lower part4 ,the middle division has diabases and tuffs at the top with ,tentaculite and ,nereite shales and limestones below4 ,the upper part of the ,lower ,devonian1 the sandy shale of ,steinach1 rests unconformably upon ,silurian rocks4 ,in the ,carnic ,alps are coral reef limestones1 the equivalents of the ,iberg limestone1 which attain an enormous thickness2 these are underlain by coral limestones with fossils similar to those of the ,konjeprus limestone of ,bohemia2 below these are shales and nodular limestones with goniatites4 ,the ,devonian rocks of ,poland are sandy in the lower1 and more calcareous in the upper parts4 ,they are of interest because while the upper portions agree closely with the ,rhenish facies1 from the top of the ,coblentzien upwards1 in the sandy beds near the base ,old ,red ,sandstone fishes 7,coccosteus1 c47 are found4 ,in ,france ,devonian rocks are found well developed in ,brittany1 as indicated in the table1 also in ,normandy and ,maine2 in the ,boulonnais district only the middle and upper divisions are known4 ,in south ,france in the neighbourhood of ,cabrires1 about ,montpellier and in the ,montagne ,noire1 all three divisions are found in a highly calcareous condition4 ,devonian rocks are recognized1 though frequently much metamorphosed1 on both the northern and southern flanks of the ,pyrenees2 while on the ,spanish peninsula they are extensively developed4 ,in ,asturias they are no less than #cbhj ft4 thick1 all three divisions and most of the central ,european subdivisions are present4 ,in general1 the ,lower ,devonian fossils of ,spain bear a marked resemblance to those of ,brittany4 ,asia4--,from the ,ural ,mountains eastward1 ,devonian rocks have been traced from point to point right across ,asia4 ,in the ,altai ,mountains they are represented by limestones of ,coblentzien age with a fauna possessing ,hercynian features4 ,the same features are observed in the ,devonian of the ,kougnetsk basin1 and in ,turkestan4 ,well-developed quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of ,yarkand and ,khotan4 ,middle and ,upper ,devonian strata are widespread in ,china4 ,upper ,devonian rocks are recorded from ,persia1 and from the ,hindu ,kush on the right bank of the ,chitral river4 ,england4--,in ,england the original ,devonian rocks are developed in ,devon and ,cornwall and west ,somerset4 ,in north ,devonshire these rocks consist of sandstones1 grits and slates1 while in south ,devon there are1 in addition1 thick beds of massive limestone1 and intercalations of lavas and tuffs4 ,the interpretation of the stratigraphy in this region is a difficult matter1 partly on account of the absence of good exposures with fossils1 and partly through the disturbed condition of the rocks4 ,the system has been subdivided as shown in ,table ,,iii4 ,,table ,,iii4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,north ,devon and ,west ,somerset4 ,south ,devon4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- _/ ,pilton group4 ,grits1 slates ,ashburton slates4 ,u and thin limestones4 ,livaton slates4 ,p ,baggy group4 ,sandstones ,red and green ,entomis slates ,p and slates4 7,famennien74 ,e ,pickwell ,down group4 ,red and grey slates with ,r ,dark slates and grits4 tuffs4 4 ,morte slates 7874 ,chudleigh goniatite limestone ,petherwyn beds 7,frasnien74 ,m ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,i _/ ,ilfracombe slates with ,torquay and ,plymouth ,d lenticles of limestone4 limestones and ,ashprington ,d ,combe ,martin grits and volcanic series4 7,givtien ,l slates4 and ,eiflien47 ,e ,slates and limestones of 4 ,hope's ,nose4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,l _/ ,hangman grits and slates4 ,looe beds 7,cornwall74 ,o ,lynton group1 grits and ,meadfoot1 ,cockington and ,w calcareous slates4 ,warberry series of slates ,e ,foreland grits and slates4 and greywackes4 7,coblentzien ,r and ,gdinnien47 4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,the fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the ,rhenish and south ,devonshire areas4 ,in north ,devonshire the ,devonian rocks pass upward without break into the ,culm4 ,north ,america4--,in ,north ,america the ,devonian rocks are extensively developed2 they have been studied most closely in the ,new ,york region1 where they are classified according to ,table ,,iv4 ,the classification below is not capable of application over the states generally and further details are required from many of the regions where ,devonian rocks have been recognized1 but everywhere the broad threefold division seems to obtain4 ,in ,maryland the following arrangement has been adopted--7#a7 ,helderberg ,coeymans2 7#b7 ,oriskany2 7#c7 ,romney ,erian2 7#d7 ,jennings ,genesee and ,portage2 7#e7 ,hampshire ,catskill in part4 ,in the interior the ,helderbergian is missing and the system commences with 7#a7 ,oriskany1 7#b7 ,onondaga1 7#c7 ,hamilton1 7#d7 ,portage 7and ,genesee71 7#e7 ,chemung4 ,the ,helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the continent2 there is a northern development in ,maine1 and in ,canada 7,gasp1 ,new ,brunswick1 ,nova ,scotia and ,montreal72 an ,appalachian belt1 and a lower ,mississippian region4 ,the series as a whole is mainly calcareous 7#bjjj ft4 in ,gasp71 and thins out towards the west4 ,the fauna has ,hercynian affinities4 ,the ,oriskany formation consists largely of coarse sandstones2 it is thin in ,new ,york1 but in ,maryland and ,virginia it is several hundred feet thick4 ,it is more widespread than the underlying ,helderbergian4 ,the ,lower ,devonian appears to be thick in northern ,maine and in ,gasp1 ,new ,brunswick and ,nova ,scotia1 but neither the palaeontology nor the stratigraphy has been completely worked out4 ,in the ,middle ,devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base1 ,esopus and ,schoharie grits1 have not been differentiated west of the ,appalachian region2 but the ,onondaga limestones are much more extensive4 ,the ,erian series is often described as the ,hamilton series outside the ,new ,york district1 where the ,marcellus shales are grouped together with the ,hamilton shales1 and numerous local subdivisions are included1 as in ,ohio1 ,kentucky and ,tennessee4 ,the rocks are mostly shales or slates1 but limestones predominate in the western development4 ,in ,pennsylvania the ,hamilton series is from #aejj ft4 to #ejjj ft4 thick1 but in the more calcareous western extension it is much thinner4 ,the ,marcellus shales are bituminous in places4 ,the ,senecan series is composed of shallow-water deposits2 the ,tully limestone1 a local bed in ,new ,york1 thins out in places into a layer of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna4 ,the bituminous ,genesee shales are thickest in ,pennsylvania 7#cjj ft472 #be ft4 on ,lake ,erie4 ,the shales and sandstones of the ,portage formation reach #ajjj ft4 to #adjj ft4 in western ,new ,york4 ,in the ,chautauquan series the ,chemung formation is not always clearly separable from the ,portage beds1 it is a sandstone and conglomerate formation which reaches its maximum thickness 7#hjjj ft47 in ,pennsylvania1 but thins rapidly towards the west4 ,in the ,catskill region the ,upper ,devonian has an ,old ,red facies--red shales and sandstones with a freshwater and brackish fauna4 ,,table ,,iv4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,probable ,groups4 ,formations4 ,european ,equivalent4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- _/ ,chautauquan4 ,chemung beds with ,catskill ,famennien4 ,u as a local facies4 ,p ,p 7 ,portage beds 7,naples1 ,ithaca ,frasnien4 ,e 7 and ,oneonta shales as local ,r ,senecan4 facies74 4 7 ,genesee shales4 7 ,tully limestone4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,m _/ ,erian4 7 ,hamilton shale4 ,givtien4 ,i 7 ,marcellus shale4 ,d ,d 7 ,onondaga 7,corniferous7 ,eiflien4 ,l ,ulsterian4 7 limestone4 ,e ,schoharie grit4 4 7 ,esopus grit 7,caudagalli grit74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,l _/ ,oriskanian4 ,oriskany sandstone4 ,coblentzien4 ,o ,w 7 ,kingston beds4 ,gdinnien4 ,e ,helderbe- 7 ,becraft limestone4 ,r rgian4 ,new ,scotland beds4 4 7 ,coeymans limestone4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short distance1 there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated ,devonian rocks in many parts of the continent4 ,in the ,great ,plains this system appears to be absent1 but it is represented in ,colorado1 ,utah1 ,nevada1 ,wyoming1 ,montana1 ,california and ,arizona2 ,devonian rocks occur between the ,sierras and the ,rocky ,mountains1 in the ,arbuckle ,mountains of ,oklahoma and in ,texas4 ,in the western interior limestones predominate2 #fjjj ft4 of limestone are found at ,eureka1 ,nevada1 beneath #bjjj ft4 of shale4 ,on the ,pacific coast metamorphism of the rocks is common1 and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them4 ,in ,canada1 besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern region1 ,devonian strata are found in considerable force along the course of the ,mackenzie river and the ,canadian ,rockies1 whence they stretch out into ,alaska4 ,it is probable1 however1 that much that is now classed as ,devonian in ,canada will prove on fossil evidence to be ,carboniferous4 ,south ,america1 ,africa1 ,australia1 c4--,in ,south ,america the ,devonian is well developed2 in ,argentina1 ,bolivia1 ,brazil1 ,peru and the ,falkland ,islands1 the palaeontological horizon is about the junction of the ,lower and ,middle divisions1 and the fauna has affinities with the ,hamilton shales of ,north ,america4 ,nearly allied to the ,south ,american ,devonian is that of ,south ,africa1 where they are represented by the ,bokkeveld beds in the ,cape system4 ,in ,australia we find ,lower ,devonian consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks2 and a ,middle division with coral limestones in ,victoria1 ,new ,south ,wales and ,queensland2 an ,upper division has also been observed4 ,in ,new ,zealand the ,devonian is well exposed in the ,reefton mining field2 and it has been suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may belong to this system4 ,stratigraphy of the ,old ,red ,sandstone ,facies4 ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,britain1 according to ,sir ,archibald ,geikie1 consists of two subdivisions1 the lower of which passes down conformably into the ,upper ,silurian deposits1 the upper shading off in the same manner into the base of the ,carboniferous system1 while they are separated from each other by an unconformability4 ,the ,old ,red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated lakes or lagoons1 approximately parallel to one another1 with a general alignment in a ,n4,e4-,s4,w4 direction4 ,to these areas of deposit ,sir ,a4 ,geikie has assigned convenient distinctive names4 ,in ,scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative of a prolonged interval of erosion4 ,in the central valley between the base of the ,highlands and the southern uplands lay ,lake ,caledonia4 ,here the lower division is made up of some #bj1jjj ft4 of shallow-water deposits1 reddish-brown1 yellow and grey sandstones and conglomerates1 with occasional cornstones1 and thin limestones4 ,the grey flagstones with shales are almost confined to ,forfarshire1 and are known as the ,arbroath flags4 ,interbedded volcanic rocks1 andesites1 dacites1 diabases1 with agglomerates and tuffs constitute an important feature1 and attain a thickness of #fjjj ft4 in the ,pentland and ,ochil hills4 ,a line of old volcanic vents may be traced in a direction roughly parallel to the trend of the great central valley4 ,on the northern side of the ,highlands was ,lake ,orcadie1 presumably much larger than the foregoing lake1 though its boundaries are not determinable4 ,it lay over ,moray ,firth and the east of ,ross and ,sutherland1 and extended from ,caithness to the ,orkney ,islands and ,s4 ,shetlands4 ,it may even have stretched across to ,norway1 where similar rocks are found in ,sognefjord and ,dalsfjord1 and may have had communications with some parts of northern ,russia4 ,very characteristic of this area are the ,caithness flags1 dark grey and bituminous1 which1 with the red sandstones and conglomerates at their base1 probably attain a thickness of #af1jjj ft4 ,the somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led ,murchison to class the flags as ,middle ,devonian4 ,in the ,shetland ,islands contemporaneous volcanic rocks have been observed4 ,over the west of ,argyllshire lay ,lake ,lorne2 here the volcanic rocks predominate1 they are intercalated with shallow-water deposits4 ,a similar set of rocks occupy the ,cheviot district4 ,the upper division of the ,old ,red ,sandstone is represented in ,shropshire and ,south ,wales by a great series of red rocks1 shales1 sandstones and marls1 some #aj1jjj ft4 thick4 ,they contain few fossils1 and no break has yet been found in the series4 ,in ,scotland this series was deposited in basins which correspond only partially with those of the earlier period4 ,they are well developed in central ,scotland over the lowlands bordering the ,moray ,firth4 ,interbedded lavas and tuffs are found in the island of ,hoy4 ,an interesting feature of this series is the occurrence of great crowds of fossil fishes in some localities1 notably at ,dura ,den in ,fife4 ,in the north of ,england this series rests unconformably upon the ,lower ,old ,red and the ,silurian4 ,flanking the ,silurian high ground of ,cumberland and ,westmorland1 and also in the ,lammermuir hills and in ,flint and ,anglesey1 a brecciated conglomerate1 presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit in places1 has often been classed with the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 but in parts1 at least1 it is more likely to belong to the base of the ,carboniferous system4 ,in ,ireland the lower division appears to be represented by the ,dingle beds and ,glengariff grits1 while the ,kerry rocks and the ,kiltorcan beds of ,cork are the equivalents of the upper division4 ,rocks of ,old ,red type1 both lower and upper1 are found in ,spitzbergen and in ,bear ,island4 ,in ,new ,brunswick and ,nova ,scotia the ,old ,red facies is extensively developed4 ,the ,gasp sandstones have been estimated at #gjcf ft4 thick4 ,in parts of western ,russia ,old ,red ,sandstone fossils are found in beds intercalated with others containing marine fauna of the ,devonian facies4 ,devonian and ,old ,red ,sandstone ,faunas4 ,the two types of sediment formed during this period--the marine ,devonian and the lagoonal ,old ,red ,sandstone--representing as they do two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical condition1 are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas4 ,doubtless at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off no less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have records2 but this period is the earliest in which these variations of environment are made obvious4 ,in some respects the faunal break between the older ,silurian below and the younger ,carboniferous above is not strongly marked2 and in certain areas a very close relationship can be shown to exist between the older ,devonian and the former1 and the younger ,devonian and the latter4 ,nevertheless1 taken as a whole1 the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality4 ,the two most prominent features of the ,devonian seas are presented by corals and brachiopods4 ,the corals were abundant individually and varied in form2 and they are so distinctive of the period that no ,devonian species has yet been found either in the ,silurian or in the ,carboniferous4 ,they built reefs1 as in the present day1 and contributed to the formation of limestone masses in ,devonshire1 on the continent of ,europe and in ,north ,america4 ,rugose and tabulate forms prevailed2 among the former the cyathophyllids 7,cyathophyllum7 were important1 ,phillipsastraea1 ,zaphrentis1 ,acervularia and the curious ,calceola 7sandalina71 an operculate genus which has given palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis1 for it has been regarded as a pelecypod 7hippurite7 and a brachiopod4 ,the tabulate corals were represented by ,favosites1 ,michelinia1 ,pleurodictyum1 ,fistulipora1 ,pachypora and others4 ,heliolites and ,plasmopora represent the alcyonarians4 ,stromatoporoids were important reef builders4 ,a well-known fossil is ,receptaculites1 a genus to which it has been difficult to assign a definite place2 it has been thought to be a sponge1 it may be a calcareous alga1 or a curious representative of the foraminifera4 ,in the ,devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their development3 they compose three-quarters of the known fauna1 and more than #aajj species have been described4 ,changes were taking place from the beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera2 several ,silurian forms dropped out1 and new types were coming in4 ,a noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the genus ,spirifer1 other spiriferids were ,ambocoelia1 ,uncites1 ,verneuilia4 ,orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance1 while the productids 7,productella1 ,chonetes1 ,strophalosia7 were increasing4 ,the strophomenids were still flourishing1 represented by the genera ,leptaena1 ,stropheodonta1 ,kayserella1 and others4 ,the ancient ,lingula1 along with ,crania and ,orbiculoidea1 occur among the inarticulate forms4 ,another long-lived and wide-ranging species is ,atrypa reticularis4 ,the athyrids were very numerous 7,athyris1 ,retzia1 ,merista1 ,meristella1 ,kayserina1 c472 and the rhynchonellids were well represented by ,pugnax1 ,hypothyris1 and several other genera4 ,the important group of terebratulids appears in this system2 amongst them ,stringocephalus is an eminently characteristic ,devonian brachiopod2 others are ,dielasma1 ,cryptonella1 ,rensselaeria and ,oriskania4 ,the pelecypod molluscs were represented by ,pterinea1 abundant in the lower members along with other large-winged forms1 and by ,cucullella1 ,buchiola and ,curtonotus in the upper members of the system4 ,other genera are ,actinodesma1 ,cardiola1 ,nucula1 ,megalodon1 ,aviculopecten1 c4 ,gasteropods were becoming more important1 but the simple capulid forms prevailed3 ,platyceras 7,capulus71 ,straparollus1 ,pleurotomaria1 ,murchisonia1 ,macrocheilina1 ,euomphalus4 ,among the pteropods1 ,tentaculites was very abundant in some quarters2 others were ,conularia and ,styliolina4 ,in the ,devonian period the cephalopods began to make a distinct advance in numbers1 and in development4 ,the goniatites appear with the genera ,anarcestes1 ,agoniatites1 ,tornoceras1 ,bactrites and others2 and in the upper strata the clymenoids1 forerunners of the later ammonoids1 began to take definite shape4 ,while several new nautiloids 7,homaloceras1 ,ryticeras1 c47 made their appearance several of the older genera still lived on 7,orthoceras1 ,poterioceras1 ,actinoceras74 ,crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the ,devonian sea1 though they were relatively scarce in others2 they include the genera ,melocrinus1 ,haplocrinus1 ,cupressocrinus1 ,calceocrinus and ,eleuthrocrinus4 ,the cystideans were falling off 7,proteocystis1 ,tiaracrinus71 but blastoids were in the ascendant 7,nucleocrinus1 ,codaster1 c474 ,both brittle-stars1 ,ophiura1 ,palaeophiura1 ,eugaster1 and true starfishes1 ,palaeaster1 ,aspidosoma1 were present1 as well as urchins 7,lepidocentrus74 ,when we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct assemblages1 one purely marine1 trilobitic1 the other mainly lacustrine or lagoonal with a eurypteridian facies4 ,the trilobites had already begun to decline in importance1 and as happens not infrequently with degenerating races of beasts and men1 they began to develop strange eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their genera4 ,a number of ,silurian genera lived on into the ,devonian period1 and some gradually developed into new and distinctive forms2 such were ,protus1 ,harpes1 ,cheirurus1 ,bronteus and others4 ,distinct species of ,phacops mark the ,lower and ,upper ,devonian respectively1 while the genus ,dalmania 7,odontochile7 was represented by species with an almost world-wide range4 ,the ,ostracod ,entomis 7,cypridina7 was extremely abundant in places--,cypridinen-,schiefer--while the true ,cypridina was also present along with ,beyrichia1 ,leperditia1 c4 ,the ,phyllocarids1 ,echinocaris1 ,eleuthrocaris1 ,tropidocaris1 are common in the ,united ,states4 ,it is in the ,old ,red ,sandstone that the eurypterids are best preserved2 foremost among these was ,pterygotus2 ,p4 anglicus has been found in ,scotland with a length of nearly #f ft42 ,eurypterus1 ,slimonia1 ,stylonurus were other genera4 ,insects appear well developed1 including both orthopterous and neuropterous forms1 in the ,new ,brunswick rocks4 ,mr ,scudder believed he had obtained a specimen of ,orthoptera in which a stridulating organ was present4 ,a species of ,ephemera1 allied to the modern may-fly1 had a spread of wing extending to #e in4 ,in the ,scottish ,old ,red ,sandstone myriapods1 ,kampecaris and ,archidesmus1 have been described2 they are somewhat simpler than more recent forms1 each segment being separate1 and supplied with only one pair of walking legs4 ,spiders and scorpions also lived upon the land4 ,the great number of fish remains in the ,devonian and ,old ,red strata1 coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed by some of the forms1 has caused the period to be described as the age of fishes4 ,as in the case of the crustaceans1 referred to above1 we find one assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater or brackish conditions of the ,old ,red1 and another characteristic of the marine ,devonian2 on the whole the former is the richer in variety1 but there seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of living in either environment1 whatever may have been the real condition of the ,old ,red waters4 ,foremost in interest are the curious ostracoderms1 a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the characteristics of fishes1 but more probably belonging to a distinct class of organisms1 which appears to link the vertebrates with the arthropods4 ,they had come into existence late in ,silurian times2 but it is in the ,old ,red strata that their remains are most fully preserved4 ,they were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of ,scotland1 ,england1 ,wales1 ,russia and ,canada1 and are represented by such forms as ,pteraspis1 ,cephalaspis1 ,cyathaspis1 ,tremataspis1 ,bothriolepis and ,pterichthys4 ,in the lower members of the ,old ,red series ,dipterus1 and in the upper members ,phaneropleuron1 represented the dipnoid lung-fishes2 and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious forms still survive in the ,african ,protopterus1 the ,australian ,ceratodus and the ,south ,american ,lepidosiren1--all freshwater fishes4 ,distantly related to the lung-fishes were the singular arthrodirans1 a group possessing the unusual faculty of moving the head in a vertical plane4 ,these comprise the wide-ranging ,coccosteus with ,homosteus and ,dinichthys1 the largest fish of the period4 ,the latter probably reached #bj ft4 in length2 it was armed with exceedingly powerful jaws provided with turtle-like beaks4 ,sharks were fairly prominent denizens of the sea2 some were armed with cutting teeth1 others with crushing dental plates2 and although they were on the whole marine fishes1 they were evidently able to live in fresher waters1 like some of their modern representatives1 for their remains1 mostly teeth and large dermal spines1 are found both in the ,devonian and ,old ,red rocks4 ,mesacanthus1 ,diplacanthus1 ,climatius1 ,cheiracanthus are characteristic genera4 ,the crossopterygians1 ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of the fins1 were represented by ,holoptychius and ,glyptopomus in the ,upper ,old ,red1 and by such genera as ,diplopterus1 ,osteolepis1 ,gyroptychius in the lower division4 ,the ,polypterus of the ,nile and ,calamoichthys of ,south ,africa are the modern exemplars of this group4 ,cheirolepis1 found in the ,old ,red of ,scotland and ,canada1 is the only ,devonian representative of the actinopterygian fishes4 ,the cyclostome fishes have1 so far1 been discovered only in ,scotland1 in the tiny ,palaeospondylus4 ,amphibian remains have been found in the ,devonian of ,belgium2 and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the same class 7,thinopus antiquus7 have been described by ,professor ,marsh from the ,chemung formation of ,pennsylvania4 ,plant ,life4--,in the lacustrine deposits of the ,old ,red ,sandstone we find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants4 ,in some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they form thin seams of veritable coal4 ,these plants evidently flourished around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains were buried along with the other forms of life4 ,lycopods and ferns were the predominant types2 and it is important to notice that both groups were already highly developed4 ,the ferns include the genera ,sphenopteris1 ,megalopteris1 ,archaeopteris1 ,neuropteris4 ,among the ,lycopods are ,lycopodites1 ,psilophyton1 ,lepidodendron4 ,modern horsetails are represented by ,calamocladus1 ,asterocalamites1 ,annularia4 ,of great interest are the genera ,cordaites1 ,araucarioxylon1 c41 which were synthetic types1 uniting in some degree the ,coniferae and the ,cycadofilicales4 ,with the exception of obscure markings1 aquatic plants are not so well represented as might have been expected2 ,parka1 a common fossil1 has been regarded as a water plant with a creeping stem and two kinds of sporangia in sessile sporocarps4 ,physical ,conditions1 c4--,perhaps the most striking fact that is brought out by a study of the ,devonian rocks and their fossils is the gradual transgression of the sea over the land1 which took place quietly in every quarter of the globe shortly after the beginning of the period4 ,while in most places the ,lower ,devonian sediments succeed the ,silurian formations in a perfectly conformable manner1 the ,middle and ,upper divisions1 on account of this encroachment of the sea1 rest unconformably upon the older rocks1 the ,lower division being unrepresented4 ,this is true over the greater part of ,south ,america1 so far as our limited knowledge goes1 in much of the western side of ,north ,america1 in western ,russia1 in ,thuringia and other parts of central ,europe4 ,of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the coast lines in ,devonian times we can state nothing with precision4 ,the known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas2 no abyssal formations have been recognized4 ,e4 ,kayser has pointed out the probability of a ,eurasian sea province extending through ,europe towards the east1 across north and central ,asia towards ,manitoba in ,canada1 and an ,american sea province embracing the ,united ,states1 ,south ,america and ,south ,africa4 ,at the same time there existed a great ,north ,atlantic land area caused partly by the uplift of the ,caledonian range just before the beginning of the period1 which stretched across north ,europe to eastern ,canada2 on the fringe of this land the ,old ,red ,sandstone was formed4 ,in the ,european area ,c4 ,barrois has indicated the existence of three zones of deposition3 7#a7 ,a northern1 ,old ,red1 region1 including ,great ,britain1 ,scandinavia1 ,european ,russia and ,spitzbergen2 here the land was close at hand2 great brackish lagoons prevailed1 which communicated more or less directly with the open sea4 ,in ,european ,russia1 during its general advance1 the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas1 only to be driven off again1 during pauses in the relative subsidence of the land1 when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more established the lagoonal conditions4 ,these alternating phases were frequently repeated4 7#b7 ,a middle region1 covering ,devonshire and ,cornwall1 the ,ardennes1 the northern part of the lower ,rhenish mountains1 and the upper ,harz to the ,polish ,mittelgebirge2 here we find evidence of a shallow sea1 clastic deposits and a sublittoral fauna4 7#c7 ,a southern region reaching from ,brittany to the south of the ,rhenish mountains1 lower ,harz1 ,thuringia and ,bohemia2 here was a deeper sea with a more pelagic fauna4 ,it must be borne in mind that the above-mentioned regions are intended to refer to the time when the extension of the ,devonian sea was near its maximum4 ,in the case of ,north ,america it has been shown that in early and middle ,devonian time more or less distinct faunas invaded the continent from five different centres1 viz4 the ,helderberg1 the ,oriskany1 the ,onondaga1 the southern ,hamilton and the north-western ,hamilton2 these reached the interior approximately in the order given4 ,towards the close of the period1 when the various local faunas had mingled one with another and a more generalized life assemblage had been evolved1 we find many forms with a very wide range1 indicating great uniformity of conditions4 ,thus we find identical species of brachiopods inhabiting the ,devonian seas of ,england1 ,france1 ,belgium1 ,germany1 ,russia1 southern ,asia and ,china2 such are1 ,hypothyris 7,rhynchonella7 cuboides1 ,spirifer disjunctus and others4 ,the fauna of the ,calceola shales can be traced from western ,europe to ,armenia and ,siberia2 the ,stringocephalus limestones are represented in ,belgium1 ,england1 the ,urals and ,canada2 and the 7,gephyroceras7 intumescens shales are found in western ,europe and in ,manitoba4 ,the ,devonian period was one of comparative quietude2 no violent crustal movements seem to have taken place1 and while some changes of level occurred towards its close in ,great ,britain1 ,bohemia and ,russia1 generally the passage from ,devonian to ,carboniferous conditions was quite gradual4 ,in later periods these rocks have suffered considerable movement and metamorphism1 as in the ,harz1 ,devonshire and ,cornwall1 and in the ,belgian coalfields1 where they have frequently been thrust over the younger ,carboniferous rocks4 ,volcanic activity was fairly widespread1 particularly during the middle portion of the period4 ,in the ,old ,red rocks of ,scotland there is a great thickness 7#fjjj ft47 of igneous rocks1 including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates and tuffs4 ,in ,devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle division4 ,in west central ,europe volcanic rocks are found at many horizons1 the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs1 schalstein4 ,felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the ,middle ,devonian of ,australia4 ,contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the ,american ,devonian1 but in ,nova ,scotia and ,new ,brunswick there appear to be some4 ,there is little evidence as to the climate of this period1 but it is interesting to observe that local glacial conditions may have existed in places1 as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated boulders in the upper ,old ,red of ,scotland4 ,on the other hand1 the prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm temperatures in the ,middle ,devonian seas4 ,the economic products of ,devonian rocks are of some importance3 in many of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin1 lead1 copper1 iron are exploited1 as in ,cornwall1 ,devon1 the ,harz2 in ,new ,zealand1 gold veins occur4 ,anthracite of ,devonian age is found in ,china and a little coal in ,germany1 while the ,upper ,devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of western ,pennsylvania and south-western ,new ,york4 ,in ,ontario the middle division is oil-bearing4 ,black phosphates are worked in central ,tennessee1 and in ,england the marls of the ,old ,red are employed for brick-making4 ,,references4--,the literature of the ,devonian rocks and fossils is very extensive2 important papers have been contributed by the following geologists3 ,j4 ,barrande1 ,c4 ,barrois1 ,f4 ,bclard1 ,e4 ,w4 ,benecke1 ,l4 ,beushausen1 ,a4 ,champernowne1 ,j4 ,m4 ,clarke1 ,sir ,j4 ,w4 ,dawson1 ,a4 ,denckmann1 ,j4 ,s4 ,diller1 ,e4 ,dupont1 ,f4 ,frech1 ,j4 ,fournet1 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie1 ,g4 ,grich1 ,r4 ,hoernes1 ,e4 ,kayser1 ,c4 and ,m4 ,koch1 ,a4 von ,koenen1 ,hugh ,miller1 ,d4 ,p4 ,oehlert1 ,c4 ,s4 ,prosser1 ,p4 de ,rouville1 ,c4 ,schuchert1 ,t4 ,tschernyschew1 ,e4 ,o4 ,ulrich1 ,w4 ,a4 ,e4 ,ussher1 ,p4 ,n4 ,wenjukoff1 ,g4 ,f4 ,whidborne1 ,j4 ,f4 ,whiteaves and ,h4 ,s4 ,williams4 ,sedgwick and ,murchison's original description appeared in the ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 7#bnd series1 vol4 v41 #ahci74 ,good general accounts will be found in ,sir ,a4 ,geikie's ,text-,book of ,geology 7vol4 ii41 #dth ed41 #aijc71 in ,e4 ,kayser's ,lehrbuch der ,geologie 7vol4 ii41 #bnd ed41 #aijb71 and1 for ,north ,america1 in ,chamberlin and ,salisbury's ,geology 7vol4 ii41 #aijf74 ,see the ,index to the ,geological ,magazine 7#ahfd-aijc71 and in subsequent annual volumes2 ,geological ,literature added to the ,geological ,society's ,library 7,london71 annually since #ahic2 and the ,neues ,jahrbuch fr ,min41 ,geologie und ,palontologie 7,stuttgart1 #b annual volumes74 ,the ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey publishes at intervals a ,bibliography and ,index of ,north ,american ,geology1 c41 and this 7e4g4 ,bulletin #cja1--the ,bibliog4 and ,index for #aija-aije7 contains numerous references for the ,devonian system in ,north ,america4 7,j4 ,a4 ,h47 ,,devonport1 a municipal1 county and parliamentary borough of ,devonshire1 ,england1 contiguous to ,east ,stonehouse and ,plymouth1 the seat of one of the royal dockyards1 and an important naval and military station4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #gj1dcg4 ,it is situated immediately above the ,n4,w4 angle of ,plymouth ,sound1 occupying a triangular peninsula formed by ,stonehouse ,pool on the ,e4 and the ,hamoaze on the ,w4 ,it is served by the ,great ,western and the ,london ,south ,western railways4 ,the town proper was formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch excavated out of the limestone1 but these are in great part demolished4 ,adjoining ,devonport are ,east ,stonehouse 7an urban district1 pop4 #ae1aaa71 ,stoke and ,morice ,town1 the two last being suburbs of ,devonport4 ,the town hall1 erected in #ahba-ahbb partly after the design of the ,parthenon1 is distinguished by a ,doric portico2 while near it are the public library1 in ,egyptian style1 and a conspicuous ,doric column built of ,devonshire granite4 ,this monument1 which is #ajj ft4 high1 was raised in commemoration of the naming of the town in #ahbd4 ,other institutions are the ,naval ,engineering ,college1 ,keyham 7#ahhj72 the municipal technical schools1 opened in #ahii1 the majority of the students being connected with the dockyard2 the naval barracks1 ,keyham 7#ahhe72 the ,raglan barracks and the naval and military hospitals4 ,on ,mount ,wise1 which was formerly defended by a battery 7now a naval signalling station71 stands the military residence1 or ,government ,house1 occupied by the commander of the ,plymouth ,coast ,defences2 and near at hand is the principal naval residence1 the naval commander-in-chief's house4 ,the prospect from ,mount ,wise over the ,hamoaze to ,mount ,edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in the south of ,england4 ,the most noteworthy feature of ,devonport1 however1 is the royal dockyard1 originally established by ,william ,,iii4 in #afhi and until #ahbd known as ,plymouth ,dock4 ,it is situated within the old town boundary and contains four docks4 ,to this in #ahec was added ,keyham steamyard1 situated higher up the ,hamoaze beyond the old boundary and connected with the ,devonport yard by a tunnel4 ,in #ahif further extensions were begun at the ,keyham yard1 which became known as ,devonport ,north yard4 ,before these were begun the yard comprised two basins1 the northern one being #i acres and the southern #g acres in area1 and three docks1 having floor-lengths of #bie1 #cdg and #dac ft41 together with iron and brass foundries1 machinery shops1 engineer students' shop1 c4 ,the new extensions1 opened by the ,prince of ,wales on the #bast of ,february #aijg1 cover a total area of #aah acres lying to the northward in front of the ,naval ,barracks1 and involved the reclamation of #gg acres of mudflats lying below high-water mark4 ,the scheme presented three leading features--a tidal basin1 a group of three graving docks with entrance lock1 and a large enclosed basin with a coaling dept at the north end4 ,the tidal basin1 close to the old ,keyham north basin1 is #gdj ft4 long with a mean width of #eij ft41 and has an area of #aj acres1 the depth being #cb ft4 at low water of spring tides4 ,it affords access to two graving docks1 one with a floor-length of #gde ft4 and #bj ft4 of water over the sill1 and the other with a length of #gda ft4 and #cb ft4 of water over the sill4 ,each of these can be subdivided