file which includes the original        
illustrations4       ,see #biibh-;h4htm 
or #biibh-;h4zip3                       
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu
b_/#biibh_/pg#biibh-;images4html7       
or                                      
7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#bi
ibh_/biibh-;h4zip7      ,contributions  
from ,the ,museum of ,history and       
,technology3  ,paper #aa  ,,why ,,bewick
 ,,succeeded3  ,a ,note in the ,history 
of ,wood ,engraving  by  ,,jacob        
,,kainen       ,,the ,,contemporary     
,,view ,,of ,,bewick   #ahf  ,,low      
,,status ,,of ,,the ,,woodcut           
#ahh  ,,woodcut ,,and ,,wood ,,engraving
        #ahi  ,,wood ,,engraving ,,and  
,,the ,,stereotype #aig     ,,why       
,,bewick ,,succeeded3  ,by ,jacob       
,kainen  ,a ,note in the ,history of    
,wood ,engraving   ,thomas ,bewick has  
been acclaimed as the pioneer of modern 
wood engraving whose genius brought this
 popular medium to prominence4 ,this    
study shows that certain technological  

developments prepared a path for ,bewick
 and helped give his work its unique    
character4  ,the ,author3 ,jacob ,kainen
 is curator of graphic arts1 ,museum of 
,history and ,technology1 in the        
,smithsonian ,institution's ,united     
,states ,national ,museum4     ,no other
 artist has approached ,thomas ,bewick  
7#agec-ahbh7 as the chronicler of       
,english rustic life4 ,the little wood  
engravings which he turned out in such  
great number were records of typical    
scenes and episodes1 but the artist     
could also give them social and moral   
overtones4 ,such an approach has        
attracted numerous admirers who have    
held him in esteem as an undoubted      
homespun genius4 ,the fact that he had  
no formal training as a wood engraver1  
and actually never had a lesson in      
drawing1 made his native inspiration    
seem all the more authentic4     ,the   
,contemporary ,view of ,bewick   ,after 
#agij1 when his ,a general history of   
quadrupeds appeared with its vivid      

animals and its humorous and mordant    
tailpiece vignettes1 he was hailed in   
terms that have hardly been matched for 
adulation4 ,certainly no mere book      
illustrator ever received equal acclaim4
 ,he was pronounced a great artist1 a   
great man1 an outstanding moralist and  
reformer1 and the master of a new       
pictorial method4 ,this flood of eulogy 
rose increasingly during his lifetime   
and continued throughout the remainder  
of the #aith century4 ,it came from     
literary men and women who saw him as   
the artist of the common man2 from the  
pious who recognized him as a           
commentator on the vanities and         
hardships of life 7but who sometimes    
deplored the frankness of his subjects72
 from bibliophiles who welcomed him as a
 revolutionary illustrator2 and from    
fellow wood engravers for whom he was   
the indispensable trail blazer4  ,during
 the initial wave of ,bewick            
appreciation1 the usually sober         
,wordsworth wrote in the #ahje edition  

of ,lyrical ballads3#a  ,o now that the 
genius of ,bewick were mine1 ,and the   
skill which he learned on the banks of  
the ,tyne6 ,then the ,muses might deal  
with me just as they chose1 ,for ,i'd   
take my last leave both of verse and of 
prose4 ,what feats would ,i work with my
 magical hand6 ,book learning and books 
would be banished the land4  ,if art    
critics as a class were the most        
conservative in their estimates of his  
ability1 it was one of the most eminent1
 ,john ,ruskin1 whose praise went to    
most extravagant lengths4 ,bewick1 he   
asserted1 as late as #ahij1b 444 without
 training1 was ,holbein's equal 444 in  
this frame are set together a drawing by
 ,hans ,holbein1 and one by ,thomas     
,bewick4 ,i know which is most          
scholarly2 but ,i do not know which is  
best4 ,linking ,bewick with ,botticelli 
as a draughtsman1 he added3#c ,i know no
 drawing so subtle as ,bewick's since   
the fifteenth century1 except ,holbein's
 and ,turner's4 ,and as a typical       

example of popular appreciation1 the    
following1 from the ,june #ahbh issue of
 ,blackwood's ,magazine1 appearing a few
 months before ,bewick's death1 should  
suffice3       ,have we forgotten1 in   
our hurried and imperfect enumeration of
 wise      worthies1--have we forgotten 
,the ,genius that dwells on the banks   
of the ,tyne1 the matchless1 ,inimitable
 ,bewick8 ,no4 ,his books lie      in   
our parlour1 dining-room1 drawing-room1 
study-table1 and are      never out of  
place or time4 ,happy old man6 ,the     
delight of      childhood1 manhood1     
decaying age6--,a moral in every        
tail-piece--a      sermon in every      
vignette4  ,this acclaim came to ,bewick
 not only because his subjects had a    
homely honesty1 but also1 although not  
generally taken into account1 because of
 the brilliance and clarity with which  
they were printed4 ,compared with the   
wood engravings of his predecessors1 his
 were more detailed and resonant in     
black and white1 and accordingly seemed 

miraculous and unprecedented4 ,he could 
engrave finer lines and achieve better  
impressions in the press because of     
improvements in technology which will be
 discussed later1 but for a century the 
convincing qualities of this new        
technique in combination with his       
subject matter led admirers to believe  
that he was an artist of great stature4 
#a ,william ,wordsworth1 ,lyrical       
ballads1 ,london1 #ahje1 vol4 #a4 p4    
#aii4  #b ,john ,ruskin1 ,ariadne       
,florentina1 ,london1 #ahij1 pp4 #ih1   
#ii4  #c ,ibid41 p4 #bdf4  ,later1 more 
mature judgment has made it plain that  
his contributions as a craftsman outrank
 his worth as an artist4 ,he was no     
,holbein1 no ,botticelli--it is absurd  
to think of him in such terms--but he   
did develop a fresh method of handling  
wood engraving4 ,because of this he     
represents a turning point in the       
development of this medium which led to 
its rise as the great popular vehicle   
for illustration in the #aith century4  

,in his hands wood engraving underwent a
 special transformation2 it became a    
means for rendering textures and tonal  
values4 ,earlier work on wood could not 
do this2 it could manage only a         
rudimentary suggestion of tones4 ,the   
refinements that followed1 noticeable in
 the highly finished products of the    
later #aith century1 came as a direct   
and natural consequence of ,bewick's    
contributions to the art4  ,linton#d and
 a few others object to the general     
claim that ,bewick was the reviver or   
founder of modern wood engraving1 not   
only because the art was practiced      
earlier1 if almost anonymously1 and had 
never really died out1 but also because 
his bold cuts had little in common with 
their technician's concern with infinite
 manipulation of surface tones1 a       
feature of later work4 ,but this misses 
the main point--that ,bewick had taken  
the first actual steps in the new       
direction4  #d ,william ,linton1 ,the   
masters of wood engraving1 ,london1     

