material from the ,google ,print project47 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,tinder-,,box4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,tinder-,,box ,,the ,,romance ,,of ,,science4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,tinder-,,box4 ,a ,,course ,,of ,,lectures ,delivered before a ,juvenile ,auditory at the ,london ,institution during the ,christmas ,holidays of #ahhh-hi4 ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,charles ,,meymott ,,tidy1 ,m4,b41 ,m4,s41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,,formerly ,,barrister-,,at-,,law2 ,,professor ,,of ,,chemistry ,,and ,,of ,,forensic ,,medicine ,,at ,,the ,,london ,,hospital2 ,,medical ,,officer ,,of ,,health ,,for ,,islington2 ,,vice-,,president ,,of ,,the ,,institute ,,of ,,chemistry2 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,official ,,analysts ,,to ,,the ,,home ,,office4 ,,london3 ,,society ,,for ,,promoting ,,christian ,,knowledge1 ,,northumberland ,,avenue1 ,w4,c42 #dc1 ,,queen ,,victoria ,,street1 ,e4,c4 ,,brighton3 #abi1 ,,north ,,street4 ,,new ,,york3 ,e4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,young ,,co4 #ahig4 ,,published ,,under ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,general ,,literature ,,committee4 ,,preface4 ,these lectures were delivered with the assistance merely of a few notes1 the author in preparing them for the press adhering as nearly as possible to the shorthand writer's manuscript4 ,they must be read as intentionally untechnical holiday lectures intended for juveniles4 ,but as the print cannot convey the experiments or the demonstrations1 the reader is begged to make the necessary allowance4 ,the author desires to take this opportunity of expressing his thanks to ,messrs4 ,bryant and ,may2 to ,messrs4 ,woodhouse and ,rawson1 electrical engineers2 to ,mr4 ,woolf1 the lead-pencil manufacturer2 and to ,mr4 ,gardiner1 for numerous specimens with which the lectures were illustrated4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,tinder-,,box ,,lecture ,i4 ,,my ,,young ,,friends1--,some months ago the ,directors of this ,institution honoured me with a request that ,i should deliver a course of ,christmas ,juvenile ,lectures4 ,i must admit ,i did my best to shirk the task1 feeling that the duty would be better intrusted to one who had fewer demands upon his time4 ,it was under the genial influence of a bright summer's afternoon1 when one thought ,christmas-tide such a long way off that it might never come1 that ,i consented to undertake this course of lectures4 ,no sooner had ,i done so than ,i was pressed to name a subject4 ,now it is a very difficult thing to choose a subject1 and especially a subject for a course of juvenile lectures2 and ,i will take you thus much into my confidence by telling you that ,i selected the subject upon which ,i am to speak to you1 long before ,i had a notion what ,i could make of it1 or indeed whether ,i could make anything at all of it4 ,i mention these details to ask you and our elders who honour us--you and me--with their company at these lectures1 for some little indulgence1 if at times the story ,i have to tell proves somewhat commonplace1 something you may have heard before1 a tale oft told4 ,my sole desire is that these lectures should be true juvenile lectures4 ,well1 you all know what this is8 ,holding up a box of matches4 ,it is a box of matches4 ,and you know1 moreover1 what it is used for1 and how to use it4 ,i will take out one of the matches1 rub it on the box1 and strike a light4 ,you say that experiment is commonplace enough4 ,be it so4 ,at any rate1 ,i want you to recollect that phrase--strike a light4 ,it will occur again in our course of lectures4 ,but1 you must know1 there was a time when people wanted fire1 but had no matches wherewith to procure it4 ,how did they obtain fire8 ,the necessity for1 and therefore the art of producing1 fire is1 ,i should suppose1 as old as the world itself4 ,although it may be true that our very earliest ancestors relied for necessary food chiefly on an uncooked vegetable diet1 nevertheless it is certain that very early in the history of the world people discovered that cooked meat 7the venison that our souls love7 was a thing not altogether to be despised4 ,certainly by the time of ,tubal ,cain1 an early worker in metals1 not only the methods of producing fire1 but also the uses to which fire could be applied1 must have been well understood4 ,imagine the astonishment of our ancestors when they first saw fire6 ,possibly1 the first sight of this wonderful element vouchsafed to mortals was a burning mountain1 or something of that kind4 ,one is scarcely astonished that there should have been in those early times a number of people who were professed fire-worshippers4 ,no wonder1 ,i say1 that fire should have been regarded with intense reverence4 ,it constituted an essential part of early sacrificial worship4 ,some of my young friends1 too1 may remember how in ancient ,rome there was a special order 7called the order of the ,vestal ,virgins71 whose duty it was to preserve the sacred fire1 which if once extinguished1 it was thought would bring ruin and destruction upon their city4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,how did our ancestors1 think you1 obtain fire in those early times8 ,i suggested a burning mountain as a source of fire4 ,you remember1 too1 perhaps reading about ,prometheus1 who stole fire from heaven1 bringing it to earth in a copper rod1 which combined act of theft and scientific experiment made the gods very angry1 because they were afraid mortals might learn as many wonderful things as they knew themselves4 ,history seems to show that the energetic rubbing together of dry sticks was one of the earliest methods adopted by our ancestors for producing fire4 ,i find1 for instance1 described and pictured by an early author some such plan as the following3--,a thick piece of wood was placed upon the ground4 ,into a hole bored in this piece of wood a cone of wood was fitted4 ,by placing a boy or man on the top of the cone1 and whirling him round1 sufficient friction resulted where the two pieces of wood rubbed one against the other to produce fire4 ,our artist has modernized the picture to give you an idea of the operation 7,fig4 #a74 ,now instead of repeating that experiment exactly1 ,i will try to obtain fire by the friction of wood with wood4 ,i take this piece of boxwood1 and having cut it to a point1 rub it briskly on another piece of wood 7,fig4 #b74 ,if ,i employ sufficient energy1 ,i have no doubt ,i may make it hot enough to fire tinder4 ,yes6 ,i have done so1 as you see4 7,i will at once apologize for the smoke4 ,unfortunately we cannot generally have fire without smoke47 ,every boy knows that experiment in another form4 ,a boy takes a brass button1 and after giving it a good rub on his desk1 applies it to the cheek of some inoffensive boy at his side1 much to the astonishment of his quiet neighbour4 ,well1 ,i am going to see whether ,i can produce fire with a brass button4 ,i have mounted my button1 as you see1 for certain reasons on a cork1 and ,i will endeavour by rubbing the button on a piece of pinewood to make it sufficiently hot to fire tinder4 ,already ,i have done so4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,talking about friction as a means of producing heat1 ,i should like to mention that at the last ,paris ,exhibition ,i saw water made to boil1 and coffee prepared from it1 by the heat resulting from the friction of two copper plates within the liquid4 ,that then is the earliest history ,i can give you of the production of fire1 and at once from that history ,i come to the reign of the tinder-box4 ,the tinder-box constitutes one of the very earliest methods1 no doubt1 of obtaining fire4 ,i have searched for some history of the tinder-box1 and all ,i can say for certain is that it was in use long before the age of printing4 ,i have here several rare old tinder-boxes4 ,i intend showing you in the course of these lectures every detail of their construction and use4 ,i have no doubt this very old tinder-box that you see here 7,fig4 #c ,a7 was once upon a time kept on the mantel-piece of the kitchen well polished and bright1 and ,i do not doubt but that it has lit hundreds and thousands of fires1 and1 what is more1 has very often been spoken to very disrespectfully when the servant wanted to light the fire1 and her master was waiting for his breakfast4 ,i will project a picture of it on the screen1 so that you may all see it4 ,there it is4 ,it is a beautiful piece of apparatus4 ,there is the tinder1 the steel 7,fig4 #c b71 the flint 7c71 and the matches 7d7 complete4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,it was with this instrument1 long before the invention of matches1 that our grandfathers obtained light4 ,i want to show you how the trick was managed4 ,first of all it was necessary to have good tinder4 ,to obtain this1 they took a piece of linen and simply charred or burnt it1 as you see ,i am doing now 7,fig4 #d74 7,cambric1 ,i am told1 makes the best tinder for match-lighting1 and the ladies1 in the kindness of their hearts1 formerly made a point of saving their old cambric handkerchiefs for this purpose47 ,the servants prepared the tinder over-night1 for reasons ,i shall explain to you directly4 ,having made the tinder1 they shut it down in the box with the lid 7,fig4 #c ,a7 to prevent contact with air4 ,you see ,i have the tinder now safely secured in my tinder-box4 ,here is a piece of common flint1 and here is the steel4 ,here too are the matches1 and ,i am fortunate in having some of the old matches made many years ago1 prepared as you see with a little sulphur upon their tips4 ,well1 having got all these etceteras1 box1 tinder1 flint and steel1 we set to work in this way3--,taking the steel in one hand1 and the flint in the other1 ,i must give the steel a blow1 or rather a succession of blows with the flint 7,fig4 #c ,b74 ,notice what beautiful sparks ,i obtain6 ,i want one of these sparks1 if ,i can persuade it to do so1 to fall on my tinder4 ,there6 it has done so1 and my tinder has caught fire4 ,i blow my fired tinder a little to make it burn better1 and now ,i apply a sulphur match to the red-hot tinder4 ,see1 ,i have succeeded in getting my match in flame4 ,i will now set light to one of these old-fashioned candles--a rushlight--with which our ancestors were