,,the ,,automobile ,,storage ,,battery ,,its ,,care ,,and ,,repair ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,radio ,,batteries1 ,,farm ,,lighting ,,batteries ,a practical book for the repairman4 ,gives in nontechnical language1 the theory1 construction1 operation1 manufacture1 maintenance1 and repair of the lead-acid battery used on the automobile4 ,describes at length all subjects which help the repairman build up a successful battery repair business4 ,also contains sections on radio and farm lighting batteries4 ,,by ,o4 ,a4 ,,witte ,chief ,engineer1 ,american ,bureau of ,engineering1 ,inc4 ,third ,edition ,completely ,revised and ,enlarged ,fourth ,impression ,published #aibb by ,,the ,,american ,,bureau ,,of ,,engineering1 ,,inc4 ,,chicago1 ,,illinois1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,copyright1 #aiah1 #aiai1 #aibj1 and #aibb1 by ,american ,bureau of ,engineering1 ,inc4 ,all ,rights ,reserved4 ,entered at ,stationers' ,hall1 ,london1 ,england4 ,first ,impression ,april1 #aiah4 ,second ,impression ,december1 #aiai4 ,third ,impression ,october1 #aibj4 ,fourth ,impression ,september1 #aibb4 ,preface ,many books have been written on ,storage ,batteries used in stationary work1 as in electric power stations4 ,the storage battery1 as used on the modern gasoline car1 however1 is subjected to service which is radically different from that of the battery in stationary work4 ,it is true that the chemical actions are the same in all lead-acid storage batteries1 but the design1 construction1 and operation of the starting and lighting battery1 the radio battery1 and the farm lighting battery are unique1 and require a special description4 ,many books have been written on ,storage ,batteries used in stationary work1 as in electric power stations4 ,the storage battery1 as used on the modern gasoline car1 however1 is subjected to service which is radically different from that of the battery in stationary work4 ,it is true that the chemical actions are the same in all lead-acid storage batteries1 but the design1 construction1 and operation of the starting and lighting battery1 the radio battery1 and the farm lighting battery are unique1 and require a special description4 ,this book therefore refers only to the lead-acid type of starting and lighting battery used on the modern gasoline ,automobile1 the batteries used with ,radio sets1 and the batteries used with ,farm ,lighting ,plants4 ,it is divided into two sections4 ,the first section covers the theory1 design1 operating conditions1 and care of the battery4 ,the second section will be especially valuable to the battery repairman4 ,all the instructions given have been in actual use for years1 and represent the accumulated experiences of the most up-to-date battery repair shops in the ,united ,states4 ,the first edition of this book met with a most pleasing reception from both repairmen and battery manufacturers4 ,it was written to fill the need for a complete treatise on the ,automobile ,storage ,battery for the use of battery repairmen4 ,the rapid sale of the book1 and the letters of appreciation from those who read it1 proved that such a need existed4 ,the automobile battery business is a growing one1 and one in which new designs and processes are continually developed1 and in preparing the second and third editions1 this has been kept in mind4 ,some of the chapters have been entirely rewritten1 and new chapters have been added to bring the text up-to-date4 ,old methods have been discarded1 and new ones described4 ,a section on ,farm lighting ,batteries has been added1 as the automobile battery man should familiarize himself with such batteries1 and be able to repair them4 ,a section on ,radio batteries has also been added4 ,special thanks are due those who offered their cooperation in the preparation and revision of the book4 ,mr4 ,george ,m4 ,howard of the ,electric ,storage ,battery ,co41 and ,mr4 ,c4 ,l4 ,merrill of the ,u4 ,s4 ,light ,heat ,corporation very kindly gave many helpful suggestions4 ,they also prepared special articles which have been incorporated in the book4 ,mr4 ,henry ,e4 ,peers consulted with the author and gave much valuable assistance4 ,mr4 ,lawrence ,pearson of the ,philadelphia ,battery ,co41 ,mr4 ,f4 ,s4 ,armstrong of the ,vesta ,accumulator ,co41 ,messrs4 ,p4 ,l4 ,rittenhouse1 ,e4 ,c4 ,hicks and ,w4 ,c4 ,brooks of the ,prest-,o-,lite ,co41 ,mr4 ,d4 ,m4 ,simpson of the ,general ,lead ,batteries ,co41 ,mr4 ,r4 ,d4 ,mowray and ,mr4 ,c4 ,r4 ,story of the ,universal ,battery ,co41 ,mr4 ,h4 ,a4 ,harvey of the ,u4 ,s4 ,light and ,heat ,corporation1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,b4 ,welsh of the ,westinghouse ,union ,battery ,co41 ,mr4 ,s4 ,e4 ,baldwin of the ,willard ,storage ,battery ,co41 ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,ketcham of the ,united ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 ,schools1 and ,messrs4 ,guttenberger and ,steger of the ,american ,eveready ,works also rendered much valuable assistance4 ,the ,chapter on ,business ,methods was prepared by ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,hafner4 ,o4 ,a4 ,,witte1 ,chief ,engineer1 ,american ,bureau of ,engineering1 ,inc4 ,september1 #aibb ,contents -------- #a4 ,,introductory ,gasoline and electricity have made possible the modern automobile4 ,steps in development of electrical system of automobile4 ,sources of electricity on the automobile4 #b4 ,,batteries ,,in ,,general ,the ,simple ,battery1 or ,voltaic ,cell4 ,chemical ,actions which ,cause a ,cell to ,produce ,electricity4 ,difference between ,primary and ,secondary1 or ,storage ,cells4 ,a ,storage ,battery ,does ,not ,store ,electricity4 ,parts ,required to ,make a ,storage ,battery4 #c4 ,,manufacture ,,of ,,storage ,,batteries ,principal ,parts of a ,starting and ,lighting ,battery4 ,types of ,plates ,used4 ,molding the ,plate ,grids4 ,trimming the ,grids4 ,mixing ,pastes4 ,applying ,pastes to the ,plate ,grids4 ,hardening the ,paste4 ,forming the ,plates4 ,types of ,separators4 ,manufacture of ,separators4 ,manufacture of ,electrolyte4 ,composition and ,manufacture of ,jars4 ,types of ,cell ,covers4 ,single and ,double ,covers4 ,covers ,using ,sealing ,compound ,around the ,cell ,posts4 ,covers ,using ,lead ,bushings ,around the ,cell ,posts4 ,the ,prest-,o-,lite ,peened ,post ,seal4 ,batteries ,using ,sealing ,nuts ,around ,cell ,posts4 ,construction of ,vent ,tubes4 ,exide and ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 ,vent ,tube ,design4 ,vent ,plugs1 or ,caps4 ,manufacture of the ,battery ,case4 ,assembling and ,sealing the ,battery4 ,terminal ,connections4 ,preparing the ,completed ,battery for ,wet ,shipment4 ,preparing the ,completed ,battery for ,dry ,shipment4 ,home-,made ,batteries4 #d4 ,,chemical ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,battery ,chemical ,changes in the ,battery4 ,plante's ,work on the ,storage ,battery4 ,faure1 or ,pasted ,plates4 ,how ,battery ,produces ,electricity4 ,chemical ,actions of ,charge and ,discharge4 ,relations ,between ,chemical ,actions and ,electricity4 #e4 ,,what ,,takes ,,place ,,during ,,discharge ,what a ,discharge ,consists of4 ,voltage ,changes ,during ,discharge4 ,why the ,discharge ,is ,stopped ,when the ,cell ,voltage ,has ,dropped to #a4g on ,continuous ,discharge4 ,why a ,battery ,may ,safely be ,discharged to a ,lower ,voltage ,than #a4g ,volts per ,cell at ,high ,rates of ,discharge4 ,why ,battery ,voltage1 ,measured on ,open ,circuit is of ,little ,value4 ,changes in the ,density of the ,electrolyte4 ,why ,specific ,gravity ,readings of the ,electrolyte ,show the ,state of ,charge of a ,cell4 ,conditions ,which ,make ,specific ,gravity ,readings ,unreliable4 ,why the ,specific ,gravity of the ,electrolyte ,falls ,during ,discharge4 ,why the ,discharge of a ,battery ,is ,stopped ,when the ,specific ,gravity ,has ,dropped to #a4aej4 ,chemical ,changes at the ,negative ,plates ,during ,discharge4 ,chemical ,changes at the ,positive ,plates ,during ,discharge4 #f4 ,,what ,,takes ,,place ,,during ,,charge ,voltage ,changes ,during ,charge4 ,voltage of a ,fully ,charged ,cell4 ,changes in the ,density of the ,electrolyte ,during ,charge4 ,changes at the ,negative ,plates ,during ,charge4 ,changes at the ,positive ,plates ,during ,charge4 #g4 ,,capacity ,,of ,,storage ,,batteries ,definition of ,capacity4 ,factors ,upon ,which the ,capacity of a ,battery ,depend4 ,how the ,area of the ,plate ,surfaces ,affects the ,capacity4 ,how the ,quantity1 ,arrangement1 and ,porosity of the ,active ,materials ,affect the ,capacity4 ,how the ,quantity and ,strength of the ,electrolyte ,affect the ,capacity4 ,why ,too ,much ,electrolyte ,injures a ,battery4 ,why the ,proportions of ,acid and ,water in the ,electrolyte ,must ,be ,correct if ,specific ,gravity ,readings ,are to ,be ,reliable4 #h4 ,,internal ,,resistance ,effect of ,internal ,resistance4 ,resistance of ,grids4 ,resistance of ,electrolyte4 ,resistance of ,active ,materials4 #i4 ,,care ,,of ,,battery ,,on ,,the ,,car ,care of ,battery ,box4 ,how to ,clean the ,battery4 ,how to ,prevent ,corrosion4 ,correct ,battery ,cable ,length4 ,inspection of ,battery to ,determine ,level of ,electrolyte4 ,how to ,add ,water to ,replace ,evaporation4 ,when ,water ,should ,be ,added4 ,how ,electrolyte ,is ,lost4 ,danger from ,adding ,acid ,instead of ,water4 ,effect of ,adding ,too ,much ,water4 ,when ,specific ,gravity ,readings ,should ,be ,taken4 ,what the ,various ,specific ,gravity ,readings ,indicate4 ,construction of a ,syringe ,hydrometer4 ,how to ,take ,specific ,gravity ,readings4 ,why ,specific ,gravity ,readings ,should ,not ,be ,taken ,soon ,after ,adding ,water to ,replace ,evaporation4 ,troubles ,indicated by ,specific ,gravity ,readings4 ,how to ,make ,sure ,that ,sections of a ,multiple-,section ,battery ,receive the ,same ,charging ,current4 ,how ,temperature ,affects ,specific ,gravity ,readings4 ,how to ,make ,temperature ,corrections in ,specific ,gravity ,readings4 ,battery ,operating ,temperatures4 ,effect of ,low and ,high ,temperatures4 ,troubles ,indicated by ,high ,temperatures4 ,damage ,caused by ,allowing ,electrolyte to ,fall ,below ,tops of ,plates4 ,i-low to ,prevent ,freezing4 ,care of ,battery ,when ,not in ,use4 ,dope or ,patent ,electrolyte1 or ,battery ,solutions4 #aj4 ,,storage ,,battery ,,troubles ,normal and ,injurious ,sulphation4-- ,how ,injurious ,sulphate ,forms4 ,why ,an ,idle ,battery ,becomes ,sulphated4 ,why ,sulphated ,plates ,must ,be ,charged at a ,low ,rate4 ,how ,over discharge ,causes ,sulphation4 ,how ,starvation ,causes ,sulphation4 ,how ,sulphate ,results from ,electrolyte ,being ,below ,tops of ,plates4 ,how ,impurities ,cause ,sulphation4 ,how ,sulphation ,results from ,adding ,acid ,instead of ,water to ,replace ,evaporation4 ,why ,adding ,acid ,causes ,specific ,gravity ,readings to ,be ,unreliable4 ,how ,overheating ,causes ,sulphation4 ,buckling4-,how ,overdischarge ,causes ,buckling4 ,how ,continued ,operation with ,battery in a ,discharged ,condition ,causes ,buckling4 ,i-low ,charging at ,high ,rates ,causes ,buckling1 ,how ,non-,uniform ,distribution of ,current ,over the ,plates ,causes ,buckling4 ,how ,defective ,grid ,alloy ,causes ,buckling4 ,shedding1 or ,loss of ,active ,material4-- ,normal ,shedding4 ,how ,excessive ,charging ,rate1 or ,overcharging ,causes ,shedding4 ,how ,charging ,sulphated ,plates at ,too ,high a ,rate ,causes ,shedding4 ,how ,charging ,only a ,portion of the ,plate ,causes ,shedding4 ,how ,freezing ,causes ,shedding4 ,how ,overdischarge ,causes ,loose ,active ,material4 ,how ,buckling ,causes ,loose ,active ,material4 ,impurities4-- ,impurities ,which ,cause ,only ,self-,discharge4 ,impurities ,which ,attack the ,plates4 ,how to ,remove ,impurities4 ,corroded ,grids4-,how ,impurities ,cause ,corroded ,grids4 ,how ,sulphation ,causes ,corroded ,grids4 ,how ,high ,temperatures ,cause ,corroded ,grids4 ,how ,high ,specific ,gravity ,causes ,corroded ,grids4 ,how ,age ,causes ,corroded ,grids4 ,negatives4-- ,how ,age and ,heat ,cause ,granulated ,negatives4 ,heating of ,charged ,negatives ,when ,exposed to the ,air4 ,negatives with ,very ,hard ,active ,material4 ,bulged ,negatives4 ,negatives with ,soft1 ,mushy1 ,active ,material4 ,negatives with ,rough ,surfaces4 ,blistered ,negatives4 ,positives4-- ,frozen ,positives4 ,rotten1 ,disintegrated ,positives4 ,buckled ,positives4 ,positives ,which ,have ,lost ,considerable ,active ,material4 ,positives with ,soft ,active ,material4 ,positives with ,hard1 ,shiny ,active ,material4 ,plates ,which ,have ,been ,charged in the ,wrong ,direction4 ,separator ,troubles4-- ,separators ,not ,properly ,expanded ,before ,installation4 ,improperly ,treated ,separators4 ,rotten and ,carbonized ,separators4 ,separators with ,clogged ,pores4 ,separators with ,edges ,chiseled ,off4 ,jar ,troubles4-- ,jars ,damaged by ,rough ,handling4 ,jars ,damaged by ,battery ,being ,loose4 ,jars ,damaged by ,weights ,placed on ,top of ,battery4 ,jars ,damaged by ,freezing of ,electrolyte4 ,jars ,damaged by ,improperly ,trimmed ,plate ,groups4 ,improperly ,made ,jars4 ,jars ,damaged by ,explosions in ,cell4 ,battery ,case ,troubles4-- ,ends of ,case ,bulged ,out4 ,rotted ,case4 ,troubles with ,connectors and ,terminals4--,corroded and ,loose ,connectors and ,terminals4 ,electrolyte ,troubles4-- ,low ,gravity4 ,high ,gravity4 ,low ,level4 ,high ,level4 ,specific ,gravity ,does ,not ,rise ,during ,charge4 ,milky ,electrolyte4 ,foaming of ,electrolyte4 ,general ,battery ,troubles4-- ,open ,circuits4 ,battery ,discharged4 ,dead ,cells4 ,battery ,will ,not ,charge4 ,loss of ,capacity4 ,loss of ,charge in an ,idle ,battery4 #aa4 ,,shop ,,equipment ,list of ,tools and ,equipment ,required by ,repair ,shop4 ,equipment ,needed for ,opening ,batteries4 ,equipment for ,lead ,burning4 ,equipment for ,general ,work on ,cell ,connectors and ,terminals4 ,equipment for ,work on ,cases4 ,tools and ,equipment for ,general ,work4 ,stock4 ,special ,tools4 ,charging ,equipment4 ,wiring ,diagrams for ,charging ,resistances and ,charging ,circuits4 ,motor-,generator ,sets4 ,suggestions on ,care of ,motor-,generator ,sets4 ,operating the ,charging ,circuits4 ,constant ,current ,charging4 ,constant ,potential ,charging4 ,the ,tungar ,rectifier4 ,principle of ,operation of ,tungar ,rectifier4 ,the ,two ,ampere ,tungar4 ,the ,one ,battery ,tungar4 ,the ,two4 ,battery ,tungar4 ,the ,four ,battery ,tungar4 ,the ,ten ,battery ,tangar4 ,the ,twenty ,battery ,tungar4 ,table of ,tungar ,rectifiers4 ,installation and ,operation of ,tungar ,rectifier4 ,the ,mercury ,are ,rectifier4 ,mechanical ,rectifiers4 ,the ,stahl ,rectifier4 ,other ,charging ,equipment4 ,the ,charging ,bench4 ,illustrations and ,working ,drawings of ,charging ,benches4 ,illustrations and ,working ,drawings of ,work ,benches4 ,illustrations and ,working ,drawings of ,sink and ,wash ,tanks4 ,lead ,burning ,outfits4 ,equipment for ,handling ,sealing ,compound4 ,shelving and ,racks4 ,working ,drawings of ,receiving ,racks1 ,racks for ,repaired ,batteries1 ,racks for ,new ,batteries1 ,racks for ,rental ,batteries1 ,racks for ,batteries in ,dry ,storage1 ,racks for ,batteries in ,wet ,storage4 ,working ,drawings of ,stock ,bins4 ,working ,drawings for ,battery ,steamer ,bench4 ,description of ,battery ,steamer4 ,plate ,burning ,rack4 ,battery ,terminal ,tongs4 ,lead ,burning ,collars4 ,post ,builders4 ,moulds for ,casting ,lead ,parts4 ,link ,combination ,mould4 ,cell ,connector ,mould4 ,production ,type ,strap ,mould4 ,screw ,mould4 ,battery ,turntable4 ,separator ,cutter4 ,plate ,press4 ,battery ,carrier4 ,battery ,truck4 ,cadmium ,test ,set and ,how to ,make the ,test4 ,paraffine ,dip ,pot4 ,wooden ,boxes for ,battery ,parts4 ,acid ,car boys4 ,drawing ,acid from ,carboys4 ,shop ,layouts4 ,floor ,grating4 ,seven ,architects' ,drawings of ,shop ,layouts4 ,the ,shop ,floor4 ,shop ,light4 #ab4 ,,general ,,shop ,,instructions ,complete instructions for giving a bench charge4 ,instructions for ,burning ,cell ,connectors and ,terminals4 ,burning ,plates to ,strap and ,posts4 ,post ,building4 ,extending ,plate ,lugs4 ,moulding ,lead ,parts4 ,handling and ,mixing ,acid4 ,putting ,new ,batteries ,into ,service 7,exide1 ,vesta1 ,philadelphia1 ,willard1 ,westinghouse1 ,prest-,o-,lite74 ,installing ,battery on ,car4 ,wet and ,dry ,storage of ,batteries4 ,age ,codes 7,exide1 ,philadelphia1 ,prest-,o-,lite1 ,titan1 ,u4,s4,l41 ,vesta1 ,westinghouse1 ,willard74 ,rental ,batteries4 ,terminals for ,rental ,batteries4 ,marking ,chapter ,page ,rental ,batteries4 ,keeping a ,record of ,rental ,batteries4 ,general ,rental ,policy4 ,radio ,batteries4 ,principles of ,audion ,bulb for ,radio4 ,vesta ,radio ,batteries4 ,westinghouse ,radio ,batteries4 ,willard ,radio ,batteries4 ,universal ,radio ,batteries4 ,exide ,radio ,batteries4 ,philadelphia ,radio ,batteries4 ,u4,s4,l4 ,radio ,batteries4 ,prest-,o-,lite ,radio ,batteries4 ,dry ,storage ,batteries4 ,discharge ,tests4 #ae ,seconds ,high ,rate ,discharge ,test4 #bj ,minutes ,starting ,ability ,discharge ,test4 ,cycling ,discharge ,tests4 ,discharge ,apparatus4 ,packing ,batteries for ,shipping4 ,safety ,precautions for the ,repairman4 ,testing the ,electrical ,system of a ,car4 ,complete ,rules and ,instructions for ,quickly ,testing1 ,starting and ,lighting ,system to ,protect ,battery4 ,adjusting ,generator ,outputs4 ,how and ,when to ,adjust ,charging ,rate4 ,re-insulating the ,battery4 ,testing and ,filling ,service4 ,service ,records4 ,illustrations of ,repair ,service ,record ,card4 ,rental ,battery ,stock ,card4 #ac4 ,,business ,,methods ,purchasing ,methods4 ,stock ,records4 ,the ,use and ,abuse of ,credit4 ,proper ,bookkeeping ,records4 ,daily ,exhibit ,record4 ,statistical and ,comparative ,record4 #ad4 ,,what',s ,,wrong ,,with ,,the ,,battery8 ,service4 ,calling and ,delivering ,repaired ,batteries4 ,how to ,diagnose ,batteries ,that ,come ,in4 ,tests on ,incoming ,batteries4 ,general ,inspection of ,incoming ,batteries4 ,operation ,tests for ,incoming ,batteries4 ,battery ,trouble ,charts4 ,causes of ,low ,gravity or ,low ,voltage4 ,causes of ,unequal ,gravity ,readings4 ,causes of ,high ,gravity4 ,causes of ,low ,electrolyte4 ,how to ,determine ,when ,battery ,may ,be ,left on ,car4 ,how to ,determine ,when ,battery ,must ,be ,removed from ,car4 ,how to ,determine ,when ,it ,is ,unnecessary to ,open a ,battery4 ,how to ,determine ,when ,battery ,must ,be ,opened4 #ae4 ,,rebuilding ,,the ,,battery ,how to ,open a ,battery4-- ,cleaning ,outside of ,battery ,before ,opening4 ,drilling and ,removing ,connectors and ,terminals4 ,removing the ,sealing ,compound by ,steam1 ,hot ,water1 ,hot ,putty ,knife1 ,lead ,burning ,flame1 and ,gasoline ,torch4 ,lifting ,plates ,out of ,jars4 ,draining ,plates4 ,removing ,covers4 ,scraping ,sealing ,compound from the ,covers4 ,scraping ,sealing ,compound from ,inside of ,jars4 ,what ,must ,be ,done with the ,opened ,battery8-- ,making a ,preliminary ,examination of ,plates4 ,when to ,put in ,new ,plates4 ,when ,old ,plates ,may ,be ,used ,again4 ,what to ,do with the ,separators4 ,find the ,cause of ,every ,trouble4 ,eliminating ,shorts4 ,preliminary ,charge ,after ,eliminating ,shorts4 ,washing and ,pressing ,negatives4 ,washing ,positives4 ,burning on ,new ,plates4 ,testing ,jars for ,cracks and ,holes4 ,removing ,defective ,jars4 ,repairing the ,case4 ,reassembling the ,elements4-- ,putting in ,now ,separators4 ,putting ,elements ,into ,jars4 ,filling ,jars with ,electrolyte4 ,putting ,chapter ,page on the ,covers4 ,sealing the ,covers4 ,burning on the ,connectors and ,terminals4 ,marking the ,repaired ,battery4 ,cleaning and ,painting the ,case4 ,charging the ,rebuilt ,battery4 ,testing4 #af4 ,,special ,,instructions ,exide ,batteries4-- ,types4 ,type ,numbers4 ,methods of ,holding ,jars in ,case4 ,opening ,exide ,batteries4 ,work on ,plates1 ,separators1 ,jars1 and ,case4 ,putting ,plates in ,jars4 ,filling ,jars with ,electrolyte4 ,sealing ,covers4 ,putting ,cells in ,case4 ,burning on the ,cell ,connectors4 ,charging ,after ,repairing4 ,tables of ,exide ,batteries4 ,u4,s4,l4 ,batteries4-- ,old and ,new4 ,u4,s4,l4 ,covers4 ,special ,repair ,instructions4 ,tables of ,u4,s4,l4 ,batteries4 ,prest-,o-,lite ,batteries4-- ,old and ,new ,prest-,o-,lite ,cover ,constructions4 ,the ,peened ,post ,seal4 ,special ,tools for ,work on ,prest-,o-,lite ,batteries4 ,the ,peening ,press4 ,removing ,covers4 ,rebuilding ,posts4 ,locking1 or ,peening the ,posts4 ,precautions in ,post ,locking ,operations4 ,tables of ,prest-#j-,lite ,batteries4 ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid ,batteries4-- ,old and ,new ,types4 ,the ,philadelphia ,rubber-,lockt ,cover ,seal4 ,philadelphia ,rubber ,case ,batteries4 ,the ,philadelphia ,separator4 ,special ,repair ,instructions4 ,eveready ,batteries4-- ,why the ,eveready ,batteries ,are ,called ,non-,sulphating ,batteries4 ,description of ,parts of ,eveready ,battery4 ,special ,repair ,instructions4 ,vesta ,batteries4-- ,old and ,new ,vesta ,isolators4 ,the ,vesta ,type ,d ,battery4 ,the ,vesta ,type ,,dj ,battery4 ,vesta ,separators4 ,the ,vesta ,post ,seal4 ,special ,repair ,instructions for ,old and ,new ,isolators and ,post ,seal4 ,westinghouse ,batteries4-- ,the ,westinghouse ,post ,seal4 ,westinghouse ,plates4 ,types of ,westinghouse ,batteries4 ,type ,a ,batteries4 ,type ,b ,batteries4 ,type ,c ,batteries4 ,type ,e ,batteries4 ,type ,h ,batteries4 ,type ,j ,batteries4 ,type #j ,batteries4 ,type ,f ,batteries4 ,willard ,batteries4-- ,double and ,single ,cover ,batteries4 ,batteries with ,sealing ,compound ,post ,seal4 ,batteries with ,lead ,inserts in ,cover ,post ,holes4 ,batteries with ,rubber ,casket ,post ,seal4 ,special ,repair ,instructions for ,work on the ,different ,types of ,post ,seal ,constructions4 ,willard ,threaded ,rubber ,separators4 ,universal ,batteries4-- ,types4 ,construction ,features4 ,putting ,new ,universal ,batteries ,into ,service4 ,titan ,batteries4-- ,the ,titan ,grid4 ,the ,titan ,post ,seal4 #ag4 ,,farm ,,lighting ,,batteries ,comparison of ,operating ,conditions of ,farm ,lighting ,batteries with ,automobile ,batteries4 ,jars for ,farm ,lighting ,batteries4 ,separators4 ,electrolyte4 ,charging ,equipment4 ,relation of the ,automobile ,battery ,man to the ,farm ,lighting ,plant4 ,rules ,governing the ,selection of a ,farm ,lighting ,plant4 ,location and ,wiring of ,farm ,lighting ,plant4 ,installation4 ,care of ,plant in ,service4 ,care of ,battery4 ,charging ,farm ,lighting ,batteries4 ,rules ,governing ,discharging of ,farm ,lighting ,batteries4 ,troubles ,found in ,farm ,lighting ,batteries4 ,inspection and ,tests on ,farm ,lighting ,batteries4 ,description of ,prest-,o-,lite ,farm ,lighting ,battery4 ,rebuilding ,prest-,o-,lite ,farm ,lighting ,batteries4 ,description of ,exide ,farm ,lighting ,batteries4 ,the ,delco-,light ,battery4 ,rebuilding and ,repairing ,exide ,farm ,lighting ,batteries4 ,westinghouse ,farm ,lighting ,batteries4 ,willard ,farm ,lighting ,batteries4 ,,definitions ,condensed ,dictionary of ,words and ,terms ,used in ,battery ,work4 ,,general ,,index ,a ,,visit ,,to ,,the ,,factory ,photographs showing factory processes4 ,,buyers' ,,index4 7,omitted47 ,for the ,convenience of ,our ,readers ,we ,have ,prepared a ,list of ,companies from ,whom ,battery ,shop ,equipment ,may ,be ,obtained4 ,,advertisements 7,omitted4 ,outdated2 high bandwidth7 ,section ,i --------- ,working ,principles1 ,manufacture1 ,maintenance1 ,diseases1 and ,remedies ,the ,automobile ,storage ,battery ,,chapter #a4 ,,introductory4 ,gasoline and electricity have made possible the modern automobile4 ,each has its work to do in the operation of the car1 and if either fails to perform its duties1 the car cannot move4 ,the action of the gasoline1 and the mechanisms that control it are comparatively simple1 and easily understood1 because gasoline is something definite which we can see and feel1 and which can be weighed1 or measured in gallons4 ,electricity1 on the other hand1 is invisible1 cannot be poured into cans or tanks1 has no odor1 and1 therefore1 nobody knows just what it is4 ,we can only study the effects of electricity1 and the wires1 coils1 and similar apparatus in which it is present4 ,it is for this reason that an air of mystery surrounds electrical things1 especially to the man who has not made a special study of the subject4 ,without electricity1 there would be no gasoline engine1 because gasoline itself cannot cause the engine to operate4 ,it is only when the electrical spark explodes or ignites the mixture of gasoline and air which has been drawn into the engine cylinders that the engine develops power4 ,thus an electrical ignition system has always been an essential part of every gasoline automobile4 ,the first step in the use of electricity on the automobile1 in addition to the ignition system1 consisted in the installation of an electric lighting system to replace the inconvenient oil or gas lamps which were satisfactory as far as the light they gave was concerned1 but which had the disadvantage of requiring the driver to leave his seat1 and light each lamp separately1 often in a strong wind or rain which consumed many matches1 time1 and frequently spoiled his temper for the remainder of the evening4 ,electric lamps have none of these disadvantages4 ,they can be controlled from the driver's seat1 can be turned on or off by merely turning or pushing a switch-button1 are not affected by wind or rain1 do not smoke up the lenses1 and do not send a stream of unpleasant odors back to the passengers4 ,the apparatus used to supply the electricity for the lamps consisted of a generator1 or a storage battery1 or both4 ,the generator alone had the disadvantage that the lamps could be used only while the engine was running4 ,the battery1 on the other hand1 furnished light at all times1 but had to be removed from the car frequently1 and charged4 ,with both the generator and battery1 the lights could be turned on whether the engine was running or not1 and1 furthermore1 it was no longer necessary to remove the battery to charge1 or put new life into it4 ,with a generator and storage battery1 moreover1 a reliable source of electricity for ignition was provided1 and so we find dry batteries and magnetos being discarded in a great many automobiles and battery ignition systems substituted4 ,the development of electric lighting systems increased the popularity of the automobile1 but the motor car still had a great drawback-cranking4 ,owing to the peculiar features of a gasoline engine1 it must first be put in motion by some external power before it will begin to operate under its own power4 ,this made it necessary for the driver to crank the engine1 or start it moving1 by means of a handle attached to the engine shaft4 ,cranking a large engine is difficult1 especially if it is cold1 and often results in tired muscles1 and soiled clothes and tempers4 ,it also made it impossible for the average woman to drive a car because she did not have the strength necessary to crank an engine4 ,the next step in the perfection of the automobile was naturally the development of an automatic device to crank the engine1 and thus make the driving of a car a pleasure rather than a task4 ,we find1 therefore1 that in #aiab1 self-starters began to be used4 ,these were not all electrical1 some used tanks of compressed air1 others acetylene1 and various mechanical devices1 such as the spring starters4 ,the electrical starters1 however1 proved their superiority immediately1 and filled such a long felt want that all the various makes of automobiles now have electric starters4 ,the present day motor car1 therefore1 uses gasoline for the engine only1 but uses electricity for ignition1 starting1 lighting1 for the horn1 cigar lighters1 hand warmers on the steering wheel1 gasoline vaporizers1 and even for shifting speed changing gears1 and for the brakes4 ,on any car that uses an electric lighting and starting system1 there are two sources of electricity1 the generator and the battery1 ,these must furnish the power for the starting1 or cranking motor1 the ignition1 the lights1 the horn1 and the other devices4 ,the demands made upon the generator are comparatively light and simple1 and no severe work is done by it4 ,the battery1 on the other hand is called upon to give a much more severe service1 that of furnishing the power to crank the engine4 ,it must also perform all the duties of the generator when the engine is not running1 since a generator must be in motion in order to produce electricity4 ,a generator is made of iron1 copper1 carbon1 and insulation4 ,these are all solid substances which can easily be built in any size or shape1 and which undergo very little change as parts of the generator4 ,the battery is made mainly of lead1 lead compounds1 water and sulphuric acid4 ,here we have liquids as well as solids1 which produce electricity by changes in their composition1 resulting in complicated chemical as well as electrical actions4 ,fig4 #a ,the ,battery ,the battery is1 because of its construction and performance1 a much abused1 neglected piece of apparatus which is but partly understood1 even by many electrical experts1 for to understand it thoroughly requires a study of chemistry as well as of electricity4 ,knowledge of the construction and action of a storage battery is not enough to make anyone an expert battery man4 ,he must also know how to regulate the operating conditions so as to obtain the best service from the battery1 and he must be able to make complete repairs on any battery no matter what its condition may be4 ,,chapter #b4 ,,batteries ,,in ,,general ,there are two ways of generating electricity on the car3 #a4 ,magnetically1 #b4 ,chemically4 ,the first method is that used in a generator1 in which wires are rotated in a field in which magnetic forces act4 ,the second method is that of the battery1 and the one in which we are now interested4 ,if two unlike metals or conducting substances are placed in a liquid which causes a greater chemical change in one of the substances than in the other1 an electrical pressure1 or electromotive force is caused to exist between the two metals or conducting substances4 ,the greater the difference in the chemical action on the substances1 the greater will be the electrical pressure1 and if the substances are connected together outside of the liquid by a wire or other conductor of electricity1 an electric current will flow through the path or circuit consisting of the liquid1 the two substances which are immersed in the liquid1 and the external wire or conductor4 ,as the current flows through the combination of the liquid1 and the substances immersed in it1 which is called a voltaic cell1 one or both of the substances undergo chemical changes which continue until one of the substances is entirely changed4 ,these chemical changes produce the electrical pressure which causes the current to flow1 and the flow will continue until one or both of the substances are changed entirely4 ,this change due to the chemical action may result in the formation of gases1 or of solid compounds4 ,if gases are formed they escape and are lost4 ,if solids are formed1 no material is actually lost4 ,assuming that one of the conducting substances1 or electrodes1 which are immersed in the liquid has been acted upon by the liquid1 or electrolyte1 until no further chemical action can take place1 our voltaic cell will no longer be capable of causing a flow of electricity4 ,if none of the substances resulting from the original chemical action have been lost as gases1 it may be possible to reverse the entire set of operations which have taken place4 ,that is1 suppose we now send a current through the cell from an outside source of electricity1 in a direction opposite to that in which the current produced by the chemical action between the electrodes and electrolyte flowed4 ,if this current now produces chemical actions between electrodes and electrolyte which are the reverse of those which occurred originally1 so that finally we have the electrodes and electrolyte brought back to their original composition and condition1 we have the cell just as it was before we used it for the production of an electrical pressure4 ,the cell can now again be used as a source of electricity as long as the electrolyte acts upon the electrodes1 or until it is discharged and incapable of any further production of electrical pressure4 ,sending a current through a discharged cell1 so as to reverse the chemical actions which brought about the discharged conditions1 is called charging the cell4 ,fig4 #b ,a complete cell2 ,negative group2 ,positive group ,cells in which an electrical pressure is produced as soon as the electrodes are immersed in the electrolyte are called it primary ,cells4 ,in these cells it is often impossible1 and always unsatisfactory to reverse the chemical action as explained above4 ,cells whose chemical actions are reversible are called storage or secondary cells4 ,in the storage cells used today1 a current must first be sent through the cell in order to cause the chemical changes which result in putting the electrodes and electrolyte1 in such a condition that they will be capable of producing an electrical pressure when the chemical changes caused by the current are complete4 ,the cell now possesses all the characteristics of a primary cell1 and may be used as a source of electricity until discharged4 ,it may then be charged again1 and so on1 the chemical action in one case causing a flow of current1 and a reversed flow of current causing reversed chemical actions4 ,we see from the above that the storage battery does not store electricity at all1 but changes chemical into electrical energy when discharging1 and changes electrical into chemical energy when charging1 the two actions being entirely reversible4 ,the idea of storing electricity comes from the fact that if we send a current of electricity through the cell for a certain length of time1 we can at a later time draw a current from the cell for almost the same length of time4 ,fig4 #c ,complete ,element ,fig4 #c4 ,a complete element1 consisting of a positive and negative group of plates and separators ready for placing in the hard rubber jars4 ,three things are therefore required in a storage cell1 the liquid or electrolyte and two unlike substances or electrodes1 through which a current of electricity can pass and which are acted upon by the electrolyte with a chemical action that is greater for one substance than the other4 ,in the storage cell used on the automobile today for starting and lighting1 the electrodes are lead and peroxide of lead1 and the electrolyte is a mixture of sulphuric acid and water4 ,the peroxide of lead electrode is the one upon which the electrolyte has the greater chemical effect1 and it is called the positive or electrode1 because when the battery is sending a4 current through an external circuit1 the current flows from this electrode through the external circuit1 and back to the lead electrode1 which is called the negative1 or electrode4 ,when starting and lighting systems were adopted in #aiab1 storage batteries had been used for many years in electric power stations4 ,these were1 however1 large and heavy1 and many difficult problems of design had to be solved in order to produce a battery capable of performing the work of cranking the engine1 and yet be portable1 light1 and small enough to occupy only a very limited space on the automobile4 ,as a result of these conditions governing the design1 the starting and lighting battery of today is in reality the giant that lives in a box4 ,the ,electric ,storage ,battery ,company estimates that one of its types of batteries1 which measures only #ab-e_/h inches long1 #g-c_/h wide1 and #i-a_/h high1 and weighs only #fc-a_/b pounds1 can deliver enough energy to raise itself to a height of #f miles straight up in the air4 ,it must be able to do its work quickly at all times1 and in all sorts of weather1 with temperatures ranging from below #j to #ajj ,fahrenheit1 or even higher4 ,the starting and lighting battery has therefore been designed to withstand severe operating conditions4 ,looking at such a battery on a car we see a small wooden box in which are placed three or more cells1 see ,fig4 #a4 ,each cell has a hard1 black rubber top through which two posts of lead project4 ,bars of lead connect the posts of one cell to those of the next4 ,to one of the posts of each end cell is connected a cable which leads into the car1 and through which the current leaves or enters the battery4 ,at the center of each cell is a removable rubber plug covering an opening through which communication is established with the inside of the cell for the purpose of pouring in water1 removing some of the electrolyte to determine the condition of the battery1 or to allow gases formed within the cell to escape4 ,looking down through this opening we can see the things needed to form a storage battery3 the electrolyte1 and the electrodes or plates as they are called4 ,if we should remove the lead bars connecting one cell to another1 and take off the black cover1 we should find that the posts which project out of the cells are attached to the plates which are broad and flat1 and separated by thin pieces of wood or rubber41 ,if we lift out the plates we find that they are connected alternately to the two lead posts1 and that the two outside ones have a gray color4 ,if we pull the plates out from each ,other1 we find that the plates next to the two outside ones1 and all other plates connected to the same lead post as these have a chocolate-brown color4 ,if we remove the jar of the cell1 we find that it is made of hard rubber4 ,pouring out the electrolyte we find several ridges which hold the plates off the bottom of the jar4 ,the pockets formed by these ridges may contain some soft1 muddy substance4 ,thus we have exposed all the elements of a cell1 posts1 plates1 separators1 and electrolyte4 ,the gray colored plates are attached to the negative battery post1 while the chocolate-brown colored ones are connected to the positive battery post4 ,examination will show that each of the plates consists of a skeleton metallic framework which is filled with the brown or gray substances4 ,this construction is used to decrease the weight of the battery4 ,the gray filler material is pure lead in a condition called spongy lead4 ,the chocolate-brown filler substance is peroxide of lead4 ,we have found nothing but two sets of plates--one of pure lead1 the other of peroxide of lead1 and the electrolyte of sulphuric acid and water4 ,these produce the heavy current necessary to crank the engine4 ,how this is done1 and what the chemical actions within the cell are1 are described in ,chapter #d4 ,,chapter #c4 ,,manufacture ,,of ,,storage ,,batteries4 --------------------------------- ,to supply the great number of batteries needed for gasoline automobiles1 large companies have been formed4 ,each company has its special and secret processes which it will not reveal to the public4 ,only a few companies1 however1 supply batteries in any considerable quantities1 the great majority of cars being supplied with batteries made by not more than five or six manufacturers4 ,this greatly reduces the number of possible different designs in general use today4 ,the design and dimensions of batteries vary considerably1 but the general constructions are similar4 ,the special processes of the manufacturers are of no special interest to the repairman1 and only a general description will be given here4 ,a starting and lighting battery consists of the following principal parts3 #a4 ,plates #b4 ,separators #c4 ,electrolyte #d4 ,jars #e4 ,covers #f4 ,cell ,connectors and ,terminals #g4 ,case ,plates ,of the two general types of battery plates1 ,faure and ,plante1 the ,faure1 or pasted type1 is universally used on automobiles4 ,in the manufacture of pasted plates there are several steps which we shall describe in the order in which they are carried out4 ,casting the ,grid4 ,the grid is the skeleton of the plate4 ,it performs the double function of supporting the mechanically weak active material and of conducting the current4 ,it is made of a lead antimony alloy which is melted and poured into a mould4 ,pure lead is too soft and too easily attacked by the electrolyte1 and antimony is added to give stiffness1 and resistance to the action of the electrolyte in the cell4 ,the amount of antimony used varies in different makes but probably averages #h to #aj4 ,the casting process requires considerable skill1 the proper composition of the metal and the temperature of both metal and moulds being of great importance in securing perfect grids1 which are free from blowholes1 and which have a uniform structure and composition4 ,some manufacturers cast two grids simultaneously in each mould1 the two plates being joined to each other along the bottom edge4 ,trimming the ,grids4 ,when the castings have cooled1 they are removed from the moulds and passed to a press or trimming machine which trims off the casting gate and the rough edges4 ,the grids are given a rigid inspection1 those having shrunken or missing ribs or other defects being rejected4 ,the grids are now ready for pasting4 ,fig #d4 ,grid1 ,trimmed1 and ,ready for ,pasting ,fig4 #d shows a grid ready for pasting4 ,the heavy lug at one upper corner is the conducting lug1 for carrying the current to the strap1 ,fig4 #e1 into which the lugs are burned when the battery is assembled4 ,the straps are provided with posts1 to which the intercell connectors and terminal connectors are attached4 ,the vertical ribs of the grids extend through the plate1 providing mechanical strength and conductivity1 while the small horizontal ribs are at the surface and in staggered relation on opposite faces4 ,both the outside frames and the vertical ribs are reinforced near the lug1 where the greatest amount of current must be carried4 ,the rectangular arrangement of ribs1 as shown in ,fig4 #d1 is most generally used1 although1 there are other arrangements such as the ,philadelphia ,diamond grid in which the ribs form acute angles1 giving diamond shaped openings1 as shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,pastes4 ,there are many formulas for the pastes1 which are later converted into active material1 and each is considered a trade secret by the manufacturer using it4 ,the basis of all1 however1 is oxide of lead1 either ,red ,lead 7,pb#cj #d71 ,litharge 7,pb,o71 or a mixture of the two1 made into a paste with a liquid1 such as dilute sulphuric acid4 ,the object of mixing the oxides with the liquid is to form a paste of the proper consistency for application to the grids1 and at the same time introduce the proper amount of binding1 or setting agent which will give porosity1 and which will bind together the active material1 especially in the positive plate4 ,red lead usually predominates in the positive paste1 and litharge in the negative1 as this combination requires the least energy in forming the oxides to active material4 ,fig4 #e ,plate ,straps and ,posts ,the oxides of lead used in preparing the pastes which are applied to the grids are powders1 and in their dry condition could not be applied to the grids1 as they would fall out4 ,mixing them with a liquid to make a paste gives them greater coherence and enables them to be applied to the grids4 ,sulphuric acid puts the oxides in the desired pasty condition1 but has the disadvantage of causing a chemical action to take place which changes a considerable portion of the oxides to lead sulphate1 the presence of which makes the paste stiff and impossible to apply to the grids4 ,when acid is used1 it is therefore necessary to work fast after the oxides are mixed with sulphuric acid to form the paste4 ,in addition to the lead oxides1 the pastes may contain some binding material such as ammonium or magnesium sulphate1 which tends to bind the particles of the active material together4 ,the paste used for the negatives may contain lamp black to give porosity4 ,applying the ,paste4 ,after the oxides are mixed to a paste they are applied to the grids4 ,this is done either by hand1 or by machine ,in the hand pasting process1 the pastes are applied from each face of the grid by means of a wooden paddle or trowel1 and are smoothed off flush with the surface of the ribs of the grid4 ,this work is done quickly in order that the pastes may not stiffen before they are applied4 ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 plates are pasted in a machine which applies the paste to the grid1 subjecting it at the same time to a pressure which forces it thoroughly into the grid1 and packs it in a dense mass4 ,drying the ,paste4 ,the freshly pasted plates are now allowed to dry in the air1 or are dried by blowing air over them4 ,in any case1 the pastes set to a hard mass1 in which condition the pastes adhere firmly to the grids4 ,the plates may then be handled without a loss of paste from the grids4 ,fig4 #f ,philadelphia diamond grid ,forming4 ,the next step is to change the paste of oxides into the active materials which make a cell operative4 ,this is called forming and is really nothing but a prolonged charge1 requiring several days4 ,in some factories the plates are mounted in tanks1 positive and negative plates alternating as in a cell4 ,the positives are all connected together in one group and the negatives in another1 and current passed through just as in charging a battery4 ,in other factories the positives and negatives are formed in separate tanks against dummy electrodes4 ,the passing of the current slowly changes the mixtures of lead oxide and lead sulphate1 forming brown peroxide of lead 7,pb,o#b71 on the positive plate and gray spongy metallic lead on the negative4 ,the formation by the current of lead peroxide and spongy lead on the positive and negative plates respectively would take place if the composition of the two pastes were identical4 ,the difference in the composition of the paste for positive and negative plates is for the purpose of securing the properties of porosity and physical condition best suited to each4 ,fig4 #g ,formed plate1 ready to be burned to plate connecting strap ,when the forming process is complete1 the plates are washed and dried1 and are then ready for use in the battery4 ,if the grids of two plates have been cast together1 as is done by some manufacturers1 these are now cut apart1 and the lugs cut to the proper height4 ,the next step is to roll1 or press the negatives after they are removed from the forming bath so as to bring the negative paste1 which has become roughened by gassing that occurred during the forming process1 flush with the surface of the ribs of the grid4 ,a sufficient amount of sulphate is left in the plates to bind together the active material4 ,without this sulphate the positive paste would simply be a powder and when dry would fall out of the grids like dry dust4 ,fig4 #g shows a formed plate ready to be burned to the strap4 ,separators ,in batteries used both for starting and for lighting1 separators made of specially treated wood are largely used4 ,see ,fig4 #h4 ,the ,willard ,company has adopted an insulator made of a rubber fabric pierced by thousands of cotton threads1 each thread being as long as the separator is thick4 ,the electrolyte is carried through these threads from one side of the separator to the other by capillary action1 the great number of these threads insuring the rapid diffusion of electrolyte which is necessary in batteries which are subjected to the heavy discharge current required in starting4 ,in batteries used for lighting or ignition1 sheets of rubber in which numerous holes have been drilled are also used1 these holes permitting diffusion to take place rapidly enough to perform the required service satisfactorily1 since the currents involved are much smaller than in starting motor service4 ,fig4 #h ,fig #h4 ,a ,pile of ,prepared ,wooden ,seperators ,ready to be ,put ,between the ,positive and ,negative ,plates to ,form the ,complete ,element4 ,for the wooden separators1 porous wood1 such as ,port ,orford cedar1 basswood1 cypress1 or cedar is used4 ,other woods such as redwood and cherry are also used4 ,the question is often asked which wood makes the best separators8 ,this is difficult to answer because the method of treating the wood is just as important as is the kind of wood4 ,the wood for the separators is cut into strips of the correct thickness4 ,these strips are passed through a grooving machine which cuts the grooves in one side1 leaving the other side smooth4 ,the strips are next sawed to the correct size1 and are then boiled in a warm alkaline solution for about #bd hours to neutralize any organic acid1 such as acetic acid1 which the wood naturally contains4 ,such acids would cause unsatisfactory battery action and damage to the battery4 ,the ,vesta separator1 or impregnated mat1 is treated in a bath of ,barium salts which form compounds with the wood and which are said to make the separators strong and acid-resisting4 ,fig4 #i ,philco slotted retainer ,some batteries use a double separator1 one of which is the wooden separator1 while the other consists of a thin sheet of hard rubber containing many fine perforations4 ,this rubber sheet is placed between the positive plate and the wooden separator4 ,a recent development in the use of an auxiliary rubber separator is the ,philco slotted retainer which is placed between the separators and the positives in ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid ,batteries4 ,some ,exide batteries also use slotted rubber separators4 ,the ,philco slotted retainer consists of a thin sheet of slotted hard rubber as shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,the purpose of the retainer is to hold the positive active material in place and prevent the shedding which usually occurs4 ,the slots in the retainer are so numerous that they allow the free passage of electrolyte1 but each slot is made very narrow so as to hold the active material in the plates4 ,electrolyte ,little need be said here about the electrolyte1 since a full description is given elsewhere4 ,see page #bbb4 ,acid is received by the battery manufacturer in concentrated form4 ,its specific gravity is then #a4hce4 ,the acid commonly used is made by the contact process1 in which sulphur dioxide is oxidized to sulphur trioxide1 and then1 with the addition of water1 changed to sulphuric acid4 ,the concentrated acid is diluted with distilled water to the proper specific gravity4 ,jars ,the jars which contain the plates1 separators1 and electrolyte are made of a tough1 hard rubber compound4 ,they are made either by the moulding process1 or by wrapping sheets of rubber compound around metal mandrels4 ,in either case the jar is subsequently vulcanized by careful heating at the correct temperature4 ,the battery manufacturers do not1 as a rule1 make their own jars1 but have them made by the rubber companies who give the jars a high voltage test to detect any flaws1 holes1 or cracks which would subsequently cause a leak4 ,the jars as received at the battery maker's factory are ready for use4 ,across the bottom of the jar are several stiff ribs which extend up into the jar so as to provide a substantial support for the plates1 and at the same time form several pockets below the plates in which the sediment resulting from shedding of active material from the plates accumulates4 ,covers ,no part of a battery is of greater importance than the hard rubber cell covers1 from the viewpoint of the repairman as well as the manufacturer4 ,the repairman is concerned chiefly with the methods of sealing the battery1 and no part of his work requires greater skill than the work on the covers4 ,the manufacturers have developed special constructions1 their aims being to design the cover so as to facilitate the escape of gas which accumulates in the upper part of a cell during charge1 to provide space for expansion of the electrolyte as it becomes heated1 to simplify inspection and filling with pure water1 to make leak proof joints between the cover and the jar and between the cover and the lead posts which project through it1 and to simplify the work of making repairs4 ,single and ,double ,covers4 ,modern types of batteries have a single piece cover1 the edges of which are made so as to form a slot or channel with the inside of the jar1 into which is poured sealing compound to form a leak proof joint4 ,this construction is illustrated4 in ,exide1 ,fig4 #a4e2 ,vesta1 ,fig4 #bfd2 ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid1 ,fig4 #bef2 ,u4 ,s4 ,l41 ,figs4 #aa and #bdd2 and ,prest-#j-,lite1 ,fig4 #bdg1 batteries4 ,exide batteries are also made with a double flange cover1 in which the top of the jar fits between the two flanges4 ,in single covers1 a comparatively small amount of sealing compound is used1 and repair work is greatly simplified4 ,in the ,eveready battery1 ,fig4 #bfb1 compound is poured over the entire cover instead of around the edges4 ,this method requires a considerable amount of sealing compound4 ,the use of double covers is not as common as it was some years ago4 ,this construction makes use of two flat pieces of hard rubber4 ,in such batteries a considerable amount of sealing compound is used4 ,this compound is poured on top of the lower cover to seal the battery1 the top cover serving to cover up the compound and brace the posts4 ,fig4 #aj illustrates this construction4 ,fig4 #aj ,cross-section of ,gould double cover battery ,sealing ,around the ,posts4 ,much variety is shown in the methods used to secure a leak proof joint between the posts and the cover4 ,several methods are used4 ,one of these uses the sealing compound to make a tight joint4 ,another has lead bushings which are screwed up into the cover or moulded in the cover1 the bushings being burned together with the post and cell connector4 ,another method has a threaded post1 and uses a lead alloy nut with a rubber washer to make a tight joint4 ,still another method forces a lead collar down over the post1 and presses the cover down on a soft rubber gasket4 ,using ,sealing ,compound4 ,some of the batteries which use sealing compound to make a tight joint between the cover and the post have a hard rubber bushing shrunk over the post4 ,this construction is used in ,gould batteries1 as shown in ,fig4 #aj1 and in the old ,willard double cover batteries4 ,the rubber bushing is grooved horizontally to increase the length of the sealing surface4 ,fig4 #aa ,u4,s4,l4 cover ,other batteries that use sealing compound around the posts have grooves or petticoats cut directly in the post and have a well around the post into which the sealing compound is poured4 ,this is the construction used in the old ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid battery1 as shown in ,fig4 #bed4 ,using ,lead ,bushings4 ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 batteries have a flanged lead bushing which is moulded directly into the cover1 as shown in ,fig4 #aa4 ,in assembling the battery1 the cover is placed over the post1 and the cell connector is burned to both post and bushing4 ,fig4 #ab ,lead bushing screwed into cover ,in older type ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 batteries a bushing was screwed up through the cover1 and then burned to the post and cell connector4 ,an old type ,prest-,o-,lite battery used a lead bushing which screwed up through the cover similarly to the ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 batteries4 ,fig4 #ab illustrates this construction4 ,the ,,sjwn and ,,sjrn ,willard ,batteries used a lead insert4 ,see page #dbd4 ,the modern ,vesta batteries use a soft rubber gasket under the cover1 and force a lead collar over the post1 which pushes the cover down on the gasket4 ,the lead collar and post freeze together and make an acid proof joint4 ,see page #dac4 ,the ,westinghouse battery uses a three part seal consisting of a lead washer which is placed around the post1 a ,u shaped1 soft gum washer which is placed between the post and cover1 and a tapered lead sleeve1 which presses the washer against the post and the cover4 ,see page #dag4 ,fig4 #ac ,cross section of old type ,willard battery ,the ,prest-,o-,lite ,peened ,post ,seal4 ,all ,prest-,o-,lite batteries designated as types ,,whn1 ,,rhn1 ,,bhn and ,,jfn1 have a single moulded cover which is locked directly on to the posts4 ,this is done by forcing a solid ring of lead from a portion of the post down into a chamfer in the top of the cover4 ,this construction is illustrated in ,fig4 #bdg4 ,batteries ,using ,sealing ,nuts4 ,the ,exide batteries have threaded posts4 ,a rubber gasket is placed under the cover on a shoulder on the post4 ,the nut is then turned down on the post to force the cover on the gasket4 ,this construction is illustrated in ,fig4 #bci4 ,the ,titan battery uses a somewhat similar seal1 as shown in ,fig4 #bic4 ,some of the older ,willard batteries have a chamfer or groove in the under1 side of the cover4 ,the posts have a ring of lead in the base which fits up into the groove in the cover to make a tight joint4 ,this is illustrated in ,fig4 #ac4 ,the later ,willard constructions1 using a rubber gasket seal and a lead cover insert1 are illustrated in ,figs4 #bgh and #bhg4 ,filling ,tube or ,vent ,tube ,construction4 ,quite a number of designs have been developed in the construction of the filling or vent tube4 ,in double covers1 the tube is sometimes a separate part which is screwed into the lower cover4 ,in other batteries using double covers1 the tube is an integral part of the cover1 as shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,in all single covers1 the tube is moulded integral with the cover4 ,fig4 #ad;a ,vent hold in ,u4,s4,l4 battery ,several devices have been developed to make it impossible to overfill batteries4 ,this has been done by the ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 and ,exide companies on older types of batteries1 their constructions being described as follows3 ,in old ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 batteries1 a small auxiliary vent tube is drilled1 as shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,when filling to replace evaporation1 this vent tube prevents overfilling4 ,fig4 #ad;b ,filling ,u4,s4,l4 battery ,a finger is placed over the auxiliary vent tube shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,the water is then poured in through the filling or vent tube4 ,when the water reaches the bottom of the tube1 the air imprisoned in the expansion chamber can no longer escape4 ,consequently the water can rise no higher in this chamber1 but simply fills up the tube4 ,water is added till it reaches the top of the tube4 ,the finger is then removed from the vent tube4 ,this allows the air to escape from the expansion chamber4 ,the water will therefore fall in the filling or vent tube1 and rise slightly in the expansion chamber4 ,the construction makes it impossible to overfill the battery1 provided that the finger is held on the vent hole as directed4 ,fig4 #ad;c ,filling ,u4,s4,l4 battery 7old types7 ,figure #ae shows the ,non-,flooding ,vent and ,filling ,plug used in the older type ,exide battery1 and in the present type ,,lxrv4 ,the new ,exide cover1 which does not use the non-flooding feature1 is also shown4 ,the old construction is described as follows3 ,fig4 #ae;a ,sectional view of cover in older type ,exide battery4 ,top view of cover and filling plug1 plug removed ,fig4 #ae;b ,old and new ,exide covers ,from the illustrations of the vent and filling plug1 it will be seen that they provide both a vented stopper 7vents ,f1 ,g1 ,h71 and an automatic device for the preventing of overfilling and flooding4 ,the amount of water that can be put into the cell is limited to the exact amount needed to replace that lost by evaporation4 ,this is accomplished by means of the hard rubber valve 7,a7 within the cell cover and with which the top of the vent plug 7,e7 engages1 as shown in the illustrations4 ,the action of removing the plug 7,e7 turns this valve 7,a71 closing the air passage 7,,bb71 and forming an air tight chamber 7,c7 in the top of the cell4 ,when water is poured in1 it cannot rise in this air space 7,c7 so as to completely fill the cell4 ,as soon as the proper level is reached1 the water rises in the filling tube 7,d7 and gives a positive indication that sufficient water has been added4 ,should1 however1 the filling be continued1 the excess will be pure water only1 not acid4 ,on replacing the plug 7,e71 valve 7,a7 is automatically turned1 opening the air passages 7,,bb71 leaving the air chamber 7,c7 available for the expansion of the solution1 which occurs when the battery is working4 ,generally the filling or vent tube is so made that its lower end indicates the correct level of electrolyte above the plates1 ,in adding water1 the level of the electrolyte is brought up to the bottom of the filling tube4 ,by looking down into the tube1 it can be seen when the electrolyte reaches the bottom of the tube4 ,vent ,plugs1 or ,caps4 ,vent plugs1 or caps1 close up the filling or vent tubes in the covers4 ,they are made of hard rubber1 and either screw into or over the tubes1 or are tightened by a full or partial turn1 as is done in ,exide batteries4 ,in the caps are small holes which are so arranged that gases generated within the battery may escape1 but acid spray cannot pass through these holes4 ,it is of the utmost importance that the holes in the vent caps be kept open to allow the gases to escape4 ,case ,the wooden case in which the cells are placed is usually made of kiln dried white oak or hard maple4 ,the wood is inspected carefully1 and all pieces are rejected that are weather-checked1 or contain worm-holes or knots4 ,the wood is sawed into various thicknesses1 and then cut to the proper lengths and widths4 ,the wood is passed through other machines that cut in the dovetails1 put the tongue on the bottom for the joints1 stamp on the part number1 drill the holes for the screws or bolts holding the handles1 cut the grooves for the sealing compound1 etc4 ,the several pieces are then assembled and glued together4 ,the finishing touches are then put on1 these consisting of cutting the cases to the proper heights1 sandpapering the boxes1 etc4 ,the cases are then inspected and are ready to be painted4 ,a more recent development in case construction is a one-piece hard rubber case1 in which the jars and case are made in one piece1 the cell compartments being formed by rubber partitions which form an integral part of the case4 ,this construction is used in several makes of ,radio ,a batteries1 and to some extent in starting batteries4 ,fig4 #af ,exide battery case ,asphaltum paint is generally used for wooden cases1 the bottoms and tops being given three1 coats1 and the sides1 two4 ,the number of coats of paint varies1 of course1 in the different factories4 ,the handles are then put on by machinery1 and the case1 ,fig4 #af1 is complete1 and ready for assembling4 ,assembling and ,sealing ,the first step in assembling a battery is to burn the positive and negative plates to their respective straps1 ,fig4 #e1 forming the positive and negative groups1 ,fig4 #b4 ,this is done by arranging a set of plates and a strap in a suitable rack which holds them securely in proper position1 and then melting together the top of the plate lugs and the portion of the strap into which they fit with a hot flame4 ,a positive and a negative group are now slipped together and the separators inserted4 ,the grooved side of the wood separator is placed toward the positive plate and when perforated rubber sheets are used these go between the positive and the wood separator4 ,the positive and negative groups assembled with the separators constitute the element1 ,fig4 #c4 ,before the elements are placed in the jars they are carefully inspected to make sure that no separator has been left out4 ,for this purpose the ,exide elements are subjected to an electrical test which rings a bell if a separator is missing1 this having been found more infallible than trusting to a man's eyes4 ,in some batteries1 such as the ,exide1 ,vesta1 and ,prest-,o-,lite batteries1 the cover is placed on the element and made fast before the elements are placed in the jars4 ,in other batteries1 such as the ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 and ,philadelphia batteries1 the covers are put on after the elements are placed in the jars4 ,after the element is in the jar and the cover in position1 sealing compound is applied hot so as to make a leak proof joint between jar and cover4 ,fig4 #ag ,inter-cell connector ,the completed cells are now assembled in the case and the cell connectors1 ,fig4 #ag1 burned to the strap posts4 ,after filling with electrolyte the battery is ready to receive its initial charge1 which may require from one day to a week4 ,a low charging rate is used1 since the plates are generally in a sulphated condition when assembled4 ,the specific gravity is brought up to about #a4bhj during this charge4 ,some makers now give the battery a short high rate discharge test 7see page #bff71 to disclose any defects1 and just before sending them out give a final charge4 ,the batteries are often cycled after being assembled1 this consisting in discharging and recharging the batteries several times to put the active material in the best working condition4 ,if the batteries are to be shipped wet1 they are ready for shipping after the final charge and inspection4 ,batteries which are shipped dry need to have more work done upon them4 ,preparing ,batteries for ,dry ,shipment ,there are three general methods of dry shipment4 ,the first method consists of sending cases1 plates1 covers1 separators1 etc41 separately1 and assembling them in the service stations4 ,sometimes these parts are all placed together1 as in a finished battery1 but without the separators1 the covers not being sealed1 or the connectors and terminals welded to the posts4 ,this is a sort of knock-down condition4 ,the plates used are first fully charged and dried4 ,the second method consists of assembling a battery complete with plates1 separators1 and electrolyte1 charging the battery1 pouring out the electrolyte1 rinsing with distilled water1 pouring out the water and screwing the vent plugs down tight4 ,the vent holes in these plugs are sealed to exclude air4 ,the moisture left in the battery when the rinsing water was poured out cannot evaporate1 and the separators are thus kept in a moistened condition4 ,the third method is the ,willard ,bone ,dry method1 and consists of assembling the battery complete with dry threaded rubber separators and dry plates1 but without electrolyte4 ,the holes in the vent plugs are not sealed1 since there is no moisture in the battery4 ,batteries using wooden separators cannot be shipped bone-dry1 since wooden separators must be kept moist4 ,terminal ,connections ,when the battery is on the car it is necessary to have some form of detachable connection to the car circuit and this is accomplished by means of terminal connectors1 ,fig4 #ah1 of which there are many types4 ,fig4 #ah ,battery terminal ,many types of terminals are in two parts1 one being permanently attached to the car circuit and the other mounted permanently on the battery by welding it to the terminal post1 the two parts being detachably joined by means of a bolted connection4 ,in another type of terminal1 the cable is soldered directly to the terminal which is lead burned to the cell post4 ,in this construction there is very much less chance of corrosion taking place1 and it is therefore a good design4 ,,homemade ,,batteries ,the wisest thing for the battery shop owner to do is to get a contract as official service station for one of the well known makes of batteries4 ,the manufacturers of this battery will stand behind the service station1 giving it the benefits of its engineering1 production1 and advertising departments1 and boost the service station's business1 helping to make it a success4 ,within the past year or so1 however1 some battery repairmen have conceived the idea that they do not need the backing of a well organized factory1 and have decided to build up their own batteries4 ,some of them merely assemble batteries from parts bought from one or more manufacturers4 ,if all the parts are made by the same company1 they will fit together1 and may make a serviceable battery4 ,often1 however1 parts made by several manufacturers are assembled in the same battery4 ,here is where trouble is apt to develop1 because it is more than likely that jars may not fit well in the case2 plates may not completely fill the jars1 allowing too much acid space1 with the results that specific gravity readings will not be reliable1 and the plates may be overworked2 plate posts may not fit the cover holes1 and so on4 ,if such a fabricated battery goes dead because of defective material1 there is no factory back of the repairman to stand the loss4 ,if the repairman wishes to assemble batteries1 he should be very careful to buy the parts from a reliable manufacturer1 and he should be especially careful in buying separators1 as improperly treated separators often develop acetic acid1 which dissolves the lead of the plates very quickly and ruins the battery4 ,batteries made in this way are good for rental batteries1 or loaners4 ,these batteries are assembled and charged just as are batteries which have been in dry storage1 see page #bda4 ,if the repairman who fabricates batteries takes chances1 the man who attempts to actually make his own battery plates is certainly risking his business and reputation4 ,there are several companies which sell moulds for making plate grids4 ,one even sells cans of lead oxides to enable the repairman to make his own plate paste4 ,even more foolhardy than the man who wishes to mould plate grids is the man who wishes to mix the lead oxides himself4 ,many letters asking for paste formulas have been received by the author4 ,such formulas can never be given1 for the author does not have them4 ,paste making is a far more difficult process than many men realize4 ,the lead oxides which are used must be tested and analyzed carefully in a chemical laboratory and the paste formulas varied according to the results of these tests4 ,the oxides must be carefully weighed1 carefully handled1 and carefully analyzed4 ,the battery service station does not have the equipment necessary to do these things1 and no repairman should ever attempt to make plate paste1 as trouble is bound to follow such attempts4 ,a car owner may buy a worthless battery once1 but the next time he will go to some other service station and buy a good battery4 ,no doubt many repairmen are as skillful and competent as the workers in battery factories1 but the equipment required to make grids and paste is much too elaborate and expensive for the service station1 and without such equipment it is impossible to make a good battery4 ,the only battery parts which may safely be made in the service station are plate straps and posts1 intercell connectors1 and cell terminals4 ,moulds for making such parts are on the market1 and it is really worth while to invest in a set4 ,the posts made in such moulds are of the plain tapered type1 and posts which have special sealing and locking devices1 such as the ,exide1 ,philadelphia1 and ,titan cannot be made in them4 ,,chapter #d4 ,,chemical ,,changes4 ----------------- ,before explaining what happens within one storage cell1 let us look into the early history of the storage battery1 and see what a modest beginning the modern heavy duty battery had4 ,between #ahej and #ahfj a man named ,plante began his work on the storage battery4 ,his original cell consisted of two plates of metallic lead immersed in dilute sulphuric acid4 ,the acid formed a thin layer of lead sulphate on each plate which soon stopped further action on the lead4 ,if a current was passed through the cell1 the lead sulphate on the anode or lead plate at which the current entered the cell was changed into peroxide of lead1 while the sulphate on the other lead plate or cathode was changed into pure lead in a spongy form4 ,this cell was allowed to stand for several days and was then discharged1 lead sulphate being again formed on each plate4 ,each time this cell was charged1 more spongy lead and peroxide of lead were formed4 ,these are called the active materials1 because it is by the chemical action between them and the sulphuric acid that the electricity is produced4 ,evidently1 the more active materials the plates contained1 the longer the chemical action between the acid and active materials could take place1 and hence the greater the capacity1 or amount of electricity furnished by the cell4 ,the process of charging and discharging the battery so as to increase the amount of active material1 is called forming the plates4 ,fig4 #ai ,illustration of chemical action in a storage cell during charge ,plante's method of forming plates was very slow1 tedious1 and expensive4 ,if the spongy lead1 and peroxide of lead could be made quickly from materials which could be spread over the plates1 much time and expense could be saved4 ,it was ,faure who first suggested such a plan1 and gave us the pasted plate of today1 which consists of a skeleton framework of lead1 with the sponge lead and peroxide of lead filling the spaces between the ribs of the framework4 ,such plates are known as pasted plates1 and are much lighter and more satisfactory1 for automobile work than the heavy solid lead plates of ,plante's4 ,chapter #c describes more fully the processes of manufacturing and pasting the plates4 ,we know now what constitutes a storage battery1 and what the parts are that generate the electricity4 ,how is the electricity produced8 ,theoretically1 if we take a battery which has been entirely discharged1 so that it is no longer able to cause a flow of current1 and examine and test the electrolyte and the materials on the plates1 we shall find that the electrolyte is pure water1 and both sets of plates composed of white lead sulphate4 ,on the other hand1 if we make a similar test and examination of the plates and electrolyte of a battery through which a current has been sent from some outside source1 such as a generator1 until the current can no longer cause chemical reactions between the plates and electrolyte1 we will find that the electrolyte is now composed of water and ,sulphuric acid1 the acid comprising about #cj1 and the water #gj of the electrolyte4 ,the negative set of plates will be composed of pure lead in a spongy form1 while the positive will consist of peroxide of lead4 ,the foregoing description gives the final products of the chemical changes that take place in the storage battery4 ,to understand the changes themselves requires a more detailed investigation4 ,the substances to be considered in the chemical actions are sulphuric acid1 water1 pure lead1 lead sulphate1 and lead peroxide4 ,with the exception of pure lead1 each of these substances is a chemical compound1 or composed of several elements4 ,thus sulphuric acid is made up of two parts of hydrogen1 which is a gas2 one part of sulphur1 a solid1 and four parts of oxygen1 which is also a gas2 these combine to form the acid1 which is liquid1 and which is for convenience written as ,h#b,,so #d1 ,h#b representing two parts of hydrogen1 ,s one part of sulphur1 and #jd1 four parts oxygen4 ,similarly1 water a liquid1 is made up of two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen1 represented by the symbol ,h#b,o4 ,lead is not a compound1 but an element whose chemical symbol is ,pb1 taken from the ,latin name for lead4 ,lead sulphate is a solid1 and consists of one part of lead1 a solid substance1 one part of sulphur1 another solid substance1 and four parts of oxygen1 a gas4 ,it is represented chemically by ,pb ,,so#d4 ,lead peroxide is also a solid1 and is made up of one part of lead1 and two parts of oxygen4 ,in the chemical changes that take place1 the compounds just described are to a certain extent split up into the substances of which they are composed4 ,we thus have lead 7,pb71 hydrogen 7,h71 oxygen 7#j71 and sulphur 7,s71 four elementary substances1 two of which are solids1 and two gases4 ,the sulphur does not separate itself entirely from the substances with which it forms the compounds ,h#b,,so#d and ,pb ,,so#d4 ,these compounds are split into ,h#b and ,,so#d and ,pb and ,,so#d respectively4 ,that is1 the sulphur always remains combined with four parts of oxygen4 ,let us now consider a single storage cell made up of electrolyte1 one positive plate1 and one negative plate4 ,when this cell is fully charged1 or in a condition to produce a current of electricity1 the positive plate is made up of peroxide of lead 7,pb,o#b71 the negative plate of pure lead 7,pb71 and the electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid 7,h #b,,so#d74 ,this is shown diagrammatically in ,fig4 #ai4 ,the chemical changes that take place when the cell is discharging and the final result of the changes are as follows3 7a74 ,at the ,positive ,plate3 ,lead peroxide and sulphuric acid produce lead sulphate1 water1 and oxygen1 or3 ,image ,formula 7a74 ,pb,o#b ,h#b,,so#d ,pb,s,o#d ,h#bj #j 7b74 ,at the ,negative ,plate3 ,lead and sulphuric acid produce lead sulphate and ,hydrogen1 or3 ,image ,formula 7b74 ,pb ,h#b,,so#d ,pb,s,o#d ,h#b ,fig4 #bj ,chemical ,reaction in a ,storage ,cell during ,discharge ,the oxygen of equation 7a7 and the hydrogen of equation 7b7 combine to form water1 as may be shown by adding these two equations1 giving one equation for the entire discharge action3 ,image ,formula 7c74 ,pb,o#b ,pb #b;,h#b,,so#d #b,pb,s,o#d #b;,h#b,o ,in this equation we start with the active materials and electrolyte in their original condition1 and finish with the lead sulphate and water1 which are the final products of a discharge4 ,examining this equation1 we see that the sulphuric acid of the electrolyte is used up in forming lead sulphate on both positive and negative plates1 and is therefore removed from the electrolyte4 ,this gives us the easily remembered rule for remembering discharge actions1 which1 though open to question from a strictly scientific viewpoint1 is nevertheless convenient3 ,during discharge the acid goes into the plates4 ,the chemical changes described in 7a71 7b71 and 7c7 are not instantaneous4 ,that is1 the lead1 lead peroxide1 and sulphuric acid of the fully charged cell are not changed into lead sulphate and water as soon as a current begins to pass through the cell4 ,this action is a gradual one1 small portions of these substances being changed at a time4 ,the greater the current that flows through the cell1 the faster will the changes occur4 ,theoretically1 the changes will continue to take place as long as any lead1 lead peroxide1 and sulphuric acid remain4 ,the faster these are changed into lead sulphate and water1 the shorter will be the time that the storage cell can furnish a current1 or the sooner it will be discharged4 ,taking the cell in its discharged condition1 let us now connect the cell to a generator and send current through the cell from the positive to the negative plates4 ,this is called charging the cell4 ,the lead sulphate and water will now gradually be changed back into lead1 lead peroxide1 and sulphuric acid4 ,the lead sulphate which is on the negative plate is changed to pure lead2 the lead sulphate on the positive plate is changed to lead peroxide1 and sulphuric acid will be added to the water4 ,the changes at the positive plate may be represented as follows3 ,lead sulphate and water produce sulphuric acid1 hydrogen and lead peroxide1 or3 ,image ,formula 7d74 ,pb,s,o#d #b;,h#b,o ,pb,o#b ,h#b,,so#d ,h#b ,the changes at the negative plate may be expressed as follows3 ,lead sulphate and water produced sulphuric acid1 oxygen1 and lead1 or3 ,image ,formula 7e74 ,pb,s,o#d ,h#bo ,pb ,h#b,,so#d ,o ,the hydrogen 7,h#b7 produced at the positive plate1 and the oxygen 7#j7 produced at the negative plate unite to form water1 as may be shown by the equation3 ,image ,formula 7f74 #b,pb,s,o#d #b;,h#b,o ,pb,o#b ,pb #b;,h#b,,so#d ,equation 7f7 starts with lead sulphate and water1 which1 as shown in equation 7c71 are produced when a battery is discharged4 ,it will be observed that we start with lead sulphate and water4 ,discharged plates may therefore be charged in water4 ,in fact1 badly discharged negatives may be charged better in water than in electrolyte4 ,the electrolyte is poured out of the battery and distilled water poured in4 ,the acid remaining on the separators and plates is sufficient to make the water conduct the charging current4 ,in equation 7f71 the sulphate on the plates combines with water to form sulphuric acid4 ,this gives us the rule3 ,during charge1 acid is driven out of the plates4 ,this rule is a convenient one1 but1 of course1 is not a strictly correct statement4 ,the changes produced by sending a current through the cell are also gradual1 and will take place faster as the current is made greater4 ,when all the lead sulphate has been used up by the chemical changes caused by the current1 no further charging can take place4 ,if we continue to send a current through the cell after it is fully charged1 the water will continue to be split up into hydrogen and oxygen4 ,since1 however1 there is no more lead sulphate left with which the hydrogen and oxygen can combine to form lead1 lead peroxide1 and sulphuric acid1 the hydrogen and oxygen rise to the surface of the electrolyte and escape from the cell4 ,this is known as gassing1 and is an indication that the cell is fully charged4 ,relations ,between ,chemical ,actions and ,electricity4 ,we know now that chemical actions in the battery produce electricity and that1 on the other hand1 an electric current1 sent through the battery from an outside source1 such as a generator1 produces chemical changes in the battery4 ,how are chemical changes and electricity related8 ,the various chemical elements which we have in a battery are supposed to carry small charges of electricity1 which1 however1 ordinarily neutralize one another4 ,when a cell is discharging1 however1 the electrolyte1 water1 and active materials are separated into parts carrying negative and positive charges1 and these charges cause what we call an electric current to flow in the apparatus attached to the battery4 ,similarly1 when a battery is charged1 the charging current produces electrical charges which cause the substances in the battery to unite1 due to the attraction of position and negative charges for one another4 ,this is a brief1 rough statement of the relations between chemical reactions and electricity in a battery4 ,a more thorough study of the subject would be out of place in this book4 ,it is sufficient for the repairman to remember that the substances in a battery carry charges of electricity which become available as an electric current when a battery discharges1 and that a charging current causes electric charges to form1 thereby charging the battery4 ,,chapter #e4 ,,what ,,takes ,,place ,,during ,,discharge4 ---------------------------------- ,considered chemically1 the discharge of a storage battery consists of the changing of the spongy lead and lead peroxide into lead sulphate1 and the abstraction of the acid from the electrolyte4 ,considered electrically1 the changes are more complex1 and require further investigation4 ,the voltage1 internal resistance1 rate of discharge1 capacity1 and other features must be considered1 and the effects of changes in one upon the others must be studied4 ,this proceeding is simplified considerably if we consider each point separately4 ,the abstraction of the acid from the electrolyte gives us a method of determining the condition of charge or discharge in the battery1 and must also be studied4 ,fig4 #ba ,graph3 voltage changes at end and after charge ,voltage ,changes ,during ,discharge4 ,at the end of a charge1 and before opening the charging circuit1 the voltage of each cell is about #b4e to #b4g volts4 ,as soon as the charging circuit is opened1 the cell voltage drops rapidly to about #b4a volts1 within three or four minutes4 ,this is due to the formation of a thin layer of lead sulphate on the surface of the negative plate and between the lead peroxide and the metal of the positive plate4 ,fig4 #ba shows how the voltage changes during the last eight minutes of charge1 and how it drops rapidly as soon as the charging circuit is opened4 ,the final value of the voltage after the charging circuit is opened is about #b4ae-b4ah volts4 ,this is more fully explained in ,chapter #f4 ,if a current is drawn from the battery at the instant the charge is stopped1 this drop is more rapid4 ,at the beginning of the discharge the voltage has already had a rapid drop from the final voltage on charge1 due to the formation of sulphate as explained above4 ,when a current is being drawn from the battery1 the sudden drop is due to the internal resistance of the cell1 the formation of more sulphate1 and the abstracting of the acid from the electrolyte which fills the pores of the plate4 ,the density of this acid is high just before the discharge is begun4 ,it is diluted rapidly at first1 but a balanced condition is reached between the density of the acid in the plates and in the main body of the electrolyte1 the acid supply in the plates being maintained at a lowered density by fresh acid flowing into them from the main body of electrolyte4 ,after the initial drop1 the voltage decreases more slowly1 the rate of decrease depending on the amount of current drawn from the battery4 ,the entire process is shown in ,fig4 #bb4 ,fig4 #bb ,graph3 voltage changes during discharge ,lead sulphate is being formed on the surfaces1 and in the body of the plates4 ,this sulphate has a higher resistance than the lead or lead peroxide1 and the internal resistance of the cell rises1 and contributes to the drop in voltage4 ,as this sulphate forms in the body of the plates1 the acid is used up4 ,at first this acid is easily replaced from the main body of the electrolyte by diffusion4 ,the acid in the main body of the electrolyte is at first comparatively strong1 or concentrated1 causing a fresh supply of acid to flow into the plates as fast as it is used up in the plates4 ,this results in the acid in the electrolyte growing weaker1 and this1 in turn1 leads to a constant decrease in the rate at which the fresh acid flows1 or diffuses into the plates4 ,furthermore1 the sulphate1 which is more bulky than the lead or lead peroxide fills the pores in the plate1 making it more and more difficult for acid to reach the interior of the plate4 ,this increases the rate at which the voltage drops4 ,the sulphate has another effect4 ,it forms a cover over the active material which has not been acted upon1 and makes it practically useless1 since the acid is almost unable to penetrate the coating of sulphate4 ,we thus have quantities of active material which are entirely enclosed in sulphate1 thereby cutting down the amount of energy which can be taken from the battery4 ,thus the formation of sulphate throughout each plate and the abstraction of acid from the electrolyte cause the voltage to drop at a constantly increasing rate4 ,theoretically1 the discharge may be continued until the voltage drops to zero1 but practically1 the discharge should be stopped when the voltage of each cell has dropped to #a4g 7on low discharge rates74 ,if the discharge is carried on beyond this point much of the spongy lead and lead peroxide have either been changed into lead sulphate1 or have been covered up by the sulphate so effectively that they are almost useless4 ,plates in this condition require a very long charge in order to remove all the sulphate4 ,the limiting value of #a4g volts per cell applies to a continuous discharge at a moderate rate4 ,at a very high current flowing for only a very short time1 it is not only safe1 but advisable to allow a battery to discharge to a lower voltage1 the increased drop being due to the rapid dilution of the acid in the plates4 ,the cell voltage will rise somewhat every time the discharge is stopped4 ,this is due to the diffusion of the acid from the main body of electrolyte into the plates1 resulting in an increased concentration in the plates4 ,if the discharge has been continuous1 especially if at a high rate1 this rise in voltage will bring the cell up to its normal voltage very quickly on account of the more rapid diffusion of acid which will then take place4 ,the voltage does not depend upon the area of the plate surface but upon the nature of the active materials and the electrolyte4 ,hence1 although the plates of a cell are gradually being covered with sulphate1 the voltage1 measured when no current is flowing1 will fall slowly and not in proportion to the amount of energy taken out of the cell4 ,it is not until the plates are pretty thoroughly covered with sulphate1 thus making it difficult for the acid to reach the active material1 that the voltage begins to drop rapidly4 ,this is shown clearly in ,fig4 #bb1 which shows that the cell voltage has dropped only a very small amount when the cell is #ej discharged4 ,with current flowing through the cell1 however1 the increased internal resistance causes a marked drop in the voltage4 ,open circuit voltage is not useful1 therefore to determine how much energy has been taken from the battery4 ,acid ,density4 ,the electrolyte of a lead storage battery is a mixture of chemically pure sulphuric acid1 and chemically pure water1 the acid forming about #cj per cent of the volume of electrolyte when the battery is fully charged4 ,the pure acid has a specific gravity of #a4hce1 that is1 it is #a4hce times as heavy as an equal volume of water4 ,the mixture of acid and water has a specific gravity of about #a4cjj4 ,as the cell discharges1 acid is abstracted from the electrolyte1 and the weight of the latter must therefore grow less1 since there will be less acid in it4 ,the change in the weight1 or specific gravity of the electrolyte is the best means of determining the state of discharge of a cell1 provided that the cell has been used properly4 ,in order that the value of the specific gravity may be used as an indication of the amount of energy in a battery1 the history of the battery must be known4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that in refilling the battery to replace the water lost by the natural evaporation which occurs in the use of a battery1 acid1 or a mixture of acid and water has been used4 ,this will result in the specific gravity being too high1 and the amount of energy in the battery will be less than that indicated by the specific gravity4 ,again1 if pure water is used to replace electrolyte which has been spilled1 the specific gravity will be lower than it should be4 ,in a battery which has been discharged to such an extent that much of the active material has been covered by a layer of tough sulphate1 or if a considerable amount of sulphate and active material has been loosened from the plates and has dropped to the bottom of the cells1 it will be impossible to bring the specific gravity of the electrolyte up to #a4cjj1 even though a long charge is given4 ,there must1 therefore1 be a reasonable degree of certainty that a battery has been properly handled if the specific gravity readings are to be taken as a true indication of the condition of a battery4 ,where a battery does not give satisfactory service even though the specific gravity readings are satisfactory1 the latter are not reliable as indicating the amount of charge in the battery4 ,as long as a discharge current is flowing from the battery1 the acid within the plates is used up and becomes very much diluted4 ,diffusion between the surrounding electrolyte and the acid in the plates keeps up the supply needed in the plates in order to1 carry on the chemical changes4 ,when the discharge is first begun1 the diffusion of acid into the plates takes place rapidly because there is little sulphate clogging the pores in the active material1 and because there is a greater difference between the concentration of acid in the electrolyte and in the plates than will exist as the discharge progresses4 ,as the sulphate begins to form and fill up the pores of the plates1 and as more and more acid is abstracted from the electrolyte1 diffusion takes place more slowly4 ,if a battery is allowed to stand idle for a short time after a partial discharge1 the specific gravity of the electrolyte will decrease because some1 of the acid in the electrolyte will gradually flow into the pores of the plates to replace the acid used up while the battery was discharging4 ,theoretically the discharge can be continued until all the acid has been used up1 and the electrolyte is composed of pure water4 ,experience has shown1 however1 that the discharge of the battery should not be continued after the specific gravity of the electrolyte has fallen to #a4aej4 ,as far as the electrolyte is concerned1 the discharge may be carried farther with safety4 ,the plates determine the point at which the discharge should be stopped4 ,when the specific gravity has dropped from #a4cjj to #a4aej1 so much sulphate has been formed that it fills the pores in the active material on the plates4 ,fig4 #bc shows the change in the density of the acid during discharge4 ,fig4 #bc3 ,variation of ,capacity with ,specific ,gravity ,changes at the ,negative ,plate4 ,chemically1 the action at the negative plate consists only of the formation of lead sulphate from the spongy lead4 ,the lead sulphate is only slightly soluble in the electrolyte and is precipitated as soon as it is formed1 leaving hydrogen ions1 which then go to the lead peroxide plate to form water with oxygen ions released at the peroxide plate4 ,the sulphate forms more quickly on the surface of the plate than in the inner portions because there is a constant supply of acid available at the surface1 whereas the formation of sulphate in the interior of the plate requires that acid diffuse into the pores of the active materials to replace that already used up in the formation of sulphate4 ,in the negative plate1 however1 the sulphate tends to form more uniformly throughout the mass of the lead1 because the spongy lead is more porous than the lead peroxide1 and because the acid is not diluted by the formation of water as in the positive plate4 ,changes at the ,positive ,plate4 ,in a fully charged positive plate we have lead peroxide as the active material4 ,this is composed of lead and oxygen4 ,from this fact it is plainly evident that during discharge there is a greater chemical activity at this plate than at the negative plate1 since we must find something to combine with the oxygen in order that the lead may form lead sulphate with the acid4 ,in an ideal cell1 therefore1 the material which undergoes the greater change should be more porous than the material which does not involve as great a chemical reaction4 ,in reality1 however1 the peroxide is not as porous as the spongy lead1 and does not hold together as well4 ,the final products of the discharge of a positive plate are lead sulphate and water4 ,the lead peroxide must first be reduced to lead1 which then combines with the sulphate from the acid to form lead sulphate1 while the oxygen from the peroxide combines with the hydrogen of the acid to form water4 ,there is1 therefore1 a greater activity at this plate than at the lead plate1 and the formation of the water dilutes the acid in and around the plate so that the tendency is for the chemical actions to be retarded4 ,the sulphate which forms on discharge causes the active material to bulge out because it occupies more space than the peroxide4 ,this causes the lead peroxide at the surface to begin falling1 to the bottom of the jar in fine dust-like particles1 since the peroxide here holds together very poorly4 ,,chapter #f4 ,,what ,,takes ,,place ,,during ,,charge4 ------------------------------- ,voltage4 ,starting with a battery which has been discharged until its voltage has decreased to #a4g per cell1 we pass a current through it and cause the voltage to rise steadily4 ,fig4 #bd shows the changes in voltage during charge4 ,ordinarily the voltage begins to rise immediately and uniformly4 ,if1 however1 the battery has been left in a discharged condition for some time1 or has been over discharged1 the voltage rises very rapidly for a fraction of the first minute of charge and then drops rapidly to the normal value and thereafter begins to rise steadily to the end of the charge4 ,this rise at the beginning of the charge is due to the fact that the density of the acid in the pores of the plates rises rapidly at first1 the acid thus formed being prevented from diffusing into the surrounding electrolyte by the coating of sulphate4 ,as soon as this sulphate is broken through1 diffusion takes place and the voltage drops4 ,fig4 #bd ,graph3 voltage changes during charge ,as shown in ,fig4 #bd1 the voltage remains almost constant between the points ,m and ,n4 ,at ,n the voltage begins to rise because the charging chemical reactions are taking place farther and farther in the inside parts of the plate1 and the concentrated acid formed by the chemical actions in the plates is diffusing into the main electrolyte4 ,this increases the battery voltage and requires a higher charging voltage4 ,at the point marked #j1 the voltage begins to rise very rapidly4 ,this is due to the fact that the amount of lead sulphate in the plates is decreasing very rapidly1 allowing the battery voltage to rise and thus increasing the charging voltage4 ,bubbles of gas are now rising through the electrolyte4 ,at ,p1 the last portions of lead sulphate are removed1 acid is no longer being formed1 and hydrogen and oxygen gas are formed rapidly4 ,the gas forces the last of the concentrated acid out of the plates and in fact1 equalizes the acid concentration throughout the whole cell4 ,thus no further changes can take place1 and the voltage becomes constant at ,r at a voltage of #b4e to #b4g4 ,density of ,electrolyte4 ,discharge should be stopped when the density of the electrolyte1 as measured with a hydrometer1 is #a4aej4 ,when we pass a charging current through the battery1 acid is produced by the chemical actions which take place in the plates4 ,this gradually diffuses with the main electrolyte and causes the hydrometer to show a higher density than before4 ,this increase in density continues steadily until the battery begins to gas freely4 ,the progress of the charge is generally determined by the density of the electrolyte4 ,for this purpose in automobile batteries1 a hydrometer is placed in a glass syringe having a short length of rubber tubing at one end1 and a large rubber bulb at the other4 ,the rubber tube is inserted in the cell and enough electrolyte drawn up into the syringe to float the hydrometer so as to be able to obtain a reading4 ,this subject will be treated more fully in a later chapter4 ,changes at ,negative ,plate4 ,the charging current changes lead sulphate into spongy lead1 and acid is formed4 ,the acid is mixed with the diluted electrolyte outside of the plates4 ,as the charging proceeds the active material shrinks or contracts1 and the weight of the plate actually decreases on account of the difference between the weight and volume of the lead sulphate and spongy lead4 ,if the cell has had only a normal discharge and the charge is begun soon after the discharge ended1 the charge will proceed quickly and without an excessive rise in temperature4 ,if1 however1 the cell has been discharged too far1 or has been in a discharged condition for some time1 the lead sulphate will not be in a finely divided state as it should be1 but will be hard and tough and will have formed an insulating coating over the active material1 causing the charging voltage to be high1 and the charge will proceed slowly4 ,when most of the lead sulphate has been reduced to spongy lead1 the charging current will be greater than is needed to carry on the chemical actions1 and will simply decompose the water into hydrogen and oxygen1 and the cell gasses4 ,spongy lead is rather tough and coherent1 it1 and the bubbles of gas which form in the pores of the negative plate near the end of the charge force their way to the surface without dislodging any of the active material4 ,changes at the ,positive ,plate4 ,when a cell has been discharged1 a portion of the lead peroxide has been changed to lead sulphate1 which has lodged in the pores of the active material and on its surface4 ,during charge1 the lead combines with oxygen from the water to form lead peroxide1 and acid is formed4 ,this acid diffuses into the electrolyte as fast as the amount of sulphate will permit4 ,if the discharge has been carried so far that a considerable amount of sulphate has formed in the pores and on the surface of the plate1 the action proceeds very slowly1 and unless a moderate charging current is used1 gassing begins before the charge is complete1 simply because the sulphate cannot absorb the current4 ,the gas bubbles which originate in the interior of the plate force their way to the surface1 and in so doing cause numerous fine particles of active material to break off and fall to the bottom of the jar4 ,this happens because the lead peroxide is a granular1 non-coherent substance1 with the particles held together very loosely1 and the gas breaks off a considerable amount of active material4 ,,chapter #g4 ,,capacity ,,of ,,storage ,,batteries4 ------------------------------ ,the capacity of a storage battery is the product of the current drawn from a battery1 multiplied by the number of hours this current flows4 ,the unit in which capacity is measured is the ampere-hour4 ,theoretically1 a battery has a capacity of #dj ampere hours if it furnishes ten amperes for four hours1 and if it is unable1 at the end of that time1 to furnish any more current4 ,if we drew only five amperes from this battery1 it should be able to furnish this current for eight hours4 ,thus1 theoretically1 the capacity of a battery should be the same1 no matter what current is taken from it4 ,that is1 the current in amperes1 multiplied by the number of hours the battery1 furnished this current should be constant4 ,in practice1 however1 we do not discharge a battery to a lower voltage than #a4g per cell1 except when the rate of discharge is high1 such as is the case when using the starting motor1 on account of the increasing amount of sulphate and the difficulty with which this is subsequently removed and changed into lead and lead peroxide4 ,the capacity of a storage battery is therefore measured by the number of ampere hours it can furnish before its voltage drops below #a4g per cell4 ,this definition assumes that the discharge is a continuous one1 that we start with a fully charged battery and discharge it continuously until its voltage drops to #a4g per cell4 ,the factors upon which the capacity of storage batteries depend may be grouped in two main classifications3 #a4 ,design and ,construction of ,battery #b4 ,conditions of ,operation ,design and ,construction4 ,each classification may be subdivided4 ,under the ,design and ,construction we have3 7a7 ,area of plate surface4 7b7 ,quantity1 arrangement1 and porosity of active materials4 7c7 ,quantity and strength of electrolyte4 7d7 ,circulation of electrolyte4 ,these sub-classifications require further explanation4 ,taking them in order3 7a7 ,area of ,plate ,surface4 ,it is evident that the chemical and electrical activity of a battery are greatest at the surface of the plates since the acid and active material are in intimate contact here1 and a supply of fresh acid is more readily available to replace that which is depleted as the battery is discharged4 ,this is especially true with high rates of discharge1 such as are caused in starting automobile engines4 ,therefore1 the capacity of a battery will be greater if the surface area of its plates is increased4 ,with large plate areas a greater amount of acid and active materials is available1 and an increase in capacity results4 7b7 ,quantity1 ,arrangement1 and ,porosity of ,active ,materials4 ,since the lead and lead peroxide are changed to lead sulphate on discharge1 it is evident that the greater the amount of these materials1 the longer can the discharge continue1 and hence the greater the capacity4 ,the arrangement of the active materials is also important1 since the acid and active materials must be in contact in order to produce electricity4 ,consequently the capacity will be greater in a battery1 all of whose active materials are in contact with the acid1 than in one in which the acid reaches only a portion of the active materials4 ,it is also important that all parts of the plates carry the same amount of current1 in order that the active materials may be used evenly4 ,as a result of these considerations1 we find that the active materials are supported on grids of lead1 that the plates are made thin1 and that they have large surface areas4 ,for heavy discharge currents1 such as starting motor currents1 it is essential that there be large surface areas4 ,thick plates with smaller surface areas are more suitable for low discharge rates4 ,since the inner portions of the active materials must have a plentiful and an easily renewable supply of acid1 the active materials must be porous in order that diffusion may be easy and rapid4 7c7 ,quantity and ,strength of ,electrolyte4 ,it is important that there be enough electrolyte in order that the acid may not become exhausted while there is still considerable active material left4 ,an insufficient supply of electrolyte makes it impossible to obtain the full capacity from a battery4 ,on the other hand1 too much electrolyte1 due either to filling the battery too full1 or to having the plates in a jar that holds too much electrolyte1 results in an increase in capacity up to the limit of the plate capacity4 ,there is a danger present1 however1 because with an excess of electrolyte the plates will be discharged before the specific gravity of the electrolyte falls to #a4aej4 ,this results in over discharge of the battery with its attendant troubles as will be described more fully in a later chapter4 ,it is a universal custom to consider a battery discharged when the specific gravity of the electrolyte has dropped to #a4aej1 and that it is fully charged when the specific gravity of the electrolyte has risen to #a4bhj-a4cjj4 ,this is true in temperate climates4 ,in tropical countries1 which may for this purpose be defined as those countries in which the temperature never falls below the freezing point1 the gravity of a fully charged cell is #a4bjj to #a4bcj4 ,the condition of the plates is1 however1 the true indicator of charged or discharged condition4 ,with the correct amount of electrolyte1 its specific gravity is #a4aej when the plates have been discharged as far as it is considered safe1 and is #a4bhj-a4cjj when the plates are fully charged4 ,when electrolyte is therefore poured into a battery1 it is essential that it contains the proper proportion of acid and water in order that its specific gravity readings be a true indicator of the condition of the plates as to charge or discharge1 and hence show accurately how much energy remains in the cell at any time4 ,a question which may be considered at this point is why in automobile1 work a specific gravity of #a4bhj-a4cjj is adopted for the electrolyte of a fully charged cell4 ,there are several reasons4 ,the voltage of a battery increases as the specific gravity goes up4 ,hence1 with a higher density1 a higher voltage can be obtained4 ,if the density were increased beyond this point1 the acid would attack the lead grids and the separators1 and considerable corrosion would result4 ,another danger of high density is that of sulphation1 as explained in a later chapter4 ,another factor which enters is the resistance of the electrolyte4 ,it is desirable that this be as low as possible4 ,if we should make resistance measurements on various mixtures of acid and water1 we should find that with a small percentage of acid1 the resistance is high4 ,as the amount of acid is increased1 the resistance will grow less up to a certain point4 ,beyond this point1 the resistance will increase again as more acid is added to the mixture4 ,the resistance is lowest when the acid forms #cj of the electrolyte4 ,thus1 if the electrolyte is made too strong1 the plates and also the separators will be attacked by the acid1 and the resistance of the electrolyte will also increase4 ,the voltage increases as the proportion of acid is increased1 but the other factors limit the concentration4 ,if the electrolyte is diluted1 its resistance rises1 and the amount of acid is insufficient to give much capacity4 ,the density of #a4bhj-a4cjj is therefore a compromise between the various factors mentioned above4 7d7 ,circulation of ,electrolyte4 ,this refers to the passing of electrolyte from one plate to another1 and depends upon the ease with which the acid can pass through the pores of the separators4 ,a porous separator allows more energy to be drawn from the battery than a nonporous one4 ,operating ,conditions4 ,considering now the operating conditions1 we find several items to be taken into account4 ,the most important are3 7e7 ,rate of discharge4 7f7 ,temperature4 7e7 ,rate of ,discharge4 ,as mentioned above1 the ampere hour rating of a battery is based upon a continuous discharge1 starting with a specific gravity of #a4bhj-a4cjj1 and finishing with #a4aej4 ,the end of the discharge is also considered to be reached when the voltage per cell has dropped to #a4g4 ,with moderate rates of discharge the acid is abstracted slowly enough to permit the acid from outside the plates to diffuse into the pores of the plates and keep up the supply needed for the chemical actions4 ,with increased rates of discharge the supply of acid is used up so rapidly that the diffusion is not fast enough to hold up the voltage4 ,this fact is shown clearly by tests made to determine the time required to discharge a #ajj ,amp4 ,hr41 #f volt battery to #d4e volts4 ,with a discharge rate of #be amperes1 it required #afj minutes4 ,with a discharge rate of #ge amperes1 it required #cd minutes4 ,from this we see that making the discharge rate three times as great caused the battery to be discharged in one fifth the time4 ,these discharges were continuous1 however1 and if the battery were allowed to rest1 the voltage would soon rise sufficiently1 to burn the lamps for a number of hours4 ,the conditions of operation in automobile work are usually considered severe4 ,in starting the engine1 a heavy current is drawn from the battery for a few seconds4 ,the generator starts charging the battery immediately afterward1 and the starting energy is soon replaced4 ,as long as the engine runs1 there is no load on the battery1 as the generator will furnish the current for the lamps1 and also send a charge into the battery4 ,if the lamps are not used1 the entire generator output is utilized to charge the battery1 unless some current is furnished to the ignition system4 ,overcharge is quite possible4 ,when the engine is not running1 the lamps are the only load on the battery1 and there is no charging current4 ,various drivers have various driving conditions4 ,some use their starters frequently1 and make only short runs4 ,their batteries run down4 ,other men use the starter very seldom1 and take long tours4 ,their batteries will be overcharged4 ,the best thing that can be done is to set the generator for an output that will keep the battery charged under average conditions4 ,from the results of actual tests1 it may be said that modem lead-acid batteries are not injured in any way by the high discharge rate used when a starting motor cranks the engine4 ,it is the rapidity with which fresh acid takes the place of that used in the pores of the active materials that affects the capacity of a battery at high rates1 and not only limitation in the plates themselves4 ,low rates of discharge should1 in fact1 be avoided more than the high rates4 ,battery capacity is affected by discharge rates1 only when the discharge is continuous1 and the reduction in capacity caused by the high rates of continuous discharge does not occur if the discharge is an intermittent one1 such as is actually the case in automobile work4 ,the tendency now is to design batteries to give their rated capacity in very short discharge periods4 ,if conditions should demand it1 these batteries would be sold to give their rated capacity while operating intermittently at a rate which would completely discharge them in three or four minutes4 ,the only change necessary for such high rates of discharge is to provide extra heavy terminals to carry the heavy current4 ,the present standard method of rating starting and lighting batteries1 as recommended by the ,society of ,automotive ,engineers1 is as follows3 ,batteries for combined lighting and starting service shall have two ratings4 ,the first shall indicate the lighting ability1 and shall be the capacity in ampere hours of the battery when discharged continuously at the #e hour rate to a final voltage of not less than #a4g per cell1 the temperature of the battery beginning such discharge being #hj;,f4 ,the second rating shall indicate the starting ability and shall be the capacity in ampere-hours when the battery is discharged continuously at the #bj-minute rate to a final voltage of not less than #a4e per cell1 the temperature of the battery beginning such discharge being #hj;,f4 ,the discharge rate required under the average starting conditions is higher than that specified above1 and would cause the required drop in voltage in about fifteen minutes4 ,in winter1 when an engine is cold and stiff1 the work required from the battery is even more severe1 the discharge rate being equivalent in amperes to probably four or five times the ampere-rating of the battery4 ,on account of the rapid recovery of a battery after a discharge at a very high rate1 it seems advisable to allow a battery to discharge to a voltage of #a4j per cell when cranking an engine which is extremely cold and stiff4 7f7 ,temperature4 ,chemical reactions take place much more readily at high temperatures than at low4 ,furthermore1 the active materials are more porous1 the electrolyte lighter1 and the internal resistance less at higher temperatures4 ,opposed to this is the fact that at high temperatures1 the acid attacks the grids and active materials1 and lead sulphate is formed1 even though no current is taken from the battery4 ,other injurious effects are the destructive actions of hot acid on the wooden separators used in most starting and lighting batteries4 ,greater expansion of active material will also occur1 and this expansion is not1 in general1 uniform over the surface of the plates4 ,this results in unequal strains and the plates are bent out of shape1 or buckled4 ,the expansion of the active material will also cause much of it to fall from the plates1 and we then have shedding4 ,fig4 #be ,graph3 ,theoretical temperature changes during charge and discharge ,when sulphuric acid is poured into water1 a marked temperature rise takes place4 ,when a battery is charged1 acid is formed1 and when this mixes with the diluted electrolyte1 a temperature rise occurs4 ,in discharging1 acid is taken from the electrolyte1 and the temperature has a tendency to drop4 ,on charging1 therefore1 there is danger of overheating1 while on discharge1 excessive temperatures are not likely4 ,fig4 #be shows the theoretical temperature changes on charge and discharge4 ,the decrease in temperature given-in the curve is not actually obtained in practice1 because the tendency of the temperature to decrease is balanced by the heat caused by the current passing through the battery4 ,age of ,battery4 ,another factor which should be considered in connection with capacity is the age of the battery4 ,new batteries often do not give their rated capacity when received from the manufacturer4 ,this is due to the methods of making the plates4 ,the paste plates1 such as are used in automobiles1 are made by applying oxides of lead1 mixed with a liquid1 which generally is dilute sulphuric acid1 to the grids4 ,these oxides must be subjected to a charging current in order to produce the spongy lead and lead peroxide4 ,after the charge1 they must be discharged1 and then again charged4 ,this is necessary because not all of the oxides are changed to active material on one charge1 and repeated charges