#ahhi1 p4 #acc4  ,illustration3 ,figure 
#a4--,woodcutting ,procedure1 showing   
method of cutting with the knife on the 
plank grain1 from ,jean ,papillon's     
,trait de la gravure en bois1 #agff4    
,unquestionably he gave the medium a new
 purpose1 even though it was not        
generally adopted until after #ahcj4    
,through his pupils1 his unrelenting    
industry1 and his enormous influence he 
fathered a pictorial activity that      
brought a vastly increased quantity of  
illustrations to the public4 ,periodical
 literature1 spurred by accompanying    
pictures that could be cheaply made1    
quickly printed1 and dramatically       
pointed1 became a livelier force in     
education4 ,textbooks1 trade journals1  
dictionaries1 and other publications    
could more effectively teach or         
describe2 scientific journals could     
include in the body of text neat and    
accurate pictures to enliven the pages  
and illustrate the equipment and        
procedures described4 ,articles on      

travel could now have convincingly      
realistic renditions of architectural   
landmarks and of foreign sights1        
customs1 personages1 and views4 ,the    
wood engraving1 in short1 made possible 
the modern illustrated publication      
because1 unlike copper plate engraving  
or etching1 it could be quickly set up  
with printed matter4 ,its use1          
therefore1 multiplied increasingly until
 just before #aijj1 when it was         
superseded for these purposes by the    
photomechanical halftone4  ,but while   
,bewick was the prime mover in this     
revolutionary change1 little attention  
has been given to the important         
technological development that cleared  
the way for him4 ,without it he could   
not have emerged so startlingly2 without
 it there would have been no modern wood
 engraving4 ,it is not captious to point
 out the purely industrial basis for his
 coming to prominence4 ,even had he been
 a greater artist1 a study of the       
technical means at hand would have      

validity in showing the interrelation of
 industry and art although1 of course1  
the aesthetic contribution would stand  
by itself4  ,but in ,bewick's case the  
aesthetic level is not particularly     
high4 ,good as his art was1 it wore an  
everyday aspect3 he did not give it that
 additional expressive turn found in the
 work of greater artists4 ,it should not
 be surprising1 then1 that his work was 
not inimitable4 ,it is well-known that  
his pupils made many of the cuts        
attributed to him1 making the original  
drawings and engraving in his style so  
well that the results form almost one   
indistinguishable body of work4 ,the    
pupils were competent but not gifted1   
yet they could turn out wood engravings 
not inferior to ,bewick's own4 ,and so  
we find that such capable technicians as
 ,nesbit1 ,clennell1 ,robinson1 ,hole1  
the ,johnsons1 ,harvey1 and others all  
contributed to the ,bewick cult4        
,linton1 who worshipped him as an artist
 but found him primitive as a           

technician1 commented3#e ,widely praised
 by a crowd of unknowing connoisseurs   
and undiscriminating collectors1 we have
 yet1 half a century after his death1 to
 point out how much of what is          
attributed to him is really by his hand4
  ,chatto1#f who obtained his           
information from at least one ,bewick   
pupil1 says that many of the best       
tailpieces in the ,history of ,british  
birds were drawn by ,robert ,johnson1   
and that the greater number of those    
contained in the second volume were     
engraved by ,clennell4 ,granted that the
 outlook and the engraving style were   
,bewick's1 and that these were notable  
contributions1 the fact that the results
 were so close to his own points more to
 an effective method of illustration    
than to the outpourings of genius4  #e  
,ibid4     ,low ,status of the ,woodcut 
,bewick's training could not have been  
less promising4 ,apprenticed to ,ralph  
,beilby at the age of fourteen1 he says 
of his master3#g       444 ,the         

work-place was filled with the coarsest 
kind of      steel-stamps1 pipe moulds1 
bottle moulds1 brass clock faces1 door  
plates1 coffin plates1 bookbinders      
letters and stamps1 steel1      silver  
and gold seals1 mourning rings1 c4 ,he  
also undertook the      engraving of    
arms1 crests and cyphers1 on silver1 and
 every kind of      job from the        
silversmiths2 also engraving bills of   
exchange1 bank      notes1 invoices1    
account heads1 and cards4444 ,the higher
 department      of engraving1 such as  
landscapes or historical plates1 ,i dare
 say1      was hardly thought of by my  
master4444  ,a little engraving on wood 
was also done1 but ,bewick tells us that
 his master was uncomfortable in this   
field and almost always turned it over  
to him4 ,his training1 obviously1 was of
 a rough and ready sort1 based upon     
serviceable but routine engraving on    
metal4 ,there was no study of drawing1  
composition1 or any of the refinements  
that could be learned from a master who 

had a knowledge of art4 ,whatever       
,bewick had of the finer points of      
drawing and design he must have picked  
up by himself4  #f ,william ,chatto1 and
 ,john ,jackson1 ,a treatise on wood    
engraving1 ,london1 #ahfa 7#ast ed4     
#ahci71 pp4 #dif-dih4  #g ,thomas       
,bewick1 ,memoir of ,thomas ,bewick1    
,new ,york1 #aibe 7#ast ed4 ,london1    
#ahfb71 pp4 #ej1 #ea4  ,when he         
completed his apprenticeship in #aggd at
 the age of twenty-one1 the art of      
engraving and cutting on wood was just  
beginning to show signs of life after   
more than a century and a half of       
occupying the lowest position in the    
graphic arts4 ,since it could not       
produce a full gamut of tones in the    
gray register1 which could be managed   
brilliantly by the copper plate         
media--line engraving1 etching1         
mezzotint and aquatint--it was confined 
to ruder and less exacting uses1 such as
 ornamental headbands and tailpieces for
 printers and as illustrations for cheap

 popular broadsides4 ,when good         
illustrations were needed in books and  
periodicals1 copper plate work was      
almost invariably used1 despite the fact
 that it was more costly1 was much      
slower in execution and printing1 and   
had to be bound in with text in a       
separate operation4 ,but while the      
,society of ,arts had begun to offer    
prizes for engraving or cutting on wood 
7,bewick received such a prize in #agge7
 the medium was still moribund4         
,dobson#h described its status as       
follows3       ,during the earlier part 
of the eighteenth century engraving on  
wood      can scarcely be said to have  
flourished in ,england4 ,it existed--so 
much may be admitted--but it existed    
without recognition or      importance4 
,in the useful little tat des ,arts en  
,angleterre1      published in #agee by 
,roquet the enameller1--a treatise so   
catholic      in its scope that it      
included both cookery and               
medicine1--there is      no reference to