by means of an intermediate caisson1 and 7when unoccupied7 may serve as an entrance to the closed basin4 ,the lock which leads from the tidal to the closed basin is #gcj ft4 long1 and if necessary can be used as a dock4 ,the closed basin1 out of which opens a third graving dock1 #ffj ft4 long1 measures #aeej ft4 by #ajjj ft4 and has an area of #ce acres1 with a depth of #cb ft4 at low-water springs2 it has a direct entrance from the ,hamoaze1 closed by a caisson4 ,the foundations of the walls are carried down to the rock1 which in some places lies covered with mud #ajj ft4 or more below coping level4 ,compressed air is used to work the sliding caissons which close the entrances of the docks and closed basin4 ,a ropery at ,devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy4 ,by the ,reform ,act of #ahcb ,devonport was erected into a parliamentary borough including ,east ,stonehouse and returning two members4 ,the ground on which it stands is for the most part the property of the ,st ,aubyn family 7,barons ,st ,levan71 whose steward holds a court leet and a court baron annually4 ,the town is governed by a mayor1 sixteen aldermen and forty-eight councillors4 ,area1 #cjdd acres4 ,,devonport1 ,,east and ,,west1 a town of ,devon county1 ,tasmania1 situated on both sides of the mouth of the river ,mersey1 #aic m4 by rail ,n4,w4 of ,hobart4 ,pop4 7#aija71 ,east ,devonport1 #fgc1 ,west ,devonport1 #baja4 ,there is regular communication from this port to ,melbourne and ,sydney1 and it ranks as the third port in ,tasmania4 ,a celebrated regatta is held on the ,mersey annually on ,new ,year's day4 ,,devonshire1 ,,earls ,,and ,,dukes ,,of4 ,the ,devonshire title1 now in the ,cavendish family1 had previously been held by ,charles ,blount 7#aefc-afjf71 #hth ,lord ,mountjoy1 great-grandson of the #dth ,lord ,mountjoy 7d4 #aecd71 the pupil of ,erasmus2 he was created earl of ,devonshire in #afjc for his services in ,ireland1 where he became famous in subduing the rebellion between #afjj and #afjc2 but the title became extinct at his death4 ,in the ,cavendish line the #ast earl of ,devonshire was ,william 7d4 #afbf71 second son of ,sir ,william ,cavendish 7q4v471 and of ,elizabeth ,hardwick1 who afterwards married the #fth earl of ,shrewsbury4 ,he was created earl of ,devonshire in #afah by ,james ,i41 and was succeeded by ,william1 #bnd earl 7#aeia-afbh71 and the latter by his son ,william 7#afag-afhd71 a prominent royalist1 and one of the original members of the ,royal ,society1 who married a daughter of the #bnd earl of ,salisbury4 ,,william ,,cavendish1 #ast duke of ,devonshire 7#afdj-agjg71 ,english statesman1 eldest son of the earl of ,devonshire last mentioned1 was born on the #beth of ,january #afdj4 ,after completing his education he made the tour of ,europe according to the custom of young men of his rank1 being accompanied on his travels by ,dr ,killigrew4 ,on his return he obtained1 in #affa1 a seat in parliament for ,derbyshire1 and soon became conspicuous as one of the most determined and daring opponents of the general policy of the court4 ,in #afgh he was one of the committee appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord treasurer ,danby4 ,in #afgi he was re-elected for ,derby1 and made a privy councillor by ,charles ,,ii42 but he soon withdrew from the board with his friend ,lord ,russell1 when he found that the ,roman ,catholic interest uniformly prevailed4 ,he carried up to the ,house of ,lords the articles of impeachment against ,lord ,chief-,justice ,scroggs1 for his arbitrary and illegal proceedings in the court of ,king's bench2 and when the king declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of ,york1 afterwards ,james ,,ii41 he moved in the ,house of ,commons that a bill might be brought in for the association of all his majesty's ,protestant subjects4 ,he also openly denounced the king's counsellors1 and voted for an address to remove them4 ,he appeared in defence of ,lord ,russell at his trial1 at a time when it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice than a witness4 ,after the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof of his attachment by offering to exchange clothes with ,lord ,russell in the prison1 remain in his place1 and so allow him to effect his escape4 ,in ,november #afhd he succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father4 ,he opposed arbitrary government under ,james ,,ii4 with the same consistency and high spirit as during the previous reign4 ,he was withdrawn from public life for a time1 however1 in consequence of a hasty and imprudent act of which his enemies knew how to avail themselves4 ,fancying that he had received an insulting look in the presence chamber from ,colonel ,colepepper1 a swaggerer whose attendance at court the king encouraged1 he immediately avenged the affront by challenging the colonel1 and1 on the challenge being refused1 striking him with his cane4 ,this offence was punished by a fine of #cj1jjj1 which was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely fortune4 ,not being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's bench1 from which he was released only on signing a bond for the whole amount4 ,this was afterwards cancelled by ,king ,william4 ,after his discharge the earl went for a time to ,chatsworth1 where he occupied himself with the erection of a new mansion1 designed by ,william ,talman1 with decorations by ,verrio1 ,thornhill and ,grinling ,gibbons4 ,the ,revolution again brought him into prominence4 ,he was one of the seven who signed the original paper inviting the prince of ,orange from ,holland1 and was the first nobleman who appeared in arms to receive him at his landing4 ,he received the order of the ,garter on the occasion of the coronation1 and was made lord high steward of the new court4 ,in #afij he accompanied ,king ,william on his visit to ,holland4 ,he was created marquis of ,hartington and duke of ,devonshire in #afid by ,william and ,mary1 on the same day on which the head of the house of ,russell was created duke of ,bedford4 ,thus1 to quote ,macaulay1 the two great houses of ,russell and ,cavendish1 which had long been closely connected by friendship and by marriage1 by common opinions1 common sufferings and common triumphs1 received on the same day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to confer4 ,his last public service was assisting to conclude the union with ,scotland1 for negotiating which he and his eldest son1 the marquis of ,hartington1 had been appointed among the commissioners by ,queen ,anne4 ,he died on the #ahth of ,august #agjg1 and ordered the following inscription to be put on his monument3- ,willielmus ,dux ,devon1 ,bonorum ,principum ,fidelis ,subditus1 ,inimicus et ,invisus ,tyrannis4 ,he had married in #affa the daughter of ,james1 duke of ,ormonde1 and he was succeeded by his eldest son ,william as #bnd duke1 and by the latter's son ,william as #crd duke 7viceroy of ,ireland1 #agcg-agdd74 ,the latter's son ,william 7#agbj-agfd7 succeeded in #agee as #dth duke2 he married the daughter and heiress of ,richard ,boyle1 earl of ,burlington and ,cork1 who brought ,lismore ,castle and the ,irish estates into the family2 and from ,november #agef to ,may #ageg he was prime minister1 mainly in order that ,pitt1 who would not then serve under the duke of ,newcastle1 should be in power4 ,his son ,william 7#agdh-ahaa71 #eth duke1 is memorable as the husband of the beautiful ,georgiana ,spencer1 duchess of ,devonshire 7#ageg-ahjf71 and of the intellectual ,elizabeth ,foster1 duchess of ,devonshire 7#ageh-ahbd71 both of whom ,gainsborough painted4 ,his son ,william1 #fth duke 7#agij-aheh71 who died unmarried1 was sent on a special mission to the coronation of the tsar ,nicholas at ,moscow in #ahbf1 and became famous for his expenditure on that occasion2 and it was he who employed ,sir ,joseph ,paxton at ,chatsworth4 ,the title passed in #aheh to his cousin ,william 7#ahjh-ahia71 #bnd earl of ,burlington1 as #gth duke1 a man who1 without playing a prominent part in public affairs1 exercised great influence1 not only by his position but by his distinguished abilities4 ,at ,cambridge in #ahbi he was second wrangler1 first ,smith's prizeman1 and eighth classic1 and subsequently he became chancellor of the university4 ,,spencer ,,compton ,,cavendish1 #hth duke 7#ahcc-aijh71 born on the #bcrd of ,july #ahcc1 was the son of the #gth duke 7then earl of ,burlington7 and his wife ,lady ,blanche ,howard 7sister of the earl of ,carlisle74 ,in #ahed ,lord ,cavendish1 as he then was1 took his degree at ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge2 in #ahef he was attached to the special mission to ,russia for the new tsar's accession2 and in #aheg he was returned to parliament as ,liberal member for ,north ,lancashire4 ,at the opening of the new parliament of #ahei the marquis of ,hartington 7as he had now become7 moved the amendment to the address which overthrew the government of ,lord ,derby4 ,in #ahfc he became first a lord of the admiralty1 and then under-secretary for war1 and on the formation of the ,russell-,gladstone administration at the death of ,lord ,palmerston he entered it as war secretary4 ,he retired with his colleagues in ,july #ahff2 but upon ,mr ,gladstone's return to power in #ahfh he became postmaster-general1 an office which he exchanged in #ahga for that of secretary for ,ireland4 ,when ,mr ,gladstone1 after his defeat and resignation in #ahgd1 temporarily withdrew from the leadership of the ,liberal party in ,january #ahge1 ,lord ,hartington was chosen ,liberal leader in the ,house of ,commons1 ,lord ,granville being leader in the ,lords4 ,mr ,w4 ,e4 ,forster1 who had taken a much more prominent part in public life1 was the only other possible nominee1 but he declined to stand4 ,lord ,hartington's rank no doubt told in his favour1 and ,mr ,forster's education bill had offended the ,nonconformist members1 who would probably have withheld their support4 ,lord ,hartington's prudent management in difficult circumstances laid his followers under great obligations1 since not only was the opposite party in the ascendant1 but his own former chief was indulging in the freedom of independence4 ,after the complete defeat of the ,conservatives in the general election of #ahhj1 a large proportion of the party would have rejoiced if ,lord ,hartington could have taken the ,premiership instead of ,mr ,gladstone1 and the queen1 in strict conformity with constitutional usage 7though ,gladstone himself thought ,lord ,granville should have had the preference71 sent for him as leader of the ,opposition4 ,mr ,gladstone1 however1 was clearly master of the situation3 no cabinet could be formed without him1 nor could he reasonably be expected to accept a subordinate post4 ,lord ,hartington1 therefore1 gracefully abdicated the leadership1 and became secretary of state for ,india1 from which office1 in ,december #ahhb1 he passed to the war office4 ,his administration was memorable for the expeditions of ,general ,gordon and ,lord ,wolseley to ,khartum1 and a considerable number of the ,conservative party long held him chiefly responsible for the betrayal of ,gordon4 ,his lethargic manner1 apart from his position as war minister1 helped to associate him in their minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government acted too late2 but ,gladstone and ,lord ,granville were no less responsible than he4 ,in ,june #ahhe he resigned along with his colleagues1 and in ,december was elected for the ,rossendale ,division of ,lancashire1 created by the new reform bill4 ,immediately afterwards the great political opportunity of ,lord ,hartington's life came to him in ,mr ,gladstone's conversion to home rule for ,ireland4 ,lord ,hartington's refusal to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the chief of the new ,liberal ,unionist party1 composed of a large and influential section of the old ,liberals4 ,in this capacity he moved the first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera house1 and also1 in the ,house of ,commons1 moved the rejection of ,mr ,gladstone's ,bill on the second reading4 ,during the memorable electoral contest which followed1 no election excited more interest than ,lord ,hartington's for the ,rossendale division1 where he was returned by a majority of nearly #aejj votes4 ,in the new parliament he held a position much resembling that which ,sir ,robert ,peel had occupied after his fall from power1 the leader of a small1 compact party1 the standing and ability of whose members were out of all proportion to their numbers1 generally esteemed and trusted beyond any other man in the country1 yet in his own opinion forbidden to think of office4 ,lord ,salisbury's offers to serve under him as prime minister 7both after the general election1 and again when ,lord ,randolph ,churchill resigned7 were declined1 and ,lord ,hartington continued to discharge the delicate duties of the leader of a middle party with no less judgment than he had shown when leading the ,liberals during the interregnum of #ahge-ahhj4 ,it was not until #ahie1 when the differences between ,conservatives and ,liberal ,unionists had become almost obliterated by changed circumstances1 and the habit of acting together1 that the duke of ,devonshire1 as he had become by the death of his father in #ahia1 consented to enter ,lord ,salisbury's third ministry as president of the council4 ,the duke thus was the nominal representative of education in the cabinet at a time when educational questions were rapidly becoming of great importance2 and his own technical knowledge of this difficult and intricate question being admittedly superficial1 a good deal of criticism from time to time resulted4 ,he had however by this time an established position in public life1 and a reputation for weight of character1 which procured for him universal respect and confidence1 and exempted him from bitter attack1 even from his most determined political opponents4 ,wealth and rank combined with character to place him in a measure above party2 and his succession to his father as chancellor of the university of ,cambridge in #ahib indicated his eminence in the life of the country4 ,in the same year he had married the widow of the #gth duke of ,manchester4 ,he continued to hold the office of lord president of the council till the #crd of ,october #aijc1 when he resigned on account of differences with ,mr ,,balfour 7q4v47 over the latter's attitude towards free trade4 ,as ,mr ,chamberlain had retired from the cabinet1 and the duke had not thought it necessary to join ,lord ,george ,hamilton and ,mr ,ritchie in resigning a fortnight earlier1 the defection was unanticipated and was sharply criticized by ,mr ,balfour1 who1 in the rearrangement of his ministry1 had only just appointed the duke's nephew and heir1 ,mr ,victor ,cavendish1 to be secretary to the treasury4 ,but the duke had come to the conclusion that while he himself was substantially a free-trader1#a ,mr ,balfour did not mean the same thing by the term4 ,he necessarily became the leader of the ,free ,trade ,unionists who were neither ,balfourites nor ,chamberlainites1 and his weight was thrown into the scale against any association of ,unionism with the constructive policy of tariff reform1 which he identified with sheer ,protection4 ,a struggle at once began within the ,liberal ,unionist organization between those who followed the duke and those who followed ,mr ,,chamberlain 7q4v472 but the latter were in the majority and a reorganization in the ,liberal ,unionist ,association took place1 the ,unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a separate body4 ,the duke then became president of the new organizations1 the ,unionist ,free ,food ,league and the ,unionist ,free ,trade ,club4 ,in the subsequent developments the duke played a dignified but somewhat silent part1 and the ,unionist rout in #aijf was not unaffected by his open hostility to any taint of compromise with the tariff reform movement4 ,but in the autumn of #aijg his health gave way1 and grave symptoms of cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and spending the winter abroad4 ,he died1 rather suddenly1 at ,cannes on the #bdth of ,march #aijh4 ,the head of an old and powerful family1 a wealthy territorial magnate1 and an ,englishman with thoroughly national tastes for sport1 his weighty and disinterested character made him a statesman of the first rank in his time1 in spite of the absence of showy or brilliant qualities4 ,he had no self-seeking ambitions1 and on three occasions preferred not to become prime minister4 ,though his speeches were direct and forcible1 he was not an orator1 nor clever2 and he lacked all subtlety of intellect2 but he was conspicuous for solidity of mind and straightforwardness of action1 and for conscientious application as an administrator1 whether in his public or private life4 ,the fact that he once yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly quoted as characteristic2 but he combined a great fund of common sense and knowledge of the average opinion with a patriotic sense of duty towards the state4 ,throughout his career he remained an old-fashioned ,liberal1 or rather ,whig1 of a type which in his later years was becoming gradually more and more rare4 ,there was no issue of his marriage1 and he was succeeded as #ith duke by his nephew ,,victor ,,christian ,,cavendish 7b4 #ahfh71 who had been ,liberal ,unionist member for ,west ,derbyshire since #ahia1 and was treasurer of the household 7#aijj to #aijc7 and financial secretary to the treasury 7#aijc to #aije72 in #ahib he married a daughter of the marquess of ,lansdowne1 by whom he had two sons4 7,h4 ,,ch47 #a ,his own words to ,mr ,balfour at the time were3 ,i believe that our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advantageous to the country1 though ,i do not contend that the principles on which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any departure from it1 for sufficient reasons4 ,,devonshire 7,,devon71 a south-western county of ,england1 bounded ,n4,w4 and ,n4 by the ,bristol ,channel1 ,n4,e4 by ,somerset and ,dorset1 ,s4,e4 and ,s4 by the ,english ,channel1 and ,w4 by ,cornwall4 ,the area1 #bfjd4i sq4 m41 is exceeded only by those of ,yorkshire and ,lincolnshire among the ,english counties4 ,nearly the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly4 ,the county contains the highest land in ,england south of ,derbyshire 7excepting points on the south ,welsh border72 and the scenery1 much varied1 is in most parts striking and picturesque4 ,the heather-clad uplands of ,exmoor1 though chiefly within the borders of ,somerset1 extend into ,north ,devon1 and are still the haunt of red deer1 and of the small hardy ponies called after the district4 ,here1 as on ,dartmoor1 the streams are rich in trout4 ,dartmoor1 the principal physical feature of the county1 is a broad and lofty expanse of moorland which rises in the southern part4 ,its highest point1 #bjci ft41 is found in the north-western portion4 ,its rough wastes contrast finely with the wild but wooded region which immediately surrounds the granite of which it is composed1 and with the rich cultivated country lying beyond4 ,especially noteworthy in this fertile tract are the ,south ,hams1 a fruitful district of apple orchards1 lying between the ,erme and the ,dart2 the rich meadow-land around ,crediton1 in the vale of ,exeter2 and the red rocks near ,sidmouth4 ,two features which lend a characteristic charm to the ,devonshire landscape are the number of picturesque old cottages roofed with thatch2 and the deep lanes1 sunk below the common level of the ground1 bordered by tall hedges1 and overshadowed by an arch of boughs4 ,the north and south coasts of the county differ much in character1 but both have grand cliff and rock scenery1 not surpassed by any in ,england or ,wales1 resembling the ,mediterranean seaboard in its range of colour4 ,as a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers flow seaward are densely wooded1 and the country immediately inland is of great beauty4 ,apart from the ,tamar1 which constitutes the boundary between ,devon and ,cornwall1 and flows into the ,english ,channel1 after forming in its estuary the harbours of ,devonport and ,plymouth1 the principal rivers rise on ,dartmoor4 ,these include the ,teign1 ,dart1 ,plym and ,tavy1 falling into the ,english ,channel1 and the ,taw flowing north towards ,bideford ,bay4 ,the river ,torridge1 also discharging northward1 receives part of its waters from ,dartmoor through the ,okement1 but itself rises in the angle of high land near ,hartland point on the north coast1 and makes a wide sweep southward4 ,the lesser ,dartmoor streams are the ,avon1 the ,erme and the ,vealm1 all running south4 ,the ,exe rises on ,exmoor in ,somersetshire2 but the main part of its course is through ,devonshire 7where it gives name to ,exeter71 and it is joined on its way to the ,english ,channel by the lesser streams of the ,culm1 the ,creedy and the ,clyst4 ,the ,otter1 rising on the ,blackdown ,hills1 also runs south1 and the ,axe1 for part of its course1 divides the counties of ,devon and ,dorset4 ,these eastern streams are comparatively slow2 while the rivers of ,dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid course4 ,geology4--,the greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks in ,devonshire is that covered by the ,culm1 a series of slates1 grits and greywackes1 with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian cherts as at ,codden ,hill2 beds of culm1 an impure variety of coal1 are found at ,bideford and elsewhere4 ,this series of rocks occurs at ,bampton1 ,exeter and ,chudleigh and extends thence to the western boundary4 ,north and south of the ,culm an older series of slates1 grits and limestones appears2 it was considered so characteristic of the county that it was called the ,,devonian ,,system 7q4v471 the marine equivalent of the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,hereford and ,scotland4 ,it lies in the form of a trough with its axis running east and west4 ,in the central hollow the ,culm reposes1 while the northern and southern rims rise to the surface respectively north of the latitude of ,barnstaple and ,south ,molton and south of the latitude of ,tavistock4 ,these ,devonian rocks have been subdivided into upper1 middle and lower divisions1 but the stratigraphy is difficult to follow as the beds have suffered much crumpling2 fine examples of contorted strata may be seen almost anywhere on the north coast1 and in the south1 at ,bolt ,head and ,start ,point they have undergone severe metamorphism4 ,limestones are only poorly developed in the north1 but in the south important masses occur1 in the middle and at the base of the upper subdivisions1 about ,plymouth1 ,torquay1 ,brixham and between ,newton ,abbot and ,totnes4 ,fossil corals abound in these limestones1 which are largely quarried and when polished are known as ,devonshire marbles4 ,on the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set of rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently towards the east4 ,the lower and most westerly situated members of the younger rocks is a series of breccias1 conglomerates1 sandstones and marls which are probably of lower ,bunter age1 but by some geologists have been classed as ,permian4 ,these red rocks are beautifully exposed on the coast by ,dawlish and ,teignmouth1 and they extend inland1 producing a red soil1 past ,exeter and ,tiverton4 ,a long narrow strip of the same formation reaches out westward on the top of the ,culm as far as ,jacobstow4 ,farther east1 the ,bunter pebble beds are represented by the well-known pebble deposit of ,budleigh ,salterton1 whence they are traceable inland towards ,rockbeare4 ,these are succeeded by the ,keuper marls and sandstones1 well exposed at ,sidmouth1 where the upper ,greensand plateau is clearly seen to overlie them4 ,the ,greensand covers all the high ground northward from ,sidmouth as far as the ,blackdown ,hills4 ,at ,beer ,head and ,axmouth the ,chalk is seen1 and at the latter place is a famous landslip on the coast1 caused by the springs which issue from the ,greensand below the ,chalk4 ,the ,lower ,chalk at ,beer has been mined for building stone and was formerly in considerable demand4 ,at the extreme east of the county1 ,rhaetic and ,lias beds make their appearance1 the former with a bone bed bearing the remains of saurians and fish4 ,dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the ,culm and ,devonian strata in post-,carboniferous times and subsequently exposed by denudation4 ,evidences of ,devonian volcanic activity are abundant in the masses of diabase1 dolerite1 c41 at ,bradford and ,trusham1 south of ,exeter1 around ,plymouth and at ,ashprington4 ,perhaps the most interesting is the ,carboniferous volcano of ,brent ,tor near ,tavistock4 ,an ,eocene deposit1 the product of the denudation of the ,dartmoor ,hills1 lies in a small basin at ,bovey ,tracey 7see ,,bovey ,,beds72 it yields beds of lignite and valuable clays4 ,raised beaches occur at ,hope's ,nose and the ,thatcher ,stone near ,torquay and at other points1 and a submerged forest lies in the bay south of the same place4 ,the caves and fissures in the ,devonian limestone at ,kent's ,hole near ,torquay1 ,brixham and ,oreston are famous for the remains of extinct mammals2 bones of the elephant1 rhinoceros1 bear and hyaena have been found as well as flint implements of early man4 ,minerals4--,silver-lead was formerly worked at ,combe ,martin near the north coast1 and elsewhere4 ,tin has been worked on ,dartmoor 7in stream works7 from an unknown period4 ,copper was not much worked before the end of the #ahth century4 ,tin occurs in the granite of ,dartmoor1 and along its borders1 but rather where the ,devonian than where the ,carboniferous rocks border the granite4 ,it is found most plentifully in the district which surrounds ,tavistock1 which1 for tin and other ores1 is in effect the great mining district of the county4 ,here1 about #d m4 from ,tavistock1 are the ,devon ,great ,consols mines1 which from #ahdc to #ahga were among the richest copper mines in the world1 and by far the largest and most profitable in the kingdom4 ,the divided profits during this period amounted to #a1aib1ifj4 ,but the mining interests of ,devonshire are affected by the same causes1 and in the same way1 as those of ,cornwall4 ,the quantity of ore has greatly diminished1 and the cost of raising it from the deep mines prevents competition with foreign markets4 ,in many mines tin underlies the general depth of the copper1 and is worked when the latter has been exhausted4 ,the mineral products of the ,tavistock district are various1 and besides tin and copper1 ores of zinc and iron are largely distributed4 ,great quantities of refined arsenic have been produced at the ,devon ,great ,consols mine1 by elimination from the iron pyrites contained in the various lodes4 ,manganese occurs in the neighbourhood of ,exeter1 in the valley of the ,teign and in ,n4 ,devon2 but the most profitable mines1 which are shallow1 are1 like those of tin and copper1 in the ,tavistock district4 ,the other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles1 building stones1 slates and potters' clay4 ,among building stones1 the granite of ,dartmoor holds the foremost place4 ,it is much quarried near ,princetown1 near ,moreton ,hampstead on the ,n4,e4 of ,dartmoor and elsewhere4 ,the annual export is considerable4 ,hard traps1 which occur in many places1 are also much used1 as are the limestones of ,buckfastleigh and of ,plymouth4 ,the ,roborough stone1 used from an early period in ,devonshire churches1 is found near ,tavistock1 and is a hard1 porphyritic elvan1 taking a fine polish4 ,excellent roofing slates occur in the ,devonian series round the southern part of ,dartmoor4 ,the chief quarries are near ,ashburton and ,plymouth 7,cann quarry74 ,potters' clay is worked at ,king's ,teignton1 whence it is largely exported2 at ,bovey ,tracey2 and at ,watcombe near ,torquay4 ,the ,watcombe clay is of the finest quality4 ,china clay or kaolin is found on the southern side of ,dartmoor1 at ,lee ,moor1 and near ,trowlesworthy4 ,there is a large deposit of umber close to ,ashburton4 ,climate and ,agriculture4--,the climate varies greatly in different parts of the county1 but everywhere it is more humid than that of the eastern or south-eastern parts of ,england4 ,the mean annual temperature somewhat exceeds that of the midlands1 but the average summer heat is rather less than that of the southern counties to the east4 ,the air of the ,dartmoor highlands is sharp and bracing4 ,mists are frequent1 and snow often lies long4 ,on the south coast frost is little known1 and many half hardy plants1 such as hydrangeas1 myrtles1 geraniums and heliotropes1 live through the winter without protection4 ,the climate of ,sidmouth1 ,teignmouth1 ,torquay and other watering places on this coast is very equable1 the mean temperature in ,january being #dc4f at ,plymouth4 ,the north coast1 exposed to the storms and swell of the ,atlantic1 is more bracing2 although there also1 in the more sheltered nooks 7as at ,combe ,martin71 myrtles of great size and age flower freely1 and produce their annual crop of berries4 ,rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county is under cultivation2 the cultivated area falling a little below the average of the ,english counties4 ,there are1 however1 about #afj1jjj acres of hill pasture in addition to the area in permanent pasture1 which is more than one-half that of the cultivated area4 ,the ,devon breed of cattle is well adapted both for fattening and for dairy purposes2 while sheep are kept in great numbers on the hill pastures4 ,devonshire is one of the chief cattle-farming and sheep-farming counties4 ,it is specially famous for two products of the dairy--the clotted cream to which it gives its name1 and junket4 ,of the area under grain crops1 oats occupy about three times the acreage under wheat or barley4 ,the bulk of the acreage under green crops is occupied by turnips1 swedes and mangold4 ,orchards occupy a large acreage1 and consist chiefly of apple-trees1 nearly every farm maintaining one for the manufacture of cider4 ,fisheries4--,though the fisheries of ,devon are less valuable than those of ,cornwall1 large quantities of the pilchard and herrings caught in ,cornish waters are landed at ,plymouth4 ,much of the fishing is carried on within the three-mile limit2 and it may be asserted that trawling is the main feature of the ,devonshire industry1 whereas seining and driving characterize that of ,cornwall4 ,pilchard1 cod1 sprats1 brill1 plaice1 soles1 turbot1 shrimps1 lobsters1 oysters and mussels are met with1 besides herring and mackerel1 which are fairly plentiful4 ,after ,plymouth1 the principal fishing station is at ,brixham1 but there are lesser stations in every bay and estuary4 ,other ,industries4--,the principal industrial works in the county are the various ,government establishments at ,plymouth and ,devonport4 ,among other industries may be noted the lace-works at ,tiverton2 the manufacture of pillow-lace for which ,honiton and its neighbourhood has long been famous2 and the potteries and terra-cotta works of ,bovey ,tracey and ,watcombe4 ,woollen goods and serges are made at ,buckfastleigh and ,ashburton1 and boots and shoes at ,crediton4 ,convict labour is employed in the direction of agriculture1 quarrying1 c41 in the great prison of ,dartmoor4 ,communications4--,the main line of the ,great ,western railway1 entering the county in the east from ,taunton1 runs to ,exeter1 skirts the coast as far as ,teignmouth1 and continues a short distance inland by ,newton ,abbot to ,plymouth1 after which it crosses the estuary of the ,tamar by a great bridge to ,saltash in ,cornwall4 ,branches serve ,torquay and other seaside resorts of the south coast2 and among other branches are those from ,taunton to ,barnstaple and from ,plymouth northward to ,tavistock and ,launceston4 ,the main line of the ,london ,south-,western railway between ,exeter and ,plymouth skirts the north and west of ,dartmoor by ,okehampton and ,tavistock4 ,a branch from ,yeoford serves ,barnstaple1 ,ilfracombe1 ,bideford and ,torrington1 while the ,lynton ,barnstaple and the ,bideford1 ,westward ,ho ,appledore lines serve the districts indicated by their names4 ,the branch line to ,princetown from the ,plymouth-,tavistock line of the ,great ,western company in part follows the line of a very early railway--that constructed to connect ,plymouth with the ,dartmoor prison in #ahai-ahbe1 which was worked with horse cars4 ,the only waterways of any importance are the ,tamar1 which is navigable up to ,gunnislake 7#c m4 ,s4,w4 of ,tavistock71 and the ,exeter ship canal1 noteworthy as one of the oldest in ,england1 for it was originally cut in the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,population and ,administration4--,the area of the ancient county is #a1ffg1aed acres1 with a population in #ahia of #fca1hjh1 and #aija of #ffa1cad4 ,the area of the administrative county is #a1fga1afh acres4 ,the county contains #cc hundreds4 ,the municipal boroughs are ,barnstaple 7pop4 #ad1acg71 ,bideford 7#hged71 ,dartmouth 7#fegi71 ,devonport1 a county borough 7#gj1dcg71 ,exeter1 a city and county borough 7#dg1ahe71 ,torrington1 officially ,great ,torrington 7#cbda71 ,honiton 7#cbga71 ,okehampton 7#befi71 ,plymouth1 a county borough 7#ajg1fcf71 ,south ,molton 7#bhdh71 ,tiverton 7#aj1chb71 ,torquay 7#cc1fbe71 ,totnes 7#djce74 ,the other urban districts are ,ashburton 7#bfbh71 ,bampton 7#afeg71 ,brixham 7#hjib71 ,buckfastleigh 7#bebj71 ,budleigh ,salterton 7#ahhc71 ,crediton 7#cigd71 ,dawlish 7#djjc71 ,east ,stonehouse 7#ae1aaa71 ,exmouth 7#aj1dhe71 ,heavitree 7#gebi71 ,holsworthy 7#acga71 ,ilfracombe 7#heeg71 ,ivybridge 7#aege71 ,kingsbridge 7#cjbe71 ,lynton 7#afda71 ,newton ,abbot 7#ab1eag71 ,northam 7#ecee71 ,ottery ,st ,mary 7#cdie71 ,paignton 7#hche71 ,salcombe 7#agaj71 ,seaton 7#acbe71 ,sidmouth 7#dbja71 ,tavistock 7#dgbh71 ,teignmouth 7#hfcf74 ,the county is in the western circuit1 and assizes are held at ,exeter4 ,it has one court of quarter sessions1 and is divided into twenty-four petty sessional divisions4 ,the boroughs of ,barnstaple1 ,bideford1 ,devonport1 ,exeter1 ,plymouth1 ,south ,molton1 and ,tiverton have separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions1 and those of ,dartmouth1 ,great ,torrington1 ,torquay and ,totnes have commissions of the peace only4 ,there are #dfa civil parishes4 ,devonshire is in the diocese of ,exeter1 with the exception of small parts in those of ,salisbury and ,truro2 and there are #eaf ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the county4 ,the parliamentary divisions are the ,eastern or ,honiton1 ,north-eastern or ,tiverton1 ,northern or ,south ,molton1 ,north-western or ,barnstaple1 ,western or ,tavistock1 ,southern or ,totnes1 ,torquay1 and ,mid or ,ashburton1 each returning one member2 and the county also contains the parliamentary boroughs of ,devonport and ,plymouth1 each returning two members1 and that of ,exeter1 returning one member4 ,history4--,the ,saxon conquest of ,devonshire must have begun some time before the #hth century1 for in #gjj there existed at ,exeter a famous ,saxon school4 ,by this time1 however1 the ,saxons had become ,christians1 and established their supremacy1 not by destructive inroads1 but by a gradual process of colonization1 settling among the native ,welsh and allowing them to hold lands under equal laws4 ,the final incorporation of the district which is now ,devonshire with the kingdom of ,wessex must have taken place about #gff1 but the county1 and even ,exeter1 remained partly ,welsh until the time of thelstan4 ,at the beginning of the #ith century ,wessex was divided into definite pagi1 probably corresponding to the later shires1 and the ,saxon ,chronicle mentions ,devonshire by name in #hbc1 when a battle was fought between the ,welsh in ,cornwall and the people of ,devonshire at ,camelford4 ,during the ,danish invasions of the #ith century aldermen of ,devon are frequently mentioned4 ,in #hea the invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of ,devon1 and in #hgh1 when the ,danes under ,hubba were harrying the coast with a squadron of twenty-three ships1 they were again defeated with great slaughter by the fyrd4 ,the modern hundreds of ,devonshire correspond in position very nearly with those given in the ,domesday ,survey1 though the names have in many cases been changed1 owing generally to alterations in their places of meeting4 ,the hundred of ,bampton formerly included estates west of the ,exe1 now transferred to the hundred of ,witheridge4 ,ten of the modern hundreds have been formed by the union of two or more ,domesday hundreds1 while the ,domesday hundred of ,liston has had the new hundred of ,tavistock severed from it since #aaad4 ,many of the hundreds were separated by tracts of waste and forest land1 of which ,devonshire contained a vast extent1 until