and discharges are required to produce the maximum amount of active materials4 ,some manufacturers do not charge and discharge a battery a sufficient number of times before sending it out1 and after a battery is put into use1 its capacity will increase for some time1 because more active material is produced during each charge4 ,another factor which increases the capacity of a battery after it is put into use is the tendency of the positive active material to become more porous after the battery is put through the cycles of charge and discharge4 ,this results in an increase in capacity for a considerable time after the battery is put into use4 ,when1 a battery has been in use for some time1 a considerable portion of the active material will have fallen from the positive plates1 and1 a decrease in capacity will result4 ,such a battery will charge faster than a new one because the amount of sulphate which has formed when the battery is discharged is less than in a newer battery4 ,hence1 the time required to reduce this sulphate will be less1 and the battery will come up faster on charge1 although the specific gravity of the electrolyte may not rise to #a4bhj4 ,,chapter #h4 ,,internal ,,resistance4 -------------------- ,the resistance offered by a storage battery to the flow of a current through it results in a loss of voltage1 and in heating4 ,its value should be as low as possible1 and1 in fact1 it is almost negligible even ,i in small batteries1 seldom rising above #j4je ohm4 ,on charge1 it causes the charging voltage to be higher and on discharge causes a loss of voltage4 ,fig4 #bf shows the variation in resistance4 ,fig4 #bf ,graph3 ,changes in internal resistance during charge and discharge ,the resistance as measured between the terminals of a cell is made up of several factors as follows3 #a4 ,grids4 ,this includes the resistance of the terminals1 connecting links1 and the framework upon which the active materials are pasted4 ,this is but a small part of the total resistance1 and does not undergo any considerable change during charge and discharge4 ,it increases slightly as the temperature of the grids rises4 #b4 ,electrolyte4 ,this refers to the electrolyte between the plates1 and varies with the amount of acid and with temperature4 ,as mentioned in the preceding chapter1 a mixture of acid and water in which the acid composes thirty per cent of the electrolyte has the minimum resistance4 ,diluting or increasing the concentration of the electrolyte will both cause an increase in resistance from the minimum ,i value4 ,the explanation probably lies in the degree to which the acid is split up into ions of hydrogen 7,h71 and sulphate 7,,so#d74 ,these ions carry the current through t he electrolyte4 ,starting with a certain amount of acid1 let us see how the ionization progresses4 ,with very concentrated acid1 ionization does not take place1 and hence1 there are no ions to carry current4 ,as we mix the acid with water1 ionization occurs4 ,the more water used1 the more ions1 and hence1 the less the resistance1 because the number of ions available to carry the current increases4 ,the ionization in creases to a certain maximum degree1 beyond which no more ions are formed4 ,it is probable that an electrolyte containing thirty per cent of acid is at its maximum degree of ionization and hence its lowest resistance4 ,if more water is now added1 no more ions are formed4 ,furthermore1 the number of ions per unit volume of electrolyte will now decrease on account of the increased amount of water4 ,there ,will therefore be fewer ions per unit volume to carry the current1 and the resistance of the electrolyte increases4 ,with an electrolyte of a given concentration1 an increase of temperature will cause a decrease in resistance4 ,a decrease in temperature will1 of course1 cause an increase in resistance4 ,it is true1 in general1 that the resistance of the electrolyte is about half of the total resistance of the cell4 ,the losses due to this resistance generally form only one per cent of the total losses1 and area practically negligible factor4 #c4 ,active ,material4 ,this includes the resistance of the active materials and the electrolyte in the pores of the active materials4 ,this varies considerably during charge and discharge4 ,it has been found that the resistance of the peroxide plate changes much more than that of the lead plate4 ,the change in resistance of the positive plate is especially marked near the end of a discharge4 ,the composition of the active material1 and the contact between it and the grid affect the resistance considerably4 ,during charge1 the current is sent into the cell from an external source4 ,the girds therefore carry most of the current4 ,the active material which first reacts with the acid is that near the surface of the plate1 and the acid formed by the charging current mixes readily with the main body of electrolyte4 ,gradually1 the charging action takes place in the inner portions of the plate1 and concentrated acid is formed in the pores of the plate4 ,as the sulphate is removed1 however1 the acid has little difficulty in mixing with the main body of electrolyte4 ,the change in resistance on the charge is therefore not considerable4 ,during discharge1 the chemical action also begins at the surface of the plates and gradually moves inward4 ,in this case1 however1 sulphate is formed on the surface first1 and it becomes increasingly difficult for the fresh acid from the electrolyte to diffuse into the plates so as to replace the acid which has been greatly diluted there by the discharge actions4 ,there is therefore an increase in resistance because of the dilution of the acid at the point of activity4 ,unless a cell is discharged too far1 however1 the increase in resistance is small4 ,if a battery is allowed to stand idle for a long time it gradually discharges itself1 as explained in ,chapter #aj4 ,this is due to the formation of a tough coating of crystallized lead sulphate1 which is practically an insulator4 ,these crystals gradually cover and enclose the active material4 ,the percentage change is not high1 and generally amounts to a few per cent only4 ,the chief damage caused by the excessive sulphation is therefore not an increase in resistance1 but consists chiefly of making a poor contact between active material and grid1 and of removing much of the active material from action by covering it4 ,,chapter #i4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,battery ,,on ,,the ,,car4 ------------------------------- ,the manufacturers of ,starting and ,lighting ,equipment have designed their generators1 cutouts1 and current controlling devices so as to relieve the car owner of as much work as possible in taking care of batteries4 ,the generators on most cars are automatically connected to the battery at the proper time1 and also disconnected from it as the engine slows down4 ,the amount of current which the generator delivers to the battery is automatically prevented from exceeding a certain maximum value4 ,under the average conditions of driving1 a battery is kept in a good condition4 ,it is impossible1 however1 to eliminate entirely the need of attention on the part of the car owner1 and battery repairman4 ,the storage battery requires but little attention1 and this is the very reason why many batteries are neglected4 ,motorists often have the impression that because their work in caring for a battery is quite simple1 no harm will result if they give the battery no attention whatever4 ,if the battery fails to turn over the engine when the starting switch is closed1 then instruction books are studied4 ,thereafter more attention is paid to the battery4 ,the rules to be observed in taking care of the battery which is in service on the car are not difficult to observe4 ,it is while on the car that a battery is damaged1 and the damage may be prevented by intelligent consideration of the battery's housing and living conditions1 just as these conditions are made as good as possible for human beings4 #a4 ,keep the ,interior of the ,battery ,box ,clean and ,dry4 ,on many cars the battery is contained in an iron box1 or under the seat or floorboards4 ,this box must be kept dry1 and frequent inspection is necessary to accomplish this4 ,moisture condenses easily in a metal box1 and if not removed will cause the box to become rusty4 ,pieces of rust may fall on top of the battery and cause corrosion and leakage of current between terminals4 ,occasionally1 wash the inside of the box with a rag dipped in ammonia1 or a solution of baking soda1 and then wipe it dry4 ,a good plan is to paint the inside of the box with asphaltum paint4 ,this will prevent rusting1 and at the same time will prevent the iron from being attacked by electrolyte which may be spilled1 or may leak from the battery4 ,some batteries are suspended from the car frame under the floor boards or seat4 ,the iron parts near such batteries should be kept dry and free from rust4 ,if the battery has a roof of sheet iron placed above it1 this roof should also be kept clean1 dry and coated with asphaltum paint4 ,fig4 #bg ,do not drop tools on top of battery #b4 ,put ,nothing ,but the ,battery in the ,battery ,box4 ,if the battery is contained in an iron box1 do not put rags1 tools1 or anything else of a similar nature in the battery box4 ,do not lay pliers across the top of the battery1 as shown in ,fig4 #bg4 ,such things belong elsewhere4 ,the battery should have a free air space all around it1 ,fig4 #bh4 ,objects made of metal will short-circuit the battery and lead to a repair bill4 #c4 ,keep the battery clean and dry4 ,the top of the battery should be kept free of dirt1 dust1 and moisture4 ,dirt may find its way into the cells and damage the battery4 ,a dirty looking battery is an unsightly object1 and cleanliness should be maintained for the sake of the appearance of the battery if for no other reason4 ,moisture on top of the battery causes a leakage of current between the terminals of the cells and tends to discharge the battery4 ,wipe off all moisture and occasionally go over the tops of the cell connectors1 and terminals with a rag wet with ammonia or a solution of baking soda4 ,this will neutralize any acid which may be present in the moisture4 ,the terminals should be dried and covered with vaseline4 ,this protects them from being attacked by acid which may be spilled on top of the battery4 ,if a deposit of a grayish or greenish substance is found on the battery terminals1 handles or cell connectors1 the excess should be scraped off and the parts should then be washed with a hot solution of baking soda 7bicarbonate of soda7 until all traces of the substance have been removed4 ,in scraping off the deposit1 care should be taken not to scrape off any lead from terminals or connectors4 ,after washing the parts1 dry them and cover them with vaseline4 ,the grayish or greenish substance found on the terminals1 connectors1 or handles is the result of corrosion1 or1 in other words1 the result of the action of the sulphuric acid in the electrolyte upon some metallic substance4 ,fig4 #bh ,battery installed with air space on all sides ,the acid which causes the corrosion may be spilled on the battery when hydrometer readings are taken4 ,it may also be the result of filling the cells too full1 with subsequent expansion and overflowing as the temperature of the electrolyte increases during charge4 ,loose vent caps may allow electrolyte to be thrown out of the cell by the motion of the car on the road4 ,a poorly sealed battery allows electrolyte to be thrown out through the cracks left between the sealing compound and the jars or posts4 ,the leaks may be caused by the battery cables not having sufficient slack1 and pulling on the terminals4 ,the cap which fits over the vent tube at the center of the top of each cell is pierced by one or more holes through which gases formed within the cell may escape4 ,these holes must be kept open2 otherwise the pressure of the gases may blow off the top of the cell4 ,if these holes are found to be clogged with dirt they should be cleaned out thoroughly4 ,the wooden battery case should also be kept clean and dry4 ,if the battery is suspended from the frame of the car1 dirt and mud from the road will gradually cover the case1 and this mud should be scraped off frequently4 ,occasionally wash the case with a rag wet with ammonia1 or hot baking soda solution4 ,keep the case1 especially along the top edges1 coated with asphaltum or some other acid proof paint4 ,fig4 #bi ,battery held in place by hold-down bolts #d4 ,the battery must be held down firmly4 ,if the battery is contained in an iron box mounted on the running-board1 or in a compartment in the body of the car having a door at the side of the running-board1 it is usually fastened in place by long bolts which hook on the handles or the battery case4 ,these bolts1 which are known as hold-downs1 generally pass through the running board or compartment1 ,fig4 #bi1 and are generally fastened in place by nuts4 ,these nuts should be turned up so that the battery is held down tight4 ,other methods are also used to hold the battery in place1 but whatever the method1 it is vital to the battery that it be held down firmly so that the jolting of the car cannot cause it to move4 ,the battery has rubber jars which are brittle1 and which are easily broken4 ,even if a battery is held down firmly1 it is jolted about to a considerable extent1 and with a loosely fastened battery1 the jars are bound to be cracked and broken4 #e4 ,the cables connected to the battery must have sufficient slack so that they will not pull on the battery terminals1 as this will result in leaks1 and possibly a broken cover4 ,the terminals on a battery should be in such a position that the cables may be connected to them easily1 and without bending and twisting them4 ,these cables are heavy and stiff1 and once they are bent or twisted they are put under a strain1 and exert a great force to straighten themselves4 ,this action causes the cables to pull on the terminals1 which become loosened1 and cause a leak1 or break the cover4 ,fig4 #cj ,measure height of electrolyte in battery #f4 ,inspect the ,battery twice every month in ,winter1 and once a week in ,summer1 to make sure that the ,electrolyte covers the plates4 ,to do this1 remove the vent caps and look down through the vent tube4 ,if a light is necessary to determine the level of the electrolyte1 use an electric lamp4 ,never bring an open flame1 such as a match or candle near the vent tubes of a battery4 ,explosive gases are formed when a battery gasses1 and the flame may ignite them1 with painful injury to the face and eyes of the observer as a result4 ,such an explosion may also ruin the battery4 ,during the normal course of operation of the battery1 water from the electrolyte will evaporate4 ,the acid never evaporates4 ,the surface of the electrolyte should be not less than one-half inch above the tops of the plate4 ,a convenient method of measuring the height of the electrolyte is shown in ,fig4 #cj4 ,insert one end of a short piece of a glass tube1 having an opening not less than one-eighth inch diameter1 through the filling hole1 and allow it to rest on the upper edge of the plates4 ,then place your finger over the upper end1 and withdraw the tube4 ,a column of liquid will remain in the lower end of the tube1 as shown in the figure1 and the height of this column is the same as the height of the electrolyte above the top of the plates in the cell4 ,if this is less than one-half inch1 add enough distilled water to bring the electrolyte up to the proper level4 ,fig4 #ca shows the correct height of electrolyte in an ,exide cell4 ,never add well water1 spring water1 water from a stream1 or ordinary faucet water4 ,these contain impurities which will damage the battery1 if used4 ,it is essential that distilled water be used for this purpose1 and it must be handled carefully so as to keep impurities of any kind out of the water4 ,never use a metal can for handling water or electrolyte for a battery1 but always use a glass or porcelain vessel4 ,the water should be stored in glass bottles1 and poured into a porcelain or glass pitcher when it is to be used4 ,fig4 #ca ,correct height of electrolyte in ,exide cell ,a convenient method of adding the water to the battery is to draw some up in a hydrometer syringe and add the necessary amount to the cell by inserting the rubber tube which is at the lower end into the vent hole and then squeezing the bulb until the required amount has been put into the cell4 ,in the summer time it makes no difference when water is added4 ,in the winter time1 if the air temperature is below freezing 7#cb ,f71 start the engine before adding water1 and keep it running for about one hour after the battery begins to gas4 ,a good time to add the water is just before starting on a trip1 as the engine will then usually be run long enough to charge the battery1 and cause the water to mix thoroughly with the electrolyte4 ,otherwise1 the water1 being lighter than the electrolyte1 will remain at the top and freeze4 ,be sure to wipe off water from the battery top after filling4 ,if battery has been wet for sometime1 wipe it with a rag dampened with ammonia or baking soda solution to neutralize the acid4 ,never add acid to a battery while the battery is on the car4 ,by acid is meant a mixture of sulphuric acid and water4 ,the concentrated acid1 is of course1 never used4 ,the level of the electrolyte falls because of the evaporation of the water which is mixed with the acid in the electrolyte4 ,the acid does not evaporate4 ,it is therefore evident that acid should not be added to a cell to replace the water which has evaporated4 ,some men believe that a battery may be charged by adding acid4 ,this is not true1 however1 because a battery can be charged only by passing a current through the battery from an outside source4 ,on the car the generator charges the battery4 ,it is true that acid is lost1 but this is not due to evaporation1 but to the loss of some of the electrolyte from the cell1 the lost electrolyte1 of course1 carrying some acid with it4 ,electrolyte is lost when a cell gasses2 electrolyte may be spilled2 a cracked jar will allow electrolyte to leak out2 if too much water is added1 the expansion of the electrolyte when the battery is charging may cause it to run over and be lost1 or the jolting of the car may cause some of it to be spilled2 if a battery is allowed to become badly sulphated1 some of the sulphate is never reduced1 or drops to the bottom of the cell1 and the acid lost in the formation of the sulphate is not regained4 ,if acid or electrolyte is added instead of water1 when no acid is needed1 the electrolyte will become too strong1 and sulphated plates will be the result4 ,if a battery under average driving conditions never becomes fully charged1 it should be removed from the car and charged from an outside source as explained later4 ,if1 after the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising1 it is not of the correct value1 some of the electrolyte should be drawn off and stronger electrolyte added in its place4 ,this should be done only in the repair shop or charging station4 ,care must be taken not to add too much water to a cell1 ,fig4 #cb4 ,this will subsequently cause the electrolyte to overflow and run over the top of the battery1 due to the expansion of the electrolyte as the charging current raises its temperature4 ,the electrolyte which overflows is1 of course1 lost1 taking with it acid which will later be replaced by water as evaporation takes place4 ,the electrolyte will then be too weak4 ,the electrolyte which overflows will rot the wooden battery case1 and also tend to cause corrosion at the terminals4 ,if it is necessary to add water very frequently1 the battery is operating at too high a temperature1 or else there is a cracked jar4 ,the high temperature may be due to the battery being charged at too high a rate1 or to the battery being placed near some hot part of the engine or exhaust pipe4 ,the car manufacturer generally is careful not to place the battery too near any such hot part4 ,the charging rate may be measured by connecting an ammeter in series with the battery and increasing the engine speed until the maximum current is obtained4 ,for a six volt battery this should rarely exceed #ad amperes4 ,if the charging1 current does not reach a maximum value and then remain constant1 or decrease1 but continues to rise as the speed of the engine1 is increased1 the regulating device is out of order4 ,an excessive charging rate will cause continuous gassing if it is much above normal1 and the temperature of the electrolyte will be above #ajj ,f4 ,in this way an excessive charging current may be detected4 ,fig4 #cb ,cell with level of electrolyte too high ,in hot countries or states1 the atmosphere may have such a high temperature that evaporation will be more rapid than in temperate climates1 and this may necessitate more frequent addition of water4 ,if one cell requires a more frequent addition of water than the others1 it is probable that the jar of that cell is cracked4 ,such a cell will also show a low specific gravity1 since electrolyte leaks out and is replaced by water4 ,a battery which has a leaky jar will also have a case which is rotted at the bottom and sides4 ,a battery with a leaky jar must1 of course1 be removed from the car for repairs4 ,dope ,electrolytes ,from time to time within the past two years1 various solutions which are supposed to give a rundown battery a complete charge within five or ten minutes have been offered to the public4 ,the men selling such dope sometimes give a demonstration which at first sight seems to prove their claims4 ,this demonstration consists of holding the starting switch down 7with the ignition off7 until the battery can no longer turn over the engine4 ,they then pour the electrolyte out of the battery1 fill it with their dope1 crank the engine by hand1 run it for five minutes1 and then get gravity readings of #a4bhj or over4 ,the battery will also crank the engine4 ,such a charge is merely a drug-store charge1 and the dope is generally composed mainly of high gravity acid1 which seemingly puts life into a battery1 but in reality causes great damage1 and shortens the life of a battery4 ,the starting motor test means nothing4 ,the same demonstration could be given with any battery4 ,the high current drawn by the motor does not discharge the battery1 but merely dilutes the electrolyte which is in the plates to such an extent that the voltage drops to a point at which the battery can no longer turn over the starting motor4 ,if any battery were given a five minutes charge after such a test1 the diluted electrolyte in the plates would be replaced by fresh acid from the electrolyte and the battery would then easily crank the engine again4 ,the five minutes of running the engine does not put much charge into the battery but gives time for the electrolyte to diffuse into the plates4 ,chemical analysis of a number of dope electrolytes has shown that they consist mainly of high gravity acid1 and that this acid is not even chemically pure1 but contains impurities which would ruin a battery even if the gravity were not too high4 ,the results of some of the analyses are as follows3 ,no4 #a4 #a4bfj specific gravity sulphuric acid1 #be parts iron1 #ac4e parts chlorine1 #ab4e1 per cent sodium sulphate1 #a per cent nitric acid4 ,no4 #b4 #a4cce specific gravity sulphuric acid1 large amounts of organic matter1 part of which consisted of acids which attack lead4 ,no4 #c4 #a4cdj specific gravity sulphuric acid1 #ae4e per cent sodium sulphate4 ,no4 #d4 #a4bij specific gravity sulphuric acid1 #a4e per cent sodium sulphate4 ,no4 #e4 #a4cjj specific gravity sulphuric acid4 ,if such dope electrolytes are added to a discharged battery1 the subsequent charging of the battery will add more acid to the electrolyte1 the specific gravity of which will then rise much higher than it should1 and the plates and separators are soon ruined4 ,do not put faith in any magic solution which is supposed to work wonders4 ,there is only one way to charge a battery1 and that is to send a current through it1 and there is only one electrolyte to use1 and that is the standard mixture of distilled water and chemically pure sulphuric acid4 #g4 ,the specific gravity of the electrolyte should be measured every two weeks and a permanent record of the readings made for future reference4 ,the specific gravity of the electrolyte is the ratio of its weight to the weight of an equal volume of water4 ,acid is heavier than water1 and hence the heavier the electrolyte1 the more acid it1 contains1 and the more nearly it is fully charged4 ,in automobile batteries1 a specific gravity of #a4cjj-a4bhj indicates a fully charged battery4 ,generally1 a gravity of #a4bhj is taken to indicate a fully1 charged cell1 and in this book this will be done4 ,complete readings are as follows3 #a4cjj-a4bhj--;,fully charged4 #a4bhj-a4bjj--,more than half charged4 #a4bjj-a4aej--,less than half charged4 #a4aej and less--,completely discharged4 ,fig4 #cc and ,fig4 #cd3 battery hydrometers ,for determining the specific gravity1 a hydrometer is used4 ,this consists of a small sealed glass tube with an air bulb and a quantity of shot at one end1 and a graduated scale on the upper end4 ,this scale is marked from #a4ajj to #a4cjj1 with various intermediate markings as shown in ,fig4 #cc4 ,if this hydrometer is placed in a liquid1 it will sink to a certain depth4 ,in so doing1 it will displace a certain volume of the electrolyte1 and when it comes to rest1 the volume displaced will just be equal to the weight of the hydrometer4 ,it will therefore sink farther in a light liquid than in a heavy one1 since it will require a greater volume of the light liquid to equal the weight of the hydrometer4 ,the top mark on the hydrometer scale is therefore #a4ajj and the bottom one #a4cjj4 ,some hydrometers are not marked with figures that indicate the specific gravity1 but are marked with the words ,charged1 ,half ,charged1 ,discharged1 or ,full1 ,half ,full1 ,empty1 in place of the figures4 ,the tube must be held in a vertical position1 ,fig4 #ce1 and the stem of the hydrometer must be vertical4 ,the reading will be the number on the stem at the surface of the electrolyte in the tube1 ,fig4 #cf4 ,thus if the hydrometer sinks in the electrolyte until the electrolyte comes up to the #a4aej mark on the stem1 the specific gravity is #a4aej4 ,fig4 #ce ,using hydrometer for reading specific gravity ,for convenience in automobile work1 the hydrometer is enclosed in a large tube of glass or other transparent1 acid proof material1 having a short length of rubber tubing at its lower end1 and a large rubber bulb at the upper end4 ,the combination is called a hydrometer-syringe1 or simply hydrometer4 ,see ,figure #cd4 ,in measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte1 the vent cap is removed1 the bulb is squeezed 7so as to expel the air from it71 and the rubber tubing inserted in the hole from which the cap was removed4 ,the pressure on the bulb is now released1 and electrolyte is drawn up into the glass tube4 ,the rubber tubing on the hydrometer should not be withdrawn from the cell4 ,when a sufficient amount of electrolyte has entered the tube1 the hydrometer will float4 ,in taking a reading1 there should be no pressure on the bulb1 and the hydrometer should be floating freely and not touching the walls of the tube4 ,the tube must not be so full of electrolyte that the upper end of the hydrometer strikes any part of the bulb4 ,the tube must be held in a vertical position1 ,fig4 #ce1 and the stem of the hydrometer must be vertical4 ,the reading will be the number on the stem at the surface of the electrolyte in the tube1 ,fig4 #cf4 ,thus if the hydrometer sinks in the electrolyte until the electrolyte comes up to the #a4aej mark on the stem1 the specific gravity is #a4aej4 ,if the battery is located in such a position that it is impossible to hold the hydrometer straight up1 the rubber tube may be ,pinched shut with the fingers1 after a sufficient quantity of electrolyte has been drawn from the cell and the hydrometer then removed and held in a vertical position4 ,specific gravity readings should never be taken soon after distilled water has been added to the battery4 ,the water and electrolyte do not mix immediately1 and such readings will give misleading results4 ,the battery should be charged several hours before the readings are taken4 ,it is a good plan to take a specific gravity reading before adding any water1 since accurate results can also be obtained in this way4 ,fig4 #cf ,hydrometer reading showing cell charged1 half-charged1 and discharged ,having taken a reading1 the bulb is squeezed so as to return the electrolyte to the cell4 ,care should be taken not to spill the electrolyte from the hydrometer syringe when testing the gravity4 ,such moisture on top of the cells tends to cause a short circuit between the terminals and to discharge the battery4 ,in making tests with the hydrometer1 the electrolyte should always be returned to the same cell from which it was drawn4 ,failure to do this will finally result in an increased proportion of acid in one cell and a deficiency of acid in others4 ,the specific gravity of all cells of a battery should rise and fall together1 as the cells are usually connected in series so that the same current passes through each cell both on charge and discharge4 ,if one cell of a battery shows a specific gravity which is decidedly lower than that of the other cells in series with it1 and if this difference gradually increases1 the cell showing the lower gravity has internal trouble4 ,this probably consists of a short circuit1 and the battery should be opened for inspection4 ,if the electrolyte in this cell falls faster than that of the other cells1 a leaky jar is indicated4 ,the various cells should have specific gravities within fifteen points of each other1 such as #a4bfj and #a4bge4 ,if the entire battery shows a specific gravity below #a4bjj1 it is not receiving enough charge to replace the energy used in starting the engine and supplying current to the lights1 or else there is trouble in the battery4 ,use starter and lights sparingly until the specific gravity comes up to #a4bhj-a4cjj4 ,if the specific gravity is less than #a4aej remove the battery from the car and charge it on the charging bench1 as explained later4 ,the troubles which cause low gravity are given on pages #cba and #cbb4 ,it is often difficult to determine what charging current should be delivered by the generator4 ,some generators operate at a constant voltage slightly higher than that of the fully charged battery1 and the charging current will change1 being higher for a discharged battery than for one that is almost or fully charged4 ,other generators deliver a constant current which is the same regardless of the battery's condition4 ,in the constant voltage type of generator1 the charging current automatically adjusts itself to the condition of the battery4 ,in the constant current type1 the generator current remains constant1 and the voltage changes somewhat to keep the current constant4 ,individual cases often require that another current value be used4 ,in this case1 the output of the generator must be changed4 ,with most generators1 a current regulating device is used which may be adjusted so as to give a fairly wide range of current1 the exact value chosen being the result of a study of driving conditions and of several trials4 ,the charging current should never be made so high that the temperature of the electrolyte in the battery remains above #ij ,f4 ,a special thermometer is very useful in determining the temperature4 ,see ,fig4 #cg4 ,the thermometer bulb is immersed in the electrolyte above the plates through the filler hole in the tops of the cells4 ,batteries used on some of the older cars are divided into two or more sections which are connected in parallel while the engine is running1 and in such cases the cables leading to the different sections should all be of exactly the same length1 and the contacts in the switch which connect these sections in parallel should all be clean and tight4 ,if cables of unequal length are used1 or if some of the switch contacts are loose and dirty1 the sections will not receive equal charging currents1 because the resistances of the charging circuits will not be equal4 ,the section having the greatest resistance in its circuit will receive the least amount of charge1 and will show lower specific gravity readings than for other sections4 ,in a multiple section battery1 there is therefore a tendency for the various sections to receive unequal charges1 and for one or more sections to run down continually4 ,an ammeter should be attached with the engine running and the battery charging1 first to one section and then to each of the others in turn4 ,the ammeter should be inserted and removed from the circuit while the engine remains running and all conditions must be exactly the same2 otherwise the comparative results will not give reliable indications4 ,it would be better still to use two ammeters at the same time1 one on each section of the battery4 ,in case the amperage of charge should differ by more than #aj between any two sections1 the section receiving the low charge rate should be examined for proper height of electrolyte1 for the condition of its terminals and its connections at the starting switch1 as described4 ,should a section have suffered considerably from such lack of charge1 its voltage will probably have been lowered4 ,with all connections made tight and clean and with the liquid at the proper height in each cell1 this section may automatically receive a higher charge until it is brought back to normal4 ,this high charge results from the comparatively low voltage of the section affected4 ,in case the car is equipped with such a battery1 each section must carry its proper fraction of the load and with lamps turned on or other electrical devices in operation the flow from the several sections must be the same for each one4 ,an examination should be made to see that no additional lamps1 such as trouble lamps or body lamps1 have been attached on one side of the battery1 also that the horn and other accessories are so connected that they draw from all sections at once4 ,some starting systems have in the past not been designed carefully in this respect1 one section of the battery having longer cables attached to it than the others4 ,in such systems it is impossible for these sections to receive as much charging current as others1 even though all connections and switches are in good condition4 ,in other systems1 all the cells of the battery are in series1 and therefore must receive the same charging current1 but have lighting wires attached to it at intermediate points1 thus dividing the battery into sections for the lighting circuits4 ,if the currents taken by these circuits are not equal1 the battery section supplying the heavier current will run down faster than others4 ,fortunately1 multiple section batteries are not being used to any great extent at present1 and troubles due to this cause are disappearing4 ,the temperature of the electrolyte affects the specific gravity1 since heat causes the electrolyte to expand4 ,if we take any battery or cell and heat it1 the electrolyte will expand and its specific gravity will decrease1 although the actual amount of acid is the same4 ,the change in specific gravity amounts to one point1 approximately1 for every three degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,if the electrolyte has a gravity of #a4bej at #gj;,f1 and the temperature is raised to #gc;,f1 the specific gravity of the battery will be #a4bdi4 ,if the temperature is decreased to #fg;,f1 the specific gravity will be #a4bea4 ,since the change of temperature does not change the actual amount of acid in the electrolyte1 the gravity readings as obtained with the hydrometer syringe should be corrected one point for every three degrees change in temperature4 ,thus #gj;,f is considered the normal temperature1 and one point is added to the electrolyte reading for every three degrees above #gj;,f4 ,similarly1 one point is subtracted for every three degrees below #gj;,f4 ,for convenience of the hydrometer user1 a special thermometer has been developed by battery makers4 ,this is shown in ,fig4 #cg4 ,it has a special scale mounted beside the regular scale4 ,this scale shows the corrections which must be made when the temperature is not #gj;,f4 ,opposite the #gj point on the thermometer is a #j point on the special scale4 ,this indicates that no correction is to be made4 ,opposite the #fg point on the regular scale is a -#a1 indicating that #a must be subtracted from the hydrometer reading to find what the specific gravity would be if the temperature were #gj;,f4 ,opposite the #gc point on the regular scale is a #a1 indicating that #a point must be added to reading on the hydrometer1 in order to reduce the reading of specific gravity to a temperature of #gj;,f4 ,fig4 #cg ,special thermometer #h4 ,storage batteries are strongly affected by changes in temperature4 ,both extremely high and very low temperatures are to be avoided4 ,at low temperatures the electrolyte grows denser1 the porosity of plates and separators decreases1 circulation and diffusion of electrolyte are made difficult1 chemical actions between plates and acid take place very slowly1 and the whole battery becomes sluggish1 and acts as if it were numbed with cold4 ,the voltage and capacity of the battery are lowered4 ,as the battery temperature increases1 the density of the electrolyte decreases1 the plates and separators become more porous1 the internal resistance decreases1 circulation and diffusion of electrolyte take place much more quickly1 the chemical actions between plates and electrolyte proceed more rapidly1 and the battery voltage and capacity increase4 ,a battery therefore works better at high temperatures4 ,excessive temperatures1 say over #aaj ,f1 are1 however1 more harmful than low temperatures4 ,evaporation of the water takes place very rapidly1 the separators are attacked by the hot acid and are ruined1 the active materials and plates expand to such an extent that the active materials break away from the grids and the grids warp and buckle4 ,the active materials themselves are burned and made practically useless4 ,the hot acid also attacks the grids and the sponge lead and forms dense layers of sulphate4 ,such temperatures are therefore extremely dangerous4 ,a battery that persistently runs hot1 requiring frequent addition of water1 is either receiving too much charging current1 or has internal trouble4 ,the remedy for excessive charge is to decrease the output of the generator1 or to burn the lamps during the day time4 ,motorists who make long touring trips in which considerable day driving is done1 with little use of the starter1 experience the most trouble from high temperature4 ,the remedy is either to decrease the charging rate or burn the lamps1 even in the day time4 ,internal short-circuits cause excessive temperature rise1 both on charge and discharge4 ,such short circuits usually result from buckled plates which break through the separators1 or from an excessive amount of sediment4 ,this sediment consists of active material or lead sulphate which has dropped from the positive plate and fallen to the bottom of the battery jar4 ,all battery jars are provided with ridges which keep the plates raised an inch or more from the bottom of the jar1 and which form pockets into which the materials drop4 ,see ,fig4 #aj4 ,if these pockets become filled1 and the sediment reaches the bottom of the plates1 internal short circuits result which cause the battery to run down and cause excessive temperatures4 ,if the electrolyte is allowed to fall below the tops of the plates1 the parts of the plates above the acid become dry1 and when the battery is charged grow hot4 ,the parts still covered by the acid also become hot because all the charging current is carried by these parts1 and the plate surface is less than before4 ,the water will also become hot and boil away4 ,a battery which is thus charged while dry deteriorates rapidly1 its life being very short4 ,if a battery is placed in a hot place on the car1 this heat in addition to that caused by charging will soften the plates and jars1 and shorten their life considerably4 ,in the winter1 it is especially important not to allow the battery to become discharged1 as there is danger of the electrolyte freezing4 ,a fully charged battery will not freeze except at an extremely low temperature4 ,the water expands as it freezes1 loosening the active materials1 and cracking the grids4 ,as soon as a charging current thaws the battery1 the active material is loosened1 and drops to the bottom of the jars1 with the result that the whole battery may disintegrate4 ,jars may also be cracked by the expansion of the water when a battery freezes4 ,to avoid freezing1 a battery should therefore be kept charged1 ,the temperatures at which electrolyte of various specific gravities freezes are as follows3 ,specific ,gravity ,freezing ,pt4 ,specific ,gravity ,freezing ,pt4 ---------------- ------------ ---------------- ------------ #a4jjj #cb deg4 ,f #a4bjj -#af deg4 ,f #a4jej #bf deg4 ,f #a4bej -#eh deg4 ,f #a4ajj #ah deg4 ,f #a4bhj -#ib deg4 ,f #a4aej #e deg4 ,f #a4cjj -#if deg4 ,f #i4 ,care of ,storage ,battery ,when ,not in ,service4 ,a storage battery may be out of service for a considerable period at certain times of the year1 for example1 when the automobile is put away during the winter months1 and during this time it should not be allowed to stand without attention4 ,when the battery is to be out of service for only three or four weeks1 it should be kept well filled with distilled water and given as complete a charge as possible the last few days1 the car is in service by using the lamps and starting motor very sparingly4 ,the specific gravity of the electrolyte in each cell should be tested1 and it should be somewhere between #a4bhj and #a4cjj4 ,all connections to the battery should be removed1 as any slight discharge current will in time completely discharge it1 and the possibilities of such an occurrence are to be avoided4 ,if the battery is to be put out of service for several months1 it should be given a complete charge by operating the generator on the car or by connecting it to an outside charging circuit4 ,during the out-of-service period1 water should be added to the cells every six or eight weeks and the battery given what is called a freshening charge2 that is1 the engine should be run until the cells have been gassing for perhaps one hour1 and the battery may then be allowed to stand for another similar period without further attention4 ,water should be added and the battery fully charged before it is put back into service4 ,it is desirable to have the temperature of the room where the battery is stored fairly constant and as near #gj degrees ,fahrenheit as possible4 ,,chapter #aj4 ,,storage ,,battery ,,troubles4 ------------------------- ,the ,storage ,battery is a most faithful servant1 and if given even a fighting chance1 will respond instantly to the demands made upon it4 ,given reasonable care and consideration1 it performs its duties faithfully for many months4 ,when such care is lacking1 however1 it is soon discovered that the battery is subject to a number of diseases1 most of which are preventable1 and all of which1 if they do not kill the battery1 at least1 greatly impair its efficiency4 ,in discussing these diseases1 we may consider the various parts of which a battery is composed1 and describe the troubles to which they are subject4 ,every battery used on an automobile is composed of3 #a4 ,plates #b4 ,separators #c4 ,jars in which ,plates1 ,separators1 and ,electrolyte are placed #d4 ,wooden case #e4 ,cell ,connectors1 and ,terminals #f4 ,electrolyte ,most battery diseases are contagious1 and if one part fails1 some of the other parts are ,affected4 ,these diseases may best be considered in the order in which the parts are given in the foregoing list4 ,,plate ,,troubles ,plates are the vitals of a battery1 and their troubles affect the life of the battery more seriously than those of the other parts4 ,it is often difficult to diagnose their troubles1 and the following descriptions are given to aid in the diagnosis4 ,sulphation #a4 ,over discharge4 ,some battery men say that a battery is suflphated whenever anything is wrong with it4 ,sulphation is the formation of lead sulphate on the plates4 ,as a battery of the lead acid type discharges1 lead sulphate must form4 ,there can be no discharge of such a battery without the formation of lead sulphate1 which is the natural product of the chemical reactions by virtue of which current may be drawn from the battery4 ,this sulphate gradually replaces the lead peroxide of the positive plate1 and the spongy lead of the negative plate4 ,when a battery has been discharged until the voltage per cell has fallen to the voltage limits1 considerable portions of the lead peroxide and spongy lead remain on the plates4 ,the sulphate which is then present is in a finely divided1 porous condition1 and can readily be changed back to lead peroxide and spongy lead by charging the battery4 ,if the discharge is continued after the voltage has fallen to the voltage limits1 an excessive amount of sulphate forms4 ,it fills up the pores in the active materials1 and covers up much of the active material which remains1 so that it is difficult to change the sulphate back to active material4 ,moreover1 the expansion of active material which takes place as the sulphate forms is then so great that it causes the active material to break off from the plate and drop to the bottom of the jar4 #b4 ,allowing a ,battery to ,stand ,idle4 ,when lead sulphate is first formed1 it is in a finely divided1 porous condition1 and the electrolyte soaks through it readily4 ,if a battery which has been discharged is allowed to stand idle without being charged1 the lead sulphate crystals grow by the combination of the crystals to form larger crystals4 ,the sulphate1 instead of having a very large surface area1 upon which the electrolyte may act in changing the sulphate to active material1 as it does when it is first formed1 now presents only a very small surface to the electrolyte1 and it is therefore only with great difficulty that the large crystals of sulphate are changed to active material4 ,the sulphate is a poor conductor1 and furthermore1 it covers up much of the remaining active material so that the electrolyte cannot reach it4 ,a charged battery will also become sulphated if allowed to stand idle1 because it gradually becomes discharged1 even though no wires of any kind are attached to the battery terminals4 ,how this takes place is explained later4 ,the discharge and formation of sulphate continue until the battery is completely discharged4 ,the sulphate then gradually forms larger crystals as explained in the preceding paragraph1 until all of the active material is either changed to sulphate1 or is covered over by the sulphate so that the electrolyte cannot reach it4 ,the sulphate thus forms a high resistance coating which hinders the passage of charging current through the battery and causes heating on charge4 ,it is for this reason that sulphated plates should be charged at a low rate4 ,the chemical actions which are necessary to change the sulphate to active material can take place but very slowly1 and thus only a small current can be absorbed4 ,forcing a large current through a sulphated battery causes heating since the sulphate does not form uniformly throughout the plate1 and the parts which are the least sulphated will carry the charging current1 causing them to become heated4 ,the heating damages the plates and separators1 and causes buckling1 as explained later4 ,if batteries which have been discharged to the voltage limits are allowed to stand idle without being charged1 they will1 of course1 continue to discharge themselves just as fully charged batteries do when allowed to stand idle4 #c4 ,starvation4 ,if a battery is charged and discharged intermittently1 and the discharge is greater than the charge1 the battery will never be fully charged1 and lead sulphate will always be present4 ,gradually this sulphate forms the large tough crystals that cover the active material and remove it from action4 ,this action continues until all parts of the plate are covered with the crystalline sulphate and we have the same condition that results when a battery is allowed to stand idle without any charge4 #d4 ,allowing ,electrolyte to ,fall ,below ,tops of ,plates4 ,if the electrolyte is allowed to fall below the tops of the plates1 so that the active materials are exposed to the air1 the parts thus exposed will gradually become sulphated4 ,the spongy lead of the negative plate1 being in a very finely divided state1 offers a very large surface to the oxygen of the air1 and is rapidly oxidized1 the chemical action causing the active material to become hot4 ,the charging current1 in passing through the parts of the plates not covered by the electrolyte also heats the active materials4 ,the electrolyte which occasionally splashes over the exposed parts of the plates and which rises in the pores of the separators1 is heated also1 and since hot acid attacks the active materials readily1 sulphation takes place quickly4 ,the parts above the electrolyte1 of course1 cannot be charged and sulphate continues to form4 ,soon the whole exposed parts are sulphated as shown in ,fig4 #bji4 ,as the level of the electrolyte drops1 the electrolyte becomes stronger1 because it is only the water which evaporates1 the acid remaining and becoming more and more concentrated4 ,the remaining electrolyte and the parts of the plates covered by it become heated by the current1 because there is a smaller plate area to carry the current1 and because the resistance of the electrolyte increases as it grows more concentrated4 ,since hot acid attacks the active materials1 sulphation also takes place in the parts of the plates still covered by the electrolyte4 ,the separators in a battery having the electrolyte below the tops of the plates suffer also1 as will be explained later4 ,see page #cdf4 #e4 ,impurities4 ,these are explained later4 ,see page #gf4 #f4 ,adding ,acid ,instead of ,water4 ,the sulphuric acid in the electrolyte is a heavy1 oily liquid that does not evaporate4 ,it is only the water in the electrolyte which evaporates4 ,therefore1 when the level of the electrolyte falls1 only water should be added to bring the electrolyte to the correct height4 ,there are1 however1 many car owners who still believe that a battery may be charged by adding acid when the level of the electrolyte falls4 ,batteries in which this is done then contain too much acid4 ,this leads to two troubles4 ,the first is that the readings taken with a hydrometer will then be misleading4 ,a specific gravity of #a4aej is always taken to indicate that a battery is discharged1 and a specific gravity of #a4bhj that a battery is charged4 ,these two values of specific gravity indicate a discharged and charged condition of the battery ,,only ,,when ,,the ,,proportion ,,of ,,acid ,,in ,,the ,,electrolyte ,,is ,,correct4 ,it is the condition of the plates1 and not the specific gravity of the electrolyte which determines when a battery is either charged or discharged4 ,with the correct proportion of acid in the electrolyte1 the specific gravity of the electrolyte is #a4aej when the plates are discharged and #a4bhj when the plates are charged1 and that is why specific gravity readings are generally used as an indication of the condition of the battery4 ,if there is too much acid in the electrolyte1 the plates will be in a discharged condition before the specific gravity of the electrolyte drops to #a4aej1 and will not be in a charged condition until after the specific gravity has risen beyond the usual value4 ,as a result of these facts a battery may be over-discharged1 and never fully charged1 this resulting in the formation of sulphate4 ,the second trouble caused by adding acid to the electrolyte is that the acid will then be too concentrated and attacks both plates and separators4 ,this will cause the plates to become sulphated1 and the separators rotted4 #g4 ,overheating4 ,this was explained in ,chapter #i4 ,see page #ff4 ,buckling ,buckling is the bending or twisting of plates due to unequal expansion of the different parts of the plate1 ,figs4 #bjg and #bjh4 ,it is natural and unavoidable for plates to expand4 ,as a battery discharges1 lead sulphate forms4 ,this sulphate occupies more space than the lead peroxide and spongy lead1 and the active materials expand4 ,heat expands both active materials and grids4 ,as long as all parts of a plate expand equally1 no buckling will occur4 ,unequal expansion1 however1 causes buckling4 #a4 ,over discharge4 ,if discharge is carried too far1 the expansion of the active material on account of the formation of lead sulphate will bend the grids out of shape1 and may even break them4 #b4 ,continued ,operation with ,battery in a ,discharged ,condition4 ,when a considerable amount of lead sulphate has1 formed1 and current is still drawn from the battery1 those portions of the plate which have the least amount of sulphate will carry most of the current1 and will therefore become heated and expand4 ,the parts covered with sulphate will not expand1 and the result is that the parts that do expand will twist the plate out of shape4 ,a normal rate of discharge may be sufficient to cause buckling in a sulphated plate4 #c4 ,charging at ,high ,rates4 ,if the charging rate is excessive1 the temperature will rise so high that excessive expansion will take place4 ,this is usually unequal in the different parts of the plate1 and buckling results4 ,with a battery that has been over discharged1 the charging current will be carried by those parts of the plates which are the least sulphated4 ,these parts will therefore expand while others will not1 and buckling results4 #d4 ,non-,uniform ,distribution of ,current ,over the ,plates4 ,buckling may occur in a battery which has not been over-discharged1 if the current carried by the various parts of the plate is not uniform on account of faulty design1 or careless application of the paste4 ,this is a fault of the manufacturers1 and not the operating conditions4 #e4 ,defective ,grid ,alloy4 ,if the metals of which the grids are composed are not uniformly mixed throughout the plate1 areas of pure lead may be left here and there1 with air holes at various points4 ,the electrolyte enters the air holes1 attacks the lead and converts the grid partly into active material4 ,this causes expansion and consequent distortion and buckling4 ,buckling will not necessarily cause trouble1 and batteries with buckled plates may operate satisfactorily for a long time4 ,if1 however1 the expansion and twisting has caused much of the active material to break away from the grid1 or has loosened the active material from the grids1 much of the battery capacity is lost4 ,another danger is that the lower edges of a plate may press against the separator with sufficient force to cut through it1 touch the next plate1 and cause a short-circuit4 ,shedding1 or ,loss of ,active ,material ,the result of shedding1 provided no other troubles occur1 is simply to reduce the capacity of the plates4 ,the positives1 of course1 suffer more from shedding than the negatives do1 shedding being one of the chief weaknesses of the positives4 ,there is no remedy for this condition4 ,when the shedding has taken place to such an extent that the capacity of the battery has fallen very low1 new plates should be installed4 ,after a time1 the sediment space in the bottom of the jar becomes filled with sediment1 which touches the plates4 ,this short-circuits the cell1 of course1 and new plates must be installed1 and the jars washed out thoroughly4 #a4 ,normal ,shedding4 ,it is natural and unavoidable for the positives to shed4 ,lead ,peroxide is a powder-like substance1 the particles of which do not hold together4 ,a small amount of sulphate will cement the particles together to a considerable extent4 ,at the surface of the plate1 however1 this sulphate is soon changed to active material1 and the peroxide loses its coherence4 ,particles of peroxide drop from the plates and fall1 into the space in the bottom of the jar provided for this purpose4 ,bubbles of gas which occur at the end of a charge blow some of the peroxide particles from the plate4 ,the electrolyte moving about as the battery is jolted by the motion of the car washes particles of peroxide from the positive plates4 ,any slight motion between positive plates and separators rubs some peroxide from the plates4 ,it is therefore entirely natural for shedding to occur1 especially at the positives4 ,the spongy lead of the negatives is much more elastic than the peroxide1 and hence very little shedding occurs at the negative plates4 ,the shedding at the positives explains why the grooved side of the separator is always placed against the positive plate4 ,the grooves1 being vertical1 allow the peroxide to fall to the bottom of the jar1 where it accumulates as sediment1 or mud4 #b4 ,excessive ,charging ,rate1 or ,overcharging4 ,if a battery is charged at too high a rate1 only part of the current is used to produce the chemical actions by which the battery is charged4 ,the balance of the current decomposes the water of the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen1 causing gassing4 ,as the bubbles of gas force their way out of the plates1 they blow off particles of the active material4 ,when a battery is overcharged1 the long continued gassing has the same effect as described in the preceding paragraph4 #c4 ,charging ,sulphated ,plates at too ,high a ,rate4 ,in sulphated plates1 the chemical actions which take place as a battery is charged can proceed but very slowly1 because the sulphate1 besides being a poor conductor1 has formed larger crystals which present only a small surface for the electrolyte to act upon1 and has also covered up much of the remaining active material4 ,since the chemical actions take place slowly1 the charging current must be kept at a low value4 ,if too heavy a charging current is used1 the battery will be overheated1 and some of the current will simply cause gassing as explained in ,no4 #b above4 ,the gas bubbles will break off pieces of the sulphate1 which then fall to the bottom of the jars as mud4 #d4 ,charging ,only a ,part of the ,plate4 ,if the electrolyte falls below the tops of the plates1 and the usual charging current is sent into the battery1 the current will be too great for the plate area through which it passes1 and hence gassing and shedding will result as already explained4 ,the same condition exists in a battery in which one or more plates have been broken from the strap1 either because of mechanical vibration or because of impurities such as acetic acid in improperly treated separators4 ,the remaining plates are called upon to do more work1 and carry the entire charging current4 ,gassing and shedding will result4 #e4 ,freezing4 ,if a battery is given any care whatever1 there is little danger of freezing4 ,the electrolyte of a fully charged battery with a specific gravity of #a4bhj freezes at about #ib below zero4 ,with a specific gravity of #a4aej1 the electrolyte freezes at about #e above zero4 ,a frozen battery therefore indicates gross neglect4 ,as the electrolyte freezes1 the water of the electrolyte expands4 ,since there is electrolyte in all the inner parts of the plate1 the expansion as the water in the paste freezes forces the pastes out of the grids4 ,the expansion also cracks the rubber jars1 and sometimes bulges out the ends of the battery case4 ,loose ,active ,material ,this refers to a condition in which the active materials are no longer in contact with the grid4 ,corrosion1 or sulphation1 of the grids themselves is generally present at the same time1 since the chemical actions are shifted from the active material to the grids themselves4 #a4 ,over discharge4 ,as a battery discharges1 the lead sulphate which forms causes an expansion of the active material4 ,if a battery is repeatedly over-discharged1 this results in the positives shedding4 ,in the negatives1 the spongy lead is puffed out1 resulting in the condition known as bulged negatives as illustrated in ,fig #abb4 #b4 ,buckling4 ,as a plate grid is bent out of shape1 the active material1 especially the peroxide1 breaks loose from the grid1 since the peroxide cannot bend as much as the grids4 ,this occurs in the negatives also1 though not to such an extent as in the positives4 ,if the plates are buckled to such an extent that the element will not go back into the jar1 the positives should be discarded4 ,if the positives are buckled1 the negatives will be also1 but not to the extent that the positives are4 ,in the case of the positives1 there is no remedy1 and the plates should be discarded4 ,the negatives1 however1 may be fully charged1 and then straightened1 and the active material forced back flush with the grids by pressings1 as described in ,chapter #ae4 ,impurities ,impurities may be divided into two general classes4 ,the first class includes those which do not attack the separators or grids1 but merely cause internal self-discharge4 ,the second class includes those which attack the grids or separators4 #a4 ,impurities ,which ,merely ,cause ,self-discharge4 ,this includes metals other than lead4 ,if these metals are in solution in the electrolyte1 they deposit on the negative plate1 during charge1 in their ordinary metallic state1 and form small cells with the spongy lead4 ,these small cells discharge as soon as the charging circuit is opened1 and some of the lead is changed to lead sulphate4 ,this1 of course1 causes a loss in capacity4 ,free hydrogen is given off by this local discharge1 and so much of it is at times given off that the hydrogen bubbles give the electrolyte a milky appearance4 ,silver1 gold1 and platinum are the most active in forming small local cells4 ,these metals form local cells which have comparatively high voltages1 and which take away a considerable portion of the energy of a cell4 ,platinum is especially active1 and a small amount of platinum will prevent a negative plate from taking a charge4 ,gradually1 however1 the spongy lead covers up the foreign metal and prevents it from forming local cells4 ,iron also forms local cells which rob the cell of a considerable portion of its capacity4 ,this may be brought into the cell by impure acid or water4 ,iron remains in solution in the electrolyte1 and is not precipitated as metallic iron4 ,the iron in solution travels from the positive to the negative plate1 and back again1 causing a local discharge at each plate4 ,it is1 moreover1 very difficult to remove the iron1 except by pouring out all of the electrolyte4 ,manganese acts the same as the iron4 #b4 ,impurities ,which ,attack the ,plates4 ,in general1 this class includes acids other than sulphuric acid1 compounds formed from such acids1 or substances which will readily form acids by chemical action in the cell4 ,nitric acid1 hydrochloric or muriatic acid1 and acetic acid belong in this class of impurities4 ,organic matter in a state of decomposition attacks the lead grids readily4 ,impurities in the second class dissolve the lead grids1 and the plate disintegrates and falls to pieces1 since its backbone is destroyed4 ,when a battery which contains these impurities is opened1 it will be found that the plates crumble and fall apart at the slightest touch4 ,see ,fig4 #baj4 ,separators which have not been treated properly introduce acetic acid into a cell4 ,the acetic acid attacks and rots the lead1 especially the lugs projecting above the electrolyte1 and the plate connecting straps4 ,the plates will generally be found broken from the connecting strap1 with the plate lugs broken and crumbled4 ,as for remedies1 there is not much to be done4 ,impurities in the first class merely decrease the capacity of the battery4 ,if the battery is fully charged1 and the negatives then washed thoroughly1 some of the impurities may be removed4 ,impurities of the second class have generally damaged the plates beyond repairs by the time their presence is suspected4 ,the best thing to do is to keep impurities out of the battery4 ,this means that only distilled water1 which is known to be absolutely free from impurities should be used4 ,impurities which exist in the separators or acid cannot be detected readily1 but in repairing a battery1 separators furnished by one of the reliable battery makers should be used4 ,pure acid should also be used4 ,this means that only chemically pure1 or ,c4 ,p4 acid1 also known as battery acid should be used4 ,in handling the acid in the shop1 it should always be kept in its glass bottle1 and should be poured only into a glass1 porcelain1 earthenware1 lead1 or rubber vessel4 ,never use a vessel made of any other material4 ,corroded ,grids ,when the grids of a plate are attacked chemically1 they become thin and weak1 and may be spoken of as being corroded4 #a4 ,impurities4 ,those impurities which attack the lead grids1 such as acids other than sulphuric acid1 compounds formed from these acids1 or substances which will readily form acids dissolve some of the lead which composes the grids4 ,the grids gradually become weakened4 ,the decrease in the amount of metal in the grids increases the internal resistance of the cell and give a tendency for temperatures to be higher in the cell4 ,the contact between grids and active material is in time made poor4 ,if the action of the impurities continues for any length of time1 the plate becomes very weak1 and breaks at the slightest touch4 #b4 ,high ,temperatures4 ,anything that raises the temperature of the electrolyte1 such as too high a charging rate1 causes the acid to attack the grids and form a layer of sulphate on them4 ,the sulphate is changed to active material on charge1 and the grids are thereby weakened4 #c4 ,age4 ,grids gradually become weak and brittle as a battery remains in service4 ,the acid in the electrolyte1 even though the electrolyte has the correct gravity and temperature1 has some effect upon the grids1 and in time this weakens them4 ,during the life of a battery it is at times subjected to high temperatures1 impurities1 sulphation1 etc41 the combined effects of which result in a gradual weakening of the grids4 ,granulated ,negatives #a4 ,age4 ,the spongy lead of the negative plate gradually assumes a grainy or granulated appearance4 ,the lead then seems to be made up of small grains1 like grains of sand1 instead of being a smooth paste4 ,this action is a natural one1 and is due to the gradual increase in the size of the particles of the lead4 ,the plate loses its porosity1 the particles cementing together and closing the pores in the lead4 ,the increase in the size of the particles of the spongy lead decreases the amount of surface exposed to the action of the electrolyte1 and the plate loses capacity4 ,such plates should be thrown away1 as charging and discharging will not bring the paste back to its original state4 #b4 ,heat will also cause the paste to become granulated1 and its surface to become rough or even blistered4 ,heating of ,negatives ,exposed to the ,air ,when charged negatives are exposed to the air1 there is a decided increase in their temperature4 ,spongy lead is in an extremely finely divided state1 the particles of lead being very minute1 and forming a very porous mass4 ,when the plate is exposed to the air1 rapid oxidation takes place because the oxygen of the air has a very large surface to act upon4 ,the oxidation causes the lead to become heated4 ,the heating1 of course1 raises the temperature of the electrolyte1 and the hot acid attacks both grids and lead4 ,fully charged negatives should therefore be watched carefully when removed from a battery4 ,when they become heated and begin to steam1 they should be dipped in water until they have cooled4 ,they may then be removed from the water1 but should be dipped whenever they begin to steam4 ,after they no longer heat1 they may be left exposed to the air4 ,this method of dipping the negatives to prevent overheating has always been followed4 ,however1 the ,electric ,storage ,battery ,company1 which makes the ,exide batteries1 does not take any steps to prevent the heating of the negatives when exposed to the air1 stating that their plates are not injured by the heating which takes place4 ,negatives ,with ,very ,hard ,active ,material ,this is the characteristic condition of badly sulphated negatives4 ,the active material may be as hard as a stone4 ,the best method of treating such negatives is to charge them in distilled water4 ,see ,chapter #ae4 ,bulged ,negatives ,this is a characteristic of a repeatedly over-discharged negative4 ,the lead sulphate which forms as a battery discharges is bulkier than the spongy lead1 and the lead expands and bulges out between the ribs of the grid4 ,negative ,with ,soft1 ,mushy ,active ,material #a4 ,high ,gravity4 ,gravity above #a4cjj causes the acid to act upon the spongy lead and soften it4 #b4 ,heat will soften the spongy lead also4 ,the softened spongy lead is loosened and falls from the grids1 as shown in ,fig4 #baa4 ,little can be done for such negatives4 ,negatives ,with ,roughened ,surface ,this is caused by slight overheating1 and is not a serious condition4 ,frozen ,positives ,a battery which is allowed to stand in a cold place while completely discharged will freeze4 ,the water in the electrolyte expands as it freezes1 cracking the rubber jars and bulging out the end of the wooden case4 ,as the electrolyte which fills the pores of the positive plates freezes and expands1 it breaks the active material loose from the grids4 ,when the battery thaws1 the active material does not go back into the grids4 ,when such a battery is opened1 and the groups separated1 the positive active material sticks to the separators in large pieces1 ,fig4 #aab1 and that remaining in the grids falls out very easily4 ,the active material has a pinkish color and is badly shrunken4 ,rotted1 ,disintegrated ,positives #a4 ,impurities4 ,this has already been discussed4 ,see page #gf4 #b4 ,overheating4 ,the hot electrolyte dissolves the lead of the grids and that which is dissolved is never converted back to lead4 ,continued overheating wears out the grids1 and the active material also1 and the plate falls to pieces at the slightest pressure4 #c4 ,age4 ,positives gradually disintegrate due to the prolonged action of the electrolyte on the grids1 an occasional overheating1 occasional use of impure water1 etc4 ,positives which are rotted and disintegrated are1 of course1 hopeless1 and must be junked4 ,buckled ,positives ,as previously described1 buckling is caused by unequal expansion4 ,if the buckling is only slight1 the plates may be used as they are4 ,if the plates are badly buckled1 the active material will be found to be loose1 and the plates cannot be straightened4 ,such positives should be discarded4 ,positives ,that ,have ,lost ,considerable ,active ,material ,this is the result of continued shedding1 the causes of which have already been given4 ,if the shedding is only slight1 and the plate is good otherwise1 it may be used again4 ,if such active material has been lost1 the plates must be discarded4 ,positives ,with ,soft ,active ,material ,continued operation at high temperatures1 will soften the peroxide1 and make the plates unfit for further use4 ,old positives are soft1 clue to the natural deterioration of the paste with age4 ,positives ,with ,hard1 ,shiny ,active ,material ,this condition is found in batteries that have been charged with the acid below the tops of the plates4 ,the part of the plate above the acid is continually being heated by the charging current4 ,it becomes hard and shiny1 and has cracks running through it4 ,the peroxide becomes orange or brick colored1 and the grid deteriorates4 ,the part of the plate below the electrolyte suffers also1 as explained more fully on page #ga4 ,such plates should be discarded if any considerable portion of the plates is affected4 ,plates in which #a_/b to #a inch of the upper parts are affected may be used again if otherwise in good condition4 ,plates ,which ,have ,been ,charged in ,wrong ,direction ,such plates have been partly reversed1 so that there is lead peroxide and spongy lead on both positive and negative plates1 and such plates are generally worthless4 ,if the active materials have not become loosened from the grids1 and the grids have not been disintegrated and broken1 the plates may sometimes be reversed by a long charge at a low rate in the right direction4 ,if this does not restore the plates1 discard them4 ,,separator ,,troubles ,separators form the weakest part of a battery1 but at the same time perform a very important duty4 ,new separators should therefore be installed whenever a battery is opened for repairs4 ,repairs should never be attempted on separators4 #a4 ,not ,properly ,expanded ,before ,installation4 ,separators in stock must be kept moist4 ,this not only prevents them from becoming dry and brittle1 but keeps them fully expanded4 ,if separators which have been kept dry in stock are installed in a battery1 they do their expanding inside the battery4 ,this causes them to project beyond the edges of the plates4 ,the crowding to which they are subjected causes them to crack4 ,cracked separators permit treeing between plates1 with a consequent short circuit4 #b4 ,not ,properly ,treated4 ,separators which have not been given the proper chemical treatment are likely to develop ,acetic acid after they are in the battery4 ,acetic acid dissolves the lead grids1 the plate lugs1 and the plate connecting straps rapidly4 ,if the plate lugs are found broken1 and crumble easily1 acetic acid is very likely present1 especially if an odor like that of vinegar is noticeable4 ,improperly treated separators will cause a battery to show low voltage at high rates of discharge1 particularly in cold weather1 and will also cause the negatives to give poor cadmium readings1 which may lead the repairman to conclude that the negatives are defective4 ,the separators of batteries which have been shipped completely assembled without electrolyte and with moistened plates and separators will sometimes have the same effect4 #c4 ,cracked4 ,separators should be carefully candled--placed in front of a light and looked through4 ,cracks1 resinous streaks1 etc41 mean that the separator should not be used1 as it will breed trouble4 #d4 ,rotted and ,carbonized4 ,this may be the result of old age1 overheating1 or high gravity electrolyte4 #e4 ,pores ,clogged4 ,impurities1 dirt from impure water1 and lead sulphate fill the pores of a separator and prevent the proper circulation of the electrolyte4 ,the active material of frozen positives also fills up the pores of a separator4 #f4 ,edges ,chiseled ,off4 ,a buckling plate will cut through the lower edge of a separator and short circuit the cell4 ,holes will be cut through any part of a separator by a buckling plate1 or a negative with bulged active material4 ,,jar ,,troubles ,battery jars are made of hard rubber1 and are easily broken4 ,they are not acted upon by the electrolyte1 or any of the impurities which may be found in the jar4 ,their troubles are all mechanical1 and consist of being cracked1 or having small holes through the walls4 ,jars are softened by high temperatures1 but this does no particular harm unless they are actually burned by an open flame or red hot metal4 ,the causes of jar troubles are as follows3 #a4 ,rough ,handling4 ,by far the most common cause of jar breakage is rough handling by careless or inexperienced persons4 ,if one end of a battery rests on the floor1 and the other is allowed to drop several inches1 broken jars will probably result from the severe impact of the heavy lead plates4 ,storage batteries should be handled as if made of glass4 ,when installed on a car1 the springs protect the battery from shock to a considerable extent1 but rough roads or exceptionally severe jolts may break jars4 #b4 ,battery ,not ,properly ,fastened4 ,in this case a battery is bumped around inside the battery compartment1 and damage is very likely to result4 #c4 ,any ,weight ,placed on ,top of the ,battery is transmitted from the links to the plates1 and by them to the bottom of the jars4 ,batteries should always be stored in racks1 and not one on top of another4 ,the practice of putting any weight whatever on top of a battery should be promptly discouraged4 #d4 ,freezing4 ,this condition has already been explained4 ,it causes a great many broken jars every winter4 #e4 ,groups ,not ,properly ,trimmed4 ,the outside negative plates in a cell come just inside the jar1 and the strap ends must be carefully trimmed off flush with the plates1 to prevent them from breaking the top of the jars4 ,jars have slightly rounded corners1 and are somewhat narrower at the extreme ends than nearer the center4 ,a group may therefore go into a jar quite readily when moved toward the other end of the jar to that into which the post strap must go when in proper position for the cover4 ,when the group is forced back into its proper position the strap may break the jar4 ,it is a good plan not only to trim the ends of the negative straps perfectly flush1 but to round the strap corners where they go into the jar corners4 #f4 ,defective ,jars4 7a7 ,a jar not properly vulcanized may come apart at the scam4 7b7 ,a small impurity in the rubber may dissolve in the acid and leave a minute pinhole4 ,all jars are carefully tested at the factory and the likelihood of trouble from defective jars is extremely small4 #g4 ,explosion in ,cell4 7a7 ,hydrogen and oxygen gases evolved during charging make a very explosive mixture4 ,an open flame brought near a battery on charge or freshly charged1 will probably produce an explosion resulting in broken jars and jar covers4 7b7 ,an open circuit produced inside a cell on charge in the manner described on page #hf under the heading ,open ,circuits1 will cause a spark at the instant the circuit is broken1 with the same result as bringing a flame near the battery4 7c7 ,the small holes in the vents must be kept free for the escape of the gases4 ,these holes are usually sealed in batteries shipped with moistened plates and separators1 to keep air out of the cells4 ,the seals must be removed when the battery is prepared for service4 ,if the vents remain plugged1 the pressure of the gases formed during charge will finally burst the covers of jars4 ,,battery ,,case ,,trouble #a4 ,ends ,bulged ,out4 ,this may be due to a battery having been frozen or to hold-downs being screwed down too tight1 or some similar cause4 ,whether the case can be repaired depends on the extent of the bulging4 ,this can best be determined by the repairman4 #b4 ,rotted4 ,if the case is rotted around the top1 it is evidence that3 7a7 ,too much water was added1 with subsequent overflowing when electrolyte warmed up during charge4 7b7 ,the tops were poorly sealed1 resulting in leaks between the covers and the jars4 7c7 ,battery has not been fastened down properly1 and acid has been thrown out of the jars by the jolting of the car on the road4 7d7 ,the vent plugs have not been turned down tightly4 7e7 ,electrolyte has been spilled in measuring specific gravity4 ,if the case is rotted around the lower part it indicates that the jars are cracked or contain holes4 ,instructions for making repairs on battery cases are given on page #cfj4 ,,trouble ,,with ,,connectors ,,and ,,terminals #a4 ,corroded4 ,this is a very common trouble1 and one which should be guarded against very carefully4 ,corrosion is indicated by the presence of a grayish or greenish substance on the battery terminals1 especially the positive4 ,it is due to several causes3 7a7 ,too much water added to cells4 ,the electrolyte expands on charge and flows out on the top of the battery4 7b7 ,battery not fastened firmly4 ,the jolting caused by the motion of the car on the road will cause electrolyte to be thrown out of the vent caps4 7c7 ,battery poorly sealed4 ,the electrolyte will be thrown out on the cover by the motion of the car through the leaks which result from poor sealing4 7d7 ,vent caps loose4 ,this also allows electrolyte to be thrown out on the battery top4 7e7 ,electrolyte spilled on top of battery in measuring specific gravity4 7f7 ,battery cables damaged1 or loose4 ,the cables attached to the battery terminals are connected to lugs which are heavily coated with lead4 ,the cables are insulated with rubber1 upon which sulphuric acid has no effect4 ,care should be taken that the lead coating is not worn off1 and that the rubber insulation is not broken or cut so as to allow electrolyte1 which is spilled on the battery top as explained in 7a71 7b71 7c71 7d7 and 7e71 to reach the bare copper conductors of the cable4 ,the terminal parts are always so made that when the connections are kept tight no acid can come into contact with anything but lead and rubber1 neither of which is attacked by sulphuric acid4 7g7 ,attaching wires directly to battery terminals4 ,there should be no exposed metal except lead at the battery terminals4 ,no wires of any other metal should be attached to the battery terminals4 ,such wires should be connected to the rubber covered cables which are attached to battery1 and the connections should be made far enough away from the battery to prevent electrolyte from coming in contact with the wire4 ,car manufacturers generally observe this rule1 but the car owner may1 through ignorance1 attach copper wires directly to the battery terminals4 ,the positive terminal is especially subject to corrosion1 and should be watched carefully4 ,to avoid corrosion it is necessary simply to keep the top of the battery dry1 keep the terminal connections tight1 and coat the terminals with vaseline4 ,the rule about connecting wires directly to the battery terminals must of course be observed also4 #b4 ,loose4 ,loose terminal connections cause a loss of energy due to their resistance1 and all such connections must be well made4 ,if the inter-cell connectors are loose1 it is due to a poor job of lead burning4 ,this is also true of burned on terminals1 and in either case1 the connections should be drilled off1 cleaned and re-burned4 ,terminals sometimes become so badly corroded that it is impossible to disconnect the cables front the battery4 ,stitch terminals should be drilled off and soaked in boiling soda water4 ,,electrolyte ,,troubles 7#a7 ,low ,gravity4 ,see page #cba4 7#b7 ,high ,gravity4 ,see page #cbc4 7#c7 ,low ,level4 ,see page #cbc4 7#d7 ,high ,level4 ,this condition is due to the addition of too much water4 ,it leads to corrosion as already explained4 ,it also causes a loss of acid4 ,the ,electrolyte which overflows is lost1 this of course1 causing a loss of acid4 ,the condition of ,low ,gravity then arises1 as described on page #cba4 7#e7 ,specific gravity will not rise during charge4 ,see page #bjd4 7#f7 ,milky ,electrolyte3 7a7 ,lead ,sulphate in ,battery ,acid4 ,it sometimes happens that sulphuric acid contains some lead sulphate in solution4 ,this sulphate is precipitated when water is added to the acid in mixing electrolyte1 and gives the electrolyte a milky appearance4 ,this sulphate settles if the electrolyte is allowed to stand4 7b7 ,gassing4 ,the most common cause of the milky appearance1 however1 is the presence of minute gas bubbles in large quantities4 ,these may be the result of local action caused by the presence of metallic impurities in the battery4 ,the local action will stop when the battery is put on charge1 but will begin as soon as the battery is taken off charge4 ,the impurities are gradually covered by lead or lead sulphate1 and the local action is thus stopped4 ,excessive gassing in a cell which contains no impurities may also cause the electrolyte to have a milky appearance4 ,the gas bubbles are very numerous and make the electrolyte look milky white4 7c7 ,impurities in the electrolyte will also give it a milky appearance4 ,,general ,,troubles ,open ,circuits #a4 ,poor ,burning of ,connectors to ,posts4 ,unless a good burned connection is made between each connector and post1 the joint may melt under high discharge rates1 or it may offer so much resistance to the passage of current that the starting motor cannot operate4 ,sometimes the post is not burned to the connector at all1 although the latter is well finished off on top4 ,under such conditions the battery may operate for a time1 due to frictional contact between the post and connector1 but the parts may become oxidized or sulphated1 or vibration may break the connection1 preventing the flow of current4 ,frequently1 however1 the circuit is not completely open1 and the poor connection acts simply as a high resistance4 ,under such a condition the constant current generator automatically increases its voltage1 and forces charging current through the battery1 although the latter1 having only a low fixed voltage1 cannot force out the heavy current required for starting the engine4 #b4 ,terminals ,broken ,off4 ,inexperienced workmen frequently pound on the terminals to loosen the cable lugs1 or pry on them sufficiently to break off the battery terminals4 ,if the terminals and lugs are kept properly greased1 they will come apart easily4 ,a pair of terminal tongs is a very convenient tool4 ,these exert a pressure between the terminal and the head of the terminal screw1 which is first unscrewed a few turns4 #c4 ,acid on ,soldered ,joints4 ,amateurs sometimes attempt to make connections by the use of a soldering iron and solder4 ,solder is readily dissolved by acid1 not only spoiling the joint1 but endangering the plates if any gets into the cells4 ,solder must never be used on a battery except for sweating the cables into the cable lugs1 and the joint even here must be well protected by rubber tape4 #d4 ,defective ,posts4 ,posts withdrawn from the post mould before they are cool enough may develop cracks4 ,bubbles sometimes occur in the posts4 ,either trouble may reduce the current carrying capacity or mechanical strength of the post and result in a broken or burned-out spot4 #e4 ,plates ,improperly ,burned4 ,as previously explained1 this is not likely to cause immediate trouble1 but by imposing extra work on the balance of the plates1 causes them to wear out quickly4 ,battery ,discharged #a4 ,due to excessive use of starting motor and lamps4 #b4 ,failure of generator4 #c4 ,defective switches1 which by being grounded1 or failing to open allow battery to discharge4 #d4 ,defective cutout1 allowing battery to discharge into generator4 #e4 ,addition of accessories1 or use of too large lamps4 #f4 ,defective wiring1 causing grounds or short-circuits4 #g4 ,insufficient charging rate4 #h4 ,battery allowed to remain idle4 ,dead ,cells #a4 ,worn out ,separators4 ,the duties of separators are to prevent the plates from touching each other1 and to prevent treeing1 or growth of active material from the negative to the positive plates4 ,if they fail to perform these duties1 the battery will become short-circuited internally4 ,the separator troubles described on page #ha eventually lead to short-circuited cells4 #b4 ,foreign ,material4 ,if a piece of lead falls between plates so as to later punch a hole through a separator1 a short circuit will result4 ,great care should be taken in burning plates on the straps to prevent lead from running down between plates1 as this lead will cause a short circuit by punching through the separator4 #c4 ,accumulation of ,sediment4 ,the active material which drops from the plates accumulates in the mud space in the bottom of the jar4 ,if this rises until it touches the bottom of the plates1 a short-circuit results4 ,usually it is advisable to renew the positives in a battery which has become short-circuited by sediment1 since the sediment comes largely from the positives1 and if they have lost enough active material to completely fill the sediment space1 they are no longer fit for use4 #d4 ,badly sulphated plates and separators1 impurities which attack the plates4 ,loss of ,capacity ,a battery loses capacity due to a number of causes4 ,some of them have already been considered4 #a4 ,impurities in the ,electrolyte4 ,these have already been discussed4 #b4 ,sulphation4 ,this also has been described4 #c4 ,loose ,active ,material1 as already described4 ,the active materials which are not in contact with the grids cannot do their work4 #d4 ,incorrect ,proportions of ,acid and ,water in the ,electrolyte4 ,in order that all the active material in the plates may be utilized1 there must be enough acid in the electrolyte1 and also enough water4 ,if there is not enough acid1 the battery will lack capacity4 ,if there is too much acid1 the acid when the battery is fully charged will be strong enough to attack and seriously damage the plates and separators4 ,insufficient amount of acid may be due to replacing1 with water1 electrolyte which has been spilled or which has leaked out4 ,too much acid results from an incorrect proportion of acid and water in the electrolyte1 or from adding acid instead of water to bring the electrolyte above the plate tops1 and causes sulphation1 corroded plates1 and carbonized separators4 ,the remedy for incorrect proportions of acid and water in the electrolyte is to give the battery a full charge and adjust the gravity by drawing off some of the electrolyte and replacing it with water1 or #a4djj specific gravity electrolyte1 as the case may require4 #e4 ,separators ,clogged4 ,the pores of the separators may become filled with sulphate or impurities1 and thus prevent the proper circulation of the electrolyte4 ,new separators must be put in4 #f4 ,shedding4 ,the capacity of a battery naturally decreases as the active material falls from the plates1 since the amount of active material which can take part in the chemical actions that enable us to draw current from the battery decreases4 #g4 ,low ,level of ,electrolyte4 ,aside from the loss of capacity which results from the sulphation caused by low electrolyte1 there is a loss of capacity caused by the decrease in the useful plate area when the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates4 ,only that part of the plate surface which is below the electrolyte does any work1 and the area of this part gradually decreases as the electrolyte falls4 #h4 ,reversal of ,plates4 ,if one cell of a battery has an internal short circuit1 or some other defect which causes it to lose its charge1 the cell will be discharged before the others which are in series with it1 and when this cell is completely discharged1 the other cells will send a current through it in a discharge direction1 and the negative plates will have a coating of lead peroxide formed on them1 and will assume the characteristics of positive plates4 ,the positives will be reversed also4 ,this reversal may also be the result of charging a battery in the wrong direction1 on account of reversed charging connections4 ,the remedy for reversed plates1 provided they have not become disintegrated1 is to give them a long charge in the right direction at a low rate4 #i4 ,effect of ,age4 ,a battery gradually loses capacity due to its age4 ,this effect is independent of the loss of capacity due to the other causes4 ,in the negatives1 the size of the grain increases its size1 giving the plates a granulated appearance4 ,stitch plates are called granulated negatives4 ,the spongy lead cements together and loses porosity4 ,loss of ,charge in ,an ,idle ,battery ,it has been found that if a charged battery is allowed to stand idle1 and is not charged1 and no current is drawn from it1 the battery will gradually become completely discharged and must be given an occasional freshening charge4 ,now1 as we have learned1 when a battery discharges lead sulphate forms on each plate1 and acid is taken from the electrolyte as the sulphate forms4 ,in our idle battery1 therefore1 such actions must be taking place4 ,the only difference in this case is that the sulphate forms without any current passing through the battery4 ,at the lead peroxide plate we have lead peroxide paste1 lead grid1 and sulphuric acid4 ,these are all the element-1 needed to produce a storage battery1 and as the lead peroxide and the lead are touching each other1 each lead peroxide plate really forms a short circuited cell4 ,why does this plate not discharge itself completely8 ,a certain4 amount of discharge does take place1 and results in a layer of lead sulphate forming between the lead peroxide and the grid4 ,the sulphate1 having high resistance then protects the lead grid and prevents any further action4 ,this discharge action therefore does not continue1 but causes a loss of a certain part of the charge4 ,at the negative plate1 we have pure spongy lead1 and the grid4 ,this grid is not composed entirely of lead1 but contains a percentage of antimony1 a metal which makes the grid harder and stronger4 ,there is but very little difference of potential between the spongy lead and the grid4 ,a small amount of lead sulphate does form1 however1 on the surface of the negative plate4 ,this is due to the action between the spongy lead and the electrolyte4 ,some of the lead combines with the acid to form lead sulphate1 but after a small amount has been formed the action is stopped because a balanced chemical condition is soon obtained4 ,thus only a small amount of lead sulphate is formed at each plate1 and the cell thereby loses only a small part of its charge4 ,in a perfectly constructed battery the discharge would then stop4 ,the only further action which would take place would be the slow evaporation of the water of the electrolyte4 ,the loss of charge which actually occurs in an idle charged battery is greater than that due to the formation of the small amounts of sulphate on the plates1 and the evaporation of the water from the electrolyte4 ,does an idle cell discharge itself by decomposing its electrolyte8 ,we have a difference of potential of about two volts between the lead and lead peroxide plate4 ,why is the electrolyte not decomposed by this difference8 ,at first it might seem that the water and acid should be separated into its parts1 and hydrogen liberated at the negative plate4 ,as a matter of fact1 very little hydrogen gas is set free in an idle charged cell because to do so would require a voltage of about #b4e4 ,at two volts1 so little gas is formed that the loss of charge due to it may be neglected entirely4 ,the greatest loss of charge in an idle battery results from conditions arising from the processes of manufacture1 internal troubles1 and leakage between terminals4 ,the grids of a cell are an alloy of lead and antimony4 ,these are mixed while in a molten condition1 and are then allowed to cool4 ,if the cooling is not done properly1 or if a poor grade of antimony is used1 the resulting grid is not a uniform mixture of antimony and lead4 ,there will be areas of pure lead1 with an air hole here and there4 ,the lack of uniformity in the grid material results in a local discharge in the grid4 ,this causes some loss of charge4 ,if the active material completely fills the spaces between the grids1 the acid formed as the cell is charged may not be able to diffuse into the main body of the electrolyte1 but forms a small pocket of acid in the plate4 ,this acid will cause a discharge between paste and grid and a coating of lead sulphate forms on the arid1 resulting in a certain loss of charge4 ,in general any metallic impurity in a cell will cause a loss at the lead plate4 ,when a cell is charged1 the current causes the metals to deposit on the lead plate4 ,local cells are formed by the metallic impurity1 the lead plate1 and the acid1 and these tiny cells will discharge completely1 causing a loss of charge4 ,this has already been described on page #gf4 ,another cause of loss of charge in an idle cell is leakage of current between the terminals on the outside of the battery4 ,during charge1 the bubbles of gas which escape from the electrolyte carry with them minute quantities of acid which may deposit on the top of the battery and gradually form a thin conducting layer of electrolyte through which a current will flow from the positive to the negative terminals4 ,this danger may be avoided by carefully wiping any moisture from the battery4 ,condensation of moisture from the air1 on the top or sides and bottom of a battery will cause the same condition4 ,this will be especially noticeable if a battery is kept in a damp place4 ,the tendency for crystals of lead to tree over from the negative to the positive plates is well known4 ,an idle battery is one in which this action tends to take place4 ,treeing will occur through the pores of the separators and as there is no flow of electrolyte in or out of the plates1 the lead trees are not disturbed in their growth4 ,a freshening charge causes this flow to take place1 and break up the trees which would otherwise gradually short circuit the cells4 ,section ,,ii ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,shop ,equipment ,shop ,methods ,,chapter #aa4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,battery ,,on ,,the ,,car4 ------------------------------- ,any man who goes into the battery repair business will gradually learn by experience what equipment he finds necessary for his work4 ,some men will be able to do good work with comparatively little equipment1 while others will require a somewhat elaborate layout4 ,fig #ch4 ,fig4 #ch4 ,typical ,work ,room ,showing ,bench ,about #cd ,inches ,high1 ,lead ,burning ,outfit1 ,hot ,plates for ,melting ,sealing ,compound and ,hand ,drill-,press for ,drilling off ,inter-,cell ,connectors4 ,there are some things1 however1 which are necessary1 and the following lists are given to help the repairman select his equipment4 ,the man with limited capital will be unable to buy a complete equipment at the start1 but he should add to his equipment as fast as his earnings will permit4 ,the repairman may be able to get-by with crude equipment when his business is very small1 but to make his business grow he must absolutely have good equipment4 ,the following list gives the various articles in the order of their importance4 ,the first seven are absolutely necessary1 even for the poorest beginner4 ,the others are also essential1 but may be bought as soon1 as the money begins to come in4 ,some of the tools must also be bought before opening doors for business1 such as the putty knife1 screwdrivers1 pliers1 and so on4 ,each article1 which requires explanation1 is described in detail1 beginning on page #ajj4 ,equipment ,which is ,absolutely ,necessary #a4 ,charging ,outfit1 such as a motor-generator set1 rectifier1 or charging resistance where direct current is available4 #b4 ,charging ,bench and ,accessories4 ,with the charging bench must go the following3 #a4 ,a syringe-hydrometer for measuring specific gravity of electrolyte1 for drawing off electrolyte and for adding water to cells4 #b4 ,a special battery thermometer for measuring temperature of electrolyte4 #c4 ,a voltmeter to measure cell1 battery1 and cadmium voltages4 #d4 ,an ammeter to measure charging current4 #e4 ,a glass bottle for distilled water4 ,also one for electrolyte4 #f4 ,a number of eighteen inch lengths of ,no4 #ab flexible wire fitted with lead coated test clips1 for connecting batteries in series while on charge4 #c4 ,work bench with vise4 #d4 ,sink or wash tank and water supply4 #e4 ,lead-burning outfit4 7,this should properly be called a lead welding outfit1 since it is used to melt lead parts so that they will be welded together47 #f4 ,for handling sealing compound1 the following are necessary4 #a4 ,stove4 #b4 ,pot in which compound is melted4 #c4 ,an iron ladle for dipping up the melted compound4 #d4 ,one or two old coffee pots for pouring compound4 #g4 ,shelving or racks for batteries waiting to be repaired1 batteries which have been repaired1 rental batteries1 new batteries1 battery boxes1 battery jars1 battery plates1 etc4 #h4 ,bins for battery parts1 such as covers1 inter-cell connectors1 plate straps1 terminals1 handles1 vent plugs1 hold down bolts1 separator hold-downs1 and so on4 ,equipment ,needed ,in ,opening ,batteries #i4 ,a battery steamer for softening sealing-compound and making covers limp1 for softening compound around defective jars which are to be removed1 for softening jars which are to be set in a battery box1 and so on4 #aj4 ,putty knife to remove softened scaling compound4 #aa4 ,one ratchet brace with set of wood bits or square shank drills of the following sizes3 #c_/h1 #e_/h1 #c_/d1 #ac_/af1 and #g_/h inch1 for drilling off terminals and inter-cell connectors4 ,a power drill press1 or a portable electric drill will save time and labor in drilling off the terminals and connectors4 #ab4 ,center punch for marking terminals and connectors before drilling4 #ac4 ,ten inch screwdriver for prying off connectors and terminals which have been drilled4 ,the screwdriver may1 of course1 be used on various other kinds of work also4 #ad4 ,a ten-inch length of #c_/d inch angle iron to protect upper edge of case when prying off the connectors and terminals which have been drilled4 #ae4 ,two pairs of standard combination pliers for lifting elements out of jars4 ,a pair of six or eight inch gas pliers will also do for this work4 #af4 ,machinist hammer4 ,this is1 of course1 also used for other purposes4 #ag4 ,terminal tongs for removing taper lugs from terminals4 #ah4 ,pair of long1 fiat nosed pliers for pulling out separators and jars4 #ai4 ,open-end wrench for use in removing taper lugs from terminals4 ,equipment for ,lead ,burning 7,welding7 ,in addition to the lead burning-outfit1 the following tools are needed3 #bj4 ,a plate burning rack for setting up plates which are to be burned to a plate strap4 #ba4 ,a plumber's or tinner's triangular scraper for cleaning surfaces which are to be welded together4 ,a pocketknife will do in a pinch4 #bb4 ,steel wire brush for cleaning surfaces which are to be welded together4 ,this may also be used for general cleaning of lead parts4 #bc4 ,coarse files1 vixen1 round1 and flat1 for filing lead parts4 #bd4 ,set of burning1 collars to be used in burning inter-cell connectors to posts4 #be4 ,moulds for casting sticks of burning lead4 ,a pot for melting lead is needed with the mould1 and mould compound is also needed4 #bf4 ,set of post builders-moulds used for building up posts which have been drilled short in removing terminals and intercell connectors4 #bg4 ,pair of blue or smoked glasses to be worn when using lead burning outfit4 ,equipment for ,general ,work on ,cell ,connectors and ,terminals #bh4 ,set of moulds for casting inter-cell connectors1 terminals1 terminal screws1 taper lugs1 plate straps and posts1 etc4 #bi4 ,set of reamers to ream holes in terminals and connectors4 #cj4 ,set of hollow reamers for reducing posts4 ,equipment for ,work on ,cases #ca4 ,cans of asphaltum paint for painting cases4 ,may also be used for acid-proofing work benches1 floor1 shelves1 charging bench1 and so on4 #cb4 ,paint brushes1 one wide and several narrow4 #cc4 ,battery turntable4 #cd4 ,several wood chisels of different sizes4 #ce4 ,small wood-plane for smoothing up top edges of case4 #cf4 ,large glazed earthenware jars of washing or baking soda solution for soaking cases to neutralize acid4 ,tools and ,equipment for ,general ,work #cg4 ,one pair of large end cutting nippers for cutting connectors1 posts1 plate lugs1 and so on4 #ch4 ,one pair of #h inch side cutting pliers4 #ci4 ,one pair of #h inch diagonal cutting pliers4 #dj4 ,several screwdrivers4 #da4 ,adjustable hacksaw frame with set of coarse blades4 #db4 ,gasoline torch4 #db4 ,soldering iron1 solder and flux4 #dd4 ,separator cutter4 #de4 ,plate press for pressing bulged1 spongy lead of negative plates flush with surface of grids4 #df4 ,battery carrier4 #dg4 ,battery truck4 #dh4 ,lead lined box for storing separators4 ,a large glazed earthenware jar may be used for this purpose1 and is much cheaper1 although it will not hold as many separators1 on account of its round shape1 as the lead lined box4 #di4 ,several old stew pans for boiling acid soaked terminals1 connectors1 covers1 etc41 in a solution of washing soda4 #ej4 ,set of metal lettering stamps1 for stamping ,,pos and ,,neg on battery terminals1 repairman's initials1 date battery was repaired1 and nature of repairs1 on inter-cell connectors4 #ea4 ,cadmium test set4 #eb4 ,high rate discharge testers4 #ec4 ,pair of rubber gloves to protect hands when handling acid4 #ed4 ,rubber apron to protect clothing from acid4 #ee4 ,pair of rubber sleeve protectors4 #ef4 ,rubbers to protect shoes1 or pair of low rubber boots4 #eg4 ,tags for tagging repair and rental batteries1 batteries in storage1 etc4 #eh4 ,pot of paraffine which may be heated1 and paper tags dipped after date has been written on tag in pencil4 ,a #fj-watt lamp hung in the can may be used for heating the compound4 ,in this way the tag is protected from the action of acid1 and the writing on the tag cannot be rubbed off or made illegible4 #ei4 ,a number of wooden boxes1 about #ab inches long1 #h inches wide1 and #d inches deep1 in which are placed terminals1 inter-cell connectors1 covers1 vent plugs1 etc41 of batteries being repaired4 #fj4 ,several large glazed earthenware jars are convenient for waste acid1 old separators1 and general junk1 which would otherwise litter up the shop4 ,stock #fa4 ,a supply of spare parts1 such as cases1 jars1 covers1 plate straps1 inter-cell connectors1 plates1 vent plugs1 etc41 should be kept4 #fb4 ,a supply of sealing compound is necessary4 #fc4 ,a carboy of pure acid1 and carboys of #a4djj electrolyte ready for use should be on hand4 ,a #af oz4 and a #cb or #fd oz4 graduate are very useful in measuring out acid and water4 #fd4 ,a ten gallon bottle of distilled water is necessary for use in making up electrolyte1 for addition to cell electrolyte to bring electrolyte up to proper level1 and so on4 ,if you wish to distill water yourself1 buy a water still4 #fe4 ,a supply of pure vaseline is necessary for coating terminals to prevent corrosion4 ,special ,tools ,owing to special constructions used oil sonic of the standard makes of batteries1 special tools are required1 and such tools should be obtained if work is done oil these batteries4 ,some of these tools are as follows3 #ff4 ,special wrenches for turning sealing nuts on ,exide batteries4 #fg4 ,two hollow reamers 7post-freeing tools7 for cutting lead seal around posts of ,prest-,o-,lite batteries4 ,there are two sizes1 large and small1 see page #chi4 #fh4 ,style ,b peening press for sealing posts of ,prest-,o-,lite batteries to covers1 see page #cij4 #fi4 ,pressure tongs for forcing lead collar oil posts of ,vesta batteries1 see page #dae4 #gj4 ,special wrench for tightening sealing nut oil ,titan batteries4 #ga4 ,special reamer for cutting sealing ring oil ,universal batteries4 ,the list of special tools is not intended to be complete1 and the repairman will probably find other special tools necessary from time to time4 ,in any case1 it is best to buy from the battery manufacturer such special tools as are necessary for the batteries that come in for repairs4 ,it is sometimes possible to get along without the special tools1 but time and labor will be saved by using them4 ,,descriptions ,,of ,,tools ,,and ,,equipment ,,named ,,in ,,foregoing ,,list ,charging ,equipment ,a battery is charged by sending a direct current through it1 this charging current entering the battery at1 the positive terminal and passing out at the negative terminal4 ,to send this current through the battery1 a voltage of about #g4e volts is applied to each battery4 ,two things are therefore necessary in charging a battery3 #a4 ,we must have a source of direct current4 #b4 ,the voltage impressed across each battery must be1 about #b4e per cell4 ,the charging voltage across each six volt battery must therefore be #g4e1 and for each twelve volt battery the charging voltage must be about #ae volts4 ,with the battery on the car1 there are two general methods of charging1 i4 e41 constant potential 7voltage7 and constant current4 ,generators having a constant voltage regulator have a constant voltage of about #g4e1 the charging current depending upon the condition of the battery4 ,a discharged battery thus receives a high charging current1 this current gradually decreasing1 or tapering as the battery becomes more fully charged4 ,this system has the desirable characteristic that a discharged battery receives a heavy charging current1 and a fully charged battery receives a small charging current4 ,the time of charging is thereby decreased4 ,with a constant-current charging system1 the generator current output is maintained at a certain value1 regardless of the state of charge of the battery4 ,the disadvantage of this system is that a fully charged battery is charged at as high a rate and in most cases at a higher rate than a discharged battery4 ,in the shop1 either the constant-potential1 or the constant-current system of charging may be used4 ,up to the present time1 the constant current system has been used in the majority of shops4 ,the equipment for constant current charging uses a lamp bank or rheostat to regulate the charging current where direct current is available1 and a rectifier or motor-generator set where only alternating current is available4 ,recently1 the ,hobart ,brothers ,company of ,troy1 ,ohio1 has put on the market a constant potential motor-generator set which gives the same desirable tapering charge as does the constant voltage generator on the car4 ,this set will be described later4 ,where a #aaj-volt direct current supply is available1 fifteen #f-volt batteries may be connected in series across the line without the use of any rheostat or lamp bank1 only an ammeter being required in the circuit to indicate the charging current4 ,the charging rate may be varied by cutting out some of the batteries1 or connecting more batteries in the circuit4 ,this method is feasible only where many batteries are charged1 since not less than fifteen #f-volt batteries may be charged at one time4 ,constant ,current ,charging ,using ,lamp ,banks1 or ,rheostats ,figures #ci and #dj show the wiring for a bank of twenty #ajj-watt lamps for battery charging from a #aaj volt line4 ,figure #ci shows the wiring to be used when the positive side of the line is grounded1 while ,figure #dj shows the wiring to be used when the negative side of the line is grounded4 ,in either case1 the live wire connects to the lamp bank4 ,the purpose of this is to eliminate the possibility of a short-circuit if any part of the charging line beyond the lamp bank is accidentally grounded4 ,fig4 #ci ,lamp bank for charging from a #aaj volts1 ,d4,c4 ,line 7positive grounded7 ,fig4 #dj ,lamp bank for charging from a #aaj volts1 ,d4,c4 ,line 7negative grounded7 ,fig4 #da ,rheostat for charging from a #aaj volts1 ,d4,c4 ,line 7positive grounded7 ,fig4 #db ,rheostat for charging from a #aaj volts1 ,d4,c4 ,line 7negative grounded7 ,figures #da and #db show the wiring of two charging rheostats which may be used instead of the lamp banks shown in ,figures #ci and #dj4 ,in these two rheostats the live wire is connected to the rheostat resistances in order to prevent short-circuits by grounding any part of the circuit beyond the rheostats4 ,these rheostats may be bought ready for use1 and should not be homemade4 ,the wiring as shown in ,figures #da and #db is probably not the same as will be found on a rheostat which may be bought1 but when installing a rheostat1 the wiring should be examined to make sure that the live wire is connected to the rheostat resistance and does not connect directly to the charging circuit4 ,if necessary1 change the wiring to agree with ,figures #da and #db4 ,figures #dc and #dd show the wiring of the charging circuits4 ,in ,figure #dc each battery has a double pole1 double throw knife switch4 ,this is probably the better layout1 since any battery may be connected in the circuit by throwing down the knife switch1 and any battery may be cut out by throwing the switch up4 ,with this wiring layout1 any number of batteries from one to ten may be cut-in by means of the switches4 ,thus1 to charge five batteries1 switches #a to #e are thrown down1 and switches #e to #aj are thrown up1 thereby short-circuiting them4 ,fig4 #dc ,wiring for a charging circuit1 using a ,,dpdt switch for each battery2 and ,fig4 #dd ,wiring for a charging circuit1 using jumpers to connect batteries in series ,figure #dd shows a ten-battery charging circuit on which the batteries are connected in series by means of jumpers fitted with lead coated test clips1 as shown4 ,this layout is not as convenient as that shown in ,figure #dc1 but is less expensive4 ,using ,motor-,generator ,sets ,fig4 #de ,ten battery motor-generator charging set ,where no direct current supply is available1 a motor-generator or a rectifier must be installed4 ,the motor-generator is more expensive than a rectifier1 but is preferred by some service stations because it is extremely flexible as to voltage and current1 is easily operated1 is free from complications1 and has no delicate parts to cause trouble4 ,motor-,generator sets are made by a number of manufacturers4 ,accompanying these sets are complete instructions for installation and operation1 and we will not attempt to duplicate such instructions in this book4 ,rules to assist in selecting the equipment will1 however1 be given4 ,except in very large service stations1 a #dj volt generator is preferable4 ,it requires approximately #b4e volts per cell to overcome the voltage of a battery in order to charge it1 and hence the #dj volt generator has a voltage sufficient to charge #ae cells in series on one charging line4 ,five #f volt batteries may therefore be charged at one time on each line4 ,with a charging rate of #aj amperes1 each charging line will require #aj times #dj1 or #djj watts4 ,the size of the generator will depend on the number of charging lines desired4 ,with #aj amperes charging current per line1 the capacity of the generator required will be equal to #djj watts multiplied by the number of charging lines4 ,one charging line will need a #djj watt outfit4 ,for two charging lines #hjj watts are required4 ,each charging line is generally provided with a separate rheostat so that its charging rate may be adjusted to any desired value4 ,this is an important feature1 as it is wrong to charge all batteries at the same rate1 and with separate rheostats the current on each line may be adjusted to the correct value for the batteries connected to that line4 ,any number of batteries up to the maximum may be charged on each line4 ,fig4 #df ,thirty-two battery motor-generator charging set ,in choosing a charging outfit1 it is important not to get one which is too large1 as the outfit will operate at a loss when running under a minimum load4 ,it is equally important not to get one which is too small1 as it will not be able to take care of the batteries fast enough1 and there will be a waiting list of batteries which cannot be charged until others are taken off charge4 ,this will prevent the giving of good service4 ,buy an outfit that will care for your needs in the future1 and also operate economically at the present time4 ,most men going into the battery business make the mistake of underestimating their needs1 and getting equipment which must soon be discarded because of lack of capacity4 ,the manufacturers each make a number of sizes1 and the one which will best fill the requirements should be chosen4 ,in selecting an outfit the manufacturer's distributor or dealer should be consulted in deciding what size outfit to obtain4 ,the particular outfit will depend on the voltage and frequency of the alternating current power circuits1 the maximum charging current desired 7#aj amperes per line is ample71 and the greatest number of batteries to be charged at one time4 ,for the beginner1 a #ejj watt ten battery outfit1 as shown in ,fig4 #de1 is suitable4 ,for the medium sized garage that specializes in battery charging1 or for the small battery service station1 a one kilowatt outfit is most satisfactory4 ,two charging panels are generally furnished with this outfit1 and two charging lines may thus