satisfied before the days of gas and electric lighting4 ,this was their light1 and this was the way they lighted it4 ,no wonder 7perhaps you say7 that they went to bed early4 ,i should like to draw your attention to one other form of tinder-box1 because ,i do not suppose you have ever seen these kind of things before4 ,i have here two specimens of the pistol form of tinder-box 7,fig4 #e74 ,here is the flint1 the tinder being contained in this little box4 ,it is the same sort of tinder as we made just now4 ,the tinder was fired with flint and steel in the same way as the old-fashioned flint pistols fired the gunpowder4 ,and you see this pistol tinder-box is so constructed as to serve as a candlestick as well as a tinder-box4 ,i have fired1 as you perceive1 my charred linen with this curious tinder-box1 and thus ,i get my sulphur match alight once more6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,it was in the year #affi that ,brandt1 an alchemist and a merchant--a very distinguished scientific man--discovered the remarkable substance ,i have here1 which we call phosphorus4 ,brandt was an alchemist4 ,i do not know whether you know what an alchemist is4 ,an alchemist was an old-fashioned chemist4 ,these alchemists had three prominent ideas before them4 ,the first thing they sought for was to discover a something--a powder they thought it ought to be--that would change the commoner or baser metals 7such as iron7 into gold4 ,the second idea was to discover a universal solvent1 that is1 a liquid which would dissolve everything1 and they hoped out of this liquid to be able to crystallize gems4 ,and then1 having obtained gold and gems1 the third thing they desired was a vital elixir to prolong their lives indefinitely to enjoy the gold and gems they had manufactured4 ,these were the modest aims of alchemy4 ,well now--although you may say such notions sound very foolish--let me tell you that great practical discoveries had their origin in the very out-of-the-way researches of the alchemists4 ,depend upon this1 that an object of lofty pursuit1 though that object be one of practically impossible attainment1 is not unworthy the ambition of the scientific man4 ,though we cannot scale the summit of the volcanic cone1 we may notwithstanding reach a point where we can examine the lava its fires have melted4 ,we may do a great deal even in our attempt to grasp the impossible4 ,it was so with ,brandt4 ,he was searching for a something that would change the baser metals into gold1 and1 in the search1 he discovered phosphorus4 ,the chief thing that struck ,brandt about phosphorus was its property of shining in the dark without having previously been exposed to light4 ,a great many substances were known to science even at that time that shone in the dark after they had been exposed to light4 ,but it was not until ,brandt1 in the year #affi1 discovered phosphorus that a substance luminous in the dark1 without having been previously exposed to light1 had been observed4 ,i should like1 in passing1 to show you how beautifully these phosphorescent powders shine after having been exposed to a powerful light4 ,see how magnificently brilliant they are6 ,these1 or something like them1 were known before the time of ,brandt4 ,shortly after phosphorus had been discovered1 people came to the conclusion that it might be employed for the purpose of procuring artificial light4 ,but ,i want you to note1 that although phosphorus was discovered in #affi 7and the general properties of phosphorus seem to have been studied and were well understood within five years of its discovery71 it was not until the year #ahcc that phosphorus matches became a commercial success1 so that until the year #ahcc1 our old friend the tinder-box held its ground4 ,i will try and give you as nearly as ,i can a complete list of the various attempts made with the purpose of procuring fire between the years #affi and #ahcc4 ,the first invention was what were called phosphoric tapers4 ,from the accounts given 7although it is not easy to understand the description71 phosphoric tapers seem to have been sulphur matches with a little piece of phosphorus enclosed in glass fixed on the top of the match1 the idea being that you had only to break the glass and expose the phosphorus to air for it to catch fire immediately and ignite the sulphur4 ,if this was the notion 7although ,i am not sure71 it is not easy to understand how the phosphoric tapers were worked4 ,the second invention for the purpose of utilizing phosphorus for getting fire was by scraping with a match a little phosphorus from a bottle coated with a phosphorus composition1 and firing it by friction4 ,the fact is1 phosphorus may be easily ignited by slight friction4 ,if ,i wrap a small piece of phosphorus in paper1 as ,i am doing now1 and rub the paper on the table1 you see ,i readily fire my phosphorus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,after this1 ,homberg's ,pyrophorus1 consisting of a roasted mixture of alum and flour1 was suggested as a means of obtaining fire4 ,then comes the ,electrophorus1 an electrical instrument suggested by ,volta1 which was thought at the time a grand invention for the purpose of getting light 7,fig4 #f ,a74 ,the nuisance about this instrument was that it proved somewhat capricious in its action1 and altogether declined to work in damp foggy weather4 ,i do not know whether ,i shall be successful in lighting a gas-jet with the electrophorus1 but ,i will try4 ,i excite this plate of resin with a cat-skin 7,fig4 #f ,b71 then put this brass plate upon the resin plate and touch the brass 7,fig4 #f ,c72 then take the brass plate off the resin plate by the insulating handle and draw a spark from it1 which ,i hope will light the gas4 ,there1 ,i have done it6 7,fig4 #f ,d47 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,well1 next after the electrophorus comes the fire syringe 7,fig4 #g74 ,the necessary heat in this case is produced by the compression of air4 ,you see in this syringe stopped at one end1 ,i have a certain quantity of air4 ,my piston-rod 7,c7 fits very closely into the syringe 7,b71 so that the air cannot escape4 ,if ,i push the piston down ,i compress the air particles1 for they can't get out2--,i make them in fact occupy less bulk4 ,in the act of compressing the air ,i produce heat1 and the heat1 as you see1 fires my tinder4 ,it was in or about the year #ahjg that chemical matches were introduced to the public for the first time4 ,these chemical matches were simply sulphur matches tipped with a mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar4 ,these matches were fired by dipping them in a bottle containing asbestos moistened with sulphuric acid4 ,here is one of these chemical matches1 and here the bottle of asbestos and sulphuric acid4 ,i dip the match into the bottle and1 as you see1 it catches fire4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,in the year #ahbj1 ,dobereiner1 a very learned man1 discovered a method of getting fire by permitting a jet of hydrogen to play upon finely-divided platinum4 ,the platinum1 owing to a property it possesses in a high degree 7which property however is not special to platinum71 has the power of coercing the union of the hydrogen and oxygen4 ,here is one of ,dobereiner's original lamps 7,fig4 #h74 ,i am going to show you the experiment1 however1 on a somewhat larger scale than this lamp permits4 ,here ,i have a quantity of fine platinum-wire1 made up in the form of a rosette4 ,i place this over the coal-gas as it issues from the gas-burner1 and1 as you see1 the platinum begins to glow1 until at last it becomes sufficiently hot to fire the gas 7,fig4 #i74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,in the year #ahbf what were called lucifers were invented1 and ,i show you here some of the original lucifers4 ,they are simply sulphur matches tipped with a mixture of chlorate of potash and sulphide of antimony1 and were ignited by drawing them briskly through a little piece of folded glass-paper4 ,in the year #ahbh1 ,prometheans were invented4 ,i have here two of the original ,prometheans4 ,they consist 7as you see7 of a small quantity of chlorate of potash and sugar rolled up tightly in a piece of paper4 ,inside the paper roll is placed a small and sealed glass bubble containing sulphuric acid4 ,when it was wanted to light a ,promethean you had only to break the bulb of sulphuric acid1 the action of which set fire to the mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar1 which ignited the paper roll4 ,in the year #ahcj matches with sulphur tips were introduced as a means of obtaining fire4 ,they were fired1 so far as ,i can make out1 by dipping them into a bottle containing a little phosphorus1 which then had to be ignited by friction4 ,so far as ,i know1 ,i have now given you very shortly the history of obtaining fire between the years #affi and #ahcj4 ,you see how brisk ingenuity had been during this long period1 and yet nothing ousted our old friend the tinder-box4 ,the tinder-box seems1 as it were1 to speak to us with a feeling of pride and say1 ,yes1 all you have been talking about were the clever ideas of clever men1 but ,i lived through them all2 my flint and my steel were easily procured1 my ingredients were not dangerous1 and ,i was fairly certain in my action4 ,in the year #ahcc the reign of the tinder-box came to an end4 ,it had had a very long innings--many1 many hundred years2 but in #ahcc its reign was finished4 ,it was in this year the discovery was announced1 that bone could be made to yield large quantities of phosphorus at a cheap rate4 ,originally the price of phosphorus was sufficient to prevent its every-day use4 ,hanckwitz thus advertises it--,for the information of the curious1 he is the only one in ,london who makes inflammable phosphorus that can be preserved in water4 ,all varieties unadulterated4 ,sells wholesale and retail4 ,wholesale1 #ejs4 per oz42 retail1 #c sterling per oz4 ,every description of good drugs4 ,my portrait will be distributed amongst my customers as a keepsake4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,let me give you a brief account of the method of preparing lucifer matches1 and to illustrate this part of my story1 ,i am indebted to ,messrs4 ,bryant and ,may for specimens4 ,pieces of wood are cut into blocks of the size you see here 7,fig4 #aj ,a74 ,these blocks are then cut into little pieces1 or splints1 of about