in #abjd the inhabitants paid #ejjj marks to have the county disafforested1 with the exception only of ,dartmoor and ,exmoor4 ,devonshire in the #gth century formed part of the vast bishopric of ,dorchester-on-,thames4 ,in #gje it was attached to the newly created diocese of ,sherborne1 and in #iaj ,archbishop ,plegmund constituted ,devonshire a separate diocese1 and placed the see at ,crediton4 ,about #ajcj the dioceses of ,devonshire and ,cornwall were united1 and in #ajdi the see was fixed at ,exeter4 ,the archdeaconries of ,exeter1 ,barnstaple and ,totnes are all mentioned in the #abth century and formerly comprised twenty-four deaneries4 ,the deaneries of ,three ,towns1 ,collumpton and ,ottery have been created since the #afth century1 while those of ,tamerton1 ,dunkeswell1 ,dunsford and ,plymptre have been abolished1 bringing the present number to twenty-three4 ,at the time of the ,norman invasion ,devonshire showed an active hostility to ,harold1 and the easy submission which it rendered to the ,conqueror accounts for the exceptionally large number of ,englishmen who are found retaining lands after the ,conquest4 ,the many vast fiefs held by ,norman barons were known as honours1 chief among them being ,plympton1 ,okehampton1 ,barnstaple1 ,harberton and ,totnes4 ,the honour of ,plympton was bestowed in the #abth century on the ,redvers family1 together with the earldom of ,devon2 in the #acth century it passed to the ,courtenay family1 who had already become possessed of the honour of ,okehampton1 and who in #acce obtained the earldom4 ,the dukedom of ,exeter was bestowed in the #adth century on the ,holland family1 which became extinct in the reign of ,edward ,,iv4 ,the ancestors of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 who was born at ,budleigh1 had long held considerable estates in the county4 ,devonshire had an independent sheriff1 the appointment being at first hereditary1 but afterwards held for one year only4 ,in #acbj complaint was made that all the hundreds of ,devonshire were in the hands of the great lords1 who did not appoint a sufficiency of bailiffs for their proper government4 ,the miners of ,devon had independent courts1 known as stannary courts1 for the regulation of mining affairs1 the four stannary towns being ,tavistock1 ,ashburton1 ,chagford1 and ,plympton4 ,the ancient miners' parliament was held in the open air at ,crockern's ,tor4 ,the castles of ,exeter and ,plympton were held against ,stephen by ,baldwin de ,redvers1 and in the #adth and #aeth centuries the ,french made frequent attacks on the ,devonshire coast1 being repulsed in #adjd by the people of ,dartmouth4 ,in the ,wars of the ,roses the county was much divided1 and frequent skirmishes took place between the earl of ,devon and ,lord ,bonville1 the respective champions of the ,lancastrian and ,yorkist parties4 ,great disturbances in the county followed the ,reformation of the #afth century and in #aedi a priest was compelled to say mass at ,sampford ,courtney4 ,on the outbreak of the ,civil ,war the county as a whole favoured the parliament1 but the prevailing desire was for peace1 and in #afdc a treaty for the cessation of hostilities in ,devonshire and ,cornwall was agreed upon4 ,skirmishes1 however1 continued until the capture of ,dartmouth and ,exeter in #afdf put an end to the struggle4 ,in #afhh the prince of ,orange landed at ,torbay and was entertained for several days at ,ford and at ,exeter4 ,the tin mines of ,devon have been worked from time immemorial1 and in the #adth century mines of tin1 copper1 lead1 gold and silver are mentioned4 ,agriculturally the county was always poor1 and before the disafforestation rendered especially so through the ravages committed by the herds of wild deer4 ,at the time of the ,domesday ,survey the salt industry was important1 and there were ninety-nine mills in the county and thirteen fisheries4 ,from an early period the chief manufacture was that of woollen cloth1 and a statute #d ,ed4 ,,iv4 permitted the manufacture of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of ,devonshire4 ,about #aeje ,anthony ,bonvis1 an ,italian1 introduced an improved method of spinning into the county1 and cider-making is mentioned in the #afth century4 ,in #afhj the lace industry was already flourishing at ,colyton and ,ottery ,st ,mary1 and flax1 hemp and malt were largely produced in the #agth and #ahth centuries4 ,devonshire returned two members to parliament in #abij1 and in #abie ,barnstaple1 ,exeter1 ,plympton1 ,tavistock1 ,torrington and ,totnes were also represented4 ,in #ahca the county with its boroughs returned a total of twenty-six members1 but under the ,reform ,act of #ahcb it returned four members in two divisions1 and with ten boroughs was represented by a total of eighteen members4 ,under the act of #ahfh the county returned six members in three divisions1 and four of the boroughs were disfranchised1 making a total of seventeen members4 ,antiquities4--,in primeval antiquities ,devonshire is not so rich as ,cornwall2 but ,dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest interest1 the most peculiar of which are the long parallel alignments of upright stones1 which1 on a small scale1 resemble those of ,carnac in ,brittany4 ,on ,dartmoor the lines are invariably straight1 and are found in direct connexion with cairns1 and with circles which are probably sepulchral4 ,these stone avenues are very numerous4 ,of the so-called sacred circles the best examples are the ,longstones on ,scorhill ,down1 and the ,grey ,wethers under ,sittaford ,tor4 ,by far the finest cromlech is the ,spinster's ,rock at ,drewsteignton1 a three-pillared cromlech which may well be compared with those of ,cornwall4 ,there are numerous menhirs or single upright stones2 a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of the ,teign1 near the ,scorhill circle2 and rock basins occur on the summit of nearly every tor on ,dartmoor 7the largest are on ,kestor1 and on ,heltor1 above the ,teign74 ,it is1 however1 tolerably evident that these have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite1 and that the dolmen in the ,teign is due to the action of the river4 ,clusters of hut foundations1 circular1 and formed of rude granite blocks1 are frequent2 the best example of such a primitive village is at ,batworthy1 near ,chagford2 the type resembles that of ,east ,cornwall4 ,walled enclosures1 or pounds1 occur in many places2 ,grimspound is the most remarkable4 ,boundary lines1 also called trackways1 run across ,dartmoor in many directions2 and the rude bridges1 formed of great slabs of granite1 deserve notice4 ,all these remains are on ,dartmoor4 ,scattered over the county are numerous large hill castles and camps1--all earthworks1 and all apparently of the ,british period4 ,roman relics have been found from time to time at ,exeter 7,isca ,damnoniorum71 the only large ,roman station in the county4 ,the churches are for the most part of the ,perpendicular period1 dating from the middle of the #adth to the end of the #aeth century4 ,exeter cathedral is of course an exception1 the whole 7except the ,norman towers7 being very beautiful ,decorated work4 ,the special features of ,devonshire churches1 however1 are the richly carved pulpits and chancel screens of wood1 in which this county exceeded every other in ,england1 with the exception of ,norfolk and ,suffolk4 ,the designs are rich and varied1 and the skill displayed often very great4 ,granite crosses are frequent1 the finest and earliest being that of ,coplestone1 near ,crediton4 ,monastic remains are scanty2 the principal are those at ,tor1 ,buckfast1 ,tavistock and ,buckland ,abbeys4 ,among domestic buildings the houses of ,wear ,gilford1 ,bradley and ,dartington of the #aeth century2 ,bradfield and ,holcombe ,rogus 7,elizabethan71 and ,forde 7,jacobean71 deserve notice4 ,the ruined castles of ,okehampton 7,edward ,i471 ,exeter1 with its vast ,british earthworks1 ,berry ,pomeroy 7,henry ,,iii41 with ruins of a large ,tudor mansion71 ,totnes 7,henry ,,iii47 and ,compton 7early #aeth century71 are all interesting and picturesque4 ,,authorities4--,t4 ,westcote1 ,survey of ,devon1 written about #afcj1 and first printed in #ahde2 ,j4 ,prince1 ,worthies of ,devon 7,exeter1 #agja72 ,sir ,w4 ,pole1 ,collections towards a ,history of the ,county of ,devon 7,london1 #agia72 ,r4 ,polwhele1 ,history of ,devonshire 7#c vols4 ,exeter1 #agig1 #agih-ahjj72 ,t4 ,moore1 ,history of ,devon from the ,earliest ,period to the ,present ,time 7vols1 i41 ii41 ,london1 #ahbi-ahca72 ,g4 ,oliver1 ,historic ,collections relating to the ,monasteries in ,devon 7,exeter1 #ahbj72 ,d4 and ,s4 ,lysons1 ,magna ,britannia 7vol4 vi41 ,london1 #ahbb72 ,ecclesiastical ,antiquities in ,devon 7,exeter1 #ahdd72 ,mrs ,bray1 ,traditions of ,devonshire1 in a series of letters to ,robert ,southey 7,london1 #ahch72 ,g4 ,c4 ,boase1 ,devonshire ,bibliography 7,london1 #ahhc72 ,sir ,w4 ,r4 ,drake1 ,devonshire ,notes and ,notelets 7,london1 #ahhh72 ,s4 ,hewett1 ,peasant ,speech of ,devon 7,london1 #ahib72 ,r4 ,n4 ,worth1 ,history of ,devonshire 7,london1 #ahhf1 new edition1 #ahie72 ,c4 ,worthy1 ,devonshire ,parishes 7,exeter1 #ahhg72 ,devonshire ,wills 7,london1 #ahif72 ,victoria ,county ,history1 ,devonshire4 ,,devrient1 the name of a family of ,german actors4 ,,ludwig ,,devrient 7#aghd-ahcb71 born in ,berlin on the #aeth of ,december #aghd1 was the son of a silk merchant4 ,he was apprenticed to an upholsterer1 but1 suddenly leaving his employment1 joined a travelling theatrical company1 and made his first appearance on the stage at ,gera in #ahjd as the messenger in ,schiller's ,braut von ,messina4 ,by the interest of ,count ,brhl1 he appeared at ,rudolstadt as ,franz ,moor in ,schiller's ,ruber1 so successfully that he obtained a permanent engagement at the ducal theatre in ,dessau1 where he played until #ahji4 ,he then received a call to ,breslau1 where he remained for six years4 ,so brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of ,shakespeare's plays1 that ,iffland began to fear for his own reputation2 yet that great artist was generous enough to recommend the young actor as his only possible successor4 ,on ,iffland's death ,devrient was summoned to ,berlin1 where he was for fifteen years the popular idol4 ,he died there on the #cjth of ,december #ahcb4 ,ludwig ,devrient was equally great in comedy and tragedy4 ,falstaff1 ,franz ,moor1 ,shylock1 ,king ,lear and ,richard ,,ii4 were among his best parts4 ,karl von ,holtei in his ,reminiscences has given a graphic picture of him and the demoniac fascination of his acting4 ,see ,z4 ,funck1 ,aus dem ,leben zweier ,schauspieler1 ,ifflands und ,devrients 7,leipzig1 #ahch72 ,h4 ,smidt in ,devrient-,novellen 7#crd ed41 ,berlin1 #ahhb72 ,r4 ,springer in the novel ,devrient und ,hoffmann 7,berlin1 #ahgc71 and ,eduard ,devrient's ,geschichte der deutschen ,schauspielkunst 7,leipzig1 #ahfa74 ,three of the nephews of ,ludwig ,devrient1 sons of his brother1 a merchant1 were also connected with the stage4 ,,karl ,,august ,,devrient 7#agig-ahgb7 was born at ,berlin on the #eth of ,april #agig4 ,after being for a short time in business1 he entered a cavalry regiment as volunteer and fought at ,waterloo4 ,he then joined the stage1 making his first appearance on the stage in #ahai at ,brunswick4 ,in #ahba he received an engagement at the court theatre in ,dresden1 where1 in #ahbc1 he married ,wilhelmine ,schrder 7see ,,schr,,der-,,devrient74 ,in #ahce he joined the company at ,karlsruhe1 and in #ahci that at ,hanover4 ,his best parts were ,wallenstein and ,king ,lear4 ,he died on the #eth of ,april #ahgb4 ,his brother ,,philipp ,,eduard ,,devrient 7#ahja-ahgg71 born at ,berlin on the #aath of ,august #ahja1 was for a time an opera singer4 ,turning his attention to theatrical management1 he was from #ahdd to #ahdf director of the court theatre in ,dresden4 ,appointed to ,karlsruhe in #aheb1 he began a thorough reorganization of the theatre1 and in the course of seventeen years of assiduous labour1 not only raised it to a high position1 but enriched its repertory by many noteworthy librettos1 among which ,die ,gunst des ,augenblicks and ,verirrungen are the best known4 ,but his chief work is his history of the ,german stage--,geschichte der deutschen ,schauspielkunst 7,leipzig1 #ahdh-ahgd74 ,he died on the #dth of ,october #ahgg4 ,a complete edition of his works--,dramatische und dramaturgische ,schriften--was published in ten volumes 7,leipzig1 #ahdf-ahgc74 ,the youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of ,ludwig ,devrient was ,,gustav ,,emil ,,devrient 7#ahjc-ahgb71 born in ,berlin on the #dth of ,september #ahjc4 ,he made his first appearance on the stage in #ahba1 at ,brunswick1 as ,raoul in ,schiller's ,jungfrau von ,orleans4 ,after a short engagement in ,leipzig1 he received in #ahbi a call to ,hamburg1 but after two years accepted a permanent appointment at the court theatre in ,dresden1 to which he belonged until his retirement in #ahfh4 ,his chief characters were ,hamlet1 ,uriel ,acosta 7in ,karl ,gutzkow's play71 ,marquis ,posa 7in ,schiller's ,don ,carlos71 and ,goethe's ,torquato ,tasso4 ,he acted several times in ,london1 where his ,hamlet was considered finer than ,kemble's or ,edmund ,kean's4 ,he died on the #gth of ,august #ahgb4 ,,otto ,,devrient 7#ahch-ahid71 another actor1 born in ,berlin on the #crd of ,october #ahch1 was the son of ,philipp ,eduard ,devrient4 ,he joined the stage in #ahef at ,karlsruhe1 and acted successively in ,stuttgart1 ,berlin and ,leipzig1 until he received a fixed appointment at ,karlsruhe1 in #ahfc4 ,in #ahgc he became stage manager at ,weimar1 where he gained great praise for his mise en scne of ,goethe's ,faust4 ,after being manager of the theatres in ,mannheim and ,frankfort he retired to ,jena1 where in #ahhc he was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy4 ,in #ahhd he was appointed director of the court theatre in ,oldenburg1 and in #ahhi director of dramatic plays in ,berlin4 ,he died at ,stettin on the #bcrd of ,june #ahid4 ,,dew4 ,the word dew 7,o4,e4 deaw2 cf4 ,ger4 ,tau7 is a very ancient one and its meaning must therefore be defined on historical principles4 ,according to the ,new ,english ,dictionary1 it means the moisture deposited in minute drops upon any cool surface by condensation of the vapour of the atmosphere2 formed after a hot day1 during or towards night and plentiful in the early morning4 ,huxley in his ,physiography makes the addition without production of mist4 ,the formation of mist is not necessary for the formation of dew1 nor does it necessarily prevent it4 ,if the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead of water it is called hoarfrost4 ,the researches of ,aitken suggest that the words by condensation of the vapour in the atmosphere might be omitted from the definition4 ,he has given reasons for believing that the large dewdrops on the leaves of plants1 the most characteristic of all the phenomena of dew1 are to be accounted for1 in large measure at least1 by the exuding of drops of water from the plant through the pores of the leaves themselves4 ,the formation of dewdrops in such cases is the continuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the leaves with water from the soil4 ,the process is set up in full vigour in the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions at the surface of the leaf in the hot sun1 and continued after the sun has gone4 ,on the other hand1 the most typical physical experiment illustrating the formation of dew is the production of a deposit of moisture1 in minute drops1 upon the exterior surface of a glass or polished metal vessel by the cooling of a liquid contained in the vessel4 ,if the liquid is water1 it can be cooled by pieces of ice2 if volatile like ether1 by bubbling air through it4 ,no deposit is formed by this process until the temperature is reduced to a point which1 from that circumstance1 has received a special name1 although it depends upon the state of the air round the vessel4 ,so generally accepted is the physical analogy between the natural formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner described1 that the point below which the temperature of a surface must be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known as the dew-point4 ,in the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at which1 by being cooled without change of pressure1 the air becomes saturated with water vapour1 not on account of any increase of supply of that compound1 but by the diminution of the capacity of the air for holding it in the gaseous condition4 ,thus1 when the dew-point temperature has been determined1 the pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere at the time of the deposit is given by reference to a table of saturation pressures of water vapour at different temperatures4 ,as it is a well-established proposition that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not vary while the air is being cooled without change of its total external pressure1 the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the pressure of water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced4 ,thus the artificial formation of dew and consequent determination of the dew-point is a recognized method of measuring the pressure1 and thence the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere4 ,the dew-point method is indeed in some ways a fundamental method of hygrometry4 ,the dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the question of the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse4 ,so long as the dew-point is low1 high temperature does not matter1 but when the dew-point begins to approach the normal temperature of the human body the atmosphere becomes insupportable4 ,the physical explanation of the formation of dew consists practically in determining the process or processes by which leaves1 blades of grass1 stones1 and other objects in the open air upon which dew may be observed1 become cooled below the dew-point4 ,formerly1 from the time of ,aristotle at least1 dew was supposed to fall4 ,that view of the process was not extinct at the time of ,wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without reproach4 ,to ,dr ,charles ,wells of ,london belongs the credit of bringing to a focus the ideas which originated with the study of radiation at the beginning of the #aith century1 and which are expressed by saying that the cooling necessary to produce dew on exposed surfaces is to be attributed to the radiation from the surfaces to a clear sky4 ,he gave an account of the theory of automatic cooling by radiation1 which has found a place in all text-books of physics1 in his first ,essay on ,dew published in #ahah4 ,the theory is supported in that and in a second essay by a number of well-planned observations1 and the essays are indeed models of scientific method4 ,the process of the formation of dew as represented by ,wells is a simple one4 ,it starts from the point of view that all bodies are constantly radiating heat1 and cool automatically unless they receive a corresponding amount of heat from other bodies by radiation or conduction4 ,good radiators1 which are at the same time bad conductors of heat1 such as blades of grass1 lose heat rapidly on a clear night by radiation to the sky and become cooled below the dew-point of the atmosphere4 ,the question was very fully studied by ,melloni and others1 but little more was added to the explanation given by ,wells until #ahhe1 when ,john ,aitken of ,falkirk called attention to the question whether the water of dewdrops on plants or stones came from the air or the earth1 and described a number of experiments to show that under the conditions of observation in ,scotland1 it was the earth from which the moisture was probably obtained1 either by the operation of the vascular system of plants in the formation of exuded dewdrops1 or by evaporation and subsequent condensation in the lowest layer of the atmosphere4 ,some controversy was excited by the publication of ,aitken's views1 and it is interesting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which is of general application in meteorological questions1 namely1 that the physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological phenomena are generally complex4 ,it is not radiation alone that is necessary to produce dew1 nor even radiation from a body which does not conduct heat4 ,the body must be surrounded by an atmosphere so fully supplied with moisture that the dew-point can be passed by the cooling due to radiation4 ,thus the conditions favourable for the formation of dew are 7#a7 a good radiating surface1 7#b7 a still atmosphere1 7#c7 a clear sky1 7#d7 thermal insulation of the radiating surface1 7#e7 warm moist ground or some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in the surface layers of air4 ,aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in considering the supply of moisture we must take into consideration the ground as well as the air and concern ourselves with the temperature of both4 ,of the five conditions mentioned1 the first four may be considered necessary1 but the fifth is very important for securing a copious deposit4 ,it can hardly be maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply of water by evaporation from warm ground1 but1 when such a supply is forthcoming1 it is evident that in place of the limited process of condensation which deprives the air of its moisture and is therefore soon terminable1 we have the process of distillation which goes on as long as conditions are maintained4 ,this distinction is of some practical importance for it indicates the protecting power of wet soil in favour of young plants as against night frost4 ,if distillation between the ground and the leaves is set up1 the temperature of the leaves cannot fall much below the original dew-point because the supply of water for condensation is kept up2 but if the compensation for loss of heat by radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of water from the atmosphere1 without renewal of the supply1 the dew-point will gradually get lower as the moisture is deposited and the process of cooling will go on4 ,in these questions we have to deal with comparatively large changes taking place within a small range of level4 ,it is with the layer a few inches thick on either side of the surface that we are principally concerned1 and for an adequate comprehension of the conditions close consideration is required4 ,to illustrate this point reference may be made to figs4 #a and #b1 which represent the condition of affairs at #aj4dj ,p4,m4 on about the #bjth of ,october #ahhe1 according to observations by ,aitken4 ,vertical distances represent heights in feet1 while the temperatures of the air and the dew-point are represented by horizontal distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of the diagram4 ,the line marked #j is the ground level itself1 a rather indefinite quantity when the surface is grass4 ,the whole vertical distance represented is from #d ft4 above ground to #a ft4 below ground1 and the special phenomena which we are considering take place in the layer which represents the rapid transition between the temperature of the ground #c in4 below the surface and that of the air a few inches above ground4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,the point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and dry-bulb curve will cut4 ,if they cut above the surface1 mist will result2 if they cut at the surface1 dew will be formed4 ,below the surface1 it may be assumed that the air is saturated with moisture and any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by distillation4 ,it may be remarked1 by the way1 that such distillation between soil layers of different temperatures must be productive of the transference of large quantities of water between different levels in the soil either upward or downward according to the time of year4 ,these diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and moisture of the ground in the phenomena which have been considered4 ,from the surface there is a continual loss of heat going on by radiation and a continual supply of warmth and moisture from below4 ,but while the heat can escape1 the moisture cannot4 ,thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as it approaches the surface1 the dew-point line to the right4 ,thus the effect of the moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach4 ,in the case of grass1 fig4 #b1 the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the left to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well shown4 ,the dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to the same point as the dry-bulb2 but that could only happen if there were so copious a condensation from the atmosphere as actually to make the air drier at the surface than up above4 ,in diagram #a1 for soil1 the effect on air temperature and moisture is shown2 the two lines converge to cut at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed4 ,along the underground line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the surface by distillation1 the more rapid the greater the temperature gradient4 ,the amount of dew deposited is considerable1 and1 in tropical countries1 is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by gutters and spouts1 but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total rainfall4 ,loesche estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the ,loango coast at #c mm41 but the estimate seems a high one4 ,measurements go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate annual deposit of dew is #a in4 to #a4e in4 near ,london 7,g4 ,dines71 #a4b in4 at ,munich 7,wollny71 #j4c in4 at ,montpellier 7,crova71 #a4f in4 at ,tenbury1 ,worcestershire 7,badgley74 ,with the question of the amount of water collected as dew1 that of the maintenance of dew ponds is intimately associated4 ,the name is given to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the south of ,england and elsewhere4 ,some of these ponds are very ancient1 as the title of a work on ,neolithic ,dewponds by ,a4 ,j4 and ,g4 ,hubbard indicates4 ,their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend upon dew and not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of water supply for cattle1 for which they are used4 ,the question has been discussed a good deal1 but not settled2 the balance of evidence seems to be against the view that dew deposits make any important contribution to the supply of water4 ,the construction of dew ponds is1 however1 still practised on traditional lines1 and it is said that a new dew pond has first to be filled artificially4 ,it does not come into existence by the gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin4 ,,authorities4--,for ,dew1 see the two essays by ,dr ,charles ,wells 7,london1 #ahah71 also ,an ,essay on ,dew1 edited by ,casella 7,london1 #ahff71 ,longmans'1 with additions by ,strachan2 ,melloni1 ,pogg4 ,ann4 lxxi4 pp4 #daf1 #dbd and lxxiii4 p4 #dfg2 ,jamin1 ,complments la thorie de la rose1 ,journal de physique1 viii4 p4 #da2 ,j4 ,aitken1 on ,dew1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 of ,edinburgh1 xxxiii41 part i4 #b1 and ,nature1 vol4 xxxiii4 p4 #bef2 ,c4 ,tomlinson1 ,remarks on a new ,theory of ,dew1 ,phil4 ,mag4 7#ahhf71 #eth series1 vol4 #ba1 p4 #dhc and vol4 #bb1 p4 #bgj2 ,russell1 ,nature1 vol #dg1 p4 #baj2 also ,met4 ,zeit4 7#ahic71 p4 #cij2 ,homn1 ,bodenphysikalische und meteorologische ,beobachtungen 7,berlin1 #ahid71 iii42 ,taubildung1 p4 #hh1 c42 ,rubenson1 ,die ,temperatur-und ,feuchtigkeitsverhltnisse in den unteren ,luftschichten bei der ,taubildung1 ,met4 ,zeit4 xi4 7#ahgf71 p4 #fe2 ,h4 ,e4 ,hamberg1 ,temprature et humidit de l'air diffrentes hauteurs ,upsal1 ,soc4 ,r4 des sciences d',upsal 7#ahgf72 review in ,met4 ,zeit4 xii4 7#ahgg71 p4 #aje4 ,for ,dew ,ponds1 see ,stephen ,hales1 ,statical ,essays1 vol4 i41 experiment xix41 pp4 #eb-eg 7#bnd ed41 ,london1 #agca72 ,gilbert ,white1 ,natural ,history and ,antiquities of ,selborne1 letter xxix4 7,london1 #aghi72 ,dr ,c4 ,wells1 ,an ,essay on ,dew 7,london1 #ahah1 #ahba and #ahff72 ,rev4 ,j4 ,c4 ,clutterbuck1 ,prize ,essay on ,water ,supply1 ,journ4 ,roy4 ,agric4 ,soc41 #bnd series1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bga-bhg 7#ahfe72 ,field and ,symons1 ,evaporation from the ,surface of ,water1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 7#ahfi71 sect41 pp4 #be1 #bf2 ,j4 ,lucas1 ,hydrogeology3 ,one of the ,developments of ,modern ,practical ,geology1 ,trans4 ,inst4 ,surveyors1 vol4 ix4 pp4 #aec-bcb 7#ahgg72 ,h4 ,p4 ,slade1 ,a ,short ,practical ,treatise on ,dew ,ponds 7,london1 #ahgg72 ,clement ,reid1 ,the ,natural ,history of ,isolated ,ponds1 ,trans4 ,norfolk and ,norwich ,naturalists' ,society1 vol4 v4 pp4 #bgb-bhf 7#ahib72 ,professor ,g4 ,s4 ,brady1 ,on the ,nature and ,origin of ,freshwater ,faunas 7#ahii72 ,professor ,l4 ,c4 ,miall1 ,dew ,ponds1 ,reports of the ,british ,association 7,bradford ,meeting1 #aijj71 pp4 #egi-ehe2 ,a4 ,j4 and ,g4 ,hubbard1 ,neolithic ,dewponds and ,cattle-,ways 7,london1 #aijd1 #aijg74 7,w4 ,n4 ,s47 ,,dewan or ,,diwan1 an ,oriental term for finance minister4 ,the word is derived from the ,arabian diwan1 and is commonly used in ,india to denote a minister of the ,mogul government1 or in modern days the prime minister of a native state4 ,it was in the former sense that the grant of the dewanny to the ,east ,india ,company in #agfe became the foundation of the ,british empire in ,india4 ,,dewar1 ,,sir ,,james 7#ahdb- 71 ,british chemist and physicist1 was born at ,kincardine-on-,forth1 ,scotland1 on the #bjth of ,september #ahdb4 ,he was educated at ,dollar ,academy and ,edinburgh ,university1 being at the latter first a pupil1 and afterwards the assistant1 of ,lord ,playfair1 then professor of chemistry2 he also studied under ,kekul at ,ghent4 ,in #ahge he was elected ,jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy at ,cambridge1 becoming a fellow of ,peterhouse1 and in #ahgg he succeeded ,dr ,j4 ,h4 ,gladstone as ,fullerian professor of chemistry in the ,royal ,institution1 ,london4 ,he was president of the ,chemical ,society in #ahig1 and of the ,british ,association in #aijb1 served on the ,balfour ,commission on ,london ,water ,supply 7#ahic-ahid71 and as a member of the ,committee on ,explosives 7#ahhh-ahia7 invented cordite jointly with ,sir ,frederick ,abel4 ,his scientific work covers a wide field4 ,of his earlier papers1 some deal with questions of organic chemistry1 others with ,graham's hydrogenium and its physical constants1 others with high temperatures1 e4g4 the temperature of the sun and of the electric spark1 others again with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc4 ,with ,professor ,j4 ,g4 ,m',kendrick1 of ,glasgow1 he investigated the physiological action of light1 and examined the changes which take place in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence4 ,with ,professor ,g4 ,d4 ,liveing1 one of his colleagues at ,cambridge1 he began in #ahgh a long series of spectroscopic observations1 the later of which were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid of low temperatures2 and he was joined by ,professor ,j4 ,a4 ,fleming1 of ,university ,college1 ,london1 in the investigation of the electrical behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures4 ,his name is most widely known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the so-called permanent gases and his researches at temperatures approaching the zero of absolute temperature4 ,his interest in this branch of inquiry dates back at least as far as #ahgd1 when he discussed the ,latent ,heat of ,liquid ,gases before the ,british ,association4 ,in #ahgh he devoted a ,friday evening lecture at the ,royal ,institution to the then recent work of ,l4 ,p4 ,cailletet and ,r4 ,p4 ,pictet1 and exhibited for the first time in ,great ,britain the working of the ,cailletet apparatus4 ,six years later1 in the same place1 he described the researches of ,z4 ,f4 ,wroblewski and ,k4 ,s4 ,olszewski1 and illustrated for the first time in public the liquefaction of oxygen and air1 by means of apparatus specially designed for optical projection so that the actions taking place might be visible to the audience4 ,soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which the liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling agent1 and he showed its employment for this purpose in connexion with some researches on meteorites2 about the same time he also obtained oxygen in the solid state4 ,by #ahia he had designed and erected at the ,royal ,institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint1 and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet4 ,about #ahib the idea occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of liquid gases1 and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to preserve the liquids for comparatively long periods1 but also to keep them so free from ebullition that examination of their optical properties becomes possible4 ,he next experimented with a high-pressure hydrogen jet by which low temperatures were realized through the ,thomson-,joule effect1 and the successful results thus obtained led him to build at the ,royal ,institution the large refrigerating machine by which in #ahih hydrogen was for the first time collected in the liquid state1 its solidification following in #ahii4 ,later he investigated the gas-absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures1 and applied them to the production of high vacua and to gas analysis 7see ,,liquid ,,gases74 ,the ,royal ,society in #ahid bestowed the ,rumford medal upon him for his work in the production of low temperatures1 and in #ahii he became the first recipient of the ,hodgkins gold medal of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 ,washington1 for his contributions to our knowledge of the nature and properties of atmospheric air4 ,in #aijd he was the first ,british subject to receive the ,lavoisier medal of the ,french ,academy of ,sciences1 and in #aijf he was the first to be awarded the ,matteucci medal of the ,italian ,society of ,sciences4 ,he was knighted in #aijd1 and in #aijh he was awarded the ,albert medal of the ,society of ,arts4 ,,dewas1 two native states of ,india1 in the ,malwa ,political ,charge of ,central ,india1 founded in the first half of the #ahth century by two brothers1 ,punwar ,mahrattas1 who came into ,malwa with the peshwa1 ,baji ,rao1 in #agbh4 ,their descendants are known as the senior and junior branches of the family1 and since #ahda each has ruled his own portion as a separate state1 though the lands belonging to each are so intimately entangled1 that even in ,dewas1 the capital town1 the two sides of the main street are under different administrations and have different arrangements for water supply and lighting4 ,the senior branch has an area of #ddf sq4 m4 and a population of #fb1cab1 while the area of the junior branch is #ddj sq4 m4 and its population #ed1ijd4 ,,dewberry1 ,rubus caesius1 a trailing plant1 allied to the bramble1 of the natural order ,rosaceae4 ,it is common in woods1 hedges and the borders of fields in ,england and other countries of ,europe4 ,the leaves have three leaflets1 are hairy beneath1 and of a dusky green2 the flowers which appear in ,june and ,july are white1 or pale rose-coloured4 ,the fruit is large1 and closely embraced by the calyx1 and consists of a few drupules1 which are black1 with a glaucous bloom2 it has an agreeable acid taste4 ,,dew-,,claw1 the rudimentary toes1 two in number1 or the false hoof of the deer1 sometimes also called the nails4 ,in dogs the dew-claw is the rudimentary toe or hallux 7corresponding to the big toe in man7 hanging loosely attached to the skin1 low down on the hinder part of the leg4 ,the origin of the word is unknown1 but it has been fancifully suggested that1 while the other toes touch the ground in walking1 the dew-claw merely brushes the dew from the grass4 ,d',,ewes1 ,,sir ,,simonds1 ,bart4 7#afjb-afej71 ,english antiquarian1 eldest son of ,paul ,d',ewes of ,milden1 ,suffolk1 and of ,cecilia1 daughter and heir of ,richard ,simonds1 of ,coaxdon or ,coxden1 ,dorsetshire1 was born on the #ahth of ,december #afjb1 and educated at the grammar school of ,bury ,st ,edmunds1 and at ,st ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,he had been admitted to the ,middle ,temple in #afaa1 and was called to the bar in #afbc1 when he immediately began his collections of material and his studies in history and antiquities4 ,in #afbf he married ,anne1 daughter and heir of ,sir ,william ,clopton1 of ,luton's ,hall in ,suffolk1 through whom he obtained a large addition to his already considerable fortune4 ,on the #fth of ,december he was knighted4 ,he took an active part as a strong ,puritan and member of the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary government in the ,long ,parliament of #afdj1 in which he sat as member for ,sudbury4 ,on the #aeth of ,july