be used4 ,this is an important feature1 as one line may be used in starting a charge at #aj amperes1 and the other for charging the batteries1 that have begun to gas1 at a reduced rate4 ,fig4 #df shows a #b ,k4 ,w4 four-circuit1 #cb battery motor-generator set4 ,each circuit is provided with a separate rheostat and ammeter4 ,the two terminals near the top of each rheostat are connected to one charging circuit4 ,the two terminals near the lower end of each rheostat are connected to the generator4 ,the #b kilowatt set is suitable for a city garage1 or a battery service station in a medium sized town4 ,a beginner should not purchase this large set1 unless the set can be operated at at least one-fourth capacity continuously4 ,as a service station grows1 a #e kilowatt set may be needed4 ,the #a1 #b and #e kilowatt sets should not be used on anything but city power lines4 ,single phase1 or lighting lines are not satisfactory for handling these sets4 ,a few suggestions on ,motor-,generator ,sets #a4 ,installation4 ,set the motor-generator on as firm a foundation as possible4 ,a good plan is to bolt it to a heavy bench1 in which position it is easily inspected and adjusted1 and is also less likely to be hit by acid spray1 water1 etc4 ,set the motor-generator at some distance from the batteries so that acid spray and fumes will not reach it4 ,sulphuric acid will attack any metal and if you are not careful1 your motor-generator may be damaged seriously4 ,the best plan is to have the motor generator set outside of the charging room1 so as to have a wall or partition between the motor-generator and the batteries4 ,the charging panels may be placed as near the batteries as necessary for convenience1 but should not be mounted above the batteries4 ,figure #dg shows a convenient layout of motor-generator1 charging panels1 and charging benches4 ,note that the junipers used in connecting the batteries together are run through the upper holes of the wire porcelain insulating cleats1 the lower hole of each insulator supporting the wire from the charging panel which runs to the end of the bench4 ,fig4 #dg ,fig4 #dg4 ,convenient ,arrangement of ,motor-,generator1 ,charging ,panels1 and ,charging ,benches ,instructions for the wiring connections to the power lines generally come with each outfit1 and they should be followed carefully4 ,fuses in both the motor and generator circuits are especially important1 as they protect the machines from damage due to overloads1 grounds1 or short-circuits4 ,the generator must be driven in the proper direction or the generator will not build up4 ,the rotation of a three-phase motor may be reversed by reversing1 and ,charging ,benches any two of the cables4 ,to reverse a two-phase motor1 reverse the cables of either phase4 ,before putting a motor-generator set into operation1 be sure to check all connections to make sure that everything checks with the instructions furnished by the manufacturer4 ,operating the ,charging ,circuits ,a generator operates most efficiently when delivering its rated output4 ,therefore1 keep the generator as fully loaded as possible at all times4 ,when you do not have enough batteries to run the generator at full load1 run each charging circuit at full load1 and use as few circuits as possible4 ,this will reduce your power bill1 since there is a loss of power in the rheostat of each charging circuit1 this loss being the greatest when only one battery is on the circuit1 and a minimum when the circuit is fully loaded4 ,with several charging circuits1 it is also possible to put batteries which are in the same condition on one circuit and adjust the charging rate to the most suitable value4 ,thus1 badly sulphated batteries1 which must be charged at a low rate1 may be put on the same circuit1 while batteries which have had only a normal discharge may be put oil another circuit and charged at a higher rate4 ,as each battery becomes almost fully charged1 it may be removed from the circuit and put on another circuit and the charge completed at the finishing rate4 ,this is a good practice1 since some batteries will begin to gas sooner than others1 and if the charging rate is not reduced1 the batteries which have begun to gas will have active material blown out by the continued gassing4 ,a careful study of such points will lead to a considerable saving in power costs4 ,care of ,motor-,generator ,set ,a4 ,machine will not build up or generate4 ,this may be due to3 #a4 ,machine rotating in wrong direction4 #b4 ,brushes not making good contact4 ,clean commutator with fine sandpaper4 #c4 ,wrong connections of field rheostat-check connections with diagram4 #d4 ,open circuit in field rheostat4 ,see if machine will build up with field rheostat cut out4 ,b4 ,excessive heating of the commutator4 ,this may be due to3 #a4 ,overload--,check your load and compare it with nameplate reading4 ,add the total amperes on all the panels and see that it does not exceed the ampere reading on the nameplate4 #b4 ,wrong setting of the brush rocker arm4 ,this causes sparking1 which soon will cause excessive heating4 #c4 ,rough commutator4 ,this will cause the brushes to chatter1 be noisy and spark4 ,caused many times by allowing copper to accumulate on the bottom of the brushes4 #d4 ,insufficient pressure on brushes1 resulting in sparking4 ,this may be due to brushes wearing down to the point where the brush lead screw rests on the brush holder4 #e4 ,dirt and grease accumulating between the brush and brush holder causing brush to stick2 brush must always move freely in the holder4 #f4 ,brush holder may have come loose1 causing it to slip back1 relieving brush press-,lire4 #g4 ,brush spring may have become loosened1 releasing the tension4 #h4 ,watch commutator carefully and keep it in the best of condition4 ,there will not be excessive heating without sparking4 ,excessive sparking may raise the temperature so high as to cause throwing of solder4 ,you can avoid all this by taking proper care of the commutator4 ,c4 ,ammeters on ,panels ,read ,reverse3 ,this is caused by improperly connecting up batteries1 which has reversed the polarity of the generator4 ,this generally does no harm1 since in most cases the batteries will automatically reverse the polarity of the generator4 ,generally the condition may be remedied by stopping the machine1 reversing the batteries and starting the machine again4 ,if this is unsuccessful raise the brushes on the machine4 ,connect five or six batteries in series in the correct way to one panel1 while the machine is not in operation4 ,turn on the panel switch4 ,when the machine is started1 it will then build up in the right direction4 ,if it does not do so1 repeat the above1 using a larger number of batteries4 ,d4 ,machine ,refuses to ,start4 ,if there is a humming noise when you try to start the motor1 and the outfit does not start1 one of the fuses needs replacing4 ,the outfit will hum only on two or three phase current4 ,never leave the power turned on with any of the fuses out4 ,constant-,potential ,charging ,in the ,constant-,potential system of battery charging1 the charging voltage is adjusted to about #g4e1 and is held constant throughout the charge4 ,with this system a discharged battery receives a heavy current when it is put on charge4 ,this current gradually decreases as the battery charges1 due to the increasing battery voltage1 which opposes1 or bucks the charging voltage1 and reduces the voltage which is effective in sending current through the batteries4 ,such a charge is called tapering charge because the charging current gradually decreases1 or tapers off4 ,the principle of a tapering charge is1 of course1 that a discharged battery may safely be charged at a higher rate than one which is only partly discharged1 because there is more lead sulphate in the discharged battery which the action of the current changes back to active material4 ,as the battery charges1 the amount of lead sulphate decreases and since there is less sulphate for the current to act upon1 the charging rate should be reduced gradually4 ,if this is not done1 excessive gassing will occur1 resulting in active material being blown from the grids4 ,a battery which has been badly sulphated1 is of course1 in a discharged condition1 but is not1 of course1 able to absorb a heavy charging rate1 and in handling such batteries on a constant potential system1 care must be taken that the charging rate is low4 ,another precaution to be observed in all constant potential charging is to watch the temperature of batteries while they are drawing a heavy charging current4 ,a battery which gasses soon after it is put oil charge1 and while still in a discharged condition1 should be taken off the line1 or the charging line voltage reduced4 ,with constant potential charging1 as with constant current charging1 the two things to watch are temperature and gassing4 ,any charging rate which does not cause an excessive temperature or early gassing is safe1 and conversely any charging rate which causes an excessive battery temperature1 or causes gassing while the battery is still less than three-fourths charged1 is too high4 ,fig4 #dh ,fig4 #dh4 ,hobart ,bros4 ,co4 #c ,k4 ,w4 ,constant ,potential ,motor-,generator ,charging ,set ,the ,constant-,potential ,charging ,set manufactured by the ,hobart ,bros4 ,co41 consists of a #c ,k4,w4 generator rated at #g4e volts1 and #djj amperes4 ,this generator is direct connected to a #e ,h4,p4 motor1 both machines being mounted oil the same base plate4 ,figure #dh shows this outfit4 ,note that for the charging line there are three bus-bars to which the batteries are connected4 ,twelve volt batteries are connected across the two outside bus-bars1 while six volt batteries are connected between the center bus-bar and one of the outer ones4 ,the ,tungar ,rectifier ,fig4 #di ,tungar rectifier bulb ,all rectifiers using oil are operated on the principle that current can pass through them in one direction only1 due to the great resistance offered to the flow of current in the opposite direction4 ,it is1 of course1 not necessary to use mercury vapor for the arc4 ,some rectifiers operate on another principle4 ,examples of such rectifiers are the ,tungar made by the ,general ,electric ,co41 and the ,reetigon1 made by the ,westinghouse ,electric and ,manufacturing ,co4 ,the ,tungar ,rectifier is used extensively and will therefore be described in detail4 ,the essential parts of a ,tungar ,rectifier are3 ,a bulb1 transformer1 reactance1 and the enclosing case and equipment4 ,the bulb is the most important of these parts1 since it does the rectifying4 ,it is a sort of check valve that permits current to flow through the charging circuit in one direction only4 ,in appearance the bulb1 see ,figure #di1 resembles somewhat an ordinary incandescent bulb4 ,in the bulb is a short tungsten filament wound in the form of a tight spiral1 and supported between two lead-in wires4 ,close to the filament is a graphite disk which serves as one of the electrodes4 ,figure #ej shows the operating principle of the ,tungar4 ,b is the bulb1 containing the filament ,f and the graphite electrode ,a4 ,to serve as a rectifier the bulb filament ,f must be heated1 this being done by the transformer ,t4 ,the battery is connected as shown1 the positive terminal directly to one side of the alternating current supply1 and the negative terminal to the graphite electrode ,a4 ,to understand the action which takes place1 assume an instant when line wire ,c is positive4 ,the current then flows through the battery1 through the rheostat and to the graphite electrode4 ,the current then flows through the are to the filament and to the negative side of the line1 as indicated by the arrows4 ,during the next half cycle when line wire ,d is positive1 and ,c is negative1 current tends to flow through the bulb from the filament to the graphite1 but as the resistance offered to the flow of current in this direction is very high1 no current will flow through the bulb and consequently none through the battery4 ,fig4 #ej ,illustration of ,tungar half-wave rectifier ,fig4 #ea ,illustration of ,tungar full-wave rectifier ,the rectifier shown in ,figure #ej is a half-wave rectifier4 ,that is1 only one-half of each alternating current wave passes through it to the battery4 ,if two bulbs are used1 as shown ill ,figure #ea1 each half of the alternating current wave is used in charging the battery4 ,to trace the current through this rectifier assume an instant when line wire ,c is positive4 ,current will then flow to the graphite electrode of tube ,a1 through the secondary winding of the transformer ,s to the center tap1 through the rheostat1 to the positive battery terminal1 through the battery to the center of the primary transformer winding ,p1 and through part of the primary winding to ,d4 ,when ,d is positive1 current will flow through tube ,b from the graphite electrode to the filament1 to the center of transformer winding ,s1 through the rheostat and battery to the center of transformer winding ,p1 and through part of this winding to line wire ,c4 ,in the actual rectifiers the rheostat shown in ,figures #ej and #ea are not used1 regulation being obtained entirely by means of other windings4 ,from the foregoing description it will be seen that if the alternating current supply should fail1 the batteries cannot discharge into the line1 because in order to do so1 they would have to heat up the filament and send current through the bulb from the filament to the graphite electrode4 ,this the batteries cannot do1 because the connections are such that the battery cannot send a current through the complete filament circuit and because1 even if the batteries could heat the filament they could not send a current from the filament to the graphite1 since current cannot flow in this direction4 ,as soon as the alternating line is made alive again1 the batteries will automatically start charging again4 ,for these reasons night charging with the ,tungar is entirely feasible1 and no attendant is required to watch the batteries during the night4 ,the ,tungar ,rectifier is made in the following sizes3 ,a4 ,two ,ampere ,rectifier ,catalogue ,no4 #aieebi ,fig4 #eb4 ,the ,two ,ampere ,tungar ,rectifier ,fig4 #ec ,internal wiring of the two ampere tungar rectifier ,this is the smallest ,tungar made4 ,figure #eb shows the complete rectifier4 ,figure #ec shows the internal wiring4 ,this ,tungar will charge a #f volt battery at two amperes1 a #ab volt battery at one ampere and eight cells at #j4ge ampere4 ,it is suitable for charging a lighting battery1 or for a quick charge of a motorcycle or ignition battery4 ,it will also give a fairly good charge over night to a starting battery4 ,another use for this rectifier is to connect it to a run-down starting battery to prevent it from freezing over night4 ,of course1 a battery should not be allowed to run down during cold weather1 but if by chance a battery does run down1 this ,tungar will prevent it from freezing during the night4 ,the two ampere ,tungar is1 of course1 more suitable for the car owner than for a garage or service station4 ,it is also very suitable for charging one ,radio ,a battery4 ,the two ampere ,tungar is normally made for operation on a sixty cycle circuit1 at #aae volts4 ,it may also be obtained for operation on #be-cj1 #dj-ej1 and #abe-acc cycles alternating supply line4 ,see table on ,page #acj4 ,b4 ,the ,one ,battery ,rectifier ,catalogue ,no4 #baihfe ,fig4 #ed4 ,the ,one ,battery ,tungar ,rectifier ,this ,tungar will charge a #f volt battery at five amperes1 or a #ab volt battery at three amperes4 ,figure #ed shows this ,tungar1 with part of the casing cut away to show the internal parts4 ,to take care of variations in the voltage of the alternating current supply from #ajj to #acj1 a set of connections is provided which are numbered #aje1 #aae1 and #abe4 ,for most supply voltages1 the #aae volt tap is used1 for lower voltage the #aje volt tap is used1 and for higher voltage the #abe volt tap is used4 ,this ,tungar is designed for #fj cycle circuits1 but on special order it may be obtained for operation on other frequencies4 ,this ,tungar is most suitable for a car owner1 is satisfactory for charging a radio ,a battery1 and a six volt starting and lighting battery at one time4 ,c4 ,the ,two ,battery ,rectifier ,catalogue ,no4 #aieecj ,fig4 #ee4 ,the ,two ,battery ,tungar ,rectifier ,this ,tungar is shown in ,figure #ee1 with part of the casing cut away to show the internal parts4 ,it was formerly sold to the car owner1 but the one battery ,tungar is now recommended for the use of the car owner4 ,the two-battery ,tungar is therefore recommended for the very small service station1 or for department stores for taking care of one or two batteries4 ,the four battery ,tungar1 which is the next one described1 is recommended in preference to the two-battery outfit where there is the slightest possibility of having more than two batteries to charge at one time4 ,the two-battery rectifier will charge two #f-volt batteries1 or one #ab-volt battery at six amperes1 or one #ah-volt battery at three amperes4 ,it has a double-pole fuse block mounted on the auto transformer core1 which has one fuse plug only4 ,figure #ee shows the fuse plug in the position for charging a #f-volt battery4 ,when it is desired to charge a #ab-volt battery or an #ah-volt battery1 the fuse is removed from the first receptacle and is screwed into the second receptacle4 ,fig4 #ef4 ,the ,four ,battery ,tungar ,rectifier ,complete ,the two-battery rectifier is designed to operate on a #aae-volt1 #fj-;cycle line1 but oil special order may be obtained for operation on #be-cj1 #dj-ej1 and #abe-acc cycle lines4 ,d4 ,the ,four ,battery ,tungar ,catalogue ,no4 #aicaia ,this ,tungar is shown complete in ,figure #ef4 ,in ,figure #eg the top has been raised to show the internal parts4 ,figure #eh gives the internal wiring connections for a four battery ,tungar designed for operation on a #aae volt line4 ,the four battery ,tungar will charge from one to four #f volt batteries at #e amperes or less4 ,it is designed especially for garages having very few batteries to charge4 ,these garages generally charge their boarders batteries rather than send them to a service station1 and seldom have more than four batteries to charge at one time4 ,the four battery ,tungar is also suitable for the use of car dealers who wish to keep the batteries on their cars in good shape1 and is convenient for preparing for service batteries as they come from the car manufacturer4 ,fig4 #eg4 ,the ,four ,battery ,tungar ,rectifier1 with ,top ,raised to ,show ,internal ,parts4 ,the four battery ,tungar is designed for operation on a #fj-;cycle line at #aae or #bcj volts4 ,on special order this ,tungar may be obtained for operation on other frequencies4 ,e4 ,the ,ten ,battery ,rectifier ,catalogue ,no4 #agidib ,this is the ,tungar which is most popular in the service stations1 since it meets the charging requirements of the average shop better than the smaller ,tungars4 ,it will charge from one to ten #f volt batteries1 or the equivalent at six amperes or less4 ,where more than ten batteries are generally to be charged at one time1 two or more of the ten battery ,tungars should be used4 ,large service stations use as many as ten of these ,tungars4 ,fig4 #eh ,internal wiring of the four battery tungar rectifier ,the efficiency of the ten battery ,tungar at full load is approximately #ge per cent1 which compares favorably with that of a mercury-are rectifier1 or motor-generator of the same size4 ,this makes the ten battery ,tungar a very desirable piece of apparatus for the service station4 ,fig4 #ei ,complete #aj-;battery ,tungar rectifier ,figure #ei shows the complete ten battery ,tungar1 ,figure #fj gives a side view without the door to show the internal parts4 ,fig4 #fj ,side view1 cross-section of #aj-;battery ,tungar rectifier ,figure #fa shows the internal connections for use on a #aae-volt ,a4,c4 line and ,figure #fb the internal connections for use on a #bcj-volt line4 ,this ,tungar is made for a #fj-;cycle circuit1 #be-cj1 #dj-ej1 and #abe-acc cycle circuits4 ,fig4 #fa ,internal wiring for the #aj battery ,tungar rectifier for operation on a #aae volts ,a4,c4 line ,fig4 #fb ,internal wiring for the #aj battery ,tungar rectifier for operation on a #bcj volts ,a4,c4 line ,f4 ,the ,twenty ,battery ,tungar ,catalogue ,no4 #bbaead ,this ,tungar will charge ten #f-volt batteries at #ab amperes1 or twenty #f-volt batteries at six amperes4 ,figure #fc shows the complete rectifier1 and ,figure #fd shows the rectifier with the side door open to show the internal parts4 ,this rectifier will do the work of two of the ten battery ,tungars4 ,it is designed for operation on #fj cycles1 #bcj-volts4 ,on special order it may be obtained for operation on #aae volts and also for other frequencies4 ,the twenty battery ,tungar uses two bulbs1 each of which is the same as that used in the ten battery ,tungar1 and has two charging circuits1 having an ammeter and regulating switch for each circuit4 ,one snap switch connects both circuits to the supply circuit4 ,the two charging circuits are regulated independently4 ,for example1 one circuit may be regulated to three amperes while the other circuit is delivering six amperes4 ,it is also possible1 by a system of connections to charge the equivalent of three circuits4 ,for instance1 five batteries could be charged at six amperes1 five batteries at four amperes1 and five batteries at ten amperes4 ,other corresponding combinations are possible also4 ,general ,instructions and ,information on ,tungars ,life of ,tungar ,bulbs4 ,the life of the ,tungar ,bulb is rated at #fjj to #hjj hours1 but actually a bulb will give service for #a1bjj to #c1jjj hours if the user is careful not to overload the bulb by operating it at more than the rated current4 ,fig4 #fc ,the #bj battery ,tungar rectifier ,fig4 #fd ,internal view of the #bj battery ,tungar rectifier ,instructions4 ,complete instructions are furnished with each ,tungar outfit1 the following being those for the ten battery ,tungar4 ,installation ,a ,tungar should be installed in a clean1 dry place in order to keep the apparatus free from dirt and moisture4 ,to avoid acid fumes1 do not place the ,tungar directly over the batteries4 ,these precautions will prevent corrosion of the metal parts and liability of poor contacts4 ,fasten the ,tungar to a wall by four screws1 if the wall is of wood1 or by four expansion bolts if it is made of brick or concrete4 ,though the electrical connections of the outfit are very simple1 it is advisable 7when installing the apparatus7 to employ an experienced wireman familiar with local requirements regarding wiring4 ,line ,connections ,the two wires extending from the top of the ,tungar should be connected to the alternating current supply of the same voltage and frequency1 as stamped on the name plate attached to the front panel4 ,these connections should be not less than ,no4 #ab ,b4 ,s4 gauge wire and should be firmly soldered to the copper lugs4 ,external fuses are recommended for the alternating-current circuit1 as follows3 ,with #aae-volt line use #ae-;ampere capacity fuses4 ,with #bcj-volt line use #aj ampere capacity fuses4 ,one of the bulbs 7,cat4 ,no4 #ahijdi7 should now be firmly screwed into its socket4 ,squeeze the spring clip attached to the beaded cable and slip this clip over the wire protruding from the top of the bulb4 ,do not bend the wire4 ,battery ,connections ,in making battery connections have the snap-switch in the ,off position4 ,the two wires extending from the bottom of the ,tungar should be connected to the batteries4 ,the wire on the left1 facing the front panel1 is marked 7positive7 and the other wire - 7negative74 ,the positive wire should be connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the negative wire to the negative terminal4 ,the two flexible battery cables are sometimes connected directly to the two wires projecting from the bottom of the ,tungar4 ,these cables should be securely cleated to the wall about six inches below the outfit4 ,this arrangement will relieve the strain on the ,tungar wires when cables are changed to different batteries4 ,when two or more batteries are to be charged1 they should be connected in series4 ,the positive wire of the ,tungar should be connected to the positive terminal of battery ,no4 #a1 the negative terminal of this battery of the positive terminal of battery ,no4 #b1 the negative terminal of battery ,no4 #b to the positive terminal of battery ,no4 #c1 and so on1 according to the number of batteries in circuit4 ,finally the negative terminal of the last battery should be connected to the negative wire from the ,tungar4 ,reverse connections on one battery is likely to damage the plates2 and reverse connections oil all the batteries will blow one or more fuses4 ,operation ,a ,tungar is operated by means of a snap-switch in the upper left-hand corner and a regulating switch in the center4 ,before starting the apparatus1 the regulating switch should be in the low position4 ,the ,tungar is now ready to operate4 ,turn the snap-switch to the right to the ,on position1 and the bulb will light4 ,then turn the regulating switch slowly to the right1 and1 as soon as the batteries commence to charge1 the needle on the ammeter will indicate the charging current4 ,this current may be adjusted to whatever value is desired within the limits of the ,tungar4 ,the normal charging rate is six amperes1 but a current of as high as seven amperes may be obtained without greatly reducing the life of the bulb4 ,higher charging rates reduce its life to a considerable extent4 ,lower rates than normal 7six amperes7 will increase the life of the bulb4 ,turn the snap-switch to the ,off position when the charging of one battery or of all the batteries is completed2 or when it is desired to add more batteries to the line4 ,the ,tungar should be operated only by the snap-switch and not by any other external switch in either line or battery circuits4 ,when the snap-switch is turned1 the batteries will be disconnected from the supply line1 and then they may be handled without danger of shock4 ,immediately after turning the snap-switch1 move the regulating handle back to the ,low position4 ,this prevents any damage to the bulb from the dial switch being in an improper position for the number of batteries next charged4 ,troubles ,if on turning on the alternating-current switch the bulb does not glow3 #a4 ,see whether the alternating-current supply is on4 #b4 ,examine the supply line fuses4 ,if these are blown1 or are defective1 replace them with #ae ampere fuses for a #aae-volt line or with #aj-;ampere fuses for a #bbj-volt line4 #c4 ,make sure that the bulb is screwed well into the socket4 #d4 ,examine the contacts inside the socket4 ,if they are tarnished or dirty1 clean them with sandpaper4 #e4 ,try a new bulb1 ,cat4 ,no4 #ahijdi4 ,the old bulb may be defective4 ,if the bulb lights but no current shows on the ammeter3 #a4 ,examine the connections to the batteries1 and also the connections between them4 ,most troubles are caused by imperfect battery connections4 #b4 ,examine the fuses inside the case4 ,if these are blown or are defective1 replace them with #ae ampere fuses1 ,cat4 ,no4 #fcce4 #c4 ,see that the clip is on the wire of the bulb4 #d4 ,the bulb may have a slow leak and not rectify4 ,try a new bulb1 ,cat4 ,no4 #ahijdi4 #e4 ,have the switch arm make good contact on the regulating switch4 ,if the current on the ammeter is high and cannot be reduced3 #a4 ,the ammeter pointer may be sticking2 tap it lightly with the hand4 ,the ammeter will not indicate the current correctly if the pointer is not on the zero line when the ,tungar is not operating4 ,the pointer may be easily reset by turning slightly the screw on the lower part of the instrument4 #b4 ,be sure that the batteries are not connected with reversed polarity4 #c4 ,the alternating-current supply may be abnormally high4 ,if only one three-cell battery is being charged1 and the alternating-current supply is slightly high1 then the current on the ammeter may be high4 ,the simplest remedy is to connect in another battery or a small amount of resistance4 ,a spare bulb should always be kept on hand and should be tested for at least one complete charge before being placed in reserve4 ,all ,tungar bulbs are made as nearly perfect as possible1 but occasionally one is damaged in shipment4 ,it may look perfect and yet not operate4 ,for this reason all bulbs should be tried out on receipt4 ,if any bulb is found defective1 the tag which accompanies it should be filled out1 and bulb and tag should be returned to your dealer or to the nearest office of the ,general ,electric ,company1 transportation prepaid4 ,tungar ,rectifiers 7,the following columns omitted from the table below3 ,catalog ,numbers1 ,dimensions1 ,net ,weight1 and ,shipping ,weight47 ,name ,no4 #f,v ,bats ,no4 #ab,v ,bats4 ,,dc ,amps ,,dc ,volts ,,ac ,volts ,freq4 ------------- ------------- ------- -------- -------- ----- #b ,amp4 ,tungar #a 7#b amps47 #a 7#a amps47 #a-b #g4e-ae #aae #fj #b ,amp4 ,tungar #a 7#b amps47 #a 7#a amps47 #a-b #g4e-ae #aae #fj #b ,amp4 ,tungar #a 7#b amps47 #a 7#a amps47 #a-b #g4e-ae #aae #dj-ej #b ,amp4 ,tungar #a 7#b amps47 #a 7#a amps47 #a-b #g4e-ae #aae #be-cj #b ,amp4 ,tungar #a 7#b amps47 #a 7#a amps47 #a-b #g4e-ae #aae #abe-acc #a ,battery ,tungar #a 7#e amps47 #a 7#c amps47 #a-e #g4e-ae #aae #fj #b ,battery ,tungar #b 7#f amps47 #a 7#f amps47 #a-f #g4e-ae #aae #fj #b ,battery ,tungar #b 7#f amps47 #a 7#f amps47 #a-f #g4e-ae #aae #dj-ej #b ,battery ,tungar #b 7#f amps47 #a 7#f amps47 #a-f #g4e-ae #aae #be-cj #b ,battery ,tungar #b 7#f amps47 #a 7#f amps47 #a-f #g4e-ae #aae #abe-acj #d ,battery ,tungar #d 7#e amps47 #b 7#e amps47 #a-e #g4e-cj #aae #fj #d ,battery ,tungar #d 7#e amps47 #b 7#e amps47 #a-e #g4e-cj #aae #dj-ej #d ,battery ,tungar #d 7#e amps47 #b 7#e amps47 #a-e #g4e-cj #aae #be-cj #d ,battery ,tungar #d 7#e amps47 #b 7#e amps47 #a-e #g4e-cj #aae #abe-acc #d ,battery ,tungar #d 7#e amps47 #b 7#e amps47 #a-e #g4e-cj #bcj #fj #d ,battery ,tungar #d 7#e amps47 #b 7#e amps47 #a-e #g4e-cj #bcj #dj-ej #aj ,battery ,tungar #aj #e #a-f #g4e-ge #aae #fj #aj ,battery ,tungar #aj #e #a-f #g4e-ge #aae #dj-ej #aj ,battery ,tungar #aj #e #a-f #g4e-ge #aae #be-cj #aj ,battery ,tungar #aj #e #a-f #g4e-ge #aae #abe-acc #aj ,battery ,tungar #aj #e #a-f #g4e-ge #bcj #fj #aj ,battery ,tungar #aj #e #a-f #g4e-ge #bcj #dj-ej #bj ,battery ,tungar #aj 7#ab;,a47_/ #bj 7#f;,a47 #aj 7#f;,a47 #a-ab #g4e-ge #bcj #fj #bj ,battery ,tungar #aj 7#ab;,a47_/ #bj 7#f;,a47 #aj 7#f;,a47 #a-ab #g4e-ge #bcj #dj-ej #bj ,battery ,tungar #aj 7#ab;,a47_/ #bj 7#f;,a47 #aj 7#f;,a47 #a-ab #g4e-ge #bcj #be-cj ,bulb 7all #d ,amp4 ,tung47 --- --- --- --- --- --- ,bulb 7all #aj and #ab ,amp4 ,tung47 --- --- --- --- --- --- ,bulb 7all #b ,amp4 ,tung47 --- --- --- --- --- --- ,bulb 7all #a-b ,bat4 ,tung47 --- --- --- --- --- --- ,mercury ,arc ,rectifier ,the operation of the mercury are rectifier depends upon the fact that a tube containing mercury vapor under a low pressure and provided with two electrodes1 one of mercury and the other of some other conductor1 offers a very high resistance to a current tending to pass through the tube from the mercury electrode to the other electrode1 but offers a very low resistance to a current tending to pass through the tube in the opposite direction4 ,current passes from the metallic electrode to the mercury electrode through an are of mercury vapor which is established in the tube by tilting it so the mercury bridges the gap between the mercury and an auxiliary electrode just for an instant4 ,the absence of moving parts to got out of order is an advantage possessed by this rectifier over the motor-generator4 ,the charging current from the rectifier cannot1 however1 be reduced to as low a value as with the motor-generator1 and this is a disadvantage4 ,this rectifier is therefore more suitable for larger shops1 especially where electric truck and pleasure cars are charged4 ,mechanical ,rectifiers ,mechanical rectifiers have a vibrating armature which opens and closes the charging circuit4 ,the circuit is closed during one half of each alternating current cycle1 and open during the next half cycle4 ,the circuit is thus closed as long as the alternating current is flowing in the proper direction to charge the battery1 and is open as long as the alternating current is flowing in the reverse direction4 ,these rectifiers therefore charge the battery during half the time the battery is on charge1 this also being the case in some of the are rectifiers4 ,the desired action is secured by a combination of a permanent magnet and an electromagnet which is connected to the alternating current supply4 ,during half of the alternating current cycle1 the alternating current flowing through the winding of the electromagnet magnetizes the electromagnet so that it strengthens the magnetism of the permanent magnet1 thus causing the vibrator arm to be drawn against the magnet4 ,the vibrator arm carries a contact which touches a stationary contact point when the arm is drawn against the magnet1 thus closing the charging circuit4 ,during the next half of the alternating current cycle1 or wave1 the current through the electromagnet coil is reversed1 and the magnetism of the electromagnet then weakens the magnetism of the permanent magnet1 and the vibrator arm is drawn away from the magnet and the charging circuit is thus opened4 ,during the next half of the alternating current cycle the vibrator arm is again drawn against the magnet1 and so on1 the contact points being closed and opened during half of each alternating current cycle4 ,mechanical rectifiers are operated from the secondary windings of transformers which reduce the voltage of the alternating current line to the voltage desired for charging4 ,each rectifier unit may have its own complete transformer1 or one large transformer may operate a number of rectifier units by having its secondary1 or low tension winding divided into a number of sections1 each of which operates one rectifier4 ,the advantages of the mechanical rectifier are its simplicity1 cheapness and portability4 ,this rectifier also has the advantage of opening the charging circuit when the alternating current supply fails1 and starting again automatically when the line is made alive again4 ,any desired number of independent units1 each having its own charging line1 may be used4 ,the charging current generally has a maximum value of #f amperes4 ,each rectifier unit is generally designed to charge only one or two six volt batteries at one time4 ,stahl ,rectifier ,this is a unique rectifier1 in which the alternating current is rectified by being sent through a commutator which is rotated by a small alternating current motor1 similar to the way the alternating current generated in the armature of a direct current generator is rectified in the commutator of the machine4 ,the ,stahl rectifier supplies the alternating current from a transformer instead of generating it as is done in a direct current generator4 ,brushes which bear on the commutator lead to the charging circuit4 ,the ,stahl rectifier is suitable for the larger service stations4 ,it gives an interrupted direct current4 ,it is simple in construction and operation1 and is free of delicate parts4 ,other ,charging ,equipment ,if there is no electric lighting in the shop1 it will be necessary to install a generator and a gas1 gasoline1 or steam engine1 or a waterwheel to drive it4 ,a #aj battery belt driven generator may be used in such a shop1 and may also1 of course1 be used with a separate motor4 ,the generator should1 of course1 be a direct current machine4 ,the size of the generator will depend upon the average number of batteries to be charged1 and the amount of money available4 ,any of the large electrical manufacturers or supply houses will give any information necessary for the selection of the type and size of the outfit required4 ,if an old automobile engine1 and radiator1 gas tank1 etc41 are on hand1 they can be suitably mounted so as to drive the generator4 ,,charging ,,bench ,fig4 #fe4 ,charging ,bench with ,d4,p4,d4,t4 ,switch for ,each ,battery ,figures #dg and #fe show charging benches in operation4 ,note that they are made of heavy stock1 which is of course necessary on account of the weight of the batteries4 ,the top of the charging bench should be low1 to eliminate as much lifting of batteries as possible4 ,figure #ff is a working drawing of the bench illustrated in ,figure #fe4 ,note the elevated shelf extending down the center4 ,this is convenient for holding water bottle1 acid pitcher1 hydrometer4 ,note also the strip ,d on this shelf1 with the voltmeter hung from an iron bracket4 ,with this arrangement the meter may be moved to any battery for voltage1 cadmium1 and high rate discharge readings4 ,it also has the advantage of keeping the volt meter in a convenient and safe place1 where it is not liable to have acid spilled on it1 or to be damaged by rough handling4 ,in building the bench shown in ,figure #ff1 give each part a coat of asphaltum paint before assembling4 ,after assembling the bench give it two more coats of asphaltum paint4 ,fig4 #ff ,working drawing of charging bench shown in ,fig4 #fe ,figures #fg1 #fh1 #fi and #gj show the working plans for other charging benches or tables4 ,the repairman should choose the one which he considers most suitable for his shop4 ,in wiring these benches1 the elevated shelf shown in ,figure #ff may be added and the double pole1 double throw switches used4 ,instead of these switches1 the jumpers shown on the benches illustrated in ,figure #dg may be used4 ,if this is done1 the elevated shelf should also be installed1 as it is a great convenience for the hydrometer1 voltmeter1 and so on1 as already described4 ,as for the hydrometer1 thermometer1 etc41 which were listed on page #if as essential accessories of a charging bench1 the ,exide vehicle type hydrometer is a most excellent one for general use4 ,this hydrometer has a round bulb and a straight barrel which has projections on the float to keep the hydrometer in an upright position when taking gravity readings4 ,the special thermometer is shown in ,figure #cg4 ,a good voltmeter is shown in ,figure #aba4 ,this voltmeter has a #b4e and a #be volt scale1 which makes it convenient for battery work4 ,it also gives readings of a 4#b and #b4j to the left of the zero1 and special scale markings to facilitate the making of ,cadmium tests as described on page #agd4 ,as for the ammeter1 if a motor-generator set1 ,tungar ,rectifier or a charging-rheostat is used1 the ammeter is always furnished with the set4 ,if a lamp bank is used1 a switchboard type meter reading to about #be amperes is suitable4 ,with the constant potential system of charging1 the ammeters are furnished with the motor-generator set4 ,they read up to #cjj amperes4 ,the bottles for the distilled water and electrolyte are not of special design and may be obtained in local stores1 ,there are several special water bottles sold by jobbers1 and they are convenient1 but not necessary4 ,figure #acc shows a very handy arrangement for a water or acid bottle4 ,fig4 #fg ,working drawing of eight foot charging bench ,fig4 #fh ,working drawing of a ten foot charging bench ,fig4 #fi ,working drawing of a twelve foot charging bench ,fig4 #gj ,working drawing of a twelve foot charging bench 7without drain rack7 ,fig4 #ga ,working drawing of a two man work bench to be placed against a wall ,fig4 #gb ,working drawing of a double1 four man work bench1 with two tool drawers for each man ,,work ,,bench ,a work bench is more of a standard article than the charging bench1 and there should be no trouble in building one4 ,figure #ch illustrates a good bench in actual use4 ,a vise is1 of course1 necessary1 and the bench should be of solid construction1 and should be given several coats of asphaltum paint4 ,fig4 #gc ,working drawing of a two man1 double work bench ,figure #ga shows a single work bench which may be placed against a wall4 ,figures #gb and #gc show double work benches4 ,note that each bench has the elevated shelf1 which should not1 under any consideration be omitted1 as it is absolutely necessary for good work4 ,the tool drawers are also very convenient4 ,it is best to have a separate tear down bench where batteries are opened1 as such a bench will be a wet1 sloppy place and would not be suitable for anything else4 ,it should be placed near the sink or wash tank1 as shown in the shop layouts illustrated in ,figures #acf to #adb4 ,,sink ,,or ,,wash ,,tank ,fig4 #gd ,fig4 #gd4 ,sink with ,faucet1 and ,extra ,swinging ,arm ,pipe for ,washing ,out ,jars4 ,four ,inch ,paint ,brush for ,washing ,battery ,cases ,an ordinary sink may be used1 as shown in ,figure #gd4 ,this figure also shows a convenient arrangement for washing out jars4 ,this consists of a three-fourths inch pipe having a perforated cap screwed over its upper end4 ,near the-floor is a valve which is normally held closed by a spring1 and which has attached to it a foot operated lever4 ,in washing sediment out of jars1 the case is inverted over the pipe1 and the water turned on by means of the foot lever4 ,a number of fine1 sharp jets of water are thrown up into the jar1 thereby washing out the sediment thoroughly4 ,if an ordinary sink is used1 a settling tank should be placed under it1 as shown in ,figure #ge4 ,otherwise1 the drain pipe may become stopped up with sediment washed out of the jars4 ,pipe ,b is removable1 which is convenient in cleaning out the tank4 ,when the tank is to be cleaned1 lift pipe ,b up very carefully and let the water drain out slowly4 ,then scoop out the sediment1 rinse the tank with water1 and replace pipe ,b4 ,in some places junk men will buy the sediment1 or mud1 as it is called4 ,fig4 #ge ,settling tank to be used with sink shown in ,fig4 #gd ,figures #gf and #gg give the working drawings for more elaborate wash tanks4 ,the water supply shown in ,figure #gd may be used here1 and the drain pipe arrangement shown in ,figure #ge may be used if desired4 ,fig4 #gf ,working drawing of a wash tank ,fig4 #gg ,working drawing of a wash tank ,,lead ,,burning 7,,welding7 ,,outfit ,in joining the connectors and terminals to the positive and negative posts1 and in joining plate straps to form a group1 the parts are joined or welded together1 melting the surfaces to be joined1 and then melting in lead from sticks called burning lead4 ,the process of joining these parts in this manner is known as lead burning4 ,directions for lead burning are given on page #baj4 ,there are various devices by means of which the lead is melted during the lead burning process4 ,the most satisfactory of these use a hot1 pointed flame4 ,where such a flame is not obtainable1 a hot carbon rod is used4 ,the methods are given in the following list in the order of their efficiency3 #a4 ,oxygen and ,acetylene ,under ,pressure in ,separate ,tanks4 ,the gases are sent through a mixing valve to the burning tip4 ,these gases give the hottest flame4 #b4 ,oxygen and ,hydrogen ,under ,pressure in ,separate ,tanks1 ,fig4 #gh4 ,the flame is a very hot one and is very nearly as satisfactory as the oxygen and acetylene4 ,fig4 #gh ,fig4 #gh4 ,hydrogen-,oxygen ,lead ,burning ,outfit4 ,a and ,b are ,regulating ,valves4 ,c is the ,safety ,flash ,back ,tank4 ,d is the ,mixing ,valve4 ,e is the ,burning ,tip4 #c4 ,oxygen and ,illuminating ,gas4 ,this is a very satisfactory method1 and one that has become very popular4 ,in this method it is absolutely necessary to have a flash back tank 7,fig4 #gi7 in the gas line to prevent the oxygen from backing up into the gas line and making a highly explosive mixture which will cause a violent explosion that may wreck the entire shop4 ,fig4 #gi ,flash-back tank for lead burning outfit ,to make such a trap1 any strong walled vessel may be used1 as shown in ,figure #gi4 ,a six to eight inch length of four inch pipe with caps screwed over the ends will make a good trap4 ,one of the caps should have a #a_/b inch hole drilled and tapped with a pipe thread at the center4 ,this cap should also have two holes drilled and tapped to take a #a_/d inch pipe1 these holes being near the inner wall of the large pipe1 and diametrically opposite one another4 ,into one of these holes screw a short length of #a_/d inch pipe so ,fig4 #gi4 ,flash-,back ,tank for ,lead ,burning ,outfit that it comes flush with the inner face of the cap4 ,this pipe should lead to the burning outfit4 ,into the other small hole screw a length of #a_/d inch pipe so that its lower end comes within #a_/b inch of the bottom of the trap4 ,this pipe is to be connected to the illuminating gas supply4 ,to use the trap1 fill within one inch of top with water1 and screw a #a_/b inch plug into the center hole4 ,all connections should be airtight4 #d4 ,acetylene and ,compressed ,air4 ,the acetylene is bought in tanks1 and the air compressed by a pump4 #e4 ,hydrogen and ,compressed ,air4 ,this is the method that was very popular several years ago1 but is not used to any extent at present because of the development of the first three methods4 ,a special torch and low pressure air supply give a very satisfactory flame4 #f4 ,wood ,alcohol ,torch4 ,a hand torch with a double jet burner gives a very clean1 nonoxidizing flame4 ,the flame is not as sharp as the oxygen flame1 and the torch is not easily handled without the use of burning collars and moulds4 ,the torch has the advantage of being small1 light and portable4 ,a joint may be burned without removing the battery from the car4 #g4 ,gasoline ,torch4 ,a double jet gasoline torch may be used1 provided collars or moulds are used to prevent the lead from running off4 ,the torch gives a broad flame which heats the parts very slowly1 and the work cannot be controlled as easily as in the preceding methods4 ,fig4 #hj ,carbon lead burning outfit #h4 ,carbon ,arc4 ,this is a very simple method1 and requires only a spare #f volt battery1 a #a_/d inch carbon rod1 carbon holder1 cable1 and clamp for attaching to battery4 ,this outfit is shown in ,fig4 #hj4 ,it may be bought from the ,american ,bureau of ,engineering1 ,inc41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,this outfit is intended to be used only when gas is not available1 and not where considerable burning is to be done4 ,in using this outfit1 one terminal of an extra #f volt battery is connected by a piece of cable with the connectors to be burned4 ,the contact between cable and connector should be clean and tight4 ,the cable which is attached to the carbon rod is then connected to the other terminal of the extra battery1 if the battery is not fully charged1 or to the connector on the next cell if the battery is fully charged4 ,the number of cells used should be such that the carbon is heated to at least a bright cherry red color when it is touching the joint which is to be burned together4 ,sharpen the carbon to a pencil point1 and adjust its position so that it projects from the holder about one inch4 ,occasionally plunge the holder and hot carbon in a pail of water to prevent carbon from overheating4 ,after a short time1 a scale will form on the surface of the carbon1 and this should be scraped off with a knife or file4 ,in burning in a connector1 first melt the lead of the post and connector before adding the burning lead4 ,keep the carbon point moving over all parts to be joined1 in order to insure a perfectly welded joint4 #i4 ,illuminating ,gas and ,compressed ,air4 ,this is the slowest method of any4 ,pump equipment is required1 and this method should not be used unless none of the other methods is available4 ,the selection of the burning apparatus will depend upon individual conditions as well as prices1 and the apparatus selected should be one as near the beginning of the foregoing list as possible4 ,directions for the manipulation of the apparatus are given by the manufacturers4 ,the most convenient arrangement for the lead burning outfit is to run pipes from one end of the work bench to the other1 just below the center shelf4 ,then set the gas tanks at one end of the bench and connect them to the pipes4 ,at convenient intervals have outlets for attaching the hoses leading to the torch4 ,,equipment ,,for ,,handling ,,sealing ,,compound 7a7 ,stove4 ,where city gas is available1 a two or three burner gas stove or hot-plate should be used4 ,where there is no gas supply1 the most satisfactory is perhaps an oil stove4 ,it is now possible to get an odorless oil stove which gives a hot smokeless flame which is very satisfactory4 ,in the winter1 if a coal stove is used to heat the shop1 the stove may also be used for heating the sealing compound1 but it will be more difficult to keep the temperature low enough to prevent burning the compound4 7b7 ,pot or ,kettle4 ,an iron kettle is suitable for use in heating compound4 ,special kettles1 some of which are non-metallic1 are on the market1 and may be obtained from the jobbers4 7c7 ,an iron ladle should be obtained for dipping up compound1 and for pouring compound when sealing a battery4 ,figure #ha shows a convenient form of ladle which has a pouring hole in the bottom4 ,a taper pin1 which is raised by the extra handle allows a very fine stream of compound to be poured4 ,the exact size of the ladle is not important1 but one which is too heavy to be held in one hand should not be used4 7d7 ,several old coffee pots are convenient1 and save much time in sealing batteries4 ,sealing compound is a combination of heavy residues produced by the fractional distillation of petroleum4 ,it is not all alike-that accepted for factory use and distribution to ,service ,stations must usually conform to rigid specifications laid down by the testing laboratories governing exact degrees of brittleness1 elongation1 strength and melting point4 ,for these qualities it is dependent upon certain volatile oils which may be driven off from the compound if the temperature of the molten mass is raised above the comparatively low points where some of these oils begin to volatilize off as gaseous vapor or smoke4 ,compound from which certain of these valuable constituent oils have been driven off or burned out through overheating is recognized through too great ,,brittleness and ,,shrinkage on cooling1 causing ,,cracked ,,compound with all of its attending difficulties4 ,fig4 #ha ,pouring ladle ,do not put too much cold compound in the kettle to begin with4 ,it is not advisable to carry much more molten compound in the kettle at any time than can easily be dipped out-cold compound may be added during the day as needed4 ,when there is considerable cold compound in the kettle1 and the heating flame is applied1 the lower bottom part of the mass next to the surface of the iron is brought to a melting point first-heat must be conveyed from this already hot part of the compound upward throughout the whole mass-so that before the top part of it is brought to a molten condition the lower inside layers are very hot indeed4 ,if there is too much in the kettle these lower layers are necessarily raised in temperature beyond the point where they lose some of their volatile oils-they are burned before the whole mass of compound can be brought to a molten state4 ,do not use too large a heating flame under the kettle for the same reasons4 ,a flame turned on full blast will certainly burn the bottom layers before the succeeding layers above are brought to the fusion point4 ,,use ,a ,,slow ,,flame and ,,take ,,time ,,in ,,melting ,,up ,,the ,,compound4 ,it ,,pays in the resulting jobs4 ,the more compound is heated1 the thinner it becomes--it should never be allowed to become so hot that it flows too freely--it should never exceed the viscosity of medium molasses4 ,it should flow freely enough to run in all narrow spaces but ,,not freely enough to flow ,,through them before it cools4 ,stir the kettle frequently during the day4 ,it is advisable about once a week to work as much compound out of the kettle as possible1 empty that still remaining1 clean the kettle out1 and start with fresh compound4 ,,never ,,use ,,old ,,compound ,,over ,,again--that is1 do not throw compound that has been dug out of used batteries into the kettle with the new compound4 ,the old compound is no doubt acid soaked1 and this acid will work through the whole molten mass1 making a satisfactory job a very doubtful matter indeed4 ,cold weather hardens sealing compound1 of course1 and renders it somewhat brittle and liable to crack4 ,this tendency could be overcome by using a softer compound1 but1 on the other hand1 compound so soft that it would have no tendency to crack in cold weather would be so soft in warm weather that it would fail to hold the assembly with the necessary firmness and security4 ,it is far better policy to run the risk of developing a few cracks in the winter than a loose assembly in summer4 ,surface cracks developed in cold weather may be easily remedied by stripping off the compound around the crack with a heated tool1 flashing with the torch and quickly re-sealing according to the above directions4 ,it is not practical to work any oil agent1 such as paraffin or castor oil1 into the compound in an effort to soften it for use in cold weather4 ,,shelving ,,and ,,racks ,the essential things about shelving in a battery shop are1 that it must be covered with acid-proof paint1 and must be made of heavy lumber if it is to carry complete batteries4 ,figure #hb shows the heavy shelving required in a stock-room1 while ,figure #hc shows the lighter shelving which may be used for parts1 such as jars1 cases1 extra plates1 and so on4 ,fig4 #hb ,fig4 #hb4 ,typical ,stockroom1 ,showing ,heavy ,shelving ,necessary for ,storing ,batteries4 ,figures #hd and #he show two receiving racks for batteries which come in for repairs4 ,in many shops batteries are set on the floor while waiting for repairs4 ,if there is plenty of floor space1 this practice is not objectionable4 ,in any case1 however1 it improves the looks of the shop1 and makes a better impression on the customer to have racks to receive such batteries4 ,note that the shelves are arranged so as to permit acid to drain off4 ,batteries often come in with wet1 leaky cases1 and this shelf construction is suitable for such batteries4 ,the racks shown in ,figures #hf and #hg are for repaired batteries1 new batteries1 rental batteries1 batteries in dry storage1 and for any batteries which do not have wet leaky cases4 ,figures #hh and #hi show racks suitable for new batteries which have been shipped filled with electrolyte1 batteries in wet or live storage1 rental batteries1 and so on4 ,note that these racks are provided with charging circuits so that the batteries may be given a low charge without removing them from the racks4 ,note also that the shelves are spaced two feet apart so as to be able to take hydrometer readings1 voltage readings1 add water1 and so on1 without removing the batteries from the racks4 ,,bins ,figure #ij gives the dimensions for equipment bins suitable for covers1 terminals1 inter-cell connectors1 jars1 cases1 and various other parts4 ,these bins can be made with any desired number of sections1 and additional sections built as they are needed4 ,fig4 #hc ,fig4 #hc4 ,corner of ,workshop1 ,showing ,lead ,burning ,outfit1 ,workbench and ,vises4 ,fig4 #hd ,working drawing of a #f-;foot receiving rack ,fig4 #he ,working drawing of a #ab-;foot receiving rack ,fig4 #hf ,working drawing of an #h-;foot rack for repaired batteries1 new batteries1 rental batteries1 batteries in dry storage1 etc4 ,fig4 #hg ,working drawing of a #af-;foot rack for repaired batteries1 new batteries1 rental batteries1 batteries in dry storage1 etc4 ,fig4 #hh ,working drawing of a #af-;foot rack suitable for new batteries 7shipped filled and fully charged71 batteries in wet storage1 rental batteries1 etc4 ,fig4 #hh;b ,end view of rack in ,fig4 #hh ,fig4 #hi ,working drawing of a #ab-;foot rack suitable for new batteries 7shipped filled and fully charged71 batteries in wet storage1 rental batteries1 etc4 ,fig4 #hi;b ,end view of rack in ,fig4 #hi ,fig4 #ij ,working drawing of bins suitable for battery parts ,,battery ,,steamer ,steaming is the most satisfactory method of softening sealing compound1 making covers and jars limp and pliable4 ,an open flame should never be used for this work1 as the temperature of the flame is too high and there is danger of burning jars and covers and making them worthless4 ,with steam1 it is impossible to damage sealing compound or rubber parts4 ,a soft flame from a lead burning torch is used to dry out the channels in the covers before sealing1 and is run over the compound quickly to make the compound flow evenly and unite with the jars and covers4 ,but in such work the flame is used for only a few seconds and is not applied long enough to do any damage4 ,with a steaming outfit1 it is also possible to distill water for use in mixing electrolyte and replacing evaporation in the cells4 ,the only additional equipment needed is a condenser to condense the steam into water4 ,fig4 #ia ,fig4 #ia4 ,battery ,steamer1 with ,steam ,hose for ,each ,cell ,fig4 #ib ,condenser for use with battery steamer ,figure #ia shows a steaming outfit mounted on a wall1 and shows the rubber tube connections between the several parts4 ,the boiler is set on the stove1 water being supplied from the water supply tank which is hung above the boiler to obtain gravity feed4 ,the water supply tank is open at the top1 and is filled every morning with faucet water4 ,this tank is suitable for any shop1 even though a city water supply is available4 ,a water pipe from the city lines may be run to a point immediately above the tank and a faucet or valve attached4 ,where there is no city water supply1 the tank may1 of course1 be filled with a pail or pitcher4 ,the boiler is equipped with a float operated valve which maintains a one to one and one-half inch depth of water4 ,as the water boils away1 the float lowers slightly and allows water to enter the boiler4 ,in this way1 the water is maintained at the proper level at all times4 ,a manifold is fitted to the boiler and has six openings to which lengths of rubber tubing are attached4 ,these tubes are inserted in the vent holes of the battery which is to be steamed4 ,any number of the steam outlets may be opened by drawing out the manifold plunger valve to the proper point4 ,when distilling water1 a tube is attached to one of the steam outlets as shown1 and connected to the condenser as shown4 ,a bottle is placed under the distilled water outlet to collect the distilled water4 ,cooling water enters the condenser through the tubing shown attached to the condenser at the lower right-hand edge4 ,the other end of this tube is attached to the water faucet1 or other cooling water supply4 ,the cooling water outlet is shown at the lower left hand edge of the condenser4 ,the cooling water inlet and outlet are shown in ,figure #ib4 ,if there is no city water supply1 a ten or twenty gallon tank may be mounted above the condenser and attached by means of a rubber tube to the cooling water inlet shown at the lower right hand edge of the condenser in ,figure #ib4 ,a similar tank is placed under the cooling water outlet4 ,the upper tank is then filled with water4 ,when the water has run out of the upper tank through the condenser and into the lower tank1 it is poured back into the upper tank4 ,in this way a steady supply of cooling water is obtained4 ,fig4 #ic ,steaming box in which entire battery is set ,another type of steamer uses a steaming box1 ,figure #ic4 ,the battery is placed in the box and steam is sent in through the cover4 ,the boiler has only one steam outlet1 and this is connected to the box by means of a hose4 ,fig4 #id ,special bench for battery steamer ,if desired1 a special bench may be made for the steaming outfit1 as shown in ,figure #id4 ,the other tools needed for opening batteries1 as given in the list on page #ig are standard articles1 and may be obtained at any hardware store1 except the terminal tongs1 which should be purchased from a battery supply house4 ,fig4 #ie ,battery terminal tongs ,figure #ie illustrates the use of terminal tongs4 ,battery terminals usually stick so tight that they must be forced out with pliers or other tools4 ,here is shown a pair of tongs that makes easy work of the job4 ,one end has a fork and the other is shaped to come between the fork4 ,it is placed on the battery terminal1 as shown1 and when the handles are brought together the terminal attached to the battery lead is forced out without marring any of the parts4 ,,equipment ,,for ,,lead ,,burning 7,,welding7 ,plate ,burning ,rack ,the plates which compose a group are joined to the plate connecting strap to which the post is attached4 ,the plates are burned to the strap1 and this must be done in such a manner that the plates are absolutely parallel1 that the distance between plates is correct1 and that the top surface of the strap is at right angles to the surface of the plates4 ,these conditions are necessary in order that the positive and negative groups may mesh properly1 that the complete element1 consisting of the plates and separators may fit in the jar properly1 and that the cell covers may fit over the posts easily4 ,fig4 #if ,fig4 #if4 ,universal ,plate ,burning ,rack4 ,will ,hold ,three ,groups of ,plates at ,one ,time4 ,designed for ,standard and ,special ,plates ,in order to secure these conditions1 plates that are to be burned to the strap are set in a burning rack1 shown in ,figs4 #if and #ig1 which consists mainly of a base upon which the plate rest1 and a slotted bar into which the lugs on the plates fit4 ,the distance between successive slots is equal to the correct distance between the plates of the group4 ,an improved form of burning rack has a wooden base which has slots along the side4 ,the plates are set into these slots and are thus held in the correct position at both top and bottom4 ,fig4 #ig ,plate burning rack for standard #a_/h inch1 and thin plates ,fig4 #ig shows a rack for use with #a_/h inch and #g-fd inch plates4 ,fig4 #if shows a ,universal rack which may be used with both the #a_/h and #g-fd inch plates1 and also many special plates4 ,the guide-bar1 or comb1 ,e1 has slots along two sides1 the base having corresponding slots1 as shown4 ,to accommodate different sized plates1 the comb may be raised or lowered1 and the uprights may be moved back and forth in two slots1 one of which is shown at ,f4 ,in using this rack1 the plates are set in position1 with their lower edges in the slots of the base1 and their lugs in the slots in the comb4 ,the plates are in this way held at opposite corners1 and are absolutely straight and parallel4 ,special fittings are provided to simplify the work of burning4 ,a bar1 ,d1 fits along the edge of the comb1 and holds the lugs of the plates firmly in the slots4 ,this bar is movable to any part of the comb1 being held by two spring clips1 ,c4 ,two bars1 ,a and ,b1 which are adjustable1 make a form around the plate lugs which will prevent the hot lead from running off while burning in the plates4 ,instructions for burning on plates are given on page #bag4 ,the triangular scraper1 steel wire brush1 coarse files and smoked or blue glasses are all standard articles and may be obtained from any supply house4 ,the burning collars are made of iron1 and are set over the end of inter-cell connectors when burning these to the posts1 see ,figure #ih4 ,experienced repairmen generally do not use them1 but those who have trouble with the whole end of the connector melting and the lead running off should use collars to hold in the lead4 ,fig4 #ih ,burning collars ,the ,burning ,lead ,mould ,in every shop there is an accumulation of scrap lead from post drillings1 old connecting straps1 old plate straps1 etc4 ,these should be kept in a special box provided for that purpose1 and when a sufficient amount has accumulated1 the lead should be melted and run off into moulds for making burning-lead4 ,the ,burning ,lead ,mould is designed to be used for this purpose4 ,as shown in ,fig4 #ii1 the mould consists of a sheet iron form which has been pressed into six troughs or grooves into which the melted lead is poured4 ,this sheet iron form is conveniently mounted on a block of wood which has a handle at one end1 making it possible to hold the mould while hot without danger of being burned4 ,a sheet of asbestos separates the iron form from the wood1 thus protecting the wood from the heat of the melted lead4 ,a hole is drilled in the end of the handle to permit the mould being hung on a nail when not in use4 ,the grooves in the iron form will produce bars of burning lead #ae inches long1 #e-af inch thick1 #c_/h inch wide at the top1 and #a_/d inch wide at the bottom4 ,fig4 #ii ,fig4 #ii4 ,burning-,lead ,moulds1 and ,burning ,sticks ,cast in ,them ,the advantage of this type of ,burning ,lead ,mould over a cast iron mould is obvious4 ,the form1 being made of sheet iron1 heats up very quickly1 and absorbs only a very small amount of heat from the melted lead4 ,the cast-iron mould1 on the other hand1 takes so much heat from the melted lead that the latter cools very quickly1 and is hard to handle4 ,an iron pot that will hold at least ten pounds of molten lead should be used in melting up lead scraps for burning sticks4 ,when the metal has become soft enough to stir with a clean pine stick skim off the dross4 ,continue heating metal until slightly yellow on top4 ,with a paddle or ladle drop in a cleaning compound of equal parts of powdered rosin1 borax and flower of sulphur4 ,use a teaspoonful for a ten-pound melting and make sure the compound is perfectly dry4 ,stir a little and if metal is at proper heat there will be a flare1 flash or a little burning4 ,a sort of tinfoil popcorn effect will be noticed floating on top of the metal4 ,stir until this melts down4 ,have your ladle hot and skim off soft particles4 ,dust the mould with mould compound1 a powder which makes the lead fill the entire grooves1 and not become cool before it does4 ,when everything is ready1 fill the ladle and pour the lead into one of the grooves4 ,hold the ladle above one end of the groove while pouring1 and do not move it along the groove4 ,fill the other grooves in a similar manner4 ,post ,builders4 ,these are moulds which are set over the stumps of posts which have been drilled short in removing the inter-cell connectors4 ,lead is then melted in with a burning flame to build the post up to the proper height4 ,figure #ajj shows a set of post-builders1 and ,figure #aja illustrates their use4 ,fig4 #ajj ,set of post builders ,fig4 #aja ,illustrating use of post builders ,,equipment ,,for ,,general ,,work ,,on ,,connectors ,,and ,,terminals ,moulds for ,casting ,inter-,cell ,connectors1 ,terminals1 ,terminal ,screws1 ,taper ,lugs1 ,plate ,straps1 ,etc4 ,figure #ajb shows a plate strap mould with which three straps and posts may be cast in one minute4 ,it has a sliding movable tooth rack for casting an odd or even number of teeth on the strap4 ,fig4 #ajb ,plate strap mould ,figure #ajc shows a ,link ,combination ,mould which casts five inter-cell connectors for use on standard #g1 #i1 #aa1 #ac and #ae plate batteries1 four end connectors 7two ,dodge tapers1 and standard tapers1 negative and positive71 one end connector with #c_/h inch cable used on #ab volt ,maxwell battery and on all other cars a wire cable1 and one small wire to connect with end post on batteries requiring direct connection4 ,it also casts two post support rings to fit standard size rubber covers and to fit posts cast with plate strap mould1 and two washers which are often needed when installing needed when installing new or rental batteries4 ,fig4 #ajc and ,fig4 #ajd3 ,link combination mould1 and castings made in it ,figure #ajd shows the parts which may be made with this mould4 ,fig4 #aje ,cell connector mould ,fig4 #ajf ,production type strap mould ,figure #aje shows a cell connector mould which casts practically all the cell connectors used on standard #g1 #i1 #aa1 #ac and #ae plate batteries4 ,this mould is similar to the ,link ,combination ,mould shown in ,figure #ajc4 ,fig4 #ajg ,indexing device for strap mould ,fig4 #ajh ,castings made in strap mould ,figure #ajf shows a production type strap mould which is designed to be used by large battery shops4 ,forty-two styles of straps are1 cast by this mould4 ,this mould has an indexing device as shown in ,figure #ajg1 which is adjusted by means of a screw for moulding the straps for any number of plates from seven to nineteen4 ,figure #aji shows some of the castings which are made with this mould4 ,fig4 #aji ,terminal mould and castings made in it ,figure #aji shows a ,terminal ,mould which casts five reversible end terminal connectors1 a cable connector1 such as is used on the ,maxwell battery1 and two washers often needed in making a tight connection4 ,fig4 #aaj ,screw mould ,figure #aaj shows a ,screw ,mould which casts standard square lead leads on four screws in one operation1 two #e_/h inch and two #c_/h inch4 ,this mould has a screw adjustment in the base which makes each cavity adaptable to any length screw4 ,,equipment ,,for ,,work ,,on ,,cases ,the acid proof asphaltum paint1 paint brushes1 wood chisels1 wood plane1 and earthenware jars are all standard articles4 ,fig4 #aaa ,battery turntable ,figure #aaa shows a battery turntable which is very convenient when painting cases1 lead burning1 etc4 ,,tools ,,for ,,general ,,work ,most of the articles in this list require no explanation4 ,some of them1 however1 are of special construction4 ,separator ,cutter4 ,some battery supply houses sell special separator cutters1 but a large size photograph trimmer is entirely satisfactory4 ,fig4 #aab ,fig4 #aab4 ,plate ,press for ,pressing ,swollen1 ,bulged ,negatives 7,after ,plates ,have ,been ,fully ,charged7 ,fig4 #aac ,fig4 #aac4 ,inserting ,plate ,press ,boards ,between ,negatives ,preparatory to ,pressing ,plate ,press4 ,figure #aab shows a special plate press in which the plates are pressed between wooden jaws4 ,no iron can come into contact with the plates4 ,this is a very important feature1 since iron in solution causes a battery to lose its charge very quickly4 ,this press is made of heavy hardwood timbers1 and may be set on a bench or mounted on the wall4 ,a set of lead coated troughs carry away the acid which is squeezed from the plates4 ,fig4 #aad ,showing how negatives should be placed in the plate press ,this press is designed for pressing negative plates1 the active material of which has become bulged or swollen4 ,a plate in this condition has a low capacity and cannot give good service4 ,swollen negatives often make it impossible to replace the plates in a jar4 ,when negatives are found to be bulged or swollen1 the battery must be fully charged1 and the negatives then pressed4 ,to do this1 plate press boards1 which are of acid proof material1 and of the proper thickness are inserted between the negatives1 as shown in ,figure #aac1 and the plates are then set in the press is shown in ,figure #aad4 ,fig4 #aae ,negative group before and after pressing ,figure #aae shows a group before and after pressing4 ,note that pressing has forced the active material back into the grid where it must be if the plates are to give good service4 ,never send out a battery with swollen or bulged negatives4 ,slightly buckled negatives may also be straightened out in the ,plate ,press4 ,positives do not swell or bulge as they discharge1 but shed the active material4 ,they are therefore not pressed ,positives buckle1 of course1 but should never be pressed to straighten them4 ,the lead peroxide of the positive plates is not elastic like the spongy the negatives1 and if positives are pressed to straighten them the paste will crack and break from the grid4 ,slightly buckled positives may be used1 but if they are so badly buckled that it is impossible to reassemble the element or put the element back into the jars1 they should be discarded4 ,fig4 #aaf ,battery carrier ,fig4 #aag ,battery truck ,battery ,carrier4 ,figure #aaf shows a very convenient battery carrier1 having a wooden handle with two swinging steel hooks for attaching to the battery to be carried4 ,with this type of carrier no strain is put on the handle1 as is the case if a strap is used4 ,battery ,truck4 ,when a battery must be moved any considerable distance1 a truck1 such as that shown in ,figure #aag should be used4 ,this truck may easily be made in the shop1 or may be made at a reasonable cost in a carpenter shop4 ,the rollers should be four inches or more in diameter and should preferably be of the ball-bearing type4 ,rubber tires on the rollers are a great advantage1 since the rubber protects the rollers from acid and also eliminates the very disagreeable noise which iron wheels make1 especially in going over a concrete floor or sidewalk4 ,the repairman need not make his truck exactly like that shown in ,figure #aag1 which is merely shown to give a general idea of how such a truck should be constructed4 ,the truck shown in ,figure #aag was made from a heavy wooden box4 ,with this construction lifting batteries is largely eliminated1 which is most desirable1 since a battery is not the lightest thing in the world4 ,the battery is carried in a horizontal position and the truck is small enough to be wheeled between cars in the shop4 ,fig4 #aah ,another battery truck ,another form of battery truck is shown in ,figure #aah1 although this1 is not as good as that shown in ,figure #aag4 ,,cadmium ,,test ,,set ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,test ,as the cell voltage falls while the battery is on discharge1 the voltage of the positive plates1 and also the voltage of the negative plates falls4 ,when the battery is charged again the voltages of both positive and negative plates rise4 ,if a battery gives its rated ampere-hour capacity on discharge1 we do not care particularly how the voltages of the individual positive and negative groups change4 ,if1 however1 the battery fails to give its rated capacity1 the fault may be due to defective positives or defective negatives4 ,if the voltage of a battery fails to come up when the battery is put on charge1 the trouble may be due to either the positives or negatives4 ,positives and negatives may not charge at the same rate1 and one group may become fully charged before the other group4 ,this may be the case in a cell which has had a new positive group put in with the old negatives4 ,cadmium tests made while the battery is on charge will tell how fully the individual groups are charged4 ,since the voltages of the positives and negatives both fall as a battery is discharged1 and rise as the battery is charged1 if we measure the voltages of the positives and negatives separately1 we can tell how far each group is charged or discharged4 ,if the voltage of each cell of a battery drops to #a4g before the battery has given its rated capacity1 we can tell which set of plates has become discharged by measuring the voltages of positives and negatives separately4 ,if the voltage of the positives show that they are discharged1 then the ,positives are not up to capacity4 ,similarly1 negatives are not up to capacity if their voltage indicates that they are discharged before the battery has given its rated capacity4 ,cadmium readings alone do not give any indication of the capacity of a battery1 and the repairman must be careful in drawing conclusions from ,cadmium tests4 ,in general it is not always safe to depend upon ,cadmium tests on a battery which has not been opened1 unless the battery is almost new4 ,plates having very little active material1 due to shedding1 or due to the active material being loosened from the grid1 will often give good ,cadmium readings1 and yet a battery with such plates will have very little capacity4 ,such a condition would be disclosed by an actual examination of the plates1 or by a capacity discharge test4 ,how ,cadmium ,tests ,are ,made ,to measure the voltages of the positives and negatives separately1 ,cadmium is used4 ,the ,cadmium is dipped in the electrolyte1 and a voltage reading is taken between the ,cadmium and the plates which are to be tested4 ,thus1 if we wish to test the negatives1 we take a voltage reading between the ,cadmium and the negatives1 as shown in ,fig4 #aai4 ,similarly1 if we wish to test the positives1 we take a voltage reading between the ,cadmium and the positives1 as shown in ,fig #abj4 ,fig4 #aai ,making cadmium test on negative plates ,fig4 #abj ,making cadmium test on positive plates ,in dipping the ,cadmium into the electrolyte1 we make two cells out of the battery cell4 ,one of these consists of the ,cadmium and the positives1 while the other consists of the ,cadmium and the negatives4 ,if the battery is charged1 the ,cadmium forms the negative element in the ,cadmium-,positives cell1 and is the positive element in the ,cadmium-,negatives cell4 ,the voltage of the ,cadmium does not change1 and variations in the voltage readings obtained in making ,cadmium tests are due to changes in the state of charge of the negative and positive plates which are being tested4 ,what ,cadmium ,is3 ,cadmium is a metal1 just like iron1 copper1 or lead4 ,it is one of the chemical elements2 that is1 it is a separate and distinct substance4 ,it is not made by mixing two or more substances1 as for instance1 solder is made by mixing tin and lead1 but is obtained by separating the cadmium from the compounds in which it is found in nature1 just as iron is obtained by treatment of iron ore in the steel mill4 ,when ,cadmium ,readings ,should ,be ,made #a4 ,when the battery voltage drops to #a4g per cell on discharge before the battery has delivered its rated ampere-hour capacity1 at the #e-;hour rate when a discharge test is made4 #b4 ,when a battery on charge will not come up1 that is1 if its voltage will not come up to #b4e-b4g per cell on charge1 and its specific gravity will not come up to #a4bhj-a4cjj4 #c4 ,whenever you charge a battery1 at the end of the charge1 when the voltage and specific gravity no longer rise1 make ,cadmium tests to be sure that both positives and negatives are fully charged4 #d4 ,when you put in a new group1 charge the battery fully and make ,cadmium tests to be sure that both the new and old groups are fully charged4 #e4 ,when a #bj-minute high rate discharge test is made4 ,see page #bfg4 ,that ,cadmium ,readings should be taken only while a battery is in action2 that is1 while it is on discharge1 or while it is on charge4 ,cadmium ,readings taken on a battery which is on open circuit are not reliable4 ,when you are not using the ,cadmium1 it should be put in a vessel of water and kept there4 ,never let the ,cadmium become dry1 as it will then give unreliable readings4 ,open ,circuit ,voltage ,readings ,worthless ,voltage readings of a battery taken while the battery is on open circuit2 that is1 when no current is passing through the battery1 are not reliable4 ,the voltage of a normal1 fully charged cell on open circuit is slightly over #b volts4 ,if this cell is given a full normal discharge1 so that the specific gravity of its electrolyte drops to #a4aej1 and is allowed to stand for several hours after the end of the discharge1 the open circuit voltage will still be #b volts4 ,open circuit voltage readings are therefore of little or no value1 except when a cell is dead1 as a dead cell will give an open circuit voltage very much less than #b1 and it may even give no voltage at all4 ,what the ,cadmium ,test ,set ,consists of ,the ,cadmium ,tester consists of a voltmeter1 ,fig4 #aba1 and two pointed brass prods which are fastened in wooden handles1 as shown in ,fig4 #abb4 ,a length of flexible wire having a terminal at one end is soldered to each prod for attachment to the voltmeter4 ,fastened at right angles to one of the brass prods is a rod of pure cadmium4 ,fig4 #aba ,special cadmium test voltmeter1 ,fig4 #abb ,cadmium test leads ,cadmium tests may be made with any accurate voltmeter which gives readings up to #b4e volts in divisions of 4#je volt4 ,the instructions given below apply especially to the special ,,ambu voltmeter but these instructions may also be used in making cadmium tests with any voltmeter that will give the correct reading4 ,the ,,ambu ,cadmium ,voltmeter ,fig4 #aba is a view of the special ,,ambu ,voltmeter1 which is designed to be used specially in making ,cadmium tests4 ,fig4 #abb shows the ,cadmium leads4 ,the four red lines marked ,neg4 ,charged1 ,neg4 ,discharged1 ,pos4 ,charged1 and ,pos4 ,discharged1 indicate the readings that should be obtained4 ,thus1 in testing the positives of a battery on charge1 the pointer will move to the line which is marked ,pos4 ,charged1 if the positive plates are fully charged4 ,in testing the negatives1 the pointer will move to the line marked ,neg4 ,charged1 which is to the left of the #j line1 if the negatives are fully charged1 and so on4 ,figs4 #abc1 #abd1 #abe and #abf show the pointer in the four positions on the scale which it takes when testing fully charged or discharged plates4 ,in each figure the pointer is over one of the red lines on the scale4 ,these figures also show the readings1 in volts1 obtained in making the cadmium tests on fully charged or completely discharged plates4 ,fig4 #abc ,voltmeter showing reading obtained when testing charged negative2 ,fig4 #abd ,showing reading obtained when testing charged positives ,fig4 #abe ,voltmeter showing reading obtained when testing discharged negatives2 and ,fig4 #abf ,showing reading obtained when testing discharged positives ,if ,pointer ,is ,not ,over the #j ,line3 ,it sometimes happens1 in shipping the instrument1 and also in the use of it1 that the pointer does not stand over the #j line1 but is a short distance away4 ,should you find this to be the case1 take a small screwdriver and turn the screw which projects through the case1 and which is marked ,correct ,zero1 so as to bring the pointer exactly over the #j line on the scale while the meter has no wires connected to its binding posts4 ,connections of ,cadmium ,leads3 ,in making ,cadmium ,tests1 connect the prod which has the cadmium fastened to it to the negative voltmeter binding post4 ,connect the plain brass prod to the positive voltmeter binding post4 ,the connections to the ,,ambu ,cadmium ,voltmeter are shown in ,fig4 #abg4 ,testing a ,battery on ,discharge ,the battery should be discharging continuously1 at a constant1 fixed rate1 see page #bfe4 ,fig4 #abg ,,ambu ,cadmium ,voltmeter ,generally1 on a starting ability test 7see page #bfg71 the positive ,cadmium readings will start at about #b4je volts for a hard or very new set of positives1 and at #b4ab volts or even higher for a set of soft or somewhat developed positives1 and will drop during the test1 ending at #a4ie volts or less4 ,the negative ,cadmium readings will start at #j4bc volt or higher1 up to #j4cj1 and will rise gradually1 more suddenly toward the end if the plates are old1 ending anywhere above #j4ce and up to #j4f to #j4g for poor negatives4 ,short ,circuited ,cells3 ,in cases of short circuited cells1 the voltage of the cell will be almost down to zero4 ,the ,cadmium readings would therefore be nearly zero also for both positives and negatives4 ,such a battery should be opened for inspection and repairs4 ,testing a ,battery on ,charge ,the ,battery should be charging at the finishing rate4 7,this i's usually stamped on the battery box47 ,dip the cadmium in the electrolyte as before1 and test the negatives by holding the plain prod on the negative post of the cell4 ,see ,fig4 #aai4 ,test the positives in a similar manner4 ,see ,fig4 #abj4 ,the cell voltage should also be measured4 ,if the positives are fully charged1 the positive cadmium reading will be such that the pointer will move to the red line marked ,pos4 ,charged4 ,see ,fig4 #abe4 ,if you are using an ordinary voltmeter1 the meter will give a reading of from #b4ce to #b4db volts4 ,the negatives are then tested in a similar manner4 ,the negative-cadmium reading on an ordinary voltmeter will be from 4#age to 4#b to the left of the #j line2 that is1 the reading is a reversed one4 ,if you are using the special ,,abm voltmeter1 the pointer will move to the red line marked ,neg4 ,charged4 ,see ,fig4 #abc4 ,the cell voltage should be the sum of the positive-cadmium and the negative cadmium readings4 ,if the voltage of each cell will not come up to #b4e to #b4g volts on charge1 or if the specific gravity will not rise to #a4bhj or over1 make the cadmium tests to determine whether both sets of plates1 or one of them1 give readings indicating that they are fully charged4 ,if the positives will not give a reading of at least #b4ce volts1 or if the negatives will not give a reversed reading of at least #j4a volt1 these plates lack capacity4 ,in case of a battery on charge1 if the negatives do not give a minus ,cadmium reading1 they may be lacking in capacity1 but1 on the other hand1 a minus negative ,cadmium reading does not prove that the negatives are up to hill capacity4 ,a starting ability discharge test 7page #bfg7 is the only means of telling whether a battery is up to capacity4 ,improperly treated separators will cause poor negative-,cadmium readings to be obtained4 ,the charging rate should be high enough to give cell voltages of #b4e-b4g when testing negatives4 ,otherwise it may not be possible to get satisfactory negative-,cadmium reading4 ,separators which have been allowed to become partly dry at any time will also make it difficult to obtain satisfactory negative-,cadmium readings4 ,,high ,,rate ,,discharge ,,testers 7,see page #bfe for directions for making tests47 ,figure #abh shows a high rate discharge cell tester4 ,it consists of a handle carrying two heavy prongs which are bridged by a length of heavy nichrome wire4 ,when the ends of the prongs are pressed down on the terminals of a cell1 a current of #aej to #bjj amperes is drawn from the cell4 ,a voltage reading of the cell1 taken while this discharge current is flowing is a means of determining the condition of the cell1 since the heavy discharge current duplicates the heavy current drawn by the starting motor4 ,each prong carries a binding post1 a low reading voltmeter being connected to these posts while the test is made4 ,this form of discharge tester is riot suitable for making starting ability discharge tests1 which are described on page #bfg4 ,other forms of high rate discharge testers are made1 but for the shop the type shown in ,figure #abh is most convenient1 since it is light and portable and has no moving parts1 and because the test is made very quickly without making any connections to the battery4 ,furthermore1 each cell is tested separately and thus six or twelve volt batteries may be tested without making any change in the tester4 ,for making starting ability discharge tests at high rates1 a carbon plate or similar rheostat is most suitable1 and such rheostats are on the market4 ,fig4 #abh ,high rate discharge tester ,fig4 #abi ,paraffine dip pot ,,paraffine ,,dip ,,pot ,paper tags are not acid proof1 and if acid is spilled on tags tied to batteries which are being repaired1 the writing on the tags is often obliterated so that it is practically impossible to identify the batteries4 ,an excellent plan to overcome this trouble is to dip the tags in hot paraffine after they have been properly filled out4 ,the writing on the tags can be read easily and since paraffine is acid proof1 any acid which may be spilled on the paraffine coated tags will not damage the tags in any way4 ,figure #abi shows a paraffine dip pot4 ,a small earthenware jar is best for this purpose4 ,melt the paraffine slowly on a stove1 pour it into the pot1 and partly immerse a #fj-watt carbon lamp in the paraffine as shown4 ,the lamp will give enough heat to keep the paraffine melted1 without causing it to smoke to any extent4 ,after filling out a ,battery ,card1 dip it into the ,paraffine1 and hold the card above the pot to let the excess paraffine run off4 ,let the paraffine dry before attaching the tag to the battery1 otherwise the paraffine may be scratched off4 ,,wooden ,,boxes ,,for ,,battery ,,parts ,fig4 #acj ,fig4 #acj4 ,boxes for ,holding ,parts of ,batteries ,being ,prepared ,figure #acj shows a number of wooden boxes1 about #ab inches long1 #h inches wide1 and #d inches deep4 ,these boxes are very useful for holding the terminals inter-cell connectors1 covers1 plugs1 etc41 of batteries which are dismantled for repairs4 ,write the name of the owner with chalk on the end of the box1 and rub the name off after the battery has been put together again4 ,the boxes shown in ,figure #acj had been used for plug tobacco1 and served the purpose very well4 ,the larger box shown in ,figure #acj may be used for collecting old terminals1 inter-cell connectors1 lead drillings1 etc4 ,,earthenware ,,jars ,the twenty gallon size is very convenient for waste acid1 old separators1 and any junk parts which are wet with acid4 ,the jars are acid proof and will help keep the shop floor dry and anything which will help in this is most desirable4 ,,acid ,,carboys ,acid is shipped in large glass bottles around each of which a wooden box is built to prevent breakage1 the combination being called a carboy4 ,since the acid is heavy1 some means of drawing it out of the bottle is necessary4 ,one method is illustrated in ,figure #aca1 wooden rockers being screwed to the box in which the bottle is placed4 ,fig4 #aca ,a simple method of drawing acid from a carboy ,a very good addition to the rockers shown in ,figure #aca is the inner tube shown in ,figure #acb4 ,in this illustration the rockers are not shown1 but should be used4 ,the combination of the rockers with the inner tube gives a very convenient method of pouring acid from a carboy1 since the heavy bottle need not be lifted1 and since it helps keep the floor and the top of the box dry4 ,fig4 #acb ,use of inner tube to protect box when pouring acid ,the rubber tube shown in ,figure #acb is a piece of #d inch inner tube which is slit down one side to make it lie flat4 ,near one end is cut a hole large enough to fit tightly over the neck of the acid bottle4 ,slip this rubber over the neck of the bottle and allow the long end to hang a few inches over the side of the carboy bottle or box4 ,this is for pouring acid from a carboy when it is too full to allow the contents to be removed without spilling4 ,this device will allow the contents of the carboy to be poured into a crock or other receptacle placed on the floor without spilling1 and also prevents dirt that may be laying on top of the carboy from falling into the crock4 ,fig4 #acc ,siphon for drawing acid from carboy ,figure #acc shows a siphon method for drawing acid from a bottle1 although this method is more suitable for distilled water than for acid4 ,a is the bottle1 ,b a rubber stopper1 ,c and ,d are #c_/h inch glass or hard rubber tubes1 ,e is a length of rubber tubing having a pinch clamp at its lower end4 ,to use this device1 the stopper and tubes are inserted in the bottle1 and air blown or pumped in at ,c1 while the pinch clamp is open1 until acid or water begins to run out of the lower end of tubing ,e4 ,the pinch clamp is then released4 ,whenever acid or water is to be drawn from the bottle the pinch clamp is squeezed so as to release the pressure on the tube4 ,the water or acid will flow down the tube automatically as long as the pinch clamp is held open4 ,the clamp may be made of flat or round spring brass or bronze4 ,this is bent round at 7a74 ,at 7c7 an opening is made1 through which the part 7b7 is bent4 ,the clamp is operated by pressing at 7d7 and 7e74 ,the rubber tubing is passed through the opening between 7b7 and 7c74 ,this method is a very good one for the small bottle of distilled water placed on the charging bench to bring the electrolyte up to the proper height4 ,the lower end of tube 7e7 is held over the vent hole of the cell4 ,the pinch clamp is then squeezed and water will flow4 ,releasing the clamp stops the flow of water instantly4 ,if tube 7e7 is made long enough1 the water bottle may be set on the elevated shelf extending down the center of the charging bench4 ,fig4 #acd ,foot pump for drawing acid from carboy ,figure #acd shows another arrangement1 using a tire pump4 ,d and ,e are #c_/h inch hard rubber tubes4 ,d is open at both ends and has a ,t branch to which the pump tubing is attached4 ,to operate1 a finger is held over the upper end of ,d1 and air is pumped into the acid bottle1 forcing the acid into the vessel ,f4 ,to stop the flow of acid1 the finger is removed from ,d4 ,this stops the flow instantly4 ,this method is the most satisfactory one when fairly large quantities of acid or water are to be drawn off4 ,,shop ,,layouts ,the degree of success which the battery repairman attains depends to a considerable extent upon the workshop in which the batteries are handled4 ,it is1 of course1 desirable to be able to build your shop1 and thus be able to have everything arranged as you wish4 ,if you must work in a rented shop1 select a place which has plenty of light and ventilation4 ,the ventilation is especially important on account of the acid fumes from the batteries4 ,a shop which receives most of its light from the north is the best1 as the light is then more uniform during the day1 and the direct rays of the sun are avoided4 ,fig4 #ch shows a light1 well ventilated workroom4 ,the floor should be in good condition1 since acid rots the wood and if the floor is already in a poor condition1 the acid will soon eat through it4 ,a tile floor1 as described below1 is best4 ,a wooden floor should be thoroughly scrubbed1 using water to which baking soda has been added4 ,then give the floor a coat of asphaltum paint1 which should be applied hot so as to flow into all cracks in the wood4 ,when the first coat is dry1 several more coats should be given4 ,whenever you make a solution of soda for any purpose1 do not throw it away when you are through with it4 ,instead1 pour it on the floor where the acid is most likely to be spilled4 ,this will neutralize the acid and prevent it from rotting the wood4 ,if you can afford to build a shop1 make it of brick1 with a floor of vitrified brick1 or of tile which is not less than two inches thick1 and is preferably eight inches square4 ,the seams should not be less than one-eighth inch wide1 and not wider than one fourth4 ,they should be grouted with asphaltum1 melted as hot and as thin as possible 7not less than #cej ,f474 ,this should be poured in the seams4 ,the brick or tile should be heated near the seams before pouring in the asphaltum4 ,when all the seams have been filled1 heat them again4 ,after the second heating1 the asphaltum may shrink1 and it may be necessary to pour in more asphaltum4 ,if possible1 the floor should slope evenly from one end of the room to the other4 ,a lead drainage trough and pipe at the lower end of the shop will carry off the acid and electrolyte4 ,it is a good plan to give all work benches and storage racks and shelves at least two coatings of asphaltum paint4 ,this will prevent rotting by the acid4 ,the floor of a battery repair shop is1 at best1 a wet1 sloppy affair1 and if a lead drainage trough is too expensive1 there should be a drain in the center of the floor if the shop is small1 and several if the shop is a large one4 ,the floor should slope toward the drains1 and the drain-pipes should be made of glazed tile4 ,to keep the feet as dry as possible1 rubbers1 or even low rubber boots should be worn4 ,sulphuric acid ruins leather shoes1 although leather shoes can be protected to a certain extent by dipping them in hot paraffine4 ,fig4 #ace ,wooden grating on shop floor to give dry walking surface for the repairman ,a good plan is to lay a wooden grating over the floor as shown in ,figure #ace4 ,water and acid will run down between the wooden strips1 leaving the walking surface fairly dry4 ,if such a grating is made1 it should be built in sections which may be lifted easily to be washed1 and to permit washing the floor4 ,keep both the grating and the floor beneath covered with asphaltum paint to prevent rotting by acid4 ,once a week1 or oftener1 if necessary1 sweep up all loose dirt and then turn the hose on the floor and grating to wash off as much acid as possible4 ,when the wood has dried1 a good thing to do is to pour on the floor and grating several pails of water in which washing soda or ammonia has been dissolved4 ,watch your floor4 ,it will pay-in better work by yourself and by the men working for you4 ,have large earthenware jars set wherever necessary in which lead drillings1 old plates1 old connectors1 old separators1 etc41 may be thrown4 ,do not let junk cases1 jars1 separators1 etc41 accumulate4 ,throw them away immediately and keep your shop clean4 ,a clean shop pleases ,your customers1 --and satisfied customers mean success4 ,on the following pages a number of shop layouts are given for both large and small shops4 ,the beginner1 of course1 may not be able to rent even a small shop1 but he may rent part of an established repair shop1 and later rent an entire shop4 ,a man working in a corner of an established service must arrange his equipment according to the space available4 ,later on1 when he branches out for himself1 he should plan his shop to got the best working arrangement4 ,figure #acf shows a suggested layout for a small shop4 ,such a layout may have to be altered because of the size and shape of the shop1 and the location of the windows4 ,fig4 #acf ,floorplan3 layout for a small shop ,as soon as growth of business permits1 a shop should have a drive-in1 so that the customer may bring his car off the street4 ,without a drive-in all testing to determine what work is necessary will have to be done at the curb1 which is too public for many car owners4 ,a drive-in is also convenient if a customer leaves his car while his battery is being repaired4 ,to a certain extent1 the advantages of a drive-in may be secured by having a vacant lot next to the shop1 with a covering of cinders4 ,as soon as possible1 however1 a shop which is large enough to have a drive-in should be rented or built4 ,figure #acg shows a #bd x #fj shop with space for three cars4 ,the shop equipment is explained in the table4 ,figure #ach shows a #dj x #ge shop with room for six cars and a drive-in and drive-out4 ,this facilitates the handling of the cars4 ,figure #aci shows a #cj x #ajj shop in a long and somewhat narrow building4 ,it also has a drive-in and drive-out4 ,another arrangement for the same sized shop as shown in the preceding illustration is shown in ,figure #adj4 ,here the drive-out is at the side and this layout is1 therefore1 suitable for a building located on a corner1 or next to an alley4 ,figure #ada shows a larger shop1 which may be used after the business has grown considerably4 ,figure #adb shows a layout suitable for the largest station4 ,somewhere between ,figures #acf and #adb is a layout for any service station4 ,the thing to do is to select the one most suitable for the size of the business1 and to fit local conditions1 ,if a special building is put up1 local conditions are not so important4 ,if a shop is rented1 it may not be possible to follow any of the layouts shown in ,figs4 #acf to #adb4 ,however1 the layout which is best adapted for the actual shop should be selected as a guide1 and the equipment shown obtained4 ,this should then be arranged as nearly like the pattern layout as the shop arrangement will permit4 ,concerning ,light ,light is essential to good work1 so you must have plenty of good light and at the right place4 ,for a light that is needed from one end of a bench to the other1 to look into each individual battery1 or to take the reading of each individual battery1 there is nothing better than a #fj ,watt tungsten lamp under a good metal shade1 dark on outside and white on inside4 ,a unique way to hang a light and have it movable from one end of the bench to the other1 is to stretch a wire from one end of the bench to the other4 ,steel or copper about #aj or #ab ,b ,s gauge may be used4 ,stretch it about four or five feet above top of bench directly above where the light is most needed4 ,if ,you have a double charging bench1 stretch the wire directly above middle of bench4 ,before fastening wire to support1 slip an old fashioned porcelain knob 7or an ordinary thread spool7 on the wire4 ,the drop cord is to be tied to this knob or spool at whatever height you wish the light to hang 7a few inches lower than your head is the right height74 ,put the ceiling rosette above center of bench2 cut your drop cord long enough so that you can slide the light from one end of bench to the other after being attached to rosette4 ,put vaseline on the wire so the fumes of gas will not corrode it4 ,this will also make the spool slide easily4 ,this gives you a movable1 flexible light1 with which you will reach any battery on bench for inspection4 ,the work bench light can be rigged up the same way and a #ge or #ajj ,watt nitrogen lamp used4 ,fig4 #acg ,shop layout ,fig4 #ach ,shop layout ,fig4 #acg and #ach3 ,a-,receiving ,rack4 ,b-,portable ,electric ,drill1 or ,hand ,drill4 ,c-,wash ,tank1 ,d-,tear ,down ,bench4 ,e-,hot ,water ,pan4 ,f-,waiting ,rack 7#e ,shelves74 ,g-,repair ,bench 7#f ft4 by #b ft4 #c in474 ,h-,charging ,table 7#c ,circuits74 ,i-,electrolyte7#aj ,gal4 ,crocks74 ,j-,separator ,rack4 ,k-,generator4 ,l-,switchboard4 ,m-,stock ,bins1 ,n-,new ,batteries1 ,o-,live storage4 ,p-,sealing ,compound4 ,r-,ready ,rack 7#e-,shelves74 ,s-,dry ,storage4 7,s is not in ,fig4 #acg47 ,fig4 #aci1 #adj #ada ,various shop layouts ,fig4 #aci1 #adj and #ada3 ,a-,receiving ,rack4 ,b-,power ,drill4 ,c-,wash ,tank4 ,d-,tear ,down ,bench4 ,e-,hot ,water ,pan4 ,f-,waiting ,rack 7#f ,shelves74 ,g-,repair ,bench4 ,h-,charging ,table 7#c ,circuits74 ,i-,electrolyte 7#aj ,gal4 ,crocks74 ,j-,separator ,rack4 ,k-,generator4 ,l-,switchboard4 ,m-,stock ,bins4 ,n-,new ,batteries4 ,o-,live storage4 ,p-,sealing ,compound4 ,r-,ready ,rack 7#e-,shelves74 ,s-,dry ,storage4 ,t-,torn ,down ,parts4 7,o and ,t in #ada1 not in #aci and #adj47 ,fig4 #adb ,shop layout ,fig4 #adb3 ,a-,receiving ,rack4 ,b-,power ,drill4 ,c-,wash ,tank4 ,d-,tear ,down ,bench4 ,e-,hot ,water ,pan4 ,f-,waiting ,rack 7#f ,shelves74 ,g-,repair ,bench4 ,h-,charging ,table4 ,i-,electrolyte 7#aj ,gal4 ,crocks74 ,j-,separator ,rack4 ,k-,generator4 ,l-,switchboard4 ,m-,stock ,bins4 ,n-,new ,batteries4 ,o-,live storage4 ,p-,sealing ,compound4 ,r-,ready ,rack4 ,s-,dry ,storage4 ,t-,torn ,down ,parts4 ,,chapter #ab4 ,,general ,,shop ,,instructions4 -------------------------- ,,charging ,,batteries4 ,the equipment for charging batteries1 instructions for building and wiring charging benches have already been given4 ,what we shall now discuss is the actual charging4 ,the charge a battery receives on the charging bench is called a bench charge4 ,battery charging in the service station may be divided into two general classes3 #a4 ,charging batteries which have run down1 but which are otherwise in good condition1 and which do not require repairs4 #b4 ,charging batteries during or after the repair process4 ,the second class of charging is really a part of the repair process and will-be described in the chapter on ,rebuilding the ,battery4 ,charging a battery always consists of sending a direct current through it1 the current entering the battery at the positive terminal and leaving it at the negative terminal1 the charging current1 of course1 passing through the battery in the opposite direction to the current which the battery produces when discharging4 ,when a battery discharges chemical changes take place by means of which electrical energy is produced4 ,when a battery is on charge1 the charging current causes chemical changes which are the reverse of those which take place on discharge and which put the active materials and electrolyte in such a condition that the battery serves as a source of electricity when replaced in the car4 ,batteries are charged not only in a repair shop but also in garages which board automobiles1 and in car dealers' shops4 ,no matter where a battery is charged1 however1 the same steps must be taken and the same precautions observed4 ,when a ,bench ,charge is ,necessary3 7a7 ,when a battery runs down on account of the generator on the car not having a sufficient output1 or on account of considerable night driving being done1 or on account of frequent use of the starting motor1 or on account of neglect on the part of the car owner4 7b7 ,batteries used on cars or trucks without a generator1 or batteries used for ,radio work should1 of course1 be given a bench charge at regular intervals4 7c7 ,when the specific gravity readings of all cells are below #a4bjj1 and these readings are within #ej points of each other4 ,should the gravity reading of any cell be #ej points lower or higher than that of the other cells1 it is best to make a #ae-seconds high rate discharge test 7see page #bff7 to determine whether the cell is defective or whether electrolyte has been lost due to flooding caused by over-filling and has been replaced by water or higher gravity electrolyte4 ,if any defect shows up during the high rate test1 the battery should be opened for inspection4 ,if no defect shows up1 put the battery on charge4 7d7 ,when the lamps burn dimly while the engine is running4 7e7 ,when the lamps become very dim when the starting switch is closed4 ,if a battery is tested by turning on the lights and then closing the starting switch1 make sure that there is no short-circuit or ground in the starting motor circuits4 ,such trouble will cause a very heavy current to be drawn from the battery1 resulting in a drop in the voltage of the battery4 7f7 ,when the voltage of the battery has fallen below #a4g volts per cell1 measured while all the lights are turned on4 7g7 ,when the owner has neglected to add water to the cells regularly1 and the electrolyte has fallen below the tops of the plates4 7h7 ,when a battery has been doped by the addition of electrolyte or acid instead of water1 or when one of the dope electrolytes which are advertised to make old1 worn out batteries charge up in a ridiculously short time and show as much life and power as a new battery4 ,use nothing but a mixture of distilled water and sulphuric acid for electrolyte4 ,the dope solutions are not only worthless1 but they damage a battery considerably and shorten its life4 ,such a doped battery may give high gravity 99readings and yet the lamps will become very dim when the starting motor cranks the car1 the voltage per cell will be low when the lights are burning1 or low voltage readings 7#a4ej per cell7 will be obtained if a high rate discharge test is made4 ,every battery which comes in for any reason whatsoever1 or any battery which is given a bench charge whenever necessary should also be examined for other defects1 such as poorly burned on connectors and terminals1 rotted case1 handles pulled off1 sealing compound cracked1 or a poor sealing job between the covers and jars1 or covers and posts4 ,a slight leakage of electrolyte through cracks or imperfect joints between the covers and jars or covers and posts is very often present without causing any considerable trouble4 ,if any of the other troubles are found1 however1 the battery needs repairing4 ,arrangement of ,batteries on ,charging ,bench4 ,if a battery comes in covered with dirt1 set it on the wash rack or in the sink and clean it thoroughly before putting it on charge4 ,in setting the batteries on the charging bench1 place all of them so that the positive terminal is toward the right as you face the bench4 ,the positive terminal may be found to be painted red1 or may be stamped 1 ,p1 or ,,pos4 ,if the markings on one of the terminals has been scratched or worn off1 examine the other terminal4 ,the negative terminal may be found to be painted black1 or be stamped -1 ,n or ,,neg4 ,if neither terminal is marked1 the polarity may be determined with a voltmeter1 or by a cadmium test4 ,to make the voltmeter test1 hold the meter wires on the battery terminals1 or the terminals of either end cell4 ,when the voltmeter pointer moves to the right of the #j line on the scale1 the wire attached to the terminal of the meter is touching the positive battery terminal1 and the wire attached to the - terminal of the meter is touching the negative battery terminal4 ,if this test is made with a meter having the #j line at the center of the scale1 be sure that you know whether the pointer should move to the left or right of the #j line when the wire attached to the meter terminal is touching the positive battery terminal4 ,another method of determining which is the positive terminal of the battery is to use the cadmium test4 ,when a reading of about two volts is obtained1 the prod held on one of the cell terminals is touching the positive terminal4 ,when a reading of almost zero is obtained1 that is1 when the needle of the meter just barely moves from the #j line1 or when it does not move at all1 the prod held on one of the cell terminals is touching the negative terminal4 ,this test1 made while the battery is on open-circuit1 is not a regular cadmium test1 but is made merely to determine the polarity of the battery4 ,the polarity of the charging line will always be known if the bench is wired permanently4 ,the positive charging wire should always be to the right4 ,if a separate switch is used for each battery 7,figures #dc and #fe71 the wire attached to the right side of the switch is positive4 ,if the batteries are connected together by means of jumpers 7,figures #dd and #dg71 the positive charging wire should be at the right hand end of the bench as seen when facing the bench4 ,if a constant-potential charging circuit is used as shown in ,figure #dh1 the positive bus-bar should be at the top and the neutral in the center1 and the negative at the bottom4 ,if the polarity of the charging line wires is not known1 it may be determined by a voltmeter1 in the same way as the batter-1 polarity is determined4 ,if this is done1 care should be taken to use a meter having a range sufficient to measure the line voltage4 ,if no such voltmeter is available1 a simple test is to fill a tumbler with weak electrolyte or salt water and insert two wires attached to the line4 ,the ends of these wires should1 of course1 be bare for an inch or more4 ,hold these wires about an inch apart1 with the line alive4 ,numerous fine bubbles of gas will collect around the negative wire4 ,with the polarities of all the batteries known1 arrange them so that all the positive terminals are at the right4 ,then connect them to the individual switches 7see ,figure #dc71 or connect them together with jumpers 7see ,figure #dd71 being sure to connect the negative of one battery to the positive of the next4 ,connect the positive charging line wire to the positive terminal of the first battery1 and the negative line wire to the negative terminal of the last battery4 ,see page #aje4 ,with all connections made1 and before starting to charge1 go over all the batteries again very carefully4 ,you cannot be too careful in checking the connections1 for if one or more batteries are connected reversed1 they will be charged in the wrong direction1 and will most likely be severely damaged4 ,as a final check on the connections of the batteries on the line1 measure the total voltage of these batteries and see if the reading is equal to two times the total number of cells on the line4 ,now inspect the electrolyte in each cell4 ,if it is low1 add distilled water to bring the electrolyte one-half inch above the plates4 ,do not wait until a battery is charged before adding water4 ,do it now4 ,do not add so much water that the electrolyte comes above the lower end of the vent tube4 ,this will cause flooding4 ,charging1 ,rate4 ,if you connect batteries of various sizes together on one circuit1 charge at the rate which is normal for the smallest battery4 ,if the rate used is the normal one for the larger batteries1 the smaller batteries will be overheated and boiled to death1 or they may gas so violently as to blow a considerable portion of the active material from the plates4 ,it is quite possible to charge #f and #ab volt batteries in series4 ,the important point is not to have the total number of cells too high4 ,for instance1 if the #aj battery ,tungar is used1 ten #f-volt batteries 7#cj cells71 or any combination which gives #cj cells or less may be used4 ,for instance1 five #ab-volt batteries 7#cj cells71 or six #f-volt batteries 7#ah cells7 and two #ab-volt batteries 7#ab cells71 or any other combination totaling #cj cells may be used4 ,the same holds true for motor-generators4 ,the charging rate is generally determined by the size of the charging outfit4 ,the ten battery ,tungar should never have its output raised above #f amperes4 ,a charging rate of #f amperes is suitable for all but the very smallest batteries4 ,in any case1 whether you are certain just what charging rate to use1 or not1 there are two things which will guide you1 temperature and gassing4 #a4 ,temperature4 ,have a battery thermometer 7,figure #cg7 on hand1 and measure the temperature of the electrolyte of each cell on the line4 ,if you note that some particular cell is running hotter than the others1 keep the thermometer in that cell and watch the temperature4 ,do not let the temperature rise above #aaj degrees ,fahrenheit1 except for a very short time4 ,should the highest of the temperature of the cells rise above #aaj degrees1 reduce the charging rate4 #b4 ,gassing4 ,near the end of a charge and when the specific gravity has stopped rising1 or is rising very slowly1 bubbles of gas will rise from the electrolyte1 this being due to the charging current decomposing the water of the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen4 ,if this gassing is too violent1 a considerable amount of active material will be blown from the plates4 ,therefore1 when this gassing begins1 the charging rate should be reduced1 unless the entire charging has been done at a low rate1 say about five amperes4 ,if gassing begins in any cell soon after the charge is started1 or before the specific gravity has reached its highest point1 reduce the charging rate to eliminate the gassing4 ,if one battery or one cell shows a high temperature and the others do not1 or begins gassing long before the others do1 remove that battery from the charging line for further investigation and replace it with another so as not to slow up the charge of the other batteries which are acting normally4 ,as long as excessive temperatures and too-early gassing are avoided1 practically any charging rate may be used1 especially at the start4 ,with a constant potential charging set1 as shown in ,figure #dh1 the charge may start at as high a rate as #ej amperes4 ,if this system of charging is used1 the temperature must be watched very carefully and gassing must be looked for4 ,with the usual series method of charging1 a charge may1 in an emergency1 be started at #bj amperes or more4 ,as a general rule do not use a higher rate than #aj amperes4 ,a five ampere rate is even better1 but more time will be required for the charge4 ,time ,required for a ,charge4 ,the time required is not determined by the clock1 but by the battery4 ,continue the charge until each cell is gassing freely 7not violently7 and for five hours after the specific gravity has stopped rising4 ,the average condition of batteries brought in for charge permits them to be fully charged in about #dh hours1 the time being determined as stated above4 ,some batteries may charge fully in less time1 and some may require from four days to a week1 depending entirely upon the condition of the batteries4 ,do not give any promise as to when a recharge battery will be ready4 ,no one can tell how long it will take to charge4 ,specific ,gravity at the ,end of the ,charge4 ,the specific gravity of the electrolyte in a fully charged cell should be from #a4bhj to #a4cjj4 ,if it varies more than #aj points above or below these values1 adjust it by drawing off some of the electrolyte with a hydrometer and adding water to lower the gravity1 or #a4djj acid to raise the gravity4 ,after adjusting the gravity charge for one hour more4 ,battery ,voltage at ,end of ,charge4 ,the voltage of a fully charged cell is from #b4e to #b4g when the temperature of the electrolyte is #hj degrees ,fahrenheit2 #b4d to #b4f when the temperature of the electrolyte is #ajj