,,typographic ,,technical ,,series ,,for ,,apprentices--,,part ,,vi1 ,,no4 #cb ,,word ,,study ,,and ,,english ,,grammar ,a ,,primer of ,,information ,,about ,,words ,,their ,,relations ,,and ,,their ,,uses ,,by ,,frederick ,w4 ,,hamilton1 ,,ll4,d4 ,,educational ,,director ,,united ,,typothet ,,of ,,america ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,committee ,,on ,,education ,,united ,,typothetae ,,of ,,america #aiah ,,copyright1 #aiah ,,united ,,typothetae ,,of ,,america ,,chicago1 ,,ill4 ,,preface ,this volume1 and those which follow it in ,part ,,vi of this series1 is a compilation from various sources4 ,the occasion does not call for an original treatise1 but it does call for something somewhat different from existing text-books4 ,the books prepared for school use are too academic and too little related to the specific needs of the apprentice to serve the turn of those for whom this book is intended4 ,on the other hand the books for writers and printers are as a rule too advanced for the best service to the beginner4 ,the authors of this ,part1 therefore1 have tried to compile from a wide range of authorities such material as would be suited to the needs and the experience of the young apprentice4 ,the ,rules for the ,use and ,arrangement of ,words are taken with some modifications from ,how to ,write ,clearly1 ,edwin ,a4 ,abbott1 ,boston2 ,roberts ,bros4 ,this is a very excellent little book but is now1 ,i believe1 out of print4 ,the tables of irregular verbs are the same as those used in ,english ,grammar for ,common ,schools1 ,robert ,c4 and ,thomas ,metcalf1 ,new ,york2 ,american ,book ,co4 ,the student is recommended to study some good grammar with great care4 ,there are many good grammars4 ,the one used in the schools in the apprentice's locality will probably do as well as any4 ,the student should learn to use the dictionary intelligently and should accustom himself to using it freely and frequently4 ,the student should also learn to use words correctly and freely4 ,there are many good books devoted to the study of words1 some of which ought to be easily available4 ,one of the latest and one of the best is ,putnam's ,word ,book published by ,putnams1 ,new ,york4 ,it costs about a dollar and a half4 ,,contents ,,page ,,introduction3 ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,subject #a ,,the ,,word ,,families #a ,,nouns #b ,,adjectives #e ,,articles #h ,,verbs #h ,,pronouns #ae ,,adverbs #af ,,prepositions #ag ,,conjunctions #ag ,,interjections #ah ,,general ,,notes #ah ,,rules ,,for ,,correct ,,writing #bj ,,the ,,sentence #ba ,,the ,,paragraph #ba ,,rules ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,and ,,arrangement ,,of ,,words #bb ,,common ,,errors ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,words #bd ,,tables ,,of ,,irregular ,,verbs #dj ,,supplementary ,,reading #dg ,,review ,,questions #dh ,,glossary ,,of ,,terms #eb ,,word ,,study ,,and ,,english ,,grammar ,importance of the ,subject ,word study and ,english grammar are important to the young printer for several reasons4 ,in the first place1 disregard of the correct use and combination of words is a distinct mark of inferiority and a serious bar to business and social advancement4 ,a man's use of words is commonly taken as a measure of his knowledge and even of his intelligence4 ,carelessness in this regard often causes a man to be held in much less esteem than he really deserves4 ,in the second place1 it is quite as important that the printer should know something about the words and sentences which he puts on paper as it is that he should know something about the paper on which he puts them1 or the type1 ink1 and press by means of which he puts them there4 ,in the third place1 knowledge of words and their uses is indispensable to correct proofreading which is itself a branch of the printer's craft4 ,a working knowledge of words and their relations1 that is1 of rhetoric and grammar is therefore a tool and a very important tool of the printer4 ,this little book is not intended to be either a rhetoric or a grammar4 ,it is only intended to review some of the simplest principles of both subjects1 to point out a few of the commonest mistakes1 and to show the importance to the apprentice of the careful study and constant use of some of the many books on words1 their combinations1 and their uses4 ,the ,word ,families ,all the words in the ,english language belong to one or another of nine families1 each of which family has a special duty4 ,if you will always remember to which family a word belongs and just what that family does1 you will be saved from many very common errors4 ,these nine families are3 #a1 nouns2 #b1 adjectives2 #c1 articles2 #d1 verbs2 #e1 pronouns2 #f1 adverbs2 #g1 prepositions2 #h1 conjunctions2 #i1 interjections4 ,this order of enumeration is not exactly the same as will be found in the grammars4 ,it is used here because it indicates roughly the order of the appearance of the nine families in the logical development of language4 ,some forms of interjections1 however1 may very probably have preceded any language properly so called4 ,nouns ,a noun is a word used as the name of anything that can be thought of1 ,john1 boy1 paper1 cold1 fear1 crowd4 ,there are three things about a noun which indicate its relation to other words1 its number1 its gender1 and its case4 ,there are two numbers1 singular meaning one1 and plural meaning more than one4 ,the plural is generally formed by adding s to the singular4 ,there are a small number of nouns which form their plurals differently1 mouse1 mice2 child1 children2 foot1 feet4 ,these must be learned individually from a dictionary or spelling book4 ,there are some nouns which undergo changes in the final syllable when the s is added1 torch1 torches2 staff1 staves2 fly1 flies4 ,these also must be learned individually4 ,there are some nouns which have no singular1 such as cattle1 clothes1 some which have no plural1 such as physics1 honesty1 news1 and some which are the same in both singular and plural1 such as deer1 trout1 series4 ,care must be taken in the use of these nouns1 as in some cases their appearance is misleading1 e4 g41 mathematics1 physics1 and the like are singular nouns having no plural1 but owing to their form they are often mistaken for plurals4 ,compound nouns1 that is to say1 nouns formed by the combination of two or three words which jointly express a single idea1 generally change the principal word in the forming of the plural1 hangers-on1 ink rollers1 but in a few cases both words change1 for example1 men-servants4 ,these forms must be learned by observation and practice4 ,it is very important1 however1 that they be thoroughly learned and correctly used4 ,do not make such mistakes as brother-in-laws1 man-servants4 ,perhaps the most important use of number is in the relation between the noun and the verb4 ,the verb as well as the noun has number forms and the number of the noun used as subject should always agree with that of the verb with which it is connected4 ,such expressions as pigs is pigs1 how be you8 and the like1 are among the most marked evidences of ignorance to be found in common speech4 ,when this paragraph was originally written a group of high school boys were playing football under the writer's window4 ,scraps of their talk forced themselves upon his attention4 ,almost invariably such expressions as you was1 they was1 he don't1 it aint1 and the like took the place of the corresponding correct forms of speech4 ,collective nouns1 that is the nouns which indicate a considerable number of units considered as a whole1 such as herd1 crowd1 congress1 present some difficulties because the idea of the individuals in the collection interferes with the idea of the collection itself4 ,the collective nouns call for the singular form of the verb except where the thought applies to the individual parts of the collection rather than to the collection as a whole1 for instance1 we say1 ,the crowd looks large4 but we say1 ,the crowd look happy4 because in one case we are thinking of the crowd and in the other of the persons who compose the crowd4 ,so in speaking of a committee1 we may say ,the ,committee thinks that a certain thing should be done4 or that ,the ,committee think that a certain thing should be done4 ,the first phrase would indicate that the committee had considered and acted on the subject and the statement represented a formal decision4 ,the second phrase would indicate the individual opinions of the members of the committee which might be in agreement but had not been expressed in formal action4 ,in doubtful cases it is safer to use the plural4 ,entire accuracy in these cases is not altogether easy4 ,as in the case with all the nice points of usage it requires practice and continual self-observation4 ,by these means a sort of language sense is developed which makes the use of the right word instinctive4 ,it is somewhat analogous to that sense which will enable an experienced bank teller to throw out a counterfeit bill instinctively when running over a large pile of currency even though he may be at some pains to prove its badness when challenged to show the reason for its rejection4 ,the young student should not permit himself to be discouraged by the apparent difficulty of the task of forming the habit of correct speech4 ,it is habit and rapidly becomes easier after the first efforts4 ,the relation of a noun to a verb1 to another noun1 or to a preposition is called its case4 ,there are three cases called the nominative1 objective1 and possessive4 ,when the noun does something it is in the nominative case and is called the subject of the verb4 ,the man cuts4 ,when the noun has something done to it it is in the objective case and is called the object of the verb4 ,the man cuts paper4 ,when a noun depends on a preposition1 it is also in the objective case and is called the object of the preposition4 ,the paper is cut by machinery4 ,the preposition on which a noun depends is often omitted when not needed for clearness4 ,the foreman gave 7to7 the men a holiday4 ,he came 7on7 ,sunday4 ,near 7to7 the press4 ,he was ten minutes late 7late by ten minutes74 ,he is #ah years old 7old by or to the extent of #ah years74 ,the nominative and objective cases of nouns do not differ in form4 ,they are distinguished by their positions in the sentence and their relations to other words4 ,when one noun owns another the one owning is in the possessive case4 ,the man's paper is cut4 ,the possessive case is shown by the form of the noun4 ,it is formed by adding s preceded by an apostrophe to the nominative case1 thus1 ,john's hat4 ,there is a considerable difference of usage regarding the formation of the possessives of nouns ending in s in the singular4 ,the general rule is to proceed as in other nouns by adding the apostrophe and the other s as ,james's hat4 ,de,vinne advises following the pronunciation4 ,where the second s is not pronounced1 as often happens to avoid the prolonged hissing sound of another s1 he recommends omitting it in print4 ,moses' hat1 for ,moses's hat4 ,for conscience' sake4 ,plural nouns ending in s add the apostrophe only2 ending in other letters they add the apostrophe and s like singular nouns1 the ,jones' house1 the children's toys4 ,the possessive pronouns never take the apostrophe4 ,we say hers1 theirs1 its4 ,it's is an abbreviation for it is4 ,care should be taken in forming the possessives of phrases containing nouns in apposition1 or similar compound phrases4 ,we should say ,i called at ,brown the printer's or since ,william the ,conqueror's time4 ,adjectives ,an adjective is a word used to qualify1 limit1 or define a noun1 or a word or phrase which has the value of a noun4 ,nouns are ordinarily very general and indefinite in meaning1 for example1 man conveys only a very general idea4 ,to make that idea definite we need the help of one or more descriptive words such as black1 tall1 stout1 good4 ,i saw a man4 gives no definite idea of the person seen4 ,i saw a tall1 thin1 dark1 old man4 presents a very definite picture4 ,it will be noted that these descriptive words have a way of forming combinations among themselves4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that all the words thus used describe the noun4 ,adjectives are sometimes used as substitutes for nouns4 ,this is one of the many verbal short cuts in which the ,english language abounds4 ,the good die young means good people die young4 ,we should seek the good and beautiful means we should seek good or beautiful things1 or persons1 or qualities1 or perhaps everything good and beautiful4 ,when adjectives indicate a quality they have three forms called degrees indicating the extent or amount of the quality possessed by the noun especially as compared with other objects of the same sort1 a big man1 a bigger man1 the biggest man4 ,these degrees are called positive1 indicating possession of bigness2 comparative1 indicating possession of more bigness than some other man2 superlative1 indicating possession of more bigness than any other man4 ,when we wish to tell the amount of the quality without comparing the possessor with any other object or group of objects we use a modifying word later to be described called an adverb4 ,i saw a very big man1 indicates that the man possessed much bigness1 but makes no comparison with any other man or group of men4 ,comparison is generally indicated in two ways1 first1 by adding to the adjectives the terminations er and est as high1 higher1 highest1 or1 second1 by using the words more and most1 as splendid1 more splendid1 most splendid4 ,the question which of the two methods should be used is not always easy to decide4 ,it depends somewhat on