he was created a baronet by the king1 but nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out1 and in #afdc took the ,covenant4 ,he was one of the members expelled by ,pride's ,purge in #afdh1 and died on the #ahth of ,april #afej4 ,he had married secondly ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,sir ,henry ,willoughby1 ,bart41 of ,risley in ,derbyshire1 by whom he had a son1 who succeeded to his estates and title1 the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in #agca4 ,d',ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious scope1 no less than the whole history of ,england based on original documents4 ,but though excelling as a collector of materials1 and as a laborious1 conscientious and accurate transcriber1 he had little power of generalization or construction1 and died without publishing anything except an uninteresting tract1 ,the ,primitive ,practice for ,preserving ,truth 7#afde71 and some speeches4 ,his ,journals of all the ,parliaments during the ,reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 however1 a valuable work1 was published in #afhb4 ,his large collections1 including transcripts from ancient records1 many of the originals of which are now dispersed or destroyed1 are in the ,harleian collection in the ,british ,museum4 ,his unprinted ,diaries from #afba-afbd and from #afdc-afdg1 the latter valuable for the notes of proceedings in parliament1 are often the only authority for incidents and speeches during that period1 and are amusing from the glimpses the diarist affords of his own character1 his good estimation of himself and his little jealousies2 some are in a cipher and some in ,latin4 ,extracts from his ,autobiography and ,correspondence from the ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum were published by ,j4 ,o4 ,halliwell-,phillips in #ahde1 by ,hearne in the appendix to his ,historia vitae et regni ,ricardi ,,ii4 7#agbi71 and in the ,bibliotheca topographica ,britannica1 ,no4 xv4 vol4 vi4 7#aghc72 and from a ,diary of later date1 ,college ,life in the ,time of ,james ,i4 7#ahea74 ,his ,diaries have been extensively drawn upon by ,forster1 ,gardiner1 and by ,sanford in his ,studies of the ,great ,rebellion4 ,some of his speeches have been reprinted in the ,harleian ,miscellany and in the ,somers ,tracts4 ,,de ,,wet1 ,,christian 7#ahed- 71 ,boer general and politician1 was born on the #gth of ,october #ahed at ,leeuwkop1 ,smithfield district 7,orange ,free ,state71 and later resided at ,dewetsdorp4 ,he served in the first ,anglo-,boer ,war of #ahhj-ha as a field cornet1 and from #ahha to #ahif he lived on his farm1 becoming in #ahig member of the ,volksraad4 ,he took part in the earlier battles of the ,boer ,war of #ahii in ,natal as a commandant and later1 as a general1 he went to serve under ,cronje in the west4 ,his first successful action was the surprise of ,sanna's ,post near ,bloemfontein1 which was followed by the victory of ,reddersburg a little later4 ,thenceforward he came to be regarded more and more as the most formidable leader of the ,boers in their guerrilla warfare4 ,sometimes severely handled by the ,british1 sometimes escaping only by the narrowest margin of safety from the columns which attempted to surround him1 and falling upon and annihilating isolated ,british posts1 ,de ,wet continued to the end of the war his successful career1 striking heavily where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to bay4 ,he took an active part in the peace negotiations of #aijb1 and at the conclusion of the war he visited ,europe with the other ,boer generals4 ,while in ,england the generals sought1 unavailingly1 a modification of the terms of peace concluded at ,pretoria4 ,de ,wet wrote an account of his campaigns1 an ,english version of which appeared in ,november #aijb under the title ,three ,years' ,war4 ,in ,november1 #aijg he was elected a member of the first parliament of the ,orange ,river ,colony and was appointed minister of agriculture4 ,in #aijh-i he was a delegate to the ,closer ,union ,convention4 ,,de ,,wette1 ,,wilhelm ,,martin ,,leberecht 7#aghj-ahdi71 ,german theologian1 was born on the #abth of ,january #aghj1 at ,ulla1 near ,weimar1 where his father was pastor4 ,he was sent to the gymnasium at ,weimar1 then at the height of its literary glory4 ,here he was much influenced by intercourse with ,johann ,gottfried ,herder1 who frequently examined at the school4 ,in #agii he entered on his theological studies at ,jena1 his principal teachers being ,j4 ,j4 ,griesbach and ,h4 ,e4 ,g4 ,paulus1 from the latter of whom he derived his tendency to free critical inquiry4 ,both in methods and in results1 however1 he occupied an almost solitary position among ,german theologians4 ,having taken his doctor's degree1 he became privat-docent at ,jena2 in #ahjg professor of theology at ,heidelberg1 where he came under the influence of ,j4 ,f4 ,fries 7#aggc-ahdc72 and in #ahaj was transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded university of ,berlin1 where he enjoyed the friendship of ,schleiermacher4 ,he was1 however1 dismissed from ,berlin in #ahai on account of his having written a letter of consolation to the mother of ,karl ,ludwig ,sand1 the murderer of ,kotzebue4 ,a petition in his favour presented by the senate of the university was unsuccessful1 and a decree was issued not only depriving him of the chair1 but banishing him from the ,prussian kingdom4 ,he retired for a time to ,weimar1 where he occupied his leisure in the preparation of his edition of ,luther1 and in writing the romance ,theodor oder die ,weihe des ,zweiflers 7,berlin1 #ahbb71 in which he describes the education of an evangelical pastor4 ,during this period he made his first essay in preaching1 and proved himself to be possessed of very popular gifts4 ,but in #ahbb he accepted the chair of theology in the university of ,basel1 which had been reorganized four years before4 ,though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party1 ,de ,wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and among the people generally4 ,he was admitted a citizen1 and became rector of the university1 which owed to him much of its recovered strength1 particularly in the theological faculty4 ,he died on the #afth of ,june #ahdi4 ,de ,wette has been described by ,julius ,wellhausen as the epoch-making opener of the historical criticism of the ,pentateuch4 ,he prepared the way for the ,supplement-theory4 ,but he also made valuable contributions to other branches of theology4 ,he had1 moreover1 considerable poetic faculty1 and wrote a drama in three acts1 entitled ,die ,entsagung 7,berlin1 #ahbc74 ,he had an intelligent interest in art1 and studied ecclesiastical music and architecture4 ,as a ,biblical critic he is sometimes classed with the destructive school1 but1 as ,otto ,pfleiderer says 7,development of ,theology1 p4 #ajb71 he occupied as free a position as the ,rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the creeds of the church1 but that he sought to give their due value to the religious feelings1 which the ,rationalists had not done1 and1 with a more unfettered mind towards history1 to maintain the connexion of the present life of the church with the past4 ,his works are marked by exegetical skill1 unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness4 ,accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress of criticism4 ,the most important of his works are3--,beitrge zur ,einleitung in das ,alte ,testament 7#b vols41 #ahjf-ahjg72 ,kommentar ber die ,psalmen 7#ahaa71 which has passed through several editions1 and is still regarded as of high authority2 ,lehrbuch der hebrisch-jdischen ,archologie 7#ahad72 ber ,religion und ,theologie 7#ahae72 a work of great importance as showing its author's general theological position2 ,lehrbuch der christlichen ,dogmatik 7#ahac-ahaf72 ,lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen ,einleitung in die ,bibel 7#ahag72 ,christliche ,sittenlehre 7#ahai-ahba72 ,einleitung in das ,neue ,testament 7#ahbf72 ,religion1 ihr ,wesen1 ihre ,erscheinungsform1 und ihr ,einfluss auf das ,leben 7#ahbg72 ,das ,wesen des christlichen ,glaubens 7#ahdf72 and ,kurzgefasstes exegetisches ,handbuch zum ,neuen ,testament 7#ahcf-ahdh74 ,de ,wette also edited ,luther's works 7#e vols41 #ahbe-ahbh74 ,see ,k4 ,r4 ,hagenbach in ,herzog's ,realencyklopdie2 ,g4 ,c4 ,f4 ,lcke's ,w4 ,m4 ,l4 ,de ,wette1 zur freundschaftlicher ,erinnerung 7#ahej72 and ,d4 ,schenkel's ,w4 ,m4 ,l4 ,de ,wette und die ,bedeutung seiner ,theologie fr unsere ,zeit 7#ahdi74 ,rudolf ,sthelin1 ,de ,wette nach seiner theol4 ,wirksamkeit und ,bedeutung 7#ahhj72 ,f4 ,lichtenberger1 ,history of ,german ,theology in the ,nineteenth ,century 7#ahhi72 ,otto ,pfleiderer1 ,development of ,theology 7#ahij71 pp4 #ig ff42 ,t4 ,k4 ,cheyne1 ,founders of the ,old ,testament ,criticism1 pp4 #ca ff4 ,,dewey1 ,,davis ,,rich 7#aheh- 71 ,american economist and statistician1 was born at ,burlington1 ,vermont1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the #gth of ,april #aheh4 ,he was educated at the university of ,vermont and at ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at the ,massachusetts ,institute of ,technology4 ,he was chairman of the state board on the question of the unemployed 7#ahie71 member of the ,massachusetts commission on public1 charitable and reformatory interests 7#ahig71 special expert agent on wages for the #abth census1 and member of a state commission 7#aijd7 on industrial relations4 ,he wrote an excellent ,syllabus on ,political ,history since #ahae 7#ahhg71 a ,financial ,history of the ,u4,s4 7#aijb71 and ,national ,problems 7#aijg74 ,,dewey1 ,,george 7#ahcg- 71 ,american naval officer1 was born at ,montpelier1 ,vermont1 on the #bfth of ,december #ahcg4 ,he studied at ,norwich ,university1 then at ,norwich1 ,vermont1 and graduated at the ,united ,states ,naval ,academy in #aheh4 ,he was commissioned lieutenant in ,april #ahfa1 and in the ,civil ,war served on the steamsloop ,mississippi 7#ahfa-ahfc7 during ,farragut's passage of the forts below ,new ,orleans in ,april #ahfb1 and at ,port ,hudson in ,march #ahfc2 took part in the fighting below ,donaldsonville1 ,louisiana1 in ,july #ahfc2 and in #ahfd-ahfe served on the steam-gunboat ,agawam with the ,north ,atlantic blockading squadron and took part in the attacks on ,fort ,fisher in ,december #ahfd and ,january #ahfe4 ,in ,march #ahfe he became a lieutenant-commander4 ,he was with the ,european squadron in #ahff-ahfg2 was an instructor in the ,united ,states ,naval ,academy in #ahfh-ahfi2 was in command of the ,narragansett in #ahgj-ahga and #ahgb-ahge1 being commissioned commander in #ahgb2 was light-house inspector in #ahgf-ahgg2 and was secretary of the light-house board in #ahgg-ahhb4 ,in #ahhd he became a captain2 in #ahhi-ahic was chief of the bureau of equipment and recruiting2 in #ahic-ahie was a member of the light-house board2 and in #ahie-ahig was president of the board of inspection and survey1 being promoted to the rank of commodore in ,february #ahif4 ,in ,november #ahig he was assigned1 at his own request1 to sea service1 and sent to ,asiatic waters4 ,in ,april #ahih1 while with his fleet at ,hong ,kong1 he was notified by cable that war had begun between the ,united ,states and ,spain1 and was ordered to capture or destroy the ,spanish fleet then in ,philippine waters4 ,on the #ast of ,may he overwhelmingly defeated the ,spanish fleet under ,admiral ,montojo in ,manila ,bay1 a victory won without the loss of a man on the ,american ships 7see ,,spanish-,,american ,,war74 ,congress1 in a joint resolution1 tendered its thanks to ,commodore ,dewey1 and to the officers and men under his command1 and authorized the secretary of the navy to present a sword of honor to ,commodore ,george ,dewey1 and cause to be struck bronze medals commemorating the battle of ,manila ,bay1 and to distribute such medals to the officers and men of the ships of the ,asiatic squadron of the ,united ,states4 ,he was promoted rear-admiral on the #ajth of ,may #ahih4 ,on the #ahth of ,august his squadron assisted in the capture of the city of ,manila4 ,after remaining in the ,philippines under orders from his government to maintain control1 ,dewey received the rank of admiral 7,march #c1 #ahii7--that title1 formerly borne only by ,farragut and ,porter1 having been revived by act of ,congress 7,march #b1 #ahii71--;and returned home1 arriving in ,new ,york ,city1 where1 on the #crd of ,october #ahii1 he received a great ovation4 ,he was a member 7#ahii7 of the ,schurman ,philippine ,commission1 and in #ahii and #aijj was spoken of as a possible ,democratic candidate for the presidency4 ,he acted as president of the ,schley court of inquiry in #aija1 and submitted a minority report on a few details4 ,,dewey1 ,,melvil 7#ahea- 71 ,american librarian1 was born at ,adams ,center1 ,new ,york1 on the #ajth of ,december #ahea4 ,he graduated in #ahgd at ,amherst ,college1 where he was assistant librarian from #ahgd to #ahgg4 ,in #ahgg he removed to ,boston1 where he founded and became editor of ,the ,library ,journal1 which became an influential factor in the development of libraries in ,america1 and in the reform of their administration4 ,he was also one of the founders of the ,american ,library ,association1 of which he was secretary from #ahgf to #ahia1 and president in #ahia and #ahic4 ,in #ahhc he became librarian of ,columbia ,college1 and in the following year founded there the ,school of ,library ,economy1 the first institution for the instruction of librarians ever organized4 ,this school1 which was very successful1 was removed to ,albany in #ahij1 where it was re-established as the ,state ,library ,school under his direction2 from #ahhh to #aijf he was director of the ,new ,york ,state ,library and from #ahhh to #aijj was secretary of the ,university of the ,state of ,new ,york1 completely reorganizing the state library1 which he made one of the most efficient in ,america1 and establishing the system of state travelling libraries and picture collections4 ,his ,decimal ,system of ,classification for library cataloguing1 first proposed in #ahgf1 is extensively used4 ,,dewing1 ,,thomas ,,wilmer 7#ahea- 71 ,american figure painter1 was born in ,boston1 ,massachusetts1 on the #dth of ,may #ahea4 ,he was a pupil of ,jules ,lefebvre in ,paris from #ahgf to #ahgi2 was elected a full member of the ,national ,academy of ,design in #ahhh2 was a member of the society of ,ten ,american ,painters1 ,new ,york2 and received medals at the ,paris ,exhibition 7#ahhi71 at ,chicago 7#ahic71 at ,buffalo 7#aija7 and at ,st ,louis 7#aijd74 ,his decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and finish4 ,among his portraits are those of ,mrs ,stanford ,white and of his own wife4 ,mrs ,dewing 7b1 #ahee71 ne ,maria ,oakey1 a figure and flower painter1 was a pupil of ,john ,la ,farge in ,new ,york1 and of ,couture in ,paris4 ,,de ,,wint1 ,,peter 7#aghd-ahdi71 ,english landscape painter1 of ,dutch extraction1 son of an ,english physician1 was born at ,stone1 ,staffordshire1 on the #bast of ,january #aghd4 ,he studied art in ,london1 and in #ahji entered the ,academy schools4 ,in #ahab he became a member of the ,society of ,painters in ,watercolours1 where he exhibited largely for many years1 as well as at the ,academy4 ,he married in #ahaj the sister of ,william ,hilton1 ,r4,a4 ,he died in ,london on the #cjth of ,january #ahdi4 ,de ,wint's life was devoted to art2 he painted admirably in oils1 and he ranks as one of the chief ,english water-colourists4 ,a number of his pictures are in the ,national ,gallery and the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,,de ,,winter1 ,,jan ,,willem 7#agej-ahab71 ,dutch admiral1 was born at ,kampen1 and in #agfa entered the naval service at the age of twelve years4 ,he distinguished himself by his zeal and courage1 and at the revolution of #aghg he had reached the rank of lieutenant4 ,the overthrow of the patriot party forced him to fly for his safety to ,france4 ,here he threw himself heart and soul into the cause of the ,revolution1 and took part under ,dumouriez and ,pichegru in the campaigns of #agib and #agic1 and was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general4 ,when ,pichegru in #agie overran ,holland1 ,de ,winter returned with the ,french army to his native country4 ,the states-general now utilized the experience he had gained as a naval officer by giving him the post of adjunct-general for the reorganization of the ,dutch navy4 ,in #agif he was appointed vice-admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet4 ,he spared no efforts to strengthen it and improve its condition1 and on the #aath of ,october #agig he ventured upon an encounter off ,camperdown with the ,british fleet under ,admiral ,duncan4 ,after an obstinate struggle the ,dutch were defeated1 and ,de ,winter himself was taken prisoner4 ,he remained in ,england until ,december1 when he was liberated by exchange4 ,his conduct in the battle of ,camperdown was declared by a court-martial to have nobly maintained the honour of the ,dutch flag4 ,from #agih to #ahjb ,de ,winter filled the post of ambassador to the ,french republic1 and was then once more appointed commander of the fleet4 ,he was sent with a strong squadron to the ,mediterranean to repress the ,tripoli piracies1 and negotiated a treaty of peace with the ,tripolitan government4 ,he enjoyed the confidence of ,louis ,bonaparte1 when king of ,holland1 and1 after the incorporation of the ,netherlands in the ,french empire1 in an equal degree of the emperor ,napoleon4 ,by the former he was created marshal and count of ,huessen1 and given the command of the armed forces both by sea and land4 ,napoleon gave him the grand cross of the ,legion of ,honour and appointed him inspector-general of the northern coasts1 and in #ahaa he placed him at the head of the fleet he had collected at the ,texel4 ,soon afterwards ,de ,winter was seized with illness and compelled to betake himself to ,paris1 where he died on the #bnd of ,june #ahab4 ,he had a splendid public funeral and was buried in the ,pantheon4 ,his heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the ,nicolaas ,kerk at ,kampen4 ,,de ,,witt1 ,,cornelius 7#afbc-afgb71 brother of ,,john ,,de ,,witt 7q4v471 was born at ,dort in #afbc4 ,in #afej he became burgomaster of ,dort and member of the states of ,holland and ,west ,friesland4 ,he was afterwards appointed to the important post of ruwaard or governor of the land of ,putten and bailiff of ,beierland4 ,he associated himself closely with his greater brother1 the grand pensionary1 and supported him throughout his career with great ability and vigour4 ,in #affg he was the deputy chosen by the states of ,holland to accompany ,admiral de ,ruyter in his famous expedition to ,chatham4 ,cornelius de ,witt on this occasion distinguished himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity4 ,he again accompanied ,de ,ruyter in #afgb and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at ,sole ,bay against the united ,english and ,french fleets4 ,compelled by illness to leave the fleet1 he found on his return to ,dort that the ,orange party were in the ascendant1 and he and his brother were the objects of popular suspicion and hatred4 ,an account of his imprisonment1 trial and death1 is given below4 ,,de ,,witt1 ,,john 7#afbe-afgb71 ,dutch statesman1 was born at ,dort1 on the #bdth of ,september #afbe4 ,he was a member of one of the old burgher-regent families of his native town4 ,his father1 ,jacob de ,witt1 was six times burgomaster of ,dort1 and for many years sat as a representative of the town in the states of ,holland4 ,he was a strenuous adherent of the republican or oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the princes of the house of ,orange1 who represented the federal principle and had the support of the masses of the people4 ,john was educated at ,leiden1 and early displayed remarkable talents1 more especially in mathematics and jurisprudence4 ,in #afde he and his elder brother ,cornelius visited ,france1 ,italy1 ,switzerland and ,england1 and on his return he took up his residence at the ,hague1 as an advocate4 ,in #afej he was appointed pensionary of ,dort1 an office which made him the leader and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of ,holland4 ,in this same year the states of ,holland found themselves engaged in a struggle for provincial supremacy1 on the question of the disbanding of troops1 with the youthful prince of ,orange1 ,william ,,ii4 ,william1 with the support of the states-general and the army1 seized five of the leaders of the states-right party and imprisoned them in ,loevestein castle2 among these was ,jacob de ,witt4 ,the sudden death of ,william1 at the moment when he had crushed opposition1 led to a reaction4 ,he left only a posthumous child1 afterwards ,william ,,iii4 of ,orange1 and the principles advocated by ,jacob de ,witt triumphed1 and the authority of the states of ,holland became predominant in the republic4 ,at this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence1 sagacity and business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of ,dort that on the #bcrd of ,july #afec he was appointed to the office of grand pensionary 7,raadpensionaris7 of ,holland at the age of twenty-eight4 ,he was re-elected in #afeh1 #affc and #affh1 and held office until his death in #afgb4 ,during this period of nineteen years the general conduct of public affairs and administration1 and especially of foreign affairs1 such was the confidence inspired by his talents and industry1 was largely placed in his hands4 ,he found in #afec his country brought to the brink of ruin through the war with ,england1 which had been caused by the keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states4 ,the ,dutch were unprepared1 and suffered severely through the loss of their carrying trade1 and ,de ,witt resolved to bring about peace as soon as possible4 ,the first demands of ,cromwell were impossible1 for they aimed at the absorption of the two republics into a single state1 but at last in the autumn of #afed peace was concluded1 by which the ,dutch made large concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to ,english ships in the narrow seas4 ,the treaty included a secret article1 which the states-general refused to entertain1 but which ,de ,witt succeeded in inducing the states of ,holland to accept1 by which the provinces of ,holland pledged themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a captain-general of the union4 ,this ,act of ,seclusion1 as it was called1 was aimed at the young prince of ,orange1 whose close relationship to the ,stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the ,protector4 ,de ,witt was personally favourable to this exclusion of ,william ,,iii4 from his ancestral dignities1 but there is no truth in the suggestion that he prompted the action of ,cromwell in this matter4 ,the policy of ,de ,witt after the peace of #afed was eminently successful4 ,he restored the finances of the state1 and extended its commercial supremacy in the ,east ,indies4 ,in #afeh-ei he sustained ,denmark against ,sweden1 and in #affb concluded an advantageous peace with ,portugal4 ,the accession of ,charles ,,ii4 to the ,english throne led to the rescinding of the ,act of ,seclusion2 nevertheless ,de ,witt steadily refused to allow the prince of ,orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general4 ,this led to ill-will between the ,english and ,dutch governments1 and to a renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial rights1 and war broke out in #affe4 ,the zeal1 industry and courage displayed by the grand pensionary during the course of this fiercely contested naval struggle could scarcely have been surpassed4 ,he himself on more than one occasion went to sea with the fleet1 and inspired all with whom he came in contact by the example he set of calmness in danger1 energy in action and inflexible strength of will4 ,it was due to his exertions as an organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship of ,admiral de ,ruyter1 that the terms of the treaty of peace signed at ,breda 7,july #ca1 #affg71 on the principle of uti possidetis1 were so honourable to the ,united ,provinces4 ,a still greater triumph of diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the ,triple ,alliance 7,january #ag1 #affh7 between the ,dutch ,republic1 ,england and ,sweden1 which checked the attempt of ,louis ,,xiv4 to take possession of the ,spanish ,netherlands in the name of his wife1 the infanta ,maria ,theresa4 ,the check1 however1 was but temporary1 and the ,french king only bided his time to take vengeance for the rebuff he had suffered4 ,meanwhile ,william ,,iii4 was growing to manhood1 and his numerous adherents throughout the country spared no efforts to undermine the authority of ,de ,witt1 and secure for the young prince of ,orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors4 ,in #afgb ,louis ,,xiv4 suddenly declared war1 and invaded the ,united ,provinces at the head of a splendid army4 ,practically no resistance was possible4 ,the unanimous voice of the people called ,william ,,iii4 to the head of affairs1 and there were violent demonstrations against ,john de ,witt4 ,his brother ,cornelius was 7,july #bd7 arrested on a charge of conspiring against the prince4 ,on the #dth of ,august ,john de ,witt resigned the post of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with such distinction4 ,cornelius was put to the torture1 and on the #aith of ,august he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banishment4 ,he was confined in the ,gevangenpoort1 and his brother came to visit him in the prison4 ,a vast crowd on hearing this collected outside1 and finally burst into the prison1 seized the two brothers and literally tore them to pieces4 ,their mangled remains were hung up by the feet to a lamp-post4 ,thus perished1 by the savage act of an infuriated mob1 one of the greatest statesmen of his age4 ,john de ,witt married ,wendela ,bicker1 daughter of an influential burgomaster of ,amsterdam1 in #afee1 by whom he had two sons and three daughters4 ,,bibliography4--,j4 ,geddes1 ,history of the ,administration of ,john de ,witt1 7vol4 i4 only1 ,london1 #ahgi72 ,a4 ,lefvre-,pontalis1 ,jean de ,witt1 grand pensionnaire de ,hollande 7#b vols41 ,paris1 #ahhd72 ,p4 ,simons1 ,johan de ,witt en zijn tijd 7#c vols41 ,amsterdam1 #ahcb-ahdb72 ,w4 ,c4 ,knottenbelt1 ,geschiedenis der ,staatkunde van ,j4 de ,witt 7,amsterdam1 #ahfb72 ,j4 de ,witt1 ,brieven 444 gewisselt tusschen den ,heer ,johan de ,witt 444 ende de gevolgmaghtigden v4 d4 staedt d4 ,vereen4 ,nederlanden so in ,vranckryck1 ,engelandt1 ,sweden1 ,denemarken1 ,poolen1 enz4 #afeb-fi 7#f vols41 ,the ,hague1 #agbc-agbe72 ,brieven 444 #afej-afeg 7#afeh7 eerste deel bewerkt den ,r4 ,fruin uitgegeven d41 ,c4 ,w4 ,kernkamp 7,amsterdam1 #aijf74 ,,dewlap 7from the ,o4,e4 lppa1 a lappet1 or hanging fold2 the first syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explanation that the word means the fold which brushes the dew is not borne out1 according to the ,new ,english ,dictionary1 by the equivalent words such as the ,danish doglaeb1 in ,scandinavian languages71 the loose fold of skin hanging from the neck of cattle1 also applied to similar folds in the necks of other animals and fowls1 as the dog1 turkey1 c4 ,the ,american practice of branding cattle by making a cut in the neck is known as a dewlap brand4 ,the skin of the neck in human beings often becomes pendulous with age1 and is sometimes referred to humorously by the same name4 ,,dewsbury1 a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 ,england1 on the river ,calder1 #h m4 ,s4,s4,w4 of ,leeds1 on the ,great ,northern1 ,london ,north-,western1 and ,lancashire ,yorkshire railways4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #bh1jfj4 ,the parish church of ,all ,saints was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the #ahth century2 the portions still preserved of the original structure are mainly ,early ,english4 ,the chief industries are the making of blankets1 carpets1 druggets and worsted yarn2 and there are iron foundries and machinery works4 ,coal is worked in the neighbourhood4 ,the parliamentary borough includes the adjacent municipal borough of ,batley1 and returns one member4 ,the municipal borough1 incorporated in #ahfb1 is under a mayor1 #f aldermen and #ah councillors4 ,area1 #adga acres4 ,paulinus1 first archbishop of ,york1 about the year #fbg preached in the district of ,dewsbury1 where ,edwin1 king of ,northumbria1 whom he converted to ,christianity1 had a royal mansion4 ,at ,kirklees1 in the parish1 are remains of a ,cistercian convent of the #abth century1 in an extensive park1 where tradition relates that ,robin ,hood died and was buried4 ,,dexippus1 ,,publius ,,herennius 7c4 ,a4,d4 #baj-bgc71 ,greek historian1 statesman and general1 was an hereditary priest of the ,eleusinian family of the ,kerykes1 and held the offices of archon basileus and eponymus in ,athens4 ,when the ,heruli overran ,greece and captured ,athens 7#bfi71 ,dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen4 ,a statue was set up in his honour1 the base of which1 with an inscription recording his services1 has been preserved 7,corpus ,inscrr4 ,atticarum1 iii4 ,no4 #gaf74 ,it is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to his military achievements4 ,photius 7cod4 #hb7 mentions three historical works by ,dexippus1 of which considerable fragments remain3 7#a7 ,greek3 ,ta met' ,alexandron1 an epitome of a similarly named work by ,arrian2 7#b7 ,greek3 ,skuthika1 a history of the wars of ,rome with the ,goths 7or ,scythians7 in the #crd century2 7#c7 ,greek3 ,chronik historia1 a chronological history from the earliest times to the emperor ,claudius ,gothicus 7#bgj71 frequently referred to by the writers of the ,augustan history4 ,the work was continued by ,eunapius of ,sardis down to #djd4 ,photius speaks very highly of the style of ,dexippus1 whom he places on a level with ,thucydides1 an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments 7,c4 ,w4 ,mller1 ,f4,h4,g4 iii4 #fff-fhg74 ,,dexter1 ,,henry ,,martyn 7#ahba-ahij71 ,american clergyman and author1 was born in ,plympton1 ,massachusetts1 on the #acth of ,august #ahba4 ,he graduated at ,yale in #ahdj and at the ,andover ,theological ,seminary in #ahdd2 was pastor of a ,congregational church in ,manchester1 ,new ,hampshire1 in #ahdd-ahdi1 and of the ,berkeley ,street ,congregational church1 ,boston1 in #ahdi-ahfg2 was an editor of the ,congregationalist in #ahea-ahff1 of the ,congregational ,quarterly in #ahei-ahff1 and of the ,congregationalist1 with which the ,recorder was merged1 from #ahfg until his death in ,new ,bedford1 ,mass41 on the #acth of ,november #ahij4 ,he was an authority on the history of ,congregationalism and was lecturer on that subject at the ,andover ,theological ,seminary in #ahgg-ahgi2 he left his fine library on the ,puritans in ,america to ,yale ,university4 ,among his works are3 ,congregationalism1 ,what it is1 ,whence it is1 ,how it works1 ,why it is better than any other ,form of ,church ,government1 and its consequent ,demands 7#ahfe71 ,the ,church ,polity of the ,puritans the ,polity of the ,new ,testament 7#ahgj71 ,as to ,roger ,williams and ,his ,banishment from the ,massachusetts ,colony 7#ahgf71 ,congregationalism of the ,last ,three ,hundred ,years1 as seen in its ,literature 7#ahhj71 his most important work1 ,a ,handbook of ,congregationalism 7#ahhj71 ,the ,true ,story of ,john ,smyth1 the ,se-,baptist 7#ahha71 ,common ,sense as to ,woman ,suffrage 7#ahhe71 and many reprints of pamphlets bearing on early church history in ,new ,england1 especially ,baptist controversies4 ,his ,the ,england and ,holland of the ,pilgrims was completed by his son1 ,morton ,dexter 7b4 #ahdf71 and published in #aije4 ,,dexter1 ,,timothy 7#agdg-ahjf71 ,american merchant1 remarkable for his eccentricities1 was born at ,malden1 ,massachusetts1 on the #bbnd of ,february #agdg4 ,he acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities of the depreciated continental currency1 which was ultimately redeemed by the ,federal government at par4 ,he assumed the title of ,lord ,dexter and built extraordinary houses at ,newburyport1 ,mass41 and ,chester1 ,new ,hampshire4 ,he maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior pictures1 besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal statues carved in wood to represent famous men4 ,a statue of himself was included in the collection1 and had for an inscription ,i am the first in the ,east1 the first in the ,west1 and the greatest philosopher in the ,western ,world4 ,he wrote a book entitled ,pickle for the ,knowing ,ones4 ,it was wholly without punctuation marks1 and as this aroused comment1 he published a second edition1 at the end of which was a page displaying nothing but commas and stops1 from which the readers were invited to peper and solt it as they plese4 ,he beat his wife for not weeping enough at the rehearsal of his funeral1 which he himself carried out in a very elaborate manner4 ,he died at ,newburyport on the #bfth of ,october #ahjf4 ,,dextrine 7,,british ,,gum1 ,,starch ,,gum1 ,,leiocome71 7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e7x1 a substance produced from starch by the action of dilute acids1 or by roasting it at a temperature between #agj and #bdj ,c4 ,it is manufactured by spraying starch with #b nitric acid1 drying in air1 and then heating to about #aaj4 ,different modifications are known1 e4g4 amylodextrine1 erythrodextrine and achroodextrine4 ,its name has reference to its powerful dextrorotatory action on polarized light4 ,pure dextrine is an insipid1 odourless1 white substance2 commercial dextrine is sometimes yellowish1 and contains burnt or unchanged starch4 ,it dissolves in water and dilute alcohol2 by strong alcohol it is precipitated from its solutions as the hydrated compound1 ,c#f;,h#aj,o#e4;,h#b,o4 ,diastase converts it eventually into maltose1 ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa2 and by boiling with dilute acids 7sulphuric1 hydrochloric1 acetic7 it is transformed into dextrose1 or ordinary glucose1 ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f4 ,it does not ferment in contact with yeast1 and does not reduce ,fehling's solution4 ,if heated with strong nitric acid it gives oxalic1 and not mucic acid4 ,dextrine much resembles gum arabic1 for which it is generally substituted4 ,it is employed for sizing paper1 for stiffening cotton goods1 and for thickening colours in calico printing1 also in the making of lozenges1 adhesive stamps and labels1 and surgical bandages4 ,see ,otto ,lueger1 ,lexikon der gesamten ,technik4 ,,dey 7an adaptation of the ,turk1 da1 a maternal uncle71 an honorary title formerly bestowed by the ,turks on elderly men1 and appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their commanding officers4 ,in ,algeria the deys of the janissaries became in the #agth century rulers of that country 7see ,,algeria3 ,,history74 ,from the middle of the #afth century to the end of the #agth century the ruler of ,tunisia was also called dey1 a title frequently used during the same period by the sovereigns of ,tripoli4 ,,dhammap,a,,la1 the name of one of the early disciples of the ,buddha1 and therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by ,buddhist novices on their entering the brotherhood4 ,the most famous of the ,bhikshus so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half of the #eth century ,a4,d4 at the ,badara ,tittha ,vihara1 near the east coast of ,india1 just a little south of where ,madras now stands4 ,it is to him we owe the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books1 consisting almost entirely of verses1 and also the commentary on the ,netti1 perhaps the oldest ,pali work outside the canon4 ,extracts from the latter work1 and the whole of three out of the seven others1 have been published by the ,pali ,text ,society4 ,these works show great learning1 exegetical skill and sound judgment4 ,but as ,dhammapala confines himself rigidly either to questions of the meaning of words1 or to discussions of the ethical import of his texts1 very little can be gathered from his writings of value for the social history of his time4 ,for the right interpretation of the difficult texts on which he comments1 they are indispensable4 ,though in all probability a ,tamil by birth1 he declares1 in the opening lines of those of his works that have been edited1 that he followed the tradition of the ,great ,minster at ,anuradhapura in ,ceylon1 and the works themselves confirm this in every respect4 ,hsan ,tsang1 the famous ,chinese pilgrim1 tells a quaint story of a ,dhammapala of ,kanchipura 7the modern ,konjevaram74 ,he was a son of a high official1 and betrothed to a daughter of the king1 but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast1 entered the order1 and attained to reverence and distinction4 ,it is most likely