 the art of wood-engraving4 ,in the     
,artist's      ,assistant1 to take      
another book which might be expected to 
afford      some information1 even in   
the fifth edition of #aghh1 the subject 
finds no record1 even though engraving  
on metal1 etching1                      
mezzotinto-scraping--to say nothing of  
painting on silks1 sattins1      etc4   
are treated with sufficient detail4     
,turning from these      authorities to 
the actual woodcuts of the period1 it   
must be      admitted that the survey is
 not encouraging4  ,illustration3       
,figure #b4--,wood ,engraving           
,procedure1 showing manipulation of the 
burin1 from ,chatto and ,jackson1 ,a    
treatise on wood engraving1 #ahfa4 7,see
 footnote #f47  ,earlier1 among other   
critics of the deficiencies of the      
woodcut1 ,horace ,walpole#i had         
remarked3       ,i have said1 and for   
two reasons1 shall say little of wooden 
cuts2      that art never was executed  
with any perfection in ,england2        

engraving on metal was a final          
improvement of the art1 and supplied    
the defects of cuttings in wood4 ,the   
ancient wooden cuts were      certainly 
carried to a great heighth1 but that was
 the merit of the      masters1 not of  
the method4  #h ,austin ,dobson1 ,thomas
 ,bewick and his pupils1 ,boston1 #ahhd1
 pp4 #a1 #b4  #i ,horace ,walpole1      
,anecdotes of painting in ,england4 ,a  
catalogue of engravers who have been    
born1 or resided in ,england4 ,digested 
from the manuscript of ,mr4 ,george     
,vertue 444 ,london1 #aghb 7#ast ed4    
#agfb71 p4 #d4     ,woodcut and ,wood   
,engraving   ,it is necessary1 before   
continuing1 to distinguish clearly      
between the woodcut and the wood        
engraving1 not only because early       
writers used these terms                
interchangeably1 but also to determine  
exactly what ,bewick contributed        
technically4 ,the woodcut began with a  
drawing in pen-and-ink on the plank     
surface of a smooth-grained wood such as

 pear1 serviceberry1 or box4 ,the       
woodcutter1 using knife1 gouges1 and    
chisels1 then lowered the wood          
surrounding the lines to allow the      
original drawing1 unaltered1 to be      
isolated in relief 7see fig4 #a74 ,thus 
the block1 when inked and printed1      
produced facsimile impressions of the   
drawing in black lines on white paper4  
,usually an accomplished artist made the
 drawing1 whereas only a skilled        
craftsman was needed to do the cutting2 
very few cutters were also capable of   
making their own drawings4  ,the wood   
engraving1 on the other hand1 started   
with a section of dense wood of a       
uniform texture1 usually box or maple1  
and with the end-grain rather than the  
plank as surface4 ,for larger engravings
 a number of sections were mortised     
together4 ,the drawing was made on the  
block1 not in pen-and-ink although this 
could be done 7certain types of wood    
engraving reproduced pen drawings7 but  
in gray washes with a full range of     

tones4 ,the engraver1 using a burin     
similar to that employed in copper plate
 work1 then ploughed out wood in        
delicate ribbons 7see fig4 #b74 ,since  
the surface was to receive ink1 the     
procedure moved from black to white3 the
 more lines taken away1 the lighter the 
tones would appear1 and1 conversely1    
where fewest or finest lines were       
removed the tones would be the darkest4 
,in the finished print the unworked     
surface printed black while each of the 
engraved lines showed as white4 ,it was 
the white line that gave wood engraving 
its special quality4 ,on the smoother   
end-grain it could be manipulated with  
extreme fineness1 an impossibility with 
the plank side1 which would tear        
slightly or feather when the burin was  
moved across the grain4 ,tones and      
textures approaching the scale of copper
 plate engraving could be created1      
except1 of course1 that the lines were  
white and the impressions not so        
brilliant4 ,but since grays were        

achieved by the visual synthesis of     
black ink and white paper1 it mattered  
little whether the engraved lines were  
black or white so long as the desired   
tones could be produced4  ,illustration3
 ,figure #c4--,late #aeth-,century      
,white-,line ,engraving ,the crowning of
 the ,virgin1 in the dotted manner      
executed on metal for relief printing4  
,parts were hand colored4  ,for purposes
 of realism1 this was an enormous       
improvement over the old black-line     
woodcut4 ,natural tones and textures    
could be imitated4 ,the engraver was no 
longer a mere mechanical craftsman      
cutting around existing lines2 special  
skill was needed to translate tones in  
terms of white lines of varying         
thickness and spacing4 ,the opportunity 
also existed for each engraver to work  
his own tones in his own manner1 to     
develop a personal system4 ,in short1   
the medium served the same purpose as   
copper plate line engraving1 with the   
added virtue that it could be printed   

together with type in one impression4   
,if it failed artistically to measure up
 to line engraving or to plank woodcut1 
this was not the fault of the process   
but of the popular reproductive ends    
which it almost invariably served4      
,actually1 white-line engraving for     
relief printing dates from the #aeth    
century4 ,the most conspicuous early    
examples are the so-called dotted prints
 or gravures en manire crible1 in which 
the designs were brought out by dots    
punched in the plates1 and by occasional
 engraved lines 7see fig4 #c74 ,until   
,koehler's#aj study made this fact      
plain1 #aith-century critics could      
hardly believe that these were merely   
white-line metal relief prints1 inked on
 the surface like woodcuts4 ,but a      
number of other examples of the same    
period exist which were also made       
directly on copper or type metal--the   
method1 although rudimentary1 being     
similar in intent to #aith-century wood 
engraving4 ,one of these examples 7fig4 

#d71 in the collection of the ,u4 ,s4   
,national ,museum1 is typical4 ,this was
 not simply an ordinary line engraving  
printed in relief rather than in the    
usual way2 the management of the lights 
shows that it was planned as a          
white-line engraving4 ,the reason for   
this treatment1 obviously1 was to permit
 the picture and the type to be printed 
in one operation4  ,the well-known wood 
engravings of soldiers with standards1  
executed by ,urs ,graf in the early     
#aejj's1 are probably the only          
white-line prints in this medium by an  
accomplished artist until the #ahth     
century4 ,but these are mainly in       
outline1 with little attempt to achieve 
tones4 ,no advantage was gained by      
having the lines white rather than black
 other than an engaging roughness in    
spots3 the prints were simply whimsical 
excursions by an inventive artist4  #aj 
,sylvester ,r4 ,koehler1 ,white-line    
engraving for relief-printing in the    
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 in   