one-eighth of an inch square 7,fig4 #aj b74 ,by the bye1 abroad they usually make their match splints round by forcing them through a circular plate1 pierced with small round holes4 ,i do not know why we in ,england make our matches square1 except for the reason that ,englishmen are fond of doing things on the square4 ,the next part of the process is to coat the splints with paraffin or melted sulphur4 ,the necessity for this coating of sulphur or paraffin you will understand by an experiment4 ,if ,i take some pieces of phosphorus and place them upon a sheet of cartridge paper1 and then set fire to the pieces of phosphorus1 curiously enough1 the ignited phosphorus will not set fire to the paper4 ,i have taken five little pieces of phosphorus 7as you see71 so as to give the paper every chance of catching fire 7,fig4 #aa74 ,now that is exactly what would happen if paraffin 7or some similarly combustible body7 was not placed on the end of the splint2 my phosphorus would burn when ,i rubbed it on the box1 but it would not set fire to the match4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 as you see1 in the first instance1 to put something on the match that the ignited phosphorus will easily fire1 and which will ignite the wood4 ,i will say no more about this now1 as ,i shall have to draw your attention to the subject in another lecture4 ,the end of the splints are generally scorched by contact with a hot plate before they are dipped in the paraffin1 after which the phosphorus composition is applied to the match4 ,this composition is simply a mixture of phosphorus1 glue1 and chlorate of potash4 ,the composition is spread upon a warm plate1 and the matches dipped on the plate1 so that a small quantity of the phosphorus mixture may adhere to the tip of the match4 ,every match passes through about seventeen people's hands before it is finished4 ,i told you that in ,england we generally use chlorate of potash in the preparation of the phosphorus composition1 whilst abroad nitrate of potash is usually employed4 ,you know that when we strike a light with an ,english match a slight snap results1 which is due to the chlorate of potash in the match4 ,in the case of nitrate of potash no such snapping noise occurs4 ,some people are wicked enough to call them thieves' matches4 ,just let me show you 7in passing7 how a mixture of chlorate of potash and sulphur explodes when ,i strike it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,now1 then1 comes a very remarkable story to which ,i desire to draw your attention4 ,there were many disadvantages in the use of this yellow phosphorus4 ,first of all1 it is a poisonous substance2 and what is more1 the vapour of the phosphorus was liable to affect the workpeople engaged in the manufacture of lucifer matches with a bad disease of the jaw1 and which was practically1 ,i am afraid1 incurable4 ,a very great chemist1 ,schrtter1 discovered that phosphorus existed under another form1 some of which ,i have here4 ,this1 which is of a red colour1 was found to be exactly the same chemical substance as the yellow phosphorus1 but possessing in many respects different properties4 ,for instance1 you see ,i keep this yellow phosphorus under water2 ,i don't keep the red phosphorus in water4 ,amongst other peculiarities it was found that red phosphorus was not a poison1 whilst the yellow phosphorus was1 as ,i told you1 very poisonous indeed4 ,about two to three grains of yellow phosphorus is sufficient to poison an adult4 ,i have known several cases of children poisoned by sucking the ends of phosphorus matches4 ,so you see it was not unimportant for the workpeople1 as well as for the public generally1 that something should be discovered equally effective to take the place of this poisonous yellow phosphorus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,i should like to show you what very different properties these two kinds of phosphorus possess4 ,for instance1 if ,i take a small piece of the yellow phosphorus and pour upon it a little of this liquid--bi-sulphide of carbon--and in another bottle treat the red phosphorus in a similar way1 we shall find the yellow phosphorus is soluble in the liquid1 whilst the red is not4 ,i will pour these solutions on blotting-paper1 when you will find that the solution of the yellow phosphorus will before long catch fire spontaneously 7,fig4 #ab ,a71 whilst the solution 7although it is not a solution1 for the red phosphorus is not soluble in the bi-sulphide of carbon7 of the red phosphorus will not fire 7,fig4 #ab ,b74 ,again1 if ,i add a little iodine to the yellow phosphorus1 you see it immediately catches fire 7,fig4 #ac a72 but the same result does not follow with the red phosphorus 7,fig4 #ac b74 ,i will show you an experiment1 however1 to prove1 notwithstanding these different properties1 that this red and yellow material are the same elementary body4 ,i will take a little piece of the yellow phosphorus1 and after igniting it introduce it into a jar containing oxygen1 and ,i will make a similar experiment with the red phosphorus4 ,you will notice that the red phosphorus does not catch fire quite so readily as the yellow4 ,however1 exactly the same result takes place when they burn--you get the same white smoke with each1 and they combust equally brilliantly4 ,the red and yellow varieties are the same body--that is what ,i want to show you--with different properties4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,then comes the next improvement in the manufacture of matches1 which is putting the phosphorus on the box and not on the match4 ,this is why the use of red phosphorus1 was introduced into this country by ,messrs4 ,bryant and ,may4 ,i have no doubt that many a good drawing-room paper has been spared by the use of matches that light only on the box4 ,i cannot help thinking that the old tinder-box1 which ,i have placed on the table in a prominent position before you to-night1 feels a certain pleasure in listening to our story4 ,envious perhaps a little of its successor1 it nevertheless fully recognizes that its own reign had been a thousand times longer than that of the lucifer match4 ,if we could only hear that tinder-box talk1 ,i think we should find it saying something of this kind to the lucifer match--,i gave way to you1 because my time was over2 but mind1 your turn will come next1 and you will then have to give way to something else1 as once upon a time ,i had to give way to you4 ,and that is the end of the first chapter of my story of a tinder-box4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,we were engaged in our last lecture in considering the various methods that have been adopted from early times for obtaining fire1 and we left off at the invention of the lucifer match4 ,i ventured to hint at the conclusion of my last lecture1 that the tinder-box had something to say to the lucifer match1 by way of suggestion1 that just as the lucifer match had ousted it1 so it was not impossible that something some day might oust the lucifer match4 ,electricians have unlimited confidence 7,i can assure you7 in the unlimited applications of electricity3--they believe in their science4 ,now one of the effects of electricity is to cause a considerable rise of temperature in certain substances through which the electrical current is passed4 ,here is a piece of platinum wire1 for example1 and if ,i pass an electrical current through it1 you see how the wire glows 7,fig4 #ad74 ,if we were to pass more current through it1 which ,i can easily do1 we should be able to make the platinum wire white hot1 in which condition it would give out a considerable amount of light4 ,there is the secret of those beautiful incandescent glow lamps that you so often see now-a-days 7,fig4 #ae74 ,instead of a platinum wire1 a fine thread of carbon is brought to a very high temperature by the passage through it of the electrical current1 in which condition it gives out light4 ,all that you have to do to light up is to connect your lamp with the battery4 ,the reign of the match1 as you see1 so far as incandescent electric lamps are concerned1 is a thing of the past4 ,we need no match to fire it4 ,here are various forms of these beautiful little lamps4 ,this is1 as you see1 a little rosette for the coat4 ,notice how ,i can turn the minute incandescent lamp1 placed in the centre of the rose1 off or on at my pleasure4 ,if ,i disconnect it with the battery1 which is in my pocket1 the lamp goes out2 if ,i connect it with my battery the lamp shines brilliantly4 ,this all comes by switching it on or switching it off1 as we commonly express the act of connecting or disconnecting the lamp with the source of electricity4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,here is another apparatus to which ,i desire to call your attention4 ,if ,i take a battery such as ,i have here--a small galvanic battery of some ten cells--you will see a very little spark when ,i make and break contact of the two poles4 ,this is what is called an electrical torch1 in which ,i utilize this small spark as a gas-lighter 7,fig4 #af74 ,this instrument contains at its lower part a source of electricity1 and if ,i connect the two wires that run through this long tube with the apparatus which generates the current1 which ,i do by pressing on this button1 you see a little spark is at once produced which readily sets fire to my gas-lamp4 ,we have in this electrical torch a substitute--partial substitute1 ,i ought to say--for the lucifer match4 ,i think you will admit that it was with some show of reason ,i suggested that after all it is possible the lucifer match may not have quite so long an innings as the tinder-box4 ,but there is another curious thing to note in these days of great scientific progress1 viz4 that there are signs of the old tinder-box coming to the front again4 ,men1 ,i have often noticed1 find it a very difficult thing to light their pipes with a match on the top of an omnibus on a windy day1 and inventors are always trying to find out something that will enable them to do so without the trouble and difficulty of striking a match1 and keeping the flame a-going long enough to light their cigars4 ,and so we have various forms of pipe-lighting apparatus1 of which here is one--which is nothing more than a tinder-box with its flint and steel 7,fig4 #ag74 ,you set to work somewhat in this way3 placing the tinder 7a7 on the flint 7b71 you strike the flint