degrees ,fahrenheit1 and #b4ce to #b4ee volts when the temperature of the electrolyte is #abj degrees ,fahrenheit1 and this voltage1 together with hydrometer readings of #a4bhj-a4cjj indicate that the battery is fully charged4 ,just before putting a battery which has been charged into service1 give it a #ae seconds high rate discharge test1 see page #bff4 ,painting4 ,before returning a battery to the owner wipe it perfectly clean and dry4 ,then wipe the covers1 terminals1 connectors and handles with a rag wet with ammonia4 ,next give the case a light coat of black paint which may be made by mixing lamp black and shellac4 ,this paint dries in about five minutes and gives a good gloss4 ,the customer may not believe that you are returning the battery which he brought in but he will most certainly be pleased with your service and will feel that if you take such pains with the outside of his battery you will certainly treat the inside with the same care when repairs are necessary4 ,the light coat of paint costs very little for one battery1 but may bring you many dollars worth of work4 ,level of ,electrolyte4 ,during charge the electrolyte will expand1 and will generally flow out on the covers4 ,this need not be wiped off until the end of the charge4 ,when the electrolyte has cooled after the battery is taken off charge1 it must be about #a_/b inch above the plates4 ,while the electrolyte is still warm it will stand higher than this1 but it should not be lowered by drawing off some of it1 as this will probably cause it to be below the tops of the plates and separators when it cools4 ,,troubles ,if all goes well1 the charging process will take place as described in the preceding paragraphs4 ,it frequently happens1 however1 that all does not go well1 and troubles arise4 ,such troubles generally consist of the following3 ,specific gravity will not rise to #a4bhj4 ,this may be due to the plates not taking a full charge1 or to water having been used to replace electrolyte which has been spilled4 ,to determine which of these conditions exist1 make cadmium test 7see page #agd7 on the positives and negatives1 also measure the voltage of each cell4 ,if these tests indicate that the plates are fully charged 7cell voltage #b4e to #b4g1 ,positive-,cadmium #b4d volts1 ,negative-,cadmium minus #j4ae to #j4bj volts71 you will know that there is not enough acid in the electrolyte4 ,the thing to do then is to dump out the old electrolyte1 refill with #a4cjj electrolyte and continue the charge until the specific gravity becomes constant4 ,some adjustment may then have to be made by drawing off some of the electrolyte with a hydrometer and adding water to lower the gravity1 or #a4djj acid to bring it up4 ,remember that specific gravity readings tell you nothing about the plates1 unless it is known that the electrolyte contains the correct proportions of water and acid4 ,the cadmium test is the test which tells you directly whether or not the plates are charged and in charging a battery the aim is to charge the plates1 and not merely to bring the specific gravity to #a4bhj4 ,if the specific gravity will not rise to #a4bhj and cadmium tests show that the plates will not take a full charge1 then the battery is1 of course1 defective in some way4 ,if the battery is an old one1 the negatives are probably somewhat granulated1 the positives have probably lost much of their active material1 resulting in a considerable amount of sediment in the jars1 and the separators are worn out1 carbonized1 or clogged with sediment4 ,such a battery should not be expected to give as good service as a new one1 and the best thing to do if the tests show the battery to be more than half charged1 is to put it back on the car1 taking care to explain to the owner why his battery will not come up and telling him that he will soon need a new battery4 ,remember that improperly treated separators1 or defective separators will cause poor ,negative-,cadmium readings to be obtained4 ,if a fairly new battery will not take a full charge1 as indicated by hydrometer readings and cadmium tests1 some trouble has developed due to neglect1 abuse1 or defect in manufacture4 ,if all cells of a fairly new battery fail to take a full charge within #dh hours1 the battery has probably been abused by failing to add water regularly1 or by allowing battery to remain in an undercharged condition4 ,such a battery should be kept on the line for several days more1 and if it then still will not take a full charge the owner should be told what the condition of the battery is1 and advised to have it opened for inspection4 ,if one cell of a battery fails to take a charge1 but the other cells charge satisfactorily1 and cadmium tests show that the plates of this cell are not taking a charge1 the cell should be opened for inspection4 ,if one cell of a battery charges slowly1 cut the other cells out of the line1 and charge the low cell in series with the other batteries on the charging line4 ,if all cells of a battery1 whether new or old1 will not take even half a charge1 as indicated by hydrometer readings 7#a4bjj71 the battery should be opened for inspection4 ,if the gravity of a battery on charge begins to rise long before the voltage rises1 and if the gravity rises above #a4cjj1 there is too great a proportion of acid in the electrolyte4 ,the remedy is to dump out the electrolyte1 refill with pure water and continue the charge at a lower rate than before1 until the specific gravity stops rising4 ,then charge for ten hours longer1 dump out the water 7which has now become electrolyte by the acid formed by the charging current71 refill with about #a4cej electrolyte and continue the charge1 balancing the gravity if necessary at the end of the charge4 ,if a battery becomes very hot while on charge at a rate which is not normally too high for the battery1 it indicates that the battery is badly sulphated1 or has a partial short-circuit4 ,gassing generally goes with the high temperature4 ,if you can detect a vinegar-like odor rising from the vent holes1 you may be absolutely sure that the separators used in that battery have developed acetic acid due to not having received the proper treatment necessary to prepare them for use in the battery4 ,the electrolyte should be dumped from such a battery immediately and the battery should be filled and rinsed with water several times4 ,then the battery should be opened without loss of time1 to see whether1 by removing the separators and washing the plates thoroughly1 the plates may be saved4 ,if the acetic acid has been present for any length of time1 however1 the plates will have been ruined beyond repair1 the lead parts being dissolved by the acid4 ,if the electrolyte of a battery on charge has a white1 milky look1 there may be impurities which cause numerous minute bubbles to form1 such bubbles giving the electrolyte its milky appearance4 ,the milky appearance may be due to the use of hard water in refilling1 this water containing lime4 ,the electrolyte as seen with the acid of an electric lamp or flashlight should be perfectly clear and colorless4 ,any scum1 particles of dirt1 any color whatsoever shows that the electrolyte is impure4 ,this calls for dumping out the electrolyte1 filling and rinsing with pure water1 refilling with new electrolyte and putting the battery back on the charging line4 ,of course1 this may not cause the battery to charge satisfactorily1 which may be due to the troubles already described4 ,should it ever happen that it is impossible to send a current through a charging circuit go over all the connections to make sure that you have good contact at each battery terminal1 and that there are no loose inter-cell connectors4 ,if all connections to the batteries are good1 and there are no loose inter-cell connectors1 cut out one battery at a time until you start the current flowing1 when you cut out some particular battery4 ,this battery should then be opened without further tests1 as it is without a doubt in a bad condition4 ,the conditions which may exist when a battery will not charge1 as shown especially by cadmium tests1 are as follows3 7a7 ,the battery may have been allowed to remain in a discharged condition1 or the owner may have neglected to add water1 with the result that the electrolyte did not cover the plates4 ,in either case a considerable amount of crystallized sulphate will have formed in the plates4 ,plates in such a condition will require a charge of about a week at a low rate and will then have to be discharged and recharged again4 ,several such cycles of charge and discharge may be necessary4 ,it may even be impossible to charge such a battery1 no matter how many cycles of charge and discharge are given4 ,if the owner admits that his battery has been neglected and allowed to stand idle for a considerable time1 get his permission to open the battery4 7b7 ,the battery may have been overheated by an excessive charging rate1 or by putting it on a car in a sulphated condition4 ,the normal charging rate of the generator on the car will over heat a sulphated battery4 ,overheated plates buckle their lower edges cut through the separators1 causing a short-circuit between plates4 7c7 ,the pockets in the bottoms of the jars may have become filled with sediment1 and the sediment may be short-circuiting the plates4 7d7 ,impurities may have attacked the plates and changed the active materials to other substances which do not form a battery4 ,such plates may be so badly damaged that they are brittle and crumbled4 ,acetic acid from improperly treated separators will dissolve lead very quickly1 and may even cause an open circuit in the cell4 7e7 ,the conditions described in 7a71 7b71 and 7c7 will permit a charging current to pass through the battery1 but the plates will not become charged4 ,it is possible1 of course1 but not probable1 that a condition may exist in which all the plates of one or both groups of a cell may be broken from the connecting straps1 or inter-cell connectors may be making no contact with the posts4 ,in such a case1 it would be impossible to send a charging current through the battery4 ,acetic acid from improperly treated separators1 and organic matter introduced by the use of impure water in refilling will attack the lead of the plates1 especially at the upper surface of the electrolyte1 and may dissolve all the plate lugs from the connecting straps and cause an open-circuit4 7f7 ,the separators may be soggy and somewhat charred and blackened1 or they may be clogged up with sulphate1 and the battery may need new separators4 7g7 ,the spongy lead may be bulged1 or the positives may be buckled4 ,the active material is then not making good contact with the grids1 and the charging current cannot get at all the sulphate and change it to active material4 ,the remedy in such a case is to press the negatives so as to force the active material back into the grids1 and to put in new positives if they are considerably buckled4 7h7 ,one of the numerous dope electrolytes which are offered to the trustful car owner may have been put in the battery4 ,such dopes might cause very severe damage to the plates4 ,tell your customers to avoid using such dope4 ,the conditions which may exist when the plates of a battery take a charge1 as indicated by cadmium tests1 but the gravity will not come up to #a4bhj are as follows3 7a7 ,there may be considerable sediment in the jars but not enough to short circuit the plates4 ,if the battery has at some time been in a sulphated condition and has been charged ,at too high a rate1 the gassing that resulted will have caused chips of the sulphate to drop to the bottom of the jars4 ,when this sulphate was formed1 some of the acid was taken from the electrolyte1 and if the sulphate drops from the plates1 this amount of acid cannot be recovered no matter how long the charge is continued4 ,if the owner tells you that his battery has stood idle for several months at some time1 this is a condition which may exist4 ,the remedy is to wash and press the negatives1 wash the positives1 put in new separators1 pour out the old electrolyte and wash out the jars1 fill with #a4djj acid1 and charge the battery4 7b7 ,impurities may have used up some of the acid which cannot be recovered by charging4 ,if the plates are not much damaged the remedy is the same as for 7a74 ,damaged plates may require renewal4 7c7 ,electrolyte may have been spilled accidentally and replaced by water4 7d7 ,too much water may have been added1 with the result that the expansion of the electrolyte due to a rise in temperature on charge caused it to overflow4 ,this1 of course1 resulted in a loss of some of the acid4 ,the causes given in 7c7 and 7d7 may have resulted in the top of the battery case being acid-eaten or rotted4 ,the remedy in these two instances is to draw off some of the electrolyte1 add some #a4djj acid and continue the charge4 ,if plates and separators look good and there is but little sediment1 this is the thing to do4 ,if ,battery will not hold a ,charge4 ,if a battery charges properly but loses its charge in a week or less1 as indicated by specific gravity readings1 the following troubles may exist3 7a7 ,impurities in the cells1 due to the use of impure water in the electrolyte1 or in the separators4 ,some impurities 7see page #gf7 do not attack the plates1 but merely cause self-discharge4 ,the remedy is to dump out the old electrolyte1 rinse the jars with pure water1 fill with new electrolyte of the same gravity as the old and recharge4 ,if this does not remove impurities1 the battery should be opened1 the plates washed1 jars cleaned out1 new separators put in1 and battery reassembled and charged4 7b7 ,there may be a slow short-circuit1 due to defective separators or excessive amount of sediment4 ,if preliminary treatment in 7a7 does not cause battery to hold charge1 the opening of battery and subsequent treatment will remove the cause of the slow short-circuit4 ,suggestions #a4 ,make sure every battery is properly tagged before going on line4 #b4 ,determine as quickly as possible from day to day1 those batteries that will not charge4 ,call owner and get permission to open up any such battery and do whatever is necessary to put it in good shape4 #c4 ,as soon as a battery charges to #a4bhj-a4cjj1 the voltage is #b4e-b4g per cell and the cadmium readings are #b4d or more for the positives and -#j4ae to -#j4bj for the negatives and the gravity voltage and cadmium readings do not change for five hours1 remove it from the line as finished and replace it with another if possible4 ,go over your line at least three times a day and make gravity1 temperature1 and cadmium tests4 #d4 ,make a notation1 with chalk1 of the gravity of each cell each morning4 ,do not trust to memory4 #e4 ,remove from the line as soon as possible any battery that has a leaky cell and neutralize with soda the acid that has leaked out4 #f4 ,batteries that are sloppers1 with rotten cases1 and without handles are sick and need a doctor4 ,go after the owner and get permission to repair4 #g4 ,keep the bench orderly and clean4 #h4 ,remember that if you have a line only partly full and have other batteries waiting to be charged you are losing money by not keeping a full line4 #i4 ,leave the ,vent ,plugs in ,when ,charging4 ,the atmosphere in many service stations1 where the ventilation is poor1 is so filled with acid fumes that customers object to doing business there4 ,the owners of these places may not notice these conditions1 being used to it1 or rather glory in being able to breathe such air without coughing or choking1 but it certainly does not invite a customer to linger and spend his money4 ,the remedy for such a condition is to leave the vent plugs in place on the batteries that are charging so that the acid spray in the gas from the battery condenses out as it strikes these plugs and drips back into the cells1 while the gas passes out through the small openings in the plug4 ,the plugs need only be screwed into the openings by one turn1 or only set on top of the vent openings to accomplish the result4 ,this takes no additional time and more than repays for itself in the saving of rusted tools and improved conditions in the battery room and surroundings4 ,in charging old ,exide batteries1 be sure to replace the vent plugs and turn them to open the air passages which permit the escape of gases which form under the covers4 ,if you wish to keep these air passages open without replacing the plugs1 which may be done for convenience1 give the valve 7see page #ba7 a quarter turn with a screwdriver or some other tool4 #aj4 ,if the electrolyte from a battery rises until it floods over the top of the jar1 it shows that too much water was added when the battery was put on charge1 the water rising to the bottom of the vent tube1 thereby preventing gases formed 7except those directly below the vent hole7 from escaping4 ,this gas collects under the covers1 and its pressure forces the electrolyte up into the vent hole and over the top of the battery4 ,in charging old ,u4,s4,l4 batteries it is especially necessary to keep the air vent 7see page #bj7 open to prevent flooding1 since the lower end of the vent tube is normally a little below the surface of the electrolyte4 ,remember1 do not have the electrolyte come up to the lower end of the vent tube4 ,,note3 ,to obtain satisfactory negative cadmium readings1 the charging rate should be high enough to give a cell voltage of #b4e-b4g4 ,improperly treated separators1 or separators which have been allowed to become partly dry at any time will make it impossible to obtain satisfactory negative cadmium readings4 ,,lead ,,burning 7,,welding7 ,lead cannot be burned in the sense that it bursts into flame as a piece of paper does when a match is applied to it4 ,if sufficient heat is applied1 the lead will oxidize and feather away into a yellow looking dust1 but it does not burn4 ,the experienced battery man knows that by lead burning is meant the heating of lead to its melting point1 so that two lead surfaces will weld together4 ,this is a welding and not a burning process1 and much confusion would be avoided if the term lead welding were used in place of the term lead burning4 ,the purpose of welding lead surfaces together is to obtain a joint which offers very little resistance to the flow of current1 it being absolutely necessary to have as low a resistance as possible in the starting circuit4 ,welding also makes joints which are strong mechanically and which cannot corrode or become loose as bolted connections do4 ,some earlier types of starting and lighting batteries had inter-cell connectors which were bolted to the posts1 but these are no longer used4 ,the different kinds of lead-burning outfits are listed on page #adc ,the oxygen-acetylene and the oxygen-hydrogen flames give extremely high temperatures and enable you to work fast4 ,where city gas is available1 the oxygen illuminating gas combination will give a very good flame which is softer than the oxygen acetylene1 oxygen-hydrogen outfits4 ,acetylene and compressed air is another good combination4 ,there are two general classes of lead-welding3 7a7 ,welding connecting bars1 called cell connectors1 top connectors1 or simply connectors1 to the posts which project up through the cell covers1 and welding terminals to the end posts of a battery4 7b7 ,welding plates to straps to form groups4 ,the straps1 of course1 have joined to them the posts which project through the cell covers and by means of which cells are connected together1 and connections made to the electrical system of the car4 ,in addition to the above1 there are other processes in which a burning 7welding7 flame is used3 7c7 ,post-building1 or building posts1 which have been drilled or cut short1 up to their original size4 7d7 ,extending plate lug4 ,if the lug which connects a plate to the plate strap is too short1 due to being broken1 or cut too short1 the lug may be extended by melting lead into a suitable iron form placed around the lug4 7e7 ,making temporary charging connections between cells by lightly welding lead strips to the posts so as to connect the cells together4 7f7 ,a lead-burning 7welding7 flame is also used to dry out the channel in cell covers before pouring in the sealing compound1 in re-melting sealing compound which has already been poured1 so as to assure a perfect joint between the compound cover and jar1 and to give the compound a smooth glossy finish4 ,these processes are not welding processes and will not be described here4 ,general ,lead ,burning ,instructions ,flame4 ,with all the lead burning outfits1 it is possible to adjust the pressures of the gases so as to get extremely hot1 medium1 and soft flames4 ,with the oxygen-acetylene1 or oxygen-hydrogen flame1 each gas should have a pressure of about two pounds4 ,with the oxygen-illuminating gas flame1 the oxygen should have a pressure of #h to #aj pounds4 ,the city gas then does not need to have its pressure increased by means of a pump1 the normal pressure 7#f to #h ounces7 being satisfactory4 ,various makes of lead-burning outfits are on the market1 and the repairman should choose the one which he likes best2 since they all give good results4 ,all such outfits have means of regulating the pressures of the gases used4 ,with some the gases are run close to the burning tip before being mixed1 and have an adjusting screw where the gases mix4 ,others have a ,y shaped mixing valve at some distance from the burning tip1 as shown in ,figure #gh4 ,still others have separate regulating valves for each gas line4 ,with these adjustments for varying the gas pressure1 extremely hot1 hissing flames1 or soft flames may be obtained4 ,for the different welding jobs1 the following flames are suitable3 #a4 ,a sharp1 hissing flame1 having a very high temperature is the one most suitable for the first stage in welding terminals and connectors to the posts4 #b4 ,a medium flame with less of a hiss is suitable for welding plates to strips and lengthening plate lugs4 #c4 ,a soft flame which is just beginning to hiss is best for the finishing of the weld between the posts and terminals or connectors4 ,this sort of a flame is also used for finishing a sealing job1 drying out the cover channels before sealing1 and so on4 ,in adjusting the burning flame1 #d the oxygen is turned off entirely1 a smoky yellow flame is obtained4 ,such a flame gives but little heat4 ,as the oxygen is gradually turned on the flame becomes less smoky and begins to assume a blue tinge4 ,it will also be noticed that a sort of a greenish cone forms in the center portion of the flame1 with the base of the cone at the torch and the tip pointed away from the torch4 ,at first this inner-cone is long and of almost the same color as the outer portion of the flame4 ,as the oxygen pressure is increased1 this center cone becomes shorter and of a more vivid color1 and its tip begins to whip about4 ,when the flame is at its highest temperature it will produce a hissing sound and the inner cone will be short and bright4 ,with a softer flame1 which has a temperature suitable for welding plates to a strap1 the inner cone will be longer and less vivid1 and the hissing will be greatly diminished4 ,the temperature of the different parts of the flame varies considerably1 the hottest part being just beyond the end of the inner cone4 ,experience with the particular welding outfit used will soon show how far the tip of the torch should be held from the lead to be melted4 ,cleanliness4 ,lead surfaces which are to be welded together must be absolutely free from dirt4 ,lead and dirt will not mix1 and the dirt will float on top of the lead4 ,therefore1 before trying to do any lead welding1 clean the surfaces which are to be joined4 ,the upper ends of plate lugs may be cleaned with a flat file1 knife41 or wire brush4 ,the posts and inter-cell connectors should be cleaned with a knife1 steel wire brush1 or triangular scraper4 ,do not clean the surfaces and then wait a long time before doing the lead burning4 ,the lead may begin to oxidize if this is done and make it difficult to do a good job4 ,the surfaces which are to be welded together should also be dry4 ,if there is a small hole in the top of a post which is to be welded to a connector or terminal1 and this hole contains acid1 a shower of hot lead may be thrown up by the acid1 with possible injury to the operator4 ,do not try to save time by attempting to weld dirty or wet lead surfaces1 because time cannot be saved by doing so1 and you run the risk of being injured if hot lead is thrown into your face4 ,remove absolutely every speck of dirt--you will soon learn that it is the only way to do a good job4 ,safety ,precautions4 ,remove the vent plugs and blow down through the vent holes to remove any gases which may have collected above the surface of the electrolyte4 ,an explosion may result if this is not done4 ,to protect the rubber covers1 you may cover the whole top of the battery except the part at which the welding is to be done1 with a large piece of burlap or a towel which has been soaked in water4 ,the parts covered by the cloth must be dried thoroughly if any welding on them4 ,instead of using a wet cloth1 a strip of asbestos may be laid over the vent holes1 or a small square of asbestos may be laid over each vent hole4 ,burning on the ,cell ,connectors and ,terminals ,have the posts perfectly clean and free from acid4 ,clean the tops1 bottoms and sides of the connectors with a wire brush1 ,figure #adc4 ,finish the top surfaces with a coarse file1 ,figure #add4 ,with a pocket knife clean the inside surfaces of the connector holes4 ,place the connectors and terminals in their proper positions on the posts1 and with a short length of a two by two1 two by one1 or two by four wood pound them snugly in position1 ,figure #ade4 ,be sure that the connectors are perfectly level and that the connectors are in the correct position as required on the car on which the battery is to be used4 ,the top of the post should not come flush with the top of the connector4 ,note1 from ,figure #adf1 that the connector has a double taper1 and that the lower tapered surface is not welded to the post4 ,if the post has been built up too high it should be cut down with a pair of end cutting nippers so that the entire length of the upper taper in the connector is in plain sight when the connector is put in position on the post4 ,this is shown in ,figure #adf4 ,with the connectors in place1 and before welding them to the posts1 measure the voltage of the whole battery to be sure that the cells are properly connected1 as shown by the voltage reading being equal to two times the number of cells4 ,if one cell has been reversed1 as shown by a lower voltage reading now is the time to correct the mistake4 ,fig4 #adc ,brushing connector before burning in ,fig4 #add ,rasping connector before burning in ,the connectors and terminals are now ready to be welded to the posts4 ,before bringing any flame near the battery be sure that you have blown out any gas which may have collected under the covers4 ,then cover the vents with asbestos or a wet cloth as already described4 ,you will need strips of burning lead1 such as those made in the burning lead mould described on page #afd4 ,use a hot1 hissing flame for the first stage4 ,with the flame properly adjusted1 hold it straight above the post1 and do not run it across the top of the battery4 ,now bring the flame straight down over the center of the post1 holding it so that the end of the inner cone of the flame is a short distance above the post4 ,when the center of the post begins to melt1 move the flame outward with a circular motion to gradually melt the whole top of the post1 and to melt the inner surface of the hole in the connector4 ,then bring the lower end of your burning lead strip close to and over the center of the hole1 and melt in the lead1 being sure to keep the top of the post and the inner surface of the hole in the connector melted so that the lead you are melting in will flow together and unite4 ,melt in lead until it comes up flush with the upper surface of the connector4 ,then remove the flame4 ,this completes the first stage of the welding process4 ,now repeat the above operation for each post and terminal4 ,fig4 #ade ,leveling top connectors before burning in ,it is essential that the top of the post and the inner surface of the hole in the connector be kept melted as long as you are running in lead from the strip of burning lead4 ,this is necessary to have all parts fuse together thoroughly4 ,if you allow the top of the post1 or the inner surface of the hole in the connector to chill slightly while you are feeding in the lead1 the parts will not fuse1 and the result will be a poor ,joint1 which will heat up and possibly reduce the current obtained from the battery when the starting switch is closed4 ,this reduction may prevent the starting motor from developing sufficient torque to crank the engine4 ,when the joint cools1 the lead will shrink slightly over the center of the posts4 ,to finish the welding1 this lead is to be built up flush or slightly higher than the connector4 ,brush the tops of the post and connector thoroughly with a wire brush to remove any dirt which may have been floating in the lead4 7,dirt always floats on top of the lead47 ,soften the burning flame so that it is just barely beginning to hiss4 ,bring the flame down over the center of the post4 ,when this begins to melt1 move the flame outward with a circular motion until the whole top of post and connector begins to melt and fuse4 ,if necessary run in some lead from the burning lead strip4 ,when the post and connector are fused1 clear to the outer edge of the connector1 raise the flame straight up from the work4 ,fig4 #adf ,connector in position on post for for welding to post4 ,surfaces ,a-,b are not welded together ,you will save time by doing the first stage of the burning on all posts first1 and then finish all of them4 ,this is quicker than trying to complete both stages of burning on each post before going to the next post4 ,the object in the finishing stage is to melt a thin layer of the top of post and connector1 not melting deep enough to have the outer edge of the connector melt and allow the lead to run off4 ,all this must be done carefully and dexterously to do a first-class job1 and you must keep the flame moving around over the top and not hold it in any one place for ally length of time1 so as not to melt too deep1 or to melt the outer edge and allow the lead to run off and spoil the job4 ,sometimes the whole mass becomes too hot and the top cannot be made smooth with the flame4 ,if this occurs wait until the connector cools1 soften the flame1 and try again4 ,figure #adg shows the welding completed4 ,fig4 #adg ,connectors burned to posts ,burning ,plates to ,strap and ,post ,first clean all the surfaces which are to be welded together4 ,take your time in doing this because you cannot weld dirty surfaces together4 ,plates which compose a group are welded to a strap to which a post is attached1 as shown in ,figure #e4 ,the straps shown in ,figure #e are new ones1 as made in the factory4 ,plate lugs are set in the notches in the straps and each one burned in separately4 ,in using old straps from a defective group1 it is best to cut the strap close to the post1 thus separating all the plates from the post in one operation1 as was done with the post shown in ,figure #if4 ,if only one or two plates are to be burned on1 they are broken or cut off and slots cut in the strap to receive the lugs of the new plates1 as shown in ,figures #adh and #adi4 ,fig4 #adh ,sawing slot in plate strap ,set the plates in a plate burning rack1 as shown in ,figure #if1 placing the adjustable form around the lugs and strap as shown in this figure4 ,be sure to set the post straight1 so that the covers will fit4 ,a good thing is to try a cover over the post to see that the post is set up properly4 ,the post must1 of course1 be perpendicular to the tops of the plates4 ,if the slotted plate strap shown in ,figure #e is used1 or if one or two plates have been cut off1 melt the top of the lug of one of the plates which are to be burned oil1 and the surfaces of the strap to which the plate is to be welded4 ,melt in lead from a burning-lead strip to bring the metal up flush with the surface of the strap4 ,proceed with each plate which is to be burned on4 ,if all the plates have been sawed from the strap1 leaving the post with a short section of the strap attached1 as shown in ,figure #if1 melt the edge of the strap1 and the top of one or two of the end plate lugs and run in lead from the burning strip to make a good joint4 ,proceed in this way until all the lugs are joined to the strap and then run the flame over the top of the entire strap to make a smooth uniform weld4 ,be sure to have the lower edge of the strap fuse with the plate lugs and then run in lead to build the strap up to the proper thickness4 ,raise the flame occasionally to see that all parts are fusing thoroughly and to prevent too rapid heating4 ,fig4 #adi ,slotting saw1 a group with two plates cut off1 and slots in strap for new plates ,when enough lead has been run in to build the strap tip to the correct thickness and the plate lugs are thoroughly fused with the strap1 raise the flame straight up from the work4 ,allow the lead to set and then remove the adjustable form and lift the group from the burning rack4 ,turn the group up-side-down and examine the bottom of the strap for lead which ran down the lugs during the welding process4 ,cut off any such lead with a saw1 as it may cause a short-circuit when the plates are meshed with the other group4 ,post ,building ,in drilling down through the inter-cell connectors to separate them from the posts in opening a battery1 the posts may be drilled too short4 ,in reassembling the battery it is then necessary to build the posts up to their original height4 ,this is done with the aid of post-builders1 shown in ,figure #ajj4 ,clean the stub of the post thoroughly and also clean the inside of the post builder4 ,then set the post builder carefully over the stub post1 so that the upper surface of the post builder is parallel to the upper surface of the plate strap4 ,the built up post will then be perpendicular to the surface of the strap1 which is necessary1 in order to have the covers and connectors fit properly4 ,with the post builder set properly adjust the burning torch to get a sharp1 hissing flame4 ,bring the flame straight down on the center of the post stub4 ,when the center of the post stub begins to melt1 move the flame outward with a circular motion until the whole top of the stub begins to melt4 ,then run in lead from a burning lead strip1 ,figure #aja1 at the same time keeping the flame moving around on the top of the post to insure a good weld4 ,in this way build up the post until the lead comes up to the top of the post builder4 ,then lift the flame straight up from the post4 ,allow the lead to set1 and then remove the post builder1 grasping it with a pair of gas or combination pliers and turn the post builder around to loosen it4 ,extending ,plate ,lugs ,it sometimes happens that a good plate is broken from a strap1 thus shortening the lug4 ,before the plate may be used again1 the lug must be extended to its original length4 ,to do this1 clean the surfaces of the lug carefully1 lay the plate on a sheet of asbestos1 and place an iron form having a slot of the correct width1 length1 and thickness1 as shown in ,figure #aej4 ,use a medium hissing flame1 and melt the upper edge of the lug1 and then run in lead from the lead burning strip to fill the slot in the iron form4 ,the plate may then be used again4 ,fig4 #aej ,extending lug on plate ,making ,temporary ,charging ,connections ,after a battery has been opened it is often desired to charge a battery without burning on the intercell connectors4 ,temporary connections may be made between cells by placing a short length of a burning lead strip from post to post and applying a flame for an instant to spot-weld the strip to the top of the post4 ,,moulding ,,lead ,,parts ,in using special moulds for casting inter-cell connectors1 plate straps with posts1 terminals1 etc41 follow the special instructions furnished by the manufacturers as to the manipulation of the special moulds made by them4 ,aside from the special instructions for the use of moulds1 there are general rules for the melting of lead and handling it after it is melted1 which must be observed if good castings are to be made4 ,raw ,materials4 ,in every battery repair shop a supply of old terminals1 cell connectors1 posts1 and straps1 will gradually accumulate4 ,these should not be thrown away or sold as junk1 but should be kept in a box or jar provided for that purpose4 ,old plates should not be saved1 since the amount of lead in the grid is small and it is often covered with sulphate4 ,the lugs connecting the plates to the straps may1 however1 be used4 ,before using the scrap lead as much dirt as possible should be brushed off1 and all moisture must be dried off thoroughly4 ,scrap lead contains some antimony1 which is metal used to give stiffness to the parts4 ,using miscellaneous scrap sometimes gives castings which do not contain the proper percentage of antimony4 ,if there is too much antimony present1 cracked castings will be the result4 ,to remedy this condition1 bars of pure lead should be purchased from some lead manufacturing company4 ,adding pure lead will reduce the percentage of antimony4 ,bars of pure antimony should also be kept oil hand in case the castings are too soft4 ,lead ,melting ,pots are standard articles which may be purchased from jobbers4 ,a pot having a #be pound capacity is suitable for small shops and for larger shops a #abe-pound size is best4 ,before melting any lead in such pots1 have them thoroughly free from dirt1 grease1 or moisture1 not merely in order to get clean castings1 but also to avoid melted lead being thrown out of the pot on account of the presence of moisture4 ,severe burns may be the result of carelessness in this respect4 ,in starting with an empty melting pot1 turn oil the heat before putting in any lead1 and let the pot become thoroughly heated in order to drive off any moisture4 ,with the pot thoroughly hot1 drop in the lead1 which must also be dry4 ,when the metal has become soft enough to stir with a clean pine stick1 skim off the dirt and dross which collects on top and continue heating the lead until it is slightly yellow oil top4 ,dirt and lead do not mix1 and the dirt rises to the top of the metal where it may readily be skimmed off4 ,with a paddle or ladle1 drop in a cleaning compound of equal parts of powdered rosin1 borax1 and flower of sulphur4 ,use a teaspoonful of this compound for each ten pounds of metal1 and be sure that the compound is absolutely dry4 ,stir the metal a little1 and if it is at the proper temperature1 there will be a flare1 flash1 or a little burning4 ,a sort of tinfoil popcorn effect will be noticed oil top of the lead4 ,stir until this melts down4 ,have the ladle with which you dip up the melted lead quite dry4 ,when dipping up some of the lead1 skim back the dark skin which forms oil top of the lead and dip up the clean bright lead for pouring4 ,in throwing additional lead into a pot which is partly filled with melted lead1 be sure that the lead which is thrown in the pot is dry1 or else hot lead may be spattered in your face4 ,have the moulds clean and dry4 ,the parts with which the lead comes into contact should be dusted with a mould compound which fills in the rough spots in the metal so that the flow of lead will not be obstructed1 and the lead will fill the mould quickly4 ,dip tip enough lead to fill the part of the mould you use4 ,when you once start pouring do not1 under any circumstance1 stop pouring until the lead has completely filled the mould4 ,lead cools very quickly after it is poured into the mould1 and if you stop pouring even for all instant1 you will have a worthless casting4 ,in a shop having an ordinary room temperature1 it is generally unnecessary to heat the moulds before making up a number of castings4 ,if it is found1 however1 that the first castings are defective due to the cold mould chilling the lead1 the mould should be heated with a soft flame4 ,after a few castings have been made1 the mould will become hot enough so that there will be no danger of the castings becoming chilled4 ,when the castings have cooled sufficiently to be removed1 strike the mould a few blows with a wooden mallet or a rawhide hammer to loosen1 the castings before opening the mould4 ,the castings may then be removed with a screwdriver4 ,cracked castings indicate that the mould was opened before the castings had cooled sufficiently1 or that there is too much antimony in the castings4 ,the remedy is to let the castings cool for a longer time1 or to add pure lead to the melting pot4 ,,handling ,,and ,,mixing ,,acid ,the electrolyte used in the battery is made by mixing chemically pure concentrated ,sulphuric ,acid with chemically pure water4 ,the concentrated acid1 or full strength acid cannot be used1 not only because it would destroy the plates1 but also because water is needed for the chemical actions which take place as a cell charges and discharges4 ,the water therefore serves1 not only to dilute the acid1 but also to make possible the chemical reactions of charge and discharge4 ,the full strength acid has a specific gravity of #a4hce1 and is mixed with the water to obtain the lower specific gravity which is necessary in the battery4 ,the simplest scheme is to use only #a4djj specific gravity acid4 ,this acid is used in adjusting the specific gravity of a battery on charge in case the specific gravity fails to rise to a high enough value4 ,it is also used in filling batteries that have been repaired4 ,acid is received from the manufacturer in ten gallon glass bottles enclosed in wooden boxes1 these being called carboys4 ,distilled water comes in similar bottles4 ,when distilled in the shop1 the water should be collected in bottles also1 although smaller ones may be used4 ,neither the acid nor the water should ever be placed in any vessels but those made of lead1 glass1 porcelain1 rubber1 or glazed earthenware4 ,lead cups1 tanks1 and funnels may be used in handling electrolyte1 but the electrolyte must not be put in containers made of any metal except lead4 ,lead is rather expensive for making such containers1 and the glass bottles1 porcelain1 rubber1 or glazed earthenware may be used4 ,in mixing acid with water1 pour the water in the bottle1 pitcher or jar1 and then add the acid to the water very slowly4 ,do not pour the acid in quickly1 as the mixture will become very hot1 and may throw spray in your face and eyes and cause severe burns4 ,never add the water to the acid1 as this might cause an explosion and burn your face and eyes seriously4 ,stir the mixture thoroughly with a wooden paddle while adding the acid4 ,a graduate1 such as is used in photography1 is very useful in measuring out the quantities of acid and water4 ,the graduate may be obtained in any size up to #fd ounces1 or two quarts4 ,in using the graduate for measuring both acid and water1 be sure to use the following table giving the parts of water by volume4 ,although the graduate is marked in ounces1 it is for ounces of water only4 ,if1 for instance1 the graduate were filled to the #h ounce mark with acid1 there would be more than eight ounces of acid in the graduate because the acid is heavier than the water4 ,but if the proportions of acid and water are taken by volume1 the graduate may be used4 ,a convenient method in making up electrolyte1 is to have a #af ounce graduate for the acid1 and a #cb or #fd ounce graduate for the water4 ,in the larger graduate pour the water up to the correct mark4 ,in the #af ounce graduate1 pour #a4djj acid up to the #aj ounce mark4 ,then add the acid directly to the water in the graduate1 or else pour the water into a bottle or pitcher1 and add the acid to that4 ,for instance1 if we have a #cb ounce graduate1 and wish to make up some #a4bhj acid1 we fill this graduate with water up to the #e-a_/b ounce mark4 ,we then fill the #af ounce graduate with #a4djj acid up to the #aj ounce mark4 ,then we slowly pour the #a4djj acid into the graduate containing the water1 giving us #a4bhj acid4 ,in a similar manner other specific gravities are obtained1 using the same amount of #a4djj acid in each case1 but varying the amount of water according to the figures given in the last column of the next to the last table4 ,the following table shows the number of parts of distilled water to one part of #a4djj specific gravity electrolyte to prepare electrolyte of various specific gravities4 ,the specific gravity of the mixture must be taken when the temperature of the mixture is #gj ,f4 ,if its temperature varies more than #e degrees above or below #gj;,f1 make the corrections described on page #fe to find what the specific gravity would be if the temperature were #gj ,f4 ,,by ,,weight ,for #a4cjj specific gravity use #e ounces of distilled water for each pound of #a4djj electrolyte4 ,for #a4bhj specific gravity use #f-a_/b ounces of distilled water for each pound of #a4djj electrolyte4 ,for #a4bge specific gravity use #f-c_/d ounces distilled water for each pound of #a4djj electrolyte4 ,for #a4bfj specific gravity use #g-a_/b ounces distilled water for each pound of #a4djj electrolyte4 ,,by ,,volume ,for #a4cjj specific gravity use #c-a_/b pints distilled water for each gallon of #a4djj electrolyte4 ,for #a4bhj specific gravity use #d-a_/b pints distilled water for each gallon of #a4djj electrolyte4 ,for #a4bge specific gravity use #e pints distilled water for each gallon of #a4djj electrolyte4 ,for #a4bfj specific gravity use #e-a_/d pints distilled water for each gallon of #a4djj electrolyte4 ,in case you wish to use other measuring units than those given in the above table1 this table may be written as follows1 giving the number of parts distilled water to #aj parts of #a4djj specific gravity electrolyte3 ,specific ,gravity ,desired ,parts by ,weight ,parts by ,volume ---------------- ----------------------- --------------- #a4cjj #c #d-a_/d #a4bhj #d #e-a_/d #a4bge #d-a_/f #f #a4bfj #d-g_/aj #f-a_/b ,the next table gives the number of parts of distilled water to #aj parts of concentrated sulphuric acid 7which has a specific gravity of #a4hce7 to prepare electrolyte of various specific gravities3 ,specific ,gravity ,desired ,parts by ,weight ,parts by ,volume ------------------------ --------------- --------------- #a4djj #h-a_/b #ae-h_/aj #a4cjj #ac-a_/b #ae-h_/aj #a4cjj #ac-a_/b #be #a4bhj #ae #bg #a4bgj #af #bh #a4bfj #ag #cj ,,putting ,,new ,,batteries ,,into ,,service ,new batteries are received 7a7 fully charged and ready for service1 7b7 fully assembled with moistened plates and separators1 but without electrolyte1 7c7 in a knockdown condition1 with dry plates and without separators1 7d7 fully assembled with bone dry plates and rubber separators1 and without electrolyte4 ,those received fully charged should be put on a car as soon as possible4 ,otherwise they will grow old on the shelf4 ,every month on the shelf is a month less of life4 ,if the battery cannot be sold1 put it into dry-storage4 ,batteries received in condition 7b7 should not be kept in stock for more than six months4 ,batteries received with dry plates and without separators or with rubber separators may be stored indefinitely without deteriorating4 ,batteries ,shipped ,fully ,charged1 or ,wet4 ,all ,makes4 ,unpack the battery1 keeping the packing case right side up to avoid spilling electrolyte4 ,brush off all excelsior and dirt1 and examine the battery carefully to see if it has been damaged during shipment4 ,if any damage has been done1 claim should be made against the express or railroad company4 #a4 ,remove the vent caps from the cells and determine the height of the electrolyte4 ,it should stand from three-eighths to one-half inch above the tops of the plates4 ,the level may be determined with a glass tube1 as shown in ,fig4 #cj4 ,if the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates1 it has either been spilled1 or else there is a leaky jar4 ,if all cells have a low level of electrolyte1 it is probable that the electrolyte has been spilled4 #b4 ,next measure the specific gravity of the electrolyte of each cell with the hydrometer1 and then add water to bring the electrolyte up to the correct level1 if this is necessary4 ,should the temperature of the air be below freezing1 charge the battery for an hour if water is added no matter what the specific gravity readings are4 ,this will cause the water to mix thoroughly with the electrolyte4 ,if the battery were not charged after water is added1 the water1 being lighter than the electrolyte1 would remain on top and freeze4 ,for this one hour charge1 use the starting rate1 as stamped on the nameplate4 #c4 ,if the specific gravity of the electrolyte reads below #a4bej1 charge the battery until the specific gravity reads between #a4bhj and #a4cjj4 ,for this charge use the normal bench charging rates4 #d4 ,after this charge place the battery on a clean1 dry spot for twenty-four hours as an extra test for a leaky jar4 ,if there is any dampness under the battery1 or on the lower part of the battery case1 a leaky jar is indicated4 ,an inspection of the level of the electrolyte1 which even though no dampness shows1 will show the leaky jar4 #e4 ,just before putting the battery on the car1 make the high rate discharge test on it4 ,see page #bff4 ,,batteries ,,shipped ,,dry ,exide ,batteries ,storing4 #a4 ,keep the battery in a dry1 clean place1 and keep the room temperature above #cb degrees1 and below #aaj degrees ,fahrenheit4 #b4 ,put the battery into service before the expiration of the time limit given on the tag attached to the battery4 ,the process of putting the battery into service will require about five days4 #c4 ,if the battery has been allowed to stand beyond the time limit1 open up one of the cells just before beginning the process necessary to put the battery into service4 ,if the separators are found to be cracked1 split1 or warped1 throw away all the separators from all the cells and put in new ones4 ,if the separators are in good condition1 reassemble the cell and put the battery into service4 ,putting ,battery into ,service4 #a4 ,fill the cells with electrolyte of the correct specific gravity4 ,to do this1 remove the vent plugs and pour in the electrolyte until it rises to the bottom of the vent tubes4 ,the correct specific gravities of the electrolyte to be used are as follows3 7a7 ,for ,types ,,dx1 ,,xc1 ,,xe1 ,,xx and ,,xxv1 use #a4cfj electrolyte4 ,in tropical countries use #a4bfj electrolyte4 7b7 ,for ,types ,,lx1 ,,lxr1 ,,lxre1 ,,lxrv1 use #a4cdj electrolyte4 ,in tropical countries use #a4bfj electrolyte4 7c7 ,for ,types ,,mha and ,,phc1 use #a4cbj electrolyte4 ,in tropical countries use #a4bfj electrolyte4 7d7 ,for ,types ,,kxd and ,,kz1 use #a4cjj electrolyte4 ,in tropical countries use #a4bdj electrolyte4 #b4 ,after filling with the electrolyte1 allow the battery to stand ten to fifteen hours before starting the initial charge4 ,this gives the electrolyte time to cool4 #c4 ,no sooner than ten to fifteen hours after filling the battery with electrolyte1 add water to bring the electrolyte up to the bottom of the vent tubes1 if the level has fallen4 ,replace the vent caps and turn them to the right4 ,start charging at the rates shown in the following table4 ,continue charging at this rate for at least #if hours 7#d days74 ,table of ,initial and ,repair ,charging ,rates ,type and ,size of ,cell ,charging ,rate1 ,amperes ,minimum ,ampere ,hours --------------------- ---------------------- -------------------- ,,kz-#c #a_/b #ej ,,lx-#e1 ,,lxr-#e1 ,,lxre-#e #a-a_/b #ade ,,kxd-#e #b #aij ,,xc-#i1 ,,xx-#i #b-a_/b #bdj ,,dx-#aa1 ,,kxd-#g1 ,,lxr-#i1 ,,lxre-#i1 ,,xc-#aa1 ,,xe-#aa #c #bij ,,dx-#ac1 ,,kxd-#i1 ,,lxr-#aa1 ,,xc-#ac1 ,,xe-#ac1 ,,xx-#ac #d #che ,,lxr-#ac1 ,,lxre-#ac1 ,,xc-#ae1 ,,xe-#ae1 ,,xx-#ae #d-a_/b #dcj ,,kxd-#aa1 ,,xc-#ag1 ,,xe-#ag #e #dhj ,,lxrv-#ae1 ,,lxr-#ae1 ,,lxre-#ae #e-a_/b #ebe ,,lx-#ag1 ,,lxr-#ag1 ,,lxre-#ag1 ,,xc-#ai1 ,,xe-#ai1 ,,xxv-#ai #f #ege ,,mha-#aa1 ,,phc-#ac #f #ege ,,xc-#ba1 ,,xe-#ba #f-a_/b #fbe ,,xc-#bc #g #fge ,,xc-#be #g-a_/b #gbj #d4 ,occasionally measure the temperature of the electrolyte4 ,do not allow the temperature to rise above #aaj ,fahrenheit 7#abj ,fahrenheit in tropical countries74 ,should the temperature reach #aaj1 stop the charge long enough to allow the temperature to drop below #ajj4 #e4 ,at the end of the charge1 the specific gravity of the electrolyte should be between #a4bhj and #a4cjj 7#a4baj and #a4bcj in tropical countries74 ,if it is not between these limits adjust it by drawing off some of the electrolyte with the hydrometer and replacing with water if the specific gravity is too high1 or with electrolyte of the same specific gravity used in filling the battery1 if the specific gravity is too low4 #f4 ,wipe off the top and sides of the battery case with a rag dampened with ammonia to neutralize any electrolyte which may have been spilled4 #g4 ,just before putting the battery into service1 give it a high rate discharge test4 ,see page #bff4 ,vesta ,batteries #a4 ,remove vent caps from each cell and fill with electrolyte of #a4cjj specific gravity4 ,this electrolyte should not have a temperature greater than #ge ,fahrenheit when added to the cells4 #b4 ,after the addition of this acid1 the battery will begin to heat and it should be left standing from #ab to #bd hours or until it has cooled off4 #c4 ,battery should then be put on charge at the finish charging rate stamped on the name plate4 ,continue charging at this rate for approximately #dh to #gb hours or until the gravity and voltage readings of each cell stop rising4 #d4 ,care should be taken to see that the temperature of battery does not rise above #aaj ,fahrenheit4 ,if this occurs41 the charging rate should be cut down4 #e4 ,the acid in each cell will undoubtedly have to be equalized4 #f4 ,at the finish of this developing charge the gravity should read #a4bhj in each cell4 ,if below this1 equalize by putting in #a4djj specific gravity acid1 or if the contrary is the case and the acid is above #a4bhj add sufficient distilled water until the gravity reads #a4bhj4 #g4 ,after the acid has been equalized and it has stopped rising in density the voltage of each cell while still on charge at the finishing rate should read at least #b4e volts per cell or better4 #h4 ,the battery is then ready for service4 ,just before putting battery into service1 make a high rate discharge test on it4 ,see page #bff4 ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid ,batteries #a4 ,remove the vent plugs and immediately fill the cells ,with electrolyte until the level is even with the bottom of the vent tube in the cover4 ,do not fill with electrolyte whose temperature is above #ij ,fahrenheit4 ,the specific gravity of the electrolyte to be used in starting batteries varies with the number of plates in each cell1 the correct values being as follows3 ,charging ,rates ,fill batteries listed in ,table ,no4 #a with #a4bgj sp4 gr4 acid4 ,,table--,no4 #a ,no4 of ,,ll-,,llr ,plates ,,lh ,,lm1 ,,lmr ,,lt1 ,,ltr ,,ls1 ,,lsr ,,lg ,,lt ,,lsf ------ ------ ------- ------- ------- --- --- --- #i #b4j #b4e #b4j #b4e #c4j #aa #b4e #c4j #b4e #c4e #d4j #ac #c4j #c4e #c4j #d4j #b4e #ae #c4e #d4j #c4e #d4e #e4e #ag #d4j #e4j #d4j #e4e #f4j #ai #d4e #e4e #d4e #f4j ,special ,battery3 #acf ,,usa 444 #f4 #j amps4 ,,table ,,no4#b ,fill batteries listed in ,table ,no4 #b with #a4bej sp4 gr4 acid4 ,no4 ,,ll-,,llr ,,lm ,,lt ,,ls ,s of ,plates ,,llh ,,lmr ,,ltr ,,lsr ,,sh ,,st ,,lsf --------- ------ --- --- --- --- --- --- #e #a4j #a4j #b4j #a4e #g #a4e #a4e #a4e #b4j #c4j #b4j #a4e #i #d4j #aa #e4j ,special ,batteries3 #ccj ,,aa 4444 #a4j amps4 #ebd ,,std-,h#b 4444444444444444444 #a4j amps4 #g #f ,,spn 4444444444444444444444 #a4e amps4 ,the number of plates per cell is2 indicated in the first numeral of the type name4 ,for instance1 #gab ,,lla-#a is a #g plate ,,ll4 ,for all lighting batteries1 types ,s and ,,st4 use #a4baj electrolyte4 #b4 ,allow the battery to stand for one or two hours4 #c4 ,remove the seal from the top of the vent caps1 and open by blowing through the cap4 #d4 ,insert vent plugs in the vent tubes4 #e4 ,put the battery on charge at the rate given in the table on page #bbh4 ,to determine the rate to use1 see type name given on the battery nameplate and find correct rate in the table4 ,keep the battery charging at this rate throughout the charge4 #f4 ,continue the charge until the battery voltage and the specific gravity of the electrolyte stop rising1 as shown by readings taken every four hours4 ,from three and one-half to four days of continuous charging will be required to fully charge the battery4 #g4 ,watch the temperature of the electrolyte1 and do not allow it to rise above #aaj ,fahrenheit4 ,if the temperature rises to #aaj ,f41 stop the charge and allow battery to cool4 ,extend the time of charging by the length of time required for the battery to cool4 #h4 ,after the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising1 adjust the electrolyte to a specific gravity of #a4bhj at a temperature of #gj ,fahrenheit4 ,if the temperature is not #gj1 make temperature corrections as described on page #fe4 #i4 ,the battery is now ready to be installed on the car4 ,just before installing the battery1 make a high rate discharge test on it4 ,willard ,bone-,dry ,batteries ,a ,willard ,threaded ,rubber insulated battery is shipped and carried in stock bone-dry4 ,it is filled with electrolyte and charged for the first time when being made ready for delivery4 ,threaded ,rubber ,insulated ,batteries received bone-dry must be prepared for service1 as follows3 #a4 ,mix electrolyte to a density of #a4bge4 #b4 ,remove the vent plugs and fill to the top of the vent hole with #a4bge electrolyte4 ,be sure that the electrolyte is thoroughly mixed by stirring and that its temperature is not above #ij degrees ,fahrenheit4 #c4 ,a portion of the solution will be absorbed by the plates and insulation because they have been standing dry without any liquid in the cells4 ,the volume is thus decreased1 necessitating the addition of electrolyte after first filling4 ,wait five minutes and then again fill to the top of the vent hole with #a4bge electrolyte4 #d4 ,the battery must now stand at least twelve hours and not more than twenty-four hours before charging4 ,after it has been filled an increase in temperature of the battery solution will take place4 ,this is caused by the action of the acid in the solution penetrating the plates mid reacting with the active material1 but does no injury4 ,since the acid in the solution joins the active material in the plates the density of the solution becomes proportionately lower4 ,this is to be expected and should cause no concern4 ,in order that the entire plate volume of active material may be in chemical action during charge1 the battery should stand before being placed on charge--until the solution has bad time to penetrate the entire thickness of the plates4 ,this requires at least twelve hours1 but not more than twenty-four hours4 #e4 ,just before charging the battery1 again fill with #a4bge electrolyte to #c_/h inch over the top of the separators4 ,after this1 do not add anything but distilled water to the battery solution4 #f4 ,the battery should then be put on charge at the finish rate until the gravity stops rising4 ,at the end of this period the specific gravity should be between #a4bhj and #a4cjj4 ,it may take from #cf to #gb hours before this density is reached4 ,care should be taken not to prolong the charging unduly1 for that may cause active material to fall out of the grids1 thus injuring the plates beyond repair4 #g4 ,because of the evaporation of water in the solution during the charging process1 it is necessary to add distilled water from time to time in order to keep the solution above the tops of the separators4 ,the temperature of the battery while on charge should never exceed #aaj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,if the temperature rises above this point the charging must be discontinued for a time or the rate decreased4 ,if at any time during the initial charging the density rises above #a4cjj some of the solution should immediately be drawn off with a syringe and distilled water added4 ,this must be done as often as is necessary to keep the density below #a4cjj4 ,if the specific gravity does not change after two successive readings and does not then read within the limits of #a4bhj to #a4cjj it should be adjusted to read correctly4 ,if the reading is less than #a4bhj it should be adjusted by drawing off as much solution as can be taken out with a syringe and electrolyte of #a4djj specific gravity added4 ,the battery must then be placed on charge for at least four hours and another reading taken4 ,if it is again found to be less than #a4bhj this operation should be repeated as many times as necessary to bring the density up to #a4bhj4 #i4 ,the height of solution when taking the battery off charge should be #e_/h of an inch above the top of the separators4 ,after the battery has been off charge long enough to permit the solution to cool to normal temperature1 draw off the excess to a final height of #c_/h inch above separators4 ,replace the vent plugs and battery is ready for service4 ,unfilled ,willard ,wood ,insulated ,batteries ,unfilled1 wood-insulated batteries have not had an initial charge and require a treatment similar to batteries with threaded rubber insulation4 ,when shipment is made in this manner1 such batteries should be placed in service before the date indicated on the tag attached to the battery4 ,to prepare such a battery for service3 #a4 ,remove the vent plugs and fill each cell with #a4cce specific gravity electrolyte 7one part of concentrated sulphuric acid by volume to two parts of distilled water by volume7 to #c_/h inch above the tops of the separators4 #b4 ,wait #e minutes and then fill each cell again with #a4cce specific gravity electrolyte to #c_/h inch above the tops of the separators4 #c4 ,the battery must then stand from #aj to #ae hours before placing on charge4 #d4 ,after standing for this length of time1 fill each cell again1 if necessary1 with #a4cce specific gravity electrolyte to bring the level of the electrolyte #c_/h inch above the tops of the separators before charging4 #e4 ,place the battery on charge at the finish rate marked on the name plate until the gravity and cell voltage stop rising4 ,this charging will require at least #dh hours4 #f4 ,if1 after a charge of #dh hours or longer the specific gravity does not rise for two consecutive hours1 the gravity should be between #a4bhj and #a4cjj4 ,if it is not between these limits1 the specific gravity should be adjusted to these values at the end of the charge4 #g4 ,if1 during the charge1 the temperature exceeds #aaj degrees ,fahrenheit1 the charge rate should be reduced so as to keep the temperature below #aaj degrees ,fahrenheit and the time of charging lengthened proportionately4 ,preparing ,westinghouse ,batteries for ,service 7,these batteries are prepared for shipment in what is known as export condition47 #a4 ,remove vent plugs and discard soft rubber caps4 #b4 ,fill all cells with #a4cjj specific gravity sulphuric acid until top of connecting straps1 as seen through vent holes are completely covered4 ,temperature of filling acid should never be above #ij degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,note3 ,the aim is to fill the cells with acid of such a ,specific gravity that the electrolyte1 at the end of charge1 will need very little adjusting to bring it to the proper specific gravity4 #a4cjj specific gravity acid has been found to be approximately correct for this purpose4 ,however1 if after several batteries have been prepared for service using #a4cjj specific gravity acid1 considerable adjusting at the end of charge is necessary1 it is permissible to use a slightly different specific gravity of filling acid1 but the use of acid above #a4cbe specific gravity or below #a1bej specific gravity is not recommended4 #c4 ,allow batteries to stand after filling for from two to three hours before putting on charge4 #d4 ,put on charge at finish charge rate shown on name plate of battery4 ,note3 ,if temperature of electrolyte in battery reaches #ajj degrees ,fahrenheit 7determined by inserting special thermometer through vent hole in cover71 the charging rate should be immediately reduced1 as continued charging at a temperature above #ajj degrees ,fahrenheit is injurious to both separators and plates4 #e4 ,continue charging until all cells are gassing freely and individual cell voltage and specific gravity of electrolyte have shown no decided rise for a period of five hours4 ,note3 ,the length of time required to completely charge a new battery depends largely upon the time the battery has been in stock1 varying from twelve to twenty-four hours for a comparatively fresh battery to four or five days for a battery six months or more old4 #f4 ,keep level of electrolyte above tops of separators at all times1 while charging by adding distilled water to replace that lost by evaporation4 #g4 ,after battery is completely charged the specific gravity of electrolyte in all cells should be adjusted to #a4bhe at #gj degrees ,fahrenheit1 and the level of electrolyte adjusted so that after battery is taken off charge the height of electrolyte stands #a_/h inch above tops of connecting straps4 ,note3 ,corrections for temperature if temperature of electrolyte is above or below #gj degrees ,fahrenheit the correction is one point of gravity for each three degrees of temperature4 ,see page #fe4 ,if specific gravity of electrolyte is above #a4bhe1 a portion of the electrolyte should be removed and replaced with distilled water4 ,if the specific gravity is below #a4bhe1 a portion of electrolyte should be removed and replaced with #a4djj specific gravity sulphuric acid4 ,acid of higher gravity than #a4djj should never be put in batteries4 ,batteries should always be charged for several hours after adjusting gravity to insure proper mixing of the electrolyte and to see that the correct specific gravity of #a4bhe has been obtained4 #h4 ,after first seven sections have been followed examine vent plugs to see that gas passage is ,dot obstructed and screw back in place4 ,battery is now ready for service4 ,the ,prest-,o-,lite ,assembled ,green ,seal ,battery ,this type of battery is made up of the same sort of plates as the old partly assembled green seal battery4 ,the elements are1 however1 completely assembled will wood separators and sealed in the jars and box in the same manner as a wet battery to be put into immediate service2 the cell connectors are burned in place4 ,how to ,store ,it4 ,a room of ordinary humidity1 one in which the air is never dryer for any reason than the average1 should be used to store these batteries4 ,they should be shielded from direct sunlight4 ,examine the vents-they should be securely inserted and remain so during the entire storage period4 ,if these precautions are observed1 this type battery may be stored for at least a year4 ,to ,prepare ,battery for ,use4 #a4 ,prepare sufficient pure electrolyte of #a4cjj specific gravity4 ,if during the mixing considerable heat is evolved1 allow electrolyte to cool down to #ij degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,never pour electrolyte1 that is warmer than #ij degrees ,fahrenheit1 into cells4 #b4 ,remove the vents and lay them aside until the final charging operation has been completed4 ,within #ae minutes from the time the vents are removed fill all cells to the bottom of vent openings with the electrolyte prepared1 as stated above4 #c4 ,allow the electrolyte to remain in the cells1 not less than one hour4 ,at the end of this time1 should the electrolyte level fall below the tops of the separators1 add enough electrolyte to bring level at least one-half inch above separators4 ,if the temperature in the cells does not rise above #ajj degrees ,fahrenheit1 proceed immediately 7before two hours have elapsed7 with the initial charging operation4 ,if the temperature remains above #ajj degrees ,fahrenheit1 allow the battery to stand until the electrolyte cools down to #ajj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,then proceed immediately with the charge4 ,it is important that the acid does not stand in the cells for more than two hours1 unless it is necessary to allow the acid to cool4 #d4 ,initial ,charging ,operation4 ,place the battery on charge at the ampere rate given in the following table4 ,the total initial charge must be for fifty-two hours1 but at no time permit the electrolyte temperature to rise above #aae degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,if the temperature should reach #aae degrees ,fahrenheit1 take the battery off the line and allow the electrolyte to cool1 but be sure that the total of fifty-two hours actual charging at the ampere rate specified is completed4 ,initial ,charge---#eb ,hours ,plates ,type of per ,cell ,plate ,,ahs ,,whn ,,rhn ,,shc ,,bhn ,,jfn ,,gm ,,cln ,,kpn -------- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- #c #a4e #e #b #b #b4e #c #g #c #c #c4e #d #c #e #i #d #d #e #e #g #aa #e #e #f #g #g4e #e #i #ac #f #f #g #h #i #f #aj4e #aj4e #ae #g #g #i #i4e #aj4e #g #ab #ag #aj #ab #i #ai #i #i #aa #ab #i ,the nominal battery voltage and the number of plates per cell is indicated by the ,prest-,o-,lite type designations1 i4 e43 #fac ,,rhn denotes #f volts1 #ac plates per cell or #abg ,,shc denotes #ab volts1 #g plates per cell4 #e4 ,the electrolyte density at the end of fifty-two hours charge should be near #a4bij specific gravity4 ,a variation between #a4bhe and #a4cjj is permissible4 ,if1 after fifty hours of the initial charge1 the electrolyte density of any of the cells is outside these limits1 adjustment should be begun while still charging4 ,for those cells in which the density is higher than #a4cjj specific gravity replace some of the electrolyte with distilled water4 ,in those cells where the density is lighter than #a4bhe specific gravity replace some of the electrolyte with previously prepared electrolyte of #a4djj specific gravity4 ,wait until the cells have charged one hour before taking readings to determine the effect of adjustment1 which1 if not accomplished1 should be attempted again as before4 ,practice ,will enable the attendant to estimate the amount of electrolyte necessary to replace in order to accomplish the proper density desired-at the end of initial charge4 #f4 ,following the completion of the fifty-two hour charge1 if there is time to do so1 it is good practice to put the battery through a development cycle1 i4 e41 to discharge it at about the four-hour rate and then put it on the charging line again at the normal rate until a condition of full charge is again reached4 ,the objects gained by this discharge are3 7a7 ,further development of the plates4 7b7 ,adjustment or stabilization of the electrolyte4 7c7 ,checking the assembly by noting the failure of any cell or cells to act uniformly and satisfactorily during discharge4 ,the four-hour discharge rate is1 of course1 like the normal rate of ,initial ,charge1 dependent upon the size and number of plates per cell in any particular battery2 the number of cells determines the voltage only and has nothing to do with the battery's charge or discharging rating4 ,these four-hour discharge rates are as follows3 ,plates per ,cell ,type of ,plate ,,ahs ,,whn ,,rhn ,,shc ,,bhn ,,jfn ,,gm ,,cln ,,kpn -------- --- --- --- --- --- --- -- --- --- #c #c #e #e #e #e4e #f4e #g #g4e #g4e #h #aj #g4e #ac4e #i #aj #aj #aa #ac #ah #aa #ab4e #ab4e #ad #af #ai #ab4e #bb4e #ac #ae #ae #af4e #ai4e #bb4e #ae #bg #bg #ae #ag4e #ag4e #ai #bc #bf #ag4e #ca4e #ag #bb #bf #ai #bb4e #bb4e #be #bi #bb4e ,immediately at the end of the four-hour discharge1 put the battery on the line and charge it at the normal rate prescribed in the ,initial ,charge rate table until a state of complete charge1 as noted by cell voltage and gravity is reached4 ,this charging time should be about sixteen hours4 ,any adjustments of electrolyte found necessary at the end of this charging period in the same manner prescribed in paragraph ,no4 #e1 for such adjustments made just before the completion of the initial fifty-two hour charge4 7,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,no item number #g4 in original publication47 #h4 ,at the end of the fifty-two hour charge1 or1 if the ,development discharge has been given1 at the end of the ,development ,cycle ,charge1 replace the vent plugs1 wash all exterior surfaces with clean water and dry quickly4 ,the battery is then ready for service4 ,,installing ,a ,,battery ,,on ,a ,,car ,a battery must be installed carefully on the car if it is to have any chance to give good service4 ,careless installation of a battery which is in good working order will invariably lead to trouble in a very short time4 ,on the other hand1 a properly installed battery is1 nine times out of ten1 a good working and long lived battery4 ,after you have removed the old battery1 scrape all rust and corrosion from the inside of the battery box or compartment in which the battery is placed4 ,this can best be done with a putty knife and wire brush4 ,if you find that electrolyte has been spilled in the box1 pour a saturated solution of baking soda on the parts affected so as to neutralize the acid4 ,then wipe the inside of the box dry and paint it with a good acid proof paint4 ,next take out the hold down bolts4 ,clean them with a wire brush1 and oil the threads on the bolt and in the nut to make them work easily4 ,it is very important that this oiling be done1 as the oil protects the bolts from corrosion1 and to remove the nuts from a corroded bolt is an extremely difficult and aggravating piece of work1 often resulting in the bolts being broken4 ,should such bolts become loose while the car is in use1 it is hard to tighten them4 ,wooden strips found in the battery box should be thoroughly cleaned and scraped1 and then painted with acid proof paint4 ,when you lower the battery into its box1 lower it all the way gently4 ,do not lower it within an inch or so of the bottom of the case and then drop it4 ,this will result in broken jars and plate lugs4 ,turn the hold downs tight1 but not so tight as to break the sealing compound at the ends of the battery1 thereby causing electrolyte to leak out1 and battery to become a slopper4 ,cables and connectors should be scraped bright with a knife and brushed thoroughly with the wire brush to remove all corrosion4 ,old tape which has become acid soaked should be removed and the cable or wire underneath cleaned4 ,before applying new tape1 take a small round bristle brush and paint ,vaseline liberally over the exposed cable immediately back of the taper terminal4 ,then cover the ,vaseline with tape1 which ,should be run well back from the terminal4 ,the ,vaseline prevents the corrosion of the cable and the tape holds the ,vaseline in place4 ,after the tape has been applied1 paint it with acid proof paint4 ,cover the terminals of the battery with ,vaseline4 ,cables must have enough slack to prevent strains from being put on the battery terminals4 ,by following these directions1 you will not only have a properly installed battery1 which will have a good chance to give good service1 but will have a neat looking job which is most pleasing to the eye of the car owner4 ,remove all dirt from the battery and cable terminals and thoroughly clean the surfaces which are to connect together1 but do not scrape off the lead coating4 ,apply a heavy coating of pure ,vaseline to these surfaces and tighten the connection perfectly1 squeezing out the ,vaseline4 ,then give the whole connection a heavy coating of ,vaseline4 ,this is very important in order to prevent connection trouble4 ,if battery is installed in an enclosing box1 be sure that none of the ventilating holes are clogged4 ,,storing ,,batteries ,when a battery is not in active use on a car it should be put into storage4 ,storage is necessary3 #a4 ,when a car is to stand idle for a considerable period1 such as is the case when it is held for future delivery4 #b4 ,when a car is laid up for the winter4 #c4 ,when batteries are kept in stock4 ,batteries may be stored wet1 i4e41 completely assembled and filled with electrolyte1 or dry1 i4e41 in a dry disassembled condition1 without electrolyte4 ,in deciding whether a battery should be stored wet or dry1 two things are to be considered1 i4e4 the length of time the battery is to be in storage1 and the condition of the battery4 ,if a battery is to be out of commission for a year or more1 it should be put into dry storage4 ,if it is to be in storage for less than one year1 it may be put into wet storage if it is in a good condition4 ,if the condition of the battery is such that it will need to be dismantled soon for repairs1 it should be put into dry storage1 even though it is to be out of service for less than one year4 ,batteries in dry storage require no attention while they are in storage1 but they must be dismantled before being put into storage and reassembled when put back into service4 ,when a battery is brought in to be stored1 note its general condition carefully4 7a7 ,its ,general ,appearance-condition of case1 handles1 terminals1 sealing compound1 and so on4 7b7 ,height and specific gravity of the electrolyte in each cell4 7c7 ,age of ,battery4 ,question owner as to length of time he has had battery4 ,read date marks on battery if there are any1 or determine age by the age code4 ,see page #bdc4 ,if a battery is less than a year old1 is in good condition1 and is to be stored for less than one year1 it may be put into wet storage4 ,if it is more than a year old1 put it into dry storage1 unless it is in first class shape and is to be stored for only several months4 ,after making your general observations1 clean the battery1 add distilled water to bring the electrolyte up to the proper level1 put the battery on charge and keep it on the line until it is fully charged4 ,watch for any abnormal condition during the charge1 such as excessive temperature rise1 failure of voltage to come up1 failure of specific gravity to come up1 and gassing before gravity becomes constant4 ,if no abnormal conditions develop during the charge1 put the battery on discharge at a rate which will cause the voltage to drop to #a4g volts per cell in about four hours4 ,measure the cell voltages at regular intervals during the discharge test4 ,if the voltage of any cell drops much more rapidly than that of the other cells1 that cell is defective in some way1 and should be opened for inspection4 ,if the voltage of all cells drops to #a4g in three hours or less1 the battery should be put into dry storage4 ,after completing the discharge test1 recharge it fully1 no matter whether it is to be put into wet or dry storage4 ,if no trouble developed during the charge or discharge1 the battery may be put into wet storage4 ,if trouble did develop1 the battery should be put into dry storage4 ,if dry storage is found to be necessary the owner should be informed that the condition of his battery would cause it to deteriorate in wet storage and necessitate much more expensive repairs when put into use again than will be necessary in the thorough overhauling and rejuvenation of dry storage4 ,he should be advised that dry storage involves dismantling1 drying out elements and reassembling with the needed repairs and new separators in the ,spring4 ,be sure that the customer understands this4 ,if it is evident that repairs or new parts1 involving costs additional to storage charges1 will be necessary1 tell him so4 ,do not leave room for a complaint about costs in the ,spring4 ,to avoid any misunderstanding1 it is highly advisable to have the customer put his signature on a ,,storage ,,agreement which states fully the terms under which the battery is accepted for storage4 ,the storage cost may be figured on a monthly basis1 or a price for the entire storage period may be agreed upon4 ,the monthly rate should be the same as the regular price for a single battery recharge4 ,if a flat rate is paid for the entire storage period1 #b4jj to #c4jj is a fair price4 ,wet ,storage #a4 ,store the batteries on a bench or shelf in a convenient location and large enough to allow a little air space around each battery4 #b4 ,place each battery upon wooden strips in order to keep the bottom of the battery clear of the bench or shelf4 #c4 ,apply ,vaseline freely to the battery terminals1 and to exposed copper wires in the battery cables if the cables are burned directly to the battery terminals4 ,if the cables are not burned on1 remove them from the battery4 #d4 ,if convenient1 install the necessary wiring1 switches1 etc41 so that batteries may be connected up and charged where they stand4 ,otherwise the batteries must be charged occasionally oil the charging bench4 ,fig4 #aea ,batteries connected for trickle charge #e4 ,batteries in wet storage may be charged by the ,exide ,trickle charge method1 or may be given a bench charge at regular intervals4 #f4 ,bench ,charge ,method4--,once every month1 add distilled water to replace evaporation4 ,then give battery a bench charge4 ,see page #aih4 ,before putting battery into service repeat this process and just before putting the battery into service1 make the high rate discharge test on it4 ,see page #bff4 #g4 ,trickle ,charge ,method4--,this consists of charging the batteries in storage continuously at a very low rate1 which is so low that no gassing occurs1 and still gives enough charge to maintain the batteries in good condition4 ,in many cases the ,trickle ,charge method will be found more convenient than the bench charge method1 and it has the advantage of keeping the batteries in condition for putting into service on short notice4 ,it should1 however1 be used only where direct current lighting circuits are available4 ,in the ,trickle method1 the batteries are first given a complete bench charge1 and are then connected in series across a charging circuit with one or several incandescent lamps in series with the batteries to limit the current4 ,in ,fig4 #aea1 an example of connections for a ,trickle charge is given4 ,the charging current for different sized batteries varies from #j4je to #j4ae ampere4 ,the following table gives the lamps required to give the desired current on #aaj volt circuit4 ,in each case1 the lamps are connected in series with the batteries4 ,the #b-be watt1 7lamps71 in parallel listed in the table are to be connected in parallel with each other and then in series with the batteries4 ,the same is true of the #c-be watt 7lamps71 in series listed in the table4 ,series on #aae ,volt ,line ,amp4 ,hours ,no4 of ,cells ,no4 #aae ,volt ,capacity ,amperes in ,series ,lamps ,required #e ,amp4 ,rate ,approximate on ,line #aae ,volt ----------- ----------- ------------ -------------- #ej or less #j4je #c #e-ae watt1 in series #ej or less #j4je #cj #b-ae watt1 in series #ej or less #j4je #de #a-ae watt1 in series #ej-ajj #j4aj #c #c-be watt1 in series #ej-ajj #j4aj #c #a-be watt1 in series #ej-ajj #j4aj #de #b-be watt1 in parallel #ajj or over #j4ae #c #b-be watt1 in series #ajj or over #j4ae #cj #a-be watt1 in series #ajj or over #j4ae #de #c-be watt1 in parallel ,every two months interrupt the trickle charge long enough to add water to bring the electrolyte up to the proper level4 ,when this has been done1 continue the trickle charge4 ,before putting the batteries into service1 see that the electrolyte is up to the correct level1 and that the specific gravity of the electrolyte is #a4bhj-a4cjj4 ,if necessary1 give a short charge on the charging bench to bring the specific gravity up to the correct value4 ,dry ,storage #a4 ,give the battery a complete charge4 ,pour out the electrolyte1 and separate the groups4 ,if the negatives have bulged active material1 press them in the plate press4 ,in batteries such as the ,prest-,o,lite in which it is difficult to remove the plates from the cover1 the groups need not be separated unless the negatives have badly bulged active material4 ,it may not be necessary to separate the groups even then1 provided that the positives are not buckled to any noticeable extent4 ,if only a very slight amount of buckling exists1 the entire element may be pressed by putting thin boards between the plates in place of the separators4 #b4 ,immerse the negatives in distilled water for ten to twelve hours4 ,if positives and negatives cannot be separated1 wash each complete element in a gentle stream of water4 #c4 ,remove plates from water and allow them to drain thoroughly and dry4 ,the negatives will heat up when exposed to the air1 and when they do so they should be immersed in the water again to cool them4 ,repeat this as long as they tend to heat up4 ,then allow them to dry thoroughly4 #d4 ,throw away the old separators4 ,rubber separators may be saved if in good condition4 ,clean the covers and terminals41 wash out the jars1 and turn the case up side down to drain out the water4 ,examine the box carefully4 ,it is advisable to wash with a solution of baking soda1 rinsing the water in order to neutralize as far as possible the action of acid remaining on the box4 ,if this is not done1 the acid may start decomposition of the box while in storage1 in which case the owner of the battery may insist on its renewal before acceptance at the end of the storage period4 #e4 ,when1 the plates are perfectly dry1 nest the positives and negatives together1 using dry cardboard instead of separators1 and replace them in the jars in their proper positions4 #f4 ,replace the covers and vent plugs1 but1 of course1 do not use any sealing compound on them4 #g4 ,tie the terminals and top connectors to the handle on the case with a wire4 #h4 ,tag the battery with the owner's name and address1 using the tag on which you made the sketch of the arrangement of the terminals and top connections4 #i4 ,store the battery in a dry place1 free from dust1 until called for4 #aj4 ,when the battery is to be put into service again1 put in new separators1 put the elements in the jars1 seal the covers1 and burn on the top connectors and terminals 7if these are of the burned-on type74 ,fill the cells with electrolyte of about #a4caj specific gravity and allow the battery to stand for ten to twelve hours in order to cool4 ,then put the battery on charge at one-half the normal charging rate and charge until the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising and remains stationary for five hours4 ,the total time required for this development charge will be about four days4 ,watch the temperature of the electrolyte carefully1 and if it should rise to #aaj ,fahrenheit1 stop the charge until it cools4 #aa4 ,the specific gravity will fall during the first part of the charge1 due to the new separators2 at the end of the charge1 the specific gravity should be #a4bhj-a4cjj4 ,if it is not within these limits1 adjust it by withdrawing some electrolyte with the hydrometer and adding water if the gravity is high1 or #a4djj electrolyte if the gravity is low4 #ab4 ,clean the case thoroughly and give it a coat of asphaltum paint4 #ac4 ,just before putting the battery into service1 give it a high rate discharge test4 ,see page #bff4 ,,determining ,,age ,,of ,,battery ,battery manufacturers use codes to indicate the age of their batteries4 ,these codes consist of letters1 figures1 or combinations of letters and figures1 which are stamped on the inter-cell connectors or on the nameplate4 ,the codes may also be burned on the case4 ,the codes of the leading makes of batteries follow4 ,in addition to determining the age of a battery by means of the code1 the owner should be questioned as to the time the battery was installed on his car4 ,if the battery is the original one which came with the car1 the dealer's or car manufacturer's records will help determine the battery's age4 ,if a new battery has been installed to replace the one that came with the car1 the battery distributor's records will help determine the age of the battery4 ,familiarity with the different makes and types of battery will also help in determining a battery's age4 ,manufacturers make improvements in the construction of their batteries from time to time1 and by keeping up-to-date on battery constructions1 it is often possible to approximate the age of a battery by such changes4 ,if a battery was kept dry while in stock1 its age should be figured from the time it was prepared for service and placed on the car1 since batteries in dry storage do not deteriorate4 ,some batteries are shipped from the factory wet1 i4e41 filled with electrolyte and fully charged and the age of such batteries should be figured from the time they were shipped from the factory1 because deterioration begins as soon as a battery is filled with electrolyte4 ,when batteries are dry no chemical action can take place1 and the battery does not deteriorate1 while in a wet battery1 chemical action takes place which gradually causes a battery to deteriorate4 ,exide ,age ,code4 ,since ,october1 #aiag1 the date of shipment of ,exide batteries from the factory1 or from ,exide ,deposts has been stamped on the top of the first inter-cell connector from the negative end of the batter instead of on the nameplate figures are used to indicate the dates1 as follows3 ,image3 ,exide and ,philadelphia battery age code charts ,all ,philadelphia batteries shipped prior to ,april #a1 #aibj and all batteries shipped from depot stock after this date carry double letter branding4 ,the first battery is the factory date and the second letter in this code indicates latest month during which the guarantee may begin4 ,batteries sold direct from ,philadelphia to all classes of customers after ,april #a1 #aibj1 carry the single letter branding code1 indicating month of manufacture4 ,the letters used in the double letter age code are selected from the table given above1 and the second letter is the important one1 since it gives the latest date from which adjustment can be made4 ,if a ,philadelphia battery with a double letter age code comes in1 therefore1 the foregoing table should be consulted in determining the age of the battery4 ,if a ,philadelphia battery with a single letter age code comes in1 the following table should be consulted in determining the age of the battery3 ,image3 ,single ,letter ,philadelphia ,batteries ,age ,code ,chart ,prest-,o-,lite ,age ,code4 ,all ,prest-,o-,lite batteries carry a date letter stamped on the cell-connectors4 ,this letter indicates the month and year in which the battery was manufactured4 ,the letter is preceeded by a number which represents the factory at which the battery was built4 ,prest-,o-,lite ,factory ,marks4 ,indianapolis--#ej ,cleveland--#g ,san ,francisco--#bc ,for example3 #ej-,k indicates that the battery was manufactured at ,indianopolis in ,january1 #aibj4 ,in addition to the above1 each ,wet ,prest-,o-,lite battery is branded in the side with a date1 as #i-ai1 indicating ,october1 #aiai4 ,this date is really sixty days ahead of the actual building date1 to allow time for shipping1 etc41 before the guarentee starts4 ,the branded #i-ai was actually built in ,august1 #aiai4 ,titan ,age ,code4 ,the age of ,titan batteries is indicated by a number stamped on one of the inter-cell connectors1 this number indicating the month the battery was hipped from the factory4 ,image3 ,age code charts for ,titan batteries ,image3 ,age code charts for ,u4,s4,l41 and ,vesta batteries ,image3 ,age code charts for ,westinghouse and ,willard batteries ,,rental ,,batteries ,rental batteries are those which are put on a customer's car while his own is being repaired or recharged4 ,they are usually rebuilt batteries turned in when a new battery is bought4 ,they may also be made of the good parts of batteries which are junked4 ,by carefully saving good parts1 such as plates1 jars1 covers1 and cases1 a stock of parts will gradually be acquired from which rental batteries may be made4 ,rental batteries may also be bought from the battery manufacturers4 ,a supply of rental batteries should1 of course1 be kept ready to go out at any time4 ,the number of such batteries depends upon the size of the business4 #be batteries for each #ajjj cars in the territory served is a good average4 ,do not have too many rental batteries of the same type4 ,many of them will be idle most of the time and thus will not bring in any money4 ,rentals should be made to fit those makes of cars of which there are the greatest number in the territory served by the repair shop4 ,sufficient parts should be kept on hand to make up other rentals on short notice4 ,terminals for ,rental ,batteries ,there are several combination terminals on the market which allow rental batteries equipped with them to be easily connected to several of the various types of cable terminals that are in use4 ,yet it is a universal experience for the average service station always to have calls for rental batteries with just the type of terminals which are not on hand4 ,when the station has many batteries with the clamp type straight posts the call always seems to be for the taper plug type and vice versa4 ,fig4 #aeb ,best type of connection to be used whenever possible ,most of us will agree that the clamp type post terminal is the cause of much trouble4 ,it is almost impossible to prevent corrosion at the positive post and many a car owner has found that this has been his trouble when his lights burn all right but the battery seemingly does not have power enough to turn over the engine and yet every cell tests #a4bhj4 ,service ,station men should not scrape and clean up a corroded clamp type terminal and put it back on again1 but should cut it off and put on either a taper plug or1 preferably1 a lead-plated copper terminal lug4 ,of course either of these terminal connections necessitates changing the battery terminals to correspond4 ,for rental batteries it will be found that short cable terminals with lead-plated copper lugs at the end will enable a battery man to connect most any type of cable terminal on any car4 ,it is true that such connections must be taped up1 but the prompt service rendered more than offsets a little tape4 ,figures #aeb to #aeh illustrate how these connections can be made to the taper plug and clamp types which are used on most cars4 ,fig4 #aec ,method of connecting rental battery with cable terminals to car with taper plug ,fig4 #aed ,another method of connecting copper terminal lug to clamp terminal on car ,fig4 #aee ,method of connecting rental batteries with cable terminals to cars with clamp type terminals ,fig4 #aee4 ,showing method of connecting rental batteries with cable terminals1 to cars with clamp type terminals4 ,in ,fig4 #aee the cable insulation is stripped for a space of an inch and the strands are equally divided with an awl4 ,a bolt is passed through the opening and a washer and nut complete the connection4 ,fig4 #aef and ,fig4 #aeg ,two methods of connecting a clamp type terminal to taper plug terminals ,two methods of connecting a clamp type terminal to taper plug terminals4 ,in ,fig4 #aef a taper plug is inserted and screwed tight4 ,the projecting part of the plug has been turned down to fit the clamp type terminal which is clamped to it4 ,in ,fig4 #aeg a bolt is passed through and the clamp type terminal tightened to the plug type terminal with a washer and nut4 ,fig4 #aeh ,lead plated copper terminal lug ,fig4 #aeh shows a simple means of putting on a lead-plated copper terminal lug without solder4 ,these lugs should be soldered on whenever possible1 but it is often a difficult job to put one on in the confined space of some battery compartments4 ,in such places1 a quick and lasting job can be made with a band vise and a short piece of round iron4 ,this latter is laid across the lug and the vise screwed up1 making a crimp across the lug which firmly grips down upon the bared cable strands that have been inserted into the lug4 ,new batteries sold to replace other batteries should be installed with cable connections1 as illustrated in ,figure #aeb4 ,this method of connecting a battery is superior to any other method and will never cause trouble4 ,it will usually be found that the old taper plugs or clamp terminals that have been in use have started to corrode and that a new battery works increasingly at a disadvantage from the day it is installed until the corrosion becomes so great that the car cannot be started and then the customer kicks about his new battery4 ,the best connection possible will pay handsome dividends to all concerned1 in the end4 ,marking ,rental ,batteries4 ,rental batteries should be marked in a mariner which enables them to be recognized quickly4 ,painting the cases a red color is a good way4 ,the service station's name should appear somewhere on the battery4 ,a good plan is to have a lead tag1 which is attached to the handle at the negative end of the battery1 or is tacked to the case4 ,the name may also be painted on the case4 ,each battery should be given a number which should preferably be painted in large white figures on the end or side of each case4 ,the number may also be stamped on a lead tag tied to the handle at the negative end4 ,a service station which sells a certain make of battery should not use cases of some other make if the name of the other make appears on the case4 ,such names may give a wrong impression to the customer1 which will not be fair either to the service station or to the manufacturer whose name appears on the case4 ,if the service station sells1 another make of battery1 the customer may get the impression that the service station man does not have enough confidence in the make which he sells1 and must use some other make for his rentals4 ,if the rental battery does not give good service1 the customer will get the impression that the manufacturer whose name appears on the case does not turn out good batteries1 when as a matter of fact1 the plates1 covers1 jars1 and other parts used in the rental battery may not have been made by this manufacturer4 ,some battery men would1 perhaps1 consider the failure of a rental battery as an opportunity to knock the manufacturer whose name appears on the case4 ,such an action may have the desired effect on a very few customers1 but the great majority of men have no use for any one who knocks a competitor's products4 ,keeping a ,record of ,rental ,batteries4 ,a careful record should be kept of all rental batteries4 ,the more carefully such a record is kept1 the less confusion there will be in knowing just where every rental battery is4 ,a special rack for rental batteries1 such as those shown in ,figures #hh and #hi should be provided1 and all rental batteries which are in the shop should be kept there1 except when they are on charge or are being overhauled4 ,have them fully charged and ready to go out immediately1 without keeping a customer waiting around1 when he is in a hurry to go somewhere else4 ,general ,rental ,policy4 ,no service station should make a practice of installing rental batteries on any car unless the owner leaves his own battery to be repaired or recharged4 ,the purpose of having a stock of rental batteries is to enable customers to have the use of their cars while their own batteries are being repaired by the battery man who furnishes the rental battery and not to furnish batteries to car owners who may be taking their batteries to some other station to be repaired4 ,it is1 of course1 a good thing to be generous and accommodating1 but every battery repairman should think of his own business first1 before he helps build up the business of a competitor4 ,the customer must have some inducement to bring in your rental battery and get his own4 ,a rental charge of #be cents-per day serves as a reminder to most customers4 ,however1 some customers are forgetful and the battery man must telephone or write to any owner who fails to call for his battery4 ,if1 due to failure to keep after the owner1 a rental battery is out for several weeks1 there is likely to be an argument when the rental bill is presented to the owner4 ,if the delay in calling in a rental battery is due to failure to repair the customer's battery1 the rental charge should be reduced4 ,a rental battery should not be put in place of a battery which is almost ready for the junk pile4 ,the thing to do is to sell the customer a new battery4 ,repairs on an almost worn out battery are expensive and the results may not be satisfactory4 ,,radio ,,batteries ,the wide-awake battery man will not overlook the new and rapidly growing field which has been opened for him by the installation of hundreds of thousands of radio-phone receiving sets in all parts of the country4 ,the so-called radio craze has affected every state1 and every battery repairman can increase his income to a considerable extent by selling1 charging1 and repairing radio storage batteries4 ,the remarkable growth of the radio-phone has1 of course1 been due to the radio broadcasting stations which have been established in all parts of the country1 and from which concerts1 speeches1 market reports1 baseball reports1 news reports1 children's stories and religious services are sent out4 ,these broadcasting stations have sending ranges as high as #a1jjj miles4 ,the fact that a service station is not located near a broadcasting station is therefore no reason why it should not have its share of the radio battery business1 because the broadcasting stations are scattered all over the ,united ,states1 and receiving sets may be made powerful enough to pick up the waves from at least one of the broadcasting stations4 ,radio receiving sets may be divided into two general classes1 the ,crystal sets and the ,bulb sets4 ,crystal sets use crystals of galena 7lead sulphide71 silicon 7a crystalline form of silicon1 one of the chemical elements71 or carborundum 7carbide of silicon7 to detect or1 in other words1 to rectify the incoming radio waves so that they may be translated into sound by the telephone receivers4 ,receiving sets using these crystals do not use a battery1 but these sets are not very sensitive1 and cannot pick up weak waves4 ,this means that crystal receiving sets must be used near the broadcasting stations1 before the waves have been weakened by traveling any considerable distance4 ,as a general rule1 the radio-listener's first receiving set uses a crystal detector4 ,very often it is difficult to obtain good results with such a set1 and a more elaborate set is obtained4 ,moreover1 even if a crystal set does give good results1 the owner of such a set soon hears of friends who are able to hear concerts sent out from distance stations4 ,this gives him the desire to be able to hear such stations also and he then buys a receiving set which uses the audion-bulb for detecting1 or rectifying the incoming waves4 ,the audion-bulb resembles an ordinary incandescent lamp4 ,it contains three elements3 #a4 ,in the center of the bulb is a short tungsten filament1 the ends of which are brought out to two terminals in the base of the bulb4 ,this filament must be heated to incandescence1 and a storage battery is required for this purpose1 because it is necessary to have a very steady current in order to obtain clear sounds in the receiver4 ,lately plans have been suggested for using a direct current lighting line1 and even an alternating current lighting line for heating the filament1 but at present such plans have not been perfected1 and the battery will undoubtedly continue to be used with the majority of sets4 #b4 ,surrounding the filament but not touching it is a helix of wire1 only one end of which is brought out to a terminal in the base of the bulb4 ,this helix is called the grid4 ,in some bulbs the grid is not made in the form of a helix1 but is made of two flat gridlike structures1 one on each side of the filament4 #c4 ,surrounding the grid is the plate which is sometimes in the shape of a hollow metallic cylinder4 ,some plates are not round1 but may be oval1 or they may be two flat plates joined together at some point1 and one placed on either side of the grid4 ,the plate has one terminal in the base of the bulb4 ,fig4 #aei ,illustrating the principle of the ,audion ,bulb ,the action of an audion-bulb is quite complex1 but a simpler explanation1 though one which may not be exactly correct from a purely technical point of view1 is as follows1 referring to ,figure #aei3 ,the ,a battery heats the filament1 causing a stream of electrically charged particles to flow out from the filament in all directions4 ,these electrons act as a conductor1 and close the circuit which consists of the plate1 the ,b battery1 and the telephone receivers1 one end of this circuit being connected to one side of the filament circuit4 ,current then flows from the positive terminal of the ,b battery to the plate1 then to the filament by means of the stream of electrons emitted by the filament1 along one side of the filament1 through the wire connected to the positive terminal of the ,a battery to the telephone receivers1 through the receivers to the negative terminal of the ,b battery4 ,as long as the filament remains lighted a steady current flows through the above circuit4 ,the grid is connected to the aerial wire to intercept the radio waves4 ,these waves produce varying electrical charges on the grid4 ,since the stream of charged particles emitted by the filament must pass through the grid to reach the plate1 the charges which the radio waves produce on the grid strengthen or weaken the stream of electrons emitted by the filament1 and thus vary the current flowing in the telephone receiver circuit4 ,the changes in this current cause the receiver diaphragm to vibrate1 the vibrations causing sounds to be heard4 ,since the variation in the telephone receiver circuit is caused by electrical charges produced by the radio waves1 and since the radio waves change according to the sounds made at the transmitting station1 the variations in the telephone receiver current produces the same sounds that are sent out at the transmitting station4 ,in this way concerts1 speeches1 etc41 are reproduced in the receivers4 ,the modern radio receiving set includes various devices1 such as variable condensers1 variocouplers1 loose-couplers1 variometers1 the purpose of which is to tune or adjust the receiving set to be capable of receiving the radio waves4 ,an explanation of such devices is not within the scope of this book1 but there are numerous reasonably priced books and pamphlets on the market which describes in a simple manner all the component parts of a radio-receiving set4 ,from the foregoing remarks it is seen that a six-volt storage battery is required with each receiving set which uses the audionbulb type detector4 ,the filament current of an audion-bulb averages about one ampere4 ,if additional bulbs are used to obtain louder sounds1 each such bulb also draws one ampere from the storage battery4 ,the standard audion-bulb receiving set does not use more than three bulbs1 and hence the maximum current drawn from the battery does not exceed three amperes4 ,the automobile battery manufacturers have built special radio batteries which have thick plates and thick separators to give longer life4 ,the thick plates are much stronger and more durable than the thin plates used in starting and lighting work1 but do not have the heavy current capacity that the starting and lighting battery plates have4 ,a high current capacity is1 of course1 not necessary for radio work1 and hence thick plates are used4 ,batteries used for radio work do not operate under the severe conditions which exist on automobiles1 and trouble is much less likely to develop4 ,however1 the owner of the radio set rarely has any means of keeping his battery charged1 and his battery gradually discharges and must then be recharged4 ,it is in the sale of batteries for radio work and in the recharging of them that the battery man can cash-in on the radio phone craze4 ,this business rightfully belongs to the automobile battery man and he should go after it as hard as he can4 ,a little advertising by the service station man1 stating that he sells radio batteries1 and also recharges them should bring in3 very profitable business4 ,the battery man who calls for and delivers the radio batteries which need recharging and leaves rental batteries in their place so that there is no interruption in the reception of the evening concerts is the one who will get the business4 ,as already stated1 radio storage batteries have thick plates and thick separators4 ,perforated rubber sheets are also used in addition to the separators4 ,large sediment spaces are also generally provided to allow a considerable amount of sediment to accumulate without causing short-circuits4 ,the cases are made of wood or hard rubber4 ,since radio batteries are used in homes and are1 therefore1 used with handsomely finished cabinets containing the radio apparatus1 the manufacturers give the cases of some of their radio batteries a pleasing varnished or mahogany finish4 ,before returning radio batteries which have been recharged1 the entire batteries should be cleaned and the cases polished4 ,returning radio batteries in a dirty condition1 when they were received clean1 and polished1 will drive the radio recharging business to some other service station4 ,,vesta ,,radio ,,batteries ,the ,vesta ,battery ,corporation manufacturers three special types of ,a batteries for radio work1 as follows3 #a4 ,the #f;,,ea battery1 made in capacities of #fj1 #hj1 and #ajj ampere hours4 ,fig4 #afj4 #b4 ,the ,v#f;,,ea#g battery1 having a capacity of #hj ampere hours4 ,fig4 #afa4 #c4 ,the ,r#f;,,ea battery1 having a capacity of #ajj ampere hours4 ,fig4 #afb4 ,fig4 #afj1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc ,various ,vesta ,radio batteries ,vesta ,radio ,batteries4 ,fig4 #afj shows the #f;,,ea ,series1 ,a ,battery4 ,fig4 #afa shows the ,v#f;,,ea ,series1 ,a ,battery4 ,fig4 #afb shows the ,r#f;,,ea 7,rubber ,case7 ,series1 ,a ,battery4 ,fig4 #afc shows the ,b ,battery4 ,these batteries have #e1 #g1 #i plates per cell1 respectively4 ,the plates are each #e inches high1 #e #g_/h inches wide1 and #e_/cb inches thick4 ,the cases for these batteries are furnished in three designs--plain black boxes 7all sizes71 finished maple boxes 7#g plate size only71 and hard rubber boxes 7#i plate size only74 ,these ,vesta batteries are the ,a batteries used for heating the filaments of the audion bulbs4 ,the ,vesta ,radio ,b battery1 ,fig4 #afc1 is a #ab cell1 #bd volt battery1 with a #bb and a #bj volt tap4 ,,exide ,,radio ,,batteries ,fig4 #afd ,exide ,radio ,a battery ,the ,exide ,radio ,a battery1 ,fig4 #afd1 is made in four sizes1 the capacities ranging from #bj to #abj ampere-hours4 ,the design and construction of these batteries are similar to the ,exide starting batteries4 ,the over-all height of these batteries is approximately #ie_/h inches1 the width #g-e_/af inches1 while the length varies with the number of the plates4 ,type ,cat4 ,no4 ,length ,weight ,capacity -------- -------- ------ ------ -------- #c-,,lxl-#c #acgce #d-i_/af #ae-a_/b lbs4 #bj amp4 hrs4 #c-,,lxl-#e #acgcf #e-aa_/af #bd-a_/b lbs4 #dj amp4 hrs4 #c-,,lxl-#i #acgcg #i-a_/af #db-a_/b lbs4 #hj amp4 hrs4 #c-,,lxl-#ac #acgej #ab-g_/af #ei-a_/b lbs4 #abj amp4 hrs4 ,,willard ,,radio ,,batteries ,the ,willard ,storage ,battery ,co4 manufactures both ,a and ,b storage batteries4 ,the ,willard ,a battery1 ,fig4 #afe1 is an all-rubber battery4 ,the case is a rubber ,monobloc construction1 that is1 the entire case is pressed into shape at one time4 ,there are no separate jars for the cells1 there being rubber partitions which form integral parts of the case4 ,the case is1 therefore1 really a solid1 one piece1 three compartment jar4 ,the ribs at the bottoms of the compartments are parts of the one-piece block1 and are higher than those found in the usual starting and lighting battery4 ,embedded in each side wall of the case is a bronze button which holds the handle in place4 ,soft rubber gaskets of pure gum rubber surround the post to make an acid proof seal to prevent electrolyte from seeping from the cells4 ,the separators are the standard ,willard ,threaded ,rubber separators4 ,fig4 #afe1 #aff1 and #afg ,various ,willard ,radio ,batteries ,willard ,radio ,batteries4 ,fig4 #afe shows the ,all-,rubber ,a ,battery4 ,fig4 #aff shows the complete ,b ,battery4 ,fig4 #afg shows one cell of the ,b ,battery4 ,the ,willard ,a battery comes in five sizes1 type ,,wrr#ig 7#bj ampere hours capacity71 type ,,wrro 7#ej ampere hours capacity71 type ,,wrr#a 7#hi ampere hours capacity71 type ,,wrr#b 7#ajj ampere hours capacity71 and type ,,wrr#c 7#abe ampere hours capacity74 ,the ,willard ,b storage battery1 type ,,cbr#abd1 ,figs4 #aff and #afg1 is a twelve cell battery1 each cell consisting of a round glass container having one negative and one positive plate insulated from each other by a small ,threaded ,rubber separator4 ,the plates and separators rest on a hard rubber bottom rest which consists of a short length of hard rubber tube1 so formed as to support the plates and separators and at the same time hold them together4 ,the cells are assembled in a case which has a separate compartment for each cell4 ,as seen from ,fig1 #aff1 the upper parts of the cells project above the top of the case1 which simplifies inspection4 ,,westinghouse ,,radio ,,batteries ,fig4 #afh ,westinghouse ,radio ,a battery1 ,type ,,hr ,fig4 #afi ,westinghouse ,radio ,b battery1 ,type ,l1 and ,fig4 #agj ,westinghouse ,radio ,b battery1 ,type ,m ,the ,westinghouse ,union ,battery ,co4 manufactures both ,a and ,b storage batteries4 ,their ,,er type1 ,fig4 #afh1 is the ,a battery1 and their ,l and ,m types1 ,figs4 #afi and #agj1 are the ,b batteries4 ,the ,,hr battery has #c_/af inch thick plates1 high rests to provide ample mud and acid space1 and thick separators4 ,rubber sheets are placed on both sides of the positive plates4 ,rubber covered cables are moulded into the terminals to minimize corrosion at the positive terminal4 ,the ,,hr batteries are made in six and eight volt sizes1 with #c plates per cell1 #e plates per cell1 #i plates per cell1 and #ac plates per cell4 ,the ,westinghouse ,radio ,b batteries are made in two sizes4 ,type #bb-,m-#b1 ,fig4 #agj1 has a capacity of #a4b ampere hours at #j4jd ampere4 ,it is designed to operate a receiving set having one detector and two amplifier bulbs for three to five weeks between charges4 ,the type #bb-,l-#b battery1 ,fig4 #afi1 has a capacity of #d4e ampere hours at #j4be ampere4 ,part ,no4 ,type ,volts ,amp4 ,hours at #c ,amps4 ,weight ,intermittent ,rate -------- ---- ----- --------------------- ------ #ajjaaj #f-;,,hr-#e #f #ed ,a4,h4 #cj ,lbs4 #ajjaaa #f-;,,hr-#i #f #ajh ,a4,h4 #df ,lbs4 #ajjaab #f-;,,hr-#ac #f #afb ,a4,h4 #fe ,lbs4 #ajjace #h-;,,hr-#e #h #ed ,a4,h4 #dj ,lbs4 #ajjacf #h-;,,hr-#i #h #ajh ,a4,h4 #fj ,lbs4 #ajjacg #h-;,,hr-#ac #h #afb ,a4,h4 #hg ,lbs4 #ajjade #f-;,,hr-#c #f #bg ,a4,h4 #bj ,lbs4 ,part ,no4 ,type ,volts ,capacity ,weight ------- ------ ----- -------- ------ #ajjadh #bb-,m-#b #bb #a4b ,a4,h4 at 4#jd ,amps4 #f-a_/d ,lbs4 #ajjadj #b-,l-#b #bb #a4b ,a4,h4 at #be ,amps4 #ai-c_/d ,lbs4 ,,philadelphia ,,radio ,,batteries ,fig4 #aga ,philadelphia ,radio ,a battery ,the ,philadelphia ,storage ,battery ,co4 makes both ,a and ,b ,radio batteries4 ,the ,a battery1 ,fig4 #aga1 uses the standard diamond-grid plates1 and the ,philco ,slotted ,retainer used in ,philadelphia starting batteries4 ,the cases of the ,a batteries are made of hardwood1 finished in an ebonite black4 ,soft rubber insulating feet on the bottom of the case prevent scratching any table or varnished floor on which the battery may be set4 ,the instructions for preparing the ,philadelphia ,a battery for service are similar to those given for the starting and lighting batteries1 given on page #bbh4 ,for the initial filling1 #a4bbj electrolyte is used1 and the battery charged at the following rates3 ,initial and ,recharge ,charging ,rate ---------------------------------- ,type ,initial ,rate ,recharge ,rate ---- ------------ ------------- #ef,,lar #a4j #b #ef,,rar #b4j #c #gf,,rar #c4j #d4e #if,,rar #d4j #f #aaf,,rar #e4f #g4e #acf,,rar #f4j #i ,the final gravity of the electrolyte should be #a4bej4 ,however1 if