,annual report of the 444 ,smithsonian  
,institution 444 for the year ending    
,june #cj1 #ahij1 report of the ,u4 ,s4 
,national ,museum1 ,washington1 #ahib1  
pp4 #che-chi4  ,illustration3 ,figure   
#d4--,white-,line ,engraving on ,metal  
for ,relief ,printing1 ,the ,franciscan1
 ,pelbart of ,temesvar1 ,studying in a  
,garden1 from ,pomerium quadragesimale1 
fratris ,pelbarti ordinis sancti        
,francisci1 ,augsburg1 #aejb4  ,relief  
engraving on type metal and end-grain   
wood really got under way as a          
consistent process in ,england at the   
beginning of the #ahth century4         
,chatto#aa gives this date as           
conjecture1 without actual evidence1 but
 a first-hand account can be found in   
the rare and little-known book1         
published in #ageb1 in which the        
combination of anonymous authorship and 
a misleading title obscured the fact    
that it is a digest of ,john ,baptist   
,jackson's manuscript journal4 ,this    
eminent woodcutter1 who was born about  

#agjj and worked in ,england during the 
early years of the century1 must be     
considered an important and reliable    
witness4 ,the unknown editor paraphrases
 ,jackson on the subject of engraving   
for relief purposes3#ab       444 ,i    
shall give a brief ,account of the      
,state of ,cutting on ,wood in          
,england for the ,type ,press before he 
,jackson went to ,france      in #agbe4 
,in the beginning of this ,century a    
remarkable ,blow was      given to all  
,cutters on ,wood1 by an ,invention of  
engraving on the      same sort of      
,metal which ,types are cast with4 ,the 
celebrated ,mr4      ,kirkhal1 an able  
,engraver on ,copper1 is said to be the 
first who      performed a ,relievo     
,work to answer the use of ,cutting on  
,wood4 ,this      could be dispatched   
much sooner1 and consequently answered  
the      purpose of ,booksellers and    
,printers1 who purchased those sort of  
,works at a much chaper sic ,rate than  
could be expected from an      ,engraver

 on ,wood2 it required much more ,time  
to execute with      accuracy any piece 
of ,work of the same ,measure with those
 carved on      ,metal4 ,this           
performance was very much in ,vogue1 and
 continued down      to this ,day1 to   
serve for ,initials1 ,fregii and        
,finali2 it is called      a clear      
,impression1 but often gray and hazy1   
far from coming up to      that clear   
black ,impression produced with cutting 
on the side of a      piece of ,box-wood
 or ,pear-tree4 ,much about the same    
time there      started another ,method 
of ,engraving on the end ways of ,wood  
itself1      which was cut to the height
 of the ,letters to accompany them in   
the      ,press1 and engraved in the    
same ,manner as the ,metal ,performance2
      this ,method was also encouraged1 
and is the only way of ,engraving       
on ,wood at present used in the ,english
 ,printing-houses4 ,these               
performances are to be seen in          
,magazines1 ,news ,papers1 c4 and are   

the ,remains of the ancient ,manner of  
,cutting on ,wood1 and is the           
reason why the ,curious concluded it was
 intirely lost4  #aa ,chatto1 op4 cit4  
7footnote #f71 p4 #ddf4  #ab ,an enquiry
 into the origins of printing in        
,europe1 by a lover of art1 ,london1    
#ageb1 pp4 #be1 #bf4  ,this is important
 evidence that end-grain wood engraving 
was not only known in ,england in the   
early #ahth century but was actually the
 prevailing style4 ,in that country1    
where a woodcut tradition did not exist1
 the new method gained its first        
foothold4 ,but it was not yet conceived 
in terms of white lines2 it was merely a
 cheaper substitute for cutting with the
 knife on the plank4 ,in ,european      
countries with long art and printing    
traditions1 this substitute method was  
considered beneath contempt4 ,jackson#ac
 describes the aversion of ,french      
woodcutters for the newer and cheaper   
process3       ,from this ,account it is
 evident that there was little          

encouragement      to be hoped for in   
,england to a ,person whose ,genius led 
him to      prosecute his ,studies in   
the ancient ,manner2 which obliged ,mr4 
,jackson to go over to the ,continent1  
and see what was used in the            
,parisian ,printing-houses4 ,at his     
arrival there he found the      ,french 
engravers on ,wood all working in the   
old ,manner2 no ,metal      engravers1  
or any of the same performance on the   
end of the ,wood1      was ever used or 
countenanced by the ,printers or        
,booksellers in      that ,city4        
,illustration3 ,figure #e4--;,example of
 the ,woodcut ,style that ,created      
,facsimile ,drawings4 ,woodcut 7actual  
size7 by ,hans ,lutzelburger1 after a   
drawing by ,holbein for his ,dance of   
,death1 #aech4  ,there were good reasons
 for the lack of development of a       
white-line style1 even in ,england with 
its lower standards in printing and     
illustrative techniques4 ,on the coarse 
paper of the period fine white lines    

could not be adapted to relief          
7typographical7 presswork2 they would be
 lost in printing because the ribbed    
paper received ink unevenly4 ,even the  
simple black lines of the traditional   
woodcut usually printed spottily when   
combined with type4 ,the white lines1   
then1 had to be broadly separated4 ,this
 did not permit the engraving of        
delicate tones4 ,if this could not be   
achieved1 the effect was similar to     
woodcutting but with less crispness and 
accuracy in the drawing4 ,a good woodcut
 in the old manner could do everything  
the wood engraving could do1 before     
,bewick1 with the added virtue that the 
black line was comparatively clear and  
unequivocal1 as can be seen in figure   
#e4  #ac ,ibid41 p4 #bg4  ,illustration3
 ,figure #f4--,woodcut ,tailpiece by ,j4
 ,m4 ,papillon1 from ,trait historique  
et pratique de la gravure en bois1      
#agff4 ,the cutting was done so minutely
 that some details were lost in         
printing4 7,actual size47  ,the woodcut1