with the steel 7c71 and--there1 ,i have done it6--my tinder is fired by the spark4 ,so you see there are signs1 not only of the lucifer match being ousted by the applications of electricity1 but of the old tinder-box coming amongst us once again in a new form4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,i am now going to ask you to travel with me step by step through the operation of getting fire out of the tinder-box4 ,the first thing ,i have to do is to prepare my tinder1 and ,i told you1 if you remember1 that the way we made tinder was by charring pieces of linen 7see ,fig4 #d74 ,i told you last time what a dear old friend told me1 who from practical experience is far more familiar with tinder-boxes and their working than ,i am1 that no material was better for making tinder than an old cambric handkerchief4 ,however1 as ,i have no cambric handkerchief to operate upon1 ,i must use a piece of common linen rag4 ,i want you to see precisely what takes place4 ,i set fire to my linen 7which1 by the bye1 ,i have taken care to wash carefully so that there should be no dirt nor starch left in it71 and while it is burning shut it down in my tinder-box4 ,that is my tinder4 ,let us now call this charred linen by its proper name--my tinder is carbon in a state of somewhat fine subdivision4 ,carbon is an elementary body4 ,an element--,i do not say this is a very good definition1 but it is sufficiently good for my purpose--an element is a thing from which nothing can be obtained but the element itself4 ,iron is an element4 ,you cannot get anything out of iron but iron2 you cannot decompose iron4 ,carbon is an element2 you can get nothing out of carbon but carbon4 ,you can combine it with other things1 but if you have only carbon you can get nothing out of the carbon but carbon4 ,but this carbon is found to exist in very different states or conditions4 ,for instance1 it is found in the form of the diamond4 7,fig4 #ah a74 ,diamonds consist of nothing more nor less than this simple elementary body--carbon4 ,it is a very different form of carbon1 no doubt you think1 to tinder4 ,just let me tell you1 to use a very hard word1 that we call the diamond an allotropic form of carbon4 ,allotropic means an element with another form to it--the diamond is simply an allotropic form of carbon4 ,now the diamond is a very hard substance indeed4 ,you know perfectly well that when the glass-cutter wants to cut glass he employs a diamond for the purpose1 and the reason why glass can be cut with a diamond is because the diamond is harder than the glass4 ,i dare say you have often seen the names of people scratched on the windows of railway-carriages1 with the object ,i suppose that it may be known to all future occupants of these carriages that persons of a certain name wore diamond rings4 ,well1 in addition to the diamond there is another form of carbon1 which is called black-lead4 ,black-lead--or1 as we term it1 graphite--of which ,i have several specimens here--is simply carbon--an allotrope of carbon--the same elementary substance1 notwithstanding1 as the diamond4 ,this black-lead 7understand black-lead1 as it is called1 contains no metallic lead7 is used largely for making lead-pencils4 ,the manufacture of lead-pencils1 by the bye1 is a very interesting subject4 ,formerly they cut little pieces of black-lead out of lumps of the natural black-lead such as you see there2 but now-a-days they powder the black-lead1 and then compress the very fine powder into a block4 ,there is a block of graphite or black lead1 for instance1 prepared by simple pressure 7,fig4 #ah b74 ,the great pressure to which the powder is subjected brings these fine particles very close together1 when they cohere1 and form a substantial block4 ,i will show you an experiment to illustrate what ,i mean4 ,here are two pieces of common metallic lead4 ,no ordinary pressure would make these two pieces stick together2 but if ,i push them together very energetically--boys would call it giving them a shove together--that is to say1 employing considerable pressure to bring them into close contact--,i have no doubt that ,i can make these two pieces of lead stick together--in other words1 make them cohere4 ,to cohere is not to adhere4 ,cohesion is the union of similar particles--like to like2 adhesion is the union of dissimilar particles4 ,now that is exactly what is done in the preparation of the black-lead for lead-pencils4 ,the black-lead powder is submitted to great pressure1 and then all these fine particles cohere into one solid lump4 ,the pencil maker now cuts these blocks with a saw into very thin pieces 7,fig4 #ai b74 ,the next thing is to prepare the wood to receive the black-lead strips4 ,to do this they take a piece of flat cedar wood and cut a number of grooves in it1 placing one of these little strips of black-lead into each of the grooves 7,fig4 #ai a1 which represents one of the grooves74 ,then having glued on the cover 7,fig4 #ai c71 they cut it into strips1 and plane each little strip into a round lead-pencil 7,fig4 #ai d74 ,but what you have there as black-lead in the pencil 7for this is what ,i more particularly wish you to remember7 is simply carbon1 being just the same chemical substance as the diamond4 ,to a chemist diamond and black-lead have the same composition1 being indeed the same substance4 ,as to their money value1 of course there is some difference2 still1 so far as chemical composition is concerned1 diamonds and black-lead are both absolutely true varieties of the element carbon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,well now1 ,i come to another form of carbon1 called charcoal 7,fig4 #ah c74 ,you all know what charcoal is4 ,there is a lump of wood charcoal4 ,it is1 as you see1 very soft1--so soft indeed is it that one can cut it easily with a knife4 ,graphite is not porous1 but this charcoal is very porous4 ,but mind1 whether it be diamond1 or black-lead1 or this porous charcoal1 each and all have the same chemical composition2 they are what we call the elementary undecomposable substance carbon4 ,the tinder ,i made a little while ago 7,fig4 #d71 and which ,i have securely shut down in my tinder-box1 is carbon4 ,it is not a diamond4 ,it is not black-lead1 but all the same it is carbon--that form of porous carbon which we generally call charcoal4 ,now ,i hope you understand the meaning of that learned word allotropic4 ,diamond1 black-lead1 and tinder are allotropic forms of carbon1 just as ,i explained to you in my last lecture1 that the elementary body phosphorus was also known to exist in two forms1 the red and the yellow variety1 each having very different properties4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,now it has been noticed when substances are in a very finely-divided state that they often possess greater chemical activity than they have in lump4 ,let me try and illustrate what ,i mean4 ,here ,i have a metal called antimony1 which is easily acted upon by chlorine4 ,i will place this lump of antimony in a jar of chlorine1 and so far as you can see very little action takes place between the metal and the chlorine4 ,there is an action taking place1 but it is rather slow 7,fig4 #bj ,a74 ,now ,i will introduce into the chlorine some of the same metal which ,i have finely powdered4 ,see6 it catches fire immediately 7,fig4 #bj ,b74 ,what ,i want you to understand is1 that although ,i have in both these cases precisely the same chlorine and the same metal1 nevertheless1 that whilst the action of the chlorine on the lump of antimony was not very apparent1 in the case of the powdered antimony the action was very energetic4 ,again1 there is a lump of lead 7,fig4 #ba a74 ,you would be very much astonished if the lead pipe that conveys the water through your houses caught fire spontaneously2 but let me tell you that1 if your lead water-pipes were reduced to a sufficiently fine powder1 they would catch fire when exposed to the air4 ,i have some finely-powdered lead in this tube 7,fig4 #ba b71 which you will notice catches fire directly it is exposed to the atmosphere 7,fig4 #ba c74 ,there it is6 ,only powder the lead sufficiently fine1--that is to say1 bring it into a state of minute subdivision1--and it fires by contact with the oxygen of the air4 ,and now apply this4 ,we have in our diamond the element carbon1 but diamond-carbon is a hard substance1 and not in a finely-divided state4 ,we have in this tinder the same substance as the diamond1 but tinder-carbon is finely divided1 and it is because it is in a finely-divided condition that the carbon in our tinder-box catches fire so readily4 ,i hope ,i have made that part of my subject quite clear to you4 ,i should wish you to note that this very finely-divided carbon has rather an inclination to attract moisture4 ,that is the reason why our tinder is so disposed to get damp1 as ,i told you2 and1 as damp tinder is very difficult to light1 this explains the meaning of those disrespectful words that ,i suggested our tinder-box had often had addressed to it in the course of its active life of service4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,but to proceed4 ,what do ,i want now8 ,i want a spark to fire my tinder4 ,a spark is enough4 ,do you remember the motto of the ,royal ,humane ,society8 ,some of my young friends can no doubt translate it1 ,lateat scintilla forsan--perchance a spark may lie hid4 ,if a person rescued from drowning has but a spark of life remaining1 try and get the spark to burst into activity4 ,that is what the motto of that excellent society means4 ,how am ,i to get this spark from the flint and steel to set fire to my tinder8 ,i take the steel in one hand1 as you see1 and ,i set to work to strike it as vehemently as ,i can with the flint which ,i hold in the other 7,fig4 #c ,a ,b74 ,spark follows spark4 ,see how brilliant they are6 ,but ,i want one spark at least to fall on my tinder4 ,there1 ,i have succeeded1 and it has set fire to my tinder4 ,one spark was enough4 ,the spark was obtained by the collision of the steel and flint4 ,the sparks produced by this striking of flint against steel were formerly the only safe light the coal-miner had to light him in his dark dreary work of procuring coal4 ,here is the flint and steel lamp which originally belonged to ,sir ,humphry ,davy 7,fig4 #bb74 ,the miners could not use candles in coal-mines because that would have been dangerous1 and they were driven to employ an apparatus consisting