the owner insists on getting maximum capacity1 the battery may be filled with #a4bej electrolyte and balanced to #a4bij at the end of the charge4 ,fig4 #agb ,philadelphia ,radio ,b battery ,the ,philadelphia ,radio ,b battery1 type #bbd-,,rb1 ,fig4 #agb1 has #ab cells contained in a one-piece rubber case4 ,it is shipped dry1 and requires no initial charge4 ,to prepare it for service1 the soft rubber vent caps are removed and #be c4 c4 of #a4bej electrolyte poured into each cell4 ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 ,,radio ,,battery ,fig4 #agc ,u4,s4,l4 ,radio ,a battery ,the ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 ,radio ,a battery1 ,fig4 #agc1 uses #a_/d inch positives1 with #c_/af inch intermediate and #a_/h inch outside negatives4 ,port ,orford cedar separators are used which are four times as thick as the usual starting battery separator4 ,the case is made of hardwood1 and is varnished to match cabinet work4 ,the electrolyte has a specific gravity of #a4bbj4 ,the heavy plates and separators and the low gravity of the electrolyte are designed to give long life4 ,ampere ,ampere ,hour ,plates ,hour ,capacity per ,capacity 7or intermittent ,type ,cell #c ,amperes use7 ,dimensions ,weight ---- ---- ----------- ---------------- ---------- ------ ,,dxa-#cjc-,x #c #ab #bj #e-c_/af x #ah #g-a_/d x #i-a_/d ,,dxa-#cje-,x #e #dj #fj #i-a_/h x #g-a_/d #ci x #i-a_/d ,,dxa-#cjg-,x #g #gj #he #aa-c_/d x #g-g_/af #dh x #i-a_/d ,,dxa-#cji-,x #i #ih #aae #ad-c_/h x #g-g_/af #ei x #i-a_/d ,,prest-,o-,,lite ,,radio ,,batteries ,the ,prest-,o-,lite ,co4 makes two lines of ,radio ,a ,batteries4 ,first1 an inexpensive battery1 ,fig4 #agd1 and a deluxe battery1 ,fig4 #age1 which has a better finish and appearance4 ,both types have a mahogany finished case with rubber feet to prevent damaging furniture4 ,a bail handle simplifies the carrying of the battery4 ,capacities range from #dg ampere-hours to #abg ampere-hours at a one ampere discharge rate4 ,fig4 #agd #age ,presto-,o-,lite ,radio ,a battery ,table of ,prest-,o-,lite ,radio ,batteries ------------------------------------- ,hours ,discharge at ,rate of3 ,type #a ,amp4 #b ,amps4 #c ,amps4 #e ,amps4 #aj ,amps4 ------- ------ ------- ------- ------- -------- #fg ,,whnr #dg4e #ba4g #ac4f #g4e #c4j #fi ,,whnr #ff #cj #ah4i #aj4e #d4e #faa ,,whnr #hb4h #ch4e #bd4c #ac4e #f4j #fg ,,kpnr #ie #dd4b #bg4h #ae4j #f4e #fi ,,kpnr #abg #fa4e #ch4e #ba4e #i4e ,,universal ,,radio ,,batteries ,fig4 #agf ,universal ,type ,,wr1 ,radio ,a battery ,the ,universal ,battery ,co4 manufacture three types of ,radio ,a storage batteries4 ,type ,,wr1 ,fig4 #agf1 has three sealed hard rubber jars assembled in a hardwood case which is stained and finished in mahogany4 ,the separators are made of ,port ,orford cedar and are #a_/h inch thick1 about twice the thickness of the separator used in starting and lighting batteries4 ,the plates also are much thicker than the standard starting and lighting battery plate4 ,the type ,,wr battery comes in three sizes4 ,types ,,wr-#e1 ,,wr-#g1 and ,,wr-#i1 having capacities of #fj1 #he1 and #aje ampere hours1 respectively1 at a #c ampere rate4 ,the ,universal type ,,rr radio ,a battery1 ,fig4 #agg1 is assembled in a hard rubber combination case1 which is a solid piece of rubber divided into three compartments4 ,this gives a compact1 acid proof case4 ,this battery also comes in three sizes1 types ,,rr-#e1 ,,rr-#g1 and ,,rr-#i1 having capacities of #fj1 #he and #aje ampere hours1 respectively1 at a three ampere discharge rate4 ,fig4 #agg ,universal ,type ,,rr1 ,radio ,a battery ,fig4 #agh ,universal ,type ,,gr1 ,radio ,a battery ,the ,universal type ,,gr radio ,a battery1 ,fig4 #agh1 is assembled in three sealed glass jars which are placed in a mahogany finished wooden crate4 ,this construction makes the cell interiors visible1 enabling the owner to detect troubles and to watch the action of the cells on charge and discharge4 ,the ,,gr battery comes in two sizes1 ,,gr-#e and ,,gr-,jr41 having respective capacities of #fj and #af ampere hours at a #c ampere discharge rate4 ,,dry ,,storage ,,batteries ,during the past year or two1 so-called dry starting and lighting storage batteries have appeared on the market4 ,this class includes batteries having dry1 semi-dry1 and jelly electrolytes4 ,the claims made for these batteries are that there is nothing to evaporate and that the periodical addition of water is therefore unnecessary1 that spilling and slopping of electrolyte is impossible1 and that injurious sulphation does not take place4 ,the dry storage battery is not a new idea1 for as much as thirty-five years ago1 the ,oerlikon ,company of ,switzerland manufactured dry electrolyte storage batteries in commercial quantities4 ,these batteries were for a long time a distinct success for work requiring only low rates of discharge4 ,for high rates of discharge the lack of diffusion1 due to the absence of a liquid electrolyte1 reduces the capacity4 ,the lack of diffusion will cause a rapid drop in voltage when cranking the engine6 and a slow recovery after the engine begins to run under its own power4 ,the manufacturers of the dry storage batteries1 of course1 claim that their batteries are more efficient and satisfactory than the standard wet battery1 but it has been impossible to get sufficient data from the manufacturers to go into detail on the subject4 ,several of the largest of wet battery manufacturers formerly made dry storage batteries for lighting and ignition service1 but when starting motors came into use1 discarded the dry batteries in favor of the present wet storage batteries4 ,,discharge ,,tests ,discharge tests may be divided into four general classes3 7a7 ,brief ,high ,rate ,discharge ,tests to determine condition of battery4 ,these tests are made for #ae seconds at a high rate4 7b7 ,lighting ,ability ,discharge ,tests4 7c7 ,starting ,ability ,discharge ,tests4 7d7 ,cycling ,discharge ,tests4 ,the #ae ,seconds ,high ,rate ,discharge ,test ,the #a4e seconds high rate discharge test is a valuable aid in determining the condition of a battery1 particularly where the hydrometer readings give false indications1 such as is the case when electrolyte or acid is added to a cell instead of water to replace evaporation4 ,only two or three percent of the battery capacity is consumed by the test1 and it is not usually necessary to recharge the battery after making the test4 ,the test must be made in conjunction with hydrometer readings1 as otherwise it might give false indications itself4 ,both incoming and outgoing batteries may be tested1 and the method of testing depends upon whether the battery is coming in for repairs1 or is going out after having been charged1 repaired1 or worked on in any way4 ,in either case1 the test consists of discharging the battery at a high rate for a short time1 and taking voltage readings and making observations while the battery is discharging4 ,fig4 #agi ,making a #bj seconds high rate discharge test ,rates of ,discharge4 ,it is not necessary to have any definitely fixed discharge rate4 ,the rate should merely be high enough to reveal any improperly burned joints1 short-circuited cells1 or cells low in capacity for any reason4 ,the discharge tester is suitable for all batteries used on cars and trucks4 ,for an ,incoming ,battery4 ,take a hydrometer reading of each cell4 ,if the readings are all below #a4bjj and are within #ej points of each other1 most likely all the battery needs is a bench charge1 with a possible adjustment of the gravity of the electrolyte at the end of the charge4 ,the discharge test should in this case be made after the battery has been fully charged4 ,if the gravity readings are all above #a4bjj1 or if the reading of one cell differs from the others by #ej points or more1 make the discharge test1 as shown in ,fig4 #agi4 ,after fifteen seconds1 read the voltage of each cell4 ,if the cells are uniformly low in voltage2 that is1 below #a4e volts per cell1 the battery needs recharging4 ,if the voltage readings of the cells differ by #j4a4j volt or more and the battery is fairly well charged1 there is something wrong in the cell having the low reading1 and the battery should be opened and examined4 ,with a discharged battery the difference in cell voltage will be greater1 depending on the extent of the discharge1 and only experience can guide in drawing correct conclusions4 ,a short-circuited cell will give a very low voltage reading4 ,remember that the actual voltage reading is not as important in indicating a defective cell as the difference between the voltage readings of the cells4 ,a cell which gives a voltage which is #j4a volt or more less than the others is generally defective4 ,for ,outgoing ,new1 ,charged1 or ,repaired ,batteries4 ,just before putting the battery into service1 make the test as a check on the internal condition of the battery1 particularly if the battery has been repaired or has stood for sometime since being charged4 7,it is assumed that the battery has been charged and the gravity of the electrolyte properly adjusted when the test is made47 ,the battery should not show more than #j4aj volt difference between any two cells at the end of #ae seconds1 and no cell should show a voltage less than #a4ge volts1 and the voltage should remain fairly constant during the test4 ,if every cell reads below #a4ge volts1 the battery has not been completely charged4 ,if one cell is more than #j4aj volt lower than the others1 or if its voltage falls off rapidly1 that cell still needs repairs1 or is insufficiently charged1 or else the top connectors are not burned on properly4 ,top connectors which heat up during the test are not burned on properly4 ,lighting ,ability ,discharge ,tests ,these are tests continuing for #e hours to a final voltage of #a4g per cell4 ,these tests are not of as great an interest as the ,starting ,ability ,tests1 description of which follows3 ,starting ,ability ,discharge ,tests ,the ,society of ,automotive ,engineers recommends two ratings for starting and lighting batteries3 ,batteries for combined lighting and starting service shall have two ratings4 ,the first shall indicate the lighting ability and be the capacity in ampere-hours of the battery when discharged continuously at the #e hour rate to a final voltage of not less than #a4g per cell1 the temperature of the battery beginning such a discharge being #hj deg4 ,fahr4 ,the second rating shall indicate the starting ability and shall be the capacity in ampere-hours when the battery is discharged continuously at the #bj minute rate to a final voltage of not less than #a4ej per cell1 the temperature of the battery beginning such discharge being #hj deg4 ,fahr4 ,the capacity in ampere-hours given by manufacturers is for a continuous discharge for #e hours4 ,in the battery shop1 however1 the starting-ability discharge test is the test which should be made1 though the conditions of the test are changed somewhat4 ,to make this test1 the battery should be fully charged4 ,connect a rheostat to the battery terminals and adjust the rheostat to draw about #ajj amperes from an #aa plate battery1 #abj amperes from a #ac plate battery1 #ace amperes from a #ae plate battery1 #aee amperes from a #ag plate battery1 #agj amperes from a #ai plate battery and so on4 ,continue the discharge for #bj minutes1 keeping the discharge current constant1 and taking voltage readings of each cell at the start1 and at the end of #e1 #aj1 #ae1 and #bj minutes4 ,at the end of #bj minutes1 if the battery is in good condition1 the voltage of each cell should not be less than #a4e1 and the temperature of the electrolyte in any cell should not exceed #ie degrees ,fahrenheit1 provided that the temperature at the start was about #hj degrees4 ,the cell voltages should drop slowly during the test4 ,if the voltage begins to drop rapidly during the test1 as shown by the current falling off so rapidly that it is difficult to keep it at #ajj amperes1 measure the cell voltages quickly to see which cells are dropping rapidly4 ,an example of a #ajj ampere test on a good rebuilt cell with eleven plates is as follows3 ,voltage immediately after start of discharge1 #a4hh4 ,after #e minutes1 #a4hf volts4 ,after #aj minutes1 #a4hj volts4 ,after #ae minutes1 #a4gb volts4 ,after #bj minutes1 #a4e volts4 ,if the voltage of a cell begins to fall off rapidly before the twenty minutes are up1 but not before #ae minutes1 the cell needs cycling 7charging and discharging7 to bring it up to capacity4 ,if the voltage drops rapidly before the end of #ae minutes1 the plates are low in capacity1 due to age1 or some defect4 ,it is not safe to expect very good service from a cell which will not stand up for #bj minutes before de voltage begins to drop rapidly4 ,if the rapid voltage drop begins very much before #bj minutes1 it is very doubtful whether the battery will give good service4 ,comparisons of the results of tests with the service which the battery gives after installed on the car will soon enable the repairman to tell from the results of the tests just what to expect from any battery4 ,the starting-ability test should be made on all batteries which have been rebuilt whenever there is time to do so and on all batteries about which there is any doubt as to what service they will give4 ,after the test1 the batteries should be put on the line again and charged before sending them out4 ,the rates of discharge given here for the starting-ability tests may be varied if experience with a particular make of battery shows some other rate to be better4 ,the important thing is to use the same rate of discharge for the same make and type of battery at all times4 ,in this way the repairman will soon be able to distinguish between good and bad batteries of a particular make and type4 ,cadmium ,tests may be made during the ,starting ,ability ,discharge ,tests4 ,see page #agd4 ,cycling ,discharge ,tests ,new batteries1 or rebuilt batteries which have had new plates installed1 or sulphated batteries which will not come up on charge1 should be discharged when they have come-up1 as far as they will go4 ,in some cases it is necessary to charge and discharge them several times before they will be ready for service4 ,this charging and discharging is often called cycling the battery4 ,new batteries are generally cycled at the factory before sending them out4 ,the forming charge generally does not convert all the pastes into active material and the battery using plates which have been treated in the forming room is put through several discharges and charges after the battery is fully assembled4 ,in service on a car1 the battery is being cycled constantly and there is generally an increase in capacity after a battery is put on a car4 ,positive plates naturally increase in capacity1 sometimes up to the very clay when they fall to pieces1 while negatives tend to lose capacity with age4 ,batteries which are assembled in the service station1 using new plates1 generally require several cycles of charge and discharge before the specific gravity will rise to #a4bhj before the positives will give #b4d-b4e volts on a ,cadmium test1 before the negatives will give a reversed voltage reading of #j4age to #j4bj volt on a ,cadmium test1 and before a satisfactory starting-ability or breakdown test can be made4 ,a battery which has been abused by failing to add water to replace evaporation1 by allowing to remain in a partially or completely discharged condition for sometime1 or which has been allowed to become sulphated in any other way1 will generally require cycling before it will come-up to a serviceable condition4 ,the rates for a cycling discharge should be such that the battery will be discharged during the daytime1 the discharge being started in the morning1 and the battery being put back oil the charging line in the evening in order that it may be charging during the night4 ,the rate of discharge should be somewhat higher than the rate used when the plates are formed4 ,two or three amperes per positive plate in each cell will generally be satisfactory4 ,discharge ,apparatus ,a simple discharge rheostat is shown in ,fig4 #ahj4 ,the terminal on the end of the cable attached to the right hand terminal of the battery shown in the illustration is movable1 and it may be clamped at any point along the coils of wire so as to give various currents4 ,the wire should be greased lightly to prevent rusting4 ,fig4 #ahj ,simple high rate discharge rheostat ,another simple apparatus consists of a board on which are mounted six double contact automobile lamp sockets which are all connected in parallel4 ,a pair of leads having test clips attached is brought out from the sockets for fastening to the battery terminals4 ,lamps of various candlepower may be turned into the sockets to obtain different currents4 ,discharge tests are helpful in the case of a battery that has lost capacity4 ,the battery is first fully charged1 and is then discharged at the #e hour rate4 ,when the voltage of the battery has fallen to #a4g volts per cell 7measured while the battery is discharging7 a ,cadmium test is made to determine whether the positives or negatives are causing the lack of capacity4 ,for further descriptions of the ,cadmium ,test see ,page #agd4 ,in reviving sulphated batteries1 it is sometimes necessary to charge and discharge the battery several times to put the active material in a healthy condition4 ,discharge tests at a high rate are very valuable in diagnosing the condition of a battery4 ,a description of such tests will be found on ,page #bfg4 ,for making the heavy discharge tests a rheostat of the carbon plate type is suitable4 ,with such a rheostat currents from #be to more than #bjj may be drawn from a six volt battery1 and a smooth1 even variation of a current may be obtained from the minimum to the maximum values4 ,such a rheostat is on the market and may be purchased complete with ammeter and leads for attaching to the battery4 ,,packing ,,batteries ,,for ,,shipping ,batteries which are shipped without electrolyte need merely have plenty of excelsior placed around them in a strong crate for protection from mechanical injury4 ,batteries which are shipped filled with electrolyte must be protected from mechanical injury and must also be packed so that it is difficult to turn the crate upside down and thus allow the electrolyte to run out4 ,a very popular crate has been the so-called dog-house1 with a gable roof such as is actually used on dog-houses4 ,the idea of such a roof is that it is impossible to place the crate with the roof down1 since it will tip over if this is done4 ,however1 if these crates are placed side by side1 it is a very simple matter to put a second row of crates on top of them1 turning the second row up-side-down1 as shown in ,fig4 #aha1 and allowing the electrolyte to run out4 ,the men who load freight or express-cars have often shown great skill and cunning in packing dog-house crates in other ways so as to damage the batteries4 ,many have attained a high degree of perfection in breaking the crates4 ,fig4 #aha ,dog-house crates for shipping batteries ,some sort of a roof on a battery crate is required by law1 the idea being to make it difficult to turn the crate up-side-down4 ,perhaps the best crate would be one with a flat top marked ,this ,side ,up1 but such a crate would not comply with the law4 ,fig4 #ahb ,steps for construction of a crate for shipping battery ,a better form of crate than the dog-house and one which complies with the law1 is shown in ,fig4 #ahb4 ,the top of each end piece is cut at an angle1 the peak on one end being placed opposite the low point of the opposite end piece4 ,fig4 #ahb shows the steps in the construction of the crate4 #a4 ,the case should be built of strong lumber 7#aa_/b inch preferably71 and of ample size to allow packing with excelsior top1 bottom1 sides and ends to a thickness of two or three inches4 ,nail strongly4 #b4 ,when the case is complete 7except cover7 place a thick1 even layer of excelsior 7or packing straw7 in the bottom and set in 99he battery right side up4 ,lay paper 7preferably paraffined7 over top of battery to keep it clean1 then pack tightly with excelsior sides and ends4 #c4 ,now lay sufficient packing material on top of the battery so that cover will compress it tightly1 stuffing it under cover boards as they are put on4 ,the extended boards at bottom1 and the gable roof are provided to prevent the battery from being tipped over2 extensions of sides for carrying4 ,box should be plainly labeled3 ,,handle ,,with ,,care4 ,,damages ,,claimed ,,if ,,tipped ,,on ,,side4 ,in addition to the address of destination1 as given in shipping instructions be sure to mark with name of shipper for identification upon arrival4 ,when shipping by freight1 the proper freight classification in the ,united ,states is ,electric ,storage ,batteries1 ,assembled4 ,when shipping by express in the ,united ,states1 ,acid caution labels must be attached to each package4 ,,storing ,,separators ,separators which have been given the chemical treatment necessary to remove the substances which would cause trouble in the battery1 and to make the wood porous1 must be kept wet and never be allowed to become dry4 ,a lead lined box1 or large earthenware jars may be used as containers4 ,put the separators in the container and then pour in enough very weak electrolyte to cover the separators4 ,this electrolyte may be made of ,i part of #a4bbj electrolyte to #aj parts of distilled water1 by volume4 ,be very careful to have the container absolutely clean and to use chemically pure acid and distilled water in making the weak electrolyte4 ,remember that impurities which are picked up by the separators will go into the battery in which the separators are placed4 ,therefore1 keep the separator tank in a clean place and keep a cover on it4 ,have your hands clean when you take separators out of the tank to place in a battery1 and do not put the separators on a dirty bench before inserting them between plates4 ,the best thing to do is to hold the separators in one hand and insert them with the other1 and not lay them on any bench at all4 ,,reinsulation ,separators are the weakest part of a battery and wear out while the other parts of a battery are still in good condition4 ,good plates are often ruined by weakened separators causing short-circuits4 ,many batteries which have to be junked after being in service about a year would have given considerable service if they had been reinsulated4 ,generally the separators of one cell wear out before those of the other cells4 ,do not1 however1 reinsulate that cell alone4 ,the separators in the other cells are as old as those which have worn out1 and are very near the breaking down point4 ,if you reinsulate only one cell1 the owner will naturally assume that the other cells are in good condition4 ,what happens8 ,a month or so later one of the other cells goes dead4 ,this does not have a very soothing effect on the owner1 who will begin to lose confidence in you and begin to look around for another service station4 ,if you explain frankly that it is useless to reinsulate only one cell of a battery and that the other cells will break down in a short time1 the customer will want you to reinsulate all the cells4 ,a somewhat higher bill for reinsulating all the cells at once will be more agreeable than having the cells break down one at a time within a month or two4 ,in the case of the customers who come in regularly for testing and filling service1 you will be able to tell when the separators are wearing out4 ,when you find that a battery which has been in service about a year begins to run down frequently1 and successive tests made in connection with testing and filling service show that the generator is not able to keep the battery charged1 advise the owner to have the battery reinsulated4 ,do not wait for the battery to have a dead cell4 ,sell the owner on the idea that reinsulation will prevent the possibility of his battery breaking down when he may be out on a tour1 and when it may be necessary to have his car towed in to a service station4 ,if you allow the battery to remain on the car when it begins to lose its charge1 the owner will not1 of course1 suspect that anything is wrong1 and if his battery one day breaks down suddenly1 lie will very likely lose confidence both in you and the battery1 since he has been bringing in his car regularly in order to have his battery kept in good shape4 ,the sudden failure of his battery will1 therefore1 make him believe that you do not know your business1 or that the battery is a poor one4 ,new separators will give every battery which is a year old a new lease on life4 ,if you explain to a customer that he will get a much longer period of service from his battery if he has it reinsulated when the battery is a year old1 you should have no trouble in getting the job1 and the subsequent performance of the battery will show that you knew what you were talking about4 ,,safety ,,first ,,for ,,the ,,battery ,,repairman #a4 ,do not work on an empty stomach-you can then absorb lead easily4 #b4 ,keep your fingers out of your mouth when at work4 #c4 ,keep your finger nails short and clean4 #d4 ,do not chew tobacco while at work4 ,in handling tobacco1 the lead oxides are carried to your mouth4 ,chewing tobacco does not prevent you from swallowing lead4 #e4 ,when you leave the shop at night1 and before eating1 wash your face1 hands1 and arms with soap1 and clean your nose1 mouth1 and finger nails4 #f4 ,do not eat in the repair shop4 #g4 ,drink plenty of good milk4 ,it prevents lead poisoning4 #h4 ,use ,epsom ,salts when constipated4 ,this is very important4 #i4 ,bathe frequently to prevent lead poisoning4 #aj4 ,leave your working clothes in the shop4 #aa4 ,it is better not to wear a beard or mustache4 ,keep your hair covered with a cap4 #ab4 ,before sweeping the shop dampen the floor to keep down the dust4 #ac4 ,do not drink beer or whisky1 or any other alcoholic liquors4 ,these weaken your system and make you more susceptible to lead poisoning4 #ad4 ,in handling lead1 wear gloves as much as possible1 and wash and dry the gloves every day that you wear them4 #ae4 ,wear goggles to keep lead and acid out of your eyes4 #af4 ,when melting lead in a hydrogen flame1 as in burning on the top connectors1 the fumes given off may be blown away by a stream of air4 ,the air supply to the flame may be tapped for this purpose4 #ag4 ,the symptoms of lead poisoning are3 gums darken or become blue1 indigestion1 colic1 constipation1 loss of appetite1 muscular pain4 ,in the later stages there is muscular weakness and paralysis4 ,the hands become limp and useless4 #ah4 ,wear rubber shoes or boots4 ,leather shoes should be painted with a hot mixture of equal parts of paraffine and beeswax4 #ai4 ,wear woolen clothes if possible4 ,cotton clothing should be dipped in a strong solution of baking soda and dried4 ,wear a flannel apron covered with sacking4 #bj4 ,keep a bottle of strong ammonia handy4 ,if you should spill acid on your clothes1 apply some of the ammonia immediately to neutralize the acid1 which will otherwise burn a hole in your clothes4 #ba4 ,keep a stone1 earthenware1 or porcelain jar filled with a solution of washing soda or baking soda 7bicarbonate of soda74 ,rinse your hands in this solution occasionally to prevent the acid from irritating them4 #bb4 ,if you should splash acid in your eye1 wash it out immediately with warm water1 and drop olive oil on the eye4 ,if you have no olive oil at hand1 do not wait to get some1 but use any1 lubricating oil1 or vaseline4 ,,testing ,,the ,,electrical ,,system ,out of sight1 out of mind1 is a familiar saying4 ,but when does it hold true8 ,what about the battery repairman8 ,are the batteries he repairs out of sight1 out of mind8 ,does his responsibility end when he has installed a battery on a car8 ,suppose he put a battery in first class shape1 installs it on a car1 and1 after a week or two the battery comes back1 absolutely dead8 ,is the battery at fault1 or is the repairman to blame for neglecting to make sure that the battery would be given a reasonably good chance to give good service and receive fair treatment from the other part of the electrical system8 ,the actual work on the battery is finished when the battery cables are fastened to the battery terminals4 ,but real battery ,,service does not end there4 ,the battery is the most important part of the electrical system of a car1 but it is only one part1 and a good battery cannot be expected to give satisfactory service when it is connected to the other parts of the electrical system without making sure that these parts are working properly1 any more than a man wearing new1 shoes can step into a mud puddle and not have his shoes covered with dirt4 ,the battery functions by means of the current which flows through it by way of the cables which are connected to its terminals4 ,a battery is human in many respects4 ,it must have both food and exercise and there must be a proper balance between the food and the exercise4 ,too much food for the amount of exercise1 or too much exercise for the amount of food consumed will both lead to a lowering of efficiency1 and disease frequently results4 ,a battery exercises when it turns over the starting motor1 furnishes energy to the lamps1 or operates the a ignition system4 ,it receives food when it is charged4 ,proper attention to the electrical system will result in a correct balance between food and exercise1 or in other words1 charge and discharge4 ,the electrical equipment of a car consists of five principal parts3 #a4 ,the ,battery4 #b4 ,the ,ignition ,system4 #c4 ,the ,starting ,motor4 #d4 ,the ,generator4 #e4 ,the ,lighting ,system4 ,the normal course of operation of this system is as follows3 ,starting4 ,the ignition switch is closed1 and connects the ignition system to the battery4 ,the starting switch is then closed1 connecting the starting motor to the battery4 ,the battery sends a heavy current through the starting motor1 causing the motor to turn over1 or crank the engine4 ,the motion of the engine pistons draws a mixture of air and gasoline vapor into the cylinders4 ,at the proper instant sparks are made to jump between the points of the spark plugs1 igniting the air and gasoline vapor mixture1 forming a large amount of gas4 ,this gas expands1 and in doing so puts the engine into motion4 ,the engine begins to run under its own power and the starting switch is opened1 since the starting motor has performed the work required of it1 and has nothing further to do as long as the engine runs4 ,the engine now operates the generator4 ,the generator begins to build up a voltage as the engine speed increases4 ,when the voltage of the generator has risen to about #g-g4e1 the generator is automatically connected to the battery by the cutout 7also known as reverse-current relay1 cut-out relay1 or relay74 ,the voltage of the generator being higher than that of the battery1 the generator sends a current through the battery1 which charges the battery4 ,as long ,as the engine continues to run above the speed at which the generator develops a voltage higher than that of the battery1 a charging current will normally flow through the battery4 ,when the ignition switch is opened the engine can no longer develop any power and consequently stops running4 ,when the decreasing engine speed causes the generator speed to drop to a point at which the generator voltage is less than that of battery1 the battery sends a reverse1 or discharge current through the cutout and generator1 thereby causing the cutout to open and disconnect the generator from the battery4 ,lights4 ,when the engine is not running1 the battery furnishes current to the lights4 ,this is a discharge current4 ,when the engine runs at a speed which is greater than that at which the the cutout closes1 the generator furnishes current for the lights1 and also for the ignition system1 in addition to sending a charging current through the battery4 ,from the foregoing description1 we see that the battery is at rest1 is discharging1 or charging under the following conditions3 ,engine ,not ,running1 ,lamps ,off1 ,ignition ,off4 ,under these conditions all switches are open1 and hence no current should be passing through the battery4 ,if a current is found to be passing through the battery under these conditions1 it is a discharge current which is not doing any work and is caused by a defective cutout1 defective switches1 or grounds and short-circuits in the wires1 cables1 or apparatus connected to the battery4 ,starting the ,engine4 ,a heavy discharge current is drawn from the battery4 ,this current should not flow more than #aj seconds4 ,if the starting motor does not crank the engine or cranks it too slowly1 the motor or the cables and switch connecting the motor to the battery are defective1 assuming that the battery is large enough and is in a good condition4 ,if the starting motor cranks the engine1 but the engine does not begin to run under its own power within ten seconds1 the starting system is not at fault1 and the starting switch should be opened4 ,engine ,not ,running1 ,all ,lamps ,on4 ,a discharge current flows from the battery which is equal to the sum of the currents drawn by lamps when connected to the battery separately4 ,if the current is greater than this sum1 trouble is present4 ,engine ,running1 ,lamps ,off4 ,the generator sends a charging current into the battery and also supplies current to the ignition system 7except when a magneto is used74 ,if the generator does not send a charging current through the battery there is trouble in the generator1 or in the parts connecting the generator to the battery 7assuming the battery to be in a good condition74 ,if the generator sends a current through the battery1 it may be of the correct value1 it may be insufficient1 or it may be excessive4 ,a normal current is one which keeps the battery fully charged1 but does not overheat it or cause excessive gassing4 ,an insufficient current is one which fails to keep the battery charged4 ,an excessive charging current is one which keeps the battery charged1 but which at the same time overheats the battery and causes excessive gassing4 ,the excessive current may also overheat the generator1 while a normal or insufficient charging current will not injure the generator4 ,it is possible1 but not probable1 that the generator may be sending current through the battery in the wrong direction1 so as to discharge it instead of charging it4 ,this will happen if a very badly discharged battery is installed with the connections reversed4 ,if a fully or even partly charged battery is installed with its connections reversed1 the battery will generally reverse the polarity of the generator automatically1 and the battery will be charged in the proper direction1 although the current flow in the charging circuit is actually reversed4 ,engine ,running1 ,lamps ,on4 ,under these conditions1 the generator should supply the current for the lights1 and still send a charging current of #c to #e amperes through the battery4 ,this means that the current drawn from the battery when the engine is not running and the lights are all turned on should be at least several amperes less than the charging current which the generator sends into the battery when the engine is running and the lamps are turned off4 ,tests to ,be ,made by the ,repairman ,the battery repairman can1 and always should1 make a few simple tests which will tell him whether the various conditions of operation are normal4 ,this should be done as follows3 #a4 ,install the battery carefully 7see page #bcf71 and connect the negative battery cable to the negative battery terminal4 ,now tap the positive battery cable on the positive battery terminal4 ,if a snappy spark is obtained when this is done1 some of the switches are open or are defective1 the cutout is stuck in the closed position1 or there are grounds or short-circuits in the parts which are permanently connected to the battery4 ,even though no spark is obtained when you tap the positive battery cable on the positive battery terminal1 there may be some trouble which draws enough current from the battery to cause it to run down in a short time4 ,to detect such trouble1 connect a voltmeter 7which has sufficient range to indicate the battery voltage7 between the positive battery cable and the positive battery terminal4 7,cable is disconnected from the terminal47 ,if the voltmeter now gives a reading equal to the voltage of the battery1 there is some condition causing a current leakage from the battery1 such as a cutout stuck in the closed position1 defective switches which do not break the circuits when in the open position1 or grounds or short-circuits in the cables and wires connected to the battery4 ,if the voltmeter pointer does not move from the #j line on the scale1 complete the battery connections by fastening the positive battery cable to the positive battery terminal1 and make the test described in ,section #b4 ,if the voltmeter pointer moves from the #j line1 and gives a reading equal to the battery voltage1 connect the voltmeter permanently between the positive battery cable and the positive battery terminal and make a general inspection of the wiring1 looking for cut or torn insulation which allows a wire or cable to come in contact with the frame of the car1 or with some other wire or cable1 thereby causing a ground or short-circuit4 ,old1 oil-soaked insulation on wires and cables will often cause such trouble4 ,if a general inspection does not reveal the cause of the current leakage1 proceed as follows3 ,closed ,cutout1 or ,defective ,cutout ,windings4 7a7 ,if the cutout is mounted outside the generator1 remove the cover from it and see if the points are stuck together4 ,if they are1 separate them and see if the voltmeter pointer returns to the #j line4 ,if it does1 you have found the trouble4 ,the points should be made smooth with #jj sandpaper4 ,see that the moving arm of the cutout moves freely and that the spring which tends to hold the arm in the open position is not weak or broken4 ,if the voltmeter pointer does not return to the #j line when the cutout points are separated1 or if the points were not found to be stuck together1 disconnect from the cutout the wire which goes to the ammeter or battery4 ,if this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the #j line1 the cutout is defective and a new one should be installed1 unless the trouble can be found by inspection and repaired4 ,if the voltmeter pointer does not return to the #j line when the battery or ammeter wire is disconnected from the cutout1 see paragraph 7d74 7b7 ,if the cutout is mounted inside the generator1 disconnect from the generator the wire which goes to the ammeter or indicator4 ,if this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the #j line1 the cutout points are stuck together or the cutout is defective1 and the generator should be taken apart for inspection4 ,if this does not cause the voltmeter pointer to return to the #j line1 replace the wire and see paragraph 7d74 7c7 ,if no cutout is used and connections between the generator 7or motor-generator7 and the battery are made by closing the ignition or starting switch1 such as is the case on ,delco and ,dyneto motor-generators1 and some ,delco generators1 disconnect from the generator or motorgenerator the wire that goes to the ammeter or indicator4 ,if this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the #j line1 the switch which connects the generator or motor-generator to the ammeter or indicator is defective4 ,if the voltmeter pointer does not return to the #j line1 replace the wire and consult paragraph 7d74 7d7 ,defective ,starting ,switch4 ,disconnect from the starting switch the cable that goes to the battery4 ,if one or more smaller wires are connected to the same terminal as the heavy cable1 disconnect them also and hold their bare ends on the bare end of the heavy cable4 ,if this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the #j line1 the starting switch is defective4 ,if the voltmeter pointer does not return to the #j line1 replace the cable and wires on the starting switch terminal and proceed as follows3 ,defective ,switches4 ,see that the ignition and lighting switches are in their ,,off positions4 ,if they are not1 open them and see if the voltmeter pointer returns to the #j line4 ,if it does1 you have found the trouble4 ,if it does not1 disconnect from the switch 7or switches1 if there are separate lighting and ignition switches71 the feed wire which supplies current to the switch from the battery4 ,if this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the #j line1 the switches are defective4 ,if the pointer does not return to the #j line1 replace the wires on the switch and consult the next paragraph4 ,if there are other switches which control a spot light1 or special circuits1 such as tonneau lamps1 or accessories1 such as gasoline vaporizers1 electric primers1 etc41 make the same tests on these switches4 ,if no trouble has been found1 see paragraph 7e74 7e7 ,grounds or ,short-,circuits in ,wiring4 ,disconnect from each terminal point in the wiring system the wires which are connected together at that point4 ,also remove fuses from the fuse blocks4 ,if the voltmeter pointer returns to the #j line when a certain wire or fuse is removed1 there is a ground or short-circuit in the wire or in the circuit to which the fuse is connected4 7f7 ,turn on the ,lights4 ,remove the voltmeter and complete the battery connection4 ,note how much current is indicated on the ammeter mounted on the instrument panel of the car as the different lamps are turned on4 ,in each case the ammeter should indicate discharge4 ,should the ammeter indicate charge the battery connections have been reversed1 or the ammeter connections are reversed4 ,the driver will tell you whether the ammeter has been reading charge or discharge when the lamps were turned on4 ,this is a good way to check your battery connections4 ,if the car has no ammeter1 or has an indicator which is marked ,,on or ,,off1 or ,charge or ,discharge1 an ammeter may be connected in series with the battery by disconnecting the cable from the positive battery terminal and connecting the ammeter to the cable and to the terminal1 and the readings obtained from this meter4 ,the amperes indicated on the ammeter should be the greatest when the main headlamps are burning bright4 ,by comparing the readings obtained when the different lighting combinations are turned on1 it is sometimes possible to detect trouble in some of the lighting lines4 #c4 ,start the ,engine4 ,before you do this1 be sure that the cables are connected directly to the battery terminals1 and that no ammeter or voltmeter is connected in series with the battery1 as the heavy current drawn by the starting motor would ruin the instruments very quickly4 ,an ammeter may be left connected in series with the battery1 providing that a switch is used to short-circuit the meter while starting the engine4 ,a meter having a #ejj ampere scale may be left connected in series with the battery while the engine is being started1 but for the tests which are to be made a #be ampere scale should be used4 ,the engine should start within ten seconds after the starting switch is closed4 ,if more time than this is required1 carburetor adjustments1 position of the choke lever1 etc41 should be looked after4 ,continued cranking of the engine will run the battery down very quickly1 and the chances are that the car will not be run long enough to allow the generator to recharge the battery4 ,make whatever adjustments are necessary to reduce the cranking time to ten seconds1 or advise the owner to have them made1 warning him that otherwise you will not be responsible if the battery runs down very quickly4 #d4 ,when the engine has started1 set the throttle lever so that the engine runs ,as slowly as possible4 ,the ammeter 7either that on the instrument panel1 or a special test ammeter connected in series with the battery7 will indicate several amperes discharge1 this being the current taken by the ignition system4 ,now speed up the engine gradually4 ,at an engine speed corresponding to a car speed of #g to #aj miles per hour in high 7if there is any difficulty in estimating this speed1 drive the car around the block while making this and the following tests7 the ammeter pointer should move back to1 or slightly past1 the #j line1 showing that the cutout has closed4 ,if the ammeter needle jumps back and forth and the cutout opens and closes rapidly1 the polarity of the battery and that of the generator are not the same4 ,this condition may be remedied by holding the cutout points closed for several seconds1 or by short-circuiting the ,battery terminal on the cutout with the ,generator terminal on the cutout4 ,after a slight movement of the ammeter pointer indicates that the cutout has closed1 speed up the engine gradually4 ,when the engine speed corresponds to a car speed of #ah-be miles per hour in high1 the current indicated on the ammeter should reach its maximum value and the pointer should then stop moving1 or should begin to drop back toward the #j line as the speed is increased4 ,for average driving conditions1 the maximum charging current should not exceed #ab to #ad amperes for a #f volt1 #aa to #ac plate battery1 and #f to #g amperes for a #ab volt battery4 7,these currents should be obtained if constant-current generators1 such as the third brush1 reversed-series1 or vibrating current regulators are used4 ,the third brush type of generator is used on more than #ii per cent of the modern cars4 ,some cars use a constant-voltage regulated generator1 such as the ,bijur generator1 having a voltage regulator carried in a box mounted on the generator4 ,on all cars using a constant-voltage generator1 the charging rate when the battery is fully charged should not exceed five amperes for a six volt generator74 ,if the generator has a thermostat1 such as is used on the ,remy generators1 the charging rate will be as high as #bj amperes until the generator warms up1 and then the charging rate will drop to #aj-ab amperes1 due to the opening of the thermostat points1 which inserts a resistance coil in series with the shunt field4 ,if the charging current reaches its maximum value at #ah-be miles per hour1 and shows no increase at higher speeds1 decrease the engine speed4 ,when the engine is running at a speed corresponding to a car speed of about #g miles per hour1 or less1 the cutout should open1 indicated by the ammeter indicating several amperes discharge1 in addition to the ignition current1 for an instant1 and then dropping back to the amount taken by the ignition system4 ,now turn on the headlights 7and whatever lamps are turned on at the same time7 and speed the engine up again4 ,the ammeter should indicate some charging current at engine speeds corresponding to the usual speed at which the car is driven4 ,if it does not1 the charging current should be increased or smaller lamps must be installed4 ,troubles ,the operation of the electrical system when the engine is running may not be as described in the foregoing paragraphs4 ,troubles may be found as follows3 #a4 ,cutout does not close until engine reaches a speed in excess of #aj miles per hour4 ,this trouble may be due to the cutout or to the generator4 ,if the ammeter shows a charging current of three amperes or more as soon as it closes1 the cutout is at fault4 ,the thing to do in such a case is to adjust the cutout4 ,first see that the movable armature of the cutout moves freely and does not bind at the pivot4 ,if no trouble is found here1 the thing to do is to decrease the air gap which exists between the stationary and movable cutout points when the cutout is open41 or to decrease the tension of the spring which tends to keep the points open4 ,on most cutouts there is a stop which the cutout armature strikes when the cutout opens4 ,by bending this stop the air-gap between the points may be decreased4 ,this is the adjustment which should be made to have the cutout close earlier1 rather than to decrease the spring tension4 ,some cutouts have a spiral spring attached to the cutout armature4 ,others have a flat spring4 ,on still others1 the spring forms the connection between the armature and the cutout frame4 ,in the first two types1 the spring tension may be decreased1 but wherever possible the air-gap adjustment should be made as described4 ,if the cutout closes late1 and only about an ampere of charging current is indicated on the ammeter1 and the cutout points are fairly clean and smooth1 the trouble is generally in the generator4 ,the generator troubles which are most likely to exist are3 a4 ,dirty commutator4 b4 ,dirty brush contact surface4 c4 ,loose brushes4 d4 ,brushes bearing on wrong point of commutator 7to set brushes properly1 remove all outside connections from generator1 open the shunt field circuit1 and apply a battery across the main brushes4 ,shift the brushes until the armature does not tend to rotate in either direction4 ,this is1 of course1 a test which must be made with the generator on the test bench74 e4 ,loose connections in the shunt field circuit4 ,the foregoing conditions are the ones which will generally be found4 ,more serious troubles will generally prevent the generator from building up at all4 #b4 ,cutout does hot open when engine stops4 ,this condition is shown by a discharge current of about #e amperes when the engine has stopped4 7,in ,delco systems which have no cutout1 an even greater discharge will be noted as long as the ignition switch remains closed47 ,this trouble is generally due to cutout points stuck together1 a broken cutout spring1 or a bent or binding cutout armature4 #c4 ,cutout does not open until ammeter indicates a discharge of three or more amperes 7in addition to the ignition discharge74 ,this may be remedied by increasing the spring tension of the cutout1 or removing any trouble which causes the cutout armature to bind4 ,on many cutouts the armature does not actually touch the core of the cutout winding when the points are closed1 there being a small piece of copper or other non-magnetic metal on the armature which touches the end of the cutout and maintains a small air gap between the core and armature1 even when the points are closed4 ,the opening action of the cutout may be changed by filing this piece of non-magnetic material so as to decrease the air gap1 or pinching it with heavy pliers so as to make it stand farther out from the cutout armature and thus increase the air gap between the armature and core when the points are closed4 ,decreasing this air gap will cause the cutout to open late1 and increasing it will cause the cutout to open early4 #d4 ,cutout will not close at any engine speed4 ,if cutout does not close the first time the engine speed is increased1 stop the engine4 ,this condition may be due to a defective cutout1 an open-circuit in the charging line1 a ground or short-circuit between the cutout and the generator1 or a defective generator4 ,to determine whether the cutout is defective1 remove the wires from it and hold together the ends of the wires coming from the generator1 and the one going to the ammeter4 ,start the engine4 ,if no other trouble exists1 the ammeter will indicate a charging current at speeds above #h-aj miles per hour4 ,if no current is obtained1 stop the engine4 ,if the cutout trouble consisted of an open circuit in one of its windings1 or in the points not closing1 due to dirt or a binding armature1 or if there is an open-circuit in the charging line1 the generator will1 of course1 have been running on open-circuit4 ,this will cause the fuse in the shunt field circuit to blow if there is such a fuse1 and if there is no such fuse1 the shunt field coils may be burned open1 or the insulation on the field coil wires may have become overheated to a point at which it burns and carbonizes1 and causes a short-circuit between wires4 ,such troubles will1 of course1 prevent a generator from building up when the cutout wires are disconnected and their ends held together4 ,if there is a ground in the cutout1 or between the cutout and the generator1 the generator will very likely be unable to generate 7if a one-wire system is used on the car74 ,if there is some defect in the generator-such as dirty commutator1 high mica1 brushes not touching1 commutator dirty1 or loose brushes1 brushes too far from neutral1 grounded brushes1 brushes not well ground in1 wrong type of brushes1 grounded commutator or armature windings1 short-circuited commutator or armature windings1 open-circuited armature windings1 grounded field windings1 short-circuited field windings1 open-circuit or poor connections in field circuit1 one or more field coil connections reversed1 wrong type of armature or field coils used in repairing generator1 generator drive mechanism broken-then the generator will not build up4 ,if no charging current is1 therefore1 obtained when the generator and ammeter wires are disconnected from the cutout and their ends held together1 there may be a ground or short-circuit in the cutout windings or in the circuit between the generator and the cutout1 or the generator may be defective1 due to having been operated on open-circuit1 or due to troubles as described in the foregoing paragraph4 ,the presence of a ground or short in the circuit between the generator and cutout or in the cutout may be determined by disconnected the wire from the generator1 disconnecting the battery 7or ammeter7 wire from the cutout1 and running a separate extra wire from the generator to the wire removed from the cutout4 ,then start the engine again4 ,if a charging current is obtained1 there is a ground or short either in the cutout or in the circuit between the cutout and the generator4 7,it is also possible that the failure of the generator to build up was due to poor brush contact in the generator4 ,the use of the extra wire connected the generator directly to the battery1 thus magnetizing the generator fields and causing generator to build up4 ,if poor brush contact prevented the generator from building up1 closing the cutout by hand will often cause the generator to start charging4 ,if you can therefore cause the generator to build up by holding the cutout points closed by hand1 or by shorting across from the generator terminal to the battery terminal of the cutout1 it is probable that the generator brushes are not making good contact74 ,the cutout may be tested by stopping the engine1 replacing the battery 7or ammeter7 wire on the cutout1 and holding the end of the extra wire on the generator terminal of the cutout4 ,if a charging current is then obtained1 the cutout is #j4 ,k4 and the trouble is between the cutout and the generator4 #e4 ,an excessive current is obtained4 ,if a third brush generator is used1 look for loose or dirty connections in the charging line1 dirty cutout points1 dirty commutator1 dirty brushes 7especially the brush1 or brushes1 which is ,dot connected to one end of the field winding71 brushes loose1 brushes not well ground in1 and any other conditions which will cause a high resistance in the charging line4 ,it is characteristic of third brush generators that their current output increases if there is an increase in resistance in the charging circuit4 ,if no troubles such as those enumerated above are found1 the third brush may need adjusting4 ,generators using vibrating current or voltage regulators will give an excessive output if the points need adjusting or if the regulating resistance is short-circuited4 ,generators using reversed series regulation will give an excessive output if there is a short-circuit in the series field coils4 #f4 ,low charging current is obtained4 ,this may be due to adjustment of the regulating device1 to high resistance in the shunt field circuit in case of a third brush generator4 ,in case of generators using other kinds of regulation1 loose connections1 dirty commutator and brushes1 etc41 will cause low charging current4 #g4 ,generator charges up to a certain speed and then stops charging4 ,the trouble is caused by some condition which causes the brushes to break contact with the commutator1 especially in the case of a third brush4 ,high mica1 loose brush spring1 or a commutator which has been turned down off-center may cause the trouble4 ,this trouble most frequently occurs on cars using third brush motor-generators having a #c to #a or more speed ratio between them and the engine4 ,these motor-generators operate at such high speeds that high mica and a commutator which is even slightly off center have a much greater effect than the same conditions would cause in separate generators which operate at much lower speeds4 ,the remedy for this trouble is to keep the mica under-cut1 and to be very careful to center the armature in the lathe when taking a cut from the armature4 ,in turning down the commutators of high speed motor-generators1 special fittings should be made by means of which the armature may be mounted in its own ball-bearings while the commutator is turned down4 ,,adjusting ,,generator ,,outputs ,the repairman should be very slow in adjusting generator outputs4 ,most cases of insufficient or excessive charging current are due to the troubles enumerated in the foregoing paragraphs1 and not due to incorrect adjustment of the regulating device4 ,before changing the adjustment of any generator1 therefore1 be sure that everything is in good condition4 ,the third brush generator1 for instance1 will have an excessive output if the brushes are dirty1 loose1 or not well seated on the commutator4 ,the use of a third brush which is too wide1 for instance1 will change the output considerably4 ,a high resistance third brush will decrease the output1 while a low resistance brush will increase the output4 ,on the other hand1 an increase in the resistance of the charging circuit will cause an increase in the output of a third brush generator1 which is just the opposite to what is ordinarily expected4 ,such an increase in resistance may be due to loose or dirty connections1 dirty cutout contact points1 corroded battery terminals and so on4 ,remember also that the third brush generator sends a higher current into a fully charged battery than it sends into a discharged battery4 ,it is1 therefore1 essential that a fully charged battery be on the car when the output of a third brush generator is adjusted4 ,there are two things which determine whether any change should be made in the charging rate on the car1 viz3 ,driving1 ,conditions and the ,season of the ,year4 ,driving ,conditions4 ,a car which makes short runs1 with numerous stops1 requires that the starting motor be used frequently4 ,this tends to run the battery down very quickly4 ,moreover1 such a car usually does not have its engine running long enough to give the generator an opportunity to keep the battery charged1 and to accomplish this1 the charging rate should be increased4 ,a car which is used mostly at night may need a higher charging rate1 especially if short runs are made1 and if the car stands at the curb with its lights burning4 ,long night runs will generally call for only a normal charging rate1 since the long charging periods are offset by the continuous use of the lamps4 ,a car used on long daylight runs should generally have the charging rate reduced1 because the battery is charged throughout such runs with no discharge into lamps or starting of motor to offset the continued charge4 ,if the lamps are kept lighted during such runs1 the normal charge rate will be satisfactory1 because the lamp current will automatically reduce the current sent into the battery4 ,in the winter time1 engines must be cranked for a longer time before they will start1 the battery is less efficient than in warm weather1 and lights are burning for a greater length of time than in summer4 ,such conditions require an increase in the charging rate1 especially if the car is used on short runs4 ,oil long runs in the winter time1 the normal charging rate will generally be satisfactory because the long charging period will offset the longer cranking period4 ,in the summer time1 engines start more easily than in winter1 and hence require less cranking4 ,the lamps are used for only short periods and the battery is more efficient than in winter4 ,a lower charging rate will1 therefore1 keep the battery charged4 ,long tours in the summer time are especially likely to result in overcharged1 overheated batteries1 and a reduced charging rate is called for4 ,how and ,when to ,adjust ,charging ,rates ,a correct charging rate is one which keeps a battery fully charged1 but does not overcharge it1 and which does not cause either the generator or the battery to become overheated4 ,the only way to determine whether a certain charging rate is correct on any particular car is to make an arrangement with the car owner to bring in his car every two weeks4 ,on such occasions hydrometer readings should be taken and water added1 if necessary1 to bring the surface of the electrolyte up to the proper level4 ,the hydrometer readings will show whether the generator is keeping the battery charged1 and if a change in the charging rate is necessary1 the necessary adjustments may be made4 ,if a customer does not bring in his car every two weeks1 call him up on the phone or write to him4 ,the interest which you show in his battery by doing this will generally result in the customer giving you all his repair business1 and he will also tell his acquaintances about your good service4 ,this will give you considerable word of mouth advertising1 which is by far the best form of advertising and which cannot be bought4 ,it must be earned by good battery service4 ,adjusting a third brush generator4 ,the best rule to remember for changing the output of a third brush machine is that to increase the output1 move the third brush in the direction in which the commutator rotates1 and to decrease the output1 move the third brush in the opposite direction4 ,move the third brush only #a_/af inch and then sandpaper the brush seat with #jj sandpaper4 ,allow the generator to run for about twenty minutes to run-in the brush4 ,then vary the speed to see what the maximum charging rate is4 ,if the change in the charging rate is not sufficient1 move the third brush another #a_/af inch and proceed as before until the desired charging rate is obtained4 ,adjusting ,vibrating ,regulators4 ,the output of generators which use a vibrating regulator is adjusted by changing the tension of the spring fastened to the regulator arm4 ,in many cases this adjustment is made by means of a screw which is turned up or down to change the spring tension4 ,in other cases a hook or prong is bent to change the spring tension4 ,where a coil spring is used1 lengthening the spring will decrease the tension and lower the output1 while shortening the spring will increase the tension and raise the output4 ,vibrating regulators are of the constant current or the constant-voltage types4 ,the constant current regulator has a winding of heavy wire which carries the charging current4 ,when the charging current reaches the value for which the regulator is set1 the electromagnet formed by the coil and the core on which it is wound draws the regulator armature toward it and thereby separates the regulator points1 which are in series with the shunt field4 ,a resistance coil1 which is connected across the regulator points and which is short-circuited when the points are closed1 is put in series with the shunt field when the points separate4 ,this reduces the shunt field current1 causing a decrease in generator voltage and hence current output4 ,as the current decreases1 the pull of the electromagnet on the regulator armature weakens and the spring overcomes the pull of the electromagnet and closes the regulator points4 ,this short-circuits the resistance coil connected across the regulator points and allows the shunt field current to increase again1 thereby increasing the generator output4 ,this cycle is repeated at a high rate of speed1 causing the regulator points to vibrate rapidly4 ,the action of a vibrating constant-voltage regulator is exactly the same as that of the constant current regulator1 except that the coil is connected across the generator brushes4 ,the action of this coil therefore depends on the generator voltage1 the regulator points vibrating when the generator voltage rises to the value for which the regulator is set4 ,adjusting ,reverse-,series ,generators4 ,the regulation of the output of this type of generator is accomplished by means of a field winding which is in series with the armature1 and which therefore carries the charging current4 ,these series field coils are magnetically opposed to the shunt field coils1 and an increase in charging current results in a weakening of the field flux4 ,a balanced condition is reached at which no increase of flux takes place as the generator speed increases1 the tendency of the increased shunt field current to increase the total flux being counterbalanced by the weakening action of the flux produced by the series field current4 ,to increase the output of a reverse series generator1 it is necessary to weaken the opposing series field flux4 ,the only way of doing this is to short-circuit the series field coils1 or connect a resistance across them4 ,to decrease the output of a reverse series generator1 a resistance coil may be connected in series with the shunt field winding4 ,neither of these schemes is practicable1 and hence the reverse series generator may be considered as a non-adjustable machine4 ,under-charging may be prevented by using the starting motor and lights as little as possible1 or by giving the battery a bench charge occasionally4 ,over-charging may be prevented by burning the lights whenever the engine is running1 or leaving the lights turned on over night4 ,other forms of regulation have been used on the older cars1 but the majority of the cars now in use use one of the four forms of regulation described in the foregoing paragraphs4 ,if adjustments need to be made on some car having a system of-regulation with which the battery man is not familiar1 the work should be done in a service station doing generator work4 ,if generator outputs are changed because of some special operating condition1 such as summer tours1 the rate should be changed to normal as soon as the usual driving conditions are resumed4 ,,testing ,,and ,,filling ,,service ,every man expects to be paid for his work1 since his purpose in working is to get money4 ,yet there are numerous instances in every line of work requiring work to be done for which no money is received4 ,the term ,free ,service is familiar to every repairman1 and it has been the cause of considerable discussion and dispute1 since it is often very difficult to know where to draw the ,tine between ,free ,service and ,paid ,service4 ,the term ,free ,service might be abolished with benefit to all concerned4 ,in the battery business ,free ,inspection service is a familiar term4 ,it is intended to apply to the regular addition of distilled water by the repairman and to tests made at the time the water is added4 ,since the term ,inspection might be ,misinterpreted and taken to apply to the opening of batteries for examination1 the term ,testing and ,filling ,service should be used instead of ,free ,inspection ,service4 ,battery makers furnish cards for distribution to car owners4 ,these cards entitle the holder to bring in his battery every two weeks to have distilled water added if necessary1 and to have his battery tested without paying for it4 ,this service requires very little time1 and should be given cheerfully by every service man4 ,testing and ,filling ,service is an excellent means of becoming acquainted with car owners4 ,be as pleasant and courteous to the ,testing and ,filling customer as you are to the man who brings in a battery that needs repairs4 ,for this customer will certainly give you his repair business if you have been pleasant in giving the ,testing and ,filling ,service4 ,a thoroughly competent battery man should be put in charge of the ,testing and ,filling ,service1 since this man must meet the car owners1 upon whom the service station depends for its income4 ,customers are impressed1 not by an imposing array of repair shop equipment1 but by the manner of the men who meet them4 ,these men will increase the number of your customers1 or will drive trade to competitors1 depending on the impression they leave in the minds of the car owners4 ,every service station owner should persuade all the car owners in the vicinity of the station to come in regularly for the free testing and filling service1 and when they do come in they should be given cheerful1 courteous service4 ,each testing and filling customer is a prospective paying customer1 for it is entirely natural that a car owner will give his repair work to the battery man who has been taking care of the testing and filling work ,oil his battery4 ,when a new battery is needed1 the testing and filling customer will certainly buy it from the man who has been relieving him of the work of keeping his batteries in good shape4 ,car owners who depend on your competitor for their testing and filling service will not come to you when their battery needs repairing1 or when they need a new battery4 ,you may be convinced that you handle a better make of battery than your competitor does1 but your competitor's word will carry far more weight than yours with the man who has been coming to him for testing and filling4 ,good testing and filling service is1 therefore1 the best method of advertising and building up your business4 ,the cost of this service to you is more than offset by the paying business it certainly brings1 and by the saving in money spent for advertising4 ,remember that a boost by a satisfied customer is of considerably greater value to your business than newspaper advertising4 ,a careful record should be kept of every battery which is brought in regularly for testing and filling service4 ,if a test shows that one or more cells are low in gravity1 say about #a4bbj1 this fact should be recorded4 ,if the gravity is still low when the battery comes in again for test1 remove the battery and give it a bench charge4 ,the customer should1 of course1 pay for the bench charge and for the rental battery which is put on the car in the meantime4 ,battery manufacturers generally furnish cards to be used in connection with the testing and filling service1 such cards being issued to the customers4 ,a punch mark is made every time the battery is brought in1 ,if the owner neglects to come in1 this is indicated by the absence of a punch mark1 and puts the blame for any trouble caused by this neglect on the owner if any cell shows low gravity1 a notation of that fact may be made opposite the punch mark for the date on which the low gravity was observed4 ,if the low gravity is again found the next time the battery is brought in1 the battery should be removed and given a bench charge4 ,if the bench charge puts the battery in good shape1 and the subsequent gravity readings are high1 no trouble is present4 ,if1 however1 the low gravity readings begin to drop off again1 it is probable that new separators are required1 especially if the battery is about a year old4 ,the logical course of events in the testing and filling service is to keep the battery properly filled 7at no cost to the customer71 give the battery an occasional bench charge 7for which the customer pays71 reinsulate the battery when it is about a year old 7for which the customer pays71 and sell the customer a new battery when the old one is worn out4 ,if some trouble develops during the lifetime of the battery which is not due to lack of proper attention1 the customer should pay to have the repairs made4 ,from this the battery man will see how the ,testing and ,filling ,service pays4 ,the way to get business is to have people come to your shop4 ,become acquainted with them1 treat them right1 and you need not wonder where the money is to come from4 ,,service ,,records ,in order to run a repair shop in an orderly1 business-like manner1 it is necessary to have an efficient system of ,service ,records4 ,such a system will protect both the repairman and the customer1 and simplify the repairman's bookkeeping4 ,for a small service station a very simple system should be adopted4 ,as the business grows1 the service record system must necessarily become more complicated1 since each battery will pass through several persons' hands4 ,battery manufacturers generally furnish service record sheets and cards to their service stations1 and the repairman who has a contract with a manufacturer generally adopts them4 ,the manufacturers' service record systems are often somewhat complicated1 and require considerable bookkeeping4 ,for the smaller service station a single sheet or card is most suitable1 there being only one for each job1 and carbon sheets and copies being unnecessary4 ,such a service record has three essential parts3 7a7 ,the customer's claim check4 7b7 ,the battery tag4 7c7 ,the record card4 ,fig4 #ahc shows a service record card which is suitable for the average repair shop4 ,part ,no4 ,i is the customer's claim check1 ,part ,no4 #b the battery tag1 and part ,no4 #c the record card1 and is #e inches by #h inches in size4 ,the overall size of the entire card is #e inches by #ab inches4 ,parts ,i and #b are torn off along the perforated lines marked 7,a74 ,when a battery comes in the three parts are given the same number to identify them when they have been torn apart4 ,the number may be written in the ,no4 space shown on each part1 or the numbers may be stamped on the card4 ,the record should not be made out as soon as a customer comes in1 but after the battery has been examined and tested and the necessary work determined4 ,put the customer's name on parts #b and #c4 ,record the address1 telephone1 etc41 in the proper spaces on part #c4 ,having determined by test and inspection what is to be done1 fill out the ,,workcosts table on part #c1 putting a check mark in the first column to indicate the work to be done and the material needed4 ,figure up the cost while the customer waits1 if this is possible4 ,explain the costs to the customer1 and have him sign ,contract ,no4 #a4 ,if you do this there can never be any argument about the bill you hand the customer later ,if the customer cannot wait1 or if he is well known to you and you know lie will not question your bill1 have him sign ,contract ,no4 #b4 ,in either case1 the terms printed on the back of the card authorize the repairman to make whatever repairs he finds to be necessary1 and bind the customer to pay for them4 ,find out whether the customer will call1 whether you are to deliver the battery1 or whether you are to ship it1 and put a check mark in the proper space at the right of the ,,work-,,costs table4 ,mark the battery with the chalk whose color is indicated1 and you will know how to dispose of the battery when the repairs are completed4 ,fill out the claim check and give it to the customer1 tearing it off along the perforated lines4 ,fill out the battery tag1 indicating after ,instructions just what is to be done4 ,fig4 #ahc ,front ,back of the ,battery ,service ,card ,make a sketch of the top of the battery in the space provided1 dip the tag in the paraffine dip pot 7see page #ahb7 and tack the card on the battery4 ,file part #c in a standard #e by #h card index file4 ,to the right of the ,,work-,,costs table are spaces for entering the date on which the work is completed1 the date the customer is notified and the date the battery goes out4 ,these dates are useful in keeping a record of the job4 ,when the job is finished and the rental comes in1 enter the costs in the ,,costs table1 and note the date the bill was paid1 in the space marked ,,paid4 ,fig4 #ahd ,rental battery card to be tied on car of customer ,file all the #e by #h cards 7,part #c7 in alphabetical order in a dead ticket file1 in either alphabetical or numerical order4 ,with this file you can build up an excellent mailing list of your customers4 ,you can note how many new customers you are securing and how many customers are not coming back4 ,the latter information is very valuable1 as it enables you to find out what customers have quit1 and you can go after them to get their repair business again4 ,when a rental is put on a card1 the card shown in ,fig4 #ahd may be tied to the car where it is easily seen4 ,this will serve as a reminder to the customer and will help advertise your shop to those who ride in the car4 ,each rental battery should have a number painted on it in large white letters1 or should have attached to it at all times a lead tag on which is stamped a number to identify the battery4 ,to keep a record of the rental batteries1 a card or sheet similar to that shown in ,fig4 #ahe may be used4 ,each time the rental is put on a car1 a record is made of this fact on the card4 ,each rental battery has its own card1 and reference to this card will show at once where the battery is4 ,each card thus gives a record of the battery4 ,the number of the rental is also written on the ,stock ,card shown in ,fig4 #ahc1 but the purpose of putting the number on these cards is merely to make sure that the battery is returned when the customer's battery is replaced on the car and to be able to figure out the rental cost quickly and add it to the time and material costs in repairing the customer's battery4 ,the ,record ,card shown in ,fig4 #ahc does not help you locate any particular rental battery4 ,for instance1 suppose that rental battery ,no4 #hif is out and you wish to know who is using it4 ,you may1 of course1 look over the ,battery ,tags which are tied to the batteries which are being repaired in the shop1 or you may examine the file containing the record cards1 but this would take too much time4 ,but if you refer to the rental file you can determine immediately where rental battery ,no4 #hif is1 since the cards in this file should be arranged numerically4 ,the rack on which rental batteries are placed should have a tag bearing the same number as the rental battery tacked to the shelf below the place provided for the battery4 ,each rental battery should always be placed in the same place on the shelf4 ,you can then tell at a glance which batteries are out4 ,a good plan1 and one which will save space1 is to write the number of the rental battery on the customer's claim check1 and when repairs on his own battery are completed1 to set his battery in the place provided on the rental rack for the rental which he is using4 ,when he comes in for his battery1 you can tell at a glance whether his battery is ready by looking at the place where the rental he is using is normally placed on the rental rack4 ,if a battery is there you will know that it is his battery1 and that it is ready for him4 ,fig4 #ahe ,rental ,battery ,stock ,card ,you could1 of course1 look through the batteries on the ,ready ,rack1 but this would take more time1 since the numbers of the batteries on this rack will always be different1 and you would have to look through all the batteries on the ,ready ,rack before you would be able to tell whether any particular battery were ready4 ,by putting a customer's battery in place of the rental he is using1 you will have only one place to look at in order to know whether his battery is ready4 ,,chapter #ac4 ,,business ,,methods4 ----------------- ,success in this day and age cannot be attained without a well thought-out plan of action4 ,there is no business which does not demand some sort of system of management4 ,the smallest business must have it1 and will go to ruin without it4 ,hence every battery service station proprietor should see to it that his affairs are systematized -- arranged according to a carefully studied method4 ,most men look upon red-tape with contempt and in the sense of a mere monotonous and meaningless routine1 it merits all the contempt poured upon it4 ,hard1 fast and iron-clad rules1 which cease to be a means1 and become an end1 prove a hindrance rather than a help4 ,but an intelligent method1 which adapts itself to the needs of the business1 is one of the most powerful instruments of business4 ,the battery man who despises it will never do anything well4 ,it does not matter how clever he is1 how good a workman he is1 how complete his knowledge of batteries1 if he attempts to run his business without a plan1 he will eventually come to grief4 ,purchasing ,methods4 ,every battery service station proprietor is eager to build up his business1 and improve the character of his trade1 because this in turn means that he will be assured of larger sales to a good class of customers4 ,and it is at once evident that there are a number of requirements that affect this question of building up a business1 one of the first in importance being that of purchasing4 ,one of the first things with which the battery man is faced is the question of what1 where1 and in what quantities to purchase4 ,the philosophy of correct purchasing consists in getting the right materials1 in proper quantities1 at a low price1 and with as little cost for the doing of it as possible4 ,the purchasing problem should be a most interesting and important subject to the proprietor of every service station1 because the policy pursued with regard to purchasing will not only largely govern the economy of all his expenditures1 except rent and payroll1 but it will also control his selling policies4 ,goods are sold1 and services rendered only because some one wants to buy4 ,the customer's purchasing problems govern the proprietor's selling problems4 ,to sell properly1 it is necessary to meet the requirements of those who buy4 ,correct purchasing is not merely a matter of buying4 ,the buying itself has but little to do1 after all1 with the question of real economy in this part of the business4 ,the proprietor's purchasing policy should not cease when the purchase order is ,fig4 #ahf ,stock ,record made out1 but should continue after the goods have been delivered1 received and inspected4 ,he should see that they are properly stored1 that they are put to the use intended1 and that they are used efficiently4 ,this can be accomplished to good advantage by the use of the ,stock ,record illustrated in ,fig4 #ahf4 ,when goods are received1 each item should be entered on these ,stock ,record cards1 keeping in mind always that the requirements of a perpetual or going inventory of this kind are that a separate account be kept with each kind or class of stock1 and not alone with each class1 but with each grade of each class4 ,for example1 if a quantity of batteries were received1 it would not suffice to have one card only for the entire quantity1 unless they should happen to be all of the same type and make4 ,it should be understood that these cards are a record of all articles coming into stock1 and all articles going out of stock in the way of sales or otherwise1 with an individual card for each kind1 grade1 style or size of stock carried on hand4 ,from the purchase invoices covering stock received1 an entry is made in the column headed ,received1 to the proper account1 showing date1 order number1 quantity and price4 ,each sales tag is used to make the entries in the columns headed ,disbursed1 in which the date1 tag number1 quantity1 price1 and the balance quantity on hand are shown4 ,if this is done daily1 for all the sales tags of the particular day1 and the cards on which the disbursed entries were made are kept separate from the balance of the cards1 it is an easy matter to arrive at the cost of all sales for each day1 ,the advantage of having this daily information will be explained and illustrated in following paragraphs4 ,the ,use and ,abuse of ,credit4 ,the question of the proper use of credit is closely allied with the purchasing of goods4 ,a great many business failures can be traced directly to overexpanded credit4 ,any battery service station proprietor who does not place a voluntary limit on the amount of credit for which he asks is1 to say the least1 running a very great business risk4 ,the moment he expands his credit to the limit1 he leaves himself with no margin of safety1 and a sudden change in business conditions may place him in a serious situation4 ,commercial agencies usually call this condition a lack of capital4 ,the real cause1 however1 is not so much lack of capital as it is too much business on credit4 ,this does not mean that credit should not be sought2 or that all business should be done on the capital actually invested in the concern4 ,credit is necessary to commercial life4 ,very few business concerns are so strong financially as to be able to do without credit4 ,credit should be sought and used intelligently1 and it is not a hard matter for any battery service station proprietor to keep his credit good4 ,all that is necessary is to take a few precautions1 and observe in general the principles of good business4 ,the first requisite1 of course1 is to accept no more credit than the business will stand4 ,sometimes it is possible to secure enough credit to ruin a business4 ,its present condition and future prospects may appear so good as to warrant securing all the credit possible under the circumstances4 ,it requires courage to limit the growth and the temporary prosperity of a business by keeping down the credit accepted4 ,it is very hard to refuse business4 ,it is difficult not to make extensions when there is enough business in sight to pay for the extensions4 ,but the acid test of whether or not you should extend and borrow is not the amount of business that can be done1 but the amount of money that can be spared4 ,the mere fact that you have the money or can get it does not in the least mean that it should be spent4 ,and the reason for this is that1 in order to keep your credit good1 you must meet all obligations promptly4 ,nothing has a more chilling effect on any business than failure to meet all indebtedness when due4 ,as soon as additional time is requested in which to meet obligations1 your credit rating begins to contract2 and if1 at the same time1 your credit has been overexpanded the business is placed in a most difficult position4 ,more than one concern has gone to the wall when faced with this combination4 ,proper ,bookkeeping ,records4 ,the principal difficulty in this matter of the proper use of credit will lie in poor bookkeeping records1 making it impossible for the proprietor to know very much about his financial position or operating condition day by day and week by week and month by month4 ,many service station proprietors figure what they owe once a year only1 when they inventory1 and many do not keep a permanent record even then2 and usually those who are neglectful in this regard are the ones who owe the most1 proportionately1 who do not take their discounts1 and who do not progress4 ,the following table covers the average discounts allowed in various lines4 ,if you study it1 and find out how much it costs you to lose discounts1 you will at once realize the necessity for the proper sort of bookkeeping records4 #a4 #a cash1 #cj days net 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ab per year #b4 #b cash1 #cj days net 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bd per year #c4 #c cash1 #cj days net 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cf per year #d4 #e cash1 #cj days net 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fj per year #e4 #h cash1 #cj days net 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #if per year #f4 #a #aj days1 #cj days net4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ah per year #g4 #b #aj days1 #cj days net4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cf per year #h4 #c #aj days1 #cj days net4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ed per year #i4 #e #aj days1 #cj days net4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ij per year #aj4 #h #aj days1 #cj days net4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #add per year #aa4 #a #aj days1 #fj days net4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ad4d per year #ab4 #b #aj days1 #fj days net4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bh4h per year #ac4 #c #aj days1 #fj days net4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #dc4b per year #ad4 #e #aj days1 #fj days net4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #gb per year #ae4 #h #aj days1 #fj days net4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aae4b per year ,then there is the matter of expenses2 rent1 wages1 insurances1 taxes1 depreciation1 freight and express1 and all the other miscellaneous items that go to make up the total of your cost of doing business4 ,expenses eat up a business unless controlled4 ,they ought to be so analyzed that you are able to place your finger on items which appear too large1 or uncalled for1 or which need explanation4 ,a ,daily ,exhibit of ,your ,business4 ,in order to accomplish this1 you ought to keep a record similar to that shown by ,fig4 #ahg--;a ,daily ,exhibit of your business4 ,the advantage of this record is that it will give any battery man daily information as to the following facts of his business3 #a4 ,the amount of stock on hand4 #b4 ,the amount of gross profit4 #c4 ,the percentage of gross profit4 ,it will give monthly information as to3 #a4 ,the expense and percentage of expense4 #b4 ,the actual net profit4 #c4 ,the percentage of net profit4 ,such information will help you to locate exactly when and where your losses come2 during what months and from what causes4 ,it will enable you to turn losing months this year into profitable months next year2 to tell whether your losses were due to a too great expense account1 or to too low gross profits4 ,the percentage columns on the sheet are the most important1 because only by percentages can you make proper comparisons1 and know just how your business is headed4 ,you cannot guess percentages2 you must have a way of knowing continually what they are1 in order to be certain of getting the right return on your investment4 ,fig4 #ahg;a ,daily ,exhibit form ,fig4 #ahg;b ,daily ,exhibit form1 continued ,in analyzing this ,daily ,exhibit1 you will note that it is ruled for five weeks and two extra days1 in order to provide for any one and all months of the year4 ,the various columns are provided so that the entries in them will give a clear-cut story of the actual state of your affairs1 daily1 weekly1 and monthly4 ,each column will be considered in the order in which it appears on the form4 ,first ,column--,merchandise on ,hand4 ,in starting this record the first day1 the figures entered in this column must be an actual physical inventory of your stock on hand1 priced and extended at cost4 ,do not total this column4 ,second ,column--,new ,goods ,added to ,stock4 ,the figures entered in this column should be the total value of all new goods received from manufacturers or jobbers on the particular day4 ,if you return any articles to the seller immediately upon receipt1 and before putting them into your stock1 deduct such goods from the invoices and enter only the net amount in this column4 ,this column should be totaled every week and every month4 ,third ,column--,goods ,returned by ,customers2--,deduct from ,sales4 ,the total value of all goods returned by customers extended at the prices charged customers should be entered in this column daily4 ,every week and every month this column is totaled4 ,fourth ,column--,cost of ,goods ,returned2--,deduct from ,cost of ,goods ,sold4 ,the cost of all goods returned by customers should be entered in this column4 ,the cost prices can always be secured from the ,stock ,record cards1 as previously explained4 ,total this column every week and every month4 ,fifth ,column--,goods ,returned to ,manufacturers4 ,sometimes there is occasion to return merchandise after it has been put into stock4 ,in such cases1 the money value of the articles sent back to manufacturers or jobbers should be entered in this column4 ,this does not mean such goods as were returned on the day received1 and were deducted from the seller's invoice1 and at no time have appeared in the second column1 ,new ,goods ,added to ,stock1 but only to such merchandise as was originally entered in the second column1 and later returned to the manufacturer4 ,this column should be totaled every week and every month4 ,sixth ,column--,goods ,sold1 ,less ,goods ,returned4 ,enter here total of selling prices on sales tags for each day1 after deducting amount in the third column4 ,total this column every week and every month4 ,seventh ,oolumn--,cost of ,goods ,sold1 ,less ,cost of ,goods ,returned4 ,the total of the sales extended at cost prices for each day1 minus the amount showing in the fourth column1 should be entered in this column4 ,it should be totaled every week and every month4 ,eighth ,column--,gross ,profits4 ,to arrive at the figures to be entered in this column deduct the amount in the seventh column from the amount in the sixth column4 ,total this column every week and every month4 ,ninth ,column--,per ,cent to ,sales4 ,this percentage should be figured every day1 and every week and every month1 and is arrived at by dividing the figures in the eighth column by the figures in the sixth column4 ,it will pay you to watch this column closely4 ,you will be astonished at the way it varies from day to day1 week to week1 and month to month4 ,if you watch it closely enough1 you will soon learn a great deal more about your business than you ever knew before4 ,you do not need to total this column4 ,tenth ,column--,accounts ,receivable4 ,on the day the ,daily ,exhibit is first started1 the figures for this column must be taken from whatever records you have kept in the past4 ,do not total this column4 ,eleventh ,column--,collections4 ,every day you collect any money from those customers who run charge accounts with you1 enter the amount collected in this column4 ,total it every week and every month4 ,twelfth ,column--,cash ,sales4 ,every day enter the amount of cash sales in this column1 and total it every week and every month4 ,thirteenth ,column--,charge ,sales4 ,the amount of daily sales made to those customers who do not pay cash but run a charge account should be entered in this column4 ,every week and every month this column should be totaled4 ,general ,calculations4 ,to arrive at the amount of ,merchandise on ,hand after the first day1 which is1 as has been previously explained1 an actual physical inventory1 add the amounts showing in the first and second columns1 and deduct from this total the sum of the fifth and seventh columns4 ,enter this result in the first column for the next succeeding day4 ,continue as above throughout the entire month4 ,after the first day the figures in ,accounts ,receivable column are obtained by adding together the amounts showing in the tenth and thirteenth column and deducting from this total the amount in the eleventh column4 ,this balance will be entered in the tenth column for the next day1 the same procedure being followed for each day thereafter4 ,merchandise on ,hand after the close of business on the last day of the month should be entered in the first column on the line marked ,month ,total4 ,this same amount will be carried forward to the first column of next month's sheet and entered on the line of the particular day of the week on which the first of the month falls4 ,following the ,month ,total are the ,year to ,date and ,last ,year to ,date4 ,these figures are important for purposes of comparison4 ,arrive at total for ,year to ,date by adding the total for the present month to the total for ,year to ,date found on the previous month's sheet4 ,the figures for ,last ,year to ,date are taken directly from the sheet kept for the same month last year4 ,it is1 of course1 evident that this cannot be done until one year's records have been completed4 ,expenses and ,profits4 ,under the heading ,summary at the bottom of the sheet1 provision has been made for finding out how much net profit ,,you have made for the month4 ,on the line marked ,gross ,profits enter the ,month ,total figures in the eighth column4 ,below this enter all the various items of expense as follows3 7#a7 ,advertising3 ,by advertising is meant such copy1 signs1 etc41 which may be prepared and used for the purpose of keeping the public informed as to your ability to serve them--in other words1 any space which is used for general publicity purposes1 such as for instance1 your card in the classified telephone directory1 or blotters1 folders1 dodgers which you may have printed up and distributed4 ,do not load this account with church programs1 contributions to the ball team1 tickets to the fireman's ball and the like4 ,these are donations1 and not advertising4 7#b7 ,electricity3 ,all bills for electrical current will be charged to this account4 7#c7 ,freight3 ,charges for all freight and express will be made to this account4 7#d7 ,insurance3 ,the total yearly insurance should be divined by twelve1 to obtain the amount to be charged to this account monthly4 7#e7 ,proprietor's salary3 ,many battery service station proprietors do not charge their own living as an expense4 ,that's a serious mistake1 of course4 ,if those same men should hire a manager to run their service station1 the manager's salary would naturally be charged to expense4 ,the amount of money withdrawn from the business by the proprietor should therefore be charged to expense4 7#f7 ,rent3 ,the amount of money you pay monthly for rent should be charged to this account4 ,if1 on the other hand1 you own your own building1 charge the business with rent1 the same as if you were paying it to someone else4 ,every business should stand rent2 besides1 the building itself should show itself a profitable investment4 ,charge yourself just as much as you would anyone else2 don't favor your business by undercharging1 nor handicap it by overcharging4 7#g7 ,supplies3 ,the cost of all supplies1 small tools and miscellaneous articles which are bought for use in the business and not for sale should be charged to this account4 7#h7 ,taxes3 ,the yearly amount of taxes paid should be divided by twelve1 in order to arrive at the monthly proportion to be charged to this account4 7#i7 ,wages3 ,the amount of wages paid to employees should be charged to this account4 ,care should be taken to determine the actual amount for the month1 if wages are paid on a daily or weekly wage rate4 7#aj7 ,miscellaneous3 ,any expenses of the business not listed above will be charged to this account4 ,this may include such items as donations1 loss on bad accounts1 and such like items of expense4 ,you may itemize these into as many headings as you desire1 but for the purposes of the ,daily ,exhibit combine all of them under ,miscellaneous ,expense4 ,all these expense items are then added together1 and this total is entered on the line marked ,total ,expenses4 ,deduct ,total ,expenses from ,gross ,profit to arrive at ,net ,profit4 ,to arrive at the totals for ,this ,year to ,date1 carry the figures forward from the previous month's sheet and add figures for present month4 ,the figures for ,last ,year to ,date will be found on the sheet for the corresponding month of last year1 and are copied in this column4 ,all percentages should be figured on sales4 ,the figures shown on each line in the ,amount columns under the headings ,this ,month1 ,this ,year to ,date and ,last ,year to ,date should be divided by the ,month ,total of the sixth column1 shown above1 i4 e41 ,goods ,sold1 ,less ,goods ,returned4 ,when you take inventory1 the amount of stock should equal ,merchandise on ,hand1 as shown by the ,daily ,exhibit4 ,but there will generally be a discrepancy1 varying with the size of your stock1 and that discrepancy will represent the amount of goods gone out of your station without being paid for2 sold for cash and not accounted for2 sold on credit and not charged1 and the like4 ,it's worth something to know exactly what this amounts to4 ,the place for this information is under ,inventory ,variations on the sheet4 ,the space headed ,accounts ,payable is provided for recording1 on the last day of every month1 just what you owe for accounts and for notes1 and also the same information for the corresponding date of last year4 ,invaluable ,monthly ,comparative ,information4 ,you see now that by the use of the ,daily ,exhibit you have a running history of your business by days1 weeks and months4 ,but this is hardly sufficient for a clear view of your business1 since you will want some record which will tell you what the year's business has been1 and how it varied from month to month4 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,statistical and ,comparative ,record ,this is provided for in the ,statistical and ,comparative ,record1 illustrated by ,fig4 #ahh1 on which the amount of sales1 cost of sales1 gross profit1 expenses and net profit are entered for each month of the year4 ,all the figures for entry in this record are taken directly from the ,daily ,exhibit at the end of the month1 which makes the work of compiling it a very easy task4 ,the advantages of a record of this kind can hardly be overstated4 ,the figures in the upper part of this statement will show which months have been profit payers and which have not1 while from the figures in the lower part of the report you are able to determine the percentage any group of expenses bears to sales1 and are thus in position to subsequently control such items4 ,do not let the fear of doing a little bookkeeping work prevent you from keeping these records4 ,they should go a long way toward solving the problems which the average proprietor faces today3 #a4 ,selling his goods and services without a profit4 #b4 ,failure to show sufficient net profit at the end of the year4 #c4 ,constantly increasing cost of doing business4 ,you may think at first glance that it will require a great deal of extra work to keep these records1 but in this you are mistaken4 ,they are very simple and easy to operate4 ,the ,american ,bureau of ,engineering1 ,inc41 will advise you where to obtain these forms4 ,,chapter #ad4 ,,what',s ,,wrong ,,with ,,the ,,battery8 ------------------------------ ,when a man does not feel well1 he visits a doctor4 ,when he has trouble on his car1 he takes the car to a service station4 ,what connection is there between these two cases8 ,none whatever1 you may say4 ,and yet in each instance the man is seeking service4 ,the term ,service ,station generally suggests a place where automobile troubles are taken care of4 ,that does not mean1 however1 that the term may not be used in other lines of business4 ,the doctor's office is just as much a ,service ,station as the automobile repair shop4 ,the one is a ,health ,service ,station and the other is an ,automobile ,service ,station4 ,the business of each is to eliminate trouble4 ,the battery repairman may think that he cannot learn anything from a doctor which will be of any use to his battery business1 but1 as a matter of fact1 the battery man can learn much that is valuable from the doctor's methods of handling trouble4 ,the doctor greets a patient courteously and always waits for him to tell what his symptoms are4 ,he then examines the patient1 asking questions based on what the patient tells him1 to bring out certain points which will help in making an accurate diagnosis4 ,very often such questioning will enable the doctor to determine just what the nature of the illness is4 ,but he does not then proceed to write out a prescription without making an examination4 ,if he did1 the whole case might just as well have been handled over the telephone4 ,no competent physician will treat patients from a distance4 ,neither will he write out a prescription without making a physical examination of the patient4 ,the questioning of the patient and the physical examination always go together1 some questions being asked before an examination is made to give an approximate idea of what is wrong and some during the examination to aid the doctor in making an accurate diagnosis4 ,the patient expects a doctor to listen to his description of the symptoms and to be guided by them in the subsequent examination1 but not to arrive at a conclusion entirely by the description of the symptoms4 ,a patient very often misinterprets his pains and aches1 and tells the doctor that he has a certain ailment4 ,yet the doctor makes his examination and determines what the trouble is1 and frequently find a condition which is entirely different from what the patient suspected4 ,he then prescribes a treatment based on his own conclusions and not on what the patient believes to be wrong4 ,calling for ,batteries4 ,a doctor treats many patients in his office1 but also makes his daily calls on others4 ,similarly1 the battery repairman should have a service truck for use in calling for customers' batteries1 especially where competition is keen4 ,some car owners cannot bring their cars to the repair shop during working hours1 and yet if they knew that they could have their battery called for and have a rental battery installed1 they would undoubtedly have their battery tested and repaired more frequently4 ,in some instances a battery will be so badly run down that the car cannot be started1 and the car is allowed to stand idle because the owner does not care to remove his battery1 carry it to a service station and carry a rental battery with him4 ,batteries are heavy and generally dirty and wet with acid1 and few people wish to run the risk of ruining their clothes by carrying the battery to a shop4 ,the wise battery mail will not overlook the business possibilities offered by the call for and deliver service1 especially when business is slow4 ,a ,ford roadster with a short express body will furnish this service1 or any old chassis may be fitted up for it at a moderate cost4 ,of course1 you must advertise this service4 ,do not wait for car owners to ask whether you will call for their batteries4 ,many of them may not think of telephoning for such service1 and even if they do1 they might call up some other service station4 ,when ,batteries ,come ,in ,what does a man expect when he brings his battery to the battery service-station8 ,obviously lie expects to be greeted courteously and to be permitted to tell the symptoms of trouble which he has observed4 ,he furthermore expects the repairman to examine and test the battery carefully before deciding what repairs are necessary and not to tell him that he needs new positives1 new separators1 or an entirely new battery without even looking at the battery4 ,when a car is brought to your shop1 you are the doctor4 ,sonic part of the mechanism is in trouble1 and it is your duty to put yourself in charge of the situation4 ,listen to what the customer hp to say4 ,he has certainly noticed that something is wrong1 or he would not have come to you4 ,ask him what he has observed4 ,he has been driving the car1 starting the engine1 and turning on the lights1 and certainly has noticed whether everything has been operating as it should4 ,the things he has noticed were caused by the trouble which exists4 ,he may not know what sort of trouble they indicate1 but you1 as the battery doctor can generally make a fairly accurate estimate of what the trouble is4 ,you should1 of course1 do more than merely listen to what the customer says4 ,you can question him as to how the car has been used1 just as the doctor1 after listening to what a patient has to say1 asks questions to give him a clue to what has caused such symptoms4 ,the purpose of the preliminary questioning and examination is not merely to make an accurate diagnosis of the troubles1 but to establish a feeling of confidence on the part of the customer4 ,a man who owns a car generally possesses an average amount of intelligence and likes to have it recognized and respected4 ,your questioning and examination will either show the customer that you know your business and know what should be done1 or it will convince him that you are merely putting up a bluff to hide your ignorance4 ,what the customer wants to know is how much the repairs will cost1 and how soon lie may have his battery again4 ,estimate carefully what the work1 will cost1 and tell him4 ,if a considerable amount of work is required and you cannot estimate how much time and material will be needed1 tell the customer that you will let him know the approximate cost later1 when you have gone far enough with the work to be able to make an estimate4 ,if you find that the battery should be taken off1 take it off without any loss of time and put on a rental battery4 ,if there is something wrong outside of the battery1 however1 it will be necessary to eliminate the trouble before the car leaves the shop1 otherwise the same battery trouble will occur again4 ,if there is no actual trouble outside the battery1 and if the driving conditions have been such that the battery is not charged sufficiently while on the car1 no actual repairs are necessary on the electrical system4 ,the customer should be advised to drive in about every two weeks to have his battery tested1 and occasionally taken off and given a bench charge4 ,it is better to do this than to increase the charging rate to a value which might damage the generator or battery4 ,adopt a standard method of procedure in meeting1 a customer and in determining what is wrong and what should be done4 ,if the customer is one who brings his car in regularly to have the battery filled and tested1 you will3 be able to detect any trouble as soon as it occurs1 and will be able to eliminate it before the battery is seriously damaged4 ,a change in the charging rate1 cleaning of the generator commutator or cutout contact points1 if done in time1 will often keep everything in good shape4 ,with a new customer who has had his battery for sometime1 you must1 however1 ask questions and make tests to determine what is wrong4 ,before sending the customer away with a new1 rental1 or repaired battery1 test the electrical system as described on page #bgf4 ,the most important transaction and one which will save you considerable argument and trouble is to get everything down in black and white4 ,always try to have the customer wait while you test the battery4 ,if you find it necessary to open the battery do this in his presence4 ,when he leaves there should be no question as to what he shall have to pay for4 ,if more time is required to determine the necessary work1 do not actually do the work without getting in touch with the owner and making a written agreement as to what is to be done and how much the cost will be4 ,the ,service ,record shown in ,fig4 #ahc may be used for this purpose4 ,the following method of procedure is suggested as a standard4 ,follow it closely if possible1 though in some cases1 where the nature of the trouble is plainly evident1 this will not be necessary any more than a doctor who sees blood streaming from a severe cut needs to question the patient to find out what is wrong4 ,it may not always be necessary to ask all the questions which follow1 or to ask them in the order given1 but they cover points which the repairman should know in order to work intelligently4 ,some of the information called for in the questions may often be obtained without questioning the customer4 ,do not1 however1 hesitate to ask any and all questions covering points which you wish to know4 #a4 ,greet the customer with a smile4 ,your manner and appearance are of great importance4 ,be polite and pleasant4 ,do not lose your temper1 no matter how much cause the customer gives you to do so4 ,a calm1 courteous manner will generally cool the anger of an irate customer and make it possible to gain his confidence and good will4 ,do not argue with your customers1 ,your business is to get the job and do it in an agreeable manner4 ,if you make mistakes admit it and your customer will come again4 ,keep your clothes neat and clean and have your face and hands clean4 ,remember that the first glimpse the customer has of the man who approaches him will influence him to a very considerable extent in giving you his business or going elsewhere4 ,do not have a customer wait around a long time before he receives any attention4 ,if he grows impatient because nobody notices him when he comes in1 it will be hard to gain his confidence1 no matter how well you may afterwards do the work4 #b4 ,what's the ,trouble8 ,let the customer tell you his story4 ,while listening1 try to get an idea of what may be wrong4 ,when he has given you all the information he can1 question him so that you will be able to get a better idea of what is wrong4 7a7 ,how long have you had the battery8 ,see page #bdb4 7b7 ,was it a new battery when you bought it8 7c7 ,how often has water been added8 7d7 ,has distilled water been used exclusively1 or has faucet1 well1 or river water ever been used8 ,impure water may introduce substances which will damage or even ruin a battery4 7e7 ,has too much water been added8 ,if this is done1 the electrolyte will flood the tops of the jars and may rot the upper parts of the wooden case4 7f7 ,how fast is car generally driven8 ,the speed should average #ae ,m4 ,p4 ,h4 or more to keep battery charged4 7g7 ,how long must engine be cranked before it starts8 ,this should not require more than about #aj seconds4 ,if customer is in doubt1 start the engine to find out4 ,if starting motor cranks engine at a fair speed1 engine should start within #aj seconds4 ,if starting motor cranks engine at a low speed1 a longer cranking time may be required4 ,the low cranking speed may be due to a run-down or defective battery1 to trouble in the starting motor or starting circuit1 or to a stiff engine4 ,to determine if battery is at fault1 see ,battery ,tests1 below4 7h7 ,has the car been used regularly1 or has it been standing idle for any length of time8 ,an idle battery discharges itself and often becomes damaged4 ,if car has been standing idle in cold weather1 the battery has probably been frozen4 7i7 ,has it been necessary to remove the battery occasionally for a bench charge8 7j7 ,has battery ever been repaired8 ,see page #cbb4 ,battery ,tests #a4 ,remove the vent plugs and inspect electrolyte4 ,if the electrolyte covers the plates and separators to a sufficient depth1 measure the specific gravity of the electrolyte4 ,if the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates and separators1 see following section ,no4 #b4 ,if all cells read #a4aej or less1 remove the battery and give it a bench charge4 ,if the specific gravity readings of all cells are between #a4aej and #a4bjj1 and if no serious troubles have been found up to this point1 advise the owner to use his lights and starting motor as little as possible until the gravity rises to #a4bhj-a4cjj4 ,if this is not satisfactory to him1 remove the battery and give it a bench charge4 ,if the specific gravity readings are all above #a4bjj1 or if the gravity reading of one cell is #ej points 7such as the difference between #a4bjj and #a4bej1 which is #ej points7 lower or higher than the others 7no matter what the actual gravity readings may be71 make the #ae seconds high rate discharge test on the battery4 ,see page #bff4 ,if this test indicates that the internal condition of the battery is bad1 the battery should be removed from the car and opened for inspection4 ,if the test indicates that the internal condition of the battery is good1 the specific gravity of the electrolyte needs adjusting4 ,the difference in specific gravity readings in the cells is due to one of the following1 causes3 7a7 ,water added to the cell or cells which have low gravity to replace electrolyte which had been spilled or lost in some other manner4 7b7 ,electrolyte added to the cell or cells which have high gravity to replace the water which naturally evaporates from the electrolyte4 7c7 ,trouble inside the cell or cells which have low gravity4 ,the high rate discharge test will show whether there is any internal trouble4 ,if any cell shows a gravity above #a4cjj1 remove the battery1 dump out all the electrolyte1 fill battery with distilled water and put the battery on charge4 ,if the gravity of one or more cells is #ej points less than the others1 water has been used to replace electrolyte which has been spilled or lost in some other manner1 or else one or more jars are cracked4 ,a battery with one or more cracked jars usually has the bottom parts of its wooden case rotted by the electrolyte which leaks from the jar4 ,if