 in the hands of a remarkable cutter1   
could produce miracles of delicacy4 ,it 
could1 in fact1 have black lines so fine
 and so closely spaced as to take on the
 character of line engraving4 ,it did   
not1 of course1 have the range of tones 
or the delicacy of modeling possible in 
the copper plate medium1 where every    
little trench cut by the burin would    
hold ink ,,below the wiped-off surface1 
to be transferred to dampened paper     
under the heavy pressure of the cylinder
 press4 ,in addition1 the roughness of  
early paper1 which was serious for the  
woodcut1 created no difficulties for the
 line engraver or for other workers in  
the intaglio or gravure media4  ,but the
 influence of copper plate work was     
strong1 and some skillful but misguided 
woodcut craftsmen tried to obtain some  
degree of its richness4 ,french artists 
from about #agbj1 notably ,jean ,m4     
,papillon1 produced cuts so delicate    
that their printing became a problem    
7see fig4 #f74 ,jackson1 who had worked 

with the ,french artist in ,paris1      
condemned his efforts to turn the       
woodcut into a tonal medium through the 
creation of numerous delicate lines     
because such effects were impossible to 
print4 ,jackson#ad is quoted in the     
,enquiry3       ,in #agbh ,mr4          
,pappillon began his small ,paris       
,almanack1 wherein      is placed ,cuts 
7done on ,wood7 allusive to each ,month1
 with the      ,signs of the ,zodiack1  
in such a ,minute ,stile1 that he seems 
to      forget in that ,work the        
,impossibility of printing it in a      
,press      with any ,clearness 444 ,but
 alas6 ,his father and ,m4 le ,seur also
      woodcutters had examined          
,impression and its ,process1 and saw   
how      careful the ,ancients were to  
keep a proper ,distance between their   
,lines and hatched ,works1 so as to     
produce a clean ,impression 444 ,i      
saw the ,almanack in a horrid ,condition
 before ,i left ,paris1 the      ,signs 
of the ,zodiack wore like a ,blotch1    

notwithstanding the utmost      ,care   
and ,diligence the ,printer used to take
 up very little ,ink to      keep them  
clean4  ,it is clear that too thin a    
strip of white between black lines was  
not suitable for printing in the first  
half of the #ahth century4 ,but when    
,bewick's cuts after #agij are examined 
we can see many white lines thinner than
 a hair4 ,obviously something had       
happened to permit him a flexibility not
 granted to earlier workers on wood4    
,bewick's whole craft depended upon his 
ability to control white lines of       
varying thickness4 ,why was he able to  
do this1 and why could it be done       
without trouble by others after him8    
,early paper1 as already mentioned1 had 
a ribbed grain because it was made on a 
hand mould in which wires were closely  
laid in one direction1 but with enough  
space between to allow the water in the 
paper pulp to drain through4 ,crossing  
wires1 set some distance apart1 held    
them together4 ,each wire1 however1 made

 a slight impression in the finished    
paper1 the result being a surface with  
minute ripples4 ,the surface of this    
laid paper presented irregularities even
 after the glazing operation1 done with 
hammers before about #agbj and with     
wooden rollers up to about #ahbe4ae  ,in
 #agef ,james ,whatman began to         
manufacture a new1 smooth paper to      
replace the laid variety that had been  
used since the importation of paper into
 ,europe in the #abth century4 ,whether 
,whatman or the renowned printer ,john  
,baskerville was the guiding spirit in  
this development is uncertain4#af       
,baskerville1 who had been experimenting
 with type faces of a lighter and more  
delicate design1 had been dissatisfied  
with the uneven surface of laid paper4  
,possibly he saw examples of the        
,chinese wallpaper on wove stock1 made  
from a cloth mesh1 which was a staple of
 the trade with the ,orient4 ,hunter#ag 
describes the new mould3       ,the wove
 covering was made of fine brass        

screening and received its      name    
because it was woven on a loom in about 
the same manner as      cloth4 ,it left 
in the paper an indistinct impression   
resembling a      fabric4 ,baskerville  
had been in the japanning and           
metal-working      trades before        
becoming a printer1 so that he was      
naturally familiar      with this       
material1 metal screening having been   
used in ,england for      other purposes
 before it was put to use as a material 
upon which to      mould sheets of      
paper4  ,the first book printed in      
,europe on wove paper unquestionably was
 the ,latin edition of ,virgil produced 
by ,baskerville in #ageg4 ,this was1    
however1 partly on laid also4 ,the      
actual paper was made in ,james         
,whatman's mill in ,maidstone1 ,kent1 on
 the banks of the river ,len1 where     
paper had been made since the #agth     
century4 ,whatman1 who became sole owner
 of the mill in #agdj1 specialized in   
fine white paper of the highest quality4

 ,but while the book attracted          
considerable attention it did not       
immediately divert the demand for laid  
paper1 since it was looked on more as an
 oddity than as a serious achievement4  
,baskerville was strictly an artist3 he 
took unlimited time and pains1 he had no
 regard for the prevailing market1 and  
he produced sporadically2 also1 he was  
harshly criticized and even derided for 
his strange formats4#ah ,with such a    
reputation for impracticality the       
printer's influence was negligible      
during his lifetime although1 of course1
 it was widely felt later4  #ad         
,jackson1 op4 cit4 7footnote #ab71 p4   
#bi4  #ae ,dard ,hunter1 ,papermaking   
through eighteen centuries1 ,new ,york1 
#aicj1 pp4 #adh1 #aeb4  #af ,a4 ,t4     
,hazen1 ,baskerville and ,james         
,whatman1 ,studies in ,bibliography1    
,bibliographical ,society of the        
,university of ,virginia1 vol4 #e1      
#aieb-ec4 ,for a brilliant study of the 
,whatman mill1 where practically all    

wove paper up to the #aghj's was        
manufactured1 see ,thomas ,balston's    
,james ,whatman1 father and son1        
,london1 #aieg4  #ag ,hunter1 op4 cit4  
7footnote #ae71 p4 #bae4  #ah ,r4       
,straus and ,r4 ,k4 ,dent1 ,john        
,baskerville1 ,cambridge1 #aijg4 ,on    
page #ai the authors include a letter to
 ,baskerville from ,benjamin ,franklin1 
written in #agfj in a jocular tone1     
which notes that he overheard a friend  
saying that ,baskerville's types would  
be the means of blinding all the        
,readers in the ,nation owing to the    
thin and narrow strokes of the letters4 
,about #aggg the ,french became         
acquainted with wove paper1 which       
,franklin brought to ,paris for         
exhibition4 ,in #aggi1 according to     
,hunter1#ai ,m4 ,didot the famous       
printer1 having seen the papier vlin    
that ,baskerville used1 addressed a     
letter to ,m4 ,johannot of ,annonay1 a  
skilled papermaker1 asking him to       
endeavour to duplicate the smooth and   