of an iron wheel revolving against a piece of flint for the purpose of getting as much light as the sparks would yield4 ,this instrument has been very kindly lent to me by ,professor ,dewar4 ,i will project a picture of the apparatus on the screen1 so that those at a distance may be better able to see the construction of the instrument4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,and now follow me carefully4 ,i take the steel and the flint1 and striking them together ,i get sparks4 ,i want you to ask yourselves1 ,where do the sparks come from8 ,each spark is due to a minute piece of iron being knocked off the steel by the blow of flint with steel4 ,note the precise character of the spark4 ,let me sprinkle some iron filings into this large gas flame4 ,you will notice that the sparks of burning iron filings are very similar in appearance to the spark ,i produce by the collision of my flint and steel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,but now ,i want to carry you somewhat further in our story4 ,it would not do for me simply to knock off a small piece of iron2 ,i want when ,i knock it off that it should be red-hot4 ,stay for a moment and think of this--iron particles knocked off--iron particles made red-hot4 ,all mechanical force generates heat4,a ,you remember1 in my last lecture1 ,i rubbed together some pieces of wood1 and they became sufficiently hot to fire phosphorus4 ,on a cold day you rub your hands together to warm them1 and the cabmen buffet themselves4 ,it is the same story--mechanical force generating heat6 ,the bather knows perfectly well that a rough sea is warmer than a smooth sea4 ,why8--because the mechanical dash of the waves has been converted into heat4 ,let me remind you of the familiar phrase1 striking a light1 when ,i rub the match on the match-box4 ,forgive me urging such simple facts by such simple illustrations and such simple experiments4 ,the facts ,i am endeavouring to bring before you are illustrations of principles that determine the polity of the whole material universe4 ,friction produces heat4 ,here is a little toy 7cracker7 that you may have seen before 7,fig4 #bc74 ,it is scientific in its way4 ,a small quantity of fulminating material is placed between two pieces of card on which a few fragments of sand have been sprinkled 7,fig4 #bc a74 ,the two ends of the paper 7b b7 are pulled asunder4 ,the friction produces heat1 the heat fires the fulminate1 and off it goes with a crack4 ,and now put this question to yourselves1 ,what produced the friction8 ,force4 ,what is more1 the amount of heat produced is the exact measure of the amount of force used4 ,heat is a form of force4 ,i must urge you to realize precisely this energy of force4 ,when you sharpen a knife you put oil upon the hone4 ,why8--,when the carpenter saws a piece of wood he greases the saw4 ,why8--,when you travel by train you see the railway-porter running up and down the platform with a box of yellow grease with which he greases the wheels4 ,why8--,the answer to these questions is not far to seek--it is because you want your knife sharpened2 it is because you want the saw to cut2 it is because you want the train to travel4 ,the carpenter finds sawing hard work1 and he does not want the force of the muscles of his arm--his labour1 in short--to be converted into heat1 and so he greases the saw1 knowing that the more completely he prevents friction1 the more wood he will cut4 ,it is the force of steam that makes the engine travel4 ,steam costs money4 ,the engine-driver does not want that steam-force to be converted into heat1 because every degree of heat produced means diminished speed of his train2 and so the porter greases the wheels4 ,but as you approach the station the train must be stopped4 ,the steam is turned off1 and the guard puts on what he calls the brake4 ,what is the brake8 ,it is a piece of wood so constructed and placed that it can be made to press upon the wheel4 ,considerable friction results between the wheel and the brake2--heat is produced2--the train gradually comes to a stop4 ,why8 ,we have now the conversion of that force into heat which a minute ago was being used for the purpose of keeping the train a-going4 ,given a certain force you can have heat or motion2 but you cannot have heat and motion with the same force in the same amount as if you had them singly4 ,in every-day life1 you cannot have your pudding and eat it4 ,a ,i need scarcely say1 that whatever is of any value in the following remarks is derived from that charming book of ,professor ,tyndall's1 ,heat a ,mode of ,motion4 ,heat then is generated by mechanical force2 it is a mode of motion4 ,there was an old theory that heat was material4 ,there was heat1 for instance1 you were told1 in this nail4 ,suppose ,i hammer it1 it will get hot1 and at the same time ,i shall reduce by hammering the bulk of the iron nail4 ,a pint pot will not hold so much as a quart pot4 ,the nail 7you were told7 cannot hold so much heat when it occupies a less bulk as it did when it occupied a larger bulk4 ,therefore if ,i reduce the bulk of the nail ,i squeeze out some of the heat4 ,that was the old theory4 ,one single experiment knocked it on the head4 ,it was certain1 that in water there is a great deal more entrapped heat--latent heat it was called--than there is in ice4 ,if you take two pieces of ice and rub them together1 you will find the ice melts--the solid ice changes 7that is to say7 into liquid water4 ,where did the heat come from to melt the ice8 ,you could not get the heat from the ice1 because it was not there1 there being admittedly more latent heat in the water than in the ice4 ,the explanation is certain--the heat was the result of the friction4 ,and now let me go to my hammer and nail4 ,i wish to see whether ,i can make this nail hot by hammering4 ,it is quite cold at the present time4 ,i hope to make the nail hot enough by hammering it to fire that piece of phosphorus 7,fig4 #bd74 ,one or two sharp blows with the hammer suffice1 and as you see the thing is done--,i have fired the phosphorus4 ,but follow the precise details of the experiment4 ,it was ,i who gave motion to the hammer4 ,i brought that hammer on to that nail4 ,where did the motion go to that ,i gave the hammer8 ,it went into the nail1 and it is that very motion that made the nail hot1 and it was that heat which lighted the phosphorus4 ,it was ,i who fired the phosphorus3 do not be mistaken1 ,i fired the phosphorus4 ,it was my arm that gave motion to the hammer4 ,it was my force that was communicated to the hammer4 ,it was ,i who made the hammer give the motion to the nail4 ,it was ,i myself that fired the phosphorus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,i want you then to realize this great fact1 that when ,i hold the steel and strike it with the flint1 and get sparks1 ,i first of all knock off a minute fragment of iron by the blow that ,i impart to it1 whilst the force ,i use in striking the blow actually renders the little piece of detached iron red-hot4 ,what a wonderful thought this is6 ,look at the sun1 the great centre of heat6 ,it looks as if it were a blazing ball of fire in the heavens4 ,where does the heat of the sun come from8 ,it seems bold to suggest that the heat is produced by the impact of meteorites on the sun4 ,just as ,i1 for instance1 take a hammer and heat the nail by the dash of the hammer on it1 so the dash of these meteorites on the sun are supposed to produce the heat so essential to our life and comfort4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,let us take another step forward in the story of our tinder-box4 ,having produced a red-hot spark and set fire to my tinder1 ,i want you to see what ,i do next4 ,i set to work to blow upon my lighted tinder4 ,you remember1 by the bye1 that ,latin motto of our school-books--al7ere flammam1 nourish the flame4 ,when ,i blow on the tinder my object is to nourish the flame4 ,here is a pair of common kitchen bellows 7,fig4 #be72 when the fire is low the cook blows the fire to make it burn up4 ,what is the object of this blowing operation8 ,it is to supply a larger quantity of atmospheric oxygen to the almost lifeless fire than it would otherwise obtain4 ,oxygen is the spark's nourishment and life1 and the more it gets the better it thrives4 ,oxygen is an extremely active agent in nourishing flame4 ,if1 for instance1 ,i take a little piece of carbon and merely set fire to one small corner of it1 and then introduce it into this jar of oxygen1 see how brilliantly it burns2 you notice how rapidly the carbon is becoming consumed 7,fig4 #bf74 ,in the tinder-box ,i blow on the tinder to supply a larger amount of oxygen to my spark4 ,a thing to burn under ordinary conditions must have oxygen1 and the more oxygen it gets the better it burns4 ,it does not follow that the supply of oxygen to a burning body must necessarily come directly from the air4 ,here1 for instance1 ,i have a squib4 ,i will fire it and put it under water 7,fig4 #bg74 ,you see it goes on burning whether it is in the water or out of it1 because one of the materials of which the squib is composed supplies the oxygen4 ,the oxygen is actually locked up inside the squib4 ,when then ,i blow upon my tinder1 my object is to supply more oxygen to it than it would get under ordinary conditions4 ,and1 as you see1 the more ,i blow1 within certain limits1 the more the spark spreads1 until now the whole of my tinder has become red-hot4 ,but my time is gone1 and we must leave the rest of our story for the next lecture4 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,recall for a few minutes the facts ,i brought before you in my last lecture4 ,the first point we discussed was the preparation of the tinder4 ,i explained to you that tinder was nothing more than carbon in a finely-divided state4 ,the second point was1 that ,i had to strike the steel with the flint in such manner that a minute particle of the iron should be detached2 the force used in knocking it off being sufficient to make the small particle of iron red-hot4 ,this spark falling upon the tinder set fire to it4 ,the next stage of the operation was to blow upon the tinder1 in order1 as ,i said1 to nourish the flame2 in other words1 to promote combustion by an increased supply of oxygen1 just as we use an ordinary pair of bellows for the purpose of fanning a fire which has nearly gone out into a blaze4 ,and now comes the next point in my