usage and on euphony or agreeableness of sound4 ,adjectives of three or more syllables use the long form1 that is1 the additional word4 ,we should not say beautifuler or beautifulest4 ,adjectives of two syllables may often be compared either way2 for example1 it would be equally correct to say nobler and noblest or more noble and most noble4 ,an example of the influence of euphony may be found in the adjective honest4 ,we might say honester without hesitation but we should be less likely to say honestest on account of the awkward combination of syllables involved4 ,adjectives of one syllable usually take the short form but not invariably4 ,the exceptions1 however1 are more common in poetry than in prose4 ,when any question rises it is usually safer to use the long form of comparison in the case of two-syllable adjectives and to use the short form in the case of one-syllable adjectives4 ,the proper use of the long form is one of those niceties of diction which come only with careful observation and with training of the ear and of the literary sense4 ,the word most should never be used1 as it often is1 in the place of almost4 ,careless people say ,i am most ready meaning ,i am almost1 or nearly ready4 ,the phrase ,i am most ready1 really means ,i am in the greatest possible readiness4 ,such use of most is common in old ,english but much less so in modern speech4 ,two very common adjectives are irregularly compared4 ,they are good1 better1 best1 and bad1 worse1 worst4 ,in spite of the fact that these adjectives are among the most common in use and their comparison may be supposed to be known by everybody1 one often hears the expressions gooder1 goodest1 more better1 bestest1 bader1 badest1 worser1 and worsest4 ,needless to say1 these expressions are without excuse except that worser is sometimes found in old ,english4 ,illiterate people sometimes try to make their speech more forceful by combining the two methods of comparison in such expressions as more prettier1 most splendidest4 ,such compounds should never be used4 ,some adjectives are not compared4 ,they are easily identified by their meaning4 ,they indicate some quality which is of such a nature that it must be possessed fully or not at all1 yearly1 double1 all4 ,some adjectives have a precise meaning in which they cannot be compared and a loose or popular one in which they can be2 for example1 a thing either is or is not round or square4 ,nevertheless we use these words in such a loose general way that it is not absolutely incorrect to say rounder and roundest or squarer and squarest4 ,such expressions should be used with great care and avoided as far as possible4 ,none but the very ignorant would say onliest1 but one often sees the expressions more and most unique4 ,this is particularly bad ,english4 ,unique does not mean rare1 unusual2 it means one of a kind1 absolutely unlike anything else4 ,clearly this is a quality which cannot be possessed in degrees4 ,an object either does or does not have it4 ,articles ,an article is a little adjective which individualizes the noun1 a boy1 an apple1 the crowd4 ,a which is used before consonantal sounds and an which is used before vowel sounds are called indefinite articles because they individualize without specializing4 ,the is called the definite article because it both individualizes and specializes4 ,a may be used before o and u if the sound is really consonantal as in such a one1 a use1 a utility4 ,an may be used before h if the h is not sounded1 for example1 an hour but a horror4 ,verbs ,a verb is a word which asserts or declares4 ,in other words1 it makes a noun or pronoun tell something4 ,john paper tells nothing4 ,john wastes paper tells something4 ,verbs are the most difficult of all the parts of speech to understand and to use properly4 ,as a rule1 an ,english verb has something more than fifty parts which1 with their uses1 should be thoroughly learned from a grammar4 ,this is not so difficult a matter as it might appear1 except to those whose native speech is not ,english4 ,nevertheless you should be on the guard against such blunders as ,i seen1 ,i seed1 for ,i saw1 ,i runned for ,i ran1 ,i et for ,i ate1 ,i throwed for ,i threw1 and the like4 ,in most verbs these parts are regular4 ,in some they are irregular4 ,a list of irregular verbs will be found at the end of this volume4 ,while the plan of this book does not call for a systematic study of verbs any more than of any other words1 it is desirable to call attention to some points as being the occasions of frequent mistakes4 ,a simple sentence consists of a verb1 its subject1 and its object4 ,the verb indicates the action1 the subject is the noun 7name of a person or thing7 which does the act1 the object is the noun to which the thing is done4 ,verbs have forms denoting person and number1 for example3 ,singular ,plural #ast ,i love #ast ,we love #bnd ,you love 7thou lovest7 #bnd ,you love formal and archaic4 #crd ,he loves #crd ,they love ,singular ,plural #ast ,i was #ast ,we were #bnd ,you were 7thou wast7 #bnd ,you were #crd ,he was #crd ,they were ,verbs agree with their subjects in person and number4 ,we all know this but we do not always remember it4 ,unless you are very careful1 you will find yourself using a singular subject with a plural verb or the reverse4 ,mistakes of this sort are particularly liable to happen in the case of collective nouns1 in the use of personal pronouns as subjects1 and in cases where the subject and the verb are far separated in the sentence4 ,those forms of the verb which tell whether the subject is acting or is acted upon are called voices4 ,when the subject is acting the verb is said to be in the active voice4 ,when the subject is acted upon the verb is said to be in the passive voice4 ,verbs in the passive voice have no objects because the subject1 being acted upon1 is itself in the place of an object4 ,those forms of the verb which tell whether the time of the action is past1 present1 or future1 are called tenses4 ,they are six1 viz4 ,present1 ,i print 7am printing7 the book4 ,past or imperfect1 ,i printed the book4 ,future1 ,i shall print the book4 ,perfect1 or present perfect1 ,i have printed the book4 ,pluperfect or past perfect1 ,i had printed the book before you wrote4 ,future perfect1 ,i will notify you when ,i shall have printed the book4 ,when adverbs denoting time are indicated care should be taken to see that the verb is consistent with the adverb4 ,i printed it yesterday1 not ,i have printed it yesterday2 ,i have not yet printed it1 not ,i did not print it yet2 ,i have printed it already1 not ,i printed it already4 ,trouble is sometimes found in choosing the right forms of the verb to be used in subordinate clauses4 ,the rule is3 ,verbs in subordinate sentences and clauses must be governed by the tense of the principal verb4 ,this rule rests on the exact meaning of the forms and words used and its application can be checked by careful examination of these meanings4 ,he said he did it4 ,he said he would do it4 ,he says he will do it4 ,note that when the statement in the subordinate clause is of universal application the present tense is always used whatever the tense of the principal verb4 ,the lecturer said that warm weather always softens rollers4 ,those forms of the verb which tell whether the action is an actual fact1 a possibility1 a condition1 or a command are called moods4 ,there are three moods1 the indicative1 subjunctive1 and imperative4 ,the indicative mood indicates that the action is a fact4 ,it is also used in asking questions4 ,the subjunctive mood is less used in modern than in old ,english4 ,it is most commonly found in clauses beginning with if1 though if is not to be regarded as the sign of the subjunctive in any such sense as to is the sign of the infinitive4 ,the subjunctive were should be used in purely hypothetical clauses such as ,if ,i were in your place4 ,the subjunctive be should be used in the hypothesis or supposition of a scientific demonstration1 ,if the triangle ,a be placed on the triangle ,b4 ,the subjunctive without if is often used in wishes or prayers1 ,god forgive him4 ,o1 that my brother were here4 ,the subjunctive is sometimes used to express condition1 ,had you not been a coward1 you would not have run away4 ,the imperative mood indicates a command1 ,put that on the press4 ,the subject of the imperative mood is only expressed when it is emphatic1 ,go thou and do likewise4 ,older grammarians speak of a fourth mood called potential4 ,the present tendency among grammarians is to treat these forms separately4 ,they are verb phrases which express ability1 possibility1 obligation1 or necessity4 ,they are formed by the use of the auxiliary verbs may1 can1 must1 might1 could1 would1 and should1 with the infinitive without to4 ,may is used 7a7 to show that the subject is permitted to do something1 ,you may go out1 or 7b7 to indicate possibility or doubtful intention1 ,i may not go to work tomorrow4 ,can is used to show that the subject is able to do something1 ,i can feed a press4 ,these two forms are often confused1 with results which would be ridiculous if they were not too common to attract attention4 ,the confusion perhaps arises from the fact that the ability to do a thing often appears to depend on permission to do it4 ,may ,i see a proof8 means ,have ,i permission1 or will you allow me1 to see a proof8 and is the proper way to put the question4 ,the common question1 ,can ,i see a proof8 is absurd4 ,of course you can1 if you have normal eyesight4 ,must shows necessity or obligation4 ,you must obey the rules of the office4 ,ought which is sometimes confounded with must in phrases of this sort expresses moral obligation as distinguished from necessity4 ,you ought to obey the rules of the office1 indicates that it is your duty to obey because it is the right thing to do even though no penalty is attached4 ,you must obey the rules of the office1 indicates that you will be punished if you do not obey4 ,those forms of the verb which express the time of the action are called tenses4 ,no particular difficulty attends the use of the tenses except in the case of shall and will and should and would4 ,shall and will are used as follows3 ,in simple statements to express mere futurity1 use shall in the first person1 will in the second and third2 to express volition1 promise1 purpose1 determination1 or action which the speaker means to control use will in the first person1 shall in the second and third4 ,the following tables should be learned and practiced in a large variety of combinations4 ,futurity ,volition1 etc4 ,i shall ,we shall ,i will ,we will ,you will ,you will ,you shall ,you shall ,he will ,they will ,he shall ,they shall ,a good example of the misuse of the words is found in the old story of the foreigner who fell into the water and cried out in terror and despair ,i will drown1 nobody shall help me4 ,in asking questions1 for the first person always use shall1 for the second and third use the auxiliary expected in the answer4 ,futurity ,shall ,i 7,i shall7 ,shall we 7,we shall7 ,shall you 7,i shall7 ,shall you 7,we shall7 ,will he 7,he will7 ,will they 7,they will7 ,volition1 etc4 ---- ---- ---- ---- ,will you 7,i will7 ,will you 7,we will7 ,shall he 7,he shall7 ,shall he 7,he shall7 ,in all other cases1 as in subordinate clauses shall is used in all persons to express mere futurity1 will to express volition1 etc4 ,in indirect discourse1 when the subject of the principal clause is different from the noun clause1 the usage is like that in direct statement1 for example1 ,the teacher says that ,james will win the medal4 7futurity71 but when the subject of the principal clause is the same as that of the noun clause1 the usage is like that in subordinate clauses1 ,the teacher says that he shall soon resign4 7futurity74 ,exceptions4 ,will is often used in the second person to express an official command4 ,you will report to the superintendent at once4 ,shall is sometimes used in the second and third persons in a prophetic sense4 ,ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free4 ,the use of should and would is in general the same as that of shall and will in indirect statement4 ,futurity4 ,i should ,we would ,you would ,you should ,he would ,they should ,in asking questions use should in the first person to express mere futurity and would to express volition1 etc2 in the second and third persons use the form that is expected in the answer4 ,futurity ,should ,i 7,i should7 ,should we 7,we should7 ,should ,you 7,i should7 ,should ,you 7,we should7 ,would he 7,he would7 ,would they 7,they would7 ,volition1 etc4 ,would ,i 7,i would7 ,would we 7,we would7 ,would ,you 7,you would7 ,would ,you 7,we would7 ,should he 7,he should7 ,should they 7,they should7 ,in subordinate clauses should is used in all persons to express futurity1 would to express volition1 etc4 ,in indirect discourse the usage is similar to that in direct statement4 ,the teacher said that ,john would win the medal4 ,exceptions4 ,should is often used to express moral obligation4 ,you should be honest under all conditions4 ,would is sometimes used to express frequentive action4 ,he would walk the floor night after night4 ,mistakes are often made in the use of compound tenses on account of failure to grasp the meaning of the words used4 ,i should have liked to have seen you1 is correct grammar but probably not correct statement of fact1 as it states a past desire to have done something at a period still further remote1 that is to say1 ,i should have liked 7yesterday7 to have seen you 7day before yesterday74 ,what is generally meant is either ,i should have liked to see you1 that is ,i 7then7 wished to see you1 or ,i should like to have