that this story1 whether legendary or not 7and ,hsan ,tsang heard the story at ,kanchipura nearly two centuries after the date of ,dhammapala71 referred to this author4 ,but it may also refer1 as ,hsan ,tsang refers it1 to another author of the same name4 ,other unpublished works1 besides those mentioned above1 have been ascribed to ,dhammapala1 but it is very doubtful whether they are really by him4 ,,authorities4--,t4 ,watters1 ,on ,yuan ,chwang 7ed4 ,rhys ,davids and ,bushell1 ,london1 #aije71 ii4 #afi1 #bbh2 ,edmund ,hardy in ,zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft 7#ahih71 pp4 #ig foll42 ,netti 7ed4 ,e4 ,hardy1 ,london1 ,pali ,text ,society1 #aijb71 especially the ,introduction1 passim2 ,ther ,gatha ,commentary1 ,peta ,vatthu ,commentary1 and ,vimana ,vatthu ,commentary1 all three published by the ,pali ,text ,society4 7,t4 ,w4 ,r4 ,d47 ,,dhanis1 ,,francis1 ,,baron 7#ahfa-aiji71 ,belgian administrator1 was born in ,london in #ahfa and passed the first fourteen years of his life at ,greenock1 where he received his early education4 ,he was the son of a ,belgian merchant and of an ,irish lady named ,maher4 ,the name ,dhanis is supposed to be a variation of ,d',anvers4 ,having completed his education at the cole ,militaire he entered the ,belgian army1 joining the regiment of grenadiers1 in which he rose to the rank of major4 ,as soon as he reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the ,congo1 and in #ahhg he went out for a first term4 ,he did so well in founding new stations north of the ,congo that1 when the government decided to put an end to the ,arab domination on the ,upper ,congo1 he was selected to command the chief expedition sent against the slave dealers4 ,the campaign began in ,april #ahib1 and it was not brought to a successful conclusion till ,january #ahid4 ,the story of this war has been told in detail by ,dr ,sydney ,hinde1 who took part in it1 in his book ,the ,fall of the ,congo ,arabs4 ,the principal achievements of the campaign were the captures in succession of the three ,arab strongholds at ,nyangwe1 ,kassongo and ,kabambari4 ,for his services ,dhanis was raised to the rank of baron1 and in #ahie was made vice-governor of the ,congo ,state4 ,in #ahif he took command of an expedition to the ,upper ,nile4 ,his troops1 largely composed of the ,batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted1 and who had been irritated by the execution of some of their chiefs for indulging their cannibal proclivities1 mutinied and murdered many of their white officers4 ,dhanis found himself confronted with a more formidable adversary than even the ,arabs in these well-armed and half-disciplined mercenaries4 ,during two years 7#ahig-ahih7 he was constantly engaged in a life-and-death struggle with them4 ,eventually he succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous soldiers4 ,although the incidents of the ,batetela operations were less striking than those of the ,arab war1 many students of both think that the ,belgian leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in bringing them to a successful issue4 ,in #ahii ,baron ,dhanis returned to ,belgium with the honorary rank of vice governor-general4 ,he died on the #adth of ,november #aiji4 ,,dhar1 a native state of ,india1 in the ,bhopawar agency1 ,central ,india4 ,it includes many ,rajput and ,bhil feudatories1 and has an area of #agge sq4 m4 ,the raja is a ,punwar ,mahratta4 ,the founder of the present ruling family was ,anand ,rao ,punwar1 a descendant of the great ,paramara clan of ,rajputs who from the #ith to the #acth century1 when they were driven out by the ,mahommedans1 had ruled over ,malwa from their capital at ,dhar4 ,in #agdb ,anand ,rao received ,dhar as a fief from ,baji ,rao1 the peshwa1 the victory of the ,mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the family which seven centuries before had been expelled from this very city and country4 ,towards the close of the #ahth and in the early part of the #aith century1 the state was subject to a series of spoliations by ,sindia and ,holkar1 and was only preserved from destruction by the talents and courage of the adoptive mother of the fifth raja4 ,by a treaty of #ahai ,dhar passed under ,british protection1 and bound itself to act in subordinate co-operation4 ,the state was confiscated for rebellion in #aheg1 but in #ahfj was restored to ,raja ,anand ,rao ,punwar1 then a minor1 with the exception of the detached district of ,bairusia1 which was granted to the begum of ,bhopal4 ,anand ,rao1 who received the personal title ,maharaja and the ,k4,c4,s4,i4 in #ahgg1 died in #ahih1 and was succeeded by ,udaji ,rao ,punwar4 ,in #aija the population was #adb1aae4 ,the state includes the ruins of ,mandu1 or ,mandogarh1 the ,mahommedan capital of ,malwa4 ,,the ,,town ,,of ,,dhar is #cc m4 ,w4 of ,mhow1 #ijh ft4 above the sea4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ag1gib4 ,it is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees surrounded by barren hills1 and possesses1 besides its old walls1 many interesting buildings1 ,hindu and ,mahommedan1 some of them containing records of a great historical importance4 ,the ,lat ,masjid1 or ,pillar ,mosque1 was built by ,dilawar ,khan in #adje out of the remains of ,jain temples4 ,it derives its name from an iron pillar1 supposed to have been originally set up at the beginning of the #acth century in commemoration of a victory1 and bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town of the emperor ,akbar in #aeih4 ,the pillar1 which was #dc ft4 high1 is now overthrown and broken4 ,the ,kamal ,maula is an enclosure containing four tombs1 the most notable being that of ,shaikh ,kamal ,maulvi 7,kamal-ud-din71 a follower of the famous #acth-century ,mussulman saint ,nizam-ud-din ,auliya4#a ,the mosque known as ,raja ,bhoj's school was built out of ,hindu remains in the #adth or #aeth century3 its name is derived from the slabs1 covered with inscriptions giving rules of ,sanskrit grammar1 with which it is paved4 ,on a small hill to the north of the town stands the fort1 a conspicuous pile of red sandstone1 said to have been built by ,mahommed ben ,tughlak of ,delhi in the #adth century4 ,it contains the palace of the raja4 ,of modern institutions may be mentioned the high school1 public library1 hospital1 and the chapel1 school and hospital of the ,canadian ,presbyterian mission4 ,there is also a government opium depot for the payment of duty1 the town being a considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain4 ,the town1 the name of which is usually derived from ,dhara ,nagari 7the city of sword blades71 is of great antiquity1 and was made the capital of the ,paramara chiefs of ,malwa by ,vairisinha ,,ii41 who transferred his headquarters hither from ,ujjain at the close of the #ith century4 ,during the rule of the ,paramara dynasty ,dhar was famous throughout ,india as a centre of culture and learning2 but1 after suffering various vicissitudes1 it was finally conquered by the ,mussulmans at the beginning of the #adth century4 ,at the close of the century ,dilawar ,khan1 the builder of the ,lat ,masjid1 who had been appointed governor in #acii1 practically established his independence1 his son ,hoshang ,shah being the first ,mahommedan king of ,malwa4 ,under this dynasty ,dhar was second in importance to the capital ,mandu4 ,subsequently1 in the time of ,akbar1 ,dhar fell under the dominion of the ,moguls1 in whose hands it remained till #agcj1 when it was conquered by the ,mahrattas4 ,see ,imperial ,gazetteer of ,india 7,oxford1 #aijh74 #a ,nizam-ud-din1 whose beautiful marble tomb is at ,indarpat near ,delhi1 was1 according to some authorities1 an assassin of the secret society of ,khorasan4 ,by some modern authorities he is supposed to have been the founder of ,thuggism1 the ,thugs having a special reverence for his memory4 ,,dharampur1 a native state of ,india1 in the ,surat political agency division of ,bombay1 with an area of #gjd sq4 m4 ,the population in #aija was #ajj1dcj1 being a decrease of #ag during the decade2 the estimated gross revenue is #be1dab2 and the tribute #fjj4 ,its chief is a ,sesodia ,rajput4 ,the state has been surveyed for land revenue on the ,bombay system4 ,it contains one town1 ,dharampur 7pop4 in #aija1 #fc1ddi71 and #bgb villages4 ,only a small part of the state1 the climate of which is very unhealthy1 is capable of cultivation2 the rest is covered with rocky hills1 forest and brushwood4 ,,dharmsala1 a hill-station and sanatorium of the ,punjab1 ,india1 situated on a spur of the ,dhaola ,dhar1 #af m4 ,n4,e4 of ,kangra town1 at an elevation of some #fjjj ft4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #figa4 ,the scenery of ,dharmsala is of peculiar grandeur4 ,the spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with oak and other trees2 behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain tower towards the jagged peaks of the higher range1 snow-clad for half the year2 while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the ,kangra valley4 ,in #ahee ,dharmsala was made the headquarters of the ,kangra district of the ,punjab in place of ,kangra1 and became the centre of a ,european settlement and cantonment1 largely occupied by ,gurkha regiments4 ,the station was destroyed by the earthquake of ,april #aije1 in which #afbe persons1 including #be ,europeans and #aab of the ,gurkha garrison1 perished 7,imperial ,gazetteer of ,india1 #aijh74 ,,dharwar1 a town and district of ,british ,india1 in the southern division of ,bombay4 ,the town has a station on the ,southern ,mahratta railway4 ,the population in #aija was #ca1bgi4 ,it has several ginning factories and a cotton-mill2 two high schools1 one maintained by the ,government and the other by the ,basel ,german ,mission4 ,the ,,district ,,of ,,dharwar has an area of #dfjb sq4 m4 ,in the north and north-east are great plains of black soil1 favourable to cotton-growing2 in the south and west are successive ranges of low hills1 with flat fertile valleys between them4 ,the whole district lies high and has no large rivers4 ,in #aija the population was #a1aac1bih1 showing an increase of #f in the decade4 ,the most influential classes of the community are ,brahmans and ,lingayats4 ,the ,lingayats number #dcf1ifh1 or #df of the ,hindu population2 they worship the symbol of ,siva1 and males and females both carry this emblem about their person in a silver case4 ,the principal crops are millets1 pulse and cotton4 ,the centres of the cotton trade are ,hubli and ,gadag1 junctions on the ,southern ,mahratta railway1 which traverses the district in several directions4 ,the early history of the territory comprised within the district of ,dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription slabs and memorial stones which abound there4 ,from these it is clear that the country fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties that ruled in the ,deccan1 memorials of the ,chalukyan dynasty1 whether temples or inscriptions1 being especially abundant4 ,in the #adth century the district was first overrun by the ,mahommedans1 after which it was annexed to the newly established ,hindu kingdom of ,vijayanagar1 an official of which named ,dhar ,rao1 according to local tradition1 built the fort at ,dharwar town in #adjc4 ,after the defeat of the king of ,vijayanagar at ,talikot 7#aefe71 ,dharwar was for a few years practically independent under its ,hindu governor2 but in #aegc the fort was captured by the sultan of ,bijapur1 and ,dharwar was annexed to his dominions4 ,in #afhe the fort was taken by the emperor ,aurangzeb1 and ,dharwar1 on the break-up of the ,mogul empire1 fell under the sway of the peshwa of ,poona4 ,in #agfd the province was overrun by ,hyder ,ali of ,mysore1 who in #aggh captured the fort of ,dharwar4 ,this was retaken in #agia by the ,mahrattas4 ,on the final overthrow of the peshwa in #ahag1 ,dharwar was incorporated with the territory of the ,east ,india ,company4 ,,dholpur1 a native state of ,india1 in the ,rajputana agency1 with an area of #aaee sq4 m4 ,it is a crop-producing country1 without any special manufactures4 ,all along the bank of the river ,chambal the country is deeply intersected by ravines2 low ranges of hills in the western portion of the state supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and easily-worked red sandstone4 ,in #aija the population of ,dholpur was #bgj1igc1 showing a decrease of #c in the decade4 ,the estimated revenue is #hc1jjj4 ,the state is crossed by the ,indian ,midland railway from ,jhansi to ,agra4 ,in recent years it has suffered severely from drought4 ,in #ahif-ahig the expenditure on famine relief amounted to #haij4 ,the town of ,dholpur is #cd m4 ,s4 of ,agra by rail4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ai1caj4 ,the present town1 which dates from the #afth century1 stands somewhat to the north of the site of the older ,hindu town built1 it is supposed1 in the #aath century by the ,tonwar ,rajput ,raja ,dholan 7or ,dhawal7 ,deo1 and named after him ,dholdera or ,dhawalpuri4 ,among the objects of interest in the town may be mentioned the fortified sarai built in the reign of ,akbar1 within which is the fine tomb of ,sadik ,mahommed ,khan 7d4 #aeie71 one of his generals4 ,the town1 from its position on the railway1 is growing in importance as a centre of trade4 ,little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of ,dholpur4 ,local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the ,tonwar ,rajputs1 who had their seat at ,delhi from the #hth to the #abth century4 ,in #adej it had a raja of its own2 but in #aeja the fort of ,dholpur was taken by the ,mahommedans under ,sikandar ,lodi and in #aejd was transferred to a ,mussulman governor4 ,in #aebg1 after a strenuous resistance1 the fort was captured by ,baber and with the surrounding country passed under the sway of the ,moguls1 being included by ,akbar in the province of ,agra4 ,during the dissensions which followed the death of ,aurangzeb in #agjg1 ,raja ,kalyan ,singh ,bhadauria obtained possession of ,dholpur1 and his family retained it till #agfa1 after which it was taken successively by the ,jat raja1 ,suraj ,mal of ,bharatpur1 by ,mirza ,najaf ,khan in #agge1 by ,sindhia in #aghb1 and in #ahjc by the ,british4 ,it was restored to ,sindhia by the treaty of ,sarji ,anjangaon1 but in consequence of new arrangements was again occupied by the ,british4 ,finally1 in #ahjf1 the territories of ,dholpur1 ,bari and ,rajakhera were handed over to the maharaj rana ,kirat ,singh1 ancestor of the present chiefs of ,dholpur1 in exchange for his state of ,gohad1 which was ceded to ,sindhia4 ,the maharaj rana of ,dholpur belongs to the clan of ,bamraolia ,jats1 who are believed to have formed a portion of the ,indo-,scythian wave of invasion which swept over northern ,india about ,a4,d4 #ajj4 ,an ancestor of the family appears to have held certain territories at ,bamraoli near ,agra c4 #aaie4 ,his descendant in #aeje1 ,singhan ,deo1 having distinguished himself in an expedition against the freebooters of the ,deccan1 was rewarded by the sovereignty of the small territory of ,gohad1 with the title of rana4 ,in #aggi the rana of ,gohad joined the ,british forces against ,sindhia1 under a treaty which stipulated that1 at the conclusion of peace between the ,english and ,mahrattas1 all the territories then in his possession should be guaranteed to him1 and protected from invasion by ,sindhia4 ,this protection was subsequently withdrawn1 the rana having been guilty of treachery1 and in #aghc ,sindhia succeeded in recapturing the fortress of ,gwalior1 and crushed his ,jat opponent by seizing the whole of ,gohad4 ,in #ahjd1 however1 the family were restored to ,gohad by the ,british government2 but1 owing to the opposition of ,sindhia1 the rana agreed in #ahje to exchange ,gohad for his present territory of ,dholpur1 which was taken under ,british protection1 the chief binding himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the paramount power1 and to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the ,british government4 ,kirat ,singh1 the first maharaj rana of ,dholpur1 was succeeded in #ahcf by his son ,bhagwant ,singh1 who showed great loyalty during the ,mutiny of #aheg1 was created a ,k4,c4,s4,i41 and ,g4,c4,s4,i4 in #ahfi4 ,he was succeeded in #ahgc by his grandson ,nihal ,singh1 who received the ,c4,b4 and frontier medal for services in the ,tirah campaign4 ,he died in #aija1 and was succeeded by his eldest son ,ram ,singh 7b4 #ahhc74 ,see ,imperial ,gazetteer of ,india 7,oxford1 #aijh7 and authorities there given4 ,,dhow1 the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the ,arabian ,sea4 ,the language to which the word belongs is unknown4 ,according to the ,new ,english ,dictionary the place of origin may be the ,persian ,gulf1 assuming that the word is identical with the tava mentioned by ,athanasius ,nikitin 7,india in the #aeth ,century1 ,hakluyt ,society1 #aheh74 ,though the word is used generally of any craft along the ,east ,african coast1 it is usually applied to the vessel of about #aej to #bjj tons burden with a stem rising with a long slope from the water2 dhows generally have one mast with a lateen sail1 the yard being of enormous length4 ,much of the coasting trade of the ,red ,sea and ,persian ,gulf is carried on by these vessels4 ,they were the regular vessels employed in the slave trade from the east coast of ,africa4 ,,dhrangadra1 a native state of ,india1 in the ,gujarat division of ,bombay1 situated in the north of the peninsula of ,kathiawar4 ,its area is #aaef sq4 m4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #gj1hhj4 ,the estimated gross revenue is #ch1jjj and the tribute #cjjj4 ,a state railway on the metre gauge from ,wadhwan to the town of ,dhrangadra1 a distance of #ba m41 was opened for traffic in #ahih4 ,some cotton is grown1 although the soil is as a whole poor2 the manufactures include salt1 metal vessels and stone hand-mills4 ,the chief town1 ,dhrangadra1 has a population 7#aija7 of #ad1ggj4 ,the chief of ,dhrangadra1 who bears the title of ,raj ,sahib1 with the predicate of ,his ,highness1 is head of the ancient clan of ,jhala ,rajputs1 who are said to have entered ,kathiawar from ,sind in the #hth century4 ,raj ,sahib ,sir ,mansinghji ,ranmalsinghji 7b4 #ahcg71 who succeeded his father in #ahfi1 was distinguished for the enlightened character of his administration1 especially in the matter of establishing schools and internal communications4 ,he was created a ,k4,c4,s4,i in #ahgg4 ,he died in #aijj1 and was succeeded by his grandson ,ajitsinghji ,jaswatsinghji 7b4 #ahgb74 ,,dhuleep ,,singh 7#ahcg-ahic71 maharaja of ,lahore1 was born in ,february #ahcg1 and was proclaimed maharaja on the #ahth of ,september #ahdc1 under the regency of his mother the rani ,jindan1 a woman of great capacity and strong will1 but extremely inimical to the ,british4 ,he was acknowledged by ,ranjit ,singh and recognized by the ,british government4 ,after six years of peace the ,sikhs invaded ,british territory in #ahde1 but were defeated in four battles1 and terms were imposed upon them at ,lahore1 the capital of the ,punjab4 ,dhuleep ,singh retained his territory1 but it was administered to a great extent by the ,british government in his name4 ,this arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the ,british1 and a fresh outbreak occurred in #ahdh-di4 ,in spite of the valour of the ,sikhs1 they were utterly routed at ,gujarat1 and in ,march #ahdi ,dhuleep ,singh was deposed1 a pension of #dj1jjj a year being granted to him and his dependants4 ,he became a ,christian and elected to live in ,england4 ,on coming of age he made an arrangement with the ,british government by which his income was reduced to #be1jjj in consideration of advances for the purchase of an estate1 and he finally settled at ,elvedon in ,suffolk4 ,while passing through ,alexandria in #ahfd he met ,miss ,bamba ,mller1 the daughter of a ,german merchant who had married an ,abyssinian4 ,the maharaja had been interested in mission work by ,sir ,john ,login1 and he met ,miss ,mller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching4 ,she became his wife on the #gth of ,june #ahfd1 and six children were the issue of the marriage4 ,in the year after her death in #ahij the maharaja married at ,paris1 as his second wife1 an ,english lady1 ,miss ,ada ,douglas ,wetherill1 who survived him4 ,the maharaja was passionately fond of sport1 and his shooting parties were celebrated1 while he himself became a persona grata in ,english society4 ,the result1 however1 was financial difficulty1 and in #ahhb he appealed to the government for assistance1 making various claims based upon the alleged possession of private estates in the ,punjab1 and upon the surrender of the ,koh-i-nor diamond to the ,british ,crown4 ,his demand was rejected1 whereupon he started for ,india1 after drawing up a proclamation to his former subjects4 ,but as it was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the ,punjab1 he remained for some time as a guest at the residency at ,aden1 and was allowed to receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of ,christianity1 which actually took place within the residency itself4 ,as the climate began to affect his health1 the maharaja at length left ,aden and returned to ,europe4 ,he stayed for some time in ,russia1 hoping that his claim against ,england would be taken up by the ,russians2 but when that expectation proved futile he proceeded to ,paris1 where he lived for the rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the ,indian government4 ,his death from an attack of apoplexy took place at ,paris on the #bbnd of ,october #ahic4 ,the maharaja's eldest son1 ,prince ,victor ,albert ,jay ,dhuleep ,singh 7b4 #ahff71 was educated at ,trinity and ,downing ,colleges1 ,cambridge4 ,in #ahhh he obtained a commission in the #ast ,royal ,dragoon ,guards4 ,in #ahih he married ,lady ,anne ,coventry1 youngest daughter of the earl of ,coventry4 7,g4,f4,b47 ,,dhulia1 a town of ,british ,india1 administrative headquarters of ,west ,khandesh district in ,bombay1 on the right bank of the ,panjhra river4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #bd1gbf4 ,considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds1 and weaving of cotton4 ,a railway connects ,dhulia with ,chalisgaon1 on the main line of the ,great ,indian ,peninsula railway4 ,,diabase1 in petrology1 a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite4 ,it was long widely accepted that the pre-,tertiary rocks of this group differed from their ,tertiary and ,recent representatives in certain essential respects1 but this is now admitted to be untenable1 and the differences are known to be merely the result of the longer exposure to decomposition1 pressure and shearing1 which the older rocks have experienced4 ,their olivine tends to become serpentinized2 their augite changes to chlorite and uralite2 their felspars are clouded by formation of zeolites1 calcite1 sericite and epidote4 ,the rocks acquire a green colour 7from the development of chlorite1 uralite and epidote72 hence the older name of greenstones1 which is now little used4 ,many of them become somewhat schistose from pressure 7greenstone-schists1 meta-diabase1 c474 ,although the original definition of the group can no longer be justified1 the name is so well established in current usage that it can hardly be discarded4 ,the terms diabase and dolerite are employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of rocks4 ,the minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite1 viz4 olivine1 augite1 and plagioclase felspar1 with subordinate quantities of hornblende1 biotite1 iron oxides and apatite4 ,there are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine2 quartz-diabases1 analcite-diabases 7or teschenites7 and hornblende diabases 7or proterobases74 ,hypersthene 7or bronzite7 is characteristic of another group4 ,many of them are ophitic1 especially those which contain olivine1 but others are intersertal1 like the intersertal dolerites4 ,the last include most quartz-diabases1 hypersthene-diabases and the rocks which have been described as tholeites4 ,porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites1 some of which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant fine-grained or partly glassy ground-mass 7diabas-mandelstein1 amygdaloidal diabase74 ,the somewhat ill-defined spilites are regarded by many as modifications of diabase-porphyrite4 ,in the intersertal and porphyrite diabases1 fresh or devitrified glassy base is not infrequent4 ,it is especially conspicuous in some tholeites 7hyalo-tholeites7 and in weisselbergites4 ,these rocks consist of augite and plagioclase1 with little or no olivine1 on a brown1 vitreous1 interstitial matrix4 ,devitrified forms of tachylyte 7sordawilite1 c47 occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite sills and dikes1 and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites of grey or greenish felspar1 and branching growths of brownish-green augite 7variolites74 ,to nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the diabases1 a counterpart can be found among the ,tertiary dolerites4 ,in the older rocks1 however1 certain minerals are more common than in the newer4 ,hornblende1 mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous habit1 is very frequent in diabase2 it is in most cases secondary after pyroxene1 and is then known as uralite2 often it forms pseudomorphs which retain the shape of the original augite4 ,where diabases have been crushed or sheared1 hornblende readily develops at the expense of pyroxene1 sometimes replacing it completely4 ,in the later stages of alteration the amphibole becomes compact and well crystallized2 the rocks consist of green hornblende and plagioclase felspar1 and are then generally known as epidiorites or amphibolites4 ,at the same time a schistose structure is produced4 ,but transition forms are very common1 having more or less of the augite remaining1 surrounded by newly formed hornblende which at first is rather fibrous and tends to spread outwards through the surrounding felspar4 ,chlorite also is abundant both in sheared and unsheared diabases1 and with it calcite may make its appearance1 or the lime set free from the augite may combine with the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to form incrustations or borders of sphene around the original crystals of ilmenite4 ,epidote is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which results from the decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the pyroxenes4 ,many diabases1 especially those of the teschenite sub-group1 are filled with zeolites4 ,diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts of the globe4 ,popular names for them are whinstone1 greenstone1 toadstone and trap4 ,they form excellent road-mending stones and are much quarried for this purpose1 being tough1 durable and resistant to wear1 so long as they are not extremely decomposed4 ,many of them are to be preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle4 ,the quality of the ,cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly improved by a smaller amount of recrystallization where they have been heated by contact with intrusive masses of granite4 7,j4 ,s4 ,f47 ,,diabetes 7from ,gr4 ,greek3 dia1 through1 and ,greek3 bainein1 to pass71 a constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive discharge of urine4 ,two forms of this complaint are described1 viz4 ,diabetes ,mellitus1 or ,glycosuria1 where the urine is not only increased in quantity1 but persistently contains a greater or less amount of sugar1 and ,diabetes ,insipidus1 or ,polyuria1 where the urine is simply increased in quantity1 and contains no abnormal ingredient4 ,this latter1 however1 must be distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular kidney1 lardaceous disease of the kidney1 and also occurring in certain cases of hysteria4 ,diabetes mellitus is the disease to which the term is most commonly applied1 and is by far the more serious and important ailment4 ,it is one of the diseases due to altered metabolism 7see ,,metabolic ,,diseases74 ,it is markedly hereditary1 much more prevalent in towns and especially modern city life than in more primitive rustic communities1 and most common among the ,jews4 ,the excessive use of sugar as a food is usually considered one cause of the disease1 and obesity is supposed to favour its occurrence1 but many observers consider that the obesity so often met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself4 ,no age is exempt1 but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of life4 ,it attacks males twice as frequently as females1 and fair more frequently than dark people4 ,the symptoms are usually gradual in their onset1 and the patient may suffer for a length of time before he thinks it necessary to apply for medical aid4 ,the first symptoms which attract attention are failure of strength1 and emaciation1 along with great thirst and an increased amount and frequent passage of urine4 ,from the normal quantity of from #b to #c pints in the #bd hours it may be increased to #aj1 #bj or #cj pints1 or even more4 ,it is usually of pale colour1 and of thicker consistence than normal urine1 possesses a decidedly sweet taste1 and is of high specific gravity 7#ajcj to #ajej74 ,it frequently gives rise to considerable irritation of the urinary passages4 ,by simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic urine1 which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar1 while the amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by certain analytical processes4 ,the quantity of sugar passed may vary from a few ounces to two or more pounds per diem1 and it is found to be markedly increased after saccharine or starchy food has been taken4 ,sugar may also be found in the blood1 saliva1 tears1 and in almost all the excretions of persons suffering from this disease4 ,one of the most distressing symptoms is intense thirst1 which the patient is constantly seeking to allay1 the quantity of liquid consumed being in general enormous1 and there is usually1 but not invariably1 a voracious appetite4 ,the mouth is always parched1 and a faint1 sweetish odour may be evolved from the breath4 ,the effect of the disease upon the general health is very marked1 and the patient becomes more and more emaciated4 ,he suffers from increasing muscular weakness1 the temperature of his body is lowered1 and the skin is dry and harsh4 ,there is often a peculiar flush on the face1 not limited to the malar eminences1 but extending up to the roots of the hair4 ,the teeth are loosened or decay1 there is a tendency to bleeding from the gums1 while dyspeptic symptoms1 constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments4 ,there is in general great mental depression or irritability4 ,diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of young persons1 in whom its progress is apt to be rapid4 ,the complications of the disease are many and serious4 ,it may cause impaired vision by weakening the muscles of accommodation1 or by lessening the sensitiveness of the retina to light4 ,also cataract is very common4 ,skin affections of all kinds may occur and prove very intractable4 ,boils1 carbuncles1 cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life advances1 though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women4 ,diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia1 and gangrene of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis in the latter disease4 ,digestive troubles of all kinds1 kidney diseases and heart failure due to fatty heart are all of common occurrence4 ,also patients seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric fever1 though the attack usually runs a mild course4 ,the sugar temporarily disappears during the fever4 ,but the most serious complication of all is known as diabetic coma1 which is very commonly the final cause of death4 ,the onset is often insidious1 but may be indicated by loss of appetite1 a rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar1 and by either constipation or diarrhoea4 ,more rarely there is most acute abdominal pain4 ,at first the condition is rather that of collapse than true coma1 though later the patient is absolutely comatose4 ,the patient suffers from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea1 and the breath and skin have a sweet ethereal odour4 ,the condition may last from twenty-four hours to three days1 but is almost invariably the precursor of death4 ,diabetes is a very fatal form of disease1 recovery being exceedingly rare4 ,over #ej die of coma1 another #be of phthisis or pneumonia1 and the remainder of ,bright's disease1 cerebral haemorrhage1 gangrene1 c4 ,the most favourable cases are those in which the patient is advanced in years1 those in which it is associated with obesity or gout1 and where the social conditions are favourable4 ,a few cures have been recorded in which the disease supervened after some acute illness4 ,the unfavourable cases are those in which there is a family history of the disease and in which the patient is young4 ,nevertheless much may be done by appropriate treatment to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to prolong life4 ,there are two distinct lines of treatment1 that of diet and that of drugs1 but each must be modified and determined entirely by the idiosyncrasy of the patient1 which varies in this condition between very wide limits4 ,that of diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has been proved beyond question that certain kinds of food have a powerful influence in aggravating the disease1 more particularly those consisting largely of saccharine and starchy matter2 and it may be stated generally that the various methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as far as possible of these constituents from the diet4 ,hence it is recommended that such articles as bread1 potatoes and all farinaceous foods1 turnips1 carrots1 parsnips and most fruits should be avoided2 while animal food and soups1 green vegetables1 cream1 cheese1 eggs1 butter1 and tea and coffee without sugar1 may be taken with advantage4 ,as a substitute for ordinary bread1 which most persons find it difficult to do without for any length of time1 bran bread1 gluten bread and almond biscuits4 ,a patient must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to a carbohydrate-free diet4 ,any such sudden transition is extremely liable to bring on diabetic coma1 and the change must be made quite gradually1 one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of the diet1 whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully noted meanwhile4 ,the treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes1 sugar and fruit1 and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by some diabetic substitute4 ,when the sugar excretion has been reduced to its lowest point1 and maintained there for some time1 a certain amount of carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed1 the consequent effect on the glycosuria being estimated4 ,the best diet can only be worked out experimentally for each individual patient4 ,but in every case1 if drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma supervene1 all restrictions must be withdrawn1 and carbohydrate freely allowed4 ,the question of alcohol is one which must be largely determined by the previous history of the patient1 but a small quantity will help to make up the deficiencies of a diet poor in carbohydrate4 ,scotch and ,irish whisky1 and ,hollands gin1 are usually free from sugar1 and some of the light ,bordeaux wines contain very little4 ,fat is beneficial1 and can be given as cream1 fat of meat and cod-liver oil4 ,green vegetables are harmless1 but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and endive yield sugar4 ,laevulose can be assimilated up to #a ozs4 daily without increasing the glycosuria1 and hence apples1 cooked or raw1 are allowable1 as the sugar they contain is in this form4 ,the question of milk is somewhat disputed2 but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid diet1 allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended4 ,thirst is relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria4 ,but hypodermic injections of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva1 and thus relieve the dryness of the mouth4 ,constipation appears to increase the thirst1 and must always be carefully guarded against4 ,the best remedies are the aperient mineral waters4 ,numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes1 but few of them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy4 ,opium is often found of great service1 its administration being followed by marked amelioration in all the symptoms4 ,morphia and codeia have a similar action4 ,in the severest cases1 however1 these drugs appear to be of little or no use1 and they certainly increase the constipation4 ,heroin hydrochloride has been tried in their