story of a tinder-box4 ,having ignited the tinder ,i want to set fire to the match4 ,now ,i have here some of the old tinder-box matches1 and you will see that they are simply wooden splints with a little sulphur at the end4 ,why 7you say7 use sulphur8 ,for this reason--the wood is not combustible enough to be fired by the red-hot tinder4 ,we put therefore upon the wood a substance which is more combustible than the wood4 ,this sulphur--which most people call brimstone--has been known from very early times4 ,in the middle ages it was regarded as the principle of fire4 ,it is referred to by ,moses and ,homer and ,pliny4 ,a very distinguished chemist1 ,geber1 describes it as one of the principles of nature4 ,having fired my tinder1 as you see1 and blown upon it1 ,i place my sulphur match in contact with the red-hot tinder4 ,and now ,i want you to notice that the sulphur match does not catch fire immediately4 ,it wants1 in fact1 a little time1 and as you see a little coaxing4 ,now ,i have got it alight4 ,but note1 it is the sulphur that at the present moment is burning4 ,the burning sulphur is now beginning to set fire to the wood4 ,the whole match is well alight now6 ,but it was the sulphur that caught fire first1 and it was the sulphur that set fire to the wood4 ,a little time was occupied1 we said1 in making the sulphur catch fire4 ,ask yourselves this question--,why was it that the sulphur took a little time to catch fire8 ,this was the reason--because before the sulphur could catch fire it was necessary to change the solid sulphur 7the condition in which it was upon the match end7 into gaseous sulphur4 ,the solid sulphur could not catch fire4 ,therefore the heat of my tinder during the interval that ,i was coaxing the match 7as ,i called it7 was being exerted in converting my solid into gaseous sulphur4 ,when the solid sulphur had had sufficient heat applied to it to vapourize it1 the sulphur gas immediately caught fire4 ,now understand1 that in order to convert a solid into a liquid1 or a liquid into a gas1 heat is always a necessity4 ,i must have heat to produce a gas out of a solid or a liquid4 ,i will endeavour to make this clear to you by an experiment4 ,i have here1 as you see1 a wooden stool1 and ,i am about to pour a little water on this stool4 ,i place a glass beaker on the stool1 the liquid water only intervening between the stool and the bottom of the glass4 ,you see the glass is perfectly loose1 and easily lifted off the stool notwithstanding the layer of water4 ,i will now pour into the beaker a little of a very volatile liquid--i4 e4 a liquid that is easily converted into a gas--7bisulphide of carbon74 ,i wish somewhat rapidly to effect the change of this liquid bisulphide of carbon into gaseous bisulphide of carbon1 and in order to accomplish this object ,i must have heat4 ,so ,i take this tube which1 as you see1 is connected with a pair of bellows1 and simply blow on my bisulphide of carbon4 ,this effects the change of the liquid into a gas with great rapidity4 ,just as ,i converted my solid sulphur into a gas by the heat of the tinder1 so here ,i am converting this liquid bisulphide of carbon into a gas by the wind from my bellows4 ,but my liquid bisulphide of carbon must get heat somewhere or another in order that the change of the liquid into a gas1 that ,i desire should take place1 may be effected2 and so1 seeing that the water that ,i have placed between the glass and the stool is the most convenient place from which the liquid can derive the necessary heat1 it says1 ,i will take the heat out of the water4 ,it does so1 but in removing the heat from the water it changes the liquid water into solid ice4 ,and see1 already the beaker is frozen to the stool1 so that ,i can actually lift up the stool by the beaker 7,fig4 #bh74 ,understand then why my sulphur match wanted some time and some coaxing before it caught fire1 viz4 to change this solid sulphur into gaseous sulphur4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,but let us go a step further3 why must the solid sulphur be converted into a gas8 ,we want a flame1 and whenever we have flame it is absolutely necessary that we should have a gas to burn4 ,you cannot have flame without you have gas4 ,let me endeavour to illustrate what ,i mean4 ,i pour into this flask a small quantity of ether1 a liquid easily converted into a gas4 ,if ,i apply a lighted taper to the mouth of the flask1 no gas1 or practically none1 being evolved at the moment1 nothing happens4 ,but ,i will heat the ether so as to convert it into a gas4 ,and now that ,i have evolved a large quantity of ether gas1 when ,i apply a lighted taper to the mouth of the flask ,i get a large flame 7,fig4 #bi74 ,there it is6 ,the more gas ,i evolve 7that is1 the more actively ,i apply the heat7 the larger is the flame4 ,you see it is a very large flame now4 ,if ,i take the spirit lamp away1 the production of gas grows less and less1 until my flame almost dies out2 but you see if ,i again apply my heat and set more gas free1 ,i revive my flame4 ,i want you to grasp this very important fact1 upon which ,i cannot enlarge further now1 that given flame1 ,i must have a gas to burn1 and therefore heat as a power is needed before ,i can obtain flame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,well1 you ask me1 is that true of all flame8 ,where is the gas1 you say1 in that candle flame8 ,think for a moment of the science involved in lighting a candle4 ,what am ,i doing when ,i apply a lighted match to this candle8 ,the first thing ,i do is to melt the tallow1 the melted tallow being drawn up by the capillarity of the wick4 ,the next thing ,i do is to convert the liquid tallow into a gas4 ,this done1 ,i set fire to the gas4 ,i don't suppose you ever thought so much was involved in lighting a candle4 ,my candle is nothing more than a portable gas-works1 similar in principle to the gas-works from which the gas that ,i am burning here is supplied4 ,whether it is a lamp1 or a gas-burner1 or a candle1 they are all in a true sense gas-works1 and they all pre-suppose the application of heat to some material or another for the purpose of forming a gas which will burn4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,before ,i pass on1 ,i want to refer to the beautiful burner that ,i have here4 ,it is the burner used by the ,whitechapel stall-keepers on a ,saturday night 7,fig4 #cj74 7,fig4 a is an enlarged drawing of the burner47 ,just let me explain the science of the ,whitechapel burner4 ,first of all you will see the man with a funnel filling this top portion with naphtha 7c74 ,here is a stop-cock1 by turning which he lets a little naphtha run down the tube through a very minute orifice into this small cup at the bottom of the burner 7a74 ,this cup he heats in a friend's lamp1 thereby converting the liquid naphtha1 which runs into the cup1 into a gas4 ,so soon as the gas is formed--in other words1 so soon as the naphtha has been sufficiently heated--the naphtha gas catches fire1 the heat being then sufficient to maintain that little cup hot enough to keep up a regular supply of naphtha gas4 ,when the lamp does not burn very well1 you will often see the man poking it with a pin4 ,the carbon given off from the naphtha is very disposed to choke up the little hole through which the naphtha runs into the cup1 and the costermonger pushes a pin into the little hole to allow the free passage of the naphtha4 ,that1 then1 is the mechanism of this beautiful lamp of the ,whitechapel traders1 known as ,halliday's lamp4 ,now ,i go to another point3 having obtained the gas1 ,i must set fire to it4 ,it is important to note that the temperature required to set fire to different gases varies with the gas4 ,for instance1 ,i will set free in this bottle a small quantity of gas1 which fires at a very low temperature4 ,it is the vapour of carbon disulphide4 ,see1 ,i merely place a hot rod into the bottle1 and the gas fires at once4 ,if ,i put a hot rod into this bottle of coal gas1 no such effect results1 since coal gas requires a very much higher temperature to ignite it than bisulphide of carbon gas4 ,i want almost--not quite--actual flame to fire coal gas4 ,but here is another gas1 about which ,i may have to say something directly1 called marsh gas 7the gas of coal-mines74 ,this requires a much higher temperature than even coal gas to fire it4 ,i want you to understand that although all gases require heat to fire them1 different gases ignite at very different temperatures4 ,bisulphide of carbon gas1 e4 g41 ignites at a very low temperature1 whilst marsh gas requires a very high temperature indeed for its ignition4 ,you will see directly that this is a very important fact4 ,sulphur gas ignites fortunately at a fairly low temperature1 and that is why sulphur is so useful an addition to the wood splint by which to get fire out of the tinder-box4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,and here ,i wish to make a slight digression in my story4 ,i will show you an experiment preparatory to bringing before you the fact ,i am anxious now to make clear4 ,i have before me a tube1 one half of which is brass and the other half wood4 ,i have covered the tube1 as you see1 with a tightly-fitting piece of white paper4 ,the whole tube1 wood and brass1 has been treated in exactly the same manner4 ,now ,i will set fire to some spirit in the trough ,i have here1 and expose the entire tube to the action of the flame4 ,notice this very curious result1 viz4 that the paper covering the brass portion of the tube does not catch fire1 whereas the paper covering the wood is rapidly consumed 7,fig4 #ca74 ,you see the exact line that divides wood from brass by the burning of the paper4 ,well1 why is that8 ,now all of you know that some things conduct heat 7i4 e4 carry away heat7 better than other substances4 ,for instance1 if you were to put a copper rod and a glass rod into the fire1 allowing a part of each to project1 the copper rod that projects out of the fire would soon become so very hot that you dare not touch it1 owing to the copper conducting the heat from the fire1 whereas you would be able to take hold of the projecting end of the glass rod long after the end of the glass exposed to the fire had melted4 ,the fact is1 the copper carries heat well1 and the glass carries heat badly4 ,now with the teaching of that experiment before you1 you will understand1 ,i hope1 the exact object of one or