even surface of this new paper4         
,johannot was successful in his         
experiments1 and for his work in this   
field he was in #agha awarded a gold    
medal by ,louis ,,xvi4  #ai ,hunter1 op4
 cit4 7footnote #ae71 p4 #bai4          
,illustration3 ,figure #g4--,wood       
,engraving by ,thomas ,bewick1 ,the ,man
 and the ,flea1 for ,fables1 by the late
 ,mr4 ,gay1 #aggi4 7,actual size47 ,note
 how the closely worked lines of the sky
 and water have blurred in printing on  
laid paper4 ,the pale vertical streak is
 caused by the laid mould4  ,wove paper 
was so slow to come into use that       
,jenkins gives the date #aghh for its   
first appearance in book printing4#bj   
,while he missed a few examples1 notably
 by ,baskerville1 it is certain that few
 books with wove paper were published   
before #agij4 ,but after that date its  
manufacture increased with such rapidity
 that by #ahje it had supplanted laid   
paper for many printing purposes4  ,the 
reasons for this gap between the        

introduction and the acceptance of the  
new paper are not clear2 the inertia of 
tradition as well as the probable higher
 cost no doubt played a part1 and we may
 assume that early wove paper had       
imperfections and other drawbacks       
serious enough to cause printers to     
prefer the older material4  ,bewick's   
early work was printed on laid paper4   
,up to #aghd he had worked in a         
desultory fashion on wood1 much of his  
time being occupied with seal cutting   
because there was still no real demand  
for wood engraving4 ,in ,gay's ,fables1 
published in #aggi1 the cuts printed so 
poorly on the laid paper 7see fig4 #g7  
that ,dobson#ba was moved to say3       
,generally speaking1 the printing of all
 these cuts1 even in the      earlier   
editions 7and it is absolutely useless  
to consult any      others71 is weak and
 unskillful4 ,the fine work of the      
backgrounds      is seldom made out1 and
 the whole impression is blurred and    
unequal4  ,illustration3 ,figure        

#h4--,the ,spanish ,pointer1            
illustration 7actual size7 by ,thomas   
,bewick1 from ,a general history of     
quadrupeds1 #agij1 in the collections of
 the ,library of ,congress4   #bj ,rhys 
,jenkins1 ,early papermaking in         
,england1 #adie-aghh1 ,library          
,association ,record1 ,london1          
#aijj-aijb1 vol4 #b1 nos4 #i and #aa2   
vol4 #c1 no4 #e2 vol4 #d1 nos4 #c and   
#d4  #ba ,dobson1 op4 cit4 7footnote    
#h71 p4 #ef4  ,even in the ,select      
fables of ,aesop and others of #aghd1   
when ,bewick's special gifts began to   
emerge1 the cuts on laid paper appeared 
weak in comparison with his later work4 
,bewick was still using wood engraving  
as a cheaper1 more quickly executed     
substitute for the woodcut4 ,the designs
 were based upon ,croxall's edition of  
,aesop's ,fables1 published in #agbb1   
which was probably the best and most    
popular illustrated book published in   
,england during the century up to       
,bewick's time4 ,according to ,chatto1  

the cuts were made with the burin on    
end-grain wood1 probably by ,kirkall1#bb
 but ,bewick believed they were engraved
 on type metal4#bc ,it was not easy to  
tell the difference4 ,type metal usually
 made grayer impressions than wood and  
sometimes1 but not always1 nail-head    
marks appeared where the metal was      
fastened to the wood base4 ,the ,croxall
 cuts1 in turn1 were adapted with little
 change from #agth-century              
sources--etchings by ,francis ,barlow   
and line engravings by ,sebastian ,le   
,clerc4 ,bewick's cuts repeated the     
earlier designs but changed the locale  
to the ,english countryside of the late 
#ahth century4 ,this was to be expected2
 to have a contemporary meaning the     
actors of the old morality play had to  
appear in modern dress and with         
up-to-date scenery4 ,but technically the
 cuts followed the pattern of ,croxall's
 wood engraver1 although with a slightly
 greater range of tone4 ,artistically   
,bewick's interpretation was inferior   

because it was more literal2 it lacked  
the grander feeling of the earlier work4
  ,bewick really became the prophet of a
 new pictorial style in his ,a general  
history of quadrupeds1 published in     
#agij on wove paper 7see figs4 #h1 #i1  
and #aj74 ,here his animals and little  
vignetted tailpieces of observations in 
the country announced an original       
subject for illustration and a fresh    
treatment of wood engraving1 although   
some designs were still copied from     
earlier models4 ,the white line begins  
to function with greater elasticity2    
tones and details beyond anything known 
previously in the medium appear with the
 force of innovation4 ,the paper was    
still somewhat coarse and the cuts were 
often gray and muddy4 ,but the audacity 
of the artist in venturing tonal        
subtleties was immediately apparent4    
#bb ,chatto1 op4 cit4 7footnote #f71 p4 
#ddh4  #bc ,thomas ,bewick1 ,fables of  
,aesop and others1 ,newcastle1 #ahah4   
,one of ,bewick's old friends at        

,newcastle had been ,william ,bulmer1   
who by the #agij's had become a famous  
printer4 ,in #agie he published an      
edition of ,poems by ,goldsmith and     
,parnell1 which was preceded by an      
,advertisement announcing his           
intentions3       ,the present volume   
444 is particularly meant to combine the
      various beauties of ,,printing1   
,,type-,,founding1 ,,engraving1 and     
,,paper-,,making4444 ,the ornaments are 
all engraved on blocks of wood1      by 
two of my earliest acquaintances1       
,messrs4 ,bewick ,thomas and his        
brother and apprentice ,john1 of        
,newcastle upon ,tyne and ,london1      
after designs made from the most        
interesting passages of the ,poems      
they embellish4 ,they have been executed
 with great care1 and ,i may            
venture to say1 without being supposed  
to be influenced by ancient             
friendship1 that they form the most     
extraordinary effort of the art      of 
engraving upon wood that ever was       

produced in any age1 or any             
country4 ,indeed it seems almost        
impossible that such delicate           
effects could be obtained from blocks of
 wood4 ,of the ,paper1 it is      only  
necessary to say that it comes from the 
manufactory of ,mr4      ,whatman4  ,the
 following year1 #agif1 a companion     
volume1 ,the ,chase1 a ,poem1 by        
,william ,somervile1 appeared with cuts 
by ,bewick after drawings by his brother
 ,john 7see fig4 #aa74 ,in both books1  
although no acknowledgment was given1   
there was considerable assistance from  
pupils ,robert and ,john ,johnson and   
,charlton ,nesbit1 as well as from an   
artist associate ,richard ,westall4#bd  
,bulmer was quite conscious that a new  
era in printing and illustration had    
begun4 ,updike#be notes ,bulmer's       
recognition of the achievements of both 
,baskerville and ,bewick in giving the  
art of printing a new basis3       ,to  
understand the causes of the revival of 
,english printing which      marked the 