you are not certain whether the battery has one or more cracked jars1 see that the electrolyte covers the plates in all the cells one-half inch or so1 and then let the battery stand4 ,if the electrolyte sinks below the tops of the plates in one or more cells within twenty-four hours1 those cells have leaky jars and the battery must be opened1 and new jars put in4 ,if the low gravity is not caused by leaky jars1 give the battery a bench charge and adjust the level of the electrolyte4 #b4 ,if you found electrolyte to be below tops of plates in all the cells1 the battery has been neglected1 or there mail be leaky jars4 ,add distilled water until the electrolyte covers the plates to a depth of about one-half inch4 7a7 ,if it requires only a small amount of water to bring up the level of the electrolyte1 remove the battery and give it a bench charge4 ,see page #aih4 ,only a brief charge may be necessary4 ,ask the driver when water was added last4 ,if more than #a month has passed since the last filling1 the upper parts of the plates may be sulphated1 and the battery should be charged at a low rate4 7b7 ,if it requires a considerable amount of water to bring up the level of the electrolyte1 and the bottom of the wooden battery case shows no signs of being rotted1 the battery has been neglected and has been dry for a long time1 and the plates are mostly likely badly damaged4 ,open the battery for inspection4 7c7 ,if only one cell requires a considerable amount of water to bring up the level of its electrolyte1 and the bottom of the wooden battery ease shows no sign of being rotted1 that cell is probably dead1 due to in internal short-circuit4 ,to test for dead cells1 turn on the lamps and measure the voltage of each cell4 ,a dead cell will not give any voltage on test1 may give a reversed voltage reading1 or at the most will give a very low voltage4 ,a battery with a dead cell should be opened for inspection4 7d7 ,if the bottom part of the wooden battery case is rotted1 and a considerable amount of water had to be added to any or all cells to bring up the level of the electrolyte1 the battery has leaky jars and must be opened to have the leaky jars replaced by good ones4 ,if there is any doubt in your mind as to whether any or all jars are leaking1 fill the cells with distilled water and let the battery stand for twelve to twenty-four hours4 ,if at or before the end of that time the electrolyte has1 fallen below the tops of the plates in any or all cells1 these cells have leaky ,jars and the battery must be opened and the leaky jars replaced with good ones4 ,the electrolyte which leaks out will wet the bench or on which the battery is placed and this is another indication of a leaky jar4 ,general ,inspection ,in addition to the tests which have been described1 a general inspection as outlined below will often be a great help in deciding what must be done4 #a4 ,is battery loose8 ,a battery which is not held down firmly may have broken jars1 cracked sealing compound around posts or between posts and separators1 and active material shaken out of the grids4 ,there may also be corrosion at the terminals4 #b4 ,are cables loose8 ,this will cause battery to be in a run down condition and cause failure to crank engine4 #c4 ,is there corrosion at the terminals8 ,this will cause battery to be in a run-down condition and cause failure to start engine4 ,corrosion is caused by electrolyte attacking terminals4 ,a coating of vaseline on the terminals prevents corrosion4 #d4 ,is top of battery wet8 ,this may be due to addition of too much water1 overheating of battery1 cracks around posts and between posts and cover1 electrolyte thrown out of vents because of battery being loose1 or electrolyte or water spilled on battery4 ,such a condition causes battery to run down4 #e4 ,is top of case acid soaked8 ,this is caused by leaks around posts or between covers and jars1 flooding of electrolyte due to overheating or due to addition of too much water1 or by electrolyte spilled on covers4 #f4 ,is lower part of case acid soaked8 ,this is caused by leaky jars4 #g4 ,are ends of case bulged out8 ,this may be due to battery having been frozen4 ,this general inspection of the battery can be made in a few seconds1 and often shows what the condition of the battery is4 ,operation ,tests ,two simple tests may be made which will help considerably in the diagnosis4 ,turn on the lights4 ,if they burn dim1 battery is run down 7and may be defective7 and battery needs bench charge or repairs4 ,if they burn bright battery is probably in a good condition4 ,with the lights burning1 have the customer or a helper step on the starting switch4 ,if the lights now become very dim1 the battery is run down 7and may also be defective71 or else the starting motor is drawing too much current from the battery4 ,trouble ,charts ,for the convenience of the repairman1 the battery troubles which may be found when a car is brought in1 are summarized in the following tables3 ,all ,cells ,show ,low ,gravity or ,low ,voltage ,a4 ,look for the following conditions3 #a4 ,loose or dirty terminals or cell connectors4 ,this may reduce charging rate1 or open charging circuit entirely4 ,remedy3 ,tighten and clean connections4 #b4 ,corrosion on terminals or cell connectors caused by acid on top of battery due to over-filling1 flooding1 defective sealing1 lead scraped from lead-coated terminals1 and copper wires attached directly to battery4 ,a badly corroded battery terminal may cause the generator1 ignition coil1 and lamps to burn out because of the high resistance which the corroded terminal causes in the charging line4 ,it may reduce charging rate1 or open charging circuit entirely4 ,remedy3 ,remove cause of corrosion4 ,clean corroded parts and give coating of vaseline4 #c4 ,broken terminals or cell connectors4 ,these may reduce charging rate or open charging circuit entirely4 ,remedy3 ,install new parts4 #d4 ,generator not charging4 ,remedy3 ,find and remove cause of generator not charging 7see page #bhd74 #e4 ,charging rate too low4 ,remedy3 ,if due to generator trouble1 repair generator4 ,if due to incorrect generator setting change setting4 ,if due to driving conditions increase charging rate4 #f4 ,acid or moisture on top of battery due to defective sealing1 flooding1 spilling electrolyte in taking gravity readings1 loose vent plugs4 ,this causes corrosion and current leakage4 ,remedy3 ,find and remove cause4 #g4 ,tools or wires on battery causing short-circuits4 ,remedy3 ,tell customer to keep such things off the battery4 #h4 ,short-circuits or grounds in wiring4 ,remedy3 ,repair wiring4 #i4 ,cutout relay closing late1 resulting in battery not being charged at ordinary driving speeds4 ,remedy3 ,check action of cutout4 ,see page #bhb4 #aj4 ,excessive lighting current1 due to too many or too large lamps4 ,remedy3 ,check by turning on all lamps while engine is running4 ,ammeter should show three to five amperes charge with lamps burning4 ,in winter the charging rate may have to be increased4 ,b4 ,question ,driver as to following causes of low gravity and low voltage3 #a4 ,has water been added regularly8 #b4 ,has impure water1 such as faucet1 well1 or river water ever been added to battery8 #c4 ,has too much water been added8 #d4 ,has electrolyte been spilled and replaced by water8 #e4 ,has battery been idle1 or stored without regular charging8 #f4 ,is car used more at night than in daytime8 ,considerable night driving may prevent battery from being fully charged4 #g4 ,is starter used frequently8 #h4 ,what is average driving speed8 ,should be over #ae ,m4 ,p4 #aa4 #i4 ,how long is engine usually cranked before starting-8 ,cranking period should not exceed #aj seconds4 ,c4 ,if battery has been repaired4 ,the trouble may be due to3 #a4 ,improperly treated separators used4 #b4 ,grooved side of separators put against negatives instead of positives4 #c4 ,separator left out4 #d4 ,cracked separator4 #e4 ,positives used which should have been discarded4 #f4 ,bulged1 swollen negatives used4 #g4 ,poor joints due to improper lead-burning4 ,d4 ,battery ,troubles which may exist3 #a4 ,sulfated plates4 #b4 ,buckled ,plates4 #c4 ,internal ,short-circuits4 #d4 ,cracked ,jars4 #e4 ,clogged ,separators4 ,gravity ,readings ,unequal #a4 ,acid or moisture on top of battery1 due to defective sealing1 flooding1 spilling electrolyte1 loose vent plugs4 ,this causes current leakage4 ,remedy3 ,find and remove cause4 #b4 ,tools or wires on battery1 causing short-circuits4 ,remedy3 ,tell driver to keep such things off the battery4 #c4 ,electrolyte or acid added to cells giving the high gravity readings4 #d4 ,electrolyte spilled and replaced by water in cells giving low readings4 #e4 ,grooved side of separators placed against negatives in cells giving the low readings4 #f4 ,separator left out1 cracked separator used1 hole worn through separator by buckled plate or swollen negatives1 or separators in some cells and new ones in others4 #g4 ,old plates used in some cells and new ones in others4 #h4 ,impurities in cells showing low gravity4 #i4 ,shorted cell1 due to plates cutting through separators4 #aj4 ,cracked jar4 #aa4 ,oil some of the older cars a three wire lighting system was used4 ,if the lights are arranged so that more are connected between one of the outside wires and the center1 than between the other outside wire and the center1 the cells carrying the heavier lighting load will show low gravity4 #ab4 ,on some of the older cars1 the battery is made of two or more sections which are connected in series for starting and in parallel for charging4 ,oil such cars the cells in one of the sections may show lower gravity than other cells due to longer connecting cables1 poor connections1 corroded terminals1 and so on4 ,such a condition ,,an-ill often be found in the old two section ,maxwell batteries used previous to #aiah4 ,high ,gravity ,this is a condition in which the hydrometer readings would indicate that a battery is almost or fully-charged1 but the battery may fail to operate the starting motor4 ,if the lights are burning while the starting switch is closed1 they will become very dim4 ,the gravity readings may be found to be above #a4cjj4 ,the probable causes of this condition are3 #a4 ,electrolyte or concentrated acid added instead of water4 #b4 ,one of the numerous dope solutions which have been advertised extensively within the past two years4 ,never use them4 ,if customer admits having used such a dope warn him not to do so again4 ,low ,electrolyte ,probable ,causes3 #a4 ,water not added4 #b4 ,electrolyte replaced in wrong cell after taking gravity readings4 #c4 ,cracked jars4 #d4 ,battery overcharged1 causing loss of water by overheating and excessive gassing4 ,probable ,results3 #a4 ,sulfated ,plates4 #b4 ,carbonized1 dry1 cracked separators4 #c4 ,considerable shedding4 ,battery ,overheats ,probable ,causes3 #a4 ,water not added regularly4 #b4 ,impure water used4 #c4 ,impure acid used4 #d4 ,battery on hot place on car4 #e4 ,alcohol or other anti-freeze preparation added4 #f4 ,excessive charging rate4 #g4 ,improperly treated separators4 #h4 ,battery over-charged by long daylight runs4 ,probable ,results3 #a4 ,sulfated ,plates4 #b4 ,burned1 ,carbonized ,separators4 #c4 ,buckled ,plates4 #d4 ,excessive ,shedding4 ,electrolyte ,leaking ,out at ,top ,probable ,causes3 #a4 ,too much water added4 #b4 ,battery loose in box4 #c4 ,cracks in sealing compound due to poor sealing1 or cables pulling on terminals1 or due to poor quality of sealing compound1 or good quality compound which has been burned4 #d4 ,vent plugs loose4 ,probable ,results3 #a4 ,upper portion of case rotted by acid4 #b4 ,electrolyte low4 #c4 ,plates sulphated4 #d4 ,upper parts of separators dry4 ,summary #a4 ,when ,may a ,battery ,be ,left on the ,car8 7a7 ,when you find that the specific gravity of all cells is more than #a4aej1 the voltage of each cell is at least #b1 the voltage doe's not drop when the lights are turned on1 or the lights do not become very dim when the engine is cranked with the starting motor1 there are no loose terminals or connectors1 the sealing compound is not broken or cracked so as to cause a slopper1 the electrolyte covers the plates1 the box is not rotted by acid1 and there are no broken jars4 ,these conditions will exist only if battery has been well taken care of1 and some trouble has suddenly and recently arisen1 such as caused by a break in one of the battery cables1 loosening of a cable connection at the battery or in the line to the starting motor4 #b4 ,when ,should a ,battery ,be ,removed ,from ,car8 7a7 ,when you find broken sealing compound1 causing the battery to be a slopper4 7b7 ,when you find inter-cell connectors and terminals loose1 corroded1 or poorly burned on4 7c7 ,when you find box badly rotted by acid1 or otherwise defective4 7d7 ,when you find a cracked jar1 indicated by lower part of case being acid soaked1 or by low electrolyte1 or find that electrolyte level falls below the tops of the plates soon after adding water4 7e7 ,when you find a dead cell1 indicated by very low or no voltage1 even on open circuit4 7f7 ,when specific gravity of electrolyte is less than #a4aej1 or gravity readings of cells vary considerably4 7g7 ,when battery voltage drops to about #a4g or less per cell when lamps are turned on1 or lamps become very dim when the starting motor is cranking the engine1 or the high rate discharge test shows that there is trouble in the cells4 7h7 ,when you find that electrolyte is below tops of plates1 and it requires considerable water to bring it up to the correct height4 7i7 ,when battery overheats on charge1 or discharge1 although battery is not located in hot place1 charging rate is not too high and lamps and accessories load is normal4 7j7 ,when battery is more than a year old and action is not satisfactory4 7k7 ,when a blacksmith1 tinsmith or plumber has tried his hand at rebuilding the battery4 ,such a battery is shown in ,fig4 #ahi4 7#a7 ,when ends of care are bulged out4 #c4 ,when ,is ,it ,unnecessary to ,open a ,battery8 7a7 ,when the only trouble is broken sealing compound4 ,the battery should be resealed4 7b7 ,when loose1 corroded1 or poorly burned on terminals and connectors have merely resulted in keeping battery only partly charged and no internal troubles exist4 ,the remedy is to drill off the connectors1 or terminals1 and re-burn them4 7c7 ,when the external condition of battery is good1 and a bench charge1 see page #aih 7with several charge and discharge cycles if necessary7 puts battery in a good condition1 as indicated by voltage1 cadmium1 and #bj minute high rate discharge test4 #d4 ,when ,must a ,battery ,be ,opened8 7a7 ,when prolonged charging 7#gb hours or more7 will not cause gravity or voltage to rise4 ,such trouble is due to defective plates and separators4 7b7 ,when battery case is badly acid soaked4 ,a slightly acid soaked case need not be discarded1 but if the damage caused by the acid has been excessive1 a new case is needed4 ,plates may also be damaged4 7c7 ,when one or more jars are cracked4 ,new jars are needed4 ,the plates may also be damaged4 7d7 ,when one or more cells are dead1 as indicated by little or no voltage1 even on open circuit4 ,new plates 7positives at least7 may be required4 7e7 ,when battery is more than a year old and action is unsatisfactory4 7,battery will not hold its charge47 ,battery may have to be junked1 or new separators may be required4 ,every battery should be reinsulated at least once during its lifetime4 7f7 ,when a blacksmith1 tinsmith1 or plumber have tried to repair a case1 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,a ,blacksmith and ,tinsmith ,tried ,their ,hands on ,this ,case1 ,lower ,part ,enclosed in ,tin1 ,strap ,iron1 ,covered with ,friction ,tape1 ,around ,the ,top 7g7 ,when the ends of case are bulged4 ,a new case is needed4 ,if the battery has been frozen it should generally be junked4 ,there are some cases on record of a frozen battery having been thawed out and put in serviceable condition by a long charge at a low rate followed by several cycles of discharge and recharge4 ,generally1 at least1 a new case1 jars1 and positives are required4 ,,note3 ,new separators should always be installed1 whenever a battery is opened for repairs1 unless the separators already in the battery are new1 and the trouble for which the battery was opened consists of a leaky jar1 a separator left out1 or some other trouble which does not require pulling the plates out of mesh4 ,,chapter #ae4 ,,rebuilding ,,the ,,battery4 ----------------------- ,how to ,open a ,battery ,fig4 #aij ,battery to be opened ,a battery is open when its plates have been drawn out of the hard rubber jars4 ,all parts are then exposed1 and accessible for inspection and repairs4 ,in an assembled battery1 the top of each cell is closed by a hard rubber cover4 ,leakproof joints are made between these covers and the rubber jars and the wooden case by means of sealing compound which is poured in place while in a molten condition1 and joins the covers to the jars and which hardens as it cools4 ,the joints between the covers and the posts which project through the covers are in many batteries made with sealing compound4 ,the cells are then connected to each other by means of the cell connectors1 also called top-connectors1 or simply connectors4 ,these connectors are joined to the lead posts1 to which are connected the plate groups by fusing with a flame1 and melting in additional lead to make a joint4 ,in opening a battery1 we must first disconnect the cells from each other1 and then open the joint made by the sealing compound between the covers and the jars and case4 ,the plates may then be lifted out of the jars1 and the battery is open4 ,the steps necessary to open a battery follow1 in the order in which they must be taken4 #a4 ,clean the ,battery4 ,set the battery on the tear down rack4 ,see that the vent plugs are all tight in place4 ,then clean the outside of the battery4 ,remove the greater part of the dirt with a brush1 old whisk-broom1 or a putty knife4 ,then put the battery in the water1 using a stiff bristled brush to remove whatever dirt was not removed in the first place4 ,a four-inch paint brush is satisfactory for this work1 and will last a year or more if taken care of4 ,if water will not remove all the dirt1 try a rag wet with gasoline4 #b4 ,drilling ,off the ,connectors and ,terminals4 ,when you have cleaned the outside of the battery as thoroughly as possible1 set the battery on the floor near your work bench4 ,make a sketch of the top of the battery1 showing the exact arrangement of the terminals and connectors4 ,this sketch should be made on the tag which is tied to the battery4 ,tic this tag on the handle near the negative terminal of the battery or tack it to the ease4 ,then drill down over the ,center of the posts4 ,for this you will need a large brace with a heavy chuck1 a drill the same size as the post 7the part that goes down into the battery71 a large screw driver1 a center punch1 and a hammer4 ,fig4 #aia ,drilling post and cell connector ,with the center punch1 mark the exact centers of the tops of the posts and connectors4 ,then drill down about half way through the connectors and terminals until you cut through the part of the connector which is welded to the post4 ,when you can see a seam between the post and connector you have drilled through the welded part4 ,see ,figs4 #aia and #aib4 ,now pry off the connectors with the screw driver1 as shown in ,fig4 #aic4 ,lay a flat tool such as a chisel or file on the top edge of the ease to avoid damaging the ease when prying off the connectors4 ,if any connector is still tight1 and you cannot pry it off with a reasonable effort1 drill down a little deeper1 and it will come off easily1 provided that the hole which you are drilling is exactly over the center of the post and as large as the post4 ,there are five things to remember in drilling the connectors and posts3 ,fig4 #aib ,connector drilled to correct depth 7a7 ,be sure that the hole is exactly over the center of the post4 7b7 ,do not drill too deep4 ,make each hole just deep enough so that the connector will come off easily4 ,fig4 #aib shows a cross section of a post and connector drilled to the proper depth4 ,notice that you need not drill down the whole depth of the connector1 because the bottom part is not burned to the post4 7c7 ,be sure that the drill makes the right sized hole to permit the connectors and terminals to be removed easily when drilled half way through4 ,an electric drill will do the work much faster than a hand brace4 7d7 ,protect the edge of the battery box when you pry up the connectors with a screw driver4 7e7 ,remove your drill after the hole is well started and see whether the hole is in the center of the post4 ,should you find that it is off center1 tilt the drill1 and with the end of the drill pointing the center of the post as you drill1 gradually straighten the drill4 ,this will bring the hole over the center of the post4 ,having removed the connectors1 sweep all the lead drillings front the top of the battery into a box kept for lead drillings only4 ,fig4 #aid4 ,when this box is full1 melt the drillings and pour off in the burning lead mould4 ,fig4 #aic ,prying off cell connector ,post ,seal4 ,if the post seal consists of a lead sealing nut1 this may be removed now4 ,with some types of batteries 7,willard and ,u4 ,s4 ,l471 drilling the connectors also breaks the post seal4 ,with other batteries1 such as the ,vesta1 ,westinghouse1 ,prest-#j-,lite1 ,universal1 it is more difficult to break the post seal4 ,fig4 #aid ,brushing lead drillings into box ,on these batteries1 therefore1 do not break this seal before drawing out the plates4 ,you may find that it will not be necessary to separate the groups1 and the post seal will not have to be broken at all1 thereby saving yourself considerable time on the overhauling job4 #c4 ,heating ,up the ,sealing ,compound4 ,having disconnected the cells from each other by removing the cell connectors1 the next step is to open the joint made by the sealing compound between the covers and jars4 ,fig4 #aie shows the battery ready for this step4 ,when cold1 the compound is a tough substance that sticks to the cover and jar1 and hence it must be heated until it is so soft that it is easily removed4 ,there are several methods by means of which compound may be heated4 ,these are as follows3 ,steam4 ,this is the most popular1 and undoubtedly the best means of heating the compound1 and in the following instructions it will be assumed that steam has been used4 ,the battery is either placed in a special box in which steam is sent1 or else steam is sent directly into each cell through the vent tube4 ,in the first method the compound is heated from the outside1 and in the second it is heated from the inside of the cell4 ,fig4 #aie ,battery ready for steaming ,fig4 #aif ,drawing up an element ,if the battery is placed in the steaming box1 about ten minutes will be required for the steam to heat up the sealing compound4 ,for batteries which use but very little compound1 less time is required4 if steam is sent directly into the cells through the vent tubes1 five to seven minutes will generally be enough4 ,the covers must be limp and the #a compound must be soft before turning off the steam4 ,hot ,water4 ,the electrolyte is poured out of the battery1 which is then inverted in a vessel of hot water4 ,this method is slower than the others1 and is more expensive because it requires a larger volume of water to be heated4 ,hot ,putty ,knife and ,screwdriver4 ,the compound may be dug out with a hot putty knife4 ,this is a slow1 unsatisfactory method in most instances1 especially in those batteries which use a considerable amount of sealing compound4 ,with some batteries using only a small quantity of compound1 a heated putty knife may be run around the inside of the jar between the jar and the cover4 ,this will break the joint between the cover and the jar1 and allow the plates to be lifted out4 ,the compound is then scraped from covers and inside of jars1 heating the knife or screwdriver whenever it cools off4 ,lead ,burning ,flame4 ,any soft lead burning flame may be used4 ,such a flame may be adjusted to any desired size4 ,where steam is available1 a flame should1 however1 never be used4 ,the temperature of the flame is very high1 and the covers1 jars1 case1 posts1 and vent plugs may be burned and made worthless4 ,even for the expert repairman1 a flame is not as satisfactory as steam4 ,the ,gasoline ,torch4 ,this is the most unsatisfactory method1 and should not be used if possible4 ,the torch gives a hot1 spreading flame and it is difficult to prevent the covers1 jars1 case1 etc41 from being burned4 ,do not use a gasoline torch if you can possibly avoid doing so4 ,alcohol torches are open to the same objections1 and are not satisfactory1 even in the hands of a highly skilled workman4 ,if a flame is used for heating the compound1 be sure to blow out with a hand bellows or compressed air any gas that may have gathered above the plates1 before you bring the flame near the battery4 ,electric ,heat4 ,special electric ovens for softening sealing compound are on the market4 ,the heating element is brought close to the top of the battery4 ,where electric power is cheap1 this method may be used4 ,otherwise it is rather expensive4 ,fig4 #aig ,resting element on jar to drain ,when the sealing compound has been softened1 place the battery on the floor between your feet4 ,grasp the two posts of one cell with pliers1 and pull straight up with an even1 steady pull4 ,if the battery has been steamed long enough1 the plates will come up easily1 carrying with them the cover 7or covers1 if the batter has upper and lower covers7 to which the compound is sticking1 as shown in ,fig4 #aif4 ,do not remove the plates of the other cells until later4 ,rest the plates on the top of the jar just long enough to allow most of the acid to drain from them1 ,fig4 #aig4 ,if you have removed the post seal1 or if the seal consists of compound 7old ,philadelphia batteries71 pry off the covers now with a screw driver4 ,otherwise1 leave the covers in place while cleaning off the compound4 ,while the plates are resting on the jars to drain1 scrape the compound from the covers with a warm screw driver or putty knife1 ,fig4 #aih4 ,work quickly while the compound is still hot and soft1 and comes off easily4 ,as the compound cools it hardens and sticks to the covers and is removed with difficulty4 ,if the battery has sealing compound around the posts1 this should also be removed thoroughly1 both from the cover and from the post4 ,when you scrape the compound from the covers1 do a good job4 ,do not scrape off most of it1 and then leave pieces of it here and there4 ,remove every bit of compound1 on the tops1 edges1 sides1 and bottoms of the covers4 ,if you need different sized putty knives or screw drivers to do this1 use them4 ,the time to remove all the compound is while it is still hot1 and not after it has become hard and cold4 ,if the battery has single covers1 the compound can be removed very quickly4 ,if the battery is of the old double-cover type1 the job will take more time1 since all the compound should be scraped from both top and bottom covers1 ,fig4 #aii4 ,fig4 #aih ,removing compound from cover ,as soon as you have removed the compound from the covers of the first cell1 serape away the compound which may be sticking to the top and inside walls of the jar1 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,here again you must do a good job1 and remove all of this compound4 ,if you do not do it now1 you will have to do it when you try to put the plates back into the jar later on1 as compound sticking to the inside walls of the jar will make it difficult1 and even impossible to lower the plates into the jar4 ,now draw up the plates of the next cell4 ,rest the plates on the top of the jar just long enough to drain1 and then lift off the covers1 and remove all of the compound1 from cover1 posts1 and jar1 just as you did in the first cell4 ,the third cell1 7and the others1 if there are more than three cells7 are handled just as you did the first one4 ,remember that you should lose no time after you have steamed the battery4 ,hot compound is soft and does not stick to the covers1 jars1 and posts and may therefore be removed quickly and easily4 ,cold compound is hard1 and sticks to the covers4 ,draw out the plates of only one cell at a time1 and clean the compound from the cover1 posts and jar of that one cell before you draw out the plates of the other cells4 ,in this way1 the compound on the covers of the other cells will remain hotter than if all the plates of the battery were drawn out of the jars before any of the compound was removed from the covers4 ,you should have all the plates drawn out1 and all the compound removed within five minutes after you draw up the plates4 ,fig4 #aii ,removing sealing compound from double cover ,throw away the old compound4 ,if is very likely acid-soaked and not fit for further use4 ,what ,must ,be ,done with the ,battery8 ,the battery is now open1 and in a condition to be examined and judgment pronounced upon it4 ,the question now arises1 ,what must be done with it6 ,in deciding upon this1 be honest with your customer1 put yourself in his place1 and do just what you would like to have him do if he were the repairman and you the car owner4 ,the best battery men occasionally make mistakes in their diagnosis of the battery's condition1 and the repairs necessary4 ,experience is the best teacher in this respect1 and you will in time learn to analyze the condition of a battery quickly4 ,handle every cell of a battery that comes in for repairs in the same way1 even though only one dead cell is found1 and the others are apparently in good condition4 ,each cell must be overhauled1 for all cells are of the same age1 and the active materials are in about the same condition in all the cells1 and one cell just happened to give out before the others4 ,if you overhaul only the dead cell1 the others cells are quite likely to give out soon after the battery is put into service again4 ,fig4 #bjj ,removing compound from top of jar ,it is absolutely necessary for you to have a standard method in working on battery plates4 ,you must divide your work into a number of definite steps1 and always perform these steps1 and in the same order each time4 ,if you have a different method of procedure for every battery1 you will never be successful4 ,without a definite1 tangible method of procedure for your work you will be working in the dark1 and groping around like a blind man1 never becoming a battery expert1 never knowing why you did a certain thing1 never gaining confidence in yourself4 ,it is impossible to overemphasize the importance of having a standard method of procedure and to stick to that method4 ,careless1 slip-shod methods will please your competitor and give him the business which belongs to you4 #a4 ,examine plates to determine whether they can be used again ,rules for determining when to discard or use old plates follow4 #b4 ,if all plates of both positive and negative groups are to be discarded1 use new groups4 ,the question as to whether the old negatives should be used with new positives has caused considerable discussion4 ,if the negatives are old and granulated1 they should of course be discarded4 ,remember that the capacity of negatives decreases steadily after they are put into service1 while the capacity of positives increases4 ,putting new positives against negatives which are rapidly losing capacity is not advisable4 ,however1 trouble often arises in a battery whose negatives still have considerable capacity1 and such negatives may safely be used with new positives4 ,if you feel that a battery will not give at least six months more service after rebuilding with the old negatives1 put in all new plates1 or sell the owner a new battery1 allowing him some money on the old battery4 ,but if you really believe that the negatives still have considerable capacity1 put in new positives if required4 ,if all new plates are used1 proceed as directed in this chapter1 beginning at page #cdh4 #c4 ,if you find that only some of the plates are to be discarded1 or if you are not certain as to the condition of the plates1 eliminate any short circuits which may exist1 and give the battery a preliminary charge1 as described later1 before you do any work on the plates4 ,plates that are fully charged are in the best possible condition for handling1 and you should make it an ironclad rule that if some of the plates can be used again always to charge a battery before you work on the plates1 no matter what is to be done to them4 ,if both positives and negatives are to be discarded1 the preliminary charge should not1 of course1 be given1 but if only the negatives1 or the negatives and some or all of the positives are to be used again1 give this preliminary charge4 ,very few batteries will come to your shop in a charged condition1 and an exhausted battery is not in a good condition to be worked on4 ,charge the whole battery even though only one cell is in a very bad condition4 ,this is a method that has been tried out thoroughly in practice1 not in one or two cases1 but in thousands4 ,batteries in all sorts of conditions have been rebuilt by this method1 and have always given first class service1 a service which was frequently as good1 if not better than that given by new batteries4 ,examining the ,plates ,place an element on a block of wood as shown in ,fig4 #bja4 ,carefully pry the plates apart so that you can look down between them and make a fair preliminary examination4 ,whenever possible1 make your examination of the plates without separating the groups or removing the old separators4 ,this should be done because3 7a7 ,very often the active material is bulged or swollen1 and if you pull out the old separators and put in new ones before charging1 the element spreads out so at the bottom that it cannot be put back into the jars without first pressing in a plate press4 ,pressing a complete element with the separators in place should never be done if it can possibly be avoided4 ,if it is done the separators should be thrown4 away after you have charged the battery1 washed and pressed the negatives1 and washed the positive4 ,fig4 #bja ,element on block for examination 7b7 ,if you put in new separators before giving the battery the preliminary charge1 the new separators may pick up any impurities which may be on the plates1 and will probably be cracked by forcing them between the bulged and sulphated plates4 ,if1 however1 the old separators are covered with sulphate1 it is best to throw them away and put in new separators before giving the battery its preliminary charge1 because such separators will greatly hinder the flow of the charging current4 ,in batteries using rubber sheets in addition to the wooden separators1 remove all the wooden separators and leave the rubber sheets in place between the plates4 ,where only wooden separators are used in a battery1 these may be thrown away and perforated rubber separators used for the preliminary charge4 ,rubber separators may be used again4 ,see 7a7 above about precautions against pressing a complete element4 ,fig4 #bjb ,separating the groups ,if you are not absolutely certain as to the condition of the plates1 draw out a few separators4 ,if separators stick to the plates1 loosen them by inserting a putty knife blade between them and the plates4 ,removing a few separators will permit you to separate the groups before removing the rest of the separators4 ,to separate the groups1 grasp a post in each hand1 as1 in ,fig4 #bjb1 and work them back and forth1 being careful not to injure the posts1 or break off any plates4 ,with the groups separated1 the remaining separators will either fall out or may be easily pushed out with a putty knife4 ,ordinarily1 the groups may be separated in this way if the elements have thirteen plates or less4 ,the natural thing to do at this point is to decide what must be done to the plates1 and we therefore give a number of rules to help you determine which are to be junked1 and which are to be used again4 ,study these rules carefully1 and have them fixed firmly in your mind so that you can tell instantly what must be done with the plates4 ,fig4 #bjc ,positives from frozen vehicle cell1 showing active material sticking to separator ,when to ,put ,in ,new ,plates #a4 ,if one or more jars are cracked and leak1 and positive plates have been ruined by freezing1 as shown in ,fig4 #bjc1 and if upon drawing out the separators1 and separating the positive and negative groups the active material drops out of the grids1 the only way to put the battery in a good condition is to put in new positives1 and new jars and case if necessary4 ,make a careful estimate of #a4 7a7 ,cost of new jars4 #b4 7b7 ,cost of new plates4 #c4 7c7 ,cost of new case if needed4 #d4 7d7 ,cost of labor required4 ,try to have the owner present while you are opening his battery4 ,if1 however1 he could not wait1 and has left1 call him up and tell him what the total cost will be1 and if he has no objections1 go ahead with the job4 ,if he is not entirely satisfied with your price1 try to get him to come to your shop4 ,show him the battery1 explain its condition1 tell him just what must be done with it1 and explain how you made your estimate of the cost of the whole job4 ,if you do this4 there will never be any misunderstanding as to cost4 ,tell him the cost of a new battery1 and let him decide if lie wants one4 ,if the cost of repairing is almost as much as the price of a new battery4 advise him to buy a new one1 but allow him to make the decision himself4 ,he will then have no cause for complaint4 ,fig4 #bjd and #bje ,show ,diseased ,negatives4 ,the ,large ,ones ,only ,eight ,months ,old4 ,active ,material1 ,granulated and ,blistered #b4 ,if the battery is more than two years old1 and the active material on the negative plates is granulated 7grainy appearance71 ,figs4 #bjd and #bje1 and somewhat disintegrated2 if the plates are weak and brittle around the edges1 and several grids are cracked1 ,fig4 #bjf1 and the plates have lost a considerable amount of active material2 and if the case has been rotted by the acid1 the battery should be junked4 ,fig4 #bjf ,weak and cracked positives ,call up the owner1 and tell him he needs a new battery4 ,if he does not seem pleased1 ask him to come to your shop4 ,then show him his battery1 and explain its condition4 ,if you are courteous and patient1 you will sell him a new battery4 ,otherwise he will never return4 ,fig4 #bjg ,buckled plates1 and ,fig4 #bjh ,an unusually bad case of buckling #c4 ,if the positive plates are badly distorted from buckling1 as in ,figs4 #bjg and #bjh discard them1 for they will cut through new separators1 if put into commission again1 ill from two to six months4 #d4 ,a battery which has has been dry and badly sulphated at some past period of its life will have the dry portions covered with a white sulphate1 the acid line being clearly distinguishable by this white color1 as shown at ,a and ,b in ,fig4 #bja4 ,if the plates are otherwise in good shape and you wish to use them1 give them the water cure described on page #cdi4 ,fig4 #bji ,corroded1 bulged and sulphated negatives4 ,disintegrated1 rotten positives4 ,fig4 #baj ,disintegrated positives4 #e4 ,rotten and disintegrated positive plates1 ,figs4 #bji and #baj1 must be replaced with new plates4 ,the plates have fallen to pieces or break at the slightest pressure4 ,disintegrated plates are an indication of impurities or overcharging1 providing the battery is not old enough to cause disintegration normally1--say about two years4 ,the lead grid is converted into peroxide of lead and becomes soft4 ,as a result1 there is nothing to support the paste1 and it falls out4 ,better put in new negatives also4 #f4 ,batteries with high gravity or hot electrolyte have burned and carbonized separators1 turning them black and rotting them1 the negative paste becomes granulated and is kept in a soft condition1 and gradually drops from the grids on account of the jolting of the car on the road4 ,fig4 #baa shows such a battery4 #g4 ,dry1 hard1 and white1 long discharged1 and badly sulphated plates1 ,figs4 #bja and #bji1 are practically ruined1 though if the trouble is not of long standing1 the plates may be revived somewhat by a long charge at a very low rate1 using distilled water in place of the electrolyte1 and then discharging at a current equal to about one-eight to one-tenth of the ampere hour capacity of the battery at the discharge board4 ,charge and discharge a battery a number or times1 and you may be able to put a little pep into it4 ,in charging sulphated plates1 use a low charging rate1 and do not allow gassing before the end of the charge1 or a temperature of the electrolyte above #aaj;,f4 ,fig4 #baa ,side and end view of element from traveling salesman's battery #h4 ,if a battery case is not held down firmly1 or if the elements are loose in the jars1 the plates will jump around when the car is in motion4 ,this will break the sealing compound on top of the battery1 and cause the battery to be a slopper4 ,the active materials will be shaken out of the grids1 as shown in ,fig4 #bab1 and the plates will wear through the separators4 ,new plates are required4 #i4 ,if ,battery ,has ,been ,reversed4 ,often the plates of such a battery disintegrate and crumble under the slightest pressure4 ,if the reversal is not too far advanced1 the plates may be restored 7,see page #ha71 but otherwise they should be discarded4 ,this condition is recognized by the original negatives being brown1 and the original positives gray4 ,from the foregoing explanations1 you see that most of the trouble is with the positives3 7a7 ,because the positive active material does not stick together well1 but drops off1 or sheds easily4 7b7 ,because the positives warp or buckle1 this causing most of the battery troubles4 7c7 ,because the positive plate is weaker and is ruined by freezing4 ,when the ,old ,plates ,may be ,used ,again #a4 ,if one or more plates are broken from the plate connecting straps1 or the joint between any strap and the plate is poorly made4 ,if plates are in good condition1 reburn the plate lugs to the straps4 ,fig4 #bab ,fig4 #bab4 ,element from a ,slopper4 ,element was ,loose in ,jar and ,jolting of ,car ,caused ,paste to ,fall ,out4 #b4 ,straight ,rebuild4 ,if the general condition of the battery is good1 i4e41 the plates straight or only slightly buckled1 only a slight amount of shedding of active material1 no white sulphate oil either plate1 the grids not brittle1 active material adhering to and firmly touching the grids1 the positive active material of a dark chocolate brown color and fairly hard 7as determined by scratching with blade of a pocket knife71 the negative active ,material dark gray in color and not blistered or granulated1 and the plates not too thin1 make a straight rebuild4 ,to do this1 charge the battery1 remove any sediment from the bottom of the jar1 wash and press the negatives1 wash the positives1 clean the parts1 insert new separators1 and reassemble as directed later4 ,the only trouble may be cracked sealing compound1 or a broken jar4 ,broken jars should1 of course1 be replaced4 ,fig4 #bac ,badly bulged negatives4 ,such plates must be pressed #c4 ,badly bulged negative plates1 ,fig4 #bac1 cause lack of capacity because the active material is loose1 and does not make good contact with the grids4 ,if the active material is not badly granulated 7having a grainy appearance7 the plates call be used again4 ,sulphated negatives have very hard active material1 and will feel as bard as stone when scratched with a knife4 ,hard negatives from ,which active material has been falling ill lumps ,oil account of being overdischarged after having been in in undercharged condition may be nursed back to life1 if too much of the active material has not been lost4 #d4 ,the formation of an excessive amount of sulphate may result in cracking the grids1 and the active materials falls out in lumps4 ,such plates may be put in a serviceable condition by a long charge and several cycles of charge and discharge if there is not too much cracking or too much loss of active material4 #e4 ,positives which are only slightly warped or buckled may be used again4 #f4 ,when the only trouble found is a slight amount of shedding4 ,positive active material must be of a dark chocolate brown color and fairly hard4 ,negatives must be a dark gray4 #g4 ,when the plates are in a good condition1 but one or more separators have been worn or out through1 or a jar is cracked4 ,if the battery is one which will not hold its charge1 and plates seem to be in a good condition1 the trouble is very likely caused by the separators approaching the breaking down point1 and the repair job consists of putting in new separators or reinsulating the battery4 ,what ,to ,do ,with the ,separators ,it is the safest plan to put in new separators whenever a battery is opened1 and the groups separated4 ,separators are the weakest part of the battery1 and it is absolutely essential that all their pores be fully opened so as to allow free passing of electrolyte through them4 ,some of the conditions requiring new separators are3 #a4 ,whenever the pores are closed by any foreign matter whatsoever4 ,put in new separators whether you can figure out the cause of the trouble or not4 ,the separator shown in ,fig4 #bja is sulphated clear through above the line ,b1 and is worthless4 ,the separator shown in ,fig4 #bjc should not be used again4 #b4 ,when the separators have been cut or chiseled off by the edge of a buckled plate1 ,fig4 #bad4 #c4 ,when a buckling plate or plate with bulged active material breaks through the separator1 ,fig4 #bad4 ,fig4 #bad ,fig4 #bad4 ,separators ,worn ,thin and ,cut ,through on ,edges by ,buckled ,plates4 ,holes ,worn ,through by ,bulged ,active ,material1 ,center ,one ,shows ,cell ,was ,dry ,two ,thirds of the ,way ,down4 #d4 ,when a battery has been used while the level of the ,fig4 #bad4 ,separators ,worn ,thin and ,cut ,through on ,edges by ,buckled ,plates4 ,holes ,worn ,through by ,bulged ,active ,material4 ,center ,one ,shows ,cell ,was ,dry ,two ,thirds of the ,way ,down electrolyte has been below the tops of the plates1 or the battery has been used in a discharged condition1 and lead sulphate has deposited on the separators1 ,fig4 #bja4 ,fig4 #bae ,rotted separators #e4 ,when a battery has been over-heated by overcharging or other causes1 and the hot acid has rotted1 burned and carbonized the separators1 ,fig4 #bae4 #f4 ,when a battery has been damaged by the addition of acid and the separators have been rotted1 ,fig4 #bae4 #g4 ,separators which are more than a year old should be replaced by new ones1 whether plates are defective or not4 ,when you have put in new separators1 and put the battery on charge1 the specific gravity of the electrolyte may go down at first1 instead of rising4 ,this is because the separators may absorb some of the acid4 ,if the battery was discharged when you put in the new separators1 the lowering of the specific gravity might not take place1 but in most cases the specific gravity will go down1 or not change at all4 ,find the ,cause of ,every ,trouble ,the foregoing rules must be studied carefully and be clearly tabulated in your mind to be able to tell what to put into commission again and what to discard as junk4 ,it will take time to learn how to discriminate1 but keep at it persistently and persevere1 and as you pass judgment on this battery and that battery1 ask yourself such questions as3 ,what put this battery in this condition8 ,why are the negative plates granulated8 ,why are the positive plates buckled8 ,what caused the positive plates to disintegrate8 ,why are the separators black8 ,why is the case rotten when less than a year old8 ,why did the sealing compound crack on top and cause the electrolyte to slop8 ,why did one of the terminal connectors get loose and make a slopper8 ,who is to blame for it1 the car manufacturer1 the manufacturer of the battery1 or the owner of the car8 ,why did this battery have to be taken off the car1 opened up and rebuilt at #e months old1 when the battery taken off a car just the day before had been on for #cj months and never had been charged off the car but once8 ,there is a reason2 find it4 ,locate the cause of the trouble if possible1 remove the cause2 your customer will appreciate it and tell his friends about it1 and this will mean more business for you4 ,eliminating ,shorts ,if you have decided that some or all of the plates may be used again1 the next thing to do is to separate any plates that are touching1 and put the battery on charge4 ,it may be necessary to put in new separators in place of the defective ones4 ,examine the separators carefully4 ,whenever you find the pores of the separators stopped up from any cause whatsoever1 put in new separators before charging4 #a4 ,sometimes the negative plates are bulged or blistered badly and have worn clear through the separators1 ,fig4 #bad1 and touch the positives4 ,in cases of this kind1 to save time and trouble1 separate the groups1 press the negatives lightly1 as described later1 assemble the element with new separators1 and it is ready for charging4 #b4 ,there is another case where the groups must be separated and new separators inserted before they will take charge1 and that is where the battery has suffered from lack of water and has sulphated clear through the separators1 ,fig4 #bja4 ,the separators will be covered with white sulphate4 ,chemical action is very sluggish in such cases4 ,if you find that the separator pores are still open1 leave the separators in place and proceed to separate the plates that are touching4 ,how8 ,that depends on what insulating material you have available that is thin enough4 ,if nothing else is available1 take a piece of new dry separator about #c_/h inch to #a_/b inch square1 or a piece of pasteboard the same size4 ,use a screw driver or putty knife to separate the plates far enough to insert the little piece of insulation as in ,fig4 #baf4 ,free all the shorts in this way1 unless you have some old rubber insulators4 ,in this case1 break off some narrow strips #c_/d inch wide or less1 put two together and repeat the operation as above1 using the rubber strips instead of the pieces of separator4 ,insert down #a_/b inch or so and bend over and break off4 ,occasionally the ,lipper edges of the plates are shorted1 in which case they must be treated the same way4 ,fig4 #baf ,clearing short circuits ,fig4 #bag ,cleaning scale from posts before replacing connectors temporarily for charge ,charging ,when you have in this way cleared all the shorts in the elements place the elements back in the jars in the same position as they were when you opened the battery1 and add enough distilled water to the electrolyte to cover the plates to a depth of one-half inch4 ,if the negatives are badly sulphated 7active material very hard71 they will charge more quickly if all the old electrolyte is dumped out and the cells filled with distilled water before putting the battery on charge4 ,this water cure is the best for sulphated negatives and will save many plates that could otherwise not be used again4 ,make it a rule to replace the old electrolyte with distilled water if negatives are sulphated4 ,fig4 #bah ,fig4 #bah4 ,tapping ,connectors in ,place4 ,preparatory to ,charging ,after ,battery ,has ,been ,opened and ,shorts ,removed ,the next operation is to put the battery on charge4 ,grasp each post in the jaws of a pair of gas pliers and work the pliers back and forth1 ,fig4 #bag1 so as to remove the scale and allow the connecting straps to make good contact4 ,now take a knife and cut off the rough edges left in the connecting straps by the drill4 ,taper the edge1 if necessary to go on post4 ,turn the connectors upside down and pound gently in position1 ,fig4 #bah1 to make a good connection4 ,temporary charging connections may also be made by burning lead strips on the posts4 ,this being properly done1 the battery is ready for charging4 ,check up the connections to be sure they are correct4 ,now put the battery on charge1 and charge at a low rate4 ,do not allow the temperature of any cell to rise above #aaj;,f4 ,continue the charge until the electrolyte clears up1 and its specific gravity stops rising and the plates have a normal color over their entire surface4 ,fully charged positive plates have a chocolate brown color1 and fully charged negative plates have a dark gray color4 ,by holding an electric light directly over a cell1 and looking down1 the color of both negatives and positives may be determined4 ,do not take the battery off charge until you have obtained these results1 although it may be necessary to continue the charge for two1 three1 four1 or five days4 ,in this preliminary charge it is not necessary to bring the gravity up to #a4bhj1 because the electrolyte is not to be used again1 and the plates will become charged completely1 regardless of what the gravity is4 ,the essential thing is to charge until the electrolyte becomes perfectly clear1 the gravity stops rising1 and the plates have the right color4 ,the ,cadmium test may be used here to determine when the plates are charged4 ,if the gravity rises above #a4bhj during the preliminary charge1 adjust it to #a4bhj by drawing out some of the electrolyte and adding distilled water4 ,the battery must stay on charge until you have the desired conditions4 ,if one cell does not charge1--that is1 if its specific gravity does not rise1--you have probably not freed all the shorts1 and must take the element out of the jar again and carefully inspect it for more shorts4 ,right here is where one of the most important questions may be asked about rebuilding batteries4 ,why must you free the shorts and put the battery on charge8 ,why not save time by putting in all new separators1 sealing the battery1 burning on the cell connectors1 and then putting it on charge8 ,if you have ever treated a battery in this way1 what results did you get8 ,why did you have a badly unbalanced gravity of electrolyte8 ,how could you know what specific gravity electrolyte to put in each cell8 ,perhaps one was charged1 one only half charged1 and the other dead4 ,suppose the dead cell had impurities in it4 ,how could you get rid of them8 ,suppose the battery showed poor capacity on test1 what would you do8 ,washing and ,pressing the ,negatives ,to continue the actual work on the battery4 ,the battery being fully charged1--the electrolyte clear1 the plates of normal color1 the specific gravity no longer rising1-- remove it from the charging bench and put it on the work bench4 ,draw each element and let drain as in ,fig4 #aig4 ,fig4 #bai ,nesting plates ,here again the labeled boxes described on page #ahc come in handy4 ,separate one group1 remove the separators1 and put one group in each end of box to keep clean4 ,separate another group1 ,and nest the plates1 ,fig4 #bai1 the negative with the negative1 and positive with positive4 ,separate the third element and put groups in the boxes4 ,pour the old electrolyte out of the jars1 and wash out the jars as described on page #cfj4 ,you now have the plates in the best possible shape for handling4 ,take the boxes containing the plates to the sink4 ,have the plate press and the plate press boards ready for use4 ,if1 for any reason1 you are called away from your work at this point to be gone for five minutes1 do not leave the fully charged negatives exposed to the air1 as they will become very hot4 ,cover them with water4 ,a one-gallon stone or earthenware jar will hold the negative plates of a #ajj ampere hour battery if you nest two of the groups4 ,you may also put negatives back in jars from which they were taken1 and fill with water4 ,now hold a negative group under the faucet1 and let a strong stream of water run down over each plate so as to wash it thoroughly1 and to remove any foreign matter from the plate surfaces4 ,all negative groups must be handled in exactly the same way so as to get the same results in each case4 ,after you have washed the first group1 place it on edge on a clean board with the post down and pointing away from you1 and the bottom of the group toward you4 ,now insert plate press boards which are slightly larger than the plates1 and of the exact thickness required to fill the spaces between plates1 ,fig4 #aac4 ,for the standard #a_/h inch plates1 a #e-af inch board1 or two #a_/h inch boards should be placed between plates4 ,the #a_/h inch boards are actually more than #a_/h inch thick1 and will give the proper spacing4 ,for thin plates1 use #a_/d inch boards4 ,do not push the plate press boards more than #a_/h inch above the tops of the plates1 and be sure that the boards cover the entire plates4 ,put a board on the outside of each end plate of the group4 ,in this way insert the plate press boards in each of the three negative groups4 ,then place each negative group on the lower jaw of the plate press with the post of each group pointing toward you4 ,three groups may be pressed at one time4 ,bring the top edges of the transite boards flush with the front edge of the lower jaw of the press1 so that no pressure will be applied to the plate lugs4 ,see ,fig4 #aad4 ,pressure applied to the plate lugs will break them off4 ,now screw down the upper jaw of the press as tightly as you can with the handwheel1 so as to put as much pressure on the plates as possible4 ,leave the plates in the press for about five minutes4 ,then remove them from the press1 take out the boards1 and replace the plates in the battery jar from which they were removed1 and cover with water4 ,they may also be placed in a stone or earthernware jar and covered with water1 especially if there is any work to be done on the jars or case of the battery4 ,if the spongy lead of the negatives is firm1 they may be reassembled in the battery as soon as they have been pressed4 ,if1 however1 the spongy lead is soft and mushy1 keep the negatives covered with water for #ab to #bd hours4 ,this will make them hard and firm4 ,then remove them from the water and dry them in the air4 ,in drying1 the plates will become heated and will steam4 ,as soon as you notice any steaming1 dip the plates in water until they are cool4 ,then remove them from the water and continue the drying process4 ,each time the negatives begin to steam as they dry in the air1 dip them in the water until they are cool4 ,when the negatives are dry1 they are ready to be reassembled in the battery and prepared for service4 ,negatives treated in this way will give good service for a much longer time than they would if not treated in this way4 ,the spongy lead has been made firm and elastic4 ,if you have other negatives in your shop which are not in use1 treat them in the same way and put them away for future use1 to use as rental batteries4 ,always put them through the same process3 #a4 ,charge them fully4 #b4 ,press them in the plate press to force the spongy lead back into the grids4 #c4 ,soak them in water1 if the spongy lead is soft and mushy1 for #ab to #bd hours1 or even longer until the spongy lead is firm4 ,dry them in the air1 dipping them in water whenever they begin to steam and become heated4 ,this will give you negatives that will give excellent service and have a long life4 ,many negatives treated in this way will be good for fifteen months to two years of additional service4 ,the rental batteries should be assembled in the same way as those you are rebuilding for the owners4 ,the importance of pressing negatives cannot be exaggerated4 ,always press the negatives of the batteries which you rebuild4 ,do not do it to half1 or three-fourths of the negatives1 but to all of them4 ,the work takes but a few minutes1 and the time could not be put to better advantage4 ,the spongy lead of the negatives swells and bulges out and makes very poor contact with the grids as a battery becomes discharged4 ,this results in a loss of capacity1 gradual sulphation of the loose active material1 corrosion of the grids1 failure of the gravity to rise high enough on charge1 overheating of the battery on charge1 gassing before the sulphate is reduced to active material with breaking off and roughening of the active material1 and makes the battery lazy and sluggish in action4 ,the spongy lead must make good contact with the grids if the battery is to have a long life and give good service4 ,no amount of charging will cure a negative with bulged1 swollen active material4 ,once this material becomes bulged nothing but pressing will put it back where it belongs1 and until it is pressed back into the grids the plates are in a poor condition for service4 ,even if the bulging is but very slight1 the plates must be pressed4 ,washing ,positives ,if you intend to use some of the positives1 they should now be washed4 ,if you intend to use all new positives1 throw away the old ones1 of course4 ,the positives should not be held under the faucet as the negatives were1 because the stream of water will wash out much of the positive active material4 ,rinse the positives a number of times in a jar of clean water by moving them up and down in the water4 ,this will remove impurities from the surfaces of the plates and wash off any foreign or loose materials4 ,after rinsing each positive group1 replace it in the box4 ,never attempt to straighten badly buckled positives1 as the bending cannot be done successfully1 and the active material will not have good contact with the grids4 ,positives cannot be pressed as negatives can1 because the positive active material lacks the elasticity and toughness of the negative spongy lead4 ,slightly buckled positives may sometimes be straightened by bending them lightly all around the edges with a pair of thin1 wide nosed pliers4 ,this should be done very carefully1 however1 and the straightening done gradually4 ,if the plates cannot be straightened in this way and the separators do not lie perfectly flat against them without pinching at the corners1 the plates should be discarded1 and new ones used in their place4 ,this is all the work to be done on the old plates1 and those which are to be used again are ready to be reassembled in the battery4 ,the process of treating the plates should be followed in every battery that you rebuild1 and the same steps should always be taken1 and in the same order4 ,with one ,standard method of rebuilding batteries you will do uniformly good work and satisfy all your customers4 ,the essential thing for the success of your battery business is to learn the ,standard method and use it4 ,do not rush a battery through your shop1 and leave out some of the steps of the process1 even though the owner may be in a hurry4 ,if you have a good stock of rental batteries you can put one on his car and keep it there until you have done as good a job of rebuilding on his battery as you possibly can4 ,remember that the ,standard method which has been described has not simply been figured out as being a good method4 ,this method has been worked out in the actual rebuilding of thousands and thousands of batteries of all makes and in all conditions1 and has produced batteries full of life and power1 ready to give one to two years more of good1 reliable service4 ,burning on ,plates ,when you put new plates into a battery1 or find some of the plates broken from the connecting strap1 it will be necessary to burn the plates to the strap4 ,frequently you will find plates which are otherwise in a good condition broken from the connecting straps4 ,this is most likely to happen when the plates have been cast on to the connecting strap instead of being burned on4 ,these plates must be burned on4 ,new plates are frequently necessary4 ,from pages #cci to #cdf you see that new plates are required under the following conditions3 7a7 ,positives4 ,ruined by freezing2 weak and brittle from age1 large part of active material shed2 badly buckled2 rotten and disintegrated by impurities2 reversed4 ,positives in a reasonably good mechanical condition can be restored to a good electrical condition by charging4 7b7 ,negatives4 ,active material granulated1 bulged and disintegrated2 charged while dry2 positives disintegrated by impurities2 ruined by overcharging2 badly sulphated because allowed to stand idle1 or used while discharged2 much active material lost1 and that which is left soft and mushy2 negatives reversed by charging battery backwards4 ,when making plate renewals1 never install plates of different design in the same group4 ,always use plates of the type intended for the battery4 ,the battery should first be fully charged1 as already explained4 ,if all the plates in a group are to be discarded1 clamp the post in a vise1 being careful not to crack the hard rubber shell if one is on it1 or to damage the threads on ,posts such as the ,exide or to draw up the vise so tightly as to crush the post4 ,then saw off all the old plates with a new coarse toothed hacksaw1 a sharp key hole saw1 or any good saw which has a wide set1 close to the post4 ,this separates the entire group of plates from the post in one short operation4 ,this method is much better than the one of sawing the plates off below the connecting strap1 and sawing or punching the old plate ends out of the strap4 ,see page #bag for instructions for welding plates to the straps4 ,work on the ,jars ,the work on the jars consists of removing any sediment which may have collected1 washing out all dirt1 and replacing leaky jars4 ,the removal of sediment and washing should be done after the preliminary charge has been given and the old electrolyte poured out unless the preliminary charge was given with distilled water in the jars4 ,the old electrolyte need not be poured down the sewer1 but may be kept in stone or earthenware jars and used later in making electrical tests to locate leaky jars4 ,testing ,jars ,remove all sealing compound from the jar by means of a hot putty knife1 finishing by wiping with a gasoline soaked rag4 ,inspect each jar carefully under a strong light for cracks and leaks4 ,if you know which jar is leaky by having filled each cell with water up to the correct level1 when you made the first examination of the battery1 and then having it allowed to stand over night to see if the electrolyte in any cell has dropped below the tops of the plates1 no tests are necessary1 but if you are in doubt as to which jar1 if any1 is leaky1 you must make tests to determine which jar is leaky4 ,if you know that there is no leaky jar1 because of the bottom of the case not being acid eaten and rotted1 it is1 of course1 not necessary to test the jars4 ,one test consists in filling the jar within about an inch of the top with old or weak electrolyte1 partly immersing the jar in a tank which also contains electrolyte1 and applying a voltage of #aaj or #bbj between the electrolyte in the jar and the electrolyte in the tank in which the jar is partly immersed4 ,if current ,vows1 this indicates that the jar is leaky4 ,fig4 #bbj ,testing jar for leaks1 using a #ae-watt lamp in series with test circuit ,fig4 #bbj shows the principle of the test4 ,a suitable box1--an old battery case will do--is lined with sheet lead1 and the lead lining is connected to either side of the #aaj or #bbj volt line4 ,the box is then partly filled with weak electrolyte4 ,the jar to be tested is filled to within about one inch of the top with weak electrolyte4 ,the jar is immersed to within about an inch of its top in the box4 ,the top part of the jar must be perfectly dry when the test is made1 or else the current will go through any electrolyte which may be wetting the walls of the jar4 ,a lead strip or rod1 which is connected to the other side of the #aaj or #bbj volt line1 through a lamp as shown1 is inserted in the jar4 ,if there is1 a leak in the jar1 the lamp will burn1 and the jar must be discarded4 ,if the lamp does not light1 the jar does not leak4 ,instead of using a lead lined box1 a stone or earthenware jar may be used4 ,a sheet of lead should be placed in this jar1 being bent into a circular shape to fit the inside of the jar1 and connected to one side of the line4 ,the lead rod or sheet which is inserted in the jar may be mounted on a handle for convenience in making the test4 ,the details of the testing outfit may1 of course1 be varied according to what material is available for use4 ,the lamps should be suitably mounted on the wall above the tester4 ,fig4 #bba ,testing jar for leaks1 using a voltmeter in series with test circuit ,this test may be made by using a voltmeter instead of lamps1 as shown in ,fig4 #bba4 ,if a voltmeter is used1 be especially careful to have the part projecting above the liquid perfectly dry4 ,a leaky cell will be indicated by a reading on the meter equal to the line voltage4 ,fig4 #bbb ,testing jar for leaks1 using secondary of ,ford ignition coil1 or any other vibrator ignition coil ,a third method uses a ,ford ignition coil1 as shown in ,fig4 #bbb4 ,a leak will be indicated by a spark1 or by the vibrator making more noise than it ordinarily does4 ,instead of using the ,ford coil1 as shown in ,fig4 #bbb1 the test may be made as shown in ,fig4 #bbc4 ,fill the jar to within an inch of the top with electrolyte and immerse one of the high tension wires in the electrolyte4 ,attach the other high tension wire to a wire brush1 comb1 or rod having a wooden handle and rub it over the outside of the jar4 ,a leak is shown by a spark jumping to the jar4 ,fig4 #bbc ,testing jar for leaks1 using secondary of ,ford ignition coil1 or any other vibrator ignition coil ,the test may also be made without removing the jar4 ,if the lead lined box be made two feet long1 the entire battery may be set in the box so that the electrolyte in the box comes within an inch of the top of the battery case4 ,fill each jar with weak electrolyte and make the test as before4 ,if this is done1 however1 remove the battery immediately after making the test and wipe the case dry with a cloth4 ,to make the test in this way1 the case must be considerably acid eaten in order to have a circuit through it to the jar4 ,removing ,defective ,jars ,the method of removing the jars from the case depends on the battery4 ,in some batteries the jars are set in sealing compound4 ,to remove a jar from such a battery1 put the steam hose from your steamer outfit into the jar1 cover up the top of the jar with rags1 and steam the jar for about five minutes4 ,another way is to fill the jar with boiling hot water and let it stand for fully five minutes4 ,either of these methods will soften the sealing compound around the jar so that the jar may be pulled out4 ,to remove the jar1 grasp two sides of the jar with two pairs of long1 flat nosed pliers and pull straight up with an even1 steady pull4 ,have the new jar at hand and push it into the place of the old one as soon as the latter is removed4 ,the new jar should first be steamed to soften it somewhat4 ,press down steadily on the new jar until its top is flush with the tops of the other jars4 ,some batteries do not use sealing compound around the jars1 but simply use thin wooden wedges to hold the jars in place1 or have bolts running through opposite faces of the case by means of which the sides are pressed against the jars to hold them in place4 ,the jars of such batteries may be removed without heating1 by removing the wedges or loosening the bolts1 as the case may be1 and lifting out the jars with pliers1 as before4 ,new jars should be steamed for several minutes before being put in the case4 ,when you put jars into such batteries1 do not apply too much pressure to them1 as they may be cracked by the pressure1 or the jar may be squeezed out of shape1 and the assembling process made difficult4 ,fig4 #bbd ,washing sediment from ,jars4 ,water supply controlled by foot valve ,repairing the ,case ,the case may be repaired with all the jars in place1 or it may be necessary to remove the jars4 ,if the case is to be junked and the jars used again1 the case may simply be broken off1 especially if there is much sealing compound around the jars4 ,empty the old acid from the jars1 take the case to the sink and wash out all the sediment1 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,with the pipe shown in ,fig4 '#ad1 you have both hands free to hold the case1 as the water is controlled by' a foot operated spring cock4 ,if the case is rotten at top1 patch it with good wood4 ,if the top and bottom are so rotten that considerable time will be required to repair it1 advise the owner to buy a new case4 ,sometimes the top of the case can be greatly improved by straightening the side edges with a small smoothing plane1 and sometimes a #a_/b inch strip or more fitted all along the edge is necessary for a good job4 ,handles that have been pulled1 rotted1 or corroded off make disagreeable repair jobs1 but a satisfactory job can be done unless the end of the case has been pulled off or rotted4 ,sometimes the handle will hold in place until the battery is worn out by old age if three or four extra holes are bored and countersunk in the handle where the wood is solid1 and common wood screws1 size #ab1 #a_/b or #e_/h inch long used to fasten the handle in place4 ,sometimes it will be necessary to put in one half of a new end1 the handle being fastened to the new piece with brass bolts and nuts before it is put into place4 ,sometimes you can do a good job by using a plate of sheet iron #a-af inch thick1 and #d inches wide1 and as long as the end of the case is wide4 ,rivet the handle to this plate with stovepipe1 or copper rivets1 and then fasten the plate to the case with ,no4 #ab wood screws1 #a_/b inch long4 ,if the old case is good enough to use again1 soak it for several hours in a solution of baking soda in water to neutralize any acid which may have been spilled on it1 or which may be spilled on it later4 ,after soaking the case1 rinse it in water1 and allow it to dry thoroughly4 ,then paint the case carefully with asphaltum paint4 ,,reassembling ,,the ,,battery ,reassembling the ,elements ,take a negative group and put it on edge on a board1 with post away from you1 and lower edge toward you4 ,mesh a positive in the negative group4 ,the groups are now ready for the separators4 ,take six moist separators from your stock4 ,slip one into position from the bottom in the middle of the group1 with the grooved side toward the positive plate1 spreading the plates slightly if necessary4 ,take another separator1 slip it into position on the opposite side of the positive against which your first separator was placed4 ,in this way1 put in the six separators1 with the grooved side toward the positives1 working outward in both directions from the center1 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,the grooves must1 of course1 extend from the top to the bottom of the plate4 ,now grasp the element in both hands1 and set it right side up on the block1 giving it a slight jar to bring the bottoms of the plates and separators on a level4 ,fig4 #bbe ,inserting separators ,now grasp the element in both hands1 and set it right side up on the block1 giving it a slight jar to bring the bottoms of the plates and separators on a level4 ,next take a cover1 and try it on the posts1 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,pull the groups apart slightly1 if necessary1 before inserting any more separators1 so that the cover fits exactly over the posts1 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,see that the separators extend the same distance beyond each side of the plates4 ,you may take a stick1 about #aj inches long1 #a #a_/b inches wide1 and #g_/h inch thick1 and tap the separators gently to even them up4 ,a small wood plane may be used to even up the side edges of wood separators4 ,if you put in too many separators before trying on the cover1 the plates may become so tight that you may not be able to shift them to make the cover fit the posts or you may not be able to shift the separators to their proper positions4 ,it is therefore best to ,put in only enough separators to hold the groups together and so they can be handled and yet remain in their proper position when set up on the block4 ,without separators1 the posts will not remain in position4 ,fig4 #bbf ,trying on a cover ,fig4 #bbg ,shifting groups to make cover fit ,with the element reassembled1 and the remaining separators in their proper positions1 see that all the plates are level on bottom1 and no foreign matter sticking to them4 ,place the element in box shown in ,fig4 #bai to keep clean4 ,reassemble the other elements in exactly the same way1 and put them in the box4 ,the elements are now ready to be put in the jars4 ,putting ,elements in ,jars ,steam the jars in the steamer for about five minutes to soften them somewhat1 so that there will be no danger of breaking a jar when you put in the elements4 ,with the case ready1 look for the 1 ,p or ,,pos mark on it4 7,cases which are not marked in this way at the factory should be marked by the repairman before the battery is opened47 ,place the case so that this mark is toward you4 ,grip an element near the bottom in order to prevent the plates from spreading1 and put it in the jar nearest the mark1 with the positive post toward you1 next to the mark4 ,put an element in the next jar so that the negative post is toward you4 ,put an element in the third jar so that the positive post is toward you1 and so on4 ,the elements are correctly placed when each connecting strap connects a positive to a negative post4 ,if the case has no mark on it1 reassemble exactly according to the diagram you made on the tag before you opened the battery4 ,set the jars so that the posts are exactly in line so that the cell connectors will fit4 ,fig4 #bbh ,tightening a loose element by placing a separator against outside negative ,if an element fits loosely in the jar1 it must be tightened4 ,the best way to do this is to put one or more separators on one or both sides of the elements before putting it in the jar1 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,if you leave the elements loose in the jars1 the jolting of the car will soon crack the sealing compound1 and you will have a slopper on your hands4 ,if element fits very tight1 be sure that the corners of the plate straps have been rounded off and trimmed flush with outside negatives4 ,be sure also that there is no compound sticking to the inside of jars4 ,take care not to break the jar by forcing in a tight fitting element when the jar is cold and stiff4 ,filling ,jars with ,electrolyte or ,putting on the ,covers ,with all the elements in place in the jars1 one of two things may be4 done4 ,first1 the jars may be filled with electrolyte and the covers then sealed on1 or the covers may first be sealed on and the jars then filled with electrolyte4 ,each method has its advantages and disadvantages4 ,if the jars are first filled with electrolyte1 acid may be splashed on the tipper parts of the jars and sealing made very difficult4 ,on the other hand1 if the electrolyte is first poured in1 the charged negatives will not become hot1 and sealing compound which runs into the jar will be chilled as soon as it strikes the electrolyte and will float on top and do no harm4 ,if the covers are sealed before any electrolyte is added1 it will be easier to do a good sealing job1 but the negatives will heat up4 ,furthermore1 any sealing compound which runs into the jar will run down between the plates and reduce the plate area4 ,if care is taken to thoroughly dry the upper parts of the jars1 add the electrolyte before sealing on the covers4 ,use #a4djj ,acid ,if you have followed the directions carefully1 and have therefore freed all the shorts1 have thoroughly charged the plates1 have washed and pressed the negative groups1 have washed the positives1 have then added any new plates which were needed1 and have put in new separators1 use #a4djj specific gravity electrolyte4 ,this is necessary because washing the plates removed some of the acid1 and the new separators will absorb enough acid so that the specific gravity after charging will be about #a4bhj4 ,the final specific gravity must be between #a4bhj and #a4cjj4 ,in measuring the specific gravity the temperature must be about #gj;,f41 or else corrections must be made4 ,for every three degrees above #gj1 add one point 74#jja7 to the reading you obtain on the hydrometer4 ,for every three degrees under #gj1 subtract one point 74#jja7 from the reading you obtain on the hydrometer4 ,for instance1 if you read a specific gravity of #a4bge and find that the temperature of the electrolyte is #hb;,f41 add 77#hb-gj7_/c #d7;four points 7#a4bge 4#jjd71 which gives #a4bgi1 which is what the specific gravity of the electrolyte would be if its temperature were lowered to #gj4 ,the reason this is done is that when ,ave speak of an electrolyte of a certain specific gravity1 say #a4bhj1 we mean that this is its specific gravity when its temperature is #gj;,f4 ,we must therefore make the temperature correction if the temperature of the electrolyte is much higher or lower than #gj;,f4 ,putting on ,the ,covers ,this operation is a particular one1 and must be done properly1 or you will come to grief4 ,get the box containing the covers and connectors for the battery you are working on2 take the covers1 and clean them thoroughly4 ,there are several ways to clean them4 ,if you have gasoline at hand1 dip a brush in it and scrub off the compound4 ,the covers may also be cleaned off with boiling water1 but even after you have used the hot water1 it will be necessary to wipe off the covers with gasoline4 ,another way to soften any compound which may be sticking to them1 is to put the covers in the ,battery ,steamer and steam them for about ten minutes4 ,this will also heat the covers and make them limp so that they may be handled without breaking4 ,if the covers fit snugly all around the inside of the jars so that there is no crack which will allow the compound to run down on the elements1 all is well and good4 ,if1 however1 there are cracks large enough to put a small1 thin putty knife in1 you must close them4 ,if the cracks are due to the tops of the jars being bent out of shape1 heat the tops with a soft flame until they are limp1 7be careful not to burn them74 ,now1 with short1 thin wedges of wood1 7new dry separators generally answer the purpose71 crowd down on the outside edges of the jar1 until you have the upper edge of jars straight and even all around4 ,if the jars are set in compound1 take a hot screwdriver and remove the compound from between the jar and case near the top4 ,if the cracks between cover and jar still remain1 calk them with asbestos packing1 tow1 or ordinary wrapping string4 ,do not use too much packing2--just enough to close the cracks is sufficient4 ,when this is done1 see that the top of the case is perfectly level1 so that when the compound is poured in1 it will settle level all around the upper edge of the case4 ,sealing ,compounds ,there are many grades of compounds 7see page #adi71 and the kind to use must be determined by the type of battery to be sealed4 ,there is no question but that a poor grade used as carefully as possible will soon crack and produce a slopper4 ,a battery carelessly sealed with the best compound is no better4 ,the three imperative conditions for a permanent lasting job are3 #a4 ,use the best quality of the proper kind of compound for sealing the battery on hand4 #b4 ,all surfaces that the compound comes in contact with must be free from acid and absolutely clean and dry4 #c4 ,the sealing must be done conscientiously and all details properly attended to step by step1 and all work done in a workmanlike manner4 ,with respect to sealing1 batteries may be divided into two general classes4 ,first1 the old type battery with a considerable amount of sealing compound4 ,this type of battery generally has a lower and an upper cover1 the vent tube being attached or removable1 depending on the design4 ,the compound is poured on top of the lower cover and around the vent tube1 and the top covers are then put on4 ,most of the batteries of this type have a thin hard rubber sleeve shrunk on the post where the compound comes in contact with it2 this hard rubber sleeve usually has several shallow grooves around it which increase its holding power4 ,this is good construction1 provided everything else is normal and the work properly done with a good stick-1 compound4 ,there are a few single cover batteries with connecting straps close to top of covers1 and the compound is poured over the top of the straps4 ,see ,fig4 #bfb4 ,the second general type consists of single one-piece cover batteries that have small channels or spaces around the covers next to the jars into which the sealing compound is poured4 ,this type of battery is the most common type4 ,fig4 #bbi ,pouring compound on lower covers ,compound in bulk or in thin iron barrels can be cut into small pieces with a hatchet or hand ax4 ,to cut off a piece in hot weather1 strike it a quick hard blow in the same place once or twice1 and a piece will crack off4 ,directions for properly beating sealing compound will be found on page #aej4 ,sealing ,double ,cover ,batteries ,the following instructions apply to batteries having double covers4 ,these are more difficult to seal than the single cover batteries4 ,if you can seal the double cover batteries well1 the single cover batteries will give you no trouble4 ,always start the fire under the compound before you are ready to use it1 and turn the fire lower after it has melted1 so as not to have it too hot at the time of pouring4 ,if you have a special long nosed pouring ladle1 fill it with compound by dipping in the pot1 or by pouring compound from a closed vessel4 ,if you heat the compound in an iron kettle1 pour it directly into pouring ladle1 using just about enough for the first pouring4 ,the compound should not be too hot1 as a poor sealing job battery will result from its use4 ,see page #aej4 ,before sealing1 always wipe the surfaces to be sealed with a rag wet with ammonia or soda solution1 rinsed with water1 and wiped dry with a rag or waste4 ,if you fail to do this the compound will not stick well1 and a top leak may develop4 ,then run a soft lead burning flame over the surfaces to be sealed1 in order to have perfectly dry surfaces4 ,remember that sealing compound will not stick to a wet surface4 ,fig4 #bcj ,first pouring of sealing compound ,fig4 #bca ,cooling compound with electric fan ,pour compound on the lower covers1 as in ,fig4 #bbi4 ,use enough to fill the case just over the tops of the jars1 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,then pour the rest of the compound back in compound vessel or kettle4 ,to complete the job1 and make as good a job as possible1 take a small hot lead burning flame and run it around the edges of case1 tops of jars1 and around the posts until the compound runs and makes a good contact all around4 ,if you have an electric fan1 let it blow on the compound a few minutes to cool it1 as in ,fig4 #bca4 ,then the compound used for the second pouring may be hotter and thinner than the first4 ,fill the pouring ladle with compound1 which is thinner than that used in the first pouring1 and pour within #a_/af inch of the top of the case1 being careful to get in just enough1 so that-after it has cooled1 the covers will press down exactly even with the top of the case1 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,it will require some experience to do this1 but you will soon learn just how much to use4 ,as soon as you have finished pouring1 run the flame all around the edges of the case and around the post1 being very careful not to injure any of the vent tubes4 ,a small1 hot-pointed flame should be used4 ,now turn on the fan again to cool the compound4 ,fig4 #bcb ,second pouring of sealing compound ,while the compound is cooling1 get the cell connectors and terminal connectors1 put them in a two-quart granite stew pan1 just barely cover with water1 and sprinkle a tablespoon of baking soda over them4 ,set the stew pan over the fire and bring water to boiling point4 ,then pour the water on some spot on a bench or floor where the acid has been spilled4 ,this helps to neutralize the acid and keep it from injuring the wood or cement4 ,rinse off the connectors and wipe them dry with a cloth1 or heat them to dry them4 ,fig4 #bcc ,pressing covers down to make them level with top of case ,now take the top covers1 which must be absolutely clean and dry1 and spread a thin coat of vaseline over the top only1 wiping off any vaseline from the beveled edges4 ,place these covers right side up on a clean board and heat perfectly limp with a large1 spreading blow torch flame4 ,never apply this flame to the under side of the top covers4 ,the purpose is to get the covers on top of the battery absolutely level1 and exactly even with the top of the case all around it1 and to have them sticking firmly to the compound4 ,there is not an operation in repairing and rebuilding batteries that requires greater care than this one1 that will show as clearly just what kind of a workman you are1 or will count as much in appearance for a finished job4 ,if you are careless with any of the detail1 if just one bump appears on top1 if one top is warped1 if one cover sticks above top of case1 try as you may1 you never can cover it up1 and show you are a first-class workman4 ,see that you have these four conditions1 and you should not have any difficulty after a little experience3 ,fig4 #bcd ,pressing covers down around posts to make them flush with top of case #a4 ,you must have just enough compound on top to allow the top covers to be pressed down exactly even with upper edge of case4 #b4 ,the top covers must be absolutely clean and have a thin coat of vaseline over their top1 but none on the bevel edge4 #c4 ,a good sized spreading flame to heat quickly and evenly the tops to a perfectly limp condition without burning or scorching them4 #d4 ,procure a piece of #g_/h-;inch board #a-a_/b inches wide and just long enough to go between handles of battery you are working on4 ,spread a thin film of oil or vaseline all over it4 ,having heated the covers and also the top surface of the compound until it is sticky so that the covers may be put down far enough and adhere firmly to it1 place the covers in position4 ,then press the covers down firmly with a piece of oiled wood1 as in ,fig4 #bcc1 applying the wood sidewise and lengthwise of case until the top of cover is exactly even with the top of the case4 ,it may be necessary to use the wood on end around the vent tubes and posts as in ,fig4 #bcd1 to get that part of the cover level4 ,if the compound comes up between covers and around the edges of the case1 and interferes with the use of the wood1 clean it out with a screwdriver4 ,you can then finish without smearing any compound on the covers4 ,fig4 #bce ,wiping bottom of spoon filled with sealing compound ,fig4 #bcf ,filling cracks around covers with sealing compound ,when you have removed the excess compound from the cracks around the edges of the covers with the screwdriver1 take a large iron spoon which has the end bent into a pouring lip1 and dip up from #a_/b to #b_/c of a spoonful of melted compound 7not too hot74 ,wipe off the bottom of the spoon1 ,fig4 #bce1 and pour a small stream of compound evenly in all the cracks around the edges of the covers until they are full1 as in ,fig4 #bcf4 ,do not hold the spoon too high1 and do not smear or drop any compound on top of battery or on the posts4 ,no harm is done if a little runs over the outside of the case1 except that it requires a little time to clean it off4 ,a small teapot may be used instead of the spoon4 ,if you have the compound at the right temperature1 and do not put in too much at a time1 you will obtain good results1 but you should take care not to spill the compound over covers or case4 ,fig4 #bcg ,final operation of cleaning off excess compound ,after the last compound has cooled1--this requires only a few minutes1--take a putty knife1 and scrape off all the surplus compound1 making it even with the top of the covers and case1 ,fig4 4#bcg4 ,be careful not to dig into a soft place in the compound with the putty knife4 ,if you have done your work right1 and have followed directions explicitly1 you have scraped off the compound with one sweep of the putty knife over each crack1 leaving the compound smooth and level4 ,you will be surprised to see how finished the battery looks4 ,some workmen pour hot compound clear to the top of the case and then hurry to put on a cold1 dirty top4 ,what happens8 ,the underside of the cover1 coming in contact with the hot compound1 expands and lengthens out1 curling the top surface beyond redemption4 ,as you push down one corner1 another goes up1 and it is impossible to make the covers level4 ,sealing ,single ,cover ,batteries ,single cover batteries are scaled in a similar manner4 ,the covers are put in place before any compound is poured in4 ,covers should first be steamed to make them soft and pliable4 ,the surfaces which come in contact with the sealing compound must be perfectly dry and free from acid4 ,before pouring in any compound1 run a soft flame over the surfaces which are to be sealed1 so as to dry them and warm them4 ,close up all cracks between ,jars and covers as already directed4 ,then pour the cover channels half full of sealing compound1 which must not be too thin4 ,now run a soft flame over the compound until it flows freely and unites with the covers and jars4 ,allow the compound to cool4 ,for the second pouring1 somewhat hotter compound may be used4 ,fill the cover channels flush with the top of the case1 and again run a soft flame over the compound to make it flow freely and unite with the covers1 and to give it a glossy finish4 ,if any compound has run over on the covers or case1 remove it with a hot putty knife4 ,burning-on the ,cell ,connectors ,with the covers in place1 the next operation is to burn in the cell connectors4 ,directions for doing this are given on page #bac4 ,if you did not fill the jars with electrolyte before sealing the covers1 do so now4 ,see page #cfd4 ,marking the ,battery ,you should have a set of stencil letters and mark every battery you rebuild or repair4 ,stamp ,,pos1 ,p1 or on positive terminal and ,,neg1 ,n1 or on negative terminal4 ,then stamp your initials1 the date that you finished rebuilding the battery1 and the date that battery left the factory1 on the top of the connectors4 ,record the factory date1 and type of battery in a book1 also your date mark and what was done to the battery4 ,by doing this1 you will always be able to settle disputes that may arise1 as you will know when you repaired the battery1 and what was done4 ,to go one step farther1 keep a record of condition of plates1 and number of new plates1 if you have used any4 ,grade the plates in three divisions1 good1 medium and doubtful4 ,the doubtful division will grow smaller as you become experienced and learn by their appearance the ones to be discarded and not used in a rebuilt battery4 ,there is no question that even the most experienced man will occasionally make a mistake in judgment1 as there is no way of knowing what a battery has been subjected to during its life before it is brought to you4 ,cleaning and ,painting the ,case ,the next operation is to thoroughly clean the case2 scrape off all compound that has been spilled on it1 and also any grease or dirt4 ,if any grease is on the case1 wipe off with rag soaked in gasoline4 ,unless the case is clean1 the paint will not dry4 ,brush the sides and end with a wire brush2 also brighten the name plate4 ,then coat the case with good asphaltum paint4 ,any good turpentine asphaltum is excellent for this purpose4 ,if it is too thick1 thin it with turpentine1 but be sure to mix well before using1 as it does not mix readily4 ,use a rather narrow brush1 but of good quality4 ,paint all around the upper edge1 first drawing the brush straight along the edges1 just to the outer edges of rubber tops4 ,now paint the sides1 ends and handles1 but be careful not to cover the nameplate4 ,to finish1 put a second1 and thick coat all around top edge to protect edge of case4 ,paint will soak in around the edge on top of an old case more easily than on the body of the case as it is more porous4 ,charging the ,rebuilt ,battery ,with the battery completely assembled1 the next step is to charge it at about one-third of the starting or normal charge rate4 ,for batteries having a capacity of #hj ampere hours or more1 use a current of #e amperes4 ,do not start the charge until at least #ab hours after filling with electrolyte4 ,this allows the electrolyte to cool4 ,then add water to bring electrolyte up to correct level if necessary4 ,the specific gravity will probably at first drop to #a4bbj-a4bdj1 and will then begin to rise4 ,continue the charge until the specific gravity and voltage do not rise during the last #e hours of the charge4 ,the cell voltage at the end of the charge should be #b4e to #b4g1 measured while the battery is still on charge4 ,make ,cadmium tests on both positive and negatives4 ,the positives should give a ,cadmium reading of #b4d or more4 ,the negatives should give a reversed reading of #j4age4 ,the tests should be made near the end of the charge1 with the cell voltages at about #b4g4 ,the ,cadmium readings will tell the condition of the plates better than specific gravity readings4 ,the ,cadmium readings are especially valuable when new plates have been installed1 to determine whether the new plates are1 fully charged4 ,when ,cadmium readings indicate that the plates are fully charged1 and specific gravity readings have not changed for five hours1 the battery is fully charged4 ,if you have put in new plates1 charge for at least #if hours4 ,measure the temperature of the electrolyte occasionally1 and if it should go above #aaj;,f41 either cut down the charging current1 or take the battery off charge long enough to allow the electrolyte to cool below #ij;,f4 ,adjusting the ,electrolyte ,if the specific gravity of the electrolyte is #a4bhj to #a4cjj at the end of the charge1 the battery is ready for testing4 ,if the specific gravity is below or above these figures1 draw off as much electrolyte as you can with the hydrometer4 ,if the specific gravity is below #a4bhj1 add enough #a4djj specific gravity electrolyte with the hydrometer to bring the level up to the correct height 7about #a_/b inch above tops of plates74 ,if the specific gravity is above #a4cjj1 add a-similar amount of distilled water instead of electrolyte4 ,if the specific gravity is not more than #ae points 74#jae7 too low or too high1 adjust as directed above4 ,if the variation is greater than this1 pour out all the electrolyte and add fresh #a4bhj specific gravity electrolyte4 ,after adjusting the electrolyte1 continue the charge until the gravity of all cells is #a4bhj-a4cjj1 and there is no further change in gravity for at least two hours4 ,then take the battery off charge and make a final measurement of the specific gravity4 ,measure the temperature at the same time1 and if it varies more than #aj above or below #gj1 correct the hydrometer readings by adding one point 74#jja sp4 gr47 for each #c degrees above #gj1 and subtracting one point 74#jja sp4 gr47 for each #c degrees below #gj4 ,be sure to wipe off any electrolyte which you spilled on the battery in adjusting the electrolyte or measuring the specific gravity4 ,use a rag dipped in ammonia1 or baking soda solution4 ,high ,rate ,discharge ,whenever you have time to do so1 make a #bj-minute high rate discharge test on the rebuilt battery1 as described on page #bff4 ,this test will show up any defect in the battery1 such as a poorly burned joint1 or a missing separator1 and will show if battery is low in capacity4 ,if the test gives satisfactory results1 the battery is in good condition1 and ready to be put into service1 after being charged again to replace the energy used by the test4 ,,chapter #af4 ,,special ,,instructions4 --------------------- ,,exide ,,batteries ,exide batteries may be classified according to their cover constructions as follows3 #a4 ,batteries with single flange covers1 as shown in ,figs4 #ae and #bch4 ,this class includes types ,,dx1 ,,lx1 ,,lxr1 ,,lxrv1 ,,phc1 ,,xc1 ,,xx1 and ,,xxv4 ,fig4 #bch ,exide ,battery1 partly disassembled #b4 ,batteries with double flange covers1 as shown in ,fig4 #bdb4 ,this class includes types ,,mha1 ,,kz1 ,,kxd1 ,,lxre1 and ,,xe4 ,the cover constructions are-described in ,chapter #c4 ,all ,exide batteries1 except types ,,kxd1 ,,lxre1 and ,,xe1 have burned-in lead top connectors4 ,all types have a removable sealing nut around each post to make a tight joint between the post and cell cover1 as described on page #ai4 ,formerly some ,exide batteries had cell connectors which were bolted to the cell posts1 but this construction is now obsolete4 ,types ,,kxd1 ,,lxre1 and ,,xe have cell connectors made of flexible1 lead coated copper strips4 ,types ,,dx1 ,,lx1 ,,lxr1 ,,lxrv1 ,,mha1 ,,phc1 ,,xc1 ,,xx1 and ,,xxv have been designed and built to meet the requirements of starting1 lighting and ignition service for passenger automobiles and power boats4 ,types ,,kxd1 ,,lxre1 and ,,xe have been especially developed to meet the requirements of the starting1 lighting and ignition service on motor trucks and tractors4 ,type ,,kz has been produced particularly for motorcycle lighting and ignition service4 ,fig4 #bci ,exide ,battery with ,single ,flange ,cover ,type ,numbers ,the type of an ,exide battery is stamped on the battery name plate4 ,thus1 on one of the most popular ,exide batteries is marked ,type #c-,,xc-#ac-a4 ,other ,exide batteries have different numerals and letters in their type numbers1 but the numerals41 and letters are always arranged in the same order as given above4 ,the first numeral gives the number of cells4 ,the letters give the type of cell4 ,the numerals following the letters give the number of plates per cell4 ,the last numeral indicates the manner of arranging the cells in the battery case4 ,thus1 in the example given above1 #c-,,xc-#ac-a indicates that there are three cells in the battery1 that the type of cell is ,,xc1 that each cell has #ac plates1 and that the cells are arranged according to method ,no4 #a1 this being a side to side assembly4 ,methods of ,holding ,jars in ,case ,two methods of holding ,exide jars in the battery case are used3 #a4 ,types ,,mha1 ,,kxd1 ,,lxre1 and ,,xe have the jars separated by horizontal wooden spacers1 there being two spacers between adjoining jars4 ,running horizontally between these two spacers are tie bolts which pass through the case4 ,these bolts are tightened after the jars are placed in the case1 thus pressing the sides of the case against the jars and holding them in1 place4 ,types ,,kxd1 ,,lxre1 and ,,xe1 in addition to the tie bolts1 are secured in the case by sealing compound beneath and around the jars4 ,each cell is provided with two soft rubber buffers which are ,v shaped1 and are placed over the ridges in the bottom of the jars1 thereby minimizing the effect of shocks on the plates and separators which rest on the buffers4 #b4 ,in types ,,dx1 ,,lx1 ,,lxr1 ,,lxrv1 ,,phc1 ,,xc1 ,,xx1 and ,,xxv1 there are no spacers between adjoining jars1 and the jars simply fit tight in the case4 ,should they not fit tight enough to hold them in place securely1 thin boards are inserted between the jars and the case to pack them in4 ,type ,,kz has the three sets of plates in one jar1 having three compartments1 with a three compartment cover4 ,opening ,exide ,batteries #a4 ,drilling ,off the ,top ,connectors4 ,do this as described on page #cbi4 ,for type ,,kz batteries use a #c_/h inch drill4 ,for all other types use a #e_/h inch drill4 #b4 ,removing ,plates from ,jars4 ,follow the general instructions on page #ccc4 ,types ,,dx1 ,,lx1 ,,lxr1 ,,lxrv1 ,,phc1 ,,xc1 ,,xx1 and ,,xxv4 ,in opening these batteries1 all of which have the single flange cover1 you may remove each cell complete from the case1 and then draw out the plates2 or you may draw out the plates without taking out the jars4 ,to remove the complete cell1 heat a thin bladed putty knife and work it down all around the outside of the jar4 ,then lift out the complete cell by pulling steadily on the cell posts with two pairs of gas pliers4 ,the battery should be placed on the floor when you do this1 and you should stand with one foot pressed against the side of the case4 ,if you do not wish to remove the complete cells1 or should the jars fit too tight in the case1 unseal the covers and remove the plates according to the instructions given on page #ccc4 ,types ,,kz and ,,mha4 ,these batteries have the double flanged cover4 ,several methods may be used in removing the plates from the jars4 ,in each case1 the top of the cell is cleaned1 gas blown out of the vent holes1 and the sealing nuts removed before opening the cells4 ,fig4 #bdj ,removing double flange exide cover ,first1 a flame may be used to soften the sealing compound which is placed in the slot formed by the two flanges of the cover4 ,if you wish to use a flame1 first remove each complete cell from the case1 loosening the tie bolts that pass through the case to release the jars4 ,then hit out each complete cell4 ,now get two strong boards which are about one fourth inch longer than the height of the jar4 ,see ,fig4 #bdj4 ,support the jar on these boards by resting the lower edge of the sides of the cover on the top edge of the boards4 ,then run a moderate flame around the outside of the flange until the cover is soft1 and the compound melting4 ,then press down on the cell posts with your thumbs1 and the jar and plates will drop free of the cover4 ,the plates are then drawn out and rested on the top of the jars to drain1 as usual4 ,another method is to remove the cells from the case and put them in the battery steamer for ten minutes as described on page #ccb4 ,instead of first taking the complete cells out of the case and then steaming them separately1 you may steam the entire battery for about ten minutes1 and then draw out the plates and cover of each cell with gas pliers without removing the jars4 ,this method must be used in opening types ,,kxd1 ,,lxre1 and ,,xe1 which have sealing compound under the jars4 ,work on ,plates1 ,separators1 ,jars1 and ,case ,having opened the battery1 follow the instructions given on pages #cce to #cfa for examination of plates and separators1 and all work on plates1 jars1 separators1 and case4 ,reassembling ,plates ,fig4 #bda ,upsetting threads to prevent nut from turning ,first slip the positive and negative groups together without separators4 ,then wipe the posts with a rag moistened with ammonia1 rinse them with water1 and dry thoroughly with a clean rag4 ,next slip the soft rubber washers over the posts and place the cover in position4 ,lubricate the lead sealing nuts with graphite that has been mixed to a paste with water4 ,do not use grease or vaseline to lubricate these nuts4 ,then put on the sealing nuts and tighten them partly with your fingers4 ,you are now ready to insert the separators as directed on page #cfa4 ,types ,,mha1 ,,phc1 ,,kxd1 ,,kz1 ,,lxr1 ,,lxre1 ,,lxrv1 ,,xx1 and ,,xxv have1 in addition to the usual wooden separators1 perforated rubber sheets1 which should be placed against the grooved side of each wooden separator before inserting1 and insert with rubber sheet against the positives4 ,make a careful examination to see that you have not left out any separators4 ,when the separators are all in place1 even them up on each side4 ,then tighten the sealing nuts with the special ,exide wrench4 ,when you have turned the nuts down tight1 lock them in place by driving a center punch on the threads on the post just above the nut1 ,fig4 #bda4 ,this will damage the thread and prevent the nut from turning loose4 ,putting ,plates ,in ,jars ,the next step is to lower the plates into the jars1 as described on page #cfb4 ,in types ,,kxd1 ,,lxre1 and ,,xe be sure to first replace the two soft rubber buffers in the bottom of the jar1 one over each ridge4 ,filling ,jars ,with ,electrolyte ,as soon as you have an element in place in the jar1 fill the jar with electrolyte of the proper strength1 as described on page #cfd1 to prevent the separators and plates from drying4 ,the negatives1 especially1 must be covered with electrolyte to prevent them from heating and drying4 ,sealing ,exide ,battery ,covers ,fig4 #bdb ,laying worm of sealing compound ,image3 ,chart showing capacity of ,exide batteries ,for ,types ,,dx1 ,,lx1 ,,lxr1 ,,lxrv1 ,,phc1 ,,xc1 ,,xx1 and ,,xxv1 which have the single flange type of cover1 slowly heat the sealing compound until it runs1 but do not get it so thin that it will run down into the cell between the cover and jar4 ,then pour it into the channel between cover and jar walls4 ,allow it to cool and finish it off flush with a hot knife4 ,when pouring1 be sure the compound is liquid and not lumpy1 as in such a case a poor seal will result4 ,a glossy1 finished appearance may be given to the compound by passing a flame over it after the job is finished4 ,for ,types ,,kxd1 ,,kz1 ,,lxre1 ,,mha1 and ,,xe1 which have the double flange type of cover1 have ready a string or worm of sealing compound about #c-af inch in diameter1 made by rolling between boards some of the special compound furnished for the purpose4 ,the cover may or may not have been attached to the element1 depending on how repairs have been made4 ,in either case the procedure is the same as far as sealing is concerned4 ,assuming the element is attached1 stand it upside down1 with the cover resting upon two strips1 ,fig4 #bdb4 ,lay the string of compound all around the cover channel4 ,now turn right side up and insert in the jar1 taking care that the jar walls enter the cover channels at all points4 ,apply heat carefully to the edges of the cover and gently force cover clown4 ,if too much compound has been used1 so that it squeezes out around the cover1 scrape off the excess with a hot knife while forcing cover down4 ,putting ,cells ,in ,case ,when the covers have all been sealed1 put the cells in the case1 taking care to put the negative and positive posts in their proper positions1 so that each cell connector will connect a positive to a negative post4 ,in ,types ,,mha1 ,,kxd1 ,,lxre1 and ,,xe1 which have wooden spacers between the cells1 take care that the spacers are in position and then1 after cells are in place1 tighten the tie bolts with a screw driver to clamp the jars4 ,in ,types ,,dx1 ,,lx1 ,,lxr1 ,,lxrv1 ,,sx1 ,,xc1 ,,xx1 and ,,xxv the cells should fit tight in the case2 pack them in with thin boards if necessary4 ,burning on the ,cell ,connectors ,see instructions on pages #bac to #baf4 ,charging ,after ,repairing ,see also instructions on page #cgc4 ,not sooner than ten to fifteen hours after filling battery with electrolyte1 add electrolyte to restore level if it has fallen4 ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 ,,batteries ,the instructions for rebuilding batteries which have already been given1 pages #cbh to #cgd1 apply also to all ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 batteries4 ,in working on the old ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 batteries1 illustrated in ,fig4 #bdc1 draw out the electrolyte down to the tops of the plates so that the electrolyte is below the lower end of the vent tube4 ,then blow out any gas which may have collected under the cover with compressed air or bellows4 ,never fail to do this1 as there is only a small vent hole in the cover through which the gas can escape1 the vent tubes extending down into the electrolyte when the cells are properly filled4 ,fig4 #bdc ,cross section of old type ,,usl battery ,fig4 #bdd ,cross section of new type ,,usl battery ,fig4 #bdd shows the new ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 cover construction4 ,note that the special cell filling device is no longer used4 ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 batteries have lead bushings moulded into the cover4 ,these bushings fit around the posts1 and are burned to the posts and top connectors1 ,figs4 #bdc and #bdd1 thus giving leak proof joints between the cover and the posts4 ,in burning on the connectors1 melt bottom edge of hole first1 then top of post and cover bushing1 and melt in your burning lead slowly4 ,image3 ,chart showing capacity of ,,usl batteries1 ,page #a ,image3 ,chart showing capacity of ,,usl batteries1 ,page #b ,,prest-,o-,,lite ,,batteries ,fig4 #bde ,old type ,prest-,o-,lite battery with lead bushings that screw up into cover ,some of the old ,prest-,o-,lite batteries have a lead bushing around the post1 ,fig4 #bde1 similar to the ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 batteries4 ,this will make a perfectly tight seal1 provided that you screw the bushing up tight4 ,the new types of ,prest-,o-,lite batteries have a ,peened post seal1 special instructions for which follow4 ,the general instructions for rebuilding batteries given on pages #cbh to #cgd apply to ,prest-,o-,lite batteries in every respect4 ,the ,peened post seal is1 however1 a special construction1 and directions for working on this seal are as follows3 ,fig4 #bdf ,prest-,o-,lite ,element ,locked ,all ,prest-,o-,lite batteries designated as ,types ,,whn1 ,,rijn1 ,,bhn1 ,,jfn1 ,,kpn1 and ,,shc1 have a single moulded cover which is locked directly on to the posts of the element4 ,this feature is the result of forcing a solid ring of lead from a portion of the post1 projecting above the cover1 down into a deep chamfer in the top of the cover4 ,figs4 #bdf and #bdg show this construction4 ,this construction makes a solid unit of the cover and element1 which does away with the sealing compound1 washers1 nuts1 etc41 for making the acid tight seal around the posts4 ,the locking operation requires some special instructions and shop equipment for assembly and all repairs which involve removal from and replacement of the cover on the element4 ,the majority of battery repairs such as renewal of jars1 separators1 straightening of plates1 and removal of sediment1 can be made without separating the cover and element4 ,in such cases the connectors are drilled off1 compound is softened and removed from around the covers and the complete unit is removed from the cell4 ,it may be handled throughout the repair as a unit1 and the cover serves as a bridge to hold the plates of both groups in line just as they remain in the jar4 ,fig4 #bdg ,sectional view of ,prest-,o-,lite battery with peened post seal ,however1 where the cover is broken or must be replaced for other reasons1 when plates have to be renewed1 or the posts have been broken off below the cover1 the element and cover must be separated4 ,all the apparatus and special tools which are used in connection with the locking1 as well as the building-up1 unlocking 7freeing71 and rebuilding1 of the posts in all ,prest-,o-,lite battery types are grouped together and collectively termed the type ,n ,post ,locking ,outfit4 ,this outfit1 complete1 is carried in stock at all ,prest-,o-,lite warehouses under the part number #bgaaf4 ,each of the individual parts or tools also has a separate part number and may be bought separately4 ,prest-,o-,lite ,type ,n ,post ,locking ,outfit ,arbor ,press 7complete with following #ab parts7 #bgaae ,main ,casting #bgaad ,latch #bgajg ,bed ,plate #bgaac ,lever #bgajh ,rack #bgbaa ,washer #bgaab ,pinion ,shaft #bgaaj ,pinion #bgaji ,latch ,pin #bgaaa 99,special ,,cln ,,kpn ,spacer #bgbcc 99,special ,,cln ,,kpn ,latch #bgbcb 99,special ,,cln ,,kpn ,bed ,plate #bgbcd ,large ,peening ,tool 7#i-ba ,,rhn1 ,,whn1 ,,bhn1 ,,shc1 ,,kpn1 ,,cln2 #aa-ag ,,jfn7 #bgaja ,small ,peening ,tool 7#g-,,whn1 ,,rhn1 ,,shc2 #i-;,,jfn7 #bgajj ,peening ,tool for small terminal posts in which are east threaded brass inserts 7,columbia7 #bgaje ,large ,post ,freeing ,tool #bgajc ,small ,post ,freeing ,tool #bgajb ,no4 #h ,post ,freeing ,tool 7#ac_/af diameter straight post7 #bgabc #a ,large ,post ,re-,builder 7#i-ba ,,rhn1 ,,whn1 ,,bhn1 ,,shc1 ,,kpn1 ,,cln2 #aa-ag ,,jfn7 #bgjje #a ,small ,post ,re-,builder 7#g-,,whn1 ,,rhn1 ,,shc2 #i-;,,jfn7 #bgjjd #b ,ford ,positive ,post ,builder #bgjjf #b ,ford ,negative ,post ,builder #bgbbd #b ,no4 #h ,post ,builder 7#ac_/af diameter straight post7 #bgbbe ,style ,b ,prest-,o-,lite ,torch1 with six feet of red gum tubing ,a-#caaf ,automatic ,reducing ,valve ,a-#dbg ,,complete ,,type ,n ,,outfit including all parts above #bgaaf 99 ,the ,,cln and ,,kpn ,spacer block1 bent ,latch and ,bed ,plate are special parts used only in the ,arbor ,press when it is especially assembled to lock ,,cln or ,,kpn posts4 #a ,the ,re-,builder is used to build up posts before attempting to lock on the cover4 ,the replacing of the metal cut away from the original diameter of the post when the jar cover was removed is necessary to the correct operation of the ,peening ,tool4 #b ,the ,builder is used to build up posts1 after they have been locked and shaped by the ,peening ,tool1 to a size large enough to take some special terminal4 ,for example1 the ,ford ,positive ,post ,builder is used in building up posts1 locked by the ,large ,peening ,tool1 to the proper size to take the ,ford positive terminal4 ,the ,automatic ,reducing ,valve delivers the gas from the ,p-,o-,l tank at a uniform pressure of #c pounds per square inch1 whether the tank is full1 half empty1 or nearly empty1 and regardless of the volume of gas used4 ,the volume or flow of gas is regulated by the key4 ,the style ,b torch mixes the pure acetylene from the gas tank with the proper amount of air necessary to an efficient heating flame4 ,the heating flame is conducted or delivered to the ,peening ,tool by the short length of brass tubing known as the ,torch-,holder1 over which the ,b ,torch is pressed by hand in completing the assembly4 ,fig4 #bdh ,special ,prest-,o-,lite ,peening ,press ,both the ,b ,torch and the ,automatic ,reducing ,valve are absolutely essential to the use of the ,prest-,o-,lite gas tank for heating the ,peening ,tool4 ,prest-,o-,lite gas tanks1 style ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 or ,e1 may be used in connection with the ,automatic ,reducing ,valve1 as shown in ,fig4 #bdh4 ,to use a welding size gas tank it is necessary to insert a ,w to ,a ,adapter between the tank and ,reducing ,valve4 ,this ,adapter can be purchased from the ,prest-,o-,lite ,co41 ,inc4 ,the ,arbor ,press when received by the ,service ,station is fully assembled1 ready for mounting and operation with all ,p-,o-,l locked post types except ,,cln and ,,kpn4 ,mount the ,press in a vertical position 7,fig4 #bdh7 in a convenient place and at an accessible height on a wall or post4 ,holes are provided in the ,press for mounting by lag screws or bolts4 ,the position of the ,peening ,tool should be well below the level of the eyes1 to prevent serious injury from a possible spattering of overheated lead4 ,screw the proper size ,peening ,tool into the bottom of the ,press rack1 as shown in ,fig4 #bdh4 ,the ,torch-,holder must be removed from the ,peening ,tool to do this2 it should be immediately replaced4 ,in using the ,press to lock ,,cln or ,,kpn posts it is necessary to remove the ,bed ,plate and the ,latch1 and replace these parts with the ,special ,bed ,plate and ,special ,latch provided for this purpose1 using the spacing block or ,spacer 7also provided7 between the ,special ,bed ,plate and the bottom of the ,press4 ,fig4 #bdi ,reaming ,prest-,o-,lite peened post to remove cover ,connect the ,b ,torch to the ,peening ,tool4 ,the ,torch is merely pressed by the hand over the ,torch-,holder4 ,connect the ,torch with the ,automatic ,reducing ,valve on the gas tank by the rubber tubing1 and turn on the gas and light4 ,the flame should be blue and hot4 ,allow the ,peening ,tool to become just hot enough to melt the end of a piece of #ej-ej solder4 ,do not allow it to get any hotter than this4 ,the tool is then ready for use4 ,the flame may be left on while the ,tool is in use4 ,in case the ,tool becomes too hot turn the flame off and allow it to cool to the proper temperature before using4 ,to ,remove ,cell ,covers from ,elements ,drill off cell connectors and terminals as usual4 ,insert the proper size ,freeing ,tool 7or reamer71 furnished with the outfit1 in an ordinary hand-power drill press or bit-and-brace4 ,with this reamer remove the ring of metal or flange on the post1 thereby releasing the cell cover4 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,the ,freeing ,tool should not be used in a power-driven press1 as slow speed is essential to prevent breaking cell covers4 ,to get the best results1 center the ,freeing ,tool over the post1 gradually forcing it down1 at the same time keep it turning slowly until the ring of metal which locks the post in the cover has been removed4 ,a little machine oil should be put on the metal directly under the tool for this operation4 ,after the metal ring has been removed1 the cover can be easily lifted off the posts1 ,fig4 #bej4 ,fig4 #bej ,removing ,prest-,o-,lite cover ,fig4 #bea ,building up posts on ,prest-,o-,lite element ,the use of the ,freeing ,tool in removing the cell cover cuts away a certain amount of metal from the diameter of the posts4 ,before these posts can be relocked by the ,peening ,tool in replacing the cell cover they must be built up in size or diameter again so that there will be enough lead to insure a tight joint4 ,to ,rebuild ,posts ,thoroughly clean the post4 ,place the proper ,post ,re-,builder so that it rests on the shoulder of the post1 and run in enough new lead to fill the ,re-,builder4 ,fig4 #bea4 ,be sure and bring the lead surface of the post into fusion before the new lead is run in1 to insure a strong post4 ,to build a smooth1 solid post1 be sure that the post is thoroughly clean2 then use a hot flame4 ,to ,lock or ,peen ,posts 7#a7 ,assemble positive and negative groups without separators1 and paint the posts 7just above the shoulder7 with hot sealing compound4 7#b7 ,prepare the cell covers by immersing them in hot water until they are flexible4 7#c7 ,place a warmed cover over the posts of the two assembled groups 7the elements74 ,fig4 #beb4 ,fig4 #beb ,replacing ,prest-,o-,lite cover on built-up posts 7#d7 ,slide the element over the ,bed ,plate directly under ,peening ,tool1 with the bottom of the plate connectors resting on the ,bed ,plate4 7,see ,fig4 #bec74 7#e7 ,pull down the ,latch to hold the ,bed ,plate in alignment4 7#f7 ,center the post with ,peening ,tool4 ,then force the ,peening ,tool down slowly until it has covered about two-thirds of the distance to the cover4 ,pause in this operation to allow the metal of the post to become heated2 then force tool the rest of the distance4 ,raise the ,peening ,tool slightly and force down again4 7#g7 ,release the ,latch1 withdraw and reverse the element1 and repeat operations #d1 #e and #f on the other post4 7#h7 ,the assembled groups are now ready to receive separators4 ,fig4 #bec ,peening ,prest-,o-,lite post with special peening press ,precautions in ,post ,locking ,operations #a--;,be sure all covers are warmed until they are flexible before attempting to assemble4 #b--;,be sure that the ,peening ,tool is not too hot4 ,if it is1 the post will melt away and be ruined4 ,a very hot tool sometimes causes dangerous spattering of hot lead4 #c--;,be sure that the post is centered with the ,peening ,tool before forcing the ,tool down on the post4 #d--;,be sure the cover has been forced down1 so that it rests on the shoulder of the post1 before releasing4 ,general ,instructions ,in breaking in a new ,peening ,tool it is advisable to squirt several drops of machine oil inside the ,tool1 as well as putting some oil on the top of the post1 before forcing the hot ,tool down over the post4 ,this will prevent the ,tool from sticking to the post4 ,if the ,peening ,tool should stick to the post1 force the ,tool down again1 being certain that the cover is slightly compressed4 ,sticking of the ,peening ,tool indicates either that the ,tool has not yet been broken in1 or that there is not sufficient compression in the cover to free the ,tool on releasing the pressure on the lever of the ,press4 ,to repair the #ac_/af diameter straight terminal post1 the ,ford positive terminal post1 the ,ford negative terminal post1 it is good practice to remove the cover in the usual manner1 then cut the upper portion of the posts off and rebuild them with the large ,post ,re-,builder4 ,reassemble the element and cover in the recommended manner and then use the proper ,post ,builder to burn the post to its original size4 ,standard ,types of ,prest-,o-,lite ,starting1 ,lighting and ,ignition ,batteries ,image3 ,chart for ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries1 #f-volt ,image3 ,chart for ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries1 #ab-volt ,image3 ,chart for ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries1 #af-ah-bd and #cj-volt ,image3 ,chart for ,prest-,o-,lite special heavy duty truck batteries for starting and light2 ,chart for #f-volt lighting and ignition types ,,the ,,philadelphia ,,diamond ,,grid ,,battery ,old ,type ,fig4 #bed ,cross section of old type ,philadelphia diamond grid battery ,figs4 #bed and #bee show the construction of the old type ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid4 ,battery4 ,figs4 #bed and #bef show the diamond shaped grid from which the battery derives its name4 ,it is claimed that this construction gives a very strong grid1 holding the active materials firmly in place1 and giving a large amount of contact surface between the grid and the active material4 ,figs4 #bed and #bee show the old type battery1 and give the details of the cover1 terminal posts1 vent plug1 and so on4 ,the post seal is made tight by pouring the compound into the cover well so that it flows in around all of the petticoats on the post4 ,fig4 #bee ,cross section old type ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid ,this construction increases the distance that the acid must travel along the post1 in order to cause a leak1 about two and one-half times the vertical distance on a smooth post4 ,the hard rubber washer which fits around the post acts as a lock to prevent the post from turning4 ,this applies especially to the two terminal posts to which the cables are attached4 ,the washer is intended to prevent any strain in the cable from turning the post and breaking the seal between the post and the compound4 ,new ,development in the ,philadelphia ,battery ,fig4 #bef ,cross section new type ,philadelphia battery ,fig4 #beg ,new type ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid ,battery ,rubber ,lockt ,seal ,covers4 ,during the last few years there has been a marked tendency in the battery industry to do away with the use of sealing compound for making a joint between the cell cover and the terminal posts and to substitute a mechanical seal of some kind at this joint4 ,the ,philadelphia ,storage ,battery ,co4 has developed the ,rubber ,lockt4 cover seal1 the construction of which is shown in detail in ,figs4 #bef and #beg4 ,on the cell posts there is a4 flange which supports the cover1 and above this there is a recessed portion into which is slipped a soft rubber sleeve or bushing4 ,this portion of the post is made with a ridge extending around the post and with the rubber sleeve forming a high point over which a corresponding locking edge in the terminal hole of the cover is snapped4 ,this construction makes a joint which is flexible and at the same time acid tight4 ,vibration tends to push the cover down on the supporting flanges1 as the post diameter is smaller below the locking edge4 ,the design is simple1 both from the assembly and the repair standpoint1 as no tools are required for either operation4 ,in the assembly operation the groups are lined up so that the post centers are correct and1 after wetting the soft rubber sleeves1 the cover is snapped in place with a quick downward push4 ,see ,fig4 #beh4 ,in removing the covers1 catch under each end with the fingers and pull upward1 at the same time pressing with the thumbs on the top of the posts4 ,see ,fig4 #bei4 ,fig4 #beh ,replacing cover of ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid ,battery ,fig4 #bei ,removing cover of ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid ,battery ,rubber ,case ,batteries4 ,another development of recent years consists of the replacing of the wood case and rubber jars by a one-piece container of hard rubber with compartments for the elements ,the ,philadelphia ,storage ,battery ,co4 has developed the ,diamond ,rubber case1 which combines strength and lightness with an attractive appearance4 ,see ,fig4 #bfj4 ,one of the troubles experienced with the earlier designs of the rubber case was the bulging of the end1 due to the pull of the battery hold down rod on a small handle attached to the center of the end4 ,in the ,philadelphia battery this has been overcome by the use of a wide handle which snaps into openings in the end of the case in such a way that the pull on the handle is transferred to the sides4 ,another feature of this type handle is that it is a separate piece snapped into the case without the use of any metal insert in the rubber case1 and if the handle should break1 it can be replaced at small expense without the use of any tools4 ,fig4 #bfj ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid ,battery with rubber case ,the ,philadelphia vent plug is of the bayonet type1 and is tightened by a quarter turn4 ,the plug simply has a small vent hole in the top1 and may either be taken out or left on while battery is charging4 ,the ,philadelphia ,separator ,the ,philadelphia separator is made of quarter sawed hardwood4 ,it has a hard resinous wood in which the hard and soft portions occur in regular alternating vertical layers4 ,the soft layers are porous1 and permit the diffusion of the acid from plate to plate4 ,the hard layers give the separator stiffness and long life4 ,the alternating hard and soft layers are at right angles to the surface of the separator1 so that the electrolyte has a direct path between plates4 ,the methods of repairing ,philadelphia ,diamond ,grid batteries are no different from those already given1 on pages #cbh to #cgd4 ,when the elements of the old type batteries have been assembled and returned to the jars1 put the covers in place1 and pour the compound around the edges of the cover1 and in the post wells4 ,the old compound must be removed from the petticoats on the posts before new compound is poured in4 ,the compound must be warm and thin enough to flow around and fill up the petticoat spaces on the posts in order to get a good seal4 ,when the post wells are full of compound1 and while compound is still warm1 put on the square sealing washers and press them down so that the holes in the washers fit closely around the octagonal part of the posts4 ,,the ,,eveready ,,storage ,,battery ,it is claimed by the manufacturers that the sulphate which forms in the ,eveready battery during discharge always remains in the porous1 convertible form1 and never crystallizes and becomes injurious1 even though the battery is allowed to stand idle on open circuit for a considerable length of time4 ,due to this fact1 the ,eveready battery is called a ,non-,sulphating ,battery4 ,the manufacturers state that ,eveready batteries which have stood idle or in a discharged condition for months do not suffer the damages which usually result from such treatment1 namely3 buckling1 and injurious sulphation4 ,the plates do become sulphated1 but the sulphate remains in the porous1 non-crystalline state in which it forms4 ,charging such a battery at its normal rate is all that is necessary to bring it back to its normal1 healthy condition4 ,due to the excessive amount of sulphate which forms when the battery stands idle or discharged for a long time1 it is necessary to give the battery #ej percent overcharge to remove all the sulphate and bring the battery back to a healthy working condition4 ,the colors of the plates are good guides as to their condition at the end of the charge4 ,the positives should be free from blotches of white sulphate1 and should have a dark brown or chocolate color4 ,the negatives should have a bright gray or slate color4 ,description of ,parts ,eveready plates are of two general types4 ,plates of the ,r type are each provided with two feet on lower ends1 the positive set and the negative set resting on two separate pairs of bridges in the jars1 thereby preventing the sediment which accumulates on top of bridges from short circuiting a cell4 ,plates of the ,m type1 instead of having feet1 are cut away where they pass over the bridges of the opposite group4 ,see ,fig4 #bfa4 ,this construction secures a greater capacity for a given space1 and gives the same protection against short circuit from sediment as the foot construction does1 since the same amount of sediment must accumulate with either type of plate to cause a short circuit4 ,fig4 #bfa ,type ,m ,eveready grid ,the separators used in ,eveready batteries are made of cherry wood because it is a hard wood which will resist wear1 is of uniform texture1 even porosity1 and has a long life in a given degree and condition of acid4 ,eveready cherry wood separators go to the repair man in a dry condition1 as they do not require chemical treatment4 ,separators when received should be soaked in #a4bej specific gravity acid for four days or longer in order to expand them to proper size and remove natural impurities from the wood4 ,after being fully expanded they should be stored moist as previously described4 ,stock separators may be kept indefinitely in this solution and can be used as required4 ,fig4 #bfb shows the top construction in the ,eveready battery4 ,fig4 #bfb ,eveready ,battery1 cell connectors covered by compound ,cell connectors are heavily constructed and are sealed over solidly with a flexible sealing compound1 ,fig4 #bfb4 ,two types of cell connectors are used-the crescent and the heavy or three way type4 ,repairing ,eveready ,batteries ,to properly open and re-assemble an ,eveready battery1 proceed as follows3 #a4 ,take a hot putty knife and cut the compound from the top of each of the inter-cell connectors until the entire top of the connector is exposed4 #b4 ,center punch tops of cell connectors and terminal posts4 #c4 ,drill off cell connectors4 ,in drilling off crescent cell connector use #a_/b inch drill1 and for heavy type connector use #e_/h inch drill4 ,drill deep enough1 usually #c_/h to #a_/b inch1 until a seam between connector and post is visible around lower edge of hole4 ,having drilled holes in both ends of connector1 heat connector with soft flame until compound adhering to it becomes soft4 ,then take a #a_/b inch or #e_/h inch round iron or bolt1 depending on connector to be removed1 insert in one of the holes1 and pry connector off with a side to side motion1 being careful not to carry this motion so far as to jam connector into top of jar4 #d4 ,after connectors have been removed1 steam and open the battery1 as described on pages #ccb to #cce4 #e4 ,examine plates1 and handle them as described on pages #cce to #cee4 ,remember1 however1 that ,eveready plates which show the presence of large amounts of sulphate1 even to the extent of being entirely covered with white sulphate1 should not be discarded4 ,a battery with such plates should be charged at the normal rate1 and given a #ej percent overcharge4 #f4 ,before re-assembling plate groups preparatory to assembling the battery1 take negative and positive plate groups and build up the posts with the aid of a post builder to their original height4 ,assemble groups in usual manner1 taking care that posts on straps are in proper position relative to group in adjoining cell1 so that cell connectors will span properly4 ,eveready batteries use a right and left hand strap for both positive and negatives1 making it necessary to use only one length of cell connector4 #g4 ,after inserting assembled plate groups into battery in their proper relation as to polarity1 heat rubber covers to make them fairly pliable and fit them over posts and into top of jar1 pressing them down until they rest firmly on top of plate straps4 ,see that covers are perfectly level and that vent tubes are perpendicular and all at same height above the plates4 #h4 ,heat compound just hot enough so that it will flow4 ,pour first layer about one quarter inch thick1 being careful to cover entire jar cover4 ,take a soft flame and seal compound around edges of jar and onto posts4 #i4 ,now proceed to burn on top connectors4 ,cell connectors need only be cleaned in hole left by post1 and top of each end4 #aj4 ,while burning in cell connectors the first layer of compound will have cooled sufficiently to permit the second layer to be applied4 ,this should be done immediately after burning on connectors and while they are still hot4 ,also heat the terminal posts1 as compound will adhere to hot lead more readily than to cold4 ,start second layer of compound by pouring it over cell connectors and terminal posts1 first filling in with sufficient compound to bring level just above the tops of jars4 ,apply flame1 sealing around edges of wood case1 being particularly careful to properly seal terminal posts4 ,let this layer cool thoroughly before applying third layer4 #aa4 ,the third layer of compound should be applied in the same way as second layer1 pouring on connectors and terminal posts first1 and filling in to the level of top of wood ease4 ,the spaces between bars of cell connectors will fill and flow over properly if second layer has been allowed to cool and if cell connectors have not been burned up too high4 ,in sealing last layer with flame1 care should be taken not to play flame on compound too long as this hardens and burns the compound4 ,burned compound has no flexibility and will crack readily in service1 thus causing the battery to become a slopper4 ,in pouring compound be sure to have battery setting level so that compound will come up even on all edges of case4 ,do not move battery after pouring last layer until thoroughly cool4 ,before installing battery on car be sure that no compound1 etc41 has been allowed to get onto taper of terminal post1 as this will make a poor connection4 ,if this has happened1 clean with medium grade sandpaper4 ,,vesta ,,batteries ,fig4 #bfc ,vesta grid with #c-piece isolator ,vesta ,isolators4 ,the ,vesta plate embodies in its design devices which are intended to hold the plates straight and thus eliminate the buckling and short-circuiting which form a large percentage of battery trouble4 ,fig4 #bfc shows clearly the construction of the old type of plate4 ,each isolator used in the old type of plate consists of two notched strips of celluloid1 with a plain celluloid strip between them4 ,the notches are as wide as the plates are thick1 the teeth between the notches fitting into the spaces between plates1 thus holding the plates at the correct distances apart4 ,the plain celluloid strip holds the notched strips in place4 ,at each corner of the ,vesta plate is a slot into which the isolator fits1 as shown in ,fig4 #bfc4 ,since the teeth on the two notched pieces of each isolator hold the plates apart1 they cannot cut-out or short-out by pinching through the wooden separators1 or impregnated mats as they are called by the ,vesta ,company4 ,the celluloid of which the isolators are made are not attacked by the electrolyte at ordinary temperatures4 ,at higher temperatures1 however1 the electrolyte slowly dissolves the isolators4 ,the condition of the isolator1 therefore1 may be used to determine whether the temperature of the electrolyte has been allowed to rise above #ajj ,fahrenheit4 ,the ,vesta ,type ,d ,battery ,the appearance of a group of the new ,type ,d construction is shown in ,fig4 #bfe1 where ,type ,c and ,type ,d groups are illustrated side by side for purposes of comparison4 ,it will be seen that the ,d isolator is of one piece only 7shown separately in ,fig4 #bff74 ,the material is a heavy hard rubber stock which will be no more affected by acid or by electrical conditions in the cell than the hard rubber battery jar itself4 ,the indentations on the two edges of isolator engage in hook shaped lugs on plate edges 7,fig4 #bfg shows these clearly7 and lock the plates apart fully as efficiently as the three-piece construction4 ,fig4 #bfd ,cross section1 ,vesta ,isolator ,battery1 type ,c ,there are a number of important advantages which have been gained by the new method of isolation4 ,the illustration 7,fig4 #bfe7 shows how the ,d isolator permits the separators to completely cover and project slightly beyond the edges of the plates1 whereas in the old construction there is an edge just above the isolators where the plates are not covered4 ,this improvement means protection against shorts due to flaking1 always so likely to occur during the summer overcharging season4 ,overcharging is1 of course1 a form of abuse1 and ,type ,d batteries are designed to meet this sort of service4 ,another great advantage gained is in the arrangement of lugs1 ,it will be noted that the positive isolator hooks are in alignment1 as are the negative hooks1 but that these two rows1 of opposite polarity1 are separated from each other by the full width of the isolator2 whereas in the ,type ,c construction the outer edges of the plates1 of opposite polarity1 were separated only by the usual distance between plates4 ,fig4 #bfe ,vesta elements3 showing old #c-piece celluloid isolator and new one-piece hard rubber isolator ,fig4 #bfg ,vesta plates type ,u and ,,dj ,fig4#bfh ,inserting ,vesta hard rubber isolator ,the new isolator is simple to insert and remove4 ,being made of hard rubber1 it will soften and become pliable if a sufficient degree of heat is applied4 ,the heat required is approximately #aej to #afj;,f41 a temperature far above that reached by any battery cell1 even under the most extravagant condition of abuse1 but readily attained in the shop by means of a small flame of any kind-even a match will do in an emergency4 ,the flame 7which should be of the yellow or luminous variety1 as the blue flame tends to scorch the rubber7 is played lightly over the isolator a few seconds4 ,the rubber becomes soft and is then removed by inserting under the end of the isolator any narrow tool1 such as a small screw driver1 a wedge point1 chisel1 etc41 and prying gently4 ,in replacing isolators1 a small hot plate is convenient but not at all necessary4 ,the isolators are placed on the hot plate1 or held in a luminous flame1 until soft enough to bend4 ,they are then bent into an arched shape1 as shown in ,fig4 #bfh1 and quickly fitted into place under the proper lugs4 ,the regular isolator spacing tool is convenient and helpful in maintaining the plates at uniform intervals while this operation is carried out4 ,the job is completed by pressing down the still warm isolator with any handy piece of metal having a flat edge that will fit the distance between the lugs 7,fig4 #bfi74 ,the shank of a screw driver does splendidly for this work4 ,the pressure causes the isolator to straighten out1 and the indentations fit snugly under the respective hooks on the plates4 ,at the same time the contact with the cold metal chills the rubber to its normal hard condition4 ,it is especially to be noted that the entire operation of isolator removal and replacement can be carried out with none but the commonest of shop tools4 ,fig4 #bfi ,pressing down ,vesta hard rubber isolator ,fig4 #bgj ,complete vesta battery ,all of the ,u size batteries have been changed to ,type ,d1 so that all ,,cu types are superseded by corresponding ,,du's4 ,type ,d will not be used on cells of sizes ,l1 ,h1 or ,a1 all of which remain of the ,c or three-piece isolator construction4 ,type ,s remains old style as before4 ,type ,,dj ,the ,vesta ,company has added a new plate size1 produced in the ,d style 7one-piece7 isolator only1 and known as ,,dj4 ,this plate is one-half inch higher than the ,u1 as shown in ,fig4 #bfg4 ,it has #aj per cent more capacity4 ,,dj batteries are available in all forms corresponding with ,,cu types1 and can be obtained by merely changing the type form name in ordering1 as for example1 to replace form #aej1 #f-;,,dj#aa-,y-#aej4 ,the overall height of the completed battery is1 of course1 one-half inch more1 and the ,,dj should therefore be ordered only when this additional height space is available in the battery compartment of the car4 ,vesta ,separators ,the ,vesta separators1 or mats1 are treated by a special process4 ,the ,vesta ,company considers its mats a very important feature of the battery4 ,see page #ae4 ,vesta ,post ,seal ,a lead collar fits over each post to hold the cover tight against the soft rubber gasket underneath4 ,this collar is not screwed or burned on the post1 but is simply pressed down over the post1 depending for its holding power upon the fact that two lead surfaces rubbing against each other tend to freeze1 and unite so as to become a unit4 ,the connector rests upon the upper race of the collar1 and also helps to hold it down in its proper position4 ,fig4 #bgj shows the complete battery with the lead collar1 and the large vent plug4 ,in rebuilding ,vesta batteries having the lead collars1 the cover should be left in place when working on the plates1 if possible4 ,if1 however1 it is necessary to separate groups1 and the lead collars must be removed1 this is done as shown in ,fig4 #bga4 ,a few blows on the side of the collar with a light1 two ounce hammer expands the lead collar several thousands of an inch so that the collar may be removed4 ,fig4 #bga ,expanding lead collar of ,vesta battery with light hammer ,fig4 #bgb ,placing soft rubber gasket over post of ,vesta battery ,in replacing the covers1 the lead collar must be forced down over the post1 and special pressure tongs are required for this purpose4 ,before driving on the old collar1 the post should be expanded slightly by driving the point of a center-punch into the shoulder on the post4 ,instead of expanding the shoulder a new collar may be used4 ,fig4 #bgb shows the soft rubber gasket being placed over the post1 and shows the construction of the cover with its recess to fit the gasket4 ,fig4 #bgc shows the lead collar being placed over the post after the cover is in place4 ,fig4 #bgd shows the special long lipped tongs required to force the collar down on the post shoulder4 ,one lip of the tongs has a hole into which the post fits4 ,the necessary driving force may be obtained by applying pressure to the ends of the lips of the tongs ,with an ordinary vise4 ,this forces the cover down on the rubber gasket to make the acid-tight seal4 ,fig4 #bgc ,placing lead collar over post of ,vesta battery ,fig4 #bgd ,pressing lead collar over post of ,vesta battery ,,westinghouse ,,batteries ,westinghouse batteries have a special seal between covers and posts1 as shown in ,fig4 #bge4 ,a lead foundation washer 7,j7 is set around the post4 ,a ,u shaped rubber gasket1 7,k7 is then forced between the cover and post1 with the open end up4 ,the lips of this gasket are tapered1 with the narrow edge up4 ,a tapered lead sleeve 7,l7 is then forced between the lips of gasket 7,k71 thereby pressing the inner lip against the post and the outer lip against the cover4 ,fig4 #bge ,westinghouse battery1 partly dis-assembled ,the lead sleeve is held in place by broaching or indenting the collar on taper lead sleeve into the posts4 ,to break the seal1 a hollow reamer or facing tool1 fitted into a drill press or breast drill1 is slipped over the post4 ,a few turns will remove that part of the sleeve which has been forced into the post4 ,remove sealing compound around cover1 remove group from cell4 ,the cover can then be lifted off and if any difficulty is experienced1 it can easily be removed by prying up cover with screwdriver4 ,after removing the cover1 the tapered lead sleeve and ,u shaped gasket can be removed4 ,if these instructions are followed1 the ,u shaped gasket and taper lead sleeves can be used when battery is reassembled4 ,with the addition of the foregoing instructions on the post seal1 the standard directions for rebuilding batteries given on pages #cbh to #cgd apply to ,westinghouse batteries4 ,westinghouse ,plates ,in any given size1 the ,westinghouse battery has two more plates per cell than the usual #a_/h inch plate battery4 ,it has the same number of plates as the #c_/cb inch thin plate battery1 but the thickness of the plates is about half-way between the #a_/h inch and #c_/cb inch plates4 ,the ,westinghouse negative grids1 ,fig4 #bgf1 have very few and small bars1 just enough to hold the active material4 ,it is slightly thinner than the positive but has the same amount of active material1 due to the design of the grids4 ,the condition of ,westinghouse negatives should not be determined by cadmium readings as these plates may be fully charged and yet not give reversed cadmium readings4 ,fig4 #bgf ,westinghouse positive and negative plates ,aside from the special instructions given for the ,westinghouse ,post ,seal1 the ,standard ,instructions for ,rebuilding ,batteries1 given on pages #cbh to #cgd may be used in rebuilding ,westinghouse batteries4 ,,types ,,of ,,westinghouse ,,batteries ,type ,a ,batteries ,the type ,a series was designed to fit the battery compartment in certain rather old models of cars4 ,owing to a lack of space this series is not of as efficient design as the ,c and ,b series4 ,it does have the ,westinghouse ,post ,seal1 however4 ,type ,a batteries are not recommended for use when ,b or ,c batteries can be used4 ,ampere ,hours ,ampere ,ampere ,length ,weight at ,usual ,rate for ,rate for in ,inches in ,type ,part ,no4 ,lighting ,rate #bj ,minutes #e ,hours ,l4 ,pounds ---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ #f-;,a-#aa #ajjjga #fd #fh #i4a #h #ch #f-;,a-#ac #ajjjgb #gi #hb #aa4j #i-a_/h #db #f-;,a-#ae #ajjjgc #id #if #ab4h #aj-a_/d #df #f-;,a-#ag #ajjjgd #aji #aji #ad4f #aa-i_/af #eb #f-;,a-#ba #ajjjge #aci #acf #ah4b #ad-c_/af #fc #f-;,a-#be #ajjjgf #afi #afd #bb4j #ag #ge #ab-;,a-#g #ajjjgg #cd #da #e4e #aj-g_/af #dh #ab-;,a-#aa #ajjjgh #fd #fh #i4a #ad-ae_/af #gj #ab-;,a-#ag #ajjjgi #aji #aji #ad4f #bb-a_/af #ajb ,plates ,width ,height ,thickness ----- ------ --------- #e-e_/h #d-a_/h 4#jih ,type ,b ,batteries ,the type ,b series of batteries has been designed for use on a number of cars now in service that do not have a sufficient headroom in the battery compartment for type ,c4 ,type ,b batteries carry all of the features of the type ,c4 ,due to the fact that the plates of necessity must be somewhat shorter than in the type ,c batteries their efficiency from the point of ampere hours per pound of weight is slightly less than the type ,c series4 ,ampere ,hours ,ampere ,ampere ,length ,weight at ,usual ,rate for ,rate for in ,inches in ,type ,part ,no4 ,lighting ,rate #bj ,minutes #e ,hours ,l4 ,pounds ---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ #f-;,b-#g #ajjjca #da #dd #f4f #e-c_/d #cj #f-;,b-#i #ajjjcb #ei #ff #h4h #f4g_/h #cf #f-;,b-#aa #ajjjcc #gg #hb #aa4j #h #da #f-;,b-#ac #ajjjcd #ie #ii #ac4b #i-a_/b #dg #f-;,b-#ae #ajjjce #aad #aae #ae4d #aj-a_/d #eb #f-;,b-#ag #ajjjcf #acb #aca #ag4f #aa-i_/af #eg #f-;,b-#ai #ajjjcg #aej #adh #ai4h #ab-g_/h #fj #f-;,b-#ba #ajjjch #afh #afd #bb4j #ad-c_/af #fh #f-;,b-#bc #ajjjci #ahf #aha #bd4b #ae-a_/b #ge #f-;,b-#be #ajjjdj #bje #aig #bf4d #ag #hb #ab-;,b-#g #ajjjda #da #di #f4f #aj-g_/af #ed #ab-;,b-#i #ajjjdb #ei #ff #h4h #ab-aa_/af #ff #ab-;,b-#aa #ajjjdc #gg #hb #aa4j #ad-ae_/af #gh #ab-;,b-#ac #ajjjdd #ie #ii #ac4b #ag-c_/af #ia #ab-;,b-#ae #ajjjde #aad #aae #ae4d #ai-g_/af #ajb #ab-;,b-#ag #ajjjdf #acb #aca #ag4f #bb-a_/af #aac ,plates ,width ,height ,thickness ----- ------ --------- #e-e_/h #d-c_/d #j4a ,type ,c ,batteries ,the type ,c series of batteries is the ,westinghouse standard4 ,the outside dimensions and capacity are such that some one of this design may be used in a majority of cars now in service4 ,the ,westinghouse design was built around this type and it should be used for replacement or new equipment4 ,type ,c batteries are provided with the ,westinghouse ,post ,seal wherever possible4 ,ampere ,hours ,ampere ,ampere ,length ,weight at ,usual ,rate for ,rate for in ,inches in ,type ,part ,no4 ,lighting ,rate #bj ,minutes #e ,hours ,l4 ,pounds ---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ #f-;,c-#g #ajjjja #de #ed #g4c #e-g_/h #cd #f-;,c-#i #ajjjjb #fe #gc #i4g #g #ci #f-;,c-#aa #ajjjjc #he #ia #ab4a #h-a_/h #dd #f-;,c-#ac #ajjjjd #aje #aji #ad4f #i-a_/d #ej #f-;,c-#ae #ajjjje #abe #abg #ag4j #aj-c_/h #ef #f-;,c-#ag #ajjjjf #ade #ade #ai4d #aa-aa_/af #fc #f-;,c-#ai #ajjjjg #afe #afc #ba4h #ac #gj #f-;,c-#ba #ajjjjh #ahe #aha #bd4c #ad-e_/af #gg #f-;,c-#bc #ajjjji #bje #aii #bf4g #ae-e_/h #he #f-;,c-#be #ajjjaj #bbe #bah #bi4b #ag-a_/h #ic #ab-;,c-#g #ajjjaa #de #ed #g4c #aj-i_/af #ei #ab-;,c-#ai #ajjjab #fe #gc #i4g #ab-ac_/af #gb #ab-;,c-#aa #ajjjac #he #ia #ab4a #ae-a_/af #hd #ab-;,c-#ac #ajjjad #aje #aji #ad4f #ag-e_/af #if #ab-;,c-#ae #ajjjae #abe #abg #ag4j #ai-h_/af #aaj ,plates ,width ,height ,thickness ----- ------ --------- #e-e_/h #d-a_/d #j4a inch ,type ,e ,batteries ,the type ,e series was designed for replacement work on a few old model cars now in service where a narrow1 high battery was necessary4 ,the design is not as efficient as the ,b and ,c lines1 due to a lack of space and further1 it has been necessary to omit the ,westinghouse ,post ,seal for the same reason4 ,ampere ,hours ,ampere ,ampere ,length ,weight at ,usual ,rate for ,rate for in ,inches in ,type ,part ,no4 ,lighting ,rate #bj ,minutes #e ,hours ,l4 ,pounds ---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ #f-;,e-#ac #ajjjeh #gi #hb #aa4j #i-a_/h #dj #f-;,e-#ae #ajjjfb #id #if #ab4h #aj-a_/d #dd #f-;,e-#ag #ajjjfe #aji #aji #ad4f #aa-i_/af #ej #f-;,e-#ba #ajjjfg #aci #acf #ah4b #ad-c_/af #fb #ab-;,e-#aa #ajjjhh #fd #fh #i4a #ad-ae_/af #gj #ab-;,e-#ac #ajjjfj #gi #hb #aa4j #ag-c_/af #gi #ab-;,e-#ae #ajjjfi #id #if #ab4h #ai-g_/af #ij #ah-;,e-#i #ajjjgj #di #ed #g4c #ae-e_/af #ge ,plates ,width ,height ,thickness ----- ------ --------- #d-a_/h #e-e_/h 4#jih ,type ,h ,batteries ,the type ,h battery is built with heavier plates than the type ,c and ,b batteries for use in cars where the necessary increased space is available and where the weight per ampere output is not a consideration4 ,under the same use the battery will give a greater life than the type ,c or ,b battery having the same positive area4 ,this battery has a greater space between the plates than the ,c or ,b battery and will therefore have less internal discharge when standing on open circuit1 and is more desirable for miscellaneous use where open circuit discharge is of consideration4 ,ampere ,hours ,ampere ,ampere ,length ,weight at ,usual ,rate for ,rate for in ,inches in ,type ,part ,no4 ,lighting ,rate #bj ,minutes #e ,hours ,l4 ,pounds ---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ #f-;,h-#ag #ajjjhi #fa #gd #i4i #g-c_/d #ce #f-;,h-#i #ajjjij #hh #hi #ac4b #i-a_/d #dc #f-;,h-#aa #ajjjia #aae #abd #af4e #aa-a_/b #ee #f-;,h-#ac #ajjjib #adc #adi #ai4h #ab-e_/h #cf #f-;,h-#ae #ajjjic #agj #agc #bc4b #ad-e_/af #gj #f-;,h-#ag #ajjjid #aig #aji #bf4e #af #gi ,plates ,width ,height ,thickness ----- ------ --------- #e-e_/h #e 4#ai ,type ,j ,batteries ,the type ,j battery is an extremely heavy construction battery with thick plates1 and it was designed primarily for use on trucks and other vehicles of this type where there is excessive vibration and other possibility of mechanical abuse4 ,this battery will give a greater life than either the ,h1 ,c or ,b battery with the same plate area4 ,it is provided with wood separators and rubber sheets4 ,this battery has a greater space between the plates than the ,c or ,b battery and will therefore have less internal discharge when standing on open circuit1 and is more desirable for miscellaneous use where open circuit discharge is of consideration4 ,ampere ,hours ,ampere ,ampere ,length ,weight at ,usual ,rate for ,rate for in ,inches in ,type ,part ,no4 ,lighting ,rate #bj ,minutes #e ,hours ,l4 ,pounds ---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ #f-;,j-#e #ajjjie #ch #ee #g4ce #f-g_/af #ch #f-;,j-#g #ajjjif #fh #hb #aa4j #h-a_/h #dj #f-;,j-#i #ajjjig #ih #aaj #ad4g #aj-c_/h #ej #f-;,j-#aa #ajjjih #abh #acg #ah4d #aa-g_/h #fj #f-;,j-#ac #ajjjii #aei #afe #bb4a #ac-c_/d #fi #f-;,j-#ae #ajjajj #ahi #aib #be4g #ae-e_/h #hd #f-;,j-#ag #ajjaja #bbj #bbj #bi4d #ag-a_/b #if ,plates ,width ,height ,thickness ----- ------ --------- #e-e_/h #e 4#ai ,type #j ,batteries ,the #j type battery sacrifices some capacity in obtaining a rugged strength4 ,it is a special battery made only with nineteen plates per cell where the percentage of sacrificed capacity is not great as compared with the twenty-one plate ,c type4 ,it fills the same space as does a #f-;,c-#ba4 ,it has greater life and strength4 ,it has less capacity but it is built for conditions requiring less capacity than a twenty-one plate cell4 ,ampere ,hours ,ampere ,ampere ,length ,weight at ,usual ,rate for ,rate for in ,inches in ,type ,part ,no4 ,lighting ,rate #bj ,minutes #e ,hours ,l4 ,pounds ---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ #f-,o-#ai #ajjadc #ahe #ahe #bd4e #ac-aa_/af #fh ,plates ,width ,height ,thickness ----- ------ --------- #e-e_/h #e-a_/d 4#abc ,type ,f ,batteries ,there is only one type ,f battery4 ,it is of big heavy construction exactly the same dimensions as the battery used for a number of years on the ,cadillac and certain other cars4 ,this battery is heavier than type ,c of the same capacity and it has a greater life4 ,ampere ,hours ,ampere ,ampere ,length ,weight at ,usual ,rate for ,rate for in ,inches in ,type ,part ,no4 ,lighting ,rate #bj ,minutes #e ,hours ,l4 ,pounds ---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ #f-;,f-#ac #ajjjhf #aej #afj #ba4b #ag-aa_/af #gi ,plates ,width ,height ,thickness ----- ------ --------- #d-c_/d #e-a_/d 4#ag ,,willard ,,batteries ,since #aiab1 when the ,willard ,storage ,battery ,co4 began to manufacture storage batteries for starting and lighting work1 various types of ,willard batteries have been developed4 ,the original ,willard starting and lighting batteries used two-piece1 or double covers4 ,these are shown in the cuts used to illustrate the sealing of double-cover covers in the preceding chapter1 and no further description will be given here4 ,the doublecover batteries are no longer made1 but the repairman will probably be called upon to repair some of them4 ,the instructions given in the preceding chapter should be used in making such repairs4 ,following the double cover batteries came the single cover battery1 of which a number of types have been made4 ,one type used a rectangular post1 and was very difficult to repair4 ,fortunately1 this type was not used extensively1 and the battery is obsolete4 ,willard ,batteries ,with ,compound ,sealed ,posts ,the oldest type single-cover ,willard battery which the repairman will be called upon to handle is the compound sealed post type1 illustrated in-,fig4 #bgg4 ,this battery includes types ,,sew1 ,,ser1 ,,sjw1 ,,sl1 ,,slr1 ,,sm1 ,,smr1 ,,str1 ,,sxw1 ,,sxr1 ,,sp1 ,,sk1 ,,sq1 ,,em1 and ,,emr4 ,as shown in ,fig4 #bgg1 there is a well around each post which is filled with3 sealing compound4 ,on the under side of the cover is a corresponding well which fits into the post well1 the sealing compound serving to make the seal between the cover and the post4 ,fig4 #bgg ,willard ,battery cross section ,aside from this post seal1 no special instructions are required in rebuilding this type of ,willard battery4 ,a #c_/d inch drill is needed for drilling off the connectors4 ,when the plates have been lifted out of the jars1 and are resting on the jar to drain1 and while the compound and cover are still hot1 remove the cover by placing your fingers under it and pressing down on the posts with your thumbs4 ,with a narrow screw driver or a knife1 clean out all of the old compound from the wells around the posts1 and also remove the compound from the under side of the cover which fits into the post wells4 ,in reassembling the battery first try on the covers to see that they will fit in the post wells4 ,then remove the covers again and heat them with a soft flame4 ,then heat the post wells perfectly dry with a soft flame4 ,pour the post wells nearly full of compound1 and quickly press the cover into position4 ,willard ,batteries ,with ,lead ,inserts ,in ,covers ,the types ,,sjwn and ,,sjrn ,willard batteries have lead inserts in the cover post holes1 as shown in ,mg4 #bgh1 the inserts being welded to the posts4 ,for removing the connectors and for separating the post from the cover insert1 the ,willard ,company furnishes special jigs and forms4 ,the work may also be done without these jigs and forms1 as will be described later4 ,when the special jigs and forms are used1 the work is done1 as follows3 #a4 ,place ,willard drill jig ,z-#gb 7,fig4 #bgi7 over the connector1 and with a #ac_/af inch drill1 bore down far enough to release the connector from the post 7,fig4 #bgi74 ,fig4 #bgh lead insert used on ,willard ,batteries2 ,fig4 #bgi ,willard ,drill ,jig ,z-#gb2 ,fig4 #bgi ,willard ,drill ,jig ,z-#gb and how it is used #b4 ,file off the post stub left by drilling4 ,this will give a flat surface on top of the cover insert and will make it easier to center the drill for the next operation4 #c4 ,with a #eg_/fd inch drill1 and ,willard jig ,z-#id 7,fig4 #bhj71 drill down to release the post from the cover insert4 ,fig4 #bhj ,willard ,jig ,z-#id2 ,fig4 #bha ,willard ,post-,builder ,z-#ic #d4 ,in reassembling1 build the post up to a height of #a-e_/af inches above the top of the plate strap1 using ,willard post builder ,z-#ic 7,fig4 #bha74 #e4 ,after removing the post builder1 bevel the top edge of the post with a file1 as indicated at ,a 7,fig4 #bha74 ,then replace plates in the jars4 #f4 ,file off tops of cover inserts at ,a 7,fig4 #bhb71 to a height of #c_/af inch above the cover4 ,also remove any roughness on surface ,b caused by pliers when cover was removed4 ,fig4 #bhb ,willard ,battery cross section of cover insert2 ,fig4 #bhc ,willard burning form ,z-#hg and how it is used #g4 ,put on the covers so that their tops will be #a_/cb inch above the top edge of the jars1 tapping them lightly with a small hammer4 #h4 ,place ,willard burning form ,z-#hg 7,fig4 #bhc7 over the post and cover insert and burn the post to the insert4 #i4 ,remove form ,z-#hg and thoroughly brush off the top of the post stub4 ,then build up the stub post1 using ,willard burning form ,z-#hh on the positive posts and form ,z-#hi on the negative posts 7,fig4 #bhd74 ,fig4 #bhd ,willard burning forms ,z-#hh and ,z-#hi #aj4 ,now seal the covers with sealing compound as usual1 and burn on the connectors4 #aa4 ,if the terminal posts are made for clamp terminals1 build up the posts by using ,willard burning form ,z-#ij1 for the positive posts and ,z-#ia for the negative posts 7,fig4 #bhe74 ,fig4 #bhe ,willard burning forms ,z-#ij and ,z-#ia ,to work on the post seals of ,willard types ,,sjwn and ,,sjrn without the special ,willard jigs and forms3 #a4 ,remove the connectors and terminals as usual4 #b4 ,saw off the posts close to the covers1 taking care not to injure the covers2 ,this will separate the posts from the cover inserts1 and the covers may be removed4 #c4 ,in reassembling1 ,ale off the top of the cover insert at ,a 7,fig4 #bib74 #d4 ,put covers on so that their tops will be #a_/cb inch above the top edge of the jars1 tapping the covers lightly with a small hammer4 #e4 ,brush the top of post and cover insert perfectly clean4 ,now make a burning form consisting of a ring #a-a_/h inside diameter and #a-e_/h inch outside diameter and #c_/af to #a_/d inch high4 ,set this over the stub post and cover4 ,with a hot lead burning flame melt the top of the post and cover insert together4 ,then melt in lead up to the top of the special burning form 7,fig4 #bhf74 ,then remove the form4 ,fig4 #bhf ,cross section ,willard ,battery ,posts ,types ,,sjwn and ,,sjrn #f4 ,set post builders on the part of the posts which has been built up and build up the posts as usual1 ,fig4 #bhf4 ,then burn on the connectors and terminals4 ,willard ,gasket ,type ,batteries ,fig4 #bhg shows this type of construction1 used on types ,,sjrg and ,,slwg4 ,fig4 #bhh shows the seal in detail4 ,a soft rubber gasket is slipped over the post1 and the cover is pushed down over the gasket4 ,for removing the covers1 have a cover removal frame made as shown in ,fig4 #bhi4 ,fasten the frame to a solid wall or bench so that it will withstand a strong pull4 ,in rebuilding this type of battery proceed as follows3 ,fig4 #bhg ,willard ,gasket ,seal ,battery cross section #a4 ,drill off the connectors and terminals1 leaving the post stubs1 as high as possible1 since the only way of removing the plates is by grasping the post stubs with pliers4 ,fig4 #bhh ,details of ,willard ,gasket ,seal #b4 ,steam the battery to soften the sealing compound and lift out the plates as usual4 #c4 ,to remove covers4 ,saw the post stubs off flush with the covers4 ,place the element in the cover removal frame 7,fig4 #bhi7 and pull steadily on the element4 ,a little swaying motion from side to side may help in loosening the covers4 ,if any of the gaskets remain on the posts when the covers are removed1 replace them in the cover and thoroughly dry the inside with a rag4 ,fig4 #bhi ,cover removal frame for ,willard ,gasket ,seal ,battery #d4 ,to replace covers4 ,with a rag or tissue paper wipe off the posts and then dry them thoroughly with a soft flame4 ,with a #c_/d inch bristle bottle brush apply a thin coating of rubber cement to the inside surfaces of the gaskets4 ,do this to one cover at a time and apply the cover quickly before the cement dries4 ,the cement acts as a lubricant1 and without it1 it will be impossible to replace the covers4 ,willard ,separators ,fig4 #bij shows the ,willard ,threaded ,rubber ,separator which is made of a rubber sheet pierced by thousands of threads which are designed to make the separator porous4 ,this separator is not injured by allowing it to become dry1 and makes it possible for the ,willard ,company to ship its batteries fully assembled without electrolyte or moisture1 the parts being bone-dry4 ,fig4 #bij ,willard threaded rubber separator ,,universal ,,batteries ,types4 ,the ,universal ,battery ,co4 manufactures batteries for 7a7 ,starting and ,lighting1 7b7 ,lighting1 7c7 ,ignition1 7d7 ,radio1 7e7 ,electric ,cars and ,trucks1 7f7 ,isolated1 or ,farm ,lighting ,plants1 and 7g7 ,general ,stationary ,work4 ,construction ,features4 ,the ,universal ,starting and ,lighting ,batteries embody no special or unique constructions4 ,the boxes are made of hard maple1 lock cornered and glued4 ,the jars have single rubber covers4 ,the separators are made of ,port ,orford white cedar wood1 this wood being the same as that used in some of the other standard makes of batteries4 ,the space between the covers and connectors is sufficient to permit lifting the battery by grasping the connectors4 ,fig4 #bia ,universal ,battery ,cover cross section ,fig4 #bia shows the ,universal ,co4 ,post ,seal construction4 ,a soft rubber washer 7,a7 is first slipped over the post4 ,the cover 7,b7 is then put in place1 and rests on the washer 7,a7 as shown4 ,a second washer 7,c7 is then slipped over the post1 resting on the upper surface of the shoulder of the cover4 ,the lead sleeve washer 7,d7 is then forced down over the post1 pressing washer 7,c7 down on the cover1 and pressing the cover down on washer 7,a74 ,the two rubber washers serve to make a leak proof joint between post and cover4 ,the lead sleeve-washer 7,d7 freezes to the post1 and holds cover and washers in position4 ,in rebuilding ,universal batteries the cover need not be removed unless it is desired to replace plate groups4 ,to remove the cover1 after the cell connectors have been drilled off1 drill down through the post-stub until the drill has penetrated to the shoulder 7,e74 ,this releases the seal and the cover may be lifted off4 ,to save time1 the post-stub may be cut off flush with the top of the cover with a hack saw after the cell connectors have been drilled off4 ,the drill is then used as before to release the grip of the washer4 ,using a drill to release the grip of the washer makes it necessary to build up the posts when the battery is reassembled4 ,instead of using an ordinary twist drill1 a special hollow drill may be obtained from the ,universal ,battery ,co4 ,this drill cuts away the lead sleeve gasket without injuring the post4 ,if an ordinary drill is used1 a #c_/d inch drill is required for the seven plate battery and a #ac_/af inch drill for all other sizes4 ,,one-,,piece ,,battery ,,containers ,the standard practice in battery assembly has always been to place the plates of each cell in a separate1 hard rubber jar1 the jars being set in a wooden box or case4 ,each six-volt battery thus has four containers4 ,when a wooden case is used1 jars made of rubber1 or some other nonporous1 acid-resisting material are necessary4 ,fig4 #bib ,one-piece battery container ,wooden cases have been fairly well standardized as to the kinds of wood used1 dimensions1 constructional features1 and to a certain extent1 the handles4 ,the disadvantage of both the wooden case and the iron handles is that they are not acid proof4 ,acid-proof paint protects them from the action of the acid to a certain extent1 but paint is easily scraped off1 exposing the wood and iron to the action of the acid4 ,it is practically impossible to prevent acid from reaching the case and handles1 and corroded handles and rotted cases are quite common4 ,a recent development is a one-piece container which takes the place of the jars and wooden case4 ,such a container is made of hard rubber or a composition of impregnated fibre which uses a small amount of rubber as a binder4 ,these cases are1 of course1 entirely acid proof1 and eliminate the possibility of having acid soaked and acid rotted cases4 ,painting of cases is also eliminated4 ,the handles are often integral parts of the case1 as shown in ,fig4 #bib1 being made of the same material as the case4 ,the repairman should not overlook the possibilities of the one-piece containers4 ,in making up rental batteries1 or in replacing old cases1 the one-piece containers may be used to advantage4 ,these containers are suitable for ,radio batteries1 since they have a neater appearance than the wooden cases1 and are not as likely to damage floors or furnishings because the acid cannot seep through them4 ,,the ,,titan ,,battery ,the ,titan ,battery is built along standard lines1 as far as cases1 plates1 separators1 and jars are concerned4 ,the ribs of the grids not arranged at right angles but are arranged as shown in ,fig4 #bic4 ,each pellet of active material is supported by a diagonal rib on the opposite face of the grid4 ,fig4 #bic;a ,titan ,battery grid ,fig4 #bic;b ,titan ,post ,seal construction ,the ,titan ,post ,seal is shown in ,fig4 #bic4 ,a soft rubber gasket 7,g7 is slipped over the post1 and rests on a shoulder 7,f7 on the post4 ,the cover has a channel which fits over the gasket and prevents the gasket from being squeezed out of place when the cover is forced down on the gasket4 ,the post has two projections 7,,dd71 as shown1 the lower surface of each of which is inclined at an angle to the horizontal4 ,a lock nut 7,h71 which has corresponding projections 7,,ij7 is slipped over the post as shown at 7#j71 and is given a quarter turn4 ,the top surfaces of the projections on the lock-nut are inclined and as the locknut is turned1 the projections on the post and nut engage1 and the cover is forced down on the gasket 7,g74 ,to lock the nut in place1 a lock washer 7,l7 is then slipped over the post1 the projections 7,,mm7 fitting into spaces 7,,kk7 between the projections on the post and nut1 thus preventing the nut from turning4 ,a special wrench is furnished for turning the lock-nut4 ,the cell connectors rest on the tops of the lock washers and keep them in place4 ,the overhauling of ,titan batteries should be done as described on pages #cbh to #cgd4 ,,section #c4 ,,chapter #ag4 ,,farm ,,lighting ,,batteries ,,special ,,instructions4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,although the large ,central ,station ,companies are continually extending their power lines1 and are enlarging the territory served by them1 yet there are many places where such service is not available4 ,to meet the demand for electrical power in these places1 small but complete generating plants have been produced by a number of manufacturers4 ,these plants consist of an electrical generator1 an engine1 to drive the generator1 and a storage battery to supply power when the generator is not running4 ,the complete plants are called ,house ,lighting1 ,farm ,lighting1 or ,isolated plants4 ,the batteries used in these plants differ considerably from the starting batteries used on automobiles4 ,the starting battery is called upon to deliver very heavy currents for short intervals4 ,on the car the battery is always being charged when the car is running at a moderate speed or over4 ,the battery must fit in the limited space provided for it on the car1 and must not lose any electrolyte as the car jolts along over the road4 ,it is subjected to both high and low temperatures2 and is generally on a car whose owner often does not know that his car has such a thing as a battery until his starting motor some day fails to turn over the engine4 ,all starting batteries have wooden cases 7some now use rubber cases71 hard rubber jars1 and sealed on covers4 ,the case contains all the cells of the battery4 ,automobile batteries have1 therefore1 become highly standardized1 and to the uninformed1 one make looks just like any other4 ,farm lighting batteries1 on the other hand1 are not limited as to space they occupy1 are not subjected to irregular charging and discharging1 do not need leak proof covers1 and are not called upon to delivery very heavy currents for short periods4 ,these facts are taken advantage of by the manufacturers1 who have designed their farm lighting batteries to give a much longer life than is possible in the automobile battery4 ,as a result the farm lighting battery differs from the automobile battery in a number of respects4 ,jars4 ,both glass and rubber are used for farm lighting battery jars1 and they may or may not have sealed-in covers4 ,fig4 #bid shows a glass jar of an ,exide battery having a hard rubber cover1 and ,fig4 #bie shows a ,prest-,o-,lite glass jar cell having a cover made of lead and antimony4 ,unsealed glass jars1 such as the ,exide type shown in ,fig4 #cbd1 generally have a plate of glass placed across the top to catch acid spray when the cell is gassing4 ,each jar with its plates and electrolyte forms a complete and separate unit which may easily be disconnected from the other cells of the battery by removing the bolts which join them4 ,in working on a farm lighting battery1 the repairman1 therefore1 works with individual cells instead of the battery as a whole1 as is done with automobile batteries4 ,fig4 #bid ,exide ,delco ,light farming lighting cell with hard rubber cover ,batteries with sealed jars are generally shipped completely assembled and filled with electrolyte1 and need only a freshening charge before being put into service1 just as automobile batteries which are shipped wet are in a fully charged condition when they leave the factory and need only a charge before being installed on the car4 ,fig4 #bie ,prest-,o-,lite farm lighting cell with lead-antimony cover ,jars that are not sealed are set in separate glass trays filled with sand1 or sometimes the entire battery is set in a shallow wooden box or tray filled with sand4 ,this is necessary because the absence of a sealed cover allows acid spray to run down the outside of the jar and this acid would1 of course1 attack the wooden shelf and make a dirty1 sloppy battery4 ,batteries using jars without sealed covers cannot be shipped assembled and charged1 and hence they require a considerable amount of work and along initial charge to put them in a serviceable condition4 ,fig4 #bif ,exide farm lighting cell with sealed glass jar ,farm lighting battery jars are less liable to become cracked than those of automobile batteries because they are set in one place and remain there1 and are not jolted about as automobile batteries are4 ,cracked jars in farm lighting batteries are more easily detected as the jar will be wet on the outside and the acid will wet the shelf or sand tray on which the jar rests4 ,batteries with sealed rubber jars are normally assembled four cells in a case or tray1 with a nameplate on each tray which gives the type and size of cell4 ,the cells are connected together with lead links which are bolted to the cell posts by means of lead covered bolt connectors4 ,fig4 #big ,combination wood and rubber separator used in ,delco-,light and ,exide ,farm light cell ,plates4 ,since farm lighting batteries are not required to deliver very heavy currents at any time1 the plates are made thicker than in starting batteries1 this giving a stronger plate which has a longer life than the starting battery plate4 ,all makes of starting batteries use the ,faure1 or pasted plate4 ,this type of plate is also used in many farm lighting batteries1 but the ,plante plate 7see page #bg7 may also be used4 ,the ,exide ,chloride ,accumulator cell1 ,fig4 #cbc uses a type of positive plate called the ,manchester positive as described on page #dig4 ,separators4 ,grooved wooden separators are used in some farm lighting batteries1 while others use rubber separators1 or both rubber and wooden separators4 ,some use wooden separators which are smooth on both sides1 but have dowels pinned to them4 ,electrolyte4 ,in a starting battery the specific gravity of the electrolyte of a fully charged cell is #a4bhj-a4cjj1 no matter what the make of the battery may be4 ,in farm lighting batteries1 the different types have different values of specific gravity when fully charged4 ,the usual values are as follows3 7a7 ,batteries with sealed glass jars #a4baj to #a4bej 7b7 ,batteries with open glass jars #a4bjj to #a4bej 7c7 ,batteries with sealed rubber jars #a4bfj to #a4bhj ,a brief discussion of specific gravity might be helpful at this point4 ,in any lead acid battery current is produced by a chemical action between the active material in the plates and the water and sulphuric acid in the electrolyte4 ,the amount of energy which can be delivered by the battery depends on the amount of active material1 sulphuric acid1 and water which enter into the chemical actions of the cell4 ,as these chemical actions take place1 sulphuric acid is used up1 and hence there must be enough acid contained in the electrolyte to enter into the chemical actions4 ,the amount of water and acid in the electrolyte may be varied1 as long as there is enough of each present to combine with the active material of the plates so as to enable the cell to deliver its full capacity4 ,increasing the amount of acid will result in the plates and separators being attacked and injured by the acid4 ,increasing the amount of water dilutes the acid1 giving a lower gravity1 and preventing the ,acid from injuring plates and separators4 ,this results in a longer life for the battery1 and is a desirable condition4 ,in starter batteries1 there is not enough space in the jars for the increased amount of water4 ,in farm lighting batteries1 where the space occupied by the battery is not so important1 the jars are made large enough to hold a greater amount of water1 thus giving an electrolyte which has a lower specific gravity than in starting batteries4 ,take a fully charged cell of any starting battery4 ,it contains a set of plates and the electrolyte which is composed of a certain necessary amount of acid and a certain amount of water4 ,if we put the plates of this cell in a larger jar1 add the same amount of acid as before1 but add a greater amount of water than was contained in the smaller jar1 we will still have a fully charged cell of the same capacity as before1 but the specific gravity of the electrolyte will be lower4 ,charging ,equipment4 ,automobile batteries are being charged whenever the car is running at more than about #aj miles per hour1 regardless of what their condition may be4 ,in farm lighting outfits1 the charging is under the control of the operator1 and the battery is charged when a charge is necessary4 ,there is1 therefore1 very much less danger of starving or overcharging the battery4 ,the operator must1 however1 watch his battery carefully1 and charge it as often as may be necessary1 and not allow it to go without its regular charge4 ,the generator of a farm lighting outfit is usually driven by an internal combustion engine furnished with the outfit4 ,the engine may be connected to the generator by a belt1 or its shaft may be connected directly to the generator shaft4 ,a switchboard carrying the necessary instruments and switches also goes with the outfit4 ,the charging of farm lighting batteries is very much like the charging of automobile batteries on the charging bench1 except that the batteries are at all times connected to switches1 by means of which they may be put on the charging line4 ,some plants are so arranged that the battery and generator do not provide current for the lights at the same time1 lights being out while the battery is charging4 ,in others the generator and battery1 in emergency1 may both provide current4 ,in others the lights may burn while the battery is being charged2 in this case the battery is sometimes provided with counter-electromotive force cells which permit high enough voltage across the battery to charge it and yet limit the voltage across the lamps to prevent burning them out or shortening their life4 ,in some cases the battery is divided into two sets which are charged in parallel and discharged in series4 ,relation of the ,automobile ,storage ,battery ,man to the ,farm ,lighting ,plant4 ,owners and prospective owners of farm lighting plants generally know but little about the care or repair of electrical apparatus1 especially batteries1 which are not as easily understood as lamps1 motors or generators4 ,prospective owners may quite likely call upon the automobile battery repair man for advice as to the installation1 operation1 maintenance1 and repair of his battery and the automobile battery repairman should have little trouble in learning how to take care of farm lighting batteries4 ,the details in which these batteries differ from starting batteries should be studied and mastered1 and a new source of business will be opened4 ,farm lighting plants in the vicinity should be studied and observed while they are in good working order1 the details of construction and operation studied1 the layout of the various circuits to lamps1 motors1 heaters1 etc41 examined so as to become familiar with the plants4 ,then ,when anything goes wrong with the battery1 or even the other parts of the plant1 there will be no difficulty in putting things back in running order4 ,selection of ,plant ,farm ,lighting ,plant is the name applied to the small electric plant to be used where a central station supply is not available4 ,such a plant1 of course1 may be used for driving motors and heating devices1 as well as operating electric lights1 and the plant is really a ,farm ,lighting and ,power ,plant4 ,make4 ,there are several very good lighting plants on the market and the selection of the make of the plant must be left to the discretion of the owner1 or whomever the owner may ask for advice4 ,the selection will depend on cost1 whether the plant will fill the particular requirements1 what makes can be obtained nearby1 on the delivery that can be made1 and the service policy of the manufacturer4 ,type4 ,plants are made which come complete with battery1 generator1 engine1 and switchboard mounted on one base4 ,all such a plant requires is a suitable floor space for its installation4 ,other plants have all parts separate1 and require more work to install4 ,with some plants1 the generator and engine may be mounted as a unit on one base1 with battery and switchboard separate4 ,the type of jar used in the battery may influence the choice4 ,jars are made of glass or rubber4 ,the glass jars have sealed covers1 or have no covers4 ,the rubber jars generally have a sealed cover4 ,the glass jar has the advantage that the interior may be seen at all times1 and the height of the electrolyte and sediment may be seen and the condition of the plates1 etc41 determined by a simple inspection4 ,this is an important feature and one that will be appreciated by the one who takes care of the battery4 ,jars with sealed covers1 or covers which although not sealed1 close up the top of the jar completely have the advantage of keeping in acid spray1 and keeping out dirt and impurities4 ,open jars are generally set in trays of sand to catch electrolyte which runs down the outside walls of the jars4 ,the open jars have the advantage that the plates are very easily removed1 but have the disadvantage that acid spray is not kept in effectually1 although a plate of glass is generally laid over part of the top of the jar1 and that dirt and dust may fall into the jar4 ,size4 ,the capacity of storage battery cells is rated in ampere hours1 while power consumed by lights1 motors1 etc41 is measured in watt hours1 or kilowatt hours4 ,however1 the ampere hour capacity of a battery can be changed to watt hours since watt hours is equal to ,watt hours ampere hours multiplied by the volts ,if we have a #af cell battery1 each cell of which is an #hj ampere hour cell1 the ampere hour capacity of the entire battery will be #hj1 the same as that of one of its cells1 since the cells are all in series and the same current passes through all cells4 ,the watt hour capacity of the battery will be #cb times #hj1 or #befj4 ,the ampere hour capacity is computed for the #h hour rate1 that is1 the current is drawn from the battery continuously for #h hours1 and at the end of that time the battery is discharged4 ,if the current is not drawn from the battery continuously for #h hours1 but is used for shorter intervals intermittently1 the ampere hour capacity of the battery will be somewhat greater4 ,it seldom occurs that in any installation the battery is used continuously for eight hours at a rate which will discharge it in that time1 and hence a greater capacity is obtained from the battery4 ,some manufacturers do not rate their batteries at the #h hour continuous discharge rate but use the intermittent rate1 thus rating a battery #cj to #dj percent higher4 ,rated in this way1 a battery of #af cells rated at #hj ampere hours at the #h hour rate would be rated at #aab ampere hours1 or #cehd watt hours4 ,in determining the size of the battery required1 estimate as nearly as possible how many lamps1 motors1 and heaters1 etc41 will be used4 ,compute the watts 7volts ,x amperes71 required by each4 ,estimate how long each appliance will be used each day1 and thus obtain the total watt hours used per day4 ,multiply this by #g to get the watt hours per week4 ,the total watt hours required in one week should not be equal to more than twice the watt hour capacity of the battery 7ampere hours multiplied by the total battery voltage7 at the eight hour rate4 ,this means that the battery should not require a charge oftener than two times a week4 ,the capacity of a battery is often measured in the number of lamps it will burn brightly for eight hours4 ,the watts consumed by motors1 heaters1 etc41 may be expressed in a certain number of lamps4 ,the following table will be of assistance in determining the size of the battery required3 ,watts ,equivalent ,number ,no4 ,type of ,appliance ,consumed of #bj ,watt ,lamps --- ----------------- -------- ----------------- #a #af candle power1 ,mazda lamp #bj #a #b #ab candle power1 ,mazda lamp #aae #c_/d #c ,electric ,fan1 small size #ge #d #d ,small ,sewing machine motor #ajj #e #e ,vacuum cleaner #afj #h #f ,washing machine #bjj #aj #g ,churn1 #a_/f h4p4 #bjj #aj #h ,cream ,separator1 #a_/f h4p4 #bjj #aj #i ,water pump #a_/f h4p4 #bjj #aj #aj ,electric water heater1 small #cej #ah #aa ,electric toaster #ebe #bf #ab ,electric stove1 small #fjj #cj #ac ,electric iron #fjj #cj #ad ,pump1 #a_/b h4p4 #fjj #cj ,from the foregoing table we can determine the current consumption of the various appliances3 ,amps at #cb ,amps at #aaj ,no4 ,watts ,volts ,volts --- ----- ---------- ------------ #a #bj #j4fbe #j4ah #b #ae #j4dg #j4ad #c #ge #b4cd #f4hj #d #ajj #c4abe #j4ij #e #afj #e4jj #a4dd #f #bjj #f4be #a4hj #g #bjj #f4be #a4hj #h #bjj #f4be #a4hj #i #bjj #f4be #a4hj #aj #cej #aa4jj #c4bj #aa #ebe #af4d #d4gg #ab #fjj #ah4ge #e4dj #ac #fjj #ah4ge #e4dj #ad #fjj #ah4ge #e4dj ,the following tables show how long the battery will carry various currents continuously3 ,images3 various charts_/tables ,location of ,plant ,the various appliances should be placed as near to each other as possible4 ,the lights1 of course1 must be placed so as to illuminate the different rooms1 barns1 etc41 but the power devices should be placed as close as possible to each other and to the plant4 ,the purpose of this is to use as little wire as possible between the plant and the various appliances so as to prevent excessive voltage drop in the lines4 ,wiring ,the wires leading to the various appliances should be large enough so that not more than one or two volts are lost in the wires4 ,to obtain the resistance of the wire leading to any appliance1 use the following equation3 ,knowing the resistance of the wire1 and the total length of the two wires leading from the plant to the appliance1 the size of the wire may be obtained from a wiring table4 ,rubber insulated copper wire covered with a double braid should preferably be used1 and the duplex wire is often more convenient than the single wire1 especially in running from one building to another4 ,wiring on the inside of buildings should be done neatly1 running the wires on porcelain insulators1 and as directly to the appliance as possible4 ,the standard rules for interior wiring as to fuses1 soldering joints1 etc41 should be followed4 ,installation 7,see also special instructions for the different makes1 beginning page #dfj47 ,the room in which the plant is installed should be clean1 dry1 and well ventilated4 ,it should be one which is not very cold in winter1 as a cold battery is very sluggish and seems to lack capacity4 ,if possible1 have the plant in a separate room in order to keep out dirt and dust4 ,if no separate room is available1 it is a good plan to build a small room in a corner of a large room4 ,keep the room clean and free of miscellaneous tools and rubbish4 ,if the entire plant comes complete on one base1 all that is necessary is to bolt the base securely to the floor1 which should be as nearly level as possible4 ,if the battery is to be installed separately1 build a rack4 ,give the rack several coats of asphaltum paint to make it acid proof4 ,the location of the battery rack should be such that the rack will be3 7a7 ,free from vibration4 7b7 ,at least #c feet from the exhaust pipe of engine4 7c7 ,far enough away from the wall to prevent dirt or loose mortar from dropping on the cells4 ,figs4 #bih and #bii illustrate two types of battery racks recommended for use with farm light batteries4 ,the stair-step rack is most desirable where there is sufficient room for its installation4 ,where the space is insufficient to make this installation1 use the two-tier shelf rack4 ,the racks should be made from #a-a_/b or #b inch boards4 ,fig4 #bih ,stair-,step rack for farm lighting battery ,the cells may be placed on the battery rack with either the face or the edges of the plates facing out4 ,the latter method requires a shorter battery rack and is very desirable from the standpoint of future inspections4 ,in very dark places1 it is more desirable to have the surface of the plates turned out to enable the user to see when the cells are bubbling during the monthly equalizing charge4 ,either method is satisfactory4 ,all metal parts such as pipes1 bolt heads1 etc41 which are near the battery should be given at least three coats of asphaltum paint4 ,care must be taken not to have an open flame of any kind in the battery room1 as the hydrogen and oxygen gases1 given off as a battery charges may explode and cause injury to the person and possible severe damage to the battery4 ,when making an installation1 it is always a good plan to carry the following material for taking care of spillage and broken jars3 #a4 #a ,thermometer #b4 #b ,series ,cells #c4 #f ,battery ,bolts and ,nuts #d4 #a ,hydrometer ,syringe #e4 #b ,gallons distilled water #f4 #a ,jar ,vaseline #g4 #a ,gallon #a4bbj specific gravity electrolyte ,fig4 #bii ,installation of a ,delco-,light plant1 showing two-tier shelf rack for battery ,when a battery arrives at the shipping destination1 the person lifting this shipment should remove the slats from the top of each crate and inspect each cell for concealed damage1 such as breakage3 ,should any damage be discovered1 it is important that a notation covering this damage be made and signed by the freight agent on the freight bill4 ,this will enable the customer or dealer to make a claim against the railroad for the amount of damage4 ,if a notation of this kind is not made before the battery is lifted1 the dealer will be forced to stand the expense of repairing or replacing the damaged cells4 ,when removing cells from a crate1 avoid lifting them by the terminal posts as much as possible4 ,this causes the weight of the electrolyte and jar to pull on the sealing compound between the jar and cover1 and if the sealing is not absolutely tight1 the jar and electrolyte may fall from the cover4 ,a cell should never be carried using the terminal posts as handles4 ,the hand should be put underneath the jar4 ,sometimes a battery will arrive with electrolyte spilled from some of the cells4 ,if spillage is only about one-half to one inch down on the plates of three or four cells1 this spillage may be replaced by drawing a little electrolyte out of each cell of the other full cells in the set4 ,oftentimes several cells will have electrolyte extending above the water line1 which will aid greatly in making up any loss in other cells4 ,after all cells have been drawn on to fill up the ones that are spilled1 the entire set may then have its electrolyte brought up to the water line by adding distilled water4 ,very carefully adjust spillage of pilot cells 7,delco71 as it is very important that the specific gravity of the pilot cells be left as near #a4bbj as possible4 ,in case the spillage is more than one inch below the top of plates or glass broken1 remove cell and install a new cell in its place4 ,the spilled or broken cell must not be used until given special treatment4 ,connecting ,cells ,before connecting up the cells the terminals should be scraped clean for about #aa_/b inches on both sides4 ,an old knife or rough file is suitable for doing this work4 ,after the terminals are thoroughly brightened1 they should be covered with vaseline4 ,the bolts and nuts used in making the connections on the battery should also be coated with vaseline4 ,the vaseline prevents and retards corrosion1 which is harmful to efficient operation4 ,if a new battery is to be installed in parallel with one already in service1 connections should be made so that each series will consist of half new and half old cells4 ,the pilot cells for the new battery should be placed in one series and that for the old battery in the other1 unless local conditions may make some other arrangement desirable4 ,a drop light must always be provided to enable the user to inspect his battery1 particularly when giving the monthly equalizing charge4 ,initial ,charge ,when a battery is connected to the plant1 it should be given a proper ,,initial ,,charge before any power or lights are used4 ,batteries shipped filled with electrolyte are fully charged before leaving the factory4 ,as soon as a storage battery cell of any type or make is taken off charge and stands idle for a considerable length of time1 some of the acid in the electrolyte is absorbed by the plates1 thereby lowering the gravity and forming sulphate on the plates4 ,this process is very gradual1 but it is continuous1 and unless the acid is completely driven out of the plates by charging before the battery is used1 the battery will not give as good service as the user has a right to expect4 ,due to the time required in shipment1 the above action has a chance to take place1 which makes it necessary to give the initial charge4 ,the initial charge consists of charging the battery1 with the power and light switch open1 until each cell is bubbling freely from the top to bottom on the surface of the outside negative plates and both pilot balls are up 7,delco-,light71 and then ,,continuing ,,the ,,charge ,,for ,,five ,,hours ,,more4 ,if the battery has no pilot cells1 measure the specific gravity of the electrolyte of each cell1 and continue the charge until six consecutive readings show no increase in gravity4 ,as an accurate check on giving the initial charge properly 7,delco-,light71 we strongly recommend that hourly hydrometer readings of both pilot cells be taken after both balls are up1 the charge to be continued until six consecutive hourly readings show no ,,rise in gravity4 ,due to the fact that it is impossible to hold each cell in a battery to a definite maximum gravity when fully charged1 there is likely to be a variation of from ten to fifteen points in the specific gravity readings of the various cells4 ,it should be understood1 however1 that the maximum gravity is the gravity when the cells are fully charged and with the level of the solution at the water line4 ,for example1 with each cell in a battery fully charged and therefore at maximum gravity and with the level at the proper height1 some cells may read #a4bcj1 one or two #a4bce1 several #a4bae and #a4baj4 ,all of these cells will operate efficiently1 and there should be no cause for alarm4 ,an exception to this is the pilot cell of the ,delco-,light ,battery4 ,if this check on the initial charge is properly made1 it assures the service man and dealer that the battery is in proper operating condition to be turned over to the user4 ,negligence in giving the initial charge properly may result in trouble to both user1 service man and dealer4 ,the initial charge may require considerable running of the plant1 depending upon the state of charge of the cells when installed4 ,instructing ,users ,during the time the initial charge is being given1 the service man should instruct the user on the care and operation of the plant and battery4 ,the best way to give instructions to the user is to tack the instruction cards on the wall near the plant in a place where the user can read them easily4 ,proceed to read over the plant operating card with the user4 ,read the first item1 go to the plant1 explain this feature to the user and allow him to perform the operation1 if the instruction calls for actual performance4 ,remember1 the user is not familiar with the plant and battery1 and the actual performance of each operation aids him to retain the instructions4 ,after the first item has been covered thoroughly1 proceed to the second1 etc4 ,during the course of instruction1 the user will often interrupt with questions not dealing directly with the point being explained4 ,the service man should keep the user's attention on the points he is explaining4 ,when the service man has finished explaining both plant and battery instruction cards1 he should answer any points in question which the user wants explained4 ,when the monthly equalizing charge is explained to the user1 the service man should always take the user to the battery and show him a cell bubbling freely4 ,this is necessary in order that the user may recognize when the cells are bubbling freely at the time he gives the monthly equalizing charge4 ,impress upon the user the importance of inspecting each cell when giving the monthly equalizing charge to see that every cell bubbles freely4 ,if a cell fails to bubble freely at the end of the equalizing charge1 the user should inform the service man of this condition immediately4 ,caution the user against the use of an open flame near the plant or battery at any time4 ,the gas which accumulates in a cell will explode sufficiently to break the glass jar if this gas is ignited by a spark or open flame4 ,care of the ,plant in ,operation 7,see also special instructions for the different makes1 beginning page #dfj47 ,the battery repairman should be able not only to repair the batteries1 but should also be able to keep the entire plant in working order1 and suggestions will be given as to what must be done1 although no detailed instructions for work on the generator1 engine1 and switchboard will be given as this is beyond the scope of this book4 ,battery ,room4 ,the essential things about the battery room are that it must be clean1 dry1 and well ventilated4 ,this means1 of course1 that the battery and battery rack must also be kept clean and dry4 ,a good time to clean up is when the battery is being charged4 ,clean out the room first1 sweeping out dirt and rubbish1 dusting the walls1 and so on4 ,both high and low temperatures should be avoided4 ,if the battery room is kept too hot1 the battery will become heated and the hot electrolyte will attack the plates and separators4 ,low temperatures do no actual harm to a charged battery except to make the battery sluggish1 and seem to lack capacity4 ,a discharged battery will1 however1 freeze above #j ,fahrenheit4 ,the battery will give the best service if the battery room temperature is kept between #fj and #hj ,fahrenheit4 ,do not bring any open flame such as a lantern1 candle or match near a battery and do not go near the battery with a lighted cigar1 cigarette or pipe1 especially while the battery is charging4 ,hydrogen and oxygen gases form a highly explosive mixture4 ,an explosion will not only injure the battery1 but will probably disfigure the one carrying the light1 or even destroy his eyes4 ,it is a good plan to keep the windows of the battery room open as much as possible4 ,engine4 ,the engine which drives the generator requires attention occasionally4 ,wipe off all dirt1 oil or grease4 ,keep the engine well lubricated with a good oil4 ,if grease cups are used1 give these several turns whenever the engine is run to charge the battery4 ,use clean fuel1 straining it1 if necessary1 through a clean cloth or chamois1 if there is any dirt in it4 ,the cooling water should also be clean1 and in winter a non-freezing preparation should be added to it4 ,do not change the carburetor setting whenever the engine does not act properly4 ,first look over the ignition system and spark plug for trouble1 and also make sure that the carburetor is receiving fuel4 ,if possible1 overhaul the engine once a year to clean out the carbon1 tighten bearings and flywheel1 remove leaky gaskets1 and so on4 ,generator4 ,keep the outside of the generator clean by wiping it occasionally with an oiled rag4 ,see that there is enough lubricating oil in the bearings1 but that there is not too much oil1 especially in the bearing at the commutator end of the generator4 ,keep the commutator clean4 ,if it is dirty1 wipe it with a rag moistened slightly with kerosene4 ,the brushes should be lifted from the commutator while this is being done4 ,finish with a dry cloth4 ,if the commutator is rough it may be made smooth with fine sandpaper held against it while the generator is running1 and the brushes are lifted4 ,the surfaces of the brushes that bear on the commutator should be inspected to see that they are clean1 and that the entire surfaces make contact with the commutator4 ,the parts that are making contact will look smooth and polished1 while other parts will have a dull1 rough appearance4 ,if the brush contact surfaces are dirty or all parts do not touch the commutator1 draw a piece of fine sandpaper back and forth under the brushes1 one at a time1 with the sanded side of the paper against the brush4 ,this will clean the brushes and shape the contact surfaces to fit the curve of the commutator4 ,brushes should be discarded when they be come so short that they do not make good contact with the commutator4 ,see that the brush holders and brush wires are all tight and clean4 ,watch for loose connections of wires1 as these will cause voltage loss when the generator is charging the battery4 ,watch for high mica1 which means a condition in which the insulation between the segments projects above the surface of the commutator1 due to the commutator wearing down faster than the insulation4 ,if this condition arises1 the mica should be cut down until it is slightly below the surface of the commutator4 ,an old hack saw blade makes a good tool for this purpose4 ,a commutator may have grooves cut in by the brushes4 ,these grooves do no harm as long as the brushes have become worn to the exact shape of the grooves4 ,when the brushes are dressed with sandpaper1 however1 they will not fit the grooves1 and the commutator should be turned down in a lathe until the grooves are removed4 ,a steady low hum will be heard when the generator is in operation4 ,loud or unusual noises should be investigated1 however1 as a bearing may need oil1 the armature may be rubbing on the field pole faces1 and so on4 ,watch for overheating of the generator4 ,if you can hold your hand on the various parts of the generator1 the temperature is safe4 ,if the temperature is so high that parts may be barely touched with the hand1 or if an odor of burned rubber is noticeable1 the generator is being overheated1 and the load on the generator should be reduced4 ,switchboard4 ,clean off dirt and grease occasionally4 ,keep switch contacts clean and smooth4 ,if a cutout is on the board1 keep its contacts smooth and clean4 ,if the knife switch blades are hard to move1 look for cutting at the pivots4 ,something may be cutting into the blades4 ,if this is found to be the case1 use a file to remove all roughness from the parts of the pivot4 ,see that no switches are bent or burned4 ,keep the back of the board clean and dry as well as the front4 ,see that all connections are tight4 ,keep all wires1 rheostats1 etc41 perfectly clean4 ,a coat of shellac on the wires1 switch studs1 etc41 will be helpful in keeping these parts clean4 ,care of ,battery ,cleanliness4 ,keep the battery and battery rack clean4 ,after a charge is completed1 wipe off any electrolyte that may be running down the outsides of the jars4 ,wipe all electrolyte and other moisture from the battery rack4 ,occasionally go over the rack with a rag wet with ammonia or washing soda solution4 ,then finish with a dry cloth4 ,paint the rack with asphaltum paint once a year1 or oftener if the paint is rubbed or scratched4 ,if sand trays are used1 renew the sand whenever it becomes very wet with electrolyte4 ,keep the terminals and connectors clean4 ,near the end of a charge1 feel each joint between cells for a poor connection4 ,watch also for corrosion on the connections4 ,corrosion is caused by the electrolyte attacking any exposed metals other than lead1 near the battery1 resulting in a grayish deposit on the connectors or bolts at the joints4 ,such joints will become hotter than other joints1 and may thus be located by feeling the joints after the battery has been charged for some time4 ,corrosion may be removed by washing the part in a solution of baking soda4 ,be very careful to keep out of the cells anything that does not belong there4 ,impurities injure a cell and may even ruin it4 ,do not let anything1 especially metals1 fall into a cell4 ,if this is done accidentally1 pour out the electrolyte immediately1 put in new separators1 wash the plates in water1 fill with electrolyte having a gravity about #cj points higher than that which was poured out1 and charge4 ,the cell may be connected in its proper place and the entire battery charged4 ,vent plugs should be kept in place at all times1 except when water is added to the electrolyte4 ,keep the ,electrolyte ,above the ,tops of the ,plates4 ,if the battery has glass jars1 the height of the electrolyte can be seen easily4 ,if the battery has sealed rubber jars1 the height of the electrolyte may be determined with a glass tube1 as described on page #ee4 ,in most batteries the electrolyte should stand from three-fourths of an inch to an inch above the plates4 ,some jars have a line or mark showing the proper height of the electrolyte4 ,a good time to inspect the height of the electrolyte is just before putting the battery on charge4 ,if the electrolyte is low1 distilled water should be added to bring it up to the proper level4 ,water should never be added at any other time1 as the charging current is required to mix the water thoroughly with the electrolyte4 ,determining the ,condition of the ,cells4 ,the specific gravity of the electrolyte is the best indicator of the condition of the battery as to charge1 just as is the case in automobile batteries1 and hence should be watched closely4 ,it is not convenient or necessary to take gravity readings on every cell in the battery on every charge or discharge4 ,therefore1 one cell called the ,pilot cell should be selected near the center of the battery and its specific gravity readings taken to indicate the state of charge or discharge of the entire battery4 ,delco-,light batteries each have two pilot cells with special jars4 ,each of these has a pocket in one of its walls in which a ball operates as a hydrometer or battery gauge4 ,one pilot cell contains the pilot ball for determining the end of the charge1 and other pilot cell containing the ball for determining the end of the discharge4 ,see ,fig4 #bid4 ,hydrometer readings should be taken frequently1 and a record of consecutive readings kept4 ,when the gravity drops to the lowest value allowable 7#a4aej to #a4ahj1 depending on the make of battery7 the battery should be charged4 ,once every month voltage and gravity readings of every cell in the battery should be taken and recorded for future guidance4 ,these readings should be taken after the monthly overcharge or equalizing charge which is explained later4 ,if the monthly readings of any cell are always lower than that of other cells1 it needs attention4 ,the low readings may be due to electrolyte having been spilled and replaced with water1 but in a farm lighting battery this is not very likely to happen4 ,more probably the cell has too much sediment1 or bad separators1 and needs cleaning4 ,see special instructions on ,exide and ,prest-,o-,lite batteries which are given later4 ,there are several precautions that must be observed in taking gravity readings in order to obtain dependable results4 ,do not take gravity readings if3 7a7 ,the cell is gassing violently4 7b7 ,the hydrometer float does not ride freely4 ,if a syringe hydrometer is used1 the float must not be touching the walls of the tube1 and the tube must not be so full that the top of the float projects into the rubber bulb at the upper end of the tube4 7c7 ,water has been added less than four hours before taking the readings4 ,a good time to take readings is just before water is added4 ,the hydrometer which is used should have the specific gravity readings marked on it in figures1 such as #a4ahj1 #a4bjj1 #a4bbj and so on4 ,automobile battery hydrometers which are marked ,full1 ,empty1 ,charged1 ,discharged1 must not be used1 since the specific gravities corresponding to these words are not the same in farm lighting batteries as in automobile batteries and the readings would be incorrect and misleading4 ,if the manufacturer-of the battery furnishes a special hydrometer which is marked ,full1 ,half-,full1 ,empty1 or in some similar manner1 this hydrometer may1 of course1 be used4 ,temperature corrections should be made in taking hydrometer readings1 as described on page #fe4 ,for ,prest-,o-,lite batteries1 #hj degrees is the standard temperature1 and gravity readings on these batteries should be corrected to #hj degrees as described on page #dfa4 ,gravity readings should1 of course1 be taken during charge as well as during discharge4 ,the readings taken during charge are described in the following sections on charging4 ,charging 7,see also special instructions for the different makes1 beginning page #dfj47 ,two kinds of charges should be given the battery1 the ,regular charge1 and the ,overcharge or ,equalizing ,charge4 ,these will be spoken of as the ,regular charge and the ,overcharge4 ,the ,regular charge must be given whenever it is necessary in order to enable the battery to meet the lighting or other load demands made upon it4 ,the overcharge1 which is merely a continuation of a regular charge1 should be given once every month4 ,the overcharge is given to keep the battery in good condition1 and to prevent the development of inequalities in condition of cells4 ,when to ,charge4 ,experience will soon show how often you must give a regular charge in order to keep the lights from becoming dim4 ,when the voltage reading1 taken while all the lamps are on has dropped to #a4h volts per cell a ,regular charge is necessary4 ,when the specific gravity of the pilot cell indicates that the battery is discharged1 a ,regular charge is necessary4 ,it is better to use the specific gravity readings as a guide1 as described later4 ,a good plan1 and the best one1 is to give a battery a ,regular charge once every week1 whether the battery becomes discharged in one week's time or not4 ,a regular charge may be required oftener than once a week4 ,every fourth week give the ,overcharge instead of the ,regular charge4 ,if a battery is to be out of service1 arrangements should be made to add the necessary water and give an overcharge every month1 the ,regular charges not being necessary when the battery stands absolutely idle4 ,overcharge4 ,charge the battery as near as practicable at the rate prescribed by the manufacturer4 ,if the manufacturer's rate is not known1 then charge at a rate which will not allow the temperature of the electrolyte to rise above #aaj ,fahrenheit1 and which will not cause gassing while the specific gravity is still considerably below its maximum value4 ,one ampere per plate in each cell is a safe value of current to use4 ,a battery having eleven plates in each cell should1 for example1 be charged at about #aa to #ab amperes4 ,watch the temperature of the pilot cell carefully4 ,this cell should have an accurate ,fahrenheit thermometer suspended above it so that the bulb is immersed in the electrolyte4 ,if this thermometer should show a temperature of #aaj1 stop the charge immediately1 and do not start it again until the temperature has dropped to at least #ij'4 ,feel the other cells with your hand occasionally1 and if any cell is so hot that you cannot hold your hand on it measure its temperature with the thermometer to see whether it is near #aaj'4 ,a good plan is to measure the temperature of the electrolyte in every cell during the charge4 ,if any cell shows a higher temperature than that of the pilot cell1 place the thermometer in the cell giving the higher reading1 and be guided by the temperature of that cell4 ,you will then know that the thermometer indicates the highest temperature in the entire battery1 and that no other cell is dangerously hot when the thermometer does not read #ajj degrees or over4 ,another point in the selection of a pilot cell is to determine if any particular cell shows a gravity which is slightly less than that of the other cells4 ,if any such cell is found1 use that cell as the pilot cell in taking gravity readings while the battery is on discharge and also on charge4 ,no cell will then be discharged too far4 ,when all cells are gassing freely1 continue the charge at the same current until there is no rise in the specific gravity of the pilot cell for one to two hours1 and all cells are gassing freely throughout the hour4 ,then stop the charge4 ,after the overcharge is completed1 take gravity readings of all the cells4 ,a variation of about eight to ten points either above or below the fully charged gravity after correction for temperature does not mean that a cell requires any attention4 ,if1 however1 one cell continually reads more than #aj points lower then the others1 the whole battery may be given an overcharge until the gravity of the low cell comes up4 ,if the cell then does not show any tendency to charge up properly1 disconnect it from the battery while the battery is discharging and then connect it in again on the next charge4 ,if this fails to bring the gravity of the cell up to normal1 the cells should be examined for short circuits4 ,short circuits may be caused by broken separators permitting the active material to bridge between the plates2 the sediment in the bottoms of the jars may have reached the plates1 or conducting substances may have fallen in the cells4 ,broken separators should be replaced without loss of time1 and the cells cleaned if the sediment in the jars is high4 ,regular ,charge4 ,a ,regular ,charge is made exactly like an ,overcharge1 except that a ,regular ,charge is stopped when cells are gassing freely1 when the voltage per cell is about #b4f1 and when the specific gravity of the pilot cell rises to within #e points of what it was on the previous ,overcharge4 ,that is1 if the gravity reading on the ,overcharge rose to #a4baj1 the ,regular ,charge should be stopped when the gravity reaches #a4bje4 ,partial or ,rapid ,charge4 ,if there is not enough time to give the battery a full ,regular ,charge1 double the normal charging rate and charge until all the cells are gassing1 and then reduce to the normal rate4 ,any current which does not cause excessive temperature or premature gassing is permissible1 as previously mentioned4 ,if a complete charge cannot be given1 charge the battery as long as the available time allows1 and complete the charge at the earliest possible opportunity4 ,discharge ,do not allow the battery to discharge until the lights burn dim1 or the voltage drops below #a4h per cell4 ,the specific gravity is a better guide than the lamps or voltage4 ,the gravity falls as the battery discharges1 and is therefore a good indicator of the condition of the battery4 ,voltage readings are good guides1 but they must be taken while the battery is discharging at its normal rate4 ,if the load on the battery is heavy1 the voltage per cell might fall below #a4h before the battery was discharged4 ,lamps will be dim if the load on the battery is heavy1 especially if they are located far away from the battery4 ,the specific gravity readings are therefore the best means of indicating when a battery is discharged4 ,overdischarge4 ,be very careful not to discharge the battery beyond the safe limits4 ,batteries discharging at low rates are liable to be overdischarged before the voltage gives any indication of the discharged condition4 ,this is another reason why hydrometer readings should be used as a guide4 ,a battery must be charged as soon as it becomes discharged4 ,it is1 in fact1 a good plan1 and one which will lengthen the life of the battery1 to charge a battery when it is only about three fourths discharged1 as indicated by the hydrometer4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that the specific gravity of the fully charged battery is #a4bej1 and the specific gravity when the battery is discharged is #a4ahj4 ,this battery has a range of #a4bej minus #a4ahj1 or #gj points between charge and discharge4 ,this battery will give a longer life if its discharge is stopped and the battery is put on charge when the gravity falls to #a4bjj1 a drop of #ej points instead of the allowable #gj4 ,allowing discharged battery to stand without charge4 ,a battery should never be allowed to stand more than one day in a discharged condition4 ,the battery will continue to discharge although no current is drawn from it1 just as an automobile battery will4 ,see page #hi4 ,the battery plates and separators will gradually become badly sulphated and it will be a difficult matter to charge the battery up to full capacity4 ,battery ,troubles ,farm lighting batteries are subject to the same general troubles that automobile batteries are1 although they are not as likely to occur because the operating conditions are not as severe as is the case on the automobile4 ,being in plain view at all times1 and not being charged and discharged irregularly1 the farm lighting battery is not likely to give as much trouble as an automobile battery4 ,neglect1 such as failure to keep the electrolyte up to the proper height1 failure to charge as soon as the battery becomes discharged1 overdischarging1 allowing battery to become too hot or too cold1 allowing impurities to get into the cells1 will lead to the same troubles that the same treatment will cause in an automobile battery1 and the descriptions of1 and instructions for troubles in automobile batteries will apply in general to farm lighting batteries also4 ,when a battery has been giving trouble1 and you are called3 upon to diagnose and remedy that trouble1 you should3 #a4 ,get all the details as to the length of time the battery has been in service4 #b4 ,find out what regular attention has been paid to its upkeep2 whether it has been charged regularly and given an overcharge once a month2 whether distilled water has been used in replacing evaporation of water from the electrolyte2 whether impurities such as small nails1 pieces of wire1 etc41 have ever fallen into any cell2 whether battery has ever been allowed to stand in a discharged condition for one day or more2 whether temperature has been allowed to rise above #aaj deg4 ,f4 at any time2 whether electrolyte has ever been frozen due to battery standing discharged in very cold weather4 #c4 ,talk to the owner long enough to judge with what intelligence he has taken care of the battery4 ,doing this may1 save you both time and subsequent embarrassment from a wrong diagnosis resulting from incomplete data4 #d4 ,after getting all the details that the owner can supply1 you will probably know just about what the trouble is4 ,look over the cells carefully to determine their condition4 ,if the jars are made of glass note the following3 7a7 ,height of sediment in each jar4 7b7 ,color of electrolyte4 ,this should be clear and colorless4 ,a decided color of any kind usually means that dirty or impure water has been added1 or impurities have fallen into the cell4 ,for discussion of impurities see page #gf4 7c7 ,condition of plates4 ,the same troubles should be looked for as in automobile batteries4 ,see pages #cci to #cdf4 ,an examination of the outside negatives is usually sufficient4 ,the condition of the positives may also be determined if a flash light or other strong light is directed on the edges of the plates4 ,look for growths or treeing between plates4 7d7 ,condition of separators4 ,see page #cdf4 ,if cells have sealed rubber jars1 proceed as follows3 7a7 ,measure height of electrolyte above plates with glass tube1 as in ,fig4 #cj4 ,if in any cell electrolyte is below tops of plates that cell is very likely the defective one1 and should be filled with distilled water4 ,if a considerable amount of water is required to fill the jar it is best to open the cell1 as the plates have probably become damaged4 ,if the jar is wet or the rack is acid eaten under the jar1 the jar is cracked and must be replaced4 ,if you have not found the trouble1 make the following tests1 no matter whether glass or rubber jars are used3 7a7 ,measure specific gravity of each cell4 ,if any cell is badly discharged it is probably short-circuited1 or contains impurities and had better be opened for inspection4 7b7 ,turn on all the lamps and measure the voltage of each cell4 ,if any cell shows a voltage much less than #a4h it is short-circuited or contains impurities1 and should be opened for inspection4 7c7 ,examine the connections between cells for looseness or corrosion2 and examine the connections between the battery and the generator1 going over cables1 switches1 rheostats1 etc4 ,make sure that you have a complete and closed charging circuit between the generator and the battery4 7d7 ,if cutout is used on the switchboard1 see that its contact points are smooth and clean1 and that they work freely4 7e7 ,run the generator to see if it builds up a voltage which is sufficient to charge the battery1 about #db volts for a #af cell battery4 ,if the generator is not working properly1 examine it according to directions on page #dea4 ,check up the field circuit of the generator to be sure that it is closed4 ,a circuit-tester made of a buzzer and several dry cells1 or a low voltage lamp and dry cells1 or a hand magneto is convenient for use in testing circuits4 ,test armature windings and field coils for grounds4 ,by the foregoing methods you should be able to determine what is to be done4 ,the following rules should also help3 ,cleaning and renewal of electrolyte is necessary when3 7a7 ,sediment has risen to within one-half inch of the bottom of the plates4 7b7 ,much foreign material is floating in the electrolyte1 or electrolyte is of a deep brown color4 ,replacement of parts is necessary when 7a7 ,separators are cracked or warped4 ,see page #cdf for ,separator troubles4 7b7 ,plates are defective4 ,see rules on pages #cci to #cdf4 ,,prest-,o-,,lite ,,farm ,,lighting ,,batteries ,fig4 #cjj ,element from ,prest-,o-,light farm light cell ,the ,prest-,o-,lite battery which is designed for use in connection with farm lighting plants is known as the ,,fpl type4 ,cells of #g1 #i1 #aa1 #ac and #ae plates are made1 the number of plates being indicated by putting the figure in front of the type letters4 ,a seven plate cell is thus designated as a #g ,,fpl cell1 which has an #hj ampere hour capacity at the #h hour continuous discharge rate4 ,the ,,fpl cell1 the construction of which is shown in ,figs4 #bie1 #cjj1 #cja1 #cjb and #cjc1 has a sealed glass jar with a lead antimony cover4 ,the cover construction is shown in detail in ,figs4 #cja and #cjb4 ,insulation between the posts and cover is provided by a hard rubber bushing1 a hard rubber washer1 and a soft rubber washer4 ,the bushing is shaped like a ,t with a hole drilled in the stem4 ,the stem of the bushing fits down into the post hole in the cover1 the flange at the top testing on the raised portion of the cover around the post hole4 ,the post has a shoulder a little less than halfway up from its lower end4 ,upon this shoulder is placed the hard rubber washer1 and upon the hard rubber washer is placed the soft rubber washer4 ,this assembly is fastened to the cover by the peening process used in ,prest-,o-,lite automobile batteries as described on page #chf4 ,this forces the soft rubber washer tightly against the cover so as to make a leak proof joint-between the bushing and cover4 ,the ring of lead formed around the posts by the peening process supports the posts1 plates1 and separators1 which therefore are suspended from the cell cover4 ,the plate straps extend horizontally across the tops of the plates1 and thus also act as hold-downs for the separators4 ,the separators are held up by two rectangular rubber bridges which fit ,mito slotted extension lugs cast into the lower corners of the outside negative plates4 ,an outside negative having these extension lugs is shown in ,figure #cjc4 ,fig4 #cja ,cover of ,prest-,o-,light farm lighting cell ,fig4 #cjb ,parts of ,prest-,o-,light farm lighting cell3 nut1 stud1 terminal1 hard rubber bushing ,fig4 #cjc;a ,parts of ,prest-,o-,light farming light cell3 glass jar1 rubber jar1 rubber cell connector1 glass cell connector ,fig4 #cjc;b ,parts of ,prest-,o-,light farm lighting cell3 positive plate and outside negative plate ,fig4 #cjc;c ,parts of ,prest-,o-,light farm lighting cell3 long lead jumper1 jumper1 separator1 short lead jumper ,specific ,gravity of ,electrolyte4 ,the values of the specific gravity of ,prest-,o-,lite farm lighting batteries are as follows3 ,battery fully charged reads #a4bej ,battery three-fourths charged reads #a4bcj ,battery one-half charged reads #a4bae ,battery one-fourth charged reads #a4bjj ,battery discharged completely reads #a4ahj ,these readings are to be taken with the electrolyte at a temperature of #hj ,fahrenheit4 ,readings taken at other temperatures should be converted to #hj4 ,to convert readings at a lower temperature to the values they would have at #hj1 subtract one point for every two and one-half degrees temperature difference4 ,for example1 suppose a cell reads #a4bbe gravity at #fj4 ,to find what the gravity would be if the temperature of the electrolyte were #hj divide the difference between #hj and #fj by #b-a_/b1 or #hj minus #fj divided by #ba_/b equals #h4 ,the gravity at #hj would therefore be #a4bbe minus 4#jjh1 or #a4bag1 which is the value of specific gravity to use4 ,if the specific gravity is read at a higher temperature than #hj1 divide the difference between #hj and the temperature at which the gravity reading was taken by #ba_/b1 and add the result to the actual gravity reading obtained4 ,if1 for example1 the gravity were #a4bbe at #ajj1 the gravity at #hj would be #a4bbe plus 4#jjh1 or #a4bcc4 ,charging ,rates4 ,the normal charging rate to be used in giving ,prest-,o-,lite batteries a regular charge or overcharge are as follows3 ,battery ,charging ,rate ------- ------------- #e ,f4,p4,l4 #e4j amps4 #g ,f4,p4,l4 #g4e amps4 #i ,f4,p4,l4 #aj4j amps4 #aa ,f4,p4,l4 #ab4e amps4 #ac ,f4,p4,l4 #ae4j amps4 #ae ,f4,p4,l4 #ag4e amps4 ,rebuilding ,prest-,o-,lite ,farm ,lighting ,batteries ,opening the ,cell4 #a4 ,make sure that the cell is as fully charged as possible4 ,since it is not very convenient to charge a single cell1 a good time to open a cell for cleaning and repairing is immediately after the battery has been given an overcharge4 ,see page #dee4 #b4 ,disconnect the cell from the adjoining ones4 #c4 ,heat a thin bladed putty knife and insert it under the edge of the lead-antimony cover to melt the sealing compound4 ,run the knife all round the cover1 heating it again if it should become too cool to cut the compound readily4 #d4 ,grasp the lead posts above the cover and lift up gradually4 ,this will bring up the cover1 plates1 and separators4 #e4 ,place the plates on a clean board for examination4 ,use the instructions given on pages #cci to #cdf4 ,do not keep the plates out of the electrolyte long enough to let them dry1 and the negatives heat up4 ,if you cannot examine the plates as soon as you have removed them immerse them in #a4bej acid contained in a lead or non-metallic vessel until you can examine them4 #f4 ,in renewing the electrolyte1 pour in as much new #a4bej acid as there was old electrolyte in the jar4 7,it is assumed that the electrolyte was up to the lower ridge of the glass jar before the cell was opened47 ,the new electrolyte must not have a temperature above #ajj degrees when it is poured into the jar4 #g4 ,the separators can be pulled out easily when the plates are laid on their sides4 ,all that is necessary is to remove the small rubber bridge at the bottom corners of the plates4 ,the separators can then be pulled out4 ,if the old separators are to be used again brush off any material that may be adhering to them1 and keep them wet with #a4bej acid until they are replaced between the plates4 ,any separators that show cracks or holes1 or that split while being replaced between the plates should be thrown away and new ones used4 #h4 ,it is not necessary to remove the sediment from the bottom of the jar unless it is within one half inch of the bottom of the plates4 ,if the sediment is to be removed1 carefully pour off the clear electrolyte into a lead1 hard rubber1 or earthenware jar1 if the electrolyte is to be used again4 #i4 ,if one or two of the plates in either positive or negative groups need to be replaced it is best to burn a new plate to the strap without removing the peened cover4 ,this is done by blocking under the row of plate lugs with metal blocks after cutting off old plate and cleaning the surface of strap4 ,insert new plate1 the lug of which has been cut about #a_/d inch short1 to allow for new metal4 ,choosing small oblong iron blocks of suitable size1 build a form about the plate lug which fits same well4 ,now with a torch and burning lead fuse the new plate onto the old strap4 ,when cool remove and test joint by pulling and slightly twisting the plate at the same time4 ,sometimes one group of a starting and lighting battery may be in sufficiently good condition to pay to combine it with a new group1 but this condition will very rarely1 if ever1 be met in farm lighting cell service4 ,we advise the replacement of the