two experiments ,i am about to show you4 ,here is a piece of coarse wire gauze--,i am about to place it over the flame of this ,argand burner4 ,you will notice that it lowers the flame for a moment1 but almost immediately the flame dashes through the gauze 7,fig4 #cb ,a74 ,here is another piece of gauze1 not quite so coarse as the last4 ,i place this over the flame1 and for a moment the flame cannot get through it4 ,there1 you see it is through now1 but it did not pass with the same readiness that it did in the case of the other piece of gauze1 which was coarser4 ,now1 when ,i take a piece of fine gauze1 the flame does not pass through at all until the gauze is nearly red-hot4 ,there is plenty of gas passing all the time4 ,if ,i take a still finer gauze1 ,i shall find that the flame won't pass even when it is almost red-hot 7,fig4 #cb ,b74 ,plenty of gas is passing through1 remember1 all the time1 but the flame does not pass through4 ,now why is it that the flame is unable to pass8 ,the reason is this--because the metal gauze has so cooled the flame that the heat on one side is not sufficient to set fire to the gas on the other side4 ,i must have1 you see1 a certain temperature to fire my gas4 ,when therefore ,i experiment with a very fine piece of gauze1 where ,i have a good deal of metal and a large conducting surface1 there is no possibility of the flame passing4 ,in fact1 ,i have so cooled the flame by the metal gauze that it is no longer hot enough to set fire to the gas on the opposite side4 ,i will give you one or two more illustrations of the same fact4 ,suppose ,i put upon this gauze a piece of camphor 7camphor being a substance that gives off a heavy combustible vapour when heated71 and then heat it1 you see the camphor gas burning on the under side of the gauze1 but the camphor gas on the upper side is not fired 7,fig4 #cc74 ,plenty of camphor gas is being given off1 but the flame of the burning camphor on the under side is not high enough to set fire to the camphor gas on the upper side1 owing to the conducting power of the metal between the flame and the upper gas4 ,there is one other experiment ,i should like to show you4 ,upon this piece of metal gauze ,i have piled up a small heap of gunpowder4 ,i will place a spirit-lamp underneath the gunpowder1 as you see ,i am now doing1 and ,i don't suppose the gunpowder will catch fire4 ,i see the sulphur of the gunpowder at the present moment volatilizing1 but the flame1 cooled by the action of the metal1 is not hot enough to set fire to the gunpowder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,i showed you the steel and flint lamp--if ,i may call it a lamp--used by coal-miners at the time of ,davy 7,fig4 #bb74 ,davy set to work to invent a more satisfactory lamp than that1 and the result of his experiments was the beautiful miner's lamp which ,i have here 7,fig4 #cd74 ,i regard this lamp with considerable affection1 because ,i have been down many a coal-mine with it4 ,this is the coal-miner's safety-lamp4 ,the old-fashioned form of it that ,i have here has been much improved1 but it illustrates the principle as well as1 if not better than1 more elaborate varieties4 ,it is simply an oil flame covered with a gauze shade1 exactly like that gauze with which ,i have been experimenting4 ,i will allow a jet of coal gas to play upon this lamp1 but the gas1 as you see1 does not catch fire4 ,you will notice the oil flame in the lamp elongates in a curious manner4 ,the flame of the lamp cooled by the gauze is not hot enough to set fire to the coal gas1 but the appearance of the flame warns the miner1 and tells him when there is danger4 ,and that is the explanation of the beautiful miner's safety-lamp invented by ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,now let me once more put this fact clearly before you1 that whether it is the gas flame or our farthing rushlight1 whether it is our lamp or our lucifer match1 if we have a flame we must have a gas to burn1 and having a gas1 we must heat it to1 and maintain it at1 a certain temperature4 ,we have now reached a point where our tinder-box has presented us with flame4 ,a flame is indeed the consummated work of the tinder-box4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,just let me say a few words about the grand result--the consummated work of the tinder-box4 ,a flame is a very remarkable thing4 ,it looks solid1 but it is not solid4 ,you will find that the inside of a flame consists of unburnt gas--gas1 that is to say1 not in a state of combustion at all4 ,the only spot where true combustion takes place is the outer covering of the flame4 ,i will try to show you some experiments illustrating this4 ,i will take a large flame for this purpose4 ,here is a piece of glass tube which ,i have covered with ordinary white paper4 ,holding the covered glass tube in our large flame for a minute or two1 you observe ,i get two rings of charred paper1 corresponding to the outer envelope of the flame1 whilst that portion of the paper between the black rings has not even been scorched1 showing you that it is only the outer part of the flame that is burning 7,fig4 #ce74 ,the heat of the flame is at that part where1 as ,i said before1 the combustible gases come into contact--into collision with the atmosphere4 ,so completely is this true1 that if ,i take a tube1 such as ,i have here1 ,i can easily convey the unburnt gas in the centre of the flame away from the flame1 and set fire to it1 as you see1 at the end of the glass tube a long distance from the flame 7,fig4 #cf74 ,i will place in the centre of my flame some phosphorus which is at the present moment in a state of active burning1 and observe how instantly the combustion of the phosphorus ceases so soon as it gets into the centre of the flame4 ,the crucible which contains it is cooled down immediately1 and presents an entirely different appearance within the flame to what it did outside the flame4 ,it is a curious way1 perhaps you think1 to stop a substance burning by putting it into a flame4 ,indeed ,i can put a heap of gunpowder inside a flame so that the outer envelope of burning gas does not ignite it 7,fig4 #cg74 ,there you see a heap of gunpowder in the centre of our large flame4 ,the flame is so completely hollow that even it cannot explode the powder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,i want you1 if you will1 to go a step further ,the heat of the flame is due1 as ,i explained in my last lecture1 to the clashing of molecules4 ,but what is the light of my candle and gas due to8 ,the light is due to the solid matter in the flame1 brought to a state of white heat or incandescence by the heat of the flame4 ,the heat is due to the clashing of the particles1 the light is due to the heated solid matter in the flame4 ,let me see if ,i can show you that4 ,i am setting free in this bottle some hydrogen1 which ,i am about to ignite at the end of this piece of glass tube 7,fig4 #ch ,a74 ,i shall be a little cautious1 because there is danger if my hydrogen gets mixed with air4 ,there is my hydrogen burning2 but see1 it gives little or no light4 ,but this candle flame gives light4 ,why8 ,the light of the candle is due to the intensely heated solid matter in the flame2 the absence of light in the hydrogen flame depends on the absence of solid matter4 ,let me hold clean white plates over both these flames4 ,see the quantity of black solid matter that ,i am able to collect from this candle flame 7,fig4 #ch ,b74 ,but my hydrogen yields me no soot or solid matter whatsoever 7,fig4 #ch ,a74 ,the plate remains perfectly clean1 and only a little moisture collects upon it4 ,the light that candle gives depends upon the solid matter in the flame becoming intensely heated4 ,if what ,i say be true1 it follows that if ,i take a flame which gives no light1 like this hydrogen flame 7,fig4 #ci ,a71 and give it solid particles1 ,i ought to change the non-luminous flame into a luminous one4 ,let us see whether this be so or not4 ,i have here a glass tube containing a little cotton wadding 7,fig4 #ci ,b a71 and ,i am about to pour on the wadding a little ether1 and to make the hydrogen gas pass through the cotton wadding soaked with ether before ,i fire it4 ,and now if what ,i have said is correct1 the hydrogen flame to which ,i have imparted a large quantity of solid matter ought to produce a good light1 and so it does6 ,see1 ,i have converted the flame which gave no light 7,fig4 #ci ,a7 into a flame which gives an excellent light merely by incorporating solid matter with the flame 7,fig4 #ci ,b74 ,what is more1 the amount of light that a flame gives depends upon the amount or rather the number of solid particles that it contains4 ,the more solid particles there are in the flame1 the greater is the light4 ,let me give you an illustration of this4 ,here is an interesting little piece of apparatus given to my predecessor in the chair of chemistry at the ,london ,hospital by the ,augustus ,harris of that day4 ,it is one of the torches formerly used by the pantomime fairies as they descended from the realms of the carpenters4 ,i have an alcohol flame at the top of the torch which gives me very little light4 ,here1 you see1 is an arrangement by which ,i can shake a quantity of solid matter 7lycopodium7 into the non-luminous alcohol flame4 ,you will observe what a magnificently luminous flame ,i produce 7,fig4 #dj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,i have told you that the light of a flame is due to solid matter in the flame2,b further1 that the amount of light is due to the amount of solid matter4 ,and now ,i want to show you that the kind of light is due to the kind of solid matter in the flame4 ,here are some pieces of cotton wadding1 which ,i am about to saturate with alcoholic solutions of different kinds of solid matter4 ,for instance1 ,i have in one bottle an alcoholic solution of a lithium salt1 in another of a barium1 in a third of a strontium1 and so on4 ,i will set fire to all these solutions1 and you see how vastly different the colours are1 the colour of the flames being dependent on the various forms of solid matter that ,i have introduced into them4 ,b ,i have not forgotten ,frankland's experiments on this subject1 but the lectures did not admit of dealing with exceptional cases4 ,thus ,i have shown you that the heat of our flame is due to the clashing of the two gases1 and the light of the flame to the solid matter in