last years of the century1 we must      
remember that by #agge      ,baskerville
 was dead4444 ,there seems to have been 
a temporary lull      in ,english fine  
printing and the kind of type-founding  
that      contributed to it4 ,the       
wood-engraving of ,thomas ,bewick1      
produced      about #aghj1 called1      
nevertheless1 for more brilliant and    
delicate      letter-press than either  
,caslon's or ,wilson's types could      
supply4      ,if ,baskerville's fonts   
had been available1 no doubt they would 
have      served4444 ,so the next       
experiments in typography were made by a
      little coterie composed of the    
,boydells1 the ,nicols1 the ,bewicks    
7,thomas and ,john71 and ,bulmer4       
,illustration3 ,figure #i4--,tailpiece  
by ,thomas ,bewick 7actual size71 from  
,a general history of quadrupeds1 #agij1
 in the collections of the ,library of  
,congress4  ,when the cuts in this book 
are compared with earlier impressions   
from wood blocks1 the difference is     

quickly seen4 ,the blocks are more      
highly wrought1 yet every line is crisp 
and clear and the impressions are black 
and brilliant4 ,when we realize that the
 only new technological factor of any   
consequence was the use of good smooth  
wove paper1 we can appreciate its       
significance4  ,there were no other     
developments of note in the practice of 
printing during the #ahth century4 ,the 
old wooden hand press1 unimproved except
 for minor devices1 was still in        
universal use4 ,ink was little improved2
 paper was handmade2 type was made from 
hand moulds4 ,the ink was still applied 
by dabbing with inking balls of         
wool-stuffed leather nailed to wooden   
forms4 ,the leather was still kept soft 
by removing it and soaking it in urine1 
after which it was trampled for some    
time to complete the unsavory operation4
 ,paper still had to be dampened        
overnight before printing1 and freshly  
inked sheets were still hung to dry over
 cords stretched across the room4  #bd  

,d4 ,c4 ,thomson1 ,the life and works of
 ,thomas ,bewick1 ,london1 #ahhb1 p4    
#aeb4  #be ,d4 ,b4 ,updike1 ,printing   
types1 their history1 forms and use1    
,cambridge and ,london1 #aibb1 vol4 #b1 
pp4 #abb1 #abc4  ,but with a more       
sympathetic surface for receiving ink   
from relief blocks1 a new avenue for    
wood engraving was now open4 ,in the    
following year1 #agig1 the first volume 
of ,bewick's finest and best-known work 
was published4 ,this was the ,history of
 ,british birds1 for which he and his   
pupils did the cuts while ,ralph        
,beilby1 his partner and former master1 
provided the descriptions 7see figs4    
#ab1 #ac1 and #ad47 ,it achieved an     
immense and instantaneous popularity    
that carried the artist's name over the 
,british ,isles4 ,the attractiveness of 
the subject1 the freshness of the       
medium--which could render the softness 
of feathers and could be interspersed   
with text--the powerful and decorative  
little tail pieces1 and the comparative 

inexpensiveness of the volumes1 brought 
the ,birds into homes everywhere4       
,illustration3 ,figure #aj4--,tailpiece 
by ,thomas ,bewick 7actual size71 from  
,a general history of quadrupeds1 #agij1
 in the collections of the ,library of  
,congress4  ,actually1 wood engraving   
was not immediately adopted on a wide   
scale4 ,having done without it for so   
long1 printers and publishers made no   
concerted rush to avail themselves of   
the new type of cuts4 ,bewick's pupils  
found little of this kind of work to do 
before about #ahcj4 ,luke ,clennell     
dropped engraving for painting2 ,william
 ,harvey restricted himself to drawing  
and designing2 ,charlton ,nesbit and    
,john ,jackson remained engravers1 as   
did a host of lesser individuals4       
,dobson says3#bf       ,the pupils who  
quitted him to seek their fortunes in   
,london either      made their way with 
difficulty1 or turned to other pursuits1
 and      the real popularization of    
wood-engraving did not take place until 

some years after his death4  ,one reason
 for delay in adopting the new technique
 may have been the danger of the block  
splitting1 or of the sections of wood   
coming apart at the mortise-joints      
during the printing operation4 ,if this 
happened1 work had to be suspended until
 a new block was engraved1 or until the 
sections were reglued4 ,for periodicals 
with deadlines1 this was a serious      
hazard4     ,wood ,engraving and the    
,stereotype   ,in any event1 wood       
engraving did not really flourish until 
a practical stereotyping process was    
perfected4 ,by this procedure substitute
 blocks of type metal could replace the 
wood engravings in the press1 and the   
danger of splitting the block was       
eliminated4 ,the first steps of any     
importance toward a practical process   
were made by the ,earl of ,stanhope     
around #ahjj1 but not until ,claude     
,genoux in ,france1 between #ahbh and   
#ahbi1 developed the papier mch or wet  
mat process could acceptable stereotypes

 of entire pages be produced4#bg ,by    
this method1 patented on ,july #bd1     
#ahbi1 and others that followed1 a      
number of duplicate plates of each page 
could be made as required for rapid     
printing on a battery of presses4 ,wood 
engraving now emerged as a practical    
method of illustration for popular      
publications4 ,the ,penny ,magazine and 
the ,saturday ,magazine1 founded in     
#ahcb1 immediately made use of ,genoux's
 stereotyping process4 ,dobson#bh       
describes the effect of these           
periodicals3       ,the art of wood     
engraving received an astonishing impact
 from      these publications4 ,the     
engraver1 instead of working merely with
      his own hands1 has been obliged to
 take five or six pupils to get         
through the work4 7,mr4 ,cowper's       
evidence before the ,select             
,committee on ,arts and ,manufactures1  
#ahce74 ,it is difficult nowadays       
#ahhd to understand what a revelation   
these two periodicals1 with      their  