place1 but this seems to have more power over slight than over severe cases4 ,salicylate of sodium and aspirin are both very beneficial1 causing a diminution in the sugar excretion without counterbalancing bad effects4 ,in diabetes insipidus there is constant thirst and an excessive flow of urine1 which1 however1 is not found to contain any abnormal constituent4 ,its effects upon the system are often similar to those of diabetes mellitus1 except that they are much less marked1 the disease being in general very slow in its progress4 ,in some cases the health appears to suffer very slightly4 ,it is rarely a direct cause of death1 but from its debilitating effects may predispose to serious and fatal complications4 ,it is best treated by tonics and generous diet4 ,valerian has been found beneficial1 the powdered root being given in #e-;grain doses4 ,,diabolo1 a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones joined at their apices1 which is spun1 thrown1 and caught by means of a cord strung to two sticks4 ,the idea of the game appears originally to have come from ,china1 where a top 7,kouengen71 made of two hollow pierced cylinders of metal or wood1 joined by a rod--and often of immense size1--was made by rotation to hum with a loud noise1 and was used by pedlars to attract customers4 ,from ,china it was introduced by missionaries to ,europe2 and a form of the game1 known as the devil on two sticks1 appears to have been known in ,england towards the end of the #ahth century1 and ,lord ,macartney is credited with improvements in it4 ,but its principal vogue was in ,france in #ahab1 where the top was called le diable4 ,amusing old prints exist 7see ,fry's ,magazine1 ,march and ,december #aijg71 depicting examples of the popular craze in ,france at the time4 ,the diable of those days resembled a globular wooden dumb-bell with a short waist1 and the sonorous hum when spinning--the bruit du diable--was a pronounced feature4 ,at intervals during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a top of this sort on a string were made1 but it was not till #aijf that the sensation of #ahab began to be repeated4 ,a ,french engineer1 ,gustave ,phillipart1 discovering some old implements of the game1 had experimented for some time with new forms of top with a view to bringing it again into popularity2 and having devised the double-cone shape1 and added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends of the double-cone1 with other improvements1 he named it diabolo4 ,the use of celluloid in preference to metal or wood as its material appears to have been due to a suggestion of ,mr ,c4 ,b4 ,fry1 who was consulted by the inventor on the subject4 ,the game of spinning1 throwing and catching the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions1 both as an exercise of skill in doing tricks1 and in diabolo tennis and other ways as an athletic pastime4 ,from ,paris1 ,ostend and the chief ,french seaside resorts1 where it became popular in #aijf1 its vogue spread in #aijg so that in ,france and ,england it became the fashionable rage among both children and adults4 ,the mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by ,professor ,c4 ,v4 ,boys in the ,proc4 ,phys4 ,soc4 7,london71 ,nov4 #aijg4 ,,diaconicon1 in the ,greek ,church1 the name given to a chamber on the south side of the central apse1 where the sacred utensils1 vessels1 c41 of the church were kept4 ,in the reign of ,justin ,,ii4 7#efe-egd71 owing to a change in the liturgy1 the diaconicon and protheses were located in apses at the east end of the aisles4 ,before that time there was only one apse4 ,in the churches in central ,syria of slightly earlier date1 the diaconicon is rectangular1 the side apses at ,kalat-,seman having been added at a later date4 ,,diadochi 7,gr4 ,greek3 diadechesthai1 to receive from another71 i4e4 ,successors1 the name given to the ,macedonian generals who fought for the empire of ,alexander after his death in #cbc ,b4,c4 ,the name includes ,antigonus and his son ,demetrius ,poliorcetes1 ,antipater and his son ,cassander1 ,seleucus1 ,ptolemy1 ,eumenes and ,lysimachus4 ,the kingdoms into which the ,macedonian empire was divided under these rulers are known as ,hellenistic4 ,the chief were ,asia ,minor and ,syria under the ,,seleucid ,,dynasty 7q4v471 ,egypt under the ,,ptolemies 7q4v471 ,macedonia under the successors of ,antigonus ,gonatas1 ,,pergamum 7q4v47 under the ,attalid dynasty4 ,gradually these kingdoms were merged in the ,roman empire4 7,see ,,macedonian ,,empire47 ,,diagonal 7,gr4 ,greek3 dia1 through1 ,greek3 gnia1 a corner71 in geometry1 a line joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a rectilinear figure4 ,,diagoras1 of ,melos1 surnamed the ,atheist1 poet and sophist1 flourished in the second half of the #eth century ,b4,c4 ,religious in his youth and a writer of hymns and dithyrambs1 he became an atheist because a great wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods4 ,in consequence of his blasphemous speeches1 and especially his criticism of the ,mysteries1 he was condemned to death at ,athens1 and a price set upon his head 7,aristoph4 ,clouds1 #hcj2 ,birds1 #ajgc and ,schol474 ,he fled to ,corinth1 where he is said to have died4 ,his work on the ,mysteries was called ,greek ,phrygioi logoi or ,greek3 ,apopyrgizontes1 in which he probably attacked the ,phrygian divinities4 ,,diagram 7,gr4 ,greek3 diagramma1 from ,greek3 diagraphein1 to mark out by lines71 a figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical relations between the parts of the figure illustrate relations between other objects4 ,they may be classed according to the manner in which they are intended to be used1 and also according to the kind of analogy which we recognize between the diagram and the thing represented4 ,the diagrams in mathematical treatises are intended to help the reader to follow the mathematical reasoning4 ,the construction of the figure is defined in words so that even if no figure were drawn the reader could draw one for himself4 ,the diagram is a good one if those features which form the subject of the proposition are clearly represented4 ,diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way--namely1 for purposes of measurement4 ,the plans and designs drawn by architects and engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by measuring certain distances on the diagram4 ,for such purposes it is essential that the drawing be as accurate as possible4 ,we therefore class diagrams as diagrams of illustration1 which merely suggest certain relations to the mind of the spectator1 and diagrams drawn to scale1 from which measurements are intended to be made4 ,there are some diagrams or schemes1 however1 in which the form of the parts is of no importance1 provided their connexions are properly shown4 ,of this kind are the diagrams of electrical connexions1 and those belonging to that department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis1 periphraxy1 linkedness and knottedness4 ,diagrams purely ,graphic and mixed ,symbolic and ,graphic4--,diagrams may also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams1 in which no symbols are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular points of the diagrams1 and mixed diagrams1 in which certain magnitudes are represented1 not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram1 but by symbols1 such as numbers written on the diagram4 ,thus in a map the height of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on the map4 ,there is another method in which a line called a contour line is drawn through all the places in the map whose height above the sea is a certain number of feet1 and the number of feet is written at some point or points of this line4 ,by the use of a series of contour lines1 the height of a great number of places can be indicated on a map by means of a small number of written symbols4 ,still this method is not a purely graphical method1 but a partly symbolical method of expressing the third dimension of objects on a diagram in two dimensions4 ,in order to express completely by a purely graphical method the relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables1 we must use more than one diagram4 ,thus in the arts of construction we use plans and elevations and sections through different planes1 to specify the form of objects having three dimensions4 ,in such systems of diagrams we have to indicate that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another diagram4 ,this is generally done by marking the corresponding points in the different diagrams with the same letter4 ,if the diagrams are drawn on the same piece of paper we may indicate corresponding points by drawing a line from one to the other1 taking care that this line of correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for a real line in either diagram4 7,see ,,geometry3 ,descriptive47 ,in the stereoscope the two diagrams1 by the combined use of which the form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized1 are projections of the bodies taken from two points so near each other that1 by viewing the two diagrams simultaneously1 one with each eye1 we identify the corresponding points intuitively4 ,the method in which we simultaneously contemplate two figures1 and recognize a correspondence between certain points in the one figure and certain points in the other1 is one of the most powerful and fertile methods hitherto known in science4 ,thus in pure geometry the theories of similar1 reciprocal and inverse figures have led to many extensions of the science4 ,it is sometimes spoken of as the method or principle of ,duality4 ,,geometry3 ,projective47 ,,diagrams ,,in ,,mechanics4 ,the study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the use of a series of diagrams representing the configuration1 displacement and acceleration of the parts of the system4 ,diagram of ,configuration4--,in considering a material system it is often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at any given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration4 ,the position of any particle of the system is defined by drawing a straight line or vector from the origin1 or point of reference1 to the given particle4 ,the position of the particle with respect to the origin is determined by the magnitude and direction of this vector4 ,if in the diagram we draw from the origin 7which need not be the same point of space as the origin for the material system7 a vector equal and parallel to the vector which determines the position of the particle1 the end of this vector will indicate the position of the particle in the diagram of configuration4 ,if this is done for all the particles we shall have a system of points in the diagram of configuration1 each of which corresponds to a particle of the material system1 and the relative positions of any pair of these points will be the same as the relative positions of the material particles which correspond to them4 ,we have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the vectors are supposed to be drawn--one for the material system1 the other for the diagram4 ,these points1 however1 and the vectors drawn from them1 may now be omitted1 so that we have on the one hand the material system and on the other a set of points1 each point corresponding to a particle of the system1 and the whole representing the configuration of the system at a given instant4 ,this is called a diagram of configuration4 ,diagram of ,displacement4--,let us next consider two diagrams of configuration of the same system1 corresponding to two different instants4 ,we call the first the initial configuration and the second the final configuration1 and the passage from the one configuration to the other we call the displacement of the system4 ,we do not at present consider the length of time during which the displacement was effected1 nor the intermediate stages through which it passed1 but only the final result--a change of configuration4 ,to study this change we construct a diagram of displacement4 ,let ,a1 ,b1 ,c be the points in the initial diagram of configuration1 and ,a'1 ,b'1 ,c' be the corresponding points in the final diagram of configuration4 ,from o1 the origin of the diagram of displacement1 draw a vector oa equal and parallel to ,,aa'1 ob equal and parallel to ,,bb'1 oc to ,,cc'1 and so on4 ,the points a1 b1 c1 c41 will be such that the vector ab indicates the displacement of ,b relative to ,a1 and so on4 ,the diagram containing the points a1 b1 c1 c41 is therefore called the diagram of displacement4 ,in constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system4 ,for we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to ,,aa'1 which we cannot do unless we know the absolute final position of ,a1 with respect to its initial position4 ,in this diagram of displacement there is therefore1 besides the points a1 b1 c1 c41 an origin1 o1 which represents a point absolutely fixed in space4 ,this is necessary because the two configurations do not exist at the same time2 and therefore to express their relative position we require to know a point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time4 ,but we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space4 ,assuming any point and calling it a1 draw ak parallel and equal to ,,ba in the initial configuration1 and from k draw kb parallel and equal to ,a',b' in the final configuration4 ,it is easy to see that the position of the point b relative to a will be the same by this construction as by the former construction1 only we must observe that in this second construction we use only vectors such as ,,ab1 ,a',b'1 which represent the relative position of points both of which exist simultaneously1 instead of vectors such as ,,aa'1 ,,bb'1 which express the position of a point at one instant relative to its position at a former instant1 and which therefore cannot be determined by observation1 because the two ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously4 ,it appears therefore that the diagram of displacements1 when drawn by the first construction1 includes an origin o1 which indicates that we have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements4 ,but no such point occurs in the second construction1 because we use such vectors only as we can actually observe4 ,hence the diagram of displacements without an origin represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know about the displacement of the material system4 ,diagram of ,velocity4--,if the relative velocities of the points of the system are constant1 then the diagram of displacement corresponding to an interval of a unit of time between the initial and the final configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity4 ,if the relative velocities are not constant1 we suppose another system in which the velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system at the given instant and continue constant for a unit of time4 ,the diagram of displacements for this imaginary system is the required diagram of relative velocities of the actual system at the given instant4 ,it is easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any one point relative to any other1 but cannot give the absolute velocity of any of them4 ,diagram of ,acceleration4--,by the same process by which we formed the diagram of displacements from the two diagrams of initial and final configuration1 we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities4 ,this diagram may be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval of time4 ,and by the same process by which we deduced the diagram of velocities from that of displacements we may deduce the diagram of rates of acceleration from that of total acceleration4 ,we have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kinematics because they are found to be of use especially when we have to deal with material systems containing a great number of parts1 as in the kinetic theory of gases4 ,the diagram of configuration then appears as a region of space swarming with points representing molecules1 and the only way in which we can investigate it is by considering the number of such points in unit of volume in different parts of that region1 and calling this the density of the gas4 ,in like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region containing points equal in number but distributed in a different manner1 and the number of points in any given portion of the region expresses the number of molecules whose velocities lie within given limits4 ,we may speak of this as the velocity-density4 ,diagrams of ,stress4--,graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to statical questions1 because the state of the system is constant1 so that we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corresponding to the successive states of the system4 ,the most useful of these applications1 collectively termed ,graphic ,statics1 relates to the equilibrium of plane framed structures familiarly represented in bridges and roof-trusses4 ,two diagrams are used1 one called the diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of stress4 ,the structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links jointed together at their extremities4 ,in practice these joints have friction1 or may be made purposely stiff1 so that the force acting at the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly through the axis of the joint2 but as it is unsafe to make the stability of the structure depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints1 we assume in our calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth1 and therefore that the force acting on the end of any link passes through the axis of the joint4 ,the axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in the diagram of the frame4 ,the link which connects two joints in the actual structure may be of any shape1 but in the diagram of the frame it is represented by a straight line joining the points representing the two joints4 ,if no force acts on the link except the two forces acting through the centres of the joints1 these two forces must be equal and opposite1 and their direction must coincide with the straight line joining the centres of the joints4 ,if the force acting on either extremity of the link is directed towards the other extremity1 the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is called a strut4 ,if it is directed away from the other extremity1 the stress on the link is called tension and the link is called a tie4 ,in this case1 therefore1 the only stress acting in a link is a pressure or a tension in the direction of the straight line which represents it in the diagram of the frame1 and all that we have to do is to find the magnitude of this stress4 ,in the actual structure gravity acts on every part of the link1 but in the diagram we substitute for the actual weight of the different parts of the link two weights which have the same resultant acting at the extremities of the link4 ,we may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without weight1 but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of the weights of all the links which meet in that joint4 ,if any link has more than two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an imaginary stiff frame1 consisting of links1 each of which has only two joints4 ,the diagram of the frame is now reduced to a system of points1 certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines1 and each point is in general acted on by a weight or other force acting between it and some point external to the system4 ,to complete the diagram we may represent these external forces as links1 that is to say1 straight lines joining the points of the frame to points external to the frame4 ,thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point of application of the weight with the centre of the earth4 ,but we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in the lines of action of these external forces1 and this frame1 together with the real frame and the links representing external forces1 which join points in the one frame to points in the other frame1 make up together a complete self-strained system in equilibrium1 consisting of points connected by links acting by pressure or tension4 ,we may in this way reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of these points1 and keeping them in equilibrium4 ,the direction of each of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining the points1 so that we have only to determine its magnitude4 ,we might do this by calculation1 and then write down on each link the pressure or the tension which acts in it4 ,we should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are represented graphically as regards direction and position1 but symbolically as regards magnitude4 ,but we know that a force may be represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the direction of the force containing as many units of length as there are units of force in the force4 ,the end of this line is marked with an arrow head to show in which direction the force acts4 ,according to this method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram of configuration of the frame4 ,such a diagram might be useful as a record of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces1 but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of the calculation4 ,but we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set of forces acting at a point4 ,we draw in series a set of lines parallel and proportional to these forces4 ,if these lines form a closed polygon the forces are in equilibrium4 7,see ,,mechanics47 ,we might in this way form a series of polygons of forces1 one for each joint of the frame4 ,but in so doing we give up the principle of drawing the line representing a force from the point of application of the force1 for all the sides of the polygon cannot pass through the same point1 as the forces do4 ,we also represent every stress twice over1 for it appears as a side of both the polygons corresponding to the two joints between which it acts4 ,but if we can arrange the polygons in such a way that the sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress coincide with each other1 we may form a diagram in which every stress is represented in direction and magnitude1 though not in position1 by a single line which is the common boundary of the two polygons which represent the joints at the extremities of the corresponding piece of the frame4 ,we have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is made to represent the configuration of the material system1 and in which every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude by a straight line1 but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is manifest by inspection1 for we have only to examine whether the corresponding polygon is closed or not4 ,the relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of stress are as follows3--,to every link in the frame corresponds a straight line in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude and direction the stress acting in that link2 and to every joint of the frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram1 and the forces acting at that joint are represented by the sides of the polygon taken in a certain cyclical order1 the cyclical order of the sides of the two adjacent polygons being such that their common side is traced in opposite directions in going round the two polygons4 ,the direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the direction of the force acting on that joint of the frame which corresponds to the polygon1 and due to that link of the frame which corresponds to the side4 ,this determines whether the stress of the link is a pressure or a tension4 ,if we know whether the stress of any one link is a pressure or a tension1 this determines the cyclical order of the sides of the two polygons corresponding to the ends of the links1 and therefore the cyclical order of all the polygons1 and the nature of the stress in every link of the frame4 ,reciprocal ,diagrams4--,when to every point of concourse of the lines in the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton of the frame1 the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal4 ,the first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other cases than that of the funicular polygon were given by ,rankine in his ,applied ,mechanics 7#aheg74 ,the method was independently applied to a large number of cases by ,w4 ,p4 ,taylor1 a practical draughtsman in the office of ,j4 ,b4 ,cochrane1 and by ,professor ,clerk ,maxwell in his lectures in ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,in the ,phil4 ,mag4 for #ahfd the latter pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams1 and in a paper on ,reciprocal ,figures1 ,frames and ,diagrams of ,forces1 ,trans4 ,r4,s4 ,edin4 vol4 xxvi41 #ahgj1 he showed the relation of the method to ,airy's function of stress and to other mathematical methods4 ,professor ,fleeming ,jenkin has given a number of applications of the method to practice 7,trans4 ,r4,s4 ,edin4 vol4 xxv474 ,l4 ,cremona 7,le ,figure reciproche nella statica grafica1 #ahgb7 deduced the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the two components of a wrench as developed by ,mbius4 ,karl ,culmann1 in his ,graphische ,statik 7#ast ed4 #ahfd-ahff1 #bnd ed4 #ahge71 made great use of diagrams of forces1 some of which1 however1 are not reciprocal4 ,maurice ,levy in his ,statique graphique 7#ahgd7 has treated the whole subject in an elementary but copious manner1 and ,r4 ,h4 ,bow1 in his ,the ,economics of ,construction in ,relation to ,framed ,structures 7#ahgc71 materially simplified the process of drawing a diagram of stress reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of equilibrating external forces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,diagram of ,configuration4 ,instead of lettering the joints of the frame1 as is usually done1 or the links of the frame1 as was the custom of ,clerk ,maxwell1 ,bow places a letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the frame1 and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as separated by the lines of action of the external forces4 ,when one link of the frame crosses another1 the point of apparent intersection of the links is treated as if it were a real joint1 and the stresses of each of the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of stress1 as the opposite sides of the parallelogram which corresponds to the point of intersection4 ,this method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of configuration 7fig4 #a71 and the diagram of stress 7fig4 #b7 of the linkwork which ,professor ,sylvester has called a quadruplane4 ,in fig4 #a the real joints are distinguished from the places where one link appears to cross another by the little circles ,o1 ,p1 ,q1 ,r1 ,s1 ,t1 ,v4 ,the four links ,,rstv form a contraparallelogram in which ,,rs ,,tv and ,,rv ,,st4 ,the triangles ,,ros1 ,,rpv1 ,,tqs are similar to each other4 ,a fourth triangle 7,,tnv71 not drawn in the figure1 would complete the quadruplane4 ,the four points ,o1 ,p1 ,n1 ,q form a parallelogram whose angle ,,poq is constant and equal to pi - ,,sor4 ,the product of the distances ,,op and ,,oq is constant4 ,the linkwork may be fixed at ,o4 ,if any figure is traced by ,p1 ,q will trace the inverse figure1 but turned round ,o through the constant angle ,,poq4 ,in the diagram forces ,pp1 ,qq are balanced by the force ,co at the fixed point4 ,the forces ,pp and ,qq are necessarily inversely as ,,op and ,,oq1 and make equal angles with those lines4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,diagram of ,stress4 ,every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress4 ,the stress in the link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented in the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding to those areas4 ,when a link is divided into two or more parts by lines crossing it1 the stress in each part is represented by a different line for each part1 but as the stress is the same throughout the link these lines are all equal and parallel4 ,thus in the figure the stress in ,,rv is represented by the four equal and parallel lines ,,hi1 ,,fg1 ,,de and ,,ab4 ,if two areas have no part of their boundary in common the letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined by a straight line4 ,if1 however1 a straight line were drawn between them1 it would represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of all the stresses in the links which are cut by any line1 straight or curved1 joining the two areas4 ,for instance the areas ,f and ,c in fig4 #a have no common boundary1 and the points ,f and ,c in fig4 #b are not joined by a straight line4 ,but every path from the area ,f to the area ,c in fig4 #a passes through a series of other areas1 and each passage from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a line drawn in the diagram of stress4 ,hence the whole path from ,f to ,c in fig4 #a corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig4 #b and extending from ,f to ,c1 and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the path is represented by ,,fc in fig4 #b4 ,many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on ,,bridges 7q4v474 ,automatic ,description of ,diagrams4 ,there are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates of a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values of two related quantities4 ,if a sheet of paper is made to move1 say horizontally1 with a constant known velocity1 while a tracing point is made to move in a vertical straight line1 the height varying as the value of any given physical quantity1 the point will trace out a curve on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any given time may be determined4 ,this principle is applied to the automatic registration of phenomena of all kinds1 from those of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon-shot1 the vibrations of sounding bodies1 the motions of animals1 voluntary and involuntary1 and the currents in electric telegraphs4 ,in ,watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a constant velocity1 but its displacement is proportional to that of the piston of the engine1 while that of the tracing point is proportional to the pressure of the steam4 ,hence the co-ordinates of a point of the curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and the pressure of the steam in the cylinder4 ,the indicator-diagram not only supplies a record of the pressure of the steam at each stage of the stroke of the engine1 but indicates the work done by the steam in each stroke by the area enclosed by the curve traced on the diagram4 7,j4 ,c4 ,m47 ,,dial and ,,dialling4 ,dialling1 sometimes called gnomonics1 is a branch of applied mathematics which treats of the construction of sun-dials1 that is1 of those instruments1 either fixed or portable1 which determine the divisions of the day 7,lat4 dies7 by the motion of the shadow of some object on which the sun's rays fall4 ,it must have been one of the earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun2 though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise1 sun-set and the greatest elevation4 ,history4--,the earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in ,isaiah xxxviii4 #h3 ,behold1 ,i will bring again the shadow of the degrees which is gone down in the sun-dial of ,ahaz ten degrees backward4 ,the date of this would be about #gjj years before the ,christian era1 but we know nothing of the character or construction of the instrument4 ,the earliest of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the hemicycle1 or hemisphere1 of the ,chaldaean astronomer ,berossus1 who probably lived about #cjj ,b4,c4 ,it consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed with its rim perfectly horizontal1 and having a bead1 or globule1 fixed in any way at the centre4 ,so long as the sun remained above the horizon the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere1 and the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular arc4 ,this arc1 divided into twelve equal parts1 determined twelve equal intervals of time for that day4 ,now1 supposing this were done at the time of the solstices and equinoxes1 and on as many intermediate days as might be considered sufficient1 and then curve lines drawn through the corresponding points of division of the different arcs1 the shadow of the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of time for that day1 and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide each period of daylight into twelve equal parts4 ,these equal parts were called temporary hours2 and1 since the duration of daylight varies from day to day1 the temporary hours of one day would differ from those of another2 but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that time1 and especially in countries where the variation between the longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our climates4 ,the dial of ,berossus remained in use for centuries4 ,the ,arabians1 as appears from the work of ,albategnius1 still followed the same construction about the year ,a4,d4 #ijj4 ,four of these dials have in modern times been found in ,italy4 ,one1 discovered at ,tivoli in #agdf1 is supposed to have belonged to ,cicero1 who1 in one of his letters1 says that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near ,tusculum4 ,the second and third were found in #agea--one at ,castel-,nuovo and the other at ,rignano2 and a fourth was found in #agfb at ,pompeii4 ,g4 ,h4 ,martini in his ,abhandlungen von den ,sonnenuhren der ,alten 7,leipzig1 #aggg71 says that this dial was made for the latitude of ,memphis2 it may therefore be the work of ,egyptians1 perhaps constructed in the school of ,alexandria4 ,herodotus recorded that the ,greeks derived from the ,babylonians the use of the gnomon1 but the great progress made by the ,greeks in geometry enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity1 some of which remain to us1 and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but also of great ingenuity4 ,ptolemy's ,almagest treats of the construction of dials by means of his analemma1 an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical problems4 ,the constructions given by him were sufficient for regular dials1 that is1 horizontal dials1 or vertical dials facing east1 west1 north or south1 and these are the only ones he treats of4 ,it is certain1 however1 that the ancients were able to construct declining dials1 as is shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics--the ,tower of the ,winds at ,athens4 ,this is a regular octagon1 on the faces of which the eight principal winds are represented1 and over them eight different dials--four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the intermediate directions4 ,the date of the dials is long subsequent to that of the tower2 for ,vitruvius1 who describes the tower in the sixth chapter of his first book1 says nothing about the dials1 and as he has described all the dials known in his time1 we must believe that the dials of the tower did not then exist4 ,the hours are still the temporary hours or1 as the ,greeks called them1 hectemoria4 ,the first sun-dial erected at ,rome was in the year #bij ,b4,c41 and this ,papirius ,cursor had taken from the ,samnites4 ,a dial which ,valerius ,messalla had brought from ,catania1 the latitude of which is five degrees less than that of ,rome1 was placed in the forum in the year #bfa ,b4,c4 ,the first dial actually constructed at ,rome was in the year #afd ,b4,c41 by order of ,q4 ,marcius ,philippus1 but as no other ,roman has written on gnomonics1 this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist4 ,if1 too1 we remember that the dial found at ,pompeii was made for the latitude of ,memphis1 and consequently less adapted to its position than that of ,catania to ,rome1 we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not cultivated in ,italy4 ,the ,arabians were much more successful4 ,they attached great importance to gnomonics1 the principles of which they had learned from the ,greeks1 but they greatly simplified and diversified the ,greek constructions4 ,one of their writers1 ,abu'l ,hassan1 who lived about the beginning of the #acth century1 taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical1 conical and other surfaces4 ,he even introduced equal or equinoctial hours1 but the idea was not supported1 and the temporary hours alone continued in use4 ,where or when the great and important step already conceived by ,abu'l ,hassan1 and perhaps by others1 of reckoning by equal hours was generally adopted cannot now be determined4 ,the history of gnomonics from the #acth to the beginning of the #afth century is almost a blank1 and during that time the change took place4 ,we can see1 however1 that the change would necessarily follow the introduction of clocks and other mechanical methods of measuring time2 for1 however