seen you1 that is ,i 7now7 wish ,i had seen you 7then74 ,every word has its own value and nearly all our mistakes arise from lack of regard for the exact value of the words to be used4 ,where a participial construction is used as the object of a verb1 the noun or pronoun in the object should be in the possessive case and not in the objective4 ,you should not say1 ,i object to him watching me1 but ,i object to his watching me4 ,care should be taken not to give objects to passive verbs4 ,the very common expression ,the man was given a chance is incorrect4 ,it should be ,a chance was given to the man4 ,care should also be taken to avoid the omission of the prepositions which are needed with certain verbs1 for example1 beware the dog1 ,what happened him should be beware of the dog1 ,what happened to him4 ,on the other hand superfluous prepositions are sometimes used in such phrases as consider of1 accept of and the like4 ,such errors are to be avoided by careful study of the meaning of words and careful observation of the best written and spoken speech4 ,pronouns ,pronouns are substitutes for nouns4 ,they are labor saving devices4 ,we could say everything which we need to say without them1 but at the expense of much repetition of longer words4 ,a child often says ,john wants ,henry's ball instead of ,i want your ball4 ,constant remembrance of this simple fact1 that a pronoun is only a substitute for a noun1 is really about all that is needed to secure correct usage after the pronouns themselves have once become familiar4 ,a construction which appears doubtful can often be decided by substituting nouns for pronouns and vice versa4 ,a very common error is the use of the plural possessive pronouns with the words any1 every1 each1 somebody1 everybody1 and nobody1 all of which are always singular4 ,we could accomplish this if every one would do their part4 is wrong4 ,it should be ,we could accomplish this if every one would do his part4 ,another common mistake is the confusion of the nominative and objective cases in objective clauses where two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun occur4 ,all this was done for you and ,i4 is a very common but entirely inexcusable mistake4 ,one would hardly think of saying ,all this was done for ,i4 ,i saw ,john and he leaving the shop4 is almost equally common and quite equally bad4 ,do not allow yourself to be confused by a double object4 ,in general great care should be taken to avoid ambiguity in the use of pronouns4 ,it is very easy to multiply and combine pronouns in such a way that while grammatical rules may not be broken the reader may be left hopelessly confused4 ,such ambiguous sentences should be cleared up1 either by a rearrangement of the words or by substitution of nouns for some of the pronouns4 ,adverbs ,an adverb is a helper to a verb1 ,i fear greatly1 that press works badly4 ,adverbs modify or help verbs1 adjectives1 and other adverbs just as adjectives modify nouns and pronouns4 ,the use of adverbs presents some difficulties1 mainly arising from the adverbial use of many other parts of speech and from the close relation between adverbs and adjectives4 ,it should never be forgotten that while adverbs never modify nouns or pronouns1 adjectives never modify anything but nouns or pronouns4 ,remembrance of this simple fact will settle most questions as to the use of adverbs or adjectives4 ,careful observation and care in forming correct habits of expression will do the rest4 ,do not multiply negatives4 ,they cancel each other like the factors in an arithmetical problem4 ,he never did wrong is correct in statement and clear in meaning4 ,he never did nothing wrong does not add force1 it reverses the meaning4 ,the negatives have cancelled each other and you are saying ,he did wrong4 ,he never did nothing wrong to nobody leaves us with an odd negative and brings us back to the first statement1 very badly expressed4 ,prepositions ,a preposition is a hook for a noun or pronoun to hang on4 ,it usually precedes the noun or pronoun which hangs1 or depends upon it1 as indicated by its name which is derived from the ,latin pre-before and pono-,i place4 ,john is behind the press4 ,i shall work until ,sunday4 ,a preposition shows the relation of a noun or pronoun used as its object to some other word or words in the sentence or1 as it has been otherwise stated1 makes the noun or pronoun to which it is joined equivalent to an adjective or an adverb4 ,the expression ,john is behind the press is equivalent to an adjective describing ,john4 ,that is1 he is ,john behind-the-press4 ,prepositions are governing words and the words governed by or depending on them are always in the objective case4 ,conjunctions ,a conjunction is the coupling link between the parts of a train of thought4 ,it is of no purpose whatever except to connect4 ,i am cold and hungry and tired and ,i am going home4 ,care should be taken to avoid confusing and and but and and and or4 ,he sees the right and does the wrong4 should be ,he sees the right but does the wrong4 ,the ideas are contrasted1 not associated4 ,i did not see ,thomas and ,john4 should be ,i did not see ,thomas or ,john4 ,the first phrase means that ,i did not see them together1 it says nothing about seeing them separately4 ,either--or and neither--nor are called correlative conjunctions4 ,they should always be paired in this way4 ,neither should never be paired with or nor either with nor4 ,each member of the pair should be placed in the same relative position1 that is before the same part of speech4 ,i could neither see him nor his father4 is wrong4 ,it should be ,i could see neither him nor his father4 ,this rule applies to all other correlatives1 that is since they are correlatives in form they should be correlatives in position also4 ,it is correct to say ,it belongs both to you and to me4 or ,it belongs to both you and me4 but not ,it belongs both to you and me4 ,interjections ,an interjection is a word or sound expressing emotion only such as a shout1 a groan1 a hiss1 a sob1 or the like1 such as ,oh1 alas1 hush4 ,general ,notes ,the position of words in a sentence is often very important4 ,misplacement will frequently cause ambiguities and absurdities which punctuation will not remove4 ,what does the phrase ,i only saw him mean8 ,a newspaper advertisement describing a certain dog which was offered for sale says ,he is thoroughly house-broken1 will eat anything1 is very fond of children4 ,as a rule modifiers should be kept close to the words1 clauses1 or phrases which they modify1 but due regard should be given to sense and to ease of expression4 ,a word or phrase which can be easily supplied from the context may often be omitted4 ,care must be used in making these omissions or the result will be either ambiguous or slovenly4 ,washington is nearer ,new ,york than ,chicago4 ,what exactly does this mean8 ,one might get into serious trouble over the interpretation of the phrase ,he likes me better than you4 ,all day and all night are recognized as good expressions sanctioned by long usage4 ,all morning and all afternoon are not yet sanctioned by good usage and give a decided impression of slovenliness4 ,another objectionable omission is that of to before place and similar words in such expressions as ,let's go some place and the like4 ,it should be to some place or1 generally better1 somewhere4 ,a decidedly offensive abbreviation is the phrase ,rev4 ,smith4 ,it should be ,rev4 ,john ,smith or ,rev4 ,mr4 ,smith4 ,rev4 is not a title1 or a noun in apposition1 but an adjective4 ,it would be entirely correct to say ,pastor ,smith or ,bishop ,smith4 ,the same error sometimes occurs in using the prefix ,hon4 ,a knowledge of the correct use and combination of words is fully as important as a knowledge of their grammatical forms and their relations4 ,this knowledge should be acquired by the use of books on rhetoric and by careful study of words themselves4 ,the materials for such study may be found in the books named in the ,supplementary ,reading or in other books of a similar character4 ,the task of the writer or speaker is to say what he has to say correctly1 clearly1 and simply4 ,he must say just what he means4 ,he must say it definitely and distinctly4 ,he must say it1 so far as the subject matter will permit1 in words that people of ordinary intelligence and ordinary education cannot misunderstand4 ,the right word in the right place should be the motto of every man who speaks or writes1 and this rule should apply to his everyday talk as well as to more formal utterances4 ,three abuses are to be avoided4 ,do not use slang as a means of expression4 ,there are occasions when a slang phrase may light up what you are saying or may carry it home to intellects of a certain type4 ,use it sparingly if at all1 as you would use cayenne pepper or tabasco sauce4 ,do not use it in writing at all4 ,slang is the counterfeit coin of speech4 ,it is a substitute1 and a very poor substitute1 for language4 ,it is the refuge of those who neither understand real language nor know how to express themselves in it4 ,do not use long1 unusual words4 ,use short and simple words whenever they will serve your turn4 ,it is a mistake to suppose that a fluent use of long words is a mark either of depth of thought or of extent of information4 ,the following bit of nonsense is taken from the news columns of a newspaper of good standing3 ,the topography about ,puebla avails itself easily to a force which can utilize the heights above the city with cannon4 ,what was meant was probably something like this1 ,the situation of ,puebla is such as to give a great advantage to a force which can plant cannon on the high ground overlooking the city4 ,do not use inflated or exaggerated words4 ,a heavy shower is not a cloud burst2 a gale is not a blizzard2 a fire is not a conflagration2 an accident or a defeat is not a disaster2 a fatal accident is not a holocaust2 a sharp criticism is not an excoriation or flaying1 and so on4 ,rules for ,correct ,writing ,more than a century ago the great ,scotch rhetorician ,campbell framed five canons or rules for correct writing4 ,they have never been improved4 ,they should be learned by heart1 thoroughly mastered1 and constantly practiced by every writer and speaker4 ,they are as follows3 ,canon #a4--,when1 of two words or phrases in equally good use1 one is susceptible of two significations and the other of but one1 preference should be given to the latter3 e4 g41 admittance is better than admission1 as the latter word also means confession2 relative is to be preferred to relation1 as the latter also means the telling of a story4 ,canon #b4--;,in doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the language2 might better should be preferred to had better1 and would rather is better than had rather4 ,canon #c4--,the simpler and briefer form should be preferred1 other things being equal1 e4 g41 omit the bracketed words in expressions such as1 open 7up71 meet 7together71 follow 7after71 examine 7into71 trace 7out71 bridge 7over71 crave 7for71 etc4 ,canon #d4--;,between two forms of expression in equally good use1 prefer the one which is more euphonious3 e4 g41 most beautiful is better than beautifullest1 and more free is to be preferred to freer4 ,canon #e4--;,in cases not covered by the four preceding canons1 prefer that which conforms to the older usage3 e4 g41 begin is better than commence4 ,the ,sentence ,the proper construction of sentences is very important to good writing4 ,the following simple rules will be of great assistance in sentence formation4 ,they should be carefully learned and the pupil should be drilled in them4 #a4 ,let each sentence have one1 and only one1 principal subject of thought4 ,avoid heterogeneous sentences4 #b4 ,the connection between different sentences must be kept up by adverbs used as conjunctions1 or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of the sentence4 #c4 ,the connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of thought4 ,the ,paragraph ,the proper construction of paragraphs is also of great importance4 ,the following rules will serve as guides for paragraphing4 ,they should be learned and the pupil should be drilled in their application4 #a4 ,a sentence which continues the topic of the sentence which precedes it rather than introduces a new topic should never begin a paragraph4 #b4 ,each paragraph should possess a single central topic to which all the statements in the paragraph should relate4 ,the introduction of a single statement not so related to the central topic violates the unity4 #c4 ,a sentence or short passage may be detached from the paragraph to which it properly belongs if the writer wishes particularly to emphasize it4 #d4 ,for ease in reading1 a passage which exceeds three hundred words in length may be broken into two paragraphs1 even though no new topic has been developed4 #e4 ,any digression from the central topic1 or any change in the viewpoint in considering the central topic1 demands a new paragraph4 #f4 ,coherence in a paragraph requires a natural and logical order of development4 #g4 ,smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use of proper connective words between closely related sentences4 ,a common fault1 however1 is the incorrect use of such words as and or but between sentences which are not closely related4 #h4 ,in developing the paragraph1 emphasis is secured by a careful consideration of the relative values of the ideas expressed1 giving to each idea space proportionate to its importance to the whole4 ,this secures the proper climax4 #i4 ,the paragraph1 like the composition itself1 should possess clearness1 unity1 coherence1 and emphasis4 ,it is a group of related