representations of far countries and    
foreign animals1 of      masterpieces of
 painting and sculpture1 were to        
middle-class      households fifty years
 ago4  #bf ,dobson1 op4 cit4 7footnote  
#h71 p4 #agd4  #bg ,george ,kubler1 ,a  
history of stereotyping1 ,new ,york1    
#aida1 p4 #ge4  #bh ,dobson1 op4 cit4   
7footnote #h71 p4 #agc4  ,illustration3 
,figure #aa4--,tailpiece by ,thomas     
,bewick 7actual size71 engraved after a 
drawing by ,john ,bewick1 from ,the     
,chase1 by ,william ,somervile1 #agif4  
7,photo courtesy the ,library of        
,congress47  ,we will not pursue        
,bewick's career further4 ,with habits  
of hard work deeply ingrained1 he kept  
at his bench until his death in #ahbh1  
engraving an awesome quantity of cuts4  
,but he never surpassed his work on the 
,birds1 although his reputation grew in 
proportion to the spread of wood        
engraving throughout the world4  ,the   
medium became more and more detailed1   
and eventually rivaled photography in   

its minute variations of tone 7see figs4
 #ae and #af74 ,but printing wood       
engravings never was a problem again4   
,not only was wove paper always used in 
this connection1 but it had become much 
cheaper through the invention of a      
machine for producing it in lengths4    
,nicholas ,louis ,robert1 in ,france1   
had developed and exhibited such an     
apparatus in #agig1 at the instigation  
of ,m4 ,didot4 ,john ,gamble in         
,england1 working with ,henry and       
,charles ,fourdrinier1 engaged a fine   
mechanic1 ,bryan ,donkin1 to build a    
machine on improved principles4 ,the    
first comparatively successful one was  
completed in #ahjc4 ,it was periodically
 improved1 and wove paper appeared in   
increasing quantities4 ,spicer#bi says3 
,naturally these improvements and       
economies in the manufacture of paper   
were accompanied by a corresponding     
increase in output4 ,where1 in #ahjf1 a 
machine was capable of making #f cwt4 in
 twelve hours1 in #ahac it could turn   

out double that quantity in the same    
time at one quarter the expense4  #bi   
,a4 ,d4 ,spicer1 ,the paper trade1      
,london1 #aijg1 p4 #fc4  ,illustration3 
,figure #ab4--,wood ,engraving by ,w4   
,j4 ,linton1 #ahgh 7,actual ,size74 ,the
 detail opposite is enlarged four times 
to show white line-technique4           
,illustration  ,illustration3 ,figure   
#ac4--,pintail ,duck by ,thomas ,bewick 
7actual size71 from ,history of ,british
 birds1 vol4 #b1 #ahjd4 ,the detail     
opposite is enlarged three times4  ,at  
about the same time the all-iron        
,stanhope press began to be manufactured
 in quantity1 and shortly the new inking
 roller invented by the indispensable   
,earl came into use to supplant the old 
inking balls4 ,later in the century     
7there is no need to go into specific   
detail here7 calendered and coated      
papers were introduced1 and wood        
engraving on these glossy papers became 
a medium that could reproduce wash      
drawings1 crayon drawings1 pencil       

drawings1 and oil paintings so          
faithfully that all the original        
textures were apparent4#cj ,the         
engraver1 concerned entirely with       
accurate reproduction1 became little    
more than a mechanic who rendered       
pictures drawn on the blocks by an      
artist4 ,in time1 photographic processes
 came to be used for transferring       
pictures to the blocks and eventually1  
of course1 photomechanical halftones    
replaced the wood engraver altogether4  
,illustration3 ,figure                  
#ad4--,title-,page ,illustration by     
,thomas ,bewick1 from ,history of       
,british birds1 vol4 #a1 #agig4 7,actual
 size47  #cj ,the electrotyping process1
 which came into prominence in #ahci    
through the experiments of ,professor   
,jacobi in ,st4 ,petersburg and ,jordan 
and ,spencer in ,england1 had made it   
possible to produce substitute plates of
 the highest fidelity4 ,for fine work1  
these were much superior to             
stereotyping4  ,bewick was an artist1   

not a reproductive craftsman4 ,his      
blocks were conceived as original       
engravings1 not as imitations of tones  
and textures created in another medium4 
,if wood engraving advanced in the      
direction of commercialism to fill an   
overwhelming mass need1 it was only     
because he had given it a technical     
basis4 ,but it had greater artistic     
potentialities1 as proved by ,blake1    
,calvert1 and ,lepre1 among others1 and 
has found new life in the engravers of  
the #bjth-century revival4  ,the reasons
 for ,bewick's remarkable effectiveness 
can now be summed up4 ,he succeeded1    
first1 because he was the natural       
inheritor of a specifically ,english    
graphic arts process1 burin-engraving on
 the end grain of wood4 ,this had been  
practiced almost solely in ,england1    
which lacked a woodcut tradition1 for   
about #ge years before the date he      
finished his apprenticeship4 ,we know   
from ,jackson's contemporary account    
that end-grain wood engraving was       

standard practice in ,england from about
 #agjj4 ,bewick merely continued and    
refined a medium that came down to him  
as a national tradition4  ,secondly1 his
 country isolation and lack of academic 
training saved him from the inanity of  
repeating the old decorative            
devices--trophies1 cartouches1 classical
 figures1 ,roman ruins1 and other       
international conventions that had lost 
their significance by the #aghj's1      
although a spurious classicism was still
 kept alive for genteel consumption and 
the romantic picturesque still persisted
 in interior decoration4  ,illustration 
,thirdly1 he looked at life and nature  
with a fresh eye1 without               
preconceptions4 ,while his lack of      
larger vision held him down as an       
artist1 it contributed to his feeling   
for natural textures and story-telling  
detail4 ,his approach to illustration1  
therefore1 was the spontaneous          
expression of an observant but          
unimaginative nature1 coated with a     

bitter-sweet sentiment4 ,it was this    
quality1 so homely and common and yet so
 charged with integrity1 that delivered 
the shock of recognition to a mass      
audience4  ,lastly1 and perhaps most    
importantly in the long run1 he was     
fortunate enough to live at a time when 
a necessary prerequisite for the        
physical appearance of his work1 wove   
paper1 was coming into use4 ,without it 
he would soon have had to simplify his  
line system1 returning to older and less
 detailed methods1 or his work would    
have remained unprintable4 ,it was the  
new paper that allowed him to extract   
unprecedented subtleties from the wood  
block1 that made his cuts print clearly 
and evenly1 and that encouraged the     
expansion of the wood engraving process4
 ,these factors1 taken together1 make up
 the phenomenon of ,thomas ,bewick4     
,illustration3 ,figure #ae4--,tailpiece 
by ,thomas ,bewick1 from ,history of    
,british birds1 vol4 #b1 #ahjd4 7,actual
 size47  ,u4 ,s4 ,,government ,,printing

 ,,office3 #aiei