imperfect these were1 the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in winter1 and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked4 ,now1 we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of ,charles ,v4 of ,france about the year #acgj1 and we may reasonably suppose that the new sun-dials came into general use during the #adth and #aeth centuries4 ,among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was ,,sebastian ,m,,nster 7q4v471 who published his ,horologiographia at ,basel in #aeca4 ,he gives a number of correct rules1 but without demonstrations4 ,among his inventions was a moon-dial1#a but this does not admit of much accuracy4 ,during the #agth century dialling was discussed at great length by many writers on astronomy4 ,clavius devotes a quarto volume of #hjj pages entirely to the subject4 ,this was published in #afab1 and may be considered to contain all that was known at that time4 ,in the #ahth century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials1 and these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament to a garden1 or in remote country districts where the old dial on the church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by its side4 ,the art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little more than a mathematical recreation4 ,general ,principles4--,the diurnal and the annual motions of the earth are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded4 ,that the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in twenty-four hours1 and that it is carried round the sun in one year at a nearly uniform rate1 is the correct way of expressing these facts4 ,but the effect will be precisely the same1 and it will suit our purpose better1 and make our explanations easier1 if we adopt the ideas of the ancients1 of which our senses furnish apparent confirmation1 and assume the earth to be fixed4 ,then1 the sun and stars revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once a day--the sun lagging a little behind the stars1 making its day some four minutes longer--so that at the end of the year it finds itself again in the same place1 having made a complete revolution of the heavens relatively to the stars from west to east4 ,the fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line through the earth's centre2 but the radius of the earth is so small1 compared with the enormous distance of the sun1 that1 if we draw a parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface1 we may safely look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions4 ,the error in the case of the sun would not1 at its maximum1 that is1 at #f ,a4,m4 and #f ,p4,m41 exceed half a second of time1 and at noon would vanish4 ,an axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian1 and points to the pole1 its elevation being equal to the latitude of the place4 ,the diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform1 and so would that of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes1 spoken of above1 were always the same4 ,but this is constantly altering1 so that the time1 as measured by the sun's motion1 and also consequently as measured by a sun-dial1 does not move on at a strictly uniform pace4 ,this irregularity1 which is slight1 would be of little consequence in the ordinary affairs of life1 but clocks and watches being mechanical measures of time could not1 except by extreme complication1 be made to follow this irregularity1 even if desirable4 ,the clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in the year4 ,four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly2 but the sun-dial1 now going a little slower1 now a little faster1 will be sometimes behind1 sometimes before the clock-the greatest accumulated difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in ,november1 but on the average much less4 ,the four days on which the two agree are ,april #ae1 ,june #ae1 ,september #a and ,december #bd4 ,clock-time is called mean time1 that marked by the sun-dial is called apparent time1 and the difference between them is the equation of time4 ,it is given in most calendars and almanacs1 frequently under the heading clock slow1 clock fast4 ,when the time by the sun-dial is known1 the equation of time will at once enable us to obtain the corresponding clock-time1 or vice versa4 ,atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the apparent position of the sun2 but the effect is too small to need consideration in the construction of an instrument which1 with the best workmanship1 does not after all admit of very great accuracy4 ,the general principles of dialling will now be readily understood4 ,the problem before us is the following3--,a rod1 or style1 as it is called1 being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's axis1 we have to find how and where points or lines of reference must be traced on some fixed surface behind the style1 so that when the shadow of the style falls on a certain one of these lines1 we may know that at that moment it is solar noon1--that is1 that the plane through the style and through the sun then coincides with the meridian2 again1 that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference1 it is #a o'clock by solar time1 or1 which comes to the same thing1 that the above plane through the style and through the sun has just turned through the twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution2 and so on for the subsequent hours1--the hours before noon being indicated in a similar manner4 ,the style and the surface on which these lines are traced together constitute the dial4 ,the position of an intended sun-dial having been selected--whether on church tower1 south front of farmstead or garden wall--the surface must be prepared1 if necessary1 to receive the hour-lines4 ,the chief1 and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the accurate fixing of the style1 for on its accuracy the value of the instrument depends4 ,it must be in the meridian plane1 and must make an angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place4 ,the latter condition will offer no difficulty1 but the exact determination of the meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is fixed to the surface is not so simple4 ,at present we shall assume that the style has been fixed in its true position4 ,the style itself will be usually a stout metal wire1 and when we speak of the shadow cast by the style it must always be understood that the middle line of the thin band of shade is meant4 ,the point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the dial4 ,it is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate4 ,the position of the ,,xii o'clock line is the most important to determine accurately1 since all the others are usually made to depend on this one4 ,we cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style has been itself accurately fixed in its proper place4 ,when that is done the ,,xii o'clock line will be found by the intersection of the dial surface with the vertical plane which contains the style2 and the most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang freely1 and waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide on the dial4 ,this single shadow will be the ,,xii o'clock line4 ,in one class of dials1 namely1 all the vertical ones1 the ,,xii o'clock line is simply the vertical line from the centre2 it can1 therefore1 at once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line4 ,the ,,xii o'clock line being traced1 the easiest and most accurate method of tracing the other hour-lines would1 at the present day when good watches are common1 be by marking where the shadow of the style falls when #a1 #b1 #c1 c41 hours have elapsed since noon1 and the next morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced2 and in the same manner the hours might be subdivided into halves and quarters1 or even into minutes4 ,but formerly1 when watches did not exist1 the tracing of the ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 c41 o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each of these lines would make with the ,,xii o'clock line4 ,now1 except in the simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a cardinal point1 this would require long and intricate calculations1 or elaborate geometrical constructions1 implying considerable mathematical knowledge1 but also introducing increased chances of error4 ,the chief source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the data2 for the position of the dial-plane would have to be found before the calculations began1--that is1 it would be necessary to know exactly by how many degrees it declined from the south towards the east or west1 and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical4 ,the ancients1 with the means at their disposal1 could obtain these results only very roughly4 ,dials received different names according to their position3-- ,horizontal dials1 when traced on a horizontal plane2 ,vertical dials1 when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal points2 ,vertical declining dials1 on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal point2 ,inclining dials1 when traced on planes neither vertical nor horizontal 7these were further distinguished as reclining when leaning backwards from an observer1 proclining when leaning forwards72 ,equinoctial dials1 when the plane is at right angles to the earth's axis1 c4 c4 ,dial ,construction4--,a very correct view of the problem of dial construction may be obtained as follows3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,conceive a transparent cylinder 7fig4 #a7 having an axis ,,ab parallel to the axis of the earth4 ,on the surface of the cylinder let equidistant generating-lines be traced #ae apart1 one of them ,,xii 444 ,,xii being in the meridian plane through ,,ab1 and the others ,i 444 ,i1 ,,ii 444 ,,ii1 c41 following in the order of the sun's motion4 ,then the shadow of the line ,,ab will obviously fall on the line ,,xii 444 ,,xii at apparent noon1 on the line ,i 444 ,i at one hour after noon1 on ,,ii 444 ,,ii at two hours after noon1 and so on4 ,if now the cylinder be cut by any plane ,,mn representing the plane on which the dial is to be traced1 the shadow of ,,ab will be intercepted by this plane and fall on the lines ,,axii ,,ai1 ,,aii1 c4 ,the construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made by ,,ai1 ,,aii1 c4 with ,,axii2 the line ,,axii itself1 being in the vertical plane through ,,ab1 may be supposed known4 ,for the purposes of actual calculation1 perhaps a transparent sphere will1 with advantage1 replace the cylinder1 and we shall here apply it to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the ,,xii o'clock line in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south dial4 ,horizontal ,dial4--,let ,p,ep 7fig4 #b71 the axis of the supposed transparent sphere1 be directed towards the north and south poles of the heavens4 ,draw the two great circles1 ,,hma1 ,q,ma1 the former ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 horizontal1 the other perpendicular to the axis ,pp1 and therefore coinciding with the plane of the equator4 ,let ,,ez be vertical1 then the circle ,,qzp will be the meridian1 and by its intersection ,a with the horizontal circle will determine the ,,xii o'clock line ,,ea4 ,next divide the equatorial circle ,q,ma into #bd equal parts ab1 bc1 cd1 c4 444 of #ae each1 beginning from the meridian ,pa1 and through the various points of division and the poles draw the great circles ,pbp1 ,pcp1 c4 444 ,these will exactly correspond to the equidistant generating lines on the cylinder in the previous construction1 and the shadow of the style will fall on these circles after successive intervals of #a1b1 #c1 c41 hours from noon4 ,if they meet the horizontal circle in the points ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 c41 then ,,eb1 ,,ec1 ,,ed1 c4 444 will be the ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 c41 hour-lines required2 and the problem of the horizontal dial consists in calculating the angles which these lines make with the ,,xii o'clock line ,,ea1 whose position is known4 ,the spherical triangles ,,pab1 ,,pac1 c41 enable us to do this readily4 ,they are all right-angled at ,a1 the side ,,pa is the latitude of the place1 and the angles ,,apb1 ,,apc1 c41 are respectively #ae1 #cj1 c41 then tan ,,ab tan #ae sin latitude1 tan ,,ac tan #cj sin latitude1 c4 c4 ,these determine the sides ,,ab1 ,,ac1 c41 that is1 the angles ,,aeb1 ,,aec1 c41 required4 ,the ,i o'clock hour-line ,,eb must make an angle with the meridian ,,ea of #aa #ea' on a ,london dial1 of #ab #ca' at ,edinburgh1 of #aa #bc' at ,paris1 #ab #j' at ,berlin1 #i #ee' at ,new ,york and #i #ai' at ,san ,francisco4 ,in the same way may be found the angles made by the other hour-lines4 ,the calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant from noon to ,,vi o'clock1 but need not be carried further1 because all the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these4 ,in the first place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian1 and therefore two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-lines equidistant from the meridian2 thus the ,,xi o'clock line and the ,i o'clock line must make the same angles with it1 the ,x o'clock the same as the ,,ii o'clock1 and so on4 ,and next1 the #bd great circles1 which were drawn to determine these lines1 are in reality only #ab2 for clearly the great circle which gives ,i o'clock after midnight1 and that which gives ,i o'clock after noon1 are one and the same1 and so also for the other hours4 ,therefore the hour-lines between ,,vi in the evening and ,,vi the next morning are the prolongations of the remaining twelve4 ,let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles1 and retain only the style ,,ep and the plane ,,hma with the lines traced on it1 and we shall have the horizontal dial4 ,on the longest day in ,london the sun rises a little before #d o'clock1 and sets a little after #h o'clock2 there is therefore no necessity for extending a ,london dial beyond those hours4 ,at ,edinburgh the limits will be a little longer1 while at ,hammerfest1 which is within the ,arctic circle1 the whole circuit will be required4 ,instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal plate from one quarter to half an inch in thickness4 ,this plate1 which is sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle1 must have an acute angle equal to the latitude of the place1 and1 when properly fixed in a vertical position on the dial1 its two faces must coincide with the meridian plane1 and the sloping edges formed by the thickness of the plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles4 ,since there are two styles1 there must be two dials1 or rather two half dials1 because a little consideration will show that1 owing to the thickness of the plate1 these styles will only one at a time cast a shadow4 ,thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours before #f o'clock in the morning4 ,from #f o'clock until noon the western edge will be used4 ,at noon it will change again to the eastern edge until #f o'clock in the evening1 and finally the western edge for the remaining hours of daylight4 ,the centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles meet the dial face2 but1 in drawing the hour-lines1 we must be careful to draw only those lines for which the corresponding style is able to give a shadow as explained above4 ,the dial will thus have the appearance of a single dial plate1 and there will be no confusion 7see fig4 #c74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,the line of demarcation between the shadow and the light will be better defined than when a wire style is used2 but the indications by this double dial will always be one minute too fast in the morning and one minute too slow in the afternoon4 ,this is owing to the magnitude of the sun1 whose angular breadth is half a degree4 ,the well-defined shadows are given1 not by the centre of the sun1 as we should require them1 but by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward one in the afternoon2 and the sun takes just about a minute to advance through a space equal to its half-breadth4 ,dials of this description are frequently met with4 ,the dial plate is of metal as well as the vertical piece upon it1 and they may be purchased ready for placing on the pedestal1--the dial with all the hour-lines traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its proper position1 if not even cast in the same piece with the dial plate4 ,when placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented4 ,the levelling will be done with a spirit-level1 and the orientation will be best effected either in the forenoon or in the afternoon1 by turning the dial plate till the time given by the shadow 7making the one minute correction mentioned above7 agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time is known4 ,it is1 however1 important to bear in mind that a dial1 so built up beforehand1 will have the angle at the base equal to the latitude of some selected place1 such as ,london1 and the hour-lines will be drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude4 ,such a dial can therefore not be used near ,edinburgh or ,glasgow1 although it would1 without appreciable error1 be adapted to any place whose latitude did not differ more than #bj or #cj m4 from that of ,london1 and it would be safe to employ it in ,essex1 ,kent or ,wiltshire4 ,if a series of such dials were constructed1 differing by #cj m4 in latitude1 then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a place whose latitude was within #ae m4 of his own1 and the error of time would never exceed a small fraction of a minute4 ,the following table will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of the angle of the style1--all angles on the dial being readily measured with an ordinary protractor4 ,it extends from #ej lat4 to #ei lat41 and therefore includes the whole of ,great ,britain and ,ireland3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,,lat4 ,,xi4 ,a4,m4 ,x4 ,a4,m4 ,,ix4 ,a4,m4,,viii4 ,a4,m4,,vii4 ,a4,m4,,vi4 ,a4,m4 ,i4 ,p4,m4,,ii4 ,p4,m4,,iii4 ,p4,m4,,iiii4 ,p4,m4 ,v4 ,p4,m4,,vi4 ,p4,m4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ej #j' #aa #cf' #bc #ea' #cg #bg' #ec #j' #gj #dc' #ij #j' #ej #cj #aa #da #bd #a #cg #ci #ec #ab #gj #ea #ij #j #ea #j #aa #df #bd #aj #cg #ea #ec #bc #gj #ei #ij #j #ea #cj #aa #ea #bd #ai #ch #c #ec #ce #ga #f #ij #j #eb #j #aa #ee #bd #bh #ch #ad #ec #df #ga #ac #ij #j #eb #cj #ab #j #bd #cg #ch #be #ec #eg #ga #bj #ij #j #ec #j #ab #e #bd #de #ch #cg #ed #h #ga #bg #ij #j #ec #cj #ab #i #bd #ed #ch #dh #ed #ai #ga #cd #ij #j #ed #j #ab #ad #be #b #ch #eh #ed #bi #ga #dj #ij #j #ed #cj #ab #ah #be #aj #ci #i #ed #ci #ga #dg #ij #j #ee #j #ab #bc #be #ai #ci #ai #ed #di #ga #ec #ij #j #ee #cj #ab #bg #be #bg #ci #cj #ed #ei #ga #ei #ij #j #ef #j #ab #ca #be #ce #ci #dj #ee #i #gb #e #ij #j #ef #cj #ab #cf #be #dc #ci #ej #ee #ah #gb #aa #ij #j #eg #j #ab #dj #be #ej #ci #ei #ee #bg #gb #ag #ij #j #eg #cj #ab #dd #be #eh #dj #i #ee #cf #gb #bb #ij #j #eh #j #ab #dh #bf #e #dj #ah #ee #de #gb #bh #ij #j #eh #cj #ab #eb #bf #ac #dj #bg #ee #ed #gb #cc #ij #j #ei #j #ab #ef #bf #bj #dj #cf #ef #b #gb #ci #ij #j #ei #cj #ac #j #bf #bg #dj #de #ef #aa #gb #dd #ij #j ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,vertical ,south ,dial4--,let us take again our imaginary transparent sphere ,,qzpa 7fig4 #d71 whose axis ,p,ep is parallel to the earth's axis4 ,let ,z be the zenith1 and1 consequently1 the great circle ,,qzp the meridian4 ,through ,e1 the centre of the sphere1 draw a vertical plane facing south4 ,this will cut the sphere in the great circle ,,zma1 which1 being vertical1 will pass through the zenith1 and1 facing south1 will be at right angles to the meridian4 ,let ,q,ma be the equatorial circle1 obtained by drawing a plane through ,e at right angles to the axis ,p,ep4 ,the lower portion ,ep of the axis will be the style1 the vertical line ,,ea in the meridian plane will be the ,,xii o'clock line1 and the line ,,em1 which is obviously horizontal1 since ,m is the intersection of two great circles ,,zm1 ,,qm1 each at right angles to the vertical plane ,,qzp1 will be the ,,vi o'clock line4 ,now1 as in the previous problem1 divide the equatorial circle into #bd equal arcs of #ae each1 beginning at a1 viz4 ab1 bc1 c41--each quadrant a,m1 ,,mq1 c41 containing #f1--then through each point of division and through the axis ,pp draw a plane cutting the sphere in #bd equidistant great circles4 ,as the sun revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will successively fall on these circles at intervals of one hour1 and if these circles cross the vertical circle ,,zma in the points ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 c41 the shadow of the lower portion ,ep of the axis will fall on the lines ,,ea1 ,,eb1 ,,ec1 c41 which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial1 ,ep being the style4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,there is no necessity for going beyond the ,,vi o'clock hour-line on each side of noon2 for1 in the winter months the sun sets earlier than #f o'clock1 and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the dial before that time1 and is no longer available4 ,it remains to show how the angles ,,aeb1 ,,aec1 c41 may be calculated4 ,the spherical triangles p,a,b1 p,a,c1 c41 will give us a simple rule4 ,these triangles are all right-angled at ,a1 the side p,a1 equal to ,,zp1 is the co-latitude of the place1 that is1 the difference between the latitude and #ij2 and the successive angles ,ap,b1 ,ap,c1 c41 are #ae1 #cj1 c41 respectively4 ,then tan ,,ab tan #ae sin co-latitude2 or more simply1 tan ,,ab tan #ae cos latitude1 tan ,,ac tan #cj cos latitude1 c4 c4 and the arcs ,,ab1 ,,ac so found are the measure of the angles ,,aeb1 ,,aec1 c41 required4 ,in this ease the angles diminish as the latitudes increase1 the opposite result to that of the horizontal dial4 ,inclining1 ,reclining1 c41 ,dials4--,we shall not enter into the calculation of these cases4 ,our imaginary sphere being1 as before supposed1 constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial1 and all the hour-circles traced upon it1 the intersection of these hour-circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines just as in the previous cases2 but the triangles will no longer be right-angled1 and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost1 the chances of error being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing the dial plane in its true position on the sphere1 since that true position will have to be found from observations which can be only roughly performed4 ,in all these cases1 and in cases where the dial surface is not a plane1 and the hour-lines1 consequently1 are not straight lines1 the only safe practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points 7one is sufficient when the dial face is plane7 of the shadow at the moment when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived1 and afterwards connect these points with the centre by a continuous line4 ,of course the style must have been accurately fixed in its true position before we begin4 ,equatorial ,dial4--,the name equatorial dial is given to one whose plane is at right angles to the style1 and therefore parallel to the equator4 ,it is the simplest of all dials4 ,a circle 7fig4 #e7 divided into #bd equal ares is placed at right angles to the style1 and hour divisions are marked upon it4 ,then if care be taken that the style point accurately to the pole1 and that the noon division coincide with the meridian plane1 the shadow of the style will fall on the other divisions1 each at its proper time4 ,the divisions must be marked on both sides of the dial1 because the sun will shine on opposite sides in the summer and in the winter months1 changing at each equinox4 ,to find the ,meridian ,plane4--,we have1 so far1 assumed the meridian plane to be accurately known2 we shall proceed to describe some of the methods by which it may be found4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,the mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approximation4 ,it is well known that the needle of the compass1 when free to move horizontally1 oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction termed the magnetic meridian4 ,this does not coincide with the true north and south line1 but the difference between them is generally known with tolerable accuracy1 and is called the variation of the compass4 ,the variation differs widely at different parts of the surface of the earth1 and is not stationary at any particular place1 though the change is slow2 and there is even a small daily oscillation which takes place about the mean position1 but too small to need notice here 7see ,,magnetism1 ,,terrestrial74 ,with all these elements of uncertainty1 it is obvious that the compass can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian1 but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has been made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,a very simple practical method is the following3-- ,place a table 7fig4 #f71 or other plane surface1 in such a position that it may receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the afternoon4 ,then carefully level the surface by means of a spirit-level4 ,this must be done very accurately1 and the table in that position made perfectly secure1 so that there be no danger of its shifting during the day4 ,next1 suspend a plummet ,,sh from a point ,s1 which must be rigidly fixed4 ,the extremity ,h1 where the plummet just meets the surface1 should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table4 ,with ,h for centre1 describe any number of concentric arcs of circles1 ,,ab1 ,,cd1 ,,ef1 c4 ,a bead ,p1 kept in its place by friction1 is threaded on the plummet line at some convenient height above ,h4 ,everything being thus prepared1 let us follow the shadow of the bead ,p as it moves along the surface of the table during the day4 ,it will be found to describe a curve ,,ace 444 ,,fdb1 approaching the point ,h as the sun advances towards noon1 and receding from it afterwards4 7,the curve is a conic section--an hyperbola in these regions47 ,at the moment when it crosses the arc ,,ab1 mark the point ,a2 ,,ap is then the direction of the sun1 and1 as ,,ah is horizontal1 the angle ,,pah is the altitude of the sun4 ,in the afternoon mark the point ,b where it crosses the same arc2 then the angle ,,pbh is the altitude4 ,but the right-angled triangles ,,pha1 ,,phb are obviously equal2 and the sun has therefore the same altitudes at those two instants1 the one before1 the other after noon4 ,it follows that1 if the sun has not changed its declination during the interval1 the two positions will be symmetrically placed one on each side of the meridian4 ,therefore1 drawing the chord ,,ab1 and bisecting it in ,m1 ,,hm will be the meridian line4 ,each of the other concentric arcs1 ,,cd1 ,,ef1 c41 will furnish its meridian line4 ,of course these should all coincide1 but if not1 the mean of the positions thus found must be taken4 ,the proviso mentioned above1 that the sun has not changed its declination1 is scarcely ever realized2 but the change is slight1 and may be neglected1 except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes1 at the end of ,march and at the end of ,september4 ,throughout the remainder of the year the change of declination is so slow that we may safely neglect it4 ,the most favourable times are at the end of ,june and at the end of ,december1 when the sun's declination is almost stationary4 ,if the line ,,hm be produced both ways to the edges of the table1 then the two points on the ground vertically below those on the edges may be found by a plummet1 and1 if permanent marks be made there1 the meridian plane1 which is the vertical plane passing through these two points1 will have its position perfectly secured4 ,to place the ,style of a ,dial in its ,true ,position4--,before giving any other method of finding the meridian plane1 we shall complete the construction of the dial1 by showing how the style may now be accurately placed in its true position4 ,the angle which the style makes with a hanging plumb-line1 being the co-latitude of the place1 is known1 and the north and south direction is also roughly given by the mariner's compass4 ,the style may therefore be already adjusted approximately--correctly1 indeed1 as to its inclination--but probably requiring a little horizontal motion east or west4 ,suspend a fine plumb-line from some point of the style1 then the style will be properly adjusted if1 at the very instant of noon1 its shadow falls exactly on the plumb-line1--or1 which is the same thing1 if both shadows coincide on the dial4 ,this instant of noon will be given very simply1 by the meridian plane1 whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the ground4 ,stretch a cord from the one mark to the other4 ,this will not generally be horizontal1 but the cord will be wholly in the meridian plane1 and that is the only necessary condition4 ,next1 suspend a plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun1 and1 when the shadow of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord1 it is noon4 ,a signal from the observer there to the observer at the dial enables the latter to adjust the style as directed above4 ,other ,methods of finding the ,meridian ,plane4--,we have dwelt at some length on these practical operations because they are simple and tolerably accurate1 and because they want neither watch1 nor sextant1 nor telescope--nothing more1 in fact1 than the careful observation of shadow lines4 ,the ,pole star1 or ,ursae ,minoris1 may also be employed for finding the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines4 ,this star is now only about #a #ad' from the pole2 if therefore a plumb-line be suspended at a few feet from the observer1 and if he shift his position till the star is exactly hidden by the line1 then the plane through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian plane4 ,twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would be strictly coincident4 ,this would be when the star crosses the meridian above the pole1 and again when it crosses it below4 ,if we wished to employ the method of determining the meridian1 the times of the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the ,nautical ,almanac1 and a watch would be necessary to know when the instant arrived4 ,the watch need not1 however1 be very accurate1 because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the azimuth4 ,the following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both calculation and watch4 ,the right ascension of the star eta ,ursae ,majoris1 that star in the tail of the ,great ,bear which is farthest from the pointers1 happens to differ by a little more than #ab hours from the right ascension of the ,pole star4 ,the great circle which joins the two stars passes therefore close to the pole4 ,when the ,pole star1 at a distance of about #a #ad' from the pole1 is crossing the meridian above the pole1 the star eta ,ursae ,majoris1 whose polar distance is about #dj1 has not yet reached the meridian below the pole4 ,when eta ,ursae ,majoris reaches the meridian1 which will be within half an hour later1 the ,pole star will have left the meridian2 but its slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away4 ,now at some instant between these two times--much nearer the latter than the former--the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly vertical2 and at this instant1 which the observer determines by seeing that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously1 neither of the stars is strictly in the meridian2 but the deviation from it is so small that it may be neglected1 and the plane through the eye and the plumb-line taken for meridian plane4 ,in all these cases it will be convenient1 instead of fixing the plane by means of the eye and one fixed plummet1 to have a second plummet at a short distance in front of the eye2 this second plummet1 being suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting1 must be moved so as always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet4 ,the meridian plane will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground1 one under each plummet4 ,this method1 by means of the two stars1 is only available for the upper transit of ,polaris2 for1 at the lower transit1 the other star eta ,ursae ,majoris would pass close to or beyond the zenith1 and the observation could not be made4 ,also the stars will not be visible when the upper transit takes place in the daytime1 so that one-half of the year is lost to this method4 ,neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than #dj ,n41 for there the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit2--we may even say not lower than #de ,n41 for the star must be at least #e above the horizon before it becomes distinctly visible4 ,there are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed1 but none so convenient as these two1 on account of ,polaris with its very slow motion being one of the pair4 ,to place the ,style in its ,true ,position without previous ,determination of the ,meridian ,plane4--,the various methods given above for finding the meridian plane have for ultimate object the determination of the plane1 not on its own account1 but as an element for fixing the instant of noon1 whereby the style may be properly placed4 ,we shall dispense1 therefore1 with all this preliminary work if we determine noon by astronomical observation4 ,for this we shall want a good watch1 or pocket chronometer1 and a sextant or other instrument for taking altitudes4 ,the local time at any moment may be determined in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies4 ,the simplest and most practically useful methods will be found described and investigated in any work on astronomy4 ,for our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the forenoon will be most suitable4 ,at some time in the morning1 when the sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions of the horizon--but to ensure accuracy1 while the rate of increase of the altitude is still tolerably rapid1 and1 therefore1 not later than #aj o'clock--take an altitude of the sun1 an assistant1 at the same moment1 marking the time shown by the watch4 ,the altitude so observed being properly corrected for refraction1 parallax1 c41 will1 together with the latitude of the place1 and the sun's declination1 taken from the ,nautical ,almanac1 enable us to calculate the time4 ,this will be the solar or apparent time1 that is1 the very time we require4 ,comparing the time so found with the time shown by the watch1 we see at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time2 we know1 therefore1 exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon arrives1 and waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its proper position as explained before4 ,we can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and observation if1 by means of the pocket chronometer1 we bring the time from some observatory where the work is done2 and1 allowing for the change of longitude1 and also for the equation of time1 if the time we have brought is clock time1 we shall have the exact instant of solar noon as in the previous case4 ,in former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced4 ,sometimes the shadow was received on a cone1 sometimes on a cylinder1 or on a sphere1 or on a combination of these4 ,a universal dial was constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross2 another universal dial showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons4 ,these universal dials required adjusting before use1 and for this a mariner's compass and a spirit-level were necessary4 ,but it would be tedious and useless to enumerate the various forms designed1 and1 as a rule1 the more complex the less accurate4 ,another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable centres4 ,they were drawn on fixed horizontal planes1 and each day the style had to be shifted to a new position4 ,instead of hour-lines they had hour-points2 and the style1 instead of being parallel to the axis of the earth1 might make any chosen angle with the horizon4 ,there was no practical advantage in their use1 but rather the reverse2 and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new mathematical problems4 ,portable ,dials4--,the dials so far described have been fixed dials1 for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were to be fixed before using4 ,there were1 however1 other dials1 made generally of a small size1 so as to be carried in the pocket2 and these1 so long as the sun shone1 roughly answered the purpose of a watch4 ,the description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with that of the fixed dial1 as if it had been merely a special case1 and the same principle