complete cell element if either group is worn out1 for the cost of repairs and of new group will probably not be warranted by the short additional life which the remaining old group will give4 #aj4 ,putting ,repaired ,cell ,back into ,service4 ,after having finished all necessary cleaning1 replacement1 or repairs1 remove all old sealing material1 return the element with attached lead cover to the cell jar4 ,it is not necessary to reseal the cover to the jars this sealing is essential only for insurance against breakage or leakage in shipment4 ,add through the vent plug opening sufficient cool acid of #a4bej ,sp4 ,gr4 to reestablish the proper electrolyte level1 which means that the electrolyte is brought up to the lower moulded glass ridge near the top of jar4 ,connect the cell with any other repaired cells and charge at normal rate already indicated under charging rates until dell voltage reads #b4e or above1 at #hj4 ,the positive to cadmium voltage should be at least #j4aj volts less than cell voltage itself4 ,when this condition is obtained cell may be replaced in operating circuit with others and should give satisfactory service4 ,,exide ,,farm ,,lighting ,,batteries4 ,exide ,farm lighting ,batteries are made with sealed glass jars1 open glass jars1 and sealed rubber jars1 each of which will be described4 ,batteries with ,sealed ,glass ,jars4 ,two types with sealed glass jars are made1 these being the ,delco ,light ,type1 and the ,exide type4 #a4 ,delco-,light ,type4 ,this type is shown in ,fig4 #bid4 ,the cell shown is a pilot cell1 there being two of these in each battery as explained below4 ,these cells are made in two sizes1 the ,,kxg-#g1 #g plate1 #hj ampere hour cell1 and the ,,kxg-#ac1 a #ac plate1 #afj ampere hour cell4 ,these cells are assembled into a #cb volt1 #af cell battery1 or a #aaj volt1 #ef cell battery4 ,the plate groups are supported from the cover1 the weight being carried by the wooden cover supports as shown in ,fig4 #bid4 ,the strap posts are threaded1 and are clamped to the cover and supports by means of alloy nuts1 just as is the case in ,exide automobile batteries4 ,a hard rubber supporting rod or lock pin extending across the bottoms of the plates holds the separators in position and prevents the plates from flaring out at the bottom4 ,a soft rubber bumper fastened on each end of the rod acts as a cushion to prevent jar breakage in shipping4 ,the hard rubber cover overlaps the flanged top of the jar1 to which it is sealed with special compound4 ,battery ,gauges and ,instruments for ,testing4 ,every set of ,delco-,light batteries has either one or two cells equipped with a pilot ball4 ,such a cell is known as a ,,pilot ,,cell4 ,fig4 #bid4 ,pilot ,cells are used to indicate to the ,,user the approximate state of charge or discharge of the battery4 ,the pilot ball is a battery gauge which is ,,up or ,,down1 depending upon the state of charge of the battery4 ,very high temperature affects the operation of the pilot ball4 ,this accounts for-the fact that occasionally a battery will be charged and the pilot ball will be at the bottom of the pocket4 ,a few hours later1 after the electrolyte has cooled1 the pilot ball will rise to the top4 ,we urge that the user be made to feel that the pilot ball is an excellent gauge and a good signal to watch in connection with the care and operation of his ,delco-,light plant and battery4 7,further mention will be made of the pilot ball in connection with the subject of proper operation47 ,it is necessary that the maximum specific gravity of pilot cells be as near #a4bbj as possible4 ,any great variation higher or lower will affect the operation of the pilot balls4 ,therefore1 every effort should be made to adjust the maximum specific gravity of pilot cells to #a4bbj when placed in service4 ,batteries equipped with one pilot cell contain a white pilot ball which will be up when the specific gravity of the electrolyte is approximately #a4ahe4 ,this ball will drop ,,down when the specific gravity falls a little below #a4ahe4 ,in other words1 the pilot ball will float at a specific gravity of #a3ahe or higher1 and will sink at a specific gravity lower than #a4ahe4 ,therefore1 when the pilot ball is ,,up1 the battery is more than half charged4 ,when the pilot ball is ,,down1 the battery is more than half discharged4 ,batteries equipped with two pilot cells have one cell which contains a white ball and the other cell a white ball with a blue band4 ,the plain white ball will be ,,up when the specific gravity is approximately #a4age4 ,the blue band ball will be ,,up when the specific gravity is approximately #a4bje4 ,when both balls are ,,up1 the battery is charged4 ,when ,,down1 the battery is discharged4 ,the blue band ball will drop soon after the battery starts on discharge1 or1 in other words1 when the specific gravity falls below #a4bje4 ,the white ball will remain ,,up until the specific gravity falls below #a4age4 ,the ,ampere-,hour ,meter ,the ampere-hour meter1 ,fig4 #cjd1 is an instrument for indicating to the user the state of charge of the battery at all times and serves to-stop the plant automatically so equipped1 when the battery is charged4 7,further mention will be made of the ampere hour meter on page #dga47 ,in order to check the speed of the ampere-hour meter1 use the following rule3 ,on charge1 the armature disc should give #af revolutions in #cj seconds1 with a charging rate of #ae amperes2 on discharge1 the armature disc should give #bj revolutions in #cj seconds1 with a discharging rate of #ae amperes4 ,fig4 #cjd ,delco-,light ,ampere-,hour ,meter ,hydrometers ,the standard hydrometer for service men is known as the ,type ,v-#b;,b4 ,a special type hydrometer showing three colored bands in place of numbers has been designed for users4 ,the bands are red1 green and black4 ,when the hydrometer test shows the bottom of the red band in the electrolyte1 the battery1 whether in glass or rubber jar1 is discharged4 ,when the top of the green band is out of the electrolyte1 the glass jar battery is charged4 ,the top of the black band out of the electrolyte indicates the rubber jar battery is charged4 ,when and ,how to ,charge ,battery ,plants with ,average ,loads ,loads of legs than ten 7#aj7 amperes can be taken directly from the battery1 until3 #a4 ,the large hand on the ampere-hour meter reaches #ab1 or #b4 ,both pilot balls are down1 or #c4 ,hydrometer test shows bottom of red band in the electrolyte4 ,if any or all of the three gauges listed above show the battery discharged1 the plant should be started and operated continuously until the battery is charged1 as indicated by3 #a4 ,ampere-hour meter hand at ,,full1 or #b4 ,both pilot balls ,,up1 or #c4 ,hydrometer test shows top of ,,full band out of electrolyte4 7,,note3 ,any one or all of the above three items may indicate battery charged4 ,meter hand at ,,full would necessitate both balls ,,up4 ,if both balls are not up1 set hand back and charge to bring them up2 then set hand at ,,full47 ,should the user be operating for two or three hours with a seven or eight-ampere load1 it would be more efficient to run the plant to carry this load4 ,this only applies for those cases where the battery is partly discharged4 ,carry ,heavy ,loads ,greater ,than #aj ,amperes4 ,if there is a constant load of #aj amperes or more1 the plant should be started up when the heavy load comes on4 ,when the heavy load is off1 the plant may be stopped1 but it would be entirely satisfactory to allow the plant to continue to run until ,charged1 as indicated by3 #a4 ,ampere-hour meter hand reaches ,,full1 or #b4 ,both pilot balls are ,,up1 or #c4 ,hydrometer test shows top of ,,full band out of electrolyte4 ,in any case1 plant should be run until battery is ,charged at least once a week4 ,always ,start ,charging ,when ,battery ,gauges ,indicate ,battery ,discharged4 ,on ampere-hour meter plants1 when the hand is at ,,full1 the plant cannot be operated on account of the ignition circuit being broken4 ,in such cases allow load to be taken from the battery until the hand travels back sufficiently to allow the plant to run4 ,occasionally the plant and battery are used to carry continuous loads of from #aj to #ae amperes each night1 with practically no day load4 ,this condition necessitates running the plant to carry the load1 but at the same time the battery is continually receiving from #aj to #ae amperes charge1 with the result that the battery may receive too much charging4 ,this would be indicated by the battery bubbling freely every time the plant is operated4 ,to prevent this condition1 the user should be instructed to carry the load off the battery frequently enough to prevent continual bubbling4 ,where ,small ,load ,is ,used4 ,there are many installations where the battery capacity is sufficient to last several weeks4 ,on installations of this kind it is advisable to charge the battery to ,,full at least once a week4 ,the dealer or service man should use his own judgment on the preceding instructions as to which is best suited for the different conditions encountered4 ,regularly on the first of each month1 regardless of whether or not the battery has been used1 a special charge1 called the ,equalizing ,charge1 should be given4 ,this charge should be given as follows3 ,the battery should be charged until ,,each cell is bubbling freely from top to bottom on surface of the outside negative plates and then the charge should be continued for ,,two ,,more ,,hours4 ,the monthly equalizing charge is a ,,necessary precautionary measure to insure that the user will bring each cell in the battery up to maximum gravity at least once a month4 ,it also provides a means on the ampere-hour meter plants to set the ampere-hour meter hand at ,,full when the battery is ,,full4 ,the users should be cautioned to inform the service man or dealer immediately if any cell fails to bubble at the end of an equalizing charge1 when all others are bubbling freely4 ,this will enable the service man to inspect such cells for trouble and remedy same before the trouble becomes serious4 7,see further information under inspection and repairs47 ,,inspection ,,trips ,undercharging or injurious sulphation is the most common trouble encountered4 ,undercharging causes the plates to blister and bulge1 and in place of good gray edges on the negative plates and good brown color edges on the positive plates1 the edges will show a faded color1 with very little brown color showing on the edges of the positive plates4 ,overcharging is not so evident on inspection1 except that in such cases the active material from the positive plates1 which is brown in color1 will be thrown to the bottom as sediment more rapidly than the sediment would accumulate due to normal wear4 ,heavy usage on a battery will also cause considerable sediment in the bottom of the cells1 so that it is necessary to investigate carefully whether it is overcharging or overwork4 ,a few questions as to method of operation and load requirements will aid in deciding the cause of excessive sediment4 7,see ,when and ,how to ,charge1 page #dfh47 ,sediment ,space ,filled4 ,when the space below the plates is filled up with sediment and touching the plates1 the cell becomes short-circuited and will deteriorate very rapidly4 ,it will be noticed1 however1 that the sediment is heaped in the middle of the cell4 ,if the cells are unbolted and unshaken1 it will level the sediment and leave a space between the sediment and plates4 ,it is very important that the sediment be shaken down before the cell becomes short-circuited4 ,this will very often prolong the life of the battery a number of months4 ,when the sediment space is completely filled1 approximately all the active material will be out of the positive plates4 ,a thorough study should be made as to the general condition of the battery and method of operation before forming an opinion or suggesting any change in method of operation4 ,check ,ampere-,hour ,meters ,on plants which have ampere-hour meters1 the meter should be checked as to its speed on discharge1 and also check position of the meter hand at the time of inspection1 to see if it checks with the specific gravity and the pilot balls4 7,see ,ampere ,hour ,meter1 page #dfg47 ,it will generally be found that when a battery is sulphated1 it is operating in very low specific gravity1 or1 in other words1 the charges have not been carried far enough to drive all the acid out of the plates4 ,a battery that is not receiving quite enough charge may not as a whole become sulphated1 but several cells might become considerably weaker than the others and become sulphated1 causing trouble in these particular cells4 ,such cells will not bubble freely1 or possibly not at all1 when the other cells are bubbling freely4 ,therefore1 a few questions to the user will generally help in locating the low cells4 ,cells that are in trouble1 or which soon will be1 can very easily be picked out by making a few tests on the battery4 ,therefore1 on all inspections1 regardless of the age of a battery1 it is suggested that the following tests be made3 ,take a specific gravity reading of all cells and note if there are any cells much lower than the others4 ,amy cells having a specific gravity of #cj points lower than the average will generally be found to be in trouble1 unless these cells happen to be low from having had spillage in shipment1 replaced with water4 7,this condition1 however1 should not exist in future installations if the spillage is properly taken care of1 as has been explained on page #dhb47 ,voltage ,readings ,after taking a specific gravity reading1 a voltage reading of each cell should be taken4 ,voltage readings taken on open circuit are of no value1 so while taking these readings the battery should be on discharge1 having at least a discharge of #ae amperes4 ,a good way to get this discharge is to hold the starting switch in and set mixing valve lever at lean point or wide open4 ,a low or defective cell will show a voltage reading 4#aj to 4#bj volts lower than the other cells on discharge1 while a reversed cell will show a reading in the reversed direction when on discharge1 especially on heavy discharge4 ,the voltage readings are a sure check if taken in connection with the specific gravity4 ,when you have low specific gravity and low voltage on the same cells1 it is a sure indication of low cells4 ,these cells should be inspected for the probable cause of their being low4 ,shorting of the lugs at bottom of plates and moss bridging across at bottom of the elements1 or possibly a split separator1 will generally be the main trouble4 ,when any of these conditions exist1 it is best to take the low cells back to your shop for repairs4 ,when there is absolutely no indication why the cells are low1 they can be cut out of the battery on discharge and put in on charge1 until they come up4 ,the following is a good example of readings taken on a battery with a #aj-;ampere discharge and having four low cells1 #d1 #h1 #aa and #af4 ,the battery had been giving poor service1 due to insufficient charging3 ,cell ,no4 ,specific ,gravity ,volts #a #a4bjj #a4ih #b #a4ahj #a4ie #c #a4bje #a4ih #d #a4aej #a4ge #e #a4aij #a4ie #f #a4aie #a4ih #g #a4bjj #a4ih #h #a4acj #a4gj #i #a4bjj #a4ie #aj #a4bje #a4ih #aa #a4ajj #a4dj #ab #a4aij #a4ie #ac #a4ahj #a4ie #ad #a4aie #a4ih #ae #a4aij #a4ie #af #j4jjj zero or reversal ,the main thing to consider in checking voltage readings is the variation from the average4 ,the average voltage readings will vary1 depending on the state of charge of the battery when the readings are taken4 ,,repairs ,to repair1 the following equipment is necessary3 #a4 ,portable lead burning outfit4 #b4 ,a suitable blow torch4 #c4 ,standard sealing nut wrench4 #d4 ,file 7shoemaker's rasp74 #e4 ,pair of pliers4 #f4 ,putty knife4 #g4 ,pair of tin snips4 #h4 ,wooden blocks to support elements while being worked upon4 #i4 ,good supply of battery parts consisting of3 ,,kxg-#ac ,glass jars ,,kxg-#ac ,pilot jars ,,kxg-#ac ,positive groups ,,kxg-#ac ,negative groups ,,kxg-#ac ,round rods ,,kxg-#ac ,vent plugs ,sealing nuts ,rubber gaskets ,wood separators ,,kxg-#ac ,rubber covers ,,kxg-#g ,round rods ,lead pins ,carboy electrolyte 7including retainer74 ,,kxg-#g ,pilot jars ,,kxg-#g ,glass jars ,,kxg-#g ,positive groups ,,kxg-#g ,negative groups ,outside negative plates ,,kxg-#g ,rubber covers ,emergency repair straps ,disassembling a ,cell ,the glass jar battery covers are sealed to the jars by sealing compound1 which may be softened very easily with a blow-torch4 ,when a blow-torch or an open flame is used for softening the sealing compound1 the vent plug ,,must be removed before applying a flame4 ,it is also important to blow into the vent after the plug has been removed in order to expel any gas that may have collected in the space above the electrolyte in the cell4 ,if the gas is held in place by leaving the vent plug in1 it is apt to explode when an open flame or intense heat is applied to the cover41 ,removing covers may be greatly facilitated by suspending the cell by the terminals1 as shown in ,fig4 #cje4 ,care should be taken to make this suspension so that the bottom of the jar will not be more than two inches above the table4 ,a pad of excelsior should be placed under it to avoid breaking the glass jar when it drops4 ,fig4 #cje ,softening sealing compound1 ,delco-,light cell ,after the sealing compound has been sufficiently softened1 the cover may be loosened by inserting a hot putty knife1 as shown in ,fig4 #cjf1 ,there is no danger of breaking the cover by this operation if the cover has been sufficiently warmed4 ,after the jar of electrolyte has dropped1 the element should be removed from the jar and carefully placed across the top of it1 so that the solution upon the plates will drain back into the jar4 7,see ,fig4 #cjg47 ,fig4 #cjf ,removing ,delco-,light cell cover ,fig4 #cjg ,draining element1 ,delco-,light cell ,fig4 #cjh ,removing cover of ,delco-,light cell ,fig4 #cji ,removing lock pin1 ,delco-,light cell ,after element has drained1 place on wooden blocks1 as shown in ,fig4 #cjh1 and remove cover4 ,clean the sealing compound from the cover and jar immediately with a putty knife4 ,turn element upside down with posts through holes in bench and remove lead pin and rubber bumper and withdraw1 lock pin4 7,fig4 #cji47 ,the separators may then be withdrawn from the group4 7,fig4 #caj47 ,fig4 #caj ,removing separatots1 ,delco-,light cell ,fig4 #caa ,assembling separators1 ,delco-,light cell ,assembling ,place the positive and negative groups upside down with posts through holes in bench and slide in separators4 ,the wood and rubber separators are inserted as follows3 ,the rubber separator is placed against the grooved side of the wood separator1 and the two are then slipped between the negative and positive plates with the rubber separator next to the positive plate4 7,see ,fig4 #caa47 ,inserting ,locking ,pin ,a rubber bumper is pinned on one end of the lock pin by means of a lead pin1 and the lock pin is then slipped into place with the lock pin insulating washer placed between the outside negative plates and the wood separators4 7,see ,fig4 #cab47 ,a rubber bumper is then slipped over the other end of the lock pin and secured by a lead pin4 ,place element on wooden blocks and fasten cover1 as shown in ,fig4 #cac4 ,fig4 #cac ,fastening cover1 ,delco-,light cell ,fig4 #cad ,preparing cover for sealing1 ,delco-,light cell ,sealing ,covers ,be sure all old sealing compound and traces of electrolyte are removed from the cover4 ,heat sealing compound until it can be handled like putty1 roll out into a strip about #a_/b inch in diameter1 place strip of compound around inside edge of cover 7,fig4 #cad7 and heat to melting point with blow-torch4 ,the top of jar should also be heated to insure a tight seal4 ,compound can be melted in a suitable vessel and a #a_/b inch strip poured around cover4 ,when sealing compound and jar have been heated sufficiently1 turn jar upside down 7,fig4 #cae7 and carefully place jar over element and press gently into compound4 7,do not press hard47 ,immediately place jar and element upright1 and press cover firmly into place4 7,press hard47 ,finally1 tighten sealing nuts4 ,the cell is now ready for the electrolyte4 ,fig4 #cae ,sealing jar of ,delco-,light cell ,filling ,cell with ,electrolyte ,repaired cells should be filled with electrolyte of #a4bjj specific gravity1 or with water1 as the case may require4 ,standard ,delco-,light electrolyte of #a4bbj specific gravity may be purchased from the ,delco ,light distributor4 ,the #a4bbj electrolyte should be reduced to #a4bjj by adding a very small amount of distilled water4 ,this should be thoroughly mixed by pouring the solution from one battery jar into another4 ,the #a4bjj specific gravity electrolyte may then be added to the newly assembled cell until flush with the water line4 ,charging ,the completed ,,kxg-#ac cell should be placed on a #ab-;ampere charge and kept on charge until maximum gravity has been reached4 ,a ,,kxg-#g cell should be charged at a #f-;ampere rate4 ,adjusting ,gravity of ,electrolyte ,if the maximum gravity is above #a4bbj1 draw off some of the electrolyte and refill to water line with distilled water4 ,the charge should then be continued for at least one hour to thoroughly mix the electrolyte before taking another hydrometer reading4 ,it may be necessary to repeat this operation4 ,if the maximum gravity is below #a4bbj1 pour off the electrolyte into a glass jar or a suitable receptacle1 and then refill the cell with #a4bbj electrolyte4 ,charge for one hour to thoroughly mix the solution before checking readings4 ,,note3 ,gravity readings in adjusting the electrolyte should always be taken in connection with thermometer readings1 making necessary temperature corrections4 ,this is particularly important in adjusting electrolyte in pilot cells4 ,,how ,,to ,,repair ,,delco-,,light ,,cells ,treating ,broken ,cells ,whenever a shipment of batteries is received in which any of the jars have been broken1 the first thing to do is to carefully remove the elements from the broken jars to prevent damage to the plates or separators4 ,these elements should be placed in distilled water to prevent further drying4 ,the plates will not be damaged in any way and can be restored to a healthy condition by charging in #a4bjj specific gravity at a #ab-;ampere rate for the #ac-plate cell or1 #f-;ampere rate for the #g-plate cell1 until maximum gravity is reached4 7,see ,charging and ,adjustment of ,electrolyte1 explained on page #dha47 ,treating ,spilled ,cells ,if the spillage is more than one inch below the water level1 it should be replaced by electrolyte of #a4bjj specific gravity and charged to maximum gravity4 ,treating ,badly ,sulphated ,cells ,that ,have ,been in ,service ,when cells are removed from an installation to make repairs1 they are usually badly sulphated1 which means that considerable acid is in the plates4 ,in charging such cells1 use distilled water in place of electrolyte1 as this will allow the acid to come out of the plates more readily4 ,the ,,kxg-#ac cells should be charged at about #ab amperes and the ,,kxg-#g cells at #f amperes4 ,cells badly sulphated when charged at the low rate will require from #ej to #ajj hours to reach maximum gravity4 ,extreme cases will require even longer charging4 ,in case it is impossible to read the gravity after the cells have been on charge a sufficient length of time1 pour out the solution and use #a4bbj specific gravity4 ,the charge should then be continued further to insure that maximum gravity has been reached4 ,,caution3 ,should the temperature of the electrolyte approach #aaj ,f41 the charging rate should be reduced or the charge stopped until the cell has cooled4 ,treating ,reversed ,cells ,a complete battery may be reversed if the battery is completely discharged and its voltage is not sufficient to overcome any residual magnetism the generator might have4 ,under such conditions the negative plates will begin to discolor brown and the positive turn gray4 ,such a case would be extremely rare4 ,the remedy is to first completely discharge the cells to get rid of the charge in the wrong direction4 ,then short-circuit them4 7,connect a wire across the terminals47 ,then charge them in the right direction at a low rate4 7#ab amperes for a ,,kxg-#ac cell1 or #f amperes for a ,,kxg-#g cell47 ,charge until the specific gravity reaches a maximum4 ,if the battery is operated reversed for any length of time1 the negatives will throw off their active material and become useless4 ,a single cell may become reversed by gradually slipping behind the rest of the cells in a set1 due to insufficient charging1 until it becomes so low that it will reverse on each discharge4 ,this condition cannot be corrected by giving the regular charge1 but it will be necessary to give an equalizing charge1 continuing the charge until the cell is in normal condition4 7,be sure to make temperature corrections when taking hydrometer readings47 ,if the cell appears to require an excessive amount of charge to restore it to condition1 it should be removed and taken to the repair shop for a separate charge4 ,if the cell has been allowed to operate in a reversed condition to such an extent that the entire material of the negative plates has turned brown1 both positive and negative groups should be discarded4 ,removing ,impurities ,impurities1 such as iron1 salt 7chlorine7 or oil1 may accidentally get into a cell1 due to careless handling of distilled water4 ,iron is dissolved by sulphuric acid and the positive plates become affected1 change color 7dirty yellow7 and wear rapidly4 ,the cell becomes different from the rest in gravity1 voltage and bubbling4 ,the remedy is to discard the electrolyte as soon as possible1 flush the plates and separators in several changes of water1 thoroughly wash the jar1 use new electrolyte and then proceed in same manner as explained for the treatment of badly sulphated cells1 page #dhb4 ,chlorine has an effect about as described for iron1 and is evident by the odor of chlorine gas4 ,the remedy is the same as for iron4 ,oil in the electrolyte1 if allowed to get into the pores of the plates1 will fill them and lower the capacity very much4 ,it affects negative plates much more than positives4 ,probably the only remedy in this case is new plates4 ,impurities of any nature should be removed as quickly as possible4 ,clearing ,high ,resistance ,short ,circuits ,a high resistance short is caused by the sediment falling from the plates and lodging between the positive and negative lugs4 ,as a rule this condition will occur only when severe sulphation is present in the plates4 ,a cell in this condition can be repaired by removing the element and clearing the short circuit4 ,the wood separators should then be withdrawn and replaced by new ones4 ,lock pin insulating washers4 should be installed land the element reassembled in the jar and charged to maximum gravity4 ,clearing ,lug ,shorts ,short-circuited lugs are caused by excessive sulphation4 ,the outside negative bulges and the bottom lug bends over and touches the adjacent positive lug4 ,this can be remedied by removing both outside negative plates and burning on new plates which have already been charged and inserting lock pin insulating washers4 ,putting ,repaired ,cells ,back in ,service ,when placing a new or repaired cell in a battery which is in service1 connect in the cell at the beginning of a charge4 ,this will insure that the new or repaired cell is started off in good condition1 because this charge is of the nature of an initial charge to these cells4 ,charging ,outside ,negative ,plates ,individual negative plates are always received dry1 which makes it necessary to charge them before using4 ,the best way to charge such plates is as follows3 ,set up #g loose negative plates in a ,,kxg-#ac jar together with a good positive group1 using ,,kxg separators to prevent the plates touching4 ,then stretch a piece of wire solder across the lugs at the top of the negative plates and solder the wire to the plates4 ,fig4 #caf4 ,the jar may then be filled with #abjj specific gravity and the plates charged at a #ab-;ampere rate until maximum gravity is obtained4 ,never use negative plates unless they have been treated as described above4 ,after the charge is completed1 the negative plates may be placed in distilled water and kept until ready for use4 ,always be sure to give a charge to maximum gravity after burning on new negative plates to an element4 ,fig4 #caf ,preparing outside negatives for charging ,pressing ,negative ,plates ,after badly sulphated cells are recharged1 it is sometimes advisable to remove the elements and1 press the negative plates1 as explained on page #cea4 ,care should be taken to prevent the negative plates from drying out while making repairs1 in order to avoid the long charge necessary for dried negative plates4 ,the battery should be charged to maximum gravity before attempting to press the plates4 ,it is not necessary and will do no good to press the positive plates4 ,in some cases the active material may be nearly all out of the outside negative plates and the inside negatives may be in good condition1 in which case new charged plates should be burned on4 7,fig4 #cbb47 ,salvaging ,replaced ,cells ,when it has been necessary to replace cells which have been in service1 the elements can very often be saved and assembled again and used as replacement cells in batteries which are several years old4 ,in no case should the cells be used as new cells4 ,the positive plates may be allowed to dry out1 but the negatives should be kept in distilled water and not allowed to dry out in the least4 ,they should not be kept this way indefinitely1 but should be assembled and charged as soon as possible4 ,do not attempt to repair groups or plates which have lost as much as half of the active material in wear1 or which have the active material disintegrated and falling out4 ,such plates should not be used4 ,this does not apply to small bits of active material knocked out mechanically and amounting to an extremely small percentage of the whole4 ,abnormal color indicates possible impurity1 and such plates should be washed and used with caution4 ,badly cracked or broken plates should be replaced with new plates or plates from other groups4 ,before new negative plates are used they should be fully charged4 7,see ,charging ,negative ,plates1 page #dhd47 ,always use new wood separators when assembling repaired cells4 ,when cells have been operated reversed in polarity to such an extent that the active material of the negative plates has turned brown1 both positive and negative groups may have to be replaced4 ,repairing ,lead ,parts ,the portable carbon burning outfit used for battery repairs is operated from the battery itself1 making it possible to make repairs at the user's residence without using a gas flame4 ,this outfit can be secured from the ,delco-,light ,company1 ,dayton1 ,ohio1 and consists of a carbon holder with cable1 clamp1 and one-fourth inch carbon rods4 ,six cells are usually required to properly heat the carbon4 ,if it is completely discharged an outside source must be used4 ,for this purpose a six-volt automobile battery is suitable1 or a tray of demonstrating batteries1 one terminal being connected to the connection to be burned1 the other to the cable of the burning tool4 ,a little experience will soon demonstrate the number of cells necessary to give a satisfactory heat4 ,the cable is connected by means of the clamp to a cell in the battery1 the required number of cells away from the joint to be burned4 ,care should be taken that contact is made by the clamp1 the lead being scraped clean before the connection is made4 ,the carbon should be sharpened to a long point like a lead pencil and should project not more than #b inches from the holder4 7,fig4 #cag47 ,fig4 #cag ,repairing broken post1 ,delco-,light cell ,after being used a short time1 the carbon will not heat properly1 due to a film of scale formed on the surface4 ,this should be cleaned off with a file4 ,in case of lead burning1 additional lead to make a flush joint should not be added until the metal of the pieces to be joined has melted4 ,the carbon should be moved around to insure a solid joint at all points4 ,in case a post is broken off under the cover1 proceed as follows3 ,to make repairs take an old group and cut off the post about one-half way down4 ,saw off the post to be repaired to such a length that when the new post is burned on the length of the post will be approximately the same length as the original post4 ,repairing ,broken ,posts4 ,make a half circle mould out of a piece of tin or galvanized iron1 as shown in ,fig4 #cag4 ,burn solid the side of the post facing up1 file it around and then turn the group over1 place the form on the burned side and proceed to complete the burning operation4 ,caution3 #a4 ,always use clean lead4 #b4 ,do not clean the lead and let it stand for any length of time before starting to burn4 ,if it is allowed to stand it will oxidize and prevent a good burning operation4 #c4 ,burn with an are and not with a red hot carbon4 ,burning on ,straps ,place the strap to be burned in a vise and split the end through the center and then bend the two halves over to form a foot1 as shown in ,fig4 #cah4 ,make a mould out of a piece of tin or galvanized iron and place this mould around the post to which this strap is to be burned4 7,fig4 #cai47 ,then proceed to burn the post and strap together4 ,fig4 #cah ,splitting end of strap1 ,delco-,light cell ,when a union is made between the strap and the post a small amount of new clean lead should be burned on the top of the foot to reinforce this point4 ,care should be taken not to get the mould too high1 as this will cause trouble in getting the carbon down to the foot and the post4 ,fig4 #cai ,burning on negative strap1 ,delco-,light cell ,fig4 #cbj ,auxiliary strap1 ,delco-,light cell ,fig4 #cba ,positioning auxiliary strap1 ,delco-,light cell ,how to ,eliminate ,burning on ,straps by ,use of an ,auxiliary ,strap ,a very good way to repair broken straps without the burning operation is to use the auxiliary strap shown in ,fig4 #cbj4 ,this strap is slipped over the post of the terminal or strap which is broken and the sealing nut is then clamped down on the strap1 as shown in ,fig4 #cba4 ,these straps may be obtained from the ,delco-,light ,distributors or from the ,delco-,light factory at ,dayton1 ,ohio4 ,burning on ,new ,plates ,fig4 #cbb ,burning on outside negative plate1 ,delco-,light cell ,when it is necessary to burn on new plates1 carefully clean with a file the lead on both the plate and the common strap to which all plates of the group are attached4 ,block up the plate with thin boards or wood separators until it is spaced the proper distance from the adjacent plate4 ,care should be taken to see that the side and bottom edge of the plate to be burned on is in line with the other plates of the group4 ,proceed to burn on the plate by drawing a small blaze or are and do not attempt to burn with just a glowing carbon4 7,fig4 #cbb47 ,if only a glowing carbon is used the result will be a smeary mass and in the majority of cases will not hold1 due to the fact that it is not welded but simply attached in one or two points4 ,the principle of lead burning is to weld or burn two parts into one solid mass and not merely attach one to the other4 ,keeping ,wood ,separators ,in ,stock ,no wood separators should be used except those furnished by the ,delco-,light ,company4 ,these should be kept in distilled water1 to which has been added #a4bbj electrolyte in the proportion of one part to ten parts of water4 ,it is advisable whenever possible to use new separators when making repairs on a cell4 ,separators which have been in service are liable to be damaged by handling4 ,freezing ,temperature of ,electrolyte ,the freezing temperatures of electrolyte in the ,delco-,light batteries depends upon the specific gravity of the battery4 ,the ,delco-,light battery fully charged1 with a specific gravity of #a4bbj1 should not freeze above a temperature of #cj degrees below zero4 ,since1 however1 the freezing point rises very rapidly with a decrease in specific gravity1 special care should be taken to keep batteries charged when temperatures below zero are encountered4 ,the following table shows freezing temperatures of several different gravities of electrolyte4 ,specific ,gravity ,freezing ,point ---------------- -------------- #a4ajj #ai ,f4 above zero4 #a4aej #e ,f4 above zero4 #a4age #f ,f4 below zero4 #a4bjj #af ,f4 below zero4 #a4bbj #ca ,f4 below zero4 ,at the temperature given1 the electrolyte does not freeze solid1 but forms a slushy mass of crystals1 which does not always result in jar breakage4 ,care of ,cells in ,stock ,frequently a ,dealer or ,distributor will have several sets of new batteries in stock for five or six months4 ,in this case1 the cells should be given a freshening charge before putting into service4 ,this charge should consist of charging the cells to maximum gravity4 ,cells received broken in transit or cells sent in for repairs should be repaired and charged as soon as possible and put into service immediately4 ,this eliminates the possibility of the cells standing idle over a long period in which they would need a freshening charge before they could be used4 ,however1 if such cells must be kept in stock1 they can be maintained in a healthy condition by keeping on charge at a one fifth ampere rate for #ac-plate cells and one-tenth ampere rate for #g-plate cells4 ,taking ,batteries ,out of ,commission ,if a battery is not to be used at all for a period not longer than about #i months1 it can be left idle if it is first treated as follows3 ,add sufficient water to bring the electrolyte up to the water line in all cells and then give an equalizing charge1 continuing the charge until the specific gravity of each cell is at a maximum1 five consecutive hourly readings showing no rise in gravity4 ,as soon as this charge is completed1 take out the battery fuse and open up one or two of the connections between cells so that no current can be taken from the battery4 ,have vent plugs in place to minimize evaporation4 ,if the battery is to be taken out of commission for a longer time than #i months1 the battery should be fully charged as above and the electrolyte poured off into suitable glass or porcelain receptacles4 ,the plates should immediately be covered with water for a few hours to prevent the negatives heating1 after which the separators should be removed1 the water poured out of the jars1 and the positive and negative groups placed back in the jar for storage4 ,examine the separators4 ,if they are cracked or split they should be thrown away4 ,if in good condition they should be stored for further use in a non-metallic receptacle and covered with water1 to which has been added electrolyte of #a4bbj specific gravity1 in the proportion of one part electrolyte to ten of water by volume4 ,putting ,batteries ,into ,commission ,after ,being ,out of ,service ,when putting batteries into commission again1 if the electrolyte has not been withdrawn1 all that is necessary is to add water to the cells if needed1 replace connections1 and give an equalizing charge4 ,if the electrolyte has been withdrawn and battery disassembled1 it should be reassembled1 taking care not to use cracked1 split or dried-out separators1 and then the cells should be filled with the old electrolyte1 which has been saved1 provided no impurity has entered the electrolyte4 ,after filling1 allow the battery to stand for #ab hours and then charge1 using #f amperes for ,,kxg-#g size and #ab amperes for the ,,kxg-#ac size4 ,charge at this rate until all cells start gassing freely or temperature rises to #aaj ,f4 ,then reduce the charging rate one-half1 and continue at this rate until the specific gravity is at a maximum1 five consecutive hourly readings showing no rise in gravity4 ,at least #dj hours will be required for this charge4 ,to obtain these low rates with the ,delco-,light plant1 lights or other current-consuming devices must be turned on while charging4 ,general ,complaints from ,users and ,how to ,handle ,them4 #a4 ,pilot balls do not come up4 ,this condition may be caused by 7a7 ,battery discharged4 7b7 ,weak electrolyte caused by spillage in shipment4 7c7 ,defective ball4 ,question the user to determine whether the ball will not come up if the pilot cell is bubbling freely4 ,weak electrolyte or a defective ball will require a service trip to determine the one which is responsible for the ball not rising4 7,see page #dgj47 #b4 ,lights dim-must charge daily4 ,this condition may be caused by 7a7 ,discharged battery4 7b7 ,loose dirty connections in battery or line4 7c7 ,low cells in battery4 ,the user should be questioned to determine whether the battery is being charged sufficiently4 ,in case the user is positive the battery is charged1 the next probable trouble would be that there were some loose or dirty connections in either plant or battery4 ,have the user check for loose connections4 ,should it be necessary to make an inspection trip1 instruct the user to give battery an equalizing charge so the battery will be fully charged when the inspection is made4 ,low cells can be checked by asking the user if all of the cells bubble freely when equalizing charge is given4 ,in case user claims several cells fail to bubble1 an inspection trip would be necessary to determine the trouble4 7,see page #dgj47 #c4 ,cells bubbling when on discharge4 ,this complaint would indicate a reversed cell4 7,see page #dhc47 #d4 ,cells overflowing on charge4 ,this would mean that the cells were filled too high above water lines4 #e4 ,engine cranks slowly but does not fire4 ,this would indicate over-discharged battery4 ,explain to user how to start plant under this condition4 #f4 ,plant will not crank4 ,this might be caused by 7a7 ,blown battery fuse4 7b7 ,battery over-discharged4 7c7 ,loose or broken connection on battery or switchboard4 ,,other ,,exide ,,farm ,,lighting ,,batteries ,the ,exide type is shown in ,figure #bif4 ,the plates are held in position both by the cover and by soft rubber support pieces in the bottom of the jar4 ,the support pieces are provided with holes in which projections on the bottom of the plates are inserted4 ,the cover is of heavy moulded glass4 ,the separators are of grooved wood in combination with a slotted rubber sheet 7,fig4 #big74 ,the strap posts are threaded and are clamped to the cover by means of alloy nuts4 ,the cover overlaps the top of the jar to which it is sealed with sealing compound4 ,the method of sealing and unsealing is practically the same as in the ,exide ,delco-,light ,type4 ,batteries with ,open ,glass ,jars ,batteries with open glass jars1 in addition to the conducting lug1 have two hanging lugs for each plate4 ,the plates are hung from the jar walls by these hanging lugs1 as shown in ,figs4 #cbc and #cbd4 ,the plate straps1 instead of being horizontal are vertical and provided with a tail so that adjacent cells may be bolted together by bolt connectors through the end of the tail4 #a4 ,the ,exide ,cell is shown in ,fig4 #cbd4 ,it has a grooved wood separator between each positive and negative plate4 ,the separators are kept from floating up by a glass hold-down laid across the top4 ,the separators are provided at the top with a pin which rests on the adjoining plates4 ,the pins together with the plate glass hold-downs keep the separators in ,position4 ,to remove an element it is simply necessary to unbolt the connectors1 remove the glass cover and hold-down and lift wit the element4 #b4 ,the ,chloride ,accumulator cell is shown in ,fig4 #cbc4 ,it differs from the ,exide only in type of plates and separators4 ,the positive plates are known as ,manchester positives and have the active material in the form of corrugated buttons which are held in a thick grid1 as shown in ,fig4 #cbe4 ,the buttons are brown in color1 the same as all positive active material4 ,the separators1 instead of being grooved wood1 am each a sheet of wood with six dowels pinned to it4 ,the element is removed the same as in the ,exide type4 ,fig4 #cbc ,exide chloride accumulator cell with open glass jar1 and ,fig4 #cbd ,exide cell with open glass jar ,batteries with ,sealed ,rubber ,jars #a4 ,the ,exide cell is shown in ,fig4 #cbf4 ,it is assembled similar to ,exide starting and lighting batteries1 except that the plates are considerably thicker1 wood and rubber separators are used1 and the terminal posts are shaped to provide for bolted instead of burned-on connection4 ,the method of sealing and unsealing the cells is the same as in ,exide starting and lighting batteries4 ,all instructions already given for glass for cells apply to rubber jar cells except for a few differences in assembling and disassembling4 ,care should be taken to keep the water level at least #a_/b inch above plates at all times as the evaporation is very rapid in rubber jar cells4 ,the temperature should be watched on charging to prevent overheating4 ,never allow temperature to go above #aaj ,f4 ,unlike the glass jar cells the sediment space in the rubber jar is not sufficient to take care of all the active material in the positive plates4 ,on repairs1 therefore1 always clean out the sediment and prevent premature short circuits4 ,fig4 #cbe ,manchester positive plates1 and ,fig4 #cbf ,exide cell with sealed rubber jar ,,westinghouse ,,farm ,,lighting ,,batteries ,jars4 ,westinghouse ,farm ,lighting ,battery jars are made of glass1 with a #e_/af inch wall4 ,the jars are pressed with the supporting ribs for the elements an integral part from a mass of molten glass4 ,a heavy flange is pressed around the upper edge to strengthen the jar4 ,top ,construction4 ,a sealed-in cover is used similar to that used in starting and lighting batteries4 ,the opening around the post hole is sealed with compound4 ,plates4 ,pasted plates are used4 ,the positives are #a_/d inch thick1 and the negatives #c_/af inch4 ,posts are #ac_/af inch in diameter4 ,separators4 ,a combination of wood and perforated rubber sheets is used4 ,opening and ,setting-,up ,westinghouse ,farm ,lighting ,batteries ,fig4 #cbg ,westinghouse farm lighting cell ,it is preferable that the temperature never exceed #ajj deg4 ,fahrenheit nor fall below #aj deg4 in the place where the battery is set up4 ,if the temperature is liable to drop below #aj degrees the battery should be kept in a fully charged condition4 #a4 ,remove all excelsior and the other packing material from the top of the cells4 ,take cells out carefully and set on the floor4 ,do not drop or handle roughly4 ,be sure to remove the lead top connectors from each compartment4 #b4 ,cells should be placed #a_/d inch apart4 ,also1 cells should be placed alternately so that positive post of one cell is adjacent to negative post of the next cell4 ,positive post has ,v shape shoulder and the negative post has a square shoulder4 #c4 ,grease all posts1 straps and nuts with vaseline4 #d4 ,connect positive posts of each cell to negative post of adjacent cell1 using top connectors furnished4 ,top connectors are made so as to fit when connection is made between positive post of one cell and negative post of next cell4 ,use long connector between end cells of upper and lower shelves4 #e4 ,with all connections between cells in position1 join the remaining positive post with a connection marked ,positive leading from the electric generator4 ,do likewise with the remaining negative post4 #f4 ,if liquid level in any cell is #a inch or more below the ,liquid ,line on side of glass jar1 some liquid has been spilled and must be replaced4 ,this should be done by an experienced person4 #g4 ,immediately after installation operate electric generator and charge battery until gas bubbles rise freely through the liquid in all cells4 ,a reading with the hydrometer syringe which is furnished with the battery should be taken1 ,when the hydrometer float reads between #a4bdj and #a4bej1 the battery is fully charged4 #h4 ,the time required to complete the charging operation mentioned above may vary from one to several hours1 depending upon the length of time the battery has been in transit4 ,during the charge the temperature of the cells should not be permitted to rise above #aaj deg4 ,fahrenheit4 ,if this condition occurs discontinue the charge or decrease the charge rate until cells have cooled off4 #i4 ,when charge is complete replace vent plugs4 ,the ,relation ,between ,various ,sizes of ,westinghouse ,farm ,light ,batteries and ,work to be ,done ,the size of the battery furnished with complete farm lighting units vary greatly4 ,sometimes the battery size is varied with the size of the engine and generator1 while again the same size of battery may be used for several sizes of engines and generators4 ,in making replacements1 while it is always necessary to retain the same number of cells1 it is not necessary to retain the same size of cells4 ,usually increasing the cell size increases the convenience to the owner and prolongs the life of the battery to an amount which warrants the higher cost4 ,with a larger battery1 danger of injury through overcharging is lessened1 the load on the battery is more easily carried and the engine and generator operate less frequently4 ,in order to give an idea of various battery capacities1 below is a table showing the number of #cb volt1 #be-watt lamps which may be lighted for various lengths of time from sixteen cells4 ,the number of hours shows the length of time that the lamps will operate4 ,table ,a ,type #c ,hours #e ,hours #h ,hours ---- ------- ------- ------- ,g-#g #bb ,lamps #ad ,lamps #aj ,lamps ,g-#i #bh ,lamps #ai ,lamps #ac ,lamps ,g-#aa #cb ,lamps #bd ,lamps #ae ,lamps ,g-#ac #da ,lamps #bi ,lamps #ai ,lamps ,g-#ae #dg ,lamps #cc ,lamps #bb ,lamps ,g-#ag #ed ,lamps #ch ,lamps #be ,lamps ,note3--,based on #cb-,volt #be-,watt ,lamps4 ,for example--,the table shows opposite ,g-#g that1 with the battery fully charged1 twenty-two lamps may be lighted for three hours1 fourteen lamps for five hours and ten lamps for eight hours1 by a sixteen cell ,g-#g battery1 without operating the engine and generator4 ,motors for operating various household and farm appliances are usually rated either in horsepower or watts4 ,the following table will give a comparison between horse-power and watts as well as the number of #be-watt lamps to which these different sizes of motors and appliances correspond4 ,table ,b ,h4,p4 of ,motor ,no4 of ,watts ,corresponding ,no4 of #be-,watt ,lamps ------------- ------------ -------------------- #a_/h #ic #d #a_/d #ahe #g #a_/b #cgc #ae #c_/d #eei #bb #a ,h4,p4 #gdf #cj ,from table ,b it will be seen1 for example1 that a one horsepower motor draws from the battery #cgc watts or the same power as do fifteen #be-watt lamps4 ,then referring to table ,a1 it will be found that a ,g-#aa battery could operate #ae lamps or this motor alone for #h hours4 ,due to the fact that a motor or electric appliance may become overloaded and therefore actually use many more watts than the name plate indicates1 it is not advisable to operate any motor of over #a_/d ,h4 ,p4 or even an appliance of over #ahf watts on the ,g-#ac or smaller sizes unless the engine and generator are running4 ,it is safe1 however1 to operate motors or other appliances up to #cge watts on the ,g-#ae or ,g-#ag batteries without operating the engine and generator4 ,,willard ,,farm ,,lighting ,,batteries ,fig4 #cbh ,willard ,farm ,lighting ,cell ,the ,willard ,storage ,battery ,co4 manufactures farm lighting batteries which use sealed glass jars1 or sealed rubber jars4 ,those using the sealed glass jars include types ,,ph and ,,pa4 ,the sealed rubber jar batteries include types ,,em1 ,,eew1 ,,ipr1 ,,smw1 and ,,sew4 ,both types of batteries are shipped fully charged and filled with electrolyte1 and also dry1 without electrolyte4 ,the following instructions cover the installation and preparation for service of these batteries4 ,glass ,jar ,batteries4 ,fully ,charged and ,filled ,with ,electrolyte ,each sixteen cell set of batteries is packed in two shipping crates4 ,one crate1 which is stenciled ,no4 #a contains3 99 #h ,cells4 99 #ah ,bolt ,connectors4 99 #a ,hydrometer ,syringe4 99 #a ,instruction ,book4 ,the other crate which is stenciled ,no4 #b contains3 #h ,cells 7,,note3--,if the batteries are re-shipped by the manufacturer or distributor1 care must be exercised to see that they are sent out in sets47 ,unpacking ,remove the boards from the tops of the shipping crates and the excelsior which is above the cells4 ,to straighten the long top connector1 grasp the strap firmly with the left hand close to the pillar post and raise the outer end of the strap until it is in an upright position4 ,do not make a short bend near the pillar post4 ,lift the cells from the case by grasping the glass jars4 ,do not attempt to lift them by means of the top connectors4 ,clean the outside of the cells by wiping with a damp cloth4 ,inspection of ,cells4 ,inspect each cell to see if the level of the electrolyte is at the proper height4 ,this is indicated on the jar by a line marked ,,liquid ,,line4 ,if the electrolyte is simply a little low and there is no evidence of any having been spilled 7examine packing material for discoloration7 add distilled or clean rain water to bring the level to the proper height4 ,if the liquid does not cover the plates and the packing material is discolored1 it indicates that some or all of the electrolyte has been lost from the cell either on account of a cracked jar or overturning of the battery4 ,if only a small quantity of electrolyte is lost through spilling1 the cell should be filled to the proper height with electrolyte of the same specific gravity as in the other cells4 ,this cell should then be charged until the gravity has ceased rising4 ,if all the electrolyte is lost write to the ,willard ,storage ,battery ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 for instructions4 ,connecting the ,cells ,each cell of the type ,,ph battery is a complete unit1 sealed in a glass jar4 ,the cells are to be placed side by side on the battery rack so that the positive terminal of one cell 7long connecting strap7 can be connected to the negative terminal 7short strap7 of the adjacent cell4 ,join the positive terminal of one cell to the negative terminal of the adjacent cell and continue this procedure until all the cells are connected together4 ,this will leave one positive and one negative terminal of the battery to be connected respectively to the positive and negative wires from the switchboard4 ,the bend in the top connector should be made about one inch above the pillar post to eliminate the danger of breakage at the post4 ,in tightening the bolts do not use excessive force1 as there is liability of stripping the threads4 ,give the battery a freshening charge before it is put in service4 ,type ,,ph cells have a gravity of #a4bej when fully charged1 and #a4ahe when discharged4 ,willard ,glass ,jar ,batteries ,shipped ,knock-,down4 ,each sixteen cell set of ,batteries consists of3 #af ,glass ,jars4 #af ,positive ,groups4 #af ,negative ,groups4 #af ,covers4 #af ,vent ,plugs4 #cb ,lead ,collars4 #cb ,lead ,keys4 #cb ,soft ,rubber ,washers4 #cb ,hard ,rubber ,rods4 #fd ,hard ,rubber ,nuts4 #ah ,bolt ,connectors4 ,wood ,insulators 7the quantity depends upon the size of the cells74 ,sealing ,compound4 ,hydrometer4 ,instruction ,books4 ,electrolyte is not supplied with batteries shipped in a knockdown condition4 ,examine all packing material carefully and check the parts with the above list4 ,cleaning the ,glass ,jars ,wash the glass jars and wipe them dry4 ,preparing the ,covers ,wash the covers and scrub around the under edge to remove all dust4 ,after they are thoroughly dry place them upside down on a bench4 ,melt the sealing compound and pour it around the outer edge to make a fillet in the groove4 ,assembling the ,element and ,separators ,place the plates of a positive group between the plates of a negative group and lay the element thus formed on its edge1 as shown in ,fig4 #cbi4 ,fig4 #cbi ,inserting ,separators1 ,willard farm lighting cell ,fig4 #ccj and ,fig4 #cca ,fastening cover to posts1 ,willard farm lighting cell ,next insert a wood separator between each of the positive and negative plates4 ,next insert the hard rubber rods through the holes in the lugs of the end negative plates1 and screw on the nuts4 ,do not screw the nuts so tight as to make the plates bulge out at the center4 ,the rod should project the same amount on each side of the element4 ,place the element in a vertical position4 ,the cover can now be placed over the posts4 ,slip a rubber washer and a lead collar over each post4 ,the two key holes in the lead collar are unequal in size4 ,the collar must be placed over the post so that the end which measures #c_/af inch from the bottom of the holes to the end of the collar will be next to the rubber washer4 ,dip the lead key in water and then put it through the holes1 having the straight edge of the key on the bottom side4 ,this operation can easily be done by using a pair of tongs 7see ,figs4 #ccj and #cca7 to compress the washer4 ,after the keys are driven tight they can be cut off with a pair of end cutters and then smoothed with a file4 ,sealing ,element ,assembly in ,jar ,fig4 #ccb ,sealing ,element ,assembly1 ,willard farm lighting cell ,turn the element upside down and place over a block of wood so that the weight is supported by the cover4 7,see ,fig4 #ccb47 ,heat the sealing compound by means of a flame 7a blow torch will answer the purpose71 and place the jar over the element1 as shown in ,fig4 #cca4 ,the jar should be firmly pressed down into the compound4 ,with a hot putty knife1 clean off any compound which has oozed out of the joint4 ,the assembled cell can now be turned to an upright position4 ,in case it is necessary to remove a cover1 heat a wide putty knife and run it around the edge between the cover and the glass jar4 ,this will soften the compound so that the cover can be pried off4 ,if it is necessary to remove the cover from the posts1 the keys must be driven out by pounding on the small end1 as the keys are tapered-and the holes in the lead collars are unequal in size4 ,filling with ,electrolyte ,fill the cells with #a4bfj specific gravity electrolyte at #gj ,f4 to the ,,liquid ,,line marked on the glass jars4 7,about ,i inch above the top edge of separators47 ,allow the cells to stand #ab hours1 and if the level of the electrolyte has lowered1 add sufficient electrolyte to bring it to the proper height4 ,initial ,charge ,connect the positive terminal 7long strap7 of one cell to the negative terminal 7short strap7 of the adjacent cell and continue this procedure until all the cells are connected together4 ,this will leave one positive and one negative terminal to be connected respectively to the positive and negative wires from the charging source4 ,the bends in the top terminal connectors should be made about one inch above the pillar posts to eliminate the danger of breakage at the post4 ,in tightening the bolts1 do not use excessive force1 as there is liability of stripping the threads4 ,after the cells have stood for #ab hours with electrolyte in the jars1 they should be put on charge at the following rates3 ,type ,amperes ---- ------- ,,ph-#g #d ,,ph-#i #e ,,ph-#aa #f-a_/d ,,ph-#ac #g-a_/b ,,ph-#ae #i ,,ph-#ag #aj ,they should be left on charge continuously until the specific gravity of the electrolyte reaches a maximum and remains constant for six hours4 ,at this point1 each cell should be gassing freely and the voltage should read about #b4de volts per cell1 with the above current flowing4 ,under normal conditions it will require approximately #hj hours to complete the initial charge4 ,the final gravity will be approximately #a4bej4 ,if the gravity is above this value1 remove a little electrolyte and add the same amount of distilled water4 ,if the gravity is too low1 remove a little of the electrolyte and add the same amount of #a4djj specific gravity acid and leave on charge as before4 ,after either water or acid has been added1 charge the cells three hours longer in order to thoroughly mix the solution1 and if at the end of that time the gravity is between #a4bde and #a4bee1 the cells are ready for service4 ,it is very important that the initial charge be continued until the specific gravity reaches a maximum value1 regardless of the length of time required4 ,the battery must not be discharged until the initial charge has been completed4 ,if it is impossible to charge the battery continuously1 the charge can be stopped over night1 but must be resumed the next day4 ,it is preferable to charge the battery at the ampere rate given above1 but if this cannot be done1 the temperature must be carefully watched so that it does not exceed #aaj ,f4 ,wilard ,rubber ,jar ,batteries ,shipped ,completely ,charged and ,filled with ,electrolyte ,immediately upon receipt of battery1 remove the soft rubber nipples and unscrew the vent plugs4 ,the soft rubber nipples are to be discarded1 as they are used only for protection during shipment4 ,inspect each cell to see whether the electrolyte is at the proper height4 ,if the electrolyte is simply a little low and there is no evidence of any having been spilled 7examine packing material for discoloration71 add distilled water to bring the level to the proper height4 ,if electrolyte does not cover the plates and the packing material is discolored1 it indicates that some or all of the electrolyte has been lost from the cell1 either on account of cracked jar or overturning of the battery4 ,if only a small quantity of electrolyte is lost through spilling1 the cell should be filled to the proper height with electrolyte of the same specific gravity as in the other cells4 ,this cell should then be charged until the gravity has ceased rising1 ,if all the electrolyte is lost1 write to the ,willard ,storage ,battery ,co41 ,cleveland1 ,ohio1 for instructions4 ,place batteries on rack and connect the positive terminal of one crate to the negative terminal of the next crate1 using the jumpers furnished4 ,the main battery wires from the switch board should be soldered to the pigtail terminals1 which can then be bolted to the battery terminals4 ,be sure to have the positive and negative battery terminals connected respectively to the positive and negative generator terminals of switchboard4 ,before using the battery1 it should be given a freshening charge at the rate given on page #eaj4 ,the specific gravity of the rubber jar batteries is #a4bhe-a4cjj when fully charged1 and #a4afj when discharged4 ,willard ,rubber ,jar ,batteries ,shipped ,dry 7,export ,batteries7 ,batteries which have been prepared for export must be given the following treatment3 ,upon receipt of battery by customer1 the special soft rubber nipples1 used on the batteries for shipping purposes only1 should be removed and discarded4 ,types ,,smw and ,,sew batteries should at once be filled to bottom of vent hole with #a4bhe specific gravity electrolyte at #gj ,f4 ,in mixing electrolyte1 the acid should be poured into the water and allowed to cool below #ij ,f4 before being put into the cells4 ,if electrolyte is shipped with the battery1 it is of the proper gravity to put into the cells4 ,immediately after the batteries are filled with electrolyte1 they must be placed on charge at one half the normal charging rate given on page #eaj1 and should be left on charge continuously until the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising4 ,at this point1 each cell should be gassing freely and the voltage should read at least #b4dj volts per cell with one-half the normal charging current flowing4 ,if during the charge the temperature of the electrolyte in any one cell exceeds #aje ,f41 the current must be reduced until the temperature is below #ij ,f4 ,this will necessitate a longer time to complete the charge1 but must be strictly adhered to4 ,under normal conditions it will require approximately #hj hours to complete the initial charge4 ,the final gravity of the types ,,smw and ,,sew will be approximately #a4bhe4 ,if the gravity is above this value1 remove a little electrolyte and add same amount of distilled water while the battery is left charging 7in order to thoroughly mix the solution71 and after three hours1 if the electrolyte is within the limits1 the cell is ready for service4 ,if the specific gravity is below these values1 remove a little electrolyte and add same amount of #a4djj specific gravity electrolyte4 ,leave on charge as before4 ,the acid should be poured into the water and allowed to cool below #ij ,p4 before being used4 ,the batteries are then ready for service4 ,installing ,counter ,electromotive ,force ,cells ,counter ,,emf cells1 if used with a battery1 are installed in the same manner as regular cells4 ,they are connected positive to negative1 the same as regular cells1 but the negative terminal of the ,,cemf group is to be connected to the negative terminal of the regular cell group4 ,the positive terminal of the counter ,,cemf group is then to be connected to the switchboard4 ,image3 ,table of charge and discharge rates for different types of batteries1 ,willard farm lighting batteries ,definitions and ,descriptions of ,terms and ,parts ------------------------------- ,acid4 ,as used in this book refers to sulphuric acid 7,h#b,,so#d71 the active component of the electrolyte1 or a mixture of sulphuric acid and water4 ,active ,material4 ,the active portion of the battery plates2 peroxide of lead on the positives and spongy metallic lead on the negatives4 ,alloy4 ,as used in battery practice1 a homogeneous combination of lead and antimony4 ,alternating ,current4 ,electric current which does not flow in one direction only1 like direct current1 but rapidly reverses its direction or alternates in polarity so that it will not charge a battery4 ,ampere4 ,the unit of measure of the rate of flow of electric current4 ,ampere ,hour4 ,the product resulting from multiplication of amperes flowing by time of flow in hours1 e4g41 a battery supplying #aj amperes for #h hours gives #hj ampere hours4 ,see note under ,volt8 for more complete explanation of current flow4 ,battery4 ,two or more electrical cells1 electrically connected so that combination furnishes current as a unit4 ,battery ,terminals4 ,devices attached to the positive post of one end cell and the negative of the other1 by means of which the battery is connected to the car circuit4 ,bridge 7or ,rib74 ,wedge-shaped vertical projection from bottom of rubber jar on which plates rest and by which they are supported4 ,buckling4 ,warping or bending of the battery plates4 ,burning4 ,a term used to describe the operation of joining two pieces of lead by melting them at practically the same instant so they may run together as one continuous piece4 ,usually done with mixture of oxygen and hydrogen or acetylene gases1 hydrogen and compressed air1 or oxygen and illuminating gas4 ,burning ,strip4 ,a convenient form of lead1 in strips1 for filling up the joint in making burned connections4 ,cadmium4 ,a metal used in about the shape of a pencil for obtaining voltage of positive or negative plates4 ,it is dipped in the electrolyte but not allowed to come in contact with plates4 ,capacity4 ,the number of ampere hours a battery can supply at a given rate of current flow after being fully charged1 e4g41 a battery may be capable of supplying #aj amperes of current for #h hours before it is exhausted4 ,its capacity is #hj ampere hours at the #h hours rate of current flow4 ,it is necessary to state the rate of flow1 since same battery if discharged at #bj amperes would not last for #d hours but for a shorter period1 say #c hours4 ,hence1 its capacity at the #c hour rate would be #cx#b,o#fj ampere hours4 ,case4 ,the containing box which holds the battery cells4 ,cell4 ,the battery unit1 consisting of an element complete with electrolyte1 in its jar with cover4 ,charge4 ,passing direct current through a battery in the direction opposite to that of discharge1 in order to put back the energy used on discharge4 ,charge ,rate4 ,the proper rate of current to use in charging a battery from an outside source4 ,it is expressed in amperes and varies for different sized cells4 ,corrosion4 ,the attack of metal parts by acid from the electrolyte2 it is the result of lack of cleanliness4 ,cover4 ,the rubber cover which closes each individual cell2 it is flanged for sealing compound to insure an effective seal4 ,cycle4 ,one charge and discharge4 ,density4 ,specific gravity4 ,developing4 ,the first cycle or cycles of a new or rebuilt battery to bring about proper electrochemical conditions to give rated capacity4 ,diffusion4 ,pertaining to movement of acid within the pores of plates4 7,see ,equalization47 ,discharge4 ,the flow of current from a battery through a circuit1 opposite of charge4 ,dry4 ,term frequently applied to cell containing insufficient electrolyte4 ,also applied to certain conditions of shipment of batteries4 ,electrolyte4 ,the conducting fluid of electro-chemical devices2 for lead-acid storage batteries it consists of about two parts of water to one of chemically pure sulphuric acid1 by weight4 ,element4 ,positive group1 negative group and separators4 ,equalization4 ,the result of circulation and diffusion within the cell which accompanies charge and discharge4 ,difference in capacity at various rates is caused by the time required for this feature4 ,equalizing4 ,term used to describe the making uniform of varying specific gravities in different cells of the same battery1 by adding or removing water or electrolyte4 ,evaporation4 ,loss of water from electrolyte from heat or charging4 ,filling ,plug4 ,the plug which fits in and closes the orifice of the filling tube in the cell cover4 ,finishing ,rate4 ,the current in amperes at which a battery may be charged for twenty-four hours or more4 ,also the charging rate used near the end of a charge when cells begin to gas4 ,flooding4 ,overflowing through the filling tube4 ,forming4 ,electro-chemical process of making pasted grid or other plate1 types into storage battery plates4 7,often confused with ,developing47 ,foreign ,material4 ,objectionable substances4 ,freshening ,charge4 ,a charge given to a battery which has been standing idle1 to keep it fully charged4 ,gassing4 ,the giving off of oxygen gas at positive plates and hydrogen at negatives1 which begins when charge is something more than half completed-depending on the rate4 ,generator ,system4 ,an equipment including a generator for automatically recharging the battery1 in contradistinction to a straight storage system where the battery has to be removed to be recharged4 ,gravity4 ,a contraction of the term specific gravity1 which means the density compared to water as a standard4 ,grid4 ,the metal framework of a plate1 supporting the active material and provided with a lug for conducting the current and for attachment to the strap4 ,group4 ,a set of plates1 either positive or negative1 joined to a strap4 ,groups do not include separators4 ,hold-,down4 ,device for keeping separators from floating or working up4 ,hold-,down ,clips4 ,brackets for the attachment of bolts for holding the battery securely in position on the car4 ,hydrogen ,flame4 ,a very hot and clean flame of hydrogen gas and oxygen1 acetylene1 or compressed air used for making burned connections4 ,hydrogen ,generator4 ,an apparatus for generating hydrogen gas for lead burning4 ,hydrometer4 ,an instrument for measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte4 ,hydrometer ,syringe4 ,a glass barrel enclosing a hydrometer and provided with a rubber bulb for drawing up electrolyte4 ,jar4 ,the hard rubber container holding the element and electrolyte4 ,lead ,burning4 ,making a joint by melting together the metal of the parts to be joined4 ,lug4 ,the extension from the top frame of each plate1 connecting the plate to the strap4 ,maximum ,gravity4 ,the highest specific gravity which the electrolyte will reach by continued charging1 indicating that no acid remains in the plates4 ,mud4 7,see ,sediment47 ,negative4 ,the terminal of a source of electrical energy as a cell1 battery or generator through which current returns to complete circuit4 ,generally marked ,neg4 or -4 ,ohm4 ,the unit of electrical resistance4 ,the smaller the wire conductor the greater is the resistance4 ,six hundred and sixty-five feet of ,no4 #ad wire 7size used in house lighting circuit7 offers ,i ohm resistance to current flow4 ,oil of ,vitriol4 ,commercial name for concentrated sulphuric acid 7#a4hce specific gravity74 ,this is never used in a battery and would quickly ruin it4 ,over-,discharge4 ,the carrying of discharge beyond proper cell voltage2 shortens life if carried far enough and done frequently4 ,paste4 ,the mixture of lead oxide or spongy lead and other substances which is put into grids4 ,plate4 ,the combination of grid and paste properly formed4 ,positive are reddish brown and negatives slate gray4 ,polarity4 ,an electrical condition4 ,the positive terminal 7or pole7 of a cell or battery or electrical circuit is said to have positive polarity2 the negative1 negative polarity4 ,positive4 ,the terminal of a source of electrical energy as a cell1 battery or generator from which the current flows4 ,generally marked ,pos4 or 4 ,post4 ,the portion of the strap extending through the cell cover1 by means of which connection is made to the adjoining cell or to the car circuit4 ,potential ,difference4 ,abbreviated ,p4 ,d4 ,found on test curves4 ,synonymous with voltage4 ,rate4 ,number of amperes for charge or discharge4 ,also used to express time for either4 ,rectifier4 ,apparatus for converting alternating current into direct current4 ,resistance4 ,material 7usually lamps or wire7 of low conductivity inserted in a circuit to retard the flow of current4 ,by varying the resistance1 the amount of current can be regulated4 ,also the property of an electrical circuit whereby the flow of current is impeded4 ,resistance is measured in ohms4 ,analogous to the impediment offered by wall of a pipe to flow of water therein4 ,rheostat4 ,an electrical appliance used to raise or lower the resistance of a circuit and correspondingly to decrease or increase the current flowing4 ,rib4 7,see ,bridge47 ,ribbed4 7,see ,separator47 ,reversal4 ,reversal of polarity of cell or battery1 due to excessive discharge1 or charging in the wrong direction4 ,rubber ,sheets4 ,thin1 perforated hard rubber sheets used in combination with the wood separators in some types of batteries4 ,they are placed between the grooved side of the wood separators and the positive plate4 ,sealing4 ,making tight joints between jar and cover2 usually with a black1 thick1 acid-proof compound4 ,sediment4 ,loosened or worn out particles of active material fallen to the bottom of cells2 frequently called mud4 ,sediment ,space4 ,that part of jar between bottom and top of bridge4 ,separator4 ,an insulator between plates of opposite polarity2 usually of wood1 rubber or combination of both4 ,separators are generally corrugated or ribbed to insure proper distance between plates and to avoid too great displacement of electrolyte4 ,short ,circuit4 ,a metallic connection between the positive and negative plates within a cell4 ,the plates may be in actual contact or material may lodge and bridge across4 ,if the separators are in good condition1 a short circuit is unlikely to occur4 ,spacers4 ,wood strips used in some types to separate the cells in the case1 and divided to provide a space for the tie bolts4 ,specific ,gravity4 ,the density of the electrolyte compared to water as a standard4 ,it indicates the strength and is measured by the hydrometer4 ,spray4 ,fine particles of electrolyte carried up from the surface by gas bubbles4 7,see ,gassing47 ,starting ,rate4 ,a specified current in amperes at which a discharged battery may be charged at the beginning of a charge4 ,the starting rate is reduced to the finishing rate when the cells begin to gas4 ,it is also reduced at any time during the charge if the temperature of the electrolyte rises to or above #aaj deg4 ,fahrenheit4 ,starvation4 ,the result of giving insufficient charge in relation to the amount of discharge1 resulting in poor service and injury to the battery4 ,strap4 ,the leaden casting to which the plates of a group are joined4 ,sulphate4 ,common term for lead sulphate4 7,pb,s,o#d47 ,sulphated4 ,term used to describe cells in an under-charged condition1 from either over-discharging without corresponding long charges or from standing idle some time and being self discharged4 ,sulphate ,reading4 ,a peculiarity of cell voltage when plates are considerably sulphated1 where charging voltage shows abnormally high figures before dropping gradually to normal charging voltage4 ,terminal4 ,part to which outside wires are connected4 ,vent1 ,vent ,plug or ,vent-,cap4 ,hard or soft rubber part inserted in cover to retain atmospheric pressure within the cell1 while preventing loss of electrolyte from spray4 ,it allows gases formed in the cell to escape1 prevents electrolyte from spilling1 and keeps dirt out of the cell4 ,volt4 ,the commercial unit of pressure in an electric circuit4 ,voltage is measured by a voltmeter4 ,analogous to pressure or head of water flow through pipes4 ,,note4--,just as increase of pressure causes more volume of water to flow through a given pipe so increase of voltage 7by putting more cells in circuit7 will cause more amperes of current to flow in same circuit4 ,decreasing size of pipes is increasing resistance and decreases flow of water1 so also introduction of resistance in an electrical circuit decreases current flow with a given voltage or pressure4 ,wall4 ,jar sides and ends4 ,washing4 ,removal of sediment from cells after taking out elements2 usually accompanied by rinsing of groups1 replacement of wood separators and renewal of electrolyte4 ,watt4 ,the commercial unit of electrical power1 and is the product of voltage of circuit by amperes flowing4 ,one ampere flowing under pressure of one volt represents one watt of power4 ,watt ,hour4 ,the unit of electrical work4 ,it is the product of power expended by time of expenditure1 e4g41 #aj amperes flowing under #cb volts pressure for #h hours gives #befj watt hours4 ,index ,a ,acetic acid from improperly treated separators #gg ,acetylene and ,compressed ,air ,lead-burning ,outfit#adg ,acid ,carboys #ahd ,acid4 ,handling and mixing #bbb ,acid4 ,how lost while battery is on car #eg ,acid4 ,how to draw1 from carboys #ahd ,acid should never be added to battery on car #eg ,acid used instead of water #eg ,active materials4 ,composition of #ac ,active materials4 ,effect of quantity1 porosity1 and arrangement of1 on capacity #db ,active materials4 ,resistance of #di ,age codes #bdb ,age of battery4 ,determining #bdb ,age of battery4 ,effect of1 on capacity #dg ,alcohol torch lead-burning outfit #adh ,applying pastes to grids #aa ,arc lead-burning outfit #adh ,audion bulb for radio receiving sets #bec ,b ,battery box should be kept clean and dry #ea ,battery carrier #agc ,battery case 7see ,case74 ,battery steamer #aeh ,battery truck #agc ,battery turntable #agj ,bench charge #aih to #baj ,bench charge4 ,arrangement of batteries for #bjj ,bench charge4 ,charging rates for #bja ,bench charge4 ,conditions preventing batteries from charging #bjf ,bench charge4 ,conditions preventing gravity from rising #bjg ,bench charge4 ,if battery becomes too hot #bje ,bench charge4 ,if battery will not hold a charge #bjh ,bench charge4 ,if battery will not take half a charge #bje ,bench charge4 ,if current cannot be passed through battery #bjf ,bench charge4 ,if electrolyte has a milky appearance #bjf ,bench charge4 ,if gravity rises above #a4cjj #bje ,bench charge4 ,if gravity rises long before voltage does #bje ,bench charge4 ,if new battery will not charge #bje ,bench charge4 ,if one cell will not charge #bje ,bench charge4 ,if vinegar-like odor is detected #bje ,bench charge4 ,leave vent-plugs in when charging #bji ,bench charge4 ,level of electrolyte at end of #bjc ,bench charge4 ,painting case after #bjc ,bench charge4 ,specific gravity at end of #bjc ,bench charge4 ,specific gravity will not rise to #a4bhj #bjd ,bench charge4 ,suggestions for #bji ,bench charge4 ,temperatures of batteries during #bjb ,bench charge4 ,time required for #bjc ,bench charge4 ,troubles arising during #bjd ,bench charge4 ,voltage at end of #bjc ,bench charge4 ,when necessary #aih ,bins for stock parts #aeh ,book-keeping records #cjb 7,omitted7 ,bone-dry batteries4 ,putting into service #bbi ,boxes for battery parts #ahc ,buckling #gb ,buckling4 ,caused by charging at high rates #gc ,buckling4 ,caused by continued operation in discharged condition #gc ,buckling4 ,caused by defective grid alloy #gc ,buckling4 ,caused by non-uniform current distribution #gc ,buckling4 ,caused by overdischarge #gc ,buckling does not necessarily cause trouble #gc ,burning4 7,see ,lead-,burning47 ,burning-lead mould #afd ,burning rack #afb ,business methods #bii to #cab 7,omitted7 ,c ,cadmium4 ,what it is #agf ,cadmium leads4 ,connection of1 to voltmeter #agi ,cadmium readings affected by improperly treated separators #aha ,cadmium readings4 ,conditions necessary to obtain good negative-cadmium readings #baj ,cadmium readings do not indicate capacity of a cell #age ,cadmium readings on short-circuited cells #ahj ,cadmium readings4 ,troubles shown by1 on charge #bjf ,cadmium readings4 ,when they should be taken #agf ,cadmium test #agd ,cadmium test4 ,how made #age ,cadmium test on charging battery #aha ,cadmium test on discharging battery #ahj ,cadmium test set4 ,what it consists of #agg ,cadmium test voltmeter #agh ,calling for repair batteries #cad ,capacity4 ,effect of age of battery on #dg and #hi ,capacity4 ,effect of plate surface area on #db ,capacity4 ,effect of clogged separators on #hh ,capacity4 ,effect of incorrect proportions of acid and acid in electrolyte on #hh ,capacity4 ,effect of low level of electrolyte on #hh ,capacity4 ,effect of operating conditions on #dd ,capacity4 ,effect of quantity and strength of electrolyte on #db ,capacity4 ,effect of quantity1 arrangement1 and porosity of active materials on #db ,capacity4 ,effect of rate of discharge on #dd ,capacity4 ,effect of reversal of plates on #hi ,capacity4 ,effect of shedding on #hh ,capacity4 ,effect of specific gravity on #dc ,capacity4 ,effect of temperature on #df ,carbon-arc lead-burning outfit #adh ,carboys #ahd ,care of battery on the car #ea to #fh ,care of battery when not in service #fg ,carrier for batteries #agc ,case4 ,cleaning and painting1 after repairs #cgb ,case manufacture #bb ,case4 ,painting1 after bench charge #bjc ,case4 ,repairing #cfj ,case4 ,troubles indicated by rotted #cai ,case troubles #hc ,cases4 ,equipment for work on #ih and #agj ,casting plate grids #i ,cell connector mould #afh ,cell connectors4 ,burning-on #bac ,cell connectors4 ,equipment for work on #ih ,cell connectors4 ,how to remove #cbi ,changing pastes into active materials #ab ,charge4 7,see ,bench ,charge47 ,charge4 ,changes at negative plates during #cj and #ci ,charge4 ,changes at positive plates during #cj and #dj ,charge4 ,changes in acid density during #ci ,charge4 ,changes in voltage during #ch ,charge4 ,loss of1 in an idle battery #hi ,charge4 ,preliminary1 in rebuilding batteries #cdi ,charge4 ,trickle #bci ,charging bench#acc to #aci ,charging bench4 ,arrangement of batteries on #bjj ,charging bench4 ,temperature of batteries on #bjb ,charging bench4 ,working drawings of #acd to #aci ,charging circuits4 ,drawings of #aje ,charging connections4 ,making temporary #bbj ,charging4 ,constant potential #aaa ,charging equipment for farm lighting batteries #dci ,charging equipment for starting batteries #ajj ,charging farm lighting batteries #dee ,charging4 ,lamp-banks for #aja ,charging4 ,motor-generators for #ajf ,charging rate4 ,adjusting #bhg ,charging rate4 ,checking #bhc ,charging rate4 ,governed by gassing #aab and #bjb ,charging rate4 ,how and when to adjust #bhi ,charging rates for bench charge #aab and #bja ,charging rates for new ,exide batteries #bbf ,charging rates for new ,philadelphia batteries #bbh ,charging rates for new ,prest-,o-,lite batteries #bcd ,charging rates on the car #bhc ,charging rebuilt batteries #cgc ,charging4 ,rheostats for #aja ,chemical actions and electricity4 ,relations between #ca ,chemical changes at the negatives during charge #cj ,chemical changes at the positives during charge #cj ,chemical changes at the negatives during discharge #bi ,chemical changes at the positives during discharge #bi ,chemical changes in the battery #bg to #ca ,composition of jars #af ,composition of plate grids #i ,compound4 ,scraping1 from covers and jars #ccd ,compressed air and hydrogen lead-burning outfit #adg ,compressed air and illuminating gas lead-burning outfit #adi ,condenser for making distilled water #afj ,connections4 ,making temporary1 for charging #bbj ,connectors4 7,see ,cell ,connectors47 ,connector troubles #hd ,constant-potential charging #aaa ,construction of plate grids #aj ,convenient method of adding water #ef ,corroded grids #gg ,corroded grids4 ,caused by age #gh ,corroded grids4 ,caused by high temperatures #gh ,corroded grids4 ,caused by impurities #gh ,corrosion #cba ,covers4 ,eveready #ag ,covers4 ,exide #ai and #ba ,covers4 ,functions of #af ,covers4 ,gould #ag ,covers4 ,how to remove #cca ,covers4 ,philadelphia diamond grid #af ,covers4 ,prest-,o-,lite #ah and #ai ,covers4 ,putting on the #cfe ,covers4 ,sealing #cff ,covers4 ,single and double #af ,covers4 ,steaming #ccb ,covers4 ,u4,s4,l4 #ah and #bj ,covers4 ,vesta #ah ,covers4 ,westinghouse #dag ,covers4 ,willard #ai ,credit4 ,use and abuse of #cja 7,omitted7 ,cutout4 ,checking action of #bhb8 ,cycling discharge tests #bfi ,d ,dead cells4 ,causes of #hg ,delco-,light batteries #dff ,delco-,light batteries4 ,ampere-hour meter for #dfg and #dga ,delco-,light batteries4 ,burning-on new plates of #dib ,delco-,light batteries4 ,burning-on new straps for #dhh ,delco-,light batteries4 ,care of cells of1 in stock #dic ,delco-,light batteries4 ,charging1 after reassembling #dha ,delco-,light batteries4 ,charging outside negatives of #dhd ,delco-,light batteries4 ,clearing high resistance shorts in #dhd ,delco-,light batteries4 ,clearing lug shorts in #dhd ,delco-,light batteries4 ,dis-assembling #dgd ,delco-,light batteries4 ,gauges and instruments for testing #dff ,delco-,light batteries4 ,general complaints from users of #die ,delco-,light batteries4 ,hydrometers for #dfh ,delco-,light batteries4 ,inspection trips #dgj ,delco-,light batteries4 ,pressing negatives of #dhe ,delco-,light batteries4 ,putting repaired cells into service #dhd ,delco-,light batteries4 ,re-assembling #dgg ,delco-,light batteries4 ,removing impurities from #dhc ,delco-,light batteries4 ,repairing broken posts of #dhg ,delco-,light batteries4 ,repairing lead parts of #dhf ,delco-,light batteries4 ,salvaging replaced cells of #dhf ,delco-,light batteries4 ,taking1 out of commission #did ,delco-,light batteries4 ,treating broken cells of #dhb ,delco-,light batteries4 ,treating spilled cells of #dhb ,delco-,light batteries4 ,treating reversed cells of #dhc ,delco-,light batteries4 ,use of auxiliary straps with #dib ,delco-,light batteries4 ,when and how to charge #dfh ,discharge apparatus #bgj ,discharge4 ,changes at negative plates during #cg ,discharge4 ,changes at positive plates during #cg ,discharge4 ,changes in acid density during #ce ,discharge4 ,chemical actions at negative plates during #bi ,discharge4 ,chemical actions at positive plates during #bi ,discharge4 ,effects of rates of1 on capacity #dd ,discharge4 ,voltage changes during #cb ,discharge tests4 ,cycling #bfi ,discharge tests4 ,fifteen seconds #bff ,discharge tests4 ,lighting ability #bfg ,discharge tests4 ,starting ability #bfg ,distilled water4 ,condenser for making #afj ,dope electrolytes #ei and #aii ,double covers4 ,sealing #cff ,dry shipment of batteries #bd ,dry storage #bdj ,dry storage batteries #bfe ,e ,earthenware jars #ahd ,electrical system4 ,normal course of operation of #bgg ,electrical system4 ,testing the #bgf ,electrical system4 ,tests on1 to be made by the repairman #bgi ,electrical system4 ,troubles in the #bhd ,electricity and chemical actions4 ,relation between #ca ,electrolyte4 ,adjusting the #cgc ,electrolyte below tops of plates4 ,causes and results of #cai and #cbc ,electrolyte4 ,causes of milky appearance of #bjf ,electrolyte4 ,composition of #aii and #bbb ,electrolyte4 ,correct height of1 above plates #ee ,electrolyte4 ,effect of circulation of1 on capacity #dd ,electrolyte4 ,effect of low #fg ,electrolyte4 ,effect of quantity and strength of1 on capacity #db ,electrolyte4 ,freezing points of #fg ,electrolyte4 ,leaking of1 at top of cells #cbd ,electrolyte4 ,level of1 at end of bench charge #bjc ,electrolyte4 ,resistance of #dc and #dh ,electrolyte troubles4 ,high gravity #he ,electrolyte troubles4 ,high level #he ,electrolyte troubles4 ,low gravity #he ,electrolyte troubles4 ,low level #he ,electrolyte troubles4 ,milky appearance #he ,element4 ,tightening loose #cfc ,elements4 ,re-assembling #cfa ,equipment for discharge tests #bgj ,equipment for general work #ih ,equipment for general work on connectors and terminals #ih ,equipment for handling sealing compound #adi ,equipment for lead-burning #ig ,equipment for work on cases #ih and #agj ,equipment needed in opening batteries #ig ,equipment which is absolutely necessary #if ,eveready batteries4 ,claimed to be non-sulphating #dja ,eveready batteries4 ,description of parts #djd ,eveready batteries4 ,rebuilding #dje ,examining and testing incoming batteries #cag ,exide farm lighting batteries #dff to #dih ,exide radio batteries #beg ,exide starting batteries4 ,age code for #bdc 7,age code chart omitted7 ,exide starting batteries4 ,burning-on cell connectors of #chb ,exide starting batteries4 ,capacities of #cha 7,chart omitted7 ,exide starting batteries4 ,charging1 after repairing #chb ,exide starting batteries4 ,methods of holding jars of1 in case #cgg ,exide starting batteries4 ,opening of #cgg ,exide starting batteries4 ,putting cells of1 in case #chb ,exide starting batteries4 ,putting jars of1 in case #chb ,exide starting batteries4 ,putting new1 into service #bbe ,exide starting batteries4 ,re-assembling plates of #cgi ,exide starting batteries4 ,sealing single covers of #chj ,exide starting batteries4 ,type numbers of #cgg ,exide starting batteries4 ,types of #cge ,exide starting batteries4 ,work on plates1 separators1 jars1 and cases of #cgi ,f ,farm lighting batteries #dce to #eaj ,farm lighting batteries4 ,care of1 in operation #dec ,farm lighting batteries4 ,care of plant of1 in operation #dej ,farm lighting batteries4 ,charging #dec8 or 7#dee7 ,farm lighting batteries4 ,charging equipment for #dci ,farm lighting batteries4 ,determining condition of cells of #dec ,farm lighting batteries4 ,difference between1 and starting batteries #dce ,farm lighting batteries4 ,discharge rules for #deg ,farm lighting batteries4 ,exide #dff ,farm lighting batteries4 ,initial charge of #ddh ,farm lighting batteries4 ,installation of plant #dde ,farm lighting batteries4 ,instructing users of #ddi ,farm lighting batteries4 ,jars used in #dcf ,farm lighting batteries4 ,loads carried by #ddc 7,charts omitted7 ,farm lighting batteries4 ,location of plant #ddd ,farm lighting batteries4 ,overcharge of #dee ,farm lighting batteries4 ,power consumed by appliances connected to #ddb ,farm lighting batteries4 ,prest-,o-,lite #dfj ,farm lighting batteries4 ,selection of plant #ddj ,farm lighting batteries4 ,separators for #dch ,farm lighting batteries4 ,size of plant required #ddb ,farm lighting batteries4 ,specific gravity of electrolyte of #dch ,farm lighting batteries4 ,troubles with #deh ,farm lighting batteries4 ,when to charge #dee ,farm lighting batteries4 ,wiring of plant for #ddd ,filling and testing service #bia ,flames for lead-burning #baa ,floor4 ,care of #ahh ,floor grating for shop #ahh ,floor of shop #ahf ,forming plates #aa ,freezing points of electrolyte #fg ,g ,gassing causes shedding #gd ,gassing4 ,charging rate governed by #aab and #bjb ,gassing4 ,definition of #ca ,gassing4 ,excessive1 causes milky appearance of electrolyte #hf ,gassing of sulphated plates #dj and #ge ,gassing on charge #cg8 and #bjb ,granulated negatives #gh ,granulated negatives4 ,caused by age #gh ,granulated negatives4 ,caused by heat #gh ,gravity4 7,see ,specific ,gravity74 ,grids4 ,casting #i ,grids4 ,composition of #i ,grids4 ,corroded #gg ,grids4 ,effect of age on #gh and #hj and #cdb8 7#cdd7 ,grids4 ,effect of defective grid alloy on #gc ,grids4 ,effect of impurities on #gg and #gh and #hj and #cdb ,grids4 ,effect of overheating on #gh and #hj and #cdb8 ,grids4 ,resistance of #dh ,grids4 ,trimming #aj ,h ,handling and mixing acid #bbb ,heating of negatives exposed to the air #gh ,high rate discharge testers #aha ,high rate discharge tests #bff and #bfg and #cgd ,home-made batteries #be ,hydrogen and compressed air lead-burning outfit #adg ,hydrogen and oxygen lead-burning outfit #adf ,hydrometer4 ,what it consists of #fj ,hydrometer readings4 ,effect of temperature on #fe ,hydrometer readings4 ,how to take #fa ,i ,idle battery4 ,care of #fg ,idle battery4 ,how it becomes discharged #hi ,idle battery4 ,how it sulphates #gj ,illuminating gas and compressed air lead-burning outfit #adi ,impurities #gf ,impurities which attack the plates #gg ,impurities which cause self-discharge #gf ,incoming batteries4 ,examining and testing #cag ,incoming batteries4 ,general inspection of #cbj ,incoming batteries4 ,operation tests on #cbj ,incoming batteries4 ,when it is necessary to open #cbf ,incoming batteries4 ,when it is necessary to remove from car #cbe ,incoming batteries4 ,when it is unnecessary to open #cbe ,incoming batteries4 ,when it is unnecessary to remove from car #cbd ,installing battery on the car #bcf ,internal resistance #dh to #ej ,isolators #djh ,inspection to determine height of electrolyte #ee ,j ,jars4 ,construction of #af ,jars4 ,filling with electrolyte #cfd ,jars for farm lighting batteries #dcf ,jars4 ,manufacture of #af ,jars4 ,materials used for #af ,jars4 ,removing defective #cei ,jars4 ,testing1 for leaks #cef ,jars4 ,work on #cef ,jar troubles caused by explosion in cell #hc ,jar troubles caused by freezing #hc ,jar troubles caused by improperly trimmed groups #hc ,jar troubles caused by loose battery #hb ,jar troubles caused by rough handling #hb ,jar troubles caused by weights placed on top of battery #hc ,k 7,no ,entries7 ,l ,lead burning cell connectors #bac ,lead burning4 ,classes of #baa ,lead burning4 ,equipment for #ig and #adc ,lead burning4 ,general instructions for #baj to #bbj ,lead burning plates to straps #bag ,lead burning terminals #bac ,lead burning4 ,safety precautions for #bac ,lead melting pots #bbj ,lead mould #afd ,lead moulding instructions #bbj ,light for shop #ahg and #aij ,loose active material #ge ,loose active material caused by buckling #gf ,loose active material caused by overdischarge #ge ,loss of capacity #hh ,loss of charge in an idle battery #hi ,lugs4 ,extending plate #bai ,m ,manufacture of batteries #i to #bf ,manufacture of batteries4 ,assembling and sealing #bc ,manufacture of batteries4 ,auxiliary rubber separators #ae ,manufacture of batteries4 ,cases #bb ,manufacture of batteries4 ,casting the grid #i ,manufacture of batteries4 ,composition of the grid #i ,manufacture of batteries4 ,covers #af ,manufacture of batteries4 ,drying the pasted plates #ab ,manufacture of batteries4 ,forming the plates #ab ,manufacture of batteries4 ,home-made batteries #be ,manufacture of batteries4 ,jars #af ,manufacture of batteries4 ,materials used for separators #ad ,manufacture of batteries4 ,mixing pastes #aa ,manufacture of batteries4 ,paste formulas #aa ,manufacture of batteries4 ,pasting plates #aa ,manufacture of batteries4 ,philco slotted retainer #ae ,manufacture of batteries4 ,post seal #af ,manufacture of batteries4 ,preparing batteries for dry shipment #bd ,manufacture of batteries4 ,separators #ad ,manufacture of batteries4 ,terminal connections #be ,manufacture of batteries4 ,treating separators #ad ,manufacture of batteries4 ,trimming the grid #aj ,manufacture of batteries4 ,vent plugs #bb ,manufacture of batteries4 ,vesta impregnated mats #ae ,mechanical rectifier #aca ,melting pot for lead #bbj ,mercury-,arc rectifier #abi ,milky electrolyte #bjf ,motor-generators #ajf to #aab ,motor-generators4 ,care of #aaj ,motor-generators4 ,operating charging circuits of #aji ,motor-generators4 ,sizes for small and large shops #ajf ,motor-generators4 ,suggestions on #ajh ,moulding instructions #bbj ,moulding materials #bbj ,moulds4 #afd to #agj ,moulds for building up posts #afe ,moulds for burning lead sticks #afd ,moulds for cell connectors #afh ,moulds for plate straps #afg and #afi ,moulds for terminal screws #afh ,n ,negative plates4 ,changes at1 during charge #ci ,negative plates4 ,changes at1 during discharge #cg ,negatives4 ,bulged #gi ,negatives4 ,granulated #gh ,negatives4 ,heating of1 when exposed to the air #gh ,negatives with roughened surface #gi ,negatives with softened active material #gi ,negatives with hard active material #gi ,negatives4 ,washing and pressing #cea ,new batteries4 ,putting1 into service #bbd ,non-sulphating ,eveready batteries #djb ,o ,open-circuits #hf ,open-circuits4 ,caused by acid on soldered joints #hf ,open-circuits4 ,caused by broken terminals #hf ,open-circuits4 ,caused by poor lead burning #hf ,opening batteries4 ,equipment needed in #ig ,opening batteries4 ,heating sealing compound #ccb ,opening batteries4 ,instructions for #cbh ,opening batteries4 ,pulling elements out of jars #ccc ,opening batteries4 ,removing connectors and terminals #cbi ,opening batteries4 ,removing post-seal #cca ,opening batteries4 ,scraping compound from covers #ccd ,opening batteries4 ,when necessary #cbf ,opening batteries4 ,when unnecessary #cbe ,operating conditions4 ,effect of1 on capacity #dd ,overdischarge causes sulphation #fi ,oxides used for plate pastes #aa ,oxygen and acetylene lead burning outfit #adc ,oxygen and hydrogen lead burning outfit #adf ,oxygen and illuminating gas lead burning outfit #adf ,p ,packing batteries for shipping #bga ,painting case after bench charge #bjc ,paraffine dip pot #ahb ,paste formulas #aa ,pastes4 ,applying to grids #aa ,patent electrolytes #ei ,philadelphia radio batteries #bfj ,philadelphia starting batteries4 ,age codes for #bdc ,philadelphia starting batteries4 ,old type post seal for #cih ,philadelphia starting batteries4 ,putting new1 into service #bbh ,philadelphia starting batteries4 ,rubber cases for #dja ,philadelphia starting batteries4 ,rubber-,lockt seal #cii ,philadelphia starting batteries4 ,separators for #djb ,plante plates #bg ,plante's work on the storage battery #bg ,plate burning-rack #afb ,plate lugs4 ,extending #bai ,plate press #aga ,plate strap mould #afg and #afi ,plate surface area4 ,effect of1 on capacity #db ,plate troubles #fi ,plates4 ,burning1 to straps #bag and #cee ,plates charged in wrong direction #ha and #cdc ,plates4 ,examining1 after opening battery #ccg ,plates4 ,sulphated #cdb ,plates4 ,when old1 may be used again #cdd ,plates4 ,when to put in new #cci ,positives4 ,buckled #hj and #cda ,positives4 ,changes at1 during charge #dj ,positives4 ,changes at1 during discharge #cg ,positives4 ,frozen #hj and #cci ,positives4 ,rotted1 and disintegrated #hj and #cda ,positives4 ,washing #ced ,positives which have lost considerable active material #hj ,positives with hard active material #ha ,positives with soft active material4 #hj ,post builders #afe ,post building instructions #bah ,post seal #ag ,post seal4 ,exide #ai ,post seal4 ,philadelphia #cii ,post seal4 ,prest-,o-,lite #chf ,post seal4 ,titan #dcd ,post seal4 ,universal #dcj ,post seal4 ,u4,s4,l4 #ah ,post seal4 ,vesta #dac ,post seal4 ,westinghouse #dag ,post seal4 ,willard #dbd to #dbh ,posts4 ,burning1 to plates #bag ,pots for melting lead #bbj ,pressing plates #aga ,piest-,o-,lite farm lighting batteries #dfj ,prest-,o-,lite farm lighting batteries4 ,descriptions #dfj ,prest-,o-,lite farm lighting batteries4 ,opening cells #dfd ,prest-,o-,lite farm lighting batteries4 ,putting repaired cell into service #dfe ,prest-,o-,lite farm lighting batteries4 ,rebuilding #dfd ,prest-,o-,lite farm lighting batteries4 ,specific gravity of electrolyte #dfa ,prest-,o-,lite radio batteries #bfb ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries4 ,age code for #bdd 7,omitted7 ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries4 ,peening instructions for #cie ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries4 ,old style covers for #chf ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries4 ,peened post seal for #chf ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries4 ,peening posts of #cia and #cid ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries4 ,peening press for #cij ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries4 ,post locking outfit for #chh ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries4 ,putting new into service #bcc ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries4 ,rebuilding posts of #cic ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries4 ,removing covers from #cib ,prest-,o-,lite starting batteries4 ,tables of #cif 7,omitted7 ,primary cell #e ,purchasing methods #bii 7,omitted7 ,putting new batteries into service #bbd ,q 7,no entries7 ,r ,radio audion bulb #bec ,radio batteries #beb ,radio batteries4 ,exide #beg ,radio batteries4 ,general features of #bee ,radio batteries4 ,philadelphia #bfj ,radio batteries4 ,prest-,o-,lite #bfb ,radio batteries4 ,universal #bfc ,radio batteries4 ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 #bfa ,radio batteries4 ,vesta #bef ,radio batteries4 ,westinghouse #bei ,radio batteries4 ,willard #beg ,radio receiving sets4 ,types of #beb ,rebuilding batteries #cbh 7to rest of chapter #ae7 ,rebuilding batteries4 ,adjusting electrolyte #cgc ,rebuilding batteries4 ,burning-on cell connectors #cga ,rebuilding batteries4 ,burning-on plates #cee ,rebuilding batteries4 ,charging rebuilt batteries #cgc ,rebuilding batteries4 ,cleaning #cbi ,rebuilding batteries4 ,cleaning and painting the case #cgb ,rebuilding batteries4 ,determining repairs necessary #cce ,rebuilding batteries4 ,eliminating short-circuits #cdh ,rebuilding batteries4 ,examining the plates #ccg ,rebuilding batteries4 ,filling jars with electrolyte #cfd ,rebuilding batteries4 ,heating sealing compound #ccb ,rebuilding batteries4 ,high rate discharge test #cgd ,rebuilding batteries4 ,marking the repaired battery #cgb ,rebuilding batteries4 ,preliminary charge #cdi ,rebuilding batteries4 ,pressing negatives #cea ,rebuilding batteries4 ,pulling plates out of jars #ccc ,rebuilding batteries4 ,putting elements in jars #cfb ,rebuilding batteries4 ,putting on the covers #cfe ,rebuilding batteries4 ,reassembling the elements #cfa ,rebuilding batteries4 ,removing connectors and terminals #cbi ,rebuilding batteries4 ,removing defective jars #cei ,rebuilding batteries4 ,removing post seal #cca ,rebuilding batteries4 ,repairing the case #cfj ,rebuilding batteries4 ,scraping compound from covers and jars #ccd ,rebuilding batteries4 ,sealing double covers #cff ,rebuilding batteries4 ,sealing single covers #cga ,rebuilding batteries4 ,testing jars #cef ,rebuilding batteries4 ,tightening loose elements #cfc ,rebuilding batteries4 ,using #a4djj acid #cfd ,rebuilding batteries4 ,washing negatives #cea ,rebuilding batteries4 ,washing positives #ced ,rebuilding batteries4 ,when old plates may be used again #cdd ,rebuilding batteries1 ,when to put in new plates #cci ,rebuilding batteries4 ,work on jars #cef ,rectifier4 ,mechanical #aca ,rectifier4 ,mercury are #abi ,rectifier4 ,stahl #acb ,rectifier4 ,tungar #aac ,reinsulation #bgd ,relations between chemical actions and electricity #ca ,rental batteries4 ,general policy for #bea ,rental batteries4 ,marking #bdi and #bif ,rental batteries4 ,record of #bea ,rental batteries4 ,stock card for #big 7,omitted very simple chart7 ,rental batteries4 ,terminals for #bdh ,reversed plates #ha and #hi ,reversed-series generator4 ,adjusting #bij ,s ,s4 ,a4 ,e4 ratings for batteries #de ,safety first rules #bge ,safety precautions during lead-burning #bac ,screw mould 4444 #afh ,sealing around the posts #ag ,sealing compound4 ,composition of #aej ,sealing compound4 ,equipment for handling #adi ,sealing compound4 ,heating with electricity #ccc ,sealing compound4 ,heating with gasoline torch #ccc ,sealing compound4 ,heating with hot water #ccb ,sealing compound4 ,heating with lead burning flame #ccc ,sealing compound4 ,heating with steam #ccb ,sealing compound4 ,instructions for heating properly #aej ,sealing compound4 ,removing with hot putty knife #ccb ,secondary cell #e ,sediment4 ,effect of excessive #hg ,separator cutter #aga ,separator troubles #ha and #cdf ,separators for farm lighting batteries #dch ,separators4 ,improperly treated1 cause unsatisfactory negative-cadmium readings #aha ,separators4 ,putting in new #bgd ,separators4 ,storing #bgc ,separators4 ,threaded rubber #dcj ,service records #bic ,shedding #gd ,shedding caused by charging only a portion of the plate #ge ,shedding caused by charging sulphated plate at too high a rate #gd ,shedding caused by excessive charging rate #gd ,shedding caused by freezing #ge ,shedding caused by overcharging #gd ,shedding4 ,normal #gd ,shedding4 ,result of #gd ,shelving and racks #aeb ,shipping batteries #bga ,shop equipment #ie ,shop equipment for charging #ajj ,shop equipment for general work #ih ,shop equipment for lead-burning #ig ,shop equipment for opening batteries #ig ,shop equipment for work on cases #ih ,shop equipment for work on connectors and terminals #ih ,shop equipment which is absolutely necessary #if ,shop floor #ahf #ahg8 ,shop layouts #ahg8 #ahi to #aif ,shop light #aij8 #aia ,short-circuits4 ,eliminating #cdh ,single covers4 ,scaling #cga ,sink4 ,working drawings of #add and #ade ,specific gravity at end of bench charge #bjc ,specific gravity4 ,changes in1 during charge #ci ,specific gravity4 ,changes in1 during discharge #ce ,specific gravity4 ,definition of #fj ,specific gravity4 ,effect of1 on capacity #dc ,specific gravity in farm lighting cells #dch ,specific gravity4 ,limits of1 during charge and discharge #dc ,specific gravity rises above #a4cjj #bje ,specific gravity rises long before voltage on charge #bje ,specific gravity should be measured every two weeks #fj ,specific gravity4 ,what determines1 of fully charged cell #dch ,specific gravity4 ,what different values of1 indicate #fj ,specific gravity4 ,why #a4bhj-a4cjj indicates fully charged cell #dc ,specific gravity will not rise to #a4bhj #bjd ,specific gravity readings4 ,effect of temperature on #fe ,specific gravity readings4 ,how to take #fa ,specific gravity readings4 ,if above #a4cjj #cah and #cbc ,specific gravity readings4 ,if all above #a4bjj #cah ,specific gravity readings4 ,if below #a4aej in all cells #cah and #cba8 ,specific gravity readings4 ,if between #a4aej and #a4bjj in all cells #cah and #cba8 ,specific gravity readings4 ,if unequal #cah and #cbb ,specific gravity readings4 ,troubles indicated by #fc ,stahl rectifier #acb ,starting ability discharge test #bfg ,steamer #aeh ,steps in the use of electricity on the automobile #a ,storage battery does not store electricity #f ,storage cell #e ,storing batteries dry #bdj ,storing batteries wet #bci ,strap4 ,burning plates to #bag ,strap mould #afg and #afi ,sulphate4 ,effect of1 on voltage during discharge #cb ,sulphation4 ,caused by adding acid #gb ,sulphation4 ,caused by battery standing idle #gj ,sulphation4 ,caused by impurities #gb ,sulphation4 ,caused by low electrolyte #ga ,sulphation4 ,caused by overdischarge #fi ,sulphation4 ,caused by overheating #gb ,sulphation4 ,caused by starvation #ga ,t ,temperature4 ,cause of high1 on car #cbd ,temperature corrections in specific gravity readings #fe ,temperature4 ,effect of1 on battery operation #ff ,temperature4 ,effect of1 on capacity #df ,temperature of batteries on charging bench #bjb ,terminal connections #be ,terminals4 ,burning-on #bac ,terminals for rental batteries #bdh ,testing and examining incoming batteries #cag ,testing and filling service #bia ,testing the electrical system #bgf ,third brush generator4 ,adjusting #bhi ,threaded rubber separators #dcj ,time required for bench charge #bjc ,titan batteries #dcb ,titan batteries4 ,age code for #bde 7,omitted7 ,treating separators #ad ,trickle charge #bci ,trimming plate grids #aj ,trouble charts #cba ,troubles arising during bench charge #bjd ,troubles4 ,battery #fi ,trucks for batteries #agc ,tungar rectifier4 ,battery connections of #abg ,tungar rectifier4 ,four battery #aai ,tungar rectifier4 ,general instructions for #abf ,tungar rectifier4 ,half-wave and full-wave #aad and #aae ,tungar rectifier4 ,installation of #abf ,tungar rectifier4 ,line connections of #abg ,tungar rectifier4 ,one battery #aag ,tungar rectifier4 ,operation of #abh ,tungar rectifier4 ,principle of #aac ,tungar rectifier4 ,ten battery #abj ,tungar rectifier4 ,troubles with #abh ,tungar rectifier4 ,twenty battery #abb ,tungar rectifier4 ,two ampere #aaf ,tungar rectifier4 ,two battery #aah ,turntable for batteries #agj ,u ,universal radio batteries #bfc ,universal starting batteries #dcj ,universal starting batteries4 ,construction features of #dcj ,universal starting batteries4 ,putting new1 into service #dca ,universal starting batteries4 ,types #dcj ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 radio batteries4 #bfa ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 starting batteries4 ,age code for #bdf ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 starting batteries4 ,special instructions for #chb ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 starting batteries4 ,tables of #chd 7,omitted7 ,u4 ,s4 ,l4 vent tube construction #bj ,v ,vent plugs should be left in place during charge #bji ,vent tube construction #bj ,vesta radio batteries #bef ,vesta starting batteries #djh ,vesta starting batteries4 ,age code for #bdfbdf ,vesta starting batteries4 ,isolators for #djh ,vesta starting batteries4 ,post seal #dac ,vesta starting batteries4 ,putting new1 into service #bbg ,vesta starting batteries4 ,separators #dac and #dae ,vesta starting batteries4 ,type ,d #dji ,vesta starting batteries4 ,type ,,dj #dab ,vibrating regulators4 ,adjusting #bij ,vinegar-like odor4 ,cause of #bje ,voltage4 ,causes of low #cba ,voltage changes during charge #ch ,voltage changes during discharge #cb ,voltage1 limiting value of1 on discharge #cd ,voltage of cell4 ,factors determining #cd ,voltage of a fully charged cell #bjc ,voltage readings at end of bench charge #bjc ,voltage readings on open circuit worthless #agg ,voltaic cell #d ,w ,wash tank4 ,working drawings of #add ,water4 ,condenser for distilled #afj ,westinghouse farm lighting batteries #dih ,westinghouse radio batteries #bei ,westinghouse starting batteries #dag ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,age code for #bdgbdg ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,plates for #dah ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,post seal for #dag ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,putting new1 into service #bca ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,type ,a #dah ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,type ,b #dai ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,type ,c #dbj ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,type ,e #dbj ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,type ,f #dbc ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,type ,h #dba ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,type ,j #dbb ,westinghouse starting batteries4 ,type #j #dbb ,wet batteries4 ,putting new1 into service #bbe ,wet storage #bci ,what's wrong with the battery #cac to #cbg ,when it is unnecessary to open battery #cbe ,when may battery be left on car #cbd ,when must battery be opened #cbf ,when should battery be removed from car #cbe ,willard farm-lighting batteries #ejb ,willard radio batteries #beg ,willard starting batteries4 ,age code for #bdg ,willard starting batteries4 ,bone-dry #bd ,willard starting batteries4 ,putting new1 into service #bbi ,willard starting batteries with compound sealed post #dbd ,willard starting batteries with gasket post seal #dbh ,willard starting batteries with lead cover-inserts #dbd ,willard threaded-rubber separators #dcj ,working drawings of bins for stock #aeh ,working drawings of charging bench #acd to #aci ,working drawings of flash-back tank #adg ,working drawings of shelving and racks #aec to #aeg ,working drawings of shop layouts #ahi to #aif ,working drawings of steamer bench #afa ,working drawings of wash tank #add and #ade ,working drawings of work bench #adj and #ada ,x ,y ,z 7,no entries under ,x1 ,y or ,z7 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ,i ,j ,k ,l ,m ,n ,o ,p ,q ,r ,s ,t ,u ,v ,w ,,xyz ,index 7,table of7 ,contents ,a ,,visit ,,to ,,the ,,factory ---------------------- ,,the following pages show how ,batteries are made at the ,factory4 ,the illustrations will be especially interesting to ,battery ,service ,station ,owners who have conceived the idea that they would like to manufacture their own batteries4 ,a completed battery is a simple looking piece of apparatus1 yet the equipment needed to make it is elaborate and expensive1 as the following illustrations will show4 ,quantity production is necessary in order to build a good battery at a moderate cost to the car owner1 and quantity production means a large factory1 elaborate and expensive equipment1 and a large working force4 ,furthermore1 before any batteries are put on the market1 extensive research and experimentation is necessary to develop a battery which will prove a success in the field4 ,this in itself requires considerable time and money4 ,no manufacturer who has developed formulas and designs at a considerable expense will disclose them to others who desire to enter the manufacturing field as competitors1 nor can anyone expect them to do so4 ,if the man who contemplates entering the battery manufacturing business can afford to develop his own formulas and designs1 build a factory1 and organize a working force1 it is1 of course1 perfectly4 proper for him to become a manufacturer2 but unless he can do so1 he should not attempt to make a battery4 ,the following illustrations1 will of course1 be of interest to the man who repairs batteries4 ,a knowledge of the manufacturing processes will give him a better understanding of the batteries which he repairs4 ,the less mystery there is about the battery1 the more efficiently can the repairman do his work4 ,photo3 ,casting ,exide ,grids ,photo3 ,pasting ,exide ,plates ,photo3 ,casting ,small ,exide ,battery ,parts ,photo3 ,forming ,exide ,positive ,plates ,photo3 ,burning ,exide ,plates ,into ,groups ,photo3 ,cutting and grooving ,exide wood separators ,photo3 ,charging ,exide batteries ,photo3 ,mixing paste for ,prest-,o-,lite batteries ,photo3 ,moulding ,prest-,o-,lite ,grids ,photo3 ,inspecting ,prest-,o-,lite grids for defects ,photo3 ,prest-,o-,lite pasting room ,photo3 ,pasting ,prest-,o-,lite plates ,photo3 ,a corner of ,prest-,o-,lite forming room ,photo3 ,general view of ,prest-,o-,lite assembly room ,photo3 ,power operated ,prest-,o-,lite peening press ,photo3 ,inspecting ,prest-,o-,lite separators ,photo3 ,inserting separators in ,prest-,o-,lite plate elements ,photo3 ,final inspection of ,prest-,o-,lite batteries ,photo3 ,prest-,o-,lite experimental laboratory ,photo3 ,laboratory tests of oxides for ,vesta batteries ,photo3 ,moulding ,vesta grids ,photo3 ,preparing ,vesta plates for the forming room ,photo3 ,burning ,vesta plates into groups4 ,assembling groups with isolators4 ,photo3 ,vesta acid mixing room ,photo3 ,checking and adjusting cell readings of ,vesta batteries on development charge ,photo3 ,final assembly inspection of ,vesta batteries ,photo3 ,trimming ,westinghouse grids ,photo3 ,pasting ,westinghouse plates ,photo3 ,burning ,westinghouse plates into groups ,photo3 ,packing ,westinghouse batteries for shipment ,illustration3 ,,ambu ,official ,service ,station