the flame1 and the kind of light to the kind of solid matter4 ,well1 there is another point to which ,i desire to refer4 ,light is the paint which colours bodies4 ,you know that ordinary white light is made up of a series of beautiful colours 7the spectrum71 which ,i show you here4 ,if ,i take all these spectrum or rainbow colours which are painted on this glass ,i can1 as you see1 recompose them into white light by rotating the disc with sufficient rapidity that they may get mixed together on the little screen at the back of your eye4 ,white light then is a mixture of a number of colours4 ,just ask yourselves this question4 ,why is this piece of ribbon white8 ,the white light falls upon it4 ,white light is made up of all those colours you saw just now upon the screen4 ,the light is reflected from this ribbon exactly as it fell upon the ribbon4 ,the whole of those colours come off together1 and that ribbon is white because the whole of the colours of the spectrum are reflected at the same moment4 ,why is that ribbon green8 ,the white light falls upon the ribbon--the violet1 the indigo1 the red1 the blue1 the orange1 and the yellow1 are absorbed by the dye of the ribbon1 and you do not see them4 ,the ribbon1 as it were1 drinks in all these colours1 but it cannot drink in the green4 ,and reflecting the green of the spectrum1 you see that ribbon green because the ribbon is incapable of absorbing the green of the white light4 ,why is this ribbon red8 ,for the same reason4 ,it can absorb the green which the previous piece of ribbon could not absorb1 but it cannot absorb the red4 ,the fact is1 colour is not an inherent property of a body4 ,if you ask me why that ribbon is green1 and why this ribbon is red1 the real answer is1 that the red ribbon has absorbed every colour except the red1 and the green ribbon every colour except the green1 not because they are of themselves red and green but because they have the power of reflecting those colours from their surfaces4 ,this then is the consummated work of our tinder-box4 ,our tinder-box set fire to the match1 and the match set fire to the candle1 whilst the heat and the light of the candle are the finished work of the candle that the tinder-box lighted4 ,the clock warns me that ,i must bring to an end my story of a tinder-box4 ,to be sure1 the tinder-box is a thing of the past1 but ,i hope its story has not been altogether without teaching4 ,let me assure you that the failure1 if failure there be1 is not the fault of the story1 but of the story-teller4 ,if some day1 my young friends1 you desire to be great philosophers--and such desire is a high and holy ambition--be content in the first instance to listen to the familiar stories told you by the commonest of common things4 ,there is nothing1 depend upon it1 too little to learn from4 ,in time you will rise to higher efforts of thought and intellectual activity1 but you will be primed for those efforts by the grasp you have secured in your studies of every-day phenomena4 ,great things are made of little things1 ,and little things go lessening1 till at last ,comes ,god behind them4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,richard ,,clay ,,sons1 ,,limited1 ,,london ,,bungay4 ,,publications ,,of ,,the ,society for ,promoting ,christian ,knowledge4 ,,natural ,,history ,,rambles4 ,fcap4 #hvo41 with numerous ,woodcuts1 ,cloth boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 each4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,search ,,of ,,minerals4 ,by the late ,d4 ,t4 ,,anstead1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,lakes ,,and ,,rivers4 ,by ,c4 ,o4 ,,groom ,,napier1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,lane ,,and ,,field4 ,by the late ,,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,,mountain ,,and ,,moor4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,ponds ,,and ,,ditches4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,,cooke1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,the ,,sea-,,shore4 ,by ,professor ,p4 ,,martin ,,duncan1 ,m4,b41 7,london71 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,the ,,woodlands4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,,cooke1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,author of ,freaks and ,marvels of ,plant ,life1 c4 ,,underground4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,manuals ,,of ,,health4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 #abh pp41 ,limp ,cloth1 price #as4 each4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,air1 ,,water1 ,,and ,,disinfectants4 ,by ,c4 ,h4 ,,aikman1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,,health ,,and ,,occupation4 ,by the late ,sir ,b4 ,w4 ,,richardson1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,d4 ,,habitation ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,health 7,the74 ,by ,f4 ,s4 ,b4 ,,chaumont1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,on ,,personal ,,care ,,of ,,health4 ,by the late ,e4 ,a4 ,,parkes1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,ventilation ,,and ,,warming ,,of ,,houses1 ,,churches1 ,,schools1 ,,and ,,other ,,buildings4 ,by the late ,,ernest ,h4 ,,jacob1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d4 7,oxon74 ,,manuals ,,of ,,elementary ,,science4 ,foolscap #hvo1 #abh pp41 with ,illustrations1 ,limp ,cloth1 #as4 each4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,physiology4 ,by ,professor ,a4 ,,macalister1 ,,ll4,d41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,geology4 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,g4 ,,bonney1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,astronomy4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,christie1 ,m4,a41 the ,royal ,observatory1 ,greenwich4 ,,botany4 ,by the late ,professor ,,robert ,,bentley4 ,,zoology4 ,by ,,alfred ,,newton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,professor of ,zoology in the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,a ,new and ,revised ,edition4 ,,matter ,,and ,,motion4 ,by the late ,j4 ,,clerk ,,maxwell1 ,m4,a4 ,,spectroscope 7,,the71 ,,and ,,its ,,work4 ,by the late ,,richard ,a4 ,,proctor4 ,,crystallography4 ,by ,,henry ,,palin ,,gurney1 ,m4,a41 ,clare ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,,electricity4 ,by the late ,prof4 ,,fleeming ,,jenkin4 ,,atlases4 s4 d4 ,,handy ,,general ,,atlas ,,of ,,the ,,world 7,the74 ,a ,comprehensive series of ,maps illustrating ,general and ,commercial ,geography4 ,with ,index4 ,half morocco #db #j ,,bible ,,atlas 7,the74 ,maps and ,plans1 with ,explanatory ,notes1 ,complete ,index4 ,royal #dto4 ,cloth boards #ad #j ,,the ,,graphic ,,atlas ,,and ,,gazetteer ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,edited by ,j4 ,g4 ,bartholomew1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with #abh ,maps and ,plans4 ,cloth boards #ab #f ,half morocco #ae #j ,a ,,modern ,,atlas2 containing #cj ,maps1 with ,indexes1 c4 ,cloth boards #ab #j ,,handy ,,reference ,,atlas ,,of ,,the ,,world4 ,complete ,index and ,geographical ,statistics4 ,cloth #g #f ,,star ,,atlas 7,the74 ,translated and adapted from the ,german by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,mc,clure1 ,m4,a4 ,with #ah ,charts4 ,cloth #g #f ,,student',s ,,atlas 7,the7 ,,of ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,geography1 with #dh ,maps and a copious consulting ,index4 ,cloth boards #g #f ,,world 7,the71 an ,,atlas1 containing #cd ,coloured ,maps and ,complete ,index4 ,folded #hvo4 ,cloth gilt #e #j ,,handy ,,atlas ,,of ,,the ,,counties ,,of ,,england4 ,forty-three ,coloured ,maps and ,index4 ,cloth #e #j ,,century ,,atlas ,,and ,,gazetteer ,,of ,,the ,,world1 containing #eb ,maps and ,gazetteer of #ce1jjj names1 #dto4 ,cloth #c #f ,,young ,,scholar',s ,,atlas 7,the71 containing #bd ,coloured ,maps and ,index4 ,imp4 #dto4 ,cloth #b #f ,,pocket ,,atlas ,,of ,,the ,,world 7,the74 ,with ,complete ,index1 c4 #b #f ,,british ,,colonial ,,pocket ,,atlas 7,the74 ,fifty-six ,maps of the ,colonies and ,index4 ,cloth boards #b #f ,,jubilee ,,atlas ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,empire1 with ,descriptive and ,statistical ,notes4 ,paper boards #a #j ,,physical ,,atlas ,,for ,,beginners1 containing #ab ,coloured ,maps4 ,paper cover #a #j ,,shilling 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#aj in4 by #c ft4 #f in4 #i #j ,,scotland4 ,scale1 ditto ditto4 #i #j ,,gt4 ,,britain ,,and ,,ireland1 ,the ,united ,kingdom of #f ft4 #c in4 by #g ft4 #d in4 #db #j ,,england ,,and ,,wales 7,photo-,relievo7 #d ft4 #h in4 by #c ft4 #aj in4 #ac #j ,,england ,,and ,,wales 7,diocesan ,map7 #d ft4 #b in4 by #d ft4 #aj in4 #af #j ,,british ,,isles #eh in4 by #ej in4 #ac #j ,,holy ,,land #d ft4 #b in4 by #d ft4 #aj in4 #ac #j ,,holy ,,land1 to illustrate the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,scale1 #i miles to an inch #bg in4 by #cb in4 #f #j ,,sinai 7,the ,peninsula of71 the ,,negeb1 and ,,lower ,,egypt4 ,to illustrate the ,history of the ,patriarchs and the ,exodus #b ft4 #aj in4 by #c ft4 #f in4 #i #j ,,places mentioned in the ,,acts and the ,,epistles4 ,scale1 #eg miles to an inch #c ft4 #f in4 by #b ft4 #aj in4 #i #j ,,small ,,maps ,,of ,,holy ,,land3-- ,old ,testament--,new ,testament--,places mentioned in ,acts and ,epistles on sheets1 each #a #f millboard1 varnished1 each #b #j 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,,soap-,,bubbles1 ,,and ,,the ,,forces ,,which ,,mould ,,them4 ,by ,c4 ,v4 ,,boys1 ,a4,r4,s4,m41 ,f4,r4,s4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,spinning ,,tops4 ,by ,professor ,j4 ,,perry1 ,m4,e41 ,f4,r4,s4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,time ,,and ,,tide3 a ,romance of the ,moon4 ,third ,edition1 revised4 ,by ,sir ,,robert ,s4 ,,ball4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,making ,,of ,,flowers4 ,by ,rev4 ,professor ,g4 ,,henslow1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,a ,,tinder-,,box4 ,by the late ,c4 ,,meymott ,,tidy1 ,m4,b41 ,m4,s4 #bs4 ,,the ,,birth ,,and ,,growth ,,of ,,worlds4 ,by the late ,professor ,a4 ,h4 ,,green1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 #as4 ,,the ,,splash ,,of ,a ,,drop4 ,by ,professor ,a4 ,m4 ,,worthington1 ,f4,r4,s4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,london3 ,,northumberland ,,avenue1 ,w4,c4 ,transcriber's note3 ,in this etext an 'e' with breve is represented as 7e ,bold font is represented by