had been the basis of both2 whereas there are essential points of difference between them1 besides those which are at once apparent4 ,in the fixed dial the result depends on the uniform angular motion of the sun round the fixed style2 and a small error in the assumed position of the sun1 whether due to the imperfection of the instrument1 or to some small neglected correction1 has only a trifling effect on the time4 ,this is owing to the angular displacement of the sun being so rapid--a quarter of a degree every minute--that for the ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required1 as a displacement of a quarter of a degree1 or at any rate of one degree1 can be readily seen by nearly every person4 ,but with a portable dial this is no longer the case4 ,the uniform angular motion is not now available1 because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may refer it4 ,in the new position1 to which the observer has gone1 the zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically find2 and the basis for the determination of the time is the constantly but very irregularly varying zenith distance of the sun4 ,at sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only method available for finding local time2 but the perfection which has been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to reckon on an accuracy of seconds4 ,certain precautions have1 however1 to be taken4 ,the observations must not be made within a couple of hours of noon1 on account of the slow rate of change at that time1 nor too near the horizon1 on account of the uncertain refractions there2 and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portable dial4 ,to compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials1 let us take a mean position in ,great ,britain1 say #ed lat41 and a mean declination when the sun is in the equator4 ,it will rise at #f o'clock1 and at noon have an altitude of #cf1--that is1 the portable dial will indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each minute1 or two and a half times slower than the fixed dial4 ,the vertical motion of the sun increases1 however1 nearer the horizon1 but even there it will be only one-eighth of a degree each minute1 or half the rate of the fixed dial1 which goes on at nearly the same speed throughout the day4 ,portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude for which they are available1 and they should not be used more than #d or #e m4 north or south of the place for which they were constructed4 ,we shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use4 ,dial on a ,cylinder4--,a hollow cylinder of metal 7fig4 #g71 #d or #e in4 high1 and about an inch in diameter1 has a lid which admits of tolerably easy rotation4 ,a hole in the lid receives the style shaped somewhat like a bayonet2 and the straight part of the style1 which1 on account of the two bends1 is lower than the lid1 projects horizontally out from the cylinder to a distance of #a or #a in4 ,when not in use the style would be taken out and placed inside the cylinder4 ,a horizontal circle is traced on the cylinder opposite the projecting style1 and this circle is divided into #cf approximately equidistant intervals4#b ,these intervals represent spaces of time1 and to each division is assigned a date1 so that each month has three dates marked as follows3-,january #aj1 #bj1 #ca2 ,february #aj1 #bj1 #bh2 ,march #aj1 #bj1 #ca2 ,april #aj1 #bj1 #cj1 and so on1--always the #ajth1 the #bjth1 and the last day of each month4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis of the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom4 ,now it will be readily understood that if1 upon one of these days1 the lid be turned1 so as to bring the style exactly opposite the date1 and if the dial be then placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight1 and turned round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the vertical line below it1 the shadow will terminate at some definite point of this line1 the position of which point will depend on the length of the style--that is1 the distance of its end from the surface of the cylinder--and on the altitude of the sun at that instant4 ,suppose that the observations are continued all day1 the cylinder being very gradually turned so that the style may always face the sun1 and suppose that marks are made on the vertical line to show the extremity of the shadow at each exact hour from sun-rise to sun-set-these times being taken from a good fixed sun-dial1--then it is obvious that the next year1 on the same date1 the sun's declination being about the same1 and the observer in about the same latitude1 the marks made the previous year will serve to tell the time all that day4 ,what we have said above was merely to make the principle of the instrument clear1 for it is evident that this mode of marking1 which would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation1 cannot be the method employed4 ,the positions of the marks are1 in fact1 obtained by calculation4 ,corresponding to a given date1 the declination of the sun is taken from the almanac1 and this1 together with the latitude of the place and the length of the style1 will constitute the necessary data for computing the length of the shadow1 that is1 the distance of the mark below the style for each successive hour4 ,we have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at the same date in different years4 ,this is not quite correct1 but1 if the dates be taken for the second year after leap year1 the results will be sufficiently approximate4 ,when all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective dates1 then a continuous curve1 joining the corresponding hour-points1 will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down1 the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper position between the two divisions4 ,the horizontality of the surface on which the instrument rests is a very necessary condition1 especially in summer1 when1 the shadow of the style being long1 the extreme end will shift rapidly for a small deviation from the vertical1 and render the reading uncertain4 ,the dial can also be used by holding it up by a small ring in the top of the lid1 and probably the vertically is better ensured in that way4 ,portable ,dial on a ,card4--,this neat and very ingenious dial is attributed by ,ozanam to a ,jesuit ,father1 ,de ,saint ,rigaud1 and probably dates from the early part of the #agth century4 ,ozanam says that it was sometimes called the capuchin1 from some fancied resemblance to a cowl thrown back4 ,construction4--,draw a straight line ,,acb parallel to the top of the card 7fig4 #h7 and another ,,dce at right angles to it2 with ,c as centre1 and any convenient radius ,,ca1 describe the semicircle ,,aeb below the horizontal4 ,divide the whole arc ,,aeb into #ab equal parts at the points r1 s1 t1 c41 and through these points draw perpendiculars to the diameter ,,acb2 these lines will be the hour-lines1 viz4 the line through r will be the ,,xi 444 ,i line1 the line through s the ,x 444 ,,ii line1 and so on2 the hour-line of noon will be the point ,a itself2 by subdivision of the small arcs ,ar1 rs1 st1 c41 we may draw the hour-lines corresponding to halves and quarters1 but this only where it can be done without confusion4 ,draw ,,asd making with ,,ac an angle equal to the latitude of the place1 and let it meet ,,ec in ,d1 through which point draw ,,fdg at right angles to ,,ad4 ,with centre ,a1 and any convenient radius ,,as1 describe an arc of circle ,,rst1 and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on it1 extending from #j at ,s to #bc on each side at ,r and ,t4 ,next determine the points on the straight line ,,fdg where radii drawn from ,a to the degree divisions on the arc would cross it1 and carefully mark these crossings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,the divisions of ,,rst are to correspond to the sun's declination1 south declinations on ,,rs and north declinations on ,,st4 ,in the other hemisphere of the earth this would be reversed2 the north declinations would be on the upper half4 ,now1 taking a second year after leap year 7because the declinations of that year are about the mean of each set of four years71 find the days of the month when the sun has these different declinations1 and place these dates1 or so many of them as can be shown without confusion1 opposite the corresponding marks on ,,fdg4 ,draw the sun-line at the top of the card parallel to the line ,,acb2 and1 near the extremity1 to the right1 draw any small figure intended to form1 as it were1 a door of which a b shall be the hinge4 ,care must be taken that this hinge is exactly at right angles to the sun-line4 ,make a fine open slit c d right through the card and extending from the hinge to a short distance on the door1--the centre line of this slit coinciding accurately with the sun-line4 ,now1 cut the door completely through the card2 except1 of course1 along the hinge1 which1 when the card is thick1 should be partly cut through at the back1 to facilitate the opening4 ,cut the card right through along the line ,,fdg1 and pass a thread carrying a little plummet ,w and a very small bead ,p2 the bead having sufficient friction with the thread to retain any position when acted on only by its own weight1 but sliding easily along the thread when moved by the hand4 ,at the back of the card the thread terminates in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through2 or better1 because giving more friction and a better hold1 it passes through the centre of a small disk of card--a fraction of an inch in diameter--and1 by a knot1 is made fast at the back of the disk4 ,to complete the construction1--with the centres ,f and ,g1 and radii ,,fa and ,,ga1 draw the two arcs ,,ay and ,,az which will limit the hour-lines2 for in an observation the bead will always be found between them4 ,the forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated in the figure4 ,the dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon and afternoon2 but extraneous circumstances1 as1 for instance1 whether the sun is rising or falling1 will settle that point1 except when close to noon1 where it will always be uncertain4 ,to rectify the dial 7using the old expression1 which means to prepare the dial for an observation71--open the small door1 by turning it about its hinge1 till it stands well out in front4 ,next1 set the thread in the line ,,fg opposite the day of the month1 and stretching it over the point ,a1 slide the bead ,p along till it exactly coincide with ,a4 ,to find the hour of the day1--hold the dial in a vertical position in such a way that its plane may pass through the sun4 ,the verticality is ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without pressing4 ,now gradually tilt the dial 7without altering its vertical plane71 until the central line of sunshine1 passing through the open slit of the door1 just falls along the sun-line4 ,the hour-line against which the bead ,p then rests indicates the time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,the sun-line drawn above has always1 so far as we know1 been used as a shadow-line4 ,the upper edge of the rectangular door was the prolongation of the line1 and1 the door being opened1 the dial was gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly coincided with it4 ,but this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a degree more than the sun-line1 because it is given by that portion of the sun which just appears above the edge1 that is1 by the upper limb of the sun1 which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre4 ,now1 even at some distance from noon1 the sun will sometimes take a considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree1 and by so much time will the indication of the dial be in error4 ,the central line of light which comes through the open slit will be free from this error1 because it is given by light from the centre of the sun4 ,the card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere toy4 ,its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educational value which is not to be measured by the roughness of the results obtained4 ,the theory of this instrument is as follows3--,let ,h 7fig4 #i7 be the point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation1 so that the angle ,,dah is the north declination of the sun1--,p1 the bead1 resting against the hour-line ,,vx4 ,join ,,cx1 then the angle ,,acx is the hour-angle from noon given by the bead1 and we have to prove that this hour-angle is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude ,,dac1 a north declination ,,dah and an altitude equal to the angle which the sun-line1 or its parallel ,,ac1 makes with the horizontal4 ,the angle ,,phq will be equal to the altitude1 if ,,hq be drawn parallel to ,,dc1 for the pair of lines ,,hq1 ,,hp will be respectively at right angles to the sun-line and the horizontal4 ,draw ,,pq and ,,hm parallel to ,,ac1 and let them meet ,,dce in ,m and ,n respectively4 ,let ,,hp and its equal ,,ha be represented by a4 ,then the following values will be readily deduced from the figure3-- ,,ad a cos decl4 ,,dh a sin decl4 ,,pq a sin alt4 ,,cx ,,ac ,,ad cos lat4 a cos decl4 cos lat4 ,,pn ,,cv ,,cx cos ,,acx a cos decl4 cos lat4 cos ,,acx4 ,,nq ,,mh ,,dh sin ,,mdh sin decl4 sin lat4 734 the angle ,,mdh ,,dac latitude47 ,and since ,,pq ,,nq ,,pn1 we have1 by simple substitution1 a sin alt4 a sin decl4 sin lat4 a cos del4 cos lat4 cos ,,acx2 or1 dividing by a throughout1 sin alt4 sin decl4 sin lat4 cos decl4 cos lat4 cos ,,acx 444 7#a7 which equation determines the hour-angle ,,acx shown by the bead4 ,to determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment1 let fig4 #aj represent the celestial sphere1 ,,hr the horizon1 ,p the pole1 ,z the zenith and ,s the sun4 ,from the spherical triangle ,,pzs1 we have cos ,,zs cos ,,ps cos ,,zp sin ,,ps sin ,,zp cos ,,zps but ,,zs zenith distance #ij - altitude ,,zp #ij - ,,pr #ij- latitude ,,ps polar distance #ij - declination1 therefore1 by substitution sin alt4 sin decl4 sin lat4 cos decl4 cos lat4 cos ,,zps 444 7#b7 and ,,zps is the hour-angle of the sun4 ,a comparison of the two formulae 7#a7 and 7#b7 shows that the hour-angle given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun1 and proves the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial4 ,just at sun-rise or at sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree4 ,if1 then1 a little cross m 7see fig4 #h7 be made just below the sun-line1 at a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at c1 the time of sun-set would be found corrected for refraction1 if the central line of light were made to fall on cm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,literature4--,the following list includes the principal writers on dialling whose works have come down1 to us1 and to these we must refer for descriptions of the various constructions1 some simple and direct1 others fanciful and intricate1 which have been at different times employed3 ,ptolemy1 ,analemma1 restored by ,commandine2 ,vitruvius1 ,architecture2 ,sebastian ,mnster1 ,horologiographia2 ,orontius ,fineus1 ,de horologiis solaribus2 ,mutio ,oddi da ,urbino1 ,horologi solari2 ,dryander1 ,de horologiorum compositione2 ,conrad ,gesner1 ,pandectae2 ,andreas ,schner1 ,gnomonicae2 ,f4 ,commandine1 ,horologiorum descriptio2 ,joan4 ,bapt4 ,benedictus1 ,de gnomonum usu2 ,georgius ,schomberg1 ,exegesis fundamentorum gnomonicorum2 ,joan4 ,solomon de ,caus1 ,horologes solaires2 ,joan4 ,bapt4 ,trolta1 ,praxis horologiorum2 ,desargues1 ,manire universelle pour poser l'essieu1 c42 ,ath4 ,kircher1 ,ars magna lucis et ,umbrae2 ,hallum1 ,explicatio horologii in horto regio ,londini2 ,joan4 ,mark1 ,tractatus horologiorum2 ,clavius1 ,gnomonices de horologiis4 ,also among more modern writers1 ,deschales1 ,ozanam1 ,schottus1 ,wolfius1 ,picard1 ,lahire1 ,walper2 in ,german1 ,paterson1 ,michael1 ,mller2 in ,english1 ,foster1 ,wells1 ,collins1 ,leadbetter1 ,jones1 ,leybourn1 ,emerson and ,ferguson4 ,see also ,hans ,lschner1 ber ,sonnenuhren 7#bnd ed41 ,graz1 #aijf74 7,h4 ,g47 #a ,in one of the courts of ,queens' ,college1 ,cambridge1 there is an elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the #agth or beginning of the #ahth century1 and around it a series of numbers which make it available as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known4 #b ,strict equality is not necessary1 as the observations made are on the vertical line through each division-point1 without reference to the others4 ,it is not even requisite that the divisions should go completely and exactly round the cylinder1 although they were always so drawn1 and both these conditions were insisted upon in the directions for the construction4 ,,dialect 7from ,gr4 ,greek3 dialektos1 conversation1 manner of speaking1 ,greek3 dialegesthai1 to converse71 a particular or characteristic manner of speech1 and hence any variety of a language4 ,in its widest sense languages which are branches of a common or parent language may be said to be dialects of that language2 thus ,attic1 ,ionic1 ,aeolic and ,doric are dialects of ,greek1 though there may never have at any time been a separate language of which they were variations2 so the various ,romance languages1 ,italian1 ,french1 ,spanish1 c41 were dialects of ,latin4 ,again1 where there have existed side by side1 as in ,england1 various branches of a language1 such as the languages of the ,angles1 the ,jutes or the ,saxons1 and the descendant of one particular language1 from many causes1 has obtained the predominance1 the traces of the other languages remain in the dialects of the districts where once the original language prevailed4 ,thus it may be incorrect1 from the historical point of view1 to say that dialect varieties of a language represent degradations of the standard language4 ,a literary accepted language1 such as modern ,english1 represents the original language spoken in the ,midlands1 with accretions of ,norman1 ,french1 and later literary and scientific additions from classical and other sources1 while the present-day dialects preserve1 in inflections1 pronunciation and particular words1 traces of the original variety of the language not incorporated in the standard language of the country4 ,see the various articles on languages 7,english1 ,french1 c74 ,,dialectic1 or ,,dialectics 7from ,gr4 ,greek3 dialektos1 discourse1 debate2 ,greek3 dialektik1 sc4 ,greek3 techn1 the art of debate71 a logical term1 generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous sense for verbal or purely abstract disputation devoid of practical value4 ,according to ,aristotle1 ,zeno of ,elea invented dialectic1 the art of disputation by question and answer1 while ,plato developed it metaphysically in connexion with his doctrine of ,ideas as the art of analysing ideas in themselves and in relation to the ultimate idea of the ,good 7,repub4 vii474 ,the special function of the so-called ,socratic dialectic was to show the inadequacy of popular beliefs4 ,aristotle himself used dialectic1 as opposed to science1 for that department of mental activity which examines the presuppositions lying at the back of all the particular sciences4 ,each particular science has its own subject matter and special principles 7,greek3 idiai archai7 on which the superstructure of its special discoveries is based4 ,the ,aristotelian dialectic1 however1 deals with the universal laws 7,greek3 koinai archai7 of reasoning1 which can be applied to the particular arguments of all the sciences4 ,the sciences1 for example1 all seek to define their own species2 dialectic1 on the other hand1 sets forth the conditions which all definitions must satisfy whatever their subject matter4 ,again1 the sciences all seek to educe general laws2 dialectic investigates the nature of such laws1 and the kind and degree of necessity to which they can attain4 ,to this general subject matter ,aristotle gives the name ,topics 7,greek3 topoi1 loci1 communes loci74 ,dialectic in this sense is the equivalent of logic4 ,aristotle also uses the term for the science of probable reasoning as opposed to demonstrative reasoning 7,greek3 apodeiktik74 ,the ,stoics divided ,greek3 logik 7logic7 into rhetoric and dialectic1 and from their time till the end of the middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with1 or a part of1 logic4 ,in modern philosophy the word has received certain special meanings4 ,in ,kantian terminology ,dialektik is the name of that portion of the ,kritik d4 reinen ,vernunft in which ,kant discusses the impossibility of applying to things-in-themselves the principles which are found to govern phenomena4 ,in the system of ,hegel the word resumes its original ,socratic sense1 as the name of that intellectual process whereby the inadequacy of popular conceptions is exposed4 ,throughout its history1 therefore1 dialectic has been connected with that which is remote from1 or alien to1 unsystematic thought1 with the a priori1 or transcendental1 rather than with the facts of common experience and material things4 ,,diallage1 an important mineral of the pyroxene group1 distinguished by its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre4 ,the chemical composition is the same as diopside1 ,ca ,mg 7,si,o#c7b1 but it sometimes contains the molecules 7,mg1 ,fe7 7,al1 ,fe'7#b ,si,o#f and ,na ,fe' 7,si,o#c7b1 in addition1 when it approaches to augite in composition4 ,diallage is in fact an altered form of these varieties of pyroxene2 the particular kind of alteration which they have undergone being known as schillerization4 ,this1 as described by ,prof4 ,j4 ,w4 ,judd1 consists in the development of a fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary twinning and the separation of secondary products along these and other planes of chemical weakness 7solution planes7 in the crystal4 ,the secondary products consist of mixtures of various hydrated oxides--opal1 gthite1 limonite1 c--and appear as microscopic inclusions filling or partly filling cavities1 which have definite outlines with respect to the enclosing crystal and are known as negative crystals4 ,it is to the reflection and interference of light from these minute inclusions that the peculiar bronzy sheen or schiller of the mineral is due4 ,the most pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid2 another1 less distinct1 is parallel to the basal plane1 and a third parallel to the plane of symmetry2 these planes of secondary parting are in addition to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all pyroxenes4 ,frequently the material is interlaminated with a rhombic pyroxene 7bronzite7 or with an amphibole 7smaragdite or uralite71 the latter being an alteration product of the diallage4 ,diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green1 sometimes brown1 in colour1 and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller on the laminated surfaces4 ,the hardness is #d1 and the specific gravity #c4b to #c4ce4 ,it does not occur in distinct crystals with definite outlines1 but only as lamellar masses in deep-seated igneous rocks1 principally gabbro1 of which it is an essential constituent4 ,it occurs also in some peridotites and serpentines1 and rarely in volcanic rocks 7basalt7 and crystalline schists4 ,masses of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained gabbros of the ,island of ,skye1 ,le ,prese near ,bornio in ,valtellina1 ,lombardy1 ,prato near ,florence1 and many other localities4 ,the name diallage1 from diallage1 difference1 in allusion to the dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture1 as originally applied by ,r4 ,j4 ,hay in #ahja1 included other minerals 7the orthorhombic pyroxenes hypersthene1 bronzite and bastite1 and the smaragdite variety of hornblende7 which exhibit the same peculiarities of schiller structure2 it is now limited to the monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure4 ,like the minerals of similar appearance just mentioned1 it is sometimes cut and polished for ornamental purposes4 7,l4 ,j4 ,s47 ,,dialogue1 properly the conversation between two or more persons1 reported in writing1 a form of literature invented by the ,greeks for purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction1 and scarcely modified since the days of its invention4 ,a dialogue is in reality a little drama without a theatre1 and with scarcely any change of scene4 ,it should be illuminated with those qualities which ,la ,fontaine applauded in the dialogue of ,plato1 namely vivacity1 fidelity of tone1 and accuracy in the opposition of opinions4 ,it has always been a favourite with those writers who have something to censure or to impart1 but who love to stand outside the pulpit1 and to encourage others to pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than indicate4 ,the dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing and noting down the undulations of human thought that it almost escapes analysis4 ,all that is recorded1 in any literature1 of what pretend to be the actual words spoken by living or imaginary people is of the nature of dialogue4 ,one branch of letters1 the drama1 is entirely founded upon it4 ,but in its technical sense the word is used to describe what the ,greek philosophers invented1 and what the noblest of them lifted to the extreme refinement of an art4 ,the systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form is commonly supposed to have been introduced by ,plato1 whose earliest experiment in it is believed to survive in the ,laches4 ,the ,platonic dialogue1 however1 was founded on the mime1 which had been cultivated half a century earlier by the ,sicilian poets1 ,sophron and ,epicharmus4 ,the works of these writers1 which ,plato admired and imitated1 are lost1 but it is believed that they were little plays1 usually with only two performers4 ,the recently discovered mimes of ,herodas 7,herondas7 give us some idea of their scope4 ,plato further simplified the form1 and reduced it to pure argumentative conversation1 while leaving intact the amusing element of character-drawing4 ,he must have begun this about the year #dje1 and by #cii he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection1 especially in the cycle directly inspired by the death of ,socrates4 ,all his philosophical writings1 except the ,apology1 are cast in this form4 ,as the greatest of all masters of ,greek prose style1 ,plato lifted his favourite instrument1 the dialogue1 to its highest splendour1 and to this day he remains by far its most distinguished proficient4 ,in the #bnd century a4d4 ,lucian of ,samosata achieved a brilliant success with his ironic dialogues ,of the ,gods1 ,of the ,dead1 ,of ,love and ,of the ,courtesans4 ,in some of them he attacks superstition and philosophical error with the sharpness of his wit2 in others he merely paints scenes of modern life4 ,the title of ,lucian's most famous collection was borrowed in the #agth century by two ,french writers of eminence1 each of whom prepared ,dialogues des morts4 ,these were ,fontenelle 7#afhc7 and ,fnelon 7#agab74 ,in ,english non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not been extensively employed until ,berkeley used it1 in #agac1 for his ,platonic treatise1 ,hylas and ,philonous4 ,landor's ,imaginary ,conversations 7#ahba-ahbh7 is the most famous example of it in the #aith century1 although the dialogues of ,sir ,arthur ,helps claim attention4 ,in ,germany1 ,wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works published between #aghj and #agii4 ,in ,spanish literature1 the ,dialogues of ,valds 7#aebh7 and those on ,painting 7#afcc7 by ,vincenzo ,carducci1 are celebrated4 ,in ,italian1 collections of dialogues1 on the model of ,plato1 have been composed by ,torquato ,tasso 7#aehf71 by ,galileo 7#afcb71 by ,galiani 7#aggj71 by ,leopardi 7#ahbe71 and by a host of lesser writers4 ,in our own day1 the ,french have returned to the original application of dialogue1 and the inventions of ,gyp1 of ,henri ,lavedan and of others1 in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told in conversation1 would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes of the early ,sicilian poets1 if we could meet with them4 ,this kind of dialogue has been employed in ,english1 and with conspicuous cleverness by ,mr ,anstey ,guthrie1 but it does not seem so easily appreciated by ,english as by ,french readers4 7,e4,g47 ,,dialysis 7from the ,gr4 ,greek3 dia1 through1 ,greek3 luein1 to loosen71 in chemistry1 a process invented by ,thomas ,graham for separating colloidal and crystalline substances4 ,he found that solutions could be divided into two classes according to their action upon a porous diaphragm such as parchment4 ,if a solution1 say of salt1 be placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom1 termed a dialyser1 and the drum and its contents placed in a larger vessel of water1 the salt will pass through the membrane4 ,if the salt solution be replaced by one of glue1 gelatin or gum1 it will be found that the membrane is impermeable to these solutes4 ,to the first class ,graham gave the name crystalloids1 and to the second colloids4 ,this method is particularly effective in the preparation of silicic acid4 ,by adding hydrochloric acid to a dilute solution of an alkaline silicate1 no precipitate will fall and the solution will contain hydrochloric acid1 an alkaline chloride1 and silicic acid4 ,if the solution be transferred to a dialyser1 the hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass through the parchment1 while the silicic acid will be retained4 ,,diamagnetism4 ,substances which1 like iron1 are attracted by the pole of an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as magnetic1 all others being regarded as non-magnetic4 ,it was noticed by ,a4 ,c4 ,becquerel in #ahbg that a number of so-called non-magnetic bodies1 such as wood and gum lac1 were influenced by a very powerful magnet1 and he appears to have formed the opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted upon iron1 though much feebler1 and that all matter was more or less magnetic4 ,faraday showed in #ahde 7,experimental ,researches1 vol4 iii47 that while practically all natural substances are indeed acted upon by a sufficiently strong magnetic pole1 it is only a comparatively small number that are attracted like iron1 the great majority being repelled4 ,bodies of the latter class were termed by ,faraday diamagnetics4 ,the strongest diamagnetic substance known is bismuth1 its susceptibility being--#j4jjjjad1 and its permeability #j4iiih4 ,the diamagnetic quality of this metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet1 and its repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once recognized before the date of ,faraday's experiments4 ,the metals gold1 silver1 copper1 lead1 zinc1 antimony and mercury are all diamagnetic2 tin1 aluminium and platinum are attracted by a very strong pole4 7,see ,,magnetism47 ,,diamante1 ,,fra1 ,italian fresco painter1 was born at ,prato about #adjj4 ,he was a ,carmelite friar1 a member of the ,florentine community of that order1 and was the friend and assistant of ,filippo ,lippi4 ,the ,carmelite convent of ,prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been suppressed1 and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving the destruction of the paintings4 ,he was the principal assistant of ,fra ,filippo in the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of the cathedral of ,prato4 ,in the midst of the work he was recalled to ,florence by his conventual superior1 and a minute of proceedings of the commune of ,prato is still extant1 in which it is determined to petition the metropolitan of ,florence to obtain his return to ,prato1--a proof that his share in the work was so important that his recall involved the suspension of it4 ,subsequently he assisted ,fra ,filippo in the execution of the frescoes still to be seen in the cathedral of ,spoleto1 which ,fra ,diamante completed in #adgj after his master's death in #adfi4 ,fra ,filippo left a son ten years old to the care of ,diamante1 who1 having received #bjj ducats from the commune of ,spoleto1 as the balance due for the work done in the cathedral1 returned with the child to ,florence1 and1 as ,vasari says1 bought land for himself with the money1 giving but a small portion to the child4 ,the accusation of wrong-doing1 however1 would depend upon the share of the work executed by ,fra ,diamante1 and the terms of his agreement with ,fra ,filippo4 ,fra ,diamante must have been nearly seventy when he completed the frescoes at ,spoleto1 but the exact year of his death is not known4 ,,diamante1 ,,juan ,,bautista 7#afdj8-afhd871 ,spanish dramatist1 was born at ,castillo about #afdj1 entered the army1 and began writing for the stage in #afeg4 ,he became a knight of ,santiago in #affj2 the date of his death is unknown1 but no reference to him as a living author occurs after #afhd4 ,like many other ,spanish dramatists of his time1 ,diamante is deficient in originality1 and his style is riddled with affectations2 ,la ,desgraciada ,raquel1 which was long considered to be his best play1 is really ,mira de ,amescua's ,juda de ,toledo under another title2 and the earliest of ,diamante's surviving pieces1 ,el ,honrador de su padre 7#afeh71 is little more than a free translation of ,corneille's ,cid4 ,diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of ,french dramatic methods into ,spain4 ,,diamantina 7formerly called ,tejuco71 a mining town of the state of ,minas ,geraes1 ,brazil1 in the ,n4,e4 part of the state1 #cgaj ft4 above sea-level4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #ag1ihj4 ,diamantina is built partly on a steep hillside overlooking a small tributary of the ,rio ,jequitinhonha 7where diamond-washing was once carried on71 and partly on the level plain above4 ,the town is roughly but substantially built1 with broad streets and large squares4 ,it is the seat of a bishopric1 with an episcopal seminary1 and has many churches4 ,its public buildings are inconspicuous2 they include a theatre1 military barracks1 hospitals1 a lunatic asylum and a secondary school4 ,there are several small manufactures1 including cotton-weaving1 and diamond-cutting is carried on4 ,the surrounding region1 lying on the eastern slopes of one of the lateral ranges of the ,serra do ,espinhao1 is rough and barren1 but rich in minerals1 principally gold and diamonds4 ,diamantina is the commercial centre of an extensive region1 and has long been noted for its wealth4 ,the date of the discovery of diamonds1 upon which its wealth and importance chiefly depend1 is uncertain1 but the official announcement was made in #agbi1 and in the following year the mines were declared crown property1 with a crown reservation1 known as the forbidden district1 #db leagues in circumference and #h to #af leagues in diameter4 ,gold-mining was forbidden within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe restrictions4 ,there are no trustworthy returns of the value of the output1 but in #ahdi the total was estimated up to that date at #cjj1jjj1jjj francs 7see ,,diamond74 ,the present name of the town was assumed 7instead of ,tejuco7 in #ahch1 when it was made a cidade4 ,,diamantino1 a small town of the state of ,matto ,grosso1 ,brazil1 near the ,diamantino river1 about #f m4 above its junction with the ,paraguay1 in #ad #bd' #cc ,s41 #ef #h' #cj ,w4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 of the municipality #badg1 mostly ,indians4 ,it stands in a broken sterile region #ahcg ft4 above sea-level and at the foot of the great ,matto ,grosso plateau4 ,the first mining settlement dates from #agcj1 when gold was found in the vicinity4 ,on the discovery of diamonds in #agdf the settlement drew a large population and for a time was very prosperous4 ,the mines failed to meet expectations1 however1 and the population has steadily declined4 ,ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of export4 ,,diameter 7from the ,gr4 ,greek3 dia1 through1 ,greek3 metron1 measure71 in geometry1 a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic section and terminated by the curve2 the principal diameters of the ellipse and hyperbola coincide with the axes and are at 444 7continued in volume #h1 slice #d1 page #jaeh47 99 99 99 99 99 ,corrections made to printed original4 ,,determinant1 formula ab'c - abc' a'bc - a'bc - abc' - ab'c4 changed to ab'c - abc' a'bc - a'bc abc' - ab'c4 ,,detmold1 added missing comma after ',detmold possesses a natural history museum'4 ,,deventer1 ',the ,athenaeum disappeared' corrected from the original 'disappered'4 ,,devil1 replaced comma with a period after 'according to #a ,chron4 xxi'4 ,,devonshire1 ,,earls ,,and ,,dukes ,,of1 ',in ,november #afhd' originally ',novembr'4 ,,diagram1 'found to be of use especially' originally 'epsecially'4 ,,dial1 table angles on the dial1 column ,,ix4 ,a4,m4 ,,iii4 ,p4,m4 bottom entry corrected from '#de #de' to '#dj #de'4 ,,diagram1 missing closing parenthesis added after 'to mark out by lines'4