sentences developing a central topic4 ,its length depends upon the length of the composition and upon the number of topics to be discussed4 ,rules for the ,use and ,arrangement of ,words ,the following rules for the use and arrangement of words will be found helpful in securing clearness and force4 #a4 ,use words in their proper sense4 #b4 ,avoid useless circumlocution and fine writing4 #c4 ,avoid exaggerations4 #d4 ,be careful in the use of not 444 and1 any1 but1 only1 not 444 or1 that4 #e4 ,be careful in the use of ambiguous words1 e4 g41 certain4 #f4 ,be careful in the use of he1 it1 they1 these1 etc4 #g4 ,report a speech in the first person where necessary to avoid ambiguity4 #h4 ,use the third person where the exact words of the speaker are not intended to be given4 #i4 ,when you use a participle implying when1 while1 though1 or that1 show clearly by the context what is implied4 #aj4 ,when using the relative pronoun1 use who or which1 if the meaning is and he or and it1 for he or for it4 #aa4 ,do not use and which for which4 #ab4 ,repeat the antecedent before the relative where the non-repetition causes any ambiguity4 #ac4 ,use particular for general terms4 ,avoid abstract nouns4 #ad4 ,avoid verbal nouns where verbs can be used4 #ae4 ,use particular persons instead of a class4 #af4 ,do not confuse metaphor4 #ag4 ,do not mix metaphor with literal statement4 #ah4 ,do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject4 #ai4 ,emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions2 i4 e41 for the most part1 at the beginning or the end of the sentence4 #bj4 ,unemphatic words must1 as a rule1 be kept from the end4 #ba4 ,the ,subject1 if unusually emphatic1 should often be transferred from the beginning of the sentence4 #bb4 ,the object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis4 #bc4 ,where several words are emphatic make it clear which is the most emphatic4 ,emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet1 or an intensifying word4 #bd4 ,words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected4 #be4 ,adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to qualify4 #bf4 ,only2 the strict rule is that only should be placed before the word it affects4 #bg4 ,when not only precedes but also see that each is followed by the same part of speech4 #bh4 ,at least1 always1 and other adverbial adjuncts sometimes produce ambiguity4 #bi4 ,nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define4 #cj4 ,pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of any other noun4 #ca4 ,clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible4 ,avoid parentheses4 #cb4 ,in conditional sentences the antecedent or if-clauses must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses4 #cc4 ,dependent clauses preceded by that should be kept distinct from those that are independent4 #cd4 ,where there are several infinitives those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not4 #ce4 ,in a sentence with if1 when1 though1 etc4 put the if-clause first4 #cf4 ,repeat the subject where its omission would cause obscurity or ambiguity4 #cg4 ,repeat a preposition after an intervening conjunction especially if a verb and an object also intervene4 #ch4 ,repeat conjunctions1 auxiliary verbs1 and pronominal adjectives4 #ci4 ,repeat verbs after the conjunctions than1 as1 etc4 #dj4 ,repeat the subject1 or some other emphatic word1 or a summary of what has been said1 if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken4 #da4 ,clearness is increased when the beginning of the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end1 the whole forming a kind of ascent4 ,this ascent is called climax4 #db4 ,when the thought is expected to ascend but descends1 feebleness1 and sometimes confusion1 is the result4 ,the descent is called bathos4 #dc4 ,a new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly4 ,common ,errors in the ,use of ,words ,the following pages contain a short list of the more common errors in the use of words4 ,such a list might be extended almost indefinitely4 ,it is only attempted to call attention to such mistakes as are1 for various reasons1 most liable to occur4 ,a should be repeated for every individual4 ,a red and black book means one book1 a red and a black book means two4 ,abbreviate1 and abridge2 abbreviation is the shortening of a piece of writing no matter how accomplished4 ,an abridgement is a condensation4 ,ability1 power to do something1 should be distinguished from capacity1 power to receive something4 ,above should not be used as an adjective1 e4 g41 ,the statement made in above paragraph4 ,substitute preceding1 foregoing1 or some similar adjective4 ,accept1 not accept of4 ,accredit1 to give one credentials should be distinguished from credit1 to believe what one says4 ,administer is often misused4 ,one administers a dose of medicine1 the laws1 an oath1 or the government2 one does not administer a blow4 ,administer to is often incorrectly used for minister to1 e4 g41 ,the red cross nurse administers to the wounded4 ,admire should not be used to express delight1 as in the phrase ,i should admire to do so4 ,admit should be distinguished from confess4 ,advent should be distinguished from arrival1 advent meaning an epoch-making arrival4 ,affable means easy to speak to and should not be confused with agreeable4 ,affect should be distinguished from effect4 ,to affect is to influence2 to effect is to cause or bring about4 ,aggravate should not be used for annoy or vex or provoke4 ,it means to make worse4 ,ain't is a corruption of am not4 ,it is inelegant though grammatical to say ,i ain't but absolutely incorrect in other persons and numbers4 ,alike should not be accompanied by both as in the phrase ,they are both alike in this respect4 ,all1 ,all right should never be written alright4 ,all and universally should never be used together4 ,all should not be accompanied by of1 e4 g41 ,he received all of the votes4 ,be careful about the use of all in negative statements4 ,do not say ,all present are not printers when you mean ,not all present are printers4 ,the first statement means there are no printers present1 the second means there are some printers present4 ,allege is a common error for say1 state1 and the like4 ,it means to declare1 to affirm1 or to assert with the idea of positiveness and is not applicable to ordinary statements not needing emphasis4 ,allow means permit1 never think or admit4 ,allude to is not the same as mention4 ,a person or thing alluded to is not mentioned but indirectly implied4 ,alone which means unaccompanied should be distinguished from only which means no other4 ,alternative should never be used in speaking of more than two things4 ,altogether is not the same as all together4 ,among should not be used with one another1 e4 g41 ,they divided the spoil among one another4 ,it should be among themselves4 ,and should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position as to interfere with the construction4 ,it should not be substituted for to in such cases as ,try and take more exercise4 ,and which should not be used for which4 ,another should be followed by than not from1 e4 g41 ,men of another temper from 7than7 the ,greeks4 ,answer is that which is given to a question2 reply to an assertion4 ,anticipate should not be used in the sense of expect4 ,it means to forestall4 ,anxious should not be confused with desirous4 ,it means feeling anxiety4 ,any is liable to ambiguity unless it is used with care4 ,any of them may be either singular or plural4 ,it is not intended for any machine may mean ,there is no machine for which it is intended1 or ,it is not intended for every machine1 but only for a special type4 ,anybody else's1 idiomatic and correct4 ,anyhow1 bad1 do not use it4 ,apparently is used of what seems to be real but may not be so4 ,it should not be confused with evidently which is used of what both seems to be and is real4 ,appear is physical in its meaning and should be distinguished from seem which expresses a mental experience4 ,the forest appears to be impenetrable1 ,this does not seem to me to be right4 ,apt means skilful and should never be used in place of likely or liable4 ,it also means having a natural tendency4 ,as should not be used as a causal conjunction1 e4 g41 ,do not expect me as ,i am too uncertain of my time4 ,the word as stands here as a contraction of inasmuch4 ,substitute a semicolon1 or make two sentences4 ,as to is redundant in such expressions as ,as to how far we can trust him ,i cannot say4 ,at is often incorrectly used for in1 e4 g41 ,he lives at ,chicago4 ,it is also improperly used in such expressions as ,where is he at8 ,as that should not be used for that alone4 ,do not say ,so as that such and such a thing may happen4 ,audience is not the same as spectators4 ,an audience listens2 spectators merely see4 ,a concert has an audience2 a moving picture show has spectators4 ,aught means anything and should not be confused with naught or the symbol #j which means nothing4 ,avenge means to redress wrongs done to others2 revenge wrong done to ourselves4 ,avenge usually implies just retribution4 ,revenge may be used of malicious retaliation4 ,avocation should not be confused with vocation4 ,a man's vocation is his principal occupation4 ,his avocation is his secondary occupation4 ,aware is not the same as conscious4 ,we are aware of things outside of ourselves2 we are conscious of sensations or things within ourselves4 ,awful and awfully are two very much abused words4 ,they mean awe inspiring and should never be used in any other sense4 ,badly should not be used for very much4 ,it should not be confused with the adjective bad4 ,he looks badly means he makes a bad use of his eyes1 say ,he looks bad4 ,bank on is slang4 ,say rely on or trust in4 ,beg is often incorrectly used in the sense of beg leave1 not ,i beg to say but ,i beg leave to say4 ,beside1 meaning by the side of should not be confused with besides meaning in addition to4 ,between applies only to two persons or things4 ,blame on as a verb should never be used4 ,both1 when both--and are used be sure they connect the right words1 ,he can both spell and punctuate not ,he both can spell and punctuate4 ,do not use such expressions as ,they both resemble each other4 ,be careful to avoid confusion in the use of negative statements4 ,do not say ,both cannot go when you mean that one can go4 ,bound in the sense of determined is an ,americanism and is better avoided4 ,we say he is bound to do it meaning he is determined to do it1 but the phrase really means ,he is under bonds1 or obligation to do it4 ,bring should be carefully distinguished from fetch1 carry and take4 ,bring means to transfer toward the speaker4 ,fetch means to go and bring back4 ,carry and take mean to transfer from the speaker1 e4 g41 ,bring a book home from the library4 ,fetch me a glass of water4 ,carry this proof to the proofreader4 ,take this book home4 ,but is sometimes used as a preposition and when so used takes the objective case4 ,the boy stood on the burning deck whence all but him had fled4 ,but should not be used in connection with that unless intended to express the opposite of what the meaning would be without it1 e4 g41 ,i have no doubt but that he will die is incorrect because his death is expected4 ,i have no fear but that he will come is correct1 as the meaning intended is ,i am sure he will come4 ,but what is often incorrectly used for but that4 ,i cannot believe but what he is guilty probably means ,i can but believe that he is guilty4 ,i cannot but believe means ,i must believe4 ,calculate does not mean think or suppose4 ,calculated does not mean likely4 ,it means intended or planned for the purpose4 ,can which indicates ability is to be distinguished from may which indicates permission4 ,cannot but should be carefully distinguished from can but1 e4 g41 ,i can but try means ,all ,i can do is try4 ,i cannot but try means ,i cannot help trying4 ,can't seem should not be used for seem unable1 e4 g41 ,i can't seem to see it4 ,childlike should be carefully distinguished from childish4 ,childish refers particularly to the weakness of the child4 ,come should not be confused with ,go4 ,come denotes motion toward the speaker2 go motion from the speaker1 ,if you will come to see me1 ,i will go to see you4 ,common should be distinguished from mutual4 ,common means shared in common4 ,mutual means reciprocal and can refer to but two persons or things4 ,a common friend is a friend two or more friends have in common4 ,mutual friendship is the friendship of two persons for each other4 ,compare to1 liken to1 compare with1 means measure by or point out similarities and differences4 ,condign means suitable or deserved1 not necessarily severe4 ,condone means to forgive or nullify by word or act1 not make amends for4 ,consider in the sense of regard as should not usually be followed by as1 e4 g41 ,i consider him a wise man1 not as a wise man4 ,contemptible is used of an object of contempt and it should be distinguished from contemptuous which is used of what is directed at such an object1 e4 g41 ,he is a contemptible fellow4 ,i gave him a contemptuous look4 ,continual should not be confused with continuous4 ,continual means frequently repeated4 ,continuous means uninterrupted4 ,convene1 which means to come together1 should not be confused with convoke which means to bring or call together4 ,a legislature convenes4 ,it cannot be convened by another1 but it can be convoked4 ,crime is often used for offenses against the speaker's sense of right4 ,properly crime is a technical word meaning offenses against law4 ,a most innocent action may be a crime if it is contrary to a statute4 ,the most sinful1 cruel1 or dishonest action is no crime unless prohibited by a statute4 ,dangerous should not be used for dangerously ill4 ,data is plural4 ,deadly1 that which inflicts death should not be confused with deathly1 that which resembles death4 ,decided must not be confused with decisive4 ,a decided victory is a clear and unmistakable victory4 ,a decisive victory is one which decides the outcome of a war or of a campaign4 ,decimate means to take away one-tenth4 ,it is not properly used in a general way of the infliction of severe losses4 ,definite which means well defined should not be confused with definitive which means final4 ,demean is related to demeanor and means behave4 ,it should be carefully distinguished from degrade or lower4 ,die4 ,we die of a certain disease1 not with or from it4 ,differ in the sense of disagree is followed by with4 ,i differ with you4 ,differ as indicating unlikeness is followed by from4 ,different should be followed by from never by with1 than1 or to4 ,directly should not be used for as soon as4 ,discover1 to find something which previously existed should be distinguished from invent something for the first time4 ,disinterested means having no financial or material interest in a thing4 ,it should be carefully distinguished from uninterested which means taking no interest in a thing4 ,dispense1 to distribute should not be confused with dispense with1 to do without4 ,disposition is not the same as disposal4 ,distinguish which means to perceive differences should not be confused with differentiate which means to make or constitute a difference4 ,divide should be carefully distinguished from distribute4 ,don't is a contraction of do not4 ,doesn't is the contraction for does not4 ,i don't1 they don't1 he doesn't4 ,due should not be used for owing to or because of4 ,each is distributive and is always singular4 ,each other which is applicable to two only should not be confused with one another which is applicable to more than two4 ,egotist1 a man with a high or conceited opinion of himself1 should not be confused with egoist which is the name for a believer in a certain philosophical doctrine4 ,either is distributive and therefore singular and should never be used of more than two4 ,elegant denotes delicacy and refinement and should not be used as a term of general approval4 ,else should be followed by than1 not by but4 ,no one else than 7not but7 he could have done so much4 ,emigrant1 one who goes out of a country should not be confused with immigrant1 one who comes into a country4 ,enormity is used of wickedness1 cruelty1 or horror1 not of great size1 for which enormousness should be used4 ,we speak of the enormity of an offence but of the enormousness of a crowd4 ,enthuse should not be used as a verb4 ,equally as well2 say equally well1 or as well4 ,every place used adverbially should be everywhere4 ,except should never be used in the sense of unless or but4 ,exceptional which means unusual1 forming an exception should not be confused with exceptionable which means open to objection4 ,expect which involves a sense of the future should not be confused with suppose and similar words1 as in the phrase ,i expect you know all about it4 ,factor is not to be confounded with cause4 ,falsity applies to things1 falseness to persons4 ,at fault means at a loss of what to do next4 ,in fault means in the wrong4 ,favor should not be used in the sense of resemble4 ,female should not be used for woman4 ,the words female1 woman1 and lady should be used with careful attention to their respective shades of meaning4 ,few1 which emphasizes the fact that the number is small should be distinguished from a few which emphasizes the fact that there is a number though it be small4 ,few shall part where many meet4 ,a few persons were saved in the ark4 ,fewer applies to number2 less to quantity4 ,firstly should not be used for first although secondly and thirdly may be used to complete the series4 ,fix should not be used in the sense of repair1 arrange1 or settle4 ,former and latter should never be used where more than two things are involved4 ,frequently should be distinguished from commonly1 generally1 perpetually1 usually4 ,commonly is the antithesis of rarely1 frequently of seldom1 generally of occasionally1 usually of casually4 ,funny should not be used to mean strange or remarkable4 ,gentleman ,friend and ,lady ,friend are expressions which should be avoided1 say man or woman friend or man or woman of my acquaintance or even gentleman or lady of my acquaintance4 ,good should not be used in the sense of well4 ,i feel good4 ,got is said to be the most misused word in the language4 ,the verb means to secure by effort and should be used only with this meaning1 e4 g41 ,i have got the contract4 ,have got to indicate mere possession is objectionable4 ,mere possession is indicated by have alone4 ,another common mistake is the use of got to express obligation or constraint4 ,i have got to do it4 ,guess should not be used in the sense of think or imagine4 ,handy should never be used to express nearness4 ,hanged should be used to express the execution of a human being4 ,hung is the past participle in all other uses4 ,hardly4 ,i can hardly see it1 not ,i can't hardly see it4 ,healthy which means possessed of health should be distinguished from healthful and wholesome which mean health giving4 ,high should not be confused with tall4 ,home is not a synonym for house4 ,a beautiful house is a very different thing from a beautiful home4 ,honorable as a title should always be preceded by the4 ,how should not be used for what1 or for that4 ,it means in what manner4 ,how that should not be used when either one will do alone4 ,such a sentence as ,we have already noted how that ,tillotson defied rubrical order4444 is very bad4 ,if should not be used in the sense of where or that4 ,ilk means the same not kind or sort4 ,ill is an adverb as well as an adjective4 ,do not say illy4 ,in should not be used for into when motion is implied4 ,you ride in a car but you get into it4 ,inaugurate should not be used for begin4 ,individual should not be used for person4 ,inside of should not be used as an expression of time4 ,invaluable1 meaning of very great value should not be confused with valueless1 meaning of no value4 ,invite should not be used for invitation4 ,kind is not plural4 ,do not say ,these or those kind of things4 ,kind of should never be followed by the indefinite article4 ,what kind of man is he8 not ,what kind of a man is he8 ,kind of or sort of should not be used in the sense of rather or somewhat4 ,kindly is often misused in such expressions as ,you are kindly requested to recommend a compositor4 ,undoubtedly the idea of kindness is attached to the recommendation not to the request and the sentence should be so framed as to express it4 ,last is often misused for latest4 ,the last number of the paper is not the one that appeared this morning but the one that finally closes publication4 ,latter applies only to the last of two4 ,if a longer series than two is referred to1 say the last4 ,lay1 which is a transitive verb1 should not be confused with lie4 ,lay is a verb which expresses causitive action2 lie expresses passivity4 ,he lays plans4 ,he lies down4 ,the past tense of lay is laid1 that of lie is lay4 ,learn should not be used in place of teach4 ,lengthy is a very poor substitute for long1 which needs no substitute4 ,liable should not be used for likely4 ,liable means an unpleasant probability4 ,likely means any probability4 ,liable is also used to express obligation4 ,he is liable for this debt4 ,like must never be used in the sense of as4 ,do like ,i do should be ,do as ,i do4 ,literally implies that a statement to which it is attached is accurately and precisely true4 ,it is frequently misused4 ,loan is a noun1 not a verb4 ,locate should not be used in the sense of settle4 ,lot or lots should not be used to indicate a great deal4 ,love expresses affection or1 in its biblical sense1 earnest benevolence4 ,like expresses taste4 ,do not say ,i should love to go4 ,lovely means worthy of affection and1 like elegant1 should never be used as a term of general approbation4 ,luxuriant which means superabundant in growth or production should not be confounded with luxurious which means given over to luxury4 ,vegetation is luxuriant1 men are luxurious4 ,mad means insane and is not a synonym for angry4 ,means may be either singular or plural4 ,meet should not be used in the sense of meeting except in the case of a few special expressions such as a race meet4 ,mighty should not be used in the sense of very4 ,mind should not be used in the sense of obey4 ,minus should not be used in the sense of without or lacking4 ,most should not be used instead of almost1 as in such expressions as ,it rained most every day4 ,must should not be used for had to or was obliged4 ,in its proper use it refers to the present or future only4 ,necessities should be carefully distinguished from necessaries4 ,negligence1 which denotes a quality of character should be distinguished from neglect which means a failure to act4 ,neither denotes one of two and should not be used for none or no one4 ,as a correlative conjunction it should be followed by nor never by or4 ,new beginner4 ,beginner is enough2 all beginners are new4 ,news is singular in construction4 ,never is sometimes used as an emphatic negative but such usage is not good4 ,nice should not be used in the sense of pleasant or agreeable4 ,no how should not be used for anyway4 ,no place should be written as nowhere4 ,none should be treated as a singular4 ,not1 like neither1 must be followed by the correlative nor1 e4 g41 ,not for wealth nor for fame did he strive4 ,not 444 but to express a negative is a double negative and therefore should not be used1 e4 g41 ,i have not had but one meal to-day4 ,nothing like and nowhere near should not be used for not nearly4 ,o should be used for the vocative and without punctuation4 ,oh should be used for the ejaculation and should be followed by a comma or an exclamation point4 ,obligate should not be used for oblige4 ,observe should not be used for say4 ,observation should not be used for observance4 ,of is superfluous in such phrases as smell of1 taste of1 feel of4 ,off should never be used with of2 one or the other is superfluous4 ,other4 ,after no other use than1 not but4 ,ought must never be used in connection with had or did4 ,you hadn't ought or didn't ought to do it should be ,you ought not to have done it4 ,out loud should never be used for aloud4 ,panacea is something that cures all diseases1 not an effective remedy for one disease4 ,partake of should not be used in the sense of eat4 ,it means to share with others4 ,party should never be used for person except in legal documents4 ,per should be used in connection with other words of ,latin form but not with ,english words4 ,per diem1 per annum1 and the like are correct4 ,per day or per year are incorrect4 ,it should be a day1 or a year4 ,perpendicular1 which merely means at right angles to something else mentioned1 should not be used for vertical4 ,plenty1 a noun should not be confused with the adjective plentiful4 ,politics is singular4 ,post does not mean inform4 ,predicate should not be used in the sense of predict or in the sense of base or found4 ,premature means before the proper time4 ,it should not be used in a general way as equivalent to false4 ,pretty should not be used in the modifying sense1 nor as a synonym for very in such phrases as pretty good1 pretty near1 and the like4 ,preventative1 no such word1 say preventive4 ,promise should not be used in the sense of assure4 ,propose1 meaning to offer should not be confused with purpose meaning to intend4 ,proposition should not be confounded with proposal4 ,a proposition is a statement of a statement or a plan4 ,a proposal is the presentation or statement of an offer4 ,providing should not be used for provided4 ,quality should never be used as an adjective or with an adjective sense4 ,quality clothes is meaningless3 ,clothes of quality equally so4 ,all clothes have quality and the expression has meaning only when the quality is defined as good1 bad1 high1 low1 and so forth4 ,quit1 to go away from is not the same as stop4 ,quite means entirely1 wholly1 and should never be used in the modifying sense as if meaning rather or somewhat4 ,quite a few is nonsense4 ,raise is a much abused word4 ,it is never a noun4 ,as a verb it should be distinguished from rear and increase1 as in such phrases as ,he was raised in ,texas4 ,the landlord raised my rent4 ,rarely ever should not be used for rarely or hardly ever4 ,real should not be used in the sense of very4 ,reference should be used with with rather than in4 ,say with reference to1 not in reference to4 ,the same rule applies to the words regard and respect4 ,do not say in regards to1 say with regard to4 ,remember is not the same as recollect1 which means to remember by an effort4 ,rendition should not be used for rendering4 ,researcher has no standing as a word4 ,reside in the sense of live1 and residence in the sense of house or dwelling are affectations and should never be used4 ,retire should not be used in the sense of go to bed4 ,right should not be used in the sense of duty4 ,you had a right to warn me1 should be ,it was your duty to warn me1 or you ought to have warned me4 ,right should not be used in the sense of very4 ,such expressions as right now1 right off1 right away1 right here are not now in good use4 ,same should not be used as a pronoun4 ,this is a common usage in business correspondence but it is not good ,english and can be easily avoided without sacrificing either brevity or sense4 ,same as in the sense of just as1 in the same manner should be avoided4 ,score should not be used for achieve or accomplish4 ,set should not be confused with sit4 ,to set means to cause to sit4 ,sewage1 meaning the contents of a sewer1 should not be confused with sewerage which means the system4 ,show should not be used in the sense of play or performance4 ,show up should not be used for expose4 ,since should not be used for ago4 ,size up should not be used for estimate or weigh4 ,some should not be used for somewhat as ,i feel some better4 ,sort of should not be used for rather4 ,splendid means shining or brilliant and should not be used as a term of general commendation4 ,stand for means be responsible for4 ,its recent use as meaning stand1 endure1 or permit1 should be avoided4 ,start should not be used for begin1 e4 g41 ,he started 7began7 to speak4 ,state should not be used for say4 ,stop should not be used for stay4 ,such should not be used for so4 ,say ,i have never seen so beautiful a book before not ,i have never seen such a beautiful book before4 ,sure should not be used as an adverb4 ,say surely4 ,take is superfluous in connection with other verbs1 e4 g41 ,suppose we take and use that type4 ,take should not be confused with bring4 ,take stock in should not be used for rely or trust in4 ,that should not be used in the sense of so4 ,i did not know it was that big4 ,think should not have the word for added1 e4 g41 ,it is more important than you think for4 ,this should not be used as an adverb4 ,this much is clear should be ,thus much is clear4 ,through should not be used for finished4 ,to is superfluous and wrong in such expressions as ,where did you go to8 ,too alone should not modify a past participle4 ,he was too 7much7 excited to reply4 ,transpire does not mean happen4 ,it means to come to light or become known4 ,treat should be followed by of rather than on4 ,this volume treats of grammar1 not on grammar4 ,try should be followed by to rather than and4 ,i will try to go1 not ,i will try and go4 ,ugly should never be used in the sense of bad tempered or vicious4 ,it means repulsive to the eye4 ,unique does not mean rare1 odd1 or unusual4 ,it means alone of its kind4 ,upward of should not be used in the sense of more than4 ,venal should not be confused with venial4 ,verbal should not be confused with oral4 ,a verbal message means only a message in words2 an oral message is a message by word of mouth4 ,very should be used sparingly4 ,it is a word of great emphasis and like all such words defeats its purpose when used too frequently4 ,visitor is a human caller4 ,visitant a supernatural caller4 ,want should not be used in the sense of wish1 e4 g41 ,i want it really means ,i feel the want of it or ,i lack it4 ,want1 wish1 and need should be carefully distinguished4 ,way should not be used in the sense of away in such expressions as ,way down ,east4 ,ways should not be used for way1 e4 g41 ,it is quite a ways 7way7 off4 ,what is often misused for that1 e4 g41 ,he has no doubt but what 7that7 he will succeed4 ,whence means from what place or cause and should not be preceded by from4 ,this applies equally to hence which means from this place4 ,which should not be used with a clause as its antecedent1 e4 g41 ,he replied hotly1 which was a mistake should be ,he replied hotly2 this was a mistake4 ,which being a neuter pronoun should not be used to represent a masculine or feminine noun4 ,use who4 ,between the two neuter pronouns which and that let euphony decide4 ,who should not be misused for whom or whose1 e4 g41 ,who 7whom7 did you wish to see8 ,washington1 than who 7whose7 no greater name is recorded4 ,impersonal objects should be referred to by which rather than who4 ,without should not be used for unless1 e4 g41 ,i will not go without 7unless7 you go with me4 ,witness should not be used for see4 ,worst kind or worst kind of way should not be used for very much4 ,womanly means belonging to woman as woman4 ,womanish means effeminate4 ,tables of ,irregular ,verbs ,table #a contains the principal parts of all irregular verbs whose past tense and perfect participle are unlike4 ,most errors in the use of irregular verbs occur with those in ,table #a4 ,the past tense must not be used with have 7has1 had74 ,do not use such expressions as have drove and has went4 ,equally disagreeable is the use of the perfect participle for the past tense2 as1 she seen1 they done4 ,,table ,i ,present ,tense ,past ,tense ,perf4 ,part4 arise arose arisen be or am was been bear1 bring forth bore born#a1 borne bear1 carry bore borne beat beat beaten1 beat begin began begun bid bade1 bid bidden1 bid bite bit bitten1 bit blow blew blown break broke broken chide chid chidden1 chid choose chose chosen cleave1 split cleft1 clove cleft1 cleaved1 7clave7#b cloven come came come do did done draw drew drawn drink drank drunk1 drunken drive drove driven eat ate 7eat7 eaten 7eat7 fall fell fallen fly flew flown forbear forbore forborne forget forgot forgotten1 forgot forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen give gave given go went gone grow grew grown hide hid hidden1 hid know knew known lie1 recline lay lain ride rode ridden ring rang1 rung rung rise rose risen run ran run see saw seen shake shook shaken shrink shrank1 shrunk shrunk1 shrunken sing sung1 sang sung sink sank1 sunk sunk slay slew slain slide slid slidden1 slid smite smote smitten speak spoke 7spake7 spoken spring sprang1 spring sprung steal stole stolen stride strode stridden strike struck struck1 stricken strive strove striven swear swore 7sware7 sworn swim swam1 swum swum take took taken tear tore torn throw threw thrown tread trod trodden1 trod wear wore worn weave wove woven write wrote written ,,table ,,ii ,this table contains the principal parts of all irregular verbs whose past tense and perfect participles are alike4 ,present ,tense ,past ,tense and ,present ,tense ,past ,tense and ,perf4 ,part4 ,perf4 ,part4 abide abode mean meant behold beheld meet met beseech besought pay paid bind bound put put bleed bled read read breed bred rend rent bring brought say said build built seek sought burst burst sell sold buy bought send sent cast cast set set catch caught shed shed cling clung shoe shod cost cost shoot shot creep crept shut shut cut cut sit sat deal dealt sleep slept feed fed sling slung feel felt slink slunk fight fought spend spent find found spin spun 7span7 flee fled spit spit 7spat7 fling flung split split get got 7gotten7 spread spread grind ground stand stood have had stick stuck hear heard sting stung hit hit string strung hold held sweep swept hurt hurt swing swung keep kept teach taught lay laid tell told lead led think thought leave left thrust thrust lend lent weep wept let let win won lose lost wring wrung make made ,,table ,,iii ,this table includes verbs that are both regular and irregular4 ,a ,verbs in which the regular form is preferred4 ,present ,tense ,past ,tense ,perf4 ,part4 bend bended1 bent bended1 bent bereave bereaved1 bereft bereaved1 bereft blend blended1 blent blended1 blent bless blessed1 blest blessed1 blest burn burned1 burnt burned1 burnt cleave1 stick cleaved 7clave7 cleaved clothe clothed1 clad clothed1 clad curse cursed1 curst cursed1 curst dive dived 7dove7 dived 7dove7 dream dreamed1 dreamt dreamed1 dreamt dress dressed1 drest dressed1 drest gild gilded1 gilt gilded1 gilt heave heaved1 hove heaved1 hove hew hewed hewed1 hewn lade laded laded1 laden lean leaned1 leant leaned1 leant leap leaped1 leapt leaped1 leapt learn learned1 learnt learned1 learnt light lighted1 lit lighted1 lit mow mowed mowed1 mown pen1 shut up penned1 pent penned1 pent plead pleaded 7plead or pleaded 7plead or pled7 pled7 prove proved proved1 proven reave reaved1 reft reaved1 reft rive rived rived1 riven saw sawed sawed1 sawn seethe seethed 7sod7 seethed1 sodden shape shaped shaped1 shapen shave shaved shaved1 shaven shear sheared sheared1 shorn smell smelled1 smelt smelled1 smelt sow sowed sowed1 sown spell spelled1 spelt spelled1 spelt spill spilled1 spilt spilled1 spilt spoil spoiled1 spoilt spoiled1 spoilt stave staved1 stove staved1 stove stay stayed1 staid stayed1 staid swell swelled swelled1 swollen wake waked1 woke waked1 woke wax1 grow waxed waxed 7waxen7 wed wedded wedded1 wed whet whetted1 whet whetted1 whet work worked1 wrought worked1 wrought ,b ,verbs in which the irregular form is preferred4 ,present ,tense ,past ,tense ,perf4 ,part4 awake awoke1 awaked awaked1 awoke belay belaid1 belayed belaid1 belayed bet bet1 betted bet1 betted crow crew1 crowed crowed dare durst1 dared dared dig dug1 digged dug1 digged dwell dwelt1 dwelled dwelt1 dwelled gird girt1 girded girt1 girded grave graved graven1 graved hang hung1 hanged#c hung1 hanged kneel knelt1 kneeled knelt1 kneeled knit knit1 knitted knit1 knitted quit quit1 quitted quit1 quitted rap rapt1 rapped rapt1 rapped rid rid1 ridded rid1 ridded shine shone 7shined7 shone 7shined7 show showed shown1 showed shred shred1 shredded shred1 shredded shrive shrived1 shrove shriven1 shrived slit slit1 slitted slit1 slitted speed sped1 speeded sped1 speeded strew strewed strewn1 strewed strow strowed strown1 strowed sweat sweat1 sweated sweat1 sweated thrive throve1 thrived thrived1 thriven wet wet 7wetted7 wet 7wetted7 wind wound 7winded7 wound 7winded7 ,the verbs of the following list also are irregular2 but as they lack one or more of the principal parts1 they are called defective verbs4 ,defective ,verbs ,present ,past ,present ,past can could ought 44444 may might 44444 quoth must 44444 beware 44444 shall should methinks methought will would ,all the participles are wanting in defective verbs4 ,the verb ought1 when used to express past duty or obligation1 is followed by what is called the perfect infinitive--a use peculiar to itself because ought has no past form4 ,example3 ,i ought to have gone yesterday4 ,other verbs expressing past time are used in the past tense followed by the root infinitive4 ,example3 ,i intended to go yesterday4 ,,supplementary ,,reading ,composition and ,rhetoric4 ,by ,lockwood and ,emerson4 ,ginn ,co41 ,boston4 ,the ,art of ,writing and ,speaking the ,english ,language4 ,by ,sherwin ,cody4 ,the ,old ,greek ,press1 ,chicago4 ,the ,writer's ,desk ,book4 ,by ,william ,dana ,orcutt4 ,frederick ,stokes ,company1 ,new ,york4 ,a ,manual for ,writers4 ,by ,john ,matthews ,manly and ,john ,arthur ,powell4 ,the ,university of ,chicago ,press1 ,chicago4 ,any good ,grammar4 ,putnam's ,word ,book4 ,by ,louis ,a4 ,flemming4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,chicago4 7,for reference47 ,,questions ,in addition to the questions here given there should be constant and thorough drill in the use of grammatical forms and the choice of words4 ,frequent short themes should be required4 ,in these themes attention should be given to grammatical construction1 choice of words1 spelling1 capitalization1 punctuation1 sentence construction1 and paragraphing4 #a4 ,why is the subject important8 #b4 ,how many families of words are there1 and what are they8 #c4 ,what is a noun8 #d4 ,what are the three things about a noun which indicates its relation to other words8 #e4 ,how many numbers are there1 and what do they mean8 #f4 ,how do ordinary nouns form their plurals8 #g4 ,how do compound nouns form their plurals8 #h4 ,what is one very important use of number8 #i4 ,what can you say of the use of the verb with collective nouns8 #aj4 ,what is case8 #aa4 ,how many cases are there1 and what does each indicate8 #ab4 ,what can you say about the relation of a noun to a preposition8 #ac4 ,are prepositions ever omitted1 and why8 #ad4 ,how are the nominative and objective cases distinguished8 #ae4 ,how is the possessive case formed in the plural8 #af4 ,do possessive pronouns take an apostrophe8 #ag4 ,what is it's8 #ah4 ,how are compound nouns1 appositives1 etc41 treated in the possessive8 #ai4 ,what is an adjective8 #bj4 ,what do degrees indicate1 and how many are there8 #ba4 ,how are adjectives compared8 #bb4 ,when should the long form of comparison be used and when the short8 #bc4 ,what danger attends the use of most8 #bd4 ,give two irregular adjectives and compare them4 #be4 ,should the two methods of comparison ever be combined8 #bf4 ,why are some adjectives never compared8 #bg4 ,what is an article8 #bh4 ,how many articles are there8 #bi4 ,what kinds of articles are there8 #cj4 ,when should you use a8 #ca4 ,when should you use an8 #cb4 ,what is a verb8 #cc4 ,of what three parts does a simple sentence consist8 #cd4 ,name them and describe each4 #ce4 ,what is the relation of the verb to the subject with regard to person and number8 #cf4 ,what is voice8 #cg4 ,how many voices are there1 what is each called1 and what does it indicate8 #ch4 ,what is tense8 #ci4 ,how many tenses are there1 and what are they called8 #dj4 ,what is the rule for tense in subordinate clauses8 #da4 ,what is the reason for the rule1 and how can accuracy be determined8 #db4 ,what happens when the statement in the subordinate clause is of universal application8 #dc4 ,what is mood8 #dd4 ,how many moods are there1 and what are they called8 #de4 ,how is the indicative mood used8 #df4 ,how is the subjunctive mood used8 #dg4 ,how is the imperative mood used8 #dh4 ,what is the potential mood8 #di4 ,what is the exact meaning of 7a7 may1 7b7 can1 7c7 must1 7d7 ought8 #ej4 ,what is tense8 #ea4 ,how are shall and will used in direct discourse 7a7 in simple statements1 7b7 in questions1 7c7 in other cases8 #eb4 ,how are shall and will used in indirect discourse8 #ec4 ,what are the exceptions in the use of shall and will8 #ed4 ,what is the general use of should and would8 #ee4 ,how are should and would used in subordinate clauses1 in indirect discourse8 #ef4 ,what exceptions are there in the use of should and would8 #eg4 ,why do we make mistakes in the use of compound tenses8 #eh4 ,what is the case of the object in participial construction8 #ei4 ,what should be avoided in the use of prepositions8 #fj4 ,do passive verbs ever have objects8 #fa4 ,what is a pronoun8 #fb4 ,what common error occurs in the use of plural possessive pronouns8 #fc4 ,what common error occurs in the use of cases in subordinate clauses8 #fd4 ,what danger is there in the use of pronouns1 and how can it be avoided8 #fe4 ,what is an adverb8 #ff4 ,what is the important distinction in the use of adverbs and adjectives8 #fg4 ,what rule is to be observed in the use of negatives8 #fh4 ,what is a preposition8 #fi4 ,where is it placed in the sentence8 #gj4 ,what is a conjunction8 #ga4 ,what is said of and and but8 #gb4 ,how should we pair either1 neither1 or1 and nor8 #gc4 ,what is the rule about placing correlatives8 #gd4 ,what is an interjection8 #ge4 ,does it make much difference where words are put in a sentence8 ,why8 #gf4 ,what is the general rule for placing words8 #gg4 ,when may words be omitted8 #gh4 ,what is the danger in such omission8 #gi4 ,mention some objectionable abbreviations of this sort4 #hj4 ,what is the writer's task8 #ha4 ,what three abuses are to be avoided8 #hb4 ,what are ,campbell's five canons8 #hc4 ,what are the rules for the formation of sentences8 #hd4 ,what are the rules for the formation of paragraphs8 ,,glossary ,,ambiguity--,the possibility of more than one meaning4 ,,apposition--,when the meaning of a noun or pronoun is made clear or emphatic by the use of another noun or pronoun the two are said to be in apposition1 e4 g41 ,john1 the old pressman4 ,,auxiliary ,,verb--,a verb used to help to express the meaning of another verb by showing its voice1 mood or tense4 ,,clause--,a group of words consisting of a subject and predicate with their modifiers and forming a part of a sentence3 a sentence within a sentence4 ,,collective ,,noun--,a noun indicating a collection of units considered as a whole1 e4 g41 crowd4 ,,compound ,,words--,words made up of two or more words used together to express one idea4 ,,context--,the entire writing from which a text or passage is taken4 ,,correlative--,a term applied to pairs of conjunctions or other words or phrases which imply or involve each other4 ,,diction--,the choice and use of words4 ,,grammar--,the science that treats of the principles that govern the correct use of language in either spoken or written form2 the science of the sentence and its elements4 ,,heterogeneous ,,sentences--,sentences containing unrelated ideas or dealing with a variety of separate things4 ,,hypothesis--,a supposition1 or imaginary state of things assumed as a basis for reasoning4 ,,hypothetical ,,clause--,a clause containing a supposition4 ,,metaphor--,a figure of speech in which one thing is likened to another by speaking of it as if it were that other1 or calling it that other4 ,,noun ,,clause--,a clause used as a noun4 ,,object 7,,of ,a ,,verb7--,the thing acted on4 ,,participial ,,construction--,a participle and its modifiers used as the subject or object of a verb4 ,,phrase--,an expression1 consisting usually of but a few words1 denoting a single idea1 or forming a separate part of a sentence4 ,,predicate 7,,of ,a ,,sentence7--,that which is said of the subject4 ,see subject4 ,,principal ,,verb--,the verb in the main statement of a sentence4 ,,pronominal ,,adjective--,an adjective used as a pronoun4 ,,rhetoric--,the art of perfecting man's power of communicating to others his mental acts or states by means of language3 art of discourse4 ,,subject 7,,of ,a ,,sentence7--,the thing spoken about in the sentence4 ,see predicate4 ,,subject 7,,of ,a ,,verb7--,the thing acting4 ,,subordinate ,,clause--,a clause explaining or otherwise modifying the main statement of the sentence4 ,,typographic ,,technical ,,series ,,for ,,apprentices ,the following list of publications1 comprising the ,,typographic ,,technical ,,series ,,for ,,apprentices1 has been prepared under the supervision of the ,committee on ,education of the ,united ,typothetae of ,america for use in trade classes1 in course of printing instruction1 and by individuals4 ,each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of authors1 and carefully edited1 the purpose being to provide the printers of the ,united ,states--employers1 journeymen1 and apprentices--with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable1 up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the printing craft1 all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study4 ,the publications of the series are of uniform size1 #e x #h inches4 ,their general make-up1 in typography1 illustrations1 etc41 has been1 as far as practicable1 kept in harmony throughout4 ,a brief synopsis of the particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be found under each title in the following list4 ,each topic is treated in a concise manner1 the aim being to embody in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the subject4 ,care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear1 with the purpose of bringing essential information within the understanding of beginners in the different fields of study4 ,wherever practicable1 simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text4 ,in order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction1 each title is accompanied by a list of ,review ,questions covering essential items of the subject matter4 ,a short ,glossary of technical terms belonging to the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books4 ,these are the ,official ,text-books of the ,united ,typothetae of ,america4 ,address all orders and inquiries to ,,committee ,,on ,,education1 ,,united ,,typothetae ,,of ,,america1 ,,chicago1 ,,illinois1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,part ,i--,types1 ,tools1 ,machines1 and ,materials #a4 ,type3 a ,primer of ,information ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,relating to the mechanical features of printing types2 their sizes1 font schemes1 etc41 with a brief description of their manufacture4 #dd pp42 illustrated2 #gd review questions2 glossary4 #b4 ,compositors' ,tools and ,materials ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a primer of information about composing sticks1 galleys1 leads1 brass rules1 cutting and mitering machines1 etc4 #dg pp42 illustrated2 #ej review questions2 glossary4 #c4 ,type ,cases1 ,composing ,room ,furniture ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a primer of information about type cases1 work stands1 cabinets1 case racks1 galley racks1 standing galleys1 etc4 #dc pp42 illustrated2 #cc review questions2 glossary4 #d4 ,imposing ,tables and ,lock-up ,appliances ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the press1 including some modern utilities for special purposes4 #ei pp42 illustrated2 #gj review questions2 glossary4 #e4 ,proof ,presses ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a primer of information about the customary methods and machines for taking printers' proofs4 #dj pp42 illustrated2 #da review questions2 glossary4 #f4 ,platen ,printing ,presses ,by ,daniel ,baker ,a primer of information regarding the history and mechanical construction of platen printing presses1 from the original hand press to the modern job press1 to which is added a chapter on automatic presses of small size4 #ea pp42 illustrated2 #di review questions2 glossary4 #g4 ,cylinder ,printing ,presses ,by ,herbert ,l4 ,baker ,being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types of cylinder printing machines4 #fd pp42 illustrated2 #dg review questions2 glossary4 #h4 ,mechanical ,feeders and ,folders ,by ,william ,e4 ,spurrier ,the history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines2 with hints on their care and adjustments4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #i4 ,power for ,machinery in ,printing ,houses ,by ,carl ,f4 ,scott ,a treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive4 #ec pp42 illustrated2 #fi review questions2 glossary4 #aj4 ,paper ,cutting ,machines ,by ,niel ,gray1 ,jr4 ,a primer of information about paper and card trimmers1 hand-lever cutters1 power cutters1 and other automatic machines for cutting paper4 #gj pp42 illustrated2 #aae review questions2 glossary4 #aa4 ,printers' ,rollers ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a primer of information about the composition1 manufacture1 and care of inking rollers4 #df pp42 illustrated2 #fa review questions2 glossary4 #ab4 ,printing ,inks ,by ,philip ,ruxton ,their composition1 properties and manufacture 7reprinted by permission from ,circular ,no4 #ec1 ,united ,states ,bureau of ,standards72 together with some helpful suggestions about the everyday use of printing inks by ,philip ,ruxton4 #hj pp42 #ajj review questions2 glossary4 #ac4 ,how ,paper is ,made ,by ,william ,bond ,wheelwright ,a primer of information about the materials and processes of manufacturing paper for printing and writing4 #fh pp42 illustrated2 #fb review questions2 glossary4 #ad4 ,relief ,engravings ,by ,joseph ,p4 ,donovan ,brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of engraving2 woodcut1 zinc plate1 halftone2 kind of copy for reproduction2 things to remember when ordering engravings4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #ae4 ,electrotyping and ,stereotyping ,by ,harris ,b4 ,hatch and ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and stereotyping4 #id pp42 illustrated2 #abi review questions2 glossaries4 ,,part ,,ii--,hand and ,machine ,composition #af4 ,typesetting ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a handbook for beginners1 giving information about justifying1 spacing1 correcting1 and other matters relating to typesetting4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #ag4 ,printers' ,proofs ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,the methods by which they are made1 marked1 and corrected1 with observations on proofreading4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #ah4 ,first ,steps in ,job ,composition ,by ,camille ,de,vze ,suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first jobs1 especially about the important little things which go to make good display in typography4 #fc pp42 examples2 #ee review questions2 glossary4 #ai4 ,general ,job ,composition ,how the job compositor handles business stationery1 programs and miscellaneous work4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #bj4 ,book ,composition ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,bothwell ,chapters from ,de,vinne's ,modern ,methods of ,book ,composition1 revised and arranged for this series of text-books by ,j4 ,w4 ,bothwell of ,the ,de,vinne ,press1 ,new ,york4 ,part ,i3 ,composition of pages4 ,part ,,ii3 ,imposition of pages4 #bbi pp42 illustrated2 #ebe review questions2 glossary4 #ba4 ,tabular ,composition ,by ,robert ,seaver ,a study of the elementary forms of table composition1 with examples of more difficult composition4 #cf pp42 examples2 #de review questions4 #bb4 ,applied ,arithmetic ,by ,e4 ,e4 ,sheldon ,elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade1 calculation of materials1 paper weights and sizes1 with standard tables and rules for computation1 each subject amplified with examples and exercises4 #aei pp4 #bc4 ,typecasting and ,composing ,machines ,a4 ,w4 ,finlay1 ,editor ,section ,i--,the ,linotype ,by ,l4 ,a4 ,hornstein ,section ,,ii--,the ,monotype ,by ,joseph ,hays ,section ,,iii--,the ,intertype ,by ,henry ,w4 ,cozzens ,section ,,iv--,other ,typecasting and ,typesetting ,machines ,by ,frank ,h4 ,smith ,a brief history of typesetting machines1 with descriptions of their mechanical principles and operations4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 ,,part ,,iii--,imposition and ,stonework #bd4 ,locking ,forms for the ,job ,press ,by ,frank ,s4 ,henry ,things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms1 and about general work on the stone4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #be4 ,preparing ,forms for the ,cylinder ,press ,by ,frank ,s4 ,henry ,pamphlet and catalog imposition2 margins2 fold marks1 etc4 ,methods of handling type forms and electrotype forms4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 ,,part ,,iv--,presswork #bf4 ,making ,ready on ,platen ,presses ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,mc,grew ,the essential parts of a press and their functions2 distinctive features of commonly used machines4 ,preparing the tympan1 regulating the impression1 underlaying and overlaying1 setting gauges1 and other details explained4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #bg4 ,cylinder ,presswork ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,mc,grew ,preparing the press2 adjustment of bed and cylinder1 form rollers1 ink fountain1 grippers and delivery systems4 ,underlaying and overlaying2 modern overlay methods4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #bh4 ,pressroom ,hints and ,helps ,by ,charles ,l4 ,dunton ,describing some practical methods of pressroom work1 with directions and useful information relating to a variety of printing-press problems4 #hg pp42 #agf review questions4 #bi4 ,reproductive ,processes of the ,graphic ,arts ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,elson ,a primer of information about the distinctive features of the relief1 the intaglio1 and the planographic processes of printing4 #hd pp42 illustrated2 #ajj review questions2 glossary4 ,,part ,v--,pamphlet and ,book ,binding #cj4 ,pamphlet ,binding ,by ,bancroft ,l4 ,goodwin ,a primer of information about the various operations employed in binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 #ca4 ,book ,binding ,by ,john ,j4 ,pleger ,practical information about the usual operations in binding books2 folding2 gathering1 collating1 sewing1 forwarding1 finishing4 ,case making and cased-in books4 ,hand work and machine work4 ,job and blank-book binding4 ,illustrated2 review questions2 glossary4 ,,part ,,vi--,correct ,literary ,composition #cb4 ,word ,study and ,english ,grammar ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about words1 their relations1 and their uses4 #fh pp42 #hd review questions2 glossary4 #cc4 ,punctuation ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their use1 both grammatically and typographically4 #ef pp42 #ei review questions2 glossary4 #cd4 ,capitals ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about capitalization1 with some practical typographic hints as to the use of capitals4 #dh pp42 #ib review questions2 glossary4 #ce4 ,division of ,words ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,rules for the division of words at the ends of lines1 with remarks on spelling1 syllabication and pronunciation4 #db pp42 #gj review questions4 #cf4 ,compound ,words ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a study of the principles of compounding1 the components of compounds1 and the use of the hyphen4 #cd pp42 #fb review questions4 #cg4 ,abbreviations and ,signs ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about abbreviations and signs1 with classified lists of those in most common use4 #eh pp42 #cb review questions4 #ch4 ,the ,uses of ,italic ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about the history and uses of italic letters4 #ca pp42 #cg review questions4 #ci4 ,proofreading ,by ,arnold ,levitas ,the technical phases of the proofreader's work2 reading1 marking1 revising1 etc42 methods of handling proofs and copy4 ,illustrated by examples4 #ei pp42 #fi review questions2 glossary4 #dj4 ,preparation of ,printers' ,copy ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,suggestions for authors1 editors1 and all who are engaged in preparing copy for the composing room4 #cf pp42 #fg review questions4 #da4 ,printers' ,manual of ,style ,a reference compilation of approved rules1 usages1 and suggestions relating to uniformity in punctuation1 capitalization1 abbreviations1 numerals1 and kindred features of composition4 #db4 ,the ,printer's ,dictionary ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,stewart ,a handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about various processes of printing1 alphabetically arranged4 ,technical terms explained4 ,illustrated4 ,,part ,,vii--,design1 ,color1 and ,lettering #dc4 ,applied ,design for ,printers ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,a handbook of the principles of arrangement1 with brief comment on the periods of design which have most influenced printing4 ,treats of harmony1 balance1 proportion1 and rhythm2 motion2 symmetry and variety2 ornament1 esthetic and symbolic4 #cg illustrations2 #df review questions2 glossary2 bibliography4 #dd4 ,elements of ,typographic ,design ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,applications of the principles of decorative design4 ,building material of typography paper1 types1 ink1 decorations and illustrations4 ,handling of shapes4 ,design of complete book1 treating each part4 ,design of commercial forms and single units4 ,illustrations2 review questions1 glossary2 bibliography4 #de4 ,rudiments of ,color in ,printing ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,use of color3 for decoration of black and white1 for broad poster effect1 in combinations of two1 three1 or more printings with process engravings4 ,scientific nature of color1 physical and chemical4 ,terms in which color may be discussed3 hue1 value1 intensity4 ,diagrams in color1 scales and combinations4 ,color theory of process engraving4 ,experiments with color4 ,illustrations in full color1 and on various papers4 ,review questions2 glossary2 bibliography4 #df4 ,lettering in ,typography ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,printer's use of lettering3 adaptability and decorative effect4 ,development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on type design4 ,classification of general forms in lettering4 ,application of design to lettering4 ,drawing for reproduction4 ,fully illustrated2 review questions2 glossary2 bibliography4 #dg4 ,typographic ,design in ,advertising ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,the printer's function in advertising4 ,precepts upon which advertising is based4 ,printer's analysis of his copy4 ,emphasis1 legibility1 attention1 color4 ,method of studying advertising typography4 ,illustrations2 review questions2 glossary2 bibliography4 #dh4 ,making ,dummies and ,layouts ,by ,harry ,l4 ,gage ,a layout3 the architectural plan4 ,a dummy3 the imitation of a proposed final effect4 ,use of dummy in sales work4 ,use of layout4 ,function of layout man4 ,binding schemes for dummies4 ,dummy envelopes4 ,illustrations2 review questions2 glossary2 bibliography4 ,,part ,,viii--,history of ,printing #di4 ,books ,before ,typography ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types4 #fb pp42 illustrated2 #fd review questions4 #ej4 ,the ,invention of ,typography ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about4 #fd pp42 #fb review questions4 #ea4 ,history of ,printing--,part ,i ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a primer of information about the beginnings of printing1 the development of the book1 the development of printers' materials1 and the work of the great pioneers4 #fc pp42 #ee review questions4 #eb4 ,history of ,printing--,part ,,ii ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry from #adej to #aghi1 including government regulations1 censorship1 internal conditions and industrial relations4 #id pp42 #abh review questions4 #ec4 ,printing in ,england ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a short history of printing in ,england from ,caxton to the present time4 #hi pp42 #fe review questions4 #ed4 ,printing in ,america ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a brief sketch of the development of the newspaper1 and some notes on publishers who have especially contributed to printing4 #ih pp42 #hd review questions4 #ee4 ,type and ,presses in ,america ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and press building in the ,united ,states4 #eb pp42 #fa review questions4 ,,part ,,ix--,cost ,finding and ,accounting #ef4 ,elements of ,cost in ,printing ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,the ,standard ,cost-,finding ,forms and their uses4 ,what they should show4 ,how to utilize the information they give4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 #eg4 ,use of a ,cost ,system ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,the ,standard ,cost-,finding ,forms and their uses4 ,what they should show4 ,how to utilize the information they give4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 #eh4 ,the ,printer as a ,merchant ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,the selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing4 ,the relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of the finished product4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 #ei4 ,fundamental ,principles of ,estimating ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,the estimator and his work2 forms to use2 general rules for estimating4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 #fj4 ,estimating and ,selling ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,an insight into the methods used in making estimates1 and their relation to selling4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 #fa4 ,accounting for ,printers ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,a brief outline of an accounting system for printers2 necessary books and accessory records4 ,review questions4 ,glossary4 ,,part ,x--,miscellaneous #fb4 ,health1 ,sanitation1 and ,safety ,by ,henry ,p4 ,porter ,hygiene in the printing trade2 a study of conditions old and new2 practical suggestions for improvement2 protective appliances and rules for safety4 #fc4 ,topical ,index ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a book of reference covering the topics treated in the ,typographic ,technical ,series1 alphabetically arranged4 #fd4 ,courses of ,study ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,hamilton ,a guidebook for teachers1 with outlines and suggestions for classroom and shop work4 ,,acknowledgment ,this series of ,typographic ,text-books is the result of the splendid co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the printing business and its allied industries in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,the ,committee on ,education of the ,united ,typothetae of ,america1 under whose auspices the books have been prepared and published1 acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many authors1 printers1 and others identified with this work4 ,while due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of those contributing to each book1 the ,committee nevertheless felt that a group list of co-operating firms would be of interest4 ,the following list is not complete1 as it includes only those who have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes1 constituting the first printing4 ,as soon as the entire list of books comprising the ,typographic ,technical ,series has been completed 7which the ,committee hopes will be at an early date71 the full list will be printed in each volume4 ,the ,committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many subscribers to this ,series who have patiently awaited its publication4 ,,committee ,,on ,,education1 ,,united ,,typothetae ,,of ,,america4 ,,henry ,p4 ,,porter1 ,chairman1 ,e4 ,,lawrence ,,fell1 ,a4 ,m4 ,,glossbrenner1 ,j4 ,,clyde ,,oswald1 ,,toby ,,rubovits4 ,,frederick ,w4 ,,hamilton1 ,education ,director4 ,,contributors ,for ,composition and ,electrotypes ,,isaac ,h4 ,,blanchard ,,company1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,s4 ,h4 ,,burbank ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,cushing ,,co41 ,norwood1 ,mass4 ,,the ,,devinne ,,press1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,r4 ,r4 ,,donnelley ,,sons ,,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,geo4 ,h4 ,,ellis ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,evans-,,winter-,,hebb1 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,,franklin ,,printing ,,company1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,f4 ,h4 ,,gilson ,,company1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,stephen ,,greene ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,hall ,,printing ,,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,lippincott ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,mccalla ,,co4 ,,inc41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,the ,,patteson ,,press1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,york ,,the ,,plimpton ,,press1 ,norwood1 ,mass4 ,,poole ,,bros41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,edward ,,stern ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,the ,,stone ,,printing ,,mfg4 ,,co41 ,roanoke1 ,va4 ,c4 ,d4 ,,traphagen1 ,lincoln1 ,neb4 ,,the ,,university ,,press1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,for ,composition ,,boston ,,typothetae ,,school ,,of ,,printing1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,william ,f4 ,,fell ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,the ,,kalkhoff ,,company1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,oxford-,,print1 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,toby ,,rubovits1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,for ,electrotypes ,,blomgren ,,brothers ,,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,flower ,,steel ,,electrotyping ,,co41 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,c4 ,j4 ,,peters ,,son ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,,royal ,,electrotype ,,co41 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,h4 ,c4 ,,whitcomb ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,for ,engravings ,,american ,,type ,,founders ,,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,c4 ,b4 ,,cottrell ,,sons ,,co41 ,westerly1 ,r4 ,i4 ,,golding ,,manufacturing ,,co41 ,franklin1 ,mass4 ,,harvard ,,university1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,,inland ,,printer ,,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,,lanston ,,monotype ,,machine ,,company1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,mergenthaler ,,linotype ,,company1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,geo4 ,h4 ,,morrill ,,co41 ,norwood1 ,mass4 ,,oswald ,,publishing ,,co41 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,the ,,printing ,,art1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,b4 ,d4 ,,rising ,,paper ,,company1 ,housatonic1 ,mass4 ,,the ,,vandercook ,,press1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,for ,book ,paper ,,american ,,writing ,,paper ,,co41 ,holyoke1 ,mass4 ,,west ,,virginia ,,pulp ,,paper ,,co41 ,mechanicville1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,born is used only in the passive voice4 #b ,the words in parentheses in this and the following tables represent forms which1 though at one time common1 are now seldom used4 #c ,referring to execution by suspension1 hanged is preferable to hung4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,passages in italics are indicated by underscore4 ,passages in bold are indicated by bold4 ,the misprint ,sterotyping